905975007
NON-POINT SOURCE
POLLUTION SEMINAR
SECTION 108 (a)DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS
(POLLUTION CONTROL IN GREAT LAKES)
I
55
V
NOVEMBER 20, 1975
Chicago, Illinois
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The following P.L. 92-500, Section 108(a) reports are available through
the National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, Virginia
22151. Prices listed for paper copy and microfiche are current as of
January 1, 1976.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF LAND USE ON WATER QUALITY
A Work Plan EPA-G005103
NTIS No. PB 227 112 Price: Paper $5.50, MF $2.25
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF LAND USE ON WATER QUALITY
Operations Manual EPA-905-74-002
NTIS No. PB 235 526 Price: Paper $9.25, MF $2.25
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF LAND USE ON WATER QUALITY
Progress report-!975 EPA-905/9-75-006
NTIS Mo. PB 248 104 Price: Paper $8.00, MF $2.25
WATER QUALITY BASELINE ASSESSMENT FOR CLEVELAND AREA - LAKE ERIE
Volume I - Synthesis EPA-905/9-74-005
NTIS No. PB 238 353 Price: Paper $6.75, MF $2.25
WATER QUALITY BASELINE ASSESSMENT FOR CLEVELAND AREA - LAKE ERIE
Volume II - Fishes EPA-905/9-75-001
NTIS No. PB 242 747 Price: Paper $7.50, MF $2.25
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EPA-905/9-75-007
NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION SEMINAR
SECTION 108(a) DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS
PROGRESS REPORTS
NOVEMBER 20, 1975
Held at
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
in
Conference Room 1228
Sponsored by
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF THE GREAT LAKES COORDINATOR
SECTION 108(a) PROGRAM
V,
233 South De«lrfeoirn Street
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Effects of Land Treatment on the Aquatic Environment 120
JAMES R. KARR, Ph.D., University of Illinois
Computer Monitoring of Environmental Conditions in a Watershed 151
L.F. HOGGINS, Ph.D., Purdue University
Project Management and Land Treatment Costs 162
JAMES E. LAKE, Project Director, Black Creek Project
Red Clay Area Project 217
STEPHEN C. ANDREWS, Project Director
Washington County Project 245
T.C. DANIEL, Ph.D., Project Director
Seminar Summary ' 253
CARL D. WILSON, JR.
Seminar Attendee Listing 255
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INTRODUCTION
This one-day seminar, offered to Federal, State, and local water
pollution control officials, scientists, educators, consulting engin-
eers and other interested persons, was designed to provide information
from Section 108(a) demonstration projects on non-point source water
pollution control. This seminar was held in the Region V office of the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in Chicago, Illinois.
Key areas of study, accumulated data and knowledge regarding three
on-going non-point source pollution studies is evaluated and is cont-
ained in this collection of papers presented at this seminar by the
principal investigators.
Project data and information reported are from the following sect-
ion 108(a) demonstration projects:
Black Creek sediment and erosion control project in Allen
County, Indiana. Grantee is the Allen County Soil and Water
Conservation District.
Western Lake Superior red clay sediment and erosion control
project in the counties of Carlton, Douglas, Ashland, Bayfield,
and Iron. The grantee is the Douglas County Soil and Water
Conservation District in cooperation with Carlton, Ashland,
Bayfield, and Iron County Soil and Water Conservation Districts.
Washington County, Wisconsin sediment and erosion control
project involving the Menomonee River watershed. The grantee
is the Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water Conservation Districts.
Interim conclusions on work done on the above projects are based
on data through June 1975. Cost figures presented on implementing
land management practices in the Black Creek project are actual costs
incurred with landowners to achieve the projects objectives.
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CALL TO ORDER
By
Ralph G. Christensen*
Ladies and gentlemen, I appreciate your attendance here today at
this non-point source pollution seminar. I am Ralph G. Christensen
Chief of the Section 108a Program under P.L. 92-500. Section 108a
provides for grants to support any State, political subdivision, inter-
state agency, or other public agency, or combination therof, to carry
out one or more projects to demonstrate new methods and techniques
and to develop preliminary plans for the elimination or control of
pollution within all or any part of the watersheds of the Great Lakes.
Such projects shall demonstrate the engineering and economic feasibility
and practicality of removal of pollutants and prevention of any polluting
matter from entering into the Great Lakes in the future and other reduction
and remedial techniques which will contribute substantially to effective
and practical methods of water pollution prevention, reduction, or
elimination. This program requires a grantee to provide a minimum of a
25% matching contribution to the total cost to the project.
Congress authorized to be appropriated $20,000,000 to carry out the
provisions of this program. To date, there has been nine grants awarded
under this section of the Act, three of which address the non-point
source pollution problem.
Section 108 allows the demonstration of new approaches beyond those
reflected in state established construction priorities, beyond those
developed and demonstrated within the specified scientific and engineering
subprograms, and beyond the few basin planning efforts that have been
funded in the Great Lakes.
Section 108 implicitly recognizes that the approaches available in
other EPA programs may not be adequate for controlling pollution in a
basin of the scope and complexity of the Great Lakes system. It recog-
nizes that the water quality of the Great Lakes is of broad national interest
that may not be fully considered in setting state and local priorities.
In response, it provides opportunities to demonstrate the value of
approaches receiving low priority at the state and local level. Section
108 also implicitly recognizes that a piecemeal approach to wastewater
management and treatment, while an important immediate step, cannot
provide the systematic solutions required by such a large, complex environ-
mental system as the Great Lakes.
Section 108 provides opportunities to supplement the piecemeal
approach with system studies, plans, and demonstration projects that
*Chief, Section 108a Program, P.L. 92-500, United States Environmental
Protection Agency, Region V, Chicago, 111. 60604. Program Chairman.
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broaden the focus beyond the boundaries of specific point sources, specific
treatment technologies, and local jurisdictions. For example, Section 108
projects can address the full complexity of the multiple causes of pollu-
tion, both point and non-point, within a basin system; or the institutional
barriers to arriving at areawide solutions in a politically responsible
fashion; or the design of new treatment and control measures combining the
results of new technologies and regulatory techniques.
Section 108, however, does not now provide a program of sufficient
size to stand alone. It is clear that $20 million of demonstration pro-
jects, by themselves, would make little impact on the pollution problems
besetting the Great Lakes. Section 108 projects must be used in addition
to, in coordination with, and as a testing ground for, the use of authorities
and resources available under present legislation. Section 108 provides
opportunities to weld together specialized technical advances to yield new
systems. It provides opportunities to fund new types of facilities in
combination with treatment facilities and demonstrations supported by
Section 201 and Section 105 grants. And it provides opportunities to
channel these resources in ways that develop and strengthen implementing
institutions.
We will now proceed with the Seminar Program, as outlined in your
printed Seminar Agenda.
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WELCOME
BY
Francis T. Mayo*
We, in the Environmental Protection Agency, appreciate the opportu-
nity to meet with you today and share some practical, social and technical
information derived from three Sec. 108 demonstration projects implemented
in this Great Lakes area.
The agenda for this Seminar provides for an overview of the Non-Point
Source Pollution Control mandate to the U.S. EPA through P.L. 92-500.
Several sections of P.L. 92-500 address the subject of non-point source
pollution among which are, Sections 208, 303, 304, and 305. In addition
to these sections of the Act, Sections 108, 104 and 105 provide for re-
search and demonstration grants which can also address the non-point
pollution problems.
Non-point source pollution is recognized internationally as a pro-
blem and is being addressed in the Great Lakes under the U.S.-Canada Great
Lakes Water Quality Agreement. One of the references of this Water Quality
Agreement is directed to inventory land-use activities and their pollution
effects on the Great Lakes. To do this, we have implemented four land-use
watershed studies in the United States and six watershed studies in Canada
to prepare the information and remedial recommendations to best reduce and
control non-point source pollution to the Lakes. Region V has committed
$12 million to support these Sec. 108 demonstration projects and land-use
watershed studies. Additional funds are being awarded in grants to de-
signated Sec. 208 agencies to study and prepare Areawide Waste Treatment
Management Plans for implementation.
Russell Train, our EPA Administrator, stated in a recent speech that
non-point sources of water pollution, such as runoff from croplands, urban
stormwater, and strip mining, are becoming the single most important water
quality problem.
Congress placed primary responsibility for the management of non-point
source pollution in the hands of the States. This is as it should be.
States and localities are better able to identify their problems as part
of their over-all planning process than is the Federal government. We want
to see localities, acting on a regional basis, getting more and more into
the business of really facing up to these issues. Plans for solving such
problems would be created and carried out through a political process in
which both citizens and their elected officials—not experts or appointed
officials—make all the basic choices and decisions. We want to encourage
State and localities to tell us at the Federal level how we can help with
programs that are conceived and implemented at lower levels.
*Francis T. Mayo, Administrator, U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago, Illinois
60604
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To highlight some problems associated with non-point pollution, let
me give you some examples:
(1) Two billion tons of sediment are delivered to lakes and streams
annually from over 400 million acres of croplands, as well as
large amounts of nitrogen from fertilizers, phospohorus from non-
point sources, animal wastes from feedlots, and toxic pesticides.
(2) Between 5 and 10 percent of the total sediment load is estimat-
ed to come from 10 to 12 million acres of commerical forest har-
vested per year.
(3) Strip mining, which affects about 350,000 acres annually, results
in the discharge of millions of tons of acidity and sediment.
(4) Urban sprawl, which consumes hundreds of square miles per year,
generates sediment at an even greater rate than agricultural ac-
tivities.
(5) The runoff of stormwater in urban areas accounts for pollution of
waters with large amounts of toxic and oxygen-demanding materials.
Non-point sources of water pollution have become more than 50 percent
of the total water quality problems. As site-specific sources of pollution
are reduced by municipalties and industries, other sources gain in relative
importance.
As a result of State and local interest three demonstration projects
have been implemented under Sec. 108 of P.L. 92-500. These projects will
be reported on today by either the grantee project directors and/or their
principal investigators. I will describe to you briefly the objectives of
each project.
(1) The Allen County (Indiana) SWCD's Black Creek Project has been
active now since 1972 and has two years yet to go. This pro-
ject provides for a cooperative effort between Allen County SWCD,
the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service and
a team of scientists and engineers from Purdue University to de-
monstrate sediment reduction through use of land management prac-
tices. A socio-economic study is in progress to ascertain what
it will take to get landowners to implement best management prac-
tices for erosion sediment control.
(2) Douglas County (Wisconsin) Soil and Water Conservation District
is now in the process of implementing their demonstration project
in the Red Clay Area of western Lake Superior. The goal of this
project is to initiate and implement an action program for soil
erosion and sediment control in the Lake Superior Basin which will
lead into a basin-wide program. Institutional arrangements and
vehicles for intergovernmental cooperation between local govern-
mental implementing authorities on an interstate basis will be
established to solve the basin-wide red clay erosion and sedi-
ment problems.
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(3) The Wisconsin State Board of Soil and Water Conservation Dis-
tricts is the Grantee for a project in Washington County, Wis-
consin. Their project is to demonstrate the effectiveness of
land control measures in improving water quality, and to devise
the necessary institutional arrangements for the preparation,
acceptance, adoption, and implementation of a sediment control
ordinance applicable to incorporated and unincorporated areas
on a county wide basis.
I hope the progress reports presented today will benefit you in your
planning activities. I appreciate your attendance here today. If we can
be of assistance to you during the day, please contact Mr. Ralph Christensen
or Mr. Joseph Tynsky who will be happy to help you.
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THE CHALLENGE TO AMERICAN AGRICULTURE OF P.L. 92-500
FROM A NATIONAL VIEWPOINT - FOCUS ON
"POLITICAL RULINGS AS THEY AFFECT NPS PROGRAMS"
BY
John R. Churchill*
Good morning. I have been assigned to cover a very expansive topic—
the challenge to American agriculture of P.L. 92-500—in a very short time.
With regard to political rulings as they affect the nonpoint source program,
I suspect that the designer of the program for this seminar was trying to
flush me out on the development of recent positions and policies within EPA
with regard to recent judicial decisions and statements by the Administrator
and the Deputy Administrator. I shall be very glad to bring you up to date
on the rapidly unfolding interpretation of several important statutory re-
quirements of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act that affect agricul-
ture.
Let's pause a moment and look at the historical framework in which we
are addressing nonpoint sources within the national water quality program.
Between 1948, when the first Federal Water Pollution Control statute was
enacted, and 1972, the entire water pollution control effort was directed
at municipal and industrial point sources. It was not until the 1972
Amendments that the Congress began to legislate to provide tools to deal
with nonpoint sources. Now we are beginning to address, in a national,
systematic way, the control and minimization of nonpoint sources.
In the water pollution control effort and in the development of solu-
tions to other public issues, we usually go through a four-phased program:
First we ignore, and when that doesn't work;
We make it illegal, and when that fails us;
Congress pulls out its checkbook and we spend it to death, and finally?
We develop a rational approach and solve the problem.
It is through the projects that we are reviewing today and the pro-
cesses of communication we are developing in this meeting that we will
definitely shorten the process I have described above.
In the 1972 Amendments, the Congress developed two different thrusts—
one for what has been described as point source pollution and the other
for nonpoint sources.
For point sources, which are defined very broadly by statute to include
all discharges from discrete conveyances, including ditches, the Congress
*John R. Churchill, Interagency Coordinator, Water Planning Division,United
States Environmental Protection Agency,. Washington, D.C. 20460
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The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) has challenged this
exercise of Administrator's discretion in a lawsuit filed in the Federal
District Court for the District of Columbia. The District Court ruled
in favor of NRDC in what has been known as the Flanery decision. The
final court order requires EPA to propose and promulgate regulations "ex-
tending the NPDES permit system to include all point sources" in the con-
centrated animal feeding operation, separate storm sewer, agricultural
and silvicultural categories. Under the terms of the order EPA must pro-
pose regulations relating to storm sewers and concentrated animal feeding
operations by November 10, 1975, and promulgate such regulations by March
10, 1976. Similarly, regulations extended in the permit system to point
sources discharges in the agriculture and silviculture categories must be
proposed by February 10, 1976, and promulgated by June 10, 1976.
As part of the effort to carry out the requirements of the court
order, EPA has solicited and received information and advice from other Fed-
eral agencies, State and local officials, trade associations, agricultural
and environmental groups and interested members of the public. We have held
"town hall" meetings in cities across the Nation. Many of you here today
attended the Chicago meeting back in September.
Drawing considerable from the comments received at these meetings and
the technical data, legislative history and statutory language, the Agency
has selected a regulatory approach.
Under the EPA proposals, a feedlot operator would be required to apply
for a wastewater discharge permit if:
—more than the following numbers and types of animals are confined:
1,000 slaughter and feeder cattle; 700 mature dairy cattle (whether milked
or dry cows); 4,500 slaughter hogs; 35,000 feeder pigs; 12,000 sheep or
lambs; 55,000 turkeys; 180,000 laying hens; 290,000 broiler chickens.
—measurable waste are discharged directly into any navigable waters
that traverse the operation, or
—measurable waste are discharged into navigable waters by means of a
man-made conveyance specifically constructed for wastewater disposal, or
—measurable waste or otherwise a significant source of pollution.
John Quarles has stated that "The regulations announced today have been
drawn up to carry out the express guidance of the Court and the language
of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972. These rules are de-
signed to extend the NPDES permit program to sources within the four cate-
gories designed by the court and to continue our mission to improve the
quality of our Nation's waters, without interfering with, or placing a
great burden on, small farm operations."
The new regulations appeared today (11/20/75) in the Federal Register.
As for as the storm water runoff regulations go, we have asked for a three
week extension for the due date for the publication in the Federal Register.
As far as section 208, Administrator Train has made it perfectly clear
in his speeches before the Conservation Districts in Bettendorf, Iowa, and
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the American Forestry Association in Washington that "it simply makes no
sense to take the Federal regulatory permit approach to many of the sources
of water pollution...that the court order would require us to take. By
their very nature, they are best dealt with primarily at the State and
local level as part of an overall, intergrated approach to such sources
based upon best management practices.",
His position is that we must develop effective programs that require
close cooperation and leadership by other agencies such as the soil con-
servation districts at the local level, the Extension Service at the State
and local level, the Soil Conservation Service at Federal, State and local
levels, the Forest Service in national forests and in their technical and
financial assistance programs, and the Bureau of Land Management in their
land management asd associated community development programs. All these
agencies and many others will be vital participants in the 208 planning
process.
As Regional Administrator Mayo indicated earlier, the three demonstra-
tion projects we are reviewing today under Section 108 are the real proto-
types of a 208 program. First, they involve the soil conservation districts'
taking the leadership role in bringing together the farmers, other interest-
ed publics, the universitites, and the many agencies that have a concern
and mission in the 208 program. Secondly, it involves the bringing together
of land management, agricultural engineering, aquatic biology, data systems,
sociology, economics, law, and the many disciplines that we must fuse to-
gether in an appropriate 208 program.
It is now becoming rapidly apparent that water quality is an integral
part of the American agriculture mission. The real and definite pollution
threat from sediments, nutrients and pesticides must be dealt with. The
main thrust of the nonpoint source pollution control will come from 208
areawide planning.
The importance of controlling pollution from agricultural sources was
early recognized by Administrator Mayo. The technical information generat-
ed from these projects is giving us that which is necessary to make an as-
sessment of the agricultural nonpoint source problem.
I look forward to sharing this learning experience with you and thank
you very much.
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OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
AS IT RELATES TO NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION
By
Paul R. Heitzenrater*
Of all the water quality problems facing the Nation today, pollution
from non-point sources is technically one of the most complex. Major non-
point source categories have been defined to include mining, agriculture,
silviculture, and urban storm water. For the purposes of this seminar, I
will emphasize agricultural non-point sources. However, note that the types
of research we have underway are similar for all of these areas.
The significant components we have identified in the agriculture re-
search area include: waste management from animal production, irrigated
corp production, non-irrigated crop production, alternate pest management,
and because of some similarities, silviculture practices. Our research
program ranges in breadth from production through harvesting and the ob-
jectives encompass: a) mathematical simulation models to predict the water
quality impact of various agriculture and silviculture practices and, to
assess the impact of alternate management methods; b) best management
practice (BMP) alternatives designed to reduce or prevent runoff of
pollution discharges or emissions which adversely impact air, land or
water, including cost-effective determinations and evaluation of social
and economic impacts; c) assessment of probable trends in production of
renewable resources and their resulting environmental impacts; and d)
development of intergrated pest management controls to reduct environ-
mental problems from agricultural pesticides.
We are concurrently attempting to address both long term and short
term problems. It is expected that during the last quarter of this century
pressure will mount for the U.S. to significantly increase production from
the agriculture industry. Environmental problems of a broad scope may well
accompany any drastic efforts to increase renewable resources in the U.S.
Moreover, significant conflicts may arise between energy development, pro-
duction and uses, community development, and agricultural resources
activities. Hence, the long-term problem for the U.S. will be to increase
production of food and fiber with minimal environmental degradation and
conflict with other national goals. The Agency's long-term research ob-
jectives are: (a) develop the capability to assess and predict the
environmental effects of existing and advanced technologies for increasing
production of each renewable resource and between resources at the local,
regional, and national levels; and (b) develop cost-effective alternative
technological, management, and institutional approaches to assure increas-
ed production at the least environmental cost.
*Staff Engineer, Agriculture and Nonpoint Source Management Division, Office
of Research and Development, Environmental Protection Agency/ Washington,
D.C. 20460
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The more immediate task confronting the Agency is to provide State and
local water quality management agencies with the tools they need to carry
out their areawide waste management responsibilities under Section 208,
P.L. 92-500. The tools include: (a) guidelines for identifying, assessing,
and evaluating the nature and extent of agricultural and silvicultural
source of pollution, and (b) processes, procedures, and methods to manage
and control pollution from these sources.
The systems by which we product our food and fiber involve not only
highly complicated living processes, but these processes very greatly with
location. This variation is readily apparent among the major climatic and
land resource areas of the Nation. However, it can also be significant
on a local scale. The conditions of soil, crop, topography and hydrology
and, therefore, the type of pollution controls required, may differ greatly
between the fields at the upper fringe of a watershed and those in the
bottom lands only a few miles or hundred yards away.
The term "pollutant" is not simple to define as it applies to agri-
cultural sources. The major substances involved, sediment, nutrients and
salts, are natural components of the ecosystem which become "pollutants"
only when they exceed levels which impair water quality or beneficial uses
of our waters. Also, these substances are not discharged in a continuous,
easily predicted manner. Their discharges is the result of rainfall or snow
melt runoff, which can be predicted with only limited accuracy. Since these
discharges are intermittent and often diffuse, there is usually no distinct
effluent which can be easily collected or monitored for its quantity and
quality of pollutants, the most essential pieces of information needed for
environmental management purposes. We are therefore forced to use less
direct means for assessing the contribution to water pollution from
agricultural sources and for determining the effectiveness of methods for
controlling this impact.
In dealing with a problem as complex as water pollution from agricul-
ture, it is tempting to either make the problem more understandable by
trying to reduce it to a few generalizations or to bog down completely in
its details and diversity. Oversimplification is apparent in attempts
such as equating agricultural water pollution control with erosion control
or in effects to press for general solutions such as the application of
uniform control practices over broad areas such as an entire State. The
other extreme is to overcomplicate the problem by emphasizing the com-
plexity and uncertainties of its solution. This appears as "pressure to
do nothing" until we fully understand the nature of the agricultural
water pollution problem and can fully justify the means for its control.
