U.S. ENVIRONMEI
NOVEMBER 1975
PROTECTION AGENCY, REG^N V, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
EPA-905/9-75-006
' ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT OF LAND USE
ON WATER >
QUALITY >
PROGRESS REPORT
JK
•• JV%V^M**
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November, 1975 EPA-905/9 - 75-006
\£T OF
LAND USE ON
WATER QUALITY
(Progress Report)
Black Creek Project
Allen County, Indiana
by
James Lake
Project Director
James Morrison
Project Editor
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Great Lakes Coordinator
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
Ralph G. Christensen^.^^.^,, P_. r A--*>W Carl D- Wilson
Section 108a Program Region v^w ^7 '**"' Project Officer
230 South i:c.^,'L-^.u Cl-oati
Cl^l c^'?o* J X1.Jr*''""In"ij F'"^r>.*"'iitf
UNDER U.S. EPA GRANT NO. G005103
to
ALLEN COUNTY SOIL & WATER
CONSERVATION DISTRICT
U.S. Department of Agriculture, SCS, ARS
Purdue University i
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This project has been financed (in part) with Federal funds from the Environmen-
tal Protection Agency under grant number G-005103. The contents do not neces-
sarily reflect the views and policies of the Environmental Protection Agency, nor
does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or rec-
ommendation for use.
II
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Introduction
The Black Creek sediment control study,
an Environmental Protection Agency-
funded project to determine the environmen-
tal impact of land use on water quality is fin-
ishing its second full year of activities. The
project, which is directed by the Allen Coun-
ty Soil and Water Conservation District, is
an attempt to determine the role that agri-
cultural pollutants play in the degradation of
water quality in the Maumee River Basin
and ultimately in Lake Erie.
The Black Creek project was designed and
developed by a consortium of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency, the Soil Conser-
vation Service of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Purdue University, and
the Allen County District. It is a response to
allegations, first brought to the attention of
Allen County residents at a Conference on
the future of the Maumee River sponsored by
Rep. J. Edward Roush in January of 1972.
At the conference, sediments and related
pollutants were named as major contribu-
tors to the degradation of water quality in
Lake Erie. It was further suggested that agri-
cultural operations significantly increased
the amount of sediment and sediment re-
lated pollutants.
The Black Creek Sediment Study, funded
by a grant of nearly $2 million, is an attempt
to discover the role that agricultural opera-
tions play in the pollution of the Maumee
River and how that role can be diminished
through the application of significant land
treatment practices.
The project represents a multi-agency,
multi-discipline approach to the total prob-
lem of non-point source pollution. It involves
demonstration, through a program of ac-
celerated land treatment under the direction
of the Soil Conservation Service, applied re-
search by Purdue University, administra-
tion by the Allen County Soil and Water Con-
servation District, and cooperation from a
variety of state, federal, and local agencies.
The problem of non-point source pollution
is becoming more and more important in the
nation's overall effort to clean up the de-
graded streams and lakes. As major point
sources of pollution such as industries and
municipalities are brought under control and
begin to contribute less and less of the total
pollutant load, the necessity of controlling
pollution which originates from small, hard
to identify sources becomes more and more
critical.
Our understanding of the mechanisms by
which pollutants from diverse small sources
is carried into the nation's waterways to be-
come — in the aggregate — a large problem is
not so advanced as is our understanding of
the monitoring and control of point-source
pollution. The Black Creek project is in-
tended to provide significant data on which
future decisions about efforts to control this
type of pollution — if it indeed can be con-
trolled at a cost that all citizens are willing to
bear — can be based.
After two full years of operation, some sig-
nificant results have been obtained. Not the
least significant of the activities has in-
volved the ability of the project agencies and
other agencies and individuals to work to-
gether toward a common goal.
Particularly important to the successful
operation of the project over two years has
been the supervision and encouragement
provided by the Environmental Protection
Agency acting through Ralph Christensen,
Administrator of Special Great Lakes Pro-
grams under which funding for the project
was obtained and Carl Wilson, project offi-
cer.
Not directly under the project umbrella but
furnishing great assistance and encourage-
ment have been persons such as Allen Coun-
ty Cooperative Extension Agent Ernest
Lesiuk. Indiana State Forester Larry Licht-
sinn, and Wildlife Biologist George Ken-
nedy. Mr. Lichtsinn and Mr. Kennedy are
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representatives of the Department of Na-
tural Resources of the State of Indiana. Sig-
nificant help and cooperation has also be af-
forded by local agencies such as the office of
County Surveyor William Sweet, the Allen
County Data Processing Department, the
Allen County Plan Commission, and the
Allen County Commissioners and Allen
County Council.
Fourth District Congressman J. Edward
Roush, whose conference inspired local in-
dividuals to undertake a project such as this,
has continued to offer advice, support and as-
sistance to the project. It has been gratifying
during the past year to be able to exchange
data and ideas with agencies such as the In-
ternational Joint Commission on Great
Lakes Water Quality and the Great Lakes
Basin Commission.
PREVIOUS REPORTS
The basic plan for the Black Creek Study is
described in a work plan, Environmental Im-
pact of Land Use on Water Quality, (EPA
G005103) published in May of 1973. Stan-
dards by which this work was to be carried
out were described in great detail in Opera-
tions Manual Black Creek Study, Allen
County, Indiana (EPA Document 905-74-
Land Treatment (Section 2)
Land Treatment (Section 2)
002). Progress during the first year of opera-
tion, June, 1973, to July, 1974, is reported in
the first annual report on the Black Creek
project. Research and demonstration efforts
in the first year of the project centered on:
(1) A sociological survey of the Black
Creek area
(2) Conservation planning and
application
(3) Water Quality monitoring
(4) Water sample analysis
(5) Rainfall simulator studies
(6) Fish population studies
(7) Stream Bank studies
(8) Tillage Demonstration plots
(9) Modeling of the basin
Much of this work furnished a base on
which activities which can be reported at the
end of the second year were based.
During the second year of the project,
many accomplishments were reported; how-
ever, certain problems have developed. It has
become clear that technical assistance and
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financial incentives are not sufficient to con-
vince every farmer or landowner to install
needed conservation practices. This opens
the question for future consideration of how
land treatment is to be achieved if the re-
search undertaken indicates that, in fact,
land treatment can have a major impact on
water quality.
Major research and project efforts to date
are summarized below:
Simulated Rainfall
Rainfall simulator test storms totaling
five inches were applied to treatments on
four soils in the Black creek watershed. The
four soils were Haskins loam 1.8 percent
slope, Nappanee clay loam 0.7 percent slope,
Hoytville silty clay 0.8 percent slope and
Morley clay loam 4.0 percent slope. Runoff
and soil loss measurements were made in
late spring on the following treatments: (1)
check (crop residues as left by the harvester),
(2) fall disk, (3) fall chisel, and (4) fall plow.
These treatments were representative of con-
ditions that occur in late winter and spring
after the fields have undergone winter
weathering. Results showed amount of resi-
due left on the surface (as a result of type and
amount of tillage) to have major effects on
soil loss. Residues ranged from a low of 1 per-
cent surface cover on the plowed plots to a
high of 78 percent on the check plots. Also,
residue remaining on the surface following a
corn crop was about three times as great as
Rainfall Simulation (Section 3)
Tillage Demonstrations (Section 4)
following a soybean crop. Soil losses from
fall disk and check treatments were similar
and only 18, 17, 24, and 32 percent, respec-
tively, of those from fall plowing on the Has-
kins, Nappanee, Hoytville, and Morley soils.
Soil losses from fall chiseled land were 53,58,
37, and 74 percent, respectively, of those from
fall plowing on the same four soils.
Tillage Management
Demonstration of conservation tillage
techniques was begun in the Black Creek
Watershed in 1974. The main objective of the
tillage demonstrations is to increase conser-
vation tillage acreage in the Watershed
through acquainting farmer cooperators and
their neighbors with techniques and man-
agement practices necessary for the success
of conservation tillage. The demonstrations
included six soil types on four farms.
Tillage systems compared included fall
plow conventional, spring plow conven-
tional, fall chisel, shallow tillage (tandem
disc), and "no-til" planting. All trials were
for corn following corn in 1973. The 1974
growing season was unusual throughout,
with excess rain in the spring, a severe sum-
mer drouth, and an early September frost.
Yield information from 1974 may be of little
value in predicting corn response to differ-
ent tillage methods in more normal seasons.
In this first year of the trials, fall chiseling
produced yields equal to or better than mold-
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board plowing in all trials except those on
poorly drained Nappanee silt loam. Chiseled
acreage appears to be increasing in the area
and offers all but Amish farmers a soil con-
serving system adapted for widespread use
in basic land preparation. Shallow tillage
and "no-til" planting produced more vari-
able corn yields than either plowing or chi-
seling on the poorly drained soils.
Mulch Studies
The ditch bank-slope-mulch studies were
completed in May, 1975. All mulch materials
were effective in controlling erosion and in
promoting the establishment of a grass
cover. The stone mulch was slightly superior
for erosion control.
The ditch bank stability studies have
shown no significant erosion or accumula-
tion during the first two years of observa-
tion. Channel stability studies are being ini-
tiated on three locations where evidence of
channel scour or soil mechanics tests indi-
cate potential for instability.
From September, 1974, to July, 1975, 480
cubic yards of material have been deposited
in the desilting basin. Particle size of the ma-
terial has yet to be determined. An intense
storm on May 20, 1975, undoubtedly ac-
counts for a large part of this volume of de-
posited material.
The May 20 storm produced nearly four
inches of rain in two and one-half hours.
Mulch Studies (Section 5)
Fish Community Dynamics (Section 6)
Analysis indicates that the return frequency
of the rainfall is less than 1 in 100 years. The
storm produced ditch bank full-flows and
general flooding throughout the level lake
bed area. All of the installed conservation
measures performed well during the subse-
quent runoff. While considerable erosion did
occur, the infrequent nature of the storm
must be recognized. It is probably not practi-
cal to expect to control all damage from such
an intense and frequent event.
Community Dynamics of Fish
Recognition of the significance of sea-
sonal movements into Black Creek from the
Maumee River was an early conclusion of
field studies. These movements are particu-
larly striking in the spring but continue into
the early fall with a different set of species.
Bridge construction at Ward Road produced
a major blockage and rip-rap, in association
with stage-recorder weirs, temporarily block-
ed several of the tributaries of Black Creek.
These two factors resulted in smaller num-
bers of fish in Black Creek during the spring
migration (1975) with a particularly striking
decline in larger fish. Fish populations also
declined following bank reconstruction. The
extent to which these communities did not re-
generate due to the reconstruction or due to
stream blockages mentioned above is not
clear.
The most complex and stable fish com-
munity in the Black Creek Basin above Ward
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Road is found in a small woodlot on the
Wertz Drain. Because of the shading by the
trees and the meandering nature of the
stream in this area, temperature, oxygen,
sediment, and nutrient regimes are more buf-
fered than in channelized areas. This results
in fewer algal blooms and a more stable, re-
sident fish fauna. Studies of the robustness
of Black Creek fish indicate that species
which migrate into Black Creek from the
Maumee River are similar to other midwes-
tern populations of the same species. Black
Creek residents, on the other hand, are much
less robust than other populations, suggest-
ing that the "health" of the fish of Black
Creek is below that of more natural streams.
All of these factors indicate the importance
of both the stream basin and the terrestrial
environment in the immediate vicinity in de-
termining the structure of the fish commun-
ity.
Water Quality Monitoring
Water samples have been obtained on a
weekly basis from 14 sites located on the
Maumee River and Black Creek and its tribu-
taries. Pump samplers installed at three
sampling sites in the lower portion of the
watershed enable detailed analysis of storm
events and potential loadings of nutrients
into the Maumee River. The following para-
meters are measured in all water samples:
suspended solids, total nitrogen, total solu-
ble nitrogen, ammonium-nitrogen, nitrate-
Water Quality Monitoring (Section 7)
Water Quality Monitoring (Section 7)
nitrogen, total phosphorus, total soluble
phosphorus, soluble inorganic phosphorus,
total carbon, and total soluble carbon. A
comprehensive survey of tile drain effluents
was conducted in spring, 1974. The water
quality data obtained suggest, in conjunc-
tion with other studies, that nutrient concen-
trations in subsurface flow exceed those
found in surface runoff. The influence of
agricultural and domestic drainage is readi-
ly apparent in the nitrogen and phosphorus
analyses of water samples. In general, con-
centrations of different forms of nitrogen are
similar in the Maumee River and the Black
Creek area whereas phosphorus concentra-
tions in the Maumee are elevated with re-
spect to the watershed.
Discharge into Lake Erie
As part of the study effort, historical data
using U.S. Geological Survey records of
stream flow and sediment transport near the
mouth of the Maumee River and U.S.
Weather Bureau records were analyzed.
Graphs of sediment loads and discharge
show high discharge and sediment move-
ment in the winter months, December to
March. The time frame for maximum hydro-
logic events from small catchments, how-
ever, does not coincide with that of the basin.
The small catchments are more responsive to
local, convective-type storms which occur
later in the year. Runoff from the small
catchments moves eroded soil down slopes,
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into intermittent waterways or into streams
for subsequent transport by basin-wide
storms. Runoff patterns are also influenced
by extensive systems of subsurface drains
which underlay most of the agricultural
lands. Unfortunately, these drains also dis-
charge a relatively small but almost con-
tinuous amount of suspended colloidal ma-
terial. High discharge from the subsurface
drains occurs in the winter months follow-
ing complete thawing of the soil and in
spring months following heavy rainfall.
The erosion-sedimentation process in a
river basin can in general be divided into up-
land and in-channel phases. For the purpose
of this study, the main channels of the Mau-
mee River Basin are assumed to be in dy-
namic equilibrium so that the average an-
nual sediment discharge into Lake Erie, ex-
cept for manmade traps, equals the average
annual erosion rate of the entire basin into
the main channels. An erosion-sedimenta-
tion model based on rigorous theoretical con-
siderations has been proposed for the up-
land phase. Consolidation of the results from
all the small catchments within the basin
into a comprehensive basin model will then
be possible.
Automatic Pumping Samplers
The automatic pumping samplers (PS-69)
were installed at stations 2, 6, and 12 in the
Black Creek Watershed and have been
operating since February 22,1975, March 17,
1975, and April 4,1975, respectively. The sta-
tions are located in the lower section of the
watershed to allow the sampler data to
closely describe the water quality constitu-
ents movement from the watershed. The phy-
sical operation of the samplers has been very
satisfactory.
The samplers are energized only while the
stage in their respective stream is above the
one foot level. While energized the samplers
take a water sample every thirty minutes.
Data collected during three storms in late
February and mid-March has been ana-
lyzed. This preliminary data indicates that
in all cases the nutrients and suspended
solids transported by a stream increases
Sociological Studies (Section 8)
with increasing flow. More importantly the
nutrients and suspended solids concentra-
tions also increase with increased flow with
the exception of ammonia and nitrate whose
concentrations showed very little variation
during a storm event.
Sociological Studies
Attitudes of both Amish and non-Amish
landowners were compared in an attempt to
better understand how local people perceive
pollution control and their willingness to
participate in abatement programs. Both
groups need to be understood in their cul-
tural context. Second, the leadership struc-
ture among the non-Amish landowners was
analyzed. Preliminary examination of the
types of chemical fertilizers used by both
Amish and non-Amish give indication to
what landowners are applying to the land.
These data will be useful in further under-
standing the nutrient content observed in
water quality studies.
There are mixed feelings concerning con-
servation of soil. Both groups are equally
divided among themselves as to the extent of
soil problems that exist in the Black Creek.
Farmers do not feel they should stand the
cost of soil erosion programs alone and ex-
pect the federal government to stand be-
tween 25 to 50 percent of the cost. Education
is considered by landowners to be the most
effective tool to get cooperation on protect-
ing water quality. Laws and federal controls
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are opposed and less than 15 percent felt fi-
nancial incentives would be effective.
There are interesting differences between
leaders and non-leaders in the non-Amish
group. Those individuals selected by their
peers as influential in agricultural affairs
are more knowledgeable about pollution con-
trol and the role government can play in pol-
lution abatement programs. Finally, there
are differences in chemical fertilizers ap-
plied by Amish and non-Amish. Contrary to
popular belief, the Amish use chemical ferti-
lizers. Their types, however, are generally
different than those analyses selected by
non-Amish.
Plans for Next Year
Several changes have been planned for
operation of the Black Creek project during
the coming year.
The Allen County Soil and Water Conser-
vation District is giving serious consider-
ation to adding an employee of the District
whose primary function would be to follow-
up on agreements made with landowners to
see that the terms of the agreement are in
fact carried out.
A change in the scope of the tillage demon-
stration effort will involve the renting of
large tracts (up to 20 acres) and the carrying
out of farming operations by a Purdue Uni-
versity employee. This will allow both repli-
cation of results and better control of the
demonstration effort.
Management (Section 9)
Management (Section 9)
An automatic tile sampler is being in-
stalled near the Black Creek Watershed to in-
vestigate the influence of tile drainage sys-
tems on the total water quality of their re-
spective streams. It is known that in some lo-
cations as much as 50 percent of the annual
sediment loss is coming through the tile out-
lets. This indicates the vital need for under-
standing and describing the influence of sub-
surface drainage in order to complete a reli-
able watershed model.
The sampler will monitor a 10 inch dia-
meter tile outlet which drains 63 acres of
Hoytville silty loam soil. The entire 63 acres
are nearly flat and very uniform in soil type.
The uniformity of the field will greatly help
in developing and verifying a reliable model
for tile systems. Crop cover for the field is a
standard corn-soybean rotation.
The area is not in the Black Creek Water-
shed because a uniform well managed tile
system could not be located within the proj-
ect boundary. The systems in the watershed
either lacked a tile line layout record or were
put in within the past three years. Even
though the tile sampler site is not in the
watershed it does well represent the tile
drainage systems in the Black Creek Water-
shed.
The sampler will have the capability of col-
lecting 72-500 ml water samples on a con-
stant volume passed basis. The sampling
rate will be approximately one sample per
thirty minutes at maximum flow and no
samples taken at zero flow with a linear re-
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sponse to intermediate flows. A flow record
will be made continuously and an event
mark on the flow record will designate when
a sample was taken. The sampler station will
have a 350 gpm pump in conjunction with a
sump to prevent the tile outlet from being in-
undated during storm events. During low
flows, the outflow will pass directly through
the station with no pumping required.
The project will include three new objec-
tives: (1) the development and operational
evaluation of an automatic, real-time sys-
tem for acquisition and analysis of hydro-
meteorological data, (2) the development of a
distributed parameter watershed model to
provide real-time hydrologic prediction of
stream flows in the Black Creek watershed,
and (.'}) automation of existing procedures for
collecting environmental data from the
watershed.
The additional electronic transducers re-
quired to provide computer compatible sig-
nals corresponding to standard meteorologi-
cal variables have been ordered. Permission
has been obtained from the affected land-
owners to locate these additional instru-
ments in the catchment. The installation of
required underground cabling and a direct
telephone link between the watershed and
the Agricultural Engineering building on the
West Lafayette campus is currently under-
way. The design of special electronics to in-
terface the field instrumentation, both new
and existing, to a minicomputer system on
the Purdue campus is nearly completed.
The schedule of accomplishments antici-
pates initial operation of the primary metero-
logical station and the telephone transmis-
sion of its data to West Lafayette in late Oc-
tober or early November. Installation of ad-
ditional field equipment to provide computer
control of water sampling will proceed with-
in a month after successful completion of ini-
tial testing on the integrity of the data link
between the watershed and campus. Expan-
sion of the network of field instrumentation
using radio telemetry is planned for the sum-
mer of 1976.
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Getting Treatment on the
Land Not Always Simple
SECTION 2
Land Treatment
Planning and
Application
By
Thomas D. McCain
Darrell E. Brown
Stanley W. Steury
Conservation planning and application has been underway for two years on the
Black Creek project. Total accomplishments now stand at 105 cooperators, 83 con-
servation plans and 75 contracts. As of June 30,1974, there were 24 non-Amish and
6 Amish contracts. The accomplishments for the current year, ending June 30,1975,
reflect a 200 percent increase in Amish contracts and a 138 percent increase in
non-Amish contracts. The staffing of a second planner in August, 1974, accounted
for this significant increase. This now accounts for 44 percent of the original (esti-
mated) goal for farms under contract to date.
Black Creek represents only 4 percent of the land area of Allen County. The staff-
ing level for the Soil Conservation Service Field Office however is more than 55
percent devoted to Black Creek activities. However, with the acceleration of plan-
ning and application in Black Creek, the measurable land treatment accomplish-
ments for the field office reflect a much higher ratio. Therefore it can be concluded
that intensive manpower inputs directly results in measurable accomplishments.
In the initial work plan preparation, considerable effort went into establishing
conservation planning and land treatment goals. A projection of staffing levels
was reflected in the work plan which was prepared in 1973. We can now report ac-
tual accomplishments and man-power needs as they relate to the original esti-
mate.
More than twice the normal number of man hours is required for completion of
each individual Black Creek plan. This extra time requirement can be attributed to
much greater detail necessary in preparing cost estimates, the involvement of a
planner with the monetary aspects of this contract, and the decision making pro-
9
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cesses by the landowner. In normal Soil Conservation Service conservation plan-
ning, a completed plan may include a listing of alternatives selected by the land-
owner; however, Black Creek contracts include a conservation plan with only deci-
sions not alternatives. There were seven conservation plans with alternatives
awaiting the landowners final selection of decisions in Black Creek on June 30,
1975. These plans, representing mostly Amish ownership, may become contracts
before the Black Creek program is terminated.
A review of the conservation practices originally listed in table A-10 of the work
plan and the charts in section 9 will show the Soil Conservation Service's projected
goals and actual accomplishments to date. Additional committment amounts be-
yond the actual accomplishment for most individual practices reflects a backlog
yet to be completed. Total committments to date can therefore be related to yearly
goals by noting the position on each chart. We have concluded that the number of
landowners who are potential cooperators should be increased. The original work
plan estimate of 170 tracts (148 of which were needed as "new" cooperators to make
100 percent) were reviewed by the Soil Conservation Service-Soil and Water Con-
servation District staff in June, 1975. A section by section count of landowners with
five acres or more now totals 200. There were 32 cooperators prior to the Black
Creek program. The goal for new cooperators could now be increased to 168; how-
ever, following our present policy of signing up all land units as new cooperators
would increase the goal to 200.
Goals represented on table A-10 are idealistic and represent estimated treatment
levels necessary to attain 100 percent coverage of the 12,,000-acre BlackCreek area.
At the mid-way point in the Black Creek program, we can recognize that many of
these land treatment goals will be unattainable. Basic educational needs, a greater
time span required for acceptance and/or installation by landowners, and the
somewhat unbalanced practice goals appear as three items we now know a great
deal more about.
At this point in Black Creek history our successes in both planning and applica-
tion are exciting. Many innovative ideas and opportunities are extended to the
Black Creek participants that are not a part of our traditional Soil Conservation
Service operations in the remaining portions of Allen County.
Developing workable and rapidly acceptable land treatment practices for the
Black Creek participants involves modification of the practice specifications or
cost-share rates by the Allen Soil and Water Conservation District board of super-
visors. Since Black Creek is administered locally, many innovative changes have
been proposed by the staff, approved by the board and become workable solutions
with a minimum of delay. Shifts in program emphasis have been effected by this
procedure as the board reviewed progress of various land treatment goals for the
watershed. Table 2-1 briefly explains the modifications adopted by the board. As of
July 14,1975, modifications have been suggested and approved for 15 of the 34 ap-
plication practices in the Black Creek handbook.
Although there is no numerical or percentage breakdown of practices completed
on the rolling uplands versus flat, lake bed soils area of the Black Creek watershed,
it is generally concluded that the most significant early progress was made with
the most cooperative, progressive lake bed farmers. Many of these successful far-
mers were cooperators long before the Black Creek program started. There were,
however, several upland plans developed inthe first year that have resulted in con-
siderable erosion control work on farms north of Indiana Highway 37, which is the
10
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Table 2.1 Changes in Practice Specifications and Cost Share
Practice
Conservation Cropping
System
Crop Residue Management
Diversion
Farmstead and Feedlot
Windbreak
Grassed Waterway
Minimum Tillage
Pasture Planting
Pond
Spec .
Change
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
Cost-
Share
Change
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
The Change Is
Change to pay only on farms
where a change in rotation
is made.
Change to pay only on farms
where a change in rotation
is made. 70% of $1.50/ac.
to 80% of $1.50/ac.
Reduce inlet cost-share for
$150.00 each to $50.00 each.'
Increase from $80.00/ac. to
$300.00/ac.
To include payment on a cubic
yard or lineal foot basis.
Increase base rate to S7.00
/ac. Have three options:
80%, 65%, 30%.
Price unit from $70.00/ac.
to $100.00/ac.
Increase cost-share on seeding
to 80% of $75.00/ac. Increase
seed and mulch to 80% of
$150.00/ac.
Reason
This was a give-away to
landowner on flat land
that required no changes
to meet specifications.
To make a little more in-
centive and to stop give
aways for no change.
This puts cost of tile
back on the tile practice
specifications and cost-
share.
Incentive to buy larger
trees.
.Make excavation costs
easier and faster.
Incentives to get more
minimum tillage.
Ilore incentive to plant
permanent pasture.
Make rates uniform with
other seeding practices.
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Table 2.1 Changes in Practice Specifications and Cost-Share (continued)
Practice
Spec.
Change
Cost-
Share
Change
The Change Is
Reason
Strip Cropping
Terraces-Gradient
Terraces-Parallel
Grassed Waterway
Pasture Management
Pond
Contour Strip Cropping
terraces
Fencing
Yes
No
No
NO
Yes
Yes
Make payments on consecutive
years on same area.
Reduce inlet cost-share for
$150.00 each to $50.00 each.
Reduce inlet cost-share for
$150.00 each to %50.00 each.
FOLLOWING CHANGES EFFECTIVE JULY 14, 1975
No
Yes
lie
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Increase cost-share to 90%
Increase cost-share from 65%
of $18.00/ac. to 65% of
S50.00/ac.
Allow construction of h ac.
livestock ponds and pay 75%.
Also remove $1800.00 hold down
on other ponds and pay maximum
of 60% of estimate.
Increase unit price from $5.00
per acre to $10.00 per acre.
Increase cost-share to 90%
Change specification to allow
1 barb on woven wire or 4
barbed wire fence.
More incentives to apply
practice.
This puts cost of tile
back on the tile practice
specifications and cost-
share.
This puts cost of tile
back on the tile practice
specifications and cost-
share.
Added incentive for more
waterways.
Added incentive and help
to cover cost of increased
fertili2er and lime.
Incentive for more ponds.
Incentive for more of the
practice.
Incentive for more of the
practice.
To make a more workable
specification.
-------
Table 2.1 Changes in Practice Specifications and Cost-Share (continued)
Practice
Field Border
Diversions
Livestock Exclusion
Spec.
Change
No
No
Yes
Cost-
Share
Change
Yes
Yes
Yes
The Change Is
Reduce cost-share from 70% to
60%
Increase cost-share to 90%
Start paying for excluding
livestock from woods. Pay
70% of $4.00 per acre.
Reason
Make payments to end
of project more equit-
able.
Incentive for more of
the practice.
Encourage landowners to
keep livestock out of
woods.
co
-------
approximate upland-flatland boundary. The most significant land treatment pro-
gress during the first and second years were attributed to group construction
mostly along the western and southern half of the Black Creek area.
The Indiana Highway 37, beech-ridge transition between the lower lake bed soils
and the rolling uplands, is associated with a change in landownership patterns.
Generally, the 7500 acre area south of Indiana Highway 37 is owned and operated
by full-time, progressive farmers with highly mechanized equipment and livestock
generally raised in confinement. These full-time farmers have little or no use for
meadow in rotation or pastures on these flat, black, poorly drained soils. The roll-
ing uplands, particularly in the 2,500 acre northwest quarter of Black Creek are pre-
dominately owned and farmed by Amish. These lands being farmed by "horse"
power contain many small herds of Uvestock on pasture. Amish landownership re-
presents about one-third of the recognized farming units in the Black Creek water-
shed. In terms of numbers of people involved in operation of Black Creek farms, the
Amish with their very large families would have more people committed to produc-
tion. Many Amish have a side occupation (operation of saw mill, wheel fabrica-
tion, harness shop, etc.) on their farms.
The remaining rolling upland in the 2000-acre northeast quarter of the water-
shed is farmed partly by Amish and partly by tenant operators on lands they do not
predominately own. Absentee landowners are more difficult to motivate. Likewise
successes with these people comes through interested tenants willing to invest
their own time and labor in someone else's land.
The greatest number of conservation plans have been developed with the more
progressive farmers, many of whom have been previous cooperators of the Allen
County Soil and Water Conservation District. Other less progressive farmers were
basically motivated at an early stage by group application in their own area. A sys-
tem of planning in priority areas as outlined in the work plan, has been a basic ob-
jective of our efforts. However, we have worked throughout the watershed with
planning and application wherever there has been specific requests by land-
owners for assistance.
High priority areas such as the Upper Wertz watershed (northwest quarter) are
special target areas for group work involving nearly 100 percent Amish owner-
ship. Motivating these people takes more time and perseverance (by approxi-
mately 3-4 fold) than the efforts directed toward group application in lower Black
Creek. However, the final accomplishments in these upper more erosive water-
sheds will ultimately result in a more diverse and meaningful pattern of land treat-
ment than the group work completed on the flatter lands south of Indiana 37. Much
stronger educational efforts are needed with these less progressive landusers on
the rolling uplands before they are ready to assume contract responsibilities for
their farms.
Early work with several prominent Amish landowners in the Upper Dreisbach
watershed northwest of Harlan has resulted in application of many conservation
practices that now stand as good examples for other Amish to observe. Nearly one-
half of the Amish landowners have completed contracts compared to approxi-
mately one-third of the non-Amish. Considering the Amish ownership of the pre-
dominately more erosive watershed areas, this remaining planning goal will re-
quire intensive educational and motivational efforts.
Although not a significant portion of Black Creek had yet been credited as "land
adequately treated" on June 30,1975, it is generally agreed that 65-70 percent of the
14
-------
lake bed soils are presently adequately treated (according to Soil Conservation Ser-
vice standards) and only 30-35 percent of the rolling upland could be considered
adequately treated without further application of conservation measures. Wood-
land and pastures along with cropland treatment needs have posed special prob-
lems in converting Amish to manage their farms according to "land adequately
treated" standards.
Nearly all landowners in the 580-acre Upper Wertz drainage area were initially
disinterested in both the group and individual application practices being offered
by the Black Creek program. They failed to see any benefits that would accure to
their farms and generally resented changes that would be necessary in their tradi-
tional farming operations. Even economic incentives of high cost-sharing rates had
little effect on their initial interest in conservation land treatment. Through a four-
month period of repeated contacts and several group meetings, these Amish people
agreed as a group to support the construction of a large grass waterway. Since that
time they have agreed to go ahead with severalother treatment practices associa-
ted with the grass waterway; however, many landowners have yet to select all of
the proper practices to complete their individual contracts. We hope that after
completion of the group waterway many of these landowners in the Upper Wertz
area will adopt contracts on the remaining portions of their land.
The success in getting something underway with the Amish is due to many per-
sonal "one-to-one" contacts with the landowners. Once an understanding and an
acceptance of agency personnel is gained by the landowner, progress can be made.
It seems that many of these landowners are reluctant to be first to try something
new or different. Once a practice has been tried, others are more willing to install
the same practice and the original landowners may continue to apply more of the
same.
Many of the landowners north of Indiana Highway 37 have been reluctant to in-
stall grass waterways, terraces, diversions and other practices that would adapt
well to this area. Landowners in the flatter sections of the watershed have been re-
luctant to carry out some of the cultural practices (minimum tillage, residue man-
agement, etc.) that are needed.
One major success has been the establishment of the field border strips. Most of
these 16-foot wide vegetated strips have been established along open ditches. Some
borders have been established along woods or along other areas where there is a
break in the natural slope of the land.
Although an unknown amount of fall chisel plowing was done by landowners in
the fall and winter of 1973-74, actual accomplishment information was obtained by
Purdue for the following 1974-75 dormant season. All indications are that there will
be a further increase in chisel plowing for the 1975-76 season. Part of this increase
can be attributed to the emphasis on minimum tillage and the favorable cost-share
payments. Many landowners are still reluctant to limit the number of tillage opera-
tions in the spring. Farmers believe they must work the land two or three times in
the spring — mostly for weed control.
One major problem is a tendancy by some landowners, who are under contract, to
put off installation or "carry over" practices from one year to the next. Part of the
problem is a lack of timely follow-up by field personnel. Some of these practices
need to be planned well in advance, and the landowner must be reminded early so
he can plan for this work to be completed in the proper season. Some practices need
to be done at crop planting or crop harvest time. During these busy times many
15
-------
practices get assigned a lower priority by the farmer. This problem of completion
delay is seldom on a required practice — usually it involves some practice which
was supplemental to the requirements of the contract.
After many difficult conservation planning sessions, it has become apparent
that one item needs to be recognized. In the project area there are landowners whc
may agree to a complete conservation plan and long-term contract even though
they are not enthusiastic about the benefits of the land use changes or land treat
ment practices. They may sign the contract for several reasons:
(1) To satisfy a spur of the moment need created by the salesmanship of the
planner — a need which they are later unwilling or unable to meet.
(2) To try to shift the attention of planners and other project workers to other
areas — so they won't be bothered anymore.
(3) To assure themselves that they will get a few items that they truly want.
The problems created by contracts signed for the above reasons is that the land-
owners may try to delay application of scheduled practices, or, he may not be inter-
ested enough to do a good job. For example, good pasture management techniques
were mostly unused before this project and pastures are still being mistreated even
on farms under contract. Landowners simply have not taken enough interest to
manage them wisely. Education is needed badly and good examples plus a study of
pasture economics (carrying capacity) would be the best approach.
Other examples of waning interest are easy to find throughout the watershed
such as, terraces, diversions, and waterways where the seeding failed and serious
erosion has occurred in the first year after construction. Simply, not enough effort
was put forth by the landowner to get a good stand. Overgrazing of established
waterways has occurred because of failure to install fences for livestock exclusion.
This jias become a frequent follow-up problem and may require additional viola-
tion "citations" to be issued by the Soil and Water Conservation District board.
