United States
             Environmental Protection
             Agency
             Off ice Of
             The Administrator
             (A-101F6)
171 R-92-006
April 1992
?/EPA
          metises
Ottier "Than Con>
In Iowa, Kansas,
And Nebraska
                                   issoui
                                             Printed on Recycled Paper

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                            DISCLAIMER

This  report was furnished to the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency  by the  student identified on the cover page, under a National
Network  for  Environmental Management Studies  fellowship.

The contents  are essentially  as  received  from the  author.  The
opinions, findings,  and conclusions  expressed  are  those  of the  author
and  not  necessarily those of the U.S. Environmental  Protection
Agency.   Mention,  if any, of company, process, or product names  is
not to be  considered as an  endorsement  by the  U.S.  Environmental
Protection  Agency.

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ALTERNATIVE USAGES OF WETLANDS OTHER THAN  CONVENTIONAL FARMING


             IN IOWA,  KANSAS,  MISSOURI,  AND NEBRASKA
                                             U.S. Environments! ,nrj--'b.i Agency
                                             Region 5, Library (r
                                             77 Wast Jackson D;:-    •  ; ~T, F
                                             Chicago, JL 60604-^.0 '     '

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                              by
               Ellen Leventhal, Graduate Student
                    University of Minnesota
         Hubert H. Humphrey Institute of Public  Affairs
5SS53L tuuj.ti&
an internship  requirement towar'
affairs at the  Humphrey Institute.




                         September, 1990

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                            ABSTRACT
     Conversion of wetlands in Iowa, Kansas,  Missouri,  and
Nebraska into agricultural dry lands in the past several  decades
has occurred as a means to obtain profit from what landowners

   i^^^

    \?s^^
Jnd support Twide diversity of fish, wildlife, and vegetation.

     Utilizing fish,  wildlife, and vegetation from wetland s for
nrofit is a way for  wetland owners to recognize the value their
we?lands add II their property.  Landowners  then have an incen-
tive to preserve rathe? than convert their wetlands.

     The alternative profitable usages of wetlands evaluated in

                                                        '
      ™^^^^
           -fc
      information is also included on the management of
 areas, marketing strategies, and additional  sources of infor-

 mation.

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                      * do.cument has been funded  wholly
no                  Environmental Protection Aqencv
under  assistance  agreement U-913274-oi-o  to  FI ?««
Leventhal.  It has been subjected  tc > the igency- s pllr
™* administrative review and has been  approved for
publication  as  an  EPA document.   Mention  of
or                       63  **

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


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                            TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract                                        	   1
Introduction	".*.".".....   2
     Summary 	  !!!..••   4
     Background	    ...   6
          SocioEconomic Value   	  ^     7
          Ecological Values   	   8
          Wildlife Values   	   9
Chapter I: Forest Products	1  '.'.'.I'.'.  10
     Background	      .11
     Classification of Wetland Trees 	      16
     Management  of Wetland  Timber  . .  .  .	'
     Potential Profit  from  Forested Wetlands	".".'..  24
          Veneer	           25
          Sawwood	'.  1 1  .  .  26
          Pulpwood	1  ! 1  .  .  27

          OthSr^ncome Sources From'Forested Wetlands  . .  .  .  29
          Multicropping  	  30
          Cost-Share  Programs	'. ". 32

      AdS?tiSnal  Sources"of information on "Forest Products  . . 33
 Chapter II:  Wildlife Values	".".*.".".".".*. 36
      Overview	     .36
      Wildlife Recreation . .  . •••••*  	 .37
      Potential Value from Wetland Wildlife  	  3?
           Lease-Fee Hunting   	  39
           Management of Leased Property	'.'.'.  41
           Types  of Leases	*.  1  43
      Trapping	".'.'.'....  44
           Beaver	        44
           Mink	*.  ]  .  45
           Muskrat	!  ".  !  45
           Raccoon	!  "...  48
      Aquaculture	  49
           Fishing Leases  	  50
           Commercial  Fish  Production	'.  ".  51
           Pond  Stocking	*.  '.  !  51
           Baitfish	      52
           Crayfish and Leeches	52
           Finger ling  and  Broodfish	•  53
           Food-Fish	".55
           Bullfrogs	'.".'.'.  56
           Summary
       Additional Sources of Information on Trapping,_         . 58

                                                                 59
                                                                 61
       AdditionaTsources of Information on Native Grasses  ... 67
     Additional t>ouj:uti& vj. j.u*.^^^— — -- '*  r.
     Additional Sources of Information on Fee Hunting.
     Additional Sources of Information on Aquaculture	  59
Chapter III: Native Grasses for Forage and Hay  	
   ^    ..   __     ___.e-r« ^n-M*-m-?t+- -i»-*v» r\r> M^T"!

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                            TABLE OF CONTENTS
                                                               Page
Chapter IV: Herbs   ......
     Culinary Herbs   ...!.'."  ...............  68
     Medicinal Herbs  ...!.*  ................  69
     Cosmetic/Domestic Herbs  .    ...............  72
     Cut/Dried Florals .....*.'  ..............  73
                Sources of Information on'nerbs'and ......  ?4
                 ....
Chapter V: Recommendations for Further Study ......... !!
Appendices                                 J   ........ °J
     Appendix I—Common Wildlife Food/Cover                   , -,
     Appendix 2— Description of Some Wetland 'occurring' ' ' *
                 Native Grasses .  .
     Appendix 3— Description of Some Wetland 'occurring' ' ' '
                 Herbs  .....                     y
     Appendix 4 — References .        ............. 3~1
                                ............... 4-1

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                             LIST OF TABLES
Table
Number
   1      EPA Region VII Regional Wetland Tree List for
          IA, KS, MO, NE	• •	
   2      Net Volume of Growing Stock and Sawtimber on
          Commercial Land by Individual Species, Iowa,         ^
          1974	
   3      Net Volume of Growing Stock and Sawtimber on
          Commercial Forest Land by Individual Species,        ^
          Kansas, 1981	 *	
   4      Net Volume of Growing Stock and Sawtimber on
          Commercial Forest Land by Individual
          Species, Missouri, 1972   	•	
   5      Net Volume of Growing Stock and Sawtimber on
          Commercial Forest Land by Individual  Species,        ^

          Compara?ive9Hardn;ss of'some North American Woods   . 26
    7
Breakdown of Forest Products for Growing Stock
                                                                28
           and Sawtimber  on Commercial  Land,  All  Species
    8       Examples of Lease Prices	•  •  •	
    9       Furs Purchased from Iowa  Trappers  and  Hunters
           as Reported by Iowa Fur Buyers,  1988-89  	
   10       Fluctuations in Iowa's Furbearer Market              ^
           1984—1989  ....«••••••••  	
   11       Fluctuation's in Iowa's Furbearer  Market (values
           include beaver, mink,  muskrat,  raccoon (only)   .  .  .  4b
   12       Missouri 1988-89 Fur Market and Harvest Summary  .  .  46
   13       Trends in Missouri Furbearer Values in Last 20       ^
           Seasons	
   14       sustained Yields and Values of Furbearers,
           Nebraska, 1990	•	
   15      Distribution and Value of the Fur Harvest by
           Species in the U.S. in 1975-76 as a Percent
           of the National Total	•	
   16      Average U.S. Pelt Prices for Beaver, Mink,
           Muskrat, Raccoon from  1970-1976   	  «°
   17      Culinary Herbs  	
   18      Medicinal Herbs   	
   19      Cosmetic/Domestic Herbs  	  '
   20      Dried/Cut Florals   	
   21      Perennials  for Wet  Places   	

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INTRODUCTION

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SUMMARY
     The process of assigning economic values to wetland
functions helps society to realize their value.  Unfortunately,
it is difficult, if not impossible, to quantify many of the
wetland functions which benefit society, although some general
economic values have been attached to such things as flood
control and water quality.   Furthermore, because most of the
remaining wetlands  exist on  private  land, the  burden of conserv-
 ing  these areas  lies with the  landowner, while the  public  accrues
 the  majority  of  the benefits.   "Benefits which are  offered to
 society at  large in the form of waterfowl  and  fish  production,
 flood control, or antipollution values do  not  bring measurable
 return to the individual property holder"  (Horowitz,  1978).
 However,  many farmers are realizing the value of maintaining
 the integrity of their wetlands.
      An excellent example of the benefits to private landowners
 from preserving their wetlands is that of Dayton Hyde, an  Oregon
 rancher.  A  year after returning a quarter of his  land to  wet-
 lands, he experienced  an increase in beef tonnage  of 54 percent,
 a fact he attributes to the marshes which prevented destructive
 winter frosts and  allowed native  grasses to flourish on the
 nutrient rich area.   In addition, birds and coyotes were  attract-
 ed  to the  area and managed  to keep  the grasshopper and rodent
 populations  under control.   Finally,  his  new lake  now attracts
  5,000 waterbirds each year.
       Ray Mccormick,  another landowner, returned a 19-acre field
  to a wetland, with assistance from the USDA Conservation Reserve

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Program and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.  He says,
"Wetlands are the most valuable part of my farm.  Protection
of wetlands is essential for agriculture...for purifying runoff,
for recharging groundwater, for wildlife habitat"  (Walter, 1990).
     By harvesting  some of the natural products produced in their
wetlands, the benefits can become concentrated upon individual
landowners, giving  them an incentive to preserve,  maintain, and
even enhance their  wetlands.  A  large number  of harvestable
wetland products  gives  landowners an opportunity  to realize the
economic  potential  of their  wetlands  in  their natural  state,
rather than alter them  for conventional  farming.   Timber,  fur-
bearers,  wildfowl,  fish,  grasses for  grazing, wild rice, land-
 scaping  plants,  and herbs are among the  many resources found in
 wetlands which can be harvested for profit.   Thus, not only could
 the landowner derive financial benefit from preserving his/her
 wetland, but society as a whole would continue to derive the
 benefits from such things as flood control,  water quality, and
 esthetic pleasure.
       This paper  attempts to explore the feasibility of  profiting
 from  such natural  wetland products in Iowa,  Kansas, Missouri, and
 Nebraska.  It must be added that this is by  no means  a  complete
 discussion of the  alternative uses of wetlands,  but merely a
 preliminary  investigation into  this area.   The paper  is divided
  into  chapters,  each  a  category  of  alternative wetland usages.   At
  the  end of each chapter,  a  list of additional sources of informa-
  tion is provided to  assist  in further investigation  into each

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  alternative wetland use.  other sources may be available that
  are not included in the lists.  The profitability of a suggested
  alternative may vary depending on current market conditions,
  adaptability of the alternative to the site specific wetland
  conditions,  the amount of investment required,  the type of
  management needed,  and problems that might arise.   it is not
  the  intent of  this  paper to  imply that each of  the potential
  alternative  uses  of wetlands discussed will be  profitable for
  every  landowner,  every year.   Like conventional  farming,  or any
  other  business, each landowner must  analyze  the potential  of
  the alternative to  be  profitable for his/her own situation.  The
  alternatives presented  in this paper are options that have proven
 profitable to others and have potential for the four-state area.
 Some alternative usages suggested in this require long-term
 investments,  which also must be taken into consideration.
 BACKGROUND

      The loss of wetlands throughout  the United  states in the
 last  few decades has proceeded  at an  unprecedented  rate.   Deple-
 tion  of this  valuable resource  can be attributed in part to the
 lack  of recognition  of  wetland  values and  the emphasis on conven-
 tional  agricultural  products such  as  corn,  milo,  and  soybeans.
 These attitudes have been reinforced  by past  governmental  poli-
 cies which  provided  subsidies and price  supports to landowners
 who converted their  wetlands for agricultural production.
     The functions and values of wetlands began to be recognized
 in the 1970s when efforts were made to conserve these essential
ecosystems.  By 1982 when the United States Fish and Wildlife

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Service conducted its National Wetlands Inventory,  only 56% of

the original wetlands in the lower 48 states remained.  This

survey estimated that between the mid-1950's and the mid-1970's,

9 million acres of wetlands were lost, an average annual loss of

458,000 acres.  "Agricultural development was responsible for 87%

of recent national wetland losses.  Urban development and other

development caused only 8% and 5% of the losses, respectively"

 (Tiner, 1984).

      The definition  of wetlands used by the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency and the U.S. Army  Corps of  Engineers  since  the

 1970's is as  follows:

        those areas  that  are inundated or saturated by surface
      or'qroSnd water at  a frequency  and duration sufficient to
      Support   and  that under normal  circumstances  do support
      J prevalence  of vegetation  typically adapted  for life in
      saturated soil  conditions.

      The  classification  of wetlands  by the  U.S. Fish and Wildlife

 Service also categorizes wetlands into ecological systems.

 Cowardin,  et al. (1979)  define a system as  "a complex of wetlands

 and deepwater habitats that share the influence of similar hydro-

 logic, geomorphologic,  chemical, or biological factors."  The

 five major ecological systems in this classification of wetlands

 are marine,  estuarine, riverine, lacustrine, and palustrine.   The

 four  states  covered in this study   (Iowa, Kansas,  Missouri,  and

 Nebraska) contain riverine, lacustrine and palustrine  system

 wetlands.  A riverine system  is  generally  a  freshwater river

 and  its stream channels, and  is  primarily  a  deepwater  habitat.

 The  lacustrine system is also a  deepwater  system  but includes

  "permanently flooded lakes  and  reservoirs  (e.g.,  Lake Superior),

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  and intermittent lakes (e.g., piaya lakes)" (Cowardin, et al.
  1979).   within the lacustrine system is the littoral subsystem,
  a fringe area extending from the shore of a lake to a depth of
  two meters below the water which contains emergent,  nonpersistent
  wetland vegetation.   These are plants,  such as  wild rice (Zizania
  aguatica)  and arrowhead (Sagittaria  Bp.)  which  fall  below the
  surface of the water at the end of the  growing  season and so  are
  not  seen year round.  The  palustrine system is  the most  abundant
  type of inland wetland.  These  freshwater wetlands occur most
  frequently  in our area  along the margins of  lakes, in upland
  depressions,  in seepage areas along slopes, and on river  flood
 Plains.   They also may be found on islands in lakes or rivers.
 Many of the wetlands of this type are flooded seasonally and
 can be dry during other periods.
      For a long time the values of these inland, freshwater
 wetlands were ignored in favor of the estuarine  and marine sys-
 tems,  whose values were  better known  and perhaps more obvious.
 However, the benefits from  freshwater wetlands are great,
 including socioeconomic, ecological,  and wildlife  values.
      SOCIOECONOMIC VALUES:
      These  values are the primary focus  of this  paper.  They
 include  such things as flood and storm damage protection,  erosion
 control,  water supply, groundwater discharge, groundwater
 recharge, harvest of  natural products, livestock grazing,  and
recreation.  Wetlands are able to temporarily store and release
flood waters slowly, decreasing their velocity and desynchroniz-
ing flood peaks of tributary streams.   This protects the property

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and lives of those living downstream from flood damage.  The U.S.
Water Resources Council reported that in 1975, 107 people died in
floods and estimated the property damage at $3.4 billion.  In
1977, the Council estimated that "134 million acres of the coter-
minous United States have severe flooding problems.  Of this, 2.8
million acres are urban  land and 92.8 million are agricultural
land.  Many of these flooded farmlands are wetlands or previously
drained wetlands"  (Tiner, 1984).
      Closely  linked with flood  control is the ability  of wetland
vegetation  to control  erosion.   Strips of trees  and emergent
plants  along  streams,  rivers, and  lakes  stabilize the  banks  with
their roots and  diminish the velocity of flow and wave action,
thus decreasing  water  turbidity and improving water quality.
      Thus,  wetland benefits are diffusely spread throughout
 society,  so it is difficult to organize landowner support for
 wetlands.  However,  when landowners are able to directly benefit
 or profit from their wetlands,  they have an incentive to preserve
 those areas.  Profit can be obtained from these wetlands by
 marketing the resources that naturally occur there.  Profitable
 products include wetland hay,  furbearers, wildfowl, landscaping
 plants, wildflowers for  floral arrangements, and forest products,
 to  name  just  a  few.
      ECOLOGICAL VALUES:
      Besides providing  habitat for many forms of  fish and wild-
  life,  wetlands  perform  essential  environmental  functions.
  Because  of their  location  between land  and  water, they act  as
  sinks  for  the runoff  from  land before it reaches the  water, and

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  filters for the nutrients,  wastes,  pollution,  and sediment from
  flooding waters.   These functions improve both water quality and
  vegetative production.   In  fact,  wetlands perform these functions
  so  efficiently,  their  frequency of  use  for treatment of domestic
  sewage  from cities,  feedlot waste,  water  pollution,  and nutrient
  and heavy metal  loads  from  dredged  material is  increasing  (Tiner,
  1984).
      WILDLIFE VALUES:

      Wetlands provide essential habitats  for many forms  of fish
 and wildlife.  Most freshwater fishes are completely dependent on
 wetlands for food, spawning and nursery ground  (Peters, et al.
 1979) .   Every year thousands of migrating waterfowl depend on
 wetlands for nesting, feeding,  or  resting, while other birds
 spend  their entire lives in  wetland environments.   Many of the
 most economically important  furbearers,  such as mink, beaver,
 muskrat,  and raccoon are wetland dependent,  and other large
 mammals,  such as  deer,  occasionally  frequent wetlands.   Finally,
 reptiles  and amphibians are  important residents  in wetlands.
 According to Clark (1979), "nearly all of  the approximately 190
 species of amphibians in  North America are wetland-dependent,  at
 least for  breeding"  (Tiner,  1984).

     The  overwhelming evidence, therefore, is that wetlands are
worth preserving,  not simply as a conservation measure, but as a
way to maintain and enhance the integrity of our agricultural
system and society.

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   Chapter I



FOREST PRODUCTS

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  BACKGROUND
      Many  of the most profitable timber species naturally occur
  in wetland habitats.  Eighty-two million acres of commercial
  forested wetland exist in the continental United States, and the
  standing value of southern wetland forests alone is $8 billion
  (R.L. Johnson, 1979).  Commercial forest land is defined by the
 USDA Forest Service as,  "Forest land producing or capable of
 producing crops of industrial wood and not withdrawn from timber
 utilization."  However,  alteration and conversion of these areas,
 much of it to agricultural fields by channelization or drainage,
 have reduced the natural  plant communities in these wetlands
 by 70%  (Willard et  al.,  1989),  along with  their productive
 potential.
      Wetland  associated forest  products generally are  found  in
 riparian  ecosystems.  However,  the term "riparian"  is  not  neces-
 sarily  restricted to  riverine systems, but extends to  those  areas
 subjected to periodic flooding,  including meadows and  pond mar-
 gins,   (Willard et al., 1989).   Thus riparian  zones  are able to
 protect or  buffer water systems  from adjacent  land-use activi-
 ties.  These zones are most commonly referred  to as  bottomland
 hardwoods,  flood plain forests,  or wetland forests.   They are
 characterized by a combination of high plant and wildlife species
diversity, high density,  and high productivity.  The North
Carolina Department of Environment,  Health, and Natural Resources
 (1990) refers to riparian areas as Streamside Management Zones
 (SMZ)  whose width is determined by the average percent  slope  of
                                10

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the area adjacent to the stream and the average bank-to-bank
width of the stream.
CLASSIFICATION QF WETLAND TREES
     The trees which grow in wet areas are, to varying degrees,
adapted or tolerant to flooding or inundation.  In general, most
plants remain unharmed by a limited duration of flooding during
their non-growing season.  During their growing season, however,
periods of inundation can have deleterious effects on their
growth, depending on their ability to  adapt to the depletion  of
oxygen  in the  soil.  Anaerobic bacteria thrive under such  condi-
tions,  producing toxins  such  as  ethylene,  manganese and  iron.
Plants  adapt to low oxygen  and high  toxicity  in  the soil through
both metabolic and  anatomical modifications  including  aerenchyma
 (air-filled tissue),  and lenticels designed  to increase  the
 diffusion of oxygen to the tree's roots.   Anatomically,  there is
 an increased growth in adventitious and secondary roots  which are
 more "pervious" to oxygen than normal roots.   "Experimental
 research with ethylene, for example, has shown that at high
 concentrations, there is an increase in adventitious rooting
 in many plants" (Whitlow and Harris, 1979).
      The classification of tree species according to their
 ability to  endure  periods of flooding ranges from very tolerant
 to  intolerant.  Very tolerant trees can withstand flooding for
 periods of  two or  more  growing  seasons.   These  species  exhibit
 a marked increase  in  adventitious rooting during this period.
 Representatives of this category  are  black willow and eastern
 cottonwood.  Tolerant species,  such as red  and  silver maples,
                                   11

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  sycamore and American elm, can withstand flooding for most of one
  growing season.   Some new root development can be expected during
  this time.   Intermediately tolerant  species are able to survive
  flooding for periods of one to three months during their growing
  season.   The root systems of these plants will produce few new
  roots or will remain dormant during the  flooded period.   Tree
  species  in this  category include pecan,  mulberry,  and Shumard
  oak.   Intolerant species are able  to survive  flooding for only
  short  periods  (1  month  or  less) during their  growing  season
  because  their root systems die.  Shagbark hickory, black  walnut
  and white oak are among  the  trees  in this category  (Teskey,
  1977) .

