Volunteer Estuary
Monitoring:
A Methods Manual
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water
Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds
Oceans and Coastal Protection Division
401 M Street, SW (4504F)
Washington, DC 20460
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Acknowledgements
This document was prepared under Cooperative Agreement #CX-816857 from
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and
Watersheds to the Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay.
The author was Nina A. Fisher, Annapolis, Maryland. Document Design and
graphics (except where indicated) were also created by Nina A. Fisher. The
EPA project officers were Joseph Hall and Nicole Veilleux. Richard Newton,
Amherst, Massachusetts drew the front cover and chapter cover illustrations
and Dolly Baker and Elaine Kasmer sketched assorted line drawings. Special
thanks are extended to Kathy Ellett of the Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay,
Jonathan Simpson whose Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods Manual
served as a prototype for this manual, and the many reviewers who provided
valuable comments on the content of this manual.
NOTICE:
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade
names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommen-
dation for use.
Printed on <£,<£>
Recycled Paper
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements y
Table of Contents ui
Executive Summary „ vii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Purpose of this Manual 2
Manual Organization 3
Planning an Estuarine Monitoring Program 4
References 8
Chapter 2: Our Troubled Estuaries 9
What is an Estuary? 10
The Problems 11
Measures of Environmental Health and Degradation 15
References 19
Chapter 3: Setting the Stage 21
Characterizing the Estuarine Environment 22
References 40
Chapter 4: Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen 41
The Importance of Dissolved Oxygen 42
Sampling Considerations 44
How to Monitor DO 47
References 54
| Chapter 5: Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton 55
The Importance of Nutrients 56
Why Measure Nutrients? 56
Nutrient Sampling Considerations 59
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Table of Contents
Chapter 5 (continued)
Where to Sample in the Water Column 62
Returning to the Same Monitoring Site 62
How to Sample Nutrients 68
Phytoplankton 75
References 80
Chapter 6: Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation 81
The Role of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation 82
Common SAV Species 85
Monitoring Considerations 89
How to Monitor SAV using the Groundtruthing Method 93
References 100
Chapter 7: Monitoring Bacteria 101
The Role of Bacteria 102
Bacterial Contamination 102
Why Monitor Bacteria? 104
Shellfish Monitoring for Bacteria 105
Bacteria Sampling Considerations 106
How to Measure Bacteria Levels 107
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 112
References 114
Chapter 8: Monitoring Other Estuarine Conditions 115
Monitoring Marine Debris 116
Collecting Shellfish for Analysis 121
References 125
Chapter 9: Training Volunteers 127
Why Train Volunteers 128
Creating a Task Description 129
IV
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Table of Contents
Chapter 9 (continued)
Planning the Training 130
Presenting the Training 133
Evaluating the Training 135
Coaching/Providing Feedback 135
References 139
Chapter 10: Presenting Monitoring Results 141
Data Presentation 142
Case Study 148
References 161
Appendices A,B, and C 163
Appendix A: Preparing a QAPjP 165
Appendix B: Scientific Supply Houses 169
Appendix C: Hydrometer Conversion Table 171
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Executive Summary
Executive Summary
Overview
As concern over the well-being of the environment has risen during the past
couple of decades, volunteer monitoring has become an integral part of the
effort to assess the health of our nation's waters. Government agencies, often
strapped by financial limitations, have found that volunteer programs can
provide high quality reliable data to supplement their own water quality
monitoring programs.
Along with lake, river, and stream programs, monitoring of the estuaries
fringing our coastlines has grown significantly from the early programs that
monitored only a few simple parameters. Although many programs still
monitor a basic suite of water quality measures, others cover a wide realm of
parameters.
As these programs have developed, so has the interest of the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) which has supported volunteer monitoring since
1987. The EPA has sponsored three national symposia on volunteer monitor-
ing, publishes a newsletter for volunteers, has developed guidance manuals
and a directory Of volunteer organizations, and provides technical support to
the volunteer programs. Through these efforts, the EPA hopes to foster the
interest and support of state and other agencies in these volunteer programs.
The EPA developed this estuary manual as a companion to three other
documents: The Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers,
Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods Manual, and Volunteer Stream
Monitoring: A Methods Manual (in progress). This manual presents informa-
tion and methodologies specific to estuarine water quality. Both the organizers
of the volunteer programs and the volunteers themselves should find the
manual of use.
The focus of the manual is the identification of those water quality parameters
that are most important in determining an estuary's water quality. The signifi-
cance of each parameter and specific methods to monitor it are then detailed in
a step-by-step fashion. The manual stresses proper quality assurance and
quality control techniques to ensure that the data are useful to state agencies
and any other data users.
VII
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Executive Summary
Chapter 1 summarizes the process of planning and managing a volunteer
monitoring program, borrowing from the principles established in the Volun-
teer Water Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers. Chapter 2 follows with a
discussion of the particular problems that afflict our nation's estuaries. Chapter
3 describes those parameters that paint a broad-brush picture of an estuary's
fundamental nature and outlines how to measure them. Chapters 4 through 7
take a detailed look at the most important parameters used in describing the
water quality status of an estuary: dissolved oxygen, nutrients and phytoplank-
ton, submerged aquatic vegetation, and bacteria. Most volunteer programs
measure one or more of these parameters.
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen, critical for the survival of most aquatic animals, is one of
the best indicators of an estuary's health. Chapter 4 discusses sampling
considerations, such as different methods of monitoring dissolved oxygen and
where and when to sample, as well as the specific steps to measure dissolved
oxygen levels using a Winkler Titration kit.
Nutrients and Phytoplankton
Of all the nutrients necessary to sustain life, phosphorus and nitrogen are the
two of most concern in estuaries since an overabundance of these nutrients can
trigger a chain of oxygen-depleting events. Chapter 5 discusses where to
sample in the water column for these nutrients, the different types of sampling
methods, and the procedures for sampling nutrients using either a test kit or
preparing the sample for laboratory analysis. The chapter also covers the
significance of phytoplankton and how to sample these tiny floating plants.
Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV)
For those estuaries that can support the growth of SAV, these plants provide a
valuable indicator of overall estuary health. Chapter 6 describes common SAV
species found in the estuaries along our nation's coasts. The chapter also
considers the choice of sampling sites and provides a step-by step description
of how to monitor SAV using the groundtruthing method.
Bacteria
Although bacteria are natural inhabitants of estuarine ecosystems, human
activities often introduce excess or pathogenic bacteria to their waters.
Coliform bacteria are generally good indicators of the possible presence of
VIII
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Executive Summary
pathogenic bacteria. Chapter 7 describes the reasons for monitoring fecal
coliform bacteria levels either by water sampling or through shellfish monitor-
ing. The chapter also describes bacteria sampling considerations and how to
monitor bacteria levels by collecting a water sample for laboratory analysis.
The Rest of the Manual...
Some programs may want to add other specific volunteer tasks to their roster.
Chapter 8 discusses the monitoring of marine debris, organizing a beach
cleanup program, and collecting shellfish for toxic substance, bacteria, or
paralytic shellfish poisoning analysis.
Training volunteers should be an integral part of any volunteer monitoring
effort to ensure sound and consistent data collection techniques. Training also
motivates the volunteers and impresses upon them the importance of high
quality data. Chapter 9 discusses the reasons for training volunteers and the
steps necessary to ensure complete and interesting training sessions.
The manual concludes with a discussion of data presentation and the impor-
tance of credible data. Chapter 10 highlights different data presentation
techniques, the use of graphics, and the importance of summary statistics. A
case study, using a fictitious estuary named Windward Bay, exemplifies ways
to present volunteer data and techniques to interpret estuarine data.
At the end of each chapter, references and materials from existing volunteer
monitoring estuary programs are listed. These references should prove a
valuable source of detailed information to anyone interested in establishing a
new volunteer program or a background resource to those with already
established programs.
IX
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Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
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Chapter 1
Purpose of this Manual
This manual compiles methodolo-
gies and techniques used in volun-
teer monitoring programs for
estuarine waters across the United
States. Such information is useful
not only to the citizen monitor but
also to the administrators of these
volunteer monitoring efforts. The
manual describes specific tech-
niques that managers can use to
enhance existing programs or to
launch a new volunteer monitoring
program.
Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A
Methods Manual is a companion
document to Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State
Managers, published by the US.
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). The EPA guide describes
the role of volunteer monitoring
in state programs and details
how managers can best
organize and administer
these monitoring programs.
Volunteer Estuary
Monitoring: A
Methods Manual
focuses on the
concepts and plans
developed by the EPA guide
and places them in a nuts-and-bolts
context specifically for volunteer
estuary monitoring programs.
Two other EPA documents are also
closely allied with this estuary
manual: Volunteer Lake Monitoring:
A Methods Manual (1991) and
Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A
Methods Manual (in progress).
Completion of this set of three
methods manuals will provide
guidance on volunteer water quality
monitoring in much of our nation's
waters.
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Introduction
Manual Organization
This manual is organized into ten
chapters.
Chapter 1: Introduction
The introduction outlines the
purpose of this manual and summa-
rizes the planning stages of a
volunteer estuary monitoring
program. It also discusses the
importance of identifying data uses
at the outset as well as establishing
the need for sound quality assurance
and quality control.
Chapter 2: Our Troubled Estuaries
This chapter introduces the concept
of an estuary and summarizes the
major problems plaguing our
nation's estuarine waters. The
chapter also discusses the reasons
for monitoring the water quality of
estuaries and how monitoring data
can ultimately help provide solu-
tions to these diverse problems.
Chapter 3: Setting the Stage
Chapter 3 describes the basic
chemical and physical properties of
an estuary and how to measure the
parameters that characterize these
important properties.
Chapters 4 through 7: Monitoring
Dissolved Oxygen; Monitoring
Nutrients and Phosphorus;
Monitoring Submerged Aquatic
Vegetation; and Monitoring
Bacteria
This suite of chapters covers the
monitoring parameters that often
reveal the most information about an
estuary's health. Each chapter
includes information on sampling
design considerations as well as a
step-by-step guide to the monitoring
of each parameter.
Chapter 8: Monitoring Other
Estuarine Conditions
This chapter describes volunteer
activities other than the basic four
activities discussed in chapters 4
through 7. Subjects covered are
marine debris monitoring, the
collection of shellfish for analysis of
paralytic shellfish poisoning and
toxicant contamination.
Chapter 9: Training Citizen
Volunteers
Chapter 9 outlines a training pro-
cess useful for instructing volunteers
in the methods of collecting high
quality monitoring data.
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Chapter 1
Chapter 10: Presenting Volunteer
Monitoring Results
This chapter discusses the impor-
tance of accurate and timely
presentation of volunteer monitoring
data and introduces simple graphical
styles for use in presentations. Data
from a hypothetical estuary is also
presented to acquaint the reader with
effective means of presenting and
interpreting data results.
Planning an Estuarine
Monitoring Program
Volunteer Water Monitoring: A
Guide for State Managers provides
a comprehensive discussion of the
steps necessary to plan and manage
a successful volunteer monitoring
program. The guide covers topics
such as setting general goals,
identifying data use and data users,
establishing quality assurance and
control, assigning staff responsibili-
ties, and funding a volunteer
program. The following sections
summarize the major points dis-
cussed in the EPA Guide for State
Managers.
Setting General Goals
No step is more critical in the
planning process than establishing
the goal or goals of the monitoring
program. Every phase that follows
will depend upon this initial
decision.
Volunteer monitoring programs are
usually developed for three reasons:
• To supplement water quality
data collected by professionals
in local, state, federal, and
private agencies;
• To educate the public about
water quality issues;
To assemble a constituency of
involved volunteers and
enhance public support for
water quality protection.
While a well-organized and well-
maintained program can achieve all
three goals, the program should
establish the priority of each goal at
the outset. This methods manual, like
the state managers guide, stresses the
collection of credible volunteer data
to supplement professionally
collected data.
Identifying Data Uses and
Users
After establishing programmatic
goals, the planning committee
responsible for establishing the
volunteer program should identify
planned uses of the data as well as
those agencies that will utilize them.
Estuarine data are commonly used to:
• establish baseline conditions
where no prior data exist;
• determine water quality
changes through time; and,
• identify current and emerging
problems.
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Introduction
Prospective state agency users of
volunteer data include water quality
analysts, land use planners, fisheries
biologists, environmental engineers,
educational institutions, and park
and recreation staff. At other levels
of government or in private
institutions, local government
planning and zoning agencies,
university researchers, state health
departments, soil and water
conservation districts, or federal
agencies such as the U.S. Geological
Survey, U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, and the Soil
Conservation Service may also be
interested in utilizing volunteer
data.
At the earliest stages of planning, a
committee composed of representa-
tives from the identified user groups
should refine the monitoring
objectives. First, the committee
must determine if the volunteers can
provide the level of data quality
required by the participating
organizations. The committee
should then proceed to answer, in
detail, the following questions:
• What are the major goals of
the program?
• What are the major issues of
concern in the specific estuary
or sampling area?
• What sampling parameters
should be selected to charac-
terize the status of the estuary?
• What methods should the
volunteers use to measure each
parameter?
• How will volunteers be
trained?
How will the results of the
program be presented?
• How should the program be
evaluated?
Once the monitoring program is
established, the planning committee
should meet periodically to evaluate
the program, update objectives, and
refine the monitoring process. These
periodic reviews should help ensure
that the volunteer monitoring
program will continue to produce
high quality and useful data to those
who require information concerning
the estuary.
Quality Assurance and
Quality Control
Many potential users of volunteer
data mistakenly believe that only
professionally trained scientists can
conduct sampling and produce
accurate and useful results. Given
proper training and supervision,
however, dedicated volunteers can
collect high quality data. To ensure
data quality, estuarine monitoring
programs must adopt an effective
quality assurance/quality control
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Chapter 1
Program
Goals
Program Considerations
*
sentat
f
Sampling
Parameters
Presentations
Methods
Volunteer
Training
(QA/QC) capability. Quality
assurance is the overall strategy to
ensure high standards throughout
the program. Quality control, on the
other hand, encompasses those
procedures used during a particular
analysis which make that analysis
more accurate and precise. The lead
water quality agency in the state or
the EPA Regional QA officer should
be contacted for guidance when
developing QA/QC protocols.
The preparation of a QA/QC plan
starts with the development of data
quality objectives. "Data quality
objectives are specific integrated
statements and goals developed for
each data or information collection
activity to ensure that the data are of
the required quantity and quality.
Data quality objectives should
specify the desired sensitivity of
sampling methods, timing, and
location of sampling and the number
of samples to be collected (EPA,
1988)."
The Balancing Act:
Data Quality Objectives
More
Resources
Less
Resources
More
Uncertainty
Less
Uncertainty
Adapted from: U.S. EPA, 1987, Data Quality Objectives Workshop,
Washington. DC.
-------
Introduction
These objectives assign a minimum
standard of acceptance for data so
they are assured of meeting a
prescribed level of quality. Accord-
ing to the needs of the program and
data users, the planning committee
can establish a tolerable degree of
error within the data sets.
The planning committee should also
closely examine the program budget
when forming the data quality
objectives. Decisions regarding the
ultimate objectives must always
strike a balance between the needs
of the data users and the fiscal
constraints of the program.
While sophisticated analyses
generally yield more accurate and
precise data, they are also more
costly and time-consuming. If the
program's main goal is to supple-
ment state-collected data, however,
the planning committee may
determine that this extra expense is
worthwhile. Programs with an
educational or participatory focus
can often use less sensitive equip-
ment, analyses, or methodologies
and still meet their data objectives.
The EPA requires all its national
program offices, regional offices,
and laboratories to participate in a
centrally planned, directed, and
coordinated agency-wide QA/QC
program. Any monitoring program
sponsored by EPA through grants,
contracts, or other formal agreement
must also carry out such a program
as well. Appendix A describes the
elements of a Quality Assurance
Project Plan.
Data documentation goes hand-in-
hand with a thorough quality
assurance project plan. Proper and
complete documentation of the data
base allows the user to interpret the
data accurately and assures the user
that the data may be used with
confidence. Volunteer data entered
into a data base that the state may
use in surface water assessment
reports to the EPA should be in the
proper format and accompanied by
complete documentation.
Volunteer Water Monitoring: A
Guide for State Managers expands
upon the concepts introduced in this
chapter. It provides information on
developing data quality objectives,
quality assurance project plans, and
data documentation files. Chapter 10
of this manual summarizes the
means of analyzing and presenting
volunteer-collected data.
7
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Chapter 1
References
Chesapeake Bay Citizen Monitoring Program, 1987, Quality Assurance
Project Plan for the Citizen Monitoring Project, Alliance for the Chesa-
peake Bay, Inc., Baltimore, MD, 94 pp.
Ely, E., ed., 1992, The Volunteer Monitor, v. 4, no. 2, San Francisco, CA.
Simpson, J.T., 1991, Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods Manual. EPA
440/4-91-002,121 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984, Policy and Program Require-
ments to Implement the Mandatory Quality Assurance Program, EPA
Order 5360.1, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC,
5pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1988, Guide for the Preparation of
Quality Assurance Project Plans for the National Estuary Program, EPA
556/2-88-001, Washington, DC, 31 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990, Volunteer Water Monitoring: A
Guide for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. Office of Water, Washing-
ton, DC, 78 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992, Proceedings of Third National
Citizens' Volunteer Water Monitoring Conference, Washington, DC, EPA
841-R-92-004, 183 pp.
8
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Our Troubled Estuaries
Chapter 2
Our Troubled
Estuaries
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Chapter 2
What is an Estuary?
Unlike many features of the
landscape which are easily de-
scribed, estuaries are transitional
zones that encompass a wide variety
of environments. Loosely catego-
rized as the zone where fresh and
salt water meet and mix, the
estuarine environment is a complex
blend of continuously changing
habitats. To qualify as an estuary, a
water body must fit the following
description:
"a semi-enclosed coastal body of
water which has free connection
with the open sea and within which
sea water is measurably diluted with
fresh water derived from land
drainage" (Pritchard, 1967).
The estuary itself is a rather well-
defined body of water, bounded at
its mouth by the ocean and at its
head by the upper limit of the tides.
It drains a much larger area,
however, and pollutant-producing
activities near or in tributaries even
hundreds of miles away may still
adversely affect the estuary's water
quality.
While some of the water in an
estuary flows from the tributaries
that feed it, the remainder moves in
from the sea. When fresh and salt
water meet, the two do not readily
mix. Fresh water flowing in from
the tributaries is relatively light and
overrides the wedge of more dense
salt water moving in from the ocean.
This density differential often
causes layering or stratification of
the water which significantly affects
both circulation and the water
quality of an estuary.
Scientists classify estuaries into
three types according to the particu-
lar pattern of water circulation:
• Highly Stratified Estuary
The layering between the fresh
water from the tributaries and
the salt water from the ocean is
most distinct in highly
stratified estuaries, although
some sea water still mixes
with the upper lense of fresh
water. To compensate for this
"loss" of sea water, there is a
slow but continual up-estuary
movement of the salty water
on the bottom.
• Moderately Stratified Estuary
In this intermediate estuary
type, mixing of fresh and salt
water occurs at all depths.
With this vertical mixing,
salinity levels generally
increase towards the estuary
mouth, although the lower
layer is always saltier than the
upper layer.
10
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Our Troubled Estuaries
Classification of Estuaries
Moderately Stratified Estuary
Vertically Mixed Estuary
Ad=pMd from:
• Vertically Mixed Estuary
In this type of estuary,
powerful mixing by tides tends
to eliminate layering alto-
gether. Salinity in these
estuaries is a function of the
tidal stage although tides are
able to dominate salinity only
in very small estuaries.
Rivers flow in a single direction,
flushing out sediments and pollut-
ants. In estuaries, however, there is a
constant balancing act between the
up-estuary salt water movement and
down-estuary freshwater flow.
Rather than quickly flushing water
and pollutants through its system, an
estuary often has a lengthy retention
period. Consequently, water-borne
pollutants, along with contaminated
sediment, may remain in the estuary
for a long time, magnifying their
potential to affect the estuary's
plants and animals adversely.
Other factors also play a role in the
hydrology of an estuary. The shape
of the basin and the width of its
mouth along with its depth, area,
tidal range, surrounding topography,
and regional climate combine to
make each estuary unique.
The Problems
Like much of our nation's coastal
waters, many of the more than 100
estuaries are also under siege.
Historically, estuaries and other
water bodies have been the recep-
tacles for society's wastes. Human
sewage, industrial by-products, and
runoff from farming operations
disappeared as they mixed with
receiving waters and washed into
the nation's fragile estuaries.
Over the past several decades, the
signs of estuarine decline have
become increasingly apparent.
Many fish and shellfish populations
hover near collapse, toxic sub-
stances menace the health of fish,
waterfowl, and man, and overloads
of nutrients kick off chain reactions
of algal bloom and bust—all
11
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Chapter 2
threatening the inherent balance of
these systems. Although we have
recognized the problems and
generally reduced the pollutants
entering our waters, the sheer
number of people living near the
coasts continues to stress our
estuaries, lagoons, and other coastal
waters.
Sources of
Estuarine Pollution
Agricultural
Runoff
Waatawater,
Treatment
Plants
Groundweter
Redrawn from: US, EFft, 1992. The National Estuary Program
After Four Years,
12
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Our Troubled Estuaries
No coastal areas are immune to the
threat of pollution and many
estuaries share common problems as
a result. The East and Gulf coast
estuaries are often subject to
seasonal depletion of dissolved
oxygen, particularly in their deeper
waters. Accelerated eutrophication
or aging of the estuary, in which
there is an excess of nutrients and
plant growth, often accompanies this
depletion.
Estuaries across the country are
vulnerable to assault from a wide
variety of toxic substances. While
sources of these substances may be
relatively scarce in the more pristine
areas surrounding an estuary,
industrialized areas often lead to
"hot spots" in the adjacent estuary,
with toxicants concentrating in the
water, sediment, and local aquatic
animals.
Bacterial contamination of the
waters is yet another problem
prevalent in many estuaries.
Inadequately treated sewage
released to the estuary threatens
recreational users of the water and
contaminates local shellfish. States
often monitor the waters overlying
shellfish beds or the shellfish
themselves for bacterial contamina-
tion and must shut down contami-
nated areas to both recreational and
commercial fishermen until bacteria
numbers drop to safe levels.
Specific problems may plague some
estuaries while other estuaries are
subject to a different suite of ills.
For example, sections of Puget
Sound in Washington State have
high concentrations of heavy metals
and organic contaminants in their
sediments. The New York and New
Jersey Harbor Estuary suffers from
large quantities of floatable marine
debris, washing in from storm
sewers, combined sewer overflows,
beach litter, and improperly dis-
posed of medical waste, among
other sources.
The area surrounding the Delaware
Inland Bays has a serious nitrate
contamination problem in its
groundwater; this contaminated
groundwater may be moving into
the bays. The Sarasota Bay in
Florida also has a nutrient problem.
Its problem, however, stems from
excess nutrients from wastewater
treatment plants as well as storm-
water runoff which result in
accelerated eutrophication or aging
of the estuary.
Whether the problems are unique to
an area or common to many, several
of these problems have worsened
over recent decades. Simulta-
neously, however, the interest of a
few concerned citizens has grown
into a nationwide awareness that the
environment is necessarily a
national priority.
13
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Chapter 2
Along with this growing recogni-
tion, the means to assess the health
and status of our nation's waters has
also evolved. While scientists
provided many early clues to the
deterioration of estuarine water
quality, citizens have become
important contributors in the long-
term effort to identify and address
water quality problems.
Why Monitor?
Clarifying and characterizing the
problems unique to an estuary help
clear the path towards potential
solutions. The first step in solving
each problem is defining it:
• Is there a problem?
• If so, how serious is it?
• Does the problem afflict only a
portion of the estuary or the
entire body of water?
• Does the problem occur
sporadically, seasonally, or
year round?
• Is the problem a naturally
occurring phenomenon or is it
caused by human activities?
A systematic and well-planned
monitoring program can identify
water quality problems and help
answer the questions critical to the
solution of these problems. Useful
monitoring data accurately portray
the current physical, chemical and
biological status of the estuary. This
type of baseline information,
collected systematically over time,
can establish a record of water
quality conditions in an estuary.
If reliable historical data exist for
comparison, current monitoring data
can also document changes in the
estuary from the past to the present.
These data may serve as a warning
flag, alerting managers to the
development of a water quality
problem; or, on the positive side,
comparison of the data may indicate
improvements in estuarine water
quality.
Thus, monitoring programs can
perform a variety of functions. The
most effective monitoring program,
however, resolves the use of the data
early on so the program design best
addresses the defined problems.
Most citizen monitoring programs
serve to:
• supplement federal, state, and
local monitoring efforts;
• educate the public;
• obtain data from remote areas;
• obtain data during storms or
other unique events;
• bring a problem area to light;
and
• document the illegal discharge
of waste.
14
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Our Troubled Estuaries
Citizen monitoring data, collected
accurately and systematically, can
be an important supplement to data
collected by professionals. Accurate
data often have far-reaching uses
that the organizers may not have
anticipated at the outset. Indeed,
these data have the potential to
influence management actions taken
to protect the water body. Further
uses of the data include:
• providing a scientific basis for
specific management decisions
and strategies;
• contributing to the broad base
of scientific information on the
functioning of ecosystems and
the effects of estuarine
pollution;
• determining multi-year water
quality trends in an estuary;
• documenting the effect of
nonpoint and point source
pollutants on water quality;
• indicating to government
officials that citizens care
about their local waterways;
• documenting the impacts of
pollution control problems;
and
• provide data needed to
determine permit compliance.
Assessing water quality should not
be conducted purely for the sake of
monitoring itself. Ultimately, the
restoration of an estuary's plants and
animals is of greatest concern. To
restore an estuary, we must ensure
that water quality conditions remain
within the optimal range for the
health and vitality of the native
species. As scientists determine the
ideal habitat conditions for each
species, monitoring data will be
instrumental in judging how often
conditions are suitable for the
survival and propagation of these
species.
Measures of Environmental
Health and Degradation
Although estuaries are complex
systems with a large assortment of
habitats, animal and plant species,
and physical and chemical condi-
tions, some parameters are suitable
across-the-board indicators of
environmental health. While not
every citizen monitoring program
will have the desire or money to
sample each of these parameters,
most programs will choose at least a
couple as indicators of ecosystem
status. These parameters include:
• dissolved oxygen;
• nutrients (nitrogen and phos-
phorus) and phytoplankton;
• submerged aquatic vegetation;
and
• bacteria.
Briefly introduced here, each
parameter and the methods for
measuring it are discussed in
15
-------
Chapter 2
succeeding chapters in much
greater detail. Naturally, more
descriptive variables, such as
temperature, salinity, and site
observations, also have a role in
characterizing the estuary.
Discussions of these variables
follow in Chapter 3, Setting the
Stage.
o
o
o
o
o
Dissolved Oxygen
The level of dissolved oxygen (DO)
in an estuary is one of the most
important factors controlling the
presence or absence of estuarine
species. Dissolved oxygen is crucial
for most animals and plants except
for a small minority which can
survive under anaerobic (no oxygen)
conditions. Both animals and plants
require oxygen for respiration—a
process critical for basic metabolic
processes.
During daylight hours, plants add
oxygen to the water by photosynthe-
sis. At night, when photosynthesis
ceases, plant respiration continues to
consume oxygen and produce
carbon dioxide. Animals respire
around the clock, taking up oxygen
continuously. This day-to-night
shift in total oxygen consumption
means that while surface waters
often become supersaturated in DO
during the day, DO can drop
precipitously at night.
Dissolved oxygen levels in an
estuary also fluctuate widely due to
seasonal and climatic variations as
well as human influence. As water
temperatures rise in spring and
summer, the capacity of the water to
hold DO (also known as its satura-
tion level), declines. In short, warm
water cannot hold as much oxygen
as cold water. The salinity of the
water also affects DO saturation; as
salinity rises, DO saturation levels
drop.
Low DO diminishes the capability
of water to support life since almost
all aquatic species are dependent on
oxygen for survival. When DO
declines below threshold levels
which vary depending upon the
species, mobile animals must move
to waters with higher DO; immobile
speces often perish.
16
-------
Our Troubled Estuaries
Nutrients: Nitrogen and
Phosphorus
Nitrogen and phosphorus are two of
the many nutrients critical for the
survival of aquatic species. Nitro-
gen's primary role in organisms is
protein synthesis; plants also use
this substance in photosynthesis.
Phosphorus is critical for metabolic
processes which involve the transfer
of energy.
In estuaries where human impact is
minimal, either nitrogen or phospho-
rus is usually in limited supply.
Human activities, however, often
drastically change the chemistry of
estuarine waters. An overabundance
of nutrients, particularly nitrogen
and phosphorus, can trigger uncon-
trolled growth of phytoplankton
(minute floating plants) or algae—
often referred to as blooms.
Nutrient levels in an estuary are
closely related to the level of DO in
its water. Excess nutrients cause a
proliferation of phytoplankton
which may create a daily increase of
DO in the surface waters. When
these phytoplankton die, sink, and
are decomposed by oxygen-
consuming bacteria, DO levels near
the bottom plummet. Under the
worst conditions, the bottom waters
of an estuary turn anoxic (without
oxygen).
Submerged Aquatic
Vegetation (SAV)
Submerged aquatic plants are
important elements of estuarine
systems, providing shelter and
habitat for many aquatic species and
a food source for many others. Fish
and shellfish often use beds of
aquatic plants as nursery grounds
where their young find protection
and ample nourishment.