With regard to agricultural pollution control, one of the key public
decisions will be what level of technical information is needed to justify
action. In an attempt to be responsive, we have identified several basic
questions for which the Section 208 planner - decision maker will need
answers.
1. How much of the pollutant or potential pollutant leaves the site
where it is generated?
2. How much of the pollutant reaches a location where it degrades
water quality or results in some other environmental damage?
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3. How much water quality degradation or damage occurs as a result
of this exposure level?
4. what options are available for reducting the pollutant load om
the source and what is their relative cost/effectiveness?
5. How feasible is the implementation of these control options?
6. Are the benefits resulting from control worth the cost?
It is all but the last question, which can be solved only through the
political process, that we must deal with from a technical standpoint.
Where do we stand today in our ability to answer these questions and
what is the probability that we will have adequate answers available when
they are needed?
1. Measuring Source Loads. The problem here is one of the lack of an
effluent which can be easily or economically measured. This means that in
most areas we need techniques for measuring something which can be measured,
such as soil type, rainfall pattern, cropping procedures, etc., and from
these measurements be able to predict the resulting load of pollutants on
the nearest body of water. Currently, for some substances such as sediment,
we know a great deal about what leaves the source, but considerably less
about predicting how much reaches the nearest stream. Similarly, with other
substances such as nutrients or pesticides, most of our available data
relates to what leaves the source rather than what reaches the watercourse.
EPA's research program is approaching this question in two phases.
The first phase is to compile, evaluate and publish what is known now in
order to make the current knowledge base widely available. For source load-
ing data an initial effort is being conducted for us by Midwest Research
Institute as the first step of a project on the "National Assessment of
Water Pollution from Non-point Sources." This consist of a manual of load-
ing factors or functions based on available data for all non-point sources,
including agriculture. A draft of this manual is under intense review at
EPA and USDA and should be available in January or February 1976. In the
meantime, we are printing on a limited basis an "Interim Report" which will
be distributed to State and 208 agencies so they can evaluate the types
of input that will be needed in order to make the assessments.
The second phase, which is also underway, is the development of more
sophisticated loading functions or models which will become available for
general use during the period of 1977-1980. Most of these are being develop-
ed jointly with other Federal agencies.
Included are:
a. a model for determining salt loads from irrigated agriculture in
the Colorado River basin being developed in cooperation with the
Bureau of Reclamation.
b. a cropland runoff model for nutrients and pesticides being develop-
ed for four major crop regions of the country in cooperation with"
the Agricultural Research Service.
c. loading functions for animal waste applied to the land in major
climatic regions of the country.
d. an initial determination of the feasibility of developing a runoff
model for silvicultural activities in cooperation with the Forest
Service.
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2. Measuring Pollutant Delivery and Damage. This is the problem of
determining how much of a pollutant gets to a place where it will do harm
and how much damage results. Technically this is probably the most critical
problem we face and the one for which useful answers are most difficult to
obtain. To understand fully the dynamics of all types of waters in all
parts of the country is clearly beyond our current means and the time
available, and may not be worth the cost. This problem is a critical one
for determining what level of technical information is adequate for
decision-making. We do have some very useful information on sediment
damages and on acceptable levels of nutrient enrichment in nonflowing waters.
However, we need a clearly defined set of measures for decision-making at the
local leve. One option we are examining is the possibility of determining
background levels of natural substances such as sediment and nutrients in
our waters as a measure of acceptable levels. This might constitute the
equivalent of a "zero discharge" concept for non-point sources. How one
defines and measures "Background" is not straight-forward. However, if it
can be done, the concept may have utility in helping to determine acceptable
pollutant levels and consequently how far we have to go with agricultural
pollution control.
3. Cost/Effectiveness of Source Controls. In this area, we face the
problem oFknowing a large number of control options but not having adequate
information on their effectiveness to improve overall water quality. For
example, it appears that soil erosion measures such as no-till farming
practices may significantly reduce the pollution load from cropland. How-
ever, we do not know with accuracy how much this load would be reduced
under most conditions. Also, we have not adequately assessed the signifi-
cance of possible environmental side effects such as increased infiltration
to groundwater or impacts from the increased use of pesticides.
We believe that our initial emphasis should be directed not so much to
the development of new control options but to the evaluation of the cost/
effectiveness of controls that are available. For instance, if we could
relate water quality impact to average annual soil loss we could tap the
vast base of knowledge on soil conservation techniques.
Our approach to this area at EPA is varied, but it is aimed both at
immediate compilation of known data and longer term demonstrations of cost/
effective source management methods. One near-term effort I'd like to men-
tion is a manual of management of pollution from agriculture chemicals,
nutrients, and sediments developed for us by the Agricultural Research
Service, entitled "Control of Water Pollution from Cropland-Volume I, Manual
for Guideline Development", EPA-600/2-75-026a.
This manual, which is keyed to land resource areas, is a guide to
selection of agricultural pollution management systems for either a farm or
a drainage area. It does not specify what has to be done. What it does do
is to describe what data is needed, how and where to get the data, and how
to use this data in estimating both pollutant loads and the effectiveness
and costs of available controls. The document is aimed at the State and
local environmental regulatory official and 208 planners and is not in-
tended to supplant existing information or to discourage the use of local
agricultural expertise where appropriate. Rather it is intended to encour-
age the regulatory official to use available agricultural information and
expertise.
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4. Implementation of Controls. Sometimes knowing technical solutions
to problems is not"enough. An example of this occurs with the management
of salinity in irrigation return flows from agriculture in the Colorado River
basin. Water management methods which involve a substantial reduction of
water use while maintaining current crop production will prove to be a
highly cost/effective control measure for salinity. However, the implemen-
tation of appropriate practices is severely inhabited by existing laws, in-
stitutions and traditions. How to best overcome these constraints is not
clear at this time.
Assuming we know what needs to be done, how do we go about getting the
controls implemented. Certainly changing the way a farmer operates his
farm is a far more complicated matter than requiring the installation of a
treatment system at the end of a pipe by an industry or municipality. It
seems clear to us that our experience with education and persuasion is
such that the probability is sufficiently high that some degree of regula-
tion will be required in the public interest.
A major problem in regulating non-point sources is the lack of a de-
fined effluent to measure. With point sources the quality of the effluent,
or the pollution load, can be specified as a measure of performance of con-
trol systems. By specifying only performance, freedom is provided to
select the control system appropriate to the specified source. However,
for agricultural sources without an effluent which can be practicably
monitored for compliance, the source activities or practices themselves
rather than the effluent must be regulated. Hence, it has been suggested
that some basic set of commom practices be applied to agricultural sources.
However, this concept can be seriously misleading. Agricultural conditions
and water quality requirements vary with location to the extent that it
may be impractical to attempt to apply uniform practices over large areas.
The key to undersatanding this concept is to realize that although the
farming practices may in some cases have to be regulated, they will not
likely be prescribed by a regulatory agency, and considerable leeway will
be allowed for tailoring controls to local conditions. For such a system
to work at the local level, there is an obviously critical need for tech-
nical guidelines which relate control practices to pollutant loading or
performance levels.
CONCLUSION
The Technical aspects of agricultural pollution control are complex
indeed. Our challenge in developing a technical base for these critical
decisions is made more difficult by the pressures of time. With the lead
time for this type of research, we literally have to decide how and commit
ourselves to the work needed to produce results three to five years from
now. The key to doing this effectively is to understand, with the help
of our crystal ball, what technical information the decision-maker will
need. I trust this seminar will substantially assist us in this under-
standing.
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USEPA INVOLVEMENT IN MANAGING
SECTION 108(a) Projects
By
Carl D. Wilson, Jr.*
The management of all three Section 108 Projects, on non-point
sources pollution, by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency essentially
follows the same format. The U.S. EPA project officer is the offical re-
presentative of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency designated to
monitor the projects. All activities relative to the project are channel-
ed to or through him.
The grantee or the governing board of the project hires a local pro-
ject director who is the direct representative of the board and as such,
is responsible for the conduct of the project. All technical direction
and guidance for the work plan, operations manual, construction plans and
specifications, analytical work, evaluation of plans, reports, voucher
preparation, and time schedules are channeled through him to the U.S. EPA
project officer.
At the initial stage of the project the project officer meets with
the grantee and outlines procedures for accounting, preparation of plans
and specifications, reports, purchases, assurances and reimbursement pro-
cedures. Once the work plan and operations manual have been approved no
changes will be authorized without the approval of the local project
director and the U.S. EPA project officer.
Project officer assistance is given to the grantee to assure the ob-
jectives of the work plan are met. This also includes any additional
conditions set forth in the offer and acceptance documents.
All construction plans and farm plans are reviewed by the U.S. EPA
project officer for approval. If approval is given after review of the
final plans and specifications the project officer will notify the
grantee of approval to advertise for bids.
The U.S. EPA project officer reviews the bid tabulations, proof of
advertising, and other necessary assurances before granting authority to
award construction or equipment contracts. Approval must be obtained
from the project officer before a contract can be awarded to the low or
lowest responsible bidder.
Authorization must be obtained for the proposed purchases for articles,
supplies, equipment and services having a unit value exceeding $1000.00.
*Carl D. Wilson, Jr., Non-point Source Coordinator, Region V,USEPA.
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The obtaining of a grant does not in itself constitute prior approval, even
though these were itemized in the application for a grant.
The U.S. EPA project officer will perform inspections and program re-
views and provide technical assistance to the project. He certifies that
the costs included in a voucher, were necessary to the conduct of the pro-
ject, the amounts claimed are reasonable, and all required reports were
received and are satifactory.
At the end of the project the project officer will request an audit
of the project account so that final payment can be made.
The final report from the grantee will follow the format set up by the
U.S. EPA project officer and approval granted before the report is submitted
to the Regional Administrator for distribution and grant completion.
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CONSERVATION FARM PLANNING
by
1
Thomas D. McCain
ABSTRACT
Conservation planning involves a presentation of treatment alter-
natives by the planner, and a close relationship with the decision maker,
the landowner.
WHAT IS PLANNING
Webster defines planning as: devising a scheme or program for doing
something; or developing a method of proceeding. With this definition
in mind, we can associate planning in our daily lives as an act by someone
to develop a systematic method of developing almost anything we want to
improve.
The daily drive to our office, school or market takes us across
roads planned by specialists trained to recognize certain needs of safe
and adequate traffic movement. The placing of man on the moon, the dev-
elopment of the Alaska pipeline, and so on, are all part of plans developed
by planners.
Decisions are predetermined for average citizens, in high level planning
as just cited in these examples. Planners may therefore put together a
master plan at a high decision making level and the individual must accept
this as the best course of action. At least this is the way some forms of
planning may be conducted. However if planning is to be most responsive
to the people, plans must have cooperative imput from the users.
Plans thus developed entirely at the top levels and imposed on users
who have no opportunity to present their views must be applied with re-
gulation or force. Planners have a responsibility therefore to project
an overview and provide technical continuity to the user but allow the
outcome to be a realistic decision by the people themselves.
SELECTING A NON-POINT SOURCE MODEL
The Black Creek Sediment Control Project involves 12,000 acres of
diverse landscape in northeastern Allen County, Indiana. Located less
'•District Conservationist in charge of U.S. Soil Conservation Service
operations at the field office level, Fort Wayne, Indiana.
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than 10 miles from the Indiana-Ohio state line, this "mini-model" of
the Mautnee basin was selected in December 1972 by a team of researchers,
engineers, agronomists and planners. Land use, soil types, topography,
farming operations and other watershed runoff characteristics were com-
pared carefully with the 4 million acre Maumee basin before final selec-
tion of this agricultural sediment control model.
An intensive study of Black Creek watershed began in early 1973 to
determine the soil conservation treatment needs, the makeup of landowners
and tracts, and the development of a program to accelerate land treatment
in this selected watershed. A rapid expansion of conservation planning
and application efforts had to be devised for this area involving 200
individuals with land holdings of 5 acres or more. In the short period
of 5 years an effort to plan each farm and apply all needed land treat-
ment was to be attempted.
PLANNING WITH INDIVIDUAL FARMERS
Just as there are not two individuals alike, neither are two farms
alike. First of all, farmers acting responsibly as businessmen and
citizens are very individualistic - they want and frequently do make
firm decisions. Their agricultural operations vary by the type of land
they farm, their livestock enterprises, their available equipment and
labor, and most important - the MAN in MANagement.
Accomplishing a high percentage of land treatment in Black Creek
watershed involves selectivity in planning. Initially key farmers were
selected on a basis of their past cooperative interest and land treat-
ment applications. Early planning efforts were directed toward these
people. The progressive farmers are quicker to accept the new programs
and accomplish new practices quickly.
Motivation of the individual to really want a conservation plan in-
volves stimulating his interest or curiosity in doing something that will
improve his farm, make him a better income or satisfy his desire to
sharpen his ability to complete in the independent business of farming.
To be a successful conservation planner, first we must motivate our-
selves .
1. We must believe in conservation
2. We must like to work with people •"•
3. We must understand our program
4. We must recognize alternatives
5. We must establish realistic goals, and
6. We must assume leadership
Working for the Soil Conservation Service can provide job motivation
through our desire for achievement, recognition, advancement, responsibi-
lity and the work itself - for land's sake I
In analyzing the farm we must discover what will motivate the farmer.
Why might he even want or feel he needs a farm plan. Is he wanting!
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1. To control erosion or sedimentation
2. A balanced crop rotation
3. A planned fertility program
4. A water management disposal system
5. To reorganize field layout
6. To change his livestock program
7. A pond for recreational use, or
8. To improve his land value and beauty
The motivated farmer and planner working together cooperatively
can accomplish these goals. Conservation planning is a decision making
process on the part of the farmer - not the planner. The trained conser-
vationist is the catalyst needed to provide the technical resource data
and the overview necessary to see the forest and the trees at the same
time.
CONSERVATION PLANNING TOOLS
The most basic tools used by the planner are the aerial photograph
and soil maps prepared for a farm. This overview of the farmer's land
provides a better perspective for analyzing field layout, existing drain-
age and erosion control systems, and soil resources.
The Soil Conservation Service uses an agricultural land classifica-
tion system to rank soils by the degree of hazards. Land capability
units I thru IV are found in Black Creek watershed indicating the pres-
ence of land with little or no limitations for agricultural uses (Class
I) thro land with severe limitations for use as cropland (Class IV).
Most o'f the latter should be used as pastureland, woodland or wildlife areas,
Subclasses of capability units II and III separate recognized major
hazard as: "e" erosion; "w" wetness; and "s" droughtiness. Class II
makes up the largest land capability unit with the wetness subclass found
predominately in the southern half of the watershed and the erosion sub-
class mostly in the rolling uplands of the northern half of this water-
shed.
The only soils with a droughty hazard occur as Class III along the
sandy beach ridge traversing midway across the watershed. The highest
level of Glacial Lake Maumee occupied most of the southern half of this
watershed 12-14,000 years ago. This land makes up part of the area known
to early settlers as the Great Black Swamp. These very heavy clay soils
accounts for the severe wetness associated with Class IIIw land.
THE UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION
Treatment alternatives for cropland having an erosion hazard are
developed for Black Creek cooperators by using the UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS
EQUATION (USLE). Adequate treatment will, at a minimum, control soil
loss within the tolerable limits for each soil type and erosion group.
Planners have access to soils information for each farm as they
work with the land users in developing cropping systems capable of holding
the average annual soil loss to levels within the tolerable limits. Many
times a combination of management practices such as: crop rotations,
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residue use, minimum tillage, contouring, strip cropping, etc., must
be combined with one or more mechnical practices: diversions, terraces,
grass waterways, etc., to reduce slope length in accomplishing the soil
loss goal on each farm.
Most soils in the Black Creek area have annual tolerable loss limits
of 3-4 tons depending on their inherent ability to retard erosion. The
more erodible (heavier clay) soils have a lower "T/K" index. This coupled
with on-site slope data and the rainfall factor for Allen County assists
the planner in computing the cropping management factor. This final num-
erical "C" value is used in selecting the rotation most nearly meeting the
needs of the farmer and the soil.
The UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION is: A = RKLSCP
"A" is the computed soil loss per year per unit area of land. It
is computed as tons per acre.
"R" is the average annual rainfall erosion index, or the average
annual erosive force of rainfall. An R value of 160 is assigned
to Allen County, Indiana. R values are found on Figure 2.1.
"K" is the soil erodibility factor. It is a measure of the rate
of which a soil will erode expressed as tons per acre per year
per unit if R for a 9% slope 72.6 feet long is under continuous
cultivated fallow. K values for the soils are found in Figure 2.2.
"L" is the slope length factor. It is the ratio of soil loss from
a specified slope length to that from a slope length of 72.6 feet
long, which is the slope length for the K value in the equation.
A slope length of 72.6 feet long has a factor value of 1. L is
determined in the field.
"S" is the slope gradient factor. It is the ratio of soil loss
from a specific slope gradient to that from a gradient of 9%, which
is the slope gradient specified for the K value in the soil loss
equation. A slope gradient of 9% has a factor value of 1. S is
determined in the field.
"L" and "S" are usually handled in combination. The soil loss
ratio - SL, can be read directly from the slope effect chart, Figure
2.3.
"C" is the cropping management factor. It is the ratio of soil
loss from land cropped under specified conditions to the correspond-
ing loss from the land in continuous fallow. Continuous fallow has
a factor value of 1 in the equation.
Cropping management factors "C" for common rotations used in Black
Creek are found in Figure 2.4.
"P" is the conservation practice factor. It is the ratio of soil
loss from a specified conservation practice to that from up-and-down
hill tillage operations. Up-and-down hill tillage has a factor
value of 1 in the equation.
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Table 2.2
Percent Slope
1.1 - 2.0
2.1 - 7.0
7.1 - 12.0
12.1 - 18
18.1 - 24
=s
Contouring
.6
.5
.6
.8
.9
Practice Factor 1
Contour Strip
Cropping
.3
.25
.3
.4
.45
-— _
Value
Terracing Plus
Contouring
.6
.5
.6
Soil loss tolerance (T) is not found in the equation but is import-
tant to the use of the equation in practical field application. It is
the maximum soil loss in tons per acre per year which can be tolerated
on a specific soil and still permit a high level of crop production to
be sustained economically and indefinitely. This does not necessarily
equate to water quality levels in streams.
"T" amounts, in tons per acre per year, have been established for
all soils in Black Creek and are found in Table 1, together with the K
values for the soils. T/K values are also listed in the table. The
T/K value is simply the T value divided by the K value for a specific
soil. These elements are used as a T/K value on the calculator for
Planning Conservation Systems.
USING THE SOIL LOSS SLIDE RULE
The^soil loss calculator is used in combination with the reference
tables listed to determine proper land treatment alternatives.
As an example, a cropping system computed on Joe Graber's farm in
the rolling uplands along the western edge of Black Creek watershed has
5% slopes in field #2 with average slope lengths of 90 feet. The T/K
value for this moderately eroded Morley silt loam soil is 7. Joe farms
generally across the slope nearly on the contour. The slide rule indi-
cates the cropping value of 0.165. Using his present crop rotation of
row-small grain-meadow-meadow (1-1-2) with spring plow and removing silage
from the corn ground, his actual cropping factor is 0.060. Therefore
averaging the soil loss over this 4 year rotation, Joe could expect a
loss of only slightly over 1 ton per acre compared to the tolerable limit
of 3 tons to maintain productivity of his land.
Another example is on Duyane Amstutz's farm, where his rotation is a
2-1, that is, 2 years row crop, 1 year wheat and fall plow. On the east
part of field 1 we have an area with 2-6% slopes averaging 500 feet long.
Field #1 is shaped like a concave bowl, making farming cross-slope or
nearly contour not difficult but ineffective as far as soil loss is con-
cerned. A small portion of the field has 6-12 percent slopes. The T/K
value of this moderately eroded Morley silt loam is 7. The slide rule
indicates a value of 0.048. Using Duyane's present rotation of 2-1
with fall plow his crop factor is 0.264. Therefore, the soil loss averag-
ed over a 3 year rotation is about 16 tons annually per acre.
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Since altering any one or a combination of factors in the soil
loss equation can bring about favorable results, the cooperator, after
considering all the alternatives, decided to break down the slope length
by using grassed backslope parallel terraces. By installing these on
170 feet intervals his soil movement (.loss) is reduced to just under the
3 ton tolerable loss limit. These terraces temporarily pond runoff be-
hind each ridge,letting the silt settle in place while "clean" water is
going out through a field tile. This tile outlet, of course, helps drain
the land after the surface flush has past.
A third example is on Ed Jones' farm located in the lower portion of
the watershed, near the point where Black Creek outlets into the Maumee
River. The major soil type is Nappanee, which is a nearly level, deep,
somewhat poorly drained, depressional soil with a T/K value of 6. Con-
ventional tillage (plow and disc) is performed generally up and down the
slope which is 2 percent with a length of approximately 450 feet. Henry
fall plows all his corn ground, The cropping management (slide rule)
factor for this land is 0.85. This factor would limit his cropping ro-
tation to a 1-1-1 (or 1 year row crop, one year small grain, and one year
hay or pasture). Henry elected to not fall plow but leave the 4000-6000
Ibs. of corn stalk residue from the 120 bushel average yield on the soil
surface during the erosive winter and spring months and use minimum tillage
(chisel plow with one discing) in the spring. With this change in manage-
ment techniques he can now safely go to a 3-lx rotation (3 years row crop,
1 year small grain with clover intercrop) and still be within the allowable
soil loss for this soil type. Prior to this change in cultural practices
Henry was loosing on the average approximately 11 tons of soil per acre per
year on the same ground.