Treatment alternatives for cropland having an erosion hazard are developed for
the Black Creek cooperators by the use of the Universal Soil Loss Equation. Ade-
quate treatment will, as a minimum, control soil loss within the tolerable limits for
each soil type and erosion group.
Planners have access to soils information for each farm as they work with the
land users in developing cropping systems capable of holding the average annual
soil loss to levels within the tolerable limits. Many times a combination of manage-
ment practices (rotation, residue use, minimum tillage, contouring, etc.) must be
combined with one or more mechanical practices (diversions, terraces, grass water-
ways, etc.) to reduce slope length in accomplishing the soil loss goal on each farm.
Most soils in the Black Creek area have annual tolerable loss limits of 3-4 tons de-
pending on their inherent ability to retard erosion. The more erodible (heavier clay)
soils have a lower "T/K" index. This coupled with other on-site data (slope length
and percent) and the rainfall factor for Allen County assists the planner in com-
puting the cropping management factor. This final numerical "c" value is used in
selecting the rotation most nearly meeting the needs of the farmer and the soil.
The universal soil loss equation is where:
A - RKLSCP
A is the computed soil loss per year per unit area of land. It is computed as
tons per acre.
R is the average annual rainfall-erosion index or the average annual erosive
force of rainfall. An R value of 160 is assigned to Allen County, Indiana. R
16
-------
values are found on figure 2.1.
K is the soil erodibility factor. It is a measure of the rate at which a soil will
erode expressed as tons per acre per year per unitof R for a 9% slope 72.6 feet
long under continuous cultivated fallow. K values for the soils in Indiana are
found in figure 2.2.
L is the slope length factor. It is the ratio of soil loss from a specified slope
length to that from a slope length of 72.6 feet long, which is the slope length
for the K value in the equation. A slope length of 72.6 feet long has a factor
value of 1. L is determined in the field.
S is the slope gradient factor. It is the ratio of soil loss from a specific slope
gradient to that from a gradient of 9 percent, which is the slope gradient spe-
cified for the K value in the soil loss equation. A slope gradient of 9 percent
has a factor value of 1. S is determined in the field.
L and S are usually handled in combination. The soil loss ratio — SL, can be
read directly from the slope-effect chart, figure 2.3.
C is the cropping management factor. It is the ratio of soil loss from land
cropped under specified conditions to the corresponding loss from the land in
continuous fallow. Continuous fallow has a factor value of 1 in the equation.
Cropping management factors (C) for common rotations used in Black Creek
are found in figure 2.4.
P is the conservation practice factor. It is the ratio of soil loss from a speci-
fied conservation practice to that from up-and-down hill tillage operations.
Up-and-down hill tillage has a factor value of 1 in the equation.
Soil loss tolerance (T) is not found in the equation but is important to the use of
the equation in practical field application. It is the maximum soil loss in tons per
acre per year which can be tolerated on a specific soil and still permit a high level of
crop production to be sustained economically and indefinitely. This does not neces-
sarily equate to water quality levels in streams.
T amounts, in tons per acre per year, have been established for all soils in Black
Creek and are found in figure 2.2 together with the K values for the soils. T/K
values are also listed in the table. The T/K is simply the T value divided by the K
value for a specific soil. These elements are used as a T/K value on the calculator for
Planning Conservation Systems.
The soil loss calculator (slide rule) is used in combination with the reference
tables listed to determine proper land treatment alternatives, (table 2.2)
As an example, a cropping system computed on Joe Graber's farm in the rolling
uplands along the western edge of Black Creek watershed has 5 percent slopes in
field number 2 with average slope lengths of 90. The T/K value for this eroded Mor-
ley silt loam is 7. He farms generally across the slope (nearly contoured). The slide
rule indicates the cropping value of 0.165. Using Joe's present crop rotation of row-
small grain-meadow-meadow (1-1-2) with spring plow and removing silage from
the corn ground his actual cropping factor is 0.060. Therefore averaging the soil
loss over this four year rotation Joe could expect a loss of only slightly over one ton
per acre compared to the tolerable limit of three tons to maintain productivity of his
land.
Another example is on Duyane Amstutz's farm, where his rotation is a 2-1, that
is, 2 years row crop, 1 year wheat, and fall plow. On the east part of field 1 we have
an area with 2-6 percent slopes averaging 500 feet long. Field No. 1 is shaped like a
concave bowl, making farming cross-slope or nearly contour not difficult but inef-
17
-------
Table 2.2 Calculated Practice Fact or Based on Percent Slope
Percent Slope
1.1 - 2.0
2.1 - 7.0
7.1 - 12.0
12.1 - 18
18.1 - 24
Practice Factor Value
Contouring
.6
.5
.6
.8
.9
Contour Strip
Cropping
.3
.25
.3
.4
.45
Terracing Plus
Contouring
.6
.5
.6
fective as far as soil loss is concerned. A small portion of the field has 6-12 percent
slopes. The T/K value of this moderately eroded Morley silt loam is 7. The slide rule
indicates a value of 0.048. Using Duyane's present rotation of 2-1 with fall plow his
crop factor is 0.264. Therefore, the soil loss averaged over a 3 year rotation is about
16 tons annually per acre.
Since altering any one or a combination of factors in the soil loss equation can
bring about favorable results, the cooperator, after considering all the alterna-
tives, decided to break down the slope length by using grassed backslope parallel
terraces. By installing these on 170 feet intervals his soil movement (loss) is re-
duced to just under the three ton tolerable loss limit. These terraces temporarily
pond runoff behind each ridge letting the silt settle in place while clean water is go-
ing out through a field tile. This tile outlet, of course, helps drain the land after the
surface flush has past.
A third example is on Henry Armbruster's farm located in the lower portion of the
watershed, near the point where Black Creek outlets into the Maumee River. The
major soil type is Nappanee, which is a nearly level, deep, somewhat poorly
drained, depressional soil with a T/K value of 6. Conventional tillage (plow and
disc) is performed generally up and down the slope which is two percent with a
length of approximately 450 feet. Henry fall plows all his corn ground. The crop-
ping management (slide rule) factor for this land is 0.85. This factor would limit his
cropping rotation to a 1-1-1 (or 1 year row crop, one year small grain, and one year
hay or pasture). Henry elected to not fall plow but leave the 4000-6000 Ibs of corn
stalk residue from the 120 bushel average yield on the soil surface during the ero-
sive winter and spring months and use minimum tillage (chisel plow with one disc-
ing) in the spring. With this change in management techniques he can now safely
go to a 3-1 rotation (3 years row crop, 1 year small grain with clover intercrop) and
still be within the allowable soil loss for this soil type. Prior to this change in cul-
tural practices Henry was loosing on the average 11 tons of soil per acre per year on
the same ground.
18
-------
RAINFALL EROSION-INDEX DISTRIBUTION CURVE MAP
INDIANA
Jae "0"
^actors for
5-1 Distri-
lution Arei.
15
se "C" Factors for
Distribution Area 19
Figure 2.1 Data for USLE from SCS Technical Guide
19
-------
Soil Type
*Belmore
Blount
Bono
Brookston
Carlisle
Chelsea
Crosby
Del Key
Eel
Fox
Genesee
Haskins
Hoytville
Lenawee
*Martinsville
Mermill
Miami
Montgomery
*Morley
*Nappanee
*0shtemo
Pewamo
Plainf ield
*Rawson
Rensselaer
*St. Clair
Shoals
Tawas
Wallkill
Washtenaw
Westland
Whitaker
Willette Muck
I
"K"
Value
.32
.37
.32
.37
.37
.43
.49
.24
.17
.37
.49
1&2 I
II mil
Value
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
3
5
3
3
2ros
"T/K"
Value
9
8
9
11
8
7
6
13
29
8
6
3 EJ
"mil
Value
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
5
2
2
:os
"T/K"
Value
6
5
6
8
5
5
4
8
29
5
4
*Soil found in Black Creek watershed.
Figure 2.2 Data for USLE from SCS Technical Guide
20
-------
SLOPE EFFECT CHART
O
tr
V)
v>
O
I
100
600
200 300 400 500
Slope Length (Feet)
Figure 2.3 Data for USLE from SCS Technical Guide
700
800
21
-------
to
to
"C" CROP MANAGEMENT FACTOR VALUES FOR CENTRAL INDIANA
(E.I. DISTRIBUTION AREA 16)
Ratio of Soil Loss from Cropping Management Systems to Loss
from Continuous Fallow
Crop
Sequence
1 Cont. Corn
2 Cont . Corn
RdH, Cover
Crop RdL
3 RRRGr
k RRGx
5 RRRGM
6 RRRGMM
7 RHGM
8 RRGMM
9 RRGMMM
10 RGM
11 RGMM
12 HGMMM
13 HGMMMM
11* GMMMM
15 G-R
(double crop)
16 G-R
(double crop)
Fall Plow
Conv. Till
Spring Plow
Conv. Till
Plow Plant
Wheel Trade
Plant
Crop Yields - High I/
RdR
• U81;
• 358
•311
.239
.200
.171*
.11*0
.119
.090
.069
.056
.01*7
(Plow ft
(Disk f<
RdL
.388
.309
.261*
• 195
RdR
.1*55
•392
• Jlfi
.270
.199
.163 .167
.150 .143
.121
.101
.082
.063
.051
• 01*3
.019
r G)
r G)
.115
.097
.078
.060
• 01*9
.01*1
RdL
• 351*
.269
L -236
.161*
•137
•123
• 099 .
.083
.070
.051*
.01*1*
• 037
.015
RdL
.250
• 331
• 191*
.176
• 117
.028
.088
.071
.060
.053
.01*0
.033
.028
Minimum Tillage Methods
Systems such as Till Plant, Chisel
Plow & Rotary Strip Tillage 2/
Crop Residue on Surface
1000-
2000
• 31*6
.231
.185
.121*
.11*8
.128
.091*
.076
.061*
2000-
3000
.238
.221*
•139
.098
.110
.092
.075
.061
.051
.01*7
.036
.030
.025
3000-
1,000
.185
.205
.112
.088
.090
.076
.061,
.052
.01*1*
1*000-
6000
.129
.193
.087
.070
.070
• 059
.051
.01*1;
.037
6000*
• 079
.061*
.OgS
.0^2
-" i
• ~'«5
.036
.031
Systems such as Fluted
Coulter & Slot Planting j/
Crop Residue on Surface
1000-
2000
.276
.238
.150
.103
.120
.101
.078
.063
• 051*
2000-
3000
.188
.181*
3000-
1*000
.127
.158
.109 ' .081
.079 -063
.088
.07!*
.061
.01*9
.01*2
.01*1
.032
.026
.022
.066
1*000-
6000
.070
.151
.051*
.01*8
• 01+1*
•055 ! -037
.01*9
.038
.035
.123
.071
.037
.030
.026
6000+
.030
.037
.039
.030
.026
.030
.025
.021
Where there is more than one year of row crop, the last year of row crop is soybeans when followed
Where meadow is included in the rotation, the first year com after meadow is planted in 20OO-3000
for minimum tillage. Select the column for the amount of com stover residue on the surface after
year corn and thereafter.
I/ Yearly average corn yield exceeds 75 bushels per acre and meadow yield is 3 tons or more per acre.
2/ Includes tillage systems which leave residues on 66$ or more of the soil surface after planting.
2/ Includes tillage systems which leave residues on 90$ or more of the soil surface after planting.
Figure 2.4 Data for USLE from SCS Technical Guide
by small grain.
pounds of sod residue
planting for second
-------
Fall Tillage Has Impact
OH Soil LOSS fall Tests con
ducted in Black
Creek Water-
shed in 1974 and
1975
By
J. V. Mannering
and C. B. Johnson
This report primarily summarizes the results of simulated rainfall tests in 1974.
Although some field testing was accomplished in late spring and early summer of
1975 there remains appreciable laboratory analyses to be completed before the re-
sults can be summarized. The research conducted in 1974 and reported herein
evaluates the influence of cropping and tillage practices on runoff and soil loss
from cropland. This work falls under objective 4 page B-23 and is further described
on page B-24 in the project work plan. (EPA-G005103)
1. PROCEDURE
Test sites were prepared after harvest in the fall of 1973 on areas that had been
cropped to either corn or soybeans. Earlier surveys had shown that almost 60
percent of the 12,038 acre watershed is planted to these two crops annually. Soils,
slopes and prior crop are identified in table 3.1.
The treatments applied during the fall of 1973 included:
(1) Check — No tillage applied after harvest of crops. All residues left on the
surface.
(2) Disk — Light disking (2-3 inches deep) in the fall—slight incorporation of
residues.
(3) Chisel — Chiseling (6-8 inches deep) in the fall. Some incorporation of
residues.
(4) Plow — Plowing (6-8 inches deep) in the fall. Nearly all residues buried.
All treatments were replicated once.
23
-------
Table 3.1 Identification of Test Locations
Location
Richard Yerks
Virgil Hirsch
Virgil Hirsch
Dennis Bennett
Soil Type
Raskins loam
Nappanee clay loam
Hoytville silty clay
Morley clay loam
% Slope
1.76
0.66
0.75
3.99
Prior
Crop
corn
corn
corn
soybeans
No further treatment was applied prior to applying simulated rainfall tests in the
late spring of 1974. These treatments represented conditions that would occur in
late winter and early spring after the soil had gone through the winter's weather-
ing process (freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, rain and snow periods).
Based on past erosion tests this should be the most critical erosion period for fall
plow, fall chisel, and even the check treatment. On the other hand the disk treat-
ment might be less susceptible at this time than earlier in the season.
The reasoning is as follows:
Check — Some residues have decomposed and washed or blown away leaving
less of the soil surface protected.
Fall plow and fall chisel — Weathering has reduced the roughness (cloddmess)
and as a result, less surface storage exists resulting in more runoff. In the
case of fall chisel some of the surface residues have disappeared as well.
Disk — Soil material loosened by the fall disk operation has already been carried
away by runoff and wind leaving more of the residue on the surface than im-
mediately after tillage, thus providing increased protection.
These treatments were tested using simulated rainfall during late spring, 1974.
Test plots were each « feet wide by ;i,r> feet long. Tillage and row direction (where ap-
plicable wen; paralled to the predominant slope. The test storm sequence was as fol-
lows:
Initial run — 60 minute application at two and one-half inches per hour.
Wet run — 30 minute application at two and one-half inches per hour twenty four
hours following the initial run.
Very wet run — 30 minute application at two and one-half inches per hour fifteen
minutes after the end of the wet run.
Prior to rainfall, application soil moisture samples were taken. One hundred titty
pounds of nitrogen as urea with ammonium sulfate and 50 pounds of phosphorus
as 0-46-0 were broadcast on one replication of all treatments shortly before the ini-
tial run. The amount of nitrogen and phosphorus that appeared in the runoff from
these plots will be reported. Prior to the tests, surface residue cover was determined
photographically. Runoff rates and amounts were determined by stage recorders
and one percent aliquot samples of runoff were taken for sediment and nutnent
analyses.
-------
2. RESULTS
Photographically determined estimates of surface residue cover are shown in
table 3.2.
^over estimates are averages of 6 determinations.
2The Morley soil had soybean residues — the other 3 locations had corn residues.
Figures 3.1 and 3.2 show the appearance of corn and soybean residues over a
range of surface cover. Results from the initial, wet, very wet and three-storm totals
for the four locations are given in table 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, and 3.6. Included is information
on runoff, infiltration, soil concentration, and soil loss. Table 3.7 shows only a soil
loss summary for the four locations.
Table 3.2 Percent Surface Cover Following Treatments
TREATMENT
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
RASKINS L.
57
55
36
1
NAPPANEE C.L.
53
58
29
5
HOYTVILLE Si.C.
78
77
57
4
MORLEY C.L.
26
17
12
1
3. DISCUSSION
Appreciable soil losses occurred on the Haskins loam (table 3.3) from both the fall
chisel and fall plowed treatments. Both infiltration differences and soil concentra-
tion of the runoff were important factors in the results obtained. The appreciably
larger infiltration on the check plot compared to the other three treatments is diffi-
cult to explain and may result from minor topography differences between plots
rather than a result of treatment. In the comparison between infiltration amounts
between fall chisel and fall plow the advantage of the chisel system could well be
that the rougher surface created more surface storage, thus reducing runoff
amounts particularly during the initial run. The major effects of treatment appear
to show up in soil content of runoff and be closely tied to surface protected by last
season's corn residues. Table 3.2 indicates that both the check and disk treatments
had over 50 percent of the surface covered compared to slightly over one-third for
the chisel treatment and only 1 percent for the plowed treatment.
Table 3.4 gives the same results for the Nappanee soil. Here you find little differ-
ence in infiltration resulting from treatments. However, the past season's corn resi-
dues have significant effects on soil concentration of the runoff and therefore soil
loss. Percent surface cover amounting to 53, 58,29, and 5 from the respective treat-
ments of check, disk, chisel and plow resulted in soil losses of 0.7, 0.5, 2.1, and 3.6
tons/acre.
25
-------
to
^w.
- sr x > *• ",**r*.- <-, Ji
f * f*, «• * " •
|^ /.-?.',-.•.-*•
1%
7%
17%
25%
34%
45%
58%
75%
Figure 3.1 Corn Residue on Sample Plot
-------
1%
4%
12%
20% 25%
Figure 3.2 Soybean Residue on Sample Plot
27
-------
Table 3.3 Summary of Results by Test Storms, May-June, 1974, Raskins
Loam
r •
Treat
ment
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Storm
Initial (60 min)
11
II
11
Wet (30 min)
ti
ii
M
Very Wet (30 min)
ti
«i
»
Total (2 hours)
n
ti
H
t
Appl.
(In)
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1 .25
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
Infil.
(In)
1.52
1.22
1.22
.77
.67
.46
.28
.25
.43
.14
.15
.16
2.62
1.82
1.65
1.18
Runoff
I/
(In)~
0.98
1.28
1.28
1.73
.58
.79
.97
1.00
.82
1.11
1.10
1.09
2.38
3.18
3.35
3.82
Soil
Cont.
Runoff
2/
(%) ~
1.40
.83
1.81
2.74
.64
.36
1.65
2.67
.54
.27
1.46
2.51
.87
.49
1.62
2.69 :
Soil
Loss
I/
(T/Af
1.43
1.09 <
2.58
5.47
.42
.32
1.79
3.04 |
.50
.34
1.78
3.13
2.35
1.75
6.15
LI. 64
V Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity
of 2 1/2 in/hr.
2/ Soil content of runoff is Ibs. actual soil loss/lbs. actual
runoff x 100.
28
-------
Table 3.4 Summary of Results by Test Storms, May-June, 1974, Nap-
panee Clay Loam
Treat-
ment
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Flow
Storm
Initial (60 min)
ii
it
ii
Wet (30 min)
H
ii
ti
Very Wet (30 min)
H
H
n
Total (2 hours)
n
»
n
Appl.
(In)
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
Infil.
(In)
1.26
1.32
1.33
1.38
.58
.83
.54
.58
.44
.52
.31
.31
2.28
2.67
2.18
2.27
Runoff
I/
(In)
1.24
1.18
1.17
1.12
.67
.42
.71
.67
.81
.73
.94
.94
2.72
2.33
2.82
2.73
Soil
Cont.
Runoff
2/
(%)~
.28
.20
.75
1.47
.21
.15
.62
1.00
.18
.11
.63
.92
.23
.18
.66
1.16
Soil
Loss
I/
(T/Af
.40
.32
.99
1.85
.16
.07
.48
.77
.17
.09
.63
.96
.73
.48
2.10
3.58
I/ Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity
of 2 1/2 in/hr.
2/ Soil content of runoff is Ibs. actual soil loss/lbs. actual
runoff x 100.
29
-------
Table 3.5 Summary of Results by Test Storms, May-June, 1974, Hoyt-
ville Silty Clay
Treat
ment
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Storm
Initial (60 min)
n
it
M
Wet (30 min)
tl
11
"
Very Wet (30 min)
n
ii
n
Total (2 hours)
It
II
11
Appl.
(In)
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
Infil.
(In)
1.33
1.74
2.01
1.32
.68
.82
1.00
.48
.40
.31
.54
.37
2.41
2.87
3.55
2.17
Runoff
I/
(In)~
1.17
.76
.49
1.18
.57
.43
.25
.77
.85
.94
.71
.88
2.59
2.13
1.45
2.83
Soil
Cont.
Runoff
2/
(%)~
.18
.20
.49
.67
.17
.29
.50
.56
.14
.11
.48
.55
.17
.17
.45
.60
Loss
I/
(T/AT
.24
.17
.27
.90
.11
.14
.12
.48
.14
.11
.35
.54
.49
.42
.74
1.92
I/ Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity
of 2 1/2 in/hr.
2/ Soil content of runoff is Ibs. actual soil loss/lbs. actual
runoff x 100.
30
-------
Table 3.6 Summary of Results by Test Storms, May-June, 1974, Morley
Clay Loam
Treat
ment
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Storm
Initial (60 min)
ii
ii
"
Wet (30 min)
n
ii
n
Very Wet (30 min)
M
n
n
Total (2 hours)
ii
ii
n
Appl.
(In)
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
Infil.
(In)
.57
.75
.75
.59
.21
.34
.27
.20
.04
.16
.16
.25
.82
1.25
1.18
1.04
Runoff
I/
(ln)~
1.93
1.75
1.75
1.91
1.04
.91
.98
1.05
1.21
1.09
1.09
1.00
4.18
3.75
3.82
3.96
Soil
Cont.
Runoff
2/
(%) "
1.21
1.51
3.61
4.57
1.25
1.21
3.24
3.91
1.36
1.08
1.08
3.48
1.26
1.31
3.12
4.07
Soil
Loss
I/
(T/A)
2.65
2.96
7.08
9.81
1.50
1.27
3.54
4.60
1.82
1.32
1.32
3.85
5.97
5.55
13.51
18.26
I/ Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity
of 2 1/2 in/hr.
2/ Soil content of runoff is Ibs. actual soil loss/lbs. actual
runoff x 100.
31
-------
On the Hoytville soil (table 3.5) infiltration amounts were highly variable again
illustrating the major effects of topographic variability between plots on runoff
amounts on these nearly level areas. However, there did appear to be some advan-
tage of the chisel treatment in surface storage. The major effects of treatment were
again tied closely to residue cover. Corn residues covered 78 percent, 77 percent, 57
percent and 4 percent of the soil surface, respectively on the check, disk, chisel and
plowed plots. Resultant soil losses were 0.5, 0.4, 0.7, and 1.9 tons per acre, respec-
tively.
Two factors predominate on the Morley soil (table 3.6). First and most signifi-
cant is the percent slope of almost 4 percent compared to less than 2 percent on all
other locations. Runoff is greatly increased compared to the other 3 locations.
Secondly, these tests were made on soybean land where much less residue was pre-
sent than on corn land. Table 3.2 shows surface protection to be 26 percent, 17 per-
cent, 12 percent, and 1 percent respectively for the check, disk, chisel, and plow
treatment. (Compare these values with those on corn land.) These residues, al-
though less than for cornland, were still a factor in reducing soil content of the run-
off. Compare, particularly the differences in soil content and soil loss between the
checks and disk treatment verses the chisel and plow treatments.
Table 3.7 shows major differences in soil loss to occur between locations. The
effect of slope on total erosion remains a dominant factor. A soil loss of greater than
18 tons per acre occurred on the plowed Morley soil with a 4 percent slope, 11.6 tons
per acre occurred on the plowed Haskins soil (1.75 percent slope) and less than 4
tons per acre occurred on plowed slopes of less than 1 percent. A comparison of the
two nearly level locations (Hoytville and Nappanee) shows the better structured
soil to have positive effects both in increasing infiltration and reducing soil de-
tachment. Note particularly the plowed treatments where erosion from five inches
of rain resulted in losses of 1.9 tons per acre from the Hoytville compared to 3.6 tons
per acre from the Nappanee.
4. Conclusions and Comments
These results are of a preliminary nature and further analyses might alter them
slightly. However, it can be definitely concluded that:
(1) Type of tillage performed in the fall can have major effects on soil losses dur-
ing the winter and spring months. — Tests in late spring and early summer showed
soil losses from fall chiseled land to be 53 percent, 58 percent, 37 percent, and 74 per-
cent, respectively, of those from fall plowed land on the Haskins, Nappanee,
Hoytville, and Morley soils. Soil losses from either the check or light disk treat-
ment were 18 percent, 17 percent, 24 percent, and 32 percent, respectively of those
from fall plowing on these same soils. As stated earlier, all of the treatments but the
disk treatment were probably more effective in reducing soil loss earlier in the sea-
son prior to weathering and loss of surface roughness and/or loss of some of the
residue from the surface. Tests made a few years ago showed fall soil losses to be
greater (as much as two times) from disking than from the check (no treatment).
However, at this stage of the season, fall disking appeared to be every bit as effec-
tive as the check in controlling soil losses.
(2) Type of residue affects erosion. — Tests indicate that the amount of residues
remaining on the surface following corn is much greater than when following soy-
beans in late spring. (Compare figures 3.1 and 3.2 for surface cover following corn
32
-------
Table 3.7 Soil Loss in Tons/Acre Following Treatments
TREATMENT
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
RASKINS L.
2.4
1.8
6.2
11.6
NAPPANEE C.L.
.7
.5
2.1
3.6
HOYTVILLE Si.C.
.5
.4
.7
1.9
MORLEY C.L.
6.0
5.6
12.5
18.3
and beans). Soybean land also appears to be more easily eroded than corn land
since the soil is normally more easily detached and transported in the runoff. More
evidence is being collected in 1975 to further support this conclusion.
Laboratory work continues on relating particle size distribution of soil in place to
that in the runoff sediment. The work should be ready to summarize this fall. Like-
wise the relation of fertilizer materials in runoff to soils and tillage treatment is still
under analyses and should be ready for reporting in a few months.
33
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------- OCR error (c:\conversion\JobRoot\000002IO\tiff\200064TY.tif): Unspecified error
-------
On the two farms where no-til was included, yields were acceptable on Blount
and Whitaker soils but were reduced on Morley, due to poor weed control, and on
Rensselaer, where growth was delayed due to cool wet soil. On Oshtemo loamy fine
sand, variation within the trial was great, but no-til had no apparent yield advan-
tage in a drouthy situation where surface residue should have been a positive
factor.
A fifth demonstration farm, including Nappanee silt loam and Hoytville silty
clay loam, has been added for the 1975 season.
Table 4.1 Yields for Various Treatments on the Ben Eicher Farm
Tillage
Spring plow, disc
Fall plow, disc
Disc twice spring
Strip tillage b/
Morley si. 1
Pop.
10,600
11,200
13,000
12,500
Bu/Ac
31
34
35
19
Blount si. 1
Pop.
12,500
11,400
11,500
9,300
Bu/Ac
49
44
40
43
a/ This is an Amish farm, and both tillage and planting were
with horse-drawn equipment.
b/ A sweep was mounted ahead of each planter unit to remove
~~ trash ahead of planting. Without a coulter ahead of the
sweep, stalks tended to catch on the sweep.
-------
Table 4.2 Yields for Various Treatments on the Roger Ehle Farm
Tillage
Spring plow, disc
Fall plow, disc
Fall chisel, disc
Disc once spring
Disc twice spring
No-til a/
Oshtemo 1 f . s .
Pop . b/
34,200
34,000
31,800
29,800
33,000
29,000
Bu/Ac
21
64
54
38
30
27
Whitaker 1
Pop.b/
31,800
34,000
31,200
24,600
29,000
30,000
Bu/Ac
72
80
111
84
94
81
Rensselaer c.l
Pop.b/
25,800
28,800
29,000
28,200
26,400
28,600
Bu/Ac
168
118
184
176
187
128
a/ Non-powered fluted coulters were mounted ahead of each
unit. There was no other tillage.
planter
b/ Stands are unintentionally high, probably due to a
seed size to planter size.
mismatch of
Table 4.3 Yields for Various Treatments on the Dick and Bruce Yerks Farm
Tillage
Spring plow, field
cultivate 2
Fall plow, field
cultivate 2
Fall chisel, field
cultivate 2
Disc twice spring
Whitaker 1
Pop.
23,600
23,600
24,600
23,600
Bu/Ac
91
84
101
104
Rensselaer c. 1
Pop.
24,400
23,200
24,200
23,000
Bu/Ac
80
81
77
82
37
-------
Table 4.4 Yields for Various Treatments on the Juanita Lake Farm
Tillage
Spring plow, disc, f.
cultivate
Fall plow, disc, f.
cultivate
Fall chisel, disc, f.
cultivate
Disc fall and spring
Field cultivate spring
Disc twice spring
riappanee si. 1
Pop.
8,000a/
20,200
19,600
17,000
15,400
17,400
Bu/Ac
53
73
57
48
35
42
Hoytville si. c. 1
(population too
erratic for
accurate data)
a/ Very rough seedbed due to wetness at plowing.
38
-------
Stone Mulch Superior for SECTION 5
_, . ^ , 7 Ditch Bank,
Erosion Control siope, Muich
Studies, in Black
Creek
Dr. Holland Z. Wheaton
Two study areas were selected to determine the effect of slope and mulching ma-
terials on the revegetation of the stream banks and of the effects of the mulching
materials in controlling erosion during the revegetation. Site 1 on the upper end of
the Dreisbach Drain (on the Joe Graber farm) was installed in September-October,
1973. Site 2 on the Wertz Drain between Notestine Road and Black Creek (on the
Dick Yerks farm) was installed in April, 1974. Three slopes, 2:1, 3:1, and 4:1 were
used at each site. Mulch materials of stone, straw, and wood chips along with a
check or no-mulch were used on both locations. In addition, aquatain and sawdust
were used on the Joe Graber farm.
Results of the evaluations of the grass cover and its erosion control are reported
in tables 5.1 and 5.2. The May, 1975, evaluation completed this study schedule.
However, considerable channel erosion has been observed on the Graber farm with
some evidence of channel erosion starting on the Wertz Drain, therefore, this will be
kept under observation to see if channel scour is going to develop into a serious
problem.
Data from the evaluation on May 2,1975, show that all mulches were effective in
controlling erosion and in establishing grass cover as opposed to a no mulch condi-
tion. There is no consistent difference in the mulch materials effectiveness with the
possible exception of the stone mulch. It appeared to be slightly superior in con-
trolling erosion resulting from high water and it resulted in as good or better grass
cover than the other mulch materials. In May of 1974 both the wood chip and straw
mulch materials were washed away during high water flow in the Wertz Drain.
While there is not a total consistent advantage of one mulch material over the
other, there is a very distinct advantage to using mulch material in the early estab-
lishment of the grass and of the controlling of the erosion during the establish-
ment.
39
-------
Table 5.1 Dreisbach Drain, Graber Farm
Mulch
Stone
Straw
Wood Chip
Saw Dust
Aquatain
None
Stone
Straw
Wood Chip
Saw Dust
Aquatain
None
Stone
Straw
Wood Chip
Saw Dust
Aquatain
None
Slope
2:1
3:1
4:1
12-12-73
E.G.
G
G
-
G
G
G
G
G
G
-
G
G
G
G
G
G
FG
F
Cover
P
G
-
P
G
P
G
P
P
-
VG
G
G
P
F
P
F
P
4-2-74
E.G.
G
F
F
F
F
F
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
F
F
F
F
F
Cover
G
F
G
P
P
P
G
G
G
F
G
F
VG
G
G
G
F
P
5-28-74
E.G.
G
F
F
F
F
F
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
Cover
VG
VG
F
F
F
F
F
F
G
F
F
FG
VG
F
FG
F
F
F
5-2-75
E.C.
F
F
F
F
F
F
VG
G
G
G
G
G
2,3
F
FG
F
F
F
F
Cover
G
G
G
G
G
G
VG
G
G
G
G
G
2
F
F
F
F
F
F
P = Poor
F = Fair
G = Good
VG = Very Good
EC = Erosion Control
1. Original application to light - second opperation necessary
2. 2:1 and 4:1 plots low in fertility especially in May 1975
3. Erosion at toe of slope not necessarily related to mulch material
-------
Table 5.2 Wertz Drain, South of Notestine Road
Mulch
Stone
Straw
Wood Chip
None
Stone
Straw
Wood Chip
None
Stone
Strav;
Wood Chip
None
Slope
2:1
2:1
2:1
2:1
3:1
3:1
3:1
3:1
4:1
4:1
4:1
4:1
5-1
E.G.
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
4-74
Cover
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
5-28-74
E.G. | Cover
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
F
G
G
F
F
G
F
F
P
G
P
P
5-:
E.G.
VG
VG
VG
G
VG
VG
FG
G
VG
VG
VG
VG
!-75
Cover
VG
VG
VG
G
G
G
FG
F
VG
VG
VG
VG
P = Poor
F = Fair
G = Good
VG = Very Good
EC = Erosion Control
All but stone mulch washed away in high water first week of May
1974. Sediment up to 2" thick deposited in 4:1 slope plots during
this high water. Less sediment in 3:1 and 2:1 plots.
-------
CHANNEL WIDTH
20 40 60 80
I I I I
1
730.0-
§ 725.0-
I
ui
uj 720.0-
1
715.0-
ORIGINAL
CHANNEL
CONSTRUCTED
CHANNEL
SEDIMENT
0 20 40 60 80
I I I I I
730.0 -
725.0-
720.0 -
715.0-
\
\
\
\
\
n
\
\
\
\
m
730.0 -
725.0-
720.0 -
715.0-
\
\
\
\
\
78-54
Figure 5. 1 Cross Sectional View of Deposition in Constructed Desilting Basin
42
-------
0 20 40 60 80
I I I I I
0 20 40 60 80
I I I I I
750.0 -
725.0 -
720.0 -
715.0 -
730.0 -
725.0 -
720.0 -
715.0 -
\
\
\
\
\
&8&&ttff(ff
•urn
IX
730.0 -
725.0 -
\
\
\
\
7
\
\
/
720.0 - \
Wsrff ^
*XX-:-X-X*H-.-.X.X:/ vX'XrovX-XvX'X-
t-vvX*xx.i.x-xy \:g:::::::vi::::X-:;:ia
715.0 -
X XI
Figure 5.2 Cross Sectional View of Deposition in Constructed Desilting Basin
7S-SB
-------
The 3:1 slopes appear to be slightly better than either the 2:1 or the 4:1 slopes.
However, this can vary with local conditions. For example, on the Graber farm the
3:1 slopes are far superior to the others but this is complicated by the fact that there
was more good soil on the 3:1 slopes than on any of the other two slopes which had
been badly eroded before revegetation. In fact, a year and a half after the establish-
ment and planting of the grass, the 2:1 and 4:1 slopes on the Graber farm still show
evidences of low fertility.
