Volunteer Estuary
     Monitoring:
   A Methods Manual
    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
    Office of Water
    Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds
    Oceans and Coastal Protection Division
    401 M Street, SW (4504F)
    Washington, DC 20460

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 Acknowledgements
This document was prepared under Cooperative Agreement #CX-816857 from
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and
Watersheds to the Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay.

The author was Nina A. Fisher, Annapolis, Maryland. Document Design and
graphics (except where indicated) were also created by Nina A. Fisher. The
EPA project officers were Joseph Hall and Nicole Veilleux. Richard Newton,
Amherst, Massachusetts drew the front cover and chapter cover illustrations
and Dolly Baker and Elaine Kasmer sketched assorted line drawings. Special
thanks are extended to Kathy Ellett of the Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay,
Jonathan Simpson whose Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods Manual
served as a prototype for this manual,  and the many reviewers who provided
valuable comments on the content of this manual.
 NOTICE:

 This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental
 Protection Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade
 names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommen-
 dation for use.
                                                         Printed on <£,<£>
                                                         Recycled Paper

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                                            Table of Contents
                        Table of Contents

 Acknowledgements	  y
 Table of Contents	  ui
 Executive Summary	„	 vii

 Chapter 1: Introduction	  1
     Purpose of this Manual	  2
     Manual Organization	  3
     Planning an Estuarine Monitoring Program	  4
     References	  8

 Chapter 2: Our Troubled Estuaries	  9
     What is an Estuary?	 10
     The Problems	 11
     Measures of Environmental Health and Degradation	 15
     References	 19

 Chapter 3: Setting the Stage	 21
     Characterizing the Estuarine Environment	 22
     References	 40

 Chapter 4: Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen	 41
     The Importance of Dissolved Oxygen	 42
     Sampling Considerations	 44
     How to Monitor DO	 47
     References	 54

| Chapter 5: Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton	 55
     The Importance of Nutrients	 56
     Why Measure Nutrients?	 56
     Nutrient Sampling Considerations	 59

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        Table of Contents
Chapter 5 (continued)
    Where to Sample in the Water Column	  62
    Returning to the Same Monitoring Site	  62
    How to Sample Nutrients	  68
    Phytoplankton	  75
    References	  80

Chapter 6: Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation	  81
    The Role of Submerged Aquatic Vegetation	  82
    Common SAV Species	  85
    Monitoring Considerations	  89
    How to Monitor SAV using the Groundtruthing Method	  93
    References	100

Chapter 7: Monitoring Bacteria	101
    The Role of Bacteria	 102
    Bacterial Contamination	 102
    Why Monitor Bacteria?	 104
    Shellfish Monitoring for Bacteria	105
    Bacteria Sampling Considerations	 106
    How to Measure Bacteria Levels	 107
    Biochemical  Oxygen Demand	112
    References	 114

Chapter 8: Monitoring Other Estuarine Conditions	115
    Monitoring Marine Debris	116
    Collecting Shellfish for Analysis	121
    References	125

Chapter 9: Training Volunteers	127
    Why Train Volunteers	 128
    Creating a Task Description	 129
                                 IV   	

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                                   Table of Contents
Chapter 9 (continued)
    Planning the Training	 130
    Presenting the Training	 133
    Evaluating the Training	 135
    Coaching/Providing Feedback	135
    References	139

Chapter 10: Presenting Monitoring Results	141
    Data Presentation	 142
    Case Study	148
    References	161

Appendices A,B, and C	163
    Appendix A:  Preparing a QAPjP	 165
    Appendix B:  Scientific Supply Houses 	 169
    Appendix C:  Hydrometer Conversion Table	 171

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                                           Executive Summary
                      Executive Summary

Overview
As concern over the well-being of the environment has risen during the past
couple of decades, volunteer monitoring has become an integral part of the
effort to assess the health of our nation's waters. Government agencies, often
strapped by financial limitations, have found that volunteer programs can
provide high quality reliable data to supplement their own water quality
monitoring programs.

Along with lake, river, and stream programs, monitoring of the estuaries
fringing our coastlines has grown significantly from the early programs that
monitored only a few simple parameters. Although many programs still
monitor a basic suite of water quality measures, others cover a wide realm of
parameters.

As these programs have developed, so has the interest of the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) which has supported volunteer monitoring since
1987. The EPA has sponsored three national symposia on volunteer monitor-
ing, publishes a newsletter for volunteers, has developed guidance manuals
and a directory Of volunteer organizations, and provides technical support to
the volunteer programs. Through these efforts, the EPA hopes to foster the
interest and support of state and other agencies in these volunteer programs.

The EPA developed this estuary manual as a companion to three other
documents: The Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers,
Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods Manual, and Volunteer Stream
Monitoring: A Methods Manual (in progress). This manual presents informa-
tion and methodologies specific to estuarine water quality. Both the organizers
of the volunteer programs and the volunteers themselves should find the
manual of use.

The focus of the manual is the identification of those water quality parameters
that are most important in determining an estuary's water quality. The signifi-
cance of each parameter and specific  methods to monitor it are then detailed in
a step-by-step fashion. The manual stresses proper quality assurance and
quality control techniques to ensure that the data are useful to state agencies
and any other data users.
                                 VII

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Executive Summary
Chapter 1 summarizes the process of planning and managing a volunteer
monitoring program, borrowing from the principles established in the Volun-
teer Water Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers. Chapter 2 follows with a
discussion of the particular problems that afflict our nation's estuaries. Chapter
3 describes those parameters that paint a broad-brush picture of an estuary's
fundamental nature and outlines how to measure them. Chapters 4 through 7
take a detailed look at the most important parameters used in describing the
water quality status of an estuary: dissolved oxygen, nutrients and phytoplank-
ton, submerged aquatic vegetation, and bacteria. Most volunteer programs
measure one or more of these parameters.

Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen, critical for the survival of most aquatic animals, is one of
the best indicators of an estuary's health. Chapter 4 discusses sampling
considerations, such as different methods of monitoring dissolved oxygen and
where and when to sample, as well as the specific steps to measure dissolved
oxygen levels using a Winkler Titration kit.

Nutrients and Phytoplankton
Of all the nutrients necessary to sustain life, phosphorus and nitrogen are the
two of most concern in estuaries since an overabundance of these nutrients can
trigger a chain of oxygen-depleting events. Chapter 5 discusses where to
sample in the water column for these nutrients, the different types of sampling
methods, and the procedures for sampling nutrients using either a test kit or
preparing the sample for laboratory analysis. The chapter also covers the
significance of phytoplankton and how to sample these tiny floating plants.

Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV)
For those estuaries that can support the growth of SAV, these plants provide a
valuable indicator of overall estuary health. Chapter 6 describes common SAV
species found in the estuaries along our nation's coasts. The chapter also
considers the choice of sampling sites and provides a step-by step description
of how to monitor SAV using the groundtruthing method.

Bacteria
Although bacteria are natural inhabitants of estuarine ecosystems, human
activities often introduce excess or pathogenic bacteria to their waters.
Coliform bacteria are generally good indicators of the possible presence of
                                 VIII

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                                            Executive Summary
pathogenic bacteria. Chapter 7 describes the reasons for monitoring fecal
coliform bacteria levels either by water sampling or through shellfish monitor-
ing. The chapter also describes bacteria sampling considerations and how to
monitor bacteria levels by collecting a water sample for laboratory analysis.

The Rest of the Manual...
Some programs may want to add other specific volunteer tasks to their roster.
Chapter 8 discusses the monitoring of marine debris, organizing a beach
cleanup program, and collecting shellfish for toxic substance, bacteria, or
paralytic shellfish poisoning analysis.

Training volunteers should be an integral part of any volunteer monitoring
effort to ensure sound and consistent data collection techniques. Training also
motivates the volunteers and impresses upon them the importance of high
quality data. Chapter 9 discusses the reasons for training volunteers and the
steps necessary to ensure complete and interesting training sessions.

The manual concludes with a discussion of data presentation and the impor-
tance of credible data. Chapter 10 highlights different data presentation
techniques, the use of graphics, and the importance of summary statistics. A
case study, using a fictitious estuary named Windward Bay, exemplifies ways
to present volunteer data and techniques to interpret estuarine data.

At the end of each chapter, references and materials from existing volunteer
monitoring estuary programs are listed. These references should prove a
valuable source of detailed information to anyone interested in establishing a
new  volunteer program or a background resource to those with already
established programs.
                                   IX

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    Introduction
     Chapter 1
Introduction

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 Chapter 1
Purpose of this Manual

This manual compiles methodolo-
gies and techniques used in volun-
teer monitoring programs for
estuarine waters across the United
States. Such information is useful
not only to the citizen monitor but
also to the administrators of these
volunteer monitoring efforts. The
manual describes specific tech-
niques that managers can use to
enhance existing programs or to
launch a new volunteer monitoring
program.

Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A
Methods Manual is a companion
document to Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State
Managers, published by the US.
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). The EPA guide describes
the role of volunteer monitoring
in state programs and details
how managers can best
organize and administer
these monitoring programs.

Volunteer Estuary
Monitoring: A
Methods Manual
focuses on the
concepts and plans
developed by the EPA guide
and places them in a nuts-and-bolts
context specifically for volunteer
estuary monitoring programs.

Two other EPA documents are also
closely allied with this estuary
manual: Volunteer Lake Monitoring:
A Methods Manual (1991) and
Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A
Methods Manual (in progress).
Completion of this set of three
methods manuals will provide
guidance on  volunteer water quality
monitoring in much of our nation's
waters.

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                                                     Introduction
Manual Organization

This manual is organized into ten
chapters.

Chapter 1: Introduction
The introduction outlines the
purpose of this manual and summa-
rizes the planning stages of a
volunteer estuary monitoring
program. It also discusses the
importance of identifying data uses
at the outset as well as establishing
the need for sound quality assurance
and quality control.

Chapter 2: Our Troubled Estuaries
This chapter introduces the concept
of an estuary and summarizes the
major problems plaguing our
nation's estuarine waters. The
chapter also discusses the reasons
for monitoring the water quality of
estuaries and how monitoring data
can ultimately help provide solu-
tions to these diverse problems.

Chapter 3: Setting the Stage
Chapter 3  describes the basic
chemical and physical properties of
an estuary and how to measure the
parameters that characterize these
important  properties.
Chapters 4 through 7: Monitoring
Dissolved Oxygen; Monitoring
Nutrients and Phosphorus;
Monitoring Submerged Aquatic
Vegetation; and Monitoring
Bacteria
This suite of chapters covers the
monitoring parameters that often
reveal the most information about an
estuary's health. Each chapter
includes information on sampling
design considerations as well as a
step-by-step guide to the monitoring
of each parameter.

Chapter 8: Monitoring Other
Estuarine Conditions
This chapter describes volunteer
activities other than the basic four
activities discussed in chapters 4
through 7. Subjects covered are
marine debris monitoring, the
collection of shellfish for analysis of
paralytic shellfish poisoning and
toxicant contamination.

Chapter 9: Training Citizen
Volunteers
Chapter 9 outlines a training pro-
cess useful for instructing volunteers
in the methods of collecting high
quality monitoring data.

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 Chapter 1
Chapter 10: Presenting Volunteer
Monitoring Results
This chapter discusses the impor-
tance of accurate and timely
presentation of volunteer monitoring
data and introduces simple graphical
styles for use in presentations. Data
from a hypothetical estuary is also
presented to acquaint the reader with
effective means of presenting and
interpreting data results.

Planning an Estuarine
Monitoring Program

Volunteer Water Monitoring: A
Guide for State Managers provides
a comprehensive discussion of the
steps necessary to plan and manage
a successful volunteer monitoring
program. The guide covers topics
such as setting general goals,
identifying data use and data users,
establishing quality assurance and
control, assigning staff responsibili-
ties, and funding a volunteer
program. The following sections
summarize the major points dis-
cussed in the EPA Guide for State
Managers.

Setting General Goals
No step is more critical in the
planning process than establishing
the goal or goals of the monitoring
program. Every phase that follows
will depend upon this initial
decision.
Volunteer monitoring programs are
usually developed for three reasons:
  •   To supplement water quality
     data collected by professionals
     in local, state, federal, and
     private agencies;
  •   To educate the public about
     water quality issues;
     To assemble a constituency of
     involved volunteers and
     enhance public support for
     water quality protection.

While a well-organized and well-
maintained program can achieve all
three goals, the program should
establish the priority of each  goal at
the outset. This methods manual, like
the state managers guide, stresses the
collection of credible volunteer data
to supplement professionally
collected data.

Identifying Data Uses and
Users
After establishing programmatic
goals, the planning committee
responsible for establishing the
volunteer program should identify
planned uses of the data as well as
those agencies that will utilize them.
Estuarine data are commonly used to:
  •   establish baseline conditions
     where no prior data exist;
  •   determine water quality
     changes through time; and,
  •   identify current and emerging
     problems.

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                                                      Introduction
Prospective state agency users of
volunteer data include water quality
analysts, land use planners, fisheries
biologists, environmental engineers,
educational institutions, and park
and recreation staff. At other levels
of government or in private
institutions, local government
planning and zoning agencies,
university researchers, state health
departments, soil and water
conservation districts, or federal
agencies such  as the U.S. Geological
Survey, U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, and the Soil
Conservation Service may also be
interested in utilizing volunteer
data.

At the earliest stages of planning, a
committee composed of representa-
tives from the  identified user groups
should refine the monitoring
objectives. First, the committee
must determine if the volunteers can
provide the level of data quality
required by the participating
organizations. The committee
should then proceed to answer, in
detail, the following questions:
  •   What are the major goals of
     the program?
  •   What are the major issues of
     concern in the specific estuary
     or sampling area?
 •   What sampling parameters
     should be selected to charac-
     terize the status of the estuary?
 •   What methods should the
     volunteers use to measure each
     parameter?
 •   How will volunteers be
     trained?
     How will the results of the
     program be presented?
 •   How should the program be
     evaluated?

Once the monitoring program is
established, the planning committee
should meet periodically to evaluate
the program, update objectives, and
refine the monitoring process. These
periodic reviews should help ensure
that the volunteer monitoring
program will continue to produce
high quality  and useful data to those
who require  information concerning
the estuary.

Quality Assurance and
Quality Control
Many potential users of volunteer
data mistakenly believe that only
professionally trained scientists can
conduct sampling and produce
accurate and useful results. Given
proper training and supervision,
however, dedicated volunteers can
collect high quality data. To ensure
data quality, estuarine monitoring
programs must adopt an effective
quality assurance/quality control

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 Chapter 1
             Program
              Goals
Program Considerations

                  *
                     sentat

                     f
 Sampling
Parameters
                      Presentations
    Methods
                    Volunteer
                     Training
(QA/QC) capability. Quality
assurance is the overall strategy to
ensure high standards throughout
the program. Quality control, on the
other hand, encompasses those
procedures used during a particular
analysis which make that analysis
more accurate and precise. The lead
water quality agency in the state or
the EPA Regional QA officer should
be contacted for guidance when
developing QA/QC protocols.

The preparation of a QA/QC plan
starts with the development of data
quality objectives. "Data quality
objectives are specific integrated
statements and goals developed for
each data or information  collection
activity to ensure that the data are of
the required quantity and quality.
Data quality objectives should
specify the desired sensitivity of
sampling methods, timing, and
location of sampling and the number
of samples to be collected (EPA,
1988)."
                      The  Balancing Act:
                    Data Quality Objectives
        More
    Resources
        Less
   Resources
                                                        More
                                                        Uncertainty
                                                         Less
                                                         Uncertainty
               Adapted from: U.S. EPA, 1987, Data Quality Objectives Workshop,
                         Washington. DC.

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                                                     Introduction
These objectives assign a minimum
standard of acceptance for data so
they are assured of meeting a
prescribed level of quality. Accord-
ing to the needs of the program and
data users, the planning committee
can establish a tolerable degree of
error within the data sets.

The planning committee should also
closely examine the program budget
when forming the data quality
objectives. Decisions regarding the
ultimate objectives must always
strike a balance between the needs
of the data users and the fiscal
constraints of the program.

While sophisticated analyses
generally yield more accurate and
precise data, they are also more
costly and time-consuming. If the
program's main goal is to supple-
ment state-collected data, however,
the planning committee may
determine that this extra expense is
worthwhile. Programs with an
educational or participatory focus
can often use less sensitive equip-
ment, analyses, or methodologies
and still meet their data objectives.

The EPA requires all its national
program offices, regional offices,
and laboratories to participate in a
centrally planned, directed, and
coordinated agency-wide QA/QC
program. Any monitoring program
sponsored by EPA through grants,
contracts, or other formal agreement
must also carry out such a program
as well. Appendix A describes the
elements of a Quality Assurance
Project Plan.

Data documentation goes hand-in-
hand with a thorough quality
assurance project plan. Proper and
complete documentation of the data
base allows the user to interpret the
data accurately and assures the user
that the data may be used with
confidence. Volunteer data entered
into a data base that the state may
use in surface water assessment
reports to the EPA should be in the
proper format and accompanied by
complete documentation.

Volunteer Water Monitoring: A
Guide for State Managers expands
upon the concepts introduced in this
chapter. It provides information on
developing data  quality objectives,
quality assurance project plans, and
data documentation files. Chapter 10
of this manual summarizes the
means of analyzing and presenting
volunteer-collected data.
                                    7

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 Chapter 1
References

Chesapeake Bay Citizen Monitoring Program, 1987, Quality Assurance
    Project Plan for the Citizen Monitoring Project, Alliance for the Chesa-
    peake Bay, Inc., Baltimore, MD, 94 pp.

Ely, E., ed., 1992, The Volunteer Monitor, v. 4, no. 2, San Francisco, CA.

Simpson, J.T., 1991, Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods Manual. EPA
    440/4-91-002,121 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1984, Policy and Program Require-
    ments to Implement the Mandatory Quality Assurance Program, EPA
    Order 5360.1, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC,
    5pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1988, Guide for the Preparation of
    Quality Assurance Project Plans for the National Estuary Program, EPA
    556/2-88-001, Washington, DC,  31 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990, Volunteer Water Monitoring: A
    Guide for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. Office of Water, Washing-
    ton, DC, 78 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992, Proceedings of Third National
    Citizens' Volunteer Water Monitoring Conference, Washington, DC, EPA
    841-R-92-004, 183 pp.
                                 8

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Our Troubled Estuaries
        Chapter 2
  Our Troubled
      Estuaries

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 Chapter 2
What is an Estuary?

Unlike many features of the
landscape which are easily de-
scribed, estuaries are transitional
zones that encompass a wide variety
of environments. Loosely catego-
rized as the zone where fresh and
salt water meet and mix, the
estuarine environment is a complex
blend of continuously changing
habitats. To qualify as an estuary, a
water body must fit the following
description:

"a semi-enclosed coastal body of
water which has free connection
with the open sea and within which
sea water is measurably diluted with
fresh water derived from land
drainage"  (Pritchard, 1967).

The estuary itself is a rather well-
defined body of water, bounded at
its mouth by the ocean and at its
head by the upper limit of the tides.
It drains a much larger area,
however, and pollutant-producing
activities near or in tributaries even
hundreds of miles away may still
adversely affect the estuary's water
quality.

While some of the water in an
estuary flows from the tributaries
that feed it, the remainder moves in
from the sea. When fresh and salt
water meet, the two do not readily
mix. Fresh water flowing in from
the tributaries is relatively light and
overrides the wedge of more dense
salt water moving in from the ocean.
This density differential often
causes layering or stratification of
the water which significantly affects
both circulation and the water
quality of an estuary.

Scientists classify estuaries into
three types according to the particu-
lar pattern of water circulation:
  •  Highly Stratified Estuary
     The layering between the fresh
     water from the tributaries and
     the salt water from the ocean is
     most distinct in highly
     stratified estuaries, although
     some sea water still mixes
     with the upper lense of fresh
     water. To compensate for this
     "loss" of sea water, there is a
     slow but continual up-estuary
     movement of the salty water
     on the bottom.

  •  Moderately Stratified Estuary
     In this intermediate estuary
     type, mixing of fresh and salt
     water occurs at all depths.
     With this vertical mixing,
     salinity levels generally
     increase towards the estuary
     mouth, although the lower
     layer is always saltier than the
     upper layer.
                                   10

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                                      Our Troubled Estuaries
  Classification of Estuaries
      Moderately Stratified Estuary
        Vertically Mixed Estuary
   Ad=pMd from:
  •   Vertically Mixed Estuary
     In this type of estuary,
     powerful mixing by tides tends
     to eliminate layering alto-
     gether. Salinity in these
     estuaries is a function of the
     tidal stage although tides  are
     able to dominate salinity only
     in very small estuaries.

Rivers flow in a single direction,
flushing out sediments and pollut-
ants. In estuaries, however, there is a
constant balancing act between the
up-estuary salt water movement and
down-estuary freshwater flow.
Rather than quickly flushing water
and pollutants through its system, an
estuary often has a lengthy retention
period. Consequently, water-borne
pollutants, along with contaminated
sediment, may remain in the estuary
for a long time, magnifying their
potential to affect the estuary's
plants and animals adversely.

Other factors also play a role in the
hydrology of an estuary. The shape
of the basin and the width of its
mouth along with its depth, area,
tidal range, surrounding topography,
and regional climate combine to
make each estuary unique.

The Problems

Like much of our nation's coastal
waters, many of the more than 100
estuaries are also under siege.
Historically, estuaries and other
water bodies have been the recep-
tacles for society's wastes. Human
sewage, industrial by-products, and
runoff from farming operations
disappeared as they mixed with
receiving waters and washed into
the nation's fragile estuaries.

Over the past several decades, the
signs of estuarine decline have
become increasingly apparent.
Many fish and shellfish populations
hover near collapse, toxic sub-
stances menace the health of fish,
waterfowl, and man, and overloads
of nutrients kick off chain reactions
of algal bloom and bust—all
                                  11

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Chapter 2
threatening the inherent balance of
these systems. Although we have
recognized the problems and
generally reduced the pollutants
entering our waters, the sheer
number of people living near the
coasts continues to stress our
estuaries, lagoons, and other coastal
waters.
                          Sources  of
                   Estuarine Pollution
                                             Agricultural
                                             Runoff
          Waatawater,
          Treatment
            Plants
                                                       Groundweter
             Redrawn from: US, EFft, 1992. The National Estuary Program
                       After Four Years,
                                 12

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                                      Our Troubled Estuaries
No coastal areas are immune to the
threat of pollution and many
estuaries share common problems as
a result. The East and Gulf coast
estuaries are often subject to
seasonal depletion of dissolved
oxygen, particularly in their deeper
waters. Accelerated eutrophication
or aging of the estuary, in which
there is an excess of nutrients and
plant growth, often accompanies this
depletion.

Estuaries across the country are
vulnerable to assault from a wide
variety of toxic substances. While
sources of these substances may be
relatively scarce in the more pristine
areas surrounding an estuary,
industrialized areas often lead to
"hot spots" in the adjacent estuary,
with toxicants concentrating in the
water, sediment, and local aquatic
animals.

Bacterial contamination of the
waters is yet another problem
prevalent in many estuaries.
Inadequately treated sewage
released to the estuary threatens
recreational users of the water and
contaminates local shellfish. States
often monitor the waters overlying
shellfish beds or the shellfish
themselves for bacterial contamina-
tion and must shut down contami-
nated areas to both recreational and
commercial fishermen until bacteria
numbers drop to safe levels.
Specific problems may plague some
estuaries while other estuaries are
subject to a different suite of ills.
For example, sections of Puget
Sound in Washington State have
high concentrations of heavy metals
and organic contaminants in their
sediments. The New York and New
Jersey Harbor Estuary suffers from
large quantities of floatable marine
debris, washing in from storm
sewers, combined sewer overflows,
beach litter, and improperly dis-
posed of medical waste, among
other sources.

The area surrounding the Delaware
Inland Bays has a serious nitrate
contamination problem in its
groundwater; this contaminated
groundwater may be moving into
the bays. The Sarasota Bay in
Florida also has a nutrient problem.
Its problem, however, stems from
excess nutrients from wastewater
treatment plants as well as storm-
water runoff which result in
accelerated eutrophication or aging
of the estuary.

Whether the problems are unique to
an area or common to many, several
of these problems have worsened
over recent decades. Simulta-
neously, however,  the interest of a
few concerned citizens has grown
into a nationwide awareness that the
environment is necessarily a
national priority.
                                   13

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 Chapter 2
Along with this growing recogni-
tion, the means to assess the health
and status of our nation's waters has
also evolved. While scientists
provided many early clues to the
deterioration of estuarine water
quality, citizens have become
important contributors in the long-
term effort to identify and address
water quality problems.

Why Monitor?
Clarifying and characterizing the
problems unique to an estuary help
clear the path towards potential
solutions. The first step in solving
each problem is defining it:
  •   Is there a problem?
  •   If so, how serious is it?
  •   Does the problem afflict only a
     portion of the estuary or the
     entire body of water?
  •   Does the problem occur
     sporadically, seasonally, or
     year round?
  •   Is the problem a naturally
     occurring phenomenon or is it
     caused by human activities?

A systematic and well-planned
monitoring program can identify
water quality problems and help
answer the questions critical to the
solution of these problems. Useful
monitoring data accurately portray
the current physical, chemical and
biological status of the estuary. This
type of baseline information,
collected systematically over time,
can establish a record of water
quality conditions in an estuary.

If reliable historical data exist for
comparison, current monitoring data
can also document changes in the
estuary from the past to the present.
These data may serve as a warning
flag, alerting managers to the
development of a water quality
problem; or, on the positive side,
comparison of the data may indicate
improvements in estuarine water
quality.

Thus, monitoring programs can
perform a variety of functions. The
most effective monitoring program,
however, resolves the use of the data
early on so the program design best
addresses the defined problems.
Most citizen monitoring programs
serve to:
  •   supplement federal, state, and
     local monitoring efforts;
  •   educate the public;
  •   obtain  data from remote areas;
  •   obtain  data during storms or
     other unique events;
  •   bring a problem area to light;
     and
  •   document the illegal discharge
     of waste.
                                   14

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                                      Our Troubled Estuaries
Citizen monitoring data, collected
accurately and systematically, can
be an important supplement to data
collected by professionals. Accurate
data often have far-reaching uses
that the organizers may not have
anticipated at the outset. Indeed,
these data have the potential to
influence management actions taken
to protect the water body. Further
uses of the data include:
  •   providing a scientific basis for
     specific management decisions
     and strategies;
  •   contributing to the broad base
     of scientific information on the
     functioning of ecosystems and
     the effects of estuarine
     pollution;
  •   determining multi-year water
     quality trends in an estuary;
  •   documenting the effect of
     nonpoint and point source
     pollutants on  water quality;
  •   indicating to government
     officials that citizens care
     about their local waterways;
  •   documenting the impacts of
     pollution control problems;
     and
  •   provide data needed to
     determine permit compliance.

Assessing water quality should not
be conducted purely for the sake of
monitoring itself. Ultimately, the
restoration of an estuary's plants and
animals is of greatest concern. To
restore an estuary, we must ensure
that water quality conditions remain
within the optimal range for the
health and vitality of the native
species. As scientists determine the
ideal habitat conditions for each
species, monitoring data will be
instrumental in judging how often
conditions are suitable for the
survival and propagation of these
species.

Measures of Environmental
Health and Degradation

Although estuaries are complex
systems with a large assortment of
habitats, animal and plant species,
and physical and chemical condi-
tions, some parameters are suitable
across-the-board indicators of
environmental health. While not
every citizen monitoring program
will have the desire or money to
sample each of these parameters,
most programs will choose at least a
couple as indicators of ecosystem
status. These parameters include:
  •   dissolved oxygen;
  •   nutrients (nitrogen and phos-
     phorus) and phytoplankton;
  •   submerged aquatic vegetation;
     and
  •   bacteria.

Briefly introduced here, each
parameter and the methods for
measuring it are discussed in
                                  15

-------
 Chapter 2
succeeding chapters in much
greater detail. Naturally, more
descriptive variables, such as
temperature, salinity, and site
observations, also have a role in
characterizing the estuary.
Discussions of these variables
follow in Chapter 3, Setting the
Stage.
o
 o
  o
  o
  o
Dissolved Oxygen
The level of dissolved oxygen (DO)
in an estuary is one of the most
important factors controlling the
presence or absence of estuarine
species. Dissolved oxygen is crucial
for most animals and plants except
for a small  minority which can
survive under anaerobic (no oxygen)
conditions. Both animals and plants
require oxygen for respiration—a
process critical for basic metabolic
processes.

During daylight hours, plants add
oxygen to the water by photosynthe-
sis. At night, when photosynthesis
ceases, plant respiration continues to
consume oxygen and produce
carbon dioxide. Animals respire
around the  clock, taking up oxygen
 continuously. This day-to-night
 shift in total oxygen consumption
means that while surface waters
often become supersaturated in DO
during the day, DO can drop
precipitously at night.

Dissolved oxygen levels in an
estuary also fluctuate widely due to
seasonal and climatic variations as
well as human influence. As water
temperatures rise in spring and
summer, the capacity of the water to
hold DO (also known as its satura-
tion level), declines. In short, warm
water cannot hold as much oxygen
as cold water. The salinity of the
water also affects  DO saturation; as
salinity rises, DO saturation levels
drop.

Low DO diminishes the capability
of water to support life since almost
all aquatic species are dependent on
oxygen for survival. When DO
declines below threshold levels
which vary depending upon the
species, mobile animals must move
to waters with higher DO; immobile
speces often perish.
                                   16

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                                     Our Troubled Estuaries
Nutrients: Nitrogen and
Phosphorus
Nitrogen and phosphorus are two of
the many nutrients critical for the
survival of aquatic species. Nitro-
gen's primary role in organisms is
protein synthesis; plants also use
this substance in photosynthesis.
Phosphorus is critical for metabolic
processes which involve the transfer
of energy.

In estuaries where human impact is
minimal, either nitrogen or phospho-
rus is usually in limited supply.
Human activities, however, often
drastically change the chemistry of
estuarine waters. An overabundance
of nutrients, particularly nitrogen
and phosphorus, can trigger uncon-
trolled growth of phytoplankton
(minute floating plants) or algae—
often referred to as blooms.

Nutrient levels in an estuary are
closely related to the level of DO in
its water. Excess nutrients cause a
proliferation of phytoplankton
which may create a daily increase of
DO in  the surface waters. When
 these phytoplankton die, sink, and
 are decomposed by oxygen-
 consuming bacteria, DO levels near
 the bottom plummet. Under the
 worst conditions, the bottom waters
 of an estuary turn anoxic (without
 oxygen).

Submerged Aquatic
 Vegetation (SAV)
Submerged aquatic plants are
important elements of estuarine
systems, providing shelter and
habitat for many aquatic species and
a food source for many others. Fish
and shellfish often use beds of
aquatic plants as nursery grounds
where their young find protection
and ample nourishment.
                                  17

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Chapter 2
These plants benefit estuarine
species directly as food and habitat
and indirectly by helping to main-
tain the viability of the ecosystem.
Their photosynthesis adds DO to the
water and their leaves and roots help
buffer the shoreline against erosion.
The plants also assimilate nitrogen
and phosphorus, reducing the dele-
terious impact of excess nutrients.