      Another way that wetland plants are classified is by
 indicator categories (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,  1987)
 which reflect the range of estimated probabilities (expressed as
 a frequency  of occurrence)  of a species  occurring in a wetland
 versus a  nonwetland.   These categories are obligate,  facultative
 wetland,  facultative, facultative upland  and obligate  upland.
 Obligate  wetland  (OBL)  species occur almost always (approximately
 99%)  under natural conditions in wetlands.   Facultative wetland
 (FACW)  species usually  occur  in wetlands  (67%-99%),  but occasion-
 ally  are  found in nonwetlands.   Facultative  (FAC)  means  that a
 species is equally likely to  be  found  in wetlands  or nonwetlands
 (estimated probability 34%-66%).  Facultative upland (FACU)
plants usually occur  in nonwetlands  (67%-99%), but they are
occasionally found in wetlands  (l%-33%),  while obligate  upland
 (UPL)  plants  occur almost always (99%) under natural conditions
                                12

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in nonwetlands in the region specified (Reed, 1988).  Table 1

is a listing of the trees that fall into these categories in the

four states being studied, along with the national indicator

range of the species.
Table 1:
F.PA REGION VII REGIONAL WETLAND TREE LIST FOR IA. KS.
MO. NE (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1987)
Common Name

Alder, Brook-side
Alder, European
Alder, Speckled
Arrow-wood
Ash,  Black
Ash,  Green
Ash,  Pumpkin
Ash,  White
Aspen, Big-tooth
Aspen, Quaking
Basswood, American
Beech
Beech, American
Birch, Paper
Birch, River
Birch, Spring
Birch, Yellow
Black-haw
Black-Haw,  Rusty
 Bladdernut,  American
 Box-elder
 Buckeye, Ohio
 Buckeye, Red
 Buckeye, Texas
 Buckthorn,  Common
 Bumelia, Buckthorn
 Bumelia, Gum
 Burning-Bush,Eastern
 Butternut
 Buttonbush, Common
 Catalpa, Northern
 CataIpa, Southern
 Cedar, Eastern Red
              scientific Name

              Alnus serrulata
              Alnus glutinosa
              Alnus rucrosa
              Viburnum dentatum
              Fraxinus nigra
              Fraxinus pennsvlvanica
              Fraxinus profunda
              Fraxinus americana
              Populus grandidentata
              Populus tremula
              Tilia americana
              Fagus grandifolia
              Faaus grandifolia
              Betula papyrifera
              Betula nigra
              Betula pccidentalis
              Betula alleghaniensis
              Viburnum prunifolium
              Viburnum rufidulum
              Staphvlea  trifolia
              Acer Neaundo
              Aesculus glabra
              Aesculus pavia
              Aesculus glabra
              Rhamnus  cathartica
               Bumelia  lycioides
               Bumelia  lanuainosa
               Eunvmus  atropurpureus
               Juglans  cinerea
               cephalanthus occidentalis
               Catalpa speciosa
               Catalpa bianonioides
               Juniperus virainiana
    National
Indicator Range*

FACW+,  OBL
FACW-
FAC, OBL
FAC
FACW, FACW+
FAC, FACW
OBL
FACU
FACU-, FACU
FACU-, FAC+
FACU
FAC+
FACU
FACU, FACU+
FACW, OBL
FAC, FACW
FACU+, FAC
FACU, FACU+
UPL, FACU
FAC
FAC, FACW
FACU, FAC+
FACU-, FAC+
FACU-
UPL,  FACU
FAC,  FACW
FACU, FACU+
FACU, FAC+
FACU-,  FACU+
OBL
FACU,  FAC
UPL,  FAC-
 FACU-,  FACU
                                  13

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  Table I:
MO?
  Common Name

  Cherry,  Black
  Cherry,  Choke
  Cherry,  Fire
  Club,  Hercules
  Corkwood
  Cottonwood,  Eastern
  Cottonwood,  Lanceleaf
  Cottonwood,  Narrowleaf
  Cottonwood,  Swamp
  Cypress, Bald
  Dogwood, Flowering
  Dogwood, Rough-leaf
  Elm, American
  Elm, Rock
  Elm, Slippery
  Farkleberry
  Fir, Balsam
 Gum, Black
 Gum, Sweet
 Hackberry,  Common
 Hackberry,  Netleaf
 Hawthorn, Barberry
 Hawthorn, Cockspur
 Hawthorn, Downy
 Hawthorn, Glossy
 Hawthorn, Green
 Hawthorn, Little-Hip
 Hawthorn, Parlsey
 Hawthorn, Washington
 Hickory,  Big Shellbark
 Hickory,  Bitternut
 Hickory,  Pecan
 Hickory,  Red
 Hickory,  Shag-Bark
 Hickory,  Sweet Pignut
 Hickory,  Water
 Holly,  American
 Holly,  Deciduous
 Honey locust
 Hop-Hornbean,  Eastern
 Hornbean, American
 Locust, Black
 Maple,  Drummond Red
 Maple,  Mountain
 Maple,  Red
 Maple,  Rocky Mountain
Maple,  Silver
Maple,  Sugar
              Scientific
              Prunus serotina
              Prunus virainiana
              Prunus pensvlvanica
              Aralia spinosa
              Leitneria floridana
              Populus deltoides
              Populus X acuminata
              Populus anoustifol ia
              Populus heterophylla
              Taxodium distichum
              Cornus florida
              Cornus drummondij
              Ulmus  americana
              Ulmus  Thomas i
              Ulmus  rubra
              Vaccinium arboreum
              Abies  balsamea
              Nvssa  svlvatica
              Liauidamba-r styraciflua
              Celtis  occidental is
              Celtis  reticulata
              Crataeaus  berberifo] ia
              Crataeaus  crus-aalli
              Crataeaus  mollis
              Crataeaus  x nitida
              Crataeaus  viridis
              Crataeaus  spathulata
              Crataequs marshallii
              Crataeaus phaenopyrmn
             Carya laciniosa
             Carya cordiformis
             Carya illinoensis
             Carya ovalis
             Carya ovata
             Carya glabra
             Carya aguatica
             Ilex opaca
             Ilex decidua
             Gleditsia triacanthos
             Ostrva  virainiana
             Carpinus caroliniana
             Robinia Pseudoacacia
             Acer rubrum
             Acer spicatum
             Acer rubrum
             Acer glabrum
             Acer saccharinum
             Acer saccharum
                                                              Ks-
                                        Indicator Range
  FACU
  FACU-
  FACU-
  FAC,
  OBL
  FAC,
  FAC,
  FAC,
  FACW+
  OBL
  FACU-
  FAC
  FAC,
  UPL,
  FAC
  FACU
  FAC,
  FAC
  FAC,
 FACU,
 UPL,
 FACU-
 FACU,
 FACU,
 FACU+
 FAC,
 FAC,
 FACU+
 FAC-,
 FAC,
 FACU+
 FACU,
 UPL,
 FACU-
 FACU-
 OBL
 FACU,
 FACW-
 FACU,
 FACU-
 FAC
 UPL,
 FACW,
 FACU-
 FAC
 FACU,
 FAC,
UPL,
  ,  FAC
  ,  FAC-
  FACW-

  FACW
  FACW
  FACW
  ,  OBL

  ,  FACU

  FACW
  FAC+
 FACW

 FACW
  FAC
 FACW
 ,  FAC+
  FAC
  FACW
 ,  OBL
 FACW
 FACW
 ,  FACW
  FAC
 FACW
 ,  FAC
  FACW
 FACU
 ,  FACU
 ,FACU

 FAC-
 ,  FACW
 FAC
 ,  FACU

FAC
 OBL
,  FACU
 FAC
FACW
FACU
                                 14

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Table l:  EPA Region VII Regional Wetland Tree List for IA, KS,
          MO, NE (continued)
Common Name

Mesquite
Mulberry, Red
Mulberry, White
Nannyberry
Oak Bur
Oak, Cherry-Bark
Oak, Chinkapin
Oak, Northern Red
Oak, Nuttall
Oak, Overcup
Oak, Pin
Oak, Post
Oak, Shingle
Oak, Shumard
Oak, Southern Red
Oak, Swamp  Chestnut
Oak, Swamp  White
Oak, Water
Oak, Willow
Olive,  Russian
Osage-Orange
Pawpaw,  Common
Pecan,  Bitter
Persimmon,  Common
Pine,  Ponderosa
Pine,  Eastern White
Planer-Tree
Plum,  Canada
Poplar, Balsam
 Privet, Swamp
 Redbud, Eastern
 Saltcedar
 Sassafras
 Serviceberry,  Downy
 Snowball, American
 Snowball, Big-leaf
 Spicebush, Northern
 Sugarberry
 Sumac, Winged
 Sycamore, American
 Tamarisk, Smallflower
 Tree, Tulip
 Tree, White Fringe
 Tree of Heaven
 Tupelo, Swamp
 Wafer, Ash
 Walnut, Black
 Walnut, River
Scientific Name

Prosopis juliflora
Morus rubra
Morus alba
Viburnum lentago
Ouercus macrocarpa
Ouercus falcata
Ouercus muhlenberai i
Ouercus rubra
Ouercus nuttallii
Ouercus lyrata
Ouercus palustris
Ouercus stellata
Ouercus imbricaria
Quercus Shumardii
Ouercus falcata
Ouercus Michauxii
Ouercus bicolor
Ouercus alba
Ouercus Phellos
Elaeacmus  anaustifolia
Maclura pomifera
Asimina triloba
Carva X lecontei
Diospvros  virainiana
Pinus ponderosa
Pinus strobus
Planera aauatica
Prunus nigra
Populus balsamifera
Forestiera acuminata
Cercis canadensis
Tamarix ramosissima
 Sassafras albidum
Amelanchier arborea
 Styrax americana
 Stvrax grandifolia
 Lindera benzoin
 Celtis laeviaata
 Rhus copallinum
 Platanus occidentalis
 Tamarisk parviflora
 T.ipiodendron tulipifera
 Chionanthus virainicus
 Ailanthus altissima
 Nvssa sylvatica
 Ptelea trifoliata
 Juglans nigra
 Jualans microcarpa
Indicator Range

UPL, FACU
FACU, FAC
UPL, FAC
FACU, FAC+
FACU, FAC
FAC+, FACW
FAC
FACU-, FACU
FACW, OB
OBL
FAC, FACW
UPL, FACU
FACU, FAC
FAC, FACW-
FACU-, FACU
FACW-, FACW
FACW+, OBL
FACU-, FACU
FAC+, FACW
FACU-, FACW-
UPL,  FACU
FACU+, FAC
OBL
FACU, FAC
UPL,  FACU
FACU
OBL
UPL,  FACU-
FACU, FACW
OBL
UPL, FACU
 FAC, FACW
 FACU-,  FACU
 FACU,  FAC
 FACW-,  OBL
 FACU-,  FACU
 FACW-,  FACW
 UPL, FACW
 UPL
 FAC, FACW
 FAC, FACW
 FACU, FAC
 FACU, FAC+
 FACU
 FACW+,  OBL
 UPL, FAC
 FACU
 FAC-, FAC
                                  15

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 Table  l:   EPA Region VII Regional  Wetland  Tree  List  for IA  KS
            MO, NE  (continued)                               '   S/
Common Name

Water, Locust
Water, Tupelo
Willow, Black

WUlow' Crick31
Willow, Crack
Willow, Peach leaf
Willow, Shining
Willow, Weeping
Willow  White
Winterberry, Common
Witch-Hazel, American
Yucca, Mound-Lily
Scientific Nam^

Gleditsia aguatica
Nvssa aguatica
Salix nigra
      caroliniana
      fragilis
Salix amygdaloid
Salix lucida
Salix babvlonica
salix Hbl -
ilex verticilla-ha
Hamamelis virginiana
Yucca glorlo^a -
                                                    Indicator
                                                   OBL
                                                   OBL
                                                   TJPL  ORT
                                                   FAcw+? OBL
                                                   FAC  FAr+
                                                   FACW  FACW+
                                                   FAC+' FACW
                                                   FAcWl ™™w
                                                   FACw 'OBL
                                                   FACU' FAC-
                                                   FAC
 * A Positive <+)  or negative (-) sign was used with the
 Facultative Indicator categories to more specifically define the
 regional frequency of occurrence in wetlands.  The positive sign
 frea^?? *******«<* tcward the higher end of the caJegor? !m
 frequently found  in wetlands),  and a negative sign indicates a
                      lower end of the category (?ess         a
      In addition to the adaptability of plants to soil anaero-

 biosis  and toxicity,  there are several  other factors which can

 determine  each  specific plant's ability to survive flooding.

 Among these factors are substrate  composition,  shoreline gradi-

 ent,  wave  and current action,  flood  depth  and duration,  toler-

 ances of individual species, and ecotypic  variation within

 species  (Whitlow,  1979) .

 MANAGEMENT  OF WETLAND TIMBER

      In some areas, it  may be necessary  for  optimal  timber

 production  to control the level  and duration  of flooding during

 the growing season with draw-down mechanisms  such as small

 impoundments, gates, and pumps.  It must be emphasized, however,

that efforts to control floods by construction of dams, channeli-

zation,  or diking often result in an increase in stresses to the
                                 16

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riparian ecosystem.  "Riparian productivity is reduced when
normal seasonal flooding is abolished or reduced by dams" (Wray,
1987) .
     A permit for damming, channelizing, or diking is usually
required from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers under Section 404
of the Clean Water Act, and will have to meet special environ-
mental guidelines.  Flooded conditions during the non-growing
season, however, are not as stressful to the trees and provide
ideal habitat for many wildlife species.
     Five flood plain site types occur along rivers and streams.
These are depressional swamps, well-drained silt flats, frequent-
ly flooded point bars and rapidly forming deposits, stable point
bars, and pleistocene terraces.  The well-drained silt flats
adjacent to  streams are the most valuable flood plain areas for
timber production  due to  their high fertility.  Wray  (1987)
recommends management of  short rotation, even-aged stands by
patch clear-cutting or group  selection  on an uneven-aged manage-
ment basis.   Patch clear-cutting  is a harvest  regime  in which
all  trees  are eliminated  from a small area.  Regeneration occurs
naturally  from seeds  of adjacent  uncut  portions  of the  stand  or
from seeds or seedlings remaining on the site.   On the  other
hand,  "group selection removes  small groups  or clumps of trees in
 stands  which have become  uneven-aged over  time or  from  prior  high
 grading"  (North Carolina  Department of  Environment,  Health  and
Natural Resources, 1990).  It is  important that large enough
 areas are opened in  order for reproduction and propagation  to
 occur.
                                  17

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      Pleistocene terraces, closer to uplands, can be managed
 similarly to upland sites because of their stable conditions with
 rare disturbances by flooding.  The soil is usually deep, moist
 and fertile.  These sites are well suited to either recreational
 use or plantations of high value trees.  Patch clear-cutting is
 recommended to maintain this forest type (Wray,  1987).
      The type of forested wetland and its associated plant
 communities which arise in response to the specific soils,
 hydrology,  and successional state of a given forested wetland
 determine the ability of the area to support both game  and non-
 game species of wildlife.   Because the diversity of wildlife
 species reflects the diversity of habitats  within a forest,
 "focusing forest management upon a particular plant community
 will restrict the range of some wildlife species for which suit-
 able habitat could be  provided.   On the other hand,  focusing
 wildlife management on a particular species  can  restrict  options
 available for forest management"  (North Carolina Department  of
 Environment,  Health, and Natural  Resources,  1990).   Thus,  as the
 intensity of either management practice increases,  restriction  on
 the  other follows.
     However, these  two  management practices  are not necessarily
 mutually  exclusive  as  long as the affect on wildlife is factored
 into forest  management plans.  The bottomland and first terrace
 forested wetland types provide some of  the most  important habitat
 for wildlife and fisheries resources due to their diversity,
which is reflected in a wide range of available wildlife species,
such as raccoons, opossum,  fox, mink, otter, beaver, deer, water-
                                 18

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fowl,  many songbirds, and numerous reptiles and amphibians.



"Cyclic patterns of flooding and drying are important for provid-



ing fundamental components of aquatic food webs as well as spawn-



ing habitat for some fish species and amphibians" (North Carolina



Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, 1990).



A harvest regime which maintains a mosaic of young, mature, and



old age stands is one forest management technique which preserves



wildlife diversity.  However, when management requires large



harvests and  intensive site preparation and planting, the North



Carolina Department  of Environment, Health and Natural Resources



 (1990) recommends the reservation of  "up to 35 square feet  of



snags, mast,  and dew trees, and the retention  of  uncut or  lightly



cut  islands  or  corridors (SMZ)  within the  harvest area to  main-



tain  habitat for reduced populations  of preharvest species."




POTENTIAL  PROFIT FROM FORESTED WETLANDS



      The potential  profit from wetlands  is great, particularly



when considering the amount of land occupied  by bottomland



 forests.   For example,  bottomland forests of  Iowa, which include



 forested wetlands,  occupy 416 thousand acres,  or 28% of the



 state's total forested area.   Predominant cottonwood stands,  one



 of the major species of bottomland forest in Iowa, covers 12



 thousand acres alone,  and ranks first in terms of sawtimber



 volume.  Out of the total hardwood volume of 315 billion board



 feet, 12% is cottonwood, surpassed only by white oak and red oak.



 Silver maple, another major bottomland forest species in Iowa,



 ranks second in sawtimber volume, comprising 10% of the total



 hardwood volume in  the  state  (Wray and Thomson,  1987).  A more
                                  19

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  complete  listing  of the  sawtimber  and growing-stock  volumes  of

  some of the bottomland species  in  the four-state region  is

  available in Tables 2-5.
 Table 2:
 NET VOLUME OF GROWING STOCK AND SAWTIMBER ON COMMERCIAL
 LAND BY INDIVIDUAL SPECIES,  IOWA,  1974   (Data collected
 from May 1973 to June 1974)  (Spencer  et  al.,  1980)
 Species
 Balsam Fir
 Swamp White Oak
 Bur Oak
 Silver Maple
 Green Ash
 American Elm
 Black Walnut
 Eastern Cottonwood
 Hackberry
 Black Willow
 River Birch
 Boxelder
          Growing Stock
      (million  cubic  feet)
                0.1
                4.7
               77.8
             109.5
               23.7
               58.5
               31.8
               91.7
               15.9
               31.0
               12.1
               5.0
        Sawtimber
 (million board  feet*)

        15.6
        278.4
        361.7
        79.9
        145.9
        88.3
        436.4
        43.2
        82.0
        40.4
         7.9
 *Note:
The volume of trees to be marketed as veneer logs or
sawlogs is usually measured in board-feet.  One board-
foot equals the volume of wood in a 12-inch by 12-inch
piece of wood, 1-inch thick.
Table  3:
Species
NET VOLUME OF GROWING STOCK AND SAWTIMBER ON COMMERCIAL
FOREST LAND BY INDIVIDUAL SPECIES, KANSAS, 1981 (Data
collected from October 1980 to July 1981)
(Spencer, et al.  1984).
Bur Oak
Pecan
Silver Maple
Green Ash
American Elm
Black Walnut
Black Willow
Boxelder
Hackberry
Common Persimmon
River Birch
Eastern Cottonwood
                Growing Stock
            (thousand cubic feet)

                    60,920
                     8,986
                    21,011
                    60,059
                    25,366
                    57,868
                    11,629
                    10,376
                    86,674
                     1,113
                       781
                   134,292
      Sawtimber
(thousand board

       286,120
        28,043
        87,834
       181,569
        59,400
       169,979
        47,901
        22,839
       299,581
           612
         2,278
       610,060
                                 20

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Table 4-  NET VOLUME OF GROWING STOCK AND SAWTIMBER ON COMMERCIAL
Table 4.  NET^VOL^^ ^ INDIVIDUAL SPECIES, MISSOURI, 1972  (Data
          collected from January 1970 to May 1973)
          (Spencer, et al. 1976)
Species
Bur Oak
Overcup Oak
Swamp Chestnut Oak
Swamp White Oak
Shomard Oak
Pin Oak
Water Oak
Willow Oak
Pecan
Shellbark Hickory
Water Hickory
Silver Maple
Sweetgum
Green Ash
American Sycamore
Eastern Cottonwood
River Birch
American Elm
Boxelder
Hackberry
Common  Persimmon
Black Willow
           Growing Stock
         (million cubic feet)
                 19.7
                  5.2
                  3.5
                 31.1
                  7.7
                 58.4
                    .3
                  6.6
                  9.4
                 33.1
                    .3
                 59.8
                  8.0
                 44.1
                 125.0
                 65.3
                 26.0
                 60.2
                   6.1
                  33.5
                   3.8
                  64.0
     Sawtimber
fmillion board feet)
       60.5
       14.1
       14.2
       82.0
       34.9
      209.9
        1.2
       28.3
       30.4
       76.5
        1.7
      204.9
       23.4
      100.3
      473.4
      306.9
       66.4
      103.4
       20.5
       75.3
        1.3
      189.1
 Table 5:
NET VOLUME OF GROWING STOCK AND SAWTIMBER ON COMMERCIAL
FOREST LAND BY INDIVIDUAL SPECIES, NEBRASKA, 1983  (Data
collected from April 1982 to March 1983)  (Raile, 1986)
 Species
            Growing Stock
        (thousand cubic feet)
 Bur Oak
 Shagbark Hickory
 American Basswood
 Silver Maple
 Slippery Elm
 Green Ash
 Black Willow
 Hackberry
 Black Walnut
 Boxelder
 Eastern Cottonwood
                36,859
                 2,629
                 5,992
                 5,250
                 1,802
                25,900
                11,060
                16,516
                 5,131
                 5,294
                142,218
      Sawtimber
(thousand board feet)

       112,770
           652
        25,795
        11,301
         2,849
        89,308
        31,457
        44,675
        11,030
        12,823
       510,947
                                  21

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      The majority of commercial forest  land  is owned by  farmers.