Since the evaluation on May 2, 1975, several major flows have occurred in these
two channels. At least one of the storms was of 100-year or greater frequency. These
sites will be re-evaluated to determine the effects of the storm flows in May and
June of 1975 although initial evidence following the May storm indicated that the
vegetation had protected the banks from serious problems.
Three sites were initially selected for studies to determine if the channels are
agrading or degrading. Two of the sites have since been reconstructed and revege-
tated. The evaluations were made on the third site in 1974, however, in the spring of
1975 it was found that someone had removed the stakes. Nevertheless, observation
of the site (Wertz Drain south of the woods and north of Antwerp Road) indicates
that the channel is relatively stable with little or no accumulation or loss.
In the first annual report it was mentioned that high water flow during May of
1974 deposited one to two inches of silt and sand on the mulch study plots on the
Wertz Drain. Other evidences of such deposition during high flows has been ob-
served throughout the watershed. There is also evidence of continued cutting of
some of the channels where velocities of flow are high. This seems to be especially
true where velocities are high during normal to low flow such as occurs on the
mulch study area on the Dreisbach Drain. Observations of channel scour are in
agreement with stability studies conducted by Doug West which showed that many
of the lower bank and channel bottoms were unstable for existing flow and slope
conditions throughout many areas of the basin. The two mulch study sites as well
as others will remain under observation for evidences of channel cutting.
Staff of the Soil Conservation Service have been evaluating stream bank ero-
sions for the United States part of the International Joint Commission program.
Black Creek was selected as one of the detail studies. This work on Black Creek
started in April and May, 1975. Preliminary work indicated that the channel ero-
sion throughout the area is relatively small.
A desilting basin on the Kenneth Hirsch farm located on the main stem of Black
Creek was constructed in the fall of 1974. The amount of sediment was to have been
surveyed in the early spring of 1975, but heavy rains which continued into June
made a detailed survey impossible. A survey was finally prepared on July 30,1975.
Although this is outside the period covered by this report, the results are presented
here.
Visual inspection during the spring of 1975 indicated that the basin was filling.
It was estimated that perhaps the first 25 feet of the basin was filled with silt by late
April of 1975 and that the first 75 feet had been filled by June.
Results of the July 30 survey are presented in figures 5.1 and 5.2. The figures pro-
vide a key indicating the original channel cross section, the cross section of the re-
constructed basin, and the profile of sediment contained in the basin at the date of
the survey. The original basin was constructed over 540 feet of the Black Creek with
400 feet at the full basin width. Taper back to the regular channel was provided
44
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both upstream and downstream of the main basin which was constructed with a
top width of 80 feet, a bottom width of 20 feet and with side slopes of 2.5:1.
The profiles in figures 5.1 and 5.2 are identified according to the notation of the
Allen County Surveyors Office. The entrance to the basin is at station 456+30 with
indicates 456 x 100 + 30 feet or 45630 feet downstream of the source of the Black
Creek.
As indicated in figures 5.1 and 5.2, at station 457+00, the sediment storage is com-
pletely full with more than five feet of collected material. At this station there is a
small channel for low flow near the right bank (looking downstream). Similar con-
ditions exist at station 457+40. At station 457+50, the low flow has shifted to the cen-
ter and the sediment storage area is at least 75 percent full. From station 458+00 to
the outlet, approximately one foot of material has been collected.
In the 10 months that passed between completion of construction and the sur-
vey, 980 cubic yards of silt, sand, and fine gravel were trapped in the basin. Preli-
minary sampling of the collected material indicates that the last 300 feet is of silt-
size particles. The top material for the first 100 to 150 feet is of the sand and fine
gravel size. Particle size versus depth for the upper reaches of the basin have not
been determined so an estimate of the volume of various particle sizes trapped can-
not be made at this time.
Two significant factors must be considered when reporting the 980 cubic yards of
material trapped in the ten-month period.
(1) a very intense rain storm occurred on May 20,1975. This storm has a return
frequency of over 100 years. It produced runoff over bank full for several
hours. See the following section for some of the observed effects of this storm.
(2) during the late summer and fall of 1974 considerable sloping and revegeta-
tion of ditch banks occurred upstream of the basin. In several instances the
vegetation was slow in becoming established. It cannot be determined what
the effects of the streambank stabilization work may have had on the
amount of material trapped by the desilting basin.
Present plans call for a resurvey of the basin at least on an annual basis. A more
frequent survey will be conducted if major runoff events occur.
Nearly four inches of rainfall were received throughout the Black Creek Water-
shed between 3:00 and 5:30 a.m., May 20, 1975. Examination of the rainfall records
indicate that the storm was unusual in two aspects.
(1) It was unusually uniform over the watershed for such an intense storm, and
(2) It was very uniform in intensity throughout the storm period.
Detail analysis have not been completed but the storm was at least of a 100-year re-
turn frequency. It produced general flooding throughout the area, ditch bank full
flows, and considerable erosion.
Several Purdue staff members were working in the field the days before and after
this storm occurred, so many significant observations and measurements were
made. Some of these will be included in other sections of this annual report.
The following general comments can be made concerning erosion from the May
20 storm:
(1) Finely prepared seed beds increased both erosion and compaction problems.
(2) Tillage systems that leave residue on the surface and/or the surface rougher
and cloddier fared better than finely tilled fall plowed seed beds.
(3) The residual effects of sod crops in reducing the erosion potential of plowed
land was evident in the northern part of the watershed.
45
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(4) More grass waterways are needed to prevent scouring where water tends to
channel during excessive storms.
(5) There are some critical areas (even in the southern part of the watershed) that
should be returned to permanent vegetation.
In reviewing the effects of this storm, the infrequent nature must be recognized.
While considerable damage and erosion did occur, it is not practical to expect to
control all the damage or even to prevent flooding from such an infrequent event.
Nevertheless, the unusual nature of this storm does point out the need for in-
creased erosion protection.
-------
Stream Basin and Terrestrial ACTION 6
_. .,-. . Population and
Environment factors in community oy
Fish Community Structure
Black Creek
By
James R. Karr
1. IMPACT OF CHANNEL MODIFICATION
In a previous report, we noted three variables of primary importance in causing
changes in fish species diversity within Black Creek, although much of our evi-
dence at that time was anecdotal. These variables are season, degree of bank re-
construction, and nature of terrestial environment in the immediate vicinity of the
stream.
Recognition of the significance of seasonal fish movements into Black Creek
from the Maumee was an early conclusion of our field studies. Last year we showed
that massive migrations by several species occur during the spring spawning sea-
son. Since then, we have documented a large scale migration by several species, es-
pecially spotfin shiner, in August and September. Evidence for this spotfin migra-
tion is given in figure 6.1. Note that small numbers of relatively small fish are cap-
tured in the spring, while many larger fish are caught in the fall. By winter, large
numbers of young of the year are caught; but all large spawners have departed.
Since Black Creek is larger below Ward Road, resident populations of spotfin
shiner are able to maintain themselves throughout the year. Presumably the fish
spawning in the upper reaches of Black Creek and its tributaries come from this
population and the Maumee River. Other species for which there is evidence of a
fall migration include gizzard shad and quillback carpsucker.
Our research plan for this spring included extensive studies of the dynamics of
these seasonal movements. However, severe alterations or habitat destruction
have caused a sharp decline in numbers offish species and individuals in the Black
47
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7s-a
Figure 6.1 Seasonal Changes in Abundance and Mean Weight, Spotfin
Shiner from March to November, 1974. (Black Creek Station 12)
Table 6.1 Capture of Fish at Black Creek Station 15, Spring, 1974
and 1975
Date
12 April 1974
20 Hay 1974
22 March 1975
5 April 1975
19 April 1975
3 May 1975
Number of
fish per
meter of stream
4.20
1.00
1.14
1.58
2.74
0.99
Mean weight
(gms . )
25.85
12.71
3.38
1.56
3.33
2.03
48
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.3*
23
BLACK CREEK STUDY AREA
ALLEN COUNTY, INDIANA
MAUMEE RIVER BASIN
WORK LOCATION MAP
ALLEN COUNTY SOIL a WATER CONSERVATION DISTRICT
IN COOPERATION WITH
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
USDA SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
SCALE 1/31,680
0 l/2
APPROXIMATE
SCALE IN MILES
75-9
Figure 6.2 Fish Sampling Stations, Black Creek
49
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I 11974
-t-
120 180
LENGTH (mm)
240
300
75-10
Figure 6.3 Size-Frequency Distribution, White Sucker, March-April,
Creek area. These modifications have come in three forms: Channel modification,
construction which blocked fish movements, and, apparently, herbicide use. Evi-
dence of the effects of channel modification is typified by the situation at station 6
and station 15 (See map — figure 6.2 for location).
Table 6.1 indicates:
(1) At the peak of migration in mid-April densities are lower in 1975 than in 1974.
(2) The mean weights of fish are much lower in 1975 than in 1974 indicating that
the large spawning fishes are not reaching the area.
These figures represent an overall lowering of fish densities and more impor-
tantly a reduction in numbers of large fish. Additional evidence for the suggestion
of reduced populations of large fish can be seen if one compares the length distribu-
tion for white suckers captured in 1974 and 1975 (figure 6.3). This indicates that the
large fish were either killed by last year's stream modifications, or have been
blocked from moving upstream to spawn. Since both stream modifications and bar-
rier construction have occurred since the spring of 1974, it is not possible to distin-
guish the relative effects of these two factors.
An indication of the relative effects of these two factors can be obtained by
examining the capture history at station 6. Weirs with automatic water samplers
were installed at several locations between February 4 and 13, 1974, including one
about 40m downstream from station 6. In the spring of 1974 these weirs did not
block fish migrations but following the addition of rock at weirs some structures be-
came effective barriers to fishes. Even casual field observations reveal a concen-
tration of fishes below weirs and a relative scarcity above weirs with quantities of
rock that exceed normal water depths. Station 6 (table 6.2) exemplifies this situa-
tion.
Note that high populations and species numbers were recorded in summer, 1973
and spring, 1974 before the stream was channeled. After channelization there was
a precipitous decline in fishes. The number remained low for nearly a year. Under
normal circumstances we would expect an increase in the fishes, even in a chan-
neled area, with the spring migration. However, the weir and associated rock at
Brush College Road prevented such a migration until the high water following the
rains in early May. The May 29 sample involved large numbers of small fish al-
50
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Table 6.2 Captures of Fish Following Disturbances, Black Creek
Station 6
Date
24 July 1973
February 1974
5 March 1974
12 April 1974
20 May 1974
October 1974
23 March 1975
5 April 1975
3 flay 1975
29 nay 1975
No. Indiv.
201
weir installed
301
69
stream channelized
10
32
3
0
9
unusually heavy rains
flood
174
Wt./Ind.
(gms)
13.53
9.87
5.70
1
4.5
1.6
0
1.1
not weighed
# Species
9
8
7
2
3
1
0
1
9
though no weight data are available because the fish were returned to the stream.
Note that while fish returned to Brush College Road, the major spawning runs of
early spring were past and reproduction is likely to be too late and/or well below
average. Many fish attempting to get upstream to spawn now depend on major
floods to allow passage over the weirs.
Another incident demonstrates the effectiveness of the weirs in blocking fish
movements. In September 1974, many spotfin shiners were captured in Black
Creek. Near station 18 just west of Bull Rapids Road one 50m sample netted over
100 spotfin shiners. Many spotfins were found throughout the east-west portion of
Black Creek but very few were captured above the weirs on Black Creek and Smith-
Fry, and Wertz Drains. The water below the bridge at Brush College Road was
swarming with spotfins, for example, but none were captured 40m upstream of the
weir in station 6.
The construction of a new bridge on the Black Creek at Ward Road may have
been the most detrimental barrier to fish migration and reproduction in 1975. A
51
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large conduit pipe formed a sizeable waterfall and, therefore, an effective barrier to
even the largest fish attempting to reach spawning areas in Black Creek and its
tributaries. On April 19, 1975, we sampled the pool just below the conduit and cap-
tured many large and small fish. Six large white suckers were captured in the small
pool, for example. They averaged 270mm (10.7 inches) in length. When released
they continued their unsuccessful struggle to move upstream through the pipe
All over the drainage, the combined effects of barriers and channelization were
dramatic. Which is the most important is not easy to determine at this time be-
cause of the lack of controlled experiments. However, one thing is clear. If the fish
cannot reach high quality spawning grounds they will not reproduce and their
populations may be doomed.
Our "control" stream, the Wann, just east of Black Creek is instructive. This
stream was channelized about five years ago, but no migration barriers have been
identified. Two sample stations in the Wann Drainage consistently have more spe-
cies and large breeding adults during the spring migrations. Presumably follow-
ing channelization, stable fauna can develop after subsequent return of banks and
instream vegetation growth. The question now is how does a "healed," channel-
ized stream compare to a natural stream?
2. FISH STUDIES IN "WERTZ WOODS"
The Wertz Drain flows for about 1700 feet through a small woodlot between
Knouse and Antwerp Roads. We have named this "Wertz Woods." Inside the wood-
lot the stream meanders in a complex sequence of pools and riffles associated with
erosion and deposition areas. Observations to date show that these pools and rif-
fles house a rich and varied fish fauna, much of which seems to be resident through-
out the year. During July of 1974, Owen and Wendy Gorman spent several days in
intensive studies of the stream in the section of land around the woods. Outside the
woods in the channelized areas of the stream, few fishes could be found in the algae
choked ditches where water temperatures reached as high as 28°C (82.4°F). Inside
the woodlot the deep pools contained many fish and water temperatures were much
,ower at 19°C (66° F). In addition no algal growth was noted. Over the past year the
general structure of the stream, has remained stable by comparison to the ditches
where pools may silt in rapidly (e.g. the settling basin) with heavy rainfall and
whole banks may erode rapidly. Large deep pools, for example, in the forest allow
fishes to survive through dry periods in August and September while nearby, chan-
neled areas of stream are either too hot, too choked with algae or dry. Pools, then,
protected from the direct rays of the sun prevent the local extinction offish popula-
tions in sections of streams where drought conditions allow little or no net flow.
3. EFFECTS OF THE MAY FLOOD
In late May a major rainfall event occurred which resulted in overnight changes
in the Black Creek. On May 19, we sampled a number of stations which had water
depths of a few inches or less. By the next morning about four inches of rain had
fallen and the streams of the Black Creek Basin were raging torrents as deep as 10
to 15 feet. We do not have any extensive data to document the effects of this flood on
the fishes except that it allowed many fish to disperse upstream past the weirs. Its
affect on other aspects of the fishes lives can only be guessed. Certainly the high
-------
'3*
23
BLACK CREEK STUDY AREA
ALLEN COUNTY, INDIANA
MAUMEE RIVER BASIN
WORK LOCATION MAP
ALLEN COUNTY SOIL ft WATER CONSERVATION DISTRICT
IN COOPERATION WITH
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
USOA SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
SCALE 1/31,680
0 1/
APPROXIMATE
SCALE IN MILES
75-11
Figure 6.4 Fish Kill, May, 1975
53
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sediment load and erosion potential of the stream destroyed most of the nests of the
fish that had already spawned. It seems likely that any benefits from increased dis-
persal were negated by destruction of nests or newly hatched fry.
4. A MAJOR FISH KILL
On May 29, several of my students were doing routine sampling in the Black
Creek area when they discovered large numbers of dead fish in Smith-Fry Drain at
station 2. Dead creek chubs, white sucker, bluntnose and fathead minnows, com-
mon shiner, silverjaw minnow, and rainbow darters were noted. The number of
dead fish in the vicinity of station 2 numbered in the hundreds, with all sizes af-
fected up to seven-inch creek chubs. Routine sampling at station 2 yielded only one
live fish. Additional dead fish were noted at station 15 on Black Creek but none
were found on Black Creek near Shaefer Road above the junction of Smith-Fry
Drain and Black Creek. Thus the dead fish at station 15 were apparently from the
hsh kill in the Smith-* ry. In an effort to clarify the reason for the fish kill two stu-
?M? Balked "Pstream along Smith-Fry Drain to determine the extent of the fish
kill. They also walked most of Black Creek from Bull Rapids Road to where Black
Creek enters the Maumee River. The extent of the area offish kill is noted in figure
b.4. In addition, a dead raccoon was found in the Smith-Fry Drain below Indiana
Highway 101. The following excerpts from field notes indicate the magnitude of the
fish kill at several locations.
Black Creek from Gorrell Drain to Bull Rapids Road —
High density of dead fish include large carp; fish thinned out above Lake
Drain and none above Bull Rapids Road.
Station 12 area at Ward Road —
Large numbers of dead fish were observed above and below the bridge Esti-
mated several thousand dead fish in 400 to 500 meters of stream above Ward
Koad, including 12-inch bullhead and 16-inch carp.
Heavy concentration of dead fish between Ward Road and the Maumee
Kiver.
Discussions with the people from the area suggest that herbicide application had
been made just prior to the fish kill. Generally, herbicides will not be toxic to fish
but less than careful application along the stream banks might produce a signifi-
cant fish kill. A bnef discussion with the young man collecting water samples de-
termined that he had found the stream to be foul smelling and with considerable
foam on the surface on May 28. Regrettably, he did not take any water samples and
my students did not collect any of the fish for pesticide analysis. A complete list of
the 16 species affected by the massive fish kill is presented below
(1) Carp
(2) Stoneroller
(3) Creek Chub
(4) Green Sunfish
(5) White Sucker
(6) Bullhead
(7) Quillback Carpsucker
(8) Blackstripe Topminnow
(9) Golden Shiner
(10) Bluntnose Minnow
54
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(11) Fathead Minnow
(12) Common Shiner
(13) Spotfm Shiner
(14) Redfin Shiner
(15) Sand Shiner
(16) Silverjaw Minnow
The long term effect of the fish kill on our studies or on fish populations in Black
Creek is impossible to determine at this time.
4. WATER QUALITY IN AND NEAR WERTZ WOODS
As part of our studies of the effects of Wertz Woods on Wertz Drain we have initi-
ated a program of routine water sampling between Knouse and Antwerp Roads
(figure 6.5). Samples from July, September, and October, 1974 show a clear trend
for decreasing amounts of suspended solids as the stream flows through the
forested portion of the stream (figure 6.6). There is a similar decline in February,
1975 but March and April samples did not have declines in sediment within the
forest. The most obvious hypothesis is that with increased flow rates the effectiv-
ity of the pool and riffle nature of the stream in the forest as a natural sediment
basin declines.
Flow rates on the days of water samples in 1975 were as follows:
February 8 — 2.0 cfs
March 20 — 2.2 cfs
April 19 — 1.7 cfs
May 20 — 227 cfs
Similar data for the 1974 sample times is not yet available.
By coincidence we were doing our normal sampling on the day of the unusually
large flood in late May. We made our routine water samples and several grab sam-
ples (figure 6.6). Sediment loads in the lower region of the grass waterway on Dries-
bach Drain were well above normal at 802 ppm. Several hundred meters down-
stream the sediment load had increased to 1100 ppm. We also sampled water from a
drain tile at Cuba and Grabill Roads and found that the sediment load was 172
ppm. Water pouring over the drop structure at that location contained 1488 ppm of
suspended solids.
Noteworthy was the continued increase in suspended solids as we moved down-
stream. Throughout the Wertz Drain sample area suspended solids increased with
downstream movement. This was true in both agricultural and forested portions of
the stream indicating that at very high flows the natural sediment basin capabil-
ity of the Wertz Woods was not functional.
A grab sample at Ehle Road on Black Creek during the morning of May 20 con-
tained an astounding sediment load of 5767 ppm (figure 6.6). From these data it is
clear that both the upland rolling portion of the drainage and the flatter floodplain
areas of the lower reaches of Black Creek are contributing major quantities of sedi-
ment to the flowing waters. Some patterns of variation in the origin of sediments
are emerging but more refined data are needed before conclusions are drawn.
Clearly, the effectiveness of the forest as a natural sediment basin varies.
Patterns related to nutrient dynamics are even more complex than suspended
solid dynamics in the Wertz Woods area. In the mid-summer period we found very
55
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POOL 21
POOL 20
POOL 17
POOL 16
POOL 13
SCALE: 6 Inches = I Mile
Figure 6.5 Wertz Woods Study Area
75-12
56
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KI2 II 10 9 87 65 43
DROP STRUCTURE
1 DRIESBACH
2000
1000 •
76-13
Figure 6.6 Sediment Content of Water Samples
57
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1.50 T
o>
z
tu
ID
O
ac.
1.00 •
oc.
O
a.
v>
<
o
.50 •
1 -.0
.05 •
TOTAL NITROGEN 28 JULY 1974
FOREST
DISTANCE
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS 28 JULY 1974
FOREST
DISTANCE
75-14
Figure 6.7 Total Nitrogen and Phosphorus Wertz Woods Water Samples
During Season of High Algal Density
58
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Table 6.3 Length-Weight Regression for Fish Collected in Black Creek,
Spring and Summer, 1974
Species
Creek Chub
Common Shiner
Redfin Shiner
Spotfin Shiner
Silver jaw Minnow
Sandshiner
Stoneroller
Fathead Minnow
Bluntnose Minnow
Vlhite Sucker
Rainbow Darter
Johnny Darter
Intercept Slope
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
-5.30
-5.44
-5.21
-4.74
-4.97
- 6.15
-5.30
-4.56
-5.11
-4.99
-5.59
-4.73
+3.21
+ 3.27
+ 3.18
+ 2.85
+ 2.97
+ 3.66
+ 3.21
+ 2.81
+ 3.17
+ 3.03
+ 3.42
+ 2.87
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log I,
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
R
.995
.956
.910
.965
.944
.969
.975
.737
.973
.997
.842
.911
N
320
97
51
64
159
45
30
14
24
63
44
18
dense algal populations in the portions of Wertz Woods that were exposed to direct
sunlight. In the forest where little incoming radiation reaches the water surface,
water temperatures were lower and algal blooms did not develop.
Preliminary analysis indicates that the algal bloom results in low nutrient con-
tent in the water since most nutrients are quickly incorporated into algal biomass.
Nutrient levels are higher in the forest because of the lack of algal growth. This pat-
tern is shown in figure 6.7. At other periods of the year factors responsible for
changes in nutrient content of water in the Wertz Woods area are less clear.
5. GROWTH RATES OF BLACK CREEK FISHES
We have completed the first stage of our analysis of length-weight data for 12 of
the more common fish species captured in the Black Creek Study Area. Length-
weight regression data are summarized in table 6.3. A comparison of these data
with the results of other studies is enlightening.
As the slope of the length-weight regression increases the weight increase in fish
of a given size increases. We can, then, use the slope as a measure of robustness of
fish much like the coefficient of condition is used by fishery biologists. We have
been able to find data on length-weight relationship for several of our more com-
mon fish species.
59
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Table 6.4 Slopes of Length-Weight Regression for Black Creek and Other
Populous of Several Species of Fish
Species
Black Creek
Other
Residents
Fathead
Minnow
Johnny
Darter
Migrants
White
Sucker
Common
Shiner
Mixed
Creek
Chub
2.81
2.87
3.03
3.27
3.21
3.24 (Iowa)
3.12 (Iowa)
3.08 (Illinois)
3.29 (Alabama)
2.98 (Iowa)
We find that species in which most individuals are resident in Black Creek have
lower slopes than other populations of the same species (table 6.4). The two species
with strikingly lower slopes are fathead minnow and johnny darter. Species which
occur as adults in Black Creek primarily as migrants from the Maumee River have
length-weight regression slopes which are similar to those of other populations
(table 6.4). Creek chubs seem to be»both resident and migratory in Black Creek and
have a significantly higher slope than does a similar population in Iowa. This may
be due to a mixing of several populations (residents in and out of woods, migrants)
in the Black Creek sample or to some other factor.
8. SUMMARY
In summary, we have continued to document the effects of disturbance by man
and natural events on the fish fauna of Black Creek. A major step in preservation of
the fish communities of Black Creek could be taken with more careful considera-
tion of impact of structural or other modifications on fish migration patterns. Pre-
liminary indications are that the health of the biota (fish) of Black Creek is below
what might be expected of more natural streams in the mid-western portion of the
United States.
60
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9. COMMENT
We have been questioned on numerous occasions during our recent field studies
with the main point being — "Why do we waste time and money studying a few
minnows?"
This is an important question which warrants an answer. The Black Creek study
was conceived as a project to clarify the factors responsible for increased sediment
and nutrient loads in Lake Erie. These nutrient and sediment inputs have had a
significant negative effect on fishery exploitation (sport and commercial) in the
Great Lakes in addition to other forms of water-based recreation, and a variety of
other urban, domestic, and industrial uses of water.
The Black Creek project is a model project for solving problems within the Lake
Erie basin. By carefully evaluating the effects of the activities in the Black Creek
study on the biota of the area we can more realistically predict the consequences of
management alternatives on a wider geographic area. The fishes of the Black
Creek Basin are part of a complex food chain which "feeds" the biotic systems of
Lake Erie. Failure in maintaining the biotic systems of Black Creek will inevitably
result in failure at the level of the Great Lakes Basin.
We can compare the small streams of the basin to the leaves of a tree (or corn
plant). If the leaves, which feed the tree, are diseased the tree will not be healthy
and may even die.
61
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Nutrients are More Concentrated SECTION 7
oio f T-T? Water Quality
in bub-burface Flow Monitoring in
Black Creek
Watershed
By
L. E. Sommers
D. W. Nelson
E. J. Monke
D. Beasley
A. D. Bottcher, and
D. Kaminsky
1. SAMPLING FACILITIES AND PROCEDURES
A. Grab samples
Water samples were obtained weekly from 13 sites in the watershed and from one
site on the Maumee River. The location of sampling sites is shown in figure 7.1. All
water samples are frozen prior to transportation to the Water Analysis Laboratory
at Purdue. Grab samples were analyzed for all water quality constituents. Stage
measurements are taken at the time of sampling; however, all the streams have not
been calibrated so nutrient loadings cannot be computed at this time.
B. Automatic Pumping Samplers
The automatic pumping samplers (PS-69) were installed at stations 2,6, and 12 in
the Black Creek Watershed and have been operating since February 22, 1975,
March 17,1975, and April 4,1975, respectively. The stations are located in the lower
section of the watershed to allow the sampler data to closely describe the water
quality constituents movement from the watershed. The physical operation of the
samplers has been very satisfactory (one even continued to operate while being in-
undated by a severe storm).
The samplers are energized only while the stage in their respective stream is
above the one foot level. While energized, the samplers take a 500 ml water sample
every thirty minutes with a seventy-two sample capacity (36 hours). The control of
63
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RIVER
BLACK CREEK STUDY AREA
ALLEN COUNTY, INDIANA
MAUMEE RIVER BASIN
WORK LOCATION MAP
ALLEN COUNTY SOIL 8 WATER CONSERVATION DISTRICT
IN COOPERATION WITH
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
USDA SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
SCALE 1/31,680
0 l/2
APPROXIMATE
SCALE IN MILES
75-7
Figure 7.1 Location of Sampling Sites for Evaluation of Water Quality
64
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the samplers will be changed to a more meaningful delta stage timing after the new
computer system is operational in the watershed. The samples collected are ana-
lyzed for the same water quality parameters as the "grab" samplers, namely,
ammonium, nitrate, total nitrogen, soluble nitrogen, inorganic phosphorus, total
phosphorus, soluble phosphorus, and suspended solids.
Data collected during three storms in late February and mid-March has been
analyzed and can be seen graphically in figures 7.2 to 7.13. The twelve figures pro-
vide instantaneous water quality data plotted against time, flow hydrographs and
loading curves for total nitrogen, total phosphorus and suspended solids. Discus-
sion of these figures is provided in the data analysis section.
C. Automatic Tile Sampler
An automatic tile sampler is being installed near the Black Creek Watershed to
investigate the influence of tile drainage systems on the total water quality of their
respective streams. It is known that in some locations as much as 50 percent of the
annual sediment loss is coming through the tile outlets. This indicates the vital
need for understanding and describing the influence of subsurface drainage in
order to complete a reliable watershed model.
The sampler will monitor a 10 inch diameter tile outlet which drains 63 acres of
Hoytville silty clay soil. The entire 63 acres are nearly flat and very uniform in soil
type. The uniformness of the field will greatly help in developing and verifying a re-
liable model for tile systems. Crop cover for the field is a standard corn-soybean ro-
tation.
The above described field is not in the Black Creek Watershed because a uniform
well managed tile system could not be located within the project boundary. The sys-
tems in the watershed either lacked a tile line layout record or were only put in with-
in the past three years. Even though the tile sampler site is not in the watershed it
well represents the tile drainage systems in the Black Creek Watershed.
The sampler will have the capability of collecting 72-500 ml water samples on a
constant volume passed basis. The sampling rate will be approximately 1 sample
per 30 minutes at maximum flow and 0 at no flow with a linear response to inter-
mediate flows. A flow record will be made continuously and an event mark on the
flow record will designate when a sample was taken. The sampler station will have
a 350 gpm pump in conjunction with a sump to prevent the tile outlet from being in-
undated during storm events. During low flows, the outflow will pass directly
through the station with no pumping required.
The tile sampler should be operational by October of 1975.
2. WATER ANALYSIS LABORATORY
Water samples are being analyzed in accordance with procedure set forth in the
work plan. The only procedural modification instituted involves analysis of sam-
ples collected with the pump samplers. Initial data indicated that the concentra-
tion of all water quality parameters was essentially constant during the declining
phase of the hydrograph. Since the pump samplers generate large numbers of sam-
ples in a one to two day period, it was felt that a preliminary screening technique
should be evaluated to reduce the number of samples requiring analysis. In all sub-
65
-------
sequent storm events all pump samples will be assayed for turbidity using a Klett-
Summerson colorimeter fitted with a No. 42 filter. The turbidity data is then used to
construct a rough hydrograph. All samples are analyzed during the periods of in-
creasing and peak flow; however, as the flow levels off, the frequency of samples
chosen for analysis will be decreased. This technique allows accurate evaluation of
all storm events and yet minimizes the total number of samples requiring analy-
sis.
The concentrations of soluble and total carbon are not included in the report Sev-
eral modifications are in progress to facilitate carbon analyses with the Dohrman
instrument. It is anticipated that all changes will be completed in the near future
and the carbon analyses of water samples will be resumed. The laboratory located
at Fort Wayne has initiated filtering a portion of all water samples through a 0 45
mm Nucleopore filter prior to freezing. This is necessary because preliminary data
indicated that soluble inorganic phosphorus levels are altered if non-filtered sam-
ples are frozen. Due to the number of samples produced by the pump samplers it is
not feasible from a practical standpoint to filter these water samples.
3. DATA HANDLING AND EVALUATION
The Black Creek Study water quality, rainwater quality, rainulator water qual-
ity, pump sampler water quality, rainfall, stage recorder, and tile drain data are
now being stored and manipulated on Purdue's Miracle and CDC 6400/6500 com-
puter systems. The data from the various samplers and sensors are being com-
bined into a format that is practically identical to the Environmental Protection
Agency STORET-system's DIP-format.
The water quality data and pump sampler data have been combined with stage
data for a particular station in order to obtain flow (from a rating curve and equa-
tion) and loading data on an instantaneous basis. The pump sampler data can then
be plotted chronologically to give a very good picture of both the flow and loading
hydrographs for all of the measured parameters.
Once the data has been keypunched and entered into the computer (small
batches of data are entered from on-line video or teletype terminals), the data is
sorted by site number and placed in chronological order. A file is also created using
the laboratory reference number sequence as the sorting criteria. The data is then
checked for obvious errors (parameters out of range, improper characters incor-
rect number of parameters, etc.). When the data is flagged, the questionable card is
hand checked against the original laboratory data sheet and corrected if neces-
sary. The computer file is then updated and STORET-format cards are punched for
delivery to EPA.
Next, a statistical analysis program is run using the stored data on a site-by-site
or entire watershed basis. The calculated statistics include monthly and yearly
means, maximums, and minimums; median values; and standard deviations. The
above statistics are calculated on both a concentration and loading basis.
Once it has been ascertained that everything is reasonable, the data is entered
into a CDC 854 Disk Pack for later use in simulation and modeling studies on the
CDC 6400/6500 system. The disk pack will allow for storage of all of the data that
has been collected and for retrieval of any data at any time for modeling work or
data analysis (this is a much faster method than using magnetic tapes or similar
storage media).
66
-------
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ELflPSED TIME (HOURS) FROM BEGINNING OF EVENT ON 2/22/75 flT 1800
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SITE 2)
24
Figure 7.2 Concentrations of P and Solids and Flow for an Events
Occurring at Site 2 on February 2, 1975
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Figure 7.3 Concentration N and Flow for an Event Occurring at Site 2 on
February 2, 1975
-------
69
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ELRPSED TIME (HOURS) FROM BEGINNING OF EVENT ON 3/7/75 RT 0830 (SITE 2)
24
Figure 7.5 Concentrations of P and Solids and Flow for and Event
Occurring at Site 2 on March 7, 1975
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ELRPSED TIME (HOURS) FROM BEGINNING OF EVENT ON 3/17/75 RT 1900 (SITE 2)
48
1
Figure 7.8 Concentration of P and Solids and Flow for an Event Occurring
on Site 2 on March 17, 1975
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ELRPSED TIME (HOURS) Fy.uM BEGINNING OF EVENT ON 3/17/75 HT 1900 (SITE 2)
Figure 7.10 Loading of N, P, and Solids for an Event occurring at Site 2 on
March 17, 1975
48
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Figure 7.11 Concentrations of P and Solids and Flow for an Event
Occurring at Site 6 on March 17, 1975
-------
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The rainfall and stage data are being entered continuously. This allows the pro-
grammer to recall the data for long periods of record or for short periods by simply
specifying a beginning and an ending date. A plotting program has been devel-
oped that will present the rainfall or flow data in a cumulative plot for any three-
month or one-year period (see figures 7.14 to 7.21).
4. WATER QUALITY MONITORING
A. Grab Samples
Data for suspended solids, ammonium, nitrate, total soluble nitrogen, total ni-
trogen, dissolved inorganic phosphorus, total soluble phosphorus, total phos-
phorus and stage are presented in tables 7.1 to 7.5. The following abbreviations are
used in the tables:
SUS-S suspended solids
NH4-N ammonium nitrogen
NO3-N nitrate nitrogen
TOT-N total nitrogen (unfiltered sample)
SOL-N total soluble nitrogen (filtered sample)
F-P soluble inorganic P (sample filtered after freezing)
TOT-P total phosphorus (unfiltered sample)
SOL-P total soluble phosphorus (filtered sample)
STAGE distance from fixed point above stream
The results represent analysis of approximately 150 samples collected from each of
the 14 sampling sites during the March 19,1973, to December 29,1974, time period.