17
-------
Chapter 2
These plants benefit estuarine
species directly as food and habitat
and indirectly by helping to main-
tain the viability of the ecosystem.
Their photosynthesis adds DO to the
water and their leaves and roots help
buffer the shoreline against erosion.
The plants also assimilate nitrogen
and phosphorus, reducing the dele-
terious impact of excess nutrients.
Unfortunately, over the past several
decades, submerged aquatic
vegetation has fared poorly in many
of our nation's estuaries. Areas once
covered by thick beds of these
plants may have little or no vegeta-
tion remaining.
Not all healthy estuarine and near
coastal areas have the physical and
chemical properties necessary to
support SAV. In areas that can,
however, these plants often serve as
a barometer of estuarine ecosystem
health. By monitoring the status of
these plant populations over time,
we can better determine the
estuary's vitality.
Bacteria
Fecal coliform bacteria live solely in
the intestines of warm-blooded
animals, including humans: Al-
though the bacteria are not harmful
to man, the presence of these
organisms in water may indicate
possible sewage contamination and
the presence of pathogens.
These pathogenic bacteria pose a
significant threat to human health.
Contaminated water can cause
disease either through direct contact,
which threatens recreational water
users, or by ingestion of contami-
nated shellfish. The pathogens may
cause diseases such as dysentery and
typhoid fever. Areas polluted by
fecal coliform or other harmful
bacteria are off limits to shellfish
harvesting. Livestock, inadequate
wastewater treatment plants, leaky
septic systems, sanitary landfills,
and stormwater runoff are common
sources of fecal coliform and other
bacteria.
Although states routinely monitor
the waters and shellfish in their
estuaries and along their coasts for
high levels of specific bacteria, they
cannot monitor every cove, beach,
and inlet. Volunteer monitoring data
for bacteria can significantly
improve the state's assessment of
waters which are safe for water
sports and recreational and commer-
cial shellfish harvesting.
18
-------
Our Troubled Estuaries
References
Committee on a Systems Assessment of Marine Environmental Monitoring,
1990, Managing Troubled Waters: The Role of Marine Environmental
Monitoring, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 125 pp.
Kaill, W.M. and J.K. Prey, 1973, Environments in Profile: An Aquatic
Perspective, Canfield Press, San Francisco, 206 pp.
Pritchard, D.W., 1967, "What is an Estuary: A Physical Viewpoint," in:
Estuaries, G.H. Lauff, ed., American Association for the Advancement of
Science, Publication No. 83, Washington, D.C., 757 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992, Monitoring Guidance for the
National Estuary Program, EPA 503/8-91-002, Washington, DC.
19
-------
-------
Setting the Stage
Chapter 3
Setting the
Stage
-------
Chapter 3
Characterizing the
Estuarine Environment
Several parameters describe the
basic chemical and
physical properties of an
estuary. These traits paint a
picture of the estuary's
fundamental nature. They
form, in essence, the ABCs
of estuarine water quality
and set the stage for the
environmental parameters
in which we are most
interested and which are
the most acute indicators
of habitat health.
Many of these basic
descriptors of the estuary
ultimately control the way
the water body will respond to
changing conditions. Temperature,
for example, largely governs the rate
of chemical reaction and biological
activity. The pH affects the solubil-
ity of certain chemicals in the water.
And, turbidity controls the amount
of sunlight that can reach the
underwater plants.
Visual Assessment
Despite being the least quantiu.
of the parameters, visual assessment
of the monitoring site can provide
invaluable information and make
interpretation of other data easier
and more meaningful. Visual
assessment is simply observing the
environmental conditions at the site
and recording those that are remark-
able.
Visual information can
provide an account of events
or conditions that may help
explain the monitoring data
collected. For example, if
dead fish are floating at the
water surface, they may
signal a sudden drop in
dissolved oxygen (DO)
levels, the influx of some
toxic substance, or disease or
infestation of the fish.
Unusual visual data are like
bait; they should lure you in
for further investigation.
When making a visual assessment of
the site, look for:
• Color
Although we tend to think of
pure water as blue, few water
bodies north of the sub-tropics
fit this description. Clean
water may have a color
depending upon the water
source and its content of
dissolved and suspended
materials. Plankton, plant
pigments, metallic ions, and
pollutants can all color water.
Even the color of the substrate
can cause the water to take on
22
-------
Setting the Stage
Chart of Apparent Colors
Apparent
Color
Peacock
Blue
Possible
Reason
Light-colored
substrate
Green
Yellow/
Brown
Red/Yellow/
Mahogany
Myriad
colors
Rainbow
Phytoplankton
Peat,
dissolved organics
Algae,
dinoflagellates
Soil Erosion
Oil slick
an apparent color. To accu-
rately assess color, use one of
the established color scales
such as the Borger Color
System or the Forel-Ule Color
Scale from scientific supply
houses.
Oil slicks
Oil slicks are easily recognized
by their iridescent sheen and
often noxious odor. Oil may
indicate anything from a
worrisome oil spill to bilge
water pumped from a nearby
boat. Estimate the size of the
slick if possible. Of course,
report any spill of significant
size to local authorities.
Water surface conditions
Whether calm, rippled, or with
waves and white caps, surface
water conditions indicate how
much mixing is occurring in
the top layer of the estuary.
When the surface is placid,
very little wind-induced
mixing occurs. Waves
whipped up by wind, however,
indicate substantial mixing and
the introduction of oxygen to
the water. This information
may assist in interpreting
dissolved oxygen data.
Indicators of Pollution
Although water pollution may
not be visually apparent, other
clues can serve as warning of
possible contamination.
Lesions on fish, for example,
suggest the possible presence
of toxic contaminants. Surface
foam and scum downstream
from a plant's discharge could
be cause for concern. Al-
though the discharge could lie
within legal limits, a citizen
group may want to investigate
the situation further. Other
pollutant indicators include
large numbers of dead fish or
other animals, rust-colored
oozes that may come from
acid mine drainage, large
quantities of floatable debris,
and highly turbid water.
23
-------
Chapter 3
Record all unusual conditions
on a data sheet. Volunteers
should bring such conditions
to the attention of the program
leaders so that they can report
them to the appropriate
authority, if warranted.
Monitoring groups which
function as watchdogs may
want to follow up with an
investigation of their own.
Shoreline Assessment
A few programs have started
shoreline assessment projects
to characterize land use around
an estuary. An initial assess-
ment project can quantify the
amount of residential, indus-
trial, urban, agricultural, and
forested areas within a
watershed. A broader scope
project could further map the
location of marinas, industrial
and municipal dischargers,
stormwater discharge points,
landfills, agricultural feedlots,
and any other potential threat
to the estuary.
Such an undertaking not only
identifies potential pollutant
sources but also provides the
program leaders with informa-
tion that may prove useful in
selecting water quality
monitoring sites.
• Other conditions
Weather
The weather, recorded at the
time of sampling, helps in the
interpretation of other data.
Ice
Ice cover can affect dissolved
oxygen levels in the water by
limiting the interaction of
water with the atmosphere. In
addition, ice in shallow areas
may damage submerged
aquatic plants and temporarily
deprive estuarine animals and
waterfowl of their habitat.
Erosion
Evidence of recent erosion,
such as a steeply cut bank,
may indicate recent storm
activity or substantial wakes
from boats. In either case,
highly turbid water may
accompany the erosion.
24
-------
Setting the Stage
Living Resources
A simple assessment of the
quantity and type of living
resources can round out the set
of data taken at one site.
Numbers of waterfowl,
schools of fish, presence of
submerged aquatic vegetation
beds, and other information
relate directly to the area's
water quality. Fish kills or
widespread shellfish bed die-
off may indicate episodes of
intolerable water quality
conditions.
Temperature
I Temperature, probably the most
easily measured parameter, is a
I critical factor in the workings of the
I estuarine ecosystem. As water
I temperature rises, biological and
I chemical activity also increase.
I Many species regulate the timing of
(important events, such as reproduc-
tion and migration, according to
I specific water temperatures.
[Optimal temperatures (which vary
I with the species and their life stage)
I allow organisms to function at
I maximum efficiency. The slow
I change of temperature that comes
Iwith the seasons permits organisms
Ito acclimate, whereas rapid shifts
Imay adversely affect plants and
I animals.
Temperature is not generally
constant from the water surface to
the bottom. An estuary's water
temperature is a function of:
• depth;
• season;
• the amount of mixing due to
wind, storms, and tides;
• the degree of stratification
(layering) in the estuary;
• the temperature of water
flowing in from the tributaries;
and
• human influences such as the
release of warm water from
power plants.
In spring and summer, the upper-
most layer of an estuary grows
warmer and mixing between this
surface water and the cooler bottom
water slows. As air temperatures
cool through the autumn, the surface
water becomes increasingly cold
and increases in density. The surface
water mass ultimately sinks when its
density becomes greater than that of
the bottom water. As the surface
water moves down, mixing occurs
carrying nutrients from the bottom
towards the surface. This slug of
nutrients fuels the growth of
phytoplankton, tiny floating plants.
Through the winter, temperatures
remain fairly constant from top to
bottom.
25
-------
Chapter 3
Measuring Temperature
For surface temperature measure-
ments, collect a sample in a con-
tainer that holds at least two gallons
so the water remains unaffected by
the temperature of the thermometer
and the air. In most cases, the volun-
teer can use this same sample for
many of the other water quality
monitoring tests. By collecting
samples at different depths, a profile
of water temperatures may also be
taken.
Allow the thermometer to equili-
brate in the water for three to five
minutes. Record the temperature to
the nearest half degree Centigrade.
Using an armored thermometer for
measurement will minimize
breakage problems.
To assure accuracy, check the
thermometer against a National
Institute of Standards and Technol-
ogy (NIST) certified thermometer at
least once a year. The volunteer
should assure that no separation has
occurred in the thermometer liquid
before each use.
Confirm the thermometer's accuracy
in several samples of water of
varying temperatures. The county
health department or the state
department of environmental
protection may lend an NIST
thermometer to the program for
these important periodic checks.
Temperature
Conversion Scale
- 90
— 70
— 60
— 50
-40
- 30
— 20
— 10
— 0
C°= F°- 32 (5/9)
F°= C°(9/5) + 3S
26
-------
Setting the Stage
Salinity
Salinity is simply a measure of the
amount of salts dissolved in water.
An estuary usually exhibits a
gradual change in salinity through-
out its length as fresh water flowing
from the tributaries mixes with sea
water moving in from the ocean.
Even at a single place in the estuary,
salinity will fluctuate with move-
ment of the tides, dilution by
precipitation, and mixing of the
water by wind.
Generally, salinity increases with
water depth unless the estuary is
well-mixed vertically. Salinity,
along with water temperature, is the
primary factor in determining the
stratification of an estuary. Warm,
fresh water is less dense than cold,
salty water and will overlie the
wedge of seawater pushing in from
I the ocean. Tides and wind, however,
can eliminate the layering caused by
I salinity and temperature differences
I by thoroughly mixing the two
I masses of water.
[Salinity levels control, to a large
I degree, the types of plants and
I animals that can live in different
I zones of the estuary. Freshwater
I species may be restricted to the
1 upper reaches of the estuary while
I marine species inhabit the estuarine
I mouth. Some species tolerate only
I intermediate levels of salinity while
broadly adapted species can
acclimate to any salinity ranging
from fresh water to seawater.
Salinity measurements may also
offer clues to the areas of an estuary
that could become afflicted by
salinity-specific diseases. In the
Chesapeake and Delaware bays, for
example, pathogens infecting the
oysters are restricted to sections
which fall within certain salinity
levels. Drastic changes in salinity,
such as those due to drought or
storms, can also greatly alter the
numbers and types of animals and
plants in the estuary.
Measuring Salinity
Salinity is usually expressed in parts
per thousand (ppt). Seawater has
about 35 parts of salt per 1000 parts
of water and drinking water is under
0.5 ppt.
Salinity can be measured either by
physical or chemical methods.
Chemical methods determine chlori-
nity (the chloride concentration)
which is closely related to salinity.
Physical methods use conductivity,
density, or refractivity. The physical
methods are quicker and more
convenient.
• Refractivity
This method is based upon the
refractive index of seawater.
27
-------
Chapter 3
This index measures the
change in the direction of light
as it passes from air into water.
Salinity and temperature both
affect the index.
Using a refractometer is
simple. The unit may be
prohibitively expensive for
many citizen programs,
however, since such instru-
ments cost about $350.
Density
As water becomes saltier, its
weight increases although its
volume does not measur-
ably rise. This change of
weight results in a
greater specific
gravity since salt
water is more
dense than fresh
water. By
using a
hydrometer,
which
measures
the specific
gravity of a
water sample,
the volunteer
can calculate
salinity.
Hydrometers are a
fairly simple and
inexpensive means of
obtaining salinity. Their
greatest asset, however, is
the high level of consistency
they offer over time.
After putting the water sample
in a clear jar, gently lower the
hydrometer into the jar along
with a thermometer. Make
sure the hydrometer and
thermometer are not touching
and that the hydrometer stem
is free of water drops.
Let the hydrometer stabilize
and then record the specific
gravity to the fourth decimal
place and the temperature.
Read the specific gravity at the |
point where the water level in
the jar meets the hydrometer
scale. Do not record the value
where the meniscus (the
upward curvature of the water
where it touches the glass)
28
-------
Setting the Stage
Reading the Hydrometer
Level
i ;
BHadCatr^
itfsitei! level
,f <•
1.0020
1.0D25
-
—
Meniscus
Redrawn from: LaMotte Company. 1993. Hydrometer
Instructions, Chestertown, MD.
intersects the hydrometer. Use
a hydrometer conversion table
to calculate the density value
of the sample at the recorded
temperature (see Appendix A).
Conductivity
A conductivity meter measures
salinity by determining how
well the water conducts an
electrical current. Distilled
water does not conduct a
current. As the concentration
of salts in the water increases,
however, electrical conductiv-
ity rises. The greater the
salinity, the higher the
conductivity.
Conductivity meters require
temperature correction and
accurate calibration is difficult.
The cost of these meters
ranges from $400 to $500
which makes them the most
expensive of these four salinity
methods.
Chlorinity
This method calculates salinity
based on the quantity of
chloride ions in the sample.
Salinity is related to chlorinity
by the formula:
Salinity [ppt) = (1 .SO5 x
chlorinity (ppt]) + O.O30
The chlorinity method uses
duration of the halide ions in
seawater with a standardized
silver nitrate solution. Al-
though several commercially
available test kits measure
chlorinity, some require
conversion of chlorinity to
salinity using the formula,
while others incorporate the
formula and give results
directly as salinity.
This method is relatively easy
to use although the color
change at the endpoint is
sometimes difficult to assess.
A white paper placed behind
the titration bottle makes
determination of the endpoint
an easier task.
29
-------
Chapter 3
The pH quantifies the acidity or
alkalinity of a water sample. Pure
water has a pH of 7.0 and is neutral;
water measuring under 7.0 is acid
and that above 7.0 is alkaline or
basic. Most marine organisms prefer
conditions with pH values ranging
from about 6.5 to 8.5.
Human activities that cause large,
short-term swings in pH or long-
term acidification of a water body
are exceedingly harmful. For
instance, algal blooms which are
often initiated by an overload of
nutrients can cause pH to fluctuate
dramatically over a few-hour period,
greatly stressing local organisms.
Acid precipitation in the upper,
freshwater reaches of an estuary can
diminish the survival rate of eggs
deposited there by spawning fish.
Levels of pH fluctuate over time in
an estuary. Estuarine pH levels
generally average from 7.0 to 7.5 in
the fresher sections to between 8.0
and 8.6 in the more saline areas. The
slightly alkaline pH of seawater is
due to the natural buffering from the
carbonate and bicarbonate dissolved
in the water. Several other factors
also determine the pH of the water,
including:
• bacterial activity;
• rate of photosynthesis (as DO
rises and carbon dioxide
declines with photosynthesis,
the pH will increase);
• water turbulence;
• chemical constituents in runoff
flowing into the water body;
• human activities both in and
outside the drainage basin,
such as acid drainage from
coal mines and acid precipita-
tion.
Values of pH are based on the
logarithmic scale, meaning that for
each 1.0 change of pH, acidity or
alkalinity changes by a factor of ten.
That is, a pH of 5.0 is ten times
more acidic than 6.0 and 100 times
more acidic than 7.0.
The pH of the water is critical to the
survival of most aquatic plants and
animals. Many species have trouble
surviving if pH drops under 5.0 or
rises above 9.0. Changes in pH can
alter other aspects of the water's
chemistry, usually to the detriment
of native species. Even small shifts
in the water's pH can affect the
solubility of some metals such as
iron and copper.
Measuring pH
In general, citizen programs use one
of two methods to measure pH:
colorimetric or electronic. Colori-
metric kits are easy to use, inexpen-
sive, and sufficiently accurate to
satisfy the needs of most programs.
30
-------
Setting the Stage
pH Range Scale
14-
(D
03
13-
12-
11 -
1O-
9-
8
Neutral 7
6
5
4
o
3-
2-
1
O-
Lye
- Bleach
- Ammonia
- Milk of Magnesia
- Baking Soda
Seawater
- Blood
Distilled Water
Milk
• Rain
• Boric Acid
• Orange Juice
- Vinegar
Lemon Juice
Battery Acid
If very precise measures are
I required, however, the more
expensive electronic pH meters
provide extremely accurate read-
ings. Test paper strips to obtain pH
are unsuitable for use in estuarine
waters since they do not provide
consistent measurements in salt
water.
• Colorimetric Kits
Colorimetric kits cover a range
of pH values. If the general pH
values of the estuary are
known, pick a kit that includes
these values within its range of
sensitivity. Some programs
may prefer to use a wide-range
kit that covers pH values from
3.0 to 10.0 until the measured
range of values for that water
body has been established.
After determining the actual
range over several seasons,
switch to a narrower range kit
for greater accuracy. Make
sure both kits have been
checked against pH standards.
The Colorimetric kits use
indicators that change color
according to the pH of the
solution. With the reagent
added, compare the water
sample to the color standards
of known pH values. Place
white paper in the background
of the tube to emphasize any
color differences, especially if
the sample's color is faint.
Record the pH value of the
standard which most closely
matches the color of the
sample. If the sample hue is
31
-------
Chapter 3
between two standards,
average their values and record
this number as the pH.
• pH Meters
Although more
expensive ($75 -
$500) than the
color kits, pH
meters give
extremely accurate
readings of a wide
range of pH values.
Unlike the color kits,
these meters can be
used even if the water is
clouded or colored. Place the
electrode into the water
sample and record the pH, as
well as water temperature.
Calibrate the meter each time,
using pH standards, to assure
accurate results.
Turbidity
Although we often think that clean
water is clear, even unpolluted water
can have suspended particles that
may lessen its clarity but do not
diminish its quality. Measures of
turbidity indicate how cloudy or
muddy the water is or, alternatively,
the degree of its clarity or
translucence. Several types of
suspended material cause
water turbidity:
• suspended silt or soil particles;
• phytoplankton and zooplank-
ton (tiny floating organisms);
• minute fragments of dead
plants.
Natural runoff, water turbulence
from storms, and wave action can
cause turbidity of the water.
Human activities, however,
exacerbate the clouding. Runoff
from agricultural fields, wash
from construction sites and urban
areas, and shoreline erosion from
heavy boat traffic, among other
problems, all contribute to high
turbidity.
High levels of turbidity over long
periods of time can greatly diminish
the health and productivity of the
estuarine ecosystem. Turbid waters
decrease light penetration into the
water, thereby reducing the area
available for submerged aquatic
plants to grow.
Many animals living in estuaries
feed by filtering the water; sus-
pended material in large quantities
can foul their filter-feeding systems.
Particles may accumulate on the
gills of fish and inhibit breathing.
Highly turbid water also
hinders aquatic predators
from spotting and tracking
down their prey.
32
-------
Setting the Stage
Makfnp a Secchi/Disk
- ! ' "
A 8ecchi disk ss one of sh^sSropterpieces of eqdsproe^requreci for
water quality testing, Afctoph many supply companies' sell Ms item,
vokMteer programs sn a'lJght budget can construct their
Mat^fiafe neecfecl-for this prbjeefe are; •" ^
* 1 ,/8« tiiftS; Steel, ?/4? PJexigtes, o'r 1 /4 to 1 /2"
% *, /, Dp wMi a/8*'inch fait " .. '' '' " - ^~:*( , ,
,-„ ^ytonrope ,, ,, s" s -- - ,,' / '-"•''
', < Eyeuba!is.fS/1 B"}, |lat aridtock washers, outs C5/1 S^^nd *'
-- "afefcscb$b)eweights, , ""' ' ;;^ ;;;,;- x" - -' '- "*'-'- -'-
li±; r --, , \^\ ;r*'/ % '-\ ' '"- ,-,',-!,* - -',' --; -
d ««Wte flat ersaraai '
sh', ^'-'""; ,',';
*'* ^"'s' '- -'','
sei, PfejdgSas-;'pfr $$0&®& to a
.' Section the di^k, Into^
' fpg guarfcera wlife wid^Tfi otfoer t-
•', disk totally, while, - '/'/',";"'
;; Afbr the'poTrifc'ba^' ^rfeel, dfii g 'hple ift the certe ^f fe,disk. Put 9
, onto the eyVfafoto followed by a lock wasfie^ and flat washer^ indert the,
ey,e bolt thraugh the ho^ in th& disk: wJth the whjte-and blacfe side faeitif
f, tHe,feye-of the bole. Piama'ftother''fla,t; washet* on top of the assembly - -'
,. atong,vHtfi a -sufficient number of weig&f^(dependent on Ihe disk ;
rnateriaf/iise.dl.'Adci another lock washer and bolt 60 finish tee assemojy;
' t f f ft __'"'' ' *"
ngth of r-ojse* through Uie,e^e
. Place ttie meter-stick alongside the nylon
mark the rope in 5 pr 1 b-centimeter incremen!® wife an iridelibfe
marke^^wateri^Ci'ol ink measuring from the ftjf> of the disk -A differe&t
Oojer marker used at each fail meter increment wi faclftsfce Secchi'' ''' -
measurements. - , '*/•>•'••'•'•'''',,
-. , fffff " "> "• "• ' " ''''""
"•s ,_ s ' '•'• "•"••. -f •"'
* -The required «jpe length depend '-cfi sveraga water pfartfey fi3tt$fcfOn$/
33
-------
Chapter 3
A Homemade Secchi Disk
Lock Washer
Flat Washer
Attach incremented
rope here
Eye Bolt
Nut
Black & White
Secchi disk
Flat Washer-1
Lock Washer
Weight
Nut
Measuring Turbidity
Although the most accurate means
of assessing turbidity is with a
nephelometer which electronically
measures light scatter, many
programs rely on the Secchi disk.
Easy to use, inexpensive, and
consistently accurate, this simple
weighted disk is used by volunteers
to measure the water depth at which
the disk just disappears from view—
the Secchi depth. Most programs
find that the Secchi disk gives
sufficiently good clarity readings.
The Secchi disk is 20 centimeters in
diameter and divided into alternat-
ing black and white quadrants to
enhance visibility and contrast
(although some are totally white).
Attach a white nylon rope with
black marks at tenth-of-a-meter
increments to the center of the black
and white surface of the disk. Mark
every one meter increment on the
rope with a red line to simplify
reading the depth measurement.
Make sure the disk hangs horizon-
tally when suspended.
34
-------
Setting the Stage
In 1948, a scientist outlined optimal
conditions for recording Secchi disk
readings:
• clear sky;
• sun directly overhead but disk
should be in shade or shadow;
• protected side of boat with
minimal waves or ripples.
If the conditions vary from this ideal
situation, record any differences on
the data sheet. Additionally, make
sure the sun is at your back if it is
not directly overhead and do not
wear sunglasses while viewing the
Secchi disk in the water.
To take a Secchi reading:
• Tie a wrist loop at the end of
the rope so the rope end does
not accidentally drop into the
water when the disk is
lowered.
• Lower the disk into the water
until the disk just disappears
from sight.
• Record the amount of rope
submerged to the nearest one-
tenth meter (i.e., note the point
where the rope and water line
meet).
• Raise the disk slowly until the
disk just becomes visible and
record this depth as well.
• Average the two recorded
values. This average is called
the limit of visibility.
• If the disk hits the bottom
before dropping out of sight,
note this observation and
record the bottom depth.
Secchi readings will vary with the
specific estuary, location in the
estuary, and season. Water clouded
with sediment after a storm or with
high levels of phytoplankton during
a warm spell will have low Secchi
readings (poor water clarity). Low
productivity winter waters or
estuarine water located near the
ocean will generally register higher
Secchi depths.
Other Parameters
Volunteer monitoring programs
should consider including a few
other parameters in their suite of
regular measurements. Most are
simple to carry out and provide
additional background information
helpful in the final analysis of an
estuary's status. These parameters
include:
• Air Temperature
Air temperature can be
measured with the same
thermometer used for reading
water temperature. Prior to
placing it in the sample bucket
of water at the site, allow the
thermometer to equilibrate
with the surrounding air
temperature for three to five
35
-------
Chapter 3
minutes. Make sure the
thermometer is out of direct
sunlight which will give a
false high reading. Read the
thermometer to the nearest half
degree Centigrade.
Odor
Though quite subjective, water
odor can reveal water quality
problems that may not be
visually apparent. Industrial
and municipal effluents,
rotting organic matter, and
bacteria can all produce
distinctive odors. Raw sewage,
for example, has an unmistak-
able aroma. Make note of the
odor in the data record and
describe the smell.
Precipitation
Precipitation data help the
program manager determine
the possible causes of turbidity
and erosion. Turbidity, for
instance, generally rises during
and after a rainstorm due to
soil runoff. A wind storm
(without precipitation), on the
other hand, might cause
turbidity due to bottom
mixing. Precipitation also may
help explain why nutrient
concentrations rise (with rain)
or decline (with little rain).
Place the rain gauge in an open
area away from interference
from overhead obstructions
and post it more than one
meter above the ground.
Rain Gauge Placement
Adapted from: The Monitor's Handbook, LaMotte Co., 1992
36
-------
Setting the Stage
CITIZEN MONITORING DATA SHEET
Date of Sampling: Time of Day: a.m. or p.m.
Volunteer Name: Site Name:
SITE CONDITIONS
(Check one item under each category except under "Other" in which you
should check all that apply.]
Wind: Calm Slight Breeze Moderate Breeze Windy
Weather: Clear Partly Cloudy Overcast Rainy
Drizzle Fog Snow
Wind Direction: N__ NE__ E_ SE___ S__ SW_ W_ NW_
Air Temperature: °C
Rainfall: Weekly Accumulation (in inches) .
Tidal Stage: Flooding High Slack _ Ebbing Low Slack
Water Surface: Calm Ripples Chop Swells
Water Color: Med. Brown Dk. Brown Red-Brown Green-
Brown Green Yellow-Brown Other
Smell: Sewage Oily Fishy Rotten Eggs None
Other ,
Other: Sea Nettles Dead Fish Dead Crabs Algal Bloom
Oil Slick Ice Debris Erosion Foam
Bubbles Other
Page 1 • Citizen Monitoring Data Sheet
37
-------
Chapter 3
CITIZEN MONITORING DATA SHEET (cont.)
WATER QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
Secchi Depth: meters
Water Depth: . meters
Hydrometer (unconnected): ° C Water Temp, in Bucket: ° C
Water Temp, in Hydrom. Jar: ° C Hydrometer (corrected]): ° C
Salinity: %> pH:
Dissolved Oxygen: Test 1 ppm Test 2 ppm
Average: ppm
Time spent doing aboue sampling:.
General Comments:
Signature:.
Page 2 • Citizen Monitoring Data Sheet
38
-------
Setting the Stage
Check the gauge each morn-
ing, record the amount of
precipitation and the time of
measurement, and then empty
the gauge. If the gauge sits
after a rainfall, evaporation
can falsify the measurement.
Tides
Programs studying highly
stratified estuaries or estuaries
with tidal ranges over a few
feet may want to measure tidal
stage. Tides of sufficient
magnitude are effective mixers
of estuarine waters and may
break down stratification.
Even if tidal stage data are not
included at the beginning of
the sampling effort, the
National Oceanic and Atmo-
spheric Administration
(NOAA) publishes tide tables
for most of the U.S. and this
information can be obtained
and applied after the fact if the
monitoring station is reason-
ably close to one of the
published tide table sites.
A simple tide staff (or a
measuring stick attached
securely to a dock) and a
watch are sufficient to measure
tidal stage. The Charleston,
South Carolina Harborwatch
group has devised a tidal phase
angle tool which, along with
local tide tables, allows
volunteers to translate tidal
stage into a single number. For
more information on how to
use this tool, contact the
Harborwatch Program in
Charleston, South Carolina
(see address in the references
at the end of this chapter).
39
-------
Chapter 3
References
Ellett, K., 1991, Citizen Monitoring Manual, 2nd ed., Alliance for the
Chesapeake Bay, Baltimore, MD, 18 pp.
Goodwin, M.H. and S.T. Robles, 1992, Citizen Water Quality Monitoring
Program Procedures Manual, Harborwatch, Charleston, SC, 17 pp.
For more information on the tidal phase angle tool, contact:
Mr. Mel Goodwin
Harborwatch
P.O.Box 21655
Charleston.SC 29413
(803) 577-2103
LaMotte Company, 1992, The Monitor's Handbook, Chestertown, MD, 71 pp.
