United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Off ice Of
The Administrator
(A-101F6)
171 R-92-006
April 1992
?/EPA
metises
Ottier "Than Con>
In Iowa, Kansas,
And Nebraska
issoui
Printed on Recycled Paper
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DISCLAIMER
This report was furnished to the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency by the student identified on the cover page, under a National
Network for Environmental Management Studies fellowship.
The contents are essentially as received from the author. The
opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed are those of the author
and not necessarily those of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Mention, if any, of company, process, or product names is
not to be considered as an endorsement by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
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ALTERNATIVE USAGES OF WETLANDS OTHER THAN CONVENTIONAL FARMING
IN IOWA, KANSAS, MISSOURI, AND NEBRASKA
U.S. Environments! ,nrj--'b.i Agency
Region 5, Library (r
77 Wast Jackson D;:- ; ~T, F
Chicago, JL 60604-^.0 ' '
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by
Ellen Leventhal, Graduate Student
University of Minnesota
Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs
5SS53L tuuj.ti&
an internship requirement towar'
affairs at the Humphrey Institute.
September, 1990
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ABSTRACT
Conversion of wetlands in Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and
Nebraska into agricultural dry lands in the past several decades
has occurred as a means to obtain profit from what landowners
i^^^
\?s^^
Jnd support Twide diversity of fish, wildlife, and vegetation.
Utilizing fish, wildlife, and vegetation from wetland s for
nrofit is a way for wetland owners to recognize the value their
we?lands add II their property. Landowners then have an incen-
tive to preserve rathe? than convert their wetlands.
The alternative profitable usages of wetlands evaluated in
'
^^^^
-fc
information is also included on the management of
areas, marketing strategies, and additional sources of infor-
mation.
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* do.cument has been funded wholly
no Environmental Protection Aqencv
under assistance agreement U-913274-oi-o to FI ?««
Leventhal. It has been subjected tc > the igency- s pllr
* administrative review and has been approved for
publication as an EPA document. Mention of
or 63 **
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract 1
Introduction ".*."."..... 2
Summary !!!.. 4
Background ... 6
SocioEconomic Value ^ 7
Ecological Values 8
Wildlife Values 9
Chapter I: Forest Products 1 '.'.'.I'.'. 10
Background .11
Classification of Wetland Trees 16
Management of Wetland Timber . . . . '
Potential Profit from Forested Wetlands ".".'.. 24
Veneer 25
Sawwood '. 1 1 . . 26
Pulpwood 1 ! 1 . . 27
OthSr^ncome Sources From'Forested Wetlands . . . . 29
Multicropping 30
Cost-Share Programs '. ". 32
AdS?tiSnal Sources"of information on "Forest Products . . 33
Chapter II: Wildlife Values ".".*.".".".".*. 36
Overview .36
Wildlife Recreation . . . * .37
Potential Value from Wetland Wildlife 3?
Lease-Fee Hunting 39
Management of Leased Property '.'.'. 41
Types of Leases *. 1 43
Trapping ".'.'.'.... 44
Beaver 44
Mink *. ] . 45
Muskrat ! ". ! 45
Raccoon ! "... 48
Aquaculture 49
Fishing Leases 50
Commercial Fish Production '. ". 51
Pond Stocking *. '. ! 51
Baitfish 52
Crayfish and Leeches 52
Finger ling and Broodfish 53
Food-Fish ".55
Bullfrogs '.".'.'. 56
Summary
Additional Sources of Information on Trapping,_ . 58
59
61
AdditionaTsources of Information on Native Grasses ... 67
Additional t>ouj:uti& vj. j.u*.^^^ -- '* r.
Additional Sources of Information on Fee Hunting.
Additional Sources of Information on Aquaculture 59
Chapter III: Native Grasses for Forage and Hay
^ .. __ ___.e-r« ^n-M*-m-?t+- -i»-*v» r\r> M^T"!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Chapter IV: Herbs ......
Culinary Herbs ...!.'." ............... 68
Medicinal Herbs ...!.* ................ 69
Cosmetic/Domestic Herbs . ............... 72
Cut/Dried Florals .....*.' .............. 73
Sources of Information on'nerbs'and ...... ?4
....
Chapter V: Recommendations for Further Study ......... !!
Appendices J ........ °J
Appendix ICommon Wildlife Food/Cover , -,
Appendix 2 Description of Some Wetland 'occurring' ' ' *
Native Grasses . .
Appendix 3 Description of Some Wetland 'occurring' ' ' '
Herbs ..... y
Appendix 4 References . ............. 3~1
............... 4-1
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
Number
1 EPA Region VII Regional Wetland Tree List for
IA, KS, MO, NE
2 Net Volume of Growing Stock and Sawtimber on
Commercial Land by Individual Species, Iowa, ^
1974
3 Net Volume of Growing Stock and Sawtimber on
Commercial Forest Land by Individual Species, ^
Kansas, 1981 *
4 Net Volume of Growing Stock and Sawtimber on
Commercial Forest Land by Individual
Species, Missouri, 1972
5 Net Volume of Growing Stock and Sawtimber on
Commercial Forest Land by Individual Species, ^
Compara?ive9Hardn;ss of'some North American Woods . 26
7
Breakdown of Forest Products for Growing Stock
28
and Sawtimber on Commercial Land, All Species
8 Examples of Lease Prices
9 Furs Purchased from Iowa Trappers and Hunters
as Reported by Iowa Fur Buyers, 1988-89
10 Fluctuations in Iowa's Furbearer Market ^
19841989 ....«
11 Fluctuation's in Iowa's Furbearer Market (values
include beaver, mink, muskrat, raccoon (only) . . . 4b
12 Missouri 1988-89 Fur Market and Harvest Summary . . 46
13 Trends in Missouri Furbearer Values in Last 20 ^
Seasons
14 sustained Yields and Values of Furbearers,
Nebraska, 1990
15 Distribution and Value of the Fur Harvest by
Species in the U.S. in 1975-76 as a Percent
of the National Total
16 Average U.S. Pelt Prices for Beaver, Mink,
Muskrat, Raccoon from 1970-1976 «°
17 Culinary Herbs
18 Medicinal Herbs
19 Cosmetic/Domestic Herbs '
20 Dried/Cut Florals
21 Perennials for Wet Places
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INTRODUCTION
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SUMMARY
The process of assigning economic values to wetland
functions helps society to realize their value. Unfortunately,
it is difficult, if not impossible, to quantify many of the
wetland functions which benefit society, although some general
economic values have been attached to such things as flood
control and water quality. Furthermore, because most of the
remaining wetlands exist on private land, the burden of conserv-
ing these areas lies with the landowner, while the public accrues
the majority of the benefits. "Benefits which are offered to
society at large in the form of waterfowl and fish production,
flood control, or antipollution values do not bring measurable
return to the individual property holder" (Horowitz, 1978).
However, many farmers are realizing the value of maintaining
the integrity of their wetlands.
An excellent example of the benefits to private landowners
from preserving their wetlands is that of Dayton Hyde, an Oregon
rancher. A year after returning a quarter of his land to wet-
lands, he experienced an increase in beef tonnage of 54 percent,
a fact he attributes to the marshes which prevented destructive
winter frosts and allowed native grasses to flourish on the
nutrient rich area. In addition, birds and coyotes were attract-
ed to the area and managed to keep the grasshopper and rodent
populations under control. Finally, his new lake now attracts
5,000 waterbirds each year.
Ray Mccormick, another landowner, returned a 19-acre field
to a wetland, with assistance from the USDA Conservation Reserve
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Program and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. He says,
"Wetlands are the most valuable part of my farm. Protection
of wetlands is essential for agriculture...for purifying runoff,
for recharging groundwater, for wildlife habitat" (Walter, 1990).
By harvesting some of the natural products produced in their
wetlands, the benefits can become concentrated upon individual
landowners, giving them an incentive to preserve, maintain, and
even enhance their wetlands. A large number of harvestable
wetland products gives landowners an opportunity to realize the
economic potential of their wetlands in their natural state,
rather than alter them for conventional farming. Timber, fur-
bearers, wildfowl, fish, grasses for grazing, wild rice, land-
scaping plants, and herbs are among the many resources found in
wetlands which can be harvested for profit. Thus, not only could
the landowner derive financial benefit from preserving his/her
wetland, but society as a whole would continue to derive the
benefits from such things as flood control, water quality, and
esthetic pleasure.
This paper attempts to explore the feasibility of profiting
from such natural wetland products in Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and
Nebraska. It must be added that this is by no means a complete
discussion of the alternative uses of wetlands, but merely a
preliminary investigation into this area. The paper is divided
into chapters, each a category of alternative wetland usages. At
the end of each chapter, a list of additional sources of informa-
tion is provided to assist in further investigation into each
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alternative wetland use. other sources may be available that
are not included in the lists. The profitability of a suggested
alternative may vary depending on current market conditions,
adaptability of the alternative to the site specific wetland
conditions, the amount of investment required, the type of
management needed, and problems that might arise. it is not
the intent of this paper to imply that each of the potential
alternative uses of wetlands discussed will be profitable for
every landowner, every year. Like conventional farming, or any
other business, each landowner must analyze the potential of
the alternative to be profitable for his/her own situation. The
alternatives presented in this paper are options that have proven
profitable to others and have potential for the four-state area.
Some alternative usages suggested in this require long-term
investments, which also must be taken into consideration.
BACKGROUND
The loss of wetlands throughout the United states in the
last few decades has proceeded at an unprecedented rate. Deple-
tion of this valuable resource can be attributed in part to the
lack of recognition of wetland values and the emphasis on conven-
tional agricultural products such as corn, milo, and soybeans.
These attitudes have been reinforced by past governmental poli-
cies which provided subsidies and price supports to landowners
who converted their wetlands for agricultural production.
The functions and values of wetlands began to be recognized
in the 1970s when efforts were made to conserve these essential
ecosystems. By 1982 when the United States Fish and Wildlife
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Service conducted its National Wetlands Inventory, only 56% of
the original wetlands in the lower 48 states remained. This
survey estimated that between the mid-1950's and the mid-1970's,
9 million acres of wetlands were lost, an average annual loss of
458,000 acres. "Agricultural development was responsible for 87%
of recent national wetland losses. Urban development and other
development caused only 8% and 5% of the losses, respectively"
(Tiner, 1984).
The definition of wetlands used by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers since the
1970's is as follows:
those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface
or'qroSnd water at a frequency and duration sufficient to
Support and that under normal circumstances do support
J prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in
saturated soil conditions.
The classification of wetlands by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service also categorizes wetlands into ecological systems.
Cowardin, et al. (1979) define a system as "a complex of wetlands
and deepwater habitats that share the influence of similar hydro-
logic, geomorphologic, chemical, or biological factors." The
five major ecological systems in this classification of wetlands
are marine, estuarine, riverine, lacustrine, and palustrine. The
four states covered in this study (Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and
Nebraska) contain riverine, lacustrine and palustrine system
wetlands. A riverine system is generally a freshwater river
and its stream channels, and is primarily a deepwater habitat.
The lacustrine system is also a deepwater system but includes
"permanently flooded lakes and reservoirs (e.g., Lake Superior),
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and intermittent lakes (e.g., piaya lakes)" (Cowardin, et al.
1979). within the lacustrine system is the littoral subsystem,
a fringe area extending from the shore of a lake to a depth of
two meters below the water which contains emergent, nonpersistent
wetland vegetation. These are plants, such as wild rice (Zizania
aguatica) and arrowhead (Sagittaria Bp.) which fall below the
surface of the water at the end of the growing season and so are
not seen year round. The palustrine system is the most abundant
type of inland wetland. These freshwater wetlands occur most
frequently in our area along the margins of lakes, in upland
depressions, in seepage areas along slopes, and on river flood
Plains. They also may be found on islands in lakes or rivers.
Many of the wetlands of this type are flooded seasonally and
can be dry during other periods.
For a long time the values of these inland, freshwater
wetlands were ignored in favor of the estuarine and marine sys-
tems, whose values were better known and perhaps more obvious.
However, the benefits from freshwater wetlands are great,
including socioeconomic, ecological, and wildlife values.
SOCIOECONOMIC VALUES:
These values are the primary focus of this paper. They
include such things as flood and storm damage protection, erosion
control, water supply, groundwater discharge, groundwater
recharge, harvest of natural products, livestock grazing, and
recreation. Wetlands are able to temporarily store and release
flood waters slowly, decreasing their velocity and desynchroniz-
ing flood peaks of tributary streams. This protects the property
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and lives of those living downstream from flood damage. The U.S.
Water Resources Council reported that in 1975, 107 people died in
floods and estimated the property damage at $3.4 billion. In
1977, the Council estimated that "134 million acres of the coter-
minous United States have severe flooding problems. Of this, 2.8
million acres are urban land and 92.8 million are agricultural
land. Many of these flooded farmlands are wetlands or previously
drained wetlands" (Tiner, 1984).
Closely linked with flood control is the ability of wetland
vegetation to control erosion. Strips of trees and emergent
plants along streams, rivers, and lakes stabilize the banks with
their roots and diminish the velocity of flow and wave action,
thus decreasing water turbidity and improving water quality.
Thus, wetland benefits are diffusely spread throughout
society, so it is difficult to organize landowner support for
wetlands. However, when landowners are able to directly benefit
or profit from their wetlands, they have an incentive to preserve
those areas. Profit can be obtained from these wetlands by
marketing the resources that naturally occur there. Profitable
products include wetland hay, furbearers, wildfowl, landscaping
plants, wildflowers for floral arrangements, and forest products,
to name just a few.
ECOLOGICAL VALUES:
Besides providing habitat for many forms of fish and wild-
life, wetlands perform essential environmental functions.
Because of their location between land and water, they act as
sinks for the runoff from land before it reaches the water, and
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filters for the nutrients, wastes, pollution, and sediment from
flooding waters. These functions improve both water quality and
vegetative production. In fact, wetlands perform these functions
so efficiently, their frequency of use for treatment of domestic
sewage from cities, feedlot waste, water pollution, and nutrient
and heavy metal loads from dredged material is increasing (Tiner,
1984).
WILDLIFE VALUES:
Wetlands provide essential habitats for many forms of fish
and wildlife. Most freshwater fishes are completely dependent on
wetlands for food, spawning and nursery ground (Peters, et al.
1979) . Every year thousands of migrating waterfowl depend on
wetlands for nesting, feeding, or resting, while other birds
spend their entire lives in wetland environments. Many of the
most economically important furbearers, such as mink, beaver,
muskrat, and raccoon are wetland dependent, and other large
mammals, such as deer, occasionally frequent wetlands. Finally,
reptiles and amphibians are important residents in wetlands.
According to Clark (1979), "nearly all of the approximately 190
species of amphibians in North America are wetland-dependent, at
least for breeding" (Tiner, 1984).
The overwhelming evidence, therefore, is that wetlands are
worth preserving, not simply as a conservation measure, but as a
way to maintain and enhance the integrity of our agricultural
system and society.
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Chapter I
FOREST PRODUCTS
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BACKGROUND
Many of the most profitable timber species naturally occur
in wetland habitats. Eighty-two million acres of commercial
forested wetland exist in the continental United States, and the
standing value of southern wetland forests alone is $8 billion
(R.L. Johnson, 1979). Commercial forest land is defined by the
USDA Forest Service as, "Forest land producing or capable of
producing crops of industrial wood and not withdrawn from timber
utilization." However, alteration and conversion of these areas,
much of it to agricultural fields by channelization or drainage,
have reduced the natural plant communities in these wetlands
by 70% (Willard et al., 1989), along with their productive
potential.
Wetland associated forest products generally are found in
riparian ecosystems. However, the term "riparian" is not neces-
sarily restricted to riverine systems, but extends to those areas
subjected to periodic flooding, including meadows and pond mar-
gins, (Willard et al., 1989). Thus riparian zones are able to
protect or buffer water systems from adjacent land-use activi-
ties. These zones are most commonly referred to as bottomland
hardwoods, flood plain forests, or wetland forests. They are
characterized by a combination of high plant and wildlife species
diversity, high density, and high productivity. The North
Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources
(1990) refers to riparian areas as Streamside Management Zones
(SMZ) whose width is determined by the average percent slope of
10
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the area adjacent to the stream and the average bank-to-bank
width of the stream.
CLASSIFICATION QF WETLAND TREES
The trees which grow in wet areas are, to varying degrees,
adapted or tolerant to flooding or inundation. In general, most
plants remain unharmed by a limited duration of flooding during
their non-growing season. During their growing season, however,
periods of inundation can have deleterious effects on their
growth, depending on their ability to adapt to the depletion of
oxygen in the soil. Anaerobic bacteria thrive under such condi-
tions, producing toxins such as ethylene, manganese and iron.
Plants adapt to low oxygen and high toxicity in the soil through
both metabolic and anatomical modifications including aerenchyma
(air-filled tissue), and lenticels designed to increase the
diffusion of oxygen to the tree's roots. Anatomically, there is
an increased growth in adventitious and secondary roots which are
more "pervious" to oxygen than normal roots. "Experimental
research with ethylene, for example, has shown that at high
concentrations, there is an increase in adventitious rooting
in many plants" (Whitlow and Harris, 1979).
The classification of tree species according to their
ability to endure periods of flooding ranges from very tolerant
to intolerant. Very tolerant trees can withstand flooding for
periods of two or more growing seasons. These species exhibit
a marked increase in adventitious rooting during this period.
Representatives of this category are black willow and eastern
cottonwood. Tolerant species, such as red and silver maples,
11
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sycamore and American elm, can withstand flooding for most of one
growing season. Some new root development can be expected during
this time. Intermediately tolerant species are able to survive
flooding for periods of one to three months during their growing
season. The root systems of these plants will produce few new
roots or will remain dormant during the flooded period. Tree
species in this category include pecan, mulberry, and Shumard
oak. Intolerant species are able to survive flooding for only
short periods (1 month or less) during their growing season
because their root systems die. Shagbark hickory, black walnut
and white oak are among the trees in this category (Teskey,
1977) .
Another way that wetland plants are classified is by
indicator categories (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1987)
which reflect the range of estimated probabilities (expressed as
a frequency of occurrence) of a species occurring in a wetland
versus a nonwetland. These categories are obligate, facultative
wetland, facultative, facultative upland and obligate upland.