The number of samples (N) is not the same for all water quality parameters be-
cause it was not possible to analyze duplicate samples for all components. The data
are summarized by presenting the range, median, mean, standard deviation and
coefficient of variation (C V) for each component. The C V was computed to assist in
evaluating the variability associated with the various components analyzed in
water samples. Inspection of the CV values for the various sites indicate that
nitrate nitrogen, total soluble nitrogen, and total nitrogen are the least variable
constituents in water samples. In contrast, suspended solids, ammonium nitrogen,
and phosphorus forms possess CV's often times in excess of 100 percent.
For many constituents in natural waters a wide range of values is found. Due to
this variability, the median concentration, rather than the mean, was selected to
characterize the central tendency for water quality, i.e., use of the median elimi-
nates the bias inherent in the mean if a population contains several very high or
low data points. This is readily seen by comparing the mean and median concen-
trations for all components at the 14 sites. The median and mean values for N com-
ponents were similar whereas the median was, in general, from 50 to 75 percent of
the mean for solids and phosphorus components. These data suggest that several
storm events during the year result in large amounts of solids and phosphorus en-
tering the streams, causing an elevated mean concentration. In contrast, the levels
of nitrogen in water are more constant and, even though storm events result in in-
creased runoff, the impact of runoff is not reflected in the concentration of nitrogen
components. Obviously, all runoff is not reflected in the concentration of nitrogen
79
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GRRBILL RD - 1/4 MI. V. SPENCERVILLE RD.
QURRTERLY TOTRL = 6.00
JULY
1974
INCHES
183
flUGUST
1974
193
203
213 223 233 243
•XJLJflN DflTE FOR 19-74
Figure 7.14 Rainfall Data for 1974
SEPTEMBER
1974
253
263
273
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QUflRTERLY TOTRL = 7.42
INCHES
JRNURRY
1974
11
21
FEBRURRY
1974
31 41 51 61
JULIRN DRTE FOR 1974
Figure 7.15 Rainfall Data for 1974
MRRCH
1974
71.
81
91
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RCCUMULRTED RRJNFRLL -
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QUflRTERLY TOTRL = 11 INCHES
101
111
12:1 131 141 151
JULIflN DflTE FOR 1974
Figure 7.17 Rainfall Data for 1974
101
171
181
00
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QURRTERLY TOTflL = 5.85 INCHES
1.83
JULY
1974
flUGUST
1974
SEPTEMBER
1974
193
203
213 223 233 243
JUL.J.SN DflTE FOR 1974
Figure 7.18 Rainfall Data for 1974
233
263
273
-------
14
LU
S
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QUflRTERLY TOTflL = 8.18 INCHES
276
OCTOBER
1974
NOVEMBER
1974
DECEMBER
1974
286
295
306 316 326 336
JULPflN DflTE FOR 19"/4
Figure 7.20 Rainfall Data for 1974
346
356
366
-------
14
12 .
1/4 MI. S. OF INTERSECTION NOTESTINE flND RUPERT RDS,
ui
§ 10
=! 8 .
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101
111
121 131 141 151
JULIflN DflTE FOR 1Q-/4
Figure 7.21 Rainfall Data for 1974
161
171
181
00
-------
Table 7.1 Water Quality Data for Grab Samples Obtained from Sites 1,2,
and 3
Site No. 1 (149 samples; 3-19-73 to 12-29-74) mg/|
COMPONENT
sus-s
NH4-N
NO3-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
74
72
MIN
18.000
0.023
0.140
0.545
0.275
0.002
0.008
0.003
2.420
MAX
935.500
1.325
16.970
23.820
15.770
0.713
1.479
2.425
5.200
MEDIAN
128.500
0.253
7.438
8.425
7.015
0.041
0.181
O.OG4
4.650
MEAN
175.766
0.313
7.023
8.497
6.819
0.069
0.202
0.124
4.538
S D
162.46
0.26
3.99
4.54
3.79
0.10
0.28
0.29
0.52
C V
92.4
82. 3
56.9
53.4
55.6
141.0
101.1
234.1
11.3
Site No. 2 (156 samples; 3-19-73 to 12-16-74) mg/l
COMPONENT
SUS-S
NH4-N
N03-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
78
78
78
78
78
78
77
74
75
MIN
18.000
0.025
0.095
0.860
0.705
0.004
0.005
0.001
11.400
MAX
1111.000
2.190
13.810
16.675
11.475
0.252
1.730
1.130
15.500
MEDIAN
117.750
0.250
5.700
6.820
5.658
0.021
0.152
0.054
14.900
MEAN
173.979
0.353
5.467
6.547
5.500
0.033
0.240
0.078
14.692
S D
194.64
0.37
3.09
3. 30
2.85
0.04
0.28
0.14
0.78
C V
111.9
103.5
56. 5
50. 4
51.8
116.6
116.3
181.4
5.3
Site No. 3 (157 samples; 3-19-73 to 12-16-74)mg/|
COMPONENT
SUS-S
HN4-N
MO3-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
80
79
79
80
80
80
78
77
75
MIN
12.000
0.025
0.040
0.670
0.550
0.003
0.006
0.007
9.800
MAX
1259.500
1.995
13.080
43.635
9.695
0.482
3.210
0.550
12.400
MEDIAN
124.500
0.260
3.950
5.428
4.605
0.017
0.138
0.050
11.900
MEAN
185.853
0.358
4.036
5.753
4.407
0.048
0.306
0.075
11.727
S D
208.87
0.36
2.59
5.07
2.35
0.08
0.51
0.09
0.53
C V
112.4
101.0
64 . 2
88.2
53.4
159.7
166. 5
119.6
4.5
-------
Table 7.2 Water Quality Data for Grab Samples Obtained from Sites 4,5,
and 6
Site No. 4 (149 samples; 3-19-73 to 12-29-74) mg/l
COMPONENT
SUS-S
NH4-N
NO3-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
75
74
74
73
75
75
71
70
70
MIN
7.000
0.025
0.070
0.560
0.290
0.001
0.003
0.009
6.000
MAX
1192.000
2.340
13.080
14.715
9.890
0.287
2.490
0.326
9.700
MEDIAN
106.000
0.320
4.043
5.305
4.320
0.018
0.130
0.054
8.100
MEAN
188.168
0.454
4.222
5.715
4.514
0.037
0.291
0.070
7.960
S D
234.52
0.47
2.50
3.01
2.40
0.05
0.42
0.06
0.56
C V
124.6
104.3
59.2
52.7
53.1
130.7
144.6
86.4
7.1
Site No. 5 (153 samples; 3-19-73 to 12-16-74) mg/l
COMPONENT
SUS-S
MH4-N
N03-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
77
76
78
78
78
78
78
78
74
MIN
14.000
0.025
0.284
2.205
1.520
0.022
0.064
0.026
2.900
MAX
1594.500
11.810
12.885
24.290
15.270
1.145
2.780
1.777
5.500
MEDIAN
125.500
0.513
5.200
6.618
5.883
0.092
0.435
0.137
4.600
MEAN
249.252
1.040
5.264
7.382
6.189
0.198
0.621
0.273
4.629
S D
312.54
1.68
2.78
3.72
2.80
0.24
0.53
0.34
0.55
C V
125.4
161.6
52.9
50.3
45.3
122.4
86.0
125.0
11.8
Site No. 6 (147 samples; 3-27-73 to 12-16-74) mg/l
COMPONENT
SUS-S
HN4-N
N03-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
74
73
73
74
74
74
73
74
72
MIN
5.000
0.025
0.170
1.210
1.000
0.015
0.115
0.026
8.750
MAX
1879.500
6.328
12.720
13.283
12.280
1.783
3.835
1.924
11.600
MEDIAN
129.250
0.500
3.900
6.028
4.655
0.105
0.436
0.164
11.200
MEAN
244.233
0.874
3.906
6.155
4.876
0.160
0.628
0.208
11.051
S D
307.79
1.21
2.20
2.55
2.07
0.22
0.64
0.24
0.57
C V
126.0
138.5
56.3
41.5
42.5
139.8
101.6
116.9
5.2
89
-------
Table 7.3 Water Quality Data for Grab Samples Obtained from Sites 7,8,
and 9
Site No. 7 (91 samples; 4-18-73 to 12-16-74) mg/l
COMPONENT
SUS-S
NH4-N
N03-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
44
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
44
MIN
24.000
0.060
0.400
1.505
0.763
0.005
0.017
0.003
2.000
MAX
926.500
1.540
14.250
16.370
14.015
0.146
2.425
0.780
3.400
MEDIAN
103.750
0.210
5.603
6.840
5.065
0.028
0.162
0.061
3.000
MEAN
167.032
0.340
5.717
7.105
5.880
0.039
0.340
0.102
2.949
S D
177.53
0.33
3.52
3.73
3.31
0.03
0.48
0.13
0.30
C V
106.3
98.1
61. 6
52. 5
56.2
87 0
141.0
131. 1
10.1
Site No. 8 (149 samples; 3-27-73 to 12-24-74) mg/|
COMPONENT
SUS-S
NH4-N
NO3-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
6C
68
68
69
69
69
68
65
67
MIN
32.000
0.021
0.065
0.805
0.045
0.002
0.016
0.008
6.000
MAX
1291.000
1.485
13.490
16.270
11.085
0.470
2.265
1.500
13.400
MEDIAN
108.500
0.285
2.228
3.640
2.835
0.033
0.199
0.067
12.400
MEAN
182.433
0.394
2.735
4.516
3.304
0.072
0.372
0.130
10.918
S D
222.57
0.32
2.23
2.87
1.97
0.09
0.45
0.21
2.53
C V
122.0
81. 7
81. 6
63.6
59.6
127. 1
122.2
157. 8
23.2
Site No. 9 (139 samples; 4-18-73 to 12-16-74) mg/|
COMPONENT
SUS-S
IIN4-N
NO3-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
70
72
72
71
71
72
71
71
71
MIN
11.000
0.025
0.390
2.245
1.740
0.013
0.088
0.041
4.000
MAX
1773.500
3.855
18.540
20.990
15.990
0.981
3.598
3.212
8.900
MEDIAN
127.500
0.398
3.288
5.180
4.275
0.150
0.420
0.200
5.900
MEAN
225.641
0.724
3.749
5.875
4.774
0.201
0.643
0.336
5.913
S D
327.73
0.79
3.17
3.20
2.55
0.18
0.59
0.47
0.69
C V
145.2
109.4
84. 5
54.5
53.3
87.6
91.1
139.9
11.7
90
-------
Table 7.4 Water Quality Data for Grab Samples Obtained from Sites 10,
11, and 12
Site No. 10 (144 samples; 4-18-73 to 12-16-74)mg/|
COMPONENT
SUS-S
NH4-N
NO3-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
73
71
71
71
72
73
70
73
69
MIN
33.500
0.025
0.140
0.215
0.230
0.071
0.016
0.100
10.250
MAX
1868.500
29.350
15.455
74.860
32.580
11.500
18.100
12.500
14.300
MEDIAN
115.000
0.880
3.340
6.640
5.483
0.270
0.770
0.335
13.700
MEAN
219.503
2.861
3.874
8.842
6.655
0.768
1.404
1.016
13.540
S D
313.35
5.29
2.85
9.75
5.35
1.61
2.31
2.18
0.59
C V
142.8
184.9
73.6
110.2
80.4
209.0
164.9
214.4
4.3
Site No. 11 (122 samples; 3-27-73 to 12-24-74)mg/l
COMPONENT
SUS-S
MH4-N
N03-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
66
64
65
66
66
66
65
64
65
MIN
8.000
0.025
0.290
1.500
1.250
0.005
0.020
0.007
2.500
MAX
1231.500
1.040
17.695
18.240
12.905
0.130
2.515
0.403
13.100
MEDIAN
114.500
0.258
6.660
7.788
6.510
0.029
0.190
0.063
7.100
MEAN
156.436
0.316
7.132
7.652
6.683
0.037
0.276
0.074
6.994
S D
181.25
0.21
4.17
3.62
3.28
0.03
0.37
0.06
2.31
C V
115.9
67.7
58.5
47.3
49.2
80.0
135.3
82.4
33.1
Site No. 12 (150 samples; 3-25-73 to 12-16-74) mg/l
COMPONENT
SUS-S
HN4-N
NO3-M
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
76
72
72
76
76
75
75
72
75
MIN
12.000
0.025
0.045
0.730
0.290
0.004
0.008
0.004
1.300
MAX
1221.500
1.820
12.355
14.040
13.050
0.916
2.510
6.513
14.200
MEDIAN
114.750
0.258
5.070
6.205
4.928
0.029
0.192
0.066
12.100
MEAN
184.188
0.405
5.016
5.978
5.096
0.063
0.364
0.184
10.984
S D
223.80
0.38
3.13
3.20
3.00
0.12
0.51
0.77
2.69
C V
121.5
94.2
62.5
53.5
58.9
197.5
139.8
418.2
24.5
91
-------
Table 7.5 Water Quality Data for Grab Samples Obtained from Sites 13
and 14
Site No. 13 (158 samples; 4-18-73 to 12-24-74) mg/l
COMPONENT
SUS-S
NH4-N
NO 3 -11
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
83
83
82
83
82
81
78
77
81
MIN
12.000
0.025
0.040
0.570
0.130
0.001
0.020
0.007
5.600
MAX
1763.000
2.085
12.995
19.680
11.450
0.122
1.860
0.380
9.900
MEDIAN
109.00.0
0.205
3.915
5.095
4.443
0.012
0.102
0.033
9.100
MEAN
232.178
0.280
4.105
5.176
4.427
0.018
0.227
0.046
8.985
S D
352.87
0.32
2.83
3.22
2.58
0.02
0.33
0.05
0.80
C V
152.0
114.2
69. 0
62.3
58.3
107.3
143.4
110.5
8.9
Site No. 14 (124 samples; 3-25-73 to 12-16-74) mg/|
COMPONENT
SUS-S
NH4-N
N03-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
65
64
65
65
65
65
65
65
63
MIN
9.000
0.070
0.835
1.750
0.975
0.036
0.159
0.038
15.200
MAX
534.000
1.900
8.945
11.180
8.100
0.376
1.643
0.440
32.900
MEDIAN
126.500
0.233
2.955
4.420
3.675
0.073
0.358
0.106
29.000
MEAN
145.790
0.374
3.296
4.785
3.340
0.106
0.401
0.139
27.556
S D
112.14
0.39
1.54
1.85
1.42
0.08
0.23
0.09
4.66
C V
76.9
103.1
46.8
38.7
37.0
73.8
56.3
62.4
16.9
components. Obviously, all runoff events will result in increased loading of nitro-
gen and phosphorus components entering the stream even though the concentra-
tion may remain essentially constant.
A summary of the median concentrations for solids, nitrogen, and phosphorus
components is presented in table 7.6. For the majority of sites, a relatively narrow
range of median values is encountered, suggesting that the composition of water is
constant throughout the watershed. Inspection of figure 7.1 and table 7.6 indicates
four sites in the watershed are influenced by the town of Harlan. These sites are No.
5, 6, 9, and 10. Table 7.7 compares the composition of water samples obtained from
agricultural and domestic sources with samples from the Maumee River (site 14).
The effect of domestic wastes if readily seen in the ammonium, soluble inorganic
phosphorus, soluble total phosphorus and particulate phosphorus concentrations.
Comparison of the Maumee River and sites draining agricultural areas indicates
similar concentrations are found for most water quality parameters. In general,
water present in Black Creek and its tributaries contains nitrogen in equal concen-
trations to that found in the Maumee River but it possesses lower concentrations of
phosphorus components. For example, soluble inorganic phosphorus in the Mau-
92
-------
Table 7.6 Median Concentration of Water Quality Parameters for Grab
Samples Obtained from March 19, 1973, to December 29, 1974
Site
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1A
Suspended
solids
129
118
124
106
126
129
104
108
128
115
114
115
109
126
NH4-N
N03-N
Soluble
N
Particulate
N
Soluble
Inorg. P
Soluble
P
Particulate
P
-- It W.
'^
0.25
0.25
0.26
0.32
0.51
0.50
0.21
0.28
0.40
0.88
0.26
0.26
0.20
0.23
7.44
5.70
3.95
4.04
5.20
3.90
5.60
2.23
3.29
3.34
6.66
5.07
3.92
2.96
7.02
5.66
4.60
4.32
5.88
4.66
5.86
2.84
4.28
5.48
6.51
4.93
4.44
3.68
mg/ J.
1.42
1.16
0.82
0.98
0.74
1.37
0.98
0.80
0.90
1.16
1.28
1.28
0.65
0.74
0.041
0.021
0.017
0.018
0.092
0.105
0.028
0.033
0.150
0.270
0.029
0.029
0.012
0.073
0.064
0.054
0.050
0.054
0.137
0.164
0.061
0.067
0.200
0.335
0.063
0.066
0.033
0.106
w
0.117
0.098
0.088
0.076
0.298
0.272
0.101
0.132
0.220
0.435
0.127
0.126
0.069
0.252
CO
-------
Table 7.7 Comparison of Median Concentrations for Sampling Sites In
fluenced by Domestic and Agricultural Activities with Concentrations in
the Maumee River
Component
Suspended solids
NH4-H
N03-N
Soluble N
Particulate N
Soluble inorg. P
Soluble P
Particulate P
Maumee
Riverl
126
0.23
2.96
3.68
0.74
0.073
0.106
0.252
Type of activity influencing site1
2
Domestic
TT1T /I
115-128
0.40-0.88
3.29-5.20
t
4.28-5. 88
0.90-1.37
0.092-0.270
0.137-0.335
0.220-0.435
Agricultural
106-129
0.20-0.3?
2.23-7.44
2.84-7.02
0.65-1.42
0.012-0.041
0.033-0.067
0.069-0.132
Site 14
2
Sites 5, 6, 9 and 10
Sites 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12 and 13
mee is 0.073 mg/l.whereas water samples obtained from the watershed range from
0.012 to 0.041 mg/1. Similar trends are seen for total soluble and particulate phos-
phorus.
The distribution between soluble and particulate forms of nitrogen and phos-
phorus is similar for watershed and Maumee River samples (tables 7.8). Of the total
present, 83 percent and 32 percent of the nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively, are
found in soluble species. This arises from the solubility of nitrogen (i.e., nitrate) and
the insolubility of phosphorus. Thus, most of the phosphorus leaving the water-
shed is attached to soil material eroded from the landscape. These data emphasize
the importance of measuring both soluble and total nutrients in water samples. It
should be noted that the distribution between particulate and soluble forms of ni-
trogen and phosphorus are essentially the same for the Maumee River and the aver-
age of all the sites sampled in the watershed.
94
-------
Table 7.8 Proportion of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Present in Water Sam-
ples as Particulate and Soluble Components
Site
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Average
Maumee River
Soluble
N
P
83
83
85
82
89
77
86
78
83
82
84
79
87
83
83
* 01 LULUJ.
35
36
36
42
32
38
38
34
48
44
33
34
32
32
30
Particulate
N
17
17
15
18
11
23
14
22
17
18
16
21
13
17
17
l
P
^-
65
64
64
58
68
62
62
66
52
56
67
66
68
68
70
B. Pump Samples
Detailed analysis of 3 storm events are possible using the samples obtained from
the pump samplers. The following events were monitored: site 2, February 2,1975;
site 2, March 7, 1975; site 2, March 17, 1975; site 6, March 17, 1975. As mentioned
previously, the samplers are located in the lower portion of the watershed and thus,
should give information concerning the forms and amounts of nutrients entering
the Maumee River from the watershed. Three figures have been prepared for each
event — the first presenting flow, solids and phosphorus components, the second
presenting flow, solids and nitrogen componenets, the third presenting flow and
loading of solids, nitrogen and phosphorus (figures 7.2 to 7.13). In general, the rela-
tionships between concentration and time indicate that soluble components, (i.e.,
nitrate, soluble inorganic phosphorus, soluble total phosphorus, soluble total ni-
trogen) are relatively constant throughout an event. In contrast, the concentration
95
-------
Table 7.9 Statistical Analysis of Water Quality Data for Three Storm
Events Occurring at Site 2
44 samples; 2-22-75 and 2-23-75 mg/l
COMPONENT
SUS-S
NH4-N
NO3-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
MIN
109.000
0.210
4.880
7.810
5.500
0.017
0.432
0.050
1.250
MAX
1118.000
1.680
10.900
31.660
11.480
0.109
4.220
0.108
4.080
MEDIAN
508.000
0.580
8.440
13.000
9.725
0.046
1.163
0.080
2.490
MEAN
547.341
0.696
8.278
14.910
9.531
0.044
1.498
0.080
2.767
S D
202.71
0.36
1.44
5.29
1.38
0.02
1.06
0.02
0.92
C V
37.0
52.0
17.4
35.5
14.5
36.3
70.8
19.7
33.1
39 samples; 3-7-75 and 3-8-75 mg/l
COMPONENT
SUS-S
NH4-N
N03-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
39
MIN
101.000
0.160
6.130
7.760
7.760
0.012
0.164
0.017
1.080
MAX
712.000
2.150
10.170
17.250
11.110
0.051
1.008
0.111
1.830
MEDIAN
218.000
0.630
8.700
11.480
10.070
0.026
0.340
0.055
1.450
MEAN
288.256
0.799
8.541
11.712
9.819
0.030
0.399
0.053
1.449
S D
173.96
0.49
1.09
1.63
0.94
0.01
0.21
0.02
0.26
C V
60.3
61.9
12.8
13.9
9.6
39.5
51.5
38.7
17.7
64 samples; 3-17-75 to 3-19-75 mg/l
COMPONENT
SUS-S
HN4-N
NO3-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
MIN
72.000
0.100
3.620
5.450
4.560
0.013
0.146
0.018
0.900
11AX
332.000
1.630
10.220
21.760
21.760
0.037
1.266
0.081
1.320
MEDIAN
125.500
0.370
9.490
11.195
10.540
0.025
0.213
0.059
1.060
MEAN
151.672
0.485
8.982
11.093
10.214
0.025
0.272
0.058
1.082
S D
68.34
0.29
1.34
1.72
1.96
0.01
0.17
0.01
0.10
C V
45.1
59.3
14.9
15.5
19.2
21.9
62.9
23.1
9.0
96
-------
Table 7.10 Statistical Analysis of Water Quality Data for One Storm Event
Occuring at Site 6
50 samples; 3-17-75 to 3-19-75 mg/|
COMPONENT
SUS-S
NH4-N
N03-N
TOT-N
SOL-N
F-P
TOT-P
SOL-P
STAGE
N
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
MIN
111.000
0.310
4.090
6.820
4.140
0.020
0.182
0.045
0.730
MAX
2060.000
1.050
8.750
21.130
10.220
0.184
2.230
0.376
1.500
1
MEDIAN
314.500
0.580
7.315
11.085
8.910
0.137
0.620
0.186
1.075
MEAN
457.920
0.582
6.998
11.953
8.511
0.137
0.738
0.187
1.051
S D
429.13
0.14
1.15
2.81
1.23
0.03
0.42
0.04
0.19
C V
93.7
23. 3
16. 5
23.5
14.4
21. 4
57. 0
22 . 1
17.9
Table 7.11 Characteristics of Soils Used in the Investigation
Characteristic
Slope, %
Clay, %
Silt, %
Sand, %
Total N, ppm
Total P, ppm
Ext. P, ppm
EPC, ppb
Haskins 1
0.1-0.3%
12.5
44.5
43.0
1021
363
46
50
Soil Type*
Nappanee
0.7-0.8%
29.5
41.5
28.9
1557
706
44
45
Morley cl
4.7-5.2%
33.0
43.5
23.5
1240
366
12
21
Hoytville s^c
0.3-0.7%
43.8
42.0
14.2
2969
1364
116
115
*1, loam; cl, clay loam; sic silty clay
slope is average slope of experimental area; ext. P is amount of dilute acid
soluble P (Bray PI> in soil.
97
-------
of total nitrogen and phosphorus, which are present in the participate phase of run-
off, tend to parallel the suspended solids and flow. Thus, total phosphorus, nitro-
gen and solids loadings yield a family of nearly parallel curves.
The minimum, maximum, median, mean, standard deviation and CV for each
event are presented in tables 7.9 and 7.10. The magnitude of the variations in
chemical composition of water during an event is apparent in these data.
5. EVALUATION OF FERTILIZER LOSS USING
THE RAINFALL SIMULATOR
A. Rainulator Studies
The rainfall simulator was used to evaluate the loss of fertilizer and native soil ni-
trogen and phosphorus from four soil types found in the Black Creek watershed.
The characteristics of the four soils used are shown in table 7.11. All plots were
disked once at right angles to the slope and once up and down slope. Two plots of
each soil type were fertilized with 50 Ibs. phosphorus/ac (56 kg/ha) of triple super-
phosphate and 150 Ibs. nitrogen/ac (168 kg/ha) as ammonium nitrate. Rain-
storms were applied at an intensity of 2.50 in/hr (6.35 cm/hr). Two rainstorms were
applied to the larger plots, one of 60 minute duration and one of 30 minute dura-
tion. The small plots had one storm applied of 45 minute duration.
The treatment conditions in this study are very severe and should reveal the
losses of nutrients under the worst possible conditions for nutrient loss. High rates
of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer were applied to the surface of the soil just
prior to the initiation of a 2.50 in/hr (6.35 cm/hr) rainstorm. This type of situation
presents the greatest potential for nutrient loss in runoff water.
The runoff losses of phosphorus and solids are shown in table 7.12 and the losses
of nitrogen are shown in table 7.13. The losses of soil and nutrients were low from
these gently sloping soils as compared with losses reported for other rainulator
studies. It has been shown previously that soil losses of 9.4 and 11 tons/ac (21.38
and 24.74 tons/ha) resulted from two successive storms applied to a conven-
tionally tilled Bedford silt loam on a 8.3 percent and 12.4 percent slope. Soil losses
from rainstorms applied to the soils in this study ranged from .07 (. 15) for the nearly
level Nappanee clay loam to .97 tons (2.18t) for the Morley clay loam soil having 5
percent slope. Soil losses were probably low because of the higher clay content and
reduced slope of these soils as compared to the Bedford soil. The sediment nitrogen
and phosphorus losses were lower than or equal to those found on the Bedford silt
loam. Sediment phosphorus losses on the Bedford soil were 6.7 to 10 Ibs/ac (7.52 to
11.25 kg/ha) as compared to .39 to 5.3 Ibs/ac (.38 to 5.90 kg/ha) for soils in this
study. Sediment nitrogen losses were also less for the soils representative of the
Maumee River basin 1.4 to 22 Ibs/ac (1.52 to 24.22 kg/ha) as compared to 19 to 26
Ibs/ac (21.84 to 28.59 kg/ha) for the Bedford silt loam. Since the sediment losses
from the Bedford soil were high, it is logical that sediment nutrient losses should
also be greater. Plowing down fertilizers on Bedford silt loam reduced the losses of
soluble nitrogen and phosphorus to levels equal or lower than the four soils used in
this study. The concentration of soluble inorganic phosphorus was reduced the
most by incorporation; however, the concentrations of nitrate and ammonium were
also reduced markedly by plowing. Even through surface application of fertilizer
without incorporation increases the loss of soluble nitrogen and phosphorus, nu-
trient losses when expressed as a percentage of fertilizer applied remain quite low.
98
-------
Table 7.12 Losses of Soil and Phosphorus Components in Surface Runoff
from Fertilized (F) and Unfertilized (U) Plots of Four Soil Types (Haskins,
Nappanee, Hoytville, Morley)
Rainstorm
No.
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
Storm
duration
min.
60
60
45
45
30
30
60
60
45
45
30
30
60
60
45
45
30
30
60
60
45
45
30
30
Treatment
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
Total
runoff
tons /ha
305
368
227
245
239
264
168
210
172
151
195
251
253
233
206
162
256
283
395
389
234
203
280
289
Solids
runoff
Soil
inorg. P
Sol.
org. P
Sed. P
£ of
P forms
-^ \rn '*-- ^-
Haskins loam
2280
2050
1250
1000
1240
1170
0.019
0.302
0.017
0.400
0.021
0.115
0.017
0.125
0.011
0.000
0.012
0.008
2.410
2.910
1.340
2.490
1.060
1.200
2.446
3.337
1.368
2.890
1.093
1.323
Nappanee clay loam
320
415
730
310
290
770
0.013
0.140
0.015
0.250
0.012
0.051
0.003
0.015
0.002
0.004
0.011
0.013
0.380
0.884
0.728
1.458
0.379
0.931
0.306
1.039
0.745
1.712
0.402
0.995
Hoytville silty clay
410
780
280
700
680
880
0.054
0.206
0.052
0.165
0.049
0.088
0.030
0.020
0.000
0.036
0.011
0.010
0.822
1.594
1.409
1.396
1.378
1.991
0.906
1.820
1.461
1.597
1.438
2.089
Morley clay loam
3940
4380
1990
1420
3190
3700
0.004
0.115
0.004
0.175
0.003
0.056
0.012
0.020
0.006
0.000
0.005
0.001
2.713
5.905
1.917
2.255
2.208
3.337
2.729
6.040
1.927
2.430
2.216
3.394
CD
CO
-------
o
o
Table 7.13 Losses of Nitrogen Components in Surface Runoff from Ferti-
lized (F) and Unfertilized (U) Plots of Four Soil Types
Rainstorm
No.
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
Storm
duration
60
60
45
45
30
30
60
60
45
45
30
30
50
60
45
45
30
30
60
60
45
45
30
30
Treatment
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
NH!"-N
4
N03-N
Sol.
Org. N
^ — ____ i.~/i-_
Sed. N
I of
N forms
^
Haskins loam
0.067
0.510
0.051
0.750
0.091
0.547
0.706
0.547
0.714
0.750
0.091
0.258
0.088
0.270
0.000
0.000
0.248
0.193
5.270
5.420
3.650
2.690
3.026
3.200
6.131
6.747
4.415
4.441
3.539
4.206
Nappanee clay loam
0.030
0.863
0.880
0.607
0.023
0.810
0.198
0.295
0.298
0.864
0.074
0.732
0.092
0.353
0.000
0.000
0.131
0.000
1.700
4.130
1.520
3.100
1.310
3.670
2.020
5.640
1.906
4.571
1.538
5.212
Hoytville silty clay
0.054
0.863
0.051
0.607
0.023
0.810
1.708
3.027
0.350
4.930
0.340
0.546
0.000
0.048
0.086
0.000
0.033
0.000
3.850
3.780
2.980
3.920
3.950
5.430
Morley clay loam
0.107
1.629
0.029
0.628
0.066
1.407
0.367
0.777
0.159
0.463
0.348
0.725
0.024
0.000
0.169
0.015
0.000
0.266
20.090
24.220
10.620
7.910
11.370
13.320
5.612
7.718
3.467
9.457
4.346
7.596
20.588
26.626
10.977
9.016
11.784
15.718
-------
It is evident from looking at the results that fertilizer application does lead to in-
creased nutrient loss from soils. The increases are the greatest in the soluble ni-
trate, ammonium and inorganic phosphorus fractions. Sediment phosphorus also
appears to increase with fertilizer addition probably as a result of sorption of added
inorganic phosphorus by the clay fraction in soil. The loss of sediment nitrogen
does not seem to be markedly affected by fertilization.
The percent of the various types of nitrogen and phosphorus found in the runoff
as compared to the total amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus in runoff is listed in
table 7.14. In unfertilized plots the large majority of the nitrogen found in runoff is
in the sediment. On the contrary, with fertilized plots the proportion of sediment ni-
trogen in runoff decreased as the ammonium-nitrogen and nitrate-nitrogen origi-
nating from fertilizer increased. However, the fraction of sediment nitrogen in fer-
tilized plot runoff was at least 41 percent and in most cases greater than 50 percent
of the total nitrogen. In unfertilized plots, almost all the phosphorus in runoff is
sediment phosphorus. When plots are fertilized the percentage of total phosphorus
in runoff present as sediment phosphorus decreases but stays at relatively high
levels. Data from the fertilized plots reveals that at least 85 percent of the total
phosphorus in runoff was in the sediment phase.
From the above data it can be concluded that the most effective way to control
loss of phosphorus and to a lesser extent nitrogen is to control soil erosion. Sub-
stantial decreases in the total nutrient load would have occurred if soil erosion
were decreased. Most likely the amounts of soluble nitrogen and phosphorus in run-
off would decrease if the fertilizer were incorporated in a way that would also mini-
mize erosion.
The majority of soluble inorganic nitrogen and inorganic phosphorus in runoff is
derived from fertilizer (table 7.15). In most cases the majority of sediment nitrogen
is derived from the soil. The Nappanee clay loam was an exception since the sedi-
ment nitrogen derived from fertilizer sources was quite high. This finding may be
due to the high clay content of the soil which would increase the probability of large
amounts of added ammonium present on the exchange sites of the eroded soil. Sub-
stantial proportion of the sediment phosphorus appears to be derived from the
added fertilizer. This finding is further substantiated by the increased concentra-
tion of phosphorus in the sediment from fertilized plots as compared to sediment
from unfertilized plots. The increases in sediment phosphorus and nitrogen in run-
off resulting from fertilizer are apparently due to the attachment of ammonium to
cation exchange sites and the sorption of phosphate to the clay mineral surfaces
shortly after fertilization. These nutrients are then carried from the plots as com-
ponents of the sediment during erosion.
Total inorganic nitrogen removed in runoff from the two storms varied from 0.4
percent to 2.2 percent of that applied (table 7.16). Losses of applied inorganic nitro-
gen from Haskins soil were substantially lower than the other three soils. This find-
ing may have been due to the high infiltration rate in Haskins soil because of
higher amounts of sand and lower clay content than other solid thus permitting
ammonium and nitrate to be moved deeper into the soil making it less susceptible to
runoff. The amount of fertilizer nitrogen lost in all forms varied from 0.8 percent to
5.9 percent of that added (table 7.16). The losses of added nitrogen from Haskins
soil again were much lower than other soils which seems to indicate the clay con-
tent of the soil may be the difference since the fertilizer nitrogen lost in the sedi-
ment phase was probably largely in the form of ammonium on the cation ex-
change sites.