PLANNING ALTERNATIVES BECOME DECISIONS
As the planner secures the basic cropping data and computes the rota-
tional alternatives, the real test of salesmanship and motivational methods
must be employed. At this point the plan is a series of alternatives that
require cooperator decisions. To secure the final decisions the planner
will:
1. Utilize curiosity and encourage its development
2. Focus attention toward desired outcomes
3. Use existing interests and develop others
4. Provide concrete and symbolic incentives if necessary
5. Provide for realistic goal setting, and
6. Aid in evaluating progress toward meeting goals
Black Creek plans nearly always result in contracts between the land-
owner and the Allen Soil and Water Conservation District. To become a
contract all decisions necessary for controlling erosion to within toler-
able limits must be made and recorded. The SWCD will then allocate funds
for the contract period according to a plan of operations. Modifications
can be made to add, delete or revise amounts planned. However, these changes
must again be reviewed and approved by the Board of Supervisors.
If a farmer desires not to complete all decisions, SCS can prepare
the conservation plan with alternatives noted. The farmer has a copy of
his plan but does not have the advantage of cost-sharing incentives. If
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he later elects to complete all decisions he is eligible for a contract.
However he may also complete his plan and have the full service of the
SCS technicians on the basis of his plan even though there is no cost-
sharing involved.
Occasionally an individual may have not become interested in a plan
during the initial contact. In those cases a different planner with a
slightly different approach may be able to stimulate a desire for a plan.
We realize however that 100% acceptance of the cooperative planning
approach will never be accomplished in the Black Creek project. Some of
these unapproachable landowners may be the ones we most need to complete
a meaningful land treatment program.
COMPLETING THE PLAN
In summarizing the objectives and methods of farm planning, the
farmer must be stimulated to desire a plan. We do this by developing
an understanding of his resources:
1. We will illustrate differences in land use and the problems
and potentials it creates.
2. Provide a service in interpreting soil capability maps and
soil tests.
3. Show an interest in his farm by walking over the land with
him.
4. Point out specific problems that are affecting his operation
and provide alternative solutions.
5. Provide an overview of off-site damages due to flooding, and
siltation from his farm or neighboring lands, and
6. We provide a record of his decisions in a plan showing his
potentials and possiblities.
No plan is complete if it is finished, filed and forgotten. The
motivated cooperator continually responds to follow-up contacts. We
must perform a compliance check once each year. However we will likely
see him many times during the year. Each time we visit a farm, whether
it is to discuss an upcoming application project, or to determine main-
tenance of existing practices, we can let a little " conservation en-
thusiasim" rub off on him. It helps to get him to set a date when we
should return. We also can secure definite committments for:
1. Engineering plans needed in advance
2. Technical assistance for practice establishment
3. Scheduling consultation with other specialists
In accomplishing the land treatment planning and application goals
for Black Creek watershed we in SCS are constantly aware of our front
line approach in carrying out the objectives of many agencies, organiza-
tions, and outside water quality interests. We must maintain our rela-
tionship with the people. As planners and technicians it is indeed a
pleasure to see the fruits of our labors unfold before our eyes.
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IMPACT OF SOCIAL ATTITUDES ON MANAGING THE ENVIRONMENT
by
R. M. Brooks and D. L. Taylor*
ABSTRACT
The sociological component is a very important part of the develop-
ment and maintenance of programs of sediment control. While the initial
costs may seem rather high, they will be negated by both the short- and
long-term benefits which will be realized. Assessment of the attitudes
of the landowners and the social structure of the community allow project
personnel to establish early contact with (1) those who are most recep-
tive to the purposes of the project, and (2) those who will have the most
influence on other farmers in the area. Data on the attitudes of the
farmers and the community structure is reported, and the special problems
generated by the nature of the Amish community are discussed.
* * *
The majority of papers in this seminar represent some technical as-
pect of the various projects funded by EPA to reduce erosion of agricul-
tural land. Some of you may wonder what role sociology can play as a
contribution to the success of the Black Creek project. We believe that
thus far, the sociological component not only is.a valuable addition to
a demonstration project, but furthermore is a real first in an attempt
to consider something other than a physical component in the reduction
of sediment. What we present today will not be the results of several
years of study over a range of research projects. Instead, it will be
a discussion of what we have found relative to the social component in
this project. From this, guidelines can be suggested for future projects
to ensure that local people have an input to decisions affecting how they
will manage the environment.
A social component is extremely vital in any program of sediment
control. This is not to degrade the importance of technology, new mach-
inery and techniques in suggesting alternative approaches to conserva-
tion of agricultural land. Yet, after the project terminates, there must
be some way to maintain the involvement of those left behind. Without
some assurity of commitment to the maintenance of conservation prac-
tices, the technical work, regardless of how advanced, will be in vain.
If involvement of landowners is an important component in managing
the agricultural environment, then we ought to know something about
their perceptions of pollution and its control. Furthermore, a thorough
*Former Professor of Agricultural Economics,and Sociology, Purdue Uni-
versity, West Lafayette, Indiana; Pre-doctoral student, Department of
Sociology and Research Assistant, Agricultural Economics, Purdue Uni-
versity, West Lafayette, Indiana.
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understanding of (1) current agricultural practices, (2) extent of
commitment to farming, and (3) the social situation influencing land-
owners can contribute significantly to the success of a demonstration
project such as that in the Black Creek.
Ultimately, the question of enforcement will arise. Because of
existing regulatory practices it is relatively easy to enforce standards
on industry merely through lawsuits. Likewise, cities can potentially
be brought into compliance by applying pressure to those in political
offices who are responsible for resolving such problems. The situa-
tion with private landowners, however, is somewhat different. No one
individual, organization, state, county or township official has the
authority or responsibility to manage landowners. Therefore, enforce-
ment may be more limited. We believe, however, that by operating
through the existing social structure, we can utilize local leadership
to gain legitimation of the project among landowners.
Without the addition of a social component, evaluation of the suc-
cess of the project would be tenuous. For example, if the project were
to fail, it would be difficult to ascertain whether it failed due to
inappropriate equipment, or because landowners lacked an understanding
of how to use it. If a demonstration plot were to fail, it might be due
to bad weather. On the other hand, it might be because landowners were
randomly selected, rather than using relevant sociological criteria—
and such farmers might not be as commited to the project. Much of the
data needed by other scientists working on the project can only be ob-
tained through personal interviewing of the landowners. For instance,
actual fertilizer usage in terms of kind, amount, frequency of applica-
tion, and manner of application seems to be critical data needed in
evaluating the contents of water quality studies. The same rationale
would apply to pesticide and herbicide usage. Although aerial photo-
graphs are helpful in specifying present crops, future crop plans and
agronomic practices can only be obtained by someone skilled in the
behavioral sciences. Finally, experiences with various conservation
practices again can only be obtained through personal interviewing.
JUSTIFICATION OF SOCIAL COSTS
A difficult part of adding a social component is the costs com-
pared with the benefits of the overall project. One criticism is that
there is no visible output. That is, no equipment or machinery is de-
signed to serve similar purposes in other project areas. The process
is also time consuming, with little output to help in guiding the pro-
ject. By the time inputs are made, the project has been terminated.
In reality, the social component should be started before the project
is in force to begin providing guidelines for directing interaction
with key landowners throughout the project.
Personal interviewing is expensive, usually between $30-$50 per
inteview. This can be costly when interviewing 300-400 landowners.
Yet, we think nothing of making expenditures for rainulators, automatic
sampling devices, fully automated analysis machines, tillage equipment,
etc.——all important to the work of other scientists on the project.
Rather, our criteria for inclusion well might be:
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1. What are the present attitudes, beliefs and knowledge
base of local landowners and how can we interface with
them to change behavior?
2. What is the existing power structure among landowners
in the project area and how can it be utilized to intro-
duce conservation practices to local landowners?
3. If pollution control boards were to be organized as a
means of regulating erosion on agricultural land, what
would be the composition of such a board that would be
acceptable to local people?
In other words, how can local people be involved, and how will this help
reduce the use of forced compliance? If the social component helps us
identify leaders and relevant public attitudes, it may well be worth
the expenditure.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS FROM A SOCIAL COMPONENT
In the Black Creek Project, the social component was added in the
early stages. However, this was not done early enough to provide a pre-
assessment of attitudes, beliefs, and opinions of leaders—nor the
existing social structure and networks of social interaction. It would
have been helpful if such information could have been obtained prior to
any construction in the project area. Why is this beneficial? Many
conservation practices introduced ty the project were not new to agri-
culture but may have been new to the area and/or local landowners. Al-
though the project duration is five years, nevertheless, this is a
short period to introduce practices, obtain farmers' cooperation,
follow up on unexpected changes in farmers' behavior with respect to
conservation plans, and continue monitoring changes in attitudes.
We know, sociologically speaking, that when people live in close
proximity certain norms of accepted and unaccepted behavior emerge.
Over time, these norms become part of the patterned behavior. In effect,
this behavior becomes part of a social system. If we can identify the
structure of that social system, then we ought to be able to interface
the project goals with the generally accepted patterns of behavior for
that area. Furthermore, in that social system, over time, opinion
leaders emerge who are known to local landowners, and a majority will
look to the leaders for new ideas, acceptance of conservation practices
and general approval of their behavior. Let us give some examples of
how this might work:
1. Locating cooperators—In most demonstration projects,
locating cooperators is a key element. Selecting co-
operators that do not fit into the existing patterns of
social interaction within the project area can have neg-
ative impacts. A landowner who never used an innovative
practice on his land may be viewed by other landowners
as either eccentric or "odd", if all of a sudden he has
multiple practices introduced on his land—even if those
practices are agronomically sound.
-28-
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2. Locating soil types—Since the project is looking at re-
ducing sediment loss, obviously soil types and crops pre-
sently on those soils are important. These leaders can use
their land as a pool to give access to a cross section of
soil types and crops or they can serve as a means of iden-
tifying other farmers in the area that have particular
soils suitable for specific practices.
3. Developing demonstration plots, tillage plots and field
days—A problem in any demonstration project is finding
sufficient numbers of farmers that are willing to commit
their time and some of their resources to maintaining plots.
Location is important, but commitment by the local land-
owner is more important. Furthermore, frequent field days
and project reviews require a landowner that is willing to
meet with busloads of visitors and allow frequent inter-
ruptions of his daily work schedule.
4. Acquiring equipment—Identifying local leaders opens new
doors in the area for additional resources. These leaders
usually belong to several professional, business or com-
munity organizations and can help in locating specific
equipment needs to maintain tillage plots and other con-
servation practices. This reduces the cost to the project
(by not having to purchase the equipment) and increases
the involvement of local people.
5. Insuring future maintenance—identifying local leaders
introduces project personnel to an accepted group of
local landowners that may serve to develop new patterns of
organization that would help maintain the practices once
the project terminates.
We cannot expect the SCS, SWCD, Agronomists, Agricultural Engineers,
Chemists or Biologists working on the project to have this kind of ex-
pertise. Furthermore, if the social component is not introduced until
later in the project, or even at the same time the project starts, the
wrong people may be asked to assume key local involvement (e.g., have
tillage plots,etc.) which can cause difficulties later on. Without the
social component, we run the risk of expecting great things to come from
the uninterested non-leaders rather than trying to locate the interested
leaders that can help the project become successful. Although the so-
cial component was added a little late in the Black Creek Project,
nevertheless, we were able to gain sufficient information to help guide
the project. Ideally, however, we feel the social component should
begin at least six months prior to any on-site work.
ATTITUDES OF LANDOWNERS IN THE BLACK CREEK
In the winter of 1972 and early spring of 1973 we initiated a
survey among landowners in the Black Creek. Criteria for inclusion was
that the landowner live within the 12,000-acre project area and be
responsible for 10 acres or more. The interview took approximately two
hours to administer. Of the landowners in the Black Creek, 1/3 were Old
-29-
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Order Amish farmers that maintained traditional methods of agriculture.
Specifically, this meant that only horse-drawn equipment was used. The
non-Amish landowners ranged from full to part time farming. We have
included a brief section on some of the general attitudes of landowners
in the Black Creek. We expect to use the data as a bench mark to mea-
sure change in attitudes over the duration of the project.
The attitudes of landowners are presented in three parts. Part
One is a discussion of the general level of awareness of soil conser-
vation, causes of pollution, and pollution control. Part Two looks at
the costs associated with preventive measures and future appropriate
action. Part Three focuses on attitudes toward pollution control pro-
grams and specifically the Black Creek project. An elaboration of
these attitutdes can be found in the 1975 Annual Report of the Black
Creek Project.
General Awareness
Farmers were asked to respond to two statements: "Conservation of
soil is not a real problem in this area." and "Pollution of streams is
a major problem in this county." Tables 1 and 2 present responses to
these questions by the Amish and non-Amish landowners. An equal percentage
of Amish and non-Amish feel conservation of soil is not a problem in
the area; whereas 25% feel that pollution of streams is not a major
problem (Table 2). In both Tables 1 and 2, the Amish represent a major
portion of the "don't know" (DK) responses. Because of their horse-and-
buggy form of transportation, the Amish are unlikely to do much traveling
throughout the area, other than what is necessary to maintain their
simple way of life. There, thus, appears to be sufficient reason for
educational programs concerning the awareness of soil problems in the
area.
Costs of Pollution Control
A major concern of landowners and federal agencies is how to pay
for pollution control. According to our data, both Amish and non-Amish
feel that money should be spent for pollution control. In Table 3,
over one-half of the non-Amish and almost half of the Ainish indicated
the cost should not be borne by those whose land is affected. However,
at least 20% of both Amish and non-Amish feel that the landowner should
bear the cost.
When asked who should pay for pollution control, (Table 4) 40%
of the non-Amish landowners expect the federal government to pay 25-50%
of the total cost. The landowners also indicated they expected the
state and local level to each contribute 25% of the cost. There is
some disagreement, however, on how this money is to be raised. Table
5 suggests 40% of the landowners are in favor of federal taxation and
42% opposed to this form of raising revenue for pollution control.
There seems to be a general favorable attitude toward government in-
volvement, yet the only way the government can get funds is through
taxation.
Black Creek Project
The majority of landowners in the Black Creek (both Amish and non-
Amish) feel they will benefit from the project. A large percentage of
-30-
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Table 1. Conservation of soil is not a real problem in this reea.
Amish
N %
Agree 15 46.9
DK 7 21.9
Disagree 10 31.2
TOTAL 32 100.0
Table 2. Pollution of streams is a major problem in
Amish
N %
Agree 6 18.8
DK 14 43.8
Disagree 12 37.4
TOTAL 32 100.0
Table 3. The cost of soil erosion reducing practices
entirely by those whose land is affected.
Amish
N %
Agree 7 21.9
DK 10 31.3
Disagree 15 46.8
TOTAL 32 100.0
Non-Amish
N %
26 45.6
3 5.3
28 49.1
57 100.0
this county.
Non-Amish
N %
30 52.6
11 19.3
16 28.1
57 100.0
should be borne
Non-Amish
N %
18 31.6
6 10.5
33 57.9
57 100.0
-31-
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ro
i
Table 4. Who should pay for the efforts in this district to control pollution? Indicate the percentage
of payment by eafh group.*
Percentage
0-25
26-50
51-75
76-100
DK
N/R
TOTAL
TYPE OF PAYMENT
Federal State
N % N %
9
35
1
—
10
2
57
11.2 24 26.9
39.4 21 23.6
1.1
—
11.2 10 11.2
2.2 2 2.2
100.0 57 100.0
Local
N %
22
19
1
3
10
2
57
24.7
21.3
1.1
3.3
11.2
2.2
100.0
* The Amish were not asked this question.
-------
Table 5. Federal taxation to clean up the water wouldn't be too ex-
pensive to consider.*
Non-Ami sh
N %
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
No Response
TOTAL
3
20
8
24
1
1
57
5.2
35.1
14.0
42.1
1.8
1.8
100.0
* The Amish were not asked this question.
-33-
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Amlsh were undecided, suggesting that the project was in its early
stages and farmers could not estimate the benefits until they had a
chance to experience some of the practices. There is strong support
for technical and professional people being involved in the program
(Table 6) and, furthermore, landowners overwhelmingly gave support
for the involvement of the federal government in local soil conserva-
tion programs (Table 7).
Identifying the benefits to the farmers' soil conservation is a
difficult task. Some of the conservation practices are short run,
many are long run; hence there is some skepticism on the part of the
landowner about sharing expenses. Time is a critical factor to a
farmer. He knows how long it takes to prepare his fields. Therefore,
asking him to take on practices that take more time introduces a fac-
tor that cannot guarantee any economic benefits, at least in the short
run. Furthermore, the level of unawareness of pollution problems,
as presented in this section, further hinders landowners in accepting
conservation practices. We do have evidence, however, that often times
the landowner has the inclination to do something about his conserva-
tion problem . Generally, however, he lacks this know-how and does not
know where to turn for help. An example of this is one Amish farmer
who has a severe washout problem in a creek crossing his land. Every
year he would haul several loads of dirt to fill the erosion. After
the first rain, it wolld all wash downstream. Fortunately, he has now
sign d a contract with the SWCD and the problem will soon be solved.
In summary, Black Creek landowners want government involvement;
in fact, they expect it. These landowners lack a thorough understand-
ing of pollution and its causes, as well as means to control it.
Finally, the total cost needs to be shared by several levels of gov-
ernment in addition to the local landowner.
LEADERSHIP STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS AMONG THE NON-AMISH
Earlier, we suggested that identifying the leadership structure in
the existing social system would be a means of giving support to the
project activities. The rationale behind this is to develop a small
but influential group of landowners that are already socially accepted
by the majority of landowners, and use this group as a mechanism of
support. Each non-Amish landowner was asked to name a local farmer
whom they believed was generally "well respected for his agricultural
practices". They were then asked to indicate whether or not they had
ever gone to that person for agricultural advice. In this manner, we
were not only able to ascertain the farmers' believe regarding "knowledge-
ables" in the area, but to also measure their behavior as approduct of
their beliefs. The responses to these two questions are presented in
-34-
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Table 6. Most of the major decisions in the demonstration project
should be made by people with professional and technical
training in water and soil management.*
Non-Amish
N %
Agree
DK
Disagree
TOTAL
39
6
12
57
68.4
10.5
21.1
100.0
* The Amish were not asked this question.
Table 7. The federal government should play an important role in soil
rnnRpTTjflf~n nn n-rntyramc in t"fi-fc ormnt-T-tr
conservation programs in this country
Amish Non-Amish
N % N %
Agree 20 62.5 36 63.2
DK 10 31.3 6 10.5
Disagree 2 6.2 15 26.3
TOTAL 32 100.0 57 100.0
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Figure 1, and represent the non-Amish community within the watershed.
The arrows in the sociogram (Figure 1) are meaningful. A thin
arrow indicates the respondents' choice of an opinion leader, but that
the respondent did not go to him for advice. A thicker arrow indicates
that not only did the respondent believe this person to be well re-
spected, but also that he had gone to this landowner for advice. It
should be noted that in the sociogram, the size of the circles have
been adjusted to be indicative of which farmers were chosen by the
most respondents, with the largest circles being those persons chosen
most often.
The two questions on which this figure is based serve two differ-
ent functions in assessing the social relationships within the commun-
ity. The first question determines which farmers are well respected.
It is a measurement of the social structure of the community. Further-
more, it enables one to identify those persons who hold the most in-
fluential and important positions in the community. The second question
allows the assessment of the closeness of the relationship between the
respondent and the person he chose. In summary, while the thickness
of the arrows indicate the interpersonal relationships, the position
of the arrows indicate the social structure of the non-Amish farm com-
munity.
This information is important to the project because eight key
farmers have been identified to aid in the progress of the project.
New ideas, as well as the introduction of conservation practices, can
be presented to them in an effort to speed up the process of participa-
tion in watershed activities. It is important to recognize the existance
of a social structure and operate within it. Although the Amish did not
respond to these questions of leader identification, nevertheless, they
have a social structure in their community that must be recognized if
any degree of success is to be expected. The Bishop is a key figure
in the Amish church district. Without his approval, little can be ac-
complished. With his approval, meetings can be scheduled and coopera-
tion anticipated. It is important to know and understand these two
systems and how they affect working relationships among landowners.
To serve as a cross-check on the validity of the data displayed in
the sociogram, farmers were asked to select people to serve on a pollu-
tion control board. Each respondent provided the names of three people
These same questions were also presented to approximately % of the
Amish landowners. Their response, however, was different than the
non-Amish. Non-Amish responded readily to the questions. The Amish,
however, hesitated and most, even with intensive probing, would not
provide a response. One of their beliefs is that pride should be
avoided. Hence, asking an Amishman to select another as a "knowledge-
able farmer" would tend to elevate one over the other. Besides, their
livelihood is agricultural and "we are all supposed to be good farmers.
Therefore, the Amish did not respond to the questions, although there
is evidence suggesting advice is sought from parents and other rela-
tives concerning agricultural operations on the farm.
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Figure 1. Sociometric choice patterns of fanners: An illustration of
opinion leadership among the non-Anish in the Black Creek.
-------
he would like to see serve on such a board, if one were developed in
their area. These board members would hold positions of importance
in the area exerting influence within the community relative to decisions
on pollution control. Furthermore, they would have contact with govern-
ment as representatives of the area farmers. We assume that when farmers
gave their three choices, they were looking for people they could trust,
whose judgment they could respect and in whom they were willing to feel
confident.