Unfortunately, over the past several
decades, submerged aquatic
vegetation has fared poorly in many
of our nation's estuaries. Areas once
covered by thick beds of these
plants may have little or no vegeta-
tion remaining.

Not all healthy estuarine and near
coastal areas have the physical and
chemical properties necessary to
support SAV. In areas that can,
however, these plants often serve as
a barometer of estuarine ecosystem
health. By monitoring the status of
these plant populations over time,
we can better determine the
estuary's vitality.

Bacteria
Fecal coliform bacteria live solely in
the intestines of warm-blooded
animals, including humans: Al-
though the bacteria are not harmful
to man, the presence of these
organisms in water may indicate
possible sewage contamination and
the presence of pathogens.
These pathogenic bacteria pose a
significant threat to human health.
Contaminated water can cause
disease either through direct contact,
which threatens recreational water
users, or by ingestion of contami-
nated shellfish. The pathogens may
cause diseases such as dysentery and
typhoid fever. Areas polluted  by
fecal coliform or other harmful
bacteria are off limits to shellfish
harvesting. Livestock, inadequate
wastewater treatment plants, leaky
septic systems, sanitary landfills,
and stormwater runoff are common
sources of fecal coliform and  other
bacteria.

Although  states routinely monitor
the waters and shellfish in their
estuaries and along their coasts for
high levels of specific bacteria, they
cannot monitor every cove, beach,
and inlet.  Volunteer monitoring data
for bacteria can significantly
improve the state's assessment of
waters which are safe for water
sports and recreational and commer-
cial shellfish harvesting.
                                   18

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                                    Our Troubled Estuaries
References

Committee on a Systems Assessment of Marine Environmental Monitoring,
    1990, Managing Troubled Waters: The Role of Marine Environmental
    Monitoring, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 125 pp.

Kaill, W.M. and J.K. Prey, 1973, Environments in Profile: An Aquatic
    Perspective, Canfield Press, San Francisco, 206 pp.

Pritchard, D.W., 1967, "What is an Estuary: A Physical Viewpoint," in:
    Estuaries, G.H. Lauff, ed., American Association for the Advancement of
    Science, Publication No. 83, Washington, D.C., 757 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992, Monitoring Guidance for the
    National Estuary Program, EPA 503/8-91-002, Washington, DC.
                                19

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-------
Setting the Stage
    Chapter 3
Setting the
      Stage

-------
 Chapter 3
Characterizing the
Estuarine Environment

Several parameters describe the
basic chemical and
physical properties of an
estuary. These traits paint a
picture of the estuary's
fundamental nature. They
form, in essence, the ABCs
of estuarine water quality
and set the stage for the
environmental parameters
in which we are most
interested and which are
the most acute indicators
of habitat health.

Many of these basic
descriptors of the estuary
ultimately control the way
the water body will respond to
changing conditions. Temperature,
for example, largely governs the rate
of chemical reaction and biological
activity. The pH affects the solubil-
ity of certain chemicals in the water.
And, turbidity controls the amount
of sunlight that can reach the
underwater plants.

 Visual Assessment
Despite being the least quantiu.
of the parameters, visual assessment
of the monitoring site can provide
invaluable information and make
interpretation of other data easier
 and more meaningful. Visual
assessment is simply observing the
environmental conditions at the site
and recording those that are remark-
able.
      Visual information can
      provide an account of events
      or conditions that may help
      explain the monitoring data
      collected. For example, if
      dead fish are floating at the
      water surface, they may
      signal a sudden drop in
      dissolved oxygen (DO)
      levels, the influx of some
      toxic substance, or disease or
      infestation of the fish.
      Unusual visual  data are like
      bait; they should lure you in
      for further investigation.
When making a visual assessment of
the site, look for:

  •  Color
      Although we tend to think of
      pure water as blue, few water
      bodies north of the sub-tropics
      fit this description. Clean
      water may have a color
      depending upon the water
      source and its content of
      dissolved and suspended
      materials. Plankton, plant
      pigments, metallic ions, and
      pollutants can all color water.
      Even the color of the substrate
      can cause the water to take on
                                   22  	

-------
                                            Setting the Stage
Chart of Apparent Colors
Apparent
Color
Peacock
Blue
Possible
Reason
Light-colored
substrate
 Green

Yellow/
 Brown

Red/Yellow/
Mahogany

 Myriad
 colors

Rainbow
  Phytoplankton

      Peat,
dissolved organics

      Algae,
  dinoflagellates

   Soil Erosion
     Oil slick
    an apparent color. To accu-
    rately assess color, use one of
    the established color scales
    such as the Borger Color
    System or the Forel-Ule Color
    Scale from scientific supply
    houses.

    Oil slicks
    Oil slicks are easily recognized
    by their iridescent sheen and
    often noxious odor. Oil may
    indicate anything from a
    worrisome oil spill to bilge
    water pumped from a nearby
    boat. Estimate the size of the
    slick if possible. Of course,
    report any spill of significant
    size to local authorities.
 Water surface conditions
 Whether calm, rippled, or with
 waves and white caps, surface
 water conditions indicate how
 much mixing is occurring in
 the top layer of the estuary.
 When the surface is placid,
 very little wind-induced
 mixing occurs. Waves
 whipped up by wind, however,
 indicate substantial mixing and
 the introduction of oxygen to
 the water. This information
 may assist in interpreting
 dissolved oxygen data.

 Indicators of Pollution
 Although water pollution may
 not be visually apparent, other
 clues can serve as warning of
 possible contamination.
 Lesions on fish, for example,
 suggest the possible presence
 of toxic contaminants. Surface
 foam and scum downstream
 from a plant's discharge could
 be cause for concern. Al-
 though the discharge could lie
 within legal limits, a citizen
 group may want to investigate
 the situation further. Other
pollutant indicators include
large numbers of dead fish or
other animals, rust-colored
oozes that may come from
acid mine drainage, large
quantities of floatable debris,
and highly turbid water.
                                23

-------
Chapter 3
    Record all unusual conditions
    on a data sheet. Volunteers
    should bring such conditions
    to the attention of the program
    leaders so that they can report
    them to the appropriate
    authority, if warranted.
    Monitoring groups which
    function as watchdogs may
    want to follow up with an
    investigation of their own.

    Shoreline Assessment
    A few programs have started
    shoreline assessment projects
    to characterize land use around
    an estuary. An initial assess-
    ment project can quantify the
    amount of residential, indus-
    trial, urban, agricultural, and
    forested areas within a
    watershed. A broader scope
    project could further map the
    location of marinas, industrial
    and municipal dischargers,
    stormwater discharge points,
    landfills, agricultural feedlots,
    and any other potential threat
    to the estuary.

    Such an undertaking not only
     identifies potential pollutant
     sources but also provides the
     program leaders with informa-
     tion that may prove useful in
     selecting water quality
     monitoring sites.
•  Other conditions
Weather
    The weather, recorded at the
    time of sampling, helps in the
    interpretation of other data.
Ice
    Ice cover can affect dissolved
    oxygen levels in the water by
    limiting the interaction of
    water with the atmosphere. In
    addition, ice in shallow areas
    may damage submerged
    aquatic plants and temporarily
    deprive estuarine animals and
    waterfowl of their habitat.
Erosion
    Evidence of recent erosion,
    such as a steeply cut bank,
    may indicate recent storm
    activity or substantial wakes
    from boats. In either case,
    highly turbid water may
    accompany the erosion.
                                   24

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                                              Setting the Stage
   Living Resources
      A simple assessment of the
      quantity and type of living
      resources can round out the set
      of data taken at one site.
      Numbers of waterfowl,
      schools of fish, presence of
      submerged aquatic vegetation
      beds, and other information
      relate directly to  the area's
      water quality. Fish kills or
      widespread shellfish bed die-
      off may indicate  episodes of
      intolerable water quality
      conditions.

 Temperature
I Temperature, probably the most
 easily measured parameter, is a
I critical factor in the workings of the
I estuarine ecosystem. As water
I temperature rises, biological and
I chemical activity also increase.

I Many species regulate  the timing of
(important events, such as reproduc-
tion and migration, according to
I specific water temperatures.
[Optimal temperatures (which vary
I with the species and their life stage)
I allow organisms to function at
I maximum efficiency. The slow
I change of temperature  that comes
Iwith the seasons permits organisms
Ito acclimate, whereas rapid shifts
Imay adversely affect plants and
I animals.
Temperature is not generally
constant from the water surface to
the bottom. An estuary's water
temperature is a function of:
  •   depth;
  •   season;
  •   the amount of mixing due to
     wind, storms, and tides;
  •   the degree of stratification
     (layering) in the estuary;
  •   the temperature of water
     flowing in from the tributaries;
     and
  •   human influences such as the
     release of warm water from
     power plants.

In spring and summer, the upper-
most layer of an estuary grows
warmer and mixing between this
surface water and the cooler bottom
water slows. As air temperatures
cool through the autumn, the surface
water becomes increasingly cold
and increases in density. The surface
water mass ultimately sinks when its
density becomes greater than that of
the bottom water. As the surface
water moves down, mixing occurs
carrying nutrients from the bottom
towards the surface. This slug of
nutrients fuels the growth of
phytoplankton, tiny floating plants.
Through the winter, temperatures
remain fairly constant from top to
bottom.
                                   25

-------
 Chapter 3
Measuring Temperature
For surface temperature measure-
ments, collect a sample in a con-
tainer that holds at least two gallons
so the water remains unaffected by
the temperature of the thermometer
and the air. In most cases, the volun-
teer can use this same sample for
many of the other water quality
monitoring tests. By collecting
samples at different depths, a profile
of water temperatures may also be
taken.

Allow the thermometer to equili-
brate in the water for three to five
minutes. Record the temperature to
the nearest half degree Centigrade.
Using an armored thermometer for
measurement will minimize
breakage problems.

To assure accuracy, check the
thermometer against a National
Institute of Standards and Technol-
ogy (NIST) certified thermometer at
least once a year. The volunteer
should assure that no separation has
occurred in the thermometer liquid
before each use.

Confirm the thermometer's accuracy
in several samples of water of
varying temperatures. The county
health department or the state
department of environmental
protection may lend an NIST
thermometer  to the program for
these important periodic checks.
  Temperature
Conversion Scale
             - 90
             — 70
             — 60
             — 50
             -40
             - 30
             — 20
              — 10
              — 0
  C°= F°- 32 (5/9)
  F°= C°(9/5) + 3S
                                 26

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                                               Setting the Stage
 Salinity
 Salinity is simply a measure of the
 amount of salts dissolved in water.
 An estuary usually exhibits a
 gradual change in salinity through-
 out its length as fresh water flowing
 from the tributaries mixes with sea
 water moving in from the ocean.
 Even at a single place in the estuary,
 salinity will fluctuate with move-
 ment of the tides, dilution by
 precipitation, and mixing of the
 water by wind.

 Generally, salinity increases with
 water depth unless the estuary is
 well-mixed vertically. Salinity,
 along with water temperature, is the
 primary factor in determining the
 stratification of an estuary. Warm,
 fresh water is less dense than cold,
 salty water and  will overlie the
 wedge of seawater pushing in from
I the ocean. Tides and  wind, however,
 can eliminate the layering caused by
I salinity and temperature differences
I by thoroughly mixing the two
I masses of water.

[Salinity levels control, to a large
I degree, the types of plants and
I animals that can live  in different
I zones of the estuary.  Freshwater
I species may be restricted to the
1 upper reaches of the estuary while
I marine species inhabit the estuarine
I mouth. Some species tolerate only
I intermediate levels of salinity while
broadly adapted species can
acclimate to any salinity ranging
from fresh water to seawater.

Salinity measurements may also
offer clues to the areas of an estuary
that could become afflicted by
salinity-specific diseases. In the
Chesapeake and Delaware bays, for
example, pathogens infecting the
oysters are restricted to sections
which fall within certain salinity
levels. Drastic changes in salinity,
such as those due to drought or
storms, can also greatly alter the
numbers and types of animals and
plants in the estuary.

Measuring Salinity
Salinity is usually expressed in parts
per thousand (ppt). Seawater has
about 35 parts of salt per 1000 parts
of water and drinking water is under
0.5 ppt.

Salinity can be measured either by
physical or chemical methods.
Chemical methods determine chlori-
nity (the chloride concentration)
which is closely related to salinity.
Physical methods use conductivity,
density, or refractivity. The physical
methods are quicker and more
convenient.

  •  Refractivity
     This method is based upon the
     refractive index of seawater.
                                    27

-------
Chapter 3
    This index measures the
    change in the direction of light
    as it passes from air into water.
    Salinity and temperature both
    affect the index.

    Using a refractometer is
    simple. The unit may be
    prohibitively expensive for
    many citizen programs,
    however, since such instru-
    ments cost about $350.

    Density
    As water becomes saltier, its
    weight increases although its
    volume does not measur-
    ably rise. This change of
    weight results in a
    greater specific
    gravity since salt
    water is more
    dense than fresh
    water. By
    using a
    hydrometer,
                  which
                  measures
                 the specific
               gravity of a
              water sample,
             the volunteer
            can calculate
          salinity.

        Hydrometers are a
      fairly simple and
     inexpensive means of
    obtaining salinity. Their
   greatest asset, however, is
 the high level of consistency
they offer over time.

After putting the water sample
in a clear jar, gently lower the
hydrometer into the jar along
with a thermometer. Make
sure the hydrometer and
thermometer are not touching
and that the hydrometer stem
is free of water drops.

Let the hydrometer stabilize
and then record the specific
gravity to the fourth decimal
place and the temperature.
Read the specific gravity at the |
point where the water level in
the jar meets the hydrometer
scale. Do not record the value
where the meniscus (the
upward curvature of the water
where it touches the glass)
                                  28  	

-------
                                              Setting the Stage
Reading the Hydrometer

Level
i ;
BHadCatr^
itfsitei! level

,f <•
1.0020


1.0D25
-


	

	
—



                         Meniscus
Redrawn from: LaMotte Company. 1993. Hydrometer
         Instructions, Chestertown, MD.
     intersects the hydrometer. Use
     a hydrometer conversion table
     to calculate the density value
     of the sample at the recorded
     temperature (see Appendix A).

     Conductivity
     A conductivity meter measures
     salinity by determining how
     well the water  conducts an
     electrical current. Distilled
     water does not conduct a
     current.  As the concentration
     of salts in the water increases,
     however, electrical conductiv-
     ity rises. The greater the
     salinity, the higher the
     conductivity.

     Conductivity meters require
     temperature correction and
     accurate calibration is difficult.
The cost of these meters
ranges from $400 to $500
which makes them the most
expensive of these four salinity
methods.

Chlorinity
This method calculates salinity
based on the quantity of
chloride ions in the sample.
Salinity is related to chlorinity
by the formula:

Salinity [ppt) = (1 .SO5 x
chlorinity (ppt]) + O.O30

The chlorinity method uses
duration of the halide ions in
seawater with a standardized
silver nitrate solution. Al-
though several commercially
available test kits measure
chlorinity, some require
conversion of chlorinity to
salinity using the formula,
while others incorporate the
formula and give results
directly as salinity.

This method is relatively easy
to use although the color
change at the endpoint is
sometimes difficult to assess.
A white paper placed behind
the titration bottle makes
determination of the endpoint
an easier task.
                                  29

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 Chapter 3
The pH quantifies the acidity or
alkalinity of a water sample. Pure
water has a pH of 7.0 and is neutral;
water measuring under 7.0 is acid
and that above 7.0 is alkaline or
basic. Most marine organisms prefer
conditions with pH values ranging
from about 6.5 to 8.5.

Human activities that cause large,
short-term swings in pH or  long-
term acidification of a water body
are exceedingly harmful. For
instance, algal blooms which are
often initiated by an overload of
nutrients can cause pH to fluctuate
dramatically over a few-hour period,
greatly stressing local organisms.
Acid precipitation in the upper,
freshwater reaches of an estuary can
diminish the survival rate of eggs
deposited there by spawning fish.

Levels of pH fluctuate over time in
an estuary. Estuarine pH levels
generally average from 7.0  to 7.5 in
the fresher sections to between 8.0
and 8.6 in the more saline areas. The
slightly alkaline pH of seawater is
due to the natural buffering from the
carbonate and bicarbonate dissolved
in the water. Several other factors
also determine the pH of the water,
including:
  •   bacterial activity;
  •   rate of photosynthesis (as DO
      rises and carbon dioxide
     declines with photosynthesis,
     the pH will increase);
  •   water turbulence;
  •   chemical constituents in runoff
     flowing into the water body;
  •   human activities both in and
     outside the drainage basin,
     such as acid drainage from
     coal mines and acid precipita-
     tion.

Values of pH are based on the
logarithmic scale, meaning that for
each 1.0 change of pH, acidity or
alkalinity changes by a factor of ten.
That is, a pH of 5.0 is ten times
more acidic than 6.0 and 100 times
more acidic than 7.0.

The pH of the water is critical to the
survival of most aquatic plants and
animals. Many  species have trouble
surviving if pH drops under 5.0 or
rises above 9.0. Changes in pH can
alter other aspects of the water's
chemistry,  usually to the detriment
of native species. Even small shifts
in the water's pH can affect the
solubility of some metals such as
iron and copper.

Measuring pH
In general, citizen programs use one
of two methods to measure pH:
colorimetric or electronic. Colori-
metric kits are easy  to use, inexpen-
sive, and sufficiently accurate to
satisfy the  needs of most programs.
                                   30

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                                              Setting the Stage
     pH  Range  Scale
           14-
      (D
      03
        13-

        12-

        11 -

        1O-

         9-

         8

Neutral 7

         6

         5

         4
      o
            3-

            2-

            1

            O-
                    Lye
- Bleach


- Ammonia

- Milk of Magnesia


- Baking Soda
  Seawater
- Blood
  Distilled Water
  Milk

 • Rain

 • Boric Acid

 • Orange Juice

 - Vinegar

  Lemon Juice


  Battery Acid
 If very precise measures are
I required, however, the more
 expensive electronic pH meters
 provide extremely accurate read-
 ings. Test paper strips to obtain pH
 are unsuitable for use in estuarine
waters since they do not provide
consistent measurements in salt
water.

 •  Colorimetric Kits
     Colorimetric kits cover a range
     of pH values. If the general pH
     values of the estuary are
     known, pick a kit that includes
     these values within its range of
     sensitivity. Some programs
     may prefer to use a wide-range
     kit that covers pH values from
     3.0 to 10.0 until the measured
     range of values for that water
     body has been established.
     After determining the actual
     range over several seasons,
     switch to a narrower range kit
     for greater accuracy. Make
     sure both kits have been
     checked against pH standards.

     The Colorimetric kits use
     indicators that change color
     according to the pH of the
     solution. With the reagent
     added, compare the water
     sample to the color standards
     of known pH values. Place
     white paper in the background
     of the tube to emphasize any
     color differences, especially if
     the sample's color is faint.
     Record the pH value of the
     standard which most closely
     matches the color of the
     sample. If the sample hue is
                                  31

-------
 Chapter 3
     between two standards,
     average their values and record
     this number as the pH.

 •  pH Meters
     Although more
     expensive ($75 -
     $500) than the
     color kits, pH
     meters give
     extremely accurate
     readings of a wide
     range of pH values.
     Unlike the color kits,
     these meters can be
     used even if the water is
     clouded or colored. Place the
     electrode into the water
     sample and record the pH, as
     well as water temperature.
     Calibrate the meter each time,
     using pH standards, to assure
     accurate results.

Turbidity
Although we often think that clean
water is clear, even unpolluted water
can have suspended particles that
may lessen its clarity but do not
diminish its quality. Measures of
turbidity indicate how cloudy or
muddy the water is or, alternatively,
the degree of its clarity or
translucence. Several types of
suspended material cause
water turbidity:
  •   suspended silt or soil particles;
  •   phytoplankton and zooplank-
     ton (tiny floating organisms);
  •   minute fragments of dead
     plants.

Natural runoff, water turbulence
 from storms, and wave action can
  cause turbidity of the water.
  Human activities, however,
  exacerbate the clouding. Runoff
  from agricultural fields, wash
from construction sites and urban
areas, and shoreline erosion from
heavy boat traffic, among other
problems, all contribute to high
turbidity.

High levels of turbidity over long
periods of time can greatly diminish
the health and productivity of the
estuarine ecosystem.  Turbid waters
decrease light penetration into the
water, thereby reducing the area
available for submerged aquatic
plants to grow.

Many animals living in estuaries
feed by filtering the water; sus-
pended material in large quantities
can foul their filter-feeding systems.
Particles may accumulate on the
  gills of fish and inhibit breathing.
      Highly turbid water also
       hinders aquatic predators
       from spotting and tracking
       down their prey.
                                   32  	

-------
                                          Setting the Stage
                 Makfnp a Secchi/Disk
     -  !  '                          "
  A 8ecchi disk ss one of sh^sSropterpieces of eqdsproe^requreci for
  water quality testing, Afctoph many supply companies' sell Ms item,
  vokMteer programs sn a'lJght budget can construct their
  Mat^fiafe neecfecl-for this prbjeefe are;            •"  ^
    *   1 ,/8« tiiftS; Steel, ?/4? PJexigtes, o'r 1 /4 to 1 /2"
  %  *, /, Dp wMi a/8*'inch fait   " ..  	'' ''   "  -    ^~:*( ,  ,
   ,-„ ^ytonrope  ,, ,,          s" s  -- -   ,,'  / '-"•''
  ', <   Eyeuba!is.fS/1 B"}, |lat aridtock washers, outs C5/1 S^^nd *'
   -- "afefcscb$b)eweights, , ""'  '  ;;^  ;;;,;-   x" - -' '- "*'-'- -'-
              li±; r      --, , \^\ ;r*'/  % '-\  '  '"- ,-,',-!,* -  -','  --; -
              d ««Wte flat ersaraai              '
              sh',   ^'-'""; ,',';
              *'*  ^"'s'   '- -'','
         sei, PfejdgSas-;'pfr $$0&®& to a
              .' Section the di^k, Into^
 ' fpg guarfcera wlife wid^Tfi otfoer t-
•', disk totally, while, - '/'/',";"'

;; Afbr the'poTrifc'ba^' ^rfeel, dfii g 'hple ift the certe ^f fe,disk. Put 9
 , onto the eyVfafoto followed by a  lock wasfie^ and flat washer^ indert the,
  ey,e bolt thraugh the ho^ in th& disk: wJth the whjte-and  blacfe side faeitif
f, tHe,feye-of the bole. Piama'ftother''fla,t; washet* on top of the assembly -  -'
,. atong,vHtfi a -sufficient number of weig&f^(dependent on Ihe disk ;
  rnateriaf/iise.dl.'Adci another lock washer and bolt 60 finish tee assemojy;
            '  t f f ft                __'"''       '     *"
                   ngth of r-ojse* through Uie,e^e
         . Place ttie meter-stick alongside the nylon
  mark the rope in 5 pr 1 b-centimeter incremen!® wife an iridelibfe
  marke^^wateri^Ci'ol ink measuring from the ftjf> of the disk -A differe&t
  Oojer marker used at each fail  meter increment wi faclftsfce Secchi'' ''' -
  measurements.  -                            ,          '*/•>•'••'•'•'''',,
              -.      ,   fffff              "      "> "• "•     '  "  ''''""
               "•s  ,_ s                 '              '•'•    "•"••.    -f •"'
  * -The required «jpe length depend '-cfi sveraga water pfartfey fi3tt$fcfOn$/
                               33

-------
 Chapter 3
              A  Homemade Secchi  Disk
             Lock Washer
              Flat Washer
                                      Attach incremented
                                      rope here
                                           Eye Bolt
       Nut
                                                    Black & White
                                                    Secchi disk
              Flat Washer-1
             Lock Washer
       Weight
       Nut
Measuring Turbidity
Although the most accurate means
of assessing turbidity is with a
nephelometer which electronically
measures light scatter, many
programs rely on the Secchi disk.
Easy to use, inexpensive, and
consistently accurate, this simple
weighted disk is used by volunteers
to measure the water depth at which
the disk just disappears from view—
the Secchi depth. Most programs
find that the Secchi disk gives
sufficiently good clarity readings.
The Secchi disk is 20 centimeters in
diameter and divided into alternat-
ing black and white quadrants to
enhance visibility and contrast
(although some are totally white).
Attach a white nylon rope with
black marks at tenth-of-a-meter
increments to the center of the black
and white surface of the disk. Mark
every one meter increment on the
rope with a red line to simplify
reading the depth measurement.
Make sure the disk hangs horizon-
tally when suspended.
                                 34  	

-------
                                              Setting the Stage
In 1948, a scientist outlined optimal
conditions for recording Secchi disk
readings:
  •   clear sky;
  •   sun directly overhead but disk
     should be in shade or shadow;
  •   protected side of boat with
     minimal waves or ripples.

If the conditions vary from this ideal
situation, record any differences on
the data sheet. Additionally, make
sure the sun is at your back if it is
not directly overhead and do not
wear sunglasses while viewing the
Secchi disk in the water.

To take a Secchi reading:
  •  Tie a wrist loop at the end of
     the rope so the rope end does
     not accidentally drop into the
     water when the disk is
     lowered.
  •  Lower the disk into the water
     until the disk just disappears
     from sight.
  •  Record the amount of rope
     submerged to the nearest one-
     tenth meter (i.e., note the point
     where the rope and water line
     meet).
  •  Raise the disk slowly until the
     disk just becomes visible and
     record this depth as well.
  •  Average the two recorded
     values. This average is called
     the limit of visibility.
  • If the disk hits the bottom
     before dropping out of sight,
     note this observation and
     record the bottom depth.

Secchi readings will vary with the
specific estuary, location in the
estuary, and season. Water clouded
with sediment after a storm or with
high levels of phytoplankton during
a warm spell will have low Secchi
readings (poor water clarity). Low
productivity winter waters or
estuarine water located near the
ocean will generally register higher
Secchi depths.

Other Parameters
Volunteer monitoring programs
should consider including a few
other parameters in their suite of
regular measurements. Most are
simple to carry out and provide
additional background information
helpful in the final  analysis of an
estuary's status. These parameters
include:

 •  Air Temperature
     Air temperature can be
     measured with the same
     thermometer used for reading
     water temperature. Prior to
     placing it in the sample bucket
     of water at the site, allow the
     thermometer to equilibrate
     with the surrounding air
     temperature for three to five
                                  35

-------
Chapter 3
    minutes. Make sure the
    thermometer is out of direct
    sunlight which will give a
    false high reading. Read the
    thermometer to the nearest half
    degree Centigrade.

    Odor
    Though quite subjective, water
    odor can reveal water quality
    problems that may not be
    visually apparent. Industrial
    and municipal effluents,
    rotting organic matter, and
    bacteria can all produce
    distinctive odors. Raw sewage,
    for example, has an unmistak-
    able aroma. Make note of the
    odor in the data record and
    describe the smell.
Precipitation
Precipitation data help the
program manager determine
the possible causes of turbidity
and erosion. Turbidity, for
instance, generally rises during
and after a rainstorm due to
soil runoff. A wind storm
(without precipitation), on the
other hand, might cause
turbidity due to bottom
mixing. Precipitation also may
help explain why nutrient
concentrations rise (with rain)
or decline (with little rain).

Place the rain gauge in an open
area away from interference
from overhead obstructions
and post it more than one
meter above the ground.
                    Rain Gauge Placement
          Adapted from: The Monitor's Handbook, LaMotte Co., 1992

         	   36   	

-------
                                         Setting the Stage
            CITIZEN MONITORING DATA SHEET

Date of Sampling:	 Time of Day:	 a.m. or p.m.
Volunteer Name:	Site Name:	
SITE CONDITIONS
(Check one item under each category except under "Other" in which you
should check all that apply.]
Wind: Calm	 Slight Breeze	 Moderate Breeze	 Windy	
Weather: Clear	 Partly Cloudy	 Overcast	 Rainy	
         Drizzle	 Fog	 Snow	
Wind Direction: N__  NE__ E_ SE___ S__ SW_  W_ NW_
Air Temperature:	°C
Rainfall: Weekly Accumulation (in inches)	.	
Tidal Stage: Flooding	  High Slack _ Ebbing	 Low Slack	
Water Surface: Calm	 Ripples	 Chop	Swells	
Water Color: Med. Brown	 Dk. Brown	Red-Brown	 Green-
             Brown 	 Green	Yellow-Brown	Other	
Smell: Sewage	 Oily	 Fishy	 Rotten Eggs	  None	
      Other	,	
Other: Sea Nettles	 Dead Fish	 Dead Crabs	  Algal Bloom	
      Oil Slick	 Ice	 Debris	 Erosion	  Foam	
      Bubbles     Other	
             Page 1 • Citizen Monitoring Data Sheet
            	   37   	

-------
 Chapter 3
       CITIZEN MONITORING DATA SHEET (cont.)

WATER QUALITY MEASUREMENTS
Secchi Depth:	meters
Water Depth:	.	meters
Hydrometer (unconnected):	° C   Water Temp, in Bucket:	° C
Water Temp, in Hydrom. Jar:	° C  Hydrometer (corrected]):	° C
Salinity: 	%>  pH:	
Dissolved Oxygen: Test 1	  ppm  Test 2	 ppm
                       Average:	 ppm
Time spent doing aboue sampling:.
General Comments:	
Signature:.
             Page 2 •  Citizen Monitoring Data Sheet
            	   38  	

-------
                                         Setting the Stage
Check the gauge each morn-
ing, record the amount of
precipitation and the time of
measurement, and then empty
the gauge. If the gauge sits
after a rainfall, evaporation
can falsify the measurement.

Tides
Programs studying highly
stratified estuaries or estuaries
with tidal ranges over a few
feet may want to measure tidal
stage. Tides of sufficient
magnitude are effective mixers
of estuarine waters and may
break down stratification.
Even if tidal stage data are not
included at the beginning of
the sampling effort, the
National Oceanic and Atmo-
spheric Administration
(NOAA) publishes tide tables
for most of the U.S. and this
information can be obtained
and applied after the fact if the
monitoring station is reason-
ably close to one of the
published tide table sites.

A simple tide staff (or a
measuring stick attached
securely to a dock) and a
watch are sufficient to measure
tidal stage. The Charleston,
South Carolina Harborwatch
group has devised a tidal phase
angle tool which, along with
local tide tables, allows
volunteers to translate tidal
stage into a single number. For
more information on how to
use this tool, contact the
Harborwatch Program in
Charleston, South Carolina
(see address in the references
at the end of this chapter).
                             39

-------
 Chapter 3
References

Ellett, K., 1991, Citizen Monitoring Manual, 2nd ed., Alliance for the
    Chesapeake Bay, Baltimore, MD, 18 pp.

Goodwin, M.H. and S.T. Robles, 1992, Citizen Water Quality Monitoring
    Program Procedures Manual, Harborwatch, Charleston, SC, 17 pp.