Lee, V., D. Avery, E. Martin, and N. Wetherill, 1992, Salt Pond Watchers
Protocol #/: Field Sampling Manual, Coastal Resources Center, Univer-
sity of Rhode Island, Tech. Rpt. No. 14, 27 pp.
Tennessee Valley Authority, 1988, Homemade Sampling Equipment, Water
Quality Series - Booklet 2, Chattanooga, TN, 16 pp.
40
-------
Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen
Chapter 4
Monitoring
Dissolved
Oxygen
-------
Chapter 4
The Importance of
Dissolved Oxygen
Of all the parameters that character-
ize an estuary, the level of dissolved
oxygen (DO) in the water is one of
the best indicators of the estuary's
health. An estuary with little or no
oxygen in its waters cannot support
healthy levels of animal or plant
life.
Unlike many of the problems
plaguing estuaries, the conse-
quences of a rapid decline in DO set
in quickly and animals must move
to areas with higher levels of
oxygen or perish. This immediate
impact makes measuring the level
of DO an important means of
assessing the status of water quality.
The Role of Dissolved Oxygen
in the Estuarine Ecosystem
Oxygen enters an estuary's waters
from the atmosphere and through
aquatic plant and phytoplankton
photosynthesis. Currents and wind-
generated waves boost the amount
of oxygen entering the water by
putting more water in contact with
the atmosphere. Oxygen solubility
in water is poor, however, and even
well-aerated, cold (0 degree
Centigrade) fresh water can only
hold 14.2 milligrams per liter (mg/
L) of oxygen when fully saturated.
Salt water can absorb even less
oxygen than fresh water. Similarly,
warm water holds less oxygen than
cold.
Most animals and plants can grow
and reproduce unimpaired when DO
levels exceed 5 mg/L. When levels
drop to 3-5 mg/L, however, living
organisms often become stressed. If
levels fall under 3 mg/L, a condition
known as hypoxia, many species
will move elsewhere and non-
mobile species may die. A second
condition, known as anoxia, occurs
when the water becomes totally
depleted of oxygen (under 0.5 mg/
L) and results in the death of any
organism that requires oxygen for
survival.
An integral part of an estuary's
ecological cycle is the breakdown of
organic matter. This process, like
animal and plant respiration, also
consumes oxygen. Decomposition
of large quantities of organic matter
by bacteria can severely deplete the
water of oxygen and make it
uninhabitable for other species.
An overload of nutrients from
wastewater treatment plants or
runoff from farm fields also adds to
the problem by fueling the over-
growth of phytoplankton. The
phytoplankton ultimately die and
fall to the bottom where they
decompose, using up oxygen in the
deep waters of the estuary.
42
-------
Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved Oxygen
in the Water
5 mg/L
3 mg/L
Omg/L
Anoxia
Although excess nutrients from
human activities are a major cause
of hypoxia and anoxia, these
conditions may also occur in
estuaries relatively unaffected by
humans. Generally, however, the
severity of low DO and the length of
time that low oxygen conditions
persist are less extreme.
Levels of Dissolved Oxygen
Although we may think of water as
homogeneous and non-changing, its
chemical constitution does, in fact,
vary over time. Oxygen levels, in
particular, may change sharply in a
matter of hours, making it difficult
to assess the significance of any
single DO value.
At the surface of an estuary, the
water at mid-day is often close to
oxygen saturation due both to
mixing with air and the production
of oxygen by plant photosynthesis.
As night falls, photosynthesis ceases
and plants consume available
oxygen, forcing DO levels at the
surface to decline. Cloudy weather
may also cause surface water DO
levels to drop since reduced sunlight
slows photosynthesis.
The DO levels in deeper parts of an
estuary fluctuate according to the
rate of oxygen diffusion from the
upper layer and the amount of
mixing caused by storms, wind,
currents, and the circulation of water
due to temperature differences
between the layers. Stratification is
quite effective in blocking the
transfer of oxygen and nutrients
between the upper and lower layers.
In a well-stratified estuary, very
little oxygen may reach the lower
depths and the deep water may
remain at a fairly constant low level
43
-------
Chapter 4
of DO until the stratification
disintegrates with the changing of
seasons or a large storm.
Sampling Considerations
Where to Sample
The pattern of circulation and DO
levels in the estuary over time
should influence the sampling
scheme set up to monitor oxygen
levels. For instance, a well-stratified
estuary may require surface,
intermediate, and bottom water
samples or a complete profile to
fully characterize the status of DO
in its waters. A reasonably well-
mixed estuary, however, or one in
which the monitoring sites are
located only in shallow waters
(where stratification often breaks
down) may require only a single
surface sample at each site.
While tidal range (the difference
between high and low tides) is
negligible in some estuaries,
programs studying areas with large
swings in tides will have to consider
this effect. Tides strong enough to
cause mixing may weaken the
stratification in the estuary. This
effect is particularly apparent during
spring tides (the highest tides of the
month). By mixing the upper and
lower layers, the tides allow
nutrients trapped in bottom waters to
mix upward and oxygen from the
surface to move down.
Site selection is critical to the
ultimate usefulness of the data.
Among the factors relevant to site
selection are:
• representativeness of the site
to the estuary;
• proximity to other sites;
• presence of sites already
included in a state, county, or
local program;
• importance of the site to
statistical analyses;
• accessibility by the volunteer
monitor;
• local hydrology;
• presence of stratification;
• proximity to known or
suspected point or nonpoint
sources of pollution; and
• conditions unique to the site
(e.g., the confluence of two
tributaries, content and
quantity of local runoff, or
current status of water
quality).
When to Sample
In estuarine systems, sampling for
DO throughout the year is preferable
to establish a clear picture of water
quality. If year-round sampling is
not possible, taking samples from
the beginning of spring well into the
autumn will provide the program
with the most significant data.
Warm weather conditions bring on
hypoxia and anoxia which pose
44
-------
Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen
serious problems for the estuary's
plants and animals. Because these
conditions are rare during winter,
cold weather data can serve as a
baseline of information.
Sampling once a week is generally
sufficient to capture the variability
of DO in the estuary. Since DO may
fluctuate throughout the day,
volunteers sampling at about the
same time of day each week are less
likely to record data that largely
capture daily fluctuations. Some
programs suggest that volunteers
sample in the morning near dawn as
well as mid-afternoon to capture the
daily high and low DO values.
It is also useful to have volunteers
available to collect data during or
after large storms as long as the
program manager deems it safe to
sample. Such data are often invalu-
able to state managers who may be
unable to mobilize forces quickly
enough to capture such events.
Storm data give a snapshot of how
severe wind and precipitation affect
the status of DO in the water.
Similarly, program managers may
want data collection during unusual
conditions such as large fish kills or
"crab jubilees." A mass exodus of
crabs onto the shore may occur
when DO declines rapidly and
drastically—sending the crabs
landward in search of oxygen.
Methods of Measuring DO
Citizen programs may elect to use
either a dissolved oxygen electronic
meter or one of the several DO test
kits available. The meter is most
accurate and simple to use. How-
ever, its price will likely exceed
$750. Dissolved oxygen meters may
be useful for programs in which
measurements are needed at only a
few sites, volunteers sample at
several sites by boat, or volunteers
plan on running DO profiles (many
measurements taken at different
depths at one site).
The electronic meter measures DO
based on the rate of molecular
oxygen diffusion across a mem-
brane. The results are extremely
accurate providing the unit is well-
maintained and calibrated in
accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions before each use.
The DO probe may be placed
directly into the estuary for a
reading or into a water sample
drawn out by bucket. Some meters
include a thermistor which allows
volunteers to take both DO and
temperature readings simulta-
neously. Another possibility is a
meter which contains a permanent
membrane and eliminates the need
for constant recalibration.
45
-------
Chapter 4
If volunteers are sampling at several
widely scattered sites, one of the
many DO kits on the market may be
more cost-effective. These kits rely
on the Winkler titration method or
one of its modifications. These
modifications reduce the effect of
materials in the water, such as
organic matter, which may cause
inaccurate results.
The kits are inexpensive, generally
ranging from $30 to $50. Kits
provide good results if monitors
adhere strictly to established
sampling protocol. Aerating the
water sample, allowing it to sit in
sunlight or unfixed (see the follow-
ing box on titration for an explana-
tion of fixing), and titrating too
hastily can all introduce error into
DO results.
For convenience, the volunteer
monitors should keep their kits at
home and take them to the sampling
site each week. The program
manager must provide the monitors
with fresh chemicals as needed.
Periodically, the manager should
check the kit to make sure that each
volunteer is properly maintaining
and storing the kit's components. At
the start of the monitoring program,
and periodically thereafter if
possible, the program manager
should directly compare kit mea-
surements to those from a standard
Winkler titration conducted in a lab.
Water Samplers
A carefully handled bucket sample
will yield good results of surface
water DO. Some programs, how-
ever, will need to sample at depth.
To accommodate at-depth measure-
ments, equipment supply companies
produce several types of water
samplers designed to collect water at
specific depths through the water
column.
Two of the most commonly used
samplers in citizen monitoring
programs are the Van Dorn and
Kemmerer samplers or some
variation of these two. Both sam-
plers have an open cylinder which
has stoppers at both ends. A
calibrated line attaches to the device
and allows the volunteer to lower
the unit into the water to a precise
depth.
To collect a sample, the volunteer
sets the sampler in the cocked
position by releasing both rubber
corks. After lowering the unit into
the water to the proper depth, the
volunteer then releases a "messen-
ger"—or weight—down the line.
When the messenger hits the
sampler, it trips a releasing mecha-
nism and the two stoppers seal off
the ends of the tube.
46
-------
Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen
Van Dorn Water Sampler
Kemmerer Water Sampler
Source: Amer. Public Health Assoc., 1989,
Standard Methods for the Exami-
nation of Waste S. Wastewater.
If sampling routinely takes place
from a bridge, the manager should
install a lighter weight messenger on
the sampler. Repeated use of the
standard messenger from such
heights will eventually damage the
unit.
The volunteer should pull the
sampler to the surface and transfer
the collected water into a sample
bottle. Since pouring the water from
one container to another can aerate
the sample and bias results, the
volunteer should transfer the water
using a rubber hose with an attached
push valve. With the end of the hose
at the bottom of the empty sample
container, the volunteer should fill
the bottle to overflowing to avoid
contamination by the air.
How to Monitor DO
Before heading out to sample for the
first time, the volunteer should
select a regular sampling day that
fits into his or her personal schedule.
Adherence to the schedule is ideal
but program managers should
recognize that everyone will deviate
from the scheduled sampling on
occasion. If possible, the make-up
date should be within two days on
either side of the original date or a
trained back-up volunteer should
substitute.
47
-------
Chapter 4
Titration
Iteration is an analytical procedure used to measure the
quantity of a substance in a water sample by generating a
known chemical reaction. In the process, a reagent is
incrementally added to a measured volume of the sample
until reaching an obvious endpoint, such as a distinct
change in color.
Volunteers can use titration to assess the quantity of
dissolved oxygen at a sampling site. This procedure,
known as the Winkler Titration, uses iodine as a
substitute for the oxygen dissolved in a "fixed" sample
of water. A "fixed" sample is one in which the water
has been chemically rendered stable or unalterable.
Iodine stains the sample yellow-brown. In turn, a
chemical called sodium thiosulfate reacts with the free
iodine in the water to form another chemical, sodium
iodide. When the reaction is complete, the sample
turns clear. This color change is called the endpoint.
Since the color change is often swift and can occur between one
drop of reagent and the next, a starch indicator should be added to
the solution to exaggerate the color change. The starch keeps the
sample blue until all the free iodine is gone at which time the sample
immediately turns colorless. The amount of sodium thiosulfate used
to turn the sample clear translates directly into the amount of
dissolved oxygen present in the original water sample.
The volunteer, possibly in collabora-
tion with the program manager,
should also characterize the collec-
tion site with a written description
and accompanying photograph. This
information serves as an initial
status report with which to compare
any future changes of the site. Use
either a nautical or topographic map
to determine the latitude and
longitude of the site.
48
-------
Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen
The program manager should supply
each volunteer with a set of sam-
pling data forms. The forms,
properly filled out, provide a set of
standardized data useful to both
managers and scientists. Volunteers
should record the data as they take
measurements; relying on memory
is risky.
Volunteers should not sample if the
weather is potentially dangerous.
Training should include information
on the appropriate circumstances for
both proceeding with and waiving
data collection. If volunteers elect to
go out in poor conditions, they
should be aware of the risks and
always take proper safety gear
(particularly if proceeding by boat).
No one should go out on the water
during thunderstorms or high wave
conditions.
TASK1
Verifying sampling schedule and
checking weather conditions
Elements of Task 1
Q Confirm the correct sampling
date.
Q Check the television, radio, or
Weather Service for current
forecasts before deciding
whether to sample. This step is
particularly critical if the
volunteer is traveling by boat.
Before boarding the vessel, the
volunteer should personally
observe weather and estuary
conditions and consider
rescheduling if the conditions
are poor. Volunteers should
never sample alone from the
boat.
49
-------
Chapter 4
Checking proper equipment
Before proceeding to the site, the
volunteer should make sure to bring
along all the proper equipment.
Results may be inaccurate if the
volunteer has to improvise because a
sampling device or chemical bottle
has been left behind.
Elements of Task 2
Q The volunteer should bring the
following items to the site for
each sampling session:
/ Large clean bucket with rope
/ Fully stocked dissolved
oxygen kit (if not using a
meter)
/ Armored thermometer
/ Blank data sheet and instruc-
tion manual
•^ Pencils and clipboard
•/ Water sampler (if taking a full
DO profile)
/ DO meter (if not using DO kit)
and backup batteries
If monitoring from a boat,
volunteers should bring the follow-
ing additional equipment:
/ Coast Guard-approved
personal flotation device (one
for each person aboard)
/ Equipment required by state
and local law (the state boating
administration will have a list
of such requirements which
usually includes such items as
a fire extinguisher and bell.
/ First aid kit
•^ Anchor
/ Weighted line to measure
depth
•/ Nautical chart of area
50
-------
Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen
Recording preliminary informa-
tion and general observations
Once at the site, the volunteer should
record general observations of the
local area. (For information on
returning to the same monitoring
site, see Chapter 5, page 62.)
Observations include the color of the
water, presence of debris or oil,
recent shoreline erosion, fish kills,
and other notable conditions. The
monitor should record all informa-
tion on the supplied data sheet.
This information helps the program
manager interpret the results of DO
sampling. Storms, for instance, not
only stir up the water and make it
cloudy, but also may force low DO
water into the shallows.
Elements of Task 3
Q Record the date, time of day,
weather conditions, and name
of the volunteer and site.
Q Note general conditions at the
site, including the weather and
wave activity.
Q Record any condition or
situation that seems unusual.
Descriptive notes should be as
detailed as possible.
Collecting the water sample
This task is necessary if the volun-
teer is using a DO kit or if a sample
is being drawn for a DO meter
(rather than placing the DO probe
directly in the estuary). The citizen
monitor must take care during
collection of the water; jostling or
swirling the sample can result in
aeration and cause erroneous data.
Elements of Task 4
Q Rinse the bucket with estuary
water twice before sampling.
Rinse and empty the bucket
away from the collection area.
Q Drop the bucket over the side
of the dock, pier, or boat and
allow water from just under
the surface to gently fill the
container until it is about two-
thirds full. There should be no
air bubbles in the bucket.
Q Lift the bucket
carefully to
the working
platform.
51
-------
Chapter 4
Measuring DO
Many citizen monitoring programs
use the "azide modification" of the
Winkler Titration to measure DO.
This test removes interference due to
nitrites—a common problem in
estuarine waters.
The volunteer must run the first part
of the test immediately so the oxygen
content of the water does not change.
After the solution is fixed, the
remainder of the test should be
carried out within eight hours (in the
meantime, keep the sample refriger-
ated and in the dark). Each volunteer
should titrate two samples from the
same bucket to minimize the
possibility of errors. If the discrep-
ancy between the two is significant,
the volunteer should run a third
titration. The program's project plan
should define what difference is
considered "significant."
If using a DO meter, make sure the
unit is calibrated. After inserting the
DO probe into the bucket or placing
it over the side of the boat or pier,
allow the probe to stabilize for at
least 90 seconds before taking a
reading. Manually stir the probe
without disturbing the water to get an
accurate measure.
Take the water temperature by
setting the thermometer in the
bucket and allow it to stabilize while
preparing for the DO test. The
bucket of water used for measuring
DO can also be used for many of.the
other water quality tests.
Elements of Task 5
Q Rinse the two kit bottles before
filling them from the sample
bucket. Then, submerge each
capped bottle in the bucket,
remove the lid, and slowly fill.
Avoid agitating the water in the
bucket to minimize the
introduction of oxygen to the
sample. Tap the side of the
bottle to loosen any air bubbles
before capping and lifting the
bottle from the bucket. Check
the sample for bubbles and
repeat the filling steps if
necessary.
Q Proceed with the DO test for
both sample bottles by care-
fully following the
manufacturer's instructions.
Allow some of the sample to
overflow during these steps;
this overflow assures that no
atmospheric oxygen enters the
bottled contents. After the
sample is fixed, exposure to air
will not affect the oxygen
content of the sample.
52
-------
Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen
Q Continue with the titration of
both samples, again following
specific instructions included
with the kit or provided by the
program manager. Carefully
measure the amount of fixed
sample used in titration; this
step is critical to the accuracy
of the results. Samples with
high levels of DO are brown,
while low DO samples are
generally pale yellow before
the starch indicator is added. A
few minutes after reaching the
colorless end point, the sample
may turn blue once again. This
color reversion is not cause for
concern—it is simply proof of
a precise titration.
Q Calculate the total amount of
sodium thiosulfate used to
reach the end point in each
sample. Each milliliter of
thiosulfate used is equivalent to
1 mg/L DO. Average the
results of the two titrations and
record both titration values
along with their average on the
data sheet.
Cleaning up and sending off data
Make sure to thoroughly rinse all
glassware in the kit and tightly
screw on the caps to the reagent
bottles. Check to assure that each
bottle contains sufficient reagents so
that the program manager can
provide additional chemicals if
needed for the next DO analysis.
Send the completed data sheet to the
program manager. As with all data
sheets, the volunteer should produce
a duplicate copy before mailing in
case the original becomes lost.
53
-------
Chapter 4
Safety
Each monitor should become thoroughly
familiar with the iteration test before
conducting it alone. As with any chemicals,
those in the DO kit should not come in
contact with any part of the body. To
minimize accidental contact, clean up any
chemical spills as soon as they occur and
tightly cap the bottles of reagents after
each use.
Accuracy and safety both depend upon clean equipment. Use a cap
to cover the test tube during shaking rather than your finger. Keep
the tubes clean by rinsing them before and after each use and do not
put the cap of one reagent onto the bottle of another. The work
surface should be kept clean of chemicals and sponged with clean
water after the test is complete.
References
Clesceri, L.S., W.E. Greenberg, and R.R. Trussell (eds.), 1989, Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American Public
Health Association, 17th edition, Washington, DC, 1268 pp.
Ellett, K., 1991, Citizen Monitoring Manual, 2nd ed., Alliance for the Chesa-
peake Bay, Baltimore, MD, 18 pp.
LaMotte Company Staff, 1992, The Monitor's Handbook, LaMotte Company,
Chestertown, MD. 71 pp.
54
-------
Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
Chapter 5
Monitoring
Nutrients and
Phytoplankton
-------
Chapter 5
The Importance of Nutrients
Nutrients—chemical substances
used for maintenance and growth—
are critical for survival. Plants
require carbon, nitrogen, phospho-
rus, oxygen, silicon, magnesium,
potassium, and calcium to grow,
reproduce, and ward off disease. Of
these nutrients, nitrogen and
phosphorus are of particular concern
in estuaries because their availabil-
ity can limit the growth of aquatic
plants.
These two nutrients, along with
water temperature and sunlight,
control phytoplankton abundance.
High levels of phytoplankton often
point to an over-enriched estuary.
For this reason, citizen monitoring
programs focus on nitrogen and
phosphorus as indicators of estua-
rine health.
Although nutrients are essential for
the growth and survival of an
estuary's plants, including phyto-
plankton, an excess of nitrogen and
phosphorus may trigger a string of
events that seasonally depletes
dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water.
On a longer time scale, excess
nutrients accelerate eutrophica-
tion—an aging process in which
organic debris, along with sedi-
ments, fill in a body of water.
Why Measure Nutrients?
While DO levels in the estuary are
strongly influenced by biological
activities, nutrients are the starting
gun that set off many of these
oxygen-consuming processes.
Assessing nutrient levels can allow
insight into the causes of many of an
estuary's ills or, on the other hand,
provide reasons for its relative
health.
The interpretation of nutrient
concentration data must be done
with care. While high nutrient levels
suggest the potential for explosive
algal growth, low levels do not
necessarily mean the estuary is
receiving less nutrient input. Large
quantities of nutrients may flow into
the estuary and be quickly taken up
by phytoplankton. Zooplankton, in
turn, graze upon the phytoplankton.
Phosphorus may also bind with the
sediment and remove this nutrient
from the water.
In this general scenario, although
water nutrient concentration is low,
the quantity of nutrients tied up in
the biomass (living matter) and
sediment is high. Change in any one
of these factors, due to such events
as upwelling, change in pH, or
seasonal turnover, could increase the
concentration of nutrients in the
water.
56
-------
Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
|An abundance of phytoplankton
nay also cause other problems for
line estuary. Water clouded by thick
•patches of these tiny plants does not
[transmit sunlight well. Submerged
[aquatic plants require light to
photosynthesize; if the water is too
iloudy during much of the growing
season, these plants will die.
Jitrogen and Phosphorus
Nitrogen and phosphorus enter
lestuaries from several sources—
both natural and manmade. Natural
[sources of nitrogen in the estuary
(include the decomposition of
Drganic matter and the runoff of
ndomesticated animal waste
[following a storm.
Manmade sources include effluent
from wastewater treatment plants,
agricultural fertilizer runoff,
livestock waste, cesspool leaks,
contaminated rainfall, and car
exhaust. Phosphorus inputs may also
originate from animal and plant
wastes and agricultural fertilizer
runoff, as well as food processing
industry effluent, urban and forest
runoff, and other sources.
Although nitrogen makes up about
80 percent of the air, it is inacces-
sible to most terrestrial and aquatic
organisms as a gas. Some types of
bacteria and blue-green algae,
however, can fix nitrogen gas,
converting it to organic nitrogen and
The Nitrogen Cycle
Rain, drainage,
and wastes
Nitrogen-fixing
algae and bacteria
| Adapted from: U.S. EPA, 1987, Chesapeake Bay: Introduction to an Ecosystem, EPA
Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, MD.
57
-------
Chapter 5
The Phosphorus Cycle
Rain, drainage,
and wastes
Qrganlc
Phosphorus
Remineralizing
microbes -^
Inorganic
Phosphorus
Detritus
Adapted from: U.S. EPA, 1987, Chesapeake Bay: Introduction to an Ecosystem,
EPA Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, MD.
making it available to other species.
In the estuary, nitrogen exists in a
variety of chemical forms such as
ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite as well
as in particulate and dissolved
organic forms.
The quantity and form of nitrogen in
the water closely relate to DO
levels. Through nitrification,
bacterial activity changes ammonia
to nitrite and then to nitrate. This
biological process consumes oxygen
and may ultimately make the water
uninhabitable for other organisms.
When nitrification is inhibited by
low DO conditions, ammonia or
nitrite forms of nitrogen may
accumulate.
Through denitrification, bacteria
convert nitrate to nitrite and then to
nitrogen gas. This process occurs
under anoxic conditions and helps
rid the system of excess nitrogen.
Phosphorus also exists in the water
in several forms: organic phosphate, I
orthophosphate (inorganic phospho-1
rus), and polyphosphate (more likelj
in polluted areas). Orthophosphate
in the water comes from fertilizers
whereas organic phosphorus results
from plant and animal waste.
Decomposition of dead plants and
animals also adds organic phospho-
rus to the water. In general, excess
phosphates enter an estuary from
water treatment plants, sewage, and
soils.
58
-------
Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
Jnder oxygenated conditions,
phosphate will form chemical
Complexes with manganese and iron
and also bind to sediments. If the
Dottom water in an estuary has no
Dxygen, phosphate bound to the
pediments is released back into the
vater. This release can fuel yet
nother round of phytoplankton
Dlooms.
Nutrient Sampling
Considerations
In setting up a nutrient monitoring
plan, the program manager should
ensure that the effort will continue
for several years. Since the work-
ings of an estuary are complex, a
mere year or two of nutrient data is
insufficient to capture the variability
of the system. In fact, a couple of
years of unusual data may be quite
misleading and tell a story very
different than reality (note the
variability in the plot below).
Nutrient sampling can coexist
efficiently with DO testing. Because
of the expense involved in analyzing
nutrients, however, the nutrient
portion of the program may be
considerably smaller than the DO
effort. The program manager may
want to have a subset of volunteers
monitor nutrients in areas of
particular concern.
Nitrite and Nitrate Levels in an East Coast Estuary
1.6-
1.2-
O.8-
0.4-
Jan '9O Jul '9O Jan '91 Jul '92 Jan '92 Jul '92 Jan '93
59
-------
Chapter 5
Volunteers should sample nutrients
on a weekly basis, although bi-
weekly sampling will still yield
valuable information. (See Chapter
10, Presenting Monitoring Results,
for examples of data use). In
temperate climates, some programs
may eliminate wintertime measure-
ments when nutrient levels are not
as important. A few measurements
during the winter, however, will
provide a baseline of nutrient levels
with which to compare the rest of
the year's data.
Selecting Monitoring Sites
Selecting representative sampling
sites is probably the most important
element in setting up a nutrient
monitoring effort. Site location will
depend a great deal on the purpose
of data collection. If, for example,
the program is attempting to
pinpoint trouble spots in the estuary,
the manager should cluster monitor-
ing sites where point and nonpoint
sources of nutrients appear to enter
the water. Such sites might include
an area near the discharge pipe of a
wastewater treatment plant or
adjacent to an agricultural area
where fertilizers are applied or
livestock congregate.
To help ensure the data's scientific
validity, volunteers should monitor
sample locations both up and
downstream from the pollutant
inflow point, as well as at the point
of entry, to provide comparative
data. Monitoring the impact of
nonpoint sources of nutrients, such
as agricultural runoff, which do not
enter at a single point demands a
more detailed study of the area to
choose the most suitable sampling
sites.
Other programs may wish to obtain
baseline data that, over several
years, will reveal nutrient trends.
Such trends may indicate whether
nutrient levels in the estuary are
increasing, decreasing, or staying
the same. Rather than concentrating
on a few critical sites, this type of
program should choose a sufficient
number of sites scattered throughout]
the estuary or in the area of interest
that will paint a representative
picture of nutrient status over time.
In any type of nutrient monitoring,
basic information about the area of
interest is essential for the program
manager to consider before selecting
monitoring sites. Such information
includes:
• A map of the watershed with
all areas of the basin that drain I
into the estuary demarcated;
• Reports and/or data that supply
general information on the
estuary and specific informa-
tion on its historical status;
60
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Monitoring Nutrients and Phytpplankton
A bathymetric map of the
estuary providing depth
information;
Information on adjoining
estuaries or areas if there are
plans to conduct data compari-
sons;
• Compilation of current and
past activities in the basin that
could affect nutrient levels
(e.g., locations of wastewater
treatment plants, areas of
urban runoff, or dredging
operation sites).
The manager may also want to
create a map showing the location of
volunteers' homes if the program
relies on citizens sampling from
their own dock or pier. This map
will illustrate which areas of the
estuary still need coverage and
where sites may be too tightly
clustered.
When selecting sites, participants
must consider that nutrient levels
(along with other water quality
parameters) are always changing. At
any given time, levels at the surface
will not be the same as those at the
bottom; similarly levels at one site
may vary substantially from
others—even those reasonably
nearby.
Through the seasons, nutrient levels
will fluctuate with changes in water
temperature, the amount of biologi-
cal activity, and the status of other
water quality parameters. While
tidal stage may also cause fluctua-
tions, many volunteer programs
Selecting Effective
Monitoring Sites
; A Ensure fhatjstes are both safe and accessible,-
A Obtain1 permission from landowners 80 monitor sites on-private '
land. - -- s "' -" ' „
^ A; Make sure the sifce is underwater even at |ow'tide/ ,
A UacaEe tfre site on-the up-river/up-estuary side,of bridges so ''
that the specimen is not contaminated by bridge runoff.
A- Make sure that volunteers oan'pfecisely-relocate the site if they
must reach it by boat.
61
-------
Chapter 5
have found that "chasing the tides"
does not yield enough additional
information to make the effort
worthwhile.
Sampling at a small number of sites
every week or two cannot possibly
capture the constantly changing
water quality of an estuary. The key
to effective nutrient monitoring is to
sample at a sufficiently frequent
interval and at enough representa-
tive sites so that the data will
account for most of the inherent
variability within the system.
Where to Sample in the
Water Column
For most citizen monitoring
programs, samples taken from the
estuary's surface will suffice. These
samples will provide a reasonably
accurate indication of nutrient levels
in the vicinity of the sampling site.
In more sophisticated studies in
which nutrients throughout the
water column are of interest,
volunteers may need to collect
samples using a standard water
sampler at precise depths.