A comparison was made between the group of 8 farmers selected as
opinion leaders and the group generated in the question concerning
the pollution control board. Of the 8 farmers selected in either the
"Opinion" or the "Advice" questions, 6 were also most often selected as
members of the pollution control board. This further confirms our be-
liefs that the farmers selected as leaders in Figure 1 are, in fact,
considered to be respected and influential in the community.
These eight opinion leaders also have characteristics which are
different from the non-leaders in the watershed. Table 8 suggests marked
differences in socio-economic characteristics. The opinion leaders are
older, receive 94% of their income from farming (and are therefore com-
mitted to maintaining agriculture in their area), have incomes averaging
$8,000 more than non-leaders, have almost three times the acreage and
have more organizational affiliations than non-leaders by 5 to 1. The
leaders thus have organizational networks that provide them with access
to resources and other farmers throughout the area.
These leaders also have greater contact with agency people. They
have twice the contact with local extension agents, SCS and SWCD person-
nel, four times the contact with county commissioners and twice as much
interaction with personnel from the land grant university.
We believe that working through this small group of eight identified
opinion leaders that we will ultimately have contact with the non-leaders.
They cannot only teach each other about conservation problems, but even-
tually the two groups may work together in setting local pollution stan-
dards and controls. By following this procedure, we can gain access to
the entire social structure of the non-Amish.
SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN THE AMISH COMMUNITY
We have learned that the Araish cannot be approached in the same way
as the non-Amish. Rather than identifying several opinion leaders, we
found that gaining approval and acceptance from the Bishop was an impor-
tant component in establishing legitimation among the Amish. Several
meetings were held with the Bishop to become acquainted and to elicit
his support. Through the Bishop's influence, we were able to locate an
Amish family that was willing to provide the interviewers with room and
board during the interview phase of the project.
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Table 8. Characteristics of Non-Amish Opinion Leaders and Non-leaders
in the Black Creek*
Characteristic
Leaders
Non-Leaders
Mean Age
Education
% Income from Farming
Gross Family Income, 1973
Number of Years in Farming
Number of Acres
Number of Organizations Belonged To
52 years
Some High School
94%
$23,000 -
25,000
34
294
5
46 years
Some High School
71%
$15,000-
17,000
26
108
1
Percent Contact (during last year) with:
Extension Agents
Agricultural Stabilization
Farmers Home Administration
Federal Crop Insurance
Allen Co. SWCD
Vocational Agricultural Dept.
County Commissioners
County Council Members
Dept. of Natural Resources
Purdue University
50%
100%
0%
13%
88%
63%
50%
25%
25%
100%
22%
42%
4%
13%
42%
8%
11%
6%
6%
42%
*Leaders were those (8) farmers named 3 or more times in response to the
question "Who do you think is well-respected in this (watershed) for his
general agricultural practices and abilities?" Non-leaders were all other
non-Amish respondents.
-39-
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Appointments with Amish farmers were made possible through the aid
of an Araishman hired to arrange interviews. His work consisted of per-
sonally visiting the homes of each Amish landowner in the Black Creek
to set a time and legitimate the presence of the interviewer. Without
his help it is doubtful that any interviews would have been possible.
Because the Amish have relatively little contact with outsiders they
are often suspicious of them, regardless of the good intentions of the
people. This factor can lead to complications in the interviewing pro-
cess .
The elaborate process of living in an Amish home while conducting
the interviews, hiring an Amishman to make appointments and personally
being acquainted with the families proved worthwhile in the long run, as
the response rate was very high. Only two Amishmen refused to be inter-
viewed. But to obtain this success rate required persistence, personal
involvement in the lives of the Amish and understanding of family rela-
tionships and ties in the watershed. This was obviously time-consuming,
yet we believe the Amish feel we are interested in helping them solve
their conservation problems rather than merely imposing our program on
them.
Contrasting the approaches used to interview Amish and non-Amish
suggests that it is important to know the composition of the popula-
tion living within the watershed. It is important to know what relig-
ious or other constraints, if any, exist. It must be recognized that
there is a social structure regardless of the type of community and that
by properly approaching that structure, one can gain entry. But we have
learned that the Amish and non-Amish must be approached differently if
we hope to enjoy any degree of success.
SUMMARY
We have learned much from the past three years working with the Amish
and non-Amish landowners. Most obvious is that they cannot be approached
the same in conservation work. Non-Amish, because of their exposure to
different agricultural practices, appear less doubtful of the conserva-
tion practices. Since their acreage is larger than the Amish, frequently
a decision to sign a contract for work with the SWCD can be done by one
landowner. The Amish, however, are more skeptical of the "new" prac-
tices and their ability to use them on their farms. Furthermore, because
of small acreage (usually 80-100 acres) decisions to make grass waterways,
etc. can often involve multiple farms. Arriving at a group decision can
be most difficult, especially when family patterns and kinship ties may
complicate the decision.
In spite of the fact that the Black Creek project has only entailed
12,000 acres and the Amish population is significant in only a few states.
We believe that many of the procedures utilized in this project to gain
access to local landowners could be followed in other projects. There
is an obvious need for a socially-oriented person to spend full time
interacting with landowners, gaining their confidence and giving them an
opportunity to express their opinions and concerns as the project pro-
gresses.
-40-
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This person can also provide useful information regarding the fanners'
reactions to contractors which could help avoid situations that may per-
manently sever project-landowner relations.
Identifying leaders through survey methods should be useful to
other studies. Working with a small group of landowners selected by
peers can contribute greatly to the success of the project. These
leaders can help in discussing alternative methods of controlling
pollution and may offer suggestions on how to avoid the impression of
force by legislation. They also are a mechanism of instigating instant
local involvement to legitimize the progress of the project.
Finally, a personal approach to involving landowners in decisions
is an important part in helping them gain confidence in project person-
nel . One o f the two Amishmen that refused to be interviewed two years
ago sought us out for advice and help on solving a water problem on
his land, although we had to wait for a six-inch rain before he realized
he had a problem. Yet, as a result of the contact he knew where to
turn for help. In sum, both Amish and non-Amish can be reached if we
are willing to be patient yet persistant, and plan our involvement with
local people.
The success of the Black Creek project can be measured in many
ways. The benefits from the social component will be difficult to quan-
tify. However, we believe that a significant contribution to the overall
success of the project can be attributed to the interplay between the
sociological and the technological phases in the Black Creek.
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TILLAGE AHD SIMULATED RAIHFALL STUDIES
J. V. Mannering, D. R. Griffith, and C. B. Johnson*
&*••*. ," *.',"»
ABSTRACT
Conventional and conservation tillage systems for corn pro-
duction were located on test plots chosen to represent the dominant
soil capability subclasses within the 12,000 acre Black Creek Water-
shed. The objectives of the demonstration were to test tillage
effects on soil and water management and crop yields. In addition,
the equipment needs and recommended procedures to be followed by
the operators were also evaluated. Results to date show fall
chiseling produced corn yields equal to or greater than turn plow-
ing on two of the three lake plain soils tested. The reduced yield
on the chiseled plot at one location resulted from lower stand.
Shallow tillage with a disk or field cultivator produced yields
comparable with chiseling or plowing on two of the three lake plain
soils and on both of the upland (glacial till) soils. Results from
no till comparisons were highly variable, but usually no till was
more competitive where drainage and weed control was better.
Simulated rainfall tests were conducted in 1973 and 1971* to
develop information (base values) for the sediment contributions
of the major soil capability units within the watershed and to
determine the effects of various forms of tillage, residue man-
agement, and crop species on the overall erosion-sedimentation
process. On the basis of gross erosion, results to date show
the sloping soils of the uplands (glacial till) to be potentially
more damaging than nearly level lake plain soils to water quality.
Soil erosion rates were 3 or more times higher from these soils
than from the nearly level lake plain soils. Within the nearly
level lake plain soils, soil loss differences appeared to be
closely related to soil texture and structure. Tillage system
and the associated influence on crop residues were shown to have
major effects on the soil erosion. In late spring tests soil
losses from fall chiseling were approximately 1/2 to 3A those
from fall turn plowing and soil losses from both shallow fall
disking and no tillage were approximately 1/U of those from fall
turn plowing. The amount of residue remaining on the surface
was inversely related to the amount of soil loss.
IHTRODUCTION
The Black Creek Water Shed is an area of intensive farming with an
estimated 60% of the area devoted to row crop (corn and soybean) culture
in an average year. The dominant cultural practices used in corn and
•Professor of Agronomy and Research Agronomist, Purdue University,
Research Technician, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, West
Lafayette, Indiana.
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soybean production within the watershed consists of fall turn-plowing,
secondary tillage for seedbed preparation in the spring and cultivation
for weed control. Although this method of crop production is agronomi-
cally sound it does leave a large percent of the watershed unprotected
and subject to erosion during a large part of the year. Conservation
tillage systems have been shown to effectively reduce soil erosion at
several locations in the Cornbelt (2, 3, 5, 6). If these practices are
adaptable to soils within the Black Creek Watershed, they could have a
significant influence in reducing both field erosion and the resultant
sediment problem from row crop culture.
The objectives of this study are, therefore, to:
l) demonstrate the suitability of various conservation tillage systems
on the dominant soil capability subclasses in the watershed;
2) determine base soil loss values (under fallow conditions) of these
dominant soils. More specifically to assess these major soils as
to their relative erodibilities as a means of evaluating their poten-
tial for affecting water quality through the sedimentation process;
3) determine the erosion control effectiveness of several methods of
conservation tillage in comparisons with conventional systems on
these major soils.
PROCEDURE
Tillage Demonstration
Tillage demonstration sites using farmer-cooperators to perform all
cultural practices were located in 1973 and tested in 197U on three main
groups of soils: (l) the rolling upland silty soils with clay subsoils
(Morley, Blount, Pewamo); (2) the upper, nearly level, lake plain sandy,
loamy and silty soils with clay loam subsoils or clays under deep loams
(Oshtemo, Whitaker, Rensselaer and Raskins); and (3) the nearly level
lake plain with silt loam, clay loam or clay surfaces and clay subsoils
(St. Clair, Nappanee and Hoytville). Tillage systems compared included:
(a) fall plow, (b) spring plow (both treatments (a) and (b) consist of
turn plowing, secondary seedbed preparation by disking or field culti-
vation in the spring and planting), (c) fall chisel (chiseling in the
fall followed by secondary seedbed preparation in the spring), (d) disk-
ing once or twice (light disking 3 - k inches deep—all disking operations
performed in the spring before planting, if once, it was done in the
spring before planting), (e) no-tin (planting in a narrow tilled slit
without any prior tillage). A more detailed description of these systems
and the soil and crop conditions resulting from their use are reported
elsewhere (l). Stand counts, plant height, and yields were recorded at
each location. All tillage systems were not included at each test site
because of either their lack of suitability to soil conditions or
because of a lack of adequate equipment.
RESULTS
Tillage Demonstration
Rolling upland-glacial till soils; This area is characterized by
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sloping Morley, level Blount and depressed Pewamo soils developed from
glacial till. The Morley soil is particularly subject to water erosion.
A large part of the upland portion of the watershed is farmed by Amish-
men using horse-drawn tools and two row planters. Four tillage systems
(some especially adapted for this test) using horse-drawn equipment were
compared on the Ben Eicher farm on both a Morley silt loam and a Blount
silt loam soil. Results are reported in Table 1.
Table 1. Corn Stand, Height -and Yield. Eicher Farm
Morley Silt Loain k-6% Slope Blount Silt Loam 0-25 Slope
Stand Height Yield Stand Height Yield
(1000) (in) (bu/A) (lOOO) (in) (bu/A)
Spring plow
Fall plow
Disk twice
No til
10.6
11.2
13.0
12.5
10
12
13
11
31
3U
35
19
12.5
11. U
11.5
9.3
13
10
13
12
U9
UU
UO
U3
I/ Corn planted May 28, plant height recorded June 22.
Upper (loamy) lake plain soils; The pattern of soils along the
outer, higher portion of the lake plain includes loamy sands, sandy
loams, and loams with clay loams only in the depressed dark colored
areas. Soil drainage is more rapid and soils warm faster than on the
more clayey lower lake plain closer to the Maumee River. Based on other
research (l) there should be a vide range of tillage systems adapted to
this soil area. Two tillage trials were initiated on these loamy soils
and results are reported in Tables 2 and 3.
Table 2. Corn Stand, Heights/and Yield. Ehle Farm
Oshtemo Loamy Fine Sand Whitaker Loam Rensselaer Clay Loam
Stand Height Yield Stand Height Yield Stand Height Yield
(in) (bu/A) (1000) (in) (bu/A) (lOOO) (in) (bu/A)
Spring plow
Fall plow
Fall chisel
Disk once spring
Disk twice spring
No-til
U3.2
3U.O
31.8
29.8
33.0
3U.O
29
27
30
29
31
27
21
6U
5U
38
30
27
31.8
3U.O
31.2
2U.6
29.0
30.0
2U
25
26
2k
22
23
72
80
111
8U
91*
81
25.8
28.8
29.0
28.2
26.lt
28.6
29
30
32
30
30
2U
168
118
18U
176
187
128
I/Corn planted May 2, plant height recorded June 21.
-44-
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Table 3. Corn Stand, Height^and Yield. Yerks Farm
Vhitaker Loam
Tillage treatment
Spring plow
Fall plow
Fall chisel
Disk twice spring
Stand
(1000)
23.6
23.6
2U.6
23.6
ssaasaaas
Height
(in)
lU
1*
13
15
Yield
(bu/A)
91
8*
101
.0*
Rensselaer Clay Loam
Stand
(1000)
2U.U
23.2
2U.2
23.0
Height Yield
(in) (bu/A)
80
81
77
82
I/Corn planted May 27, plant height recorded June 21.
Lower (clayey)lake plain soils: This is the smoothest part of the
lake plain with slow surface drainage and a nearly level light colored
swell and dark colored swale landscape. The principal light colored
soils are poorly drained Nappanee silt loam and silty clay loam and the
principal dark soils are poorly drained Hoytville silty clay loam and
clay. Results of the tillage trial are reported in Table *.
Table *. Corn Stand, Height^and Yield. Lake Farm
Nappanee Silt
Tillage treatment
Spring plow
Fall Plow
Fall chisel
Disk fall and spring
Disk twice spring
Field cultivate spring
Stand
(1000)
8.0
20.2
19.6
17.0
15.*
17.*
Height
(in)
9
20
1*
16
1*
12
Loam
Yield
(bu/A)
53
73
57
*8
35
a U2-a-
Hoytville Silty
Stand
(1000)
16.6
16.2
16.*
15.8
17.2
ll*«L-
Height
(in)
19
17
18
1*
16
12
Clay Loam
Yield2/
(bu/AT
— —
—
—
—
— r-
I/Corn planted May 6, plant height recorded June 21.
2/Plots too variable to record yield.
DISCUSSIOH
Tillage Demonstration
The 1971* growing season was unusual throughout with excess rain in
the spring, a severe summer drought and an early September frost. Much
lower than normal yields resulted in the demonstrations. Plant stress
from conditions such as these tend to amplify differences in plant growth
and yield caused by minor soil variations. For this reason yield infor-
mation reported in this paper may inadequately characterize corn response
to the different tillage methods on some of the soils.
However, there were some observations made during the year that are
useful. For example, on the Eicher Farm during a heavy shower on June
22, water was observed to run off quickly from spring and fall plowed
-45-
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plots on k-6% slopes and this runoff contained visable silt. On disked
plots and no til plots runoff was less and also was practically clear.
Although the results are somewhat variable, fall chiseling wher
included in the test produced com yields equal to or better than plow-
ing on all but one location. Chiseling is on the increase in the area
and would appear to offer all but Anish farmers an effective soil con-
serving system adapted for widespread use in basic land preparation.
Shallow tillage with a disk or field cultivator produced yields
comparable with chiseling or plowing on Rensselaer, Whitaker, Morley,
and Blount soils, but yields were reduced on Nappanee.
On the two farms where no til was included, yields were acceptable
on Blount and Whitaker soils, but were reduced on Morley, because of poor
weed control, and on Rensselaer, where growth was delayed due to cool
weather. On Oshtemo loamy fine sand, variation within the trial was great
but no-til had no apparent yield advantage in a droughty situation where
the presence of surface residue should have increased soil moisture and
therefore yield.
PROCEDURE
Erosion Studies Under Simulated Rainfall
Simulated rain tests were conducted in 1973 at U locations to
determine the base values for the sediment contributions of the major
capability units in the study area. These same locations were used in
1971* to test the influence of tillage system and residue management on
soil erosion. These k locations consisted of U distinct soil types
which are representative of over 8o£ of the major soil capability units
contained in the Black Creek Watershed. The four test sites are iden-
tified in Table 5.
Table 5. Identification of Test Locations-/
1.
2.
u!
mmm
Location
Yerks Farm
Hirsch Farm
HIrsch Farm
Bennett Farm
Soil Type
Haskins loam
Happanee clay loam
Hoytville silty clay
Morley clay loam
% Slope2^
0.15-1.76
0.72-0.66
0.53-0.75
5.08-3.99
Prior Crop- .
Corn
Corn
Corn
Soybeans
I/Locations had to be moved a short distance in the 1971* tests to
avoid confounding effects of 1973 tests on 197U results.
2/The percent slope given first is for the 1973 tests, the second
value is for 1971* tests.
3/The crop proceeding the fallow plot tests was corn in 3 of the
locations and soybeans on the Uth location. Also, the residues
tested in the 1971* tillage study were also corn in 3 of the tests
and soybeans in the Uth.
-46-
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The plot preparation for the 1973 tests consisted of turn plowing
in the early spring and two diskings immediately prior to the applica-
tion of the test storms. The final disking was performed parallel to
the dominant slopes. Prior crop residues were not removed prior to
turn plowing. In the 197^ tests the following treatments were applied
in the fall of 1973:
l) Check—No tillage performed after harvest of crops. All residues
left on the surface.
2) Disk—Light disking (2-3 inches deep)--slight incorporation of
residues.
3) Chisel—Chiseling (6-8 inches deep)—some incorporation of residues.
1*) Plow—Plow (6-8 inches deep) nearly all residues buried. No further
treatment was applied prior to applying simulated rain tests in the
late spring of 1971*. These tillage treatments represented condi-
tions that would occur in late winter and early spring after the
soil had undergone the winter weathering processes and based on
prior research should be the most critical erosion period for most
if not all treatments compared. All treatments in both the '73 and
'7U tests were replicated once. Individual plots were 12 feet by
35 feet. A randomized block design was used where applicable.
Simulated rainfall tests in both '73 and '71* consisted of the
following:
Initial storm—60 minutes of rainfall at 2-1/2 inches per hour.
Wet storm—30 minutes of rainfall at 2-1/2 inches per hour applied
twenty-four hours following the initial storm.
Very wet storm—30 minutes of rainfall at 2-1/2 inches per hour
applied fifteen minutes after the end of the wet storm.
Samples were taken for antecedent soil moisture determinations
prior to the initial and wet tests. In the 1971* tests surface residue
cover was determined photographically on each plot. Runoff rates and
amounts were determined by the use of flumes and water stage recorders
and 1% aliquot samples of runoff were taken throughout the test for
determining sediment load and composition. Procedures developed in
earlier studies (U) for conducting simulated rain tests and analyzing
the results were used in this study.
RESULTS
Simulated Rainfall Tests
1973 results from the initial, wet, very wet, and 3-storm totals
are given in table 6. Included is information on runoff, infiltration,
soil concentration, and soil loss from the 12' x 35' plots on all U loca-
tions.
-47-
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Table 6. Summary of Results from Fallow Plots (12*
storms. July-August 1973
25') by test
Soil Type
Haskins L.
Nappanee C.L.
Hoytville Si.C.
Morley C.L.
Haskins L.
Nappanee C.L.
Hoytville Si.C.
Morley C.L.
Haskins L.
Nappanee C.L.
Hoytville Si.C.
Morley C.L.
Haskins L.
Nappanee C.L.
Hoytville Si.C.
Morley C.L.
Storm
Initial (60 min)
n
n
11
Wet (30 min)
ti
it
tt
Very Wet (30 min)
"
tt
Total (2 hrs)
tt
Appl
in
2.50
tt
it
1.25
tt
it
it
1.25
"
it
tt
5.00
ii
tt
Infil.
in
1.21*
1.77
1.63
1.08
0.29
0.1*1
0.22
0.18
0.07
0.20
0.10
0.11
1.60
2.37
1.96
1.37
Runoff
in
1.26
0.73
0.87
0.96
0.85
1.03
1.07
1.18
1.05
1.15
l.ll*
3.1*0
2.63
3.01*
3.61*
Soil Cont
Runoff
i
1.1*1
0.90
3.91
1.17
0.62
0.76
3.1*3
0.9l»
0.86
3.1*6
1.23
0.72
0.87
3.92
. Soil
Loss
T/A
2.03
0.78
0.96
6.55
1.25
o 61
W * \JJrn
0.88
1*.23
1.25
•^ • *— ,x
06l
t U JL
1.01
1*.60
1*.53
^ • x«J
2.0l*
2.85
15.38
*K9»9»9B
I/Results are averages of two replications.
2/Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity of 2-1/2
in/hr.
3/Soil content of runoff is Ibs. actual soil loss/lbs. actual runoff
x 100. Values presented for totals are obtained by adjusted soil
loss/adjusted runoff, therefore do not fully agree with unadjusted
values for the individual storms.
The 1971* tests on the effects of tillage system on soil and water
management are presented in Tables 8-12. Table 7 gives the photo-
graphically determined estimates of crop residue cover as affected by
tillage system on all 1* test locations.