For more information on the tidal phase angle tool, contact:
    Mr. Mel Goodwin
    Harborwatch
    P.O.Box 21655
    Charleston.SC 29413
    (803) 577-2103

LaMotte Company, 1992, The Monitor's Handbook, Chestertown, MD, 71 pp.

Lee, V., D. Avery, E. Martin, and N. Wetherill, 1992, Salt Pond Watchers
    Protocol #/: Field Sampling Manual, Coastal Resources Center, Univer-
    sity of Rhode Island, Tech. Rpt. No.  14, 27 pp.

Tennessee Valley Authority, 1988, Homemade Sampling Equipment, Water
    Quality Series - Booklet 2, Chattanooga, TN, 16 pp.
                                40

-------
Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen
            Chapter 4
        Monitoring
          Dissolved
            Oxygen

-------
 Chapter 4
The Importance of
Dissolved Oxygen

Of all the parameters that character-
ize an estuary, the level of dissolved
oxygen (DO) in the water is one of
the best indicators of the estuary's
health. An estuary with little or no
oxygen in its waters cannot support
healthy levels of animal or plant
life.

Unlike many of the problems
plaguing estuaries, the conse-
quences of a rapid decline in DO set
in quickly and animals must move
to areas with higher levels of
oxygen or perish. This immediate
impact makes measuring the level
of DO an important means of
assessing the status of water quality.

The Role of Dissolved Oxygen
in the Estuarine Ecosystem
Oxygen enters an estuary's waters
from the  atmosphere and through
aquatic plant and phytoplankton
photosynthesis. Currents and wind-
generated waves boost the amount
of oxygen entering the water by
putting more water in contact with
the atmosphere. Oxygen solubility
in water is poor, however, and even
well-aerated, cold  (0 degree
Centigrade) fresh water can only
hold 14.2 milligrams per liter (mg/
L) of oxygen when fully saturated.
Salt water can absorb even less
oxygen than fresh water. Similarly,
warm water holds less oxygen than
cold.

Most animals and plants can grow
and reproduce unimpaired when DO
levels exceed 5 mg/L. When levels
drop to 3-5 mg/L, however, living
organisms often become stressed. If
levels fall under 3 mg/L, a condition
known as hypoxia, many species
will move elsewhere and non-
mobile species may die. A second
condition, known as anoxia, occurs
when the water becomes totally
depleted of oxygen (under 0.5 mg/
L) and results in the death of any
organism that requires oxygen for
survival.

An integral part of an estuary's
ecological cycle is the breakdown of
organic matter. This process, like
animal and  plant respiration, also
consumes oxygen. Decomposition
of large quantities of organic matter
by bacteria can severely deplete the
water of oxygen and make it
uninhabitable for other species.

An overload of nutrients from
wastewater treatment plants or
runoff from farm fields also adds to
the problem by fueling the over-
growth of phytoplankton. The
phytoplankton ultimately die and
fall to the bottom where they
decompose, using up oxygen in the
deep waters of the estuary.
                                 42

-------
                             Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen
   Dissolved  Oxygen
      in the Water
                        5 mg/L
                         3 mg/L
                         Omg/L
                         Anoxia
Although excess nutrients from
human activities are a major cause
of hypoxia and anoxia, these
conditions may also occur in
estuaries relatively unaffected by
humans. Generally, however, the
severity of low DO and the length of
time that low oxygen conditions
persist are less extreme.
Levels of Dissolved Oxygen
Although we may think of water as
homogeneous and non-changing, its
chemical constitution does, in fact,
vary over time. Oxygen levels, in
particular, may change sharply in a
matter of hours, making it difficult
to assess the significance of any
single DO value.

At the surface of an estuary, the
water at mid-day is often close to
oxygen saturation due both to
mixing with air and the production
of oxygen by plant photosynthesis.
As night falls, photosynthesis ceases
and plants consume available
oxygen, forcing DO levels at the
surface to  decline. Cloudy weather
may also cause surface water DO
levels to drop since reduced sunlight
slows photosynthesis.

The DO levels in deeper parts of an
estuary fluctuate according to the
rate of oxygen diffusion from the
upper layer and the amount of
mixing caused by storms, wind,
currents, and the circulation of water
due to temperature differences
between the layers. Stratification is
quite effective in blocking the
transfer of oxygen and nutrients
between the upper and lower layers.
In a well-stratified estuary, very
little oxygen may reach the lower
depths and the deep water may
remain at  a fairly constant low level
                                  43

-------
 Chapter 4
of DO until the stratification
disintegrates with the changing of
seasons or a large storm.

Sampling Considerations

Where to Sample
The pattern of circulation and DO
levels in the estuary over time
should influence the sampling
scheme set up to monitor oxygen
levels. For instance, a well-stratified
estuary may require surface,
intermediate, and bottom water
samples or a complete profile to
fully characterize the status of DO
in its waters. A reasonably well-
mixed estuary, however, or one in
which the monitoring sites are
located only in shallow waters
(where stratification often breaks
down) may require only a single
surface sample at each site.

While tidal range (the difference
between high and low tides) is
negligible in some estuaries,
programs studying areas with large
swings in tides will have to consider
this effect. Tides strong enough to
cause mixing may weaken the
stratification in the estuary. This
effect is particularly apparent during
spring tides (the highest tides of the
month). By mixing the upper and
lower layers, the tides allow
nutrients trapped in bottom waters to
mix upward and oxygen from the
surface to  move down.
Site selection is critical to the
ultimate usefulness of the data.
Among the factors relevant to site
selection are:
  •   representativeness of the site
     to the estuary;
  •   proximity to other sites;
  •   presence of sites already
     included in a state, county, or
     local program;
  •   importance of the site to
     statistical analyses;
  •   accessibility by the volunteer
     monitor;
  •   local hydrology;
  •   presence of stratification;
  •   proximity to known or
     suspected point or nonpoint
     sources of pollution; and
  •   conditions unique to the site
     (e.g., the confluence of two
     tributaries, content and
     quantity of local runoff, or
     current status of water
     quality).

When to Sample
In estuarine systems, sampling for
DO throughout the year is preferable
to establish a clear picture of water
quality. If year-round sampling is
not possible, taking samples from
the beginning of spring  well into the
autumn will provide the program
with the most significant data.
Warm weather conditions bring on
hypoxia and anoxia which pose
                                  44

-------
                              Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen
serious problems for the estuary's
plants and animals. Because these
conditions are rare during winter,
cold weather data can serve as a
baseline of information.

Sampling once a week is generally
sufficient to capture the variability
of DO in the estuary. Since DO may
fluctuate throughout the day,
volunteers sampling at about the
same time of day each week are less
likely to record data that largely
capture daily fluctuations. Some
programs suggest that volunteers
sample in the morning near dawn as
well as mid-afternoon to capture the
daily high and low DO values.

It is also useful to have volunteers
available to collect data during or
after large storms as long as the
program manager deems it safe to
sample. Such data are often invalu-
able to state managers who may be
unable to mobilize forces quickly
enough to capture such events.
Storm data give a snapshot of how
severe wind and precipitation affect
the status of DO in the  water.

Similarly, program managers may
want data collection during unusual
conditions such as large fish  kills or
"crab jubilees." A mass exodus of
crabs onto the shore may occur
when DO declines rapidly and
drastically—sending the crabs
landward in search of oxygen.
Methods of Measuring DO
Citizen programs may elect to use
either a dissolved oxygen electronic
meter or one of the several DO test
kits available. The meter is most
accurate and simple to use. How-
ever, its price will likely exceed
$750. Dissolved oxygen meters may
be useful for programs in which
measurements are needed at only a
few sites, volunteers sample at
several sites by boat, or volunteers
plan on running DO profiles (many
measurements taken at different
depths at one site).

The electronic meter measures DO
based on the rate of molecular
oxygen diffusion across a mem-
brane. The results are extremely
accurate providing the unit is well-
maintained and calibrated in
accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions before each use.

The DO probe may be placed
directly into the estuary for a
reading or into a water sample
drawn out by bucket. Some meters
include a thermistor which allows
volunteers to take both DO and
temperature readings simulta-
neously. Another possibility is a
meter which contains a permanent
membrane and eliminates the need
for constant recalibration.
                                  45

-------
 Chapter 4
If volunteers are sampling at several
widely scattered sites, one of the
many DO kits on the market may be
more cost-effective. These kits rely
on the Winkler titration method or
one of its modifications. These
modifications reduce the effect of
materials in the water, such as
organic matter, which may cause
inaccurate results.

The kits are inexpensive, generally
ranging from $30 to $50. Kits
provide good results if monitors
adhere strictly to established
sampling protocol. Aerating the
water sample, allowing it to sit in
sunlight or unfixed (see the follow-
ing box on titration for an explana-
tion of fixing), and titrating too
hastily can all introduce error into
DO results.

For convenience, the volunteer
monitors should keep their kits at
home and take them to the sampling
site each week. The program
manager must provide the monitors
with fresh chemicals as needed.
Periodically, the manager should
check the kit to make sure that each
volunteer is properly maintaining
and storing the kit's components. At
the start of the monitoring program,
and periodically thereafter if
possible, the program manager
should directly compare kit mea-
surements to those from a standard
Winkler titration conducted in a lab.
Water Samplers
A carefully handled bucket sample
will yield good results of surface
water DO. Some programs, how-
ever, will need to sample at depth.
To accommodate at-depth measure-
ments, equipment supply companies
produce several types of water
samplers designed to collect water at
specific depths through the water
column.

Two of the most commonly used
samplers in citizen monitoring
programs are the Van Dorn and
Kemmerer samplers or some
variation of these two. Both sam-
plers have an open cylinder which
has stoppers at both ends. A
calibrated  line attaches to the device
and allows the volunteer to lower
the unit into the water to a precise
depth.

To collect a sample, the volunteer
sets the sampler in the cocked
position by releasing both rubber
corks. After lowering the unit into
the water to the proper depth, the
volunteer then releases a "messen-
ger"—or weight—down the line.
When the messenger hits the
sampler, it trips a releasing mecha-
nism and the two stoppers seal off
the ends of the tube.
                                  46

-------
                             Monitoring Dissolved  Oxygen
    Van Dorn Water Sampler
   Kemmerer Water Sampler
Source: Amer. Public Health Assoc., 1989,
       Standard Methods for the Exami-
       nation of Waste S. Wastewater.
If sampling routinely takes place
from a bridge, the manager should
install a lighter weight messenger on
the sampler. Repeated use of the
standard messenger from such
heights will eventually damage the
unit.

The volunteer should pull the
sampler to the surface and transfer
the collected water into a sample
bottle. Since pouring the water from
one container to another can aerate
the sample and bias results, the
volunteer should transfer the water
using a rubber hose with an attached
push valve. With the end of the hose
at the bottom of the empty sample
container, the volunteer should fill
the bottle to overflowing to avoid
contamination by the air.

How to Monitor DO

Before heading out to sample for the
first time, the volunteer should
select a regular sampling day that
fits into his or her personal schedule.
Adherence to the schedule is ideal
but program managers should
recognize that everyone will deviate
from the scheduled sampling on
occasion. If possible, the make-up
date should be within two days on
either side of the original date or a
trained back-up volunteer should
substitute.
                                  47

-------
 Chapter 4
                       Titration

    Iteration is an analytical procedure used to measure the
    quantity of a substance in a water sample by generating a
    known chemical reaction. In the process, a reagent is
    incrementally added to a measured volume of the sample
    until reaching an obvious endpoint, such as a distinct
    change in color.

    Volunteers can use titration to assess the quantity of
    dissolved oxygen at a sampling site. This procedure,
    known as the Winkler Titration, uses iodine as a
    substitute for the oxygen dissolved in a "fixed" sample
    of water. A "fixed" sample is one in which the water
    has been chemically rendered stable or unalterable.
    Iodine stains the sample yellow-brown. In turn, a
    chemical called sodium thiosulfate reacts with the free
    iodine in the water to form another chemical, sodium
    iodide. When the reaction is complete, the sample
    turns  clear. This color change is called the endpoint.
    Since the color change is often swift and can occur between one
    drop of reagent and the next, a starch indicator should be added to
    the solution to exaggerate the color change. The starch keeps the
    sample blue until all the free iodine is gone at which time the sample
    immediately turns colorless. The amount of sodium thiosulfate used
    to turn the sample clear translates directly into the amount of
    dissolved oxygen present in the original water sample.
The volunteer, possibly in collabora-
tion with the program manager,
should also characterize the collec-
tion site with a written description
and accompanying photograph. This
information serves as an initial
status report with which to compare
any future changes of the site. Use
either a nautical or topographic map
to determine the latitude and
longitude of the site.
                                 48

-------
                             Monitoring  Dissolved Oxygen
The program manager should supply
each volunteer with a set of sam-
pling data forms. The forms,
properly filled out, provide a set of
standardized data useful to both
managers and scientists. Volunteers
should record the data as they take
measurements; relying on memory
is risky.

Volunteers should not sample if the
weather is potentially dangerous.
Training should include information
on the appropriate circumstances for
both proceeding with and waiving
data collection. If volunteers elect to
go out in poor conditions, they
should be aware of the risks and
always take proper safety gear
(particularly if proceeding by boat).
No one should go out on the water
during thunderstorms or high wave
conditions.
 TASK1
Verifying sampling schedule and
checking weather conditions

Elements of Task 1

Q   Confirm the correct sampling
     date.

Q   Check the television, radio, or
     Weather Service for current
     forecasts before deciding
     whether to sample. This step is
     particularly critical if the
     volunteer is traveling by boat.
     Before boarding the vessel, the
     volunteer should personally
     observe weather and estuary
     conditions and consider
     rescheduling if the conditions
     are poor. Volunteers should
     never sample alone from the
     boat.
                                  49

-------
 Chapter 4
Checking proper equipment

Before proceeding to the site, the
volunteer should make sure to bring
along all the proper equipment.
Results may be inaccurate if the
volunteer has to improvise because a
sampling device or chemical bottle
has been left behind.

Elements of Task 2

Q   The volunteer should bring the
     following items to the site for
     each sampling session:

  /  Large clean bucket with rope
  /  Fully stocked dissolved
     oxygen kit (if not using a
     meter)
  /  Armored thermometer
  /  Blank data sheet and instruc-
     tion manual
  •^  Pencils and clipboard
  •/  Water sampler (if taking a full
     DO profile)
  /  DO meter (if not using DO kit)
     and backup batteries
    If monitoring from a boat,
volunteers should bring the follow-
ing additional equipment:

 /  Coast Guard-approved
     personal flotation device (one
     for each person aboard)
 /  Equipment required by state
     and local law (the state boating
     administration will have a list
     of such requirements which
     usually includes such items as
     a fire extinguisher and bell.
 /  First aid kit
 •^  Anchor
 /  Weighted line to measure
     depth
 •/  Nautical chart of area
                                  50

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                              Monitoring Dissolved  Oxygen
Recording preliminary informa-
tion and general observations

Once at the site, the volunteer should
record general observations of the
local area. (For information on
returning to the same monitoring
site, see Chapter 5, page 62.)
Observations include the color of the
water, presence of debris or oil,
recent shoreline erosion, fish kills,
and other notable conditions. The
monitor should record all informa-
tion on the supplied data sheet.

This information helps the program
manager interpret the results of DO
sampling. Storms, for instance, not
only stir up the water and make it
cloudy, but also may force low DO
water into the shallows.

Elements of Task 3

 Q Record the date, time of day,
     weather conditions, and name
     of the volunteer and site.

 Q Note general conditions at the
     site, including the weather and
     wave activity.

 Q Record any condition or
     situation that seems unusual.
     Descriptive notes should be as
     detailed as possible.
Collecting the water sample

This task is necessary if the volun-
teer is using a DO kit or if a sample
is being drawn for a DO meter
(rather than placing the DO probe
directly in the estuary). The citizen
monitor must take care during
collection of the water; jostling or
swirling the sample can result in
aeration and cause erroneous  data.

Elements of Task 4

 Q  Rinse the bucket with estuary
     water twice before sampling.
     Rinse and empty the bucket
     away from the collection area.

 Q  Drop the bucket over the side
     of the dock, pier, or boat and
     allow water from just under
     the surface to gently fill the
     container until it is about two-
     thirds full. There should be no
     air bubbles in the bucket.
 Q  Lift the bucket
     carefully to
     the working
     platform.
                                  51

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 Chapter 4
Measuring DO

Many citizen monitoring programs
use the "azide modification" of the
Winkler Titration to measure DO.
This test removes interference due to
nitrites—a common problem in
estuarine waters.

The volunteer must run the first part
of the test immediately so the oxygen
content of the water does not change.
After the solution is fixed, the
remainder of the test should be
carried out within eight hours (in the
meantime, keep the sample refriger-
ated and in the dark). Each volunteer
should titrate two samples from the
same bucket to minimize the
possibility of errors. If the discrep-
ancy between the two is significant,
the volunteer should run a third
titration. The program's project plan
should define what difference is
considered "significant."

If using a  DO meter, make sure the
unit is calibrated. After inserting the
DO probe into the bucket or placing
it over the side of the boat or pier,
allow the probe to stabilize for at
least 90 seconds before taking a
reading. Manually stir the probe
without disturbing the water to get an
accurate measure.
Take the water temperature by
setting the thermometer in the
bucket and allow it to stabilize while
preparing for the DO test. The
bucket of water used for measuring
DO can also be used for many of.the
other water quality tests.

Elements of Task 5

Q  Rinse the two kit bottles before
    filling them from the sample
    bucket. Then, submerge each
    capped bottle in the bucket,
    remove the lid, and slowly fill.
    Avoid agitating the water in the
    bucket to minimize the
    introduction of oxygen to the
    sample. Tap the side of the
    bottle to loosen any air bubbles
    before capping and lifting the
    bottle from the bucket. Check
    the sample for bubbles and
    repeat the filling steps if
    necessary.

Q  Proceed with the DO test for
    both sample bottles by care-
    fully following the
    manufacturer's instructions.
    Allow some of the sample to
    overflow during these steps;
    this overflow assures that no
    atmospheric oxygen enters the
    bottled contents. After the
    sample is fixed, exposure to air
    will not affect the oxygen
    content of the sample.
                                   52

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                              Monitoring Dissolved  Oxygen
Q   Continue with the titration of
     both samples, again following
     specific instructions included
     with the kit or provided by the
     program manager. Carefully
     measure the amount of fixed
     sample used in titration; this
     step is critical to the accuracy
     of the results. Samples with
     high levels of DO are brown,
     while low DO samples are
     generally pale yellow before
     the starch indicator is added. A
     few minutes after reaching the
     colorless end point, the sample
     may turn blue once again. This
     color reversion is not cause for
     concern—it is simply proof of
     a precise titration.

Q   Calculate the total amount of
     sodium thiosulfate used to
     reach the end point in each
     sample. Each milliliter of
     thiosulfate used is equivalent to
     1 mg/L DO. Average the
     results of the two titrations and
     record both titration values
     along with their average on the
     data sheet.
Cleaning up and sending off data

Make sure to thoroughly rinse all
glassware in the kit and tightly
screw on the caps to the reagent
bottles. Check to assure that each
bottle contains sufficient reagents so
that the program manager can
provide additional chemicals if
needed for the next DO analysis.

Send the completed data sheet to the
program manager. As with all data
sheets, the volunteer should produce
a duplicate copy before mailing in
case the original becomes lost.
                                  53

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 Chapter 4
                                       Safety
                           Each monitor should become thoroughly
                           familiar with the iteration test before
                           conducting it alone. As with any chemicals,
                           those in the DO kit should not come in
                           contact with any part of the body. To
                           minimize accidental contact, clean up any
                           chemical spills as soon as they occur and
                           tightly cap the bottles of reagents after
                           each use.
   Accuracy and safety both depend upon clean equipment. Use a cap
   to cover the test tube during shaking rather than your finger. Keep
   the tubes clean by rinsing them before and after each use and do not
   put the cap of one reagent onto the bottle of another. The work
   surface should be kept clean of chemicals and sponged with clean
   water after the test is complete.
References

Clesceri, L.S., W.E. Greenberg, and R.R. Trussell (eds.), 1989, Standard
    Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American Public
    Health Association, 17th edition, Washington, DC, 1268 pp.

Ellett, K., 1991, Citizen Monitoring Manual, 2nd ed., Alliance for the Chesa-
    peake Bay, Baltimore, MD, 18 pp.

LaMotte Company Staff, 1992, The Monitor's Handbook, LaMotte Company,
    Chestertown, MD. 71 pp.
                                54

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Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
                   Chapter 5
                Monitoring
             Nutrients and
             Phytoplankton

-------
Chapter 5
The Importance of Nutrients

Nutrients—chemical substances
used for maintenance and growth—
are critical for survival. Plants
require carbon, nitrogen, phospho-
rus, oxygen, silicon, magnesium,
potassium, and calcium to grow,
reproduce, and ward off disease. Of
these nutrients, nitrogen and
phosphorus are of particular concern
in estuaries because their availabil-
ity can limit the growth of aquatic
plants.

These two nutrients, along with
water temperature and sunlight,
control phytoplankton abundance.
High levels of phytoplankton often
point to an over-enriched estuary.
For this reason, citizen monitoring
programs focus on nitrogen and
phosphorus as indicators of estua-
rine health.

Although nutrients are essential for
the growth and survival of an
estuary's plants, including phyto-
plankton, an excess of nitrogen and
phosphorus may trigger a string of
events  that seasonally depletes
dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water.
On a longer time scale, excess
nutrients accelerate eutrophica-
tion—an aging process in which
organic debris, along with sedi-
ments,  fill in a body of water.
Why Measure Nutrients?

While DO levels in the estuary are
strongly influenced by biological
activities, nutrients are the starting
gun that set off many of these
oxygen-consuming processes.
Assessing nutrient levels can allow
insight into the causes of many of an
estuary's ills or, on the other hand,
provide reasons for its relative
health.

The interpretation of nutrient
concentration data must be done
with care. While high nutrient levels
suggest the potential for explosive
algal growth, low levels do not
necessarily mean the estuary is
receiving less nutrient input. Large
quantities of nutrients may flow into
the estuary and be quickly taken up
by phytoplankton. Zooplankton, in
turn, graze upon the phytoplankton.
Phosphorus may also bind with the
sediment and remove this nutrient
from the water.

In this general scenario, although
water nutrient concentration is low,
the quantity of nutrients tied up in
the biomass (living matter) and
sediment is high. Change  in any one
of these factors, due to such events
as upwelling, change in pH, or
seasonal turnover, could increase the
concentration of nutrients in the
water.
                                  56

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              Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
|An abundance of phytoplankton
  nay also cause other problems for
line estuary. Water clouded by thick
•patches of these tiny plants does not
[transmit sunlight well. Submerged
[aquatic plants require light to
 photosynthesize; if the water is too
 iloudy during much of the growing
 season, these plants will die.

  Jitrogen and Phosphorus
  Nitrogen and phosphorus enter
lestuaries from several sources—
 both natural and manmade. Natural
[sources of nitrogen  in the estuary
(include the decomposition of
 Drganic matter and the runoff of
  ndomesticated animal waste
 [following a storm.
      Manmade sources include effluent
      from wastewater treatment plants,
      agricultural fertilizer runoff,
      livestock waste, cesspool leaks,
      contaminated rainfall, and car
      exhaust. Phosphorus inputs may also
      originate from animal and plant
      wastes and agricultural fertilizer
      runoff, as well as food processing
      industry effluent, urban and forest
      runoff, and other sources.

      Although nitrogen makes up about
      80 percent of the air, it is inacces-
      sible to most terrestrial and aquatic
      organisms as a gas. Some types of
      bacteria and blue-green algae,
      however, can fix nitrogen gas,
      converting it to organic nitrogen and
                  The Nitrogen  Cycle
   Rain, drainage,
    and wastes
 Nitrogen-fixing
algae and bacteria
 | Adapted from: U.S. EPA, 1987, Chesapeake Bay: Introduction to an Ecosystem, EPA
              Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, MD.
                         	57

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Chapter  5
                The  Phosphorus  Cycle
  Rain, drainage,
   and wastes
    Qrganlc
  Phosphorus
           Remineralizing
            microbes -^
 Inorganic
Phosphorus
                                            Detritus
Adapted from: U.S. EPA, 1987, Chesapeake Bay: Introduction to an Ecosystem,
             EPA Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, MD.
making it available to other species.
In the estuary, nitrogen exists in a
variety of chemical forms such as
ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite as well
as in particulate and dissolved
organic forms.

The quantity and form of nitrogen in
the water closely relate to DO
levels. Through nitrification,
bacterial activity changes ammonia
to nitrite and then to nitrate. This
biological process consumes oxygen
and may ultimately make the water
uninhabitable for other organisms.
When nitrification is inhibited by
low DO conditions, ammonia or
nitrite forms of nitrogen may
accumulate.
         Through denitrification, bacteria
         convert nitrate to nitrite and then to
         nitrogen gas. This process occurs
         under anoxic conditions and helps
         rid the system of excess nitrogen.
         Phosphorus also exists in the water
         in several forms: organic phosphate, I
         orthophosphate (inorganic phospho-1
         rus), and polyphosphate (more likelj
         in polluted areas). Orthophosphate
         in the water comes from fertilizers
         whereas organic phosphorus results
         from plant and animal waste.
         Decomposition of dead plants and
         animals also adds organic phospho-
         rus to the water. In general, excess
         phosphates enter an estuary from
         water treatment plants, sewage, and
         soils.
                                  58

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             Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
 Jnder oxygenated conditions,
phosphate will form chemical
Complexes with manganese and iron
and also bind to sediments. If the
Dottom water in an estuary has no
Dxygen, phosphate bound to the
pediments is released back into the
 vater. This release can fuel yet
 nother round of phytoplankton
Dlooms.

 Nutrient Sampling
 Considerations

In setting up a nutrient monitoring
plan, the program manager should
ensure that the effort will continue
for several years. Since the work-
ings of an estuary are complex, a
mere year or two of nutrient data is
insufficient to capture the variability
of the system. In fact, a couple of
years of unusual data may be quite
misleading and tell a story very
different than reality (note the
variability in the plot below).

Nutrient sampling can coexist
efficiently with DO testing. Because
of the expense involved in analyzing
nutrients, however, the nutrient
portion of the program may be
considerably smaller than the DO
effort. The program manager may
want to have a subset of volunteers
monitor  nutrients in areas of
particular concern.
        Nitrite and Nitrate  Levels in  an East Coast Estuary
   1.6-
   1.2-
   O.8-
   0.4-
      Jan '9O   Jul '9O   Jan '91   Jul '92   Jan '92   Jul '92   Jan '93
                                 59

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Chapter 5
Volunteers should sample nutrients
on a weekly basis, although bi-
weekly sampling will still yield
valuable information. (See Chapter
10, Presenting Monitoring Results,
for examples of data use). In
temperate climates,  some programs
may eliminate wintertime measure-
ments when nutrient levels are not
as important. A few measurements
during the winter, however, will
provide a baseline of nutrient levels
with which to compare the rest of
the year's data.

Selecting Monitoring Sites
Selecting representative sampling
sites is probably the most important
element in setting up a nutrient
monitoring effort. Site location will
depend a great deal  on the purpose
of data collection. If, for example,
the program is attempting to
pinpoint trouble spots in the estuary,
the manager should cluster monitor-
ing sites where point and nonpoint
sources  of nutrients appear to enter
the water. Such sites might include
an area near the discharge pipe of a
wastewater treatment plant or
adjacent to an agricultural area
where fertilizers are applied or
livestock congregate.

To help ensure the data's scientific
validity, volunteers  should monitor
sample locations both up and
downstream from the pollutant
inflow point, as well as at the point
of entry, to provide comparative
data. Monitoring the impact of
nonpoint sources of nutrients, such
as agricultural runoff, which do not
enter at a single point demands a
more detailed study of the area to
choose the most suitable sampling
sites.

Other programs may wish to obtain
baseline data that, over several
years, will reveal nutrient trends.
Such trends may indicate whether
nutrient levels in the estuary are
increasing, decreasing,  or staying
the same.  Rather than concentrating
on a few critical sites, this type of
program should choose a sufficient
number of sites scattered throughout]
the estuary or in the area of interest
that will paint a representative
picture of nutrient status over time.

In any type of nutrient monitoring,
basic information about the area of
interest is essential for the program
manager to consider before selecting
monitoring sites. Such information
includes:

  •  A map of the watershed with
     all areas of the basin that drain I
     into the estuary demarcated;

  •  Reports and/or data that supply
     general information on the
     estuary and specific informa-
     tion on its historical status;
                                   60

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             Monitoring Nutrients and Phytpplankton
     A bathymetric map of the
     estuary providing depth
     information;

     Information on adjoining
     estuaries or areas if there are
     plans to conduct data compari-
     sons;
  •  Compilation of current and
     past activities in the basin that
     could affect nutrient levels
     (e.g., locations of wastewater
     treatment plants, areas of
     urban runoff, or dredging
     operation sites).

The manager may also want to
create a map showing the location of
volunteers' homes if the program
relies on citizens sampling from
their own dock or pier. This map
will illustrate which areas of the
estuary still need coverage and
where sites may be too tightly
clustered.

When selecting sites, participants
must consider that nutrient levels
(along with other water quality
parameters) are always changing. At
any given time, levels at the surface
will not be the same as those at the
bottom; similarly levels at one site
may vary substantially from
others—even those reasonably
nearby.

Through the seasons, nutrient levels
will fluctuate with changes in water
temperature, the amount of biologi-
cal activity, and the status of other
water quality parameters. While
tidal stage may also cause fluctua-
tions, many volunteer programs
                     Selecting Effective
                      Monitoring Sites
   ; A Ensure fhatjstes are both safe and accessible,-
   A Obtain1 permission from landowners 80 monitor sites on-private '
       land.      -   --   s  "'  -"	                     '   „
   ^ A; Make sure the sifce is underwater even at |ow'tide/  ,
   A UacaEe tfre site on-the up-river/up-estuary side,of bridges so   ''
       that the specimen is not contaminated by bridge runoff.
   A- Make sure that volunteers oan'pfecisely-relocate the site if they
       must reach it by boat.
                                 61

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Chapter 5
have found that "chasing the tides"
does not yield enough additional
information to make the effort
worthwhile.

Sampling at a small number of sites
every week or two cannot possibly
capture the constantly changing
water quality of an  estuary. The key
to effective nutrient monitoring is to
sample at a sufficiently frequent
interval and at enough representa-
tive sites so that the data will
account for most of the inherent
variability within the system.

Where to Sample in the
Water Column

For most citizen monitoring
programs, samples  taken from the
estuary's surface will suffice. These
samples will provide a reasonably
accurate indication of nutrient levels
in the vicinity of the sampling site.
In more sophisticated studies in
which nutrients throughout the
water column are of interest,
volunteers may need to collect
samples using a standard water
sampler at precise depths.