Obligate wetland (OBL) species occur almost always (approximately
99%) under natural conditions in wetlands. Facultative wetland
(FACW) species usually occur in wetlands (67%-99%), but occasion-
ally are found in nonwetlands. Facultative (FAC) means that a
species is equally likely to be found in wetlands or nonwetlands
(estimated probability 34%-66%). Facultative upland (FACU)
plants usually occur in nonwetlands (67%-99%), but they are
occasionally found in wetlands (l%-33%), while obligate upland
(UPL) plants occur almost always (99%) under natural conditions
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in nonwetlands in the region specified (Reed, 1988). Table 1
is a listing of the trees that fall into these categories in the
four states being studied, along with the national indicator
range of the species.
Table 1:
F.PA REGION VII REGIONAL WETLAND TREE LIST FOR IA. KS.
MO. NE (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1987)
Common Name
Alder, Brook-side
Alder, European
Alder, Speckled
Arrow-wood
Ash, Black
Ash, Green
Ash, Pumpkin
Ash, White
Aspen, Big-tooth
Aspen, Quaking
Basswood, American
Beech
Beech, American
Birch, Paper
Birch, River
Birch, Spring
Birch, Yellow
Black-haw
Black-Haw, Rusty
Bladdernut, American
Box-elder
Buckeye, Ohio
Buckeye, Red
Buckeye, Texas
Buckthorn, Common
Bumelia, Buckthorn
Bumelia, Gum
Burning-Bush,Eastern
Butternut
Buttonbush, Common
Catalpa, Northern
CataIpa, Southern
Cedar, Eastern Red
scientific Name
Alnus serrulata
Alnus glutinosa
Alnus rucrosa
Viburnum dentatum
Fraxinus nigra
Fraxinus pennsvlvanica
Fraxinus profunda
Fraxinus americana
Populus grandidentata
Populus tremula
Tilia americana
Fagus grandifolia
Faaus grandifolia
Betula papyrifera
Betula nigra
Betula pccidentalis
Betula alleghaniensis
Viburnum prunifolium
Viburnum rufidulum
Staphvlea trifolia
Acer Neaundo
Aesculus glabra
Aesculus pavia
Aesculus glabra
Rhamnus cathartica
Bumelia lycioides
Bumelia lanuainosa
Eunvmus atropurpureus
Juglans cinerea
cephalanthus occidentalis
Catalpa speciosa
Catalpa bianonioides
Juniperus virainiana
National
Indicator Range*
FACW+, OBL
FACW-
FAC, OBL
FAC
FACW, FACW+
FAC, FACW
OBL
FACU
FACU-, FACU
FACU-, FAC+
FACU
FAC+
FACU
FACU, FACU+
FACW, OBL
FAC, FACW
FACU+, FAC
FACU, FACU+
UPL, FACU
FAC
FAC, FACW
FACU, FAC+
FACU-, FAC+
FACU-
UPL, FACU
FAC, FACW
FACU, FACU+
FACU, FAC+
FACU-, FACU+
OBL
FACU, FAC
UPL, FAC-
FACU-, FACU
13
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Table I:
MO?
Common Name
Cherry, Black
Cherry, Choke
Cherry, Fire
Club, Hercules
Corkwood
Cottonwood, Eastern
Cottonwood, Lanceleaf
Cottonwood, Narrowleaf
Cottonwood, Swamp
Cypress, Bald
Dogwood, Flowering
Dogwood, Rough-leaf
Elm, American
Elm, Rock
Elm, Slippery
Farkleberry
Fir, Balsam
Gum, Black
Gum, Sweet
Hackberry, Common
Hackberry, Netleaf
Hawthorn, Barberry
Hawthorn, Cockspur
Hawthorn, Downy
Hawthorn, Glossy
Hawthorn, Green
Hawthorn, Little-Hip
Hawthorn, Parlsey
Hawthorn, Washington
Hickory, Big Shellbark
Hickory, Bitternut
Hickory, Pecan
Hickory, Red
Hickory, Shag-Bark
Hickory, Sweet Pignut
Hickory, Water
Holly, American
Holly, Deciduous
Honey locust
Hop-Hornbean, Eastern
Hornbean, American
Locust, Black
Maple, Drummond Red
Maple, Mountain
Maple, Red
Maple, Rocky Mountain
Maple, Silver
Maple, Sugar
Scientific
Prunus serotina
Prunus virainiana
Prunus pensvlvanica
Aralia spinosa
Leitneria floridana
Populus deltoides
Populus X acuminata
Populus anoustifol ia
Populus heterophylla
Taxodium distichum
Cornus florida
Cornus drummondij
Ulmus americana
Ulmus Thomas i
Ulmus rubra
Vaccinium arboreum
Abies balsamea
Nvssa svlvatica
Liauidamba-r styraciflua
Celtis occidental is
Celtis reticulata
Crataeaus berberifo] ia
Crataeaus crus-aalli
Crataeaus mollis
Crataeaus x nitida
Crataeaus viridis
Crataeaus spathulata
Crataequs marshallii
Crataeaus phaenopyrmn
Carya laciniosa
Carya cordiformis
Carya illinoensis
Carya ovalis
Carya ovata
Carya glabra
Carya aguatica
Ilex opaca
Ilex decidua
Gleditsia triacanthos
Ostrva virainiana
Carpinus caroliniana
Robinia Pseudoacacia
Acer rubrum
Acer spicatum
Acer rubrum
Acer glabrum
Acer saccharinum
Acer saccharum
Ks-
Indicator Range
FACU
FACU-
FACU-
FAC,
OBL
FAC,
FAC,
FAC,
FACW+
OBL
FACU-
FAC
FAC,
UPL,
FAC
FACU
FAC,
FAC
FAC,
FACU,
UPL,
FACU-
FACU,
FACU,
FACU+
FAC,
FAC,
FACU+
FAC-,
FAC,
FACU+
FACU,
UPL,
FACU-
FACU-
OBL
FACU,
FACW-
FACU,
FACU-
FAC
UPL,
FACW,
FACU-
FAC
FACU,
FAC,
UPL,
, FAC
, FAC-
FACW-
FACW
FACW
FACW
, OBL
, FACU
FACW
FAC+
FACW
FACW
FAC
FACW
, FAC+
FAC
FACW
, OBL
FACW
FACW
, FACW
FAC
FACW
, FAC
FACW
FACU
, FACU
,FACU
FAC-
, FACW
FAC
, FACU
FAC
OBL
, FACU
FAC
FACW
FACU
14
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Table l: EPA Region VII Regional Wetland Tree List for IA, KS,
MO, NE (continued)
Common Name
Mesquite
Mulberry, Red
Mulberry, White
Nannyberry
Oak Bur
Oak, Cherry-Bark
Oak, Chinkapin
Oak, Northern Red
Oak, Nuttall
Oak, Overcup
Oak, Pin
Oak, Post
Oak, Shingle
Oak, Shumard
Oak, Southern Red
Oak, Swamp Chestnut
Oak, Swamp White
Oak, Water
Oak, Willow
Olive, Russian
Osage-Orange
Pawpaw, Common
Pecan, Bitter
Persimmon, Common
Pine, Ponderosa
Pine, Eastern White
Planer-Tree
Plum, Canada
Poplar, Balsam
Privet, Swamp
Redbud, Eastern
Saltcedar
Sassafras
Serviceberry, Downy
Snowball, American
Snowball, Big-leaf
Spicebush, Northern
Sugarberry
Sumac, Winged
Sycamore, American
Tamarisk, Smallflower
Tree, Tulip
Tree, White Fringe
Tree of Heaven
Tupelo, Swamp
Wafer, Ash
Walnut, Black
Walnut, River
Scientific Name
Prosopis juliflora
Morus rubra
Morus alba
Viburnum lentago
Ouercus macrocarpa
Ouercus falcata
Ouercus muhlenberai i
Ouercus rubra
Ouercus nuttallii
Ouercus lyrata
Ouercus palustris
Ouercus stellata
Ouercus imbricaria
Quercus Shumardii
Ouercus falcata
Ouercus Michauxii
Ouercus bicolor
Ouercus alba
Ouercus Phellos
Elaeacmus anaustifolia
Maclura pomifera
Asimina triloba
Carva X lecontei
Diospvros virainiana
Pinus ponderosa
Pinus strobus
Planera aauatica
Prunus nigra
Populus balsamifera
Forestiera acuminata
Cercis canadensis
Tamarix ramosissima
Sassafras albidum
Amelanchier arborea
Styrax americana
Stvrax grandifolia
Lindera benzoin
Celtis laeviaata
Rhus copallinum
Platanus occidentalis
Tamarisk parviflora
T.ipiodendron tulipifera
Chionanthus virainicus
Ailanthus altissima
Nvssa sylvatica
Ptelea trifoliata
Juglans nigra
Jualans microcarpa
Indicator Range
UPL, FACU
FACU, FAC
UPL, FAC
FACU, FAC+
FACU, FAC
FAC+, FACW
FAC
FACU-, FACU
FACW, OB
OBL
FAC, FACW
UPL, FACU
FACU, FAC
FAC, FACW-
FACU-, FACU
FACW-, FACW
FACW+, OBL
FACU-, FACU
FAC+, FACW
FACU-, FACW-
UPL, FACU
FACU+, FAC
OBL
FACU, FAC
UPL, FACU
FACU
OBL
UPL, FACU-
FACU, FACW
OBL
UPL, FACU
FAC, FACW
FACU-, FACU
FACU, FAC
FACW-, OBL
FACU-, FACU
FACW-, FACW
UPL, FACW
UPL
FAC, FACW
FAC, FACW
FACU, FAC
FACU, FAC+
FACU
FACW+, OBL
UPL, FAC
FACU
FAC-, FAC
15
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Table l: EPA Region VII Regional Wetland Tree List for IA KS
MO, NE (continued) ' S/
Common Name
Water, Locust
Water, Tupelo
Willow, Black
WUlow' Crick31
Willow, Crack
Willow, Peach leaf
Willow, Shining
Willow, Weeping
Willow White
Winterberry, Common
Witch-Hazel, American
Yucca, Mound-Lily
Scientific Nam^
Gleditsia aguatica
Nvssa aguatica
Salix nigra
caroliniana
fragilis
Salix amygdaloid
Salix lucida
Salix babvlonica
salix Hbl -
ilex verticilla-ha
Hamamelis virginiana
Yucca glorlo^a -
Indicator
OBL
OBL
TJPL ORT
FAcw+? OBL
FAC FAr+
FACW FACW+
FAC+' FACW
FAcWl w
FACw 'OBL
FACU' FAC-
FAC
* A Positive <+) or negative (-) sign was used with the
Facultative Indicator categories to more specifically define the
regional frequency of occurrence in wetlands. The positive sign
frea^?? *******«<* tcward the higher end of the caJegor? !m
frequently found in wetlands), and a negative sign indicates a
lower end of the category (?ess a
In addition to the adaptability of plants to soil anaero-
biosis and toxicity, there are several other factors which can
determine each specific plant's ability to survive flooding.
Among these factors are substrate composition, shoreline gradi-
ent, wave and current action, flood depth and duration, toler-
ances of individual species, and ecotypic variation within
species (Whitlow, 1979) .
MANAGEMENT OF WETLAND TIMBER
In some areas, it may be necessary for optimal timber
production to control the level and duration of flooding during
the growing season with draw-down mechanisms such as small
impoundments, gates, and pumps. It must be emphasized, however,
that efforts to control floods by construction of dams, channeli-
zation, or diking often result in an increase in stresses to the
16
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riparian ecosystem. "Riparian productivity is reduced when
normal seasonal flooding is abolished or reduced by dams" (Wray,
1987) .
A permit for damming, channelizing, or diking is usually
required from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers under Section 404
of the Clean Water Act, and will have to meet special environ-
mental guidelines. Flooded conditions during the non-growing
season, however, are not as stressful to the trees and provide
ideal habitat for many wildlife species.
Five flood plain site types occur along rivers and streams.
These are depressional swamps, well-drained silt flats, frequent-
ly flooded point bars and rapidly forming deposits, stable point
bars, and pleistocene terraces. The well-drained silt flats
adjacent to streams are the most valuable flood plain areas for
timber production due to their high fertility. Wray (1987)
recommends management of short rotation, even-aged stands by
patch clear-cutting or group selection on an uneven-aged manage-
ment basis. Patch clear-cutting is a harvest regime in which
all trees are eliminated from a small area. Regeneration occurs
naturally from seeds of adjacent uncut portions of the stand or
from seeds or seedlings remaining on the site. On the other
hand, "group selection removes small groups or clumps of trees in
stands which have become uneven-aged over time or from prior high
grading" (North Carolina Department of Environment, Health and
Natural Resources, 1990). It is important that large enough
areas are opened in order for reproduction and propagation to
occur.
17
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Pleistocene terraces, closer to uplands, can be managed
similarly to upland sites because of their stable conditions with
rare disturbances by flooding. The soil is usually deep, moist
and fertile. These sites are well suited to either recreational
use or plantations of high value trees. Patch clear-cutting is
recommended to maintain this forest type (Wray, 1987).
The type of forested wetland and its associated plant
communities which arise in response to the specific soils,
hydrology, and successional state of a given forested wetland
determine the ability of the area to support both game and non-
game species of wildlife. Because the diversity of wildlife
species reflects the diversity of habitats within a forest,
"focusing forest management upon a particular plant community
will restrict the range of some wildlife species for which suit-
able habitat could be provided. On the other hand, focusing
wildlife management on a particular species can restrict options
available for forest management" (North Carolina Department of
Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, 1990). Thus, as the
intensity of either management practice increases, restriction on
the other follows.
However, these two management practices are not necessarily
mutually exclusive as long as the affect on wildlife is factored
into forest management plans. The bottomland and first terrace
forested wetland types provide some of the most important habitat
for wildlife and fisheries resources due to their diversity,
which is reflected in a wide range of available wildlife species,
such as raccoons, opossum, fox, mink, otter, beaver, deer, water-
18
-------
fowl, many songbirds, and numerous reptiles and amphibians.
"Cyclic patterns of flooding and drying are important for provid-
ing fundamental components of aquatic food webs as well as spawn-
ing habitat for some fish species and amphibians" (North Carolina
Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, 1990).
A harvest regime which maintains a mosaic of young, mature, and
old age stands is one forest management technique which preserves
wildlife diversity. However, when management requires large
harvests and intensive site preparation and planting, the North
Carolina Department of Environment, Health and Natural Resources
(1990) recommends the reservation of "up to 35 square feet of
snags, mast, and dew trees, and the retention of uncut or lightly
cut islands or corridors (SMZ) within the harvest area to main-
tain habitat for reduced populations of preharvest species."
POTENTIAL PROFIT FROM FORESTED WETLANDS
The potential profit from wetlands is great, particularly
when considering the amount of land occupied by bottomland
forests. For example, bottomland forests of Iowa, which include
forested wetlands, occupy 416 thousand acres, or 28% of the
state's total forested area. Predominant cottonwood stands, one
of the major species of bottomland forest in Iowa, covers 12
thousand acres alone, and ranks first in terms of sawtimber
volume. Out of the total hardwood volume of 315 billion board
feet, 12% is cottonwood, surpassed only by white oak and red oak.
Silver maple, another major bottomland forest species in Iowa,
ranks second in sawtimber volume, comprising 10% of the total
hardwood volume in the state (Wray and Thomson, 1987). A more
19
-------
complete listing of the sawtimber and growing-stock volumes of
some of the bottomland species in the four-state region is
available in Tables 2-5.
Table 2:
NET VOLUME OF GROWING STOCK AND SAWTIMBER ON COMMERCIAL
LAND BY INDIVIDUAL SPECIES, IOWA, 1974 (Data collected
from May 1973 to June 1974) (Spencer et al., 1980)
Species
Balsam Fir
Swamp White Oak
Bur Oak
Silver Maple
Green Ash
American Elm
Black Walnut
Eastern Cottonwood
Hackberry
Black Willow
River Birch
Boxelder
Growing Stock
(million cubic feet)
0.1
4.7
77.8
109.5
23.7
58.5
31.8
91.7
15.9
31.0
12.1
5.0
Sawtimber
(million board feet*)
15.6
278.4
361.7
79.9
145.9
88.3
436.4
43.2
82.0
40.4
7.9
*Note:
The volume of trees to be marketed as veneer logs or
sawlogs is usually measured in board-feet. One board-
foot equals the volume of wood in a 12-inch by 12-inch
piece of wood, 1-inch thick.
Table 3:
Species
NET VOLUME OF GROWING STOCK AND SAWTIMBER ON COMMERCIAL
FOREST LAND BY INDIVIDUAL SPECIES, KANSAS, 1981 (Data
collected from October 1980 to July 1981)
(Spencer, et al. 1984).
Bur Oak
Pecan
Silver Maple
Green Ash
American Elm
Black Walnut
Black Willow
Boxelder
Hackberry
Common Persimmon
River Birch
Eastern Cottonwood
Growing Stock
(thousand cubic feet)
60,920
8,986
21,011
60,059
25,366
57,868
11,629
10,376
86,674
1,113
781
134,292
Sawtimber
(thousand board
286,120
28,043
87,834
181,569
59,400
169,979
47,901
22,839
299,581
612
2,278
610,060
20
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Table 4- NET VOLUME OF GROWING STOCK AND SAWTIMBER ON COMMERCIAL
Table 4. NET^VOL^^ ^ INDIVIDUAL SPECIES, MISSOURI, 1972 (Data
collected from January 1970 to May 1973)
(Spencer, et al. 1976)
Species
Bur Oak
Overcup Oak
Swamp Chestnut Oak
Swamp White Oak
Shomard Oak
Pin Oak
Water Oak
Willow Oak
Pecan
Shellbark Hickory
Water Hickory
Silver Maple
Sweetgum
Green Ash
American Sycamore
Eastern Cottonwood
River Birch
American Elm
Boxelder
Hackberry
Common Persimmon
Black Willow
Growing Stock
(million cubic feet)
19.7
5.2
3.5
31.1
7.7
58.4
.3
6.6
9.4
33.1
.3
59.8
8.0
44.1
125.0
65.3
26.0
60.2
6.1
33.5
3.8
64.0
Sawtimber
fmillion board feet)
60.5
14.1
14.2
82.0
34.9
209.9
1.2
28.3
30.4
76.5
1.7
204.9
23.4
100.3
473.4
306.9
66.4
103.4
20.5
75.3
1.3
189.1
Table 5:
NET VOLUME OF GROWING STOCK AND SAWTIMBER ON COMMERCIAL
FOREST LAND BY INDIVIDUAL SPECIES, NEBRASKA, 1983 (Data
collected from April 1982 to March 1983) (Raile, 1986)
Species
Growing Stock
(thousand cubic feet)
Bur Oak
Shagbark Hickory
American Basswood
Silver Maple
Slippery Elm
Green Ash
Black Willow
Hackberry
Black Walnut
Boxelder
Eastern Cottonwood
36,859
2,629
5,992
5,250
1,802
25,900
11,060
16,516
5,131
5,294
142,218
Sawtimber
(thousand board feet)
112,770
652
25,795
11,301
2,849
89,308
31,457
44,675
11,030
12,823
510,947
21
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The majority of commercial forest land is owned by farmers.