-48-
-------
Table 7. Percent surface cover as influenced by tillage system.-'
Treatment
Soil Type
Haskins L.
Nappanee C.L.
Hoytville Si.C.
Morley C.L. 2/
Check
57
53
78
26
Disk
55
58
77
17
Chisel
36
29
57
12
Plow
1
5
k
1
I/Cover estimates are averages of 6 determinations.
2/The Morley soil had soybean residues—the other 3 locations had
corn residues.
Table 8. Summary of tillage results I/ by *«st storms. May-June 197**.
Location—Haskins Loam
Treatment
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plov
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plov
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Storm
Initial (60 min)
if
it
n
Wet (30 min)
n
n
«
Very Wet (30 min)
n
n
it
Total (2 hrs)
H '
n
n
Appl.
in
2.50
tt
n
n
1.25
it
it
it
1.25
tt
tt
tt
5.00
n
n
11
Infil.
in
1.52
1.22
1.22
0.77
0.67
O.U6
0.28
0.25
0.1*3
O.ll*
0.15
0.16
2.62
1.82
1.65
1.18
Runoff
2/
in
0.98
1.28
1.28
1.73
0.58
0.79
0.97
1.00
0.82
1.11
1.10
1.09
2.38
3.18
3.35
3.82
Soil Cont
RunoffS/
%
l.UO
0.83
1.81
2.71*
0.61*
0.36
1.65
2.67
0.5l*
0.27
.1.1*6
2.51
0.87
O.U9
1.62
2.69
. Soil
Loss2/
T/A
1.1*3
1.09
2.58
5.1*7
0.1*2
0.32
1.79
3.0U
0.50
0.31*
1.78
3.13
2.35
1.75
6.15
11.61*
I/Results are averages of two replications.
2/Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity of
2-1/2 in/hr.
3/Soil Content of runoff is Ibs. actual soil loss/lbs actual runoff x
100.
-49-
-------
Table 9* Summary of tillage results!/ by test storms. May-June 197^-
Location ITappanee clay loam.
Treatment
Storm
Appl. Infil. Runoff Soil Cont. Soil
2/ RunoffS/ Loss2/
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
in
Initial (60 min) 2.50
it it
ti
n
Wet (30 min)
Very Wet (30 min) 1.25
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Total (2 hrs)
"
1!
It
5.00
tt
it
it
in
1.26
1,
1,
1,
32
33
38
0.52
0.31
0.31
2.28
2.67
2.18
2.27
in
1.2U
1.18
1.17
1.12
0.81
0.73
0.9^
0.9U
2.72
2.33
2.82
2.73
0.28
0.20
0.75
1.25
n
n
ti
0.58
0.83
0.5U
0.58
0.67
O.U2
0.71
0.67
0.21
0.15
0.62
1.00
0.18
0.11
0.63
0.92
0.23
0.18
0.66
1.16
T/A
O.UO
0.32
0.99
1.85
0.16
0.07
O.U8
0.77
17
09
63
96
0.73
O.W
2.10
3.58
I/Results are averages of two replications.
2/Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity
of 2-1/2 in/hr.
3/Soil content of runoff is Ibs actual soil loss/lbs actual runoff
x 100.
-50-
-------
Table 10. Summary of tillage results!/ "by test storms. May-June 197**•
Location Hoytville silty clay.
SS SSSE 25 £**sss£s*; S2 S5SS S2 S5 2522 2225 SSI 5235 S 22S 5S SS2S2 SSSSSES5 S5S5 25 55 S25 S2 S2SB SSS53SSSS S5S52522S525S222SBSS53XSES5 S555SS3539SS9BSS 5532 SSS
Treatment Storm Appl. Infil. Runoff Soil cont. Soil
2J RunoffS/ Lossg/
Check
Disk
Chisel
Disk
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plov
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plov
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plov
Initial (60 min)
ti
ti ti
it
Wet (30 min)
tt
11
it
Very Wet (30 min)
it
ii
it
Total (2 hrs)
it
ti
it
in
2.50
it
it
tt
1.25
it
it
it
1.25
ti
ti
it
5.00
ii
tt
ti
in
1.33
1.1k
2.01
1.32
0.68
0.82
1.00
0.1*8
o.ko
0.31
0.5U
0.37
2.1+1
2.87
3.55
2.17
in
1.17
0.76
O.U9
1.18
0.57
0.1+3
0.25
0.77
0.85
O.plt
0.71
0.88
2.59
2.13
1.U5
2.83
if
0.18
0.20
0.1+9
0.67
0.17
0.29
0.50
0.56
0.11+
0.11
0.1+8
0.55
0.17
0.17
0.1+5
0.60
T/A
0.21+
0.17
0.27
0.90
0.11
0.11+
0.12
0.1+8
O.lU
0.11
0.35
0.51*
0.1+9
0.1+2
0.71*
1.92
I/Results are averages of two replications.
2_/Runoff and soil loss have "been adjusted to a constant intensity
of 2-1/2 in/hr.
3/Soil content of runoff is Ibs actual soil loss/lbs actual runoff
x 100.
-51-
-------
Table 11. Summary of tillage results!/ by test storms. May-June
Location Morley clay loam.
Treatment
Storm
Appl. Infil. Runoff Soil Cont. Soil
2/ RunoffS/ Loss2/
in
in
in
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Check
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Initial (60 min) 2.50
n n
n tt
« n
Wet (30 min) 1.25
it n
n n
n n
Very Wet (30 min) 1.25
ii ii
tt n
it n
Total (2 hrs) 5.00
« n
tt n
n tt
0.57
0.75
0.75
0.59
0.21
0.31*
0.27
0.20
o.oU
0.16
0.16
0.25
0.82
1.25
1.18
l.C*
1.93
1.75
1.75
1.91
l.Ol*
0.91
0.98
1.05
1.21
1.09
1.09
1.00
U.18
3.75
3.82
3.96
1.21
1.51
3.6l
U.57
1.25
1.21
3.2»*
3.91
1.36
1.08
2.36
3.U8
1.26
1.31
3.12
U.07
2.65
2.96
7.08
9.8l
1.50
1.27
3.5U
U.60
1.82
1.32
2.89
3.85
5-97
5.55
13.51
18.26
I/Results are averages of two replications.
2/Runoff and soil loss have been adjusted to a constant intensity
of 2-1/2 in/hr.
3/Soil content of runoff is Ibs actual soil loss/lbs actual runoff
x 100.
Table 12. Summary of soil loss results as affected by tillage system
from 5 inches of simulated rainfall on U locations.
Location
Check
Treatment (Loss in
Disk Chisel
Plow
Haskins L.
Nappanee C. L.
Hoytville SiC.
Morley C. L.
2.W
0.7
0.5
6.0
1.8
0.5
O.U
5.6
6.2
2.1
0.7
13.5
11.6
3.6
1.9
18.3
-52-
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DISCUSSION
Simulated Rainfall Tests—Fallow Plot Study
Table 6 shows major soil capability units within the water shed to
erode at varying rates. The major effect can be attributed to slope dif-
ference as evidenced by soil losses of over 15 T/A on the 5% Morley soil
in the glacial-till portion of the watershed compared to soil losses of
less than 5 T/A on the more level (lake plain) portion of the watershed
(Haskins, Nappanee, Hoytville) when exposed to 5 inches of intense rain-
fall. However, even on nearly level slopes significant soil loss dif-
ferences occurred. Notice that even though the Haskins soil had the
least slope, soil loss values were essentially twice those on the
Hoytville and Nappanee soils. Laboratory measurements show both the
Nappanee and Hoytville soils to have better structure than the Haskins.
Both the Nappanee and Hoytville soils developed major shrinkage cracks
which greatly increased infiltration as compared to the Haskins and
Morley soils (Note infiltration data). This was also a major factor in
reducing soil loss.
Soil losses were generally quite low on the nearly level soils as
could be expected. This would indicate that the major soil erosion prob-
lem in the watershed does not occur on these lake plain soils, but
rather on the sloping-glacial till soils in the north part of the water-
shed. However, the transportability of the sediment (the amount that
gets into the Maumee River) and in turn its influence on nutrient trans-
port from the different soils within the watershed will be better evalu-
ated by physical and chemical analyses still underway.
DISCUSSION
Simulated Rainfall Tests—Tillage Study
Appreciable soil losses occurred on the Haskins loam (Table 8) from
both the fall chisel and fall plowed treatments. Both infiltration dif-
ferences and soil concentrations of the runoff were important factors in
the results obtained. The appreciably larger infiltration on the check
plot compared to the other 3 treatments is difficult to explain and may
result from minor topography differences between plots rather than a
result of treatment. In the comparison between infiltration amounts
between fall chisel and fall plow the advantage of the chisel system
could well be that the rougher surface created more surface storage,
thus reducing runoff amounts particularly during the initial run. The
major effects of treatment appear to show up in soil content of runoff
and be closely tied to surface protected by last season's corn residues.
In table 7 you will find that both the check and disk treatments had over
505? of the surface covered, compared to slightly over 1/3 for the chisel
treatment and only 1% for the plowed treatment.
Table 9 gives the same results for the Nappanee soil. Here you
find little difference in infiltration resulting from treatments. How-
ever, the past season's corn residues have significant effects on soil
concentration of the runoff and therefore soil loss. Surface cover
amounting to 53, 58, 29, and 5% from the respective treatments of check,
disk, chisel and plow resulted in soil losses of 0.7, 0.5, 2.1 and 3.6
tons/acre.
-53-
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On the Hoytville soil (Table 10) infiltration amounts vere highly
variable again illustrating the major effects of topographic variability
between plots on runoff amounts on the nearly level areas. Hovever, there
did appear to be some advantage of the chisel treatment in storing sur-
face vater. The major effects of treatment vere again tied closely to
residue cover. Corn residues covered 78, 77, 57 and k% of the soil sur-
face, respectively, on the check, disk, chisel and ploved plots. Resul-
tant soil losses vere 0.5, O.kt 0.7 and 1.9 tons/acre, respectively.
Two factors predominate on the Morley soil (Table 11). First and
most significant is the percent slope of almost b% compared to less
than 2% on all other locations. Note the increased amount of runoff com-
pared to the other 3 locations. The second factor is that these tests
vere made on soybean land vhere much less residue vas present than on
corn land. Table 7 shovs surface protection to be 26, 17, 12 and 1%,
respectively, for the check, disk, chisel and plov treatment (compare
these values vith those on corn land). These residues, although less
than for corn land, vere still a factor in reducing soil content of the
runoff. Compare, particularly, the differences in soil content and soil
loss betveen the check and disk treatment versus the chisel and plov
treatments.
Table 12 shovs major differences in soil loss to occur betveen loca-
tions. The effect of slope on total erosion remains a dominant factor.
A soil loss of greater than 18 tons/acre occurred on the ploved Morley
soil vith a U/t slope, 11.6 tons/acre occurred on the ploved Haskins soil
(l.7? slope) and less than U tons per acre occurred on ploved slopes of
less than 1%. A comparison of the two nearly level locations (Hoytville
and Nappanee) shovs the better structured soil to have positive effects
both in increasing infiltration and reducing soil detachment. Note
particularly the ploved treatments vhere erosion from 5 inches of rain
resulted in losses of 1.9 tons/acre from the Hoytville compared to 3.6
tons/acre from the Nappanee.
CONCLUSIONS
These results are of a preliminary nature and further analyses
might alter them slightly. Hovever, it can be definitely concluded that:
(l) Type of tillage performed in the fall can have major effects on soil
losses during the vinter and spring months. Tests in late spring and
early summer shoved soil losses from fall chiseled land to be 53, 58, 37
and 7b£, respectively, of those from fall ploved land on the Haskins,
Nappanee, Hoytville and Morley soils. And further that soil losses from
either the check or light disk treatment to be 18, 17, 2U and 32?, respec-
tively, of those from fall plowing on these same soils. All of the treat-
ments but the disk treatment vere probably more effective in reducing
soil loss earlier in the season prior to weathering and loss of surface
roughness and/or loss of some of the residue from the surface. Past
research has shown fall soil losses to be greater (as much as tvo times)
from disking than from the check (no treatment). Hovever, at this stage
of the season fall disking appeared to be every bit as effective as the
check in controlling soil losses.
-54-
-------
(2) Type of residue affects erosion. These tests indicate that the amount
of residues remaining on the surface folloving corn is much greater than
folloving soybeans in late spring. Soybean land also appears to be more
easily detached and transported by the runoff.
(3) The tillage demonstrations performed to date indicate fall chiseling
to be a viable alternative to fall turn-plowing on most soils in the
watershed based on the corn yields obtained. Additional research and
testing is needed before confident recommendations can be made regarding
the suitability of shallow tillage and no til on many of the soils in the
watershed.
(U) Although significant soil loss reductions can be attributed to con-
servation tillage systems in the nearly level (lake plain) portions of
the watershed, it should be emphasized that soil losses from these areas
are comparatively small (even on fall plowed land). If further tests
show that the soil loss from these areas do not contribute a dispropor-
tionate share of the Maumee Basin sediment problem, perhaps these systems
should not be recommended in areas where they can not be competitive
agronomically or economically.
(5) Gross field erosion is 3 or more times as great from the sloping lake
plain soils as the nearly level lake plain soils (under bare conditions).
This would indicate that conservation measures should be first concen-
trated in the sloping portions of the watershed.
-55-
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REFERENCES
1. Griffith, D. R., J. V. Mannering, H. M. Galloway, S. D. Parsons,
and C. B. Richey. 1973. Effect of eight tillage-planting systems
on soil temperature, percent stand, plant growth, and yield of corn
on five Indiana soils. Agronomy Journal 65:321-326.
2. Harrold, L. L., G. B. Triplett, and R. E. Youker. 1967. Less
soil and water loss from no-tillage corn. Ohio Report 52:22-23.
3. Mannering, J. V. and R. E. Burwell. 1968. Tillage methods to
reduce runoff and erosion in the Corn Belt. USDA Agricultural
Information Bui. No. 330, p. Ik.
U. Meyer, L. Donald. I960. Runoff plot research with the rainulator.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 2U:319-322.
5. Siemens, J. C. and W. R. Oschwald. Dec. 197k. Effect of tillage
system for corn on erosion. Paper no. 7^-2525. ASAE.
6. Wischmeier, W. H. March 28-30, 1973. Conservation tillage to
control water erosion. Proc. of the National Conservation Tillage
Conference. Des Moines, Iowa.
-56-
-------
USES OF PESTICIDES AND FERTILIZERS
IN THE BLACK CREEK WATERSHED
by
Harry M. Galloway*
ABSTRACT
Analyses of a questionnaire made among Black Creek landowners
of farms over 10 acres is presented in a series of 12 tables with
contrasts between responses from 57 non-Amish and 32 Amish owners.
Amish own or partly own 96 percent of their land vs. 69 percent for
non-Amish. A complete land use summary covers all but 540 acres and
indicates high crop and hay acreage and low pasture and woodlands.
Use of herbicides is common but more so among non-Amish while
insecticide use is uncommon.
Manures are highly depended on for pasture, and, manures plus
fertilizers for corn and hay for nearly a half of Amish growers.
Chemical fertilizers are used by non-Amish with two or three used
on corn and low amounts used on soybeans. Wheat and oats are
fertilized with mixed grades of fertilizer by both non-Amish and
Amish. Application time for fertilizers is 70 percent before
planting for non-Amish and 32 percent for Amish who use most at
planting time.
Non-Amish use over twice the amount of N as Amish and a
quarter more P and K for corn, the major crop. Hay and pastures
are fertilized well by Amish, little or none by non-Amish.
Analyses of total N, P and K applied in sub watersheds reveals
that there are no striking differences between them. A listing of
fertilizers used by crops reveals a wide number of 1-1-1 and 1-4-4
grades and a tendency for non-Amish to use two or three fertilizers
as plowdown and in the row while Amish tend to use one^mainly a mixed
grade,at planting.
Professor, Agronomy Department, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN.
-57-
-------
USES OF PESTICIDES AND FERTILIZERS IS THE BLACK CREEK WATERSHED
Data reported here result from analyzing answers to a questionnaire
administered to 80 landowners who were actively farming lands of 10
acres or greater area. Thirty-two respondents were Amish and 57
non-Amish. Because of differences in use of technologies in modern
farming the two groups were analyzed and reported separately for
this study.
The 89 respondents represent all but four 10 acre or larger
landowners - 2 Amish and 2 non-Amish refused to cooperate. There
were also 86 owners in the watershed of parcels less than 10 acres in
size who were not interviewed. Many of these live in BarIan and along
roads near BarIan.
Land tenure in Black Creek watershed as revealed by the 89
respondents is given in Table 1.
Table 1. Acres by Land Tenure in Black Creek Watershed. 1973
Pet by
Class of Tenure Non-Amish Amish Total Acres Tenure
AcresPetAcresPet
Fully owned 4923 55 2928 88 7851 65
Part owned 1249 14 257 8 1506 12
Rented from someone 2609±/ 30 126±/ 4 2735 23
Used from other sources 50 1 15 <1 65 <1
8831 100 3326 100 12,157^ 100
I/ 660 A reported as rented out to others. Probably is part of
2609A rented from someone.
I/ 128 A reported as rented out to others. Probably is same
as 126 A rented from someone.
I/ Exceeds watershed acreage by 119 A.
The Amish own in full or in part 96 percent of the land they
farm. Rental is probably from another Amish farm, Non-Amish own or
partly own 69 percent and rent about 30 percent. This is in line with
modern farms to have a base in owned land and to rent land in the
neighborhood to enlarge in order to Increase efficiency of machinery
use.
In part I question 2 asked what use each acre of land was put
to for that fanned personally by the owner "interviewee . Table 2
summarizes the land uses reported.
-58-
-------
Table 2. Land use summary in watershed by 5 classes: for non-Amish
and Amish. 1973
ST Col.
1 21 + 2 3 1* 5 6
Grovers Croplands Pas- Grain, Wood Wildlife Other Totals
(Grain & ture hay & land and (Bldgs.,
hay) pas- Recreation roads,
ture lanes ,
etc.)
Non-Amish
Amish
7119
2282
91*01
:======
376
]*51
833
======
7^*95
2739
10,231*
398
275.
673
:====——==
110
_0
110
313
168
1*81
8316
3182
11 .^
ji/
I/ Accounts for all but 5^0 of the 12,038 acres in watershed. Four
farmers did not cooperate in interview and some 86 owners of less
than 10 acres of land were not interviewed.
Part I» qu.U asked for acreages, yields and amounts of various
fertilizers applied for major.grain crops and hay. An "other" category
(pasture, etc.) was also listed but was not thoroughly tmderstood by
interviewees. In Table 3 a summary of acreages by crops, hay and "other"
is presented on a non-Amish and Amish basis.
Table 3. Acres by crops & pasture, non-Amish and Amish and comparison
of land use by watershed including Columns 3, 1*, 5 from
Table 2, 1973.
Growers (
(
Non-
Amish
ST Col. From
1 2 3 1* 5 6 7 1-7 Table 1 8
2orn Corn Soy- Oats Wheat Hay Other Grain, Woods Other Totals
5rain Silage beans (pas- hay & & wild- (Bldg.
ture, pas- life areas,
etc.) ture roads,
etc.)
271*9 100 3088 393 1*95 60 372^ 7252 821 313 8386
Amish 565 ll*0 0 1*67 ll*9 628 679^ 2628
5===========^=«S:^=S====!S====««==«==:a!=:====i 9880
I/ Includes govt.program land on at least 5 farms.
168 3239
11,625
2/ Probably includes pasture plus building areas, roads, and lanes of
Table 2.
In comparing Tables 2 and 3 the subtotals and totals do not agree. (Grain
hay and pasture 10,231* on ST Table 2 vs. 9880 on ST Table 3; Total acres, 11,1*98,
col. 6, Table 2 vs. 11,625, col. 8, Table 3). This indicates a problem in under-
standing the various categories in the two questions and arriving at the same
total land use by adding areas of the various crops and pasture.
-59-
-------
USE OP PESTICIDES
Pesticide usage was not asked in the questionaire until 16 of the
Amish had already been interviewed and data tables are incomplete to this
extent. Table k lists numbers of growers who used pesticides on corn or
soybeans in 1973.
Table b. Use of pesticides on corn and/or soybeans. 1973
Growers
Number
Using
Not
Using
No
Response
Not
Asked
Non-Ami sh
Amish
U2
9
13
7
16
Vr of 57 non-Amish reported use while 9 of 16 Amish did so. From
general knowledge of Amish operations, it is likely that at least half
do use some pesticides.
Herbicides
In Table 5 the numbers using various corn and soybean herbicides
are listed.
Table 5. Numbers of corn and soybean growers by type of herbicide used.*
Corn
Growers Aatrex Aatrex
Bladex
Non-
Amish 6 1
Uo
Amish 1 0
30
Growers
jjon_ Preforan
Amish
Aatrex Lasso Ramrod Ramrod 2,U,D Atrazine Not No
+ + + + Used Resp.
Lasso Banvel 2.U.D Princep
53127 0132
OOOOU 1 12?-
Soybeans
Amiben Amiben Lasso Not No
+ Used Resp.
Lasso
53
36
11
I/ Amish do not grow soybeans.
2/ 16 Amish not asked about herbicides included in No. Resp. group.
-60-
-------
Since Amish do not grow soybeans, that part of the question was not
relevant.
For corn Aatrex and combinations of Aatrex are most popular with non-
Amish with 2,U,D and 2,U,D mixtures the next most used. Amish preferred
2,U,D and Aatrex mixtures.