Returning to the Same
Monitoring Site
Once the program manager and the
volunteers have chosen monitoring
sites, quality control demands that
each volunteer sample from exactly
the same location each time. If the
site is off the end of a dock or pier,
returning to the monitoring site is a
simple matter. If, however, the
volunteer reaches the site by boat,
the task becomes more complicated.
There are two basic methods to
ensure that volunteers return to the
same site:
• The Shoreline Landmark
Method
Landmarks—conspicuous
natural or manmade objects—
provide a ready means of
identifying a specific monitor-
ing site. Once the program
manager and volunteer have
identified a permanent site,
they should anchor the boat
and scan the landscape for
distinctive features. Such
features can include tall or
solitary trees, large rocks,
water towers, flag poles, or
any other highly visible and
identifiable object.
Two landmarks, in front-to-
back alignment, should be
chosen. The sight line created
by the landmarks will lead
directly back to the site. The
volunteer should then pick
another set of aligned land-
marks onshore about 90
degrees from the sight line of
62 —
-------
Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
The Shoreline
Landmark Method
the first set. The two sight or
bearing lines should intersect
at the boat. The volunteer
should practice repositioning
the boat at this point.
In some cases, volunteers must
return to monitoring sites on a
coastal pond, sound, or lagoon
63
located in the middle of a salt
marsh or in some other rather
featureless landscape. If no
obvious landmarks are
available, volunteers may want
to post two sets of brightly
colored signal flags. They
should obtain permission from
the landowner before posting
the flags.
-------
Chapter 5
Constructing a Landmark Flag
Tacks
Orange or red
flag with edge
rolled.
Wire wrapped
around log
•Wooden
stake
Adapted from: R. Compton, 1962, Manual of Field Geology,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, p. 118.
64
-------
Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
The Marker Buoy Method
In wind and wave-protected
sections of an estuary,
volunteers may want to set
buoys to mark the
monitoring site. The
buoy should be
brightly
colored and
easily
distin-
guish-
able
from
fisher-
men buoys floating in the area.
The program manager should
check on local and state
regulations regarding buoy
placement before using this
method.
Although a simple means of
marking a site, buoys do not
always stay in place; wind,
waves, and passersby may
move the buoy or remove it
entirely. Volunteers should use
the shoreline landmark method
as a backup to ensure that the
buoy is correctly positioned.
Choosing a Sampling Method
A dilemma arises for program
managers when deciding upon the
appropriate method for measuring
nutrient levels in an estuary. On one
hand, kits for nitrogen and phospho-
rus are notoriously imprecise; on the
other, submitting prepared samples
for lab analysis is costly and time
consuming. Program managers
frequently arrange to have a high
school, college, or professional lab
donate its time and facilities to the
volunteer effort.
Whatever sampling method is
chosen, program managers should
periodically compare the citizen
monitoring data to duplicate
samples analyzed by another
method under laboratory conditions.
Following is a list of the possible
methods of nutrient analysis, along
with each method's advantages and
pitfalls.
65
-------
Chapter 5
Test Kits
Several companies manufac-
ture kits for analyzing the
various forms of nitrogen and
phosphorus. While the kits are
not extremely precise, the
manager may choose to use
them when deemed appropri-
ate given the program's data
objectives.
These kits are suitable for
identifying nutrient trouble
spots, measuring nutrient
levels in wastewater where
levels are generally higher
than in the estuary, and
assessing nitrogen and
phosphorus levels in highly
enriched waters. Areas where
concentrations routinely
exceed concentrations of 1
mg/L are good candidates for
kit analysis.
The kits are not effective,
however, in waters where
nutrient concentrations tend
towards the low side. The kits
have poor (high) detection
limits and a set of data taken in
low nutrient waters may yield
nothing more than a string of
"non-detectables." The kits
rely on a color comparison in
which the volunteer matches
the color of a prepared water
sample to one in a set of
provided standards. The
subjectivity of each
volunteer's decision as well as
ambient light levels will
influence the results to some
degree.
While generally easy to use,
many state and federal
agencies will reject nutrient
data derived using these kits
because of the wide error
range. If the data are intended
to supplement state or federal
efforts, it is wise to confer
with the agency beforehand to
determine if kits are an
acceptable monitoring method.
Spectrophotometer
A Spectrophotometer measures |
the quantity of a chemical
based on its characteristic
absorption spectrum compar-
ing the collected sample to a
reference sample. This method |
of nutrient determination is
generally quite accurate
although the instruments are
expensive to purchase and
maintain.
Citizen groups that rely
heavily on precise nutrient
data should have a few people
sample nutrients from a boat
(rather than many volunteers
66
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Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
sampling from their own
docks). Programs with ample
funds for equipment ma)' want
to consider purchasing this •
reliable instrument which costs
from $1000 to $6000.
Because the instrument
requires proper maintenance
and precise calibration, the
program manager or someone
familiar with this equipment
must be on each monitoring
cruise. Samples may also be
brought back for spectropho-
tometer analysis in a lab.
Colorimeter
A colorimeter compares the
intensity of color between the
sample and a standard to mea-
sure the quantity of a com-
pound in the sample solution.
Cheaper than spectrophotom-
eters, a colorimeter offers
citizen programs a reasonably
priced alternative. It is quite
accurate, fairly easy to use,
and can provide direct meter
readout. Colorimeters range in
price from $400 to $600.
Like the spectrophotometer,
this instrument can be used for
forms of both nitrogen and
phosphorus. The colorimeter is
a more affordable alternative
for those programs that prefer
a method less costly than the
spectrophotometer and more
accurate than the kits.
The colorimeter does require
standard maintenance as well
as reagents which must be
purchased on a regular basis.
The colorimeter provides
accurate data only when
properly maintained and
precisely calibrated by a
professional.
Laboratory Analysis
Analysis of nutrients by a
professional laboratory is by
far the most accurate means of
obtaining nutrient data. Most
laboratories institute strict
quality assurance and quality
control methods to ensure
consistently reliable results. A
high school, college, or
professional lab may offer its
services free of charge to the
volunteer program.
If the program decides to use
lab analysis, it must ensure
that its volunteers adhere to
strict guidelines while collect-
ing samples. Sloppy field
collection techniques will
result in poor data no matter
how sophisticated the lab.
67
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Chapter 5
How to Sample Nutrients
Before heading out to sample for the
first time, the volunteer should
select a regular sampling day that
fits into his or her personal schedule.
Adherence to the schedule is ideal
but program managers should
recognize that everyone will deviate
from the scheduled sampling on
occasion. If possible, the make-up
date should be within two days on
either side of the original date or a
trained back-up volunteer should
substitute.
The volunteer, possibly in collabora-
tion with the program manager,
should also characterize the collec-
tion site with a written description
and accompanying photograph. This
information serves as an initial
status report with which to compare
any future changes of the site. Use
either a nautical or topographic map
to determine the latitude and
longitude of the site.
The program manager should supply
each volunteer with a set of sam-
pling data forms. The forms,
properly filled out, provide a set of
standardized data useful to both
managers and scientists. Volunteers
should record the data as they take
measurements; relying on memory
is risky.
Volunteers should not sample if the
weather is potentially dangerous.
Training should include information
on the appropriate circumstances for j
both proceeding with and waiving
data collection. If volunteers elect to |
go out in poor conditions, they
should be aware of the risks and
always take proper safety gear
(particularly if proceeding by boat).
No one should go out on the water
during thunderstorms or high wave
conditions.
68 —
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Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
Verifying sampling schedule and
I checking weather conditions.
I Elements of Task 1
Confirm the correct sampling
date.
Id Check the television, radio, or
Weather Service for current
forecasts before deciding
whether to sample. This step is
particularly critical if the
volunteer is traveling by boat.
Before boarding the vessel, the
volunteer should personally
observe local weather and
estuary conditions and consider
rescheduling if conditions are
poor. Volunteers should never
sample alone from a boat.
TASK 2
Checking proper equipment.
Before proceeding to the site, the
volunteer should make sure to bring
along all the proper equipment.
Results may be inaccurate if the
volunteer has to improvise because a
sampling device or bottle of
chemicals has been left behind.
Elements of Task 2
Q The volunteer should bring the
following equipment to the site
for each sampling session:
/ Sample bottles—cleaned and
rinsed with deionized water—
or autoanalyzer cups
/ Fully stocked nitrogen and
phosphorus kits (if not using
lab analysis)
/ 60 mL syringe with filter
assembly and filters
/ Permanent black indelible
marker to label samples
/ Blank data sheet and instruc-
tion manual
/" Pencils and clipboard
y Water sampler (if collecting
sample from other than the
surface)
/ Ice cooler with ice packs to
keep samples cool
69
-------
Chapter 5
If monitoring from a boat, the
following additional equipment is
necessary:
/ Coast Guard-approved
personal flotation device (one
for each person aboard)
/ Equipment required by state
and local law (the state boating
administration will have a list
of such requirements which
usually includes such items as
a fire extinguisher and bell)
/ First aid kit
/ Anchor
/ Weighted line to measure
depth
•/ Nautical chart of area
TASKS
Reaching the site.
Navigate to the site and position the
boat using either the landmark or
buoy method. Verify boat position
when using the latter method by
siting on predesignated landmarks to |
ensure that the buoy has not moved.
Securely anchor the boat. It is best
not to bring up the anchor until
sampling is complete since mud
(with associated nutrients) may
become stirred into the water.
Make sure the boat is stable and
begin the sampling routine.
70 —
-------
Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
TASK 4
Recording preliminary informa-
tion and general observations.
Record general observations of the
local area including the color of the
water, amount of debris, presence of
oil, recent shoreline erosion,
peculiar odors, and occurrence of
fish kills. A visual assessment of
phytoplankton density is a helpful
aid in interpreting nutrient level
results. Write down all information
on the supplied data sheet.
Elements of Task 4
Q Record the date, time of day,
weather conditions, and name
of the volunteer and site.
Q Note general conditions at the
site, including the weather,
wave activity, and apparent
phytoplankton density.
Q Record any condition or
situation, such as those listed
above, that seem unusual or out
of place. Descriptive notes
should be as detailed as
possible.
Collecting the water sample.
Although the task of collecting a
bottle of water seems relatively
easy, volunteers must follow strict
guidelines to prevent contamination
of the sample. For example, it is
preferable to use a standard sam-
pling bottle, such as the Kemmerer
bottle, rather than a simple bucket
since a washed and capped bottle is
less likely to become contaminated
than an open container. The ele-
ments below describe how to collect
water for either kit or lab nutrient
testing.
Elements of Task 5
Q Label the sampling bottle.
Q Uncap the bottle, being careful
not to touch the container's
mouth.
Q To rinse the bottle, push it into
the water in a forward motion
holding the container by the
bottom. This technique will
keep water contaminated by
skin oils and dirt from entering
the mouth. After filling the
bottle, bring it to the surface
with the mouth facing up. Pour
out the water on the down
71
-------
Chapter 5
current side of the boat and
away from the actual sampling
site. Rinse the cap as well.
Q Push the bottle back into the
water in the same manner to
collect a sample for analysis.
Unlike the collection of a
sample for dissolved oxygen
analysis, do not completely fill
the bottle. Leave a small
amount of air at the mouth.
Cap the bottle.
Q Store the container in a cold,
dark ice chest to retard bacte-
rial activity and phytoplankton
growth.
Analyzing the water sample.
The following section describes two
ways to analyze a water sample for
nutrients. If analyzing nutrients by
test kit, follow Procedure A. If
submitting the sample to a lab for
analysis, follow Procedure B.
Procedure A - Elements of test kit
analysis
Q Conduct the test as soon as
possible after water sample
collection. As the sample sits,
organisms living in the water
will use up nutrients, changing
the nutrient concentrations.
Q Before starting the analysis,
double check that the bottles,
test tube, or sample bottle, and
any other equipment that will
come in contact with the
sample are clean. Chemicals
maintained at about 20 degrees
C (68 degrees F) will yield the
best results.
Q Rinse the test tube or sample
bottle in estuary water in the
same manner as bottle rinsing.
72
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Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
Q Make sure the sample water is
well mixed. Pour the sample
water into the test tube or
sample bottle filling to the
measure line. If preferred,
place the test tube or bottle
directly into the water over the
side of the boat to collect a
sample.
Q Follow the sampling protocol
for each nutrient type as
outlined in the instructions
accompanying the kit.
Q Immediately record the results
on the data sheet.
Procedure B - Elements of prepar-
ing sample for laboratory analysis
The following steps describe the
filtration process that volunteers
should follow to prepare samples for
laboratory analysis. Filtering the
sample removes the particulate
nutrient fraction from the dissolved
fraction. Individual laboratories may
recommend variations on the
following protocol.
Q Ensure that the containers or
cups are sufficiently dry for the
marker to write legibly. Label
the sample containers or
autoanalyzer cups that will be
sent to the lab with the date,
site name, and nutrient to be
analyzed using the indelible
marker.
Q Take the cap tip off the
syringe. Rinse the syringe with
sample water twice.
Q Make sure the sample water is
well mixed. Place the tip of the
syringe in the sample bottle or
bucket and draw back on the
plunger until the syringe is
completely filled. If preferred,
place the syringe directly into
the water over the side of the
boat to collect a sample.
Q Hold the syringe with the tip up
and tap on the side to loosen air
bubbles. Push the plunger in
slowly and just enough to force
the air from the tip, then
continue pushing until the
plunger is exactly at the 60 mL
line.
Q Grasp the filter unit by the
base, unscrew the assembly
ring, and remove the cap.
Q Hold the deep end of the filter
assembly in one hand and
unscrew the outlet end of the
assembly. Place the black
rubber O-ring onto the base of
the deep end, making sure that
73
-------
Chapter 5
it fits securely into the groove.
Using a forceps, gently place a
Whatman 25 mm GF/F filter
onto the ring, completely
covering it. Set the stainless
steel screen on the filter and
screw the assembly ring back
onto the base.
Q Attach the filter unit securely
to the filled syringe by screw-
ing on the deep end with the
large opening of the filter
assembly in a clockwise
motion.
Q Press steadily and slowly on
the plunger to force water from
the syringe through the filter
unit. Using this technique, rinse
both of the sample bottles that
will be sent to the lab and their
caps with filtered water from
the syringe, leaving over 30
mL in the syringe. Fill each
sample container with the
remaining syringe water.
Q Store capped samples immedi-
ately in a cold, dark cooler. Use
whatever preservatives that the
laboratory conducting the
analyses recommends.
Q Once ashore, transfer the
containers from the cooler to a
freezer as soon as possible.
The laboratory will provide
Nutrient
Filter Assembly
Assembly
Ring
Cap
Support
Grid
Flat Gasket
Filter
Support
Grid
0-Ring
Base
Adapted from: Lee, V, D. Avery, E Martin, and
N. Wetherell, 1992, Salt Pond
Watchers Protocol #1: Field
Sampling Manual, Rhode Island.
instructions outlining optimal
storage temperatures and
conditions.
74
-------
Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
TASK?
Cleaning up and sending off data
forms.
On land, volunteers should thor-
oughly clean all equipment, whether
using the test kit or the lab prepara-
tion method. Use deionized water
for rinsing and allow the equipment
to air dry before storing it away. If
volunteers used the filtration
technique, they should detach the
filter unit from the syringe, unscrew
it, and rinse all parts. The paper
filter can be thrown away.
During training sessions, the
program manager should stress the
importance of properly cleaning all
equipment for proper storage. With
proper storage, the equipment is
ready for the next sampling session.
Make sure the data sheet filled out
for test kit results is complete and
accurate before mailing.
After freezing the samples from the
filtration technique, follow labora-
tory guidelines for packing and
shipping them to the analytical lab.
This step should be done as soon as
possible.
Phytoplankton
Plankton are the largely microscopic
group of organisms that float with
the currents and tides or swim
weakly. Phytoplankton (algae),
zooplankton (small animals), and
bacteria compose the plankton
group.
Phytoplankton—tiny, single-celled
plants that form the base of the
estuary's food pyramid—are critical
to the well-being of the entire water
body. As phytoplankton photosyn-
thesize, these primary producers
transfer the sun's energy into plant
matter and provide nourishment for
the next level of organisms, the
primary consumers. Without
phytoplankton, the intricate web of
estuarine plants and animals would
collapse.
Several types of phytoplankton
exist, including dinoflagellates,
diatoms, and a variety of different
"color" algae. Light, salinity, water
temperature, and available nutrients
all affect the abundance and
composition of phytoplankton
species. An algal population
explosion is known as a "bloom."
The abundance of phytoplankton in
the estuary is a direct indication of
the quantity of nutrients currently or
recently available in the water.
75
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Chapter 5
Source: U.S. EPA. 1987, Chesapeake
Bay. Introduction to an Ecosystem,
EPA Chesapeake Bay Program,
Annapolis, MD.
Some monitoring programs may
want to simply quantify phytoplank-
ton abundance as a rough indication
of nutrient levels. Nutrient tests are
more time-consuming and consider-
ably more expensive due to either
lab charges for the analysis of water
samples or the initial cost of nutrient
analysis kits.
Measuring Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton tend to grow and
concentrate in patches, making
accurate measurement of their
overall abundance quite difficult.
One area thick with phytoplankton
may be only a few meters away
from an area with relatively few of
these plants. Thus, if the volunteer
monitor is collecting a water sample
to analyze phytoplankton, at least
three specimens must be taken to
obtain a reasonably representative
sample.
Several different methods of
obtaining phytoplankton data are
available. Choose a method based
on the precision of data required, the
reason for collecting phytoplankton
data, and the money available for
this portion of the monitoring effort.
The methods include:
• Visual Assessment
This simple method allows
volunteers to estimate visually
the quantity of phytoplankton
in a bloom and assign an index
value. Program managers
should use this information in
association with Secchi depth
data. In New Jersey, the
Barnegat Bay Watch Monitor-
ing Program (see the refer-
ences at the end of the chapter
for the program's address) has
developed an Algal Index
Value to help volunteers to
assess bloom conditions.
• Plankton Net Tow
A cone-shaped mesh net,
towed through the water by a
boat, will collect a variety of
plankton species. A single tow
may not be representative of
76
-------
Monitor ing Nutrients and Phytoplankton
the population as a whole if
the phytoplankton are "clump-
ing" in the water. Several tows
help alleviate this problem.
In the horizontal tow method,
volunteers should allow the net
to drag behind the boat at a
predetermined distance while
Algal Index
Value
ALGAL INDEX
Category
Description
Clear Conditions vary from no
nuisance bloom algae to small
populations present.
Present Some nuisance bloom algae
visible to the naked eye but
present at low to medium levels.
Visible Nuisance algae sufficiently
concentrated that filaments
and/or balls of algae are visible
to the naked eye. May be widely
scattered streaks of algae on the
water surface.
Scattered Surface
Blooms
Extensive Surface
Blooms
Surface mats of surface nui-
sance algae scattered; may be
more abundant in localized areas
if winds are calm. Some odor
problems.
Large portions of the water
covered by surface mats of
nuisance algae. Windy conditions
may temporarily eliminate mats
but they will quickly redevelop as
winds become calm. Odor
problems in localized areas.
77
-------
Chapter 5
traveling at a set speed
(usually 1-3 knots). Record
how long the towing took, so
that the quantity of water
filtered can be computed and
plankton density derived. The
figure on page 79 shows the
steps used to calculate
plankton density.
The density calculation is
only approximate due to the
"net factor"— the effect of
the net as it is towed—forcing
some water off to the side
rather than through its
opening. Plankton gathered in
the vial at the base of the net
can be analyzed microscopi-
cally for species composition
as well. Species analysis must
be conducted soon after
sampling, however, unless a
recommended preservative is
used.
Water Sample
If a precise density measure is
more important than species
composition, the volunteer
can use a water sampler (such
as a Kemmerer or Van Dorn
sampler) to collect an exact
volume of water. Plankton
sampling by this method
allows analysis of samples
from different depths,
although patchiness still
remains a problem.
Using this method, the
volunteer pours the collected
volume of water through a net.
The plankton captured by the
net represent the number of
organisms in the premeasured
volume of water. This density
figure can easily be converted
to the number of individuals
per cubic meter or cubic foot
of water. If, for example, one
liter of water was filtered,
multiply the density value by
1000 to obtain the phyto-
plankton density in a cubic
meter of water.
Note that phytoplankton can
be distinguished from zoo-
plankton by their color;
zooplankton are generally
colorless.
Chlorophyll Collection for
Lab Analysis
All plants contain chloro-
phyll—a green pigmented
material essential for photo-
synthesis. Measuring the
chlorophyll in a sample yields
an estimate of the quantity of
phytoplankton living in the
water at the sampling site.
78
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Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
Plankton Sampling
Note: The filter will eventually clog depending upon
the concentration of plankton in the water.
s,
Fuily rinse net
so all plankton
wash into bottom
container
1-3 mph
Total volume of water filtered (V)
equals A (the area of the net (n x rz])
multiplied by D (the distance traveled
multiplied by the time dragging the net.
V = A x D (do not mix metric and
English measurements)
Mix and extract
solution with dropper
The total number of
plankton in the original
sample equals the A
plankton concentration ^M
in the total volume of ^^
water filtered.
Count plankton in
slide sample and
^^^ multiply by 20O to
^^^r get the number
^^^ of plankton per >
£ 1 drop = 1/20 mL
^ S
In this procedure, the volun-
teer pours a well-suspended
water sample into an opaque
bottle which is placed on ice,
kept in the dark, and trans-
ported to the lab. In the lab,
the sample is run through a
glass fiber filter which is then
placed in acetone and ground
up. Technicians then measure
the amount of chlorophyll in
the processed sample with a
fluorometer (an instrument
that measures the fluorescence
of a substance). The more
intense the red light emitted by
the specimen, the higher the
chlorophyll concentration.
79
-------
Chapter 5
References
Kerr, M., L. Green, M. Raposa, C. Deacutis, V. Lee, and A. Gold, 1992,
Rhode Island Volunteer Monitoring Water Quality Protocol Manual, URI
Coastal Resources Center, RI Sea Grant, and URI Cooperative Extension,
38pp.
Ellett, K., 1991, Citizen Monitoring Manual, 2nd ed., Alliance for the Chesa-
peake Bay, Baltimore, MD, 18 pp.
LaMotte Chemical Products Company, undated, Laboratory Manual for
Marine Science Studies, LaMotte Educational Products Division,
Chestertown, MD, 41 pp.
Clesceri, L.S., W.E. Greenberg, and R.R. Trussell (eds.), 1989, Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American Public
Health Association, 17th edition, Washington, DC, 1268 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987, Chesapeake Bay: Introduction
to an Ecosystem, EPA Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, MD, 33 pp.
80
-------
Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Chapter 6
Monitoring
Submerged
Aquatic
Vegetation
-------
Chapter 6
The Role of Submerged
Aquatic Vegetation
In the shallows of many healthy
estuaries, where sunlight penetrates
the water, dense stands of aquatic
plants sway in unison with the
incoming waves. Although such a
bed appears homogeneous at first
glance, the vegetation hosts a wide
variety of animal life. These animals
seek protection from predators,
scout for food, and search for cover
for their young among the plants.
These aquatic plants, known
collectively as submerged aquatic
vegetation (SAV), include all of the
underwater plants that live through-
out the estuary or in near coastal
waters. Unlike marsh species that
depend on daily inundation by tides,
SAV lives in areas where the plants
will remain largely submerged.
Once established, these plants can
spread quickly into large, thick
stands if conditions are optimal.
They can grow, however, only in
those portions of the estuary shallow
enough and clear enough to receive
sufficient sunlight for photo-
synthesis.
The salinity and temperature of a
particular estuarine location
determine, to a large extent, which
species can survive. While some
species tolerate a fairly wide range
of salinity, others are restricted to
very specific levels.
SAV in the Ecosystem
As critical to an estuary as trees are
to a forest, SAV plays several roles
in maintaining an estuary's health.
Although only a few truly aquatic
species consume the living plants,
several types of waterfowl and small
mammals rely on them as a major
portion of their diet. The SAV forms
huge quantities of decomposed
matter as its leaves die; several
aquatic species use this detritus as a
primary food source.
During the growing seasons of
spring and summer, SAV takes up
large quantities of nutrients that
would otherwise accelerate the
eutrophication of the estuary. Much
of these nutrients remains locked in
the plant biomass throughout the
warm weather. As the plants die and
decay in autumn, they slowly
release the nutrients back to the
ecosystem at a time when phyto-
plankton blooms pose less of a
problem.
Additionally, the plant leaves
furnish shelter for many animals and
provide a place to hide from
predators. A variety of organisms,
such as barnacles, bryozoans (a
group of colonial invertebrates), and
82
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Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
eggs of many species, attach directly
to the leaves. Epiphytes, plants that
grow on the surface of other plants,
also use the SAV leaves as a base.
The sheer bulk of the SAV plants
often buffers the shoreline and
minimizes erosion by dampening
the energy of incoming waves.
Without them, the shoreline is much
more vulnerable to erosion. Plant
roots bind the sediments on the
estuary bottom and retard water
currents. By minimizing water
movement, SAV allows suspended
sediments to settle and improves
water clarity.
The Demise of SAV
In a balanced and healthy estuarine
ecosystem, SAV species blanket the
shallows—with the species compo-
sition of each bed attuned to
controlling variables such as
salinity, temperature, and depth.
When an estuary is tipped out of
balance, however, SAV beds usually
suffer. The degradation or loss of
these beds can set up a chain
reaction of ill effects that ripples
through the entire estuarine struc-
ture.
This chain of events often starts
with an overload of nutrients.
Excessive quantities of nitrogen and
phosphorus cause an overgrowth of
phytoplankton. Although individual
phytoplankton are usually micro-
scopic, blooms of these organisms
cloud the water and severely
diminish sunlight penetration. The
nutrients may also trigger a thick
growth of epiphytes. Too many of
these plants block the sunlight
before it can reach the leaf surface
of the host.
As the phytoplankton problem
worsens, the slender ribbon of land
at the estuary's edge that is able to
support SAV becomes ever thinner.
For example, estuary water once
capable of supporting plants to a
depth of ten feet may now only
transmit enough light for plant
survival to a depth of six feet.
When plant beds thin or die back,
water that may already be low in
DO due to the phytoplankton
overload becomes even more
depleted as the amount of oxygen
generated by SAV photosynthesis
declines. Nutrients once tied up in
the plant leaves and roots and
bottom sediments may be released
to the water where phytoplankton
snap them up and fuel yet another
round of water quality degradation.
A bare substrate, where SAV once
flourished, poses a whole set of new
problems. Without plant roots to
stabilize the sediment, waves easily
kick up silt which remains sus-
pended in the water until calmer
83
-------
Chapter 6
sediment and phytoplankton in the water
Adapted from: Barth et al.. 1989, The State of the Chesapeake Bay. U.S. EPA, Annapolis, MD.
conditions return. Suspended silt,
like phytoplankton, cuts down on
light transmission through the water.
The silt may also settle onto the
leaves of any remaining plants,
further blocking the light needed for
photosynthesis.
While nutrients are one of the major
causes of SAV disappearance or
decline in many bays and estuaries
(particularly on the East Coast),
other factors may also play a role.
Runoff from land under develop-
ment and from poorly managed
agricultural fields can contain
enormous quantities of sediment.
Agricultural herbicides may cause a
loss of some species while industrial
pollutants and foraging animals may
selectively kill off local beds. Areas
frequently subject to boat-generated
waves may also lose their SAV
beds.
As some species lose a foothold in
the estuary, non-native and opportu-
nistic species may move in. Invasive
species may overwhelm native SAV
species and assume their habitat.
While the growth of these new
species often alleviates the problems
associated with a bare substrate,
other problems may arise.
Diversity of plants in an environ-
ment leads to a similar diversity of
animals. Just as the number of
84
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Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
species that can live in a field, of
corn is limited, the diversity of
animals able to live in a large area
populated by a single, non-native
species is also quite restricted.
Additionally, when some opportu-
nistic plant species thrive, they can
pose a nuisance to boaters by
tangling around propeller blades.
I Why Monitor SAV?
Submerged aquatic vegetation can
serve as an overall barometer of
estuarine health. These plants form
the critical link between the physical
habitat and the biological commu-
1 nity. They require specific physical
I and chemical conditions to remain
I vigorous and, in turn, provide
I habitat, nourishment, and oxygen to
I all other species in the estuary.
IA viable and self-sustaining SAV
I population is the hallmark of a
I healthy estuary (in estuaries that
I naturally support SAV). By moni-
Itoring the occurrence of SAV beds
land the changes in their distribution,
•density, and species composition,
•volunteers can help determine the
•health and status of SAV in an
•estuary. Scientists can then compare
Ithis information to historical data of
ISAV beds. Over time, the volunteers
lean provide sufficient information to
•establish trends of SAV abundance
land distribution.
Common SAV Species
Eelgrass (Zostera marina)
Eelgrass is the dominant seagrass in
the cooler temperate zones of the
east and west coasts. Beds of this
luxuriant plant also blanket the more
saline portions of the estuaries that
notch these two coasts. Flowing and
elongate like an eel, the slender leaf
blades grow up to three feet in
length. Eelgrass is appropriately
named; the root of its botanical title,
zoster, means belt or strap.
Eelgrass spreads by sending out
runners that creep along the bottom
and repeatedly send up shoots that
Eelgrass
85
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Chapter 6
grow into new plants. New plants
take several years to reach matura-
tion. Once a bed becomes estab-
lished, however, this species of
seagrass is highly productive.
Because of its predominance and
widespread coverage, eelgrass is an
important ecological element of
both east and west coast estuaries
and nearshore areas. It may cover
acres of the bottom, providing food
for waterfowl, support for epiphytic
plants, and cover for fish and
invertebrates.