Returning to the Same
Monitoring Site

Once the program manager and the
volunteers have chosen monitoring
sites, quality control demands that
each volunteer sample from exactly
the same location each time. If the
site is off the end of a dock or pier,
returning to the monitoring site is a
simple matter. If, however, the
volunteer reaches the site by boat,
the task becomes more complicated.
There are two basic methods to
ensure that volunteers return to the
same site:

  •  The Shoreline Landmark
     Method
     Landmarks—conspicuous
     natural or manmade objects—
     provide a ready means of
     identifying a specific monitor-
     ing site. Once the program
     manager and volunteer have
     identified a permanent site,
     they should anchor the boat
     and scan the landscape for
     distinctive features. Such
     features can include tall or
     solitary trees, large rocks,
     water towers, flag poles, or
     any other highly visible and
     identifiable object.

     Two landmarks, in front-to-
     back alignment, should be
     chosen. The sight line created
     by the landmarks will lead
     directly back to the site. The
     volunteer should then pick
     another set of aligned land-
     marks onshore about 90
     degrees from the sight line of
                                  62   —

-------
       Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
                           The Shoreline
                           Landmark Method
the first set. The two sight or
bearing lines should intersect
at the boat. The volunteer
should practice repositioning
the boat at this point.

In some cases, volunteers must
return to monitoring sites on a
coastal pond, sound, or lagoon
                 	63
located in the middle of a salt
marsh or in some other rather
featureless landscape. If no
obvious landmarks are
available, volunteers may want
to post two sets of brightly
colored signal flags. They
should obtain permission from
the landowner before posting
the flags.

-------
Chapter 5
           Constructing a Landmark Flag
                      Tacks
                                            Orange or red
                                            flag with edge
                                            rolled.
                                                  Wire wrapped
                                                  around log
                                       •Wooden
                                       stake
            Adapted from: R. Compton, 1962, Manual of Field Geology,
                      John Wiley & Sons, New York, p. 118.
                              64

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        Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
The Marker Buoy Method
In wind and wave-protected
sections of an estuary,
volunteers may want to set
buoys to mark the
monitoring site. The
buoy should be
brightly
colored and
easily
distin-
guish-
able
from
fisher-
men buoys floating in the area.
The program manager should
check on local and state
regulations regarding buoy
placement before using this
method.

Although  a simple means of
marking a site, buoys do not
always stay in place; wind,
waves, and passersby may
move the buoy or remove it
entirely. Volunteers should use
the shoreline landmark method
as a backup to ensure that the
buoy is correctly positioned.
Choosing a Sampling Method
A dilemma arises for program
managers when deciding upon the
appropriate method for measuring
nutrient levels in an estuary. On one
hand, kits for nitrogen and phospho-
rus are notoriously imprecise; on the
other, submitting prepared samples
for lab analysis is costly and time
consuming. Program managers
frequently arrange to have a high
school, college, or professional lab
donate its time and facilities to the
volunteer effort.

Whatever sampling method is
chosen, program managers should
periodically compare the citizen
monitoring data to duplicate
samples analyzed by another
method under laboratory conditions.
Following is a list of the possible
methods of nutrient analysis, along
with each method's advantages and
pitfalls.
                            65

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Chapter 5
     Test Kits
     Several companies manufac-
     ture kits for analyzing the
     various forms of nitrogen and
     phosphorus. While the kits are
     not extremely precise, the
     manager may choose to use
     them when deemed appropri-
     ate given the program's data
     objectives.

     These kits are suitable for
     identifying nutrient trouble
     spots, measuring nutrient
     levels in wastewater where
     levels are generally higher
     than in the estuary, and
     assessing nitrogen and
     phosphorus levels in highly
     enriched waters. Areas where
     concentrations routinely
     exceed concentrations of 1
     mg/L are good candidates for
     kit analysis.

     The kits are not effective,
     however, in waters where
     nutrient concentrations tend
     towards the low side. The kits
     have poor (high) detection
     limits and a set of data taken in
     low nutrient waters may yield
     nothing more than a string of
     "non-detectables." The kits
     rely on a color comparison in
     which the volunteer matches
     the color of a prepared water
     sample to one in a set of
provided standards. The
subjectivity of each
volunteer's decision as well as
ambient light levels will
influence the results to some
degree.

While generally easy to use,
many state and federal
agencies will reject nutrient
data derived using these kits
because of the wide error
range. If the data are intended
to supplement state or federal
efforts, it is wise to confer
with the agency beforehand to
determine if kits are an
acceptable monitoring method.

Spectrophotometer
A Spectrophotometer measures |
the quantity of a chemical
based on its characteristic
absorption spectrum compar-
ing the collected sample to a
reference sample. This method |
of nutrient determination is
generally quite accurate
although the instruments are
expensive to purchase and
maintain.

Citizen groups that rely
heavily on precise nutrient
data should have a few people
sample nutrients from a boat
(rather than many volunteers
                                  66

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        Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
sampling from their own
docks). Programs with ample
funds for equipment ma)' want
to consider purchasing this •
reliable instrument which costs
from $1000 to $6000.

Because the instrument
requires proper maintenance
and precise calibration, the
program manager or someone
familiar with this equipment
must be on each monitoring
cruise. Samples may also be
brought back for spectropho-
tometer analysis in a lab.

Colorimeter
A colorimeter compares the
intensity of color between the
sample and a standard to mea-
sure the quantity of a com-
pound in the sample solution.

Cheaper than spectrophotom-
eters,  a colorimeter offers
citizen programs a reasonably
priced alternative. It is quite
accurate, fairly easy to use,
and can provide direct meter
readout. Colorimeters range in
price from $400 to $600.

Like the spectrophotometer,
this instrument can be used for
forms of both nitrogen and
phosphorus. The colorimeter is
a more affordable alternative
for those programs that prefer
a method less costly than the
spectrophotometer and more
accurate than the kits.

The colorimeter does require
standard maintenance as well
as reagents which must be
purchased on a regular basis.
The colorimeter provides
accurate data only when
properly maintained and
precisely calibrated by a
professional.

Laboratory Analysis
Analysis  of nutrients by a
professional laboratory is by
far the most accurate means of
obtaining nutrient data. Most
laboratories institute strict
quality assurance and quality
control methods to ensure
consistently reliable results. A
high school, college, or
professional lab may offer its
services free of charge to the
volunteer program.

If the program decides to use
lab analysis, it must ensure
that its volunteers adhere to
strict guidelines while collect-
ing samples. Sloppy field
collection techniques will
result in poor data no matter
how sophisticated the lab.
                             67

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Chapter 5
How to Sample Nutrients

Before heading out to sample for the
first time, the volunteer should
select a regular sampling day that
fits into his or her personal schedule.
Adherence to the schedule is ideal
but program managers should
recognize that everyone will deviate
from the scheduled sampling on
occasion. If possible, the make-up
date should be within two days on
either side of the original date or a
trained back-up volunteer should
substitute.

The volunteer, possibly in collabora-
tion with the program manager,
should also characterize the collec-
tion site with a written description
and accompanying photograph. This
information serves as an initial
status report with which to compare
any future changes of the site. Use
either a nautical or topographic map
to determine the latitude and
longitude of the site.

The program manager should supply
each volunteer with a set of sam-
pling data forms. The forms,
properly filled out, provide a set of
standardized data useful to both
managers and scientists. Volunteers
should record the data as they take
measurements; relying on memory
is risky.
Volunteers should not sample if the
weather is potentially dangerous.
Training should include information
on the appropriate circumstances for j
both proceeding with and waiving
data collection. If volunteers elect to |
go out in poor conditions, they
should be aware of the risks and
always take proper safety gear
(particularly if proceeding by boat).
No one should go out on the water
during thunderstorms or high wave
conditions.
                                   68  —

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              Monitoring Nutrients  and Phytoplankton
 Verifying sampling schedule and
I checking weather conditions.

I Elements of Task 1

     Confirm the correct sampling
     date.

Id   Check the television, radio, or
     Weather Service for current
     forecasts before deciding
     whether to sample. This step is
     particularly critical if the
     volunteer is traveling by boat.
     Before boarding the vessel, the
     volunteer should personally
     observe local weather and
     estuary conditions and consider
     rescheduling if conditions are
     poor. Volunteers should never
     sample alone from a boat.
                                       TASK 2
Checking proper equipment.

Before proceeding to the site, the
volunteer should make sure to bring
along all the proper equipment.
Results may be inaccurate if the
volunteer has to improvise because a
sampling device or bottle of
chemicals  has been left behind.

Elements of Task 2

Q  The volunteer should bring the
    following equipment to the site
    for each sampling session:

  /  Sample bottles—cleaned and
     rinsed with deionized water—
     or autoanalyzer cups
  /  Fully stocked nitrogen and
     phosphorus kits (if not using
     lab analysis)
  /  60 mL syringe with filter
     assembly and filters
  /  Permanent black indelible
     marker to label samples
  /  Blank data sheet and instruc-
     tion manual
  /"  Pencils and clipboard
  y  Water sampler (if collecting
     sample from  other than the
     surface)
  /  Ice cooler with ice packs to
     keep  samples cool
                                 69

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Chapter 5
If monitoring from a boat, the
following additional equipment is
necessary:

  /  Coast Guard-approved
     personal flotation device (one
     for each person aboard)
  /  Equipment required by state
     and local law (the state boating
     administration will have a list
     of such requirements which
     usually includes such items as
     a fire extinguisher and bell)
  /  First aid kit
  /  Anchor
  /  Weighted line to measure
     depth
  •/  Nautical chart of area
 TASKS
Reaching the site.

Navigate to the site and position the
boat using either the landmark or
buoy method. Verify boat position
when using the latter method by
siting on predesignated landmarks to |
ensure that the buoy has not moved.

Securely anchor the boat. It is best
not to bring up the anchor until
sampling is complete since mud
(with associated nutrients) may
become stirred into the water.

Make sure the boat is stable and
begin the sampling routine.
                                  70  —

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             Monitoring  Nutrients and Phytoplankton
 TASK 4
Recording preliminary informa-
tion and general observations.

Record general observations of the
local area including the color of the
water, amount of debris, presence of
oil, recent shoreline erosion,
peculiar odors, and occurrence of
fish kills. A visual assessment of
phytoplankton density is a helpful
aid in interpreting nutrient level
results. Write down all information
on the supplied data sheet.

Elements of Task 4

Q   Record the date, time of day,
     weather conditions, and name
     of the volunteer and site.

Q   Note general conditions at the
     site, including the weather,
     wave activity, and apparent
     phytoplankton density.

Q   Record any condition or
     situation, such as those listed
     above, that seem unusual or out
     of place.  Descriptive notes
     should be as detailed as
     possible.
Collecting the water sample.

Although the task of collecting a
bottle of water seems relatively
easy, volunteers must follow strict
guidelines to prevent contamination
of the sample. For example, it is
preferable to use a standard sam-
pling bottle, such as the Kemmerer
bottle, rather than a simple bucket
since a washed and capped bottle  is
less likely to become contaminated
than an open container. The ele-
ments below describe how to collect
water for either kit or lab nutrient
testing.

Elements of Task 5

Q  Label the sampling bottle.

Q  Uncap the bottle, being careful
    not to touch the container's
    mouth.

Q  To rinse the bottle, push it into
    the water in a forward motion
    holding the container by the
    bottom. This technique will
     keep water  contaminated by
     skin oils and dirt from entering
     the mouth. After filling the
     bottle, bring it to the surface
     with the mouth facing up. Pour
     out the water on the down
                                  71

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Chapter 5
     current side of the boat and
     away from the actual sampling
     site. Rinse the cap as well.

Q   Push the bottle back into the
     water in the same manner to
     collect a sample for analysis.
     Unlike the collection of a
     sample for dissolved oxygen
     analysis, do not completely fill
     the bottle. Leave a small
     amount of air at the mouth.
     Cap the bottle.

Q   Store the container in a cold,
     dark ice chest to retard bacte-
     rial activity and phytoplankton
     growth.
Analyzing the water sample.

The following section describes two
ways to analyze a water sample for
nutrients. If analyzing nutrients by
test kit, follow Procedure A. If
submitting the sample to a lab for
analysis, follow Procedure B.

Procedure A - Elements of test kit
analysis

Q   Conduct the test as soon as
     possible after water sample
     collection. As the sample sits,
     organisms living in the water
     will use up nutrients, changing
     the nutrient concentrations.

Q   Before starting the analysis,
     double check that the bottles,
     test tube, or sample bottle, and
     any other equipment that will
     come in contact with the
     sample are clean. Chemicals
     maintained at about 20 degrees
     C (68 degrees F) will yield the
     best results.

Q   Rinse the test tube or sample
     bottle in  estuary water in the
     same manner as bottle rinsing.
                                  72

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             Monitoring Nutrients  and Phytoplankton
Q  Make sure the sample water is
    well mixed. Pour the sample
    water into the test tube or
    sample bottle filling to the
    measure line. If preferred,
    place the test tube or bottle
    directly into the water over the
    side of the boat to collect a
    sample.

Q  Follow the sampling protocol
    for each nutrient type as
    outlined in the instructions
    accompanying the kit.

Q  Immediately record the results
    on the data sheet.

Procedure B - Elements of prepar-
ing sample for laboratory analysis

The following steps describe the
filtration process that volunteers
should follow to prepare samples for
laboratory analysis. Filtering the
sample removes the particulate
nutrient fraction from the dissolved
fraction. Individual laboratories may
recommend variations on the
following protocol.

Q  Ensure that the containers or
    cups are sufficiently dry for the
    marker to write legibly. Label
    the sample containers or
    autoanalyzer cups that will be
    sent to the lab with  the date,
     site name, and nutrient to be
     analyzed using the indelible
     marker.

Q   Take the cap tip off the
     syringe. Rinse the syringe with
     sample water twice.

Q   Make sure the sample water is
     well mixed. Place the tip of the
     syringe in the sample bottle or
     bucket and draw back on the
     plunger until the syringe is
     completely filled. If preferred,
     place the syringe directly into
     the water over the side of the
     boat to collect a sample.

Q   Hold the syringe with the tip up
     and tap on the side to loosen air
     bubbles. Push the plunger in
     slowly and just enough to force
     the air from the tip, then
     continue pushing until the
     plunger is exactly at the 60 mL
     line.

Q   Grasp the filter unit by the
     base, unscrew the assembly
     ring, and remove the cap.

Q   Hold the deep end of the filter
     assembly in one hand and
     unscrew the outlet end of the
     assembly. Place the black
     rubber O-ring onto the base of
     the deep end, making sure that
                                  73

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Chapter 5
     it fits securely into the groove.
     Using a forceps, gently place a
     Whatman 25 mm GF/F filter
     onto the ring, completely
     covering it. Set the stainless
     steel screen on the filter and
     screw the assembly ring back
     onto the base.

Q   Attach the filter unit securely
     to the filled syringe by screw-
     ing on the deep end with the
     large opening of the filter
     assembly in a clockwise
     motion.

Q   Press steadily and slowly on
     the plunger to force water from
     the syringe through the filter
     unit. Using this technique, rinse
     both of the sample bottles that
     will be sent to the lab and their
     caps with filtered water from
     the syringe, leaving over 30
     mL in the syringe. Fill each
     sample container with the
     remaining syringe water.

Q   Store capped samples immedi-
     ately in a cold, dark cooler. Use
     whatever preservatives that the
     laboratory conducting the
     analyses recommends.

Q   Once ashore, transfer the
     containers from the cooler to a
     freezer as soon as possible.
     The laboratory will provide
        Nutrient
   Filter Assembly
                       Assembly
                       Ring
                       Cap
                       Support
                       Grid
                       Flat Gasket
                       Filter
                       Support
                       Grid
                       0-Ring
                       Base
Adapted from: Lee, V, D. Avery, E Martin, and
          N. Wetherell, 1992, Salt Pond
          Watchers Protocol #1: Field
          Sampling Manual, Rhode Island.
    instructions outlining optimal
    storage temperatures and
    conditions.
                                  74

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             Monitoring Nutrients  and Phytoplankton
 TASK?
Cleaning up and sending off data
forms.

On land, volunteers should thor-
oughly clean all equipment, whether
using the test kit or the lab prepara-
tion method. Use deionized water
for rinsing and allow the equipment
to air dry before storing it away. If
volunteers used the filtration
technique, they should detach the
filter unit from the syringe, unscrew
it, and rinse all parts. The paper
filter can be thrown away.

During training sessions, the
program manager should stress the
importance of properly cleaning all
equipment for proper storage. With
proper storage, the equipment is
ready for the next sampling session.

Make sure the data sheet filled out
for test kit results is complete and
accurate before mailing.

After freezing the samples from the
filtration technique, follow labora-
tory guidelines for packing and
shipping them to the analytical lab.
This step should be done as soon as
possible.
Phytoplankton

Plankton are the largely microscopic
group of organisms that float with
the currents and tides or swim
weakly. Phytoplankton (algae),
zooplankton (small animals), and
bacteria compose the plankton
group.

Phytoplankton—tiny, single-celled
plants that form the base of the
estuary's food pyramid—are critical
to the well-being of the entire water
body. As phytoplankton photosyn-
thesize, these primary producers
transfer the sun's energy into plant
matter and provide nourishment for
the next level of organisms, the
primary consumers. Without
phytoplankton, the intricate web of
estuarine plants and animals would
collapse.

Several types of phytoplankton
exist, including dinoflagellates,
diatoms, and a variety of different
"color" algae. Light, salinity, water
temperature, and available nutrients
all affect the abundance and
composition of phytoplankton
species. An algal population
explosion is known as a "bloom."

The abundance of phytoplankton in
the estuary is a direct indication of
the quantity of nutrients currently or
recently available in the water.
                                  75

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Chapter  5
Source: U.S. EPA. 1987, Chesapeake
       Bay. Introduction to an Ecosystem,
       EPA Chesapeake Bay Program,
       Annapolis, MD.
Some monitoring programs may
want to simply quantify phytoplank-
ton abundance as a rough indication
of nutrient levels. Nutrient tests are
more time-consuming and consider-
ably more expensive due to either
lab charges for the analysis of water
samples or the initial cost of nutrient
analysis kits.

Measuring Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton tend to grow and
concentrate in patches, making
accurate measurement of their
overall abundance quite difficult.
One area thick with phytoplankton
may be only a few meters away
from an area with relatively few of
these plants. Thus, if the volunteer
monitor is collecting a water sample
to analyze phytoplankton, at least
three specimens must be taken to
obtain a reasonably representative
sample.

Several different methods of
obtaining phytoplankton data are
available. Choose a method based
on the precision of data required, the
reason  for collecting phytoplankton
data, and the money available for
this portion of the monitoring effort.
The methods include:

  •  Visual Assessment
     This simple method  allows
     volunteers to estimate visually
     the quantity of phytoplankton
     in a bloom and assign an index
     value. Program managers
     should use this information in
     association with Secchi depth
     data. In New Jersey, the
     Barnegat Bay Watch Monitor-
     ing Program (see the refer-
     ences at the end of the chapter
     for the program's address) has
     developed an Algal Index
     Value to help volunteers to
     assess bloom conditions.

  •  Plankton Net Tow
     A cone-shaped mesh net,
     towed through the water by a
     boat, will collect a variety of
     plankton species. A  single tow
     may not be representative of
                                  76

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         Monitor ing  Nutrients and Phytoplankton
  the population as a whole if
  the phytoplankton are "clump-
  ing" in the water. Several tows
  help alleviate this problem.
                  In the horizontal tow method,
                  volunteers should allow the net
                  to drag behind the boat at a
                  predetermined distance while
Algal Index
   Value
                      ALGAL INDEX
Category
                                          Description
                     Clear         Conditions vary from no
                                  nuisance bloom algae to small
                                  populations present.

                   Present        Some nuisance bloom algae
                                  visible to the naked eye but
                                  present at low to medium levels.

                    Visible         Nuisance algae sufficiently
                                  concentrated that filaments
                                  and/or balls of algae are visible
                                  to the naked eye. May be widely
                                  scattered streaks of algae on the
                                  water surface.
               Scattered Surface
                    Blooms
               Extensive Surface
                    Blooms
              Surface mats of surface nui-
              sance algae scattered; may be
              more abundant in localized areas
              if winds are calm. Some odor
              problems.

              Large portions of the water
              covered by surface mats of
              nuisance algae. Windy conditions
              may temporarily eliminate mats
              but they will quickly redevelop as
              winds become calm. Odor
              problems in localized areas.
                            77

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Chapter 5
     traveling at a set speed
     (usually 1-3 knots). Record
     how long the towing took, so
     that the quantity of water
     filtered can be computed and
     plankton density derived. The
     figure on page 79 shows the
     steps used to calculate
     plankton density.

     The density calculation is
     only approximate due to the
     "net factor"— the effect of
     the net as it is towed—forcing
     some water off to the side
     rather than through its
     opening. Plankton gathered in
     the vial at the base of the net
     can be analyzed microscopi-
     cally for species composition
     as well. Species analysis must
     be conducted soon after
     sampling, however, unless a
     recommended preservative is
     used.

     Water Sample
     If a precise density measure is
     more important than species
     composition, the volunteer
     can use a water sampler (such
     as a Kemmerer or Van Dorn
     sampler) to collect an exact
     volume of water. Plankton
     sampling by this method
     allows analysis of samples
     from different depths,
although patchiness still
remains a problem.

Using this method, the
volunteer pours the collected
volume of water through a net.
The plankton captured by the
net represent the number of
organisms in the premeasured
volume of water. This density
figure can easily be converted
to the number of individuals
per cubic meter or cubic foot
of water. If, for example, one
liter of water was  filtered,
multiply the density value by
1000 to obtain the phyto-
plankton density in a cubic
meter of water.

Note that phytoplankton can
be distinguished from zoo-
plankton by their color;
zooplankton are generally
colorless.

Chlorophyll Collection for
Lab Analysis
All plants contain chloro-
phyll—a green pigmented
material essential for photo-
synthesis. Measuring the
chlorophyll in a sample yields
an estimate of the quantity of
phytoplankton living in the
water at the sampling site.
                                   78

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        Monitoring Nutrients and Phytoplankton
             Plankton  Sampling
                               Note: The filter will eventually clog depending upon
                                   the concentration of plankton in the water.
   s,
    Fuily rinse net
    so all plankton
   wash into bottom
     container
         1-3 mph
  Total volume of water filtered (V)
equals A (the area of the net (n x rz])
multiplied by D (the distance traveled
multiplied by the time dragging the net.

 V = A x D (do not mix metric and
        English measurements)
  Mix and extract
 solution with dropper
The total number of
plankton in the original
sample equals the A
plankton concentration ^M
in the total volume of ^^
water filtered.
Count plankton in
slide sample and
^^^ multiply by 20O to
^^^r get the number
^^^ of plankton per >

£ 1 drop = 1/20 mL
^ S

In this procedure, the volun-
teer pours a well-suspended
water sample into an opaque
bottle which is placed on ice,
kept in the dark, and trans-
ported to the lab. In the lab,
the sample is run through a
glass fiber filter which is then
placed in acetone and ground
  up. Technicians then measure
  the amount of chlorophyll in
  the processed sample with a
  fluorometer (an instrument
  that measures the fluorescence
  of a substance). The more
  intense the red light emitted by
  the specimen, the higher the
  chlorophyll  concentration.
                             79

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Chapter 5
References

Kerr, M., L. Green, M. Raposa, C. Deacutis, V. Lee, and A. Gold, 1992,
    Rhode Island Volunteer Monitoring Water Quality Protocol Manual, URI
    Coastal Resources Center, RI Sea Grant, and URI Cooperative Extension,
    38pp.

Ellett, K., 1991, Citizen Monitoring Manual, 2nd ed., Alliance for the Chesa-
    peake Bay, Baltimore, MD, 18 pp.

LaMotte Chemical Products Company, undated, Laboratory Manual for
    Marine Science Studies, LaMotte Educational Products Division,
    Chestertown, MD, 41 pp.

Clesceri, L.S., W.E. Greenberg, and R.R. Trussell (eds.), 1989, Standard
    Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American Public
    Health Association, 17th edition, Washington, DC,  1268 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987, Chesapeake Bay: Introduction
    to an Ecosystem, EPA Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, MD,  33 pp.
                                 80

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Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
                    Chapter 6
                 Monitoring
                Submerged
                    Aquatic
                 Vegetation

-------
 Chapter 6
The Role of Submerged
Aquatic Vegetation

In the shallows of many healthy
estuaries, where sunlight penetrates
the water, dense stands of aquatic
plants sway in unison with the
incoming waves. Although such a
bed appears homogeneous at first
glance, the vegetation hosts a wide
variety of animal life. These animals
seek protection from predators,
scout for food, and search for cover
for their young among the plants.

These aquatic plants, known
collectively as submerged aquatic
vegetation (SAV), include all of the
underwater plants that live through-
out the estuary or in near coastal
waters. Unlike marsh species that
depend on daily inundation by tides,
SAV lives in areas where the plants
will remain largely submerged.
Once established, these plants can
spread quickly into large, thick
stands if conditions are optimal.
They can grow, however, only in
those portions of the estuary shallow
enough and clear enough to receive
sufficient sunlight for photo-
synthesis.

The salinity and temperature of a
particular estuarine location
determine, to a large extent, which
species can survive. While some
species tolerate a fairly wide range
of salinity, others are restricted to
very specific levels.

SAV in the Ecosystem
As critical to an estuary as trees are
to a forest, SAV plays several roles
in maintaining an estuary's health.
Although only a few truly aquatic
species consume the living plants,
several types of waterfowl and small
mammals  rely on them as a major
portion of their diet. The SAV forms
huge quantities of decomposed
matter as its leaves die; several
aquatic species use this detritus as a
primary food source.

During the growing seasons of
spring and summer, SAV takes up
large quantities of nutrients that
would otherwise accelerate the
eutrophication of the estuary. Much
of these nutrients remains locked in
the plant biomass throughout the
warm weather. As the plants die and
decay in autumn, they slowly
release the nutrients back to the
ecosystem at a time when phyto-
plankton blooms pose less of a
problem.

Additionally, the plant leaves
furnish shelter for many animals and
provide a place to hide from
predators.  A variety of organisms,
such as barnacles, bryozoans (a
group of colonial invertebrates), and
                                  82

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          Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
 eggs of many species, attach directly
 to the leaves. Epiphytes, plants that
 grow on the surface of other plants,
 also use the SAV leaves as a base.

 The sheer bulk of the SAV plants
 often buffers the shoreline and
 minimizes erosion by dampening
 the energy of incoming waves.
 Without them, the shoreline is much
 more vulnerable to erosion. Plant
 roots bind the sediments on the
 estuary bottom and retard water
 currents. By minimizing water
 movement, SAV allows suspended
 sediments to  settle and improves
 water clarity.

 The Demise of SAV
 In a balanced and healthy estuarine
 ecosystem, SAV species blanket the
 shallows—with the species compo-
 sition of each bed attuned to
 controlling variables such as
 salinity, temperature, and depth.
 When an estuary is tipped out of
 balance, however, SAV beds usually
 suffer. The degradation or loss of
 these beds can set up  a chain
 reaction of ill effects that ripples
 through the entire estuarine struc-
 ture.

 This chain of events often starts
 with an overload of nutrients.
 Excessive quantities of nitrogen and
phosphorus cause an overgrowth of
phytoplankton. Although individual
 phytoplankton are usually micro-
 scopic, blooms of these organisms
 cloud the water and severely
 diminish sunlight penetration. The
 nutrients may also trigger a thick
 growth of epiphytes. Too many of
 these plants block the sunlight
 before it can reach the leaf surface
 of the host.

 As the phytoplankton problem
 worsens,  the slender ribbon of land
 at the estuary's edge that is able to
 support SAV becomes ever thinner.
 For example, estuary water once
 capable of supporting plants to a
 depth of ten feet may now only
 transmit enough light for plant
 survival to a depth of six feet.

 When plant beds thin or die back,
 water that may already be low in
 DO due to the phytoplankton
 overload becomes even more
 depleted as the amount of oxygen
 generated by SAV photosynthesis
 declines. Nutrients once tied up in
 the plant leaves and roots and
 bottom sediments may be released
 to the water where phytoplankton
 snap them up and fuel yet another
 round of water quality degradation.

 A bare substrate, where SAV once
 flourished, poses a whole set of new
problems. Without plant roots to
 stabilize the sediment, waves easily
kick up silt which remains sus-
pended in the water until calmer
                                 83

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 Chapter 6
                             sediment and phytoplankton in the water
Adapted from: Barth et al.. 1989, The State of the Chesapeake Bay. U.S. EPA, Annapolis, MD.
conditions return. Suspended silt,
like phytoplankton, cuts down on
light transmission through the water.
The silt may also settle onto the
leaves of any remaining plants,
further blocking the light needed for
photosynthesis.

While nutrients are one of the major
causes of SAV disappearance or
decline in many bays and estuaries
(particularly on the East Coast),
other factors may also play a role.
Runoff from land under develop-
ment and from poorly managed
agricultural fields can contain
enormous quantities of sediment.
Agricultural herbicides may cause a
loss of some species while industrial
pollutants and foraging animals may
selectively kill off local beds. Areas
frequently subject to boat-generated
waves may also lose their SAV
beds.

As some species lose a foothold in
the estuary, non-native and opportu-
nistic species may move in. Invasive
species may overwhelm native SAV
species and assume their habitat.
While the growth of these new
species often alleviates the problems
associated with a bare substrate,
other problems may arise.

Diversity of plants in an environ-
ment leads to a similar diversity of
animals. Just as the number of
                                    84

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            Monitoring Submerged  Aquatic Vegetation
  species that can live in a field, of
  corn is limited, the diversity of
  animals able to live in a large area
  populated by a single, non-native
  species is also quite restricted.
  Additionally, when some opportu-
  nistic plant species thrive, they can
  pose a nuisance  to boaters by
  tangling around  propeller blades.

 I Why Monitor SAV?
  Submerged aquatic vegetation can
  serve as an overall barometer of
  estuarine health. These plants form
  the critical link between the physical
  habitat and the biological commu-
 1 nity. They require specific physical
 I and chemical conditions to remain
 I vigorous and, in  turn, provide
 I habitat, nourishment, and oxygen to
 I all other species  in the estuary.

 IA viable and self-sustaining SAV
 I population is the hallmark of a
 I healthy estuary (in estuaries that
 I naturally support SAV). By moni-
 Itoring the occurrence of SAV beds
 land the changes in  their distribution,
 •density, and species composition,
 •volunteers can help determine the
 •health and status  of SAV in an
 •estuary. Scientists can then compare
 Ithis information to  historical data of
 ISAV beds. Over  time, the volunteers
lean provide sufficient information to
•establish trends of SAV abundance
land distribution.
 Common SAV Species

 Eelgrass (Zostera marina)
 Eelgrass is the dominant seagrass in
 the cooler temperate zones of the
 east and west coasts. Beds of this
 luxuriant plant also blanket the more
 saline portions of the estuaries that
 notch these two coasts. Flowing and
 elongate like an eel, the slender leaf
 blades grow up to three feet in
 length. Eelgrass is appropriately
 named; the root of its botanical title,
 zoster, means belt or strap.

Eelgrass spreads by sending out
runners that creep along the bottom
and repeatedly send up shoots that
                                                            Eelgrass
                                  85

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 Chapter 6
grow into new plants. New plants
take several years to reach matura-
tion. Once a bed becomes estab-
lished, however, this species of
seagrass is highly productive.