For soybeans Amiben is most popular and is used by two-thirds of
the 53 growers. Less than one-fourth used no herbicides on soybeans.
The numbers of growers using various amounts of herbicides on corn
and soybeans in 1973 are reported in Table 6.
Table 6. Numbers of corn and soybean growers by amount of herbicide
used. 1973
1 2
Non-
Amish 8 3
UO
Amish 3 1
30
1 2
Non-
Amish 3 1
53
Qts.
3^57
1100
0110
Qts.
3 U 5 7
1 1 11 h
•»^«B^^«»^^«* «W W^ •WMHMIH
Corn
Herbicide/A
89 10 n 13 16 20
1181001
0000000
Soybeans-'
Herbicide/A
89 10 11 13 16 20
1708111
Not No
Used Resp.
11 U
o ooc^
Not No
Used Resp.
11 2
I/ 16 of remaining 22 were not asked about herbicide.
2/ Amish do not grow soybeans.
19 of 31 using herbicides on corn use 5 or less quarts per acre and
this included all the Amish. Only 12 used over 5 quarts.
Of 53 soybean growers 17 use 5 quarts or less and 23 use from 5 to 20
indicating the normal problems in combatting weeds in soybeans.
High application rates in Table 6 probably indicate two or more herbicides
used at separate times such as a preemerge form followed later by 2,U,D.
See paragraph under suggestions on last page.
-61-
-------
Insecticides
Apparently very few corn growers use insecticides and those that
do, use from 1 to 6 quarts per acre as reported in Table 7.
Table 7. Number of corn growers by type and amount of insecticide used.
1973
None used
Aldrin
Diazinon
Ho response
Does not apply
to situation
UO Non-
Ami sh
32
5
1
2
llV
Rate of Application
30 Amish Non-Amish only
Qt. Insecticide/A No.
9
0
0
0
23^
—
1 3
.5 2
6 1
I/ Probably includes 11 of the 17 who did not grow corn in 1973.
Six of the 32 on the none used line would also be in this group.
2j 16 of the Amish were not asked this question.
Summary of Pesticide Usage
Black Creek watershed fanners seem to make only moderate usage of
chemicals against weeds and soil insects. If used carefully by this
proportion of growers there is no reason to expect adverse affects on
water quality.
USE OF FERTILIZERS
Amish farmers practice general farming and usually keep some milk
cows and a number of horses. They practice a general rotation of 2 years
corn, oats for feed, and meadow 2 or more years. Some grow wheat as a
cash grain crop and nearly every farm has some pasture.
Their farms are on sloping, erosive, only moderately dark colored
upland soils often lov in phosphate and potash. Rotations are needed
as much to control soil tilth and erosion as to supply the forages they
need as livestock feed.
The non-Amish occupy the eastern part of the upland and most of the
level lake plain and generally follow cash grain and seed production.
There is a considerable proportion of dark colored land with higher
content of phosphate than found in the light colored lake beds and uplands.
-62-
-------
Potash levels have generally been raised by fertilizing in the past
10-20 years. Growers recognize that adequate potash levels are needed
for good production of corn, soybeans and hay. Needs for phosphorus are
higher for wheat while oats seem to need the two in balance.
Fertilizer programs are designed to fit needs of individual farms and
cropping systems followed. All crops respond fully to nitrogen and
response to phosphate and potash varies with the soil supplies. In a
series of tables which follow various aspects of fertilizing practices
are considered as revealed from answers given by 89 respondents to the
questionaire.
Crops and Fertilizing Practices
In Table 8 the number of non-Amish and Amish farmers growing each
crop and their general fertilizer practices are listed. Note that the
Amish grow no soybeans since these do not fit their needs for livestock
or horse feed and they have not tooled up to handle a bean crop.
Table 8. Numbers of growers, acres of crops,and fertilizers used by 57
non-Amish and 32 Amish farmers. 1973
Crop Growers
Corn Non-
Amish
1*0
Grain Amish
30
Corn Non-
Amish
1
Silage Amish
16
Soy- Non-
beans Amish
53
Amish
0
Oats Non-
Amish
21
Amish
28
Wheat Non-
Amish
25
Amish
13
Acres
Grown
27U9
565
100
lUO
3088
0
393
1*67
U95
ll*9
Manure
only
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Manure
+ Pert
3
11
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
One f er-
. fertili-
zer
only
numbers o
16
19
0
15
31*
0
19
28
12
12
Two or
more fer-
tilizers
f growers
20
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
11
0
None
- used
1
0
0
0
18
0
1
0
2
0
Pet. using
fertilizer
or manure
97
100
100
100
66
0
95
100
92
100
-63-
-------
Table 8 continued.
Crop Growers Acres Manure Manure One fer- Two or None % using
only + Fert. fertili- more fer- used fertilizer
zer tilizers or manure
only
Hay
Pas-
ture
Non-
Amish
8
Amish
30
Non-
Amish
12
Amish
60
628
372
679
0
6
0
17
0
5
0
2
lumbers oi
3
5
0
2
" growers
0
0
0
0
5 37
lU 53
.
12^-' 0
7 75
Total Acres: 9,880
I/ Includes at least lUU A of land on five farms in government programs.
2/ Four small farms without pasture; total only 1^5 acres.
The percent of farmers using manures and/or fertilizers is very
high for corn, oats and wheat. Only two-thirds of non-Amish fertilize
soybeans directly. Hay is fertilized by half the Amish and pasture by
three-quarters in contrast to near neglect on the part of non-Amish.
This reflects the high need by Amish for hay and forage and the low need
by non-Amish who keep only a few cattle.
Pastures are favored areas for manure application due to easy access
throughout the season. The practice of spreading on pasture probably
encourages large losses of nitrogen by volatilization and consequent loss
of nitrogen from which the grass could benefit.
In Table 9 the percentage of growers applying fertilizers on row
of grain crop lands at different seasons is shown.
Table 9- Percent of farmers applying fertilizers on croplands by season.
1973
Non-Amish
Amish
Fall
Uo
10
Spring
25
22
Before
Planting
U
0
At
Planting
21
53
After
Planting
3
9
Not
Stated
7
6
Since there is such a strong reliance on-use of chemical fertilizers
for corn, soybeans and small grains these figures probably apply mostly
to these crops. Note that two-thirds of the non-Amish report bulkspreading
fertilizers in fall or spring before plowing or Just before planting, a
-64-
-------
quarter report use at planting, and only 3 percent after planting. The
21 percent vho list application at planting may have used only row ferti-
lizer in 1973.
Only a third of the Amish apply fertilizer ahead of planting and over
one-half apply most of it vith the planter. For Amish a system of bulk
spreading is more cumbersome and time consuming than for non-Amish.
Average Fertilizer Application by Crops
The pounds per acre of nitrogen (N), phosphate (^o^c) and P°*a8^
(KpO) applied on the average for crops and pastures grown by non-Amish
ana Amish are listed in Table 10.
Table 10. Pounds nutrients applied per acre by crop by non-Amish - HA.
and Amish - A. 1973
Crop
Corn
Grain
Corn
for
Silage
Soybeans
Oats
Wheat
Hay
Pasture
Totals :
NA
A
Grand
Total:
Acres
271*9
565
100
lUo
3088
0
393
1*67
1*95
ll*9
60
628
372
679
7252
2628
9880
Grower
Class
NA ,
A
NA
A
NA
A^/
HA
A
NA
A
NA
A
NA
A
Average
Average
's Nutrients per A
No.
N
I
1*0 i 115
30 1*8
1
16
53
—
21
28
25
13
8
30
12
28
NA
A
230
27
U
—
32
25
1*2
27
0
21*
0
39
53
33
P2°5
78
61
202
1*2
11*
—
32
32
58
1*1
5
21
0
38
1*1*
38
K2°
88
63
200
1*0
16
—
36
27
1*8
31
1
37
0
7U
1*8
50
Pet
N
0
30
85
26
0
—
0
0
0
0
0
68
0
92
—
—
. in Manure Form
P2°5 K2°
0
23
50
17
0
—
0
0
0
0
0
79
0
95
—
—
0
U5
100
35
0
—
0
0
0
0
0
88
0
97
—
—
I/ Soybeans not grown by Amish.
-65-
-------
This indicates a higher nutrient application for corn grain and
silage by non-Amish growers. The silage fertilization is so great because
one grower applied 20 tons per acre of high quality manure plus a starter
with P & K.
Amish apply more fertilizer of all types to pasture and hay than
non-Amish.
Applications on oats are similar among the two groups. For wheat
non-Amish apply a third more fertilizer than Amish.
Non-Amish apply 20 pounds more N and 6 pounds more P per average acre
fertilized than Amish. The Amish apply 2 pounds more K per acre due
probably to their heavy applications of manure which is relatively high
in K.
Nitrogen applications should only be regarded as approximations,
particularly as to N for Amish who use manure. There was no way to
accurately estimate the N content of manures due to variable amounts of
bedding used and care in handling in the barns and lots where it is
normally stored. It is not clear how much of the N becomes part of the
nutrient cycle on the land. A general value given for the dominantly
dairy and beef cattle manures produced by Amish was 5 pounds N per ton.
Amish farmers reported manure in loads per acre. An average manure wagon
was assumed to hold 2 tons.
Average Fertilizer Application by Subwatershed
In Table 11 the total nutrients applied by subwatershed and the
average gross acre application are listed. This will allow some degree
of comparison between water sample analyses on certain reaches of the
subwatersheds and average applications of manure and chemical ferti-
lizer. See Table 10, page 9.
To obtain these data the responses to part I question U regarding
crops grown and fertilizers used were later proportioned to one or more
subwatersheds by estimating how much acreage of each farm occurred on each
side of a subwatershed boundary. Then, assuming crops grown and fertilizers
applied were distributed evenly in the same proportion as the total farm
acreage, recalculations were made. This of course has a number of weak-
nesses. For one thing, there is no way to know actual land use by sub-
watershed. These data should be used only as a guide in later inter-
pretation of water analyses.
-66-
-------
Table 11. Nutrients applied by subwatershed. 1973—
Sub-
water-
shed
SWS 1
SWS 2
SWS 3
SWS 1*
SWS 5
SWS 6
Acres
131*5
620
1170
2080
2191*
1*1*28
Total Watershed
K
Pounds
1*6,685
28,710
53,61*1*
78,010
81*, 1*85
177,885
1*72,319
Ib/A
36
1*6
1*6
37
38
39
P2°5
Pounds
39,800
26,1*1*1
1*1,026
61,998
68,31*9
122,31*2
Ib/A
29
1*3
35
30
32
27
1*18,121
K20
Pounds
55,857
25,652
1*0,997
59,332
81,875
120,786
1*79,560
Ib/A
1*1
1*1
35
29
37
27
I/ Per gross acreage in subwatershed without regard to acreage on
which actually applied.
Many Grades of Fertilizers Used
In the questionaire farmers were asked the grade of fertilizer or
fertilizers used. For corn there were often 2 or 3 listed and enumerators
tried to keep them in the order of application as #1, #2, etc. Analyses
of grades used and the order in which they were reported for each crop
are listed in Table 12.
Total fertilizer grades reported do not agree with the number of
farmers reporting that they fertilized each crop in Table 8. For example,
there are 11 short under fertilizer #1 for corn for non-Amish (28 of the 39
reporting use of fertilizer). Possibly this was due to coding erroneously
as fertilizer 2 or 3. Only 27 of 30 Amish reporting use of-fertilizer alone
or with manure are included. For beans, 33 of 35 are included. For silage,
15 of 17 are included. For oats, only 22 of 28 Ainisb, are included. Hay
and pasture totals do not reflect manures applied. A wide range of ferti-
lizer grades were used in 1973.
Of 1*0 non-Ami sh corn growers, 2l* seem to be getting the main N supplies
through grades like 82-0-0, 33-0-0, and 28-0-0 either as plowdown or side-
dress. About 8 growers used high K grades probably as plowdown but evi-
dently many are plowing down mixed grades containing considerable P and
some TT.
Amish rely mostly on mixed grades of 1-1-1 or l-l*-2 ratios with 19
reporting use of 1 fertilizer only or 1 fertilizer plus manure (Table 8)
and only 3 of 30 growers list a high N source like 1*5-0-0 as top dress
or plow down.
Bean growers are relying on ley U, medium P and high K grades and all but
one apparently applied these as side band with the planter.
Oats growers are relying strongly on 1-1-1 or 1-U-l* grades and only one
reports using a high N source (33-0-0) as topdress.
-67-
-------
Table 12. Chemical fertilizer grades applied by crops and by order of
fertilization by non-Amish and Amish grovers 1973. Analyses
arranged by decreasing order of KO content.
Corn -
1*0 Ibn-Amish
Pert #1 No.
using
0-0-60
0-11-1*5
0-15-1*0
6-16-32
8-2U-30
3-10-27
0-26-26
6-26-26
6-2U-2U
19-19-19
17-17-17
16-16-16
7-30-11
5-32-7
10-3U-0
8-32-0
82-0-0
33-0-0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
7
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
• Grain
•«aBBB as B aeoi^v ^ <•* *m*m*m^ ••> «^<
Corn - Grain
Soybeans
30 Amish 1*0 Non-Amish 30 Amish 53 Non-Amish
Pert #1 No. Pert #2
using
6-2U-21* 1 0-0-60
5-20-20 1 0-11-1*5
8-32-16 6 10-26-26
16-16-16 1 6-2U-2U
15-15-15 1 8-32-16
12-12-12 16 16-16-16
1*5-0-0 1 7-25-11
10-3U-0
82-0-0
33-0-0
Pert #3
0-0-60
82-0-0
33-0-0
28-0-0
Pert #1
10-3U-0
No. Pert #2 No. Pert #1 No. j,
using using using—
$ 8-32-16
]£/ 1*5-0-0
1
1
5
1
2
1
7
3
No.
using
6
2
2
Corn - Silage
No. Pert #1
using
1 5-20-20
8-32-16
15-15-15
12-12-12
10-10-10
2 0-0-60
2 0-15-!*0
6-16-32
U-17-28
U-16-27
3-9-27
3-9-27
6-26-26
U-17-25
6-2U-2U
U-23-18
3-32-16
U-2U-12
12-12-12
6-28-10
5-20-10
No.
using
1
3
1
8
1
liX
I-7
1
1
1
1
I2/
1
1
11
1
6
1
3
1
1
!===
I/ 18 bean grovers reported not using fertilizers
2/ Probably added as plovdown
3/ Reported as second fertilizer
-68-
-------
Table 12 Continued
Oats
21 Non-Amish 28 Amish
Pert #1
6-2U-21+
19-19-19
16-16-16
15-15-15
lU-iU-iU
12-12-12
10-5-5
33-0-0
No. Pert #1 No.
using using
3 19-19-19 1
a2/ 16-16-16 i2/
9 8-32-16 3
1 15-15-15 U
2 12-12-12 18
3 10-10-10 1
1
il/
Hay
8 Non-Amish 30 Amish
Pert #1
0-32-18
No. Pert #1 No.
using using
1 6-2U-2U 1
15-15-15 5
12-12-12 2
U5-0-0 1
1*5-0-0 l^/
33-0-0 l2/
Wheat
25 Non-Amish 13 Amish
Pert #1 No.
using
6-20-28 1
6-26-26 1
6-2U-2U 6
8-16-2U 1
6-20-20 1
8-32-19 1
19-19-19 1^
16-16-16 1*
8-32-16 3
lU-lU-lU 2
12-12-12 2
12-12-12 I-/
6-12-12 1
28-0-0 5^
33-0-0 6^/
Pert #1 No.
using
6-2U-2U 1
8-32-16 3
15-15-15 2
12-12-12 6
U 5-0-0 lr/
Pasture
12 Non-Amish
Pert #1 No.
using
0
1 "' '"1 «"*""» ••>••«•••••••••««••«••••«• VMMMIWaBt
28 Amish
Pert #1 No.
using
15-15-15 2
12-12-12 1
1*5-0-0 l^/
SSBSESj—SSSSBSaSSSSSSSCS
2/ Probably used as topdress.
3_/ Reported as second fertilizer.
-69-
-------
Wheat growers are relying on grades with P and K generally balanced but
3 Amish growers and k non-Amish used grades higher in P than K which reflects
a normal need for wheat. Topdressing wheat is reported by 13 non-Amish and
only 1 Amish. They used a high N grade like U5-0-0, 33-0-0 or 28-0-0 in all
but two cases where a 1-1-1 ratio containing considerable N was used.
Of 8 non-Amish hay growers only 1 used fertilizer. Eleven of 30 Amish
used 1-1-1 or I-h-h grades or a high N fertilizer to stimulate production.
Pastures are not fertilized by non-Amish and much land reported by them
as pasture may have been lay out land included in a farm program in 1973.
Only U Amish reported fertilizing chemically and 17 used manures only
(Table 8). One topdressed pasture with 1*5-0-0 and 3 used 1-1-1 grades.
Suggestions for Follow-up Questionaire
A second questionaire to update information on practices and precepts of
landowners should be more carefully structured to allow correct interpretation
in areas of land use, cropping, fertilizing and pesticide use. This is essen-
tial if such data can be expected to indicate probable sources of chemical
or organic pollution for runoff waters from the various subwatersheds. A
person familiar with farm practices would be a useful addition to each inter-
view team. We are now cooperating with persons designing the next
questionaire.
One example of a difficult question was that on herbicide use. Dry
ingredientsper quart of formulation vary by herbicides. (Aatrex and Aatrex
+ Bladex - 1-1/U lb/qt.; Aatrex + Lasso - k lb/qt.; Lasso + Banvel - 6 lb/qt.;
Ramrod - U.3 lb/qt.; Ramrod + 2,U,D - 1.7 lb/qt.; 2,U,D = 1 lb/qt.;
Amiben + Lasso - 3.3 lb/qt.; Lasso - 6.7 lb/qt.) Since some growers use
dry form measured in pounds, question asked in quarts was probably difficult
to convert.
-70»
-------
f*K* \
SEDIMENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MAUMEE RIVER
by
E. J. Monke, D. B. Beasley and A. B. Bottcher
The annual long term sediment yield from the Maumee River into
Lake Erie is estimated at 1,800,000 t or, in terms of the basin area,
approximately 1000 kg/ha (1). Erosion losses of this magnitude from
agricultural lands are low and not particularly detrimental to their
productivity. However, because of location, the resulting sedimenta-
tion rates are contributing to the deterioration of water quality in
Lake Erie. Sediments in most streams in the Maumee River Basin are
highly colloidal in nature and the streams remain murky almost con-
tinuously. Since the sediments are mostly colloidal materials they
also have a high capacity for transporting chemicals notably phos-
phorus which is likely the limiting element in the eutrophication pro-
cess.
The comparatively low erosion losses from agricultural lands in
the Maumee River Basin may be difficult to further reduce, still main-
taining their present productivity level. Storm events, having thirty
percent of the annual erosion potential (2) for this region, occur
during May and June during which time extensive land areas are either
bare or only partially protected with vegetation. Also surprisingly
large amounts of sediments, estimated as high as one-half the annual
rate, originate from subsurface drains which underlay most of the ba-
sin. For these reasons, the sources of erosion must be carefully iden-
tified, the relative magnitude of their contribution to the sediment
loadings of the basin streams determined, and select control measures
Initiated which give the greatest reduction in sediment yields with a
minimal disruption to production.
In this paper, we will discuss sediment yields from the Maumee
River into Lake Erie, sediment yields from the Black Creek Watershed
into the Maumee River, contributing factors causing erosion in the
watershed, and finally, a plan for relating the erosion-sedimentation
process to land use.
*Respectively, Professor and Graduate Instructors, Department of Agri-
cultural Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907.
-71-
-------
SEDIMENT YIELDS INTO LAKE ERIE
An analysis of sediment yields from the Maumee River into Lake
Erie and concurrent rainfall amounts over the basin will give an un-
derstanding of the nature and magnitude of the sedimentation problem.
Comparison of sediment yields into Lake Erie with those from the Black
Creek Watershed into the Maumee River can then be made although a
scaling factor both in time and space should be taken into account.
The Maumee River Basin contains 1,711,500 ha of mostly agricultural
lands while the Black Creek Watershed contains only 4900 ha also
mostly agricultural lands. Maximum responses of the watershed and
basin differ, however, according to the type of storm which is likely
to cover these areas. Convective-type storms with high intensities
can cover the watershed area while only frontal-type storms with
lower intensities than those occurring over the watershed are likely
to occur over the basin. Many of these latter storms also occur in
the winter months when the ground may be frozen.
Data on sedimentation rates in the Maumee River at Waterville,
Ohio and rainfall rates over the basin were provided by the United
States Geological Survey and the United States Environmental Data Ser-
vice, respectively (3, 4). The results of an analysis of this data
for a 10-year period, October 1961 to October 1971, are shown in Table
1 and Figure 1. The average annual precipitation and discharge from
Table 1. Average Annual Precipitation for the Maumee River Basin and
Annual Sediment Yield and Discharge from the Maumee River
for a Ten-Year Period, October 1961 to October 1971.