 Thus, the opportunity for profit is literally in a landowner's

 back yard.  The breakdown of forested area into ownership classes

 is as follows according to USDA Forest Service Resource

 Bulletins:
 STATE
 Iowa(1974)
                   OWNERSHIP TYPE
                                         PERCENT OWNED
Kansas(1981)
Missouri(1972)
Nebraska(1983)
 Public:
      Federal
           National forest
           Other federal
      State
      County and Municipal
 Private:
      Farmer
      Forest industry
      Miscellaneous

 Public:
      Miscellaneous federal
      State
      County and Municipal
      Indian
 Private:
      Farmer
      Miscellaneous private

 Public:
      National forests
      Other
 Private:
      Farmers
     Miscellaneous

Public:
     National forests
     State
     Other
Private
     Farmer
     Miscellaneous
                                                 0%
                                                 4%
                                                 3%
                                                less than 1%

                                                68%
                                                 1%
                                                24%
                                                 3%
                                                 1%
                                                less  than  1%
                                                less  than  1%

                                                62%
                                                34%
                                               11%
                                                5%

                                               50%
                                               34%
                                                6%
                                                4%
                                                2%

                                               71%
                                               17%
                                22

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Some general prices for a few of the bottomland forest species

reveal the value such trees add to wetlands.


IOWA  (based on 1990 estimates and the experience of William
     Ferris, State Foresters Office)
     Species                  fr/inno board feet
     Silver maple                  f1?0*^
     Willow                        $40-$50
     Mixed stand  (silver maple,    $55-$65
     cottonwood, hackberry, willow)

KANSAS  (based on  1990 estimates of Len Gould, Department of
        Forestry)
      CoSonwod                      S3 0-  $50
      Green  ash                      f8°'!?°n
      Silver maple                   $50-$100

 MISSOURI  (based on 1990  estimates of Shelby  Jones,  Department of
          Conservation)

      Species                  $/1000 board feet
      Silvlr-maple                  $30-  $100
      Cottonwood                   §20-   $80
      Sycamore                     $20
      Black walnut                      *™
      (veneer)                      $250-$3000
      Hickory                      $20-  $100
      Ash                             ~  $25°
      American elm                 $20-  $100
      Hackberry                    $20-  $100


      The economic value of standing trees is determined by the

 price a buyer is willing to pay, which in turn is determined by

 species, size, and quality.  Depending on these primary factors,

 the wood may be sold for a number of purposes, including veneer

 logs, sawlogs, pulpwood, fence posts or firewood.  According

 to the  1990 U.S. industrial Outlook;  Prospects for Over 350

 Manufacturing and Service Industries  (U.S.  Department of

 Commerce,  1990), the values of products have  been  increasing
                                  23

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  in  the  past  several  years  in  the  industries  of  logging,  sawmill,
  hardwood dimension and  flooring mills, hardwood veneer and
  plywood, pulp mills, and paper and paperboard mills.
      Potentially the most valuable of the wetland species are
  black walnut and pecan.  Ash, cottonwood, maple, and others
  typically are of less value.  However, these values depend on the
  quality of the wood, how old the tree is and the primary purpose
  for which the tree was grown.  This explains the wide range of
 values for the trees listed above.  In general,  larger diameter
 trees with greater merchantable height will bring more money than
 smaller trees of the same species and of similar quality.  Buyers
 prefer straight trees with few defects which include both open
 and  closed  wounds,  metal hardware,  bird pecks, bumps or bulges,
 twisted bark,  curves,  overgrown limb  knots,  and  both live and
 dead limbs.
      VENEER:
      The U.S.  Department of  Commerce,  Bureau  of  the  Census,
 reported that,  in 1987,  the  hardwood  veneer and  plywood industry
 shipped  products worth $1.8  billion that were primary to  the
 industry.
      Veneer lumber is made from the highest quality walnut and
 oak  trees.  They must be at  least 18  inches d.b.h. (diameter at
 breast height, which is the  diameter  of the tree outside the bark
 at 4  1/2 feet above the ground) but are usually commercially
mature at 20-24 inches d.b.h.  They must have an eight foot
minimum first log and be essentially free of all  defects.
According to Prestemon et al.  (1987),  "a recent economic analysis
                                 24

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estimated that a vigorously growing walnut tree with a veneer-
quality first log 8 feet long increases in value at a rate of 60%
annually between the 15 and 17 inch diameter class; and between
the 17 and 21 inch diameter class, the value is still increasing
20% per year.  An 8-foot log from a tree with a d.b.h. of 22
inches has twice the volume of a 16 inch tree, and the price per
board foot may be two or four times higher".
     Veneer wood from walnut and oak is regarded as one of the
best for furniture because of its strength, hardness  and  shock
resistance for its weight.  Its dark color, besides being attrac-
tive, does not require  staining.  In addition, black  walnut  has
little resistance  against a cutting edge,  so  shavings peel off
without  leaving marks  (Arno,  1986).
     Although these  trees are the most profitable,  they must be
carefully managed  through pruning, weeding and thinning.   It is
estimated that  a plantation which starts  with 450  to  700  trees
has an eventual harvest of  100  or fewer.   However,  there  is  no
 reason not  to sell the younger  thinned trees  to other markets for
 sawlogs or  firewood, for example.   In addition,  black walnut nuts
 are harvestable both for their  meat and for making a stain which
 can be applied to other, lighter woods.
      SAWWOOD:
      The next lower level of tree quality is marketable for
 lumber logs which can range from grade lumber to saw logs, pallet
 lumber logs, tie logs and fence posts, depending on the quality
 and desirability of the species.  For example, fast-growing
 hardwoods like cottonwood make excellent rough construction
                                  25

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 lumber.   "The diameter of cottonwood trees may  increase one



 inch or more per year when proper growing conditions  exist.  This



 growth rate  equals or exceeds that of softwood  species  commonly



 converted  into structural lumber" (Funck et al., 1988).




      However,  the hardness of wood is not related to  whether or



 not it is  called a hardwood,  as is evidenced by Table 6:








                Table 6: COMPARATIVE HARDNESS OF SOME NORTH AMERICAN WOODS
Soft
Softwoods
balsam fir
various spruce


Hardwoods
basswood
buckeye
"poplars"









Moderately Soft
Softwoods
cedar, western red
pine, white


Hardwoods
butternut
catalpa
tulip tree
willow







— 	 L
Moderately Hard
Softwoods
bald cypress
hemlock
southern yellow pine
tamarack and larch
Hardwoods
birch
cherry
chestnut
elm
black gum
hackberry
magno I i a
soft maple
sassafras
sweet gum
sycamore

Hard
Softwoods
southern yellow
pine
some Juniper

Hardwoods
ash
beech
holly
hard maple
mulberry
red oaks
white oaks
walnut, black




Very Hard
Softwoods
none



Hardwoods
hickory
locust, black
locust, honey
Osage orange
persimmon







     PULPWOOD:




     Small,  low quality trees are suitable for pulpwood.



Pulpwood is  usually  sold on the basis of weight.  The weight




of a tree can be estimated using appropriate conversion tables
                                 26

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when the d.b.h. and number of 8-foot lengths in a tree are known.
Pulp mill establishments shipped $3.7 billion of products con-
sidered primary to the industry in 1987.  These establishments
manufacture pulp from wood as well as from other materials such
as tags, wastepaper and straw (U.S. Department of Commerce,
Bureau of the Census, 1987).
     FIREWOOD:
     Another market for small trees and branches is firewood.
"Although the price paid for standing trees marketed as firewood
may be low, processing into cut-to-length, split dry firewood can
yield a return higher in some locations than low quality  sawlogs"
 (Prestemon  et  al., 1987).  The  standard cord is the traditional
measurement of fuelwood.   It represents a  stack of wood contain-
ing 128 cubic  feet of wood plus air  spaces, assuming that 3  to 8
inch diameter  hardwood contains 80 cubic feet.  A typical cord
contains  4  foot  logs  in  a  pile  4 feet high and  8 feet  long.
     In  1987,  the  logging  industry shipped $10  billion of
products  considered  primary  to  that  industry.   Establishments  and
products  included  in the logging industry  are  fuelwood harvest-
 ers, pole cutting  contractors,  pulpwood contractors  engaged in
 cutting,  and  manufacturers of wooden posts,  fence  rails,  saw logs
 and timber.  Table 7 is  a breakdown  of  forest  products sold in
 the four-state region according to USDA forest inventories.
                                  27

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 Table 7:
BREAKDOWN OF FOREST PRODUCTS FOR GROWING STOCK AND
SAWTIMBER ON COMMERCIAL LAND, ALL SPECIES
(Spencer et al.f 1980), (Spencer et al., 1984)
(Spencer et al., 1976), (Raile, 1986) (*See dates for
survey data collection on pages 20 and 21 of this report.)
 State   Forest Products
 I ova
 (1974*)
Kansas
 (1980*)
         Saw logs
         Veneer logs
           and bolts
         Pulpwood
         Cooperage logs
           and bolts
         Piling
         Poles
         Mine timbers
         Posts
         Other
         Fuelwood
         Saw logs
         Veneer  logs
         Cooperage  logs
         Fuelwood
         Posts
Missouri
(1972*)
        Saw logs
        Cooperage logs
        Veneer logs
        Charcoal wood
        Pulpwood
        Posts
        Poles
        Fuelwood
        Mine timbers
        Handle bolts
        Miscellaneous
                   Growing Stock

                Thousand Cubic Feet

                       7,162
                         865
Nebraska
(1983*)
        Saw logs
        Veneer logs
        Cooperage logs
        Fuelwood
        Posts
        Pulpwood
        Other
                       1,609
                          93
                           8
                         126
                         222
                       3,106

               Thousand  Cubic  Feet

                       4,340
                          72
                          40
                       7,577
                          52

                       Cords

                    609,005
                     97,467
                       8,506
                     67,077
                     20,752
                     22,001
                       3,374
                     98,492
                       1,216
                       4,594
                     11,312

               Thousand Cubic Feet

                      2,915
                        112
                         18
                      5,167
                         79
                         12
                         94
      Sawtimber

 Thousand Board Fe

        41,176
         3,921

         7,017
           562
            10
           373
         1,210
         7,387

 Thousand Board Fe

        26,269
           475
           237
        20,895
           114

 Thousand Board Fe<

      247,615
        46,581
         3,136
         7,799
         6,998
         3,374
           462
        18,587
           114
         1,778
         4,871

Thousand Board Fee

       18,551
          518
          106
       14,190
           93
           18
          512
                                 28

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     An example of the profit to be made from firewood is provid-



ed by Dale Green of Castalia, Iowa (Successful Farming,  Feb.



1987).  Although cutting the firewood to length,  splitting, and



drying costs him substantial time and effort, he is able to



market the material at a favorable price.  If the customer picks



up the wood, Green charges $40 per pickup load, or $20 per ton.



If he delivers, the price is $50 per load for a three quarter ton



pickup, or $25 per ton.  If he stacks the wood for the customer,



he charges $5 per hour.  He reports a fixed cost for saws, wood



splitter, and wedges of $1,000 and estimates that he makes $7.50




per hour for labor and equipment.



      OTHER INCOME SOURCES FROM FORESTED WETLANDS:



      Other ways of deriving  income from  forested wetlands  include



selling tree saplings to nurseries, selling  nuts from pecan and



black walnut trees  (markets  range  from nurseries to organic food



stores to road  side  stands),  leasing the land  to hunter  and other



wildlife enthusiasts, and trapping furbearers.  Finally,  some



people are  farming their woodlands for  shiitake, edible  mush-



ooms, which  are planted on  thinned hardwoods in the form of a



seed culture,  called spawn  or innoculum.   Logs generally fruit



one year  for each inch  of diameter during both spring and fall.



Two pounds  of  mushrooms can be harvested per log.  With  300 logs



per cord,  and shiitake  at  $5 per pound,  one  cord might return



 $3000.   Offsetting this return are relatively minimal costs of



production such as a chain  saw,  a drill, a hammer  to  inoculate



 the spawn,  and shiitake spawn itself which can be  purchased for



 about $160 per cord (Successful Farming, Feb.  1987).
                                  29

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      MULTICROPPING:




      Multicropping may be the best solution for owners who have



 limited time and money to invest in intensive forest production.



 A few combinations which complement one another are growing hay



 crops with trees, such as black walnut and switchgrass,  or pecan



 and cordgrass.   Care must be taken, if machinery is used,  not to



 damage the crop trees.  If animals are being grazed,  fences may



 be necessary around the trees to prevent them from being eaten,



 trampled or scratched.  Another combination might be  red oaks



 with cordgrass.   The composted mulch from the oaks could be sold



 to garden supply stores,  while the grass provides excellent



 forage or hay during the  summer.



      COST-SHARE  PROGRAMS:




      A further way  to offset  some of the costs  of putting  a



 forested wetland into production  is by  setting  aside  the land



 in the  USDA Conservation  Reserve  Program (CRP)  for 10 years.



 By specifying tree  planting in the  application, technical  and



 monetary assistance for planting  are provided.  Black walnut



 and pecan  both qualify for the program.  Unfortunately, current



 regulations  allow only a third of the land to be planted in a



 single  species so there is a smaller chance of getting a good



 crop when  the trees mature.  However, a CRP participant receives



payment during the ten year plan while he/she manages the trees



in their early crucial stages of development.  When the land



comes out of CRP, the pecan nuts will almost be ready for their
                                30

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first harvest, while commercially harvestable quantities of
walnuts will be produced beginning in their twentieth year.  The
relatively early and annual yields from nut production supplement
the returns from timber, resulting in more profit for the land-
owner.  (Kurtz et al., 1984).
     Other cost-share programs include the Agricultural Conserva-
tion Program  (ACP) and the Forestry Incentive Program  (FIP). Both
programs are  administered by the Agricultural Stabilization and
Conservation  Service  (ASCS) with review and approval at the
county  level.  The ACP  is a program wherein a landowner applies
for  financial assistance for installing conservation measures.
These measures include  terracing,  soil erosion  control, farm
sewage  treatment  lagoons, grass  seeding,  and tree planting.
Technical  assistance  for such  endeavors is provided by the Soil
Conservation  Service  (SCS).  The grasses  and trees  may be
harvested,  as long  as the conservation measures remain intact.
Cost-sharing  is  currently  from 50-75%, up to  $3500  per landowner
per year,  depending on the  county.
      The FIP  is  similar to  the ACP except it  applies  only to
 forestry management,  technical assistance is  provided by the
 state's forestry agency,  and cost-sharing is  up to 65%, not
 to exceed $10,000 per landowner.
      Furthermore, many states have their own form of cost-sharing
 or tax exemption for wetlands.  In Iowa,  for example, an owner of
 a forested wetland can apply for tax exemption under their Forest
                                  31

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 Reserve Law.  To qualify, the forest must be at least two
 continuous acres and generally no less than 66 feet wide.  Each
 acre must contain at least 200 trees, and no more than one-fifth
 of the total number of trees in the reservation may be removed in
 any one year unless the trees are lost due to natural causes.
 If the number of trees falls below 200,  the owner is given one
 year to restore their numbers to 200 or above per acre.
      These financial programs provide an excellent opportunity to
 use a wetland without having to bear the full financial  burden of
 restoring,  seeding,  or planting.
 CONCLUSION
      Although maintenance of forested wetlands  is  important for
 timber production  and wildlife  habitat,  these areas  provide other
 far-reaching  benefits due to the  function of  their hydrological
 systems.  Among  these may be enhanced groundwater  recharge
 and  discharge, filtration and purification of surface waters,
 temporary storage  and reduction of flood  waters, and stream bank
 protection.   Thus, the practice of silviculture in wetland  forests
 in which forest  crops are  tended, harvested and then reforested,
 realizes the  commercial production capabilities of the land without
 the  impact on the ecosystem associated with logging and clearing the
 trees for conversion of wetlands to other uses.  Forested wetlands
 are compatible with and enhance other wetland functions while adding
value to the land,  a motivation for some landowners to retain their
forested wetlands in a condition that preserves their ability to
enjoy the wetland functions and benefits.
                                32

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ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON FOREST PRODUCTS

Paul Wray, Extension Forester
Forestry Extension
251 Bessey Hall
Iowa State University
Ames, IA  50011
(515) 294-4465

Lester Pinkerton, Forest Management Program Leader
Cooperative Extension Service
Department of Forestry
2610 Claflin Road
Manhattan, KS  66502-2798
(913) 537-7050

Tom Wardle, Deputy State Forester
Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Wildlife
Nebraska  Forest  Service
101 Plant Industry, East Campus
Lincoln,  NE  68583-0814
(402) 472-2944

Shelby Jones, Staff Supervisor
Forest Products  Utilization and  Marketing
Missouri  Department of Conservation
P.O. Box  180
Jefferson City,  MO  65102-0180
 (314) 751-4115

Dean Prestemon,  Extension  Forester
Forestry  Extension
251  Bessey Hall
Iowa State University
Ames, IA   50011
 (515) 294-4465


Len  Gould,  Forestry  Specialist
Utilization  and  Marketing
 2610 Claflin Road
Manhattan,  KS  66502
 (913)  537-7050

 Dennis  Adams,  District Forester
 107  Mussehl Hall
 East Campus,  University of Nebraska-Lincoln
 Lincoln,  NE  68583-0714
 (402)  472-2944
 (handles  forest products marketing for NE Forest Service)
                                  33

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 Jack Slusher, Extension Forester
 University of Missouri - Columbia School of Natural Resources
 1-34 Agriculture Building
 Columbia, MO  65211
 (314) 882-4444
 (produces a quarterly report on stumpage prices in MO)


 "Some Marketing Alternatives for Pecans"
 Publication GZ030
 New Mexico Agricultural Information Department
 Drawer 3AI
 New Mexico State University
 Las Cruces,  NM  88003

 Pecan South/Pecan Quarterly Magazine
 Published bimonthly by the Texas Pecan Growers Association
 and the Federated Pecan Growers Association of the U S
 Drawer CC,  College Station,  TX  77841

 Gordon Kempf
 Missouri Nut Growers Association
 421 Braircliff Road
 Kansas City,  MO  64116
 (816)  453-6842

 Frank Hershey,  Watershed Specialist
 Missouri Department of Conservation
 P.O.  Box 180
 Jefferson City,  MO  65102
 (314)  751-4115

 Northern Nut  Growers Association
 4518  Holston  Hills Road
 Knoxville, TN  37914
 (615)  524-0416

 Horticulture  Department
 1-40  Agriculture Building
 University of Missouri
 Columbia, MO   65211

 Larry R.  Frye, Executive Director
 or James  H. Lee,  Director of Forestry Programs
 Fine Hardwoods/American Walnut Association
 5603 West Raymond  Street, Suite  D
 Indianapolis,  IN 46241
 (317) 844-3311

Missouri Consulting  Foresters Association
Guide to Professional Forestry Assistance
Suite 2A
611 East Capitol
Jefferson City, MO   65101
                                 34

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   Chapter II




WILDLIFE VALUES
         35

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 OVERVIEW




      Wetlands comprise some of the most productive natural



 ecosystems in the world.  This is demonstrated by the wide diver-



 sity of wildlife sustained by wetland-produced food, cover and



 nursery ground for part or all of their life cycle.  Most fresh-



 water fish feed upon wetland-produced food and use wetlands as



 nursery grounds, while most of the important recreational fish



 spawn in wetlands.   A variety of waterfowl as well as a large



 number of songbirds feed,  nest,  and raise their young in wet-



 lands.   Furbearers,  such as muskrat,  mink and beaver,  along with



 big game mammals,  such as  black  bear and deer,  use wetlands for



 food and shelter.   Thus, these areas are ideal  for all forms of



 wildlife recreation  (EPA,  1988).