Because of its predominance and
widespread coverage, eelgrass is an
important ecological element of
both east and west coast estuaries
and nearshore areas. It may cover
acres of the bottom, providing food
for waterfowl, support for epiphytic
plants, and cover for fish and
invertebrates.

Unfortunately, eelgrass is subject to
infection by a blight presumably
caused by a slime mold-like
organism called Labarinthula. The
disease causes dark lesions on the
eelgrass leaves and ultimately
results in mass mortality of the plant
beds. The last major epidemic
occurred in the 1930s; most beds
had recovered by the 1960s. Along
with the dieback of eelgrass,
animals dependent on this plant,
such as the brant (a small goose) and
bay scallops (an important economic
resource), also declined precipi-
tously.

In the past ten years, scientists and
volunteers have noted the character-
istic lesions of the disease on some
eelgrass plants once again. The
disease seems to have infected beds
throughout New England, although
large-scale dieback has occurred
only in isolated areas.
              Eelgrass Wasting Disease Index  Key
    o%

    1 %

    10%

    20%

    50%

     1OO%
                                   86

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           Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
 The blight, also known as eelgrass
 wasting disease, is not fully respon-
 sible for eelgrass bed demise. While
 some areas never fully recovered
| from the 1930s epidemic, other
 factors have contributed to the
 plant's decline. Eutrophic waters,
 pesticides, and abundant epiphytic
 growth on the leaves have also
 harmed eelgrass along with other
 SAV species.

 The Rhode Island volunteer moni-
 toring program has developed a
 technique to assess the degree of
 infestation on individual eelgrass
I leaves. This information, gathered
I once during each growing season,
I provides an estimate of disease
I progression.

I Widgeon Grass (Ruppia
I maritima)
I Widgeon or ditch grass inhabits the
I entire East and Gulf coasts of the
I United States. This plant is remark-
lably resilient and can withstand a
I wide range of salinities; specimens
I have occasionally been found in
1 fresh water yet the species can also
[tolerate full ocean salinity. Its
I primary habitat, however, is in
I brackish bays and estuaries.

I The leaves of widgeon grass are
I needle-like, short, and usually about
I two inches in length. They branch
                      Widgeon
                      Grass
off of slender, elastic stems. Like
eelgrass, this grass produces tiny,
rather inconspicuous flowers. The
plants may also reproduce asexually
by means of rhizomes which extend
along the estuary bottom and send
out shoots.

Widgeon grass is an extremely
important SAV species for water-
fowl. The American wigeon, a
brown duck for which the plant is
named, relies heavily upon widgeon
grass as a major component of its
diet. The plant is nutritious, making
it a favored food item for many
other waterfowl species as well.
                                  87

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Chapter 6
               Turtle Grass
Turtle Grass (Thalassia
testudinum)
Along the south Atlantic and Gulf
coasts, turtle grass replaces eelgrass
as the dominant seagrass species.
Like eelgrass, turtle grass is highly
productive and, therefore, is an
important member of estuarine and
near coastal ecosystems.

Turtle grass plants have broad,
strap-like blades, wider and shorter
than those of eelgrass that splay in
clumps. This grass reproduces
asexually by creeping rhizome or
sexually by water-borne flower
pollen and forms dense meadows
which often cover vast swaths of the
shallow marine or estuarine sub-
strate. After the leaves fall or are
ripped off by wave action, the
currents and waves sweep large
mats of the leaves onto the beaches
where local residents often gather
them for fertilizer.

Manatee Grass (Syringodium
flliforme) and Shoal Grass
(Halodule wrightii)
Both of these seagrass species are
common along the south Florida
coast and fringing the edges of the
Caribbean islands.

Long and thin, the blades of
manatee grass are light green and up
to a foot in length. Like the other
seagrasses, this grass has tiny,
inconspicuous flowers. Since water
carries the pollen, the plants do not
need large showy flowers to attract
insects for pollination. This plant
also propagates by rhizome exten-
sion. Manatee grass often mixes
with turtle grass in seagrass mead-
ows.

Shoal grass has elongate stalks that
often branch into flat, half-inch wide]
leaves. These  stalks may grow to
 15-16 inches in length and usually
have broken tips. This plant is aptly
named since it inhabits very shallow I
areas, generally in water less than 201
inches deep. Beds of shoal grass
usually grow landward of turtle
 grass beds.
                                  88

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       Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Manatee
Grass
Shoal.
Grass
Monitoring Considerations

Choosing Sampling Methods
There are several means of monitor-
ing SAV. Choosing the most
appropriate method will depend on
the number and location of sites
already being monitored by volun-
teers or others for water quality, the
extent of SAV coverage, the
location of problem areas, and the
planned uses for the collected data.

Possible methods include:

 •  Quadrat sampling at previ-
     ously established sites
     Volunteer monitoring pro-
     grams may choose to analyze
     SAV concurrently with several
     other water quality variables.
     In this case, the simplest
     option is to examine the
     composition and density of
     SAV in a predetermined radius
     around the established
     monitoring sites.

     This method not only enables
     the volunteer to take all water
     quality and biological mea-
     surements at a single site, but
     also provides the program
     manager with a complete set
     of information on the plants
     and water quality in a given
     area.
                              89

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Chapter 6
Quadrat sampling in a circle
around site X.
     Indexing beds at established
     sites
     A SAV index is a simple
     means of ranking the density
     of plants at specific sites. This
     method categorizes SAV beds
     into three or more descriptive
     classes as shown in the index
     value table below. While less
     quantitative than the other
            methods, indexing is a quick
            and easy means of obtaining
            relative information on the
            status of an estuary's SAV
            beds.

            Transect sampling
            In transect sampling, the
            volunteer establishes a straight
            line across an area containing
            SAV and records each plant
            that touches the line at
            predetermined increments
            along that line. If the vegeta-
            tion is extremely dense, the
            volunteer can place a rod into
            the vegetation at the desig-
            nated point and record the
            different species that touch the
            rod. This method provides
            useful, quantitative data on the
            percent of vegetative cover
            and the frequency of each
            species.
  SAV Index Value      Category
                    Description
          0

          1
 None        No vegetation present

Patchy       Small colonies or
              clumps; sparse bottom
              coverage.

Dense       Extensive grass beds;
              lush meadows.
                                 9O  	

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           Monitoring  Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
             SAV bed
                            Transect
                              line
 Transect sampling through a bed
I of SAV

      In a modified version of
      transect sampling, the volun-
      teers set up a straight line
      across the area of interest and
      establish discrete sites along
      the line. Volunteers can
      analyze each site using either
      the transect method described
      above or the standard quadrat
      method.

  •  Maps
      By groundtruthing (verifying)
      SAV beds using maps, citizens
      can provide a more complete
      picture of total vegetation
      cover in an area than with
      either of the two methods
      already discussed. Volunteer
      coordinators particularly
      interested in the year-to-year
      distribution and acreage of
      SAV should consider using
      this method.
 Large-scale U.S. Geological
 Survey maps (1:24,000 is
 generally sufficient) serve as
 visual data sheets on which
 volunteers can record their
 observations including the
 species, area, and density of
 plants within the SAV beds.
 The program manager and
 other professionals can then
 use this information, in
 conjunction with scientists'
 efforts, to determine whether
 SAV meadows are shrinking,
 expanding, or staying the same
 over time. The data will also
 help reveal changes in the
 density and species composi-
 tion of the beds.

 Volunteers can also provide
 useful verification of aerial
 photographs for analysis
 through "groundtruthing"
 efforts. By going into the field
 with maps to verify the
 location of SAV  beds identi-
 fied on the aerial photos,
 volunteers strengthen the
 accuracy of the data. This
process may also supplement
 the data base with specific
information, such as density,
health, and species type, that
can only be gathered in the
field.
                                  91

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Chapter 6
    Aerial Photography
    Although not as inexpensive or
    as easy to use as maps, aerial
    photographs are an exact
    image of the estuary or near
    coastal zone, making them less
    subject to bias. Aerial photos,
    however, do require some
    interpretation and may not be
    suitable for use by untrained
    volunteers.

    Users of the photos should
    note the tidal stage, weather
    conditions, water clarity, and
    the time of day when the
    photos were taken, as these
    variables can substantially
    affect the visibility of SAV
    beds.

    Most programs will find that
    aerial photographs are cost-
    effective only if they use
    existing sets of images.
     Chartering new overflights is
     often prohibitively expensive.
    Existing aerial photographs,
     however, are an ideal means of
     capturing historical informa-
     tion on SAV beds, particularly
     since many areas of the coasts
     have been repeatedly surveyed
     over time. Volunteers can be
     used to groundtruth informa-
     tion obtained through aerial
     photographs.
As with all water quality
variables, repetitive measures
over a period of years give a
more representative picture of
SAV status than a single
sampling approach. Unlike
many of the other variables,
however, volunteers need to
measure SAV density and
distribution and identify
species only once or twice
during the peak growing
season.
                                  92

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           Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
 How to Monitor SAV Using
 the Groundtruthing Method

 Monitoring SAV beds may pose
 more logistical problems than the
 measurement of other water quality
 variables. Whereas volunteers
 measure other variables at set
 stations, SAV groundtruthing
 requires volunteers to go to areas
 where the SAV is growing.

 These plant beds may not be in
 exactly the same location from year
I to year. Although land access to the
I beds may lie on private property,
j landowners are often willing to
I provide right-of-way to volunteer
I monitors. Water access may be
I limited by depths too shallow to
I accommodate some vessels—
I necessitating use of a shallower
I draft boat. The program manager
1 should assist each volunteer in
I solving possible logistical problems
I before the volunteer heads  for the
I field.

I The program leaders should also
I supply each volunteer with a USGS
I map on which the location  of SAV
I beds has been marked. This infor-
jmation may be the last year's field
jdata or data from aerial photo-
I graphs. The volunteer will then be
I able to verify the location of the
I marked beds and note the position
I of any new or unmapped beds.
 TASK1
Checking weather conditions.

Elements of Task I

Q  Check the television, radio, or
    Weather Service for current
    forecasts before deciding
    whether to monitor. This step is
    particularly critical if the
    volunteer is leaving shore by
    boat. Before boarding the
    vessel, the volunteer should
    personally observe local
    weather and estuary conditions.
    Volunteers should never
    sample alone from the boat.
                                 93

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 Chapter 6
Checking proper equipment.

Before proceeding to the site, the
volunteer should make sure to bring
along all the proper equipment.

Elements of Task 2

Q   Equipment needed to monitor
     SAV beds:

  /  Map covering appropriate area
  •/  Compass
 /  Weighted and calibrated line
     to measure depth
 /  SAV field identification guide
 /  Plastic ziplock bags  (sand-
     wich size)
 /  Indelible marker
 /  Survey form or data sheet for
     each site
 /  Instructions for monitoring
     SAV
 /  Pencils and clipboard
 /  Garden rake, hoe, or some
     other instrument to gather
     specimen for identification
 i/"  Clothing that will protect the
     volunteer from sun and
     jellyfish

If monitoring from a boat, the
following additional equipment is
necessary:

 /  Coast Guard-approved
     personal flotation device (one
     for each person aboard)
 /  Equipment required by state
     and local law (the state boating |
     administration will have a list
     of such requirements which
     usually includes such items as
     a fire extinguisher and bell)
 /  First aid kit
 •/  Anchor
 /  Nautical charts needed to get
     to site(s)
                                   94

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           Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
 Reaching the SAV beds.

 | Reaching the SAV beds marked on
 the maps may require walking,
 motoring, rowing, paddling, wading,
 or swimming. Each volunteer should
 bring gear needed for any of these
 means of transportation.

I Volunteers can reach some SAV
I beds, located in the very shallow
I portions of the estuary and near
I coastal zone, by walking along the
I shoreline. Attempt to reach these
I beds during low tide when the plant
1 beds will be in shallower water.

I When motoring to a site, keep the
I boat in sufficiently deep water so
I that the propeller does not tear up
I the plants. If the beds are consis-
tently located in shallow areas,
•consider using a rowboat or canoe
las an alternate vessel. In areas such
las the Everglades in southern
•Florida, volunteers should consider
lusing an airboat.

•Volunteers may find that a compass,
•used in conjunction with the map, is
la helpful orientation tool. Keeping
Itrack of map position  is extremely
(important. In areas of vast seagrass
Ibeds and few distinct  landscape
(features, it is particularly easy to get
llost. Storms can arise  quickly,
 despite weather forecasts predicting
 clear weather, and volunteers may
 need to make a quick exit off the
 water to safety.

 Q   Travel to the SAV beds marked
     on the provided map.

 Q   Compare the bed to its noted
     map position by examining its
     general location, notable
     landscape features (natural or
     manmade), position relative to
     the shoreline, and the overall
     extent of the bed. These
     distinctions may change from
     year to year, but collectively
     should provide sufficient
     information to confirm the
     identity of the bed.

If the bed seems to be in a different
position than indicated on the map,
or if other aspects of the bed are
dramatically different, make sure to
record the changes on the survey
sheet and map. Have a companion
corroborate your observations if
possible.
                                  95

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 Chapter 6
 TASK 4
 BSaiBJAJJMJWroMW'U-Mik

Monitoring the SAV beds.

Upon arriving at an SAV bed,
record all preliminary information
on the data form. If the map already
shows the outline of the bed, use the
map's name or code for the bed as
its identifier on the data sheet. If the
map contains no record of the bed,
name it according to the format
established by the program manager.
Volunteers will need to roughly map
unidentified beds to add them to the
permanent record.

A bed may contain only one type of
SAV or a variety of species. Move
around and within the bed and
closely examine several areas to get
a representative assessment of the
species composition.

The density of each bed is an
important characteristic that may
indicate the general health  of the
SAV species. Volunteers should
estimate the density of the  bed and
record information on the general
appearance of the plants and the size
of the bed. If the volunteer has
visited the site previously,  compara-
tive information is helpful  in
determining whether the bed is
growing and thickening or shrinking
and becoming more sparse.
Elements of recording general
information

Q   Fill in the surveyor's name,
     address, and telephone number.

Q   Record the date and time of the
     survey along with the map
     name (USGS title). Indicate the
     means by which the volunteer
     reached the beds (motor boat,
     canoe, by foot, pier, etc.)

Q   Record the general water
     conditions, including water
     clarity, quantity of surface
     debris, oil slicks, fish kills,
     peculiar odors, or any other
     conditions of note.

Q   Use the weighted, calibrated
     line to measure depth. A Secchi \
     disk attached to a marked line
     can also be used. Record the
     depth on the survey form.

Elements of assessing SAV bed
condition

Q   On the survey form, record the
     code name of the bed, taken
     from the map. If the map
     shows no SAV, the volunteer
     should delineate the bed using
     the technique described below.
     Those areas marked as  SAV
     beds on the map but having no
     plants should be designated on
     the survey form by  "no plants." I
                                  96

-------
         Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
Q   To identify the plants, carefully
    use a rake or another imple-
    ment to obtain a small sample
    of the stems and leaves. Do not
    dig the tool into the sediment  .
    as it may damage underground
    roots and rhizomes. Using the
    identification guide or a key,
    match the specimen to the
    appropriate plant.  Record the
    common name of the plant on
    the survey form.

    If the match is tenuous or the
    plant does not seem to re-
    semble any diagram, place the
    specimen in a plastic bag and
    bring it back to shore for a
    program leader to identify.
    Make sure to label the plastic
    bag with the site name, date,
    and collector using an indelible
    marker. Place one label inside
    the specimen bag and another
    on the outside of the bag as a
    precaution against lost labels or
    illegible writing. Record the
                  identity of the collected plant
                  as "unknown" on the survey
                  form.

                  Examine several different areas
                  of the bed, assessing density
                  and inspecting several plants
                  for general health. The pro-
                  gram manager should train
                  volunteers to recognize
                  symptoms of common diseases
                  or infestations.
          Density Estimate of SAV Beds
   under 5%
10-4O%
40 -7O%
                                                      70-100%
                               97

-------
 Chapter 6
Q   If this site has been visited
     previously, any noticeable
     differences, such as changes in
     the species composition,
     density, bed size, and general
     plant health should be recorded.

Elements of "mapping" SAV beds

Q   When an SAV bed is unmarked
     on the map or has shifted in
     location, the volunteer should
     use local landmarks to roughly
     establish the position of the bed
     on the USGS map. Shoreline
     features, manmade objects,
     buoys, shoals, and other
     landmarks may all be helpful in
     marking location.

Q   Move completely about the
     perimeter of the bed and
     continue to mark its position on
     the map. While delineating map
     position, also take notes on
     species composition and plant
     density.

     After completing all steps at the
     first SAV bed, navigate to the
     next designated bed on the map.
     Complete the same steps  for
     each bed and record all informa-
     tion on a new survey form for
     each bed. Treat unmapped beds
     the same way; after mapping
     their aerial extent on the map,
     evaluate them like any other
     bed.
 TASKS

Sending off data forms.

Once back on shore, volunteers
should bring or mail any unknown
specimens to the program manager
for assistance with plant identifica-
tion.

Ensure that the data survey forms
are complete and legible. Send the
forms to the appropriate person or
agency, preferably after identifying
any unknown specimens. Identified
specimens do not need to be sent
with the forms; the program
manager can provide guidance on
dealing with the remaining unidenti-
fied plants. Volunteers should
request additional blank data sheets,
if required, for a second survey later
in the growing season.
                                  98

-------
         Monitoring Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
                SAMPLE SAV SURVEY FORM
 Name:	
 Address:
 City:	
Telephone: {_
State:
.Zip:
 SURVEY SITE
 Name of Site/Map/Quadrangle:	
 Date:	 Time:	a.m. or p.m. Water Depth:
 Plants surveyed from: Boat Shore  Pier  Other	
 Water Conditions:  Clear  Murky Other	
              . meters
SURVEY
For each plant bed marked on the accompanying map, verify location and
size, estimate SAV density, and identify plants present using a field guide.
Write "no plants" for marked beds with no SAV. With a pencil, outline the
position of new beds and identify them by number directly on the map.
Bed Name:	 Approximate Density:	
Species Present:	
Comments (bed location and size changes, density or species changes
since last sighting, weather and water conditions, problems, etc.):	
Bed Name:
                            Approximate Density:
Species Present:
Comments:
     (Send completed forms to the SAV Survey Coordinator)
     	  93   	

-------
 Chapter 6
References

Fassett, N.C., 1969, A Manual of Aquatic Plants, University of Wisconsin
    Press, Madison, WI, 405 pp.

Hurley, L., undated, Field Guide to the Submerged Aquatic Vegetation of
    Chesapeake Bay, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Annapolis, MD, 51 pp.

Kerr, M., L. Green, M. Raposa, C. Deacutis, V. Lee, and A. Gold, 1992,
    Rhode Island Volunteer Monitoring Water Quality Protocol Manual, URI
    Coastal Resources Center, RI Sea Grant, and URI Cooperative Extension,
    38PP.

Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1987, A Field Guide to the Coastal Wetland Plants of the
    Northeastern United States, The University of Massachusetts Press,
    Amherst, MA, 285 pp.

Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1988, Field Guide to Nontidal Wetland Identification,
    Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Annapolis, MD and U.S.
    Fish and Wildife Service, Newton Corner, MA. 283 pp. + plates.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992, Monitoring Guidance for the
    National Estuary Program: Final, EPA 842-B-92-004, Washington, DC.

Additional information on volunteer monitoring of submerged aquatic vege-
tation is available from:
     SAV Monitoring Coordinator
     U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
     Chesapeake Bay Estuary Program
     180 Admiral Cochrane Drive - #535
     Annapolis, MD  21401
     (410) 224-2732

Maps can be ordered from:
     U.S. Geological Survey Distribution
     Box 25286
     Denver, CO 80225
     (800) USA-MAPS
                                  100

-------
Monitoring Bacteria
      Chapter 7
  Monitoring
     Bacteria

-------
 Chapter 7
The Role of Bacteria

Bacteria are microscopic single-
celled microorganisms that function
as decomposers in an estuary
through the breakdown of plant and
animal remains. By consuming this
organic matter, also known as
detritus, bacteria close the loop in
the nutrient cycles and allow
"locked up" nutrients, such as
phosphorus and nitrogen, to reenter
the estuarine food web.

Bacteria live in water and bottom
sediments, on detritus, and in and on
the bodies of plants and animals.
Shaped into round, spiral, rod-like,
or filamentous bodies,  some of these
organisms are mobile and many
congregate into colonies. In the
estuary, bacteria are often found
densely packed on suspended
particulate matter.

In addition to serving as food for
higher level organisms, bacteria are
also involved in many  chemical
reactions within the water. For
example, certain bacteria nitrify
ammonia, converting it to nitrite and
then nitrate which supports plant
growth. Some bacteria can exist
only under aerobic (oxygenated)
conditions,  others live  in anaerobic
(no oxygen) environments; some
versatile bacteria can function in
either situation.
     Bacteria! Types
        Bacilli (rods)
 Cocci (spheres]
            Spirilla (corkscrews) I
Bacterial Contamination

While bacteria normally inhabit
estuaries as an integral part of the
food web, human activities may add
an overload of bacteria or introduce
pathogenic (disease-causing)
bacteria to the system. Of greatest
concern to public health is the
introduction of human or warm-
blooded animal fecal waste.

Coliform bacteria live in the lower
intestines of mammals and may
constitute as much as 50 percent of
fecal waste. Although coliform
                                 1O2

-------
                                         Monitoring Bacteria
bacteria are not usually pathogenic
themselves, the presence of these
bacteria signal contamination by
sewage or other coliform bacteria.

Sources of bacterial contamination
include faulty wastewater treatment
plants, livestock congregation areas,
sanitary landfills, inefficient septic
systems, storm water, sewage sludge,
and untreated sewage discharge.
Fecal waste from pets and waterfowl
may also add to the problem.
Fecal coliform bacteria are generally
good indicators of contamination
because, unlike other types of
coliform bacteria, they live only in
the gut and are unable to adapt to
life in the estuary. This trait means
that they are short-lived members of
the estuarine ecosystem and,
therefore, signify a recent episode of
contamination. Scientists, however,
still disagree on whether these
bacteria are clearly related to the
incidence of disease.
                     Escherichia coli
    Jyteny citizen programs and state agencies 'use fecal cotiforrn
  ,  testing to assess potential bacterial contamination in an estuary-
   " 'Some scientists and managers disagree with thfe-use of these
   ;-bacear(e a^lti indicator, howaveK because nbt-efl members of the
    growp are fecalin origin.      *     --'t',''s'               ~*'   --
                   a feeai coliform species that Qrighiat£S'«\the gyt,
           a better alternative indicator of potential pathogens in the
 .  -, -ttdat fresh portions of an estuary.' iri these fre^T- waters, tes^rjg far-'
 , ,- this bacteria can more accurately determine whether contact wiA'
  s tH6 water i$:feafe, In mgrina areas, entaracocoi— a bacteria Jroup
    not inctodesl under tjbe feeaipojiform group— are yseVtSiln'dibaftars of -
 /",fe'ca! contamination,    Si         --                     " s"lt"

  s  If the primary o^clave of the" jSrograni is to evaluate *he water for
   state-water qaalty stamferd complssnce Jand the state currently
   ^usfes^fecatcollform ssandardL then tfte program fhoUFd also use
   the fee§) eoilform method The pr-ogram shoyfd be aware of any " - -
 - " (Aar*ges in state requirerfier&s so' feHe' ra'etliocte,oan be changed if - -
                                103

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 Chapter 7
Pathogenic microorganisms associ-
ated with fecal waste can cause a
variety of diseases including typhoid
fever, cholera, and hepatitis either
through the consumption of con-
taminated shellfish or ingestion of
tainted water. Since these pathogens
tend to be sparse in the water,
however, it is difficult to monitor
them directly.

Instead, states routinely monitor the
water and shellfish in shellfish
harvesting  areas for fecal coliform
bacteria and close down beds when
the count exceeds a predetermined
level. States may  also close bathing
beaches if officials find sufficiently
high levels of these bacteria.
Why Monitor Bacteria?

Although states monitor heavily
used beach and recreation areas as
well as shellfish beds, there are
limits to the coverage they can
provide. Volunteers can supply
valuable data by monitoring in  areas
where officials are not sampling,
augmenting a state's network of
stations. State officials can use  this
volunteer information to screen for
areas of possible contamination.
Such expanded coverage helps
states make beach and shellfish-
closing decisions on a more local-
ized basis.
Significant Bacteria Levels
Fecal Coliform Bacteria
per 1 00 mL of Water
Desirable Permissible*
0 0
<20O <1,000
<1 ,OOO <5,ODO
* Contact your state, regional, or local
office for specific requirements.
Source: LaMotte Company, 1 992, The
Water Use
Potable and well water
[for drinking]
Primary contact water
(for swimming)
Secondary contact water
(for boating and fishing)
health department or the regional EPA
Monitor's Handbook, Chester-town, MD.
                                  104

-------
                                           Monitoring  Bacteria
Fecal coliform contamination
frequently can occur in conjunction
with other pollutants. Runoff from a
livestock area washing into an
estuary, for instance, may contain
not only fecal coliform, but high
levels of nitrogen-rich compounds
as well. By including bacterial
counts as one of a suite of monitor-
ing parameters, a program manager
can design a program designed to
fully characterize the chosen sites.
This sort of data collection may
reveal problem areas which were not
previously recognized.

Volunteers can also perform fecal
coliform monitoring with an eye
towards regulatory compliance. The
program may wish to set up sites
near known or suspected violators of
effluent regulations to document
noncompliance. Monitoring sites
can be set up adjacent to the
discharge, but the effluent itself can
also be sampled. Program managers
should be aware of the legal issues
affecting this type of sampling, such
as trespass laws and the violation of
privacy and property rights.

Volunteers should take particular
care in collecting discharge samples
as the effluent may contain highly
pathogenic organisms. Each
volunteer should avoid splashing
water, wash hands thoroughly after
water contact, and minimize the
breathing of water vapor.
Windsurfers and surfers, more than
most outdoor enthusiasts, are at risk
of becoming sick from bacterial
contamination of the water where
they surf. Some windsurfing and
surfing groups have started monitor-
ing these waters to minimize the risk
to their members.

In Tacoma, Washington, the Purdy
Windsurfing Association uses an
inexpensive method that does not
require lab analysis (the Coli-Count
Sampler). Although this technique is
not highly reliable, it does  quickly
test for total coliform bacteria in
areas where bacteria levels are high.
Using this screening test daily, the
association rates the local waters  as
either satisfactory or unsatisfactory
for windsurfing.

Shellfish Monitoring for
Bacteria

Although still in its infancy,
shellfish  monitoring is gaining
popularity in a few citizen  monitor-
ing programs. In the past, state
agencies  have been the primary
gatherers of such data. With the
fiscal limits on the monitoring
programs of these agencies, how-
ever, citizens can step in to provide
a service with significant human
health implications.
                                  105

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 Chapter 7
Analysis of shellfish is particularly
useful because some shellfish tend
to concentrate pathogens in their
tissue. While a single grab sample of
water yields information only about
that small parcel of water at that
particular time, shellfish tissues
actually provide information on
water quality through time. For
more information on monitoring
shellfish, see Chapter 8: Monitoring
Other Estuarine Conditions.

Bacteria Sampling
Considerations

The selection of bacteria monitoring
sites depends on the ultimate
purpose of the data. If the data are to
supplement state efforts, then the
program should choose sites based
on gaps in the state's  array of
monitoring stations. Areas of
suspect contamination not routinely
monitored by state officials should
receive the highest priority.

If data will serve as regulatory
compliance documentation, sites
should cluster near dischargers
believed to be in noncompliance.
State health or water quality
agencies can provide information on
where additional data are needed.

Managers are more likely to use the
data if volunteers monitor more than
one site. Choose sample sites above
   Optimal Site Selection
  for Monitoring Bacteria
and below the area of suspected
contamination, at the effluent's
entry into the estuary, and even the
discharge itself to obtain a scientifi-
cally valid set of data (see figure).

Volunteers should monitor bacteria
on a weekly or biweekly basis. In
areas where volunteers sample
primarily to assess the health risks
in seasonal areas such as bathing
beaches, monitoring can cease or be
conducted much less frequently
during cold weather months.
Sampling to determine possible
contamination of shellfish beds,
however, should continue on a
regular basis throughout the
harvesting season.
                                 1O6

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                                           Monitoring Bacteria
 How to Measure
 Bacteria Levels

 Some citizen monitoring programs
 use volunteers to conduct the lab
 analysis of fecal coliform bacteria.
 The procedure requires strict
 adherence to quality assurance and
 quality control guidelines and
 analysis soon after (within six
 hours) sample collection.

 For these reasons, programs just
 starting up or those without ad-
 equate lab facilities should strongly
 consider allowing a professional,
 university, or other lab facility run
 the bacterial analyses. Often these
 labs will run samples free of charge
 or at a reduced rate for volunteer
 monitoring programs.

In either case, volunteers are
required to carefully collect the
 water samples at the monitoring
sites for analysis.
  TASK1
Verifying sampling schedule and
checking weather conditions.

Elements of Task 1

Q   Confirm the correct sampling
     date.

Q   Check the television, radio, or
     Weather Service for current
     forecasts before deciding
     whether to sample. This step is
     particularly critical if the
     volunteer is traveling by boat.
     Before boarding the vessel, the
     volunteer should personally
     observe local weather and
     estuary conditions. Volunteers
     should never sample alone
     from a boat.
                                 1O7

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 Chapter 7
 TASK 2
Checking proper equipment.

Before proceeding to the site, the
volunteer should make sure to bring
along all the proper equipment.
Results will be invalid if the
volunteer has to improvise because a
sampling device has been left
behind.

Elements of Task 2

Q   Equipment needed for each
     sampling session:

  /  Ice cooler with ice packs to
     keep samples cool
  y  Sterilized wide-mouth sample
     bottles (over 150 mL)
  
-------
                                           Monitoring Bacteria
  TASK 3
 Recording preliminary infor-
 mation and general observations.

 Record general observations in the
 vicinity of the site including the
 water color, amount of debris,
 discharge from nearby pipes, recent
 shoreline erosion, and the occur-
 rence of fish kills. Also note the
 presence of waterfowl in the local
 area since feces from these birds can
 raise coliform levels. Report all
 information on a supplied data
 sheet.

 Elements of Task 3

 Q   Record the date, time of day,
     weather conditions, recent
     precipitation, and name of the
     volunteer and site.

Q   Note general conditions at the
     site, including the weather,
     wave activity, and waterfowl
     presence (along with the birds'
     proximity to the site).

Q   Record any condition or
     situation, such as those listed
     above, that seems unusual or
     out of place. Descriptive notes
     should be as detailed as
     possible.
  TASK 4
 Collecting the water sample.

 Strict adherence to protocol guide-
 lines is critical in sampling for
 bacteria. Contamination from any
 outside source will skew the results
 and invalidate the data.

 Volunteers must take several
 precautions to ensure good samples:
 stay clear of algal blooms, surface
 debris, oil slicks, and congregations
 of waterfowl; avoid agitating the
 bottom sediments; and do not allow
 the boat propeller to stir up the
 water.