Water Pi
Year
1970-71
1969-70
1968-69
1967-68
1966-67
1965-66
1964-65
1963-64
1962-63
1961-62
recipitationa
(mm)
739
898
938
980
835
807
826
716
656
683
Discharge
(mm over basin)
198
267
320
345
348
181
196
150
109
186
Ratio of dischar
and precipitatio
(%)
27
30
34
35
42
22
24
21
17
27
ge Sediment
n yield
(kg/ha)
304
609
662
989
763
202
516
427
159
323
Average
808
230
28
495
aAverage of three locations: Fort Wayne, Defiance and Toledo.
the Maumee River as measured at Waterville, Ohio, both expressed as
depths over the basin, were 808 and 203 mm, respectively. These val-
ues are only slightly below the reported values for the total length
-72-
-------
60
50
o
jQ
0>
O
E
LU
O
or
w 40
30
20
10
ISO
~I25
o»
UJ
>-
75
H50
LJ
2
O 25
UJ
ONDJFMAMJJAS ONDJFMAMJJAS
(a) Average monthly discharge (left) and sediment yield (right)
cc
or
LJ
71
70
69
67
65
64
63
62
2
2
1
1
-
6
-
-
1
2
4
12
3
3
7
3
1
1
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5
9
4
9
25
32
15
1
-
1
2
3
3
27
7
4
13
7
2
1
18
30
14
15
17
II
8
16
1
2
14
21
16
5
9
21
12
31
28
58
44
4
24
15
8
II
R
3C
49
17
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15
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II
13
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8
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7
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1
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1
3
1
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1
1
1
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-
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1
ONDJFMAMJJAS
71
70
or 69
UJ 68
>-67
rr 66
UJ 65
£ KA
rf o^
^ ft*
^ O3
62
-
1
-
-
-
5
-
-
1
II
-
-
8
1
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1
4
-
15
41
5C
13
-
-
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-
32
6
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15
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45
8
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II
7
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on
to
nd
U3
54
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8
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rt
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in
IU
1
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20
10
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8
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-
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1
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-
—
-
-
-
—
-
-
—
-
—
-
-
ONDJFMAMJ JAS
(b) Monthly percentage of yearly discharge (left) and sediment yield (right)
Fig. 1. (a) Average Monthly Discharge and Sediment Yield for the Maumee
River, and (b) Monthly Percentage of Yearly Discharge and Sedi-
ment Yield, both for a Ten-Year Period, October 1961 to Octo-
ber 1971.
-73-
-------
of record. However, the average annual sediment yield, again in terms
of basin area, was only 495 kg/ha. This value is about one-half the
normally accepted value of 1000 kg/ha for sediment yield. Since the
normally accepted value was never exceeded in any of the ten years
which were analyzed, one is lead to suspect that this value is high.
If this is true, the task of further reducing an already relatively
low sedimentation rate is compounded.
The precipitation amounts for the 10-year period seem to be part
of a cyclical pattern. Less than normal precipitation occurred from
1961 to 1966 and above normal precipitation from 1967 to 1971. The
years with the highest precipitation amounts not only had the highest
discharge rates but also the highest percentage of precipitation oc-
curring as river discharge. As a result, the average annual sediment
yield for the last five years was 665 kg/ha, more than twice the 324
kg/ha yield for the first five years.
Years with above normal precipitation usually had heavy winter
storms. These storms then produced some of the highest monthly per-
centages of yearly discharge and sediment yield as shown in Figure
l(b). The initial major storm during this period flushed out residual
sediments which had been accumulating in the Maumee River system.
SEDIMENT YIELDS FROM THE BLACK CREEK WATERSHED
Sediment yields from the Black Creek Watershed into the Maumee
River are being determined by integrating sediment concentrations and
flow rates. Water quality sampling sites, stream stage recorder sites
and also raingage locations are shown on Figure 2, an outline map of
the watershed. Most of the sampling and stage recorder sites are lo-
cated in the lower portion of the watershed particularly where the
tributary drains enter into the main stem of Black Creek.
Procedure for Evaluating Sediment Yield
Stage-discharge relationships are being developed for the six
principal tributary drains which enter into Black Creek to give flow
rates. Water levels are continuously recorded at these locations with
a pressure-type recorder (Model 12 Flow Recorder, Foxboro)*.
Water samples for determining the concentration of sediment as
well as other quality parameters are being collected either manually or
with automated samplers. Grab samples are routinely collected each
week and then at select times usually following a storm event. The
automated samplers are triggered at a set minimal stage and continue to
operate automatically until the sampling capacity is exhausted. Usu-
ally, however, the water samples are collected and the automated samp-
ler reset before this happens.
Automated Samplers: Three automated pumping samplers (PS-69, de-
veloped by the U. S. Interagency Sedimentation Project) were installed
*The product description and manufacturer are given for reader infor-
mation and should not be construed as an endorsement of the product.
-74-
-------
en
i
BLACK CREEK STUDY AREA
ALLEN COUNTY , INDIANA
MAUMCC R1VCH BASIN
ALLEN COUNTY SOU. AND WATER CONSCRVMTON DISTRICT
IN COOPCIUTKW WITH
Channtl StaMiiation *
NfM « »f Ooto
ENVWONMCNTAL PttOTCCTION AGENCY
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
USDA SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
p M 4 5.J-M.SH
Fig. 2. Outline Map of the Black Creek Watershed Showing the Location of Raingages (•), Water
Quality Sampling Sites (automated A , manual A ), and Water Stage Recorders (•).
-------
on two of the largest tributary drains into Black Creek and on the
main stem of Black Creek near its entrance into the Maumee River.
Each sampler is capable of automatically collecting 72 samples on a
set time interval. At the present time, a 500 ml water sample is col-
lected every 30 minutes after the sampling sequence has been initiated.
Samples are being collected from the suspended sediment profile of the
streams near the elevations at which the automated samplers are trig-
gered.
Another automated sampler similar to the PS-69 sampler has been
developed by the Department of Agricultural Engineering at Purdue
University to monitor the discharge from a 63-acre, uniformly spaced
tile drainage system on Hoytville silty clay loam. Hoytville silty
clay loam is a lake plain soil and occupies a considerable portion of
the lower Black Creek Watershed. The sampler has the capability of
collecting 72 samples on a constant volume passed basis. The sampling
rate varies linearly from 30 minutes at maximum flow to zero at no
flow. A 350 gpm pump in conjunction with a sump has been installed to
prevent the tile outlet from being inundated during storm events.
Sediment Yields. 1974-75
The hydrologic year, October 1974 to October 1975, was the first
year during which complete records were obtained. The automated samp-
lers became operational early enough in 1975 to sample most of the ma-
jor storm events during the year, 1974-75. The sediment yield for the
Black Creek Watershed was 1750 kg/ha of which about two-thirds occurred
during May. Most of the sediment yield during May was also the result
of one storm which occurred in the early morning of May 20. An aver-
age of about 90 mm of rainfall then fell over the entire watershed in
two hours. Rainfall frequencies based on the rainfall intensity-fre-
quency data analyses by Yarnell (5) were estimated from 50 to 100
years at the raingage locations. For the year, 1095 mm of precipita-
tion occurred over the Black Creek Watershed and approximately 320 mm
or 29% of this amount was discharged into the Maumee River. A compari-
son of these values with those in Table 1 for the Maumee River Basin
shows precipitation and discharge from the Black Creek Watershed are
high, the ratio of discharge to precipitation about the same, and the
sediment yield approximately four times the average yield from the
Maumee River for the 10-year period, 1961-71. While records for the
Maumee River Basin for 1974-75 are not yet available, the relatively
high sediment yield from the Black Creek Watershed during May probably
did not affect the rate of sediment yield into Lake Erie much at all.
However, this sediment is now in a stream system which is largely in a
dynamic equilibrium state and eventually most of the sediment will
reach Lake Erie.
Tributary Drains; In general, sediment contributions from the
tributary drains into Black Creek showed a close similarity one to
another. Pumping samplers are located on the Driesbach and Smith-Fry
Drains which permit a more detailed analysis to be made than with the
other drains. These drains are two of the major drains entering Black
Creek and are also probably the most'contrasting with regard to soil
types and land use. Characteristics of these drains are given in Ta-
ble 2.
-76-
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Table 2. Characteristics of Smith-Fry and Driesbach Drains
Characteristics Smith-Fry Driesbach
Watershed area 890 ha 735 ha
Channel gradient 0.35% 0.39%
Soils:
Lake plain and beach 71% 26%
Glacial till plain 29% 74%
1974-75 land use:
Small grain and pasture 26%
o
-------
PRECIPITATION IN mm
_ — I\J IV
A B» ru
o o o o o O c
DRIESBACH
-i
••««
MM
HHM
•IBM
*^*m
"^™
ONDJFMAMJJAS
c?w
200
160
(20
80
40
n
SMITH- FRY
—
•MI
••m
•M
MMl
••MB
M«p
I^M
ONDJFMAMJJAS
Fig. 3. Monthly Precipitation in
mm.
1974-75.
Driesbach Drain, but incidently more nitrogen. The difference in ni-
trogen loading probably resulted from more of the drainage area put
into row crops, a higher level of management, and more tile drainage
than for the land which contributes runoff to the Driesbach Drain.
Approximately two-thirds of the drainage area for the Smith-Fry
Drain is in the nearly level lake plain. For the storm of Hay 20,
much of this level land also became a flood plain. Existing drains
were overtopped, temporary new drainageways were established, and ex-
tensive flood plain scouring occurred. Under such circumstances, ero-
sion rates from the more level lake plain may equal or exceed erosion
rates from the more rolling glacial till plain. This flooding also
interferred with sediment sampling and increased the error associated
with the determination of flow rates. The values given for Black
Creek and the Smith-Fry Drain are believed to be somewhat conservative
in this regard. For the future, velocity meters will be installed at
the automated sampling stations on the Smith-Fry Drain and Black Creek.
Also, the return periods of storms at which the principal drains can
be expected to overtop will be calculated.
Sediment Contribution from Tile Drains; Subsurface drainage sys-
-78-
-------
DISCHARGE IN mm OVER WATERSHED
3
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4* O
z
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rt rt C.
2$ TI
° s z,
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g- g. ^
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-------
terns have been installed over a large portion of both the Black Creek
Watershed and the Maumee River Basin. The first tile drains were in-
stalled perhaps 75 to 100 years ago. In general, these were mostly
random drains which drained the most troublesome wet areas first. La-
ter additional tile drains were connected to these random systems to
extend their coverage. Then complete uniform systems with drain spa-
cings on the order of 15 to 20 m were installed usually in the lake
plain soils. Often when a new system replaced an older one, many of
the drain lines in the old system which appeared to be still func-
tioning were connected to the new system. As a rule, poor records
of the extent and location of all the subsurface drainage systems have
been kept. In addition, the state of repair of the tile drains as re-
lated to their flow capacities is also largely unknown.
In the Black Creek Watershed alone over 750 tile outlets have
been identified. Samples of tile drain effluent were collected from
all the drains which were flowing during the period, May 13 to June 7,
1974. In general, sediment concentrations were low but rainfall during
this period was light and sampling was usually accomplished during the
fair days. From all the tile outlets, 20 were selected for further
sampling. An analysis of sediment concentrations in the effluent from
these till outlets for the period, April 4 to June 12, 1975 is pre-
sented in Table 4. The probable soil types drained were Hoytville
silty clay loam, Haskins silt loam, Pewamo silty clay loam, and
Rensselaer silt loam. The first two soils are lake plain soils,
Pewamo silty clay loam and its closely associated Blount silt loam are
till soils, and Rensselaer silt loam is connected with the beach ridge
which parallels State Route 37 through the watershed.
All flows contained some sediments. The minimal concentrations
were low and the range of concentrations small. The maximum sedimen-
tation concentrations, however, contained some very high values. The
range of concentrations was also large leading one to suspect that
many maximum events were missed. The median sediment concentrations
were low and consistent with both location and soil type. The average
median sediment concentration could well represent the base flow con-
dition for tile drainage in the watershed. The mean sediment concen-
trations were affected by maximum events if such an event happened to
be sampled. A reliable value for mean sediment concentration is
needed in order to calculate sediment yield. While the considerable
variation in mean sediment concentrations rules out the calculation of
sediment yield, the high values for some of the mean sediment concen-
trations indicate that tile effluent may be a significant contributor
to sediment yield from the Black Creek Watershed. An average annual
sediment yield of 875 kg/ha has been reported for a lacustrine soil
in another part of the Maumee River Basin (6).
Two major problems hinder manual sampling of tile effluent. Maxi-
mum sediment yield may occur during or shortly after a storm event, and
outlets may be submerged. Specially designed automated tile samplers
similar to the one described in this paper are required to give propor-
tional samples for calculating sediment yield and the tile discharge
hydrograph. A companion project in Ohio has also been initiated to de-
termine annual sediment yields from tile drains in a number of Maumee
River Basin soils (7).
-80-
-------
Table 4. Analysis of Sediment Concentrations in Effluent from Select
Tile Outlets, April 4 to June 12, 1975.
Probable soil
type drained
Hoytville silty
clay loam
Haskins silt loam
Pewamo silty
clay loam
Rensselaer silt
loam
Nominal
size (cm)
15(6")
20(8")
20
20
25(10")
30(12")
30
30
30
25
25
25
25
38(15")
46(18")
15
20
25
25
Sedimen
Minimum
50
34
79
40
35
44
51
70
33
60
51
28
43
31
54
42
63
75
57
t concent
Maximum
78
98
932
148
183
124
122
192
67
512
12900*
610
66
291
1130
2880
113
7240
144
ration i
Median
63
86
85
79
60
92
70
120
63
72
76
62
49
81
79
84
84
86
87
n mg/1
Mean
64
77
237
88
73
87
73
122
60
126
1750
162
51
100
205
546
87
886
87
Average
47
1390
73
250
aProbable surface inlets from Harlan
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO SOIL EROSION
For the year 1974-75, the primary contributing factor to erosion
in the Black Creek Watershed was the large amount of bare soil sur-
faces which were exposed to intense storms during late May and early
June. Over one-half of the watershed area is normally in rowcrop cul-
tivation. In late May and early June, all of this land had either been
recently worked or planted to crops. Over one-half of the total sedi-
ment yield of 1750 kg/ha for the entire year occurred from May 20-22
alone. During this period, the outlet drains overtopped onto the
nearly level lake plain soils causing severe soil erosion. Ordinari-
ly very little surface erosion would be expected from these lands
which cover approximately the lower one-half of the watershed.
The annual streambank erosion from the Black Creek Watershed has
been estimated at 9 kg/ha (8). This erosion is directly available for
transport in the stream system of the watershed. More streambank ero-
sion undoubtedly occurred during the year 1974-75, but even if the
average value was escalated tenfold, it would still represent only a
small percentage of the total sediment yield to the Maumee River.
Tile drainage effluent may contribute significantly to the sedi-
-81-
-------
merit yield from the Black Creek Watershed. However, it is difficulty
separate out, even under the most favorable conditions. Low level tile
flows with sediment concentrations similar to the median sediment con-
centration values given in Table 4 would deliver around 100 kg/ha/year
from the tile drained lands. With the additional effects of initial
and high flows, the annual sediment yield from the tile outlets in the
watershed would probably be three or four times the base delivery rate.
Again this erosion is directly available for transport in the stream
system of the watershed.
Seepage pressures occur when the soil above tile drains becomes
saturated and flow into the drains then occurs along with some sedi-
ments. However, the mechanics of the soil detachment process is not
well defined. It is not known if backward erosion causes segments of
the total soil matrix near the openings into the drains to be moved
into the drains where separation of the finer from the coarser sized
particles would then take place, or if this separation essentially oc-
curs in the soil matrix surrounding the drains first and then moves
through the soil pores or structural cracks to the drain openings. In
Hoytville silty clay loam, a lake plain soil, downward fingers of top-
soil into the subsoil would seem to indicate the latter occurrence.
Probably the mechanism is a combination of both processes, however, if
not others also.
The tile drains on the watershed have been observed to sometimes
flush large quantities of drainage water into streams during the winter
and early spring months. This occurrence is primarily dependent on
temperature although rainfall which probably occurs at the same time
may increase the discharge. When the soil surface freezes, a surface
seal is formed which transfers free soil water above the tile drains
into a negative pressure state. Tile discharge for all practical pur-
poses stops although downward movement of water in the soil may still
take place. Then when thawing occurs, the drains seem to flush. High
seepage pressures may also simultaneously occur causing movement of
sediments into the drain. Many freeze-thaw cycles often occur at this
latitude during the winter-early spring months of the year.
RELATING SEDIMENT YIELD TO LAND USE
Sediment yield from the Black Creek Watershed can be related to
land use in general terms. However, it is difficult to determine
sediment yield reductions for specific watershed practices which are
designed to give some degree of erosion control. Most of these prac-
tices cover only a small portion of the watershed. Additional lands
are being improved but at a slow rate and in irregular patterns.
Also the effectiveness of some erosion control practices greatly de-
pends on management level. Then rainfall occurs in an unsteady, non-
uniform manner over the watershed. And finally the measurement of
rainfall and the resulting runoff and sediment yield is subject to
considerable error.
A distributed watershed model is being developed to show the re-
lationship between sediment delivery to streams and land use. A dis-
tributed model which sums up the effects from small areas has been
-82-
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proposed because land use is highly variable over most watersheds and
its relation to erosion is further compounded by differences in soil
types, cropping sequences and managerial abilities. Such a model also
has the ability to account for rainfall valuability over the watershed.
The model is based on a coupling of the equation of continuity for
sediment transport with equations describing the water flow process. A
reaction equation for sediment transport may also be included to avoid
abrupt changes in sediment concentrations.
The equation of continuity for sediment transport is
90
-^ = Dr + D± + Ds (1)
where G is the sediment load (weight/time/unit width of slope) , x is
the slope distance, Dr is the detachment or deposition rate of rill
erosion (weight /time /unit area), DI is the delivery rate of particles
from interrill erosion to the rill system (weight /time /unit area), and
Ds is the detachment rate of particles due to seepage pressures
(weight/time/unit area). This equation was proposed by Foster and
Meyer (9) except for the term Ds which was added to account for sedi-
ments from tile drains.
The first order reaction equation also proposed by Foster and
Meyer is
Dr = £°- (Tc - G) (2)
•••c
where Dc is the ultimate detachment capacity of rill flow and Tc is
the ultimate transport capacity of the rill flow.
The terms Dc, Tc, D, and DS in eqs. (1) and (2) can be evaluated
separately since these terms are defined by rainfall and runoff char-
acteristics and soil properties. On the basis of empirical evidence,
Tc a T3'2 and Dc a Tc. D^ can be assumed proportional to the square
of rainfall intensity and Ds is a function of seepage pressure. The
two remaining unknowns are then Dr, the detachment rate by flow in
rills, and G, the sediment load.
The equations describing the water flow process are the standard
equation for free flow in an infinitely wide channel,
and a uniform flow equation,
q = a yn (4)
where y is the depth of flow, u is the flow velocity, x is the distance
in the direction of flow, t is time, a is the net distributed water in-
flow, q is the flow rate per unit width and a and n are a coefficient
and exponent for the uniform flow equation.
These equations then form the basis for modeling the erosion-sedi-
-83-
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mentation process. They are applicable to any point in a watershed
and their rigor at least matches the uncertainty connected with fric-
tion loss, infiltration rates and the other hydrologic phenomena
being modeled.
With the Black Creek Study, the modeling process will be closely
linked to field experimentation in which observations of the erosion-
sedimentation processes will hopefully lead to improvements in the
model. Sensitivity analysis can also be performed to determine to
what extent given soil and water management practices must be applied
in order to affect a significant reduction in sediment yield. The sen-
sitivity analysis will also help to identify those aspects of the sys-
tem where more information is needed before system performances can
be adequately predicted (10).
Finally, the erosion-sedimentation model might be useful in pre-
dicting the average annual sediment yield from the Maumee River into
Lake Erie. The sediment yield phenomena can usually be divided into
the upland and in-channel phases. While sediment transport in the
upland phase is closely related to storm events, transport in the in-
channel phase is not greatly affected by individual storm events ex-
cept as a supply source (11). A valid assumption for this study might
be that the main channels in the Maumee River Basin are essentially in
dynamic equilibrium. In support of this assumption, the annual sus-
pended sediment load of the Maumee River and its tributaries has been
found to be predominately surficial in origin (12). It can now be ar-
gued that the average annual sediment yield into Lake Erie, except for
man-made traps, equals the average annual erosion rate into the main
channels of the entire basin. A summation then of the sediment yields
from all the upstream source areas such as the Black Creek Watershed
could be determined using the erosion-sedimentation model and an aver-
age annual sediment yield predicted for the basin.
SUMMARY
For the year 1974-75, the sediment yield from the Black Creek
Watershed into the Maumee River was 1750 kg/ha. One major storm event
in late May caused over one-half of the total sediment load. Since
many drains were the overtopped, flood plain scouring of the nearly
level portions of the watershed contributed a normally disproportionate
share to the sediment loadings of the streams. An erosion-sedimenta-
tion model was proposed for relating the erosion-sedimentation process
to land use and as a predictive tool for the total Maumee River Basin.
REFERENCES
1. Ohio Division of Water. 1960. Water Inventory of the Maumee River
Basin. Report No. 11, State of Ohio, Dept. of Natural Resources,
Columbus, Ohio. 112 p.
2. Wischmeier, W. H. and D. D. Smith. 1965. Rainfall-Erosion Losses
from Cropland East of the Rocky Mountains. Agr. Handbook No. 282,
Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, DC
-84-
-------
3. Geological Survey, U. S. Department of Interior, Washington, DC
(e.g., Water Resources Data for Ohio. Part I. Surface Water
Records. 1971. 223 p.)