 WILDLIFE RECREATION




      Outdoor  recreation  is  extremely  popular  in the  United



 States,  and according  to the 1985 National  Survey  of Fishing,



 Hunting,  and  Wildlife  Associated Recreation (U.S.  Department



 of  the Interior  Fish and Wildlife Service,  1988),  "wildlife-



 associated recreation  was one of this country's most popular



 forms of outdoor recreation in 1985".  Among the 46.4 million



 persons  16 years of age and older who fished, there were 38.4



 million anglers who fished in freshwater other than the Great



 Lakes.  These fishermen accounted for 785.9 million fishing days



 and $17.8 billion of fishing expenditures, an average of 20 days



and $463 per fisherman.  In addition, 16.7 million hunters over



16 years old spent 334 million days hunting, spending a total of



$10.1 billion on hunting-related  expenditures with an average of
                                36

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20 days in the field and $603 per hunter in 1985.   Among these,
there were 5 million migratory bird hunters in 1985.  They spent
41.7 million days and $1.1 billion in pursuit of migratory birds,
an average of 8 days and $216 per hunter.
     Along with fishing, hunting and trapping, wildlife recrea-
tion includes some nonconsumptive activities such as feeding,
photographing and observing wildlife.  In 1985, 134.7 million
Americans 16 years or older enjoyed these activities, some of
whom were also fishermen and hunters, spending over $14.3
billion, for an average of $221 per participant.
POTENTIAL VALUE FROM WETLAND WILDLIFE
     LEASE-FEE HUNTING:
     At the same time that the popularity of  outdoor recreation
has expanded, the available wetlands, both public and private,
have greatly declined.  Thus, the  remaining wetlands have  become
an increasingly valuable  commodity to wildlife  enthusiasts.   "Of
the North American wildlife  species, those occupying wetlands are
among  the most sought after  by sport hunters  and provide the
greatest monetary return  from a  commercial harvest.  For most
 sporting  or commercial  species,  wetlands comprise  an  important
part  of their  habitat  in  some part of their  range"  (Chabreck,
 1978). Evidence  of  the concern  over the lack of hunting land is
provided  by a  poll  conducted by  the National Shooting  Sports
 Foundation in 1986  which reported that  "hunters rank access to
 hunting land the number one problem in  the sport today" (Basset
 and Freiling,  1987).
                                  37

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      This demand for quality hunting provides landowners with an
 opportunity for an alternative source of income from their wet-
 land through fee hunting (also called lease hunting) which occurs
 whenever a landowner allows a hunter access to his/her property
 in exchange for money or conservation services which benefit
 landowner and hunter alike.  The agreement is sometimes formal-
 ized with a signed lease.  "If trends continue, hunting land will
 become an increasingly valuable commodity,  especially near urban
 areas or in locations where public land is scarce" (Basset and
 Freiling,  1987).   In 1985,  736,000 acres of wetlands were leased
 for migratory bird hunting  to 41,000 lessors.   A total of
 $26,139,000  was spent to lease the land,  with  each hunter paying
 an average  of $346  (U.S. Department of  the  Interior Fish  and
 Wildlife Service,  1989).
      This region of  the  country does not  have  a  well-documented
 fee hunting  record as  do the  southern and mid-Atlantic  states
 where fee hunting has  become  a  successful tradition.  For  exam-
 ple,  Texas landowners  hold  about 14,000 leasing  licenses and earn
 $150  to  $200 million a year in hunting fees.  One  attribute that
 this  region does share with those  states  is a small proportion of
 public lands, indicating the potential for a market in this area.
 Examples of fees charged in other  states  are provided in Table 8.
Although most of the game species  listed are not restricted to
wetlands, the fees shown may provide an idea of the range of
profits to be made from this activity.
                                38

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Table 8:  Examples of Lease Prices*

Location            Games Species

Alabama             Deer, Turkey

                    Dove


Florida             Deer, Turkey

                    Quail

Georgia             Deer, Small Game
                    Deer
                    Deer
                    Quail
                    Trout
 Louisiana           Deer,  Small Game
                    Ducks
 Maryland


 North Carolina


 Tennessee

 Texas
Geese


Geese


Deer, Quail
Dove

Ducks

Deer

Deer
(Bassett and Freiling,  1987)*

   Fees

   $.50 - $15/A**
   $75 - $150/A
   $150/Day, including
   meals & lodging

   Range $.25 - $7.25/A
   Average $1.46/A
   $10 - $15/Day

   $2 - $10/A
   $90/Day
   $.50 - $5/A
   $100 - $410/Day
   $45/Day, 4 trout
   limit

   $1 - $10/A
   $150 - $5000/Section,
   marshland
   $7.50 -  $10/A
   $75  - $100/Day

   $7.50 -  $10/A
   $75  - $100/Day

   $1.25/A
   $5  - $10/Day

   $100 -  $200/A Wetland

   $4  - $8/A  includes
   services,  trophy, animals
   $300/2.5 Days
  *Prices vary depending on time period of lease whether the lease
   short-term (day,  weekend,  or week),  or annual
 **A = Acre
                                               Date

                                                1985

                                               1985


                                               1985

                                               1985

                                               1986
                                               1981
                                               1981
                                               1981, 1986
                                               1986
                                               1981
                                               1981

                                               1981
 1981


 1986


 1986

 1983

 1986

is
            Management of Leased Property

            The basic type of fee hunting arrangement is a fee for

       simple access to the land with few or no services provided to the

       hunter.  Addition of hunter services increases the fee one can

       charge for access.  However, larger investments in time and money
                                        39

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 are the trade-off.  A few of the extra services which could be

 provided to hunters are:

      -blinds, decoys, whistles
      -campsites, cabins, trailer hookups
      -cleaning and refrigeration of game
      -dogs, kennels
      -hunting guides
      -meals
      -organized shoots
      -target shooting

      In addition,  improvements in the wildlife habitat that raise

 the quality of the hunting,  also will increase the  value of the

 hunting land.  The quality and diversity of  the wildlife on a

 leased area is the most  important factor in  determing the success

 of  lease-fee hunting.  Thus,  it may be more  efficient to concen-

 trate  management efforts on  preventing disturbances and on

 improving habitats,  including food sources and water availabili-

 ty.  These  can be  provided by plantings  for  food, cover,  and

 nesting sites,  fences  and water management.  Appendix 1,  although

 not  exhaustive,  describes some plants  that will  enhance wildlife

 habitat.  Note that  the  sample prices  for seeds, tubers or plants

 are  a  one-time investment for  most  of  these plants,  because they

 will grow back year  after year.   Fencing may be  required  on

 ranches where  animals will decrease the productivity  of the

 wetland and disturb  the wildlife  if allowed to graze  in those

 areas.

     Finally,  some amount of water management may have to  be

 implemented, depending upon the condition of the wetlands.  To

provide the water conditions conducive for germination and plant

growth, most wetlands created or modified for wildlife must be
                                40

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managed for complete dewatering in order to influence the plant
community.  Wildlife managers often use water level control
structures and a reliable source of water in order to manipulate
water depths to  control specific plants for nest sites (birds)
and food sources (furbearers and birds).  Areas that are flooded
in the spring and later dewatered create mudflat conditions
attractive to migrant shorebirds and ducks, but also allow
germination of the seedbanks  (Kusler and Kentula, eds. 1989).
     It is important that a diversity  of plant life is available
to support the wide range of wildlife  that live in wetlands.   For
instance, marginal nonpersistant emergents produce large seed
crops, deeper water persistant emergents are good for nest  sites
and provide tubers for herbivores, and submergent plants are a
source of food and act as substrate  for  invertebrates  (Kusler,
and Kentula, eds. 1989).
     Types of Leases
     The  three standard  lease lengths  are  short-term  (day,  week-
end, or week), seasonal,  or  annual.  Seasonal  and  annual  leases,
while  providing  less  potential income  per  season,  involve  less
day to day work  and assure the landowner of  a  fixed,  guaranteed
 income from hunters with whom they can develop a  long-term rela-
tionship.   Short-term leases,  on the other hand,  can  often charge
higher fees  although  the total income  for  a  season is not guaran-
 teed.   They  also require more intensive management i.e.,  "more
 contact  with  people,  more advertising, and more bookkeeping"
 (Basset  and  Freiling,  1987),  but the landowner has more flexibil-
 ity and control  over  the property and  its  policies.   In many
                                  41

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 instances,  geographic location influences the type and amount of

 payment for hunting.   Preserves within close proximity to large

 cities can  afford to  charge higher prices and pick and choose

 their members.   On the other hand,  rural  preserves that are  not

 easily accessible from towns or cities may require daily-fee

 hunts.

      Drawing up  a written  lease has several advantages.   It

 clearly states the expectations of  the landowner and  the hunter,

 the  details of the operation,  and the  form of payment.   This

 lowers  the  likelihood that misunderstandings  will  occur and  may

 offer some  protection against  liability should the owner be  sued.

 By drawing  up and discussing the lease agreement with prospective

 clients, it also  gives  the landowner a chance to evaluate pro-

 spective lessors  and  screen potential  problem hunters.   Basset

 and  Freiling (1987) explain that the basic  elements of  the lease

 should  include the  following:

      Name of parties-lessee and lessor
      What is leased-access  and hunting  rights
      Description  of tract-size, boundaries, off-limit areas,  hazards
      Species to be hunted
      Permitted hunting methods
      Payment-amount or kind  and due date
      Length  of lease-day, week, month,  season  or year
      Guest privileges
      Liability statements
      Conditions for subleasing, cancellation,  renegotiation,  renewal


     A popular form of lease arrangement is a  contract with a

hunting club.  Most often the club will either out-right buy  a

piece of land or  lease it from the landowner,  in return for which

they have the right to then charge their members for its use.  In

other instances,  the landowner receives a portion of the profits


                                 42

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made by the club.  The benefit of this system is that the owner
does not have to advertise or screen clients and often the club
maintains or enhances the wildlife habitat.  The Mid-American
Game Bird Association leases land from farmers at an average of
$3,000 per year for a ten acre wetland, restores or enhances
wetlands and wildlife habitat, and then charges hunters for
access to the land.  According to John Nee, the director of the
organization, land which is currently worth $100-$300 could be
doubled or tripled in value if the wetland is restored and leased
for hunting.
     Because of  the high demand  for outdoor recreation, it may be
possible to lease  land  for nonconsumptive  or off-season activi-
ties such  as birdwatching, firewood cutting, mushroom and wild
edibles hunting, wildflower picking,  photography,  and pond or
stream fishing.
     TRAPPING:
     A further  use of wetland-associated wildlife  is furtrapping,
 a multimillion  dollar  industry in the wetlands  of  the United
 States.   Supplemental  income  can be derived from trapping fur-
 bearers either  through  direct sale of the  pelts to dealers  or
 stores,  by leasing wetlands  for fur harvest,  or by sharing  a
 percentage of the fur harvest value from pelts  trapped  on leased
 wetlands.   The  1985 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting,  and
 Wildlife Associated Recreation  (U.S.  Department of the  Interior,
 Fish and Wildlife Service,  1988) reported 508,000 total trappers,
 among which 316,000 trapped for sport, 162,000 trapped for
 income, and 30,000 did not specify.  The average trapper spent

                                  43

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 23 trapping days annually for a total of 11,508,000 days of
 trapping per year.
      Furbearing animals include many species and occupy most
 habitat types.  Many of these species use wetlands as a component
 of their habitat, but are usually adaptable to either upland or
 wetland habitat.  "The diversity of a particular wetland usually
 determines the number of animals that an area will support.
 Habitat requirements vary considerably among various groups and
 among species within groups" (Chabreck,  1978).   Some of the
 furbearers which occupy wetlands,  at least  temporarily are the
 opossum,  black bear,  raccoon,  weasel,  mink,  river otter,  skunk,
 coyote,  red fox,  gray fox,  bobcat,  cougar,  beaver,  muskrat, and
 deer  (Brabander et al.,  1985).   Commercially important species
 which require a wetland environment for  at  least a  portion of
 their life cycle in IA,  KS,  MO,  and NE are  beaver,  mink,  muskrat
 and raccoon.
      Beaver (Castor canadensis):  Occur  in  low densities  in
 bottomland hardwood habitat  along streams, with  about  2-3  per
 mile  of stream  and  1-5 per acre  of  wetland.  They feed on  mice,
 rabbits, fish,  muskrats, frog, and  crayfish.  Up to one-third
 could be taken  on a sustained yield basis.
     Mink  (Mustela vison):   Live in low densities in the bottom-
 land hardwood habitat along  streams, with about 2-3 per mile  of
 stream and  1-5 per acre of wetland.  They feed on mice, rabbits,
 fish,  muskrats, frog, and crayfish.  Up to one-third could  be
taken on a sustained yield basis.
                                 44

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     Muskrat (Ondatra zibethica):   These are prolific rodents

that live in marshes, ponds and streams.  They require still or

slow-moving water with plenty of vegetation in the marshes or

along banks.  Wetlands that dry up in the summer will not support

these animals.  The best marshes are 1-3 feet deep with a lot of

cattail and bulrush.  Eighty percent of the muskrats in an area

can be taken without harm.  Good marshes produce a sustained

yield of up to 20 muskrats per acre, while streams produce 5-15

per mile.

     Raccoon  rProcvon lotor):  Omnivores  (those animals that eat

both plants and animals) which prefer streams, although they will

be found around the  edges of marshes.   These animals need large

trees and hollow  logs for dens.  Population density  is 5-20 per

100 acres throughout the Midwest but are more concentrated along

streams and wetlands.  The maximum  sustainable yield is 40% of a

given population  (McCullough,  1990).

     Tables 9-16   illustrate the additional  income that can be

earned from trapping furbearing mammals in wetlands.
 Table 9:   FURS PURCHASED FROM IOWA TRAPPERS  AND HUNTERS
           AS REPORTED BY IOWA FUR BUYERS  1988-1989
           (Andrews and Humburg,  1989)

                NUMBER OF       AVERAGE PRICE
             PELTS PURCHASED       PER PELT          TOTAL VALUE

                                                    $  394,038.70
                                                    $  308,751.76
                                                    $1,516,825.76
                                                    $  170,191.98
                                                    $  187,656.75
                                                    $    9,274.14
                                                    $   20,506.50
                                                    $   11,299.68
                                  45
*J JL AJ ^— * -*- •!— • *-*
Muskrat
Mink
Raccoon
Beaver
Red Fox
Gray Fox
Coyote
Opossum
192,214
13,996
190,556
18,459
15,445
769
4,650
19,824
$ 2.05
$22.06
$ 7.96
$ 9.22
$12.15
$12.06
$ 4.41
$ .57

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 Table 9:
 SPECIES

 Striped
   Skunk
 Badger

 TOTALS
Furs Purchased From Iowa Trappers and Hunters
as Reported by Iowa Fur Buyers 1988-1989  (Continued)
     NUMBER OF
  PELTS PURCHASED
          712
        1,034

      457,668
     AVERAGE PRICE
        PER PELT
         $ 1.31
         $3.57

         $ 5.69
                                          TOTAL VALUE
         $      932.72
         $    3,723.51

         $2,602,695.00
Table  10;
SEASON

1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
 FLUCTUATIONS IN IOWA'S FURBEARER MARKET 1984-1989
 (Andrews,  et al.  1984-1989)
     NUMBER OF
  PELTS PURCHASED

      804,167
      601,714
      990,236
      925,989
      457,668
    AVERAGE  PRICE
        PER PELT

         $10.66
         $ 8.58
         $10.44
         $ 8.74
         $ 5.70
           TOTAL VALUE

         $  8,574,748.98
         $  5,163,651.66
         $10,335,629.88
         $  8,097,248.52
         $  2,602,695.00
Table 11:
SEASON

1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
 FLUCTUATIONS  IN  IOWA'S  FURBEARER MARKET 1984-1989
 (Values  include  beaver,  mink,  muskrat,  raccoon only)
    NUMBER  OF
 PELTS PURCHASED
      751,314
      557,264
      922,501
      864,419
      415,225
    AVERAGE PRICE
       PER PELT

        $10.58
        $ 8.54
        $10.48
        $ 8.74
        $ 5.76
          TOTAL VALUE

        $ 7,946,326.40
        $ 4,760,465.30
        $ 9,666,396.20
        $ 7,558,267.90
        $ 2,389,808.00
Table 12
SPECIES
MISSOURI 1988-1989 FUR MARKET AND HARVEST  SUMMARY
(Kulowiec and Hamilton, 1989)
    HARVEST
  AVERAGE
PELT PRICE
Raccoon
Opossum
Red Fox
Gray Fox
Coyote
Bobcat
106,539
16,607
2,193
3,087
3,112
1,014
$ 7.80
$ 1.04
$13.16
$14.62
$ 2.89
$38.13
   TOTAL
PELT VALUE

$831,009.20
$ 17,271.28
$ 28,859.88
$ 45,131.94
$  8,993.66
$ 27,491.73
% OF TOTAL
PELT VALUE

   67.8
    1.4
    2.4
    3.7
    0.7
    2.2
                                 46

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Table 12:
SPECIES
Missouri 1988-1989 Fur Market and Harvest Summary
(Continued)
Mink
Beaver
Muskrat
Striped Skunk
Spotted Skunk
Badger
Weasel

TOTALS
    HARVEST
    184,844
                             AVERAGE
                           PELT PRICE
4,406
7,249
40,436
153
0
44
4
$29.69
$ 7.47
$ 2.04
$ 1.03
	
$ 2.00
$ .25
$ 6.64
                                   TOTAL
                                PELT VALUE
$1,226,452.91
                            % OF TOTAL
                            PELT VALUE
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
130,814.14
54,150.03
82,489.44
157.59
0.00
88.00
1.00
10.7
4.4
6.7
— — —
— — —
	
	
                                                 100.0
Table 13
SEASON

1970-71
1971-72
1972-73
1973-74
1974-75
1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
1980-81
1981-82
1982-83
1983-84
1984-85
1985-86
1986-87
1987-88
1988-89
TRENDS  IN MISSOURI  FUBEARER VALUES  IN LAST 20 SEASONS
 (includes raccoon,  coyote, bobcat,  mink,  beaver,
muskrat, striped  skunk,  spotted  skunk,  badger,
weasel)  (Kulowiec and  Hamilton,  1989)
         NO.  OF
     PELTS  HARVESTED

         233,414
         325,686
         334,899
         881,276
         464,825
         497,138
         474,584
         320,673
         451,226
         634,338
         479,637
         409,627
         400,264
         255,330
         392,634
         232,561
         443,508
         351,530
         184,844
                                        VALUE TO
                                       FUR-TAKERS
       $  258,
       $  666,
       $1,736,
       $2,312,
       $2,479,
       $4,684,
       $5,848,
       $3,467,
       $8,613,
       $9,081,
       $5,588,
       $6,241,
       $3,700,
       $2,894,
       $4,927,
       $2,694,
       $6,221,
       $3,690,
       $1,226,
  587.00
  274.00
  296.00
  918.00
  370.00
  644.00
  010.90
  450.20
  607.20
  482.10
  128.70
  229.40
  867.85
  466.30
  167.30
  062.30
  726.15
  660.31
  452.91
VALUE/PELT

  $ 1.11
  $ 2.05
  $ 5.18
  $ 6.07
  $ 5.33
  $ 9.42
  $12.32
  $10.81
  $19.09
  $14.32
  $11.65
  $15.24
  $ 9.25
  $11.34
  $12.55
  $11.58
  $14.03
  $10.50
  $ 6.64
                                  47

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 Table 14:
 SPECIES

 Beaver
 Mink
 Muskrat

 Raccoon
 SUSTAINED  YIELDS  AND VALUES  OF FURBEARER PELTS,  NEBRASKA
 1990  (McCullough,  1990)
    SUSTAINED
 ANIMAL  YIELD

 1 colony (6-8)
 2-3/mi stream
  or  1-5/100
  acres  wetland
 2O/acre  marsh or
  5-15/mi. stream
 5-20/100 acres
  CURRENT
PELT VALUE

  $ 5 - $20
  $10 - $20
  $ 1

  $ 3 - $10
HIGHEST PELT VALUE
 IN LAST 10 YEARS

     $100
      $40
      $ 5

      $40
Table  15:
IOWA
MISSOURI
NEBRASKA
KANSAS
DISTRIBUTION AND VALUE OF THE FUR HARVEST BY  SPECIES
IN THE U.S. IN 1975-1976 AS A PERCENT OF THE  NATIONAL
TOTAL (Chabreck, 1979)
       BEAVER

        2.6
        1.2
        3.6
        3.3
     TOTALS        10.7

AVG. PELT PRICES   $6
   MINK

    7.4
    2.4
    1.5
    0.8

   12.1

  $10
MUSKRAT

   6.0
   1.4
   1.2
   0.8

   9.4

  $3.50
Table 16:
SEASON
AVERAGE U.S. PELT PRICES FOR BEAVER, MINK, MUSKRAT,
RACCOON FROM 1970-1976 (Deems and DePursley, 1978)
  BEAVER
                          MINK
   MUSKRAT
                                    RACCOON
1970-71
1971-72
1972-73
1973-74
1974-75
1975-76
$10.00
$12.00
$14.00
$13.50
$11.00
$ 6.00
$ 7.50
$ 9.50
$12.00
$11.50
$ 8.00
$10.00
$1.40
$2.25
$3.00
$3.00
$3.00
$3.50
$ 3.50
$ 6.50
$10.00
$15.00
$12.00
$19.00
     AQUACULTURE:

     Every year millions of fishermen rely on wetland habitats

to produce fish for their recreational enjoyment.  In 1985 there
                                 48

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were 38.4 million anglers who fished in freshwater other than the



Great Lakes.  These fishermen accounted for 785.9 million days of



fishing, an average of 20 days and $463 per fisherman (U.S.



Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife service, 1988).



In Kansas alone in 1985, 567,700 residents fished an average of



20.2 days, spending $399 per fisherman (U.S. Department of the




Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 1989).



     While all species of fish rely to some extent on wetlands,



their degree of utilization is highly variable, depending on the



species.  "The young of both fresh water and salt water fishes



often seek shallow waters, where their food is more concentrated



than in deeper water and where they are protected from predation.



Additionally, shallow water is a place of permanent residence for



some species and a feeding ground for transients"  (Peters et al.,



1978).  Most freshwater fish are considered wetland-dependant



because they feed in wetlands or on wetland-produced  food, use



wetlands  as nursery grounds, or spawn  in the aquatic  portions of



wetlands  (Delaware Conservationist, Fall,  1987).



     Fishing Leases



     Freshwater  fish are primarily harvested for  recreation,



although  some species  such as trout, buffalo,  carp  and  catfish



are often harvested for commercial use as  well.   Other  major



freshwater  fish  are the sunfishes, pickerels,  bullheads and




perches.