Thus, the opportunity for profit is literally in a landowner's
back yard. The breakdown of forested area into ownership classes
is as follows according to USDA Forest Service Resource
Bulletins:
STATE
Iowa(1974)
OWNERSHIP TYPE
PERCENT OWNED
Kansas(1981)
Missouri(1972)
Nebraska(1983)
Public:
Federal
National forest
Other federal
State
County and Municipal
Private:
Farmer
Forest industry
Miscellaneous
Public:
Miscellaneous federal
State
County and Municipal
Indian
Private:
Farmer
Miscellaneous private
Public:
National forests
Other
Private:
Farmers
Miscellaneous
Public:
National forests
State
Other
Private
Farmer
Miscellaneous
0%
4%
3%
less than 1%
68%
1%
24%
3%
1%
less than 1%
less than 1%
62%
34%
11%
5%
50%
34%
6%
4%
2%
71%
17%
22
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Some general prices for a few of the bottomland forest species
reveal the value such trees add to wetlands.
IOWA (based on 1990 estimates and the experience of William
Ferris, State Foresters Office)
Species fr/inno board feet
Silver maple f1?0*^
Willow $40-$50
Mixed stand (silver maple, $55-$65
cottonwood, hackberry, willow)
KANSAS (based on 1990 estimates of Len Gould, Department of
Forestry)
CoSonwod S3 0- $50
Green ash f8°'!?°n
Silver maple $50-$100
MISSOURI (based on 1990 estimates of Shelby Jones, Department of
Conservation)
Species $/1000 board feet
Silvlr-maple $30- $100
Cottonwood §20- $80
Sycamore $20
Black walnut *
(veneer) $250-$3000
Hickory $20- $100
Ash ~ $25°
American elm $20- $100
Hackberry $20- $100
The economic value of standing trees is determined by the
price a buyer is willing to pay, which in turn is determined by
species, size, and quality. Depending on these primary factors,
the wood may be sold for a number of purposes, including veneer
logs, sawlogs, pulpwood, fence posts or firewood. According
to the 1990 U.S. industrial Outlook; Prospects for Over 350
Manufacturing and Service Industries (U.S. Department of
Commerce, 1990), the values of products have been increasing
23
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in the past several years in the industries of logging, sawmill,
hardwood dimension and flooring mills, hardwood veneer and
plywood, pulp mills, and paper and paperboard mills.
Potentially the most valuable of the wetland species are
black walnut and pecan. Ash, cottonwood, maple, and others
typically are of less value. However, these values depend on the
quality of the wood, how old the tree is and the primary purpose
for which the tree was grown. This explains the wide range of
values for the trees listed above. In general, larger diameter
trees with greater merchantable height will bring more money than
smaller trees of the same species and of similar quality. Buyers
prefer straight trees with few defects which include both open
and closed wounds, metal hardware, bird pecks, bumps or bulges,
twisted bark, curves, overgrown limb knots, and both live and
dead limbs.
VENEER:
The U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,
reported that, in 1987, the hardwood veneer and plywood industry
shipped products worth $1.8 billion that were primary to the
industry.
Veneer lumber is made from the highest quality walnut and
oak trees. They must be at least 18 inches d.b.h. (diameter at
breast height, which is the diameter of the tree outside the bark
at 4 1/2 feet above the ground) but are usually commercially
mature at 20-24 inches d.b.h. They must have an eight foot
minimum first log and be essentially free of all defects.
According to Prestemon et al. (1987), "a recent economic analysis
24
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estimated that a vigorously growing walnut tree with a veneer-
quality first log 8 feet long increases in value at a rate of 60%
annually between the 15 and 17 inch diameter class; and between
the 17 and 21 inch diameter class, the value is still increasing
20% per year. An 8-foot log from a tree with a d.b.h. of 22
inches has twice the volume of a 16 inch tree, and the price per
board foot may be two or four times higher".
Veneer wood from walnut and oak is regarded as one of the
best for furniture because of its strength, hardness and shock
resistance for its weight. Its dark color, besides being attrac-
tive, does not require staining. In addition, black walnut has
little resistance against a cutting edge, so shavings peel off
without leaving marks (Arno, 1986).
Although these trees are the most profitable, they must be
carefully managed through pruning, weeding and thinning. It is
estimated that a plantation which starts with 450 to 700 trees
has an eventual harvest of 100 or fewer. However, there is no
reason not to sell the younger thinned trees to other markets for
sawlogs or firewood, for example. In addition, black walnut nuts
are harvestable both for their meat and for making a stain which
can be applied to other, lighter woods.
SAWWOOD:
The next lower level of tree quality is marketable for
lumber logs which can range from grade lumber to saw logs, pallet
lumber logs, tie logs and fence posts, depending on the quality
and desirability of the species. For example, fast-growing
hardwoods like cottonwood make excellent rough construction
25
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lumber. "The diameter of cottonwood trees may increase one
inch or more per year when proper growing conditions exist. This
growth rate equals or exceeds that of softwood species commonly
converted into structural lumber" (Funck et al., 1988).
However, the hardness of wood is not related to whether or
not it is called a hardwood, as is evidenced by Table 6:
Table 6: COMPARATIVE HARDNESS OF SOME NORTH AMERICAN WOODS
Soft
Softwoods
balsam fir
various spruce
Hardwoods
basswood
buckeye
"poplars"
Moderately Soft
Softwoods
cedar, western red
pine, white
Hardwoods
butternut
catalpa
tulip tree
willow
L
Moderately Hard
Softwoods
bald cypress
hemlock
southern yellow pine
tamarack and larch
Hardwoods
birch
cherry
chestnut
elm
black gum
hackberry
magno I i a
soft maple
sassafras
sweet gum
sycamore
Hard
Softwoods
southern yellow
pine
some Juniper
Hardwoods
ash
beech
holly
hard maple
mulberry
red oaks
white oaks
walnut, black
Very Hard
Softwoods
none
Hardwoods
hickory
locust, black
locust, honey
Osage orange
persimmon
PULPWOOD:
Small, low quality trees are suitable for pulpwood.
Pulpwood is usually sold on the basis of weight. The weight
of a tree can be estimated using appropriate conversion tables
26
-------
when the d.b.h. and number of 8-foot lengths in a tree are known.
Pulp mill establishments shipped $3.7 billion of products con-
sidered primary to the industry in 1987. These establishments
manufacture pulp from wood as well as from other materials such
as tags, wastepaper and straw (U.S. Department of Commerce,
Bureau of the Census, 1987).
FIREWOOD:
Another market for small trees and branches is firewood.
"Although the price paid for standing trees marketed as firewood
may be low, processing into cut-to-length, split dry firewood can
yield a return higher in some locations than low quality sawlogs"
(Prestemon et al., 1987). The standard cord is the traditional
measurement of fuelwood. It represents a stack of wood contain-
ing 128 cubic feet of wood plus air spaces, assuming that 3 to 8
inch diameter hardwood contains 80 cubic feet. A typical cord
contains 4 foot logs in a pile 4 feet high and 8 feet long.
In 1987, the logging industry shipped $10 billion of
products considered primary to that industry. Establishments and
products included in the logging industry are fuelwood harvest-
ers, pole cutting contractors, pulpwood contractors engaged in
cutting, and manufacturers of wooden posts, fence rails, saw logs
and timber. Table 7 is a breakdown of forest products sold in
the four-state region according to USDA forest inventories.
27
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Table 7:
BREAKDOWN OF FOREST PRODUCTS FOR GROWING STOCK AND
SAWTIMBER ON COMMERCIAL LAND, ALL SPECIES
(Spencer et al.f 1980), (Spencer et al., 1984)
(Spencer et al., 1976), (Raile, 1986) (*See dates for
survey data collection on pages 20 and 21 of this report.)
State Forest Products
I ova
(1974*)
Kansas
(1980*)
Saw logs
Veneer logs
and bolts
Pulpwood
Cooperage logs
and bolts
Piling
Poles
Mine timbers
Posts
Other
Fuelwood
Saw logs
Veneer logs
Cooperage logs
Fuelwood
Posts
Missouri
(1972*)
Saw logs
Cooperage logs
Veneer logs
Charcoal wood
Pulpwood
Posts
Poles
Fuelwood
Mine timbers
Handle bolts
Miscellaneous
Growing Stock
Thousand Cubic Feet
7,162
865
Nebraska
(1983*)
Saw logs
Veneer logs
Cooperage logs
Fuelwood
Posts
Pulpwood
Other
1,609
93
8
126
222
3,106
Thousand Cubic Feet
4,340
72
40
7,577
52
Cords
609,005
97,467
8,506
67,077
20,752
22,001
3,374
98,492
1,216
4,594
11,312
Thousand Cubic Feet
2,915
112
18
5,167
79
12
94
Sawtimber
Thousand Board Fe
41,176
3,921
7,017
562
10
373
1,210
7,387
Thousand Board Fe
26,269
475
237
20,895
114
Thousand Board Fe<
247,615
46,581
3,136
7,799
6,998
3,374
462
18,587
114
1,778
4,871
Thousand Board Fee
18,551
518
106
14,190
93
18
512
28
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An example of the profit to be made from firewood is provid-
ed by Dale Green of Castalia, Iowa (Successful Farming, Feb.
1987). Although cutting the firewood to length, splitting, and
drying costs him substantial time and effort, he is able to
market the material at a favorable price. If the customer picks
up the wood, Green charges $40 per pickup load, or $20 per ton.
If he delivers, the price is $50 per load for a three quarter ton
pickup, or $25 per ton. If he stacks the wood for the customer,
he charges $5 per hour. He reports a fixed cost for saws, wood
splitter, and wedges of $1,000 and estimates that he makes $7.50
per hour for labor and equipment.
OTHER INCOME SOURCES FROM FORESTED WETLANDS:
Other ways of deriving income from forested wetlands include
selling tree saplings to nurseries, selling nuts from pecan and
black walnut trees (markets range from nurseries to organic food
stores to road side stands), leasing the land to hunter and other
wildlife enthusiasts, and trapping furbearers. Finally, some
people are farming their woodlands for shiitake, edible mush-
ooms, which are planted on thinned hardwoods in the form of a
seed culture, called spawn or innoculum. Logs generally fruit
one year for each inch of diameter during both spring and fall.
Two pounds of mushrooms can be harvested per log. With 300 logs
per cord, and shiitake at $5 per pound, one cord might return
$3000. Offsetting this return are relatively minimal costs of
production such as a chain saw, a drill, a hammer to inoculate
the spawn, and shiitake spawn itself which can be purchased for
about $160 per cord (Successful Farming, Feb. 1987).
29
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MULTICROPPING:
Multicropping may be the best solution for owners who have
limited time and money to invest in intensive forest production.
A few combinations which complement one another are growing hay
crops with trees, such as black walnut and switchgrass, or pecan
and cordgrass. Care must be taken, if machinery is used, not to
damage the crop trees. If animals are being grazed, fences may
be necessary around the trees to prevent them from being eaten,
trampled or scratched. Another combination might be red oaks
with cordgrass. The composted mulch from the oaks could be sold
to garden supply stores, while the grass provides excellent
forage or hay during the summer.
COST-SHARE PROGRAMS:
A further way to offset some of the costs of putting a
forested wetland into production is by setting aside the land
in the USDA Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) for 10 years.
By specifying tree planting in the application, technical and
monetary assistance for planting are provided. Black walnut
and pecan both qualify for the program. Unfortunately, current
regulations allow only a third of the land to be planted in a
single species so there is a smaller chance of getting a good
crop when the trees mature. However, a CRP participant receives
payment during the ten year plan while he/she manages the trees
in their early crucial stages of development. When the land
comes out of CRP, the pecan nuts will almost be ready for their
30
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first harvest, while commercially harvestable quantities of
walnuts will be produced beginning in their twentieth year. The
relatively early and annual yields from nut production supplement
the returns from timber, resulting in more profit for the land-
owner. (Kurtz et al., 1984).
Other cost-share programs include the Agricultural Conserva-
tion Program (ACP) and the Forestry Incentive Program (FIP). Both
programs are administered by the Agricultural Stabilization and
Conservation Service (ASCS) with review and approval at the
county level. The ACP is a program wherein a landowner applies
for financial assistance for installing conservation measures.
These measures include terracing, soil erosion control, farm
sewage treatment lagoons, grass seeding, and tree planting.
Technical assistance for such endeavors is provided by the Soil
Conservation Service (SCS). The grasses and trees may be
harvested, as long as the conservation measures remain intact.
Cost-sharing is currently from 50-75%, up to $3500 per landowner
per year, depending on the county.
The FIP is similar to the ACP except it applies only to
forestry management, technical assistance is provided by the
state's forestry agency, and cost-sharing is up to 65%, not
to exceed $10,000 per landowner.
Furthermore, many states have their own form of cost-sharing
or tax exemption for wetlands. In Iowa, for example, an owner of
a forested wetland can apply for tax exemption under their Forest
31
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Reserve Law. To qualify, the forest must be at least two
continuous acres and generally no less than 66 feet wide. Each
acre must contain at least 200 trees, and no more than one-fifth
of the total number of trees in the reservation may be removed in
any one year unless the trees are lost due to natural causes.
If the number of trees falls below 200, the owner is given one
year to restore their numbers to 200 or above per acre.
These financial programs provide an excellent opportunity to
use a wetland without having to bear the full financial burden of
restoring, seeding, or planting.
CONCLUSION
Although maintenance of forested wetlands is important for
timber production and wildlife habitat, these areas provide other
far-reaching benefits due to the function of their hydrological
systems. Among these may be enhanced groundwater recharge
and discharge, filtration and purification of surface waters,
temporary storage and reduction of flood waters, and stream bank
protection. Thus, the practice of silviculture in wetland forests
in which forest crops are tended, harvested and then reforested,
realizes the commercial production capabilities of the land without
the impact on the ecosystem associated with logging and clearing the
trees for conversion of wetlands to other uses. Forested wetlands
are compatible with and enhance other wetland functions while adding
value to the land, a motivation for some landowners to retain their
forested wetlands in a condition that preserves their ability to
enjoy the wetland functions and benefits.
32
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ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON FOREST PRODUCTS
Paul Wray, Extension Forester
Forestry Extension
251 Bessey Hall
Iowa State University
Ames, IA 50011
(515) 294-4465
Lester Pinkerton, Forest Management Program Leader
Cooperative Extension Service
Department of Forestry
2610 Claflin Road
Manhattan, KS 66502-2798
(913) 537-7050
Tom Wardle, Deputy State Forester
Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Wildlife
Nebraska Forest Service
101 Plant Industry, East Campus
Lincoln, NE 68583-0814
(402) 472-2944
Shelby Jones, Staff Supervisor
Forest Products Utilization and Marketing
Missouri Department of Conservation
P.O. Box 180
Jefferson City, MO 65102-0180
(314) 751-4115
Dean Prestemon, Extension Forester
Forestry Extension
251 Bessey Hall
Iowa State University
Ames, IA 50011
(515) 294-4465
Len Gould, Forestry Specialist
Utilization and Marketing
2610 Claflin Road
Manhattan, KS 66502
(913) 537-7050
Dennis Adams, District Forester
107 Mussehl Hall
East Campus, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Lincoln, NE 68583-0714
(402) 472-2944
(handles forest products marketing for NE Forest Service)
33
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Jack Slusher, Extension Forester
University of Missouri - Columbia School of Natural Resources
1-34 Agriculture Building
Columbia, MO 65211
(314) 882-4444
(produces a quarterly report on stumpage prices in MO)
"Some Marketing Alternatives for Pecans"
Publication GZ030
New Mexico Agricultural Information Department
Drawer 3AI
New Mexico State University
Las Cruces, NM 88003
Pecan South/Pecan Quarterly Magazine
Published bimonthly by the Texas Pecan Growers Association
and the Federated Pecan Growers Association of the U S
Drawer CC, College Station, TX 77841
Gordon Kempf
Missouri Nut Growers Association
421 Braircliff Road
Kansas City, MO 64116
(816) 453-6842
Frank Hershey, Watershed Specialist
Missouri Department of Conservation
P.O. Box 180
Jefferson City, MO 65102
(314) 751-4115
Northern Nut Growers Association
4518 Holston Hills Road
Knoxville, TN 37914
(615) 524-0416
Horticulture Department
1-40 Agriculture Building
University of Missouri
Columbia, MO 65211
Larry R. Frye, Executive Director
or James H. Lee, Director of Forestry Programs
Fine Hardwoods/American Walnut Association
5603 West Raymond Street, Suite D
Indianapolis, IN 46241
(317) 844-3311
Missouri Consulting Foresters Association
Guide to Professional Forestry Assistance
Suite 2A
611 East Capitol
Jefferson City, MO 65101
34
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Chapter II
WILDLIFE VALUES
35
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OVERVIEW
Wetlands comprise some of the most productive natural
ecosystems in the world. This is demonstrated by the wide diver-
sity of wildlife sustained by wetland-produced food, cover and
nursery ground for part or all of their life cycle. Most fresh-
water fish feed upon wetland-produced food and use wetlands as
nursery grounds, while most of the important recreational fish
spawn in wetlands. A variety of waterfowl as well as a large
number of songbirds feed, nest, and raise their young in wet-
lands. Furbearers, such as muskrat, mink and beaver, along with
big game mammals, such as black bear and deer, use wetlands for
food and shelter. Thus, these areas are ideal for all forms of
wildlife recreation (EPA, 1988).
WILDLIFE RECREATION
Outdoor recreation is extremely popular in the United
States, and according to the 1985 National Survey of Fishing,
Hunting, and Wildlife Associated Recreation (U.S. Department
of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service, 1988), "wildlife-
associated recreation was one of this country's most popular
forms of outdoor recreation in 1985". Among the 46.4 million
persons 16 years of age and older who fished, there were 38.4
million anglers who fished in freshwater other than the Great
Lakes. These fishermen accounted for 785.9 million fishing days
and $17.8 billion of fishing expenditures, an average of 20 days
and $463 per fisherman. In addition, 16.7 million hunters over
16 years old spent 334 million days hunting, spending a total of
$10.1 billion on hunting-related expenditures with an average of
36
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20 days in the field and $603 per hunter in 1985. Among these,
there were 5 million migratory bird hunters in 1985. They spent
41.7 million days and $1.1 billion in pursuit of migratory birds,
an average of 8 days and $216 per hunter.