 Elements of Task 4

 Q   Check to see if a current or tide
     is running by examining the
     movement of water or surface
     debris or by placing a finger in
     the water and noting motion. If
     so, sample on the upstream side
     of the boat or pier.

Q   Plunge the bottle into the water
     upside-down.

Q   Open the sample bottle
     underwater, keeping hands off
     the bottle mouth and the inside
     of the cap. Hold the lid; do not
     set it down as it may become
     contaminated.
                                 109

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 Chapter 7
Q   Reach down into the water as
     far as possible (at least 12-18
     inches), still holding the bottle
     with its mouth down. In a
     single motion, rotate the bottle
     mouth away and sweep the
     bottle up and out of the water.
     Make sure that the sweeping
     motion continues until the
     bottle is fully out of the water.
     Bacteria tend to concentrate at
     the surface and this method
     will capture some of the
     organisms residing there.

Q   Pour out enough water to leave
     about 1 inch of air space in the
     bottle so that the lab technician
     can shake the sample prior to
     analysis.

Q   Replace the lid, again making
     sure not to touch the inside of
     the cap or bottle rim.

Q   Label the bottle with site name,
     date, data collector, and
     analysis to be performed.

Q   Place the bottle in the cooler.
     Transport samples back to the
     lab in a cooler regulated to
     between 1 and 4 degrees
     Centigrade. Do not allow water
     accumulating in the cooler
     from melting ice to submerge
     the bottles. To solve this
     problem, ice cubes may be
     packed in plastic bags, water
    may be frozen in plastic jars, or
    the cooler drain may be left
    open.

Q  Make sure the data form is
    complete, recording the sites
    and number of samples taken
    from each site.
 Homemade^
 Water      f
 Sampler
      Line-
     Hose
     Clamp
     Stopper
     1 L
     Nalgeni
     Bottle
     Plastic
     Spigot
  Notes:
  • Stopper can be soft
    rubber ball.
  • Drill hole through
    bottom of sampling
    bottle for attachment
  • Sample bottle should
    be wide mouth.
  • Sampler may require
    additional weight.
  • Bottom gasket pre-
    vents leakage.
                        PVC
                        Pipe
L I—Bracket

    _Hose
    " Clamp
    Gasket
                                                  Source: unknown
                                  11O

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                                          Monitoring Bacteria
  TASKS


Sending off the sample for
analysis

Once ashore, make sure the samples
remain at the optimal temperature
and add additional ice packs if
necessary. Recheck the data sheets
for accuracy and account for all
samples. Transport the samples to
the designated lab. Processing of the
samples should  start within six
hours of sample collection.

Laboratories generally follow one of
two accepted analysis procedures:

•   Membrane Filtration (MF)
     Since bacteria are too tiny to
     count individually, membrane
     filtration relies on incubation of
     the bacteria and a count of the
     resultant bacteria colonies. The
     lab passes a known volume of
     sample water through a filter
     and then adds a nutrient
     solution to  foster the growth of
     these colonies.

     After incubating for 48 hours at
     35 degrees  C, a technician
     counts the number of colonies.
     Ideally, the filter should
     contain 20  to 80 coliform
     colonies and the number of all
     types of bacterial colonies
     should not  exceed 200. The
     technician then computes the
     number of colony-forming
     units per 100 mL, computed by
     the following formula:

Coliform colonies/100 mL =

  Coliform colonies counted x 100
        mL sample filtered

     This technique is considered
     more statistically reliable than
     the Most Probable Number
     procedure.

•   Most Probable Number
     (MPN)
     A lab technician divides the
     water sample into five to ten
     test tubes which contain a
     coliform nutrient along with an
     agent that reacts with the waste
     products of coliform bacteria to
     produce a distinctive color.

     After incubating the bacteria,
     the technician counts  the
     number of tubes showing the
     reaction color. Using  the
     number of "positive"  tubes and
     the sample volume, the most
     probable number index can be
     derived from standard tables of
     multiple tube fermentation.
     This index represents the
     number of coliform bacteria
     that would likely produce the
     observed results.
                                 111

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 Chapter 7
Labs use both types of analyses. The
MF technique is good for large
numbers of samples and produces
results more rapidly. Its statistical
reliability is higher than the MPN
technique although highly turbid
water or water with non-coliform
bacteria limits the utility  of the MF
procedure.
Biochemical Oxygen
Demand

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
is a measure of the quantity of
organic matter in the water and,
therefore, the water's potential for
becoming depleted in dissolved
oxygen (DO). As organic degrada-
tion takes place, bacteria and other
decomposers use the oxygen in the
water for respiration. Unless there is
a steady resupply of oxygen to the
system, the water will quickly
become depleted of DO.

Since bacteria decompose organic
material, water with a high BOD
level also generally has a high
bacterial count. Although some
waters are naturally organic-rich, a
high BOD often indicates polluted
or eutrophic waters.

Measuring BOD

The standard BOD test is a simple
means of measuring the uptake of
oxygen in a sample over a predeter-
mined period of time. Citizens can
easily collect the required water
samples as  they monitor the water
for  other variables. The BOD test
does, however, demand a several-
day period of water storage in the
dark to obtain results. Test for BOD
using the following steps:
                                 112

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                                      Monitoring Bacteria
 Collect two water samples
 from the same place in the
 water column (surface or at-
 depth) using the water sam-
 pling protocol described in
 Chapter 4 (Dissolved Oxygen)
 of this manual. Make sure there
 is no contact between the
 sample water and the air.

 Immediately measure the first
 sample for DO using either a
 DO meter or one of the DO
 kits. Record the time of sample
 collection and the water
 temperature. Place the second
 sample in a standard BOD
 bottle and keep it in the dark by
 wrapping the bottle in alumi-
 num foil or black plastic.

 Incubate the bottle of untested
 sample water at 20 degrees C
 and in total darkness (to
 prevent photosynthesis). After
 five days of incubation, use the
 same method of testing to
 measure the quantity of DO in
 the second sample. Subtract the
 second DO measurement from
 the first to yield the BOD in
 milligrams of oxygen per liter.

Wastewater often carries large
 amounts of organic material—
so much, in fact, that dilution
of the sample is necessary
before the BOD test can be run.
Dilution water should contain
     the nutrients necessary for
     bacterial growth. Some supply
     houses carry premeasured
     nutrient "pillows" to simplify
     the process. The Standard
     Methods for the Examination
     of Water and Wastewater
     describes in detail how to
     dilute a sample and conduct the
     BOD analysis.
   Significant BOD Levels

Type of Water     BOD (in mg/L)
Natural Waters

Raw Sewage

Wastewater
Treatment
Plant Effluent
   <5

15O - 3OO



 8-150*
* Allowable level for individual treatment
  plant specified in discharge permit.

Source: The Monitor Handbook, 1992,
       LaMotte Company, Chestertown,
       MD.
                            113

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 Chapter 7
References

Dates, G., 1992, "Update on Bacteria Testing," Volunteer Monitor, v. 4, no. 2.,
    pp. 19-21.

Kerr, M., L. Green, M. Raposa, C. Deacutis, V. Lee, and A. Gold, 1992,
    Rhode Island Volunteer Monitoring Water Quality Protocol Manual, URI
    Coastal Resources Center, RI Sea Grant, and URI Cooperative Extension,
    38pp.

Mitchell, M.K. and W.B. Stapp, Field Manual for Water Quality Monitoring,
    6th ed., GREEN Project, Ann Arbor, MI, 240 pp.

River Watch Network, 1991, Escherichia coli (E. coli) Membrane Filter
    Procedure, Montpelier, VT.

Clesceri, L.S., W.E. Greenberg, and R.R. Trussell (eds.), 1989, Standard
    Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste-water, American Public
    Health Association, 17th edition, Washington, DC, 1268 pp.
                                 114

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Monitoring Other Estuarine Conditions
                  Chapter 8
               Monitoring
                    Other
                Estuarine
               Conditions

-------
 Chapter 8
Monitoring Marine Debris

Once, our nation's beaches were
littered only with the likes of dry
seaweed strands, shells, plant stems,
and stranded jellyfish. These days,
the litter is more likely to include
plastic bags, scraps of fishing nets,
pieces of Styrofoam cups, and
broken soda bottles. As the coastal
population has risen and society has
turned from degradable natural
materials  to synthetic ones, the trash
problem has worsened.

The problem of today's litter is not
merely aesthetic. Plastic debris can
snare boat propellers, causing
substantial damage to the motor.
Medical wastes menace barefoot
beachgoers and pose a threat of
contamination. Glass or metal
shards can cause serious gashes.
And, beaches which endure frequent
closings due to trash or medical
waste suffer a loss of tourist
revenues.

Animals often fare even worse. A
simple plastic six-pack yoke can
mean death to an ensnared marine
mammal or bird. Gill fishing nets,
discarded or torn free, float with the
ocean currents catching fish and
other animals. Endangered sea
turtles consume floating plastic
bags, likely mistaking them for
jellyfish—one of their favorite
foods.

Of all the manmade goods produced
over the past several decades,
plastics are among the most persis-
tent and pervasive. The qualities that
make plastic such a versatile
material for so many products can
make it harmful once it is released
to the environment. Constructed to

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                  Monitoring Other Estuarine Conditions
  be durable, plastics break down very
  slowly with some products persist-
  ing for centuries.

  Sources of Debris
  It is often difficult to trace marine
  debris to a single source, making it
  hard to pinpoint the perpetrator.
  Plastic goods, such as bags, soda
 I bottles, Styrofoam cups, and milk
  containers, could come from any
  type of vessel or land-based source.

  Land-Based Debris
I Land-based debris consists of waste
I products that have washed or blown
I into the water from the land.
I Primary sources of land-based
| debris include:
   •   Storm sewers that release
      street litter;
   •  Combined sewer overflows
     that release litter or sewage;
  •   Illegal dumping;
      Litter left on beaches;
  •   Disposal of industrial plastic
      waste products; and,
  •   Loss from coastal solid waste
      management landfills via
      wind.

 Ocean-Based Debris
 Ocean-based debris conies  primarily
 from commercial fishing boats,
 recreational vessels, merchant, mili-
 tary, research, and supply ships, and
 offshore oil platforms. Some of the
 debris is accidentally released. Tra-
 ditionally, however, much of it has
 come from the routine dumping of
 trash and other waste while at sea.

Annex V of the MARPOL Treaty,
passed in January 1989, bans the
disposal of plastic into the world's
oceans. Many countries, including

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 Chapter 8
the United States, have agreed to
this treaty which should substan-
tially reduce the load of plastics
entering the marine environment
with time. The United States also
prohibits the disposal of plastic into
the nation's navigable waterways
from any vessel—ranging from the
largest cruise ship to an inner tube.

Coastal and Estuarine Debris
A walk along any but the most
pristine beach will quickly reveal an
astonishing array of manmade
products. Coastal and estuarine
beaches are natural accumulation
areas for both ocean and land-based
debris. Nearshore waves tend to
push marine litter landward where it
becomes stranded as high tide
recedes. Beaches are also popular
recreation areas and users often
leave their trash behind.

Beaches, therefore, are ideal places
to concentrate cleanup efforts.
Citizens generally feel strongly
about keeping their public beaches
attractive and free of litter. As a
result, a well-publicized cleanup
drive can often attract large numbers
 of citizen volunteers.

 Cleanups serve three major func-
 tions. First, they reduce the amount
 of litter on the beaches in an
 immediate and visible way—an
 aspect most gratifying to the
volunteers. Second, with careful
planning, volunteers can document
the types, quantities, and possible
sources of beach debris. This
information, if collected on standard
Center for Marine Conservation
(CMC) cleanup cards, can become
part of this organization's national
data base which may ultimately help
provide solutions to the marine
debris crisis. Third, the cleanup
teaches the public about the prob-
lems of marine debris and how
citizens can  help.

Organizing a Beach
Cleanup Program
Although getting a few people onto
the local beach to pick up some
trash may seem like an easy task, a
successful cleanup can involve
hundreds of people and demand
months of organization, recruitment,
and planning. The CMC has
published a booklet that describes
the steps required to run an effective j
cleanup program (see the references
at the end of this chapter). This
booklet also suggests innovative
means of funding and publicizing
such an effort.

 Critical to the success of the cleanup |
 is emphasizing that the volunteers'
 effort will make a difference. In
 1984, 2100 volunteers in Oregon
 gathered over 26 tons of trash—in
 only three hours.
                                   118  —

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                  Monitoring Other Estuarine Condition
•Since that initial large-scale
Icleanup, states around the nation,
lalong with the Virgin Islands,
•Puerto Rico, Canada, and Mexico,
(have participated in the International
 Beach Cleanups. The sight of a
 [littered beach transformed into a
 clean one makes an impression that
 he community will long remember
 and gives the volunteers a strong
 pense of pride in their accomplish-
 nent. Grassroots educational efforts,
 ccompanying the cleanup, can help
 prevent future littering of the beach.

  ny person or program can conduct
 i cleanup operation even without the
 collection of data. Cleanup data,
 however, can be extremely impor-
tant in convincing politicians to
 actively solve the marine waste
 problem and are useful at federal,
 ptate, and local levels of govern-
 nent. The CMC has established a
 ata card which facilitates the
 collection of marine debris informa-
 tion and is used in the international
fcleanup event that takes place each
 [September.
 The program manager should stress
 the importance of accurate data
 recording to both the volunteers and
 the program assistants since the data
 card serves as a nationwide standard
 that allows data from any beach in
 the United States to be compared
 with any other. Standardized data
 make the national data base more
 useful and accurate for scientific and
 statistical analyses. The CMC will
 provide these cards at no charge to
 beach cleanup programs (see the
 references  at the end of the chapter
 for the CMC address).

 On the Beach
 Once the volunteers are ready to
 tackle the beach, the program
 manager or assistants should
 provide each volunteer with:
  / a plastic garbage bag to collect
     debris;
  S a blank data card (available
     from CMC);
  /  a pencil or pen to record data;
     and
  /  the Guide to Marine Debris
     (available from CMC).

Additionally, each volunteer should
bring:
  /  gloves;
  /  protective shoes;
  S  sunglasses;
  /  sunscreen; and
  S  clipboard.
                                 119

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Chapter 8
The program leaders at each beach
cleanup site should carry a first aid
kit to treat cuts, abrasions, and other
minor injuries. Additionally,
volunteers suffering deep cuts or
puncture wounds should check with
their physician on the need for a
tetanus shot.

The volunteers should know what
sort of debris they are likely to
encounter. Accurate debris identifi-
cation will make the data base more
valuable and will also help volun-
teers steer clear of potentially
dangerous materials such as medical
waste or toxic waste containers. It is
best to treat unidentified containers
with caution; 55-gallon drums
should be avoided altogether.

If volunteers do find suspicious
materials, they should stay well
away, but note their quantity and
location and report this information
to the program leaders. The leaders
can then determine the best means
of removing any potentially
hazardous materials.

Other safety precautions include:
  •   always wearing gloves;
     picking up glass or metal
     shards with care;
  •   steering clear of injured
     animals which may harbor
     disease;
  •   avoiding overexposure to the
     sun;
  •   not lifting heavy objects
     without assistance;
  •   being aware of snakes and
     other animals in dunes or
     grasses;
  •   not wading across tidal
     inlets—currents are often
     powerful and unpredictable;
     and
  •   reporting any injuries to the
     program leader.
                                   120 —

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                  Monitoring Other Estuarine Conditions
  Collecting Shellfish
  for Analysis

  Even water that appears clear and
  untainted may still contain harmful
  levels of heavy metals, pesticides,
  other toxic substances, or bacteria.
  Shellfish living in the water may
  assimilate and accumulate these
  chemicals—through the intake of
  polluted water and sediment or by
  eating other contaminated organ-
  isms.

 | Bivalve shellfish, such as clams,
 '' mussels, and oysters, are filter-
  feeders and strain large quantities of
  estuarine water through their
  systems to extract small particles of
  food. Because they filter such large
  quantities of water, however, even
  relatively low concentrations of a
  water-borne contaminant may
  eventually translate to high tissue
  concentrations.

 I Non-bivalve shellfish, such as crabs,
I lobsters, and shrimp, are mobile
I scavengers which consume plants,
I small animals, and detritus from the
I estuary's waters and bottom.
rContaminated prey or sediments can
I produce high contaminant levels in
I the tissues of these shellfish.

I Studies or surveys often use
I shellfish as useful indicators of
I bacterial contamination as well. The
 non-mobile bivalves are particularly
 helpful as they pinpoint specific
 areas of contamination.

 Shellfish, therefore, often reflect
 some of the most important mea-
 sures of water quality. By analyzing
 the hazardous compounds in the
 animals'  tissues, scientists can gain
 insight into selective aspects of local
 estuarine health.

 The Contaminants
 Several types of contaminants can
 accumulate in shellfish. These
include:
  •   Heavy metals such as mercury
     and cadmium;
  •   Petroleum hydrocarbons such
     as PAHs (polyaromatic
     hydrocarbons);
  •   Pesticides such as endrin,
     dieldrin, endosulfan, mirex,
     and malathion; and
                                  121

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 Chapter 8
 •   Industrial pollutants such as
     PCBs (polychlorinated
     biphenyls).

Some shellfish are more susceptible
to certain contaminants than others.
While a species may easily tolerate
high concentrations of one chemical,
low concentrations of another can be
lethal.

The life stage of an individual—
larva, juvenile, or adult—will also
greatly affect its response to a toxic
substance. In general, larvae and
juveniles are more vulnerable to
injury or death from exposure to
these substances. Studies of the
effects of toxic compounds must
consider both the age and species of
the specimens to fully assess the
chemical's toxicity.

Bacterial Contamination and
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
In addition to the use of shellfish for
contaminant analysis, scientists can
also use these animals to identify
areas of bacterial contamination or
paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP).

Bacteria
Shellfish collect fecal bacteria in
 their gut, making them  good
 indicators of recent exposure to
 sewage waste. Since fecal coliform
 often indicate the presence of human
 or animal pathogens, tainted
shellfish serve as a warning and
signal that an area may not be
suitable for recreation or fishing.
Unlike water sampling for bacterial
contamination, shellfish tissue
analysis acts as a market test—that
is, it determines whether the
shellfish are fit for human consump-
tion.

Officials can set predetermined
levels of fecal coliform in shellfish
as a management standard. Areas
where levels exceed this standard
should be closed to commercial and
recreational shellfish collection until
the problem is resolved.

Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
Paralytic shellfish poisoning is
caused by several species of
dinoflagellates—predominantly
marine, microscopic, one-celled
organisms.  Although most species
are harmless, the types responsible
for PSP secrete a neurotoxin. When
shellfish such as clams, oysters,
mussels, and scallops ingest these
dinoflagellates, the neurotoxin
 accumulates in their tissue. Al-
 though the animals are unaffected
 by the toxin, humans eating these
 shellfish can experience  serious
 reactions.

 Symptoms of the PSP syndrome
 include nausea, vomiting, and
 abdominal cramps. These symptoms
 are followed by muscle weakness
                                   122  —

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                 Monitoring Other Estuarine Conditions
 and paralysis of the extremities.
 Accompanying respiratory failure
 may result in death. Cooking the
 shellfish does not destroy the
 neurotoxin.

 High densities of this ruddy-colored
 dinoflagellate form what is known
 as "red tide" due to the reddish hue
 it often imparts to the water. Using
 color as an indicator for this
 dinoflagellate, however, may be
 misleading as many other harmless
 species are also red. The toxic
 dinoflagellate can still be present in
 relatively clear waters, even if their
 concentration is too low to color the
 water.

 Analyzing shellfish tissue is the only
 sure-fire means of establishing the
 presence of the PSP neurotoxin. On
 occasion, storms may disperse a
 heavy bloom of the toxic dinoflagel-
 late erasing all visible traces of its
presence. Non-mobile shellfish in
the area, however, may still be
heavily laden with the toxin.
Collecting Shellfish
The tests for contaminants require
sophisticated analyses, expensive
equipment, and rigorous quality
assurance procedures. Trained
scientists must perform these tests to
ensure accurate, scientifically valid
results. Volunteers can assist the
scientists, however, by collecting
shellfish for analysis in designated
study areas.

Scientists may need data to:
 •   identify areas of concern for a
     particular toxic substance;
 •   set regulatory limits on the
     recreational or commercial
     collection  of shellfish species;
 •   identify the sources of
     contaminants;
 •   examine the effects of particu-
     lar contaminants on a species;
     and
 •   determine whether shellfish
     are safe for consumption.
                                 123

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 Chapter 8
Shellfish are easier to collect than
finfish because most tend to move
more slowly or not at all. Moreover,
they often congregate—an oyster
bed or a boulder studded with
mussels are two examples—and are
fairly easy to reach.

The training of volunteers should
include a session on the
identification of the species required
for testing. Most of the popular field
guides for the coastal regions
include sections on shellfish
identification. Volunteers can bring
a suitable guide  to the site to
identify any questionable
specimens.

Once at the sample site, volunteers
should capture animals using the
method designated by the program
manager. They may also want to
record auxiliary measurements, such
 as water temperature and site
 conditions, and  visually evaluate the
 surrounding area. Such information
 may be helpful if abnormally high
 levels of toxic substances, coliform
 bacteria, or the neurotoxin causing
 PSP are found by the laboratory.

 The volunteers  should carefully
 label the sample container in which
 the animal will  be transported with
 the date, site name, shellfish type,
 and the name of the collector. An
 indelible marker is best for ensuring
that the labeling is permanent. Make
sure that the sample container is not
wet before using the marker.

Volunteers should transport the live
specimens at chilled temperatures
appropriate for the species collected
in containers supplied by the
program. The program manager
should designate pickup locations
for volunteers to deliver the speci-
mens to program personnel.

Very few programs currently use
citizens to collect samples for PSP
testing. The Department of Health in
Washington State, however, has
successfully used volunteers to
gather shellfish at commercial and
recreational beaches within Puget
Sound. The volunteers helped
collect the samples every other week
from April through September and
monthly during the rest of the year.
                                   124  —

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                 Monitoring Other Estuarine Condition
  References

  Beach Cleanups
  Maraniss, L. 1989, All About Beach Cleanups, Center for Marine Conserva-
      tion, Washington, DC, 39 pp.


 | O'Hara, K.J., S. ludicello, and R. Bierce, 1988, A Citizen's Guide to Plastics
      in the Ocean: More Than a Litter Problem, Center for Marine Conserva-
      tion, Washington, DC, 143 pp.


 | U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992, Turning the Tide on Trash: A
     Learning Guide on Marine Debris, EPA Office of Water, Washington
     DC, 78 pp.                                                  '


 I U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1989, Marine Debris Bibliography
 1    Washington, DC, 25 pp.

 I Additional information on beach cleanups, including the Entanglement
^Network Newsletter and Coastal Connections, can be requested from:
      The Center for Marine Conservation
      1725 DeSales, Street NW
     Washington, DC  20036
     (202) 429-5609

^Shellfish Monitoring
IPuget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1991, Puget Sound Update: Second
     Annual Report of the Puget Sound Ambient Monitoring Program,
     Olympia, WA.
                                125

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Training Volunteers
     Chapter 9
     Training
  Volunteers

-------
 Chapter 9
Why Train Volunteers?

A successful monitoring program
requires well-trained volunteers—
few other aspects of the program are
more important. Proper training
provides the common ground
necessary for a well-designed and
scientifically valid data collection
effort. At the start, the planning
committee should budget adequate
time and money to conduct volun-
teer training.

The program will realize the
benefits of such training in short
order. Citizens often commit
themselves to  a volunteer endeavor
not only because of their conviction
in the merits of the cause, but also
because they will personally benefit
from the experience. Training
provides the volunteer with the
critical information necessary to "do
the job right."

Introductory training ensures that all
volunteers learn to sample in a
consistent manner. This initial
training will also introduce new
volunteers to the program and its
objectives and create a positive
social climate for the volunteers.
Such a climate enhances the
exchange of information among
participants and between the
participants and the program
leaders.
Continuing education and retraining
sessions in which the leaders
reintroduce standard methodologies
and present new information,
equipment, data results, or informa-
tive seminars are also extremely
useful. Such sessions:
  •  reinforce proper procedures;
  •  correct sloppy or imprecise
     techniques;
  •  permit resolution of equipment
     or logistics problems;
  •  allow volunteers to ask
     questions after familiarizing
     themselves with the field
     techniques;
  •  encourage a "team effort"
     outlook;
  •  give volunteers a reason to
     stay with the program;
  •  make experienced volunteers
     feel integral to the program by
     encouraging them to supply
     valuable feedback to the
     instructors; and
  • provide educational opportuni-
     ties to the participants.

 Citizen monitoring training can be
 divided into three broad categories.
 Each category has a different
 purpose, but together the categories
 should complement one another and
 make the training program well-
 rounded.
                                   128

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                                             Training Volunteers
  The categories are:
   • introductory training to
      describe the program, teach
      standard methods, and
      motivate the volunteers;
   • quality assurance and quality
      control training to ensure
      consistency and reliability of
      data collection and to empha-
      size the importance of accu-
      racy; and
   • motivational sessions that
      encourage information
      exchange, identify problems,
      and provide a social atmo-
      sphere for participants.

I Although different sessions will
1 vary in content, the training process
I necessary to present the material is
I fairly constant. Volunteer training
I may be broken down into five
I separate steps.

| Step 1:  Creating a Task
         Description
I Step 2:  Planning the Training
(Step 3:  Presenting the Training
IStep 4:  Evaluating the Training
(Step 5:  Coaching/Providing
         Motivation and Feedback

I Creating a Task Description

I Prior to citizen involvement, the
I program manager and the planning
I committee must develop a detailed
(blueprint of each volunteer monitor-
 ing task. This task description spells
 out, in sufficient detail, every step a
 volunteer must complete to collect
 data for each parameter.

 A well-conceived task description
 standardizes the data collection
 process and ensures that each
 volunteer samples in a consistent
 and acceptable manner. Consistency
 allows comparisons of one part of
 an estuary to  another or between
 estuaries. Additionally, when the
 sampling methods are consistent,
 managers can more easily identify
 data outside the norm and evaluate
 whether they  result from unusual
 conditions or faulty collection
 techniques.

 A standardized approach allows the
 program manager to develop
 performance criteria which evaluate
 how well the  volunteers are han-
 dling the tasks. Once the volunteers
 master the techniques, the manager
 can also assess the time and cost
 requirements  of gathering the data.

There are four critical steps  in
creating a roster of tasks:
  •  developing the list of param-
     eters;
  •  determining the required level
     of quality for each parameter
     sampled;
  •  defining the steps for each
     sampling task; and
                                  129

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 Chapter 9
 •  creating a written protocol to
     be used by the volunteers for
     each parameter.

Many of the sampling protocols
summarized in the previous chapters
are suitable as basic task descrip-
tions. The planning committee can
excerpt the descriptions from these
chapters and embellish them with
information unique to their program.
A separate protocol should be
drafted for each major parameter.

The written description provides
each volunteer with a readily
available reference sheet that clearly
describes how to sample while
serving as a reminder of the correct
methodology. Additionally, such a
sheet helps to minimize the number
of times the program leaders have to
answer the same questions.

The program leaders can also use
the reference sheet to:
  •  recruit new volunteers.
      (Citizens can assess their long-
      term interest in completing the
      outlined tasks.)
  •  evaluate the volunteers'  ability
      to complete the monitoring
      tasks accurately.
  •  develop instruction sheets for
      use in the training sessions.
  •  assist new programs in
      developing their own proto-
      cols.
Writing the monitoring tasks
provides program leaders with the
opportunity to evaluate fully the job
at hand and improve potentially
troublesome areas. Once the
reference sheets are completed,
program leaders and a few volun-
teers should test and refine the
protocols under field conditions.

Planning the Training

With completed task descriptions
for each of the parameters, the
planning committee can then design I
training sessions.  Usually, programs]
will find that group sessions are the
most cost-effective means of
training the  volunteers. In some
situations, however, individual
instruction may be the only feasible
option.

Group sessions are preferred for
both the introductory training and
the advanced classes,  because they
are generally inexpensive, efficient,
encourage interaction among the
volunteers, and foster enthusiasm
for the program.

 Group field trips, either for ad-
 vanced training or special educa-
 tional sessions, are an ideal means
 of motivating volunteers while
 teaching them additional skills.
 Most volunteers  are quite enthusias-
 tic about getting  onto the water or
                                   13O

-------
                                         Training Volunteers
  Straining session agenda shayki include the following activities;

  •   Presentation on 9 oste and oblecf&es of.the project. The pres-ejv
      tstidfrshqyld. include fche,reasans;fc)r monitoring, Historical
      information on the watershed, the problems facing the estaciary,
      poeandai'ases of the volunteer data, and hojf the project wC,"
 -'    baneftfe-volunt^am, the coroniynity, gqtJ itha
      A rescatsirffiflt of wiiai; is expected of die participants tncludfe'g
      how Jong tiae tfarning sjes'sion will tast and the; proposed 'length, of
      the entsr^i vpfuntaer- elforfc, -  '-,  ,      -.    -- -   ,    -  -   "
, , M  Distrlbi|tion of air equipment, a general explanation of the [   ,
   - - equtpmene's tise, and a discussion cf what equipment is particu*'
/ " -  iaHy f r^flife, what fcpne&lyfes s^ytpfnent sbusa, yie j^pfafierrientj s
     poiby and cosfe; and the .return oi^quipmenfe at the end-ofthe   l -
trr   project/' ,,,         -    ,              -'   '
 • ^ 'A ihoroyih overview tfi&\ neds&sai'y. Sffety retir

 M  An overview of the mtsnitoriiig procedures preferably witfran
  '  '<                                        *'
    -,    ",-        •    "
 M  * A^naJ run-through fehe pr^edures. The trainer should 
-------
 Chapter 9
seeing a new area of the estuary.
Volunteers often approach their
sampling with renewed enthusiasm
after participating in a field trip.

When volunteers live over a widely
scattered area, require assistance for
a special problem, or are unable to
attend a group session because of
work or family obligations, a leader
may need to meet with them
individually. While one-on-one
training is certainly more time
consuming and expensive, the
instructor can focus on the particular
problems or needs of a single
volunteer.

In addition, accompanying individu-
als to the monitoring site allows
instructional field demonstrations.
Training volunteers for field
sampling ideally takes place in the
field. Problems that might not arise
under training conditions in a lab
may  well emerge under less
predictable field conditions.

Group sessions can cover any of the
following topics:
  •  goals and objectives of the
      monitoring program;
  •  role of citizen volunteers;
  •  fundamental ecology of
      estuaries;
  •  management and conservation
      of water quality as well as the
      estuary's plants and animals;
 •  basic sampling techniques;
 •  advanced sampling tech-
     niques;
 •  preparation of samples for
     shipment;
 •  proper use of monitoring
     equipment;
 •  operating problems encoun-
     tered by volunteers;
 •  proposed use of the monitor-
     ing data;
 •  results of data analysis; and
 •  special seminars of interest
     presented by a local expert.

Training sessions are also the ideal
time to outfit each new volunteer
with a complete set of the required
sampling equipment. Established
volunteers may require additional
equipment, blank data sheets, and
refills of the reagents for their
analysis kits.