     Due  to the  high demand  for  fishing  and the  shortage of



available fishing  land, a  profitable enterprise  could be made



from leasing wetlands  to  fishermen  either  independently or in






                                 49

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 conjunction  with  a  hunting  lease.  According  to the  1985 National



 Survey  of  Fishing,  Hunting,  and Wildlife Associated  Recreation



 (U.S. Department  of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife  Service,



 1988),  5,090,000  acres of freshwater land was leased that year to



 121,000 fishermen who spent  $19,676,000 or $148 per  fisherman for



 access  to  that  land.  Out of this total, 268,000 acres were



 wetlands,  leased  by 58,000 fishermen.



     Commercial Fish Production




     Besides profiting from  recreational fishing, income may be



 derived from raising fish for commercial harvests.   This enter-



 prise requires a  substantial investment of labor and capital,



 depending  on the  size and type of operation,  and the production



 methods  used.  Although commercial fish farming in Missouri is a



 small industry  (approximately 4.8 million pounds of  food fish



 were produced in  1986), the  state's water resource of over



 350,000  farm ponds,  estimated at 250,000 acres has the potential



 to support a sizable fish industry.   "Using existing ponds elimi-



 nates a major production cost,  and cage-culture techniques make



 otherwise unproductive ponds (those that are  too deep or with too



many obstructions to seine)  available for commercial production"



 (Belusz, 1987).   A rough estimate of the economic variables



 involved in catfish production is as follows:






                            Production  Cost      Net Return
Pond Size
1 acre
5 acres
10 acres
20 acres
Stocking Rate
3500/acre
3500/acre
3500/acre
3500/acre
Per 100 Lbs.
$64.40
$54.00
$53.90
$49.80
Per Acre
$98
$387
$388
$531
                                50

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     Pond Stocking
     Fish farming is not limited to just food fish.   Among the
other types of operations are pond stocking,  baitfishes, finger-
lings, and broodfish.  Production of fish for pond stocking for
recreational fishing is usually much less labor intensive than
for food-size fish, while the return may be the same or even
higher.  Some of the most popular species for pond stocking are
largemouth bass, catfish, bluegills, crappie, and hybrid sunfish.
A stocker is generally four inches to 1 pound or more.  In 1987,
10-12 inch catfish stockers were being sold for about $.70 each
or $1.87 a pound.  This could provide a supplemental income for
small-scale food-fish growers.  However, delivery of the live
fish  is usually required, which may be prohibitive in terms of
equipment costs  (Belusz, 1987).
      Baitfish
      Baitfish production is also a desirable enterprise for a
number of reasons.   Firstly, small ponds, which may not be suit-
able  for other  fishes can support baitfish.  Secondly,  300-800
pounds of minnows  can be produced from a well-managed pond.   In
1987,  the average  price  for minnows was about  $2.50 per pound
wholesale, making  a  few  acres of pond into a valuable piece of
land.  In addition,  proximity to major fishing lakes  can make
production even more lucrative  for  sale either directly to fish-
ermen or to  local  retailers.  Two of the most  popular bait fishes
are  the golden  shiner and fathead minnow.  Commercial production
of minnows in the  U.S.  is worth about $100 million  for  sport-
fishing at the  farm  level  (Belusz,  1987).

                                 51

-------
      Besides being a good baitfish,  minnows are eagerly eaten by



 poultry and provide a good alternate source of  protein.   However,



 if  poultry are allowed more than one feeding of minnows per day,



 the meat or eggs  from the poultry takes  on  a fishy  flavor.



      Crayfish and Leeches




      Crayfish and leeches can  also be sold  to bait  dealers.   Like



 minnows,  they can be managed in  shallow  and weed-choked ponds not



 suitable for fish.   Most  crayfish crops  are used for bait.



 However,  in the Bootheel  of Missouri where  crayfish may grow over



 three inches,  they are large enough  for  food production  (Belusz,



 1987).   Although  there has  been  little if any food  size  crayfish



 production in our region  outside  of  the  Bootheel of Missouri,



 it  could be a successful  enterprise,  especially  in  Southern



 Missouri.




      Missouri alone  supports 27 species  and  subspecies of cray-



 fish,  the  majority confined  to the area  south of the Missouri



 River.   Their habitats  vary, depending on the species, from



 rivers and rocky  streams, to ponds and swamps, or cave springs



 and underground streams.  Stream-living  crayfish make excellent



 bait  for bass, drum  and catfish.  Collecting wild crayfish by



 seine, net  or  hand is  legal with a fishing permit up to a limit



 of 150 in Missouri  (Johnson, undated).   If the number of crayfish



 collected  in  one year exceeds 150, a fine will be imposed.



     Finqerlinq and  Broodfish




     As the interest in food-fish production grows around the



area, the demand for fingerlings will increase proportionately.



This form of aquaculture requires the most technical skill and






                                 52

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knowledge for such things as broodfish management, knowledge of

spawning, and care of young fish and their diseases.  However,

fry or eggs can be purchased to reduce the effort and risk.  In

addition, on a limited acreage, profitable numbers of fingerlings

can be produced.  According to Belusz (1987), from 10,000 to 500,000

fingerlings per acre can be produced.  If 70,000 fry are stocked per

acre, 4-6 inch long fingerlings will develop in about 120 days.

     To supplement the income from a small fingerling operation,

broodfish can be raised.  Sexually mature female catfish weighing

five pounds produce 2,000-4,000 eggs per pound  (Belusz, 1987).

Several broodfish might be used to maintain the fingerling pro-

duction while some could be sold to other operators, often at a

high price.

     Food-fish

     Food-fish production, unlike fingerling production requires

larger acreage and more water.  An average acre can only produce

2,000 to 5,000 food-fish under good management.   Belusz  (1987)

contends that growers can produce food-size catfish in ponds  or

cages at stocking rates from a few hundred, to more than 6,000

pounds per  acre.  He estimates that the capitalization costs  for

a  pond culture operation are as follows:


          Harvesting Seine                 $  800.00
          Hauling Tank                     $  827.00
          Agitators                        $  398.00
          Holding Nets  (2)                 $  140.00
          Scale  (for weighing  feed)        $    50.00
          Dip Nets  (4)                     $  107.00
          Water  Test Kit                   $  200.00
          Emergency Aeration Equip.        $  600.00
          Boat and Motor                   $  800.00
                               TOTAL        $3,922.00
                                 53

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 For  an  existing  2-acre pond  stocked at  3,000 pounds/acre, Belusz

 estimates net  returns of:


                                              Price Received
     Net Return        Return Per Acre           Per Pound

      $844.50              $422.25                  $ .65
      $1,549.50           $774.75                  $ .75
      $2,254.50           $1,127.25                $ .85


      Besides catfish, other  commercially produced food-fish are

 rainbow trout, Chinese carp  and hybrid  striped bass.  Rainbow

 trout require  high oxygen levels which  are available when water

 temperatures are below 70 degrees F, usually from October to

 mid-May.

     Chinese carp are not only valuable as food fish, but they

 are  also beneficial when used in conjunction with other fish

 crops like catfish.  The carp improve water quality by feeding

 on microscopic and rooted plants.  Because of their ability to

 control pond vegetation, they are valuable fingerlings; 8-11 inch

 fish sold for  $4-$6 each in  1987, according to Belusz (1987).

     Finally, the hybrid striped bass, which can be grown in open

 ponds or raceways, is considered a gourmet food fish as well as

 a prized recreational fish.   Thus, this would be a good fish to

 grow for restaurant markets,  pond stocking or fingerlings.

     The marketing possibilities for fish are varied, depending

 on the type of product and size of the operation.   Large-scale

 operations usually sell their fish to processing plants while

 small-scale producers may wish to directly market their products

to fish ponds for recreation or stocking,  or self-process them

 for sale to small commercial outlets or individual buyers.
                                 54

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However, small-scale producers could save the time and effort of
direct marketing by selling their crops to a processing plant if
one was conveniently located.
     Bullfrogs
     Another avenue of aquaculture that could be pursued in
wetlands is frog production, particularly bullfrogs (Rana
catesbiena).  An existing pond is ideal because frogs need
water to spawn in the spring.  A supplementary water supply may
be necessary to maintain a constant water level if the area often
suffers from drought.  According to Pitts (1986), a pond must be
at least 50 feet wide with plenty of vegetation growing along its
edge to provide cover and insect forage.  He recommends a water
depth of 3-4 feet for hibernating tadpoles and adult frogs who
burrow  into the muddy bottom to survive freezing temperatures
during  the winter.  Tadpoles do best in somewhat clear water
with an algae bloom which "provides adequate phytoplankton and
zooplankton for tadpole food"  (Pitts,  1986).  A pond enclosure
is necessary to exclude predators and  prevent the frogs from
escaping.  The frogs greatest  predators are snakes, although
ducks,  crows, and raccoons  also find them tasty.  A solid fence,
such as corrugated tin roofing is recommended with an electric
wire placed about four inches  above the top.
     Because adult frogs are voracious carnivores, placing
decayed meat along the pond's  edge  is  one way to  attract the
frogs'  food.  Their  cannibalistic nature makes  it necessary
that adequate supplies of  food and  space are provided.
                                 55

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      Bullfrogs  are  considered  game  animals and thus  commercial



 rearing,  buying,  and  selling must be done according  to the regula-



 tions and permits of  the state's Department of Conservation and



 wildlife  codes.   Stocking an area for bullfrog reproduction and



 growth may either constitute rearing the frogs or taking them from



 the wild  for commercial use.   Therefore, it is advisable to consult



 with  a local conservation agent before proceeding with production.



      Thus, frog culture is an  extremely difficult and unpredictable



 venture,  and one  that requires a lot of experience and patience.



 However,  the rewards  if one is successful are great, due to the high



 market demand for these animals.  Although restaurants buy frog legs



 at around $4.00 per pound, biological supply houses  and research



 laboratories are  a  larger and more predictable consumer of adult



 frogs.  There also  is a small market for tadpoles for restocking



 purposes  at prices comparable to those for minnows (Pitt, 1986).



      Summary




      Those landowners who possess only a wetland will have to



 confine their aquaculture production to crops that can be raised in



 shallow water, such as minnows, crayfish,  leeches, fingerlings, and



young  fish for stocking.  It also may be necessary to have a source



 of water  if the wetland is not wet all year round.



      If,  however, the wetland is adjacent to a larger body of water,



aquaculture can be extended to food-fish,  brood-fish, and bullfrog



production,  as well as lease-fee fishing.




     For those landowners without an available water source for



aquaculture production,  a shallow excavation,  which enlarges and/or



deepens the wetland may be a viable option.






                                56

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ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON TRAPPING

Ronald D. Andrews, Furbearer Resource Specialist
Iowa Department of Natural Resources
1203 N. Shore Drive
Clear Lake, IA  58428
(515) 357-3517

Missouri Furbearer Update
Thomas Kulowiec and David Hamilton
Missouri Department of Conservation
1110 S. College Avenue
Columbia, MO 65201-5299

Chuck McCullough, Furbearer/Disease Specialist
Nebraska Game and Parks Commission
2200 N. 33rd Street
P.O. Box 30370
Lincoln, NE  68503-0370
(402) 471-0641

Scott Hartman, President
National Trappers Association
W. Virginia
(304) 455-4865

Joe  Callahan
Kansas Furharvesters Association
(913) 889-4639

Rich Reagan, President
Iowa Trappers Association
(515) 749-5757

Ken  Gamble
Missouri Department of Conservation
P.O. Box 180
Jefferson  City, MO  65102
(314)  751-4115

Lloyd  Fox
Kansas Dept. of Wildlife and Parks
Emporia Wildlife  Invtg. Office
South  Central Region
Box  1525,  1830 N. Merchant
Emporia, KS  66801
 (316)  342-0658

Fur  Takers of America  International
Marcia Walston, Treasurer
Rt.  3, Box 211 Al
Aurora,  IN  47001

International Fur Trade Federation
Ecology  Section
36 Vejlesoevej
DK  2840  Holte, Denmark
                                 57

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ADDITIONAL  SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION  ON  FEE  HUNTING

Fee Hunting -  Extra Income?
By Barbara  Bassett  and Deretha  Freiling
Publication MP635
Available from Extension Publications
115 S. Fifth Street
Columbia, MO  65211

Mid-America Game Bird  Association
636 E. 97th Street
Kansas City, MO  64131

Jay Bowmaster
Missouri Department of Conservation
P.O. Box 180
Jefferson City, MO   65102
(314) 751-4115

Bob Hoffman
Ducks Unlimited, Inc.
6115 East Main Avenue
Bismarck, ND  58501
(708) 438-4300

Ron Bell
Squaw Creek  National Wildlife Refuge
P.O. Box 101
Mound City,   MO 64470
(816) 442-3187

Prairie Pothole Joint Venture
IA Department of Natural Resources
East 9th and Grand Avenue
Wallace Building
Des Moines,   IA  50319-0034
(515) 281-5145

Marvin Kraft
Kansas Wildlife and Parks
(316) 342-0658
                                 58

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ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON AOUACULTURE

Missouri Fish Fanners Association
Paula Moore, President
J and J  Fish Farm
Rt. 1, Box 316
Harviell, MO  63945
(314) 989-6424

American Fisheries Society
5410 Grosnevor Lane, Suite 110
Bethesda, MD  20814
(301) 897-8616

Missouri Department of Conservation
P.O. Box 180
Jefferson City, MO  65102
(314) 751-4115

Fish Farming Handbook
Evan Browand and John B. Gratzek
AVI Publishing Co., Inc.
250 Post Road East
Westport, CT  06880

Fish Farming Technicrues
Larry Belusz
The Instructional Materials Laboratory
#10 Industrial Educational Building
6th and Stewart Rd.
Columbia, MO  65211
(314) 882-2883

Third Report to the Fish Farmers
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C.  20402
Stock No. 124-101-00654-4

Missouri Farm's Aauaculture Special
Missouri Farm Magazine, 1987
Rt.  1, Box  237
Clark, MO   65243
(314) 687-3525

Aquaculture Magazine
(Bimonthly)
P.O. Box 2329
Asheville,  NC  28802
                                 59

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Water Farming Journal
(Monthly)
3400 Neyrey Drive
Metairie, LA  70002
(504) 454-8934

Aquaculture News

Commercial Frog Farming
L.A. Helfrich and D.L. Garling
VA Polytechnic Institute and State University
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences
Fisheries Extension
152 Cheatham Hall
Virginia Tech.
Blacksburg, VA  24061
                                60

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           Chapter III



NATIVE GRASSES FOR FORAGE AND HAY
                61

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      Native grasses which grow in wet areas include some of the

 most productive and nutritious forage and hay available.  Thus,

 they provide a highly profitable use of a wetland while remaining

 compatible with its unique characteristics.   According to the

 Missouri Conservation Department (1984),  "Native warm-season

 grasses (WSG)  are bunch grasses whose stands have more bare

 ground under and between individual  plants and a greater number

 of  associated broadleaf forbs,  legumes and insects than do cool-

 season grasses (CSG).»   They grow during  warm weather  months

 (late spring and summer)  as  opposed  to most  lawn and pasture

 grasses such as bluegrass and fescue which grow during cooler

 months in  the  spring and fall.   Grazing trials have demonstrated

 that  cattle  gain significantly  more  on WSG in the summer than on

 CSG.   In addition,  the  bunchy,  upright growth form of  WSG pro-

 vides  better habitat conditions for  many  species  of wildlife for

 longer periods.   Proper management of  WSG requires  12  inches of

 stubble over winter which provides more cover  than  the 1-4  inch

 height of  grazed CSG (Missouri  Conservation  Department,  1984).

     The major  wetland  tolerant species of native warm-season

 grasses that provide good hay and forage  include:


 Andropoaon qerardii  (big  bluestem)
 Panicum virqatum (switchgrass)
 Spartina pectinata  (prairie cordgrass)
 Tripsacum dactvloides (eastern  gama grass)

 For a  full description  of these grasses see Appendix 2.

     In order for warm-season grasses to benefit both  livestock

 forage and wildlife habitat on the same acreage, they must be

properly managed, which includes preventing over-utilization  from
                                 62

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grazing or haying (these grasses must not be cut or grazed below

6-8 inches) and periodic prescribed burning.  "Most, if not all,

prescribed burning of WSG by private landowners is conducted

during the three week period following 'green-up1 in April and

May, just after WSG breaks dormancy but before they exceed three

inches in new growth" (Missouri Department of Conservation,

1984).  Burning is the most effective and economical tool for

controlling woody plants and CSG, allowing the WSG, which have

evolved a tolerance for fire, to outgrow the less tolerant

competition.  The frequency of burning can vary depending on the

severity of problems and type of livestock operation.  In general,

two consecutive burns in five years is sufficient.  However, if

planting is for an annual hay production, burn only often enough to

control competetive vegetation, approximately once every three  to

five years.  On the other hand, if the planting  is  for maximum

livestock  production, an operator may want  to burn more frequently

to take advantage of the 10-12% greater gains per head the year of

the burn  (Missouri Conservation Department,  1984).

     The Missouri Conservation Department recommends  a rotational

grazing schedule for a  mixed warm-season and cool-season system:

     CSG:   Green-up to  June  1
     WSG:   June  1 to September 1
     CSG:   September 1  to November  1

Most operators leave their cattle on a CSG  pasture  over winter.

This basic guideline might be combined with several rotations

during each annual period  in order  to prevent  the  over utiliza-

tion of the grassland.   Such a  system is undergoing study  at the

Chase  Lake Prairie Project  in North Dakota.  There they move


                                 63

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 cattle through different pastures frequently during the growing
 season.   Some pastures are grazed heavily for short periods
 while others are allowed to rest and grow additional forage.
 The results reveal benefits for cattle  and plants,  as well  as
 waterfowl and other wildlife.   By incorporating wetland areas
 into the  rotation,  they have protected  the wetlands,  increased
 beef tonnage,  and increased the number  of ducks by  39%.   The system
 consists  of four pasture units.   One unit is  grazed 20 days followec
 by  a 60-day rest.   The rotation is then repeated, for a 160-day
 cycle of  grazing.
      The  project sponsors estimate that if rotational grazing
 systems could  be put on 25%  (579,452  acres) of the  rangeland and
 CRP grasslands (when they expire) in their project  area  it  would
 increase  beef  production 25% per  acre.  Over  579,452  acres, this
 translates  into  8.35 million additional pounds of beef  or 6.26
 million additional  dollars.  The  expansion of the grazing system
 also would  increase waterfowl production  by 15.5 ducks per  100
 acres.  Over 579,452 acres, 89,000 more ducks would be produced
 each year,  along with  other wildlife  species whose habitat  would
 be  improved.
      The major cost  of  implementing a grazing system  results from
 fencing pastures into units and from  any wetland enhancement.
To  offset the  initial costs of creating a grazing system which
incorporates a wetland, the acreage could be put under the
Conservation Reserve Program.  Although the land would have to
be set aside from production for ten years, the program qualifies
participants who wish to plant native grasses on set aside  land

                                 64

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for assistance assistance from the U.S.  Soil Conservation Service
in land-use planning and 50% of the costs of planting the grasses
from the U.S. Agriculture Conservation and Stabilization Service.
In the interim, the grasses can become established and wildlife
benefits enjoyed.
     Native grasses are beneficial for a number of reasons:
1) They are extremely well adapted to natural conditions.  Native
grasses provide dependable forage and hay despite fluctuations in
weather; furthermore, disease and insect populations have less of
an effect, especially on mixed stands.  2) Maintenance is low.
They do not require pesticides or herbicides, and fertilizer is
not necessary unless the stand is intensively managed.  Under
proper management, stands of native grasses can produce indefinite-
iy.  3) Thev increase soil fertility.  Ninety percent of the humus
produced by native grasses is from regeneration of the root system
and, therefore,  is incorporated directly  into the soil.  Complete
regeneration of  the entire rootstock  occurs every three to four
years.  4) Thev  are useful for projects requiring minor mitigation
to offset  adverse environmental impacts.  Native grasses remove
nutrients  and  sediments, slow  flood waters, and control  erosion.
5) They increase livestock gains.  Native grasses provide  nutritious
grazing during hot summer months  which allows  livestock  to gain
weight throughout the summer.  Experimental rotational grazing
systems incorporating WSG pastures by the SCS  in Nebraska  showed
that  steers  gained an average  of  70 pounds  per head  more than
steers on a  rotational  system  containing  only  CSG pastures.
6) Thev provide  wildlife habitat.  Native grasses provide  cover
                                 65

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for nesting areas, and mixed stands provide a diversity of seeds



and insect populations for birds during the summer.  In the winter,



the grasses remain upright, providing protection for many wild



animals.  7) They are attractive.  These grasses are not only



pleasing to look at in the field, but they are an excellent



addition to dried flower arrangements.  In addition, prairie



cordgrass is sometimes used to make archery targets.
                                66

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ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON NATIVE GRASSES

Steve Clubine, Grassland Biologist
Missouri Department of Conservation
Clinton Office
(816) 885-6981

U.S. Soil Conservation Service or Conservation Department
Brochures:
     "Establishing Native Warm-Season Grasses"
     "Native Grasses"
     "Native Grasses for Wildlife"
     "Native Warm-Season Grasses for Missouri Stockmen"

Erline T. Jacobson, Plant Materials Specialist
Lincoln, NE
(402) 437-5355

Soil Conservation Service
Plant Materials Center
Manhattan, KS
(913) 539-8761

Soil Conservation Service
Plant Materials Center, Jim Henry
P.O. Box 108
Elsberry, MO   63343
 (314) 898-2012
                                  67

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IV: HERBS
    68

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     Alternative crops such as herbs and spices are an excellent

way to supplement income and diversify a farming production.