Along with fishing, hunting and trapping, wildlife recrea-
tion includes some nonconsumptive activities such as feeding,
photographing and observing wildlife. In 1985, 134.7 million
Americans 16 years or older enjoyed these activities, some of
whom were also fishermen and hunters, spending over $14.3
billion, for an average of $221 per participant.
POTENTIAL VALUE FROM WETLAND WILDLIFE
LEASE-FEE HUNTING:
At the same time that the popularity of outdoor recreation
has expanded, the available wetlands, both public and private,
have greatly declined. Thus, the remaining wetlands have become
an increasingly valuable commodity to wildlife enthusiasts. "Of
the North American wildlife species, those occupying wetlands are
among the most sought after by sport hunters and provide the
greatest monetary return from a commercial harvest. For most
sporting or commercial species, wetlands comprise an important
part of their habitat in some part of their range" (Chabreck,
1978). Evidence of the concern over the lack of hunting land is
provided by a poll conducted by the National Shooting Sports
Foundation in 1986 which reported that "hunters rank access to
hunting land the number one problem in the sport today" (Basset
and Freiling, 1987).
37
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This demand for quality hunting provides landowners with an
opportunity for an alternative source of income from their wet-
land through fee hunting (also called lease hunting) which occurs
whenever a landowner allows a hunter access to his/her property
in exchange for money or conservation services which benefit
landowner and hunter alike. The agreement is sometimes formal-
ized with a signed lease. "If trends continue, hunting land will
become an increasingly valuable commodity, especially near urban
areas or in locations where public land is scarce" (Basset and
Freiling, 1987). In 1985, 736,000 acres of wetlands were leased
for migratory bird hunting to 41,000 lessors. A total of
$26,139,000 was spent to lease the land, with each hunter paying
an average of $346 (U.S. Department of the Interior Fish and
Wildlife Service, 1989).
This region of the country does not have a well-documented
fee hunting record as do the southern and mid-Atlantic states
where fee hunting has become a successful tradition. For exam-
ple, Texas landowners hold about 14,000 leasing licenses and earn
$150 to $200 million a year in hunting fees. One attribute that
this region does share with those states is a small proportion of
public lands, indicating the potential for a market in this area.
Examples of fees charged in other states are provided in Table 8.
Although most of the game species listed are not restricted to
wetlands, the fees shown may provide an idea of the range of
profits to be made from this activity.
38
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Table 8: Examples of Lease Prices*
Location Games Species
Alabama Deer, Turkey
Dove
Florida Deer, Turkey
Quail
Georgia Deer, Small Game
Deer
Deer
Quail
Trout
Louisiana Deer, Small Game
Ducks
Maryland
North Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Geese
Geese
Deer, Quail
Dove
Ducks
Deer
Deer
(Bassett and Freiling, 1987)*
Fees
$.50 - $15/A**
$75 - $150/A
$150/Day, including
meals & lodging
Range $.25 - $7.25/A
Average $1.46/A
$10 - $15/Day
$2 - $10/A
$90/Day
$.50 - $5/A
$100 - $410/Day
$45/Day, 4 trout
limit
$1 - $10/A
$150 - $5000/Section,
marshland
$7.50 - $10/A
$75 - $100/Day
$7.50 - $10/A
$75 - $100/Day
$1.25/A
$5 - $10/Day
$100 - $200/A Wetland
$4 - $8/A includes
services, trophy, animals
$300/2.5 Days
*Prices vary depending on time period of lease whether the lease
short-term (day, weekend, or week), or annual
**A = Acre
Date
1985
1985
1985
1985
1986
1981
1981
1981, 1986
1986
1981
1981
1981
1981
1986
1986
1983
1986
is
Management of Leased Property
The basic type of fee hunting arrangement is a fee for
simple access to the land with few or no services provided to the
hunter. Addition of hunter services increases the fee one can
charge for access. However, larger investments in time and money
39
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are the trade-off. A few of the extra services which could be
provided to hunters are:
-blinds, decoys, whistles
-campsites, cabins, trailer hookups
-cleaning and refrigeration of game
-dogs, kennels
-hunting guides
-meals
-organized shoots
-target shooting
In addition, improvements in the wildlife habitat that raise
the quality of the hunting, also will increase the value of the
hunting land. The quality and diversity of the wildlife on a
leased area is the most important factor in determing the success
of lease-fee hunting. Thus, it may be more efficient to concen-
trate management efforts on preventing disturbances and on
improving habitats, including food sources and water availabili-
ty. These can be provided by plantings for food, cover, and
nesting sites, fences and water management. Appendix 1, although
not exhaustive, describes some plants that will enhance wildlife
habitat. Note that the sample prices for seeds, tubers or plants
are a one-time investment for most of these plants, because they
will grow back year after year. Fencing may be required on
ranches where animals will decrease the productivity of the
wetland and disturb the wildlife if allowed to graze in those
areas.
Finally, some amount of water management may have to be
implemented, depending upon the condition of the wetlands. To
provide the water conditions conducive for germination and plant
growth, most wetlands created or modified for wildlife must be
40
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managed for complete dewatering in order to influence the plant
community. Wildlife managers often use water level control
structures and a reliable source of water in order to manipulate
water depths to control specific plants for nest sites (birds)
and food sources (furbearers and birds). Areas that are flooded
in the spring and later dewatered create mudflat conditions
attractive to migrant shorebirds and ducks, but also allow
germination of the seedbanks (Kusler and Kentula, eds. 1989).
It is important that a diversity of plant life is available
to support the wide range of wildlife that live in wetlands. For
instance, marginal nonpersistant emergents produce large seed
crops, deeper water persistant emergents are good for nest sites
and provide tubers for herbivores, and submergent plants are a
source of food and act as substrate for invertebrates (Kusler,
and Kentula, eds. 1989).
Types of Leases
The three standard lease lengths are short-term (day, week-
end, or week), seasonal, or annual. Seasonal and annual leases,
while providing less potential income per season, involve less
day to day work and assure the landowner of a fixed, guaranteed
income from hunters with whom they can develop a long-term rela-
tionship. Short-term leases, on the other hand, can often charge
higher fees although the total income for a season is not guaran-
teed. They also require more intensive management i.e., "more
contact with people, more advertising, and more bookkeeping"
(Basset and Freiling, 1987), but the landowner has more flexibil-
ity and control over the property and its policies. In many
41
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instances, geographic location influences the type and amount of
payment for hunting. Preserves within close proximity to large
cities can afford to charge higher prices and pick and choose
their members. On the other hand, rural preserves that are not
easily accessible from towns or cities may require daily-fee
hunts.
Drawing up a written lease has several advantages. It
clearly states the expectations of the landowner and the hunter,
the details of the operation, and the form of payment. This
lowers the likelihood that misunderstandings will occur and may
offer some protection against liability should the owner be sued.
By drawing up and discussing the lease agreement with prospective
clients, it also gives the landowner a chance to evaluate pro-
spective lessors and screen potential problem hunters. Basset
and Freiling (1987) explain that the basic elements of the lease
should include the following:
Name of parties-lessee and lessor
What is leased-access and hunting rights
Description of tract-size, boundaries, off-limit areas, hazards
Species to be hunted
Permitted hunting methods
Payment-amount or kind and due date
Length of lease-day, week, month, season or year
Guest privileges
Liability statements
Conditions for subleasing, cancellation, renegotiation, renewal
A popular form of lease arrangement is a contract with a
hunting club. Most often the club will either out-right buy a
piece of land or lease it from the landowner, in return for which
they have the right to then charge their members for its use. In
other instances, the landowner receives a portion of the profits
42
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made by the club. The benefit of this system is that the owner
does not have to advertise or screen clients and often the club
maintains or enhances the wildlife habitat. The Mid-American
Game Bird Association leases land from farmers at an average of
$3,000 per year for a ten acre wetland, restores or enhances
wetlands and wildlife habitat, and then charges hunters for
access to the land. According to John Nee, the director of the
organization, land which is currently worth $100-$300 could be
doubled or tripled in value if the wetland is restored and leased
for hunting.
Because of the high demand for outdoor recreation, it may be
possible to lease land for nonconsumptive or off-season activi-
ties such as birdwatching, firewood cutting, mushroom and wild
edibles hunting, wildflower picking, photography, and pond or
stream fishing.
TRAPPING:
A further use of wetland-associated wildlife is furtrapping,
a multimillion dollar industry in the wetlands of the United
States. Supplemental income can be derived from trapping fur-
bearers either through direct sale of the pelts to dealers or
stores, by leasing wetlands for fur harvest, or by sharing a
percentage of the fur harvest value from pelts trapped on leased
wetlands. The 1985 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and
Wildlife Associated Recreation (U.S. Department of the Interior,
Fish and Wildlife Service, 1988) reported 508,000 total trappers,
among which 316,000 trapped for sport, 162,000 trapped for
income, and 30,000 did not specify. The average trapper spent
43
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23 trapping days annually for a total of 11,508,000 days of
trapping per year.
Furbearing animals include many species and occupy most
habitat types. Many of these species use wetlands as a component
of their habitat, but are usually adaptable to either upland or
wetland habitat. "The diversity of a particular wetland usually
determines the number of animals that an area will support.
Habitat requirements vary considerably among various groups and
among species within groups" (Chabreck, 1978). Some of the
furbearers which occupy wetlands, at least temporarily are the
opossum, black bear, raccoon, weasel, mink, river otter, skunk,
coyote, red fox, gray fox, bobcat, cougar, beaver, muskrat, and
deer (Brabander et al., 1985). Commercially important species
which require a wetland environment for at least a portion of
their life cycle in IA, KS, MO, and NE are beaver, mink, muskrat
and raccoon.
Beaver (Castor canadensis): Occur in low densities in
bottomland hardwood habitat along streams, with about 2-3 per
mile of stream and 1-5 per acre of wetland. They feed on mice,
rabbits, fish, muskrats, frog, and crayfish. Up to one-third
could be taken on a sustained yield basis.
Mink (Mustela vison): Live in low densities in the bottom-
land hardwood habitat along streams, with about 2-3 per mile of
stream and 1-5 per acre of wetland. They feed on mice, rabbits,
fish, muskrats, frog, and crayfish. Up to one-third could be
taken on a sustained yield basis.
44
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Muskrat (Ondatra zibethica): These are prolific rodents
that live in marshes, ponds and streams. They require still or
slow-moving water with plenty of vegetation in the marshes or
along banks. Wetlands that dry up in the summer will not support
these animals. The best marshes are 1-3 feet deep with a lot of
cattail and bulrush. Eighty percent of the muskrats in an area
can be taken without harm. Good marshes produce a sustained
yield of up to 20 muskrats per acre, while streams produce 5-15
per mile.
Raccoon rProcvon lotor): Omnivores (those animals that eat
both plants and animals) which prefer streams, although they will
be found around the edges of marshes. These animals need large
trees and hollow logs for dens. Population density is 5-20 per
100 acres throughout the Midwest but are more concentrated along
streams and wetlands. The maximum sustainable yield is 40% of a
given population (McCullough, 1990).
Tables 9-16 illustrate the additional income that can be
earned from trapping furbearing mammals in wetlands.
Table 9: FURS PURCHASED FROM IOWA TRAPPERS AND HUNTERS
AS REPORTED BY IOWA FUR BUYERS 1988-1989
(Andrews and Humburg, 1989)
NUMBER OF AVERAGE PRICE
PELTS PURCHASED PER PELT TOTAL VALUE
$ 394,038.70
$ 308,751.76
$1,516,825.76
$ 170,191.98
$ 187,656.75
$ 9,274.14
$ 20,506.50
$ 11,299.68
45
*J JL AJ ^ * -*- ! *-*
Muskrat
Mink
Raccoon
Beaver
Red Fox
Gray Fox
Coyote
Opossum
192,214
13,996
190,556
18,459
15,445
769
4,650
19,824
$ 2.05
$22.06
$ 7.96
$ 9.22
$12.15
$12.06
$ 4.41
$ .57
-------
Table 9:
SPECIES
Striped
Skunk
Badger
TOTALS
Furs Purchased From Iowa Trappers and Hunters
as Reported by Iowa Fur Buyers 1988-1989 (Continued)
NUMBER OF
PELTS PURCHASED
712
1,034
457,668
AVERAGE PRICE
PER PELT
$ 1.31
$3.57
$ 5.69
TOTAL VALUE
$ 932.72
$ 3,723.51
$2,602,695.00
Table 10;
SEASON
1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
FLUCTUATIONS IN IOWA'S FURBEARER MARKET 1984-1989
(Andrews, et al. 1984-1989)
NUMBER OF
PELTS PURCHASED
804,167
601,714
990,236
925,989
457,668
AVERAGE PRICE
PER PELT
$10.66
$ 8.58
$10.44
$ 8.74
$ 5.70
TOTAL VALUE
$ 8,574,748.98
$ 5,163,651.66
$10,335,629.88
$ 8,097,248.52
$ 2,602,695.00
Table 11:
SEASON
1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
FLUCTUATIONS IN IOWA'S FURBEARER MARKET 1984-1989
(Values include beaver, mink, muskrat, raccoon only)
NUMBER OF
PELTS PURCHASED
751,314
557,264
922,501
864,419
415,225
AVERAGE PRICE
PER PELT
$10.58
$ 8.54
$10.48
$ 8.74
$ 5.76
TOTAL VALUE
$ 7,946,326.40
$ 4,760,465.30
$ 9,666,396.20
$ 7,558,267.90
$ 2,389,808.00
Table 12
SPECIES
MISSOURI 1988-1989 FUR MARKET AND HARVEST SUMMARY
(Kulowiec and Hamilton, 1989)
HARVEST
AVERAGE
PELT PRICE
Raccoon
Opossum
Red Fox
Gray Fox
Coyote
Bobcat
106,539
16,607
2,193
3,087
3,112
1,014
$ 7.80
$ 1.04
$13.16
$14.62
$ 2.89
$38.13
TOTAL
PELT VALUE
$831,009.20
$ 17,271.28
$ 28,859.88
$ 45,131.94
$ 8,993.66
$ 27,491.73
% OF TOTAL
PELT VALUE
67.8
1.4
2.4
3.7
0.7
2.2
46
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Table 12:
SPECIES
Missouri 1988-1989 Fur Market and Harvest Summary
(Continued)
Mink
Beaver
Muskrat
Striped Skunk
Spotted Skunk
Badger
Weasel
TOTALS
HARVEST
184,844
AVERAGE
PELT PRICE
4,406
7,249
40,436
153
0
44
4
$29.69
$ 7.47
$ 2.04
$ 1.03
$ 2.00
$ .25
$ 6.64
TOTAL
PELT VALUE
$1,226,452.91
% OF TOTAL
PELT VALUE
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
130,814.14
54,150.03
82,489.44
157.59
0.00
88.00
1.00
10.7
4.4
6.7
100.0
Table 13
SEASON
1970-71
1971-72
1972-73
1973-74
1974-75
1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
1980-81
1981-82
1982-83
1983-84
1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
TRENDS IN MISSOURI FUBEARER VALUES IN LAST 20 SEASONS
(includes raccoon, coyote, bobcat, mink, beaver,
muskrat, striped skunk, spotted skunk, badger,
weasel) (Kulowiec and Hamilton, 1989)
NO. OF
PELTS HARVESTED
233,414
325,686
334,899
881,276
464,825
497,138
474,584
320,673
451,226
634,338
479,637
409,627
400,264
255,330
392,634
232,561
443,508
351,530
184,844
VALUE TO
FUR-TAKERS
$ 258,
$ 666,
$1,736,
$2,312,
$2,479,
$4,684,
$5,848,
$3,467,
$8,613,
$9,081,
$5,588,
$6,241,
$3,700,
$2,894,
$4,927,
$2,694,
$6,221,
$3,690,
$1,226,
587.00
274.00
296.00
918.00
370.00
644.00
010.90
450.20
607.20
482.10
128.70
229.40
867.85
466.30
167.30
062.30
726.15
660.31
452.91
VALUE/PELT
$ 1.11
$ 2.05
$ 5.18
$ 6.07
$ 5.33
$ 9.42
$12.32
$10.81
$19.09
$14.32
$11.65
$15.24
$ 9.25
$11.34
$12.55
$11.58
$14.03
$10.50
$ 6.64
47
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Table 14:
SPECIES
Beaver
Mink
Muskrat
Raccoon
SUSTAINED YIELDS AND VALUES OF FURBEARER PELTS, NEBRASKA
1990 (McCullough, 1990)
SUSTAINED
ANIMAL YIELD
1 colony (6-8)
2-3/mi stream
or 1-5/100
acres wetland
2O/acre marsh or
5-15/mi. stream
5-20/100 acres
CURRENT
PELT VALUE
$ 5 - $20
$10 - $20
$ 1
$ 3 - $10
HIGHEST PELT VALUE
IN LAST 10 YEARS
$100
$40
$ 5
$40
Table 15:
IOWA
MISSOURI
NEBRASKA
KANSAS
DISTRIBUTION AND VALUE OF THE FUR HARVEST BY SPECIES
IN THE U.S. IN 1975-1976 AS A PERCENT OF THE NATIONAL
TOTAL (Chabreck, 1979)
BEAVER
2.6
1.2
3.6
3.3
TOTALS 10.7
AVG. PELT PRICES $6
MINK
7.4
2.4
1.5
0.8
12.1
$10
MUSKRAT
6.0
1.4
1.2
0.8
9.4
$3.50
Table 16:
SEASON
AVERAGE U.S. PELT PRICES FOR BEAVER, MINK, MUSKRAT,
RACCOON FROM 1970-1976 (Deems and DePursley, 1978)
BEAVER
MINK
MUSKRAT
RACCOON
1970-71
1971-72
1972-73
1973-74
1974-75
1975-76
$10.00
$12.00
$14.00
$13.50
$11.00
$ 6.00
$ 7.50
$ 9.50
$12.00
$11.50
$ 8.00
$10.00
$1.40
$2.25
$3.00
$3.00
$3.00
$3.50
$ 3.50
$ 6.50
$10.00
$15.00
$12.00
$19.00
AQUACULTURE:
Every year millions of fishermen rely on wetland habitats
to produce fish for their recreational enjoyment. In 1985 there
48
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were 38.4 million anglers who fished in freshwater other than the
Great Lakes. These fishermen accounted for 785.9 million days of
fishing, an average of 20 days and $463 per fisherman (U.S.
Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife service, 1988).
In Kansas alone in 1985, 567,700 residents fished an average of
20.2 days, spending $399 per fisherman (U.S. Department of the
Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1989).
While all species of fish rely to some extent on wetlands,
their degree of utilization is highly variable, depending on the
species. "The young of both fresh water and salt water fishes
often seek shallow waters, where their food is more concentrated
than in deeper water and where they are protected from predation.
Additionally, shallow water is a place of permanent residence for
some species and a feeding ground for transients" (Peters et al.,
1978). Most freshwater fish are considered wetland-dependant
because they feed in wetlands or on wetland-produced food, use
wetlands as nursery grounds, or spawn in the aquatic portions of
wetlands (Delaware Conservationist, Fall, 1987).
Fishing Leases
Freshwater fish are primarily harvested for recreation,
although some species such as trout, buffalo, carp and catfish
are often harvested for commercial use as well. Other major
freshwater fish are the sunfishes, pickerels, bullheads and
perches.
Due to the high demand for fishing and the shortage of
available fishing land, a profitable enterprise could be made
from leasing wetlands to fishermen either independently or in
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conjunction with a hunting lease. According to the 1985 National
Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife Associated Recreation
(U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
1988), 5,090,000 acres of freshwater land was leased that year to
121,000 fishermen who spent $19,676,000 or $148 per fisherman for
access to that land. Out of this total, 268,000 acres were
wetlands, leased by 58,000 fishermen.
Commercial Fish Production
Besides profiting from recreational fishing, income may be
derived from raising fish for commercial harvests. This enter-
prise requires a substantial investment of labor and capital,
depending on the size and type of operation, and the production
methods used. Although commercial fish farming in Missouri is a
small industry (approximately 4.8 million pounds of food fish
were produced in 1986), the state's water resource of over
350,000 farm ponds, estimated at 250,000 acres has the potential
to support a sizable fish industry. "Using existing ponds elimi-
nates a major production cost, and cage-culture techniques make
otherwise unproductive ponds (those that are too deep or with too
many obstructions to seine) available for commercial production"
(Belusz, 1987). A rough estimate of the economic variables
involved in catfish production is as follows:
Production Cost Net Return
Pond Size
1 acre
5 acres
10 acres
20 acres
Stocking Rate
3500/acre
3500/acre
3500/acre
3500/acre
Per 100 Lbs.
$64.40
$54.00
$53.90
$49.80
Per Acre
$98
$387
$388
$531
50
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Pond Stocking
Fish farming is not limited to just food fish. Among the
other types of operations are pond stocking, baitfishes, finger-
lings, and broodfish. Production of fish for pond stocking for
recreational fishing is usually much less labor intensive than
for food-size fish, while the return may be the same or even
higher. Some of the most popular species for pond stocking are
largemouth bass, catfish, bluegills, crappie, and hybrid sunfish.
A stocker is generally four inches to 1 pound or more. In 1987,
10-12 inch catfish stockers were being sold for about $.70 each
or $1.87 a pound. This could provide a supplemental income for
small-scale food-fish growers. However, delivery of the live
fish is usually required, which may be prohibitive in terms of
equipment costs (Belusz, 1987).
Baitfish
Baitfish production is also a desirable enterprise for a
number of reasons. Firstly, small ponds, which may not be suit-
able for other fishes can support baitfish. Secondly, 300-800
pounds of minnows can be produced from a well-managed pond. In
1987, the average price for minnows was about $2.50 per pound
wholesale, making a few acres of pond into a valuable piece of
land. In addition, proximity to major fishing lakes can make
production even more lucrative for sale either directly to fish-
ermen or to local retailers. Two of the most popular bait fishes
are the golden shiner and fathead minnow. Commercial production
of minnows in the U.S. is worth about $100 million for sport-
fishing at the farm level (Belusz, 1987).
51
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Besides being a good baitfish, minnows are eagerly eaten by
poultry and provide a good alternate source of protein. However,
if poultry are allowed more than one feeding of minnows per day,
the meat or eggs from the poultry takes on a fishy flavor.
Crayfish and Leeches
Crayfish and leeches can also be sold to bait dealers. Like
minnows, they can be managed in shallow and weed-choked ponds not
suitable for fish. Most crayfish crops are used for bait.
However, in the Bootheel of Missouri where crayfish may grow over
three inches, they are large enough for food production (Belusz,
1987). Although there has been little if any food size crayfish
production in our region outside of the Bootheel of Missouri,
it could be a successful enterprise, especially in Southern
Missouri.
Missouri alone supports 27 species and subspecies of cray-
fish, the majority confined to the area south of the Missouri
River. Their habitats vary, depending on the species, from
rivers and rocky streams, to ponds and swamps, or cave springs
and underground streams. Stream-living crayfish make excellent
bait for bass, drum and catfish. Collecting wild crayfish by
seine, net or hand is legal with a fishing permit up to a limit
of 150 in Missouri (Johnson, undated). If the number of crayfish
collected in one year exceeds 150, a fine will be imposed.
Finqerlinq and Broodfish
As the interest in food-fish production grows around the
area, the demand for fingerlings will increase proportionately.
This form of aquaculture requires the most technical skill and
52
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knowledge for such things as broodfish management, knowledge of
spawning, and care of young fish and their diseases. However,
fry or eggs can be purchased to reduce the effort and risk. In
addition, on a limited acreage, profitable numbers of fingerlings
can be produced. According to Belusz (1987), from 10,000 to 500,000
fingerlings per acre can be produced. If 70,000 fry are stocked per
acre, 4-6 inch long fingerlings will develop in about 120 days.
To supplement the income from a small fingerling operation,
broodfish can be raised. Sexually mature female catfish weighing
five pounds produce 2,000-4,000 eggs per pound (Belusz, 1987).
Several broodfish might be used to maintain the fingerling pro-
duction while some could be sold to other operators, often at a
high price.
Food-fish
Food-fish production, unlike fingerling production requires
larger acreage and more water. An average acre can only produce
2,000 to 5,000 food-fish under good management. Belusz (1987)
contends that growers can produce food-size catfish in ponds or
cages at stocking rates from a few hundred, to more than 6,000
pounds per acre. He estimates that the capitalization costs for
a pond culture operation are as follows:
Harvesting Seine $ 800.00
Hauling Tank $ 827.00
Agitators $ 398.00
Holding Nets (2) $ 140.00
Scale (for weighing feed) $ 50.00
Dip Nets (4) $ 107.00
Water Test Kit $ 200.00
Emergency Aeration Equip. $ 600.00
Boat and Motor $ 800.00
TOTAL $3,922.00
53
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For an existing 2-acre pond stocked at 3,000 pounds/acre, Belusz
estimates net returns of:
Price Received
Net Return Return Per Acre Per Pound
$844.50 $422.25 $ .65
$1,549.50 $774.75 $ .75
$2,254.50 $1,127.25 $ .85
Besides catfish, other commercially produced food-fish are
rainbow trout, Chinese carp and hybrid striped bass. Rainbow
trout require high oxygen levels which are available when water
temperatures are below 70 degrees F, usually from October to
mid-May.
Chinese carp are not only valuable as food fish, but they
are also beneficial when used in conjunction with other fish
crops like catfish. The carp improve water quality by feeding
on microscopic and rooted plants. Because of their ability to
control pond vegetation, they are valuable fingerlings; 8-11 inch
fish sold for $4-$6 each in 1987, according to Belusz (1987).
Finally, the hybrid striped bass, which can be grown in open
ponds or raceways, is considered a gourmet food fish as well as
a prized recreational fish. Thus, this would be a good fish to
grow for restaurant markets, pond stocking or fingerlings.
The marketing possibilities for fish are varied, depending
on the type of product and size of the operation. Large-scale
operations usually sell their fish to processing plants while
small-scale producers may wish to directly market their products
to fish ponds for recreation or stocking, or self-process them
for sale to small commercial outlets or individual buyers.
54
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However, small-scale producers could save the time and effort of
direct marketing by selling their crops to a processing plant if
one was conveniently located.
Bullfrogs
Another avenue of aquaculture that could be pursued in
wetlands is frog production, particularly bullfrogs (Rana
catesbiena). An existing pond is ideal because frogs need
water to spawn in the spring. A supplementary water supply may
be necessary to maintain a constant water level if the area often
suffers from drought. According to Pitts (1986), a pond must be
at least 50 feet wide with plenty of vegetation growing along its
edge to provide cover and insect forage. He recommends a water
depth of 3-4 feet for hibernating tadpoles and adult frogs who
burrow into the muddy bottom to survive freezing temperatures
during the winter. Tadpoles do best in somewhat clear water
with an algae bloom which "provides adequate phytoplankton and
zooplankton for tadpole food" (Pitts, 1986). A pond enclosure
is necessary to exclude predators and prevent the frogs from
escaping. The frogs greatest predators are snakes, although
ducks, crows, and raccoons also find them tasty. A solid fence,
such as corrugated tin roofing is recommended with an electric
wire placed about four inches above the top.
Because adult frogs are voracious carnivores, placing
decayed meat along the pond's edge is one way to attract the
frogs' food. Their cannibalistic nature makes it necessary
that adequate supplies of food and space are provided.
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Bullfrogs are considered game animals and thus commercial
rearing, buying, and selling must be done according to the regula-
tions and permits of the state's Department of Conservation and
wildlife codes. Stocking an area for bullfrog reproduction and
growth may either constitute rearing the frogs or taking them from
the wild for commercial use. Therefore, it is advisable to consult
with a local conservation agent before proceeding with production.
Thus, frog culture is an extremely difficult and unpredictable
venture, and one that requires a lot of experience and patience.
However, the rewards if one is successful are great, due to the high
market demand for these animals. Although restaurants buy frog legs
at around $4.00 per pound, biological supply houses and research
laboratories are a larger and more predictable consumer of adult
frogs. There also is a small market for tadpoles for restocking
purposes at prices comparable to those for minnows (Pitt, 1986).
Summary
Those landowners who possess only a wetland will have to
confine their aquaculture production to crops that can be raised in
shallow water, such as minnows, crayfish, leeches, fingerlings, and
young fish for stocking. It also may be necessary to have a source
of water if the wetland is not wet all year round.
If, however, the wetland is adjacent to a larger body of water,
aquaculture can be extended to food-fish, brood-fish, and bullfrog
production, as well as lease-fee fishing.
For those landowners without an available water source for
aquaculture production, a shallow excavation, which enlarges and/or
deepens the wetland may be a viable option.
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ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON TRAPPING
Ronald D. Andrews, Furbearer Resource Specialist
Iowa Department of Natural Resources
1203 N. Shore Drive
Clear Lake, IA 58428
(515) 357-3517
Missouri Furbearer Update
Thomas Kulowiec and David Hamilton
Missouri Department of Conservation
1110 S. College Avenue
Columbia, MO 65201-5299
Chuck McCullough, Furbearer/Disease Specialist
Nebraska Game and Parks Commission
2200 N. 33rd Street
P.O. Box 30370
Lincoln, NE 68503-0370
(402) 471-0641
Scott Hartman, President
National Trappers Association
W. Virginia
(304) 455-4865
Joe Callahan
Kansas Furharvesters Association
(913) 889-4639
Rich Reagan, President
Iowa Trappers Association
(515) 749-5757
Ken Gamble
Missouri Department of Conservation
P.O. Box 180
Jefferson City, MO 65102
(314) 751-4115
Lloyd Fox
Kansas Dept. of Wildlife and Parks
Emporia Wildlife Invtg. Office
South Central Region
Box 1525, 1830 N. Merchant
Emporia, KS 66801
(316) 342-0658
Fur Takers of America International
Marcia Walston, Treasurer
Rt. 3, Box 211 Al
Aurora, IN 47001
International Fur Trade Federation
Ecology Section
36 Vejlesoevej
DK 2840 Holte, Denmark
57
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ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON FEE HUNTING
Fee Hunting - Extra Income?
By Barbara Bassett and Deretha Freiling
Publication MP635
Available from Extension Publications
115 S. Fifth Street
Columbia, MO 65211
Mid-America Game Bird Association
636 E. 97th Street
Kansas City, MO 64131
Jay Bowmaster
Missouri Department of Conservation
P.O. Box 180
Jefferson City, MO 65102
(314) 751-4115
Bob Hoffman
Ducks Unlimited, Inc.
6115 East Main Avenue
Bismarck, ND 58501
(708) 438-4300
Ron Bell
Squaw Creek National Wildlife Refuge
P.O. Box 101
Mound City, MO 64470
(816) 442-3187
Prairie Pothole Joint Venture
IA Department of Natural Resources
East 9th and Grand Avenue
Wallace Building
Des Moines, IA 50319-0034
(515) 281-5145
Marvin Kraft
Kansas Wildlife and Parks
(316) 342-0658
58
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ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON AOUACULTURE
Missouri Fish Fanners Association
Paula Moore, President
J and J Fish Farm
Rt. 1, Box 316
Harviell, MO 63945
(314) 989-6424
American Fisheries Society
5410 Grosnevor Lane, Suite 110
Bethesda, MD 20814
(301) 897-8616
Missouri Department of Conservation
P.O. Box 180
Jefferson City, MO 65102
(314) 751-4115
Fish Farming Handbook
Evan Browand and John B. Gratzek
AVI Publishing Co., Inc.
250 Post Road East
Westport, CT 06880
Fish Farming Technicrues
Larry Belusz
The Instructional Materials Laboratory
#10 Industrial Educational Building
6th and Stewart Rd.
Columbia, MO 65211
(314) 882-2883
Third Report to the Fish Farmers
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402
Stock No. 124-101-00654-4
Missouri Farm's Aauaculture Special
Missouri Farm Magazine, 1987
Rt. 1, Box 237
Clark, MO 65243
(314) 687-3525
Aquaculture Magazine
(Bimonthly)
P.O. Box 2329
Asheville, NC 28802
59
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Water Farming Journal
(Monthly)
3400 Neyrey Drive
Metairie, LA 70002
(504) 454-8934
Aquaculture News
Commercial Frog Farming
L.A. Helfrich and D.L. Garling
VA Polytechnic Institute and State University
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences
Fisheries Extension
152 Cheatham Hall
Virginia Tech.
Blacksburg, VA 24061
60
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Chapter III
NATIVE GRASSES FOR FORAGE AND HAY
61
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Native grasses which grow in wet areas include some of the
most productive and nutritious forage and hay available. Thus,
they provide a highly profitable use of a wetland while remaining
compatible with its unique characteristics. According to the
Missouri Conservation Department (1984), "Native warm-season
grasses (WSG) are bunch grasses whose stands have more bare
ground under and between individual plants and a greater number
of associated broadleaf forbs, legumes and insects than do cool-
season grasses (CSG).» They grow during warm weather months
(late spring and summer) as opposed to most lawn and pasture
grasses such as bluegrass and fescue which grow during cooler
months in the spring and fall. Grazing trials have demonstrated
that cattle gain significantly more on WSG in the summer than on
CSG. In addition, the bunchy, upright growth form of WSG pro-
vides better habitat conditions for many species of wildlife for
longer periods. Proper management of WSG requires 12 inches of
stubble over winter which provides more cover than the 1-4 inch
height of grazed CSG (Missouri Conservation Department, 1984).
The major wetland tolerant species of native warm-season
grasses that provide good hay and forage include:
Andropoaon qerardii (big bluestem)
Panicum virqatum (switchgrass)
Spartina pectinata (prairie cordgrass)
Tripsacum dactvloides (eastern gama grass)
For a full description of these grasses see Appendix 2.
In order for warm-season grasses to benefit both livestock
forage and wildlife habitat on the same acreage, they must be
properly managed, which includes preventing over-utilization from
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grazing or haying (these grasses must not be cut or grazed below
6-8 inches) and periodic prescribed burning. "Most, if not all,
prescribed burning of WSG by private landowners is conducted
during the three week period following 'green-up1 in April and
May, just after WSG breaks dormancy but before they exceed three
inches in new growth" (Missouri Department of Conservation,
1984). Burning is the most effective and economical tool for
controlling woody plants and CSG, allowing the WSG, which have
evolved a tolerance for fire, to outgrow the less tolerant
competition. The frequency of burning can vary depending on the
severity of problems and type of livestock operation. In general,
two consecutive burns in five years is sufficient. However, if
planting is for an annual hay production, burn only often enough to
control competetive vegetation, approximately once every three to
five years. On the other hand, if the planting is for maximum
livestock production, an operator may want to burn more frequently
to take advantage of the 10-12% greater gains per head the year of
the burn (Missouri Conservation Department, 1984).
The Missouri Conservation Department recommends a rotational
grazing schedule for a mixed warm-season and cool-season system:
CSG: Green-up to June 1
WSG: June 1 to September 1
CSG: September 1 to November 1
Most operators leave their cattle on a CSG pasture over winter.
This basic guideline might be combined with several rotations
during each annual period in order to prevent the over utiliza-
tion of the grassland. Such a system is undergoing study at the
Chase Lake Prairie Project in North Dakota. There they move
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cattle through different pastures frequently during the growing
season. Some pastures are grazed heavily for short periods
while others are allowed to rest and grow additional forage.
The results reveal benefits for cattle and plants, as well as
waterfowl and other wildlife. By incorporating wetland areas
into the rotation, they have protected the wetlands, increased
beef tonnage, and increased the number of ducks by 39%. The system
consists of four pasture units. One unit is grazed 20 days followec
by a 60-day rest. The rotation is then repeated, for a 160-day
cycle of grazing.
The project sponsors estimate that if rotational grazing
systems could be put on 25% (579,452 acres) of the rangeland and
CRP grasslands (when they expire) in their project area it would
increase beef production 25% per acre. Over 579,452 acres, this
translates into 8.35 million additional pounds of beef or 6.26
million additional dollars. The expansion of the grazing system
also would increase waterfowl production by 15.5 ducks per 100
acres. Over 579,452 acres, 89,000 more ducks would be produced
each year, along with other wildlife species whose habitat would
be improved.
The major cost of implementing a grazing system results from
fencing pastures into units and from any wetland enhancement.