Usually, the task description can
serve as the basic outline for the
initial training session. A mini-
lesson may revolve around the task
design for each major parameter. If
each volunteer is expected to
monitor many parameters, however,!
the instructor may need to schedule |
more than one session. Too much
information presented at a single
session may quickly overwhelm and
discourage the volunteers.
                                   132  -

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                                              Training Volunteers
  Presenting the Training

  A well-conceived plan for instruc-
  tion along with simple handouts is
  key to an effective training presenta-
  tion. The instructors should make
  the most effective use of the
  participants' time. Volunteers, like
  most students, will appreciate a
 I well-organized and smoothly paced
 I class. Four major steps constitute an
 I effective and lively training session:
 I preparation; presentation; demon-
 I stration; and review.

 \Preparation
 I As any teacher can attest,  thorough
 I preparation for class is critical. The
 1 sampling protocols provide a basic
 I framework for the initial training
 I session; subsequent sessions may
 I require research, preparation of
 I additional task descriptions,  and
 Iclass planning.

 IWith the basic information in hand,
 •the instructor must then tailor the
 llesson to the audience. The instruc-
 Itor should try to anticipate those
 •portions of the lesson that may
 cause confusion and be prepared  to
 clarify these areas. Volunteers
(should be invited  to ask questions
(throughout the session.

(Volunteers with no background in
(science may require additional
(explanation or assistance so that
 they understand the importance of
 high quality data collection methods
 and the use of scientific equipment.
 Although separate sessions for
 experienced and untrained volun-
 teers are preferable, some instructors
 may elect to have a single session
 with experienced volunteers helping
 those who are new to the program.

 When planning  the session, the
 instructor should allot a set amount
 of time for each task. Lectures,
 activities, and discussions should be
 kept on a timetable. If the pace
 drags because one or two volunteers
 are slow, the rest of the volunteers
 may quickly become annoyed and
 bored. Slower students may require
 individualized attention at a later
 date.

 Instructors should make appropriate
 use of audiovisual materials to
 enhance the presentation. All
 equipment should be in the room at
 the start of the session, in working
 condition, and ready for use. Slides
 of the estuary and of volunteers
 sampling in the field are a good
 teaching device and tend to hold
people's attention.

The instructor may want to rehearse
a training session for other members
of the monitoring program  to catch
potential problems prior to the first
presentation.
                                  133

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 Chapter 9
Presentation
Knowing the material thoroughly
and having the information well-
organized are critical to an effective
presentation. Instructors may want
to experiment with several styles of
presentation to see which seems
most effective and comfortable. The
general tips that follow help ensure
a successful session:
  • Be enthusiastic about the
     subject—enthusiasm inspires
     dedication.
  • Establish good rapport with
     the audience.
  • Get the audience involved in
     the talk and keep the presenta-
     tion lively.
  • Utilize visual aids.
  • Talk sufficiently loudly and
      enunciate clearly.
  •  Make use of humor.
  •  Use eye contact.
  •  Encourage questions and
      comments.
   •  Use anecdotes throughout the
      presentation.
   •  Maintain good posture and
      positive body language.

 Demonstration
 Two types of demonstrations are
 effective training tools: one in which
 the instructor demonstrates the
 techniques to the volunteers and
 another in which the students
 practice the outlined procedures
under the watchful eye of the
instructor. An effective teacher can
incorporate both into a training
session.

If time permits, the instructor can
demonstrate the sampling protocols.
Viewing the execution of a proce-
dure is more meaningful than simply
reading the instructions.

Once the volunteers are familiar
with the techniques, they can then
repeat the procedures under the
tutelage of the instructor. These
practice sessions can take place in
the field or classroom and give
volunteers the confidence to transfer
these newly learned skills to their
 own monitoring site. Such hands-on
 training is invaluable and should be
 treated equally or more importantly
 than standard instructor/student
 presentations in training sessions for
. volunteers.

 Review
 Like any good learning session, the
 instructor should end the session
 with a review of the material.
 Summarizing reinforces the salient
 points and assists the volunteers in
 retaining the information. The
 volunteers should be invited to ask
 questions during the review. At the
 close of the session, the instructor
 can inform participants about
 upcoming events and future training
                                   134  —

-------
                                             Training Volunteers
  opportunities and reiterate the
  importance of citizen monitoring
  and data collection.

  Evaluating the Training

I High quality data reflect successful
I volunteer training. To ensure that
I the sessions are effective and
I successful, the planning committee
I should make written evaluations an
I integral part of the training process.
I While an instructor may feel that the
I sessions are adequate, only the
I volunteers can let the planning
I committee know how much they
I learned and retained.

•Evaluation of the training should
| include an assessment of:
      training techniques and style;
      information presented;
      classroom atmosphere; and
      use of handouts and audio-
      visual aids.

  /olunteers may provide feedback at
  he end of the sessions. The true test
|of an effective session, however, is
 how well the volunteers perform in
[the field. A follow-up evaluation
[form, sent to participants after a few
  veeks of sampling, may pinpoint
 any weaknesses in the presentation.

  Members of the monitoring program
  nay also want to accompany
 volunteers into the field and
 examine their sampling techniques
 as they work unassisted. Such spot
 checks can identify areas in which
 the volunteers are encountering
 difficulties.

 If large numbers of volunteers are
 experiencing problems in carrying
 out the sampling protocols, the
 planning committee may want to
 revise the format of the sessions or
 have a new instructor take over. The
 evaluation process should be
 ongoing to ensure that all the
 sessions consistently meet a high
 standard.

 Coaching/Providing
 Motivation and Feedback

 While the initial training sessions
 are designed to give volunteers all
 the basic skills to successfully
 complete their sampling, training
 does not stop here. Follow-up
 coaching, either through advanced
 training sessions or one-on-one
 interaction, is imperative to keep
 volunteers enthusiastic, motivated,
 and collecting good data.

Previous sections described the
advantages of advanced training
sessions. Individualized coaching,
though less time-efficient, has  many
other benefits. It:
 •  permits the volunteer to ask
     questions particular to a site;
                                  135

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 Chapter 9
             Citizen Monitoring Training Evaluation
Program Name	
Volunteer Name (optional).
Date of Training	
Did you find the training easy to follow? Yes	 No	
If no, with what aspects did you have trouble?	
Did you have difficulty doing the water quality tests?  Yes	 No	
If yes, in what way?		.	
Did the instructor fail to cover any material that you feel is relevant to proper
monitoring?	_	.	—	
What kinds of information or feedback would you like to receive?	
 What information have you received that has been or will be most useful?

 Was the training session adequate to allow you to carry out the sampling with
 confidence? Yes	 No	
 Any suggestions for improvement? —.	—	•	
 Would you like to be in closer contact with (circle the letter):
        a. The Program Coordinator?
        b. Other program staff members?
        c. Fellow volunteers?
        d. Scientific monitoring experts?
 Have you enjoyed being in the program? Yes	 No	
 Are you willing to continue sampling? Yes	 No	
 What is the best feature of the program?	_	
 The worst?.
             Thank you for taking the time to fill out this evaluation •
            .	136 	

-------
                                              Training Volunteers
    •  allows the instructor to solve
       specific problems in the field;
    •  indicates to the volunteer that
       his/her data are important;
    •  gives the instructor feedback
       on training effectiveness;
    •  enhances communication
       between the program leader
       and the volunteer;
    •  motivates the volunteer; and
    •  provides a forum for introduc-
       ing new methods.

  In addition to going into the field
  with specific volunteers, the
  program leaders should also
  consider phoning other volunteers
 I who may not require one-on-one
  contact. A phone call lets volunteers
  know that the leaders are interested
  in their progress and gives the
  volunteer an opportunity to ask
  questions. Informal gatherings for
  volunteers, such as a potluck dinners
 I and slide shows, also give the
 I leaders an opportunity to check on
 I the progress of the participants and
 I answer questions.

 I The success of the program is highly
 I dependent on maintaining volunteer
 I motivation and enthusiasm. An
 I apathetic volunteer will likely not
I collect good data and may drop  out
I of the program. Volunteer Water
I Monitoring: A Guide for State
I Managers,  a companion manual to
 this document, summarizes several
 other means of fostering volunteer
 interest. These techniques include:
  •  sending volunteers regular
      data reports;
  •  keeping volunteers informed
      of the uses of their data;
  •  preparing and distributing a
      regular newsletter;
  •  ensuring that program leaders
      are readily available for
      questions and requests;
  •  providing volunteers with
      educational opportunities;
  •  keeping the local media
      abreast of the goals and
      findings of the citizen monitor-
      ing effort;
  •  recognizing the volunteers' •
      efforts through awards or some
      other type of distinction; and
  •  accommodating the needs of
      volunteers by providing them
      with advanced training,
      learning  opportunities, and
      more demanding or changing
      responsibilities.

Training citizen volunteers to
conduct water quality monitoring is
time consuming and demanding.
Nevertheless, successful training
sessions are key to a long-term and
effective monitoring program. It is
well worth the effort to devote this
time to the volunteers.
                                  137

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Chapter 9
               Training Backup Monitors
   A  program should fiavs a  backup monitor policy in  place; 'to
   assure data  collection oontinuifcy, A;imc'kup volunteer', can
   sample at a  site when the primary,' monitor is sick, on ;-  ','
   vacation,  or tmabfe^to sample for some' other reason.    - / ,

   The  backup should be trained 'as' rigorously  as, the pri-
   mary volunteer so that ,the; data meet a high quality,, stan-
   dard. Sych instruction should  include' periodic training
   sessions.  The Aiartce for the Chesapeake 'Bay lias  a
   backup policy  in 'place which- makes tiie following  re- -
   quirements:
                             ""  '  ••  "  '          ffff
     m  The  backup monitor 'musfe && trained 'by, 'the
        coordinator and  attend a minimum  o/ one
        control session every six months.      -,
        The  backup volunteer must sample
        data,, instead' of the'primsry mtinttor at teast eyery;-  ,
        four to six weeks 'arid- the  primary ,moriitor"md*st sigif
        the submitted dsta sheet,   -    /  "'.',,"',;  ""'-  :  ',
     • The  backup may  monitor'at any site but must use the
        proper data sheet and  the kit'assigned to the primary
        volunteer of the sifce"6eing monifcoi^d,  ';''"'
                  -  -   ',',      -  -,'-  ^   	     "   , '; ',';/- *Ji
     • If  more than one backup- is needed- for''a 'site, the - -
        primary  monitor and the backup  must'ItoW  individual
        quality control sessib'Hs,every't^hVee mor»th$,  This  cart'
        be as simple as,meeting ^at the site and conducting -the
        tests together,  '      -      '",-'    -'-'•'',,'''''',',
                               138  —

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                                           Training Volunteers
 References

 Cook, J.S., 1989, The Elements of Speechwriting and Public Speaking.
     MacMillan Publishing Company, New York, 242 pp.

 Ellett, K., 1993, Introduction to Water Quality Monitoring Using Volunteers,
     2nd ed., Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay, Baltimore, MD. 26 pp.

 Smith, T.C., 1984, Making Successful Presentations: A Self-Teaching Guide.
     John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 182 pp.

| U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990, Volunteer Water Monitoring: A
     Guide for State Managers, EPA 440/4-90-010, Office of Water, Wash-
     ington, DC. 78 pp.
                                139

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-------
Presenting Monitoring Results
           Chapter 10
         Presenting
         Monitoring
             Results

-------
 Chapter 10
Data Presentation

Two critical elements of successful
citizen monitoring programs are the
analysis and use of monitoring data.
Volunteers are much more moti-
vated to collect high quality data
over the long term if the data prove
useful in the management of their
estuary. Presentation of the results
to the volunteers in a simple yet
informative style should promote
interest in the program and help it
flourish.

The Importance of
Credible Data
Volunteer monitoring programs
must ensure that data released to
users or the public are accurate.
Poorly collected samples or data that
are carelessly analyzed or presented
may mislead people about the water
quality status of an estuary. While
good data legitimate management
decisions, bad data erode both the
manager's and public's confidence
in management actions. Nothing less
than the program's reputation and
future existence are at stake.

At the start, the program organizers
 should institute a strict quality
 control and quality assurance plan
 designed to minimize data collection
 errors, weed out data that do  not
 meet rigorous standards, and
 develop a strategy to present the
 results. Such a plan will enable the
program leaders to stand behind
their results and justify their
conclusions.

Once data collection protocols are
defined and approved, all volunteers
should scrupulously follow the
outlined methods. Additionally, the
program should store and document
data using accepted quality assur-
ance methods. Such assurances
include having the monitoring
coordinator check each incoming
data form for decimal errors,
missing information, and general
problems.

The coordinator should follow up
questionable data with a call to the
volunteer who submitted the
sampling sheet. Volunteer Water
Monitoring: A Guide for State
Managers provides additional
information on quality assurance
considerations.

Once the data are assured for
accuracy, program members should
allocate sufficient time to analyze
the data thoroughly.  During staff
meetings, members can decide upon |
 the most understandable and
 informative means of displaying the ]
 data results. These results will
 represent the heart and soul of the
 program; the organizers would do
 well to allot ample time to present
 the efforts of the volunteer monitors ]
 effectively.
                                   142

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                              Presenting Monitoring Results
  Presenting the Data
  While some citizen monitoring
  programs display results in a
  periodic newsletter, others summa-
  rize the season's or year's sampling
  in an annual report or by verbal
  presentation. The key to rousing and
  sustaining the interest of the
  audience in any presentation format,
  however, remains the same. The
  speaker or writer must determine the
  interest, background, and level of
  technical understanding of the target
|  audience and guide the presentation
  accordingly.
|
j In presenting data results to the
 volunteers or other interested
 parties, several points merit consid-
I eration:

  •  Highly technical or extremely
      simplistic presentations bore
      the audience. An informative
      and lively approach, molded to
      the expectations of the
      audience, will be far more
      effective. Simple graphics
      often help make complicated
      issues much more understand-
      able.

  •   A presentation should focus on
      a clear message. Volunteers
      will be more interested in
      specifics such as trends in
      water quality, seasonal
      variation, quality assurance
       issues, or the identification of
       trouble spots in the estuary
       rather than an across-the-board
       synopsis of all the monitoring
       results.

   •   Data presentations, whether
       written or verbal, should be
       both timely and relevant.
       Volunteers will likely maintain
       a higher level of interest if
       they see a quick turnaround of
       their data into usable and
       informative graphics and
      summaries.

 Graphics, when used properly, are
 an excellent tool to present a lot of
 information to  the audience in a
 condensed yet understandable
 format. They enliven the presenta-
 tion, highlight trends, and illustrate
 comparative relationships. Graphics
 include graphs  or plots of the data,
 maps, and flowcharts. Such graph-
 ics, along with  narrative interpreta-
 tion, summary statistics, tables, and
 slides, help construct a well-rounded
 and interesting  presentation.

 Graphs
 Results summarized from the
 volunteer-collected data can be
 displayed in any of several styles of
graphs. Choosing the style that best
conveys the information is critical
and requires careful thought.
Although more  sophisticated
                                  143

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 Chapter 10
graphic styles may be required to
present some data, three basic types
of graphs are often used for volun-
teer monitoring data: the bar graph,
the pie chart, and the line graph.

The bar graph uses simple columns.
The height of each column repre-
sents the value of a data point,
making comparisons of the data
relatively easy. Bar graphs empha-
size the importance of each data
point rather than highlighting trends
within the data set.

The pie chart is a simple yet
effective means of comparing each
category within the data set to the
whole. The chart's pie shape, with
the pie representing the total and the
individual wedges representing
distinct categories, makes this
graphic style popular due to its
 simplicity and clarity.

 The final graph type connects the
 data points with a line, showing
 changes over time or space and
 often  illuminating trends within the
 data. The line graph places less
 emphasis on individual values and
 stresses the relationship among the
 data points.

 No matter which graphic style is
 used, a set of basic rules defines the
 elements of effective and useful
 graphs:
         The Bar Graph
 50-
 40-

 30-

 20:

 10-

  0
      #1     #2     #3     #4
             Category
         The Pie Chart
 Category 4
                      Category 1
 Category 3
                        Category 2II
          The Line Graph
  40-
  30-
•= SO-
  10
         —I—
          #2
—I—
 #3
                     #4
            #5
                                                      Category
                                   144  —

-------
                         Presenting Monitoring-Results
I  Have the graph serve a clear
  purpose. The information
  contained in the graph should
  be relatively easy to interpret
  and relate closely to the text of
  a document or script of a
  presentation.

  Do not distort the meaning of
  the data. Graphical representa-
  tions of the data points should
  be proportional to each point's
  actual value. Ensure that the
  labeling of graphics is clear
  and accurate. A table of the
  data values should accompany
  any graph that is likely to be
  misunderstood.

  Keep the graphic design
  simple.  Complex or tricky
  graphics often hide the true
  meaning of the data.  Avoid
  cluttering the graph with
  labels, arrows, grids, fill
  patterns, and other "visual
  noise" that unnecessarily
  complicate the graphic.

  Limit the number of graphic
  elements. A pie chart, for
 example, should be divided
 into no more than five or six
 wedges. Keep the number of
 superimposed lines on a line
 graph and the quantity of
 columns in a bar graph to a
 minimum.
   •  Consider the proportions of the
      chart and the legibility of the
      type and graphic elements. A
      horizontal format is generally
      more visually appealing,
      simpler to understand, and
      makes labels easier to read.
      The elements should fill the
      dimensions of the graph to
      create a balanced effect.
      Ensure that the axes are
      labeled with legible titles and
      that the tick marks are not
      crowded along the axis lines.
      Avoid cryptic abbreviations.

  •  Create a title for the chart that
      is simple yet informative.

  •  Use a legend if necessary to
      describe the categories within
      the graph. Graphs requiring
      additional explanation should
      have an accompanying
      caption.

Summary Statistics
Summary statistics describe the
basic attributes of a set of data for a
given parameter. Such statistics
include the mean and standard
deviation—two of the most  fre-
quently used descriptors of environ-
mental data.

Textbook statistics commonly
assume that if a parameter is
measured many times under the
                             145

-------
 Chapter 10
same conditions, then the measure-
ment values will be randomly
distributed around the average with
more values clustering near the
average than further away. In this
ideal situation, a graph of the
frequency of each measure plotted
against its magnitude should yield a
bell-shaped or normal curve. The
mean and the standard deviation
determine the height and breadth of
this curve, respectively.

The mean is simply the sum of all
the measurement values divided by
the number of measurements. This
statistic is a measure of location and
in a normal curve marks the highest
point at the center of the bell.

The standard deviation, on the other
 hand, describes the variability of the
 data points around the mean. Very
 similar measurement values will
 have a small standard deviation
 while widely scattered data will
 have a much larger standard
 deviation.

 While both the mean and standard
 deviation are quite useful in
 describing estuarine data, often the
 actual measures do not fit a normal
 distribution. Other statistics often
 come into play to describe the data.
 Some data are skewed in one
 direction or the other. Other data
 may have a flattened bell shape.
Deviation from the normal distribu-
tion often occurs in sampling
estuaries because the estuary is
dynamic with many factors influ-
encing the condition of its waters.
The various methods used to collect
data can also cause non-normal
distributions.

For example, if volunteers are
collecting water quality data in SAV|
beds, the distribution of water
quality variables will tend to be
skewed towards good water quality.
This skewing occurs because water
quality has to be of a certain
minimum standard to support the
growth of these underwater plants.

Another common cause of non-
 normal distribution occurs because
 of detection limits. A detection limitl
 marks the boundary above or below f
 which measurements are impossible]
 using a particular method. Secchi
 depth measurements, for example,
 have an upper detection limit
 determined by depth (i.e., the Secchi]
 depth cannot exceed the water
 depth) and a lower limit determined j
 by the smallest increment of
 measure on the rope. The lower
 figure on the opposite page shows
 how both low and high values
 (representing the tails of the Secchi
 data distribution) may be truncated
 by these detection limits.
                                   146

-------
 (A
 ta
 "E
 3
                     Presenting Monitoring Results
          Examples of Frequency Distributions
                                  Normal (Bell-shaped)
                              — Right Skewed
                              — Left Skewed
                              	 Flattened
                       Numbers
       Limitations on Secchi Depth Measurements
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      Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul  Aug  Sep  Oct Nov Dec
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                            Depth of water

                            at site
                         147

-------
 Chapter 10
Case Study

This section contains an analysis of
hypothetical data that applies to a
fictitious estuary named Windward
Bay. The data from this bay are used
to present several ways of analyzing
and representing estuarine data.
While every analysis and each graph
type may not be usable for all
citizen-collected estuarine data,
many ideas can be derived from
these analyses and modified to suit a
particular program.
Volunteers sampled Windward Bay
every other week throughout the
year. The data presented here run
from May I through October 31,
since this period encompasses the
most biologically active time of year
during which many estuaries suffer
seasonal depletion of dissolved
oxygen. Additionally, many animals
reproduce during this period; water
quality conditions for the newly
born young are extremely important
in determining their likelihood of
survival.
 Table  of Volunteer Data Collected in Windward Bay
                            May - October
Date
1-May
15-May
1-Jun
16-Jun
1-Jul
16OuI
1-Aug
1 6-Aug
1-Sep
16-Sep
1-Oct
16-Oct
31-Oct
Secchi Depth Dim. Oxy. H2O Temp. (C) Ammonia Phosphate Bacteria
1.6
1.5
1.8
1.3
1.5
1.1
0.9
O.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.9
2.1
11.5
8.5
9.2
9.2
8.9
8.4
8.1
6.8
7.2
13.3
9.7
1O.5
11.1
21.3
22.3
20
24.3
28.8
29
29.5
28.8
25.4
28.9
22.4
24.2
16.6
O.OO3
O.O45
O.O44
O.O37
O.O12
O.OO7
O.O06
0.003
O.O46
O.O38
O.OO3
O.OO6
0.012
O.OO3
0.0053
O.OO46
0.0074
O.OO8
O.OO9
0.009
0.006
O.O21
0.021
O.O14
O.OO6
O.OO6
132
256
11O1
35O
135
178
143
164
198
654
145
89
98
  Noto: For units of measure, see specific graphs on following pages.

 	  148  	

-------
                            'resenting Monitoring Results
 he water quality data from
 Vindward Bay come from a single
 konitoring station (marked as X on
jie map). This station is 8 feet deep
Ind has an average summer salinity
If 15 parts per thousand. The
submerged aquatic vegetation
(SAV) data come from a much
larger area of Windward Bay.

At this site on each sampling date,
volunteers:
                              149

-------
 Chapter 10
 •  determined the Secchi depth;
 •  measured surface water
     dissolved oxygen;
 •  took surface nitrogen and
     phosphorus samples; and
 •  collected a water sample to
     test for bacteria.

The volunteers also noted the
general water, land, and weather
conditions in the area and measured
water temperature.

Turbidity Results
Turbidity, measured by a Secchi
disk, is one of the easiest parameters
for volunteers to measure and is
easily understandable because it is a
visual gauge of water clarity. To
present the data, it may be prefer-

     c    .§
in   "?    CD
                                  13

                                  CD
able to have depth increase in a
downward direction along the
vertical axis to simulate actual water]
depth. This minor change from the
norm, along with the use of Secchi
disk icons extending down from the
"surface," makes these data easy to
understand.

Such a plot shows the clarity of the
water on each sampling date and
also illustrates the general change inj
water clarity throughout the sam-
pling season. During the sampling
period at Windward Bay, water
clarity is reasonably high in the late
spring, then decreases through much
of the summer, and increases rapidl}
with the onset of autumn and cooler |
water temeratures.
 <
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                                  150

-------
                            Presenting Monitoring  Results
        Dissolved Oxygen and Water Temperature
                        at Windward Bay
             Water Temperature
             Dissolved Oxygen
              in
  dissolved Oxygen Results
[Scientists and managers have
[identified the seasonal depletion of
 dissolved oxygen (DO) as one of
•the major problems currently
  filleting many of the nation's
 [estuaries. Since oxygen levels often
•vary considerably, even within the
 course of a day, the change through
Itime is often more important than a
"single instantaneous measure.
  Dissolved oxygen data with
•sampling intervals of a week or two
•are often displayed with a simple
Iline plot since this type of graph
Iclearly illustrates the overall
•change in the data over time.
In this plot, the horizontal axis
shows the sampling dates and the
vertical axis displays the range of
DO values in milligrams per liter
(mg/L). Because a line plot "esti-
mates" the values in between
sampling dates, the change becomes
more important than the actual value
at any one time.

The oxygen plot also shows the
water temperature for the same time
period. Water temperature is one of
the major determinants of DO
levels. The plot of the two
parameters shows that as water
temperature increases through the
                                151

-------
 Chapter 1O
summer, oxygen levels generally
decline. The opposite situation
occurs as cooler autumn tempera-
tures set in.

Nitrogen and
Phosphorus Results
Nitrogen and phosphorus are the
two nutrients of greatest concern in
assessing the nutrient status of an
estuary. Overenrichment by these
two nutrients may signify the
presence of related estuarine health
problems, such as seasonally low
dissolved oxygen levels and poor
water clarity.
Both instantaneous measures and
change through time may be of
interest in plotting nitrogen and
phosphorus over the course of the
sampling season. A bar chart for
nitrogen (in the form of ammonia)
shows the relative magnitude of
nutrient concentrations over time.

The nitrogen graph shows that for
much of the sampling period,
ammonia hovered at or below levels |
of approximately 0.01  milligrams
per liter. During several weeks in
late May and June and again in early
September, ammonia levels in-
                     Ammonia Nitrogen Levels
                     at the Windward Bay Site
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-------
                           Presenting Monitoring Results
                           Phosphate Levels
                     at the Windward Bay Site
creased dramatically, reaching about
four times levels observed during
the rest of the sampling period.

Phosphorus (in the form of phos-
phate) is also plotted using a bar
chart. In this graph, a line plotting
the average concentration from
several years data for this site has
been superimposed. Once a program
has methodically collected many
years of data, using the average of
these data as a reference line
illustrates whether the current year's
data vary considerably from average
values of the recent past.
The phosphorus plot generally
shows slowly rising concentrations
through the summer, with peaks
during the first two weeks of
September. Late September and
October follow with declining
phosphate levels.

The current data do not vary
substantially from previous years'
data, although the peak in Septem-
ber rises above the average
phosphate levels typically found in
early autumn at the Windward Bay
site.
                               153

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 Chapter 10
Bacteria Results
Volunteers also collected water
samples for fecal coliform analysis.
Fecal coliform is of particular
interest in this portion of Windward
Bay since a livestock congregation
area sits close to the shoreline,
posing the threat of manure washing
into bay waters. High levels of fecal
coliform in the area should warn of
possible contamination by patho-
genic organisms.

At the same time that the volunteers
collected the water sample for
bacteria, they also measured surface
water temperature. Bacterial
activity generally increases with a
                             rise in temperature. Volunteers also
                             noted local conditions and examined
                             the area for recent signs of erosion
                             and runoff.

                             The line graph of bacteria levels
                             through the season are superim-
                             posed against a state standard for
                             fecal coliform levels for primary
                             (swimming) and secondary (boating
                             and fishing) water contact. Four
                             times during the sampling period
                             bacteria levels exceeded the lower
                             standard, although the water was
                             still safe for swimming. In only one
                             instance did levels rise above those
                             considered safe for swimming.
        12OO-
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                         at the Windward Bay Site
                              T
                         Not permissible for swimming;
                         Permissible for boating and fishing (under 5,OOO)

                                  154

-------
                           Presenting Monitoring Results
Submerged Aquatic
Vegetation Results
In estuaries that can support
submerged aquatic vegetation
(SAV), these plants are a valuable
indicator of water quality status and
an important link to the other plants
and animals. Although SAV
populations fluctuate naturally
through time, many areas have
suffered widespread losses of these
plants shown by long-term declines
in their abundance and distribution.
Assessing both the historical and
current status of SAV in an estuary
establishes the capability of an
estuary to support submerged plants.

Volunteers checked Windward Bay
once during the growing season to
verify the location and to assess the
density and species composition of
beds. Each volunteer was given a
photocopied map of a portion of the
bay with the previous year's SAV
beds (taken from aerial photo-
graphs) marked on the map. If a new
bed had appeared since the previous
year or a bed had shifted in location,
the volunteers roughly mapped the
outline of the bed on their maps and
noted ts density and composition.

The volunteers also estimated the
percent cover of each species found.
Four major species composed the
SAV beds  of Windward Bay:
Eurasian watermilfoil; redhead
grass; sago pondweed; and widgeon
grass. The  pie chart shows each
species' percentage of the total SAV
in the Windward Bay beds.
                Percent Coverage of SAV Species
                         in Windward Bay
             Widgeon Grass
                (2O%)
       Sago Pondweed
           (10%)
     Eurasian Watermilfoil
           (45%)
                Redhead Grass
                   (25%)
                                155

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Chapter 10
            Map of SAV Beds in Windward EBay
                           [1953]
The map of Windward Bay in 1953 shows a relatively rural, forested area
surrounding the bay. The SAV beds hug the shoreline. Areas of high wave
activity (off the headlands] and near the stream draining the farmland are
devoid of SAV. Runoff from the farm, however, has likely changed the local
water quality to some extent, making it more difficult for SAV propogation
and survival.

	  156	

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                          Presenting Monitoring Results
                Map of SAV Beds in Windward Bay
                               (1993)
                                                         Fortified
                                                         Shoreline
I The map of Windward Bay in 1993 shows that significant development has
I occurred in the area since 1953. Housing, fortification of the shoreline,
I increased use of the area for recreation, and the loss of some forests have
I collectively worsened the quality of water in the bay. As a result, several
I SAV beds have either disappeared or decreased in size.
                              157

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 Chapter 10
Data Interpretation
Presenting the data should go
beyond graphics and summary
statistics. The program leaders and
estuarine experts associated with the
program must interpret the data,
statistics, and charts and summarize
them in a way that is meaningful to
the intended audience. Such a
summary explanation  not only
brings the data to life for the
volunteers, but also provides a
concise account of the status of the
estuary for managers,  scientists, and
other volunteer programs to exam-
ine.

Based on the data collected for
Windward Bay from May to
October, the following conclusions
were reached. Although many
conclusions may seem tentative, a
check of the field sheets for unusual
conditions can often clarify specific
results or explain sudden changes in
the data values.

  •  Secchi disk readings were
      highest in the late spring and
      early fall and lowest in mid to
      late summer. Phytoplankton
      levels generally increase with
      wanning water  temperatures.
      At the same time, Secchi
      levels  drop as the water
      becomes increasingly cloudy.
      Runoff from storms,  carrying
      soil, silt, and sand, can also
      cloud the water.
 As expected, dissolved oxygen
 levels declined during the
 summer and rose again in
 early autumn. The levels of
 oxygen show a clear inverse
 relationship with water
 temperature; as temperatures
 increased, oxygen levels
 declined.

 Although dissolved oxygen
 levels did decline during the
 summer, they never reached
 levels harmful to estuarine
 animal life. Many estuaries
 have sites that seasonally
 become anoxic (the water
 contains no oxygen). Most
 aquatic animals cannot survive
 in such areas.