The variety of markets is virtually limitless, depending upon

one's imagination and ambition, while production can be successful

on either a small or large scale.  The U.S. Department of

Agriculture defines herbs as "plants not used solely as vegetables

or ornaments.  They serve partly or mainly for culinary, cosmetic,

industrial, medicinal, landscaping, decorative, and incense or

fragrance-emitting purposes" (Holcomb, 1988).  Here, the discussion

of herbs will be divided into  four main marketing categories:

culinary herbs, medicinal herbs, herbs in cosmetics, and dried or

cut herbs.  Each division contains plants that naturally grow in wet

areas, thus providing alternative profitable uses for those areas

that otherwise would be drained to support more traditional crops.

CULINARY HERBS

     This category is quite broad, including both fresh and dried

herbs used for many purposes,  some of which are spices, teas,

jellies, wines, bread and soups.  Many of the herbs can also be

eaten alone as unconventional  foodstuffs.  With the recent trend

towards more  exotic spices and foods, plants  in this category are

highly marketable to retail chains, natural food stores, roadside

stands and farmers' markets.   Table 17 is a list of some wetland

herbs useful  for culinary purposes.

Table 17:  CULINARY HERBS

Acer sp.  (maple)
Acorus Calamus  (sweet flag)
Alisma Plantacfo-aauatica  (water  plantain)
                                 69

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 Table 17:  Culinary Herbs (continued)

 Allium canadense (wild garlic)
 Allium schoenoprasum (chives)
 Althaea officinalis (marshmallow)
 Amaranthus sp.  (amaranth)
 Amelanchier arborea (serviceberry)
 Anethum graveolens (dill)
 Angelica archangelica (angelica)
 Angelica sp.  (angelica)
 Anthriscus cerefolium (chervil)
 Apios americana (groundnut)
 Apium graveolens (celery)
 Arisaema triphvllum (Jack-in-the-pulpit)
 Armoracia  rusticana (horseradish)
 Asarum canadense (wild ginger)
 Asclepias  sp.  (milkweed)
 Asimina triloba (pawpaw)
 Asperula odorata (sweet woodruff)
 Atriplex sp.  (orache)
 Barbarea orthoceras (wintercress)
 Barbarea vulgaris  (wintercress)
 Brassica nigra  (mustard)
 Caltha palustris (marsh marigold)
 Campaula sp.  (bellflower)
 Capsella bursa-pastoris (shepherd's  purse)
 Cardamine  bulbosa  (spring cress)
 Cardamine  pennsylvanica/parviflora  (bittercress)
 Carya  illinoensis  (pecan)
 Carya  laciniosa (shellbark hickory)
 Carya  ovata  (shagbark  hickory)
 Celtis accidentalis (hackberry)
 Cirsium vulgare (bull  thistle)
 Crataegus  sp.  (hawthorn)
 Cryptotaenia canadensis  (honewort)
 Cyperus esculentus  (chufa)
 Diospyros  virginiana  (persimmon)
 Epilobium  angustifolium  (fireweed)
 Fragaria virginiana (Virginia strawberry)
 Galium aparine  (goose  grass/bedstraw)
 Gvmnocladus dioica  (Kentucky coffeetree)
 Helianthus sp.  (sunflower)
 Helianthus tuberosus  (Jerusalem artichoke)
 Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus (day lily)
 Heracleum  lanatum  (cow parsnip)
 Humulus  lupulus  (hops)
 Juglans  cinerea  (butternut)
 Juglans  nigra (black walnut)
 Lactuca  canadensis  (wild lettuce)
 Lindera  benzoin  (spicebush)
Melissa  officinalis  (lemon balm)
Mentha piperita  (peppermint)
                                 70

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Table 17: Culinary Herbs  (continued)

Mentha pulegium (pennyroyal)
Mentha spicata (spearmint)
Monarda didyma (bergamot)
Morus alba  (mulberry)
Mvrrhis oderata (sweet cicely)
Nasturtium officinale  (water cress)
Nelumbo lutea  (American lotus)
Nepeta cataria (catnip)
Nuphar lutea  (yellow pond lily)
Nymphaea alba  (white water  lily)
Oxalis europaea (yellow wood sorrel)
Petroselinum crispurn  (parsley)
Phytolacca americana  (pokeweed)
Podophyllum peltatum  (mayapple)
Polyqonatum canaliculatum (solomon's  seal)
Polvaonum hydropjper  (marshpepper  smartweed)
Potentilla anserina  (silverweed)
Prunella vulaaris  (heall-all)
Prunus serotina (black cherry)
Prunus virainiana  (choke  cherry)
Pyrus sp.  (crabapple)
Quercus sp.  (oak)
Rhus trilobata  (sumac)
Ribes setosum  (gooseberry)
Ribes sp.  (currant)
Rosa aallica  officinalis  (apothecary's rose)
Rosa palustris  (swamp  rose)
Rubus sp.  (blackberry  and raspberry)
Rumex sp.  (dock and  sorrel)
Sagittaria  sp.  (arrowhead)
Salicornia  sp.  (glasswort)
Salix sp.  (willow)
Sambucus canadensis  (elderberry)
Sium suave  (water  parsley)
Smilacina racemosa (false solomon's seal)
Smilax sp.  (greenbrier)
Sonchus  sp.  (sowthistle)
Stellaria media  (chickweed)
Strophostvles helvola  (trailing wild bean)
Taraxacum  officinale (dandelion)
Tilia americana  (American basswood)
Trifolium  sp.  (clover)
Trillium sessile  (wake robin)
Typha latifolia  (broadleaf cattail)
Urtica dioica (stinging nettle)
Uvularia grandiflora (bellwort)
Vaccinium  myrtilloides (sourtop blueberry)
Valeriana  officinalis (valerian)
Viburnum trilobum  (cranberry bush)
Viola sp.  (violet)
Vitis sp.  (grape)
Zizania  aauatica  (wild rice)
                                 71

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 MEDICINAL HERBS

      Medicinal herbs refer to herbs used in both traditional and

 nonconventional drugs and Pharmaceuticals.   Natural food stores

 carry materials that include such things as stinging nettles,  rose

 hips,  dandelion,  catnip,  and comfrey for various health purposes.

 Often these herbs are gathered strictly from the wild.   In addition,

 according to Harper and Miller (1989),  "There is interest in expand-

 ing  Pharmaceuticals manufactured  from plants because extraction can

 be less  expensive than synthesization.   And many drugs  used today

 cannot yet be synthesized."   Table 18 lists some of the wetland

 herbs  with medicinal properties.



 Table  18:   MEDICINAL HERBS

 Alisma Plantago-aguatica  (water plantain)
 Alnus  rugosa (alder)
 Althaea  officinalis (marshmallow)
 Anemone  canadensis  (white anemone)
 Angelica archanqelica (angelica)
 Anthriscus cerefolium (chervil)
 Armoracia  rusticana (horseradish)
 Asclepias  sp.  (milkweed)
 Asperula odorata  (sweet woodruff)
 Atriplex sp.  (orache)
 Brassica nigra  (mustard)
 Caltha palustris  (marsh marigold)
 Capsella bursa-pastoris (shepherd's purse)
 Cephalanthus  occidentalis  (buttonbush)
 Chamaemelum nobile  (chamomile)
 Cirsium  vulqare  (bull thistle)
 Cvpripedium calceolus  (yellow  lady's  slipper)
 Epilobium  anqustifolium (fireweed)
 Eupatorium  perfoliatum  (boneset)
 Eupatorium  purpureum  (joe-pye weed)
 Galium aparine  (goose grass/bedstraw)
Helianthus  sp.  (sunflower)
Humulus  lupulus  (hops)
Juqlans  cinerea  (butternut)
Lactuca  canadensis  (wild lettuce)
Levisticum  officinale  (lovage)
                                 72

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Table 18: Medicinal Herbs (continued)

Lindera benzoin (spicebush)
Lobelia cardinalis (cardinal flower)
Lysimachia Nummularia (moneywort)
Melissa officinalis (lemon balm)
Menispermum canadense (moonseed)
Mentha puleaium (pennyroyal)
Monarda didvma (bergamot)
Nepeta cataria (catnip)
Nuphur lutea  (yellow pond lily)
Nvmphaea alba  (white water lily)
Petroselinum crispurn (parsley)
Phytolacca americana (pokeweed)
Polygon atum canaliculatum  (Solomon's seal)
Potentilla anserina (silverweed)
Potentilla erecta (erect cinquefoil)
Prunella vulaaris (heal-all)
Rosa aallica officinalis (apothecary's rose)
Rubus sp.  (blackberry and raspberry)
Rumex sp.  (dock and sorrel)
Salix sp.  (willow)
Sambucus canadensis (elderberry)
Stellaria media (chickweed)
Svmphvtum officinale (comfrey)
Taraxacum officinale (dandelion)
Typha latifolia (broadleaf cattail)
Urtica dioica  (stinging nettle)
Vaccinium myrtilloides  (sourtop  blueberry)
Valeriana officinalis  (valerian)
COSMETIC/DOMESTIC HERBS

     This  is  an  expanding  industry  due  to  the  recent  interest in

adding natural ingredients to  cosmetics.   Oils and essences are

added to perfumes,  lotions,  soaps,  and  shampoos.   In  addition,

this category includes such things  as alternative pesticides,

clothing dyes, and  potpourris.   Wreaths, potpourris and candles

are among  the many  popular items made from dried  herbs and sold

at gift and craft shops.   Table 19  provides a  sample  of herbs

with potential cosmetic  and domestic uses.
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 Table 19:   COSMETIC/DOMESTIC HERBS

 Acorus Calamus (sweet flag)
 Almis rugosa (alder)
 Althaea officinalis (marshmallow)
 Angelica sp. (angelica)
 Anthriscus cerefolium (chervil)
 Asperula odorata (sweet  woodruff)
 Chamaemelum nobile (Chamomile)
 Galium aparine (goose grass/bedstraw)
 Helianthus sp.  (sunflower)
 Juqlans cinerea  (butternut)
 Levisticum officinale (lovage)
 Lvsimachia Nummularia (moneywort)
 Melissa officinalis (lemon balm)
 Mentha puligium  (pennyroyal)
 Mentha sp.  (mint)
 Monarda didyma (bergamot)
 Myrris oderata (sweet cicely)
 Nepeta cataria (catnip)
 Nuphar lutea (yellow  pond lily)
 Nymphaea alba  (white  water lily)
 Petroselinum crispurn  (parsley)
 Potentilla anserina (silverweed)
 Potentilla erecta  (erect cinquefoil)
 Rosa  gallica officinalis (apothecary's  rose)
 Salix sp.  (willow)
 Sambucus canadensis (elderberry)
 Symphytum  officinale  (comfrey)
 Taraxacum  officinale  (dandelion)
 Typha latifolia  (broadleaf cattail)
 Urtica  dioica  (stinging  nettle)
 Vaccinium  myrtilloides (sourtop blueberry)
 Viola sp.  (violet)
CUT/DRIED FLORALS

     Along with the rise in interest in exotic foodstuffs,  the

market for unusual or wild flowers for floral arrangemets has

grown dramatically.  "Consumers are developing more sophisticated

tastes.  They want varieties other than carnations, mums and

roses" (Young, 1988).  Both cut and dried flowers, leaves,  and

grasses are being incorporated into floral arrangements, and

native plants are potentially very marketable due to  both  their

hardiness and uniqueness.  "From the grower's perspective,  the


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interest in different varieties offers an opportunity to market

items for which there may be less competition from imports, such

as native flowers.  Recent trends include increased interest in

field-grown flowers, which often have a more casual look"  (Young,

1988).   Recently, supermarkets have taken a major role in the cut

flower industry.  An estimated 80% of the nation's supermarkets

sell floral products.  Kroger sells $100 million a year alone in

floral products.  While one half of their supply comes from

wholesale and overseas suppliers, an equal amount comes from

local growers.   "Foliage and bedding plants are supplied mostly

by local growers.  An increasing number of supermarkets are

establishing contracts with cut flower growers"  (Young, 1988).

Table 20 offers  a few of the wetland varieties that would  do well

in floral arrangements.  However, just about anything goes as

long as  it  is relatively long-lasting.


Table 20:   DRIED/CUT FLORALS

Achillea sp.  (yarrow)
Allium  schoenoprasum  (chives)
Anethum graveolens  (dill)
Caltha  palustris (marsh marigold)
Desmanthus  illinoensis  (prairie bundleflower,
  prairie mimosa, or Illinois  bundleflower)
Eupatorium  sp.  (joe-pye weed)
Iris versicolor (blueflag  iris)
Liatris sp.  (blazing star  or gayfeather)
Lobelia cardinalis  (cardinal flower)
Monarda didyma  (bergamot)
Nelumbium/Nelumbo sp.  (lotus)
Rosa sp.  (rose)
Typha  latifolia (broadleaf cattail)



     To maximize the life  of cut  flowers,   immediately  after cut-

ting,  put  stems into a  clean bucket of warm water,  cut  them in the
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morning  or  evening,  slice  stems  cleanly  and recut  them  underwater,



choose newly  opened  flowers  or those  still partially  in bud,  and  cu1



off  all  foliage  that will  be below the surface of  the water to



prevent  decay (Coit, 1988).




     Drying flowers  can be done  by several different  techniques



including air drying, drying by  pressing, drying with desiccants



(either  silica gel or sand), and drying  in the microwave



(Joosten, 1988).  Air drying is  the simplest and least  expensive



of these methods.  To do this, cut the flower with as long a  stem



as possible and  strip off  all the leaves.  Then gather  the flow-



ers  in small  bunches with  rubber bands or clips and hang them,



upside down for  two to three weeks in a  cool, dry place  (Doscher,



1988) .




     The raising of wetland  plants and seeds is also  a  growing



industry.   Many  individuals  or corporations want a more  natural-



looking  landscape that includes  water-gardens or low-lying areas  of



the garden  that  remain swampy and are ideal for growing  perennials



that naturally occur along stream banks,  the margins  of  ponds or



lakes, or in  low-lying boggy places.   Besides providing  attractive



landscaping,  these plants control erosion along stream banks, and



aquatic  plants in ponds or streams keep the water clear  and healthy;



"they purify  the water,  release vitally needed oxygen into the air



and water,  provide shade from the sun's rays in warm weather, and



bind the bottom  soils.   It is very seldom that a pond or lake will



remain muddy  if  it contains plants" (Kester,  1985).   In  addition,



these plants provide seeds, nuts, tubers, fruit and foliage to young



fish, waterfowl,  upland birds and mammals for food and cover.  They






                                 76

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also support insects, plankton, and crustaceans which are eaten by

fish and waterfowl.

     Not only are the wetland plants sold for landscaping, but so

are their seeds which are often preferred, especially for individu-

als who cannot afford the expense of buying full grown plants.  This

is an area that could be easily developed into a mail order busi-

ness, particularly for those growers in rural areas with readily

accessible markets.  Yepsin (undated) cites a man who established

a mail order business by collecting seeds of native wild herbs and

then packaging them  for sale.  A mail order clientele might be

identified through ads in local or national publications, especially

of the farm and garden variety.  A list of some of the perennials

useful for aquatic landscaping is given in Table 21.



Table 21:  PERENNIALS FOR WET PLACES

A.  Moist Soil to  Shallow Water

    Acorus Calamus  (sweet flag)
    Arisaema triphvllum  (jack-in-the-pulpit)
    Caltha palustris (marsh marigold)
    Eupatorium purpureum  (joe-pye weed)
    Filipendula palmata  (meadowsweet)
    Filipendula ulmaria  (queen-of-the-meadow)
    Helianthus tuberosus  (Jerusalem  artichoke)
    Iris sp.  (iris)
    Ligularia sp.  (ligularias)
    Lobelia cardinalis  (cardinal flower)
    Lysimachia punctata  (loosestrife)
    Panicum virqatum (switchgrass)
    Peltiphvllum peltatum  (umbrella  plant)
    Phalaris arundinacea  (Reed canary grass)
    Primula sp.  (primroses)
    Ranunculus repens  (butter  daisy)
    Sanauisorba canadensis  (Canadian burnet)
    Spartina pectinata  (prairie cordgrass)
     Zantedeschia aethiopica  (calla  lilly)
                                 77

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 Table  21:   Landscaping  Perennials  for  Wet Places  (Continued)

 B.  Water  1-10  inches

    Nasturtium  officinale  (watercress)  (moving/flowing water)
    Tvpha  latifolia  (broadleaf  cattail)
    Sparcranium  sp.  (burreed)
    Polyqonum amphibium (water  smartweed)

 C.  Water  4-6 inches

    Nelumbo lutea  (American  lotus)

 D.  Water  4-6 inches

    Saaittaria  latifolia  (broadleaf arrowhead)
    Scirpus sp.  (bulrush)
    Zizania aguatica  (wild rice)

 E.  Water  1-2 feet
    Nvmphaea sp.  (water lilies)

 F.  Water  1-3 feet

    Potamoqeton  sp.  (pondweed)
    Vallisneria  sp.  (wild celery)

 G.  Water  1-6 feet

    Anacharis sp.  (elodea)
    Ceratophvllum sp. (coontail)
    Naias  sp. (naiad)
    Spirodela polyrhiza (ducks meat)
     Appendix 3 describes some of the wetland growing herbs that

have various culinary, medicinal, cosmetic, or esthetic uses.

     Other areas for marketing wetland-grown plants are herb or

craft shops, roadside stands, plant shops, nurseries, and con-

tract growing.  For example, wine and beer-making shops carry

such things as hops, dandelion, elderberries and elder flowers,

blackberries, raspberries, and rose hips, all of which can be grown

in wet areas.  Hops, mostly imported from Yakima, Washington are

sold in both loose and pelleted forms.  Sample prices for pellets
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are $3.95 for 3 ounces, or $.98 for half an ounce.   The loose leaf



form may sell for $2.40 for 4 ounces or $.98 an ounce, depending on



the store.  These sample retail prices were obtained from stores in



Kansas City and St. Louis.  In addition, dandelions sold for $2.05



per two ounces at one store and another one sold 4-5 ounces for



$2.00.  Like hops, dandelions are mostly imported from the West




Coast, as well as England.



     As with all the herbal products, local growers may be able



to find market opportunities with retailers who want quality



material without the added transportation costs.  Thus, develop-



ing a contract with such stores makes a wetland profitable while



preserving its natural state and native vegetation.
                                 79

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ADDITIONAL  SOURCES OF  INFORMATION ON HERBS AND WILDFLOWERS

Ozarks Regional Herb Growers  and Marketers Association
Jim Long, President
Route 4, Box 730
Oak Grove,  AR  72660
 (417) 779-5450

The Herb. Spice and Medicinal Plant Digest
L.E. Craker
Stockbridge Hall
University  of Massachusetts
Amherst, MA 01003
 (413) 545-2347

The Ozarks  Herbalist
Route 4, Box 730
Oak Grove,  AR  72660

Herbalgrass
Herb News
P.O. Box 12602
Austin, TX  78711

Herb Business Bulletin
P.O. Box 32
Berryville, AR  72616

The Herb Market Report
1305 Vista  Drive
Grants Pass, OR  97527

The Herb Magazine
6660 Cardale
Lakewood, CA  90713
(bimonthly  magazine)

American Herb Association
P.O. Box 353
Rescue, CA  95672
(916)  626-5046

Midwest Herb Association
Route 1, Box 161
Dearborn, MO  64439
(816)  685-3252

International Herb Growers and Marketers Association
Liz Roberts, Executive Secretary
P.O. Box 693
Greenfield,  IN  46140
(317)  462-7007
                                 80

-------
American Herbal Products Association
215 Classic Court
Rohnert Park, CA  95928

Flowers that Last Forever
by Betty E. M. Jacobs
Garden Way Publishing, 1988
Storey Communications, Inc.
Pownal, VT  05261

The Complete Book of Everlastings
by Mark and Terry Silber
Published by Alfred A. Knopf, 1987

Flower Drying with a Microwave
by Titia Joosten
Lark Books,  1988
50 College Street
Asheville, NC  28801

The Book of  Dried Flowers
by Malcom Hillier and  Colin Hilton
Simon and Schuster, Publishers,  1986

Herb Research Foundation
1007 Pearl Street, Suite 200F
Boulder, CO   80302
 (303) 449-2265

National Wildflower Research Center
2600 FM  973 North
Austin, TX   78725
 (512)  929-3600

USDA Cooperative  State Research Service
Office  for Small-Scale Agriculture
Washington,  B.C.   20250-2200

The Business of Herbs
Published  by Paula and David Oliver
North  Wind Farm,  Rt.  2,  Box 246
 Shevlin, MN   56676
 (bimonthly newsletter)

The Herbarist
published  by the  The  Herb Society of America
 2 Independence Court
 Concord, MA   01742
 (annual magazine)
                                  81

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National Wholesale Herb Market Report
USDA Agricultural Marketing  Service
Fruit and Vegetable Division
536 S. Clark Street, Room 942
Chicago, IL  60605
(312) 353-0111
(weekly publication)

Missouri State Florist Association
Lois Benson, Executive Vice  President
412 W. 60th Terrace
Kansas City, MO  64113
(816) 333-7187

Society of American Florists
1601 Duke Street
Alexandria, VA  22314
(703) 836-8700

Association of Specialty Cut Flower Growers
c/o Judy Laushman, Executive Director
155 Elm Street
Oberlin,  OH  44074

The Flower Market
780 North 4th Street
San Jose,  CA  95112
(408)  293-5201
(monthly trade journal)
                                82

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V:  RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
                   83

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     After this cursory examination of the alternative usages of



wetlands, it appears that it would be beneficial to pursue many



of these ideas further, as well as some others not previously



mentioned.  Firstly, landowners must know the legal bounds within



which they can pursue the alternative wetland uses and the amount



of aid they can expect to receive, or the amount of subsidies they



may lose, depending on their particular course of action.  A more



complete inventory of the federal and state natural resource



regulations and conservation programs is needed to identify those



which apply directly to wetland uses.  For instance, the Missouri



Department of Agriculture operates an alternative loan program.