101
-------
The percentages of soluble inorganic phosphorus removal by runoff water varied
from 0.3 percent to 0.7 percent of that added and the amount of added phosphorus
lost in all forms in runoff varied from 2.0 percent to 8.0 percent (table 7.16). The
losses of fertilizer phosphorus were larger than nitrogen losses as compared to the
amounts of fertilizer nitrogen and phosphorus applied. The greater losses of ap-
plied phosphorus are apparently from the phosphate sorbed on soil surfaces since
the largest amount of phosphorus in runoff is carried by the sediment. The quanti-
ties of fertilizer nutrients lost in runoff from the four soils do not represent signifi-
cant monetary losses to the farmer. The nutrient losses are low considering the se-
verity of the experimental conditions. The incorporation of the fertilizer would
have likely substantially reduced losses.
The average concentrations of sediment phosphorus and extractable sediment
phosphorus in runoff increased as a result of fertilization (table 7.17). Addition of
superphosphate decreased the proportion of total phosphorus in runoff present as
sediment phosphorus from 96.6 percent to 91.8 percent. On the average, the total
phosphorus content of the sediment increased 269 ppm and the extractable phos-
phorus content of the sediment increased 97 ppm as a result of fertilization. Super-
phosphate addition increased the proportion of sediment phosphorus which was
extractable with the Bray Pi solution from 20.6 percent to 25.2 percent suggesting
that a higher percentage of added phosphorus associated with the sediment was ex-
tractable than native phosphorus associated with the sediment. The finding that
in excess of 90 percent of the total phosphorus in runoff is sediment phosphorus
agrees with previous work and suggests that control of soil erosion can greatly re-
duce the levels of total phosphorus in surface runoff.
The concentration of sediment nitrogen in runoff was not markedly affected by
fertilization although the amount of sediment exchangeable ammonium in-
creased as a result of ammonium nitrate addition. The proportion of total nitro-
gen in runoff present as sediment nitrogen decreased from 86 percent to 71 percent
as a result of fertilization. The fact that sediment nitrogen makes up the bulk of the
nitrogen in runoff suggests that control of soil erosion can greatly reduce the total
amounts of nitrogen in runoff although the more available soluble nitrogen com-
ponents would still be present. Fertilization increased the average Kjeldahl nitro-
gen content of the sediment about 280 ppm and the exchangeable ammonium con-
tent about 81 ppm. The proportion of Kjeldahl nitrogen in the sediment present as
exchangeable ammonium increased from 1.2 percent to 5 percent with fertiliza-
tion.
The soluble organic carbon content of runoff averaged 19.6mg/l for unfertilized
plots and 28.3 mg/1 for fertilized plots. The values are somewhat higher than the
soluble organic carbon contents of streams and rivers which are usually about 10
mg/1. The average sediment organic carbon concentration in runoff was about 200
mg/1, thus the organic carbon to Kjeldahl nitrogen ratio (C/N) for surface runoff
was approximately 11. Soils normally have a C/N ratio of 9 to 12 so it can be seen
that sediment carbon and sediment nitrogen are being eroded in roughly the same
proportion that they occur in the soil.
102
-------
Table 7.14 Percentage Distribution of the Total Amounts of Nitrogen and
Phosphorus in Surface Runoff Among the Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Components in Runoff from Fertilized (F) and Unfertilized (U) Plots of
Four Soil Types
Rainstorm
No.
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
Storm
duration
min
60
60
45
45
30
30
60
60
45
45
30
30
60
60
45
45
30
30
60
60
45
45
30
30
Treat-
ment
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
% of total N in runoff as:
NH+-N
1.1
7.6
1.1
16.9
2.6
13.0
NO~-N
Has
11.5
8.1
16.2
22.5
4.9
6.1
Sol.
Org. N
kins loam
1.4
4.0
0.0
0.0
7.0
4.6
Sed. N
86.0
80.3
82.7
60.6
85.5
76.1
% of total P in runoff as:
Soil
Inorg-P
0.8
9.1
1.3
13.8
1.9
8.7
Sol.
Org. P
0.7
3.8
0.8
0.0
1.1
0.6
Sed. P
98.5
87.2
98.0
86.2
97.2
90.7
Nappanee clay loam ,
1.5
15.3
4.6
13.2
1.5
15.5
9.8
5.2
15.6
18.9
4.8
14.0
4.5
6.3
0.0
0.0
3.5
0.0
84.2
73.2
79.7
67.8
94.9
70.4
3.2
13.5
2.0
14.6
3.0
5.1
0.8
1.4
0.3
0.2
2.7
- 1.3
96.0
85.1
97.7
85.2
94.3
93.6
Hoytville silty clay
1.0
11.2
1.5
6.4
0.5
10.7
30. A
39.2
10.1
52.1
7.8
7.2
0.0
0.6
2.5
0.0
0.8
0.0
68.6
49.0
86.0
41.5
90.9
71.5
6.0
11.3
3.6
10.3
3.6
4.2
3.3
1.1
0.0
2.2
0.8
0.5
90.7
87.6
96.4
87.4
95.8
95.3
Morley Clay Loam
0.5
6.1
0.3
7.0
0.6
9.0
1.8
2.9
1.4
5.1
3.0
4.6
0.1
0.0
1.5
0.2
0.0
1.7
97.6
91.0
96.7
87.7
96.5
84.7
0.1
1.9
0.2
7.2
0.1
1.6
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.0
0.2
0.0
99.4
97.8
99.5
92.8
99.6
98.3
o
CO
-------
Table 7.15 Percentage of Plant Nutrients in Runoff Water and Sediment
from Fertilized Soil Derived from Fertilizer*
Soil
type
Haskins loam
Nappanee clay loam
Hoytville silty loam
Morley clay loam
Rainstorm
No.
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
Fprm of N in runoff
Sol.
Inorg. N
Sed. N
I of all
N forms
% of N derived from fertilizer
26.9
67.1
80.3
93.7
54.7
73.2
80.3
80.7
2.8
5.4
58.8
64.3
0.0
27.3
17.1
14.7
9.1
15.8
64.2
70.5
27.3
42.8
22.7
25.0
Form of P in runoff
Sol.
Inorg. P
Sed. P
I of all
P forms
% of P derived from fertilizer
93.7
81.7
90.7
76.5
73.8
44.3
96.5
94.6
17.2
11.7
57.0
59.3
48.5
30.8
54.1
33.8
26.7
17.4
61.9
59.6
50.2
31.2
54.8
34.7
Calculated by subtracting the nutrient loss from the untreated plot from that of the fertilized plot, dividing the
difference by the nutrient loss from the fertilized plot, and multiplying the resultant value by 190.
-------
Table 7.16 Amount of Added Fertilizer Nitrogen and Phosphorus Lost in
Runoff from Four Soil Types*
Soil
type
Raskins loam
Nappanee clay loam
Hoytville silty clay
Morley clay loam
Rainstorm
No.
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
Added N lost in runoff as:
Sol. inorg. N
All N forms
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.9
1.5
1.3
0.6
1.9
1.2
1.0
2.2
0.4
0.4
0.8
2.1
2.1
4.2
1.3
1.9
3.2
3.6
2.3
5.9
Added P lost in runnof as:
Sol. inorg. P
All P forms
0.5
0.2
0.7
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.3
1.6
0.4
2.0
1.1
1.1
2.2
1.6
1.2
2.8
5.9
2.1
8.0
*Percent of added nutrients lost in runoff was calculated by subtracting the nutrient loss from untreated plots from
that of the fertilized plot, dividing the difference by the amount of nutrient added, and multiplying the resultant
value by 100.
-------
Table 7.17 Effect of Fertilization on the Phosphorus, Nitrogen, and Car-
bon Composition of Sediment in Runoff from Four Soils Subjected to
Simulated Rainstorms
Soil
type
Haskins
Nappanee
Morley
Hoytville
Average
Treat-*
merit
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
Rain-
storm
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
Sed.
P
Ext. sed.
P
530
454
520
643
685
661
267
422
258
547
707
828
553
513
477
665
697
823
1230
1355
1202
1375
1466
1414
607
876
76 (14.7)
65 (14.3)
94 (18.1)
213 (33.1)
150 (21.9)
178 (26.9)
113 (42.3)
153 (36.0)
127 (49.2)
199 (36.4)
167 (23.6)
155 (18.7)
25 (4.5)
31 (6.0)
34 (7.1)
196 (29.5)
146 (20.9)
161 (19.6)
231 (18.8)
248 (18.3)
217 (18.1)
368 (26.8)
320 (21.8)
331 (23.4)
118 (20.6)
215 (25.2)
Sed.
EPC
28
35
30
455
180
175
74
44
44
300
136
136
4
10
9
104
54
48
15
86
94
284
138
138
39
179
Sed.
tDtal N
Sed.
exc. NH -N
*t ppm ^>
1330
1710
1590
1750
1610
1620
790
2570
1040
1840
1830
1590
1860
1650
1590
2070
1890
2030
2350
3190
3160
2870
3570
3490
1903
2180
46 (3.5)
47 (2.7)
60 (3.8)
105 (6.0)
116 (7.2)
73 (4.5)
0 (0.0)
0 (0.0)
0 (0.0)
125 (6.8)
89 (4.9)
104 (6.5)
26 (1.4)
28 (1.7)
20 (1.3)
95 (4.6)
100 (4.8)
80 (3.9)
0 (0.0)
0 (0.0)
0 (0.0)
118 (4.1)
114 (3.2)
103 (2.9)
19 (1.2)
102 (5.0)
Sed.
org. C
-------
There was a strong relationship between the solids content of runoff and the sedi-
ment phosphorus concentration in the runoff. A similar relationship was observed
between solids and the sediment nitrogen content of runoff. These findings sug-
gest that the solids content of surface runoff provides a good indication of the rela-
tive amounts of sediment nitrogen and phosphorus present in runoff. It may be pos-
sible to obtain a semi-quantitative estimate of the sediment nitrogen and phos-
phorus content of runoff based upon solids content in a given watershed if most
soils in the watershed are similar.
The solids content was also significantly correlated with the soluble organic
phosphorus concentration, the soluble organic carbon content, and the exchange-
able ammonium concentration in the sediment. Thus it appears that the solids con-
tent of surface runoff from these soils is a key factor in determining the concentra-
tions of certain forms of nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon in runoff. However,
solids content may not always be related to sediment nitrogen and phosphorus con-
tent since soil type, slope of the soil, natural fertility and other soil associated fac-
tors can affect the composition of the sediments inducing variability. Therefore,
the nitrogen and phosphorus concentration in sediment may change as related to
the original soil because of selective enrichment by smaller size fractions, espe-
cially clay. When predictions of nutrient content of sediments is made these fac-
tors need to be considered.
Clay content of the runoff was related to solids, soluble organic phosphorus, sedi-
ment total phosphorus and organic carbon in the sediment. It appears that the clay
fraction carried a large portion of these nutrients contained in the runoff. Clay par-
ticles especially the related amorphous material have a high affinity for phos-
phate ions and organic molecules.
A very high correlation coefficient (r = 0.91) was obtained for the relationship be-
tween the soluble inorganic phosphorus concentration in runoff and the equili-
brium phosphorus concentration (EPC) of runoff sediment. It appears that the con-
centration of soluble inorganic phosphorus in runoff may be accurately estimated
by determining the EPC of the sediment. It is interesting to note that the relation-
ship between soluble inorganic phosphorus and sediment EPC was observed even
when results from several soils were combined and when the solids content of run-
off varied from 0.17 percent to 2.74 percent. These findings suggest that the rela-
tionship between the sediment EPC and the soluble inorganic phosphorus concen-
tration in water is similar for different soil types.
The original soil EPC when compared to soluble inorganic phosphorus concen-
tration of the runoff from unfertilized plots resulted in a correlation coefficient of
0.81 which indicates under certain conditions the original soil EPC may be useful
in predicting the soluble inorganic phosphorus in runoff. The nature of the equili-
brium between the soil and solution makes it possible for the soil to buffer solution
phosphorus. Soil when associated with solutions of low phosphorus status may de-
sorb phosphorus whereas under conditions of high concentrations of solution phos-
phorus the soil may sorb phosphorus. If the composition of the runoff is known, pre-
dictions can be made to assess the contribution of sediment phosphorus in runoff to
the phosphorus status of lakes and streams.
Sediment phosphorus in runoff was related to the concentration of soluble phos-
phorus in runoff and to the concentration of soluble organic carbon and sediment
organic carbon in runoff. As expected the concentration of extractable phosphorus
in the sediment was directly related to the concentration of total phosphorus in the
107
-------
Table 7.18 Analysis of Soil Size Fractions
Soil Type
Raskins
loam
Merely
clay loam
Hoytville
silty clay
Nappanee
clay loam
Fraction
whole soil
sand
silt
clay
whole soil
sand
silt
clay
whole soil
sand
silt
clay
whole soil
sand
silt
clay
Percent
of soil
100.0
43.0
44.5
12.4
100.0
23.5
43.4
33.0
100.0
14.2
42.1
43.7
100.0
28.9
41.6
29.5
Total
N p
Extractable
P*
K/ g — — — — —
1021
166
710
4406
1240
225
835
2165
2969
424
1794
4466
1557
182
972
3231
364
168
240
1135
366
90
127
739
1241
704
756
1364
706
399
335
1109
46
29
36
155
12 4
JL£. * "t
10.5
10.5
16.1
117
49
102
166
44
21
34
75
EPC1"
ng/ml
5
3
28
0
0
0
0
7
44
1
2
9
*Bray P, (Jackson;1970).
EPC - equilibrium phosphorus concentration (Taylor and Kunishi, 1971),
sediment. The concentration of extractable phosphorus in sediment was also re-
lated to sediment EPC. This finding suggests that the EPC technique and the Bray
P-l extraction procedure measure a similar fraction of soil phosphorus which de-
termines the concentration of orthophosphate in equilibrium solutions. It has been
observed that EPC measures the buffering capacity of a soil for phosphate where-
as Bray P-l extraction measures the phosphate potential of the soil.
The soluble ammonium nitrogen concentration in runoff was related to the ex-
changeable ammonium nitrogen concentration in runoff and to the exchangeable
ammonium nitrogen content of the sediment. This finding suggests that an equili-
brium exists between the soluble ammonium in runoff and the exchangeable am-
monium present on solids in runoff. Thus it may be possible to predict one of these
forms of ammonium in runoff if the other form is known. Soluble organic nitrogen
in runoff is related to the concentration of sediment nitrogen in runoff and to the
concentration of exchangeable ammonium in the sediment. It appears likely that a
given proportion of organic nitrogen in these soils is solubilized during runoff
events and therefore soils containing high organic nitrogen contents have runoff
higher in soluble organic nitrogen than soils containing low concentrations of or-
ganic matter.
108
-------
The four soils used in the study were separated into their sand, silt, and clay frac-
tions for chemical analysis. The fractionation procedure gave fractions which re-
presented 94.3 percent of the weight of the original sample. A higher recovery could
have been achieved if the large volumes of suspended clay could have been air-
dried in a short period of time. The freezing process made recovery much faster
since a major portion of the supernatant could be decanted.
The results of the chemical analysis of the soil constituents and the original soils
are presented in table 7.18. The analyses of samples for total phosphorus, total ni-
trogen, and extractable phosphorus all indicate that the highest concentrations of
nitrogen and phosphorus in soil are associated with the clay fraction.
Phosphorus adsorption on clays has been related to the presence of amorphous
oxides and hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum. The presence of iron oxide and
hydrous oxide coatings on clay mineral surfaces has been reported. Such coatings
along with greater surface area may explain the fact that a large proportion of the
total phosphorus in the soil is associated with the clay fractions. Since silt and clay
are, in many cases, preferentially eroded, higher losses of sediment nitrogen and
phosphorus would be expected than if the soil were eroded in mass. This observa-
tion has led to the use of enrichment ratios where the concentration of sand, silt,
and clay in the particulate phase of surface runoff is compared to concentrations in
the soil. Previous researchers have observed increases in clay content of eroded ma-
terials. For a soil containing 16 percent to 18 percent clay, clay percentage in the
eroded material increased from 25 percent to 60 percent as runoff diminished from
2.7 inches to .01 inches (70 mm to 0.25 mm) of runoff per hour. Runoff from storms of
lesser intensity may carry as much sediment phosphorus as intense storms due to
greater enrichment during low runoff.
If selective erosion occurs, the potential for enriching water with nutrients is in-
creased because the concentration of nutrients in the clay fraction is much higher
than the whole soil. It is apparent that selective erosion occurred in these soils be-
cause the nitrogen and phosphorus concentration of the sediment from unferti-
lized plots are higher than those of the whole soil and in some cases higher than the
concentration in the clay fraction of the soil. This finding suggests that the fine
clay particles are being eroded preferentially and could be a potential source of ni-
trogen and phosphorus to the solution due to the higher nutrient concentration of
the fine clay.
Phosphorus adsorption isotherms relations were determined for the three fac-
tions of each soil. The isotherms indicate clay has the greatest ability to buffer the
soluble phosphorus concentration. The clays, when subjected to concentrations of
soluble orthophosphate greater than the EPC, will sorb phosphorus from solution.
Clay in stream and lake systems can serve as a phosphate sink during periods of
high phosphorus concentration. Even though clay may hold the largest fraction of
phosphorus in streams and lakes it also has the ability to maintain the concentra-
tion of phosphorus in solution at levels lower than in runoff which enters the water.
The concentration maintained is most likely dependent upon the EPC of the eroded
material and the EPC of the material present on the stream bank and lake bottoms.
B. Conclusions
Fertilizers increase the soluble nitrate-nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen and ortho-
phosphate-phosphorus content of runoff. These losses are small (none greater than
109
-------
8.0 percent) as compared to the amount of fertilizer nutrient added to the soil. The
soluble inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus in runoff are readily available for al-
gal growth and therefore reduction of the concentration of nutrients in runoff is de-
sirable.
Sediments contain the majority of nitrogen and phosphorus in runoff. Sediment
nitrogen and phosphorus are not immediately available to aquatic plants but these
forms may serve as potential nutrient sources. The greatest portion of nitrogen and
phosphorus associated with sediment appears to be in the clay fraction. Soils sus-
ceptible to selective erosion may yield sediment which contain more nitrogen and
phosphorus than the original soil since clay and silt percentages of sediment gen-
erally increase relative to the soil during erosion. The best approach for reducing
nutrient loss from cropland appears to be erosion and runoff control.
Practices such as fertilizer incorporation are important as indicated by this study
and previous investigations. Conservation tillage methods need to be evaluated
with respect to control of erosion and runoff and suitability to present day farming
practices.
The findings of this study allows one to draw certain implications about the com-
position of runoff from soils of the Upper Maumee River watershed. It appears that
the solids and clay content of the runoff are the most important parameters in con-
trolling the concentrations of several forms of nitrogen and phosphorus in runoff.
The data suggests that control of soil erosion and proper incorporation of fertili-
zers (to prevent mass movement of fertilizer in runoff water) can greatly reduce the
concentrations of nutrients in runoff from the soils studied.
The concentration of soluble inorganic phosphorus in runoff (possibly the most
important single parameter in eutrophication) can be estimated by measurement of
the EPC or the extractable phosphorus content of eroded material. The EPC value
of unfertilized soil or soils in which phosphorus fertilizers have been incorporated
can be used to estimate the soluble inorganic phosphorus concentration in runoff.
These relationships should be very useful in development of models for prediction
of nutrient loss in the Maumee River watershed.
The concentration of soluble ammonium in runoff can be estimated from the ex-
changeable ammonium content of the runoff sediment. It also appears likely that
the exchangeable ammonium content of the soil is related to the soluble am-
monium concentration in runoff. The concentration of nitrate in the runoff was not
related to any runoff properties which were measured. This is to be expected in that
nitrate is water soluble and is not associated with the solid phase of the soil. This
finding suggests that development of a model for loss of nitrate in runoff water will
be very difficult because nitrate losses are dependent upon a large number of hy-
drologic and soil factors.
C. Laboratory Studies
Laboratory incubation experiments were conducted to evaluate the transforma-
tions of nitrogen and phosphorus in water systems. The treatments used in these
experiments are summarized in table 7.19
1. Effect of Incubation Temperature
The temperature zone subject to temperature variations throughout the year and
110
-------
Table 7.19 Treatments used in Simulated Aquatic System Study
Treatment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Amendment*
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
34 yg P + 1500 pg N
84 yg P + 6000 pg N
CaCO
Temperature
°C
5
13
23
33
23
23
23
23
23
23
Aeration**
status
static
static
static
static
anaerobic ( shake)
aerobic ( shake)
static
static
static
static
Pretreatment
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Sol. Replacement
None
None
* None, 5 nil of deionized added to water sample; CaCOo, 5 ml of deionized water +
2 gm of CaCOo; 34 yg P + 1500 yg P, 5 ml of deionized water containing 34 g of
P as KH2PO^. and 1500 yg N as
water containing 84 yg P as
84 yg P + 6000 yg N, 5 ml of deionized
and 6000 yg N as NH.NO,..
** Static, samples incubated in polythylene bottles covered with polyethylene
film; anaerobic, samples incubated in stoppered glass bottles after purging
with helium; aerobic, samples subjected to shaking while incubated in poly-
ethylene bottles covered with polyethylene film.
Solution replacement, liquid phase of runoff removed by centrifugation and
decanted and 150 ml of deionized water added.
thus the temperature regime in surface waters will vary diurnally and seasonally.
The effects of incubation temperature on the soluble phosphorus and inorganic ni-
trogen composition of creek water are given in table 7.20. The concentration of solu-
ble inorganic phosphorus increased significantly with time at all incubation tem-
peratures; however, the increases were greater at higher temperatures. The in-
crease in inorganic phosphorus was approximately one-third greater for samples
incubated at 33°C as compared to those incubated at 5°C. The soluble organic phos-
phorus concentration in samples decreased with time, but the rate of decrease was
slower at the lowest incubation temperature. The concentration of total soluble
phosphorus generally increased with time of incubation. This finding suggests
that the increase in soluble inorganic phosphorus in samples is not entirely the re-
sult of mineralization of soluble organic phosphorus, but may in part result from
desorption of inorganic phosphorus from the sediment or mineralization of or-
ganic phosphorus in the sediment. During the 12 weeks of incubation 1.8,2.1,3.75,
and 8.25 g of phosphorus per sample were released from the sediment to the solu-
tion phase of samples incubated at 5, 15, 23, and 33°C, respectively.
In all samples except those incubated at 33°C, the ammonium-nitrogen content
increased during the first week, probably as a result of mineralization of organic ni-
trogen. Nitrification was rapid in samples incubated at all temperatures as evi-
111
-------
Table 7.20 Effect of Incubation Temperature on the Concentration of
Soluble N and P in a Simulated Aquatic System
Treatment
o
5 C
13°C
23°C
33°C
Incubation
time
(weeks)
0
1
3
6
12
0
1
3
6
12
0
1
3
6
12
0
1
3
6
12
Concentration of soluble
Inorg-P
Org. P
NH+-N
4
NO~-N
Change in Concentration
during incubation
Sol-P I Sol. inorg-N
.189
.161
.182
.280
.286
.189
.210
.261
.288
.295
.189
.220
.258
.309
.314
.189
.279
.280
.315
.340
.104
.132
.123
.093
.019
.104
.076
.017
.043
.012
.104
.090
.024
.018
.004
.104
.080
.018
.024
.008
0.54
0.97
1.20
0.76
0.10
0.54
1.16
0.24
0.10
0.07
.054
1.15
0.21
0.22
0.10
0.54
0.19
0.16
0.22
0.07
2.88
2.92
3.19
3.86
4.57
2.88
2.92
4.28
4.59
4.84
2.88
2.97
4.36
4.84
4.77
2.88
3.82
4.10
4.93
4.89
ft
.000
.012
.080
.012
-.007
-.015
.038
.014
.017
-.003
.034
.025
-.066
.005
.046
.055
1
.47
.97
1.20
1.25
.66
1.10
1.27
1.49
0.70
1.15
1.64
1.45
0,59
0.84
1.73
1.54
-------
denced by the increase in nitrate content with time. The nitrate concentration in in-
cubated samples increased steadily with time and reached approximately the same
level in all treatments after 12 weeks of incubation. After 12 weeks of incubation
188, 224, 218, 23l/tg of nitrogen per sample were released from the sediment to the
solution phase in samples incubated at 5, 13, 23, and 33°C, respectively. The in-
crease in soluble inorganic nitrogen is likely the result of mineralization of organic
nitrogen present in the sediment phase of creek water.
As stated previously, temperature has a definite effect on the rate with which in-
soluble nutrients become available and on the amount of nutrients that are con-
verted to water soluble forms. The increasing amounts of nitrogen and phos-
pherous converted to water soluble forms were directly proportional to the incuba-
tion temperature. This is a significant finding since aquatic plants exhibit accele-
rated growth rates during periods of elevated water temperature, provided the tem-
perature is within the optimum range for growth. If water temperatures increase in
a lake or pond in which algal growth may be a problem, the data obtained from in-
cubation experiments indicate that increased amounts of nitrogen and phos-
phorus will become available to aquatic plants. In lakes where the temperature
does not exceed 5°C, the nutrient status would be much lower and thus, reduce the
potential for the growth of aquatic plants.
2. Effect of Aeration Status and Shaking
Sediments are subjected to various levels of aeration during transportation and
deposition in natural waters. Aeration is known to have a great effect upon the
soluble nitrogen and phosphorus in water-sediment systems. It is essential to de-
termine the role of sediments in supplying soluble nutrients in natural water sys-
tems.
The effects of aeration status and shaking on the soluble nitrogen and phos-
phorus components of creek water incubated for 12 weeks is given in table 7.21. It
was anticipated that shaking would increase the degree of aeration in samples;
however, there was little difference in dissolved oxygen content of static or shaken
samples. The dissolved oxygen measurements taken after incubation of helium
purged samples show that anaerobic conditions were not maintained throughout
the incubation period; however, the dissolved oxygen content was much lower than
in those samples which were not helium purged. The soluble inorganic phosphorus
concentration increased with time in aerobic samples; however, in helium purged
samples the soluble inorganic phosphorus increased for the first three weeks and
then decreased during the last nine weeks of incubation. The levels of soluble inor-
ganic phosphorus were significantly higher in aerobic samples which were shaken
as compared to those which were static. The soluble organic phosphorus content of
all samples tended to decrease with time; however, the rate of decrease of soluble or-
ganic phosphorus content during the last 11 weeks of incubation was greatest in
samples which were shaken. The total soluble phosphorus content of all samples
tended to reach a peak value after one week of incubation and then remain rela-
tively constant or decline with time thereafter. In aerobic samples, the decline in to-
tal soluble phosphorus content resulted from more rapid decreases in soluble or-
ganic phosphorus then increases in soluble inorganic phosphorus, whereas in
helium purged samples soluble organic phosphorus rapidly decreased and/soluble
113
-------
Table 7.21 The Effect of Aeration Status and Shaking on the Concentra-
tion of Soluble N and P in a Simulated Aquatic System
Treatment
Aerobic
static
aerobic
shake
Incubation
time
(weeks)
0
1
3
6
12
0
1
3
6
12
Helium purged 0
shake
1
3
6
12
Dissolved
02
content
Concentration of soluble
Inorg P
Org. P
NH!"-N
4
N03-N
Change in Concentration
during incubation
Sol-P
Sol inorg-P
_
8.60
8.85
9.40
9.55
-
8.70
0.189
0-220
0.258
0.309
0-314
0.189
0.275
8.75 0.342
- -
9.30 0.361
0.189
2.30 ! 0-228
2.00 Q.300
2.60 : 0-247
0.50 0.236
0.104
0.090
0.024
0.018
0.004
0.104
0.110
0.000
_
0.000
0.104
0.103
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.54
1.15
0.21
0.22
0.10
0.54
0.07
0.19
_
0.34
0.54
0.70
0.09
0.15
0.17
2.88
2.97
4.36
4.84
4.77
2.88
4.12
4.79
__
5.28
2.88
3.49
4.62
4.76
4.91
0.017
0.003
0.034
0.025
_
0.092
0.049
_
0.068
0.038
' 0.007
0.046
0-057
0.70
1.15
1.64
1.45
_
0.77
1.56
2.20
0.77
1.29
1.49
1.66
-------
Table 7.22 The Effect of Calcium Carbonate Amendment on the Level of
Soluble N and P in a Simulated Aquatic System
Treatment
None
*
CaC03
Incubation
(weeks)
0
1
3
6
12
0
1
3
6
12
Concentration of soluble
Inorg-P
Org. P
NH+-N
4
NO -N
Change in concentration
during incubation
Sol-P
Sol inorg-N
0.189
0.220
0.258
0.309
0.314
0.185
0.203
0.260
0.270
0.289
0.104
0.090
0-024
0.018
0.004
0-117
0.050
0.013
0.015
0,000
— . 1
0.54
1.15
0-21
0-21
o-io
0-57
0-89
Q.14
_ 0-29
0-36
2.88
2.97
4.36
4.84
4.77
2.97
3.11
4.81
4.64
5.20
_
0.017
0.003
0.034
0.025
-
0.049
0.029
0.017
0.013
_
0.69
1.14
1.63
1.44
-
0.46
1.41
1.39
2.02
* 2 grams of CACO. added per sample.
-------
inorganic phosphorus increased for three weeks and then decreased giving a net
decrease in total soluble phosphorus. During 12 weeks of incubation 3.75/^gand 10.2
of phosphorus were released to the solution phase from sediment in aerobic sam-
ples which were static and shaken, respectively. In helium purged samples 8.55^9
phosphorus per sample was removed from the solution phase during 12 weeks of in-
cubation.
The ammonium content of aerobic static samples and helium purged samples in-
creased during the first week of incubation and then decreased to a low level dur-
ing the next two weeks and then remained low during the remainder of the incuba-
tion period. The ammonium concentration in aerobic shaken samples decreased
during the first week of incubation and then slowly increased during the remain-
ing 11 weeks. The nitrate content of all samples increased rapidly during the ini-
tial one to three weeks of incubation and then increased slowly during the remain-
der of the incubation period. The finding that nitrification was occurring in helium
purged samples is good evidence that the samples were not anaerobic and that ni-
trification is not limited by relatively low dissolved oxygen contents in the water.
The soluble inorganic nitrogen content of samples tended to increase with time
throughout the incubation. During 12 weeks of incubation 218,330, and 249/*gof in-
organic phosphorus per sample were released from sediment to the solution phase
in aerobic static, aerobic shaken, and helium-purged shaken samples, respec-
tively. This finding suggests that shaking may increase the mineralization of or-
ganic nitrogen and that a reduction of dissolved oxygen in water may decrease the
mineralization of organic nitrogen.
5. Effect of Calcium Carbonate Addition
Sediments may contain various concentrations of calcium carbonate and it has
been reported that calcium carbonate has the ability to sorb phosphate. However, it
has been found that the phosphorus sorption capacity of lake sediments tended'to
be inversely related to calcium carbonate content. Since eroded soil materials may
contain significant amounts of calcium carbonate, it is desirable to study the ef-
fects of calcium carbonate on solubility in sediment-water systems.
The effects of adding calcium carbonate on the soluble nutrient levels in creek
water samples incubated for 12 weeks is given in table 7.22. The finding that addi-
tion of large amounts of calcium carbonate did not significantly decrease the ini-
tial levels of soluble inorganic phosphorus or soluble organic phosphorus in water
samples suggests that calcium carbonate does not sorb soluble phosphorus in
samples of Black Creek water. The levels of soluble inorganic phosphorus in-
creased with time in both calcium carbonate amended and unamended samples.
The soluble organic phosphorus concentration decreased with time in both
amended and unamended samples, but the rate of decrease was more rapid in cal-
cium carbonate amended samples. The total soluble phosphorus content of cal-
cium carbonate amended samples decreased during the first week of incubation
and then increased slowly during the remainder of the incubation period. The total
soluble phosphorus content of unamended samples increased for the first week of
incubation, decreased during the next two weeks, and then increased to a near con-
stant level for the remainder of the incubation period. During the 12 week incuba-
tion period, 3.75/igof phosphorus per sample were released to the solution phase of
116
-------
unamended samples, whereas in calcium carbonate unamended samples, 1.95^gof
phosphorus were removed from solution. The effect of calcium carbonate on the
total soluble phosphorus content of water samples was likely due to decreased de-
sorption of inorganic phosphorus from sediment or to decreased mineralization of
organic phosphorus in sediment in association with increased sorption of soluble
organic phosphorus by the sediment.
The soluble ammonium content of calcium carbonate amended samples in-
creased during the first week of incubation and then declined to a low level for the
remainder of the incubation period. The nitrate concentration increased with time
in both calcium carbonate amended and unamended samples. There was little ef-
fect of calcium carbonate addition on the apparent nitrification rate in samples.
The total soluble inorganic nitrogen content of unamended and calcium carbonate
samples increased at about the same rate during the first six weeks of incubation.
However after twelve weeks of incubation 216/tg nitrogen per sample had been re-
leased to the solution in unamended samples whereas 303/tg nitrogen were released
in calcium carbonate may promote long term mineralization of sediment organic
nitrogen.
Table 7.23 gives data on the effects of the initial inorganic phosphorus concen-
tration on the level of soluble phosphorus in creek water subjected to laboratory in-
cubation. Replacement of the liquid phase of the creek water samples with distilled
water markedly lowered the initial soluble inorganic phosphorus content and in-
creased the soluble organic phosphorus content of the samples relative to the un-
treated samples. Addition of inorganic phosphorus (34 or 84^ per sample)
markedly increased the soluble inorganic phosphorus content of water samples (91
percent and 63 percent of the added inorganic phosphorus remained in solution at
the low and high addition rates, respectively). Addition of 34/ig of inorganic phos-
phorus per sample decreased the level of soluble organic phosphorus, whereas ad-
dition of 84/tg phosphorus per sample increased the soluble organic phosphorus con-
centration. The soluble inorganic phosphorus content of samples whose liquid
phase was replaced by water increased with time up to three weeks of incubation
and then remained relatively constant for the remainder of the incubation period.
The soluble inorganic phosphorus content of samples amended with inorganic
phosphorus tended to remain relatively constant with time during incubation. The
soluble organic phosphorus content of most samples decreased rapidly during the
first three weeks of incubation and then decreased slowly thereafter. In samples
amended with 34/
-------
sediments or immobilized in microbial cells) was 11.4, 2.25, and 22.95^ of phos-
phorus per sample for samples with liquid phase replacement, amendment with 34
x/g of phosphorus, and amendment with 84//g of phosphorus, respectively.