To offset the initial costs of creating a grazing system which
incorporates a wetland, the acreage could be put under the
Conservation Reserve Program. Although the land would have to
be set aside from production for ten years, the program qualifies
participants who wish to plant native grasses on set aside land
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for assistance assistance from the U.S. Soil Conservation Service
in land-use planning and 50% of the costs of planting the grasses
from the U.S. Agriculture Conservation and Stabilization Service.
In the interim, the grasses can become established and wildlife
benefits enjoyed.
Native grasses are beneficial for a number of reasons:
1) They are extremely well adapted to natural conditions. Native
grasses provide dependable forage and hay despite fluctuations in
weather; furthermore, disease and insect populations have less of
an effect, especially on mixed stands. 2) Maintenance is low.
They do not require pesticides or herbicides, and fertilizer is
not necessary unless the stand is intensively managed. Under
proper management, stands of native grasses can produce indefinite-
iy. 3) Thev increase soil fertility. Ninety percent of the humus
produced by native grasses is from regeneration of the root system
and, therefore, is incorporated directly into the soil. Complete
regeneration of the entire rootstock occurs every three to four
years. 4) Thev are useful for projects requiring minor mitigation
to offset adverse environmental impacts. Native grasses remove
nutrients and sediments, slow flood waters, and control erosion.
5) They increase livestock gains. Native grasses provide nutritious
grazing during hot summer months which allows livestock to gain
weight throughout the summer. Experimental rotational grazing
systems incorporating WSG pastures by the SCS in Nebraska showed
that steers gained an average of 70 pounds per head more than
steers on a rotational system containing only CSG pastures.
6) Thev provide wildlife habitat. Native grasses provide cover
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for nesting areas, and mixed stands provide a diversity of seeds
and insect populations for birds during the summer. In the winter,
the grasses remain upright, providing protection for many wild
animals. 7) They are attractive. These grasses are not only
pleasing to look at in the field, but they are an excellent
addition to dried flower arrangements. In addition, prairie
cordgrass is sometimes used to make archery targets.
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ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON NATIVE GRASSES
Steve Clubine, Grassland Biologist
Missouri Department of Conservation
Clinton Office
(816) 885-6981
U.S. Soil Conservation Service or Conservation Department
Brochures:
"Establishing Native Warm-Season Grasses"
"Native Grasses"
"Native Grasses for Wildlife"
"Native Warm-Season Grasses for Missouri Stockmen"
Erline T. Jacobson, Plant Materials Specialist
Lincoln, NE
(402) 437-5355
Soil Conservation Service
Plant Materials Center
Manhattan, KS
(913) 539-8761
Soil Conservation Service
Plant Materials Center, Jim Henry
P.O. Box 108
Elsberry, MO 63343
(314) 898-2012
67
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IV: HERBS
68
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Alternative crops such as herbs and spices are an excellent
way to supplement income and diversify a farming production.
The variety of markets is virtually limitless, depending upon
one's imagination and ambition, while production can be successful
on either a small or large scale. The U.S. Department of
Agriculture defines herbs as "plants not used solely as vegetables
or ornaments. They serve partly or mainly for culinary, cosmetic,
industrial, medicinal, landscaping, decorative, and incense or
fragrance-emitting purposes" (Holcomb, 1988). Here, the discussion
of herbs will be divided into four main marketing categories:
culinary herbs, medicinal herbs, herbs in cosmetics, and dried or
cut herbs. Each division contains plants that naturally grow in wet
areas, thus providing alternative profitable uses for those areas
that otherwise would be drained to support more traditional crops.
CULINARY HERBS
This category is quite broad, including both fresh and dried
herbs used for many purposes, some of which are spices, teas,
jellies, wines, bread and soups. Many of the herbs can also be
eaten alone as unconventional foodstuffs. With the recent trend
towards more exotic spices and foods, plants in this category are
highly marketable to retail chains, natural food stores, roadside
stands and farmers' markets. Table 17 is a list of some wetland
herbs useful for culinary purposes.
Table 17: CULINARY HERBS
Acer sp. (maple)
Acorus Calamus (sweet flag)
Alisma Plantacfo-aauatica (water plantain)
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Table 17: Culinary Herbs (continued)
Allium canadense (wild garlic)
Allium schoenoprasum (chives)
Althaea officinalis (marshmallow)
Amaranthus sp. (amaranth)
Amelanchier arborea (serviceberry)
Anethum graveolens (dill)
Angelica archangelica (angelica)
Angelica sp. (angelica)
Anthriscus cerefolium (chervil)
Apios americana (groundnut)
Apium graveolens (celery)
Arisaema triphvllum (Jack-in-the-pulpit)
Armoracia rusticana (horseradish)
Asarum canadense (wild ginger)
Asclepias sp. (milkweed)
Asimina triloba (pawpaw)
Asperula odorata (sweet woodruff)
Atriplex sp. (orache)
Barbarea orthoceras (wintercress)
Barbarea vulgaris (wintercress)
Brassica nigra (mustard)
Caltha palustris (marsh marigold)
Campaula sp. (bellflower)
Capsella bursa-pastoris (shepherd's purse)
Cardamine bulbosa (spring cress)
Cardamine pennsylvanica/parviflora (bittercress)
Carya illinoensis (pecan)
Carya laciniosa (shellbark hickory)
Carya ovata (shagbark hickory)
Celtis accidentalis (hackberry)
Cirsium vulgare (bull thistle)
Crataegus sp. (hawthorn)
Cryptotaenia canadensis (honewort)
Cyperus esculentus (chufa)
Diospyros virginiana (persimmon)
Epilobium angustifolium (fireweed)
Fragaria virginiana (Virginia strawberry)
Galium aparine (goose grass/bedstraw)
Gvmnocladus dioica (Kentucky coffeetree)
Helianthus sp. (sunflower)
Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke)
Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus (day lily)
Heracleum lanatum (cow parsnip)
Humulus lupulus (hops)
Juglans cinerea (butternut)
Juglans nigra (black walnut)
Lactuca canadensis (wild lettuce)
Lindera benzoin (spicebush)
Melissa officinalis (lemon balm)
Mentha piperita (peppermint)
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Table 17: Culinary Herbs (continued)
Mentha pulegium (pennyroyal)
Mentha spicata (spearmint)
Monarda didyma (bergamot)
Morus alba (mulberry)
Mvrrhis oderata (sweet cicely)
Nasturtium officinale (water cress)
Nelumbo lutea (American lotus)
Nepeta cataria (catnip)
Nuphar lutea (yellow pond lily)
Nymphaea alba (white water lily)
Oxalis europaea (yellow wood sorrel)
Petroselinum crispurn (parsley)
Phytolacca americana (pokeweed)
Podophyllum peltatum (mayapple)
Polyqonatum canaliculatum (solomon's seal)
Polvaonum hydropjper (marshpepper smartweed)
Potentilla anserina (silverweed)
Prunella vulaaris (heall-all)
Prunus serotina (black cherry)
Prunus virainiana (choke cherry)
Pyrus sp. (crabapple)
Quercus sp. (oak)
Rhus trilobata (sumac)
Ribes setosum (gooseberry)
Ribes sp. (currant)
Rosa aallica officinalis (apothecary's rose)
Rosa palustris (swamp rose)
Rubus sp. (blackberry and raspberry)
Rumex sp. (dock and sorrel)
Sagittaria sp. (arrowhead)
Salicornia sp. (glasswort)
Salix sp. (willow)
Sambucus canadensis (elderberry)
Sium suave (water parsley)
Smilacina racemosa (false solomon's seal)
Smilax sp. (greenbrier)
Sonchus sp. (sowthistle)
Stellaria media (chickweed)
Strophostvles helvola (trailing wild bean)
Taraxacum officinale (dandelion)
Tilia americana (American basswood)
Trifolium sp. (clover)
Trillium sessile (wake robin)
Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail)
Urtica dioica (stinging nettle)
Uvularia grandiflora (bellwort)
Vaccinium myrtilloides (sourtop blueberry)
Valeriana officinalis (valerian)
Viburnum trilobum (cranberry bush)
Viola sp. (violet)
Vitis sp. (grape)
Zizania aauatica (wild rice)
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MEDICINAL HERBS
Medicinal herbs refer to herbs used in both traditional and
nonconventional drugs and Pharmaceuticals. Natural food stores
carry materials that include such things as stinging nettles, rose
hips, dandelion, catnip, and comfrey for various health purposes.
Often these herbs are gathered strictly from the wild. In addition,
according to Harper and Miller (1989), "There is interest in expand-
ing Pharmaceuticals manufactured from plants because extraction can
be less expensive than synthesization. And many drugs used today
cannot yet be synthesized." Table 18 lists some of the wetland
herbs with medicinal properties.
Table 18: MEDICINAL HERBS
Alisma Plantago-aguatica (water plantain)
Alnus rugosa (alder)
Althaea officinalis (marshmallow)
Anemone canadensis (white anemone)
Angelica archanqelica (angelica)
Anthriscus cerefolium (chervil)
Armoracia rusticana (horseradish)
Asclepias sp. (milkweed)
Asperula odorata (sweet woodruff)
Atriplex sp. (orache)
Brassica nigra (mustard)
Caltha palustris (marsh marigold)
Capsella bursa-pastoris (shepherd's purse)
Cephalanthus occidentalis (buttonbush)
Chamaemelum nobile (chamomile)
Cirsium vulqare (bull thistle)
Cvpripedium calceolus (yellow lady's slipper)
Epilobium anqustifolium (fireweed)
Eupatorium perfoliatum (boneset)
Eupatorium purpureum (joe-pye weed)
Galium aparine (goose grass/bedstraw)
Helianthus sp. (sunflower)
Humulus lupulus (hops)
Juqlans cinerea (butternut)
Lactuca canadensis (wild lettuce)
Levisticum officinale (lovage)
72
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Table 18: Medicinal Herbs (continued)
Lindera benzoin (spicebush)
Lobelia cardinalis (cardinal flower)
Lysimachia Nummularia (moneywort)
Melissa officinalis (lemon balm)
Menispermum canadense (moonseed)
Mentha puleaium (pennyroyal)
Monarda didvma (bergamot)
Nepeta cataria (catnip)
Nuphur lutea (yellow pond lily)
Nvmphaea alba (white water lily)
Petroselinum crispurn (parsley)
Phytolacca americana (pokeweed)
Polygon atum canaliculatum (Solomon's seal)
Potentilla anserina (silverweed)
Potentilla erecta (erect cinquefoil)
Prunella vulaaris (heal-all)
Rosa aallica officinalis (apothecary's rose)
Rubus sp. (blackberry and raspberry)
Rumex sp. (dock and sorrel)
Salix sp. (willow)
Sambucus canadensis (elderberry)
Stellaria media (chickweed)
Svmphvtum officinale (comfrey)
Taraxacum officinale (dandelion)
Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail)
Urtica dioica (stinging nettle)
Vaccinium myrtilloides (sourtop blueberry)
Valeriana officinalis (valerian)
COSMETIC/DOMESTIC HERBS
This is an expanding industry due to the recent interest in
adding natural ingredients to cosmetics. Oils and essences are
added to perfumes, lotions, soaps, and shampoos. In addition,
this category includes such things as alternative pesticides,
clothing dyes, and potpourris. Wreaths, potpourris and candles
are among the many popular items made from dried herbs and sold
at gift and craft shops. Table 19 provides a sample of herbs
with potential cosmetic and domestic uses.
73
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Table 19: COSMETIC/DOMESTIC HERBS
Acorus Calamus (sweet flag)
Almis rugosa (alder)
Althaea officinalis (marshmallow)
Angelica sp. (angelica)
Anthriscus cerefolium (chervil)
Asperula odorata (sweet woodruff)
Chamaemelum nobile (Chamomile)
Galium aparine (goose grass/bedstraw)
Helianthus sp. (sunflower)
Juqlans cinerea (butternut)
Levisticum officinale (lovage)
Lvsimachia Nummularia (moneywort)
Melissa officinalis (lemon balm)
Mentha puligium (pennyroyal)
Mentha sp. (mint)
Monarda didyma (bergamot)
Myrris oderata (sweet cicely)
Nepeta cataria (catnip)
Nuphar lutea (yellow pond lily)
Nymphaea alba (white water lily)
Petroselinum crispurn (parsley)
Potentilla anserina (silverweed)
Potentilla erecta (erect cinquefoil)
Rosa gallica officinalis (apothecary's rose)
Salix sp. (willow)
Sambucus canadensis (elderberry)
Symphytum officinale (comfrey)
Taraxacum officinale (dandelion)
Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail)
Urtica dioica (stinging nettle)
Vaccinium myrtilloides (sourtop blueberry)
Viola sp. (violet)
CUT/DRIED FLORALS
Along with the rise in interest in exotic foodstuffs, the
market for unusual or wild flowers for floral arrangemets has
grown dramatically. "Consumers are developing more sophisticated
tastes. They want varieties other than carnations, mums and
roses" (Young, 1988). Both cut and dried flowers, leaves, and
grasses are being incorporated into floral arrangements, and
native plants are potentially very marketable due to both their
hardiness and uniqueness. "From the grower's perspective, the
74
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interest in different varieties offers an opportunity to market
items for which there may be less competition from imports, such
as native flowers. Recent trends include increased interest in
field-grown flowers, which often have a more casual look" (Young,
1988). Recently, supermarkets have taken a major role in the cut
flower industry. An estimated 80% of the nation's supermarkets
sell floral products. Kroger sells $100 million a year alone in
floral products. While one half of their supply comes from
wholesale and overseas suppliers, an equal amount comes from
local growers. "Foliage and bedding plants are supplied mostly
by local growers. An increasing number of supermarkets are
establishing contracts with cut flower growers" (Young, 1988).
Table 20 offers a few of the wetland varieties that would do well
in floral arrangements. However, just about anything goes as
long as it is relatively long-lasting.
Table 20: DRIED/CUT FLORALS
Achillea sp. (yarrow)
Allium schoenoprasum (chives)
Anethum graveolens (dill)
Caltha palustris (marsh marigold)
Desmanthus illinoensis (prairie bundleflower,
prairie mimosa, or Illinois bundleflower)
Eupatorium sp. (joe-pye weed)
Iris versicolor (blueflag iris)
Liatris sp. (blazing star or gayfeather)
Lobelia cardinalis (cardinal flower)
Monarda didyma (bergamot)
Nelumbium/Nelumbo sp. (lotus)
Rosa sp. (rose)
Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail)
To maximize the life of cut flowers, immediately after cut-
ting, put stems into a clean bucket of warm water, cut them in the
75
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morning or evening, slice stems cleanly and recut them underwater,
choose newly opened flowers or those still partially in bud, and cu1
off all foliage that will be below the surface of the water to
prevent decay (Coit, 1988).
Drying flowers can be done by several different techniques
including air drying, drying by pressing, drying with desiccants
(either silica gel or sand), and drying in the microwave
(Joosten, 1988). Air drying is the simplest and least expensive
of these methods. To do this, cut the flower with as long a stem
as possible and strip off all the leaves. Then gather the flow-
ers in small bunches with rubber bands or clips and hang them,
upside down for two to three weeks in a cool, dry place (Doscher,
1988) .
The raising of wetland plants and seeds is also a growing
industry. Many individuals or corporations want a more natural-
looking landscape that includes water-gardens or low-lying areas of
the garden that remain swampy and are ideal for growing perennials
that naturally occur along stream banks, the margins of ponds or
lakes, or in low-lying boggy places. Besides providing attractive
landscaping, these plants control erosion along stream banks, and
aquatic plants in ponds or streams keep the water clear and healthy;
"they purify the water, release vitally needed oxygen into the air
and water, provide shade from the sun's rays in warm weather, and
bind the bottom soils. It is very seldom that a pond or lake will
remain muddy if it contains plants" (Kester, 1985). In addition,
these plants provide seeds, nuts, tubers, fruit and foliage to young
fish, waterfowl, upland birds and mammals for food and cover. They
76
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also support insects, plankton, and crustaceans which are eaten by
fish and waterfowl.
Not only are the wetland plants sold for landscaping, but so
are their seeds which are often preferred, especially for individu-
als who cannot afford the expense of buying full grown plants. This
is an area that could be easily developed into a mail order busi-
ness, particularly for those growers in rural areas with readily
accessible markets. Yepsin (undated) cites a man who established
a mail order business by collecting seeds of native wild herbs and
then packaging them for sale. A mail order clientele might be
identified through ads in local or national publications, especially
of the farm and garden variety. A list of some of the perennials
useful for aquatic landscaping is given in Table 21.
Table 21: PERENNIALS FOR WET PLACES
A. Moist Soil to Shallow Water
Acorus Calamus (sweet flag)
Arisaema triphvllum (jack-in-the-pulpit)
Caltha palustris (marsh marigold)
Eupatorium purpureum (joe-pye weed)
Filipendula palmata (meadowsweet)
Filipendula ulmaria (queen-of-the-meadow)
Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem artichoke)
Iris sp. (iris)
Ligularia sp. (ligularias)
Lobelia cardinalis (cardinal flower)
Lysimachia punctata (loosestrife)
Panicum virqatum (switchgrass)
Peltiphvllum peltatum (umbrella plant)
Phalaris arundinacea (Reed canary grass)
Primula sp. (primroses)
Ranunculus repens (butter daisy)
Sanauisorba canadensis (Canadian burnet)
Spartina pectinata (prairie cordgrass)
Zantedeschia aethiopica (calla lilly)
77
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Table 21: Landscaping Perennials for Wet Places (Continued)
B. Water 1-10 inches
Nasturtium officinale (watercress) (moving/flowing water)
Tvpha latifolia (broadleaf cattail)
Sparcranium sp. (burreed)
Polyqonum amphibium (water smartweed)
C. Water 4-6 inches
Nelumbo lutea (American lotus)
D. Water 4-6 inches
Saaittaria latifolia (broadleaf arrowhead)
Scirpus sp. (bulrush)
Zizania aguatica (wild rice)
E. Water 1-2 feet
Nvmphaea sp. (water lilies)
F. Water 1-3 feet
Potamoqeton sp. (pondweed)
Vallisneria sp. (wild celery)
G. Water 1-6 feet
Anacharis sp. (elodea)
Ceratophvllum sp. (coontail)
Naias sp. (naiad)
Spirodela polyrhiza (ducks meat)
Appendix 3 describes some of the wetland growing herbs that
have various culinary, medicinal, cosmetic, or esthetic uses.