They offer low-interest loans  (minimum $500, maximum $15,000) to



Missouri farmers for the development and operation of an alternativ<



agricultural enterprise which would include many of the alternative:



mentioned in this paper.



     Secondly, created wetlands have been used successfully for the



treatment of sewage from cities for over a quarter of a century.



The processes of such an operation also can be applied to small-



scale operations such as feedlot waste treatment in existing wet-



lands.  Specific plant species best suited for removing nutrients



and waste products from the water, however,  need further study.



     Thirdly,  if more time were available, a more exhaustive list oJ



the uses of wetland herbs could be prepared.  Herbs that occur in



wetlands have the potential to be profitable crops, either for theii



culinary, medicinal, cosmetic or aesthetic value.  Little known or



unique species can more readily be entered into the market because



of the absence of competition.  In addition, diversification of





                                84

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conventional farming is a good way to insure the stability of the
farm income.  Wetland areas often remain productive despite flooding
and drought which may harm the other crops on the farm.  "Aquatic
macrophytes can be grown on waterlogged or swampy land which is at
present underutilized since it is not suitable for either conven-
tional agricultural crops or (intensive) aquaculture"  (Edwards,
1984) .
     There  is little data available on the market value of these
wetland herbs, although much has been written on their potential
value.  Therefore, marketing must be pursued according to one's own
location, creativity and energy, as well as soil type, and flooding
conditions.  It must be kept in mind that as the number of wetland
products increases in a geographically concentrated area with  a
limited market, the value of these products will decrease.  Thus,
information is also needed on the feasibility of pursuing larger
regional or national markets.
     The development of wetland plant nurseries needs  to be pursued
in  order to provide some of these useful wetland plants, create more
interest in this  area, and be a source  of information.  A nursery
in  Jefferson City, Missouri sells some wetland  species.  Wetland
species for landscaping, such as wet areas  around  lakes, also  could
prove  to be profitable.  Similarly, more demonstration farms with
wetland crop production, like the U.S.  Soil Conservation Service's
Plant  Materials Center in Manhattan, Kansas,  are needed to continue
the necessary research and provide  easily accessible  information to
interested  landowners.   Owners  of wetlands  require the same  amount
                                 85

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 of  information  on  how to use  their wetlands that  is  currently
 available  on how to  convert their wetlands to upland uses.
      Finally, it appears that many of the wetland usages examined
 here  could be profitable, but the exact economic  values are diffi-
 cult  to obtain.  More accurate costs and returns  of  the alternative
 usages of  wetlands must be obtained in order to compare them with
 the costs  and returns of the  converted land.  For a  proper benefit-
 cost  analysis to determine the best use of the wetland, the benefit;
 from  harvesting natural wetland products must be  weighed against th<
 costs of foregone  profits from harvesting agricultural products on
 preexisting wetlands, and the cost of converting  the wetlands by
 methods such as leveeing, ditching, or diking.  If quantifiable
 values could be placed on the wildlife, ecological and social
 benefits from wetlands, they  should be included in the benefit-
 cost  analysis as well.  However, because most of  this information
 is unavailable and perhaps unattainable, an economic analysis is
 not very reliable.  Perhaps the decision of whether or not to
 convert a wetland  comes down  to a combination of  several factors,
 including those just mentioned, as well as one's  ability to comply
 with  federal and state wetland regulations,  and the degree of
 personal satisfaction achievable from utilizing a wetland and
 its values to its  fullest potential.
     When the profits from increased beef production, furbearer
pelts, or herbal products,  are added to the socio-economic values of
these wetlands,  such as flood and storm damage protection,  erosion
control,  groundwater discharge and recharge,  and water quality
 improvements,  wetlands may become a far more valuable resource than
that provided by its conversion to upland uses.
                                 86

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                           Appendix 1

                   COMMON WILDLIFE FOOD/COVER
Scientific Names:


Common Name:

Habitat:



Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:

How to Plant:
Cost to Plant**
Miscellaneous:
Spirodela polyrhiza
Lemna trisulca

Ducks Meat, Duck Weed

Fresh, slightly acidic or hard water; takes
nourishment from the water; withstands
fluctuating water levels.

Entire plant eaten by ducks, especially black
ducks, mallards and other marsh ducks; pro-
duces food early in June for young and nest-
ing ducks; increases duckling survival ratio.

Plant fresh plants from June - October.

Six bushels/acre of fresh plants among
rushes, brush, timber, sheltered bays of
lakes or streams and open water of ponds or
sloughs; plant in water 1-6 feet deep.

$32.00 - $90.00/BU***
$30.00 - $50.00/25 Ibs.

Annual; produces a lot of food for a lot of
ducks; good for landscaping.
  *See Appendix 4 for a list of reference materials used to
   collate  Appendices 1-3.

 **Note:  Prices of seeds, plants and roots in Appendices 1-3
          were taken from several nurseries and catologues in
          the region.

***BU = bushel
                             1-1

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Scientific Name;

Common Name:

Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:

How to Plant:

Cost to Plant:



Miscellaneous:
Zizania aquatica

Giant Wild Rice

Fresh water streams, lakes, ponds, and
sloughs having a change of water; a soft mud
bottom is best with 6 inches to 3 feet of
water.

Best food for mallards, black ducks, widgeon,
teal, pintail and Canadian geese; used by
ducks in the Spring to hide their nests and
rear their ducklings; most popular food for
shallow water feeding ducks.

During fall before freeze or in the spring.

Broadcast seeds 1-2 bushels/acre.

 1 Ib.   - $ 3.95
10 Ibs. - $30.00
25 Ibs. - $70.00

Annual; seeds are harvested in late August or
early September for human consumption or for
selling to seed companies; seeds will
naturally resow themselves.
                             1-2

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Scientific Name;

Common Name:

Habitat:



Wildlife Uses:


When to Plant:

How to Plant:



Cost to Plant*:
Nelumbo lutea

American Lotus

Bays, sloughs and ponds with 1-3 feet fresh
water and a soft mud bottom; withstands fluctuat-
ing water levels.

Mallard food, food and cover for game fish, and
muskrats eat the tubers.

Spring or fall

Place the seed in a vice and cut a slit (scarify)
in the hard shell.  Then sow by broadcasting 500
seeds/acre in water 4-6 inches.
 25 seeds -
 50 seeds -
100 seeds -
250 seeds -
500 seeds -
$ 3.75
$15.00
$11.00
$50.00
$48.00
Miscellaneous:
Perennial**; attractive in water gardens; dried
seed pod sold for dried floral arrangements.
   *Price  variance  reflects  purchase  price  of  seed  from different
    sources.

 **perenniais/  unlike  annuals,  do  not need  to  be  replanted each year,
                              1-3

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Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Habitat:



Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:

How to Plant:


Cost to Plant:
Miscellaneous;
Potamoqeton pectinatus

Sago Pond Plant

Any hard, clear water, either quiet or moving:
lakes, streams, landlocked ponds, including
fresh, marl, alkali and brackish.

Eaten by over 20 kinds of ducks, as well as ge<
and swans.  Early in the season, seeds eaten b'
Teal, and Mallards. Later tubers eaten by divii
ducks.  The plants also support snails, minute
insects and other aguatic life for fish to fee*
on as well as providing shelter for game fish.

March - June, late fall.

Plant weighted tubers, 1000/acre at 1 1/2 foot
intervals or more in 1 1/2 to 8 feet of water

Preweiqhted* Tubers
$ 19.00 - $ 25.00 ( 100)
        - $ 54.00 ( 300)
$120.00 - $150.00 (1000)

Perennial; good landscaping plant
*Plantings are preweighted to plant in areas where flowing
 water or wave action might affect the establishment of the
 plants in that area.
                             1-4

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Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Habitat:




Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:

How to Plant:
Cost to Plant:
Miscellaneous:
Vallisneria spiralis

Wild Celery

Grows in 1 1/2 to 8 or 10 feet of hard,
fresh clear-changing water on muddy, sandy,
or coarse silt bottom.  Withstands waves and
currents. Water should contain some lime.

Attracts marsh and diving ducks such as red
heads, and canvas backs, and wood ducks such as
widgeon, pintail, bufflefhead, whistler, teal,
and mallard, as well as geese, swans and
coots; one of the finest fish food and cover
plants; protects small fish from enemies.

March - May

Roots or winter buds weighted and planted  in
3 foot intervals at 1000/acre. Seed planted by
mixing with sticky clay, making mud-balls  and
scattering them into water.  Use 30 Ibs. of
seed/acre; plant in water 1-3 feet deep.
  100
  300
 1000

 Perennial
$ 30.00
$ 69.00
$200.00
                             1-5

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Scientific Name:      Sagittaria  latifolia

Common Name:          Broadleaf Arrowhead, Wapato  Duck  Potato

Habitat:              Marshy places, mud  flats  in  water up  to I  I/
                      feet deep.  Withstands drought  and  fluctuate
                      water levels.  Will not grow in alkaline wat

Wildlife Uses:        Tubers, seeds and runners eaten by  geese,  sv
                      and practically all wild ducks; the tubers c
                      the best muskrat food available.

When to Plant:        Fall before freeze-up or Spring

How to Plant:         Plant tubers by wading in the water and push
                      them into the substrate in up to  18 inches c
                      water. Plant 1000/acre in 1  1/2 foot  interva

Cost to Plant:        Weighted Tubers               Unweighted Tuk
                      $ 22.00 - $ 25.00   ( 100)      $ 18.00    (  10
                      $ 54.00 -           ( 300)      $ 65.00    (  50
                      $ 75.00 -           ( 500)      $115.00    (100
                      $133.00 - $150.00   (1000)

Miscellaneous:        Perennial
                            1-6

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Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Habitat:




Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:

How to Plant:



Cost to Plant:
Sparaanium eurvcarpum

Giant Bureed

Muddy or marshy spots on shores or low lands in
shallow water with a sand, mud or clay bottom.
Does best in less than 1 1/2 feet of water but
survives flooding, drought and complete drying.

The seeds are an attractive food and the plants
provide cover for 20 species of ducks and wild
geese, especially mallards and black ducks;
roots are one of the best muskrat foods; eaten
by pheasants.

Fall or spring

Shove the roots in the bottom 1 1/2 feet apart
for  1000  roots per  acre in water  1-10 inches
deep

Weighted
$ 16.50 - $  22.00   ( 100)
$ 46.00 -           ( 300)
$ 65.00 -           ( 500)
$110.00 - $125.00   (1000)
Miscellaneous:      Holds banks and stops erosion; perennial
                              1-7

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Scientific Name:


 Common Name:

 Habitat:



 Wildlife Uses:



 When to Plant:

 How to Plant:


Cost to Plant:




 Miscellaneous:
Potamoqeton nodosus
fPotamocreton americanus^

Long-leaf Pond Plant

Fresh water lakes, streams and ponds with
muddy or sandy soils and 1 to 6 feet of
water; withstands flooding and drought.

Diving ducks feed on the tender roots, while
marsh ducks feed on the seeds at the water's
surface.

Spring or fall

Drop the preweighted roots 3 feet apart for
1000 per acre.

Preweiqhted Roots
1000  - $200
300  -  $ 69
100  -  $ 30

Perennial
                             1-8

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Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Habitat:


Wildlife Uses:



When to Plant:

How to Plant:



Cost to Plant:
Miscellaneous:
Acorus Calamus

Sweet - Flag

Grows in damp soil or in shallow waters in
fresh or soft water, and on acid soils.

Ducks eat the seeds, an important cover and
nesting  site for waterfowl, and  the finest
food and cover for muskrats.

Spring or fall

Press roots  into the soil by hand if the soil
is soft or with a trowel for solid soils.  Plant
at a rate of 1000 per acre  in damp to muddy soil,

Weighted Roots
$ 21.00 - $  28.00   ( 100)
$ 63.00 -           ( 300)
$ 92.50 -           ( 500)
$165.00 - $180.00   (1000)

Perennial; attractive in water gardens
                             1-9

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 Scientific Name:

 Common Name:

 Habitat:


 Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:

How to Plant:



Cost to Plant:
Miscellaneous:
Typha latifolia

Broadleaf Cattail

Marshy, muddy, or sandy spots where there
is some moisture or up to 1 foot of water.

One of the most important food and cover
plants for muskrats.   The  roots or runners
are  eaten and  foliage is  used for  house
building material.  Excellent cover plant
for waterfowl and one of the best for
blinds.

Spring; April, May,  or early June

Roots are shoved into the soil by hand or
spade, 1000 per acre in water 1-10 inches
deep.

Weighted Roots
$ 27.00 - $ 28.00 (  100)
$ 63.00 -         (  300)
$115.00 -         (  500)
$180.00 - $210.00 (1000)

Perennial; very useful for  humans -
culinary,  medicinal,  and domestic uses;
attractive addition  to water gardens
                           1-10

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Scientific Name:


Common Name:

Habitat:
Wildlife Uses:


When to Plant:

How to Plant:


Cost to Plant:
Polygonum amphibium
(Polyqonum muhlenberqii)

Marsh Smartweed

Grows in marshy soil and shallow waters and
thrives  in  fresh  or mildly alkaline water on
mud, clay or sandy bottom.   Withstands  both
flooding and drought well.

Seeds eaten by mallards,  black ducks,  pintails
and other waterfowl.

April, May, early June, October, and November

Roots are shoved in by hand 1 1/2 feet apart
for 1000 per acre in water 1-10 inches deep.
Miscellaneous:
Preweighted
1000 - $125
 300 - $ 46
 100 - $ 22

Perennial
  Weighted
 100 - $ 16
 500 - $ 65
1000 - $110
                             1-11

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 Scientific Name:     Anarchis canadensis

 Common Name:         Elodea

 Habitat:             A mud or sandy loam bottom is  preferred,  in
                      1 to 10 feet of water.   Grows  in  quiet  ponds
                      bays, sloughs or sluggish  streams and lakes
                      in hard,  clear fresh water.

 Wildlife Uses:        Ducks eat the seeds and  leaves, especially
                      redheads,  mallards,  widgeons  and  scouj
throughout Summer and Fall; excellent fish food  and  cover.

 When to Plant:        May - October

 How to Plant:         Place a few plants  on the  water and shove th<
                      down into a soft bottom  with a forked stick <
                      paddle.   Plant 10 bushels  per  acre.

 Cost to Plant:        1 BU - $28
                      3 BU - $78

 Miscellaneous:        Annual;  carp resistant;  good water purifier
                            1-12

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Scientific Name;

Common Name:

Habitat:



Wildlife Uses:
When to Plant:

How to Plant:



Cost to Plant:

Miscellaneous;
Polvaonum pensvlvanicum

Pennsylvania Smartweed, Giant Smartweed

Grows in fields,  moist margins,  banks,  muddy
spots left by receding water, and  shallow areas
a few inches deep.

Excellent puddle duck food late  in the
season, especially for mallards; very attractive
to  waterfowl when flooded during  the duck
season.

Spring or fall

Sow dry seed by broadcasting, using 20 Ibs. per
acre. Break up the soil where vegetation is
growing

$10.00/lb.

Annual
                            1-13

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Scientific Name;

Common Name:

Habitat:



Wildlife Uses:



When to Plant:

How to Plant:


Cost to Plant:

Miscellaneous:
Nasturtium officinale

Water Cress

Grows in shallow springs or spring-fed strea
on a soft mud or sandy bottom, in hard water
2 to 10 inches deep.

Provides year round food for ducks; eaten by
freshwater shrimp which are food for fish an
ducks; leaves eaten by muskrat and deer.

Spring or fall

Mix 1 oz of the fine seed with 1 quart of
sand and scatter in protected shoreline area:

1 ounce - $7.00

Edible for humans,  especially as a salad gre<
                            1-14

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                           Appendix 2*

      DESCRIPTION  OF  SOME WETLAND OCCURRING NATIVE GRASSES
Scientific Name;

Common Name:

Description:
Habitat:

Forage:
Flowers:

Other:

Cost to Plant:
Andropogon gerardii

Big Bluestem

Native,  warm season,  perennial, tall  grass
with short scaly underground  stems and
roots that saturate  the top two  feet of
soil  and  may reach depths up  to 12  feet;
growth begins in early  April  and seed
stalks 3-8  feet appear  from late August-
October.

Bottomland Sites

Few, if any of the prairie  grasses can equal
it  in  quality or quantity;  relished by live-
stock  and  usually eaten in preference to other
grasses in a mixture; most productive if never
grazed shorter than  6-8  inches during  the
growing season.

Purple in August-November;  good  cut  or dried

Attracts birds
     Seeds

     $ 2.50
     $10.00-$25.00/lb.
     $ 8.50-$22.50 Ib.

     Plants

     $5.50  (1-12)
     $1.20  (13-24)
     $1.00  (25-49)
     $ .95  (50-99)
     $ .85  (100+)

     PLS 'ibs.**
     $9.00  - $12.15/PLS Ib.
                                            (1 oz.)
                                            (1-3 Ibs.)
                                            (over 3 Ibs.)
 *See Appendix 4 for a list of reference  materials used to
  collate Appendices 1-3.

 **PLS Ib. is percent pure live seed pound

  PLS = % of purity x % of germination/100
                             2-1

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 Scientific  Name:

 Common  Name:

 Description:



 Habitat:



 Forage:


 Flowers:

 Other:

 Cost to Plant:
 Panicum viraatum

 Switchgrass

 Native, warm-season,  perennial,  sod-forming
 tall grass  (3-5 feet) with  vigorous  roots;
 reproduces from underground stems and seed.

 Best adapted  to  lower areas  of moist  soils;
 winter  hardy and drought resistant; acid
 tolerant.

 Very nutritious; eaten  by  all  classes of live-
 stock,  either  as green  forage or hay.

 Purple  in August-October; good cut or dried

 Attracts birds; good wildlife cover

      Seeds (1  lb. covers 4200 square feet)

      $3.00 (1/2 oz.)
      $4.00 (1  oz.)
      $2.75/lb. - $40.00/lb.  (1-3 Ibs.)
      $4.50/lb. - $35.00/lb.  (4-19 Ibs.)
      $4.00/lb. - $35.00/lb.  (20+ Ibs.)

      Plants

      $5.50 (1-12)
      $1.20 (13-24)
      $1.00 (25-49)
      $  .95 (50-99)
      $  .85 (100+)
Note:
The "Kanlow" variety of switchgrass is a late
maturing, very coarse-leafed lowland variety.
It is very flood tolerant and mainly used in
stabilization plantings on shorelines, flood
areas and high water tables (Clubine,  1989).
The "cave-in rock" variety can also tolerate
flooding.
                             2-2

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Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Description:




Habitat:


Forage:
Flowers:

Cost to Plant:
Spartina pectinata

Prairie Cordgrass

A native warm-season,  tall (6-10 feet),  coarse,
perennial grass that forms a  dense  underground
sod; propagates by woody,  many branched,  creep-
ing rhizomes,  and by seed.

Often called  "marsh grass" and "slough  grass"
because it grows on deep,  heavy, wetland soils.

Eaten  by livestock during early  growth,  but
used primarily  for hay;  makes good hay  if  cut
while young and tender before stems develop;
can be  mowed two  or  three times  each  season
because it grows so quickly.

Good cut or dried

Seeds (12 Ibs./acre)
                  $  6.75/ 1/4 oz.
                  $ 12.OO/ 1/2 oz.
                  $ 20.00/1 oz.
                  $ 50.00-$300.00/lb.
                  $ 30.00-$290.00/lb.

                   Plants

                   $5.50 (1-12)
                   $1.20 (23-24)
                   $1.00 (25-49)
                   $ .95 (50-99)
                   $ .85 (100+)
                      (1-3 Ibs.)
                      (over 3 Ibs.)
                             2-3

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Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Description:
Habitat:



Forage:


Planting:



Other:

Cost to Plant:
Tripsacum dactvloides

Eastern Gama Grass

Native, warm-season, perennial grass; grows  in
large clumps from 1-4 feet in diameter;  spreads
by thick, short,  jointed  rhizomes  and produces
seed  from July-September  on stems  3-9 feet
tall.

Grows on a variety of soils  in low areas  where
additional run-in water and  deeper soils  favor
its development.

Nutritious to  all  classes of  livestock,
especially cattle; a very  productive hay grass.

Late April or May with a  minimum soil tempera-
ture  of  55° F.;  plant  30,000-60,000  PLS per
acre or 9.97 bulk Ibs. per acre.