Unfortunately, eelgrass is subject to
infection by a blight presumably
caused by a slime mold-like
organism called Labarinthula. The
disease causes dark lesions on the
eelgrass leaves and ultimately
results in mass mortality of the plant
beds. The last major epidemic
occurred in the 1930s; most beds
had recovered by the 1960s. Along
with the dieback of eelgrass,
animals dependent on this plant,
such as the brant (a small goose) and
bay scallops (an important economic
resource), also declined precipi-
tously.
In the past ten years, scientists and
volunteers have noted the character-
istic lesions of the disease on some
eelgrass plants once again. The
disease seems to have infected beds
throughout New England, although
large-scale dieback has occurred
only in isolated areas.
Eelgrass Wasting Disease Index Key
o%
1 %
10%
20%
50%
1OO%
86
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Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
The blight, also known as eelgrass
wasting disease, is not fully respon-
sible for eelgrass bed demise. While
some areas never fully recovered
| from the 1930s epidemic, other
factors have contributed to the
plant's decline. Eutrophic waters,
pesticides, and abundant epiphytic
growth on the leaves have also
harmed eelgrass along with other
SAV species.
The Rhode Island volunteer moni-
toring program has developed a
technique to assess the degree of
infestation on individual eelgrass
I leaves. This information, gathered
I once during each growing season,
I provides an estimate of disease
I progression.
I Widgeon Grass (Ruppia
I maritima)
I Widgeon or ditch grass inhabits the
I entire East and Gulf coasts of the
I United States. This plant is remark-
lably resilient and can withstand a
I wide range of salinities; specimens
I have occasionally been found in
1 fresh water yet the species can also
[tolerate full ocean salinity. Its
I primary habitat, however, is in
I brackish bays and estuaries.
I The leaves of widgeon grass are
I needle-like, short, and usually about
I two inches in length. They branch
Widgeon
Grass
off of slender, elastic stems. Like
eelgrass, this grass produces tiny,
rather inconspicuous flowers. The
plants may also reproduce asexually
by means of rhizomes which extend
along the estuary bottom and send
out shoots.
Widgeon grass is an extremely
important SAV species for water-
fowl. The American wigeon, a
brown duck for which the plant is
named, relies heavily upon widgeon
grass as a major component of its
diet. The plant is nutritious, making
it a favored food item for many
other waterfowl species as well.
87
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Chapter 6
Turtle Grass
Turtle Grass (Thalassia
testudinum)
Along the south Atlantic and Gulf
coasts, turtle grass replaces eelgrass
as the dominant seagrass species.
Like eelgrass, turtle grass is highly
productive and, therefore, is an
important member of estuarine and
near coastal ecosystems.
Turtle grass plants have broad,
strap-like blades, wider and shorter
than those of eelgrass that splay in
clumps. This grass reproduces
asexually by creeping rhizome or
sexually by water-borne flower
pollen and forms dense meadows
which often cover vast swaths of the
shallow marine or estuarine sub-
strate. After the leaves fall or are
ripped off by wave action, the
currents and waves sweep large
mats of the leaves onto the beaches
where local residents often gather
them for fertilizer.
Manatee Grass (Syringodium
flliforme) and Shoal Grass
(Halodule wrightii)
Both of these seagrass species are
common along the south Florida
coast and fringing the edges of the
Caribbean islands.
Long and thin, the blades of
manatee grass are light green and up
to a foot in length. Like the other
seagrasses, this grass has tiny,
inconspicuous flowers. Since water
carries the pollen, the plants do not
need large showy flowers to attract
insects for pollination. This plant
also propagates by rhizome exten-
sion. Manatee grass often mixes
with turtle grass in seagrass mead-
ows.
Shoal grass has elongate stalks that
often branch into flat, half-inch wide]
leaves. These stalks may grow to
15-16 inches in length and usually
have broken tips. This plant is aptly
named since it inhabits very shallow I
areas, generally in water less than 201
inches deep. Beds of shoal grass
usually grow landward of turtle
grass beds.
88
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Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Manatee
Grass
Shoal.
Grass
Monitoring Considerations
Choosing Sampling Methods
There are several means of monitor-
ing SAV. Choosing the most
appropriate method will depend on
the number and location of sites
already being monitored by volun-
teers or others for water quality, the
extent of SAV coverage, the
location of problem areas, and the
planned uses for the collected data.
Possible methods include:
• Quadrat sampling at previ-
ously established sites
Volunteer monitoring pro-
grams may choose to analyze
SAV concurrently with several
other water quality variables.
In this case, the simplest
option is to examine the
composition and density of
SAV in a predetermined radius
around the established
monitoring sites.
This method not only enables
the volunteer to take all water
quality and biological mea-
surements at a single site, but
also provides the program
manager with a complete set
of information on the plants
and water quality in a given
area.
89
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Chapter 6
Quadrat sampling in a circle
around site X.
Indexing beds at established
sites
A SAV index is a simple
means of ranking the density
of plants at specific sites. This
method categorizes SAV beds
into three or more descriptive
classes as shown in the index
value table below. While less
quantitative than the other
methods, indexing is a quick
and easy means of obtaining
relative information on the
status of an estuary's SAV
beds.
Transect sampling
In transect sampling, the
volunteer establishes a straight
line across an area containing
SAV and records each plant
that touches the line at
predetermined increments
along that line. If the vegeta-
tion is extremely dense, the
volunteer can place a rod into
the vegetation at the desig-
nated point and record the
different species that touch the
rod. This method provides
useful, quantitative data on the
percent of vegetative cover
and the frequency of each
species.
SAV Index Value Category
Description
0
1
None No vegetation present
Patchy Small colonies or
clumps; sparse bottom
coverage.
Dense Extensive grass beds;
lush meadows.
9O
-------
Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
SAV bed
Transect
line
Transect sampling through a bed
I of SAV
In a modified version of
transect sampling, the volun-
teers set up a straight line
across the area of interest and
establish discrete sites along
the line. Volunteers can
analyze each site using either
the transect method described
above or the standard quadrat
method.
• Maps
By groundtruthing (verifying)
SAV beds using maps, citizens
can provide a more complete
picture of total vegetation
cover in an area than with
either of the two methods
already discussed. Volunteer
coordinators particularly
interested in the year-to-year
distribution and acreage of
SAV should consider using
this method.
Large-scale U.S. Geological
Survey maps (1:24,000 is
generally sufficient) serve as
visual data sheets on which
volunteers can record their
observations including the
species, area, and density of
plants within the SAV beds.
The program manager and
other professionals can then
use this information, in
conjunction with scientists'
efforts, to determine whether
SAV meadows are shrinking,
expanding, or staying the same
over time. The data will also
help reveal changes in the
density and species composi-
tion of the beds.
Volunteers can also provide
useful verification of aerial
photographs for analysis
through "groundtruthing"
efforts. By going into the field
with maps to verify the
location of SAV beds identi-
fied on the aerial photos,
volunteers strengthen the
accuracy of the data. This
process may also supplement
the data base with specific
information, such as density,
health, and species type, that
can only be gathered in the
field.
91
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Chapter 6
Aerial Photography
Although not as inexpensive or
as easy to use as maps, aerial
photographs are an exact
image of the estuary or near
coastal zone, making them less
subject to bias. Aerial photos,
however, do require some
interpretation and may not be
suitable for use by untrained
volunteers.
Users of the photos should
note the tidal stage, weather
conditions, water clarity, and
the time of day when the
photos were taken, as these
variables can substantially
affect the visibility of SAV
beds.
Most programs will find that
aerial photographs are cost-
effective only if they use
existing sets of images.
Chartering new overflights is
often prohibitively expensive.
Existing aerial photographs,
however, are an ideal means of
capturing historical informa-
tion on SAV beds, particularly
since many areas of the coasts
have been repeatedly surveyed
over time. Volunteers can be
used to groundtruth informa-
tion obtained through aerial
photographs.
As with all water quality
variables, repetitive measures
over a period of years give a
more representative picture of
SAV status than a single
sampling approach. Unlike
many of the other variables,
however, volunteers need to
measure SAV density and
distribution and identify
species only once or twice
during the peak growing
season.
92
-------
Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
How to Monitor SAV Using
the Groundtruthing Method
Monitoring SAV beds may pose
more logistical problems than the
measurement of other water quality
variables. Whereas volunteers
measure other variables at set
stations, SAV groundtruthing
requires volunteers to go to areas
where the SAV is growing.
These plant beds may not be in
exactly the same location from year
I to year. Although land access to the
I beds may lie on private property,
j landowners are often willing to
I provide right-of-way to volunteer
I monitors. Water access may be
I limited by depths too shallow to
I accommodate some vessels—
I necessitating use of a shallower
I draft boat. The program manager
1 should assist each volunteer in
I solving possible logistical problems
I before the volunteer heads for the
I field.
I The program leaders should also
I supply each volunteer with a USGS
I map on which the location of SAV
I beds has been marked. This infor-
jmation may be the last year's field
jdata or data from aerial photo-
I graphs. The volunteer will then be
I able to verify the location of the
I marked beds and note the position
I of any new or unmapped beds.
TASK1
Checking weather conditions.
Elements of Task I
Q Check the television, radio, or
Weather Service for current
forecasts before deciding
whether to monitor. This step is
particularly critical if the
volunteer is leaving shore by
boat. Before boarding the
vessel, the volunteer should
personally observe local
weather and estuary conditions.
Volunteers should never
sample alone from the boat.
93
-------
Chapter 6
Checking proper equipment.
Before proceeding to the site, the
volunteer should make sure to bring
along all the proper equipment.
Elements of Task 2
Q Equipment needed to monitor
SAV beds:
/ Map covering appropriate area
•/ Compass
/ Weighted and calibrated line
to measure depth
/ SAV field identification guide
/ Plastic ziplock bags (sand-
wich size)
/ Indelible marker
/ Survey form or data sheet for
each site
/ Instructions for monitoring
SAV
/ Pencils and clipboard
/ Garden rake, hoe, or some
other instrument to gather
specimen for identification
i/" Clothing that will protect the
volunteer from sun and
jellyfish
If monitoring from a boat, the
following additional equipment is
necessary:
/ Coast Guard-approved
personal flotation device (one
for each person aboard)
/ Equipment required by state
and local law (the state boating |
administration will have a list
of such requirements which
usually includes such items as
a fire extinguisher and bell)
/ First aid kit
•/ Anchor
/ Nautical charts needed to get
to site(s)
94
-------
Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Reaching the SAV beds.
| Reaching the SAV beds marked on
the maps may require walking,
motoring, rowing, paddling, wading,
or swimming. Each volunteer should
bring gear needed for any of these
means of transportation.
I Volunteers can reach some SAV
I beds, located in the very shallow
I portions of the estuary and near
I coastal zone, by walking along the
I shoreline. Attempt to reach these
I beds during low tide when the plant
1 beds will be in shallower water.
I When motoring to a site, keep the
I boat in sufficiently deep water so
I that the propeller does not tear up
I the plants. If the beds are consis-
tently located in shallow areas,
•consider using a rowboat or canoe
las an alternate vessel. In areas such
las the Everglades in southern
•Florida, volunteers should consider
lusing an airboat.
•Volunteers may find that a compass,
•used in conjunction with the map, is
la helpful orientation tool. Keeping
Itrack of map position is extremely
(important. In areas of vast seagrass
Ibeds and few distinct landscape
(features, it is particularly easy to get
llost. Storms can arise quickly,
despite weather forecasts predicting
clear weather, and volunteers may
need to make a quick exit off the
water to safety.
Q Travel to the SAV beds marked
on the provided map.
Q Compare the bed to its noted
map position by examining its
general location, notable
landscape features (natural or
manmade), position relative to
the shoreline, and the overall
extent of the bed. These
distinctions may change from
year to year, but collectively
should provide sufficient
information to confirm the
identity of the bed.
If the bed seems to be in a different
position than indicated on the map,
or if other aspects of the bed are
dramatically different, make sure to
record the changes on the survey
sheet and map. Have a companion
corroborate your observations if
possible.
95
-------
Chapter 6
TASK 4
BSaiBJAJJMJWroMW'U-Mik
Monitoring the SAV beds.
Upon arriving at an SAV bed,
record all preliminary information
on the data form. If the map already
shows the outline of the bed, use the
map's name or code for the bed as
its identifier on the data sheet. If the
map contains no record of the bed,
name it according to the format
established by the program manager.
Volunteers will need to roughly map
unidentified beds to add them to the
permanent record.
A bed may contain only one type of
SAV or a variety of species. Move
around and within the bed and
closely examine several areas to get
a representative assessment of the
species composition.
The density of each bed is an
important characteristic that may
indicate the general health of the
SAV species. Volunteers should
estimate the density of the bed and
record information on the general
appearance of the plants and the size
of the bed. If the volunteer has
visited the site previously, compara-
tive information is helpful in
determining whether the bed is
growing and thickening or shrinking
and becoming more sparse.
Elements of recording general
information
Q Fill in the surveyor's name,
address, and telephone number.
Q Record the date and time of the
survey along with the map
name (USGS title). Indicate the
means by which the volunteer
reached the beds (motor boat,
canoe, by foot, pier, etc.)
Q Record the general water
conditions, including water
clarity, quantity of surface
debris, oil slicks, fish kills,
peculiar odors, or any other
conditions of note.
Q Use the weighted, calibrated
line to measure depth. A Secchi \
disk attached to a marked line
can also be used. Record the
depth on the survey form.
Elements of assessing SAV bed
condition
Q On the survey form, record the
code name of the bed, taken
from the map. If the map
shows no SAV, the volunteer
should delineate the bed using
the technique described below.
Those areas marked as SAV
beds on the map but having no
plants should be designated on
the survey form by "no plants." I
96
-------
Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Q To identify the plants, carefully
use a rake or another imple-
ment to obtain a small sample
of the stems and leaves. Do not
dig the tool into the sediment .
as it may damage underground
roots and rhizomes. Using the
identification guide or a key,
match the specimen to the
appropriate plant. Record the
common name of the plant on
the survey form.
If the match is tenuous or the
plant does not seem to re-
semble any diagram, place the
specimen in a plastic bag and
bring it back to shore for a
program leader to identify.
Make sure to label the plastic
bag with the site name, date,
and collector using an indelible
marker. Place one label inside
the specimen bag and another
on the outside of the bag as a
precaution against lost labels or
illegible writing. Record the
identity of the collected plant
as "unknown" on the survey
form.
Examine several different areas
of the bed, assessing density
and inspecting several plants
for general health. The pro-
gram manager should train
volunteers to recognize
symptoms of common diseases
or infestations.
Density Estimate of SAV Beds
under 5%
10-4O%
40 -7O%
70-100%
97
-------
Chapter 6
Q If this site has been visited
previously, any noticeable
differences, such as changes in
the species composition,
density, bed size, and general
plant health should be recorded.
Elements of "mapping" SAV beds
Q When an SAV bed is unmarked
on the map or has shifted in
location, the volunteer should
use local landmarks to roughly
establish the position of the bed
on the USGS map. Shoreline
features, manmade objects,
buoys, shoals, and other
landmarks may all be helpful in
marking location.
Q Move completely about the
perimeter of the bed and
continue to mark its position on
the map. While delineating map
position, also take notes on
species composition and plant
density.
After completing all steps at the
first SAV bed, navigate to the
next designated bed on the map.
Complete the same steps for
each bed and record all informa-
tion on a new survey form for
each bed. Treat unmapped beds
the same way; after mapping
their aerial extent on the map,
evaluate them like any other
bed.
TASKS
Sending off data forms.
Once back on shore, volunteers
should bring or mail any unknown
specimens to the program manager
for assistance with plant identifica-
tion.
Ensure that the data survey forms
are complete and legible. Send the
forms to the appropriate person or
agency, preferably after identifying
any unknown specimens. Identified
specimens do not need to be sent
with the forms; the program
manager can provide guidance on
dealing with the remaining unidenti-
fied plants. Volunteers should
request additional blank data sheets,
if required, for a second survey later
in the growing season.
98
-------
Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
SAMPLE SAV SURVEY FORM
Name:
Address:
City:
Telephone: {_
State:
.Zip:
SURVEY SITE
Name of Site/Map/Quadrangle:
Date: Time: a.m. or p.m. Water Depth:
Plants surveyed from: Boat Shore Pier Other
Water Conditions: Clear Murky Other
. meters
SURVEY
For each plant bed marked on the accompanying map, verify location and
size, estimate SAV density, and identify plants present using a field guide.
Write "no plants" for marked beds with no SAV. With a pencil, outline the
position of new beds and identify them by number directly on the map.
Bed Name: Approximate Density:
Species Present:
Comments (bed location and size changes, density or species changes
since last sighting, weather and water conditions, problems, etc.):
Bed Name:
Approximate Density:
Species Present:
Comments:
(Send completed forms to the SAV Survey Coordinator)
93
-------
Chapter 6
References
Fassett, N.C., 1969, A Manual of Aquatic Plants, University of Wisconsin
Press, Madison, WI, 405 pp.
Hurley, L., undated, Field Guide to the Submerged Aquatic Vegetation of
Chesapeake Bay, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Annapolis, MD, 51 pp.
Kerr, M., L. Green, M. Raposa, C. Deacutis, V. Lee, and A. Gold, 1992,
Rhode Island Volunteer Monitoring Water Quality Protocol Manual, URI
Coastal Resources Center, RI Sea Grant, and URI Cooperative Extension,
38PP.
Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1987, A Field Guide to the Coastal Wetland Plants of the
Northeastern United States, The University of Massachusetts Press,
Amherst, MA, 285 pp.
Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1988, Field Guide to Nontidal Wetland Identification,
Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Annapolis, MD and U.S.
Fish and Wildife Service, Newton Corner, MA. 283 pp. + plates.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992, Monitoring Guidance for the
National Estuary Program: Final, EPA 842-B-92-004, Washington, DC.
Additional information on volunteer monitoring of submerged aquatic vege-
tation is available from:
SAV Monitoring Coordinator
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Chesapeake Bay Estuary Program
180 Admiral Cochrane Drive - #535
Annapolis, MD 21401
(410) 224-2732
Maps can be ordered from:
U.S. Geological Survey Distribution
Box 25286
Denver, CO 80225
(800) USA-MAPS
100
-------
Monitoring Bacteria
Chapter 7
Monitoring
Bacteria
-------
Chapter 7
The Role of Bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic single-
celled microorganisms that function
as decomposers in an estuary
through the breakdown of plant and
animal remains. By consuming this
organic matter, also known as
detritus, bacteria close the loop in
the nutrient cycles and allow
"locked up" nutrients, such as
phosphorus and nitrogen, to reenter
the estuarine food web.
Bacteria live in water and bottom
sediments, on detritus, and in and on
the bodies of plants and animals.
Shaped into round, spiral, rod-like,
or filamentous bodies, some of these
organisms are mobile and many
congregate into colonies. In the
estuary, bacteria are often found
densely packed on suspended
particulate matter.
In addition to serving as food for
higher level organisms, bacteria are
also involved in many chemical
reactions within the water. For
example, certain bacteria nitrify
ammonia, converting it to nitrite and
then nitrate which supports plant
growth. Some bacteria can exist
only under aerobic (oxygenated)
conditions, others live in anaerobic
(no oxygen) environments; some
versatile bacteria can function in
either situation.
Bacteria! Types
Bacilli (rods)
Cocci (spheres]
Spirilla (corkscrews) I
Bacterial Contamination
While bacteria normally inhabit
estuaries as an integral part of the
food web, human activities may add
an overload of bacteria or introduce
pathogenic (disease-causing)
bacteria to the system. Of greatest
concern to public health is the
introduction of human or warm-
blooded animal fecal waste.
Coliform bacteria live in the lower
intestines of mammals and may
constitute as much as 50 percent of
fecal waste. Although coliform
1O2
-------
Monitoring Bacteria
bacteria are not usually pathogenic
themselves, the presence of these
bacteria signal contamination by
sewage or other coliform bacteria.
Sources of bacterial contamination
include faulty wastewater treatment
plants, livestock congregation areas,
sanitary landfills, inefficient septic
systems, storm water, sewage sludge,
and untreated sewage discharge.
Fecal waste from pets and waterfowl
may also add to the problem.
Fecal coliform bacteria are generally
good indicators of contamination
because, unlike other types of
coliform bacteria, they live only in
the gut and are unable to adapt to
life in the estuary. This trait means
that they are short-lived members of
the estuarine ecosystem and,
therefore, signify a recent episode of
contamination. Scientists, however,
still disagree on whether these
bacteria are clearly related to the
incidence of disease.
Escherichia coli
Jyteny citizen programs and state agencies 'use fecal cotiforrn
, testing to assess potential bacterial contamination in an estuary-
" 'Some scientists and managers disagree with thfe-use of these
;-bacear(e a^lti indicator, howaveK because nbt-efl members of the
growp are fecalin origin. * --'t',''s' ~*' --
a feeai coliform species that Qrighiat£S'«\the gyt,
a better alternative indicator of potential pathogens in the
. -, -ttdat fresh portions of an estuary.' iri these fre^T- waters, tes^rjg far-'
, ,- this bacteria can more accurately determine whether contact wiA'
s tH6 water i$:feafe, In mgrina areas, entaracocoi— a bacteria Jroup
not inctodesl under tjbe feeaipojiform group— are yseVtSiln'dibaftars of -
/",fe'ca! contamination, Si -- " s"lt"
s If the primary o^clave of the" jSrograni is to evaluate *he water for
state-water qaalty stamferd complssnce Jand the state currently
^usfes^fecatcollform ssandardL then tfte program fhoUFd also use
the fee§) eoilform method The pr-ogram shoyfd be aware of any " - -
- " (Aar*ges in state requirerfier&s so' feHe' ra'etliocte,oan be changed if - -
103
-------
Chapter 7
Pathogenic microorganisms associ-
ated with fecal waste can cause a
variety of diseases including typhoid
fever, cholera, and hepatitis either
through the consumption of con-
taminated shellfish or ingestion of
tainted water. Since these pathogens
tend to be sparse in the water,
however, it is difficult to monitor
them directly.
Instead, states routinely monitor the
water and shellfish in shellfish
harvesting areas for fecal coliform
bacteria and close down beds when
the count exceeds a predetermined
level. States may also close bathing
beaches if officials find sufficiently
high levels of these bacteria.
Why Monitor Bacteria?
Although states monitor heavily
used beach and recreation areas as
well as shellfish beds, there are
limits to the coverage they can
provide. Volunteers can supply
valuable data by monitoring in areas
where officials are not sampling,
augmenting a state's network of
stations. State officials can use this
volunteer information to screen for
areas of possible contamination.
Such expanded coverage helps
states make beach and shellfish-
closing decisions on a more local-
ized basis.
Significant Bacteria Levels
Fecal Coliform Bacteria
per 1 00 mL of Water
Desirable Permissible*
0 0
<20O <1,000
<1 ,OOO <5,ODO
* Contact your state, regional, or local
office for specific requirements.
Source: LaMotte Company, 1 992, The
Water Use
Potable and well water
[for drinking]
Primary contact water
(for swimming)
Secondary contact water
(for boating and fishing)
health department or the regional EPA
Monitor's Handbook, Chester-town, MD.
104
-------
Monitoring Bacteria
Fecal coliform contamination
frequently can occur in conjunction
with other pollutants. Runoff from a
livestock area washing into an
estuary, for instance, may contain
not only fecal coliform, but high
levels of nitrogen-rich compounds
as well. By including bacterial
counts as one of a suite of monitor-
ing parameters, a program manager
can design a program designed to
fully characterize the chosen sites.
This sort of data collection may
reveal problem areas which were not
previously recognized.
Volunteers can also perform fecal
coliform monitoring with an eye
towards regulatory compliance. The
program may wish to set up sites
near known or suspected violators of
effluent regulations to document
noncompliance. Monitoring sites
can be set up adjacent to the
discharge, but the effluent itself can
also be sampled. Program managers
should be aware of the legal issues
affecting this type of sampling, such
as trespass laws and the violation of
privacy and property rights.
Volunteers should take particular
care in collecting discharge samples
as the effluent may contain highly
pathogenic organisms. Each
volunteer should avoid splashing
water, wash hands thoroughly after
water contact, and minimize the
breathing of water vapor.
Windsurfers and surfers, more than
most outdoor enthusiasts, are at risk
of becoming sick from bacterial
contamination of the water where
they surf. Some windsurfing and
surfing groups have started monitor-
ing these waters to minimize the risk
to their members.
In Tacoma, Washington, the Purdy
Windsurfing Association uses an
inexpensive method that does not
require lab analysis (the Coli-Count
Sampler). Although this technique is
not highly reliable, it does quickly
test for total coliform bacteria in
areas where bacteria levels are high.
Using this screening test daily, the
association rates the local waters as
either satisfactory or unsatisfactory
for windsurfing.
Shellfish Monitoring for
Bacteria
Although still in its infancy,
shellfish monitoring is gaining
popularity in a few citizen monitor-
ing programs. In the past, state
agencies have been the primary
gatherers of such data. With the
fiscal limits on the monitoring
programs of these agencies, how-
ever, citizens can step in to provide
a service with significant human
health implications.
105
-------
Chapter 7
Analysis of shellfish is particularly
useful because some shellfish tend
to concentrate pathogens in their
tissue. While a single grab sample of
water yields information only about
that small parcel of water at that
particular time, shellfish tissues
actually provide information on
water quality through time. For
more information on monitoring
shellfish, see Chapter 8: Monitoring
Other Estuarine Conditions.
Bacteria Sampling
Considerations
The selection of bacteria monitoring
sites depends on the ultimate
purpose of the data. If the data are to
supplement state efforts, then the
program should choose sites based
on gaps in the state's array of
monitoring stations. Areas of
suspect contamination not routinely
monitored by state officials should
receive the highest priority.
If data will serve as regulatory
compliance documentation, sites
should cluster near dischargers
believed to be in noncompliance.
State health or water quality
agencies can provide information on
where additional data are needed.
Managers are more likely to use the
data if volunteers monitor more than
one site. Choose sample sites above
Optimal Site Selection
for Monitoring Bacteria
and below the area of suspected
contamination, at the effluent's
entry into the estuary, and even the
discharge itself to obtain a scientifi-
cally valid set of data (see figure).
Volunteers should monitor bacteria
on a weekly or biweekly basis. In
areas where volunteers sample
primarily to assess the health risks
in seasonal areas such as bathing
beaches, monitoring can cease or be
conducted much less frequently
during cold weather months.
Sampling to determine possible
contamination of shellfish beds,
however, should continue on a
regular basis throughout the
harvesting season.
1O6
-------
Monitoring Bacteria
How to Measure
Bacteria Levels
Some citizen monitoring programs
use volunteers to conduct the lab
analysis of fecal coliform bacteria.
The procedure requires strict
adherence to quality assurance and
quality control guidelines and
analysis soon after (within six
hours) sample collection.
For these reasons, programs just
starting up or those without ad-
equate lab facilities should strongly
consider allowing a professional,
university, or other lab facility run
the bacterial analyses. Often these
labs will run samples free of charge
or at a reduced rate for volunteer
monitoring programs.
In either case, volunteers are
required to carefully collect the
water samples at the monitoring
sites for analysis.
TASK1
Verifying sampling schedule and
checking weather conditions.
Elements of Task 1
Q Confirm the correct sampling
date.
Q Check the television, radio, or
Weather Service for current
forecasts before deciding
whether to sample. This step is
particularly critical if the
volunteer is traveling by boat.
Before boarding the vessel, the
volunteer should personally
observe local weather and
estuary conditions. Volunteers
should never sample alone
from a boat.
1O7
-------
Chapter 7
TASK 2
Checking proper equipment.
Before proceeding to the site, the
volunteer should make sure to bring
along all the proper equipment.
Results will be invalid if the
volunteer has to improvise because a
sampling device has been left
behind.
Elements of Task 2
Q Equipment needed for each
sampling session:
/ Ice cooler with ice packs to
keep samples cool
y Sterilized wide-mouth sample
bottles (over 150 mL)
-------
Monitoring Bacteria
TASK 3
Recording preliminary infor-
mation and general observations.
Record general observations in the
vicinity of the site including the
water color, amount of debris,
discharge from nearby pipes, recent
shoreline erosion, and the occur-
rence of fish kills. Also note the
presence of waterfowl in the local
area since feces from these birds can
raise coliform levels. Report all
information on a supplied data
sheet.
Elements of Task 3
Q Record the date, time of day,
weather conditions, recent
precipitation, and name of the
volunteer and site.
Q Note general conditions at the
site, including the weather,
wave activity, and waterfowl
presence (along with the birds'
proximity to the site).
Q Record any condition or
situation, such as those listed
above, that seems unusual or
out of place. Descriptive notes
should be as detailed as
possible.
TASK 4
Collecting the water sample.
Strict adherence to protocol guide-
lines is critical in sampling for
bacteria. Contamination from any
outside source will skew the results
and invalidate the data.
Volunteers must take several
precautions to ensure good samples:
stay clear of algal blooms, surface
debris, oil slicks, and congregations
of waterfowl; avoid agitating the
bottom sediments; and do not allow
the boat propeller to stir up the
water.
Elements of Task 4
Q Check to see if a current or tide
is running by examining the
movement of water or surface
debris or by placing a finger in
the water and noting motion. If
so, sample on the upstream side
of the boat or pier.
Q Plunge the bottle into the water
upside-down.