The effects of the initial levels of soluble inorganic nitrogen on the concentra-
tions of ammonium and nitrate in creek water samples incubated for 12 weeks is
given in table 7.24. Replacement of the liquid phase of samples with distilled water
markedly reduced the initial concentrations of ammonium and nitrate in incu-
bated samples. Addition of ammonium nitrate (1500 or 6000^0 nitrogen per sample)
increased the initial concentration of both forms of inorganic nitrogen in solution
although from 12 to 24 percent of the added ammonium was apparently removed
from solution by cation exchange reactions with sediment. The ammonium con-
centration in samples having their liquid phase replaced with distilled water re-
mained low throughout 12 weeks of incubation. The ammonium concentration in
samples treated with ammonium nitrate remained constant for one week and then
decreased to very low values during the next two weeks of incubation. The nitrate
Table 7.23 The Effect of Inorganic P Addition on the Level of Soluble
Phosphorus in a Simulated Aquatic System
Treatment
Deionized HO
None
34 M gp added
84 ygP added
Incubation
time
(weeks)
0
1
' 3
6
12
0
1
3
6
12
0
1
3
6
12
0
1
3
6
12
Concentration of soluble
Inorg. P
Org. P
0.052
0.125
0.179
0.171
0 .157
0 .189
0 .220
0 .258
0 .309
0-314
0.396
0.404
0 .4l/
0-^01
0.433
0 .545
0 .466
0 .513
0 .551
0-544
0.181
0.083
0.009
0.005
0 .000
0..104
0 .090
0 .024
0 .018
0 .004
0 .055
0.040
0 .075
0 .008
0 .002
0 .159
0.174
0 .029
0 .014
0 .007
Change in concontrat ion
of total soluble P
during incubation
-.026
-.059
-.057
-.076
.017
-.013
.035
.025
-.050
-.013
-.041
-.015
-.064
-.162
-.139
-.153
*Entire liquid phase of sample replaced with deionized water.
above is not an amount but a concentration.
118
-------
Table 7.24 The Effect of Ammonium Nitrate Addition on the Concentra-
tion of Soluble N in a Simulated Aquatic System
Treatment
Deionized H Qf
t.
None
1500 ygN added
6000 ygN added
Incubation
time
(weeks)
0
1
3
6
12
0
1
3
6
12
0
1
3
6
12
0
1
3
6
12
Concentration of soluble
NH*"-N
4
NO~-N
Change in concentration
of soluble inorganic N
during incubation
0.26
0.21
0.14
0.20
0.17
0.54
1.15
0.21
0.22
0.10
4.36
4.34
0,19
0,22
0.32
18.12
18.92
0.22
0-24
0.22
i
0.28
0.11
0.80
0.93
0.80
2.88
2.97
4.36
4.84
4.77
7.14
7.88
13.33
13.34
13.22
21.64
22.89
43.06
43.20
42.95
_
-0.21
0.40
•0.58
0.44
_
. 0.72
1.17
1.66
1.64
_
0.71
2.00
2.05
2.03
_
2.14
3.60
3.86
3.50
*
Entire liquid phase of sample replaced with deionized water.
content of samples having their liquid phase replaced with distilled water tended to
increase slowly during the incubation period. The nitrate content of samples
amended with ammonium nitrate increased slowing during the first week of incu-
bation, then increased rapidly during the next two weeks, and then remained rela-
tively constant throughout the remainder of the incubation period.
The total soluble nitrogen content of samples whose liquid phase was replaced
with distilled water tended to increase slightly as a result of incubation indicating
that mineralization was slow in that system. The total soluble nitrogen content of
samples amended with ammonium nitrate increased significantly during the first
three weeks of incubation and then remained relatively constant for the remainder
of the 12 week period. The net amounts of inorganic nitrogen formed during 12
weeks of incubation were 66, 246, 305, 525^9 per sample for samples with liquid
phase replacement, no treatment, addition of 1500/tgnitrogen, and addition of 6000
14$nitrogen, respectively. The finding that less nitrogen is mineralized in samples
with liquid phase replacement as compared to untreated samples suggests that a
portion of the nitrogen mineralized is soluble organic nitrogen lost when the liquid
phase was removed. The finding that more nitrogen is mineralized in samples
119
-------
treated with ammonium nitrate than in untreated samples suggests that a "prim-
ing effect" of inorganic nitrogen on mineralization may be significant in aquatic
systems.
From the data collected during the incubation of the stream samples under the
various environmental conditions, it can be concluded that there are both long-
term and short-term transformations occurring which influence the amounts and
forms of nitrogen and phosphorus found in the solution phase.
Short-term transformations appear to be sorption or desorptiori of both organic
and inorganic phosphorus and possibly the release of sorbed phosphorus from soil
minerals and dissolution of phosphorus occluded in iron and aluminum. The short-
term transformations influencing the nitrogen and organic phosphorus contents
of water are much more dependent upon the factors affecting microbial growth
since transformations are largely carried out by microorganisms. Microbiological
transformations may occur in very short periods of time if conditions are favorable
for organisms or long periods when conditions are unfavorable. The short-term
processes involving inorganic phosphorus transformations are more physio-
chemical in nature and therefore not so dependent on environmental factors.
The long-term processes involved in nitrogen and phosphorus transformations
in water systems are likely to be the mineralization of organic nitrogen and phos-
phorus components in solution and in the sediment. Based on data obtained in this
study, mineralization processes appear to be major long-term process leading to
higher soluble nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in incubated samples.
The soluble inorganic phosphorus concentration in most samples increased
slowly with time during the incubation period. It appears this increase in soluble
inorganic phosphorus was due mainly to the mineralization of soluble and sedi-
ment organic phosphorus. During the mineralization process the sorption-desorp-
tion process controls the equilibrium obtained between the sediment and solution.
In aquatic systems amended with calcium carbonate the concentration of total
soluble phosphorus remained relatively constant indicating that calcium car-
bonate may decrease mineralization of sediment organic phosphorus. Increased
content of dissolved oxygen and shaking of samples increased the concentration of
soluble inorganic phosphorus and decreased the concentration of organic phos-
phorus. The overall effect was an increase in total soluble phosphorus during the
incubation.
Addition of inorganic phosphorus to samples released organic phosphorus into
solution most likely by replacement of organic phosphorus compounds sorbed on
soil colloid surfaces by added inorganic phosphorus. The total soluble phosphorus
content of samples treated with inorganic phosphorus decreased during the 12-
week period indicating that soluble organic phosphorus was sorbed by the sedi-
ments. The samples in which the solution was replaced by deionized water were un-
able to attain the original concentration of inorganic phosphorus by desorption
processes and part of the soluble organic phosphorus present in the liquid phase
was sorbed by the sediment.
A 33°C incubation temperature increased the rate of mineralization of phos-
phorus and increased the final total soluble phosphorus concentration by a signifi-
cant amount. A 5°C incubation temperature decreased the rate of mineralization of
organic phosphorus.
The treatments applied which would increase microbial growth also enhanced
the mineralization of nitrogen and as a final result the concentration of nitrate-ni-
120
-------
trogen in solution increased. Aeration, calcium carbonate amendment, increased
temperature and the addition of ammonium nitrate all had positive effects on the
mineralization of nitrogen and the final total soluble inorganic nitrogen concen-
tration. Low temperature seemed to have the greatest negative effect on the con-
centration of soluble inorganic nitrogen, but there were still increases in the solu-
tion concentration over the 12 week incubation period.
6. Sediment Delivery Analysis on the Maumee River
The various dynamic responses of the Maumee River and its many tributaries to
rainfall, temperature changes, seasonal changes, etc. are of great importance in
trying to understand the process of sediment production and delivery in the Mau-
mee River basin. These relationships are basic to the modeling problem.
The data analyzed in this report were collected by the United States Geological
Survey at its gaging station at Waterville, Ohio and by the United States Environ-
mental Data Service at its stations in Fort Wayne, Indiana (Baer Field); Defiance,
Ohio; and Toledo, Ohio (Blade station). The period of time covered in this initial
study was from October, 1961, to October, 1971 (ten complete water years).
The USGS data used were daily average values for flow, sediment concentra-
tion, and sediment load. This data was then converted into plotable files with Octo-
ber 1 of each year as day 1 of that water year.
The USEDS data were compiled on a daily basis and weighted to give a daily,
basin-wide average value. The weighting factors were based on the percentage of
basin area represented by each station. Hence, Fort Wayne's factor was 0.30, Defi-
ance's factor was 0.45, and Toledo's factor was 0.25. Soil temperature data were
compiled from USEDS data for Lafayette, Indiana (4 inches deep-under grass),
since Lafayette was nearly at the same latitude.
The data were plotted in order to observe the times-of-peak and other occurrences
and to see how the parameters of rainfall, soil temperature, and flow magnitude af-
fect the sediment carrying characteristics of the river. The plots were broken into
four-month periods for ease in interpretation.
A qualitative and quantitative analysis was made on the ten years of data on the
relationships between the various parameters. It was immediately evident that the
months of December through May were responsible for practically all of the sedi-
ment delivered. Thus, the analyses were pointed toward this time period.
From historical data, the annual long term sediment yield from the Maumee
River into Lake Erie is approximately 2,000,000 tons (1,800,000 metric tons) or, in
terms of the basin area, about 936 Ibs/ac (105 kg/ha. The annual long term precipi-
tation over the Maumee River Basin is around 33 inches (840 mm). Of that amount,
less than one-third or around 9.4 inches (240 mm) is runoff into Lake Erie.
The annual precipitation for the Maumee River Basin and the annual sediment
yield and discharge from the Maumee River into Lake Erie for a ten-year period, Oc-
tober, 1961, to October, 1971, are presented in table 7.25. According to table 7.25, the
average annual values for precipitation and discharge for the ten-year period were
32 inches and 9 inches (808 mm and 230 mm), respectively, which were a little below
the long term values. The average annual sediment yield in terms of the basin area,
however, was only 441 Ibs/ac (495 kg/ha) which was about one-half the normally
accepted value of 937 Ibs/ac (1050 kg/ha). Since the accepted value was even ex-
ceeded in any of the ten years and really only approached once with a value of 882
121
-------
Ibs/ac (989 kg/ha) in 1967-68, the normally accepted value of 937 Ibs/ac (1050
kg/ha) is probably high. While the average annual sediment yield was based only
on measurements of the suspended sediment load, it is highly improbable that bed
load could account for differences of this magnitude.
The annual precipitation for the 10-year period seems to be part of some cyclical
pattern. Less than normal precipitation occurred from 1961 to 1966 and above nor-
mal precipitation from 1967 to 1971. The years with the highest precipitation had
the highest runoff and also the highest percentage of precipitation occurring as
runoff. As a consequence, the average annual sediment yield for the last five years
was 593 Ibs/ac (665 kg/ha), more than twice the 289 Ibs/ac (324 kg/ha) yield for the
first five years.
The plots of flow, sediment concentration, sediment load, soil temperature, and
precipitation versus time are presented in figures 7.22 to 7.51. A quantitative analy-
sis of the average monthly values of discharge and sediment yield was conducted to
ascertain the peak values and months of greatest activity. The results are shown in
figure 7.52. Figure 7.52 (a) shows the numerical values of the average monthly dis-
charges and sediment yields. Figure 7.52 (b) indicates the percentage, by month, of
the average yearly flow and sediment yield for each of the ten water years.
Winter-type precipitation events, being frontal in nature, are much more wide-
spread in coverage than the normal convective summer-type storms. This coupled
with the fact of freeze-thaw and snow melt during precipitation events leads one to
the conclusion that the late winter and early spring storms have a greater capabil-
ity for production and transport of sediment. As can be seen in figure 7.52, the six-
month period, June through November, only had 16 percent of the total flow and H
percent of the sediment yield for the ten-year period. On the other hand, the six-
month period, December through May, had 84 percent and 92 percent of the total
flow and sediment yield, respectively.
122
-------
Table 7.25 Average Annual Precipitation for the Maumee River Basin
and Annual Sediment Yield and Discharge from the Maumee River for a
10-year Period, October, 1961, to October, 1972
Water
Year
1970-71
1969-70
1968-69
1967-68
1966-67
1965-66
1964-65
1963-64
1962-63
1961-62
Precipitation3
(nun)
739
898
938
980
835
807
826
716
656
683
Discharge
(mm over basin)
198
267
320
345
348
181
196
150
109
186
Ratio of discharge
& precipiation (%)
27
30
34
35
42
22
24
21
17
27
Sediment
Yield
(kg/ha)
304
609
662
080
763
202
516
427
159
323
Average 808 230 28 495
aAverage of three locations: Fort Wayne, Defiance and Toledo.
123
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from October, 1961, to January, 1962
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1961 )
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from February, 1962, to May, 1962
234
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from October, 1963, to January, 1964
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224
1963)
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Figure 7.29 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from February, 1964, to May, 1964
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Figure 7.33 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from June, 1965, to September, 1965
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JflNUflRY
1966
Figure 7.34 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from October, 1965, to January, 1966
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from February, 1966, to May, 1966
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from June, 1966, to September, 1966
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Figure 7.37 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from October, 1966, to January, 1967
111
121
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JULIflN DflTE FOR UflTER YEflR OF 1966 (BEGINNING OCTOBER 1,
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244
Figure 7.38 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from February, 1967, to May, 1967
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Figure 7.39 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from June, 1967, to September, 1967
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to
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JULIflN DRTE FOR WflTER YEflR OF 1967 (BEGINNING OCTOBER 1, 1967)
Figure 7.40 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from October, 1967, to January, 1968
-------
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JULIflN DflTE FOR WflTER YEflR OF 1967 (BEGINNING OCTOBER 1. 1967J
Figure 7.41 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from February, 1968, to May, 1968
O3
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OCTOBER
1968
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NOVEMBER
1968
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DECEMBER
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JULIRN DflTE FOR WflTER YEflR OF 1968 (BEGINNING OCTOBER 1, 1968)
121
Figure 7.43 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from October, 1968, to January, 1969
.01
-------
*».
05
124 1;,-, ,,, lo, ,M 174 184 lg4 204 2-j-4 •„ .
JULIflN DRTE FOR WRTER YEHR OF 1968 (BEGINNING OCTOBER 1. 1968)
Figure 7.44 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from February, 1969, to May, 1969
-------
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JULIflN DflTE FOR URTER YEflR OF 1969 (BEGINNING OCTOBER 1, 1969)
234
244
Figure 7.47 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from February, 1970, to May, 1970
CO
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364
Figure 7.48 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from June, 1970, to September, 1970
-------
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OCTOBER
1970
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NOVEMBER
1970
DECEMBER
1970
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JRNURRY
1971
11 21 31 41 '51 61 '71 81 91 101
JULIflN DRTE FOR URTER YEflR OF 1970 (BEGINNING OCTOBER 1, 1970)
111
=W
121
Figure 7.49 Sediment Load and Related Parameters for the Maumee River
from October, 1970, to January, 1971
-------
en
bo
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ONDJFMAMJJAS "ONDJFMAMJJAS
(a) Average monthly discharge (left) and sediment yield (right)
cr
<
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cr
LU
i
71
70
69
68
67
66
65
64
63
62
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ONDJFMAMJJAS
71
70
S 69
See
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a: 66
LU 65
< 64
5 63
62
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8
1
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1
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41
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13
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6
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30
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8
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7
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54
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—
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-
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-
ONDJFMAMJ JAS
(b) Monthly percentage of yearly discharge (left) and sediment yield (right)
Figure 7.52 Average Monthly Discharge and Sediment Yield for the
Maumee River (a) and Monthly Percentage of Yearly Discharge and Sedi-
ment Yield (b) for a Ten-Year Period, October, 1961, to October, 1971
154
-------
Leadership Important to
Acceptance of Conservation
SECTION 8
An Assessment
of Attitudes and
Agricultural
Practices
Among Land-
owners of Black
Creek.
By
Ralph M. Brooks
David L. Taylor
During the past year, the sociological studies section of the Black Creek Project
has devoted most of its energies to the analysis of data obtained in the initial inter-
view among landowners. Herein reported are examples of three different sub-proj-
ects that contribute to a better understanding of local people and how they perceive
their pollution problems. Rather than present them as three separate papers, they
appear as one paper with three separate parts.
First, attitudes of both Amish and non-Amish landowners are compared in an at-
tempt to better understand how local people perceive pollution control and their
willingness to participate in abatement programs. Comparing Amish and non-
Amish attitudes is much like comparing apples and oranges. Both groups need to
be understood in their cultural context. This is particularly true for the Amish.
Other documents are being prepared to do this and will be made available in the
near future.
Second, is an explanation of the leadership structure among the non-Amish land-
owners. Assumptions are made of the role leaders can play with respect to the dif-
fusion of agricultural technology among the non-leaders. Third, preliminary
examination of the types of fertilizers used by both Amish and non-Amish give in-
dication to what landowners are applying to the land. This analysis is considered
desirable as an aid to further the understanding of nutrients observed from data
gathered in the water runoff studies. There is also an attempt to provide meaning-
ful data on the level of nitrogen applied to the soil for each of the sub-watersheds
within the 12,000-acre Black Creek area.
155
-------
1. ATTITUDES TOWARD POLLUTION CONTROL
Part I of this report is an attempt to present attitudinal data obtained in the ini-
tial interview. In all, the farmers' responses to 17 separate questions are presented
These questions fall into three main categories: (1) attitudes regarding soil conser-
vation, pollution and pollution control, (2) costs of preventative measures and ap-
propriate action and (3) attitudes toward pollution control programs and specifi-
cally the Black Creek Project.
A. Attitudes Toward Soil Conservation
One of our interests was to assess the extent of agreement between Amish and
non-Amish concerning conservation of soil and pollution of the streams The far-
mers in the study were asked to agree or disagree with two general statements
about pollution and conservation problems in the Black Creek Watershed First
they were asked, Conservation of soil is not a real problem in this area "A person
agreeing with this statement, would indicate that there is no problem, as far as he is
concerned, with conservation of soil in the area. A disagreement with this
statement, however, would suggest that there are problems in the area concerning
conservation of soil and that in the farmer's opinion, there might be a need for some
type of program.
Table 8.1 shows about half of both the Amish and non-Amish believe that con-
servation of soil is not a real problem in their area. This suggests a relatively high
lack of awareness of the extent of the erosion problems in the Black Creek Water-
shed. Yet, in these farmers' minds, it is not a real problem. It is also notable that a
higher percentage of the non-Amish, than of the Amish, believe there is such a
problem (49 percent and 31 percent, respectively) with a larger percentage of the
Amish remaining undecided on the issue (22 percent). Future analysis will look at
the demographic characteristics of the Amish and non-Amish who have agreed
Table 8.1 Conservation of soil is not a real problem in this area.
Response
Agree
DK
Disagree
Total
Amish
N
15
7
10
32
%
46.9
21.9
31.2
100.0
Non-Amish
N
26
3
28
57
%
45.6
5.3
49.1
100.0
156
-------
that conservation of soil is not a real problem in the area. Perhaps we can learn
from a comparison between these two groups on their social characteristics what
might be a contributing factor to the attitude that they hold.
The second related statement, concerns the pollution of streams. Farmers were
presented a question, "Pollution of streams is a major problem in this county." In
table 8.2, we see a greater Amish- non-Amish difference with only 19 percent of the
Amish seeing this as a problem and more than half (53 percent) of the non-Amish
believing this to be true.
It is interesting to note that approximately 44 percent of the Amish "Do not
know" whether or not pollution of streams is a major problem in the county. This
attitude could be a result of the isolation and lack of mobility by these people. For
example, traveling throughout the area by horse and buggy limits the distances
which people are willing to travel. Furthermore, they are not as likely to take a Sun-
day afternoon drive through the country as some of the non-Amish farmers might
do. During our interviewing, we found that many of the Amish farmers had never
been to the Maumee River, and some of them had not been to the Black Creek for
many months. Therefore, they actually did not know whether or not pollution of the
streams was a problem. There is also some evidence that suggests the definition of
pollution is difficult for the Amish to handle, as well as the non-Amish.
A third question, somewhat related to the first two, dealt with sewage disposal.
Farmers were asked, "In your opinion, how adequate is sewage disposal in this
area?" In table 8.3, the responses show that while less than half of both the Amish
and non-Amish see their system as inadequate, most do not believe that it is ade-
quate either. About one-third of the non-Amish are satisfied with the present sys-
tem, but only 13 percent of the Amish are satisfied. Of course this question refers to
the watershed area and not just individual household waste. The Amish have pit-
toilets compared to inside plumbing for non-Amish. Often we got the response,
"Well I know in some places around Harlan it sure smells."
Table 8.2 Pollution of streams is a major problem in this county.
Response
Agree
DK
Disagree
Total
Amish
N
6
14
12
27
n,
o
18.8
43.8
37.4
100.0
Non-Amish
N
30
11
16
57
%
52.6
19.3
28.1
100.0
157
-------
Table 8.3 In your opinion, how adequate is sewage disposal in this area
(referring to the Basin)?
Response
Completed Adequate
Adequate
Inadequate
Completely Inadequate
DK
N/R
Total
Amish
N
-
4
11
3
12
2
32
%
—
12.5
34.4
9.4
37.5
6.3
100.0
Non-Ami sh
N
1
20
25
3
6
2
57
%
1.8
35.1
43.9
5.3
10.5
3.6
100.0
Again, the size of the "Do not know" category for the Amish points out an ex-
treme lack of information on their part. At any rate, were the farmers to have
greater knowledge of the extent of the local pollution problem, the inadequate cate-
gories could be expected to increase proportionately.
When asked about the effectiveness of pollution controls in the area, the Amish
feel that they do not have enough information to respond. The non-Amish, on the
other hand, are evenly divided between positive and negative evaluations of the
present system. We asked farmers "How effective do you think that pollution con-
trol is for the Black Creek now?" In table 8.4,, however, only 12 percent of the non-
Amish rated pollution control as good. Although the majority rated it as fair, never-
theless, even among the non-Amish they apparently believe that there are prob-
lems with pollution control in the Black Creek.
With regard to the specific causes of the area's pollution problems, the non-
Amish farmers were presented with the following statement, "Which of the follow-
ing sources do you think contributes most to pollution in the Black Creek? Please
rank them 1,2, and 3." We presented the list of seven sources and asked the farmers
to rank them. In table 8.5 are listed the 1st, 2nd and 3rd responses. The Amish were
asked open ended questions and their data do not appear in table 8.5. As indicated
in table 9.5,20 percent of the farmers rated sewage as the number one source of pol-
lution in the Black Creek. The second source was a tie between rubbish and trash
and silt. In the second ranking of problems, again sewage came up as 18 percent of
the total response with rubbish and trash ranking second and kitchen and laundry
waste ranking third (10 percent). Not until the third choice did silt (16.9 percent)
158
-------
come up as a major contributor to pollution in the Black Creek. These findings
again indicate that many of the farmers are not completely aware of the extent of
the erosion problem in the area, especially the contribution that silt can make to
pollution in the Black Creek.
Table 8.4 How effective do you think that pollution control is for the Black
Creek now?
Response
Good
Fair
Poor
Very Poor
Isn't Any
DK
N/R
Total
Amish
N
3
2
10
0
0
15
2
32
%
9.4
6.2
31.3
0.0
0.0
46.9
6.2
100.0
Non-Amish
N
7
23
14
4
2
7
0
57
%
12.3
40.0
24.6
7.0
3.5
12.2
0.0
100.0
B. Cost of Prevention Measures
The second main area of attitudinal data concerns the cost of pollution control
and related activities. In order for much of the work to be accomplished, obviously
someone has to pay for it. The question is who should pay and to what extent.
At a very general level, farmers were asked, "Would you agree or disagree that
spending money for soil and water development is a good investment?" As demon-
strated in table 8.6, the Amish and the non-Amish were overwhelmingly in favor of
this idea, demonstrating a favorable sentiment to the development of pollution con-
trol procedures. However, the data from this question do not indicate whose money
the farmers are interested in spending.
When asked, "The cost of soil erosion reducing practices should be borne entirely
by those whose land is effected," as indicated in table 8.7, most farmers are not in-
terested in spending their own money for such procedures. The majority of both
Amish and non-Amish feel that both sources should share at least part of the
159
-------
Table 8.5 Which of the following sources do you think contributes most to
pollution in the Black Creek? Please rank them 1, 2, and 3*
Source
Silt
Farm and
animal waste
Kitchen and
laundry waste
Farm run-off of
fertilizer and
pesticides
Rubbish and trash
Sewage
Wastes for
commercial and
industry
DK
N/R
Total
1st
N
11
1
6
1
11
18
2
5
2
57
%
12.4
1.1
6.7
1.1
12.4
20.2
2.2
5.6
2.2
100.0
2nd
N
6
4
9
1
10
16
4
5
2
57
%
6.7
4.5
10.1
1.1
11.2
18.0
4.5
5.6
2.2
100.0
3rd
N
15
3
7
5
11
8
1
5
2
57
%
16.7
3.4
7.9
5.6
12.4
9.0
1.1
5.6
2.2
100.0
TOTAL
N
32
8
22
7
32
42
7
15
6
57
%
37.1
9.0
25.9
7.9
36.0
47.1
9.0
13.4
6.7
100.0
-------
Table 8.6 Would you agree or disagree that spending money for soil and
water development is a good investment?
Response
Agree
Disagree
DK
N/R
Total
Amish
N
26
0
5
1
32
%
81.3
0.0
15.6
3.1
100.0
Non -Amish
N
52
2
2
1
57
%
91.2
3.5
3.5
1.8
100.0
Table 8.7 The cost of soil erosion practices should be borne entirely by
those whose land is affected.
Response
Agree
DK
Disagree
Total
Amish
N
7
10
15
32
%
21.9
31.3
46.8
100.0
Non -Amish
N
18
6
33
57
%
31.6
10.5
57.9
100.0
161
-------
O5
to
Table 8.8 Who should pay for the efforts in this district to control pollu-
tion/ Indicate the percentage of payment by each group.*
Percentage
0-25
26-50
51-75
76-100
DK
N/R
Total
Federal
N
9
35
1
10
2
57
%
11.2
39.4
1 1
11.2
2.2
100.0
TYPE OF PAYMENT
State
N
24
21
10
2
57
%
26.9
23.6
^ ^
11.2
2.2
100.0
Local
N
22
19
1
3
10
2
57
%
24.7
21.3
1.1
3.3
11.2
2.2
100.0
-------
Table 8.9 If government assistance is given for pollution control, what
level of government should be the principle souaree of assistance for
households, farms and businesses or industries?*
Level of
Government
Federal
State
County
Town
City or Village
Unspecified Locale
DK
N/R
Total
Households
N
16
7
13
1
3
7
7
3
57
%
18.0
7.9
14.6
1.1
3.4
7.9
7.9
3.4
100.0
Farms
N
22
6
11
-
-
8
6
4
57
%
24.7
6.7
12.4
—
—
9.0
6.7
4.5
100.0
Business &
Industry
N
22
10
4
-
2
9
6
4
57
%
24.6
11.2
4.5
—
2.2
10.1
6.7
4.5
100.0
Ci
CO
-------
Table 8.10 Federal Taxation to Clean Up Our Water Wouldn't be Too Ex-
pensive to Consider (Amish Were Not Asked This Question)
Response
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
No Response
Total
Non-Ami sh
N
3
20
8
24
1
1
57
%
5.2
35.1
14.0
42.1
1.8
1.8
100.0
Table 8.11 Even Considering the High Cost of Pollution Control, All
Available Pollution Control Techniques Should be Applied (Amish Were
Not Asked This Question)
Response
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
No Response
Total
Non-Amish
N
2
24
10
20
0
1
57
%
3.5
42.1
17.5
35.1
0.0
1.8
100.0
164
-------
economic burden for instituting soil erosion reducing practices. There is still a sig-
nificant group responding "Do not know" to the question. Perhaps these indivi-
duals are not aware of the costs of reducing soil erosion and/or what constitutes
soil erosion. This attitude is demonstrated more clearly by two additional ques-
tions asked only of the non-Amish.
When asked, "Who should pay for the efforts to control pollution," farmers were
given three types of payment. They could select federal, state or local government.
Of course, the local category would include money from their own pockets. When
asked who should pay for pollution control, most farmers thought that the federal
government should pay the largest share, with 40 percent of the farmers saying
government should contribute one-fourth to one-half of the cost. In addition, less
money was expected from state and local sources (less than one-fourth of the cost,
see table 8.8).
When respondents were asked, "If government assistance is given for pollution
control, what level of government should be the principal source of assistance for
household, farms and businesses or industries?," again the federal level of govern-
ment came out on top. This would suggest a greater involvement of federal govern-
ment in local affairs. In table 8.9, the federal level of government came out on top at
18 percent for aid to households, 24 percent in aid to farms and 24 percent in aid to
business or industry. It is interesting to note that no other level of government ap-
proaches these percentages for households, farms or business or industry. In fact,
most of the other levels of government are only half of what is expected from the
federal level.
Furthermore, when the issue of federal taxation to pay for such programs was
raised, the non-Amish were almost evenly divided on the issue with nearly 40 per-
cent in favor and 44 percent opposed to the idea. In table 8.10 federal taxation was
raised as an issue to be considered for financing pollution control. This is interest-
ing because in view of tables 8.7 and 8.8, a large proportion of farmers inferred that
the federal government should be involved in the financing of pollution control.
This suggests that farmers almost want their cake and eat it too. If federal govern-
ment is to be more involved in financing of pollution control practices, the only way
money can come is probably through taxation.
However, even though some of the farmers may not be in favor of the more imme-
diate solutions, the desire to control pollution (even at high cost) is still evident as
demonstrated in table 8.11. Here respondents were asked to agree or disagree with
the statement concerning the application of all available pollution control tech-
niques even in spite of high costs. Approximately 45 percent of the non-Amish far-
mers either agreed or strongly agreed with applying pollution control techniques,
whereas 35 percent disagreed.
Although the farmers appeared to be generally in favor of the idea of pollution
control, nevertheless, they sometimes balk at the immediate sounding solutions
which have been proposed. Obviously a great educational effort on the part of those
involved in the project will be necessary to overcome some of these objections.
C. Pollution Control Programs and
the Black Creek Project
Many of the tables discussed thus far, refer to pollution control in general. Not all
of them refer to the Black Creek Project. Therefore, a number of different questions
165
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were presented to both the Amish and non-Amish farmers giving them an oppor-
tunity to express their opinions about the Black Creek Project. These start with
table 8.12 where the question, "The average landowner stands to lose more than he
would gain by soil and water development programs" was asked. Both the Amish
and the non-Amish demonstrated support by disagreeing with this statement.
Fifty-three percent of the Amish and 65 percent of the non-Amish disagreed which
indicates they personally felt they would gain more than they would lose by soil
and water development programs.
More specifically, in table 8.13, we asked whether or not non-Amish farmers
would benefit from the demonstration project. Seventy-five percent of them agreed,
indicating they felt it would be of benefit to residents in the area.
Of particular concern to project personnel was whether or not local farmers
would feel too much pressure had been placed upon them to participate in this con-
servation project. Therefore, as table 8.14 indicates, they were asked, "Would you
agree or disagree that the watershed program is being pushed too hard." Very few
of the Amish and the non-Amish farmers agreed with the statement. A majority, in
both cases, indicated that the program was not being pushed too hard in their
opinion. It might also be pointed out that when these interviews took place, it was
at the early development of the project in the area. Therefore, most of the local far-
mers did not have an opportunity to come in direct contact with project personnel,
although some had. In a year or two, it should be interesting to find what kind of
changes exist in Amish and non-Amish attitudes concerning the manner in which
the watershed program was presented.
Not all of the questions presented in this section of the report were given to both
Amish and non-Amish. In some instances, the question was inappropriate for the
Amish interview. An example of this is in table 8.15. To see if the farmers legiti-
mized the authority and respect of the decisions of project personnel the non-Amish
farmers were asked if they felt project decisions should be made by professionals.
The results show that 68 percent of the farmers agreed to having professionals in-
volved in making major decisions regarding the demonstration project. This would
also appear to indicate the farmers' respect for these decisions and respect for the
people involved. The Amish, on the other hand, probably are unaware of the kinds
of professionals and the technical training they may have in dealing with water
and soil management.
As a final check on the local farmers' attitudes toward government involvement
in conservation programs, we asked the question reported in table 8.16. Again, we
were interested in knowing to what extent the federal government should play a
role in soil conservation programs in this county. Nearly two-thirds of both groups
gave a positive response to this statement. Finally, local farmers were asked
"Which do you think is a better way to get people to cooperate in helping to protect
the water quality in the Black Creek; by education, financial incentives or by laws
and controls?" In table 8.17, both the Amish and the non-Amish selected educa-
tional methods as perhaps the best way to get people involved in protecting water
quality in the Black Creek. Oftentimes, the Amish would respond in this manner:
"If you have laws and control, that indicates stronger government intervention. If
you have financial incentives, that's getting something for nothing. So, the best
way would be through education because that would be enduring over time."
It must be said that these attributes are preliminary attitudes that Amish and
166
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non-Amish held prior to extensive involvement in watershed activities by project
personnel. Although there had been some periods where it was doubtful whether or
not some of the Amish would participate in the project, we believe that the amount
of success thus far has been extremely favorable. In spite of the cultural differ-
ences found in the Amish community, plus the added language barrier, project per-
sonnel have been able to involve many Amish in various individual, as well as
joint, farm efforts.
Table 8.12 The Average Land Owner Stands to Lose More Than He Will
Gain by Soil and Water Development Programs
Response
Agree
DK
Disagree
— »
Total
Amish
N
1
14
17
32
%
3.1
43.8
53.1
100.0
Non-Amish
N
7
13
37
57
%
12.3
22.8
64.9
100.0
Table 8.13 Almost Everyone in the Area Will Be Benefitted From This
Demonstration Project (Amish Were Not Asked This Question)
Response
Agree
DK
Disagree
Total
Non-Amish
N
43
2
12
47
%
75.4
3.5
21.1
100.0
167
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Table 8.14 Would You Agree or Disagree That the Watershed Program is
Being Pushed too Hard
Response
Agree
DK
Disagree
No Response
Total
Amish
N
3
10
18
1
32
%
9.4
31.3
56.2
3.1
100.0
Won -Amish
N
6
6
44
1
57
%
10.5
10.5
77.2
1.8
100.0
Table 8.15 Most of the Major Decisions in the Demonstration Project
Should be Made by People with Professional and Technical Training in
Water and Soil Management (Amish were not asked this question)
Response
Agree
DK
Disagree
Total
Non -Amish
N
39
6
12
57
%
68.4
10.5
21.1
100.0
168
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Table 8.16 The Federal Government should play an important role in soil
conservation programs in this county.