Useful as a wildlife food  planting

Pre-chilled qama grass seed
                  Pounds

                   10 -  20
                   30 -  60
                   70 - 100
                  110 - 150
                  160 - 180
                  190 - 210
                  220 - 230
                  460+
                   $/Pound

                   $10.00
                   $ 8.00
                   $ 7.50
                   $ 7.00
                   $ 6.90
                   $ 6.80
                   $ 6.70
                    $5.50
                             2-4

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                           Appendix  3*

           DESCRIPTION OF SOME  WETLAND OCCURRING HERBS
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status-

Habitat:
Culinary Uses:


Medicinal Uses:

Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:

Cost to Plant3
Caltha palustris

Marsh Marigold

IA-OBL; NE-OBL

Grows in small, rounded clumps in boggy
areas;  yellow flowers  from mid-spring  to
early summer;  propagation by  division  or
seeds.

Edible cooked only; leaves and buds as
pickles.

Expectorant and pectoral.

NA2

NA

Excellent garden perennial.

 (per  plant)
$3.00 (1-12)
$2.25 (13-24)
$1.75 (25-49)
$1.35 (50-99)
$1.10 (100+)
 *See Appendix 4 for a list of reference materials used to
  collate Appendices 1-3.
 1.   Indicator  status from National List of Plant Species that
     Occur  in Wetlands;  Iowa. Kansas, Missouri. Nebraska, U.S
     Fish and Wildlife  Service, 1988.

 2.   Information unavailable

 3.   Seeds/Plants  available from regional nurseries.
                              3-1

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:
Culinary Uses:

Medicinal Uses
Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:

Cost to Plant:
Lobelia cardinalis

Cardinal Flower.

IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL

Stream banks, lakeshores, marshy riverbanks;
bogs or shallow water 2-4 inches deep; red
flowers from July-September; propagates by
division or cuttings; space 1-1.5 feet apart.

NA

Cherokee Indians used the root to cure
syphilis and the flower was used by settlers
and native Americans as an emetic and
expectorant.

NA

Flowers good for cutting.

Good plant for landscaping.

$5.95/plant or 3/$15.00
$1.00/packet of seeds
$3.25/potted plant
                             3-2

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:


Culinary Uses:



Medicinal Uses:


Cosmetic Uses:



Domestic Uses:
Cut/Dried
  Florals:

Cost to Plant;
Monarda fistulosa

Wild Bergamot

IA-FACU; KS-FACU-; MO-FACU; NE-FACU-

Grows in rich, moist soil, especially
deciduous forests.

Tea made from fresh or dried leaves, fresh
leaves for salads, garnishes, and sparingly
in cheeses.

Teas used for stomach trouble and inhaling
vapor for bronchial congestion.

Used in suntan oils and creams, once used in
hair preparations; oils used in soaps and
perfumes.

Dried leaves for potpourris; oil used to
perfume candles.


Good cut flowers.

(Per plant)
$5.50 (1-12)
$1.30 (13-24)
$1.10 (25-49)
$.90  (100+)
                             3-3

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status;

Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses;

Cosmetic Uses:

Miscellaneous:
Cut/Dried:
Cost to Plant;
Nelumbo lutea/Nelumbium sp.

American Lotus/Lotus

IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL

Grows in water 6-9 inches deep; hardy as long
as rootstock does not freeze; flowers rise as
high as 6-8 feet on straight stems; propo-
gates by division; buds emerge by the end of
July and stand almost two feet above the
pond. After a few days the petals fall and
the pod and its seeds begin maturing and
turning brown.

Young stalk and leaf are a good boiled
vegetable; raw seeds are added to salads;
dried and roasted seeds are a flour substi-
tute or popped like popcorn; rootstock tubers
baked like a potato.

NA
NA
Roots are eaten by beaver and the seeds are
eaten by some waterfowl; the large leaves
afford shelter and habitat for fish; collect
seeds July-November and roots autumn-spring.

Dried seed pods used in flower arrangements;
$l-$3 retail price per pod.

$25-$60 per plant depending on variety.
 50 seeds for $15.00
250 seeds for $50.00
                             3-4

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:


Culinary Uses:

Medicinal Uses:



Cosmetic Uses:



Cut/Dried:

Cost to Plant:
Nepeta cataria

Catnip

IA-FAC-; KS-FACU; MO-FAC-; NE-FACU

Occcurs in fields, open woodland and along
streams; flowers from June to September.

Fresh leaves used to flavor sauces.

Flowering tops used for colds, bronchitis;
makes a soothing drink for sleeplessness,
irritability and stress.

Repellent to rats; dried leaves used for
stuffing in cat toys; attracts honeybees to
their hives.
NA

NA
                              3-5

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:


Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses;


Cosmetic Uses:



Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:

Cost to Plant*;
Nymphaea sp.

Water Lily

IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL.

Still or slow freshwater streams, lakes,
rivers and marshes; full sun.

Seeds roasted or ground into flour for bread;
rootstocks boiled or baked like potatoes;
Indians ground rootstocks into flour; young
leaves and buds good as potherbs (cooked
vegetable.14

Tanning and mucilage in plants have been used
as demulcents for sore throats.

Rootstocks bruised and steeped in milk said
to kill beetles and cockroaches; smoke of
root-stocks drives away crickets.

NA

Good planting for water garden.

$20.00 to $50.00 per plant,  depending on
  variety.
100 tubers**/$30.00
750 tubers/$165.00
1 root*** (yellow or white flowered species)/
  $4.00-$4.50
  *Prices vary depending on nursery source,
 **Tubers take 2 years to bloom.
***Roots bloom first year.
                             3-6

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:

Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:
Cut/Dried
Florals:

Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Taraxacum officinale

Dandelion

IA-FACU; KS-FACU; MO-FACU; NE-FACU

Cold and temperate regions in open sun.

Young leaves and buds used cooked or in
salads; roots edible boiled and peeled;
leaves and flowers used for tea; roots for
coffee; flowers for wine retail priced at
$2.05/2 oz.

Tea used for heartburn, menstrual cramps,
wounds, and as a diuretic.

Dye made from the root: magenta if combined
with alum, and yellow to brown with iron.
NA

Causes flowers and fruits of neighboring
plants to mature early because of ethylene
production; good for compost heaps; fresh
leaves as fodder for domestic rabbits.
NA
                              3-7

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:

Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses;

Cosmetic Uses:


Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:

Cost to Plant:
Typha latifolia

Broadleaf Cattail

IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL.

Occurs in marshy and shallow water areas.

Flowering stalks before pollen formation
boiled like corn cobs; soups and purees;
pollen used to make flour for pancakes, bread
and pudding; tubers cooked as a vegetable or
dried and ground into flour; young shoots
boiled.

Blackfoot Indians used the down for burns.

Fibrous stems used for making paper; down
used for bedding, pillows and comforters.

Good for dried floral arrangements.

Good wildlife cover.

100 roots/$20.00
1,000 roots/$180.00
                             3-8

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Culinary Uses:



Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic/Domestic
Uses:

Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Urtica dioica

Stinging Nettle

IA-FAC+; KS-FACW; MO-FAC+; NE-FACW

Cooked young plants used in soups and purees;
leaves for tea; high in vitamin A and C and
protein.

Increases blood circulation; stimulant;
anemia remedy.


Roots make a grey, yellow or orange dye.

Forage for livestock and poultry, and cures
coccidiosis in baby chicks; cloth, twine or
fishing line made from fibers of stems of
older plants; pesticide for black flies,
lice, moths and aphids, prevents cucumber
downy mildrew; enhances essential oils of
plants such as valerium, marjoram, sage and
pepper mint; stimulates humus formation;
mutually beneficial relationship with fruit
trees; fresh leaves used as a fertilizer,
compost accelerator and insecticide.

NA
                              3-9

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:



Harvest:


Culinary Uses:


Medicinal Uses:

Cosmetic/Domestic
Uses:

Miscellaneous:

Cost to Plant:
Zizania aguatica

Wild Rice

IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL

Grows in quiet waters, freshwater marshes,
tributary streams and river mouths with some
water exchange.

Ripens in midsummer or early fall; harvest
by shaking seeds into a container.

Edible as a cereal food; $4.00/lb. in retail
stores.

NA
NA
Attracts wildfowl

Seeds
$  3.95/   1 Ib.
$ 30.OO/  30 Ibs.
$ 70.OO/  25 Ibs.
$250.OO/ 100 Ibs.
Plants
$ 24.OO/  100
$ 51.OO/  300
$140.OO/ 1000
                             3-10

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:


Culinary Uses:

Medical Uses:

Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:

Cost to Plant:
Asimina triloba

Pawpaw

IA-FAC; MO-FAC; NE-FAC

Low bottom; woods and wooded slopes, along
streams, ravines, base of bluffs.

Pie, pudding, jelly, marmalade, bread.

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA
                              3-11

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:


Habitat:



Culinary Uses:


Medical Uses:

Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous


Cost to Plant:
Rumex sp.

Dock

IA, KS, MO, NE:  FAC to OBL (depending on
species)

Grows in fields, waste ground, railroads, and
near streams and ponds, with rich moist soil
and full sun.

Useful as a substitute for spinach, cooked or
raw; Indians made a meal from the seeds.

NA

NA

Flowers often dried for winter bouquets

Collect shoots from March-April and the seeds
from July-winter.

NA
                             3-12

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:




Culinary Uses:


Medicinal Uses:

Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:



 Cost to Plant:
Helianthus tuberosus

Jerusalem Artichoke

IA-FAC; KS-FAC; MO-FAC; NE-FAC

Grows in moist thickets, the border of
streams, ponds, moist and dry woods, prairie
wet spots, ditches, fence rows, and road-
sides.

The potato-like tuber can be eaten raw  in
salads, cooked, or  pickled.

NA

NA

NA

Collect the  tubers  from October-January;
good food and cover crop for pheasant and
quail;  fodder for pigs

NA
                               3-13

-------
 Scientific Name:

 Common Name:


 Indicator Status:

 Habitat:

 Culinary Uses:



Medicinal Uses:

Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried:


Miscellaneous:



Cost to Plant:
Prunus  serotina


Black Cherry


IA-FACU; KS-FACU; MO-FACU; NE-FACU


Grows in woods and along streams.


Excellent additive to rum in a cherry drink-
jelly;  syrup.


NA


NA


NA


Plant catnip under trees to attract cats to
scare birds away.


Seedlings
6- 9" - $ .45 (400)
9-12" - $ .55 (500)
                            3-14

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:


Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:

Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Helianthus sp.

Sunflower

IA, KS, MO, NE:  FACU- to FACW

Waste and cultivated ground, low meadows,
prairies roadsides, railroads.

Shelled seed can be eaten roasted or ground
and used as a meal; the roasted, crushed,
boiled shells or the roasted, boiled seeds
are used for a coffee substitute; retail
price for raw seeds $1.70/pound or $1.95/
pound for roasted and salted.
NA
NA
NA

Attractive  landscaping plants;  seeds  eaten  by
hampsters and birds; retail prices  for  bird
food  $2.25/5 Ibs.,  $1.75/5 Ibs.  or  $1.50/5
Ibs.,  depending on  the variety;  collect in
the Fall.
 (price  per plant)
                     $5.50
                     $1.30
                     $1.10
        (  1-12)
        (13-24)
        (25-49)
$1.00 (50-99)
$ .99 (100 +)
                              3-15

-------
 Scientific Name:

 Common Name:

 Indicator Status:

 Habitat:
Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried Uses;

Miscellaneous:



Cost to Plant:
 Lindera  benzoin

 Spice Bush

 KS-FACW; MO-FACW-

 Occurs in low or moist woodlands and
 thickets, along streams, valleys, ravine
 bottoms, base of bluffs, and wooded slopes;
 confined to the Southeast portion of
 Missouri.

 The early flowers, tips of twigs, berries
 leaves or bark are used for making a tea; the
 dried berries when powdered are a substitute
 for allspice.

 The colonists used an extract of the leaves
 or bark to reduce fevers, as a tonic cure
 for intestinal worms, for dysentery, colds,
 and coughs; the distilled oil in the berries
 was used to produce a liniment for rheumatism
 and bruises; Indians made tea from the twigs
 to relieve menstrual cramps.

 NA
NA
A good landscaping shrub for wet areas;
chewing on a twig relieves a dry mouth;
collect plants from March-May.

NA
                             3-16

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:

Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:
Cosmetic Uses:



Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:
 Cost to Plant:
Sambucus canadensis

Elderberry

IA-FACW; KS-FAC; MO-FACW; NE-FAC

Grows in moist, fertile soil.

The flowering umbel can be fried into a
fritter; the flowerlets can be rubbed off and
used in pancakes, waffles or muffins, or used
for pickling; the ripe berries are used for
pies and jellies, while the dried berries
are a good blueberry substitute in bread
goods; the best elderberry wine is made from
the ripe berries.  Dried elderberries are
retail priced at $2.35/5 ounces for wine;
elder flowers also used in wine and beer
making sell for $.98/oz.

The flowers, fruit,leaves, bark and root used
to induce vomiting; a tea with peppermint and
yarrow is used  for colds, rheumatism,
sciatica and cystitis.

An elderflower  water has been used for
whitening and  softening the  skin, to remove
freckles, as a  face tonic and an eye lotion.

NA

Acts  as a fly  repellent; when mixed with alum
is a  lavender  or violet  dye; attracts benefi-
cial  insects for pollination of other plants;
a good  soil preparer around  compost  heaps;
collect flowers June-July; green berries
July, ripe berries August-September.

NA
                              3-17

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Habitat:



Indicator Status:

Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:

Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:

Cost to Plant:
Diospyros virqiniana

Persimmon

Occurs in rocky or dry open woods and
prairies, as well as flood plain woods and
valleys along streams.

IA-FAC; KS-FACU; MO-FAC

The ripe fruit is delicious as is, but the
pulp is also useful in cakes, breads, pies,
butter, candy and jelly; the green or dried
leaves make tea with a good source of vitamin
C; the seeds can be roasted and ground for a
caffeine-free coffee substitute.

NA
NA

NA

NA

NA
                             3-18

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:


Culinary Uses:




Medicinal Uses:

Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:

Cost to Plant:
Cardamine bulbosa

Spring Cress

IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL

Wet woodland, wet meadows, around springs,
moist ledges.

Use in salads for a hint of horseredish; The
bulb-like base of the stem can be grated,
mixed with vinegar and used as a substitute
for horseredish.

NA

NA

NA

Collect March-June

NA
                              3-19

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:

Culinary Uses:


Medicinal Uses:

Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:



Cost to Plant:
Nasturtium officinale

Water Cress

IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL

Cool waters of brooks, creeks, and springs.

Leaves good raw in salads or sandwiches, or
as a cooked potherb.

NA

NA

NA

Collect January-December; a waterfowl food; a
rich source of iron, iodine, and vitamins A,
B and C.

$7.00/ounce of seed
                             3-20

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:


Culinary Uses:




Medicinal Uses:

Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:



Cost  to Plant:
Polvaonum hydropiper

Marshpepper Smartweed

IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL

Moist fields and pastures, moist ground near
streams.

The white-flowering variety has leaves with a
very peppery taste; may be used fresh or
dried as a substitute for pepper; collect
April-November.

NA
NA
NA

Seeds  eaten by waterfowl;  leaves may  cause  a
rash on  some people,  and  sap  may cause eyes
to  "smart" if it  comes  in contact  with them.
 Roots
 $  16.00
 $  46.00
 $  65.00
 $110.00
                               $  25.00/100
                                      /300
                                      /500
                               $125.00/1000
                              3-21

-------
Scientific Name:

Common Name:

Indicator Status:

Habitat:

Culinary Uses:
Medicinal Uses:

Cosmetic Uses:

Cut/Dried:

Miscellaneous:
Cost to Plant:
Saqittaria sp.

Arrowhead

IA-OBL; KS-OBL; MO-OBL; NE-OBL

Shallow water, edges of ponds, swampy ground.

Potato-shaped tubers best eaten cooked; a
constituent in several Japanese and Chinese
meat dishes; protein content of S. trifolia
may be 5 to 7%, more than twice the average
value of other root crops; tubers are
harvested August-November.

NA

NA

NA

An attractive landscaping perennial; tubers
eaten by many wildlife species, including
ducks which also eat the seeds; fodder for
pigs.

Tubers
$ 25.OO/ 100
$ 54.OO/ 300
$150.00/1000
                             3-22

-------
                           Appendix 4

                           REFERENCES

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     from Iowa Trappers and  Hunters as Reported by Iowa  Fur
     Buyers  During the  1986-87 Season," Iowa Department of
     Natural  Resources, Clear Lake,  IA,  1987.

Andrews, R.D., A.W.  Hancock and E.M. Humburg,  "Furs  Purchased
     from Iowa Trappers and  Hunters as Reported by Iowa  Fur
     Buyers  During the  1987-88 Season," Iowa Department of
     Natural  Resources, Clear Lake,  IA,  1988.

Andrews, R.D.,  "Furs  Purchased  from Iowa Trappers and Hunters as
     Reported by  Iowa Fur Buyers During the 1984-85 Season," Iowa
     Department of  Natural Resources,  Clear Lake,  IA, 1985.

Andrews, R.D. and A.W.  Hancock, "Furs Purchased from Iowa Trap-
     pers and Hunters as Reported by Iowa Fur Buyers During the
     1985-86  Season," Iowa Department of Natural  Resources, Clear
     Lake,  IA,  1986.

Andrews, R.D. and E.M.  Humburg, "Furs Purchased from Iowa Trap-
     pers and Hunters as Reported by Iowa Fur Buyers During the
     1988-89  Season," Iowa Department of Natural  Resources, Clear
     Lake,  IA,  1989.

Anonymous, "Farming Your Woodlands for Profit," In:   Successful
     Farming, February  1987.

Anonymous,   "Wealth  or Wasteland?   Functions and Values of
     Delaware's Nontidal Wetlands," In:  Delaware Conservation-
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Arno, J., "Walnut:   The  Cabinetwood  Par Excellence,"  In:  Fine
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Arrow Seed Co.,  Inc., "Spring Retail List," Broken Bow, NE, 1990.

Bare, J.E.,  Wildflowers and  Weeds of Kansas. The  Regents Press of
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Bartrum, D., Water in  the Garden. John Gifford  Limited, London,
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Bassett, B., "A Growing Herb Business," In:  Missouri Farm.
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Bassett, B.,  "Picking Up  Profits," In:  Missouri  Farm.
     September/October  1985.
                             4-1

-------
Bedinger, M.S^,  "Relation Between Forest Species and Flooding,"
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Belusz,  L.,  Fish Fanning  Techniquesf The Instructional Materials
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Bennet,  J. ,  "Tough Nuts,"  In:  Harrowsmith. Vol.  2,  No.  8,
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Bonar,  A., The Macmillan  Treasury of Herbs:   A Complete Guide to
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Brabander, J.J.,  Masters, R.E. and Short, R.M., Bottomland  Hard-
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Brown, T.,  Jr., "At Home in the Wilderness,  Part V:  Edible
     Plants," In:  The Mother Earth News. May/June 1982.

Chabreck,  R.H., "Wildlife  Harvest in Wetlands of the United
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Chatto, B., The  Damp  Garden. J.M.  Dent and Sons Ltd.,  London,
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Clark,  J., "Fresh Water Wetlands:  Habitats for Aquatic Inverte-
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     Understanding.  Amer. Water Resources Assoc.,  pp.  330-343,
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Clubine,  S.,  "Native Warm-Season Grass Newsletter," Missouri
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Coit, L.E., "Making Cut Flowers Last," In:   "Plants Perfect for
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Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan State University,  Growing
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Countryman,  D.W.,  Wray, P.H.,  and D.R. Prestemon,  "Woodland
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                            4-2

-------
Cowardin,  L.M.,  V.  Carter,  F.  Golet, and E.T. LaRoe  Classifica-
     tion and Wetlands and  Deepwater Habitats of the  United
     States.  U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,  FWS/OBS-79/31.

Delendick, T.J.,  "Aquatics - the  Scope of Water  Plants," In:
     Plants  and Gardens:   Brooklyn  Botanic  Garden Record.
     Vol.  41, No. 1,  Spring, 1985.

Doscher, D.,  "Making  a Wreath," In:  National Gardening, November
     1988.

Doscher,  D.  and P. Doscher,  "Fit to be Dried,"  In:   National
     Gardening.  November 1988.

Dupree, H.K.  and J.V. Huner, eds., "Bullfrogs,"  In:   Third Report
     to the  Fish Farmers. U.S.  Fish and Wildlife Service, pp.
     215-216, 1984.

Edwards  P.E., Food Potential of Aquatic Macrophvtes,  the Inter-
     national Center for  Living Aguatic Resources Management,
     Metro Manila,  Philippines,  1984.

Extension Service, University of Nebraska,  "The Fundamentals  of
     Black Walnut Production," EC  67-1735.

Fine Hardwoods/American Walnut Assoc.,  Growing  Walnut  for Profit
     and  Pleasure. Hardwood  Forestry Educational Fund,  Inc.,
     1980.

Frederickson, L.H.,  "Lowland  Hardwood  Wetlands:   Current Status
     and Habitat Values for Wildlife,"  In:   P.E.  Greeson, et al.
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     ing. Amer.  Water Resources  Assoc., pp.  296-306, 1979.

Freiling, D.  and B.  Bassett,  Fee Hunting - Extra Income?,
     University of  Missouri-Columbia Extension  Service,  An
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Funck,  J. and D.R.  Prestemon,  "Forestry Extension Notes:  Farming
     Lumber  from Iowa Cottonwood," Iowa State University
     Extension, May 1988.

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