Q Open the sample bottle
underwater, keeping hands off
the bottle mouth and the inside
of the cap. Hold the lid; do not
set it down as it may become
contaminated.
109
-------
Chapter 7
Q Reach down into the water as
far as possible (at least 12-18
inches), still holding the bottle
with its mouth down. In a
single motion, rotate the bottle
mouth away and sweep the
bottle up and out of the water.
Make sure that the sweeping
motion continues until the
bottle is fully out of the water.
Bacteria tend to concentrate at
the surface and this method
will capture some of the
organisms residing there.
Q Pour out enough water to leave
about 1 inch of air space in the
bottle so that the lab technician
can shake the sample prior to
analysis.
Q Replace the lid, again making
sure not to touch the inside of
the cap or bottle rim.
Q Label the bottle with site name,
date, data collector, and
analysis to be performed.
Q Place the bottle in the cooler.
Transport samples back to the
lab in a cooler regulated to
between 1 and 4 degrees
Centigrade. Do not allow water
accumulating in the cooler
from melting ice to submerge
the bottles. To solve this
problem, ice cubes may be
packed in plastic bags, water
may be frozen in plastic jars, or
the cooler drain may be left
open.
Q Make sure the data form is
complete, recording the sites
and number of samples taken
from each site.
Homemade^
Water f
Sampler
Line-
Hose
Clamp
Stopper
1 L
Nalgeni
Bottle
Plastic
Spigot
Notes:
• Stopper can be soft
rubber ball.
• Drill hole through
bottom of sampling
bottle for attachment
• Sample bottle should
be wide mouth.
• Sampler may require
additional weight.
• Bottom gasket pre-
vents leakage.
PVC
Pipe
L I—Bracket
_Hose
" Clamp
Gasket
Source: unknown
11O
-------
Monitoring Bacteria
TASKS
Sending off the sample for
analysis
Once ashore, make sure the samples
remain at the optimal temperature
and add additional ice packs if
necessary. Recheck the data sheets
for accuracy and account for all
samples. Transport the samples to
the designated lab. Processing of the
samples should start within six
hours of sample collection.
Laboratories generally follow one of
two accepted analysis procedures:
• Membrane Filtration (MF)
Since bacteria are too tiny to
count individually, membrane
filtration relies on incubation of
the bacteria and a count of the
resultant bacteria colonies. The
lab passes a known volume of
sample water through a filter
and then adds a nutrient
solution to foster the growth of
these colonies.
After incubating for 48 hours at
35 degrees C, a technician
counts the number of colonies.
Ideally, the filter should
contain 20 to 80 coliform
colonies and the number of all
types of bacterial colonies
should not exceed 200. The
technician then computes the
number of colony-forming
units per 100 mL, computed by
the following formula:
Coliform colonies/100 mL =
Coliform colonies counted x 100
mL sample filtered
This technique is considered
more statistically reliable than
the Most Probable Number
procedure.
• Most Probable Number
(MPN)
A lab technician divides the
water sample into five to ten
test tubes which contain a
coliform nutrient along with an
agent that reacts with the waste
products of coliform bacteria to
produce a distinctive color.
After incubating the bacteria,
the technician counts the
number of tubes showing the
reaction color. Using the
number of "positive" tubes and
the sample volume, the most
probable number index can be
derived from standard tables of
multiple tube fermentation.
This index represents the
number of coliform bacteria
that would likely produce the
observed results.
111
-------
Chapter 7
Labs use both types of analyses. The
MF technique is good for large
numbers of samples and produces
results more rapidly. Its statistical
reliability is higher than the MPN
technique although highly turbid
water or water with non-coliform
bacteria limits the utility of the MF
procedure.
Biochemical Oxygen
Demand
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
is a measure of the quantity of
organic matter in the water and,
therefore, the water's potential for
becoming depleted in dissolved
oxygen (DO). As organic degrada-
tion takes place, bacteria and other
decomposers use the oxygen in the
water for respiration. Unless there is
a steady resupply of oxygen to the
system, the water will quickly
become depleted of DO.
Since bacteria decompose organic
material, water with a high BOD
level also generally has a high
bacterial count. Although some
waters are naturally organic-rich, a
high BOD often indicates polluted
or eutrophic waters.
Measuring BOD
The standard BOD test is a simple
means of measuring the uptake of
oxygen in a sample over a predeter-
mined period of time. Citizens can
easily collect the required water
samples as they monitor the water
for other variables. The BOD test
does, however, demand a several-
day period of water storage in the
dark to obtain results. Test for BOD
using the following steps:
112
-------
Monitoring Bacteria
Collect two water samples
from the same place in the
water column (surface or at-
depth) using the water sam-
pling protocol described in
Chapter 4 (Dissolved Oxygen)
of this manual. Make sure there
is no contact between the
sample water and the air.
Immediately measure the first
sample for DO using either a
DO meter or one of the DO
kits. Record the time of sample
collection and the water
temperature. Place the second
sample in a standard BOD
bottle and keep it in the dark by
wrapping the bottle in alumi-
num foil or black plastic.
Incubate the bottle of untested
sample water at 20 degrees C
and in total darkness (to
prevent photosynthesis). After
five days of incubation, use the
same method of testing to
measure the quantity of DO in
the second sample. Subtract the
second DO measurement from
the first to yield the BOD in
milligrams of oxygen per liter.
Wastewater often carries large
amounts of organic material—
so much, in fact, that dilution
of the sample is necessary
before the BOD test can be run.
Dilution water should contain
the nutrients necessary for
bacterial growth. Some supply
houses carry premeasured
nutrient "pillows" to simplify
the process. The Standard
Methods for the Examination
of Water and Wastewater
describes in detail how to
dilute a sample and conduct the
BOD analysis.
Significant BOD Levels
Type of Water BOD (in mg/L)
Natural Waters
Raw Sewage
Wastewater
Treatment
Plant Effluent
<5
15O - 3OO
8-150*
* Allowable level for individual treatment
plant specified in discharge permit.
Source: The Monitor Handbook, 1992,
LaMotte Company, Chestertown,
MD.
113
-------
Chapter 7
References
Dates, G., 1992, "Update on Bacteria Testing," Volunteer Monitor, v. 4, no. 2.,
pp. 19-21.
Kerr, M., L. Green, M. Raposa, C. Deacutis, V. Lee, and A. Gold, 1992,
Rhode Island Volunteer Monitoring Water Quality Protocol Manual, URI
Coastal Resources Center, RI Sea Grant, and URI Cooperative Extension,
38pp.
Mitchell, M.K. and W.B. Stapp, Field Manual for Water Quality Monitoring,
6th ed., GREEN Project, Ann Arbor, MI, 240 pp.
River Watch Network, 1991, Escherichia coli (E. coli) Membrane Filter
Procedure, Montpelier, VT.
Clesceri, L.S., W.E. Greenberg, and R.R. Trussell (eds.), 1989, Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste-water, American Public
Health Association, 17th edition, Washington, DC, 1268 pp.
114
-------
Monitoring Other Estuarine Conditions
Chapter 8
Monitoring
Other
Estuarine
Conditions
-------
Chapter 8
Monitoring Marine Debris
Once, our nation's beaches were
littered only with the likes of dry
seaweed strands, shells, plant stems,
and stranded jellyfish. These days,
the litter is more likely to include
plastic bags, scraps of fishing nets,
pieces of Styrofoam cups, and
broken soda bottles. As the coastal
population has risen and society has
turned from degradable natural
materials to synthetic ones, the trash
problem has worsened.
The problem of today's litter is not
merely aesthetic. Plastic debris can
snare boat propellers, causing
substantial damage to the motor.
Medical wastes menace barefoot
beachgoers and pose a threat of
contamination. Glass or metal
shards can cause serious gashes.
And, beaches which endure frequent
closings due to trash or medical
waste suffer a loss of tourist
revenues.
Animals often fare even worse. A
simple plastic six-pack yoke can
mean death to an ensnared marine
mammal or bird. Gill fishing nets,
discarded or torn free, float with the
ocean currents catching fish and
other animals. Endangered sea
turtles consume floating plastic
bags, likely mistaking them for
jellyfish—one of their favorite
foods.
Of all the manmade goods produced
over the past several decades,
plastics are among the most persis-
tent and pervasive. The qualities that
make plastic such a versatile
material for so many products can
make it harmful once it is released
to the environment. Constructed to
-------
Monitoring Other Estuarine Conditions
be durable, plastics break down very
slowly with some products persist-
ing for centuries.
Sources of Debris
It is often difficult to trace marine
debris to a single source, making it
hard to pinpoint the perpetrator.
Plastic goods, such as bags, soda
I bottles, Styrofoam cups, and milk
containers, could come from any
type of vessel or land-based source.
Land-Based Debris
I Land-based debris consists of waste
I products that have washed or blown
I into the water from the land.
I Primary sources of land-based
| debris include:
• Storm sewers that release
street litter;
• Combined sewer overflows
that release litter or sewage;
• Illegal dumping;
Litter left on beaches;
• Disposal of industrial plastic
waste products; and,
• Loss from coastal solid waste
management landfills via
wind.
Ocean-Based Debris
Ocean-based debris conies primarily
from commercial fishing boats,
recreational vessels, merchant, mili-
tary, research, and supply ships, and
offshore oil platforms. Some of the
debris is accidentally released. Tra-
ditionally, however, much of it has
come from the routine dumping of
trash and other waste while at sea.
Annex V of the MARPOL Treaty,
passed in January 1989, bans the
disposal of plastic into the world's
oceans. Many countries, including
-------
Chapter 8
the United States, have agreed to
this treaty which should substan-
tially reduce the load of plastics
entering the marine environment
with time. The United States also
prohibits the disposal of plastic into
the nation's navigable waterways
from any vessel—ranging from the
largest cruise ship to an inner tube.
Coastal and Estuarine Debris
A walk along any but the most
pristine beach will quickly reveal an
astonishing array of manmade
products. Coastal and estuarine
beaches are natural accumulation
areas for both ocean and land-based
debris. Nearshore waves tend to
push marine litter landward where it
becomes stranded as high tide
recedes. Beaches are also popular
recreation areas and users often
leave their trash behind.
Beaches, therefore, are ideal places
to concentrate cleanup efforts.
Citizens generally feel strongly
about keeping their public beaches
attractive and free of litter. As a
result, a well-publicized cleanup
drive can often attract large numbers
of citizen volunteers.
Cleanups serve three major func-
tions. First, they reduce the amount
of litter on the beaches in an
immediate and visible way—an
aspect most gratifying to the
volunteers. Second, with careful
planning, volunteers can document
the types, quantities, and possible
sources of beach debris. This
information, if collected on standard
Center for Marine Conservation
(CMC) cleanup cards, can become
part of this organization's national
data base which may ultimately help
provide solutions to the marine
debris crisis. Third, the cleanup
teaches the public about the prob-
lems of marine debris and how
citizens can help.
Organizing a Beach
Cleanup Program
Although getting a few people onto
the local beach to pick up some
trash may seem like an easy task, a
successful cleanup can involve
hundreds of people and demand
months of organization, recruitment,
and planning. The CMC has
published a booklet that describes
the steps required to run an effective j
cleanup program (see the references
at the end of this chapter). This
booklet also suggests innovative
means of funding and publicizing
such an effort.
Critical to the success of the cleanup |
is emphasizing that the volunteers'
effort will make a difference. In
1984, 2100 volunteers in Oregon
gathered over 26 tons of trash—in
only three hours.
118 —
-------
Monitoring Other Estuarine Condition
•Since that initial large-scale
Icleanup, states around the nation,
lalong with the Virgin Islands,
•Puerto Rico, Canada, and Mexico,
(have participated in the International
Beach Cleanups. The sight of a
[littered beach transformed into a
clean one makes an impression that
he community will long remember
and gives the volunteers a strong
pense of pride in their accomplish-
nent. Grassroots educational efforts,
ccompanying the cleanup, can help
prevent future littering of the beach.
ny person or program can conduct
i cleanup operation even without the
collection of data. Cleanup data,
however, can be extremely impor-
tant in convincing politicians to
actively solve the marine waste
problem and are useful at federal,
ptate, and local levels of govern-
nent. The CMC has established a
ata card which facilitates the
collection of marine debris informa-
tion and is used in the international
fcleanup event that takes place each
[September.
The program manager should stress
the importance of accurate data
recording to both the volunteers and
the program assistants since the data
card serves as a nationwide standard
that allows data from any beach in
the United States to be compared
with any other. Standardized data
make the national data base more
useful and accurate for scientific and
statistical analyses. The CMC will
provide these cards at no charge to
beach cleanup programs (see the
references at the end of the chapter
for the CMC address).
On the Beach
Once the volunteers are ready to
tackle the beach, the program
manager or assistants should
provide each volunteer with:
/ a plastic garbage bag to collect
debris;
S a blank data card (available
from CMC);
/ a pencil or pen to record data;
and
/ the Guide to Marine Debris
(available from CMC).
Additionally, each volunteer should
bring:
/ gloves;
/ protective shoes;
S sunglasses;
/ sunscreen; and
S clipboard.
119
-------
Chapter 8
The program leaders at each beach
cleanup site should carry a first aid
kit to treat cuts, abrasions, and other
minor injuries. Additionally,
volunteers suffering deep cuts or
puncture wounds should check with
their physician on the need for a
tetanus shot.
The volunteers should know what
sort of debris they are likely to
encounter. Accurate debris identifi-
cation will make the data base more
valuable and will also help volun-
teers steer clear of potentially
dangerous materials such as medical
waste or toxic waste containers. It is
best to treat unidentified containers
with caution; 55-gallon drums
should be avoided altogether.
If volunteers do find suspicious
materials, they should stay well
away, but note their quantity and
location and report this information
to the program leaders. The leaders
can then determine the best means
of removing any potentially
hazardous materials.
Other safety precautions include:
• always wearing gloves;
picking up glass or metal
shards with care;
• steering clear of injured
animals which may harbor
disease;
• avoiding overexposure to the
sun;
• not lifting heavy objects
without assistance;
• being aware of snakes and
other animals in dunes or
grasses;
• not wading across tidal
inlets—currents are often
powerful and unpredictable;
and
• reporting any injuries to the
program leader.
120 —
-------
Monitoring Other Estuarine Conditions
Collecting Shellfish
for Analysis
Even water that appears clear and
untainted may still contain harmful
levels of heavy metals, pesticides,
other toxic substances, or bacteria.
Shellfish living in the water may
assimilate and accumulate these
chemicals—through the intake of
polluted water and sediment or by
eating other contaminated organ-
isms.
| Bivalve shellfish, such as clams,
'' mussels, and oysters, are filter-
feeders and strain large quantities of
estuarine water through their
systems to extract small particles of
food. Because they filter such large
quantities of water, however, even
relatively low concentrations of a
water-borne contaminant may
eventually translate to high tissue
concentrations.
I Non-bivalve shellfish, such as crabs,
I lobsters, and shrimp, are mobile
I scavengers which consume plants,
I small animals, and detritus from the
I estuary's waters and bottom.
rContaminated prey or sediments can
I produce high contaminant levels in
I the tissues of these shellfish.
I Studies or surveys often use
I shellfish as useful indicators of
I bacterial contamination as well. The
non-mobile bivalves are particularly
helpful as they pinpoint specific
areas of contamination.
Shellfish, therefore, often reflect
some of the most important mea-
sures of water quality. By analyzing
the hazardous compounds in the
animals' tissues, scientists can gain
insight into selective aspects of local
estuarine health.
The Contaminants
Several types of contaminants can
accumulate in shellfish. These
include:
• Heavy metals such as mercury
and cadmium;
• Petroleum hydrocarbons such
as PAHs (polyaromatic
hydrocarbons);
• Pesticides such as endrin,
dieldrin, endosulfan, mirex,
and malathion; and
121
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Chapter 8
• Industrial pollutants such as
PCBs (polychlorinated
biphenyls).
Some shellfish are more susceptible
to certain contaminants than others.
While a species may easily tolerate
high concentrations of one chemical,
low concentrations of another can be
lethal.
The life stage of an individual—
larva, juvenile, or adult—will also
greatly affect its response to a toxic
substance. In general, larvae and
juveniles are more vulnerable to
injury or death from exposure to
these substances. Studies of the
effects of toxic compounds must
consider both the age and species of
the specimens to fully assess the
chemical's toxicity.
Bacterial Contamination and
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
In addition to the use of shellfish for
contaminant analysis, scientists can
also use these animals to identify
areas of bacterial contamination or
paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP).
Bacteria
Shellfish collect fecal bacteria in
their gut, making them good
indicators of recent exposure to
sewage waste. Since fecal coliform
often indicate the presence of human
or animal pathogens, tainted
shellfish serve as a warning and
signal that an area may not be
suitable for recreation or fishing.
Unlike water sampling for bacterial
contamination, shellfish tissue
analysis acts as a market test—that
is, it determines whether the
shellfish are fit for human consump-
tion.
Officials can set predetermined
levels of fecal coliform in shellfish
as a management standard. Areas
where levels exceed this standard
should be closed to commercial and
recreational shellfish collection until
the problem is resolved.
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
Paralytic shellfish poisoning is
caused by several species of
dinoflagellates—predominantly
marine, microscopic, one-celled
organisms. Although most species
are harmless, the types responsible
for PSP secrete a neurotoxin. When
shellfish such as clams, oysters,
mussels, and scallops ingest these
dinoflagellates, the neurotoxin
accumulates in their tissue. Al-
though the animals are unaffected
by the toxin, humans eating these
shellfish can experience serious
reactions.
Symptoms of the PSP syndrome
include nausea, vomiting, and
abdominal cramps. These symptoms
are followed by muscle weakness
122 —
-------
Monitoring Other Estuarine Conditions
and paralysis of the extremities.
Accompanying respiratory failure
may result in death. Cooking the
shellfish does not destroy the
neurotoxin.
High densities of this ruddy-colored
dinoflagellate form what is known
as "red tide" due to the reddish hue
it often imparts to the water. Using
color as an indicator for this
dinoflagellate, however, may be
misleading as many other harmless
species are also red. The toxic
dinoflagellate can still be present in
relatively clear waters, even if their
concentration is too low to color the
water.
Analyzing shellfish tissue is the only
sure-fire means of establishing the
presence of the PSP neurotoxin. On
occasion, storms may disperse a
heavy bloom of the toxic dinoflagel-
late erasing all visible traces of its
presence. Non-mobile shellfish in
the area, however, may still be
heavily laden with the toxin.
Collecting Shellfish
The tests for contaminants require
sophisticated analyses, expensive
equipment, and rigorous quality
assurance procedures. Trained
scientists must perform these tests to
ensure accurate, scientifically valid
results. Volunteers can assist the
scientists, however, by collecting
shellfish for analysis in designated
study areas.
Scientists may need data to:
• identify areas of concern for a
particular toxic substance;
• set regulatory limits on the
recreational or commercial
collection of shellfish species;
• identify the sources of
contaminants;
• examine the effects of particu-
lar contaminants on a species;
and
• determine whether shellfish
are safe for consumption.
123
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Chapter 8
Shellfish are easier to collect than
finfish because most tend to move
more slowly or not at all. Moreover,
they often congregate—an oyster
bed or a boulder studded with
mussels are two examples—and are
fairly easy to reach.
The training of volunteers should
include a session on the
identification of the species required
for testing. Most of the popular field
guides for the coastal regions
include sections on shellfish
identification. Volunteers can bring
a suitable guide to the site to
identify any questionable
specimens.
Once at the sample site, volunteers
should capture animals using the
method designated by the program
manager. They may also want to
record auxiliary measurements, such
as water temperature and site
conditions, and visually evaluate the
surrounding area. Such information
may be helpful if abnormally high
levels of toxic substances, coliform
bacteria, or the neurotoxin causing
PSP are found by the laboratory.
The volunteers should carefully
label the sample container in which
the animal will be transported with
the date, site name, shellfish type,
and the name of the collector. An
indelible marker is best for ensuring
that the labeling is permanent. Make
sure that the sample container is not
wet before using the marker.
Volunteers should transport the live
specimens at chilled temperatures
appropriate for the species collected
in containers supplied by the
program. The program manager
should designate pickup locations
for volunteers to deliver the speci-
mens to program personnel.
Very few programs currently use
citizens to collect samples for PSP
testing. The Department of Health in
Washington State, however, has
successfully used volunteers to
gather shellfish at commercial and
recreational beaches within Puget
Sound. The volunteers helped
collect the samples every other week
from April through September and
monthly during the rest of the year.
124 —
-------
Monitoring Other Estuarine Condition
References
Beach Cleanups
Maraniss, L. 1989, All About Beach Cleanups, Center for Marine Conserva-
tion, Washington, DC, 39 pp.
| O'Hara, K.J., S. ludicello, and R. Bierce, 1988, A Citizen's Guide to Plastics
in the Ocean: More Than a Litter Problem, Center for Marine Conserva-
tion, Washington, DC, 143 pp.
| U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992, Turning the Tide on Trash: A
Learning Guide on Marine Debris, EPA Office of Water, Washington
DC, 78 pp. '
I U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1989, Marine Debris Bibliography
1 Washington, DC, 25 pp.
I Additional information on beach cleanups, including the Entanglement
^Network Newsletter and Coastal Connections, can be requested from:
The Center for Marine Conservation
1725 DeSales, Street NW
Washington, DC 20036
(202) 429-5609
^Shellfish Monitoring
IPuget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1991, Puget Sound Update: Second
Annual Report of the Puget Sound Ambient Monitoring Program,
Olympia, WA.
125
-------
-------
Training Volunteers
Chapter 9
Training
Volunteers
-------
Chapter 9
Why Train Volunteers?
A successful monitoring program
requires well-trained volunteers—
few other aspects of the program are
more important. Proper training
provides the common ground
necessary for a well-designed and
scientifically valid data collection
effort. At the start, the planning
committee should budget adequate
time and money to conduct volun-
teer training.
The program will realize the
benefits of such training in short
order. Citizens often commit
themselves to a volunteer endeavor
not only because of their conviction
in the merits of the cause, but also
because they will personally benefit
from the experience. Training
provides the volunteer with the
critical information necessary to "do
the job right."
Introductory training ensures that all
volunteers learn to sample in a
consistent manner. This initial
training will also introduce new
volunteers to the program and its
objectives and create a positive
social climate for the volunteers.
Such a climate enhances the
exchange of information among
participants and between the
participants and the program
leaders.
Continuing education and retraining
sessions in which the leaders
reintroduce standard methodologies
and present new information,
equipment, data results, or informa-
tive seminars are also extremely
useful. Such sessions:
• reinforce proper procedures;
• correct sloppy or imprecise
techniques;
• permit resolution of equipment
or logistics problems;
• allow volunteers to ask
questions after familiarizing
themselves with the field
techniques;
• encourage a "team effort"
outlook;
• give volunteers a reason to
stay with the program;
• make experienced volunteers
feel integral to the program by
encouraging them to supply
valuable feedback to the
instructors; and
• provide educational opportuni-
ties to the participants.
Citizen monitoring training can be
divided into three broad categories.
Each category has a different
purpose, but together the categories
should complement one another and
make the training program well-
rounded.
128
-------
Training Volunteers
The categories are:
• introductory training to
describe the program, teach
standard methods, and
motivate the volunteers;
• quality assurance and quality
control training to ensure
consistency and reliability of
data collection and to empha-
size the importance of accu-
racy; and
• motivational sessions that
encourage information
exchange, identify problems,
and provide a social atmo-
sphere for participants.
I Although different sessions will
1 vary in content, the training process
I necessary to present the material is
I fairly constant. Volunteer training
I may be broken down into five
I separate steps.
| Step 1: Creating a Task
Description
I Step 2: Planning the Training
(Step 3: Presenting the Training
IStep 4: Evaluating the Training
(Step 5: Coaching/Providing
Motivation and Feedback
I Creating a Task Description
I Prior to citizen involvement, the
I program manager and the planning
I committee must develop a detailed
(blueprint of each volunteer monitor-
ing task. This task description spells
out, in sufficient detail, every step a
volunteer must complete to collect
data for each parameter.
A well-conceived task description
standardizes the data collection
process and ensures that each
volunteer samples in a consistent
and acceptable manner. Consistency
allows comparisons of one part of
an estuary to another or between
estuaries. Additionally, when the
sampling methods are consistent,
managers can more easily identify
data outside the norm and evaluate
whether they result from unusual
conditions or faulty collection
techniques.
A standardized approach allows the
program manager to develop
performance criteria which evaluate
how well the volunteers are han-
dling the tasks. Once the volunteers
master the techniques, the manager
can also assess the time and cost
requirements of gathering the data.
There are four critical steps in
creating a roster of tasks:
• developing the list of param-
eters;
• determining the required level
of quality for each parameter
sampled;
• defining the steps for each
sampling task; and
129
-------
Chapter 9
• creating a written protocol to
be used by the volunteers for
each parameter.
Many of the sampling protocols
summarized in the previous chapters
are suitable as basic task descrip-
tions. The planning committee can
excerpt the descriptions from these
chapters and embellish them with
information unique to their program.
A separate protocol should be
drafted for each major parameter.
The written description provides
each volunteer with a readily
available reference sheet that clearly
describes how to sample while
serving as a reminder of the correct
methodology. Additionally, such a
sheet helps to minimize the number
of times the program leaders have to
answer the same questions.
The program leaders can also use
the reference sheet to:
• recruit new volunteers.
(Citizens can assess their long-
term interest in completing the
outlined tasks.)
• evaluate the volunteers' ability
to complete the monitoring
tasks accurately.
• develop instruction sheets for
use in the training sessions.
• assist new programs in
developing their own proto-
cols.
Writing the monitoring tasks
provides program leaders with the
opportunity to evaluate fully the job
at hand and improve potentially
troublesome areas. Once the
reference sheets are completed,
program leaders and a few volun-
teers should test and refine the
protocols under field conditions.
Planning the Training
With completed task descriptions
for each of the parameters, the
planning committee can then design I
training sessions. Usually, programs]
will find that group sessions are the
most cost-effective means of
training the volunteers. In some
situations, however, individual
instruction may be the only feasible
option.
Group sessions are preferred for
both the introductory training and
the advanced classes, because they
are generally inexpensive, efficient,
encourage interaction among the
volunteers, and foster enthusiasm
for the program.
Group field trips, either for ad-
vanced training or special educa-
tional sessions, are an ideal means
of motivating volunteers while
teaching them additional skills.
Most volunteers are quite enthusias-
tic about getting onto the water or
13O
-------
Training Volunteers
Straining session agenda shayki include the following activities;
• Presentation on 9 oste and oblecf&es of.the project. The pres-ejv
tstidfrshqyld. include fche,reasans;fc)r monitoring, Historical
information on the watershed, the problems facing the estaciary,
poeandai'ases of the volunteer data, and hojf the project wC,"
-' baneftfe-volunt^am, the coroniynity, gqtJ itha
A rescatsirffiflt of wiiai; is expected of die participants tncludfe'g
how Jong tiae tfarning sjes'sion will tast and the; proposed 'length, of
the entsr^i vpfuntaer- elforfc, - '-, , -. -- - , - - "
, , M Distrlbi|tion of air equipment, a general explanation of the [ ,
- - equtpmene's tise, and a discussion cf what equipment is particu*'
/ " - iaHy f r^flife, what fcpne&lyfes s^ytpfnent sbusa, yie j^pfafierrientj s
poiby and cosfe; and the .return oi^quipmenfe at the end-ofthe l -
trr project/' ,,, - , -' '
• ^ 'A ihoroyih overview tfi&\ neds&sai'y. Sffety retir
M An overview of the mtsnitoriiig procedures preferably witfran
' '< *'
-, ",- • "
M * A^naJ run-through fehe pr^edures. The trainer should
-------
Chapter 9
seeing a new area of the estuary.
Volunteers often approach their
sampling with renewed enthusiasm
after participating in a field trip.
When volunteers live over a widely
scattered area, require assistance for
a special problem, or are unable to
attend a group session because of
work or family obligations, a leader
may need to meet with them
individually. While one-on-one
training is certainly more time
consuming and expensive, the
instructor can focus on the particular
problems or needs of a single
volunteer.
In addition, accompanying individu-
als to the monitoring site allows
instructional field demonstrations.
Training volunteers for field
sampling ideally takes place in the
field. Problems that might not arise
under training conditions in a lab
may well emerge under less
predictable field conditions.
Group sessions can cover any of the
following topics:
• goals and objectives of the
monitoring program;
• role of citizen volunteers;
• fundamental ecology of
estuaries;
• management and conservation
of water quality as well as the
estuary's plants and animals;
• basic sampling techniques;
• advanced sampling tech-
niques;
• preparation of samples for
shipment;
• proper use of monitoring
equipment;
• operating problems encoun-
tered by volunteers;
• proposed use of the monitor-
ing data;
• results of data analysis; and
• special seminars of interest
presented by a local expert.
Training sessions are also the ideal
time to outfit each new volunteer
with a complete set of the required
sampling equipment. Established
volunteers may require additional
equipment, blank data sheets, and
refills of the reagents for their
analysis kits.
Usually, the task description can
serve as the basic outline for the
initial training session. A mini-
lesson may revolve around the task
design for each major parameter. If
each volunteer is expected to
monitor many parameters, however,!
the instructor may need to schedule |
more than one session. Too much
information presented at a single
session may quickly overwhelm and
discourage the volunteers.