Response
Agree
DK
Disagree
Total
Amish
N
20
10
2
32
%
62.5
31.3
6.2
100.0
Non-Amish
N
36
6
15
57
%
63.2
10.5
26.3
100.0
Table 8.17 Which Do You Think is a Better Way to Get People to
Cooperate in Helping to Protect Water Quality in the Black Creek: by Edu-
cation, Financial Incentives, or by Laws and Controls
Response
Education
Financial Incentive
Laws and Controls
Other
DK
N/R
Total
Amish
N
13
4
1
2
11
1
32
%
40.6
12.5
3.1
6.3
34.4
3.1
100.0
Non-Amish
N
35
8
8
2
2
2
57
%
61.5
14.0
14.0
3.5
3.5
3.5
100.0
169
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2. Attitudes Toward Pollution Control Among
Leaders and Non-Leaders
In much of the sociological literature on adoption and diffusion of agricultural
technology, there is evidence suggesting that opinion leaders play a key role in how
rapidly information is disseminated. Therefore, locating the perceived leaders in
the watershed can be instrumental to the overall success of the project. The intro-
duction of agricultural technology to key opinion leaders throughout the water-
shed demonstrates the utilization of already existing social patterns. The impact of
this approach is expected to continue beyond the duration of the project.
The identification of opinion leaders among landowners in the agricultural com-
munity was made possible through information obtained from the questionnaire.
First, farmers were asked to name a local farmer whom they believed was gen-
erally "well respected for his agricultural practices." Second, they were asked to in-
dicate whether or not they had ever gone to that person for agricultural advice. In
this manner, we were not only able to ascertain the farmers' beliefs regarding
"knowledgeables" in the area, but in addition, to somehow measure their behavior
as a product of their beliefs. The responses to these two questions are presented in
figure 8.1, and represent the non-Amish community within the watershed.*
These same questions were also presented to approximately one-fourth of the Amish landowners. Their re-
sponse, however, was different than the non-Amish. Non-Amish responded readily to the questions. The Amish,
however, hesitated and even with intensive probing, would not provide a response. One of their beliefs is that pride
should be avoided. Hence, asking an Amishman to select another as a "knowledgeable farmer" would tend to
elevate one over the other. Besides, their livelihood is agricultural and "we are all supposed to be good farmers."
Therefore, the Amish did not respond to the questions, although there is evidence suggesting advice is sought from
parents and other relatives concerning agricultural operations on the farm.
The lines in figure 8.1 are meaningful. A thin line indicates the respondents'
choice of an opinion leader, but that the respondent did not go to him for advice. A
thicker arrow indicates that not only did the respondent believe this person to be
well respected, but also that he had gone to this landowner for advice. It should be
noted that in the sociogram, the size of the circles have been adjusted to be indica-
tive of which farmers were chosen by the most respondents, with the largest circles
being those persons chosen most often.
The two questions on which this figure is based, serve two different functions in
assessing the social relationships within the community. The first question, "Dis-
covering which farmers are well respected" is a measurement of the social struc-
ture of the community. Furthermore, it enables one to identify those persons who
hold the most influential and important positions in the community. The second
question allows the assessment of the closeness of the relationship between the re-
spondent and the person he chose. In summary, while the thickness of the arrows
indicate the interpersonal relationships, the position of the arrows indicate the so-
cial structure of the non-Amish farm community.
This information is important to the project because eight key farmers had been
identified to aid in the progress of the project. New ideas, as well as the introduc-
tion of conservation practices, can be presented to them in an effort to speed up the
process of participation in watershed activities. It is important to recognize the
existance of a social structure and operate within it. Although the Amish did not re-
spond to these questions of leader identification, nevertheless, they have a social
170
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7S-I5
Figure 8.1 Sociometric choice patterns of farmers: An illustration of opinion leader-
ship among the non-Amish in the Black Creek.
-------
structure in their community that must be recognized if any degree of success is to
be expected. The Bishop is a key figure in the Amish church district. Without his ap-
proval, little can be accomplished. With his approval, meetings can be scheduled
and cooperation anticipated. It is important to know and understand these two sys-
tems and how they affect working relationships among landowners.
To serve as a cross-check on the validity of the data displayed in the sociogram,
farmers were asked to select people to serve on a pollution control board. Each re-
spondent provided the names of three people he would like to see serve on such a
board, if one were developed in their area. These board members would hold posi-
tions of importance in the area exerting influence within the community relative to
decisions on pollution control. Furthermore, they would have contact with govern-
ment as representatives of the area farmers. We assume that when farmers gave
their three choices, they were looking for people they could trust, whose judgement
they could respect and in whom they were willing to feel confident.
A comparison was made between the group of eight farmers selected as opinion
leaders and the group generated in the question concerning the pollution control
board. Of the eight farmers selected in either the "Opinion" or the "Advise" ques-
tions, six were also most often selected as members of the pollution control board.
This further confirms our beliefs that the farmers selected as leaders in figure 8.1
are, in fact, considered to be respected and influential in the community.
A. Comparison of Leaders and Non-Leaders
It was expected, based on findings from previous studies, that the persons chosen
as leaders would differ from those not chosen (the non-leaders). They would be more
conscious of pollution, more interested in doing something about it and hence, more
favorable to the Black Creek Project and pollution control techniques. To test this
assumption, a number of comparisons were made between the leaders and the non-
leaders in four areas: (1) the farmers' perception of pollution as a problem, (2) the
farmers' use of pollution control practices on their land, (3) the role that farmers feel
government should play in pollution control and (4) the farmer's attitudes toward
the Black Creek Project. The balance of Part 2 will examine each of these four areas
in turn.
B. Perceiving Pollution as a Problem
The farmers were asked to agree or disagree with the statement that "The con-
servation of soil is not a real problem in the Black Creek area." As can be seen in
table 8.18, both the leaders and the non-leaders tended to be evenly split on this
issue. Since one of the first tasks of the Black Creek Project has been to make the
landowners aware that a problem exists, these results indicate that there is still
much work to be done when it comes to demonstrating to the farmers that a pollu-
tion problem does exist in their area. As of the present, we have not traced out the
relationships between the four leaders who agree and which of the nonleaders they
influence. Likewise, we have not done the same thing for those who disagree and
their patterns of influence. This is under consideration for a near future report.
To discover which sources contribute most to the pollution of the Black Creek, re-
spondents were given a list of seven common pollutants and asked to indicate three
which they felt were major contributors to pollution in their area. Table 8.19 shows
172
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Table 8.18 Conservation of Soil is not a Real Problem in This Area
Response
Agree
Disagree
DK
Total
Leader
N
4
4
0
8
%
50.0
50.0
0.0
100.0
Non-Leader
N
22
24
3
49
%
44.9
49.0
6.1
100.0
Table 8.19 Which Three of the Following Sources Do You Think Contri-
butes Most to Pollution in the Black Creek
Response
Silt
Farm and other
animal wastes
Kitchen and laundry
waste water
Farm runoff of fertilizer
and pesticides
Rubbish and trash
Sewage
Wastes from commercial
and industry
Total
Leader
N
6
0
2
0
0
0
0
8
%
75.0
0.0
25.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
Non-Leader
N
27
6
7
1
2
4
2
49
%
55.1
12.2
14.3
2.0
4.1
8.2
4.1
100.0
173
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that the single source most often picked was "Silt." Among 75 percent of the leaders
and a major portion of the non-leaders, silt was identified as a prime polluter. It is
interesting to note that in table 8.5, the selection of silt as a prime polluter was not
considered by the majority of the farmers in the watershed. As you recall, it was the
third choice by most of the farmers. However, among the leaders, as demonstrated
in table 8.19 silt came out on top. In addition, other sources receiving more than 10
percent of the non-leaders choices were "kitchen and laundry wastewater" and
"farms and other animal wastes."
For the second part of the question, respondents were asked which of the sources
of pollution that they named, was the single most important contributor to pollu-
tion in the area. In table 8.20, a variation of response can be identified. For in-
stance, among the leaders, half of them selected silt as the primary cause. The next
was sewage. Among the non-leaders, however, only 14 percent selected silt as the
primary cause with a greater percentage selecting sewage (33 percent) and rubbish
Table 8.20 Please Rank These Three Sources as the First, Second, and
Third Most Important Causes (This Table Only Presents Responses for
the Source Ranked First Most Important)
Response
Silt
Farm and other
animal wastes
Kitchen and laundry
waste water
Farm runoff of fertilize
and pesticides
Rubbish and trash
Sewage
Wastes from commercial
and industry
N/R
Total
Leader
N
4
0
1
r
0
1
2
0
0
8
%
50.0
0.0
12.5
0.0
12.5
25.0
0.0
0.0
100.0
Non-Leader
N
7
1
5
1
10
16
5
4
49
%
14.3
2.0
10.2
2.0
20.4
32.7
10.2
8.2
100.0
174
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Table 8.21 Do You Have a Conservation Plan with the Soil and Water
Conservation District Office
Response
Yes
NO
N/R
Total
Leader
N
5
3
0
8
%
62.5
37.5
0.0
100.0
Non-Leader
N
10
38
1
49
%
20.4
77.6
2.0
100.0
Table 8.22 Are You Interested in Developing Such a Plan (Table only Re-
fers to Those Who Don't Yet have a Plan)
Response
Yes
Mo
N/R
Total
Leader
N
2
1
0
3
%
66.7
33.3
0.0
100.0
Non-Leader
N
13
20
6
39
%
33.3
51.3
15.4
100.0
175
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Table 8.23 Even Considering the Costs, All Available Pollution Control
Techniques Should be Applied
Response
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
DK
Total
Leader
N
0
4
2
2
0
8
%
0.0
50.0
25.0
25.0
0.0
100.0
Non-Leader
N
2
20
8
18
1
49
%
4.1
40.8
16.3
36.7
2.0
100.0
Table 8.24 Trees are of Little Value in Keeping the Soil from Washing
Away
Response
Agree
Disagree
DK
Total
Leader
N
1
6
1
8
%
12.5
75.0
12.5
100.0
Non-Leader
N
8
39
2
49
%
16.3
79.6
4.1
100.0
176
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and trash (20 percent). This would indicate that leaders tend to have a more active
perception of the pollution problems in the Black Creek area than do the non-
leaders. If the patterns of influence and leadership are allowed to operate in the
area, we would expect to see some change in the perception of the non-leaders rank-
ing of causes of pollution in the near future.
An important measure of the farmers interest in pollution control and conserva-
tion is whether or not the farmer has developed a conservation plan for his land.
Table 8.21 indicates the percentage of leaders and non-leaders who have conserva-
tion plans for their farms. It can be seen that a much higher percentage of the
leaders have already developed such a plan than the non-leaders (62.5 percent and
20.4 percent, respectively).
Although a leader and non-leader may indicate they presently do not have a con-
servation plan, nevertheless, they may also have some interest in developing a
plan in the future. In table 8.22, those who responded "No" in table 8.21 are presen-
ted to see what percent of those who do not have a plan would be interested in es-
tablishing one. There is a significant increase in the percent indicating that they
would be interested in developing a plan. In summary, of the leaders, seven out of
eight either have a plan or have interest in developing a plan. Among the non-
leaders, on the other hand, 23 of 49 either have a plan or have interest in develop-
ing a plan.
Overall, these comparisons show that those persons picked as leaders tend to be
more aware of pollution in their area, are more aware of its source and demonstrate
greater interest in doing something about it. It will be interesting to see if this same
philosophy emerges in some of the non-leaders over the next two years.
C. Use of Pollution Control Practices
In order to assess the farmers' attitudes toward, and usage of, various pollution
control/conservation practices, a number of questions were presented to them
which asked for either an opinion or simply called for a statement of fact. The first
question the farmers were asked was whether they believed that "In spite of the
possibly higher costs, all pollution control techniques should be applied." Al-
though 50 percent of the farmers responded positively to this statement, the other
50 percent were evenly split between disagreeing and undecided. As table 8.23
shows, among non-leaders, the amount of agreement and disagreement was just
about equal, somewhere about 40 percent.
This generally favorable attitude was also exhibited with regard to specific pol-
lution control practices. For example, in table 8.24, farmers were asked whether
they agreed or disagreed with this statement, "Trees are of little value in keeping
the soil from washing away." Even though this statement is negatively worded, a
favorable response was still obtained from a great majority of both leaders and
non-leaders.
Another part of the questionnaire assessed whether or not the farmers were us-
ing 16 specific agricultural and soil conservation practices on their land. Overall,
the results showed little differences between the leaders and non-leaders for most of
the practices, although there were great differences in the percentages of farmers
who used the different practices. The range of variation was quite large — from 2
percent who used contour farming to about 95 percent who utilized tile drains. In
177
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general, the percentage of farmers (both leaders and non-leaders) using the conser-
vation practices was rather low. A t ypical example of this would be the responses to
the inquiry about grassed waterways or outlets presented in table 8.25. That only
about one-fourth to one-third of the respondents were currently using the practice
was typical of the general trend. In most cases, the majority of the respondents felt
that some of the practices were not applicable to their land. This would seem to in-
dicate a need for further analysis of the soil types relative to specific farms to see
which practices are most appropriate for the individual farmer's land. Such analy-
sis is currently under consideration.
D. The Role of Government in Pollution Control
It is difficult to ascertain exactly what role local people and the federal govern-
ment should play in pollution control. When presented with a statement attempt-
ing to assess the role government should play in soil conservation programs, a ma-
jority of the leaders and the non-leaders (63 percent in table 8.26) agreed that gov-
ernment should play an important role in such programs in the county. Although
the positive response to this question indicates that farmers believe government
should play an important role in such programs in the county. Although the posi-
tive response to this question indicates that farmers believe government should be
involved, nevertheless, it does not indicate the capacity of that role the govern-
ment should play. Even though farmers feel the government should play an impor-
tant role, it does not necessarily mean they feel the government should exercise
control over standards and practices. Indeed, when the farmers were asked their
opinion of public regulation of land use practices, the percentage favoring such an
idea, as presented in table 8.27, is noticeably lower for the non-leaders but higher
for the leaders. This may indicate that the farmers tend to make the distinction be-
tween "involvement" and "regulation" and that non-leaders are much more will-
ing to accept the former than the latter.
Another area of interest to both farmers and project personnel is the question of
who is going to pay for the proposed conservation programs. Therefore, farmers
were asked whether they believed that the farmer whose land was affected should
stand the entire cost of the improvements. As demonstrated in table 8.28, the ma-
jority of both leaders and non-leaders were definitely against this idea. Hence,
what landowners are saying is they feel the government should play an important
role in soil conservation in the area and there are some mixed feelings about public
regulation of land use practices in the area.
Since both leaders and non-leaders were of the opinion that government should
be involved in conservation programs, and that the local farmers should not stand
the entire cost, therefore, the question of federal taxation to pay for these improve-
ments was presented to the respondents in two separate questions. The farmers'
general attitude toward taxation was assessed through the statement, "Federal
taxation to clean up our water completely would not be too expensive to consider."
As demonstrated in table 8.29, the response of the leaders demonstrated a wide
range of opinion. Among the non-leaders, the response was about equal with 40 per-
cent agreeing and 45 percent disagreeing with the statement. It is uncertain what
kind of influence we can expect the leaders to provide for non-leaders given their
range of variability on this question. Therefore, with respect to financing of soil
and water conservation projects, we will have to resort to educational programs
178
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Table 8.25 Are You Currently Using Grassed Waterways or Outlets
Response
Yes
No, but have used it
Never used it
Doesn't apply to my land
N/R
Total
Leader
N
3
0
1
4
0
8
%
37.5
0.0
12.5
50.0
0.0
100.0
Non-Leader
N.
13
1
10
23
2
49
%
26.5
2.0
20.4
46.9
4.1
100.0
Table 8.26 The Federal Government Should Play an Important Role in
Soil Conservation Programs in This Country
Response
Agree
Disagree
DK
Total
Leader
N
5
2
1
8
%
62.5
25.0
12.5
100.0
Non-Leader
N
31
13
5
49
%
63.3
26.5
10.2
100.0
179
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Table 8.27 In Your Opinion Should There be Public Regulation of Land
Use Practices or Should This be Left to Individuals to Control
Response
Yes
No
DK
Total
Leader
N
7
1
0
8
%
87.5
12.5
0.0
100.0
Non-Leader
N
12
26
1
49
%
44.9
53.1
2.0
100.0
Table 8.28 The Cost of Soil Erosion Reducing Practices Should be Borne
Entirely by Those Whose Land is Affected
Response
Agree
Disagree
DK
Total
Leader
N
1
7
0
8
I
12.5
87.5
0.0
100.0
Non-Leader
N
17
26
6
49
%
34.7
53.1
12.2
100.0
180
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Table 8.29 Federal Taxation to Clean Up Our Water Completely Wouldn't
be too Expensive to Consider
Response
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
DK
Total
Leaders
N
1
2
2
2
1
0
8
%
12.5
25.0
25.0
25.0
12.5
0.0
100.0
Non-Leaders
N
2
18
6
22
0
1
49
%
4.1
36.7
12.2
44.9
0.0
2.0
100.0
Table 8.30 Do you Agree That There Should be a Special Environmental
Improvement Tax Added to Everyone's Income Tax Which would be Used
to Pay for Pollution Control Programs
Response
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
DK
Total
Leaders
N
2
1
2
2
1
0
8
%
25.0
12.5
25.0
25.0
12.5
0.0
100.0
Non-Leaders
N
1
11
3
27
6
1
49
%
2.0
22.4
6.1
55.1
12.2
2.0
100.0
181
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among the leaders in the area if we expect to use their influence at all.
In addition to assessing general reactions to the idea of federal taxation, the far-
mers were also asked what they thought about a specific "environmental improve-
ment tax" that would be added to their regular federal taxes. Overall, the reaction
of this idea was more negative than the concept of federal taxation. As is shown in
table 8.30, this was true especially among the non-leaders where 67 percent op-
posed the idea. Among the leaders, however, we find a similar pattern with as large
a percent agreeing with the statement as disagreeing. In general, the reaction of
the farmers to governmental intervention and regulation was fairly positive with
leaders being less opposed to regulations than the non-leaders.
E. Attitudes Toward the Black Creek Project
A major area of leader and non-leader differences discovered was with regard to
the Black Creek Project itself. One of the most noticeable areas of difference was
simply the familiarity of the farmers with the project. In table 8.31, the eight com-
munity leaders were much more familiar with the project than the non-leaders (88
percent and 57 percent, respectively). This would suggest that leaders tend to have
more awareness of and/or contact with agencies involved in pollution abatement
than do non-leaders. A favorable note here, is that less than six months into the
project, the majority of leaders and non-leaders knew something about the Black
Creek Project although work had only been initiated in one of two areas of the
watershed.
In addition to greater familiarity with the project, the leaders also had a great
amount of participation in the planning and implementing of the project in the first
phase. As table 8.32 demonstrates, seven of the eight leaders participated, whereas
15 (or 31 percent) of the non-leaders did so. This indicates that most of the leaders
have already been approached at one time or another by project personnel. How-
ever, since at the time of these contacts the amount of influence these people have
within the community was probably not known, it is likely that no special informa-
tion or consideration was given them. If this were done, it might help the project in
reaching some non-leader farmers who would otherwise be hesitant to work with
government agencies without being assured by one of their fellow farmers that the
project is a worthwhile effort.
The last area of major importance to the Black Creek Project is that of the far-
mers' attitudes toward and assessment of the project itself. As table 8.33 indicates,
the majority of both the leaders and the non-leaders feel that they have an oppor-
tunity to express their opinions in planning watershed programs. Although the
percentage of the leaders that felt this way was 100 percent nearly twice as high as
that for the non-leaders (53 percent).
This may suggest that leaders find the channels of communication through proj-
ect personnel more open to them than do the non-leaders. It also might suggest that
there is an opportunity of coming in contact with project personnel outside of nor-
mal Black Creek Project meetings. This points again to the greater contact, or pos-
sibly the greater interest in pollution control among the leaders.
The overall attitude of the farmers toward the project can be considered thus far
to be a positive attitude. This is more clearly demonstrated by the responses in table
8.34. Even considering the negative phrasing of the question, 88 percent of the
182
-------
Table 8.31 Are You Familiar with the Black Creek Demonstration Proj-
ect in This Country
Response
Yes
No
Total
Leader
N
7
1
8
%
87.5
12.5
100.0
Non-Leader
N
28
21
49
%
57.1
42.9
100.0
Table 8.32 Have You Participated in any Way in Planning or Implement-
ing the Black Creek Project
Response
Yes
No
N/R
Total
Leader
11
7
0
1
8
%
87.5
0.0
12.5
100.0
Non-Leader
N
15
14
20
49
%
30.6
28.6
40.0
100.0
183
-------
Table 8.33 Landowners Have Little Opportunity to Express Their Opin-
ions in Planning Watershed Projects
Response
Agree
Disagree
DK
Total
Leader
N
0
8
0
8
%
0.0
100.0
0.0
100.0
Non-Leader
N
13
26
10
49
' %
26.5
53.1
20.4
100.0
Table 8.34 The Average Landowners in This Country Stand to Lose More
Than He Will Gain by Soil and Water Development Programs
Response
Agree
Disagree
DK
Total
Leader
N
0
7
1
8
%
0.0
87.5
12.5
100.0
Non-Leader
N
7
30
12
49
%
14.3
61.2
24.5
100.0
184
-------
leaders and 61 percent of the non-leaders gave a favorable reaction to the project
and how local landowners can benefit by soil and water development programs.
This is encouraging because it is difficult at times to measure the benefits in the
short run that farmars can receive from some of the conservation practices that
have been introduced.
F. Conclusions
In the short run, project personnel will continue to work throughout the water-
shed according to a previous schedule developed on the basis of which areas are in
greatest need of conservation practices. This will be enhanced by releasing the
names of the individuals identified in the sociogram (see figure H.I) as key leaders
in the watershed to project personnel. Hopefully, as we continue to contact land-
owners with respect to conservation plans and practices, we can do so within the
existing social structure. Therefore, in the long run we can anticipate support for
project activities from key farmers through the already existing social patterns.
3. COMPARISON OF FERTILIZER APPLICATIONS BY
AMISH AND NON-AMISH
Although various water runoff studies and stream sampling are scheduled to
take place throughout the duration of the project, we felt it would be desirable to
have some kind of benchmark data base concerning what kind of fertilizer and how
much was applied to the land. Data obtained from landowners through the per-
sonal interview allowed us to ascertain the analysis and pounds per acre for crops.
The analysis provides a better understanding of the conditions across the water-
shed and also by sub-watershed. Furthermore, the project personnel are now able to
pinpoint excessive applications of fertilizer contributing to high values obtained in
water quality studies. In addition, the data can be used jointly with crop yield data
to help farmers realize crop potentials resulting from a better understanding of the
relationship between soil types, fertilizer applications and crop capabilities.
In this final part of the paper, we present several tables on the type of fertilizer ap-
plied to crops by farmers. The comparison between Amish and non-Amish is not
meant to be critical, rather, to point to differences in application and crop yields
across the watershed. Additional tables demonstrate the amount of nitrogen that is
applied to land and how this is concentrated across the six subwatersheds. Finally,
an integration of the three parts appears in a final comment section serving as a
summary.
A. Fertilizer Applications by Crops
Tables 8.35 through 8.39 list the fertilizer types applied to each of the crops (corn,
wheat, oats, soybeans and hay). The Amish, as might be expected, are heavy users
of animal manure as part of their fertilizer program. This usually consists of ma-
nure mixed with straw and/or sawdust. The mixture comes from stables as well as
milking parlors and confined feedlot operations. Although the Amish tend to
185
-------
Table 8.35 Fertilizer Types Applied to Corn
Type
5-20-20
6-24-24
8-32-16
10-10-10
12-12-12
14-14-14
15-15-15
16-16-16
17-17-17
Cornbuster
Manure
(5-5-10)
Total
Amish
2
-
4
1
17
-
2
-
-
-
2
28
Non-Amish
-
3
4
-
-
1
-
2
1
1
-
12
spread it as soon as possible, it may sit for a week or two, depending on field condi-
tions. Due to potential leaching problems, as well as variations in the content, the
analysis ascribed to manure on Amish farms is 5-5-10. Manure generated and
spread on non-Amish farms, however, has been assigned the analysis of 10-5-10 be-
cause of the different storage facilities.
An interesting observation is that in general, seldom do Amish and non-Amish
use the same fertilizers on each crop. In table 8.35, only one type (8-32-16) was used
by both Amish and non-Amish on corn. All other fertilizer types were used by sepa-
rate groups. About half of the Amish relied on 12-12-12. In table 8.36, the Amish ap-
plied only three types to their wheat crop, these were 8-32-16,12-12-12, and 15-15-15.
The non-Amish used none of these mixtures yet ranged from the lowest to the
highest in nitrogen application. From the oat crop, it is demonstrated in table 8.37,
that there was some commonality between the two groups with 12-12-12 and 15-15-
15. However, the Amish again relied most heavily on this mixture, whereas the
non-Amish used a variety of fertilizers. Table 8.38 is interesting because it demon-
strates the wide range of fertilizer being applied to soybeans — 6-24-24 being the
most common. The Amish do not grow soybeans due to harvesting difficulties for
186
-------
Table 8.36 Fertilizer Types Applied to Wheat
Type
6-12-12
6-20-28
6-24-24
G-26-26
8-32-16
12-12-12
14-14-14
15-15-15
16-16-16
Total
Amish
-
-
-
-
3
6
-
2
-
11
Non -Amish
1
1
2
1
-.
-
2
-
2
9
horse drawn equipment. Therefore, their column contains blanks. Finally, in table
8.39, we note that only 10 Amish report of applying some form of fertilizer to hay
land.
With respect to the findings in tables 8.35-8.39, the real question is why the differ-
ence? The interviews took place in the winter of 1973-74 at the beginning of the fer-
tilizer shortage. Therefore, the difference at that time could not be attributed to
supply. The Amish are concentrated more on the upper parts of the watershed and
therefore, are also located on different soil types than the non-Amish. Hence, part
of the difference may be explained by soil analysis and the needs of the soil for the
planned crop. From what we can ascertain, both Amish and non-Amish are sup-
plied by the same dealers in the area. The Amish, however, may rely more on what
has worked for them in the past, particularly this is true for their reliance on 12-12-
12 and ready-mixes. Yet, most of the fertilizers used by the non-Amish are also pre-
mixed. However, the non-Amish do not follow crop rotations as closely as the
Amish which could explain their greater variability on types. The Amish, on the
other hand, may feel that because of their continuous crop rotations, which in their
opinion helps the soil, plus their constant usage of manure, only requires them to
supplement their crops with a middle range analysis of chemical fertilizer.
Since our interview, fertilizer availability has seriously declined. In fact, during
our interviews, most of the Amish farmers reported they could only buy 10-10-10
and probably could not get the amount that they needed. The "supply question"
187
-------
Table 8.37 Fertilizer Types Applied to Oats
Type
6-24-24
8-32-16
10-5-5
10-10-10
12-12-12
14-14-14
15-15-15
16-16-16
19-19-19
Total
Amish
-
3
-
1
1 0
-
4
-
-
26
Non-Ami sh
3
-
1
-
3
T
1
8
2
20
probably resulted in the convergence of Amish and non-Amish using the same fer-
tilizer during this 1974-75 growing season with a lower analysis. Therefore, apply-
ing fertilizers in the future within the watershed may be a question of "What can I
get?" rather than "What do I want and need?" The water quality studies may ex-
perience erratic volumes of chemicals depending on the farmer's decision to apply
what he can get, whether that is high or low in nitrogen concentration.
B. Application of Nitrogen by Crops in Sub-watershed
Tables 8.40 and 8.41 contain data on rates of fertilizer application across the
watershed by crops and by Amish- non-Amish landowners. Crop yields are also in-
cluded. The Amish farmers that are shown in table 8.40 on the average, are apply-
ing 47.97 pounds of nitrogen per acre on their corn for grain. This resulted in an
average yield of 66 bushels per acre. The non-Amish, on the other hand, applied
114.69 pounds of nitrogen per acre on their corn for grain resulting in a yield of 74
bushels per acre (see table 8.41). In reviewing the yield per acre for both Amish and
non-Amish farmers, we find that although many of the non-Amish farmers experi-
enced high yields in the 125 bushel range; nevertheless, there were several report-
ing yields in the range of 20-25 bushels per acre. Among the Amish, we found many
of the corn yields in the 70-75 bushel/acre range. However, those reporting lower
yields were proportionately fewer for the Amish.
188
-------
Table 8.38 Fertilizer Types Applied to Soybeans
Type
0-0-60
3-9-27
4-10-10
4-16-27
4-17-25
4-17-28
4-23-18
4-24-12
5-20-10
6-12-12
6-24-24
6-26-26
6-28-10
6-16-32
6-32-16
12-12-12
Beanbuster
Total
Amish
N.A.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
Non -Amish
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
11
1
1
1
3
3
3
34
189
-------
Table 8.39 Fertilizer Types Applied to Hay
Type
0-32-8
6-24-24
15-15-15
Manure
Total
Amish
-
i
2
7
10
Non-Amish
1
-
-
1
In all crop categories, the Amish application of fertilizer is lower than the non-
Amish. On many of the crops, an increase in fertilizer for the Amish would make
harvest extremely difficult. They want greater crop yields, but are reluctant to
apply more fertilizer to get it. The Amish also rely heavily on manure for supple-
menting their fertilizer. Actually, it is just the reverse, the chemical fertilizer sup-
plements the manure. As can be seen, almost half of the total average pounds of
nitrogen per acre comes from manure. We did have two cases of Amish farmers ap-
plying 100 pounds of urea (45-0-0) to their crops.
The non-Amish have negligible amounts of manure contributing to their total.
The total pounds of nitrogen per acre on silage in table 8.41 is from one farmer. The
low figure may be due to misinterpretation of the question in the interview. The
amount of fertilizer applied to beans is also variable. One non-Amish farmer re-
ported applying 600 pounds of 8-12-16 per acre.
In terms of cropland, the non-Amish are applying larger amounts of fertilizers to
the land than area Amish farmers. The non-Amish account for 83 percent of the
cropland in the watershed, whereas the Amish apply virtually all of the manure
spread in the watershed and only account for 17 percent of the total cropland.
\ Tables 8.42 and 8.43 show the amounts of fertilizers being applied across the six
sub-watersheds for both Amish and non-Amish. It also indicates where we might
expect to find heavy concentrations of chemicals and manure residues in water
quality and runoff studies. Among the Amish, their concentration is heaviest in
sub-watersheds 1 and 3. The non-Amish dominate the amount of nitrogen per acre
in all sub-watersheds with the exception of sub-watershed-1.
Finally, we were interested in knowing when farmers generally applied their fer-
tilizer. In table 8.44, we see that the Amish reported applications mostly at plant-
ing with the next largest category being "Spring." Among the non-Amish, apply-
ing fertilizers in the fall was first followed by "Spring" and at planting.
Again, we want to emphasize that our comparison of Amish-non-Amish is not
meant to be critical of either group of farmers. They both represent different orien-
tations to agriculture and provide an excellent basis for assessing the impact of dif-
ferent agricultural technology to the data obtained in the water quality studies.
190
-------
Table 8.40 Total Pounds of Nitrogen and Total Pounds of Nitrogen per
Acre by Crop — for Amish
Crops
Corn
(grain)
Corn
(silage)
Soybeans
Oats
Wheat
Hay
Pasture
Total
Acres
in
Crop
587
140
-
467
149
628
689
2660
Yield
per
Acre
66.0
(bushels)
10.0
(tons)
-
60.69
(bushels)
23.55
(bushels)
2.02
(tons)
-
-
MANURE
Ibs
Of 13
8515.0
1000
-
-
-
10380.0
24500
44395.0
Ibs N/
acre
14.5
7.14
-
-
-
16.53
35.56
16.68
CHEMICAL
Ibs
of N
19647.90
2760.2
-
11480.50
4015.0
4677.0
1903.5
44484.1
Ibs N/
acre
33.45
19.72
-
24.58
26.95
7.45
2.76
16.72
TOTAL
Total Ibs
of W
28162.9
3760.2
-
11489.50
4015.0
15057.0
26403.5
88879.1
Total Ibs
N/acre
47.97
26.86
—
24.58
26.95
23.98
38.32
33.41
<£>
-------
CD
to
Table 8.41 Total Pounds of Nitrogen and Total Pounds of Nitrogen per
Acre by Crop — for non-Amish
Crops
Corn
(grain)
Corn
(silage)
Soybeans
Oats
Wheat
Hay
Pasture
Total
Acres
in
Crop
3709
100
4056
1382
475
66
220
10008
Yield
per
Acre
74.05
(bushels)
20
(tons)
28.78
(bushels)
62.68
(bushels)
29.83
(bushels)
6.16
(tons)
-
-
MANURE
Ibs ,
Of N
205
100
-
-
-
-
-
3-5
Ibs N/
acre
.06
1.0
-
-
-
-
-
.03
CHEMICAL
Ibs
of N
425178.37
3000.0
15759.6
43840.4
21002.4
-
-
508780.77
Ibs N/
acre
114.63
20.0
3.88
31.72
42.22
-
-
50.84
TOTAL
Total Ibs
of N
425383.37
3100.0
15759.6
42840.4
21002.4
-
-
509085.77
Total Ibs
N/acre
114.69
31.0
3.88
31.72
42.22
-
-
50.87
-------
Table 8.42 Application of Nitrogen and Total Pounds of Nitrogen per
Acre by Sub Watershed for Amish Farmers
Subwatershed
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
#6
Total
Acres
in SWS
1354
620
1170
2080
2194
4428
12038
MANURE
FERTILIZER
Ibs
Of N
22701.24
750.00
4311.70
3415.36
7436.02
6066.18
44680.5
Ibs N/
acre
16.77
1.21
3.69
1.64
3.39
1.37
3.71
CHEMICAL
FERTILIZER
Ibs
Of N
21982.16
192.00
10379.49
9787.83
7634.80
3145.29
53121.57
Ibs N/
acre
16.23
.31
8.87
4.71
3.48
.71
4.41
TOTAL FERTILIZER
APPLIED TO LAND
Ibs
Of N
44683.40
942.00
14691.19
13203.19
15070.82
9211.47
97802.07
Ibs N/
acre
33.00
1.52
12.56
6.35
6.87
2.08
8.12
co
-------
CD
Table 8.43 Application of Nitrogen and Total Pounds of Nitrogen per
Acre by Sub Watershed for non-Amish Farmers
Subwatershed
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
#6
Total
Acres
in SWS
1354
620
1179
2080
2194
4428
12038
MANURE
FERTILIZER
Ibs
of N
-
40.76
65.90
40.24
11.43
146.67
305.0
Ibs N/
acre
-
.07
.06
.02
.01
.03
.025
CHEMICAL
FERTILIZER
Ibs
of N
7498.75
29789.82
42741.05
301375.56
75469.11
181301.49
638175.78
Ibs N/
acre
5.54
48.05
36.53
144.89
34.40
40.94
53.01
TOTAL FERTILIZER
APPLIED TO LAND
Ibs
of N
7498.75
29830.58
42806.95
301415.80
75480.54
181448.16
638480.78
Ibs N/
acre
5.54
48.12
36.59
144.91
34.41
40.97
53.035
-------
Table 8.44 When Do You Apply Fertilizer
Season
Fall
Spring
Before Planting
At Planting
After Planting
N/R
Total
Amish
N
3
7
-
17
3
2
32
%
9.4
21.9
0.0
53.1
9.4
6.3
100.0
Non -Amish
N
23
14
2
12
2
4
57
%
40.4
24.6
3.5
21.1
3.5
7.0
100.0
4. SUMMARY
In reflecting on this last year's work, we find we are constantly learning how to
work more effectively with the Amish. Some difficulties have been experience for
various reasons. First, the Amish are suspicious of our methods and fear we are go-
ing to ask them to do something contrary to their beliefs. However, as we learn to
understand the Amish culture and how to operate within it, we can suggest alter-
native measures that will not cause them embarrassment. Second, some of the
changes we asked the Amish to undertake are really more drastic to them than
what we think. Moving or tearing down fences, rotating within a field rather than
between fields and raising the plow to cross grassed waterways, rather than
cutting through are hard for the Amishman to understand. Leaving field borders,
although conservationally speaking, it is very acceptable, the Amishman saysi
"That means cutting off four rows of corn on that field which is two loads of corn.