 The peak value of oxygen on
 September 16 could have
 resulted from aeration of the
 water due to  the storm that
 volunteers noticed prior to that
 sampling date. It could also
 result from the photosynthesis
 of a phytoplankton bloom
 which can increase oxygen
 levels dramatically during
 daylight hours.

I  Ammonia nitrogen levels
  peaked twice during the
  sampling period. Several
  factors can affect the levels of
  nutrients in the water including
                                   158

-------
                       Presenting Monitoring Results
 runoff from storms, discharge
 from wastewater treatment
 plants or leaky septic systems,
 and the mixing of organic
 matter from the estuary bottom
 into the water column.
 Although the cause may not
 always be apparent, the peak
 around the beginning to the
 middle of September may be
 due to the storm which caused
 substantial runoff in the area,
 washing animal waste and
 nitrogen-rich fertilizer into
 Windward Bay.

 After the peak of ammonia
 nitrogen in mid-September, the
 level of this nutrient dropped
 significantly. The decline
 could be due to the rapid
 uptake of nitrogen by phyto-
 plankton.  Data showing an
 upsurge in phytoplankton
 numbers soon after the
 nitrogen peak would help
 confirm this conclusion.

 Phosphate levels remained
 fairly low throughout much of
 the summer at the Windward
 Bay site. Likely,  much of the
phosphate was tied up in
 biomass (living matter) or was
 bound to the sediment. Like
 nitrogen, the peak in the first
part of September could be
due to the influx of animal
 waste or fertilizer into the bay
 from storm runoff. The storm
 may have also caused mixing
 of the substrate at the site.
 Changes in pH can also cause
 the release of phosphorus
 bound to the estuarine sedi-
 ment.

 Bacteria levels remained in the
 safe zone for swimming
 throughout much of the
 sampling period. The first
 peak in early June corresponds
 to a peak in ammonia nitrogen
 levels and a fairly high Secchi
 reading.  Such data should
 provide clues to the program
 leaders that nitrogen  may be
 entering the bay. Field notes
 on unusual conditions may
 help clarify the situation.

Temperature and local
condition information are
often helpful in determining
the reasons for sudden
increases in bacterial counts.
The temperature plot shows a
single peak that corresponds in
time with one of the bacterial
peaks. Bacterial growth is
fostered by an increase in
water temperature. In addition,
volunteers noted that a large
storm had hit the area around
the time of the second peak
and substantial erosion and
                            159

-------
Chapter  10
    runoff occurred from the
    nearby livestock feeding area.
    Further monitoring or investi-
    gation may reveal the cause of
    these high bacteria levels.

    Eurasian watermilfoil is the
    dominant plant in Windward
    Bay beds, composing 45
    percent of the total vegetation.
    Redhead grass constitutes
    about 25 percent, widgeon
    grass about 20 percent, and
    sago pondweed about 10
    percent.

    Comparison of the 1953 and
     1993 maps of SAV beds
    shows a decline in the acreage
    of these beds within Windward
    Bay. Although further studies
    are required to pinpoint the
    causes of SAV decline,
    housing development, shore-
    line fortification, and increased
     usage of the recreational area
     between 1953 and 1993 are
     likely contributors.

     Eurasian watermilfoil is an
     introduced species in the
     United States. This species
     likely replaced one or more
     species that previously
     inhabited the bay. Comparison
     of volunteer-collected data
     with historical data may reveal
     changes in species composi-
     tion of the beds over time.

This list of observations and
conclusions represents only a
preliminary evaluation of the data
collected at Windward Bay over a
several month sampling period.
Statistical analyses of the data, use
of different types of graphical
techniques, and comparison of these
data with good quality historical
data would likely reveal additional
information about the water quality
status of the bay. Additionally, as
data analysis proceeds, program
officials can modify the data
collection process to remedy
problems, fill in gaps, expand the
program scope, and address areas of
particular concern.

Like any monitoring effort, volun-
teer programs should be dynamic
and responsive. Integrating the
objectives of the volunteer program
with the accurate assessment of an
estuary's water quality status should
yield a reputable monitoring effort
that serves the need of the volun-
teers, the community at large, and
the estuary itself.
                                  160

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                          Presenting Monitoring Results
References


Cleveland, W.S., 1985, The Elements of Graphing Data, Wadsworth Ad-
    vanced Books and Software, Belmont, CA, 323 pp.

LaMotte Company, 1992, The Monitor's Handbook, Chestertown, MD, 71 pp.

Schloss, J., 1992, Data Applications and Presentation, in: Proceedings of
    Third National Citizens' Volunteer Water Monitoring Conference, EPA
    841-R-92-004, pp. 101-104.


Tufte, E.R., 1983, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Graphics
    Press, Cheshire, CT, 197 pp.
                              161

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-------
      Appendices A, B, & C
     Preparing a QAPjP

Scientific Supply Houses

Hydrometer Conversion
                 Table

-------

-------
                                             Preparing a  QAP/P
 Preparing a Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPjP)

 The EPA QA program is based upon EPA Order 5360.1, Policy and Program
 Requirements to Implement the Quality Assurance Program, which describes
 the policy, objectives, and responsibilities of all EPA program and regional
 offices. This order also requires state monitoring programs supported by EPA
 to prepare Quality Assurance Project Plans. A project plan specifies the
 planning, execution, and review of each aspect of data collection, emphasizing
 the specific quality assurance and quality control techniques that will help
 ensure that the program can meet its data quality objectives.

When formulating data quality objectives, the planning committee should
consider the five indicators used to assess data quality.

 •  Accuracy, also known as relative error or bias, is the degree of agree-
     ment between the sampling result and the true value of the parameter
     being measured. The equipment and procedure used for measurement are
     most likely to influence data accuracy.

 • Precision assesses the similarity of several measures of the same para-
    meter taken on the same sample regardless of the accuracy of these data
    points. Precision is  also known as the repeatability or replicability of a
    measurement. Human error in sampling can greatly influence precision.

 • Representativeness considers whether the collected data accurately and
    precisely represent the actual environmental condition of the estuary.
                   Accuracy and Precision
     Biased
   and Precise
 Unbiased
and Precise
  Unbiased
and Imprecise
   Biased
and Imprecise
           Source: K. Hamilton and ER Bergersen, Methods to Estimate Aquatic
                Habrtat Variables. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service and Bureau of Reclamation
                                 165

-------
Appendix A
    Sample site location, along with other potential errors such as the type of
    sample container and lab and data entry mistakes, may all play a role in
    affecting the representativeness of the data.

 •  Completeness is a measure of the amount of valid data obtained com-
    pared to the amount expected to be obtained as specified by the original
    sampling design objectives. Even the most highly organized program
    will have to deal with equipment failure, weather-related problems,
    sickness, and faulty handling of the samples. Completeness is usually
    expressed as a percentage, accounting for the number of times that the
    volunteers did not collect  data. An 80-90 percent rate of collection is
    usually acceptable.

 • Comparability represents  how well data from one esutarine monitoring
    program can be compared to those from another. Although not all
    estuaries may be directly comparable due to differing climates, circula-
    tion patterns,  or salinity regimes, similar sampling methods used from
     one estuary to the next will make comparisons, where appropriate,
     feasible.

Each Quality Assurance Project Plan contains 16 major elements.

  1.  Title Page. The title page includes the name of the project officer, the
     immediate supervisor, the funding organization,  and any others with
     major responsibility for the project.

  2.  Table of Contents. The table of contents is a listing of the included
     report elements and associated appendices.

  3.  Project Description. This element clearly and succinctly states the
     project purpose. It should also include a general outline of the project
     along with the experimental design.

  4. Project Organization and Responsibility. This section should state the
      organization responsible for implementing the program.

  5.  Quality Assurance (QA) Objectives. This section should itemize the
      list of QA objectives for each parameter regarding precision, accuracy,
      representativeness, completeness, and comparability.

	.	  166	—

-------
                                           Preparing a QAPjP
 6.  Sampling Procedures. These procedures detail the method for
    monitoring each parameter.

 7.  Sample Custody. This portion of the plan specifies the chain-of-custody
    procedure for both field sampling and laboratory analyses. The chain-of-
    custody establishes a tracking protocol to follow the sample at every step
    and through each change of hands, from its collection to its analysis at a
    lab. Such a protocol ensures that the data could be used for legal
    purposes, if necessary.
 8.
Calibration Procedures and Frequency. Calibration procedures
describe the means of maintaining the accuracy and precision of the
monitoring equipment.
9.  Analytical Procedures. These procedures document how each
    parameter is analyzed.

10. Data Reduction, Validation, and Reporting. This element addresses
    the activities involved in an overall data management plan. Such activi-
    ties include a plan for preparing and mailing data sheets, selecting and
    using data management software, screening the data sheets for errors,
    entering data on the computer, and transferring data to the end user.

11. Internal Quality Control (QC) Checks. This section covers the means
    of conducting ongoing quality control checks to assure a high level of
    data quality.

12. Performance and System Audits. These audits evaluate all components
    of the measurement system, including the equipment, personnel, and
    procedures to determine proper selection and use.

13. Preventive Maintenance. This portion of the plan addresses ways to
    minimize gaps in the data through the scheduling of backup volunteers
    and by maintaining ample supplies.

14. Specific Routine Procedures Used to Assess Data Precision,
    Accuracy, and Completeness. Routine procedures identify the
    equations needed to calculate precision and accuracy and outline the
    methods used in calibration and comparability studies.
                                167

-------
Appendix A
 15. Corrective Action. Procedures for corrective action include predeter-
    mined limits of data acceptability, the management of suspect data, and
    the mechanism for taking corrective action.

 16. Quality Assurance Reports. These periodic reports should include data
    accuracy, precision, and completeness, QC session results, and signifi-
    cant QA problems along with recommended solutions.
                                  168

-------
                                                     Appendix B
  Scientific Supply Houses

  This appendix contains a partial listing of chemical and scientific equipment
  companies that supply volunteer monitoring programs.
  Fisher Scientific
  711 Forbes Ave.
  Pittsburgh, PA 15219

  HACH Company
  P.O. Box 389
  Loveland, CO  80539
  (800) 525-5940

JHydrolab Corporation
JP.O. Box 50116
I Austin, TX 78763
1(512)255-8841

iLaMotte Company
JP.O. Box 329
IChestertown, MD 21620
1(800)344-3100

JMillipore Corporation
JBedford, MA 01730
1(800) 225-1380 (east coast)

(Thomas Scientific
 99 High Hill Road at 1-295
JP.O. Box 99
ISwedesboro, N.J. 08085
1(609) 467-2000
 VWR Scientific
 200 Center Square Road
 Bridgeport, N.J. 08014
 (800) 234-9300

 P.O. Box 66929
 O'Hare AMF
 Chicago, IL 60666
 (800) 932-5000

 P.O. Box 7900
 San Francisco, CA 94120
 (415) 467-6202

 Wildlife Supply Company
 301 Cass Street
 Saginaw, MI  48602
 (517)799-8100

YSI Incorporated
 1725 Brannum Lane
Yellow Springs, OH 45387
(513)767-7241
                                169

-------

-------
                                                        Appendix C
 lydrometer Conversion Table

 he tables that are widely use to convert hydrometer readings (specific gravity)
 t any temperature to density at 15°C were designed to be used with a hydrom-
jter calibrated on a 15°C/4°C basis. Most hydrometers used for salinity measure-
tents are calibrated on a 60°/60°F basis. The calibration basis for a hydrometer
| printed on the paper scale inside each hydrometer.

r a 60°/60°F hydrometer is used with conversion tables designed for 15°C/4°C
krdrometer, a value is obtained which is 0.001 higher than it should be. When
pnverted to salinity, this error produces a salinity reading that averages 1.3
  ' i per thousand (ppt) higher than it should be.

 he tables included in this manual are designed to be used with a hydrometer
tlibrated on a 60760°F basis. Please check the hydrometer you are using and be
Ire to use the correct conversion table for that type of hydrometer.


 lie preceding^text was taken verbatim from the LaMotte Company booklet
htitled 60f/600F Hydrometer Instructions. The table on the following pages
bmes from the same booklet.
ote: To use the table on the following pages, find the observed hydrometer
ading in the left hand column of the table and the temperature of the water in
e graduated cylinder in the top row of the table to yield the salinity of the
later sample in parts per thousand (ppt).
                                 171

-------
Appendix C
  Conversion Table for Use with a 60°/60°F Hydrometer
Observed
Reading
1.00OO
1.0O1O
1.0020
1.OO3O
1.0040
1.0050
1.O06O
1.OO7O
1.OO8O
1.OO9O
1.01OO
1.O11O
1.O12O
1.013O
1.0140
1.O15O
1.0160
1.0170
1.0180
1.O19O
1.O2OO
1.0210
1.0220
1.O23O
1.0240
1.0250
1.0260
1.0270
1.02BO
1.O29O
1.03OO
1.0310
Temperature of water in graduated cylinder t°C)
-1.0

0.6
1.9
3.2
4.4
5.7
6.8
8.1
9.3
10.5
11.8
13.O
14.3
15.4
16.7
17.9
19.2
20.4
21.7
22.9
24.2
25.3
26.6
27.8
29.1
30.3
31.6
32.8
34.1
35.2
36.5
37.7
O.O

0.6
1.9
3.1
4.2
5.5
6.8
8.0
9.2
10.5
11.7
13.0
14.1
15.4
16.6
17.9
19.1
20.4
21.7
22.9
24.2
25.3
26.6
27.8
29.1
30.3
31.6
32.8
34.1
35.2
36.5
37.7
1.0

0.5
1.8
2.9
4.2
5.4
6.7
7.9
9.2
10.4
11.7
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.6
17.9
19.1
20.4
21.6.
22.9
24.O
25.3
26.6
27.8
29.1
30.3
31.6
32.9
34.1
35.4
36.5
37.8
2.0

0.5
1.6
2.9
4.1
5.4
6.6
7.9
9.2
1O.4
11.7
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.6
17.9
19.1
2O.4
21.6
22.9
24.2
25.3
26.6
27.8
29.1
3O.4
31.6
32.9
34.1
35.4
36.7
37.8
3.0

O.2
1.6
2.8
4.1
5.4
6.6
7.9
9.2
10.4
11.7
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.6
17.9
19.1
2O.4
21.7
22.9
24.2
25.5
26.6
27.9
29.1
30.4
31.7
32.9
34.2
35.5
36.7
38.0
4.0

0.2
1.6
2.8
4.1
5.3
6.6
7.9
9.2
10.4
11.7
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.6
17.9
19.2
2O.4
21.7
23.0
24.2
25.5
26.8
27.9
29.2
3O.6
31.7
33.0
34.3
35.5
36.8
38.1
5.0

0.2
1.5
2.8
4.1
5.3
6.6
7.9
9.2
1O.4
11.7
13.O
14.1
15.4
16.7
17.9
19.2
20.5
21.7
23.0
24.3
25.6
26.8
28.1
29.4
30.6
31.9
33.2
34.5
35.6
36.9
38.2
6.0

0.2
1.5
2.8
4.1
5.4
6.6
7.9
9.2
1O.5
11.7
13.O
14.3
15.4
16.7
18.0
19.3
20.5
21.8
23.1
24.3
25.6
26.9
28.2
29.5
30.7
32.0
33.3
34.5
35.8
37.1
38.4
7.0

0.2
1.6
2.8
4.1
5.4
6.7
7.9
9.2
10.5
11.8
13.1
14.3
15.6
16.9
18.O
19.3
20.6
22.0
23.3
24.4
25.7
27. 0
28.3
29.5
30.8
32.1
33.4
34.7
35.9
37.2
38.5
~*M
1
o.a
1.J
2.J
4.
5.
6.
8.
9.
10.
11.
13.]
14.;
15.
17
18
19.
2O.'
22.
23.
24.
25.
27.
28.
29.
30
32
33
34
36
37
38
                       172 -

-------
                                     Appendix C
Conversion Table for Use with a 6O°/6O°F Hydrometer
Observed
Reading
1 .OOOO
1.0010
1 .0020
1 .OO3O
1 .0040
1 .OO5O
1 .OOBO
1 .0070
1 .OOBO
1 .OO90
1.01OO
1.O11O
1.0120
1.O130
1.O14O
1.0150
1 .01 60
1 .01 7O
1.0180
1 .01 9O
1 .020O
1.0210
1 .0220
1.O23O
1 .0240
1 .0250
1 .0260
1.O27O
1 .028O
1 .029O
1 .03OO
1.O31O

9.0

0.5
1.6
2.9
4.2
5.5
6.8
8.1
9.3
1O.6
11.9
13.2
14.5
15.8
17.O
18.3
19.6
20.9
22.2
23.5
24.7
26.0
27.3
28.6
29.9
31.1
32.4
33.7
35.O
36.3
37.6
38.9
Temperature of water in graduated cylinder (°CJ
10.0

0.5
1.8
3.1
4.4
5.5
6.8
8.1
9.4
10.7
12.O
13.4
14.7
15.8
17.1
18.4
19.7
21.0
22.3
23.6
24.8
26.1
27.4
28.7
30.0
31.3
32.6
33.9
35.1
36.4
37.7
39.0
111.0

0.6
1.9
3.2
4.5
5.7
7.0
8.3
9.6
1O.9
12.2
13.5
14.8
16.0
17.3
18.6
19.9
21.2
22.5
23.8
25.1
26.4
27.7
28.9
3O.2
31.5
32.8
34.1
35.4
36.7
38.O
39.3
12.0

0.6
2.0
3.3
4.6
5.8
7.1
8.4
9.7
11.O
12.3
13.6
14.9
16.2
17.5
18.8
20.1
21.3
22.6
23.9
25.2
26.5
27.8
29.1
30.4
31.7
33.0
34.3
35.6
36.8
38.1
39.4
13.0

0.7
2.1
3.4
4.8
5.9
7.2
8.5
9.8
11.1
12.4
13.7
15.0
16.3
17.7
19.O
2O.3
21.6
22.9
24.2
25.5
26.8
28.1
29.4
30.6
31.9
33.2
34.5
35.8
37.1
38.4
39.7
14.0

0.8
2.3
3.6
4.9
6.2
7.5
8.8
1O.O
11.3
12.6
13.9
15.2
16.5
17.8
19.1
20.4
21.7
23.0
24.3
25.6
26.9
28.2
29.5
3O.8
32.1
33.4
34.7
36.O
37.3
38.6
39.9
15.0

1.0
2.4
3.7
5.0
6.3
7.6
8.9
1O.2
11.5
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.7
18.O
19.3
20.6
22.0
23.3
24.6
25.9
27.2
28.5
29.8
31.1
32.4
33.7
35.0
36.3
37.6
38.9
40.2
16.0
0.0
1.2
2.5
3.8
5.1
6.6
7.9
9.2
1O.5
11.8
13.1
14.4
15.7
17.0
18.3
19.6
20.9
22.2
23.5
24.8
26.1
27.4
28.7
3O.O
31.3
32.6
33.9
35.2
36.5
37.8
39.1
40.5
17.0
O.2
1.5
2.8
4.1
5.4
6.7
8.0
9.3
1O.6
11.9
13.2
14.5
15.8
17.1
18.6
19.9
21.2
22.5
23.8
25.1
26.4
27.7
29.0
3O.3
31.6
32.9
34.2
35.5
36.8
38.1
39.4
40.7
18.0
0.3
1.6
2.9
4.2
5.5
7.0
8.3
9.6
1O.9
12.2
13.5
14.8
16.1
17.4
18.7
20.0
21.3
22.7
24.O
25.3
26.6
27.9
29.2
3O.6
31.9
33.2
34.5
35.8
37.1
38.4
39.7
41.0
                     173

-------
Appendix C
  Conversion Table for Use with a 8O°/6O°F Hydrometer
Observed
Reading
0.9990
1.0000
1.O01O
1.002O
1.O030
1.OO40
1.O05O
1.O06O
1.O07O
1.0080
1.OO9O
1.0100
1.O11O
1.O12O
1.013O
1.0140
1.0150
1.0160
1.017O
1.0180
1.0190
1.02OO
1.O21O
1.0220
1.0230
1.0240
1.0250
1.026O
1.0270
1.0280
1.O290
1.03OO
1.O31O
Temperature of water in graduated cylinder (°C)
18.5

0.5
1.8
3.1
4.4
5.7
7.1
8.4
9.7
11.0
12.3
13.6
14.9
16.2
17.5
18.8
20.1
21.4
22.9
24.2
25.5
26.8
28.1
29.4
3O.7
32.0
33.3
34.6
35.9
37.2
38.6
39.9
41.2
19.O

0.6
1.9
3.2
4.5
5.8
7.1
8.5
9.8
11.1
12.4
13.7
15.0
16.3
17.7
19.0
2O.4
21.7
23.0
24.3
25.6
26.9
28.2
29.5
30.8
32.1
33.4
34.7
36.2
37.5
38.8
40.1
41.4
19.5

0.7
2.0
3.3
4.6
5.9
7.2
8.7
1O.O
11.3
12.6
13.9
15.2
16.5
17.8
19.1
20.5
21.8
23.1
24.4
25.7
27.0
28.3
29.6
3O.9
32.2
33.7
35.0
36.3
37.6
38.9
40.2
41.5
20.0

0.8
2.1
3.4
4.8
6.1
7.4
8.8
10.1
11.4
12.7
14.O
15.3
16.6
17.9
19.3
2O.6
22.0
23.3
24.6
25.9
27.2
28.5
29.8
31.2
32.5
33.8
35.1
36.4
37.7
39.0
40.3
41.8
2O.5

1.O
2.3
3.6
4.9
6.2
7.5
8.9
10.2
11.5
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.7
18.0
19.5
2O.8
22.1
23.4
24.7
26.0
27.3
28.6
30.0
31.3
32.6
33.9
35.2
36.5
37.8
39.1
40.6
41.9
21 .0

1.1
2.4
3.7
5.0
6.3
7.6
9.1
10.4
11.7
13.0
14.3
15.6
17.O
18.3
19.6
20.9
22.2
23.5
24.8
26.1
27.4
28.9
3O.2
31.5
32.8
34.1
35.4
36.7
38.1
39.4
40.7
42.0
21.5
0.0
1.2
2.5
3.8
5.1
6.4
7.7
9.2
10.5
11.8
13.1
14.4
15.7
17.1
18.4
19.7
21. 0
22.3
23.6
24.9
26.4
27.7
29.0
30.3
31.6
32.9
34.2
35.6
36.9
38.2
39.5
40.8
42.1
22.0
0.1
1.4
2.5
4.0
5.3
6.6
7.9
9.3
10.6
11.9
13.2
14.5
16.0
17.3
18.6
19.9
21.2
22.5
23.8
25.2
26.5
27.8
29.1
30.4
31.7
33.2
34.5
35.8
37.1
38.4
39.7
41.0
42.3
22.5
0.2
1.5
2.7
4.1
5.4
6.7
8.1
9.4
10.7
12.0
13.4
14.8
16.1
17.4
18.7
20.0
21.3
22.7
24.0
25.3
26.6
27.9
29.2
3O.7
32.O
33.3
34.6
35.9
37.2
38.5
39.9
41.2
42.5
23.0
0.3
1.6
2.8
4.2
5.5
7.0
8.3
9.6
1O.9
12.2
13.6
14.9
16.2
17.5
18.8
20.1
21.6
22.9
24.2
25.5
26.8
28.2
29.5
3O.8
32.1
33.4
34.7
36.Q
37.5
38.B
40.1
41.4

                       174

-------
                                    Appendix C
Conversion Table for Use with a 60°/60°F Hydrometer
Observed
Reading
O.998O
O.9990
1 .OOOO
1.001O
1 .0020
1 .0030
1 .004O
1 .OO5O
1 .OO6O
1 .OO7O
1 .ooao
1 .OO9O
1.01 DO
1.O11O
1.01 2O
1.0130
1.O140
1 .01 5O
1 .01 BO
1 .01 70
1 .01 BO
1.0190
1 .02OO
1.021O
1 .022O
1 .023O
1 .024O
1 .025O
1 .026O
1 .0270
1.028O
1 .029O
1 .0300
1.O31O
Temperature of water in graduated cylinder (°C)
23.5

0.5
1.8
2.9
4.4
5.8
7.1
8.4
9.7
11.O
12.4
13.7
15.0
16.3
17.7
19.1
2O.4
21.7
23.0
24.3
25.6
27.0
28.3
29.6
3O.9
32.2
33.7
35.O
36.3
37.6
38.9
4O.2
41.6

24.0

0.6
1.9
3.1
4.6
5.9
7.2
8.5
9.8
11.3
12.6
13.9
15.2
16.5
17.9
19.2
2O.5
21.8
23.3
24.6
25.9
27.2
28.5
29.8
31.2
32.5
33.8
35.1
36.4
37.8
39.1
40.5
41.8

24.5

0.7
2.0
3.2
4.8
6.1
7.4
8.7
1O.1
11.4
12.7
14.0
15.3
16.7
18.0
19.3
20.6
22.O
23.4
24.7
26.0
27.3
28.6
3O.O
31.3
32.6
33.9
35.2
36.7
38.0
39.3
40.6
41.9

25.0

0.8
2.1
3.4
4.9
6.2
7.5
8.9
1O.2
11.5
12.8
14.1
15.6
16.9
18.2
19.5
2O.9
22.2
23.5
24.8
26.1
27.6
28.9
3O.2
31.5
32.8
34.2
35.5
36.8
38.1
39.4
40.8


25.5

1.O
2.4
3.6
5.O
6.3
7.7
9.1
1O.4
11.7
13.0
14.4
15.7
17.0
18.3
19.7
21. 0
22.3
23.6
25.1
26.4
27.7
29.0
3O.3
31.7
33.0
34.3
35.6
36.9
38.4
39.7
41 .0


26.0

1.2
2.5
3.8
5.1
6.6
7.9
9.2
10.5
11.9
13.2
14.5
15.8
17.3
18.6
19.9
21.2
22.5
23.9
25.2
26.5
27.8
29.2
3O.6
31.9
33.2
34.5
35.9
37.2
38.5
39.8
41.2


26.5
0.1
1.4
2.7
4.0
5.4
6.7
8.0
9.3
1O.7
12.O
13.4
14.7
16.1
17.4
18.7
20.0
21.4
22.7
24.0
25.3
26.8
28.1
29.4
30.7
32.O
33.4
34.7
36.0
37.3
38.8
4O.1
41.4


27.0
O.2
1.5
2.9
4.2
5.5
6.8
8.3
9.6
'1O.9
12.2
13.6
14.9
16.2
17.5
19.0
2O.3
21.6
22.9
24.3
25.6
26.9
28.2
29.6
30.9
32.2
33.5
35.O
36.3
37.6
38.9
4O.2
41.6


27.5
O.3
1.8
3.1
4.4
5.7
7.1
8.4
9.7
11.O
12.4
13.7
15.O
16.5
17.8
19.1
20.4
21.8
23.1
24.4
25.7
27.2
28.5
29.8
31.1
32.5
33.8
35.1
36.4
37.7
39.1
40.5
41.8


28.0
O.6
1.9
3.2
4.5
5.9
7.2
8.5
1O.O
11.3
12.6
13.9
15.3
16.6
17.9
19.3
20.6
22.O
23.3
24.7
26.O
27.3
28.6
30.O
31.3
32.6
33.9
35.4
36.7
38.O
39.3
40.7



                  -  175

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Appendix C
  Conversion Table for Use with a 6O°/60°F Hydrometer
Observed
Reading
0.9980
O.999O
1.OOOO
1.0010
1.OO20
1.O030
1.O04O
1.0050
1.O06O
1.OO7O
1.O080
1.0090
1.O1OO
1.01 1O
1.01 2O
1.0130
1.014O
1.O15O
1.01 BO
1.0170
1 .01 80
1.O19O
1.O2OO
1.0210
1.022O
1.0230
1.0240
1.025O
1.0260
1.0270
1.0280
Temperature of water in graduated cylinder (°C)
28.5
O7.
2.0
3.4
4.8
6.1
7.4
8.8
10.1
11.4
12.8
14.1
15.4
16.7
18.2
19.5
2O.8
22.2
23.5
24.8
2B.1
27.6
28.9
30.2
31.5
32.9
34.2
35.5
36.8
38.2
39.5
40.8
29.0
O.8
2.3
3.6
4.9
6.3
7.6
8.9
10.2
11.7
13.0
14.3
15.7
17.O
18.3
19.6
21.0
22.3
23.6
25.1
26.4
27.7
29:0
3O.4
31.7
33.0
34.5
35.8
37.1
38.4
39.8
41.1
29.5
1.1
2.4
3.7
5.1
6.4
7.7
9.2
10.5
11.8
13.1
14.5
15.8
17.1
18.6
19.9
21.2
22.6
23.9
25.2
26.5
27.9
29.2
30.6
32.0
33.3
34.6
35.9
37.2
38.6
39.9
41.2
30.0
1.2
2.5
4.0
5.1
6.6
8.0
9.3
10.6
12.0
13.4
14.7
16.1
17.4
18.7
20. 1
21.4
22.7
24.0
25.5
26.8
28.1
29.5
3O.8
32.1
33.4
34.8
36.2
37.5
38.8
40.2
41.5
30.5
1.5
2.8
4.1
5.4
6.8
8.1
9.6
10.9
12.2
13.6
14.9
16.2
17.5
19.0
2O.3
21.6
23.0
24.3
25.6
27.0
28.3
29.6
3O.9
32.4
33.7
35.0
36.4
37.7
39.0
40.3

31.0
1.6
2.9
4.4
5.5
7.O
8.4
9.7
11.0
12.4
13.7
15.2
16.5
17.8
19.1
2O.5
21.8
23.1
24.6
25.9
27.2
28.5
29.9
31.2
32.5
33.9
35.2
36.5
37.8
39.3
4O.6

31.5
1.9
3.2
4.5
5.8
7.2
8.5
1O.O
11.3
12.6
14.0
15.3
16.6
18.0
19.3
2O.6
22.1
23,4
24.7
26.1
27.4
28.7
3O.O
31.5
32.8
34.1
35.5
36.8
38.1
39.4
40.8

32.O
2.O
3.4
4.8
5.9
7.5
8.8
1O.1
11.5
12.8
14.1
15.6
16.9
18.2
19.6
2O.9
22.2
23.6
24.9
26.3
27.7
29.O
3O.3
31.6
33.O
34.3
35.6
37.1
38.4
39.7
41.0

32.5
2.3
3.6
4.9
6.2
7.6
9.1
1O.4
11.7
13.1
14.4
15.7
17.1
18.4
19.7
21.2
22.5
23.8
25.2
26.5
27.8
29.2
3O.6
31.9
33.3
34.6
35.9
37.2
38.6
39.9
41.2

33.O
2.4
3.8
5.1
6.4
7.9
9.2
1O.5
11.9
13.2
14.7
16.0
17.3
18.7
20.0
21.3
227
24.0
25.3
26.8
28.1
29.4
3O.8
32.1
33.4
34.8
36.2
37.5
38.8
40.2
41.5

                       176

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