132 -
-------
Training Volunteers
Presenting the Training
A well-conceived plan for instruc-
tion along with simple handouts is
key to an effective training presenta-
tion. The instructors should make
the most effective use of the
participants' time. Volunteers, like
most students, will appreciate a
I well-organized and smoothly paced
I class. Four major steps constitute an
I effective and lively training session:
I preparation; presentation; demon-
I stration; and review.
\Preparation
I As any teacher can attest, thorough
I preparation for class is critical. The
1 sampling protocols provide a basic
I framework for the initial training
I session; subsequent sessions may
I require research, preparation of
I additional task descriptions, and
Iclass planning.
IWith the basic information in hand,
•the instructor must then tailor the
llesson to the audience. The instruc-
Itor should try to anticipate those
•portions of the lesson that may
cause confusion and be prepared to
clarify these areas. Volunteers
(should be invited to ask questions
(throughout the session.
(Volunteers with no background in
(science may require additional
(explanation or assistance so that
they understand the importance of
high quality data collection methods
and the use of scientific equipment.
Although separate sessions for
experienced and untrained volun-
teers are preferable, some instructors
may elect to have a single session
with experienced volunteers helping
those who are new to the program.
When planning the session, the
instructor should allot a set amount
of time for each task. Lectures,
activities, and discussions should be
kept on a timetable. If the pace
drags because one or two volunteers
are slow, the rest of the volunteers
may quickly become annoyed and
bored. Slower students may require
individualized attention at a later
date.
Instructors should make appropriate
use of audiovisual materials to
enhance the presentation. All
equipment should be in the room at
the start of the session, in working
condition, and ready for use. Slides
of the estuary and of volunteers
sampling in the field are a good
teaching device and tend to hold
people's attention.
The instructor may want to rehearse
a training session for other members
of the monitoring program to catch
potential problems prior to the first
presentation.
133
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Chapter 9
Presentation
Knowing the material thoroughly
and having the information well-
organized are critical to an effective
presentation. Instructors may want
to experiment with several styles of
presentation to see which seems
most effective and comfortable. The
general tips that follow help ensure
a successful session:
• Be enthusiastic about the
subject—enthusiasm inspires
dedication.
• Establish good rapport with
the audience.
• Get the audience involved in
the talk and keep the presenta-
tion lively.
• Utilize visual aids.
• Talk sufficiently loudly and
enunciate clearly.
• Make use of humor.
• Use eye contact.
• Encourage questions and
comments.
• Use anecdotes throughout the
presentation.
• Maintain good posture and
positive body language.
Demonstration
Two types of demonstrations are
effective training tools: one in which
the instructor demonstrates the
techniques to the volunteers and
another in which the students
practice the outlined procedures
under the watchful eye of the
instructor. An effective teacher can
incorporate both into a training
session.
If time permits, the instructor can
demonstrate the sampling protocols.
Viewing the execution of a proce-
dure is more meaningful than simply
reading the instructions.
Once the volunteers are familiar
with the techniques, they can then
repeat the procedures under the
tutelage of the instructor. These
practice sessions can take place in
the field or classroom and give
volunteers the confidence to transfer
these newly learned skills to their
own monitoring site. Such hands-on
training is invaluable and should be
treated equally or more importantly
than standard instructor/student
presentations in training sessions for
. volunteers.
Review
Like any good learning session, the
instructor should end the session
with a review of the material.
Summarizing reinforces the salient
points and assists the volunteers in
retaining the information. The
volunteers should be invited to ask
questions during the review. At the
close of the session, the instructor
can inform participants about
upcoming events and future training
134 —
-------
Training Volunteers
opportunities and reiterate the
importance of citizen monitoring
and data collection.
Evaluating the Training
I High quality data reflect successful
I volunteer training. To ensure that
I the sessions are effective and
I successful, the planning committee
I should make written evaluations an
I integral part of the training process.
I While an instructor may feel that the
I sessions are adequate, only the
I volunteers can let the planning
I committee know how much they
I learned and retained.
•Evaluation of the training should
| include an assessment of:
training techniques and style;
information presented;
classroom atmosphere; and
use of handouts and audio-
visual aids.
/olunteers may provide feedback at
he end of the sessions. The true test
|of an effective session, however, is
how well the volunteers perform in
[the field. A follow-up evaluation
[form, sent to participants after a few
veeks of sampling, may pinpoint
any weaknesses in the presentation.
Members of the monitoring program
nay also want to accompany
volunteers into the field and
examine their sampling techniques
as they work unassisted. Such spot
checks can identify areas in which
the volunteers are encountering
difficulties.
If large numbers of volunteers are
experiencing problems in carrying
out the sampling protocols, the
planning committee may want to
revise the format of the sessions or
have a new instructor take over. The
evaluation process should be
ongoing to ensure that all the
sessions consistently meet a high
standard.
Coaching/Providing
Motivation and Feedback
While the initial training sessions
are designed to give volunteers all
the basic skills to successfully
complete their sampling, training
does not stop here. Follow-up
coaching, either through advanced
training sessions or one-on-one
interaction, is imperative to keep
volunteers enthusiastic, motivated,
and collecting good data.
Previous sections described the
advantages of advanced training
sessions. Individualized coaching,
though less time-efficient, has many
other benefits. It:
• permits the volunteer to ask
questions particular to a site;
135
-------
Chapter 9
Citizen Monitoring Training Evaluation
Program Name
Volunteer Name (optional).
Date of Training
Did you find the training easy to follow? Yes No
If no, with what aspects did you have trouble?
Did you have difficulty doing the water quality tests? Yes No
If yes, in what way? .
Did the instructor fail to cover any material that you feel is relevant to proper
monitoring? _ . —
What kinds of information or feedback would you like to receive?
What information have you received that has been or will be most useful?
Was the training session adequate to allow you to carry out the sampling with
confidence? Yes No
Any suggestions for improvement? —. — •
Would you like to be in closer contact with (circle the letter):
a. The Program Coordinator?
b. Other program staff members?
c. Fellow volunteers?
d. Scientific monitoring experts?
Have you enjoyed being in the program? Yes No
Are you willing to continue sampling? Yes No
What is the best feature of the program? _
The worst?.
Thank you for taking the time to fill out this evaluation •
. 136
-------
Training Volunteers
• allows the instructor to solve
specific problems in the field;
• indicates to the volunteer that
his/her data are important;
• gives the instructor feedback
on training effectiveness;
• enhances communication
between the program leader
and the volunteer;
• motivates the volunteer; and
• provides a forum for introduc-
ing new methods.
In addition to going into the field
with specific volunteers, the
program leaders should also
consider phoning other volunteers
I who may not require one-on-one
contact. A phone call lets volunteers
know that the leaders are interested
in their progress and gives the
volunteer an opportunity to ask
questions. Informal gatherings for
volunteers, such as a potluck dinners
I and slide shows, also give the
I leaders an opportunity to check on
I the progress of the participants and
I answer questions.
I The success of the program is highly
I dependent on maintaining volunteer
I motivation and enthusiasm. An
I apathetic volunteer will likely not
I collect good data and may drop out
I of the program. Volunteer Water
I Monitoring: A Guide for State
I Managers, a companion manual to
this document, summarizes several
other means of fostering volunteer
interest. These techniques include:
• sending volunteers regular
data reports;
• keeping volunteers informed
of the uses of their data;
• preparing and distributing a
regular newsletter;
• ensuring that program leaders
are readily available for
questions and requests;
• providing volunteers with
educational opportunities;
• keeping the local media
abreast of the goals and
findings of the citizen monitor-
ing effort;
• recognizing the volunteers' •
efforts through awards or some
other type of distinction; and
• accommodating the needs of
volunteers by providing them
with advanced training,
learning opportunities, and
more demanding or changing
responsibilities.
Training citizen volunteers to
conduct water quality monitoring is
time consuming and demanding.
Nevertheless, successful training
sessions are key to a long-term and
effective monitoring program. It is
well worth the effort to devote this
time to the volunteers.
137
-------
Chapter 9
Training Backup Monitors
A program should fiavs a backup monitor policy in place; 'to
assure data collection oontinuifcy, A;imc'kup volunteer', can
sample at a site when the primary,' monitor is sick, on ;- ','
vacation, or tmabfe^to sample for some' other reason. - / ,
The backup should be trained 'as' rigorously as, the pri-
mary volunteer so that ,the; data meet a high quality,, stan-
dard. Sych instruction should include' periodic training
sessions. The Aiartce for the Chesapeake 'Bay lias a
backup policy in 'place which- makes tiie following re- -
quirements:
"" ' •• " ' ffff
m The backup monitor 'musfe && trained 'by, 'the
coordinator and attend a minimum o/ one
control session every six months. -,
The backup volunteer must sample
data,, instead' of the'primsry mtinttor at teast eyery;- ,
four to six weeks 'arid- the primary ,moriitor"md*st sigif
the submitted dsta sheet, - / "'.',,"',; ""'- : ',
• The backup may monitor'at any site but must use the
proper data sheet and the kit'assigned to the primary
volunteer of the sifce"6eing monifcoi^d, ';''"'
- - ',', - -,'- ^ " , '; ',';/- *Ji
• If more than one backup- is needed- for''a 'site, the - -
primary monitor and the backup must'ItoW individual
quality control sessib'Hs,every't^hVee mor»th$, This cart'
be as simple as,meeting ^at the site and conducting -the
tests together, ' - '",-' -'-'•'',,'''''',',
138 —
-------
Training Volunteers
References
Cook, J.S., 1989, The Elements of Speechwriting and Public Speaking.
MacMillan Publishing Company, New York, 242 pp.
Ellett, K., 1993, Introduction to Water Quality Monitoring Using Volunteers,
2nd ed., Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay, Baltimore, MD. 26 pp.
Smith, T.C., 1984, Making Successful Presentations: A Self-Teaching Guide.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 182 pp.
| U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990, Volunteer Water Monitoring: A
Guide for State Managers, EPA 440/4-90-010, Office of Water, Wash-
ington, DC. 78 pp.
139
-------
-------
Presenting Monitoring Results
Chapter 10
Presenting
Monitoring
Results
-------
Chapter 10
Data Presentation
Two critical elements of successful
citizen monitoring programs are the
analysis and use of monitoring data.
Volunteers are much more moti-
vated to collect high quality data
over the long term if the data prove
useful in the management of their
estuary. Presentation of the results
to the volunteers in a simple yet
informative style should promote
interest in the program and help it
flourish.
The Importance of
Credible Data
Volunteer monitoring programs
must ensure that data released to
users or the public are accurate.
Poorly collected samples or data that
are carelessly analyzed or presented
may mislead people about the water
quality status of an estuary. While
good data legitimate management
decisions, bad data erode both the
manager's and public's confidence
in management actions. Nothing less
than the program's reputation and
future existence are at stake.
At the start, the program organizers
should institute a strict quality
control and quality assurance plan
designed to minimize data collection
errors, weed out data that do not
meet rigorous standards, and
develop a strategy to present the
results. Such a plan will enable the
program leaders to stand behind
their results and justify their
conclusions.
Once data collection protocols are
defined and approved, all volunteers
should scrupulously follow the
outlined methods. Additionally, the
program should store and document
data using accepted quality assur-
ance methods. Such assurances
include having the monitoring
coordinator check each incoming
data form for decimal errors,
missing information, and general
problems.
The coordinator should follow up
questionable data with a call to the
volunteer who submitted the
sampling sheet. Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State
Managers provides additional
information on quality assurance
considerations.
Once the data are assured for
accuracy, program members should
allocate sufficient time to analyze
the data thoroughly. During staff
meetings, members can decide upon |
the most understandable and
informative means of displaying the ]
data results. These results will
represent the heart and soul of the
program; the organizers would do
well to allot ample time to present
the efforts of the volunteer monitors ]
effectively.
142
-------
Presenting Monitoring Results
Presenting the Data
While some citizen monitoring
programs display results in a
periodic newsletter, others summa-
rize the season's or year's sampling
in an annual report or by verbal
presentation. The key to rousing and
sustaining the interest of the
audience in any presentation format,
however, remains the same. The
speaker or writer must determine the
interest, background, and level of
technical understanding of the target
| audience and guide the presentation
accordingly.
|
j In presenting data results to the
volunteers or other interested
parties, several points merit consid-
I eration:
• Highly technical or extremely
simplistic presentations bore
the audience. An informative
and lively approach, molded to
the expectations of the
audience, will be far more
effective. Simple graphics
often help make complicated
issues much more understand-
able.
• A presentation should focus on
a clear message. Volunteers
will be more interested in
specifics such as trends in
water quality, seasonal
variation, quality assurance
issues, or the identification of
trouble spots in the estuary
rather than an across-the-board
synopsis of all the monitoring
results.
• Data presentations, whether
written or verbal, should be
both timely and relevant.
Volunteers will likely maintain
a higher level of interest if
they see a quick turnaround of
their data into usable and
informative graphics and
summaries.
Graphics, when used properly, are
an excellent tool to present a lot of
information to the audience in a
condensed yet understandable
format. They enliven the presenta-
tion, highlight trends, and illustrate
comparative relationships. Graphics
include graphs or plots of the data,
maps, and flowcharts. Such graph-
ics, along with narrative interpreta-
tion, summary statistics, tables, and
slides, help construct a well-rounded
and interesting presentation.
Graphs
Results summarized from the
volunteer-collected data can be
displayed in any of several styles of
graphs. Choosing the style that best
conveys the information is critical
and requires careful thought.
Although more sophisticated
143
-------
Chapter 10
graphic styles may be required to
present some data, three basic types
of graphs are often used for volun-
teer monitoring data: the bar graph,
the pie chart, and the line graph.
The bar graph uses simple columns.
The height of each column repre-
sents the value of a data point,
making comparisons of the data
relatively easy. Bar graphs empha-
size the importance of each data
point rather than highlighting trends
within the data set.
The pie chart is a simple yet
effective means of comparing each
category within the data set to the
whole. The chart's pie shape, with
the pie representing the total and the
individual wedges representing
distinct categories, makes this
graphic style popular due to its
simplicity and clarity.
The final graph type connects the
data points with a line, showing
changes over time or space and
often illuminating trends within the
data. The line graph places less
emphasis on individual values and
stresses the relationship among the
data points.
No matter which graphic style is
used, a set of basic rules defines the
elements of effective and useful
graphs:
The Bar Graph
50-
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The Pie Chart
Category 4
Category 1
Category 3
Category 2II
The Line Graph
40-
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#3
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144 —
-------
Presenting Monitoring-Results
I Have the graph serve a clear
purpose. The information
contained in the graph should
be relatively easy to interpret
and relate closely to the text of
a document or script of a
presentation.
Do not distort the meaning of
the data. Graphical representa-
tions of the data points should
be proportional to each point's
actual value. Ensure that the
labeling of graphics is clear
and accurate. A table of the
data values should accompany
any graph that is likely to be
misunderstood.
Keep the graphic design
simple. Complex or tricky
graphics often hide the true
meaning of the data. Avoid
cluttering the graph with
labels, arrows, grids, fill
patterns, and other "visual
noise" that unnecessarily
complicate the graphic.
Limit the number of graphic
elements. A pie chart, for
example, should be divided
into no more than five or six
wedges. Keep the number of
superimposed lines on a line
graph and the quantity of
columns in a bar graph to a
minimum.
• Consider the proportions of the
chart and the legibility of the
type and graphic elements. A
horizontal format is generally
more visually appealing,
simpler to understand, and
makes labels easier to read.
The elements should fill the
dimensions of the graph to
create a balanced effect.
Ensure that the axes are
labeled with legible titles and
that the tick marks are not
crowded along the axis lines.
Avoid cryptic abbreviations.
• Create a title for the chart that
is simple yet informative.
• Use a legend if necessary to
describe the categories within
the graph. Graphs requiring
additional explanation should
have an accompanying
caption.
Summary Statistics
Summary statistics describe the
basic attributes of a set of data for a
given parameter. Such statistics
include the mean and standard
deviation—two of the most fre-
quently used descriptors of environ-
mental data.
Textbook statistics commonly
assume that if a parameter is
measured many times under the
145
-------
Chapter 10
same conditions, then the measure-
ment values will be randomly
distributed around the average with
more values clustering near the
average than further away. In this
ideal situation, a graph of the
frequency of each measure plotted
against its magnitude should yield a
bell-shaped or normal curve. The
mean and the standard deviation
determine the height and breadth of
this curve, respectively.
The mean is simply the sum of all
the measurement values divided by
the number of measurements. This
statistic is a measure of location and
in a normal curve marks the highest
point at the center of the bell.
The standard deviation, on the other
hand, describes the variability of the
data points around the mean. Very
similar measurement values will
have a small standard deviation
while widely scattered data will
have a much larger standard
deviation.
While both the mean and standard
deviation are quite useful in
describing estuarine data, often the
actual measures do not fit a normal
distribution. Other statistics often
come into play to describe the data.
Some data are skewed in one
direction or the other. Other data
may have a flattened bell shape.
Deviation from the normal distribu-
tion often occurs in sampling
estuaries because the estuary is
dynamic with many factors influ-
encing the condition of its waters.
The various methods used to collect
data can also cause non-normal
distributions.
For example, if volunteers are
collecting water quality data in SAV|
beds, the distribution of water
quality variables will tend to be
skewed towards good water quality.
This skewing occurs because water
quality has to be of a certain
minimum standard to support the
growth of these underwater plants.
Another common cause of non-
normal distribution occurs because
of detection limits. A detection limitl
marks the boundary above or below f
which measurements are impossible]
using a particular method. Secchi
depth measurements, for example,
have an upper detection limit
determined by depth (i.e., the Secchi]
depth cannot exceed the water
depth) and a lower limit determined j
by the smallest increment of
measure on the rope. The lower
figure on the opposite page shows
how both low and high values
(representing the tails of the Secchi
data distribution) may be truncated
by these detection limits.
146
-------
(A
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3
Presenting Monitoring Results
Examples of Frequency Distributions
Normal (Bell-shaped)
— Right Skewed
— Left Skewed
Flattened
Numbers
Limitations on Secchi Depth Measurements
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Depth of water
at site
147
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Chapter 10
Case Study
This section contains an analysis of
hypothetical data that applies to a
fictitious estuary named Windward
Bay. The data from this bay are used
to present several ways of analyzing
and representing estuarine data.
While every analysis and each graph
type may not be usable for all
citizen-collected estuarine data,
many ideas can be derived from
these analyses and modified to suit a
particular program.
Volunteers sampled Windward Bay
every other week throughout the
year. The data presented here run
from May I through October 31,
since this period encompasses the
most biologically active time of year
during which many estuaries suffer
seasonal depletion of dissolved
oxygen. Additionally, many animals
reproduce during this period; water
quality conditions for the newly
born young are extremely important
in determining their likelihood of
survival.
Table of Volunteer Data Collected in Windward Bay
May - October
Date
1-May
15-May
1-Jun
16-Jun
1-Jul
16OuI
1-Aug
1 6-Aug
1-Sep
16-Sep
1-Oct
16-Oct
31-Oct
Secchi Depth Dim. Oxy. H2O Temp. (C) Ammonia Phosphate Bacteria
1.6
1.5
1.8
1.3
1.5
1.1
0.9
O.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.9
2.1
11.5
8.5
9.2
9.2
8.9
8.4
8.1
6.8
7.2
13.3
9.7
1O.5
11.1
21.3
22.3
20
24.3
28.8
29
29.5
28.8
25.4
28.9
22.4
24.2
16.6
O.OO3
O.O45
O.O44
O.O37
O.O12
O.OO7
O.O06
0.003
O.O46
O.O38
O.OO3
O.OO6
0.012
O.OO3
0.0053
O.OO46
0.0074
O.OO8
O.OO9
0.009
0.006
O.O21
0.021
O.O14
O.OO6
O.OO6
132
256
11O1
35O
135
178
143
164
198
654
145
89
98
Noto: For units of measure, see specific graphs on following pages.
148
-------
'resenting Monitoring Results
he water quality data from
Vindward Bay come from a single
konitoring station (marked as X on
jie map). This station is 8 feet deep
Ind has an average summer salinity
If 15 parts per thousand. The
submerged aquatic vegetation
(SAV) data come from a much
larger area of Windward Bay.
At this site on each sampling date,
volunteers:
149
-------
Chapter 10
• determined the Secchi depth;
• measured surface water
dissolved oxygen;
• took surface nitrogen and
phosphorus samples; and
• collected a water sample to
test for bacteria.
The volunteers also noted the
general water, land, and weather
conditions in the area and measured
water temperature.
Turbidity Results
Turbidity, measured by a Secchi
disk, is one of the easiest parameters
for volunteers to measure and is
easily understandable because it is a
visual gauge of water clarity. To
present the data, it may be prefer-
c .§
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13
CD
able to have depth increase in a
downward direction along the
vertical axis to simulate actual water]
depth. This minor change from the
norm, along with the use of Secchi
disk icons extending down from the
"surface," makes these data easy to
understand.
Such a plot shows the clarity of the
water on each sampling date and
also illustrates the general change inj
water clarity throughout the sam-
pling season. During the sampling
period at Windward Bay, water
clarity is reasonably high in the late
spring, then decreases through much
of the summer, and increases rapidl}
with the onset of autumn and cooler |
water temeratures.
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150
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Presenting Monitoring Results
Dissolved Oxygen and Water Temperature
at Windward Bay
Water Temperature
Dissolved Oxygen
in
dissolved Oxygen Results
[Scientists and managers have
[identified the seasonal depletion of
dissolved oxygen (DO) as one of
•the major problems currently
filleting many of the nation's
[estuaries. Since oxygen levels often
•vary considerably, even within the
course of a day, the change through
Itime is often more important than a
"single instantaneous measure.
Dissolved oxygen data with
•sampling intervals of a week or two
•are often displayed with a simple
Iline plot since this type of graph
Iclearly illustrates the overall
•change in the data over time.
In this plot, the horizontal axis
shows the sampling dates and the
vertical axis displays the range of
DO values in milligrams per liter
(mg/L). Because a line plot "esti-
mates" the values in between
sampling dates, the change becomes
more important than the actual value
at any one time.
The oxygen plot also shows the
water temperature for the same time
period. Water temperature is one of
the major determinants of DO
levels. The plot of the two
parameters shows that as water
temperature increases through the
151
-------
Chapter 1O
summer, oxygen levels generally
decline. The opposite situation
occurs as cooler autumn tempera-
tures set in.
Nitrogen and
Phosphorus Results
Nitrogen and phosphorus are the
two nutrients of greatest concern in
assessing the nutrient status of an
estuary. Overenrichment by these
two nutrients may signify the
presence of related estuarine health
problems, such as seasonally low
dissolved oxygen levels and poor
water clarity.
Both instantaneous measures and
change through time may be of
interest in plotting nitrogen and
phosphorus over the course of the
sampling season. A bar chart for
nitrogen (in the form of ammonia)
shows the relative magnitude of
nutrient concentrations over time.
The nitrogen graph shows that for
much of the sampling period,
ammonia hovered at or below levels |
of approximately 0.01 milligrams
per liter. During several weeks in
late May and June and again in early
September, ammonia levels in-
Ammonia Nitrogen Levels
at the Windward Bay Site
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11 1 i i i
& cT § E
55-?-?
T
"5
n n n
™"
—
'
f s
n
n
n
hr i i "' i i i i i
•5 0) D) O. D. « -g -g
~?<
-------
Presenting Monitoring Results
Phosphate Levels
at the Windward Bay Site
creased dramatically, reaching about
four times levels observed during
the rest of the sampling period.
Phosphorus (in the form of phos-
phate) is also plotted using a bar
chart. In this graph, a line plotting
the average concentration from
several years data for this site has
been superimposed. Once a program
has methodically collected many
years of data, using the average of
these data as a reference line
illustrates whether the current year's
data vary considerably from average
values of the recent past.
The phosphorus plot generally
shows slowly rising concentrations
through the summer, with peaks
during the first two weeks of
September. Late September and
October follow with declining
phosphate levels.
The current data do not vary
substantially from previous years'
data, although the peak in Septem-
ber rises above the average
phosphate levels typically found in
early autumn at the Windward Bay
site.
153
-------
Chapter 10
Bacteria Results
Volunteers also collected water
samples for fecal coliform analysis.
Fecal coliform is of particular
interest in this portion of Windward
Bay since a livestock congregation
area sits close to the shoreline,
posing the threat of manure washing
into bay waters. High levels of fecal
coliform in the area should warn of
possible contamination by patho-
genic organisms.
At the same time that the volunteers
collected the water sample for
bacteria, they also measured surface
water temperature. Bacterial
activity generally increases with a
rise in temperature. Volunteers also
noted local conditions and examined
the area for recent signs of erosion
and runoff.
The line graph of bacteria levels
through the season are superim-
posed against a state standard for
fecal coliform levels for primary
(swimming) and secondary (boating
and fishing) water contact. Four
times during the sampling period
bacteria levels exceeded the lower
standard, although the water was
still safe for swimming. In only one
instance did levels rise above those
considered safe for swimming.
12OO-
m
£
1000-
800-
s " 600-
g O 400-^
g r-
u. c
o
2
200-
0
Plot of Fecal Coliform Bacteria
at the Windward Bay Site
T
Not permissible for swimming;
Permissible for boating and fishing (under 5,OOO)
154
-------
Presenting Monitoring Results
Submerged Aquatic
Vegetation Results
In estuaries that can support
submerged aquatic vegetation
(SAV), these plants are a valuable
indicator of water quality status and
an important link to the other plants
and animals. Although SAV
populations fluctuate naturally
through time, many areas have
suffered widespread losses of these
plants shown by long-term declines
in their abundance and distribution.
Assessing both the historical and
current status of SAV in an estuary
establishes the capability of an
estuary to support submerged plants.
Volunteers checked Windward Bay
once during the growing season to
verify the location and to assess the
density and species composition of
beds. Each volunteer was given a
photocopied map of a portion of the
bay with the previous year's SAV
beds (taken from aerial photo-
graphs) marked on the map. If a new
bed had appeared since the previous
year or a bed had shifted in location,
the volunteers roughly mapped the
outline of the bed on their maps and
noted ts density and composition.
The volunteers also estimated the
percent cover of each species found.
Four major species composed the
SAV beds of Windward Bay:
Eurasian watermilfoil; redhead
grass; sago pondweed; and widgeon
grass. The pie chart shows each
species' percentage of the total SAV
in the Windward Bay beds.
Percent Coverage of SAV Species
in Windward Bay
Widgeon Grass
(2O%)
Sago Pondweed
(10%)
Eurasian Watermilfoil
(45%)
Redhead Grass
(25%)
155
-------
Chapter 10
Map of SAV Beds in Windward EBay
[1953]
The map of Windward Bay in 1953 shows a relatively rural, forested area
surrounding the bay. The SAV beds hug the shoreline. Areas of high wave
activity (off the headlands] and near the stream draining the farmland are
devoid of SAV. Runoff from the farm, however, has likely changed the local
water quality to some extent, making it more difficult for SAV propogation
and survival.
156
-------
Presenting Monitoring Results
Map of SAV Beds in Windward Bay
(1993)
Fortified
Shoreline
I The map of Windward Bay in 1993 shows that significant development has
I occurred in the area since 1953. Housing, fortification of the shoreline,
I increased use of the area for recreation, and the loss of some forests have
I collectively worsened the quality of water in the bay. As a result, several
I SAV beds have either disappeared or decreased in size.
157
-------
Chapter 10
Data Interpretation
Presenting the data should go
beyond graphics and summary
statistics. The program leaders and
estuarine experts associated with the
program must interpret the data,
statistics, and charts and summarize
them in a way that is meaningful to
the intended audience. Such a
summary explanation not only
brings the data to life for the
volunteers, but also provides a
concise account of the status of the
estuary for managers, scientists, and
other volunteer programs to exam-
ine.
Based on the data collected for
Windward Bay from May to
October, the following conclusions
were reached. Although many
conclusions may seem tentative, a
check of the field sheets for unusual
conditions can often clarify specific
results or explain sudden changes in
the data values.
• Secchi disk readings were
highest in the late spring and
early fall and lowest in mid to
late summer. Phytoplankton
levels generally increase with
wanning water temperatures.
At the same time, Secchi
levels drop as the water
becomes increasingly cloudy.
Runoff from storms, carrying
soil, silt, and sand, can also
cloud the water.
As expected, dissolved oxygen
levels declined during the
summer and rose again in
early autumn. The levels of
oxygen show a clear inverse
relationship with water
temperature; as temperatures
increased, oxygen levels
declined.
Although dissolved oxygen
levels did decline during the
summer, they never reached
levels harmful to estuarine
animal life. Many estuaries
have sites that seasonally
become anoxic (the water
contains no oxygen). Most
aquatic animals cannot survive
in such areas.
The peak value of oxygen on
September 16 could have
resulted from aeration of the
water due to the storm that
volunteers noticed prior to that
sampling date. It could also
result from the photosynthesis
of a phytoplankton bloom
which can increase oxygen
levels dramatically during
daylight hours.
I Ammonia nitrogen levels
peaked twice during the
sampling period. Several
factors can affect the levels of
nutrients in the water including
158
-------
Presenting Monitoring Results
runoff from storms, discharge
from wastewater treatment
plants or leaky septic systems,
and the mixing of organic
matter from the estuary bottom
into the water column.
Although the cause may not
always be apparent, the peak
around the beginning to the
middle of September may be
due to the storm which caused
substantial runoff in the area,
washing animal waste and
nitrogen-rich fertilizer into
Windward Bay.