How will I make that back on the rest of the field?"
Third, the Amish have smaller parcels of land than do non-Amish (as a rule) and
therefore, we are more likely to have more group decisions when involving Amish
in conservation projects in the watershed. These group decisions take more time
and require more effort by project personnel. Fourth, their being bi-lingual with
German (and the project personnel not), creates some difficulties in knowing what
objections are really holding them back from participating. At times, we think we
have all the necessary ground-work laid for a decision when they begin conversing
in German. Whether they are for or against the project is difficult for the project
member to ascertain. If the Amishman is raising an objection, it is impossible for
195
-------
the project person to meet that objection when the Amishmen are conversing in
German. In spite of these potential problems, however, the cooperation thus far is
better than expected.
Some of these problems, although focusing most heavily on the Amish are also
found among the non-Amish. The difference is that we can more easily identify the
Amish as a group and refer to their culture as a contributing factor. Yet, when we
observe non-Amish farmers preparing their fields, we did not notice many fields
with field borders wider than a couple feet. Therefore, although we have not as yet
worked as extensively among the non-Amish, we should expect to find some of the
basic objections.
Education programs are being prepared for the Amish to bring them up to an
awareness that help is available on many farm related problems. Purdue Exten-
sion Specialists have participated in horticulture schools, and others are being de-
veloped in livestock management and production. Then, the Amish should be
ready for a series of meetings on the importance of soil conservation.
Finally, we sometimes do not realize the social significance behind some of the
changes introduced by the project. When a pond was put in behind the Graber farm,
it was intended for agricultural purposes (watering livestock) and some conserva-
tion of wildlife. It also was expected to be used for recreational purposes by the fam-
ily. We have observed, however, that during the summer months when the youth
are hot and tired from making hay, etc., that the pond serves as a community
gathering place. All the youth, not only in the watershed, but in surrounding
church districts come to the Graber pond to swim. In fact, it is not uncommon to
stand in the farmyard and watch the buggies come in loaded with the family and
innertubes, ready to swim. This provides an opportunity for other Amishmen to
visit with the Grabers and although it may not be stated, nevertheless, they all
know the pond was a result of the project. Therefore, the social activities support
the leadership structure among the Amish (Mr. Graber is one of their ministers)
and patterns of influence are expected to operate in the same manner among the
Amish as described in figure 8.1 in Part I on Leadership Among the Non-Amish.
196
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Local Administration of
Benefits Project Black Creek
Sediment Con-
trol Project
By
James Lake
Managing a project such as the Black Creek Project with the many disciplines
that are involved is a very complex and challenging opportunity. The project or-
ganization encompasses two federal agencies, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency and the U.S. Soil Conservation Service, one university, Purdue; several
state organizations, Department of Natural Resources, State Soil and-Water Con-
servation Committee, State Board of Accounts, and the Allen County Soil and
Water Conservation District which itself is a sub-unit of the state government. Also
involved in the project are several county offices including the County Surveyors
Office, County Highway Department, County Plan Commission and the County
Data Processing. Most importantly more than 200 private landowners of the Black
Creek watershed are involved. Therefore, communication is probably the most im-
portant factor in attempting to manage the activities of the Black Creek Study.
Figure 9.1 shows the organization of personnel involved in the project. As mana-
ger it is my responsibility to see to it that information flows smoothly between vari-
ous department and agency heads in order that everyone knows what is happen-
ing at all times. This is a very difficult task since there are so many small studies be-
ing conducted by individuals to help fulfill the large project objectives. In order to
maintain the necessary communication, monthly Steering Committee meetings
are held at the Project Office. At these monthly meetings all personnel involved in
the project are expected to attend and exchange information pertaining to project
activities.
One of the real handicaps in attempting to manage a study over five years is per-
sonnel changes by cooperating agencies. Several of the people involved in the pro-
197
-------
00
ORGANIZATION
of
PROJECT PERSONNEL
Environmental
Protection Agency
Carl D. Wilson
Allen County Soil and
Water Conservation District
1. James E. Lake
2. Ellis F. McFadden
3. (Roger E. Roeske)
scs
C. J. Gillman
Purdue
R. Z. Wheaton
Planning and
Application
Modeling and
Prediction
1. L.W. Kimberlin (B. Bollman) E.J. Monke
2. E.J. Pope (M. Ev
3 J C Branco (K
4. T.D. McCain
ans)
Pylo)
5. C.F. Poland
6. D.E. Brown (G. Woods) Socioloqical
7. S.W. Steury (G.
Carlile)
1. R.M. Brooks
2. (W. Miller)
1
Monitoring Laboratory
Analysis
Technical
1. R.E. Land
Experimental Rainulator Biology Ditch
Plots Studies Studies Banks
1. J.L. Hamelink
2. E.J. Monke
3. R.Z. Wheaton
4. (D. Beasley)
5. (D. Bottcher)
1. G.W. Nelson
2. L.E. Sommers
3. E. Hood
1. H.M. Galloway
2. (D. Griffith)
1. J.V. Mannering
2. B. Johnson
1. J.L. Haroelink
2. (J. Karr)
3. W.P. McCafferty
1. R.Wheaton
75-17
Figure 9.1 Organization of Project Personnel
-------
ject at its beginning are no longer with the project; therefore, several new names
appear in figure 9.1. Names of people who have left the project are underlined, and
the new personnel names are included in parentheses.
In general things have progressed quite well with this multi-disciplinary ap-
proach to demonstrating the affects of land use and land use activities on water
quality. This project is generating many firsts and this may very well be one of the
first times that so many agencies cooperated to attack a mutual problem and were
able to conduct their activities so smoothly. This can be attributed to the fact that
the project is being directed by the Soil Conservation District whose organizationl
structure allows it to be the hub through which all other agencies as well as private
landowners can conduct their business efficiently. The district is small in staff size
but it is large in the area of people it can work with. Because of its size the district
is able to conduct business with private landowners and with other agencies with-
out the bureaucratic red tape that is so often involved in government. This is a very
important factor in trying to conduct a study as complex as the Black Creek Study
over a five-year period. The efficiency of this project to date can be attributed to
district supervision.
1. FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
A. Overall Costs Versus Budget
The Black Creek Project was estimated to cost $2.5 million of which $1.8 million
would be received from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency with a 25 per-
cent match generated from local sources. As with everything else, costs have been
consistantly higher than was previously expected. However, we have managed to
conduct the study to date within the originally allocated budget as can be seen on
figure 9.2. Several internal transfers of money have been necessary, however, to do
so. For example, money may have been taken with permission from the project
officer, from supplies appropriation and placed in the equipment appropriation to
cover the higher than anticipated equipment costs. Money was also appropriated
based on a yearly estimate, it has been necessary at times to transfer money from
one year to another in order to cover expenditures. In looking closely at figure 9.2,
one can see that expenditures were not as high in the early stages of the project as
was expected. In order to revise the budget for 1974 and 1975, money was taken
from the appropriations for 1972 and 19715. The budget most seriously underesti-
mated was that of the district. As can be seen in figure 9.,'5, only $22,000 was appro-
priated for the entire district project costs. It was soon recognized that the staff
placed in the project office was not adequate to meet the demands of the project.
Personnel from the Soil Conservation Service were not adequate to handle the in-
creased number of landowner requests and engineering requirements generated
from this accelerated land treatment program. Rather than attempt to refinance
in order to place more Soil Conservation Service personnel in the project office it
was decided by the district board of supervisors to hire our own additional staff to
meet the demands. Therefore, money was transferred from the land treatment
portion of the project to the district budget in order that a district professional en-
gineer could be hired. This revised increase cost is reflected on figure 9.3. The dis-
trict felt that this was sound expenditure in that there would be no delays in getting
199
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the man placed in the project office and that there would be no future problems
such as transfers, and relocations. By hiring its own employee, the district felt it
would have more control of the operations at the project office level through the
duration of the project. As can be seen in figures 9.4 and 9.5, both Purdue and the
Soil Conservation Service were able to keep project expenditures within the origi-
nal appropriation. The only minor changes in the budgeting for these sub-contrac-
tors were a few transfers of money from the early years of the project to later years
in the project.
B. Land Treatment Goals Versus Accomplishments Ver-
sus Expenditures
The most important aspect of the entire Black Creek Project is the application of
practices on private land in order to monitor the affects of land treatment on water
quality. A total of $750,000 was committed to land treatment activities. These
funds were to be used as cost-share incentives to landowners for the installation of
needed conservation practices. This figure was not arrived at by accident. A team
from the Soil Conservation Service studied the entire Black Creek watershed area
during the development of the work plan and set up goals for each of 34 different
conservation practices identified as needed in the Black Creek area. These goals
were based on soil types and agricultural land uses, which existed in the watershed
at the beginning of the project. These goals were based on 100 percent accom-
plished land treatment over the entire watershed area. Unit average cost were es-
tablished for each practice, and a budget was set up for each practice based on the
goal and the unit cost. The total goal for land treatment times the unit cost for these
practices is approximately $1 million. Since it was decided it would cost $1 million
for total land treatment in the watershed area and the district determined that it
would like its average cost-share incentive to the landowners to be 75 percent of
total cost, a figure of $750,000 was placed in the budget for cost-sharing to private
landowners for land treatment. Figures 9.6 through 9.38 illustrate the goals by year,
the planned commitment for application, the total accomplished to date (bar
graph), and an original cost sharing funds appropriated by practice. In analyzing
these figures it is obvious that in most cases the goal is significatly higher than
committments or accomplishments. There are a few cases, (see grade stabilization
structures, figure 9.14, and stream channel stabilization, figure 9.28) where the ac-
complishments and expenditures exceed the original estimate. This is very grati-
fying. These two practices were installed at a faster rate than originally expected.
Other practices that have been applied at very high levels are conservation crop-
ping (figure 9.6), critical area planting (figure 9.10), field borders (figure 9.12),
grassed waterways (figure 9.13). Despite the accelerated application of theseprac-
tices, 100 percent of the goal has not been reached on any of them. This indicates
that either the goals were originally set too high or that there is more required to
obtain concentrated land treatment than providing technical assistance and cost
sharing assistance.
Several practices have been quite discouraging, such as contour farming (figure
9.7), farmstead and feedlot windbreak (figure 9.11), field windbreak (figure 9.13),
land smoothing (figure 9.17), minimum tillage (figure 9.20), pasture and hayland
planting (figure 9.22), sediment control basin (figure 9.26), strip cropping (figure
200
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9.30), tree planting (figure 9.33), and woodland practices (figures 9.35 .and 9.37).
Some of these practices are admittedly not very adaptable to the Black Creek
watershed area. Farmers have been very reluctant to accept these practices even
with high levels of cost-sharing incentives.
One practice which causes concern is minimum tillage. Minimum tillage is fre-
quently cited as a key to lowering erosion in the Maumee Basin area. Even though
minimum tillage sounds like a very promising erosion control technique, it has not
been readily accepted by farmers. Sufficient research and demonstration on mini-
mum tillage on the heavy lake bed type soils to encourage and educated the farmer
to attempt to using the technique has not been conducted. When farmers are con-
vinced that minimum tillage will not reduce yields and lower income, they will be
more willing to adapt. If they can be shown that minimum tillage will save them
money, as well as soil it will be readily acceptable basinwide. This points out the
need for further education and demonstration along with good research in the area
of minimum tillage. It has often been said that if I'unds were made available at a
level high enough to insure the farmer, high levels of cost-sharing assistance,
many practices which have been encouraged by the Soil Conservation Service for
years would be installed rapidly. We are learning from the Black Creek project that
even when sufficient funding is available for cost-sharing assistance and suffi-
cient technical assistance is provided to the farmer for proper installation of con-
servation practices, another factor becomes important — the decision by the pri-
vate landowner as to the suitability of practice on his farm. If the farmer is not will-
ing to install the practice or cannot see any value in applying certain practices, no
level of funding will be sufficient to encourage application of a particular practice.
Planning, technical assistance, and adequate financial cost-sharing may not beall
that is needed to assure adequate land treatment.
2. MAINTENANCE
In developing the format and procedure for conducting the Black Creek Study,
the cost of necessary maintenance on the project application throughout the dura-
tion of the project was not adequately considered. Any time that a large amount of
land treatment is accomplished in a concentrated watershed area, a certain
amount of maintenance is unavoidable. This became very evident in the spring of
1975 when on May 20, the watershed received a 4'/2-inch rain over a period of 2'/a
hours. This was equivalent of a 100-year rain. Many of the practices which were
installed were able to handle the severe stress, however there were areas where ex-
cessive damage did occur. Also other practices have shown evidence of needing
continual maintenance. One shortcoming of using federal funds for cost-sharing
assistance is that the landowners are quite willing to accept funds for new prac-
tices and new construction on their land; however, when the greater amount of the
money spent for those practices comes out of the federal dollar rather than their
own it is quite difficult to encourage them to spend the necessary money to main-
tain these practices once installed.
More than $200,000 has been spent in large construction, along the main Black
Creek channel and its tributaries. Each year there is the need for several thousand
dollars worth of maintenance. Private individuals often feel that roads, ditches
and many other services should be provided to them at no cost.
201
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The usual procedure in Allen County for drainage maintenance is through land
assessments by the County Surveyor's office to cover the cost of maintenance on
legal drains. People in the Black Creek area often feel that money that has already
been spent by them for the reconstruction of the Black Creek drain is all they
should have to spend, and that the county should maintain the drain. This creates
difficulty for the surveyor. Due to our experimental and sometimes elaborate proj-
ect work, we have created higher costs for maintaining the drainage system in the
Black Creek watershed. In looking back at the development of the Black Creek
Project one would probably insist that so many dollars be set aside for mainten-
ance costs to cover the cost of necessary repair work that comes about during a proj-
ect of this type. If a project like Black Creek is to be conducted again, maintenance
should be considered as a very high priority in the program organization. In order
to get a feel for the type of maintenance that is inevitable, following construction
like that completed in the Black Creek area. C. F. Poland, Area Engineer, S.C.S.,
and John Dennison, Area Engineering Technician prepared a maintenance report
on the Black Creek main channel which is included as an appendix. Included in
their report is a description of the conditions of the Black Creek channel prior to
the May 20 storm followed by a discussion of the conditions that were left after this
one heavy rainfall event. Included in the report is a map, which locates the area
discussed.
3. PLANS FOR COMING YEAR
A. Land Treatment
Several things are being considered to improve the land treatment accomplish-
ments in the coming year, including employment of another district employee to
contact landowners who have a plan for applying conservation practices some-
time during the program period. The follow-up specialist being considered would
spend his time seeing to it that scheduled land treatment practices are actually in-
stalled. Our experience in the past has been that unless the farmer is contacted dur-
ing the critical times when installation of the practices must be accomplished,
landowners may overlook the practice and delay installing it. The hiring of a fol-
low-up specialist would probably increase the amount of actual practice installa-
tion significantly. Since there are only two construction seasons left in the project
period, a strong follow-up program is essential.
The original scope of the project was to start planning on the west side of the
watershed area progressing eastward until the entire watershed was canvassed.
Data collected by Purdue have indicated that it is going to be difficult to recognize
water quality changes as a result of land treatment activities. Therefore, the dis-
trict has directed soil conservation personnel to concentrate planning activities on
the Dreisbach Drain located on the west side of the watershed in order to maintain
the highest concentration of land treatment possible. Hopefully this will give Pur-
due every chance possible to detect any results of concentrated land treatment in a
subwatershed area. Further land treatment over broad areas of the watershed
would not be significant to the monitoring program. In order to attempt to gain a
high level of land treatment in the Dreisbach Drain subwatershed, the district has
increased its cost sharing rates on several critical erosion control practices.
202
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As of next year, grass waterways, terraces, sediment control basins and several
other erosion control practices most significant to the upland areas of the water-
shed will be cost-shared at 90 percent. This gives Soil Conservation Service plan-
ners a chance to recontact landowners who were not cooperative in the early stages
of the program to see if they can encourage them to cooperate with the higher
cost-share incentives. Purdue will attempt to detect through their data collection
any water quality change that can be attributed to land treatment in the area of
heavy application versus the areas in the eastern portion of the watershed where
application of land treatment practices have been avoided. It is important to note,
however, that the subwatershed, Dreisbach in the western portion of Black Creek
has a large concentration of rolling upland soils. The eastern portion of the Black
Creek area has a large concentration of level lake bed soils. Therefore land treat-
ment practices are needed much greater in the Dreisbach area. One thing that con-
cerns both the district and the representatives doing the modeling and predictions
for Purdue is that to date it has been very difficult to even relate land treatment ac-
tivities to water quality results. Hopefully some correlation can be detected in the
coming years.
B. Research
In order to improve and expand the research and monitoring activities being con-
ducted by Purdue University, three new programs will be started in the coming
year. The first is a real time, on-line monitoring network for the automatic sampler
stations in the Black Creek watershed. Dr. Larry Huggins has been awarded a con-
tract from The Environmental Protection Agency as a part of the Black Creek proj-
ect to install a complete weather station in the watershed area as well as a dedi-
cated telephone line system which will relate direct information from the monitor-
ing sites in the Black Creek watershed area to the computer terminal at the Purdue
Lafayette campus. This will enable Purdue to automatically record the weather
events as well as to rely on the automatic sampling system around the clock. It will
also allow Purdue to have better control over when samples are taken. For exam-
ple, the automatic samplers are now triggered by the volume of flow coming over a
weir, with the new real time monitoring system Dr. Huggins will be able to in-
crease the number of samples that can be taken on the upside of the hydrograph
and reduce the number of unnecessary samples taken on the downward side of the
hydrograph. This new project will have a significant influence on the quality of
data being collected in Black Creek area.
Another aspect to be undertaken during the next year is that of automatically
sampling the tile drainage flow. Del Bottcher, a graduate assistant under Dr. Ed-
win Monke, has developed a pumping sampler which will sample the flow from tile
drainage systems. Initial studies of tile drainage flows have indicated that there
are measurable amounts of soil being carried through the drainage tile systems. By
installing the automatic tile sampler, the quality and quantity of the samples will
improve significantly. This will enable Purdue to pinpoint the amount of sediment
that can be attributed to tile drainage transport.
The third change in the research and demonstration effort by Purdue University
which will be seen next year relates to conservation tillage research. Our efforts in
the last two years have been through small demonstration plots on several sites in
203
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the Black Creek area. This approach has proven to be rather unsuccessful because
of the lack of controlled research with the small demonstration plots. The farmers
who have cooperated with these small plot trials have not been interested to the
point of maintaining a quality control. Without having replicated plots, the infor-
mation being obtained from the small single plot trials has been almost useless in
terms of research data. In order to improve this program, Dr. Don Griffith, a Pur-
due minimum tillage specialist, has requested the district to rent several large plots
of approximately 20 acres each. This will allow Purdue to place a man in the water-
shed area to supervise and actually install the minimum tillage trial. This effort
will involve the purchase of a tractor and planter and other equipment necessary to
farm and maintain these research plots. The large plots will allow replicated trials
sufficient to provide research data. If these plots are successful, they should serve
as excellent educational tools which will help to encourage minimum tillage in the
future. This more expanded approach to conservation field trials could hold many
answers to the future successes or failures pertaining to minimum tillage in the
Maumee Basin area.
4. SUMMARY
In summarizing the activities of the Black Creek Project to date, one can be quite
satisfied and pleased with the accomplishments that have been recorded. Many
needed answers will be obtained from the work being conducted on this project.
This project should provide the type of information that is needed for future deci-
sions relating to land use and water quality. As director of the Black Creek Project
I am looking forward with great anticipation to the activities of the coming year,
and I am appreciative of the great effort and cooperation that has been received
from all participating agencies and private landowners. May this project be one for
which we can all be proud of for many years to come.
20-1
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-—REVISED COST APPROPRIATION
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--- ACTUAL COST
72
73
74 75
YEAR ENDING IN OCTOBER
75-1
77
KEY TO FIGURE 9.2 THROUGH 9.38
3-r
$733,058.66 (6/30/75)
'72 '73 '74 '75 '76
Figure 9.2 Project Appropriations and Expenditures
75-6
77
205
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$22,401.00
10 (6/30/75)
(6/30/75)
72 '73 '74 '75
Figure 9.3 District Appropriations and Expenditures
206
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900 n
$357,465.48 (6/30/75)
73-3
'72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77
Figure 9.4 Purdue Appropriations and Expenditures
240 T
O 160
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$114,552.07
(6/30/75)
$197,364.00
75-4
'72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77
Figure 9.5 Soil Conservation Service Appropriations and Expenditures
207
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$7232.55
76
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7418
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75 T
72 '73 '74 '75 '76
Figure 9.6 Conservation Cropping System
76
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$999.70
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Figure 9.7 Contour Farming
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208
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$10,303.40
Figure 9.8 Crop Residue Management
19.4
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6 T
$4,600.00
\
$2,315.08 (6/30/75)
75-23
'72 '73 '74 '75
Figure 9.9 Critical Area Planting
76
77
209
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76
39,200
'75
74
'73
$ 12,740.00
$1,222.31 (6/30/75)
73 '74 '75
Figure 9.10 Diversion
76
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75-24
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$ 3,900.00
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Figure 9.11 Farmstead and Feedlot Windbreaks
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75-25
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72 '73 '74 '75
Figure 9.14 Grade Stabilization Structure
76
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30
68
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$21,890.00
A
$19,890.00
$10,966.52 (6/30/75)
75-29
72 '73 '74 '75
Figure 9.15 Grassed Waterways
'76
77
212
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45 n
40,090.00
75
'74
'73
'72 73 74 75
Figure 9.16 Holding Ponds and Tanks
77
15 T
300
'76
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Figure 9.17 Land Smoothing
213
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45 T
'76
215
'75
74
'73
$32,045.00
$2,560.00(6/30/75)
72 "73 '74 '75
Figure 9.18 Livestock Exclusion (fencing)
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75-32
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45
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$614.50(6/30/75)
72 '73 '74 '75
Figure 9.19 Livestock Watering Facility
76
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75-33
1
77
214
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45T
7656
'76
'75
'74
'73
32,346.60
73 '74 '75
Figure 9.20 Minimum Tillage
76
'77
402
'76
'75
74
'73
4,703.40
362.70 (6/30/75)
— 75-35
'72 '73 '74 '75 '76
Figure 9.21 Pasture and Hayland Management
•77
215
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30 T
501
'76
'75
'74
'73
$22,795.00
72 73 74 75
Figure 9.22 Pasture and Hayland Planting
76
77
75 T
39
76
75
74
'73
72
$63,375.00
$5,724.10(6/30/75)
/
73 '74
Figure 9.23 Pond
75
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216
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15 T
118
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75
74
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$7670.00
'73 '74 '75
Figure 9.24 Protection During Development
'76
16.1
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'74
12,560.00
'72 73 74 75
Figure 9.25 Recreation Area Improvement
76
\
'77
217
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8
DOLLARS
5
19,500.00
$13,624.46
$1101.03(6/30/75)
72 '73 '74 '75
Figure 9.26 Sediment Control Basins
76
75-40
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30 T
$625.00 (6/30/75)
$29,250.00
\
$2,974.50
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73 '74 '75 '76
Figure 9.27 Conservation Field Trials
75-41
1
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218
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'761
96,000
'75
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Figure 9.28 Stream Channel Stabilization
'76
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122,000
74
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180 T
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158,600.00
\
$38,628.97 (6/30/75)
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Figure 9.29 Streambank Protection
76
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73
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Figure 9.34 Wildlife Habitat Management
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73-30
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200
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75
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73
73 '74 '75
Figure 9.35 Woodland Improved Harvesting
76
77
222
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610
76
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$7,930.00
'72 '73 '74 75
Figure 9.36 Woodland Improvement
76
75-52
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Figure 9.37 Woodland Pruning
$975.00
223
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12 T
2200
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$11,922.23
$7,150.00
$1188.67(6/30/75)
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Figure 9.38 Terraces, Parallel and Gradient
\
75-46
1
'77
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Appendix A
Black Creek Maintenance Report
By
C. F. Poland
J. W. Dennison
The following is a report of the general condition of the Black Creek main chan-
nel as of June 30,1975. The first portion of this report will deal with the project he-
fore the heavy rains of May, 1975; the conclusion will emphasize the effect of the ah-
normmal rainfall.
Generally speaking the main channel is in good condition, free of excessive de-
position, brush, and inferior debris.
Minor sloughing is occurring at the low flow elevations but is not expected to be
of major consequence.
Bank seedings in most areas are good to excellent, although some spot seeding
would be beneficial.
Bank stabilization such as rip-rap stone and the low flow erosion barriers (stone)
are in place and functioning as expected.
Fabricated erosion control structures and surface water inlet pipes in general are
doing the job. Excessive earth settlement over or near these structures are annoy-
ing but correctible.
The "in-channel" rock drops are serving their purpose with little or no displace-
ment of rock.
Notable channel degradation is occurring in the upper reach of Black Creek,
known _as Dreisbach Drain.
In the latter part of May, exceedingly heavy rainfall occurred in the watershed.
Full bank flow was observed in the mid-reaches, out of bank and flooding in the
lower rreaches. High velocities aggrevated the upper reach. Reassessment of main-
tenance was inevitable. Immediate and later observations revealed mass move-
ments of soil adjacent and behind channel banks. Surface water inlet pipes and
erosion control structures were taxed to capacity. In a few areas, over-topping oc-
curred with one complete failure observed.
Where uncontrolled and concentrated runoff occurred, silt bars again appeared
in the channel bottom. Presently, these are not of serious nature, but are in the pro-
cess of causing low-flow meander.
Surface water entering the channel at the rock stabilization areas caused rock
displacement creating need for immediate repair. The most significant area of con-
cern is the Dreisbach Drain where serious channel degradation is occurring and
bank conformation is being lost. Structural erosion control is also being threaten-
ed. This particular reach has been of primary concern due to the channel gradient,
and the abnormal rain fall of May, 1975, has certainly contributed to this deprecia-
tion.
225
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RIVER
BLACK CREEK STUDY AREA
ALLEN COUNTY, INDIANA
MAUMEE RIVER BASIN
WORK LOCATION MAP
ALLEN COUNTY SOIL 8 WATER CONSERVATION DISTRICT
IN COOPERATION WITH
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
USDA SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
SCALE 1/31,680
0 '/
APPROXIMATE
SCALE IN MILES
75-16
Figure A. 1 Location Map for Maintenance Report on Black Creek Main Channel.
226
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Figure A-l will provide location of specific areas of concern and general com-
ments.
(1) Unstable right bank — caused by storm May 20, 1975, when there was high
rate of flow from Black Creek and Maumee River was at low level.
(2) Rock in rock chute was moved by large rate of flow during May, 1975, storm.
Rock was moved at the entrance of the chute and again at the lower end at the en-
trance to Black Creek.
(3) Rock rip-rap was installed on left bank for a total of 300 feet. Unstable soil be-
low channel let the rock slip down and into the channel creating a partial block in
the channel. The blockage was removed in the spring of 1975. Rock was placed back
on approximately 3:1 side slopes. The weight of rock caused some slippage again,
but at this time the left bank seems to be stable and the channel has enough capa-
city. It has been determined that nothing should be done to the channel at this time.
(4) Major silt bar in channel caused by erosion from cropland during May, 1975,
storm.
(5) Excessive scouring along the channel banks where it was realigned.
(6) Rip-rap on left bank was moved from surface water coming in from a drain-
age area on the left side of the channel.
(7) Minor undercutting of erosion barrier.
(8) Channel bank slippage (right bank) occuring in deep cut area. The soils are a
mixture of sandy and silts.
(9) Near this area along left bank two surface pipes are needed to take care of two
places where surface water is causing serious bank erosion.
(10) Channel bank slippage along right bank because of seepage of water in sand
lenses.
(11) Rip-rap was moved during May, 1975, storm from overbank flow from left
bank. Rock should be placed back in original position.
(12) Erosion control structure on right bank has had movement of soil around the
structure which needs some repair.
(13) Some degradation has occurred in the bottom of the channel because of steep
gradient. This should be kept under close observation, because if it gets worse, side
slopes could be undermined.
(a) Lower reach of Black Creek designated as "A" is in excellent condition and all
disturbed areas have excellent vegetation. Along this portion of the creek,
excellent field borders have been established between cropland and creek
bank. The field borders caught and held considerable amount of silt from
cropland during the May, 1975, storm.
(b) Reach "B" has field borders between creek side slopes and cropland. They
are in excellent condition. Streambanks have excellent new grass cover.
There are a few areas where bank slippage is occurring.
(c) Reach "C" has field borders in good conditions. They held soil in place dur-
ing high flow from May, 1975, storm. The rock drop structure at the entrance
of Richelderfer Drain to Black Creek is in excellent condition. There have
been major volumes of flow past the structure since it was installed. There
has been no movement of rock during the high flows. Silt has filled voids and
there is almost complete cover of grass in the structure.
Streambank training (rock) of Black Creek channel. Upstream and down-
stream side of Notestine Road is in good condition. There is some evidence of
rock undercutting as described earlier, however not serious at this time.
227
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Rock drop structure at state Road 37 is in excellent condition. There was no
movement of rock during May, 1975, storm.
Rock drop structure at Antwerp Road is in excellent condition. There was
some movement of rock on left bank from overland flow into the channel as
described in 11 above.
(d) Reach "D" vegetation along both side slopes and field borders is in excel-
lent condition. Landowners are doing a good job of maintaining vegetation
(e) Reach E sod waterway was constructed August, 1973. It is in good to ex-
cellent condition. Landowners have abused the vegetation at three loca-
tions. Soil Conservation Service personnel asked the landowners to remove
livestock that was damaging the waterway and they were cooperative The
waterway had since been fenced, therefore in general landowners are now
controlling the grazing, therefore maintaining good vegetation in most
areas.
(f) Reach "F" upper portion is a sod waterway and lower portion recon-
structed open ditch. The waterway was constructed late 1974, therefore a fair
stand of sod got established. There is a fair stand of grass at the present time
which will be good by next year. There was overtoping of storm water at
Spencerville Road causing rip-rap rock to be moved. The rock was placed in
original position and grouted with concrete. A direct opening into the tile
with beehive grate to protect the opening was built so low flow could get to the
drainage tile on each side of the waterway, therefore keeping the waterway
dry during low flows.
The major portion of the open ditch has streambank lining (rock) to main-
tain stability of side slope. The rock did not move during the May, 1975, storm
and is doing an excellent job of maintaining good side slopes protection.
(g) Reach "G" sod waterway was built August, 1975. The waterway has had
heavy flow in it several times since it has been seeded. There is some grass in
the bottom and excellent cover of grass on each side of the waterway. There
was very little movement of soil in the bottom of the waterway. The water-
way at the present time is in good condition, and should have heavy grass
cover throughout by next year.
In summary, with consideration for the adverse conditions of 1975 and the in-
fancy of the project, the main is in good condition. However maintenance is ever-
present and demanding.
Participation for this report consisted of personnel in charge of maintenance,
Allen County Surveyor's office and personnel of the Soil Conservation Service tech-
nical staff.
228
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-905/9-75-006
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water
Quality (Progress Report)
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
5. REPORT DATE
November 1975
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
. AUTHOR(S)
James E. Lake
James Morrison
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
9. PERFORMING ORG MM I Z ATI ON NAME AND ADDRESS
Allen County Soil & Water Conservation Distric
Executive Park - Suite 103
2010 Inwood Drive
Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
t Section 108a Program
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
EPA G-005103
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of the Great Lakes Coordinator
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Project Progress Report
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
6. ABSTRACT
This is a progress report on the Black Creek sediment control study, an
Environmental Protection Agency funded project to determine the envir-
onmental impact of land use on water quality which is finishing its
second full year of activities. The project, which is directed by the
Allen County Soil and Water Conservation District, is an attempt to
determine the role that agricultural pollutants play in the degradation
of water quality in the Maumee River Basin and ultimately in Lake Erie.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
Sediment
Erosion
Land Use
Water Quality
Nutrients
Socio-Economic
Land Treatment
b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
. JISTRIBUTION STATEMENT " ~—
Document is available to the public
through the National Technical Infor*
mat10n Service, Springfield, Virginia
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
21. NO. OF PAGES
Inf Or3G. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
22151
229
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