Other areas for marketing wetland-grown plants are herb or
craft shops, roadside stands, plant shops, nurseries, and con-
tract growing. For example, wine and beer-making shops carry
such things as hops, dandelion, elderberries and elder flowers,
blackberries, raspberries, and rose hips, all of which can be grown
in wet areas. Hops, mostly imported from Yakima, Washington are
sold in both loose and pelleted forms. Sample prices for pellets
78
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are $3.95 for 3 ounces, or $.98 for half an ounce. The loose leaf
form may sell for $2.40 for 4 ounces or $.98 an ounce, depending on
the store. These sample retail prices were obtained from stores in
Kansas City and St. Louis. In addition, dandelions sold for $2.05
per two ounces at one store and another one sold 4-5 ounces for
$2.00. Like hops, dandelions are mostly imported from the West
Coast, as well as England.
As with all the herbal products, local growers may be able
to find market opportunities with retailers who want quality
material without the added transportation costs. Thus, develop-
ing a contract with such stores makes a wetland profitable while
preserving its natural state and native vegetation.
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ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON HERBS AND WILDFLOWERS
Ozarks Regional Herb Growers and Marketers Association
Jim Long, President
Route 4, Box 730
Oak Grove, AR 72660
(417) 779-5450
The Herb. Spice and Medicinal Plant Digest
L.E. Craker
Stockbridge Hall
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, MA 01003
(413) 545-2347
The Ozarks Herbalist
Route 4, Box 730
Oak Grove, AR 72660
Herbalgrass
Herb News
P.O. Box 12602
Austin, TX 78711
Herb Business Bulletin
P.O. Box 32
Berryville, AR 72616
The Herb Market Report
1305 Vista Drive
Grants Pass, OR 97527
The Herb Magazine
6660 Cardale
Lakewood, CA 90713
(bimonthly magazine)
American Herb Association
P.O. Box 353
Rescue, CA 95672
(916) 626-5046
Midwest Herb Association
Route 1, Box 161
Dearborn, MO 64439
(816) 685-3252
International Herb Growers and Marketers Association
Liz Roberts, Executive Secretary
P.O. Box 693
Greenfield, IN 46140
(317) 462-7007
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American Herbal Products Association
215 Classic Court
Rohnert Park, CA 95928
Flowers that Last Forever
by Betty E. M. Jacobs
Garden Way Publishing, 1988
Storey Communications, Inc.
Pownal, VT 05261
The Complete Book of Everlastings
by Mark and Terry Silber
Published by Alfred A. Knopf, 1987
Flower Drying with a Microwave
by Titia Joosten
Lark Books, 1988
50 College Street
Asheville, NC 28801
The Book of Dried Flowers
by Malcom Hillier and Colin Hilton
Simon and Schuster, Publishers, 1986
Herb Research Foundation
1007 Pearl Street, Suite 200F
Boulder, CO 80302
(303) 449-2265
National Wildflower Research Center
2600 FM 973 North
Austin, TX 78725
(512) 929-3600
USDA Cooperative State Research Service
Office for Small-Scale Agriculture
Washington, B.C. 20250-2200
The Business of Herbs
Published by Paula and David Oliver
North Wind Farm, Rt. 2, Box 246
Shevlin, MN 56676
(bimonthly newsletter)
The Herbarist
published by the The Herb Society of America
2 Independence Court
Concord, MA 01742
(annual magazine)
81
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National Wholesale Herb Market Report
USDA Agricultural Marketing Service
Fruit and Vegetable Division
536 S. Clark Street, Room 942
Chicago, IL 60605
(312) 353-0111
(weekly publication)
Missouri State Florist Association
Lois Benson, Executive Vice President
412 W. 60th Terrace
Kansas City, MO 64113
(816) 333-7187
Society of American Florists
1601 Duke Street
Alexandria, VA 22314
(703) 836-8700
Association of Specialty Cut Flower Growers
c/o Judy Laushman, Executive Director
155 Elm Street
Oberlin, OH 44074
The Flower Market
780 North 4th Street
San Jose, CA 95112
(408) 293-5201
(monthly trade journal)
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V: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
83
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After this cursory examination of the alternative usages of
wetlands, it appears that it would be beneficial to pursue many
of these ideas further, as well as some others not previously
mentioned. Firstly, landowners must know the legal bounds within
which they can pursue the alternative wetland uses and the amount
of aid they can expect to receive, or the amount of subsidies they
may lose, depending on their particular course of action. A more
complete inventory of the federal and state natural resource
regulations and conservation programs is needed to identify those
which apply directly to wetland uses. For instance, the Missouri
Department of Agriculture operates an alternative loan program.
They offer low-interest loans (minimum $500, maximum $15,000) to
Missouri farmers for the development and operation of an alternativ<
agricultural enterprise which would include many of the alternative:
mentioned in this paper.
Secondly, created wetlands have been used successfully for the
treatment of sewage from cities for over a quarter of a century.
The processes of such an operation also can be applied to small-
scale operations such as feedlot waste treatment in existing wet-
lands. Specific plant species best suited for removing nutrients
and waste products from the water, however, need further study.
Thirdly, if more time were available, a more exhaustive list oJ
the uses of wetland herbs could be prepared. Herbs that occur in
wetlands have the potential to be profitable crops, either for theii
culinary, medicinal, cosmetic or aesthetic value. Little known or
unique species can more readily be entered into the market because
of the absence of competition. In addition, diversification of
84
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conventional farming is a good way to insure the stability of the
farm income. Wetland areas often remain productive despite flooding
and drought which may harm the other crops on the farm. "Aquatic
macrophytes can be grown on waterlogged or swampy land which is at
present underutilized since it is not suitable for either conven-
tional agricultural crops or (intensive) aquaculture" (Edwards,
1984) .
There is little data available on the market value of these
wetland herbs, although much has been written on their potential
value. Therefore, marketing must be pursued according to one's own
location, creativity and energy, as well as soil type, and flooding
conditions. It must be kept in mind that as the number of wetland
products increases in a geographically concentrated area with a
limited market, the value of these products will decrease. Thus,
information is also needed on the feasibility of pursuing larger
regional or national markets.
The development of wetland plant nurseries needs to be pursued
in order to provide some of these useful wetland plants, create more
interest in this area, and be a source of information. A nursery
in Jefferson City, Missouri sells some wetland species. Wetland
species for landscaping, such as wet areas around lakes, also could
prove to be profitable. Similarly, more demonstration farms with
wetland crop production, like the U.S. Soil Conservation Service's
Plant Materials Center in Manhattan, Kansas, are needed to continue
the necessary research and provide easily accessible information to
interested landowners. Owners of wetlands require the same amount
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of information on how to use their wetlands that is currently
available on how to convert their wetlands to upland uses.
Finally, it appears that many of the wetland usages examined
here could be profitable, but the exact economic values are diffi-
cult to obtain. More accurate costs and returns of the alternative
usages of wetlands must be obtained in order to compare them with
the costs and returns of the converted land. For a proper benefit-
cost analysis to determine the best use of the wetland, the benefit;
from harvesting natural wetland products must be weighed against th<
costs of foregone profits from harvesting agricultural products on
preexisting wetlands, and the cost of converting the wetlands by
methods such as leveeing, ditching, or diking. If quantifiable
values could be placed on the wildlife, ecological and social
benefits from wetlands, they should be included in the benefit-
cost analysis as well. However, because most of this information
is unavailable and perhaps unattainable, an economic analysis is
not very reliable. Perhaps the decision of whether or not to
convert a wetland comes down to a combination of several factors,
including those just mentioned, as well as one's ability to comply
with federal and state wetland regulations, and the degree of
personal satisfaction achievable from utilizing a wetland and
its values to its fullest potential.
When the profits from increased beef production, furbearer
pelts, or herbal products, are added to the socio-economic values of
these wetlands, such as flood and storm damage protection, erosion
control, groundwater discharge and recharge, and water quality
improvements, wetlands may become a far more valuable resource than
that provided by its conversion to upland uses.
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Appendix 1
COMMON WILDLIFE FOOD/COVER
Scientific Names:
Common Name:
Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:
How to Plant:
Cost to Plant**
Miscellaneous:
Spirodela polyrhiza
Lemna trisulca
Ducks Meat, Duck Weed
Fresh, slightly acidic or hard water; takes
nourishment from the water; withstands
fluctuating water levels.
Entire plant eaten by ducks, especially black
ducks, mallards and other marsh ducks; pro-
duces food early in June for young and nest-
ing ducks; increases duckling survival ratio.
Plant fresh plants from June - October.
Six bushels/acre of fresh plants among
rushes, brush, timber, sheltered bays of
lakes or streams and open water of ponds or
sloughs; plant in water 1-6 feet deep.
$32.00 - $90.00/BU***
$30.00 - $50.00/25 Ibs.
Annual; produces a lot of food for a lot of
ducks; good for landscaping.
*See Appendix 4 for a list of reference materials used to
collate Appendices 1-3.
**Note: Prices of seeds, plants and roots in Appendices 1-3
were taken from several nurseries and catologues in
the region.
***BU = bushel
1-1
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Scientific Name;
Common Name:
Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:
How to Plant:
Cost to Plant:
Miscellaneous:
Zizania aquatica
Giant Wild Rice
Fresh water streams, lakes, ponds, and
sloughs having a change of water; a soft mud
bottom is best with 6 inches to 3 feet of
water.
Best food for mallards, black ducks, widgeon,
teal, pintail and Canadian geese; used by
ducks in the Spring to hide their nests and
rear their ducklings; most popular food for
shallow water feeding ducks.
During fall before freeze or in the spring.
Broadcast seeds 1-2 bushels/acre.
1 Ib. - $ 3.95
10 Ibs. - $30.00
25 Ibs. - $70.00
Annual; seeds are harvested in late August or
early September for human consumption or for
selling to seed companies; seeds will
naturally resow themselves.
1-2
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Scientific Name;
Common Name:
Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:
How to Plant:
Cost to Plant*:
Nelumbo lutea
American Lotus
Bays, sloughs and ponds with 1-3 feet fresh
water and a soft mud bottom; withstands fluctuat-
ing water levels.
Mallard food, food and cover for game fish, and
muskrats eat the tubers.
Spring or fall
Place the seed in a vice and cut a slit (scarify)
in the hard shell. Then sow by broadcasting 500
seeds/acre in water 4-6 inches.
25 seeds -
50 seeds -
100 seeds -
250 seeds -
500 seeds -
$ 3.75
$15.00
$11.00
$50.00
$48.00
Miscellaneous:
Perennial**; attractive in water gardens; dried
seed pod sold for dried floral arrangements.
*Price variance reflects purchase price of seed from different
sources.
**perenniais/ unlike annuals, do not need to be replanted each year,
1-3
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:
How to Plant:
Cost to Plant:
Miscellaneous;
Potamoqeton pectinatus
Sago Pond Plant
Any hard, clear water, either quiet or moving:
lakes, streams, landlocked ponds, including
fresh, marl, alkali and brackish.
Eaten by over 20 kinds of ducks, as well as ge<
and swans. Early in the season, seeds eaten b'
Teal, and Mallards. Later tubers eaten by divii
ducks. The plants also support snails, minute
insects and other aguatic life for fish to fee*
on as well as providing shelter for game fish.
March - June, late fall.
Plant weighted tubers, 1000/acre at 1 1/2 foot
intervals or more in 1 1/2 to 8 feet of water
Preweiqhted* Tubers
$ 19.00 - $ 25.00 ( 100)
- $ 54.00 ( 300)
$120.00 - $150.00 (1000)
Perennial; good landscaping plant
*Plantings are preweighted to plant in areas where flowing
water or wave action might affect the establishment of the
plants in that area.
1-4
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:
How to Plant:
Cost to Plant:
Miscellaneous:
Vallisneria spiralis
Wild Celery
Grows in 1 1/2 to 8 or 10 feet of hard,
fresh clear-changing water on muddy, sandy,
or coarse silt bottom. Withstands waves and
currents. Water should contain some lime.
Attracts marsh and diving ducks such as red
heads, and canvas backs, and wood ducks such as
widgeon, pintail, bufflefhead, whistler, teal,
and mallard, as well as geese, swans and
coots; one of the finest fish food and cover
plants; protects small fish from enemies.
March - May
Roots or winter buds weighted and planted in
3 foot intervals at 1000/acre. Seed planted by
mixing with sticky clay, making mud-balls and
scattering them into water. Use 30 Ibs. of
seed/acre; plant in water 1-3 feet deep.
100
300
1000
Perennial
$ 30.00
$ 69.00
$200.00
1-5
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Scientific Name: Sagittaria latifolia
Common Name: Broadleaf Arrowhead, Wapato Duck Potato
Habitat: Marshy places, mud flats in water up to I I/
feet deep. Withstands drought and fluctuate
water levels. Will not grow in alkaline wat
Wildlife Uses: Tubers, seeds and runners eaten by geese, sv
and practically all wild ducks; the tubers c
the best muskrat food available.
When to Plant: Fall before freeze-up or Spring
How to Plant: Plant tubers by wading in the water and push
them into the substrate in up to 18 inches c
water. Plant 1000/acre in 1 1/2 foot interva
Cost to Plant: Weighted Tubers Unweighted Tuk
$ 22.00 - $ 25.00 ( 100) $ 18.00 ( 10
$ 54.00 - ( 300) $ 65.00 ( 50
$ 75.00 - ( 500) $115.00 (100
$133.00 - $150.00 (1000)
Miscellaneous: Perennial
1-6
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:
How to Plant:
Cost to Plant:
Sparaanium eurvcarpum
Giant Bureed
Muddy or marshy spots on shores or low lands in
shallow water with a sand, mud or clay bottom.
Does best in less than 1 1/2 feet of water but
survives flooding, drought and complete drying.
The seeds are an attractive food and the plants
provide cover for 20 species of ducks and wild
geese, especially mallards and black ducks;
roots are one of the best muskrat foods; eaten
by pheasants.
Fall or spring
Shove the roots in the bottom 1 1/2 feet apart
for 1000 roots per acre in water 1-10 inches
deep
Weighted
$ 16.50 - $ 22.00 ( 100)
$ 46.00 - ( 300)
$ 65.00 - ( 500)
$110.00 - $125.00 (1000)
Miscellaneous: Holds banks and stops erosion; perennial
1-7
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:
How to Plant:
Cost to Plant:
Miscellaneous:
Potamoqeton nodosus
fPotamocreton americanus^
Long-leaf Pond Plant
Fresh water lakes, streams and ponds with
muddy or sandy soils and 1 to 6 feet of
water; withstands flooding and drought.
Diving ducks feed on the tender roots, while
marsh ducks feed on the seeds at the water's
surface.
Spring or fall
Drop the preweighted roots 3 feet apart for
1000 per acre.
Preweiqhted Roots
1000 - $200
300 - $ 69
100 - $ 30
Perennial
1-8
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:
How to Plant:
Cost to Plant:
Miscellaneous:
Acorus Calamus
Sweet - Flag
Grows in damp soil or in shallow waters in
fresh or soft water, and on acid soils.
Ducks eat the seeds, an important cover and
nesting site for waterfowl, and the finest
food and cover for muskrats.
Spring or fall
Press roots into the soil by hand if the soil
is soft or with a trowel for solid soils. Plant
at a rate of 1000 per acre in damp to muddy soil,
Weighted Roots
$ 21.00 - $ 28.00 ( 100)
$ 63.00 - ( 300)
$ 92.50 - ( 500)
$165.00 - $180.00 (1000)
Perennial; attractive in water gardens
1-9
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:
How to Plant:
Cost to Plant:
Miscellaneous:
Typha latifolia
Broadleaf Cattail
Marshy, muddy, or sandy spots where there
is some moisture or up to 1 foot of water.
One of the most important food and cover
plants for muskrats. The roots or runners
are eaten and foliage is used for house
building material. Excellent cover plant
for waterfowl and one of the best for
blinds.
Spring; April, May, or early June
Roots are shoved into the soil by hand or
spade, 1000 per acre in water 1-10 inches
deep.
Weighted Roots
$ 27.00 - $ 28.00 ( 100)
$ 63.00 - ( 300)
$115.00 - ( 500)
$180.00 - $210.00 (1000)
Perennial; very useful for humans -
culinary, medicinal, and domestic uses;
attractive addition to water gardens
1-10
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:
How to Plant:
Cost to Plant:
Polygonum amphibium
(Polyqonum muhlenberqii)
Marsh Smartweed
Grows in marshy soil and shallow waters and
thrives in fresh or mildly alkaline water on
mud, clay or sandy bottom. Withstands both
flooding and drought well.
Seeds eaten by mallards, black ducks, pintails
and other waterfowl.
April, May, early June, October, and November
Roots are shoved in by hand 1 1/2 feet apart
for 1000 per acre in water 1-10 inches deep.
Miscellaneous:
Preweighted
1000 - $125
300 - $ 46
100 - $ 22
Perennial
Weighted
100 - $ 16
500 - $ 65
1000 - $110
1-11
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Scientific Name: Anarchis canadensis
Common Name: Elodea
Habitat: A mud or sandy loam bottom is preferred, in
1 to 10 feet of water. Grows in quiet ponds
bays, sloughs or sluggish streams and lakes
in hard, clear fresh water.
Wildlife Uses: Ducks eat the seeds and leaves, especially
redheads, mallards, widgeons and scouj
throughout Summer and Fall; excellent fish food and cover.
When to Plant: May - October
How to Plant: Place a few plants on the water and shove th<
down into a soft bottom with a forked stick <
paddle. Plant 10 bushels per acre.
Cost to Plant: 1 BU - $28
3 BU - $78
Miscellaneous: Annual; carp resistant; good water purifier
1-12
-------
Scientific Name;
Common Name:
Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:
How to Plant:
Cost to Plant:
Miscellaneous;
Polvaonum pensvlvanicum
Pennsylvania Smartweed, Giant Smartweed
Grows in fields, moist margins, banks, muddy
spots left by receding water, and shallow areas
a few inches deep.
Excellent puddle duck food late in the
season, especially for mallards; very attractive
to waterfowl when flooded during the duck
season.
Spring or fall
Sow dry seed by broadcasting, using 20 Ibs. per
acre. Break up the soil where vegetation is
growing
$10.00/lb.
Annual
1-13
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Scientific Name;
Common Name:
Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:
How to Plant:
Cost to Plant:
Miscellaneous:
Nasturtium officinale
Water Cress
Grows in shallow springs or spring-fed strea
on a soft mud or sandy bottom, in hard water
2 to 10 inches deep.
Provides year round food for ducks; eaten by
freshwater shrimp which are food for fish an
ducks; leaves eaten by muskrat and deer.