After the peak of ammonia
nitrogen in mid-September, the
level of this nutrient dropped
significantly. The decline
could be due to the rapid
uptake of nitrogen by phyto-
plankton. Data showing an
upsurge in phytoplankton
numbers soon after the
nitrogen peak would help
confirm this conclusion.
Phosphate levels remained
fairly low throughout much of
the summer at the Windward
Bay site. Likely, much of the
phosphate was tied up in
biomass (living matter) or was
bound to the sediment. Like
nitrogen, the peak in the first
part of September could be
due to the influx of animal
waste or fertilizer into the bay
from storm runoff. The storm
may have also caused mixing
of the substrate at the site.
Changes in pH can also cause
the release of phosphorus
bound to the estuarine sedi-
ment.
Bacteria levels remained in the
safe zone for swimming
throughout much of the
sampling period. The first
peak in early June corresponds
to a peak in ammonia nitrogen
levels and a fairly high Secchi
reading. Such data should
provide clues to the program
leaders that nitrogen may be
entering the bay. Field notes
on unusual conditions may
help clarify the situation.
Temperature and local
condition information are
often helpful in determining
the reasons for sudden
increases in bacterial counts.
The temperature plot shows a
single peak that corresponds in
time with one of the bacterial
peaks. Bacterial growth is
fostered by an increase in
water temperature. In addition,
volunteers noted that a large
storm had hit the area around
the time of the second peak
and substantial erosion and
159
-------
Chapter 10
runoff occurred from the
nearby livestock feeding area.
Further monitoring or investi-
gation may reveal the cause of
these high bacteria levels.
Eurasian watermilfoil is the
dominant plant in Windward
Bay beds, composing 45
percent of the total vegetation.
Redhead grass constitutes
about 25 percent, widgeon
grass about 20 percent, and
sago pondweed about 10
percent.
Comparison of the 1953 and
1993 maps of SAV beds
shows a decline in the acreage
of these beds within Windward
Bay. Although further studies
are required to pinpoint the
causes of SAV decline,
housing development, shore-
line fortification, and increased
usage of the recreational area
between 1953 and 1993 are
likely contributors.
Eurasian watermilfoil is an
introduced species in the
United States. This species
likely replaced one or more
species that previously
inhabited the bay. Comparison
of volunteer-collected data
with historical data may reveal
changes in species composi-
tion of the beds over time.
This list of observations and
conclusions represents only a
preliminary evaluation of the data
collected at Windward Bay over a
several month sampling period.
Statistical analyses of the data, use
of different types of graphical
techniques, and comparison of these
data with good quality historical
data would likely reveal additional
information about the water quality
status of the bay. Additionally, as
data analysis proceeds, program
officials can modify the data
collection process to remedy
problems, fill in gaps, expand the
program scope, and address areas of
particular concern.
Like any monitoring effort, volun-
teer programs should be dynamic
and responsive. Integrating the
objectives of the volunteer program
with the accurate assessment of an
estuary's water quality status should
yield a reputable monitoring effort
that serves the need of the volun-
teers, the community at large, and
the estuary itself.
160
-------
Presenting Monitoring Results
References
Cleveland, W.S., 1985, The Elements of Graphing Data, Wadsworth Ad-
vanced Books and Software, Belmont, CA, 323 pp.
LaMotte Company, 1992, The Monitor's Handbook, Chestertown, MD, 71 pp.
Schloss, J., 1992, Data Applications and Presentation, in: Proceedings of
Third National Citizens' Volunteer Water Monitoring Conference, EPA
841-R-92-004, pp. 101-104.
Tufte, E.R., 1983, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Graphics
Press, Cheshire, CT, 197 pp.
161
-------
-------
Appendices A, B, & C
Preparing a QAPjP
Scientific Supply Houses
Hydrometer Conversion
Table
-------
-------
Preparing a QAP/P
Preparing a Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPjP)
The EPA QA program is based upon EPA Order 5360.1, Policy and Program
Requirements to Implement the Quality Assurance Program, which describes
the policy, objectives, and responsibilities of all EPA program and regional
offices. This order also requires state monitoring programs supported by EPA
to prepare Quality Assurance Project Plans. A project plan specifies the
planning, execution, and review of each aspect of data collection, emphasizing
the specific quality assurance and quality control techniques that will help
ensure that the program can meet its data quality objectives.
When formulating data quality objectives, the planning committee should
consider the five indicators used to assess data quality.
• Accuracy, also known as relative error or bias, is the degree of agree-
ment between the sampling result and the true value of the parameter
being measured. The equipment and procedure used for measurement are
most likely to influence data accuracy.
• Precision assesses the similarity of several measures of the same para-
meter taken on the same sample regardless of the accuracy of these data
points. Precision is also known as the repeatability or replicability of a
measurement. Human error in sampling can greatly influence precision.
• Representativeness considers whether the collected data accurately and
precisely represent the actual environmental condition of the estuary.
Accuracy and Precision
Biased
and Precise
Unbiased
and Precise
Unbiased
and Imprecise
Biased
and Imprecise
Source: K. Hamilton and ER Bergersen, Methods to Estimate Aquatic
Habrtat Variables. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service and Bureau of Reclamation
165
-------
Appendix A
Sample site location, along with other potential errors such as the type of
sample container and lab and data entry mistakes, may all play a role in
affecting the representativeness of the data.
• Completeness is a measure of the amount of valid data obtained com-
pared to the amount expected to be obtained as specified by the original
sampling design objectives. Even the most highly organized program
will have to deal with equipment failure, weather-related problems,
sickness, and faulty handling of the samples. Completeness is usually
expressed as a percentage, accounting for the number of times that the
volunteers did not collect data. An 80-90 percent rate of collection is
usually acceptable.
• Comparability represents how well data from one esutarine monitoring
program can be compared to those from another. Although not all
estuaries may be directly comparable due to differing climates, circula-
tion patterns, or salinity regimes, similar sampling methods used from
one estuary to the next will make comparisons, where appropriate,
feasible.
Each Quality Assurance Project Plan contains 16 major elements.
1. Title Page. The title page includes the name of the project officer, the
immediate supervisor, the funding organization, and any others with
major responsibility for the project.
2. Table of Contents. The table of contents is a listing of the included
report elements and associated appendices.
3. Project Description. This element clearly and succinctly states the
project purpose. It should also include a general outline of the project
along with the experimental design.
4. Project Organization and Responsibility. This section should state the
organization responsible for implementing the program.
5. Quality Assurance (QA) Objectives. This section should itemize the
list of QA objectives for each parameter regarding precision, accuracy,
representativeness, completeness, and comparability.
. 166 —
-------
Preparing a QAPjP
6. Sampling Procedures. These procedures detail the method for
monitoring each parameter.
7. Sample Custody. This portion of the plan specifies the chain-of-custody
procedure for both field sampling and laboratory analyses. The chain-of-
custody establishes a tracking protocol to follow the sample at every step
and through each change of hands, from its collection to its analysis at a
lab. Such a protocol ensures that the data could be used for legal
purposes, if necessary.
8.
Calibration Procedures and Frequency. Calibration procedures
describe the means of maintaining the accuracy and precision of the
monitoring equipment.
9. Analytical Procedures. These procedures document how each
parameter is analyzed.
10. Data Reduction, Validation, and Reporting. This element addresses
the activities involved in an overall data management plan. Such activi-
ties include a plan for preparing and mailing data sheets, selecting and
using data management software, screening the data sheets for errors,
entering data on the computer, and transferring data to the end user.
11. Internal Quality Control (QC) Checks. This section covers the means
of conducting ongoing quality control checks to assure a high level of
data quality.
12. Performance and System Audits. These audits evaluate all components
of the measurement system, including the equipment, personnel, and
procedures to determine proper selection and use.
13. Preventive Maintenance. This portion of the plan addresses ways to
minimize gaps in the data through the scheduling of backup volunteers
and by maintaining ample supplies.
14. Specific Routine Procedures Used to Assess Data Precision,
Accuracy, and Completeness. Routine procedures identify the
equations needed to calculate precision and accuracy and outline the
methods used in calibration and comparability studies.
167
-------
Appendix A
15. Corrective Action. Procedures for corrective action include predeter-
mined limits of data acceptability, the management of suspect data, and
the mechanism for taking corrective action.
16. Quality Assurance Reports. These periodic reports should include data
accuracy, precision, and completeness, QC session results, and signifi-
cant QA problems along with recommended solutions.
168
-------
Appendix B
Scientific Supply Houses
This appendix contains a partial listing of chemical and scientific equipment
companies that supply volunteer monitoring programs.
Fisher Scientific
711 Forbes Ave.
Pittsburgh, PA 15219
HACH Company
P.O. Box 389
Loveland, CO 80539
(800) 525-5940
JHydrolab Corporation
JP.O. Box 50116
I Austin, TX 78763
1(512)255-8841
iLaMotte Company
JP.O. Box 329
IChestertown, MD 21620
1(800)344-3100
JMillipore Corporation
JBedford, MA 01730
1(800) 225-1380 (east coast)
(Thomas Scientific
99 High Hill Road at 1-295
JP.O. Box 99
ISwedesboro, N.J. 08085
1(609) 467-2000
VWR Scientific
200 Center Square Road
Bridgeport, N.J. 08014
(800) 234-9300
P.O. Box 66929
O'Hare AMF
Chicago, IL 60666
(800) 932-5000
P.O. Box 7900
San Francisco, CA 94120
(415) 467-6202
Wildlife Supply Company
301 Cass Street
Saginaw, MI 48602
(517)799-8100
YSI Incorporated
1725 Brannum Lane
Yellow Springs, OH 45387
(513)767-7241
169
-------
-------
Appendix C
lydrometer Conversion Table
he tables that are widely use to convert hydrometer readings (specific gravity)
t any temperature to density at 15°C were designed to be used with a hydrom-
jter calibrated on a 15°C/4°C basis. Most hydrometers used for salinity measure-
tents are calibrated on a 60°/60°F basis. The calibration basis for a hydrometer
| printed on the paper scale inside each hydrometer.
r a 60°/60°F hydrometer is used with conversion tables designed for 15°C/4°C
krdrometer, a value is obtained which is 0.001 higher than it should be. When
pnverted to salinity, this error produces a salinity reading that averages 1.3
' i per thousand (ppt) higher than it should be.
he tables included in this manual are designed to be used with a hydrometer
tlibrated on a 60760°F basis. Please check the hydrometer you are using and be
Ire to use the correct conversion table for that type of hydrometer.
lie preceding^text was taken verbatim from the LaMotte Company booklet
htitled 60f/600F Hydrometer Instructions. The table on the following pages
bmes from the same booklet.
ote: To use the table on the following pages, find the observed hydrometer
ading in the left hand column of the table and the temperature of the water in
e graduated cylinder in the top row of the table to yield the salinity of the
later sample in parts per thousand (ppt).
171
-------
Appendix C
Conversion Table for Use with a 60°/60°F Hydrometer
Observed
Reading
1.00OO
1.0O1O
1.0020
1.OO3O
1.0040
1.0050
1.O06O
1.OO7O
1.OO8O
1.OO9O
1.01OO
1.O11O
1.O12O
1.013O
1.0140
1.O15O
1.0160
1.0170
1.0180
1.O19O
1.O2OO
1.0210
1.0220
1.O23O
1.0240
1.0250
1.0260
1.0270
1.02BO
1.O29O
1.03OO
1.0310
Temperature of water in graduated cylinder t°C)
-1.0
0.6
1.9
3.2
4.4
5.7
6.8
8.1
9.3
10.5
11.8
13.O
14.3
15.4
16.7
17.9
19.2
20.4
21.7
22.9
24.2
25.3
26.6
27.8
29.1
30.3
31.6
32.8
34.1
35.2
36.5
37.7
O.O
0.6
1.9
3.1
4.2
5.5
6.8
8.0
9.2
10.5
11.7
13.0
14.1
15.4
16.6
17.9
19.1
20.4
21.7
22.9
24.2
25.3
26.6
27.8
29.1
30.3
31.6
32.8
34.1
35.2
36.5
37.7
1.0
0.5
1.8
2.9
4.2
5.4
6.7
7.9
9.2
10.4
11.7
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.6
17.9
19.1
20.4
21.6.
22.9
24.O
25.3
26.6
27.8
29.1
30.3
31.6
32.9
34.1
35.4
36.5
37.8
2.0
0.5
1.6
2.9
4.1
5.4
6.6
7.9
9.2
1O.4
11.7
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.6
17.9
19.1
2O.4
21.6
22.9
24.2
25.3
26.6
27.8
29.1
3O.4
31.6
32.9
34.1
35.4
36.7
37.8
3.0
O.2
1.6
2.8
4.1
5.4
6.6
7.9
9.2
10.4
11.7
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.6
17.9
19.1
2O.4
21.7
22.9
24.2
25.5
26.6
27.9
29.1
30.4
31.7
32.9
34.2
35.5
36.7
38.0
4.0
0.2
1.6
2.8
4.1
5.3
6.6
7.9
9.2
10.4
11.7
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.6
17.9
19.2
2O.4
21.7
23.0
24.2
25.5
26.8
27.9
29.2
3O.6
31.7
33.0
34.3
35.5
36.8
38.1
5.0
0.2
1.5
2.8
4.1
5.3
6.6
7.9
9.2
1O.4
11.7
13.O
14.1
15.4
16.7
17.9
19.2
20.5
21.7
23.0
24.3
25.6
26.8
28.1
29.4
30.6
31.9
33.2
34.5
35.6
36.9
38.2
6.0
0.2
1.5
2.8
4.1
5.4
6.6
7.9
9.2
1O.5
11.7
13.O
14.3
15.4
16.7
18.0
19.3
20.5
21.8
23.1
24.3
25.6
26.9
28.2
29.5
30.7
32.0
33.3
34.5
35.8
37.1
38.4
7.0
0.2
1.6
2.8
4.1
5.4
6.7
7.9
9.2
10.5
11.8
13.1
14.3
15.6
16.9
18.O
19.3
20.6
22.0
23.3
24.4
25.7
27. 0
28.3
29.5
30.8
32.1
33.4
34.7
35.9
37.2
38.5
~*M
1
o.a
1.J
2.J
4.
5.
6.
8.
9.
10.
11.
13.]
14.;
15.
17
18
19.
2O.'
22.
23.
24.
25.
27.
28.
29.
30
32
33
34
36
37
38
172 -
-------
Appendix C
Conversion Table for Use with a 6O°/6O°F Hydrometer
Observed
Reading
1 .OOOO
1.0010
1 .0020
1 .OO3O
1 .0040
1 .OO5O
1 .OOBO
1 .0070
1 .OOBO
1 .OO90
1.01OO
1.O11O
1.0120
1.O130
1.O14O
1.0150
1 .01 60
1 .01 7O
1.0180
1 .01 9O
1 .020O
1.0210
1 .0220
1.O23O
1 .0240
1 .0250
1 .0260
1.O27O
1 .028O
1 .029O
1 .03OO
1.O31O
9.0
0.5
1.6
2.9
4.2
5.5
6.8
8.1
9.3
1O.6
11.9
13.2
14.5
15.8
17.O
18.3
19.6
20.9
22.2
23.5
24.7
26.0
27.3
28.6
29.9
31.1
32.4
33.7
35.O
36.3
37.6
38.9
Temperature of water in graduated cylinder (°CJ
10.0
0.5
1.8
3.1
4.4
5.5
6.8
8.1
9.4
10.7
12.O
13.4
14.7
15.8
17.1
18.4
19.7
21.0
22.3
23.6
24.8
26.1
27.4
28.7
30.0
31.3
32.6
33.9
35.1
36.4
37.7
39.0
111.0
0.6
1.9
3.2
4.5
5.7
7.0
8.3
9.6
1O.9
12.2
13.5
14.8
16.0
17.3
18.6
19.9
21.2
22.5
23.8
25.1
26.4
27.7
28.9
3O.2
31.5
32.8
34.1
35.4
36.7
38.O
39.3
12.0
0.6
2.0
3.3
4.6
5.8
7.1
8.4
9.7
11.O
12.3
13.6
14.9
16.2
17.5
18.8
20.1
21.3
22.6
23.9
25.2
26.5
27.8
29.1
30.4
31.7
33.0
34.3
35.6
36.8
38.1
39.4
13.0
0.7
2.1
3.4
4.8
5.9
7.2
8.5
9.8
11.1
12.4
13.7
15.0
16.3
17.7
19.O
2O.3
21.6
22.9
24.2
25.5
26.8
28.1
29.4
30.6
31.9
33.2
34.5
35.8
37.1
38.4
39.7
14.0
0.8
2.3
3.6
4.9
6.2
7.5
8.8
1O.O
11.3
12.6
13.9
15.2
16.5
17.8
19.1
20.4
21.7
23.0
24.3
25.6
26.9
28.2
29.5
3O.8
32.1
33.4
34.7
36.O
37.3
38.6
39.9
15.0
1.0
2.4
3.7
5.0
6.3
7.6
8.9
1O.2
11.5
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.7
18.O
19.3
20.6
22.0
23.3
24.6
25.9
27.2
28.5
29.8
31.1
32.4
33.7
35.0
36.3
37.6
38.9
40.2
16.0
0.0
1.2
2.5
3.8
5.1
6.6
7.9
9.2
1O.5
11.8
13.1
14.4
15.7
17.0
18.3
19.6
20.9
22.2
23.5
24.8
26.1
27.4
28.7
3O.O
31.3
32.6
33.9
35.2
36.5
37.8
39.1
40.5
17.0
O.2
1.5
2.8
4.1
5.4
6.7
8.0
9.3
1O.6
11.9
13.2
14.5
15.8
17.1
18.6
19.9
21.2
22.5
23.8
25.1
26.4
27.7
29.0
3O.3
31.6
32.9
34.2
35.5
36.8
38.1
39.4
40.7
18.0
0.3
1.6
2.9
4.2
5.5
7.0
8.3
9.6
1O.9
12.2
13.5
14.8
16.1
17.4
18.7
20.0
21.3
22.7
24.O
25.3
26.6
27.9
29.2
3O.6
31.9
33.2
34.5
35.8
37.1
38.4
39.7
41.0
173
-------
Appendix C
Conversion Table for Use with a 8O°/6O°F Hydrometer
Observed
Reading
0.9990
1.0000
1.O01O
1.002O
1.O030
1.OO40
1.O05O
1.O06O
1.O07O
1.0080
1.OO9O
1.0100
1.O11O
1.O12O
1.013O
1.0140
1.0150
1.0160
1.017O
1.0180
1.0190
1.02OO
1.O21O
1.0220
1.0230
1.0240
1.0250
1.026O
1.0270
1.0280
1.O290
1.03OO
1.O31O
Temperature of water in graduated cylinder (°C)
18.5
0.5
1.8
3.1
4.4
5.7
7.1
8.4
9.7
11.0
12.3
13.6
14.9
16.2
17.5
18.8
20.1
21.4
22.9
24.2
25.5
26.8
28.1
29.4
3O.7
32.0
33.3
34.6
35.9
37.2
38.6
39.9
41.2
19.O
0.6
1.9
3.2
4.5
5.8
7.1
8.5
9.8
11.1
12.4
13.7
15.0
16.3
17.7
19.0
2O.4
21.7
23.0
24.3
25.6
26.9
28.2
29.5
30.8
32.1
33.4
34.7
36.2
37.5
38.8
40.1
41.4
19.5
0.7
2.0
3.3
4.6
5.9
7.2
8.7
1O.O
11.3
12.6
13.9
15.2
16.5
17.8
19.1
20.5
21.8
23.1
24.4
25.7
27.0
28.3
29.6
3O.9
32.2
33.7
35.0
36.3
37.6
38.9
40.2
41.5
20.0
0.8
2.1
3.4
4.8
6.1
7.4
8.8
10.1
11.4
12.7
14.O
15.3
16.6
17.9
19.3
2O.6
22.0
23.3
24.6
25.9
27.2
28.5
29.8
31.2
32.5
33.8
35.1
36.4
37.7
39.0
40.3
41.8
2O.5
1.O
2.3
3.6
4.9
6.2
7.5
8.9
10.2
11.5
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.7
18.0
19.5
2O.8
22.1
23.4
24.7
26.0
27.3
28.6
30.0
31.3
32.6
33.9
35.2
36.5
37.8
39.1
40.6
41.9
21 .0
1.1
2.4
3.7
5.0
6.3
7.6
9.1
10.4
11.7
13.0
14.3
15.6
17.O
18.3
19.6
20.9
22.2
23.5
24.8
26.1
27.4
28.9
3O.2
31.5
32.8
34.1
35.4
36.7
38.1
39.4
40.7
42.0
21.5
0.0
1.2
2.5
3.8
5.1
6.4
7.7
9.2
10.5
11.8
13.1
14.4
15.7
17.1
18.4
19.7
21. 0
22.3
23.6
24.9
26.4
27.7
29.0
30.3
31.6
32.9
34.2
35.6
36.9
38.2
39.5
40.8
42.1
22.0
0.1
1.4
2.5
4.0
5.3
6.6
7.9
9.3
10.6
11.9
13.2
14.5
16.0
17.3
18.6
19.9
21.2
22.5
23.8
25.2
26.5
27.8
29.1
30.4
31.7
33.2
34.5
35.8
37.1
38.4
39.7
41.0
42.3
22.5
0.2
1.5
2.7
4.1
5.4
6.7
8.1
9.4
10.7
12.0
13.4
14.8
16.1
17.4
18.7
20.0
21.3
22.7
24.0
25.3
26.6
27.9
29.2
3O.7
32.O
33.3
34.6
35.9
37.2
38.5
39.9
41.2
42.5
23.0
0.3
1.6
2.8
4.2
5.5
7.0
8.3
9.6
1O.9
12.2
13.6
14.9
16.2
17.5
18.8
20.1
21.6
22.9
24.2
25.5
26.8
28.2
29.5
3O.8
32.1
33.4
34.7
36.Q
37.5
38.B
40.1
41.4
174
-------
Appendix C
Conversion Table for Use with a 60°/60°F Hydrometer
Observed
Reading
O.998O
O.9990
1 .OOOO
1.001O
1 .0020
1 .0030
1 .004O
1 .OO5O
1 .OO6O
1 .OO7O
1 .ooao
1 .OO9O
1.01 DO
1.O11O
1.01 2O
1.0130
1.O140
1 .01 5O
1 .01 BO
1 .01 70
1 .01 BO
1.0190
1 .02OO
1.021O
1 .022O
1 .023O
1 .024O
1 .025O
1 .026O
1 .0270
1.028O
1 .029O
1 .0300
1.O31O
Temperature of water in graduated cylinder (°C)
23.5
0.5
1.8
2.9
4.4
5.8
7.1
8.4
9.7
11.O
12.4
13.7
15.0
16.3
17.7
19.1
2O.4
21.7
23.0
24.3
25.6
27.0
28.3
29.6
3O.9
32.2
33.7
35.O
36.3
37.6
38.9
4O.2
41.6
24.0
0.6
1.9
3.1
4.6
5.9
7.2
8.5
9.8
11.3
12.6
13.9
15.2
16.5
17.9
19.2
2O.5
21.8
23.3
24.6
25.9
27.2
28.5
29.8
31.2
32.5
33.8
35.1
36.4
37.8
39.1
40.5
41.8
24.5
0.7
2.0
3.2
4.8
6.1
7.4
8.7
1O.1
11.4
12.7
14.0
15.3
16.7
18.0
19.3
20.6
22.O
23.4
24.7
26.0
27.3
28.6
3O.O
31.3
32.6
33.9
35.2
36.7
38.0
39.3
40.6
41.9
25.0
0.8
2.1
3.4
4.9
6.2
7.5
8.9
1O.2
11.5
12.8
14.1
15.6
16.9
18.2
19.5
2O.9
22.2
23.5
24.8
26.1
27.6
28.9
3O.2
31.5
32.8
34.2
35.5
36.8
38.1
39.4
40.8
25.5
1.O
2.4
3.6
5.O
6.3
7.7
9.1
1O.4
11.7
13.0
14.4
15.7
17.0
18.3
19.7
21. 0
22.3
23.6
25.1
26.4
27.7
29.0
3O.3
31.7
33.0
34.3
35.6
36.9
38.4
39.7
41 .0
26.0
1.2
2.5
3.8
5.1
6.6
7.9
9.2
10.5
11.9
13.2
14.5
15.8
17.3
18.6
19.9
21.2
22.5
23.9
25.2
26.5
27.8
29.2
3O.6
31.9
33.2
34.5
35.9
37.2
38.5
39.8
41.2
26.5
0.1
1.4
2.7
4.0
5.4
6.7
8.0
9.3
1O.7
12.O
13.4
14.7
16.1
17.4
18.7
20.0
21.4
22.7
24.0
25.3
26.8
28.1
29.4
30.7
32.O
33.4
34.7
36.0
37.3
38.8
4O.1
41.4
27.0
O.2
1.5
2.9
4.2
5.5
6.8
8.3
9.6
'1O.9
12.2
13.6
14.9
16.2
17.5
19.0
2O.3
21.6
22.9
24.3
25.6
26.9
28.2
29.6
30.9
32.2
33.5
35.O
36.3
37.6
38.9
4O.2
41.6
27.5
O.3
1.8
3.1
4.4
5.7
7.1
8.4
9.7
11.O
12.4
13.7
15.O
16.5
17.8
19.1
20.4
21.8
23.1
24.4
25.7
27.2
28.5
29.8
31.1
32.5
33.8
35.1
36.4
37.7
39.1
40.5
41.8
28.0
O.6
1.9
3.2
4.5
5.9
7.2
8.5
1O.O
11.3
12.6
13.9
15.3
16.6
17.9
19.3
20.6
22.O
23.3
24.7
26.O
27.3
28.6
30.O
31.3
32.6
33.9
35.4
36.7
38.O
39.3
40.7
- 175
-------
Appendix C
Conversion Table for Use with a 6O°/60°F Hydrometer
Observed
Reading
0.9980
O.999O
1.OOOO
1.0010
1.OO20
1.O030
1.O04O
1.0050
1.O06O
1.OO7O
1.O080
1.0090
1.O1OO
1.01 1O
1.01 2O
1.0130
1.014O
1.O15O
1.01 BO
1.0170
1 .01 80
1.O19O
1.O2OO
1.0210
1.022O
1.0230
1.0240
1.025O
1.0260
1.0270
1.0280
Temperature of water in graduated cylinder (°C)
28.5
O7.
2.0
3.4
4.8
6.1
7.4
8.8
10.1
11.4
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.7
18.2
19.5
2O.8
22.2
23.5
24.8
2B.1
27.6
28.9
30.2
31.5
32.9
34.2
35.5
36.8
38.2
39.5
40.8
29.0
O.8
2.3
3.6
4.9
6.3
7.6
8.9
10.2
11.7
13.0
14.3
15.7
17.O
18.3
19.6
21.0
22.3
23.6
25.1
26.4
27.7
29:0
3O.4
31.7
33.0
34.5
35.8
37.1
38.4
39.8
41.1
29.5
1.1
2.4
3.7
5.1
6.4
7.7
9.2
10.5
11.8
13.1
14.5
15.8
17.1
18.6
19.9
21.2
22.6
23.9
25.2
26.5
27.9
29.2
30.6
32.0
33.3
34.6
35.9
37.2
38.6
39.9
41.2
30.0
1.2
2.5
4.0
5.1
6.6
8.0
9.3
10.6
12.0
13.4
14.7
16.1
17.4
18.7
20. 1
21.4
22.7
24.0
25.5
26.8
28.1
29.5
3O.8
32.1
33.4
34.8
36.2
37.5
38.8
40.2
41.5
30.5
1.5
2.8
4.1
5.4
6.8
8.1
9.6
10.9
12.2
13.6
14.9
16.2
17.5
19.0
2O.3
21.6
23.0
24.3
25.6
27.0
28.3
29.6
3O.9
32.4
33.7
35.0
36.4
37.7
39.0
40.3
31.0
1.6
2.9
4.4
5.5
7.O
8.4
9.7
11.0
12.4
13.7
15.2
16.5
17.8
19.1
2O.5
21.8
23.1
24.6
25.9
27.2
28.5
29.9
31.2
32.5
33.9
35.2
36.5
37.8
39.3
4O.6
31.5
1.9
3.2
4.5
5.8
7.2
8.5
1O.O
11.3
12.6
14.0
15.3
16.6
18.0
19.3
2O.6
22.1
23,4
24.7
26.1
27.4
28.7
3O.O
31.5
32.8
34.1
35.5
36.8
38.1
39.4
40.8
32.O
2.O
3.4
4.8
5.9
7.5
8.8
1O.1
11.5
12.8
14.1
15.6
16.9
18.2
19.6
2O.9
22.2
23.6
24.9
26.3
27.7
29.O
3O.3
31.6
33.O
34.3
35.6
37.1
38.4
39.7
41.0
32.5
2.3
3.6
4.9
6.2
7.6
9.1
1O.4
11.7
13.1
14.4
15.7
17.1
18.4
19.7
21.2
22.5
23.8
25.2
26.5
27.8
29.2
3O.6
31.9
33.3
34.6
35.9
37.2
38.6
39.9
41.2
33.O
2.4
3.8
5.1
6.4
7.9
9.2
1O.5
11.9
13.2
14.7
16.0
17.3
18.7
20.0
21.3
227
24.0
25.3
26.8
28.1
29.4
3O.8
32.1
33.4
34.8
36.2
37.5
38.8
40.2
41.5
176
------- |