Spring or fall
Mix 1 oz of the fine seed with 1 quart of
sand and scatter in protected shoreline area:
1 ounce - $7.00
Edible for humans, especially as a salad gre<
1-14
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Appendix 2*
DESCRIPTION OF SOME WETLAND OCCURRING NATIVE GRASSES
Scientific Name;
Common Name:
Description:
Habitat:
Forage:
Flowers:
Other:
Cost to Plant:
Andropogon gerardii
Big Bluestem
Native, warm season, perennial, tall grass
with short scaly underground stems and
roots that saturate the top two feet of
soil and may reach depths up to 12 feet;
growth begins in early April and seed
stalks 3-8 feet appear from late August-
October.
Bottomland Sites
Few, if any of the prairie grasses can equal
it in quality or quantity; relished by live-
stock and usually eaten in preference to other
grasses in a mixture; most productive if never
grazed shorter than 6-8 inches during the
growing season.
Purple in August-November; good cut or dried
Attracts birds
Seeds
$ 2.50
$10.00-$25.00/lb.
$ 8.50-$22.50 Ib.
Plants
$5.50 (1-12)
$1.20 (13-24)
$1.00 (25-49)
$ .95 (50-99)
$ .85 (100+)
PLS 'ibs.**
$9.00 - $12.15/PLS Ib.
(1 oz.)
(1-3 Ibs.)
(over 3 Ibs.)
*See Appendix 4 for a list of reference materials used to
collate Appendices 1-3.
**PLS Ib. is percent pure live seed pound
PLS = % of purity x % of germination/100
2-1
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Description:
Habitat:
Forage:
Flowers:
Other:
Cost to Plant:
Panicum viraatum
Switchgrass
Native, warm-season, perennial, sod-forming
tall grass (3-5 feet) with vigorous roots;
reproduces from underground stems and seed.
Best adapted to lower areas of moist soils;
winter hardy and drought resistant; acid
tolerant.
Very nutritious; eaten by all classes of live-
stock, either as green forage or hay.
Purple in August-October; good cut or dried
Attracts birds; good wildlife cover
Seeds (1 lb. covers 4200 square feet)
$3.00 (1/2 oz.)
$4.00 (1 oz.)
$2.75/lb. - $40.00/lb. (1-3 Ibs.)
$4.50/lb. - $35.00/lb. (4-19 Ibs.)
$4.00/lb. - $35.00/lb. (20+ Ibs.)
Plants
$5.50 (1-12)
$1.20 (13-24)
$1.00 (25-49)
$ .95 (50-99)
$ .85 (100+)
Note:
The "Kanlow" variety of switchgrass is a late
maturing, very coarse-leafed lowland variety.
It is very flood tolerant and mainly used in
stabilization plantings on shorelines, flood
areas and high water tables (Clubine, 1989).
The "cave-in rock" variety can also tolerate
flooding.
2-2
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Description:
Habitat:
Forage:
Flowers:
Cost to Plant:
Spartina pectinata
Prairie Cordgrass
A native warm-season, tall (6-10 feet), coarse,
perennial grass that forms a dense underground
sod; propagates by woody, many branched, creep-
ing rhizomes, and by seed.
Often called "marsh grass" and "slough grass"
because it grows on deep, heavy, wetland soils.
Eaten by livestock during early growth, but
used primarily for hay; makes good hay if cut
while young and tender before stems develop;
can be mowed two or three times each season
because it grows so quickly.
Good cut or dried
Seeds (12 Ibs./acre)
$ 6.75/ 1/4 oz.
$ 12.OO/ 1/2 oz.
$ 20.00/1 oz.
$ 50.00-$300.00/lb.
$ 30.00-$290.00/lb.
Plants
$5.50 (1-12)
$1.20 (23-24)
$1.00 (25-49)
$ .95 (50-99)
$ .85 (100+)
(1-3 Ibs.)
(over 3 Ibs.)
2-3
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Description:
Habitat:
Forage:
Planting:
Other:
Cost to Plant:
Tripsacum dactvloides
Eastern Gama Grass
Native, warm-season, perennial grass; grows in
large clumps from 1-4 feet in diameter; spreads
by thick, short, jointed rhizomes and produces
seed from July-September on stems 3-9 feet
tall.
Grows on a variety of soils in low areas where
additional run-in water and deeper soils favor
its development.
Nutritious to all classes of livestock,
especially cattle; a very productive hay grass.
Late April or May with a minimum soil tempera-
ture of 55° F.; plant 30,000-60,000 PLS per
acre or 9.97 bulk Ibs. per acre.
Useful as a wildlife food planting
Pre-chilled qama grass seed
Pounds
10 - 20
30 - 60
70 - 100
110 - 150
160 - 180
190 - 210
220 - 230
460+
$/Pound
$10.00
$ 8.00
$ 7.50
$ 7.00
$ 6.90
$ 6.80
$ 6.70
$5.50
2-4
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Appendix 3*
DESCRIPTION OF SOME WETLAND OCCURRING HERBS
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status-
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant3
Caltha palustris
Marsh Marigold
IA-OBL; NE-OBL
Grows in small, rounded clumps in boggy
areas; yellow flowers from mid-spring to
early summer; propagation by division or
seeds.
Edible cooked only; leaves and buds as
pickles.
Expectorant and pectoral.
NA2
NA
Excellent garden perennial.
(per plant)
$3.00 (1-12)
$2.25 (13-24)
$1.75 (25-49)
$1.35 (50-99)
$1.10 (100+)
*See Appendix 4 for a list of reference materials used to
collate Appendices 1-3.
1. Indicator status from National List of Plant Species that
Occur in Wetlands; Iowa. Kansas, Missouri. Nebraska, U.S
Fish and Wildlife Service, 1988.
2. Information unavailable
3. Seeds/Plants available from regional nurseries.
3-1
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Lobelia cardinalis
Cardinal Flower.
IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL
Stream banks, lakeshores, marshy riverbanks;
bogs or shallow water 2-4 inches deep; red
flowers from July-September; propagates by
division or cuttings; space 1-1.5 feet apart.
NA
Cherokee Indians used the root to cure
syphilis and the flower was used by settlers
and native Americans as an emetic and
expectorant.
NA
Flowers good for cutting.
Good plant for landscaping.
$5.95/plant or 3/$15.00
$1.00/packet of seeds
$3.25/potted plant
3-2
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Domestic Uses:
Cut/Dried
Florals:
Cost to Plant;
Monarda fistulosa
Wild Bergamot
IA-FACU; KS-FACU-; MO-FACU; NE-FACU-
Grows in rich, moist soil, especially
deciduous forests.
Tea made from fresh or dried leaves, fresh
leaves for salads, garnishes, and sparingly
in cheeses.
Teas used for stomach trouble and inhaling
vapor for bronchial congestion.
Used in suntan oils and creams, once used in
hair preparations; oils used in soaps and
perfumes.
Dried leaves for potpourris; oil used to
perfume candles.
Good cut flowers.
(Per plant)
$5.50 (1-12)
$1.30 (13-24)
$1.10 (25-49)
$.90 (100+)
3-3
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status;
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses;
Cosmetic Uses:
Miscellaneous:
Cut/Dried:
Cost to Plant;
Nelumbo lutea/Nelumbium sp.
American Lotus/Lotus
IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL
Grows in water 6-9 inches deep; hardy as long
as rootstock does not freeze; flowers rise as
high as 6-8 feet on straight stems; propo-
gates by division; buds emerge by the end of
July and stand almost two feet above the
pond. After a few days the petals fall and
the pod and its seeds begin maturing and
turning brown.
Young stalk and leaf are a good boiled
vegetable; raw seeds are added to salads;
dried and roasted seeds are a flour substi-
tute or popped like popcorn; rootstock tubers
baked like a potato.
NA
NA
Roots are eaten by beaver and the seeds are
eaten by some waterfowl; the large leaves
afford shelter and habitat for fish; collect
seeds July-November and roots autumn-spring.
Dried seed pods used in flower arrangements;
$l-$3 retail price per pod.
$25-$60 per plant depending on variety.
50 seeds for $15.00
250 seeds for $50.00
3-4
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Cost to Plant:
Nepeta cataria
Catnip
IA-FAC-; KS-FACU; MO-FAC-; NE-FACU
Occcurs in fields, open woodland and along
streams; flowers from June to September.
Fresh leaves used to flavor sauces.
Flowering tops used for colds, bronchitis;
makes a soothing drink for sleeplessness,
irritability and stress.
Repellent to rats; dried leaves used for
stuffing in cat toys; attracts honeybees to
their hives.
NA
NA
3-5
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses;
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant*;
Nymphaea sp.
Water Lily
IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL.
Still or slow freshwater streams, lakes,
rivers and marshes; full sun.
Seeds roasted or ground into flour for bread;
rootstocks boiled or baked like potatoes;
Indians ground rootstocks into flour; young
leaves and buds good as potherbs (cooked
vegetable.14
Tanning and mucilage in plants have been used
as demulcents for sore throats.
Rootstocks bruised and steeped in milk said
to kill beetles and cockroaches; smoke of
root-stocks drives away crickets.
NA
Good planting for water garden.
$20.00 to $50.00 per plant, depending on
variety.
100 tubers**/$30.00
750 tubers/$165.00
1 root*** (yellow or white flowered species)/
$4.00-$4.50
*Prices vary depending on nursery source,
**Tubers take 2 years to bloom.
***Roots bloom first year.
3-6
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried
Florals:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Taraxacum officinale
Dandelion
IA-FACU; KS-FACU; MO-FACU; NE-FACU
Cold and temperate regions in open sun.
Young leaves and buds used cooked or in
salads; roots edible boiled and peeled;
leaves and flowers used for tea; roots for
coffee; flowers for wine retail priced at
$2.05/2 oz.
Tea used for heartburn, menstrual cramps,
wounds, and as a diuretic.
Dye made from the root: magenta if combined
with alum, and yellow to brown with iron.
NA
Causes flowers and fruits of neighboring
plants to mature early because of ethylene
production; good for compost heaps; fresh
leaves as fodder for domestic rabbits.
NA
3-7
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses;
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Typha latifolia
Broadleaf Cattail
IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL.
Occurs in marshy and shallow water areas.
Flowering stalks before pollen formation
boiled like corn cobs; soups and purees;
pollen used to make flour for pancakes, bread
and pudding; tubers cooked as a vegetable or
dried and ground into flour; young shoots
boiled.
Blackfoot Indians used the down for burns.
Fibrous stems used for making paper; down
used for bedding, pillows and comforters.
Good for dried floral arrangements.
Good wildlife cover.
100 roots/$20.00
1,000 roots/$180.00
3-8
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic/Domestic
Uses:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Urtica dioica
Stinging Nettle
IA-FAC+; KS-FACW; MO-FAC+; NE-FACW
Cooked young plants used in soups and purees;
leaves for tea; high in vitamin A and C and
protein.
Increases blood circulation; stimulant;
anemia remedy.
Roots make a grey, yellow or orange dye.
Forage for livestock and poultry, and cures
coccidiosis in baby chicks; cloth, twine or
fishing line made from fibers of stems of
older plants; pesticide for black flies,
lice, moths and aphids, prevents cucumber
downy mildrew; enhances essential oils of
plants such as valerium, marjoram, sage and
pepper mint; stimulates humus formation;
mutually beneficial relationship with fruit
trees; fresh leaves used as a fertilizer,
compost accelerator and insecticide.
NA
3-9
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Harvest:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic/Domestic
Uses:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Zizania aguatica
Wild Rice
IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL
Grows in quiet waters, freshwater marshes,
tributary streams and river mouths with some
water exchange.
Ripens in midsummer or early fall; harvest
by shaking seeds into a container.
Edible as a cereal food; $4.00/lb. in retail
stores.
NA
NA
Attracts wildfowl
Seeds
$ 3.95/ 1 Ib.
$ 30.OO/ 30 Ibs.
$ 70.OO/ 25 Ibs.
$250.OO/ 100 Ibs.
Plants
$ 24.OO/ 100
$ 51.OO/ 300
$140.OO/ 1000
3-10
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medical Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Asimina triloba
Pawpaw
IA-FAC; MO-FAC; NE-FAC
Low bottom; woods and wooded slopes, along
streams, ravines, base of bluffs.
Pie, pudding, jelly, marmalade, bread.
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
3-11
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medical Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous
Cost to Plant:
Rumex sp.
Dock
IA, KS, MO, NE: FAC to OBL (depending on
species)
Grows in fields, waste ground, railroads, and
near streams and ponds, with rich moist soil
and full sun.
Useful as a substitute for spinach, cooked or
raw; Indians made a meal from the seeds.
NA
NA
Flowers often dried for winter bouquets
Collect shoots from March-April and the seeds
from July-winter.
NA
3-12
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Helianthus tuberosus
Jerusalem Artichoke
IA-FAC; KS-FAC; MO-FAC; NE-FAC
Grows in moist thickets, the border of
streams, ponds, moist and dry woods, prairie
wet spots, ditches, fence rows, and road-
sides.
The potato-like tuber can be eaten raw in
salads, cooked, or pickled.
NA
NA
NA
Collect the tubers from October-January;
good food and cover crop for pheasant and
quail; fodder for pigs
NA
3-13
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Prunus serotina
Black Cherry
IA-FACU; KS-FACU; MO-FACU; NE-FACU
Grows in woods and along streams.
Excellent additive to rum in a cherry drink-
jelly; syrup.
NA
NA
NA
Plant catnip under trees to attract cats to
scare birds away.
Seedlings
6- 9" - $ .45 (400)
9-12" - $ .55 (500)
3-14
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Helianthus sp.
Sunflower
IA, KS, MO, NE: FACU- to FACW
Waste and cultivated ground, low meadows,
prairies roadsides, railroads.
Shelled seed can be eaten roasted or ground
and used as a meal; the roasted, crushed,
boiled shells or the roasted, boiled seeds
are used for a coffee substitute; retail
price for raw seeds $1.70/pound or $1.95/
pound for roasted and salted.
NA
NA
NA
Attractive landscaping plants; seeds eaten by
hampsters and birds; retail prices for bird
food $2.25/5 Ibs., $1.75/5 Ibs. or $1.50/5
Ibs., depending on the variety; collect in
the Fall.
(price per plant)
$5.50
$1.30
$1.10
( 1-12)
(13-24)
(25-49)
$1.00 (50-99)
$ .99 (100 +)
3-15
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried Uses;
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Lindera benzoin
Spice Bush
KS-FACW; MO-FACW-
Occurs in low or moist woodlands and
thickets, along streams, valleys, ravine
bottoms, base of bluffs, and wooded slopes;
confined to the Southeast portion of
Missouri.
The early flowers, tips of twigs, berries
leaves or bark are used for making a tea; the
dried berries when powdered are a substitute
for allspice.
The colonists used an extract of the leaves
or bark to reduce fevers, as a tonic cure
for intestinal worms, for dysentery, colds,
and coughs; the distilled oil in the berries
was used to produce a liniment for rheumatism
and bruises; Indians made tea from the twigs
to relieve menstrual cramps.
NA
NA
A good landscaping shrub for wet areas;
chewing on a twig relieves a dry mouth;
collect plants from March-May.
NA
3-16
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Sambucus canadensis
Elderberry
IA-FACW; KS-FAC; MO-FACW; NE-FAC
Grows in moist, fertile soil.
The flowering umbel can be fried into a
fritter; the flowerlets can be rubbed off and
used in pancakes, waffles or muffins, or used
for pickling; the ripe berries are used for
pies and jellies, while the dried berries
are a good blueberry substitute in bread
goods; the best elderberry wine is made from
the ripe berries. Dried elderberries are
retail priced at $2.35/5 ounces for wine;
elder flowers also used in wine and beer
making sell for $.98/oz.
The flowers, fruit,leaves, bark and root used
to induce vomiting; a tea with peppermint and
yarrow is used for colds, rheumatism,
sciatica and cystitis.
An elderflower water has been used for
whitening and softening the skin, to remove
freckles, as a face tonic and an eye lotion.
NA
Acts as a fly repellent; when mixed with alum
is a lavender or violet dye; attracts benefi-
cial insects for pollination of other plants;
a good soil preparer around compost heaps;
collect flowers June-July; green berries
July, ripe berries August-September.
NA
3-17
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Habitat:
Indicator Status:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Diospyros virqiniana
Persimmon
Occurs in rocky or dry open woods and
prairies, as well as flood plain woods and
valleys along streams.
IA-FAC; KS-FACU; MO-FAC
The ripe fruit is delicious as is, but the
pulp is also useful in cakes, breads, pies,
butter, candy and jelly; the green or dried
leaves make tea with a good source of vitamin
C; the seeds can be roasted and ground for a
caffeine-free coffee substitute.
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
3-18
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Cardamine bulbosa
Spring Cress
IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL
Wet woodland, wet meadows, around springs,
moist ledges.
Use in salads for a hint of horseredish; The
bulb-like base of the stem can be grated,
mixed with vinegar and used as a substitute
for horseredish.
NA
NA
NA
Collect March-June
NA
3-19
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Nasturtium officinale
Water Cress
IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL
Cool waters of brooks, creeks, and springs.
Leaves good raw in salads or sandwiches, or
as a cooked potherb.
NA
NA
NA
Collect January-December; a waterfowl food; a
rich source of iron, iodine, and vitamins A,
B and C.
$7.00/ounce of seed
3-20
-------
Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Polvaonum hydropiper
Marshpepper Smartweed
IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL
Moist fields and pastures, moist ground near
streams.
The white-flowering variety has leaves with a
very peppery taste; may be used fresh or
dried as a substitute for pepper; collect
April-November.
NA
NA
NA
Seeds eaten by waterfowl; leaves may cause a
rash on some people, and sap may cause eyes
to "smart" if it comes in contact with them.
Roots
$ 16.00
$ 46.00
$ 65.00
$110.00
$ 25.00/100
/300
/500
$125.00/1000
3-21
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Scientific Name:
Common Name:
Indicator Status:
Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried:
Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Saqittaria sp.
Arrowhead
IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL
Shallow water, edges of ponds, swampy ground.
Potato-shaped tubers best eaten cooked; a
constituent in several Japanese and Chinese
meat dishes; protein content of S. trifolia
may be 5 to 7%, more than twice the average
value of other root crops; tubers are
harvested August-November.
NA
NA
NA
An attractive landscaping perennial; tubers
eaten by many wildlife species, including
ducks which also eat the seeds; fodder for
pigs.
Tubers
$ 25.OO/ 100
$ 54.OO/ 300
$150.00/1000
3-22
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Appendix 4
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