4. Environmental Data Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-
ministration, U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC (e.g.,
Local Climatological Data. 1973. p. 350 for Fort Wayne, Indi-
ana)
5. Yarnell, D. L. 1935. Rainfall Intensity - Frequency Data. Misc.
Pub. No. 204, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
6. Schwab, G. 0., E. 0. McLean, A. C. Waldron, R. K. White and D. W.
Michener. 1973. Quality of Drainage Water from a Heavy Textured
Soil. Trans. ASAE 16(6):1104-1107.
7. Maumee River Watershed Study, Agricultural Experiment Station.
The Ohio State University, 1974-77.
8. Wheaton, R. Z. 1975. Streambank Stabilization. Paper for Non-
Point Source Pollution Seminar, Region V, U. S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Chicago, Illinois.
9. Foster, G. R. and L. D. Meyer. 1972. A closed-form soil erosion
equation for upland areas. Jjn H. W. Shen (ed.), Sedimentation
Symposium to Honor Professor Hans Albert Einstein, Colorado State
University, Ft. Collins, Colorado. Chap. 12, pp. 1-19.
10. Cooper, C. F. 1973. Hydrologic modeling—A vehicle for quanti-
fying man's impact on the environment. Trans. ASAE 16(3): 578-
579, 581.
11. Bennett, J. P. 1974. Concepts of mathematical modeling of sedi-
ment yield. Water Resour. Res. 10(3):485-492.
12. Wall, G. J. and L. P. Wilding. 1973. Sediment parameters of the
Maumee River and tributaries in Northwestern Ohio. Paper presented
at a meeting of the Soil Sci. Soc. of Amer. in Las Vegas, Nevada,
November 1973.
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STREAMBANK STABILIZATION
by
Holland Z. Wheaton1
Many streams are carrying large annual loads of suspended materials.
The source of these materials have been stated to be agricultural oper-
ations, construction activities, streambank erosion, urban areas and so
forth. To determine the possible extent of the streambank erosion in
the Black Creek Watershed, four sub-studies were initially proposed.
These studies are, (1) a soil mechanics streambank stabilization evalua-
tion, (2) an evaluation of changes naturally occurring in channels,
(3) an evaluation of the effects of streambank slope and mulch materials
on establishing vegetation after reconstruction, and (4) an evaluation of
the effectiveness of various structural measures installed for the re-
duction of stream channel erosion.
Studies 1 and 3 have been completed and study 2 has been redesigned
to be an evaluation of a degradation taking place in channel reaches.
Study 4 is being continued. In addition to these four sub-studies, a
complete survey was made in 1975 of the streambank erosion in the water-
shed. This study was conducted by SCS personnel as a part of the Inter-
national Joint Commission PLUARG study in cooperation with the Black
Creek Project.
Soil Mechanics Streambank Stability Studies
This study was conducted by Doug West, a former graduate student at
Purdue University.2 The Soil Conservation Service had taken soil samples
at 13 sites in August 1973. These samples were analyzed in their Lin-
coln, Nebraska laboratory. The results of these analysis showed that the
stream channels were generally safe from failure by shear at slopes as
steep as 1:1. Looking at the profile of these analysis, it is obvious
that often the most cohesive soils (more erosion resistant) were near
the surface, while the least cohesive soils may be near the channel
bottom or distributed in bands within the profile. Also from an erosion
standpoint, the banks are usually covered with vegetation while the
bed is bare.
To analyze the erosion resistance of the stream channels, the allow-
able velocities approach was used. (SCS Tech. Report 25, 1964.) This
approach considers the plasticity index and the sieve size that passes
75% of the material to determine the maximum nonerosive or "safe" veloc-
ity. Using the physical characteristics of the channel cross section
and its grade, the carrying capacity of the channel is computed at
1 Associate Professor, Agricultural Engineering Department, Purdue
University.
2 Douglas A. West, "A Preliminary Investigation into the Stability of
Streambanks in the Black Creek Basin." M.S. Thesis, May 1974.
-86-
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successively increasing depths of flow until the allowable velocity is
reached. At each step the channel capacity at each depth is compared
with the runoff previously determined for the area above the channel
cross section. For purposes of this study, the runoff rate for this
six hour five year storm was used.
If the carrying capacity of the channel at the allowable velocity
equalled or exceeded the runoff rate, the channel was considered to be
stable. If, however, the runoff rate exceeded the safe carrying ca-
pacity of the channel, the channel was unstable. As the study pro-
gressed, only five of the sites proved to be totally adequate for
analysis. These sites were (1) the Reichelderfer Drain near Stopher
Road, (2) the Upper Gorrell Drain near Highway 37, (3) Smith-Fry Drain
at Notestine Road, (4) Smith-Fry Drain at Highway 101, and (5) Upper
Gorrell Drain at Notestine Road. Sites 1 and 2 are in what might be
called the transition area between the rolling upland and the lakebed
soils. Sites 3, 4 and 5 are in the lakebed type soil area.
The sites identified above as 1 and 2 were found to be unstable
primarily because of excess channel slope, although at one site on the
Upper Gorrell near Highway 37 the channel had eroded into a bed of sand
thus making it even less stable. On the other hand, sites 4,5, and 6
were found to be stable primarily because of less channel slope and also
of more cohesive soils.
This study indicates that the stream channels in the upland and
transition areas are apt to be in an unstable condition primarily be-
cause of slope and less cohesive soils while channels in the lakebed
area are more apt to be stable with lower channel gradients and more
cohesive soils.
Naturally Occurring Changes in Channel Cross Section
Initially, five sites, three plus the two in the mulch study
areas, were to be evaluated. Two of the sites were soon invalidated
because of channel work to reduce erosion, and the third was lost to
highway construction. Nevertheless, the short period of observation
along with the soil mechanics study has shown the need to study the
channel degradation. Four locations are now being observed to de-
termine the rate of which channel scour may be taking place. One of
these, the Upper Driesbach on the Joe Graber farm, has shown a lowering
of one to two feet between 1973 and 1975. Stone drop structures to re-
duce the channel grade have now been installed in this location. Measure-
ments at the other sites are only about one year old and results are not
available at this time.
Ditch-Bank Slope Mulch Studies
To determine the effect of various bank slopes and mulch materials
in establishing vegetation and controlling erosion, two sites were se-
lected. One on the Upper Driesbach Drain on the Joe Graber farm and one
on the Lower Wertz Drain between Notestine Road and Black Creek. Each
treatment area consisted of a 50 foot reach on both channel banks. The
-87-
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treatments were 2:1, 3:1 and 4:1 bank slopes with mulch materials of
straw, wood chips, stone and check. In addition, saw dust and a chemical
soil stabilizer were used on the Driesbach Drain.
The mulch materials were applied as follows:
Stone, No. 4 crushed limestone, 135 tons per acre
Wood Chips, green wood chips, 10 tons per acre
Straw, 1-1/2 tons per acre
Check, no mulch
Saw Dust, 50 to 75% ground cover
Chemical Soil Stabilizer, applied by company representative
in two applications because of initial errors. Total appli-
cation unknown
The banks were seeded immediately after shaping with 35 pounds per
acre of Kentucky No. 31 tall fesque and 5 pounds per acre of red top.
The ditch banks on the Driesbach Drain were shaped during recon-
struction in the fall of 1973, seeded and mulched. The Wertz Drain was
shaped and seeded in April of 1974. The straw mulch was applied imme-
diately, but application of the wood chips and stone mulch was delayed
approximately one week because of wet soil conditions.
Results of the evaluation of the mulches in controlling erosion and
aiding the establishment of vegetation are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The
data show that all mulches were effective in controlling erosion and
were very beneficial in establishing the grass cover. There is no con-
sistent difference between the treatments, however, the stone mulch was
slightly superior in controlling erosion. High water in May 1974 washed
away the straw and wood chip mulches on the Wertz Drain. The poor early
germination and grass stand on the Wertz Drain for the stone and wood
chip mulch is undoubtedly due to the delay in the application. All
mulch plots were superior to the check plots in early establishment of
grass.
The 3:1 slopes appear to be slightly better than the 2:1 and 4:1
slopes. The good performance of the 3:1 slopes on the Driesbach is
undoubtedly due to the better soil conditions as the 2:1 and 4:1 slopes
were established on areas of more severely eroded banks. These plots
still shown the lack of fertility. Two to one slopes can be maintained
by mowing, but it would be easier to maintain the 3:1. There is no dis-
tinct advantage shown for the 4:1 slopes to justify the additional area
that is required for this slope.
Several major flows have occurred since establishment of the vege-
tation in the plots. The flow in May of 1975 was the result of a rain-
storm of at least 100 years frequency. The grass vegetation protected
the banks from damage although the channel bottom in the 4:1 slope on
the Driesbach Drain had degraded as was discussed in the previous
section.
This study shows the definite benefit of using a mulch material in
the early establishment of the grass cover. All mulch materials were
adequate in establishing grass and in controlling erosion, although the
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Table 1. Driesbach Drain, Graber Farm
Mulch
Stone
Straw
Wood Chip
Saw Dust
Aquatain I/
None
Slope 12-12-73
E.G. Cover
2:1
G
G
G
G
G
P
G
P
G
P
4-2-74
E.G. Cover
G
F
F
F
F
F
G
F
G
P
P
P
5-28-74
E.C. Cover
G
F
F
F
F
F
VG
VG
F
F
F
F
5-2-75
E.C. Cover
F
F
F
F
F
F
G
G
G
G
G
G
Stone 3:1
Straw
Wood Chip
Saw Dust
Aquatain I/
None
Stone 4:1
Straw
Wood Chip
Saw Dust
Aquatain I/
None
G
G
G
-
G
G
G
G
G
G
FG
F
G
P
P
-
VG
G
G
P
F
P
F
P
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
F
F
F
F
F
G
G
G
F
G
F
VG
G
G
G
F
P
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
F
F
G
F
F
FG
VG
F
FG
F
F
F
VG
G
G
G
G
G
2,3
F
FG
F
F
F
F
VG
G
G
G
G
G
2
F
F
F
F
F
F
P = Poor
F = Fair
G = Good
VG = Very Good
EC = Erosion Control
1. Original application to light - second opp. necessary
2. 2:1 and 4:1 plots low in fertility especially in May 1975
3. Erosion at toe of slope not necessarily related to mulch
material
-89-
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Table 2. Wertz Drain, South of Notestine Road
Mulch
Stone
Straw
Wood Chip
None
Slope
2:1
2:1
2:1
2:1
5-14-74
E.G. Cover
G
G
G
G
none
none
none
none
5-28-74
E.G. Cover
G
G
G
G
F
G
G
F
5-2-75
E.G. Cover
VG
VG
VG
G
VG
VG
VG
G
Stone
Straw
Wood Chip
None
3:1
3:1
3:1
3:1
G
G
G
G
none
none
none
none
G
G
G
G
F
G
F
F
VG
VG
FG
G
G
G
FG
F
Stone
Straw
Wood Chip
None
4:1
4:1
4:1
4:1
G
G
G
G
none
none
none
none
G
G
G
G
P
G
P
P
VG
VG
VG
VG
VG
VG
VG
VG
P - Poor
F - Fair
G - Good
VG - Very Good
EC = Erosion Control
a All but stone mulch washed away in high water first week of May
1974. Sediment up to 2" thick deposited in 4:1 slope plots
during this high water. Less sediment in 3:1 and 2:1 plots.
-90-
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stone mulch had slightly better resistance. For the soil conditions
existing in these two sites, a 2:1 or 3:1 slope would be adequate. It
is necessary, however, that the channel bottom be stable.
Structural Measures to Control Channel Erosion
Three structural measures installed in the Black Creek Watershed
deserve particular attention as devices for reducing stream channel and
bank erosion. Other techniques such as grass border strips along the
banks and drop inlet pipes are important contributors to erosion control
but will not be discussed here. The techniques of design of the three
structural measures will not be covered but only a general description
of the operation of the structure.
The rock drop structures consist of armoring in the channel with
rip-rap. A short inlet section, approximately 40 feet, is provided. In
the next 20 feet, a two foot fall occurs. This is followed by a section
of approximately 40 feet to provide the necessary energy dissipation.
Several of these structures have been installed to reduce channel gra-
dients, the first of these in 1973. They have gone through several
periods of full ditch fall with no difficulties. Grass is now becoming
established in the earlier structures and there appears to be no question
of their stability.
A second type of structure, a sheet piling weir, was initially
installed as a channel stabilization device for the monitoring stations.
This consists of steel pilings driven into the channel and then cut to
approximately the original channel cross section. Since they were not
installed as grade control devices, only about a six inch overfall was
provided although one does have over a one foot overfall.
It was found to be necessary to provide some stone immediately
above the piling, about two feet, and to provide stone for controlling
erosion immediately below the overfall even though they were very small.
During periods of low flow the stone below the weir hindered the migra-
tion of the small fish up to the overfall. It is not known how much
stone would be needed for larger overfalls.
It appears likely that the piling could be used in conjunction with
the rock structure previously discussed, perhaps instead of the inlet
section. Also a small pool suitably reinforced with large rock could be
allowed to develop below the over fall. This structure takes less
channel length than the rock drop and might be practical where rip-rap
is scarce or high priced.
A third structural measure consisted of armoring the toe of the
slope with small rock about 2-1/2 to 3" size. It has been referred to
as streambank training. This method was used in a reach of the channel
where the lower bank had low erosion resistance and the stream had
started to meander badly. The installation was made in 1974. To date
it has withstood the bank full runoff of the May 20, 1975 storm plus
several other major flows. It is working successfully. Grass has now
grown through the rocks so that it is no longer visible and should add
additional stability. As long as the channel bottom is not subject to
degradation, there is no question to what this test site will be success-
ful in protecting the streambank.
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Survey of Streambank Erosion
As a part of the International Joinf Commission PLUARG studies,
streambank erosion is being surveyed under the direction of a Mr.
W F. Mildner of the of the Soil Conservation Service. These studies
are generally made on a statistical sampling basis, but because of the
intensity of the Black Creek Study and the size of the basin, a complete
survey was made in this particular watershed.
The study was conducted in the summer of 1975 and the data has re-
cently been made available to the author by Mr. Mildner. The survey
covered 29.3 miles on stream for a total bank miles of 58.6. The follow-
ing measurements are listed in bank miles. The drainage density was
determined to be 1.56 miles of channel per square mile. It was deter-
mined that there are 7.2 eroding bank miles producing approximately 400
tons of sediment per year. It was estimated that only 6.3 miles of
simple treatment and 0.9 miles of armoring would solve this problem.
At the present time there are 18.4 miles of simple treatment and 1.7
miles of armoring in the watershed.
There does not appear to be any correlation of the bank erosion
with use of the adjacent land or with whether or not the banks are
fenced. It is interesting to note that over 80% of the total tons of
streambank erosion are produced by two soil types, Eel 59.44 and Shoals
2s!l%. Yet the same soils account for only 18.7 and 7.3% respectively
of the total miles of streambanks.
While this survey shows a relatively small amount of sediment pro-
duced by streambank erosion, nevertheless at the site of occurrence the
erosion may be quite severe. Often the eroding sections can be con-
trolled wJh a comparitively small amount of simple treatment. The need
to control'bank erosion emphasizes a need for a good maintenance program
in any plan to reduce sedimentation.
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SEDIMENT TRAP FOR MEASURING
BED LOAD MOVEMENT IN BLACK CREEK
by
1 2
R. E. Land and R. Z. Wheaton, Ph.D.
ABSTRACT
There is a real need for a method of determining the quantity of
bed load movement in streams on alluvial soils. On this thought, the
agencies involved in the Black Creek Sediment Control Project, Allen
County, Indiana, agreed to set-up an investigative study using a flow-
through type sedimentation basin to search for such method. The basin
was designed and built in September, 1974. The study is continuing at
this date. Some data has been collected. However the study has not
progressed to a point where a prediction can be made. It is hopeful
that the study can be carried out to the point where bed load movement
in streams can be determined and directly related to field runoff events.
BACKGROUND
It was the decision of all agencies involved in the Black Creek
Sediment Control Project (E.P.A., A.C.S.W.C.D., S.C.S. and Purdue Univer-
sity) to set up an investigative study on a flow-through type sedimenta-
tion basin in an effort to determine the effectiveness of such sediment
traps in upstream channels of small watersheds. Personnel of the Soil
Conservation Service were particularly interested in the investigation
since the agency was lacking in any data pertaining to such sediment
basins.
It was agreed that the basin would be installed in the main stream
of Black Creek -. below the entrance of its main tributaries and above
the back-water effects of the Maumee River. The basin would be construct-
ed by widening and deepening the existing channel - thereby decreasing
the velocity of the stream and creating plain sedimentation.
A site was finally located with a straight section of channel of
sufficient length to install the basin, and permission was granted by
Coordinator, Black Creek Sediment Control Project, Dept. of Ag.
Engineering, Purdue University.
2Technical Coordinator, Black Creek Sediment Control Project, Dept. of
Ag. Engineering, Purdue University.
-93-
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the landowner to construct. The site did not entirely satisfy the guide-
lines since on occasion the area was affected by backwater from the Maumee
River, however, the backwater normally occurred after runoff events in
Black Creek and it was felt that the occurance would have little affect
on the investigation.
The channel at the selected site had the following average measure-
ments: d - 12 ft., b • 10 ft., ss =• 2si.
DESIGN
The basin was designed with two primary objectives in mind: (1)
to trap particles of high specific gravity and (2) to gain knowledge of
the bed-load movement in the channel.
Design procedure and calculations were submitted by the Soil Con-
servation Service. Procedure used was that generally used in the design
of sedimentation tanks as related to water treatment.
where v «•
(1)
v - settling velocity of the smallest soil partical
to be removed
Q « outflow
A " surface area of the basin (bottom)
A "v" value of 0.0625 ft/sec settling velocity of a partical 0.074
mm in diameter with a 2.65 specific gravity was selected from a paper
by William W. Rubey on "Settling Velocities of Gravel, Sand, and Silt
Particals." From the Atterburg system of partical size separation, fig.
1, it can be seen that particals of 0.074 mm fall in the fine sand range.
Fig. 1. Atterburg System of Partical Size Separation
GRAVEL
COURSE SAND
FINE SAND
X -^
SILT
CLAY
X- }-
2.0 mm
0.2
0.02
0.002
An outflow of 500 cfs was assumed - based on experience of previous
runoff calculations from watersheds of like area, slope and cover.
With these values "A" becomes 8,000 sq. ft.
Development of the above formula reveals that "d" cancells out,
therefore depth is not a factor, but "d" must not be so shallow that
bed velocity becomes high for obvious reasons. Also the shape of the
basin is not a factor as long as the horizontal velocity is not so
great as to prevent, by turbulance, the settling of particals under
gravity. With these requirements in mind the following basin dimensions
were established:
-94-
-------
L - 400 ft.
b - 20 ft.
d • 4 ft. below the existing channel bottom giving a designed
flow depth of 10 ft.
ss • 3:1 below the existing channel bottom
ss » 2:1 above the existing channel bottom
Tapered inlet and outlet sections of 70 ft. in length
Contract for construction was let in August 1974, and work was complet-
ed the following month. The basin was built as designed except that the
side slopes were changed from a two plain 3:1 and 2:1 to a one plain 2.35:1
to facilitate construction.
From the basin design dimension we get a detention time of 3.0 min-
utes and a horizontal velocity of 2.2 ft./sec. The horizontal velocity
would be a minimum since no allowance was made for sediment storage in
the calculation.
We note that the horizontal velocity is higher than the generally
accepted maximum horizontal velocity of 1 ft/sec for settling of sand
in the design of grit chambers and much too high for the settling of
particals of light specific gravity. However from the basin design
values, theoretically, we can expect to settle out all particals of
specific gravity 2.65 and a falling rate of 0.0625 ft/sec, and since
particals of less falling velocity thanS will be removed in the same
proportion as their velocity bears to $vre can expect to trap, 50% of
those particals having a falling velocity of 0.0312 ft/sec and so on.
DATA COLLECTED AND DISCUSSED
A survey of the basin was made on July 30, 1975, to determine the
amount of sediment accumulated from events of the previous eleven months.
Cross sections were made at three sections in the first 100 ft. of basin
where needed, and every 50 ft. through the remaining section of the
basin. Cross sections of the survey are shown in fig. 2 and 3. As would
be expected, most of the sediment drop out is in the first portion of the
basin, also the sections indicate a meandering of the stream flow. Re-
sults of the survey show that 980 cu. yds. of sediment had been collected.
As a point of interest, records from water sampling stations up
stream from the basin indicate approximately 10,000 cu. yds. of suspend-
ed sediment had entered the basin during the same eleven month period
mentioned above, however it must be noted that this is suspended sediment
and would not be an indication of the efficiency of the basin as designed.
Soil samples of the accumulated basin sediment was taken after the
survey. Fartical size analysis is shown in table 1.
-95-
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Figure 2, Cross Sectional View of Deposition in
Constructed Desilting Basin
20 40 60 80
i i i i
1
20 40 60 80
\ / "C
715.0-
A - TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF ORIGINAL DITCH STA. 457+00
B-TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF CONSTRUCTED
BASIN
C - CROSS SECTION OF ACCUMULATED SEDIMENT
730.0 - \
\
725.0 - \
w
\
720.0 -
715.0-
730.0 -
725.0
716.0 -
Vifc.iM^iir
STA. 457+40
f
\
V
•
/
STA. 457+75
\
\
\
\
\^f£'f,^Hti^tUf
STA. 457+50
STA. 458+00
-96-
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Figure 3. Cross Sectional View of Deposition in
Constructed Desilting Basin (con't)
0
1
20
1
40
1
60
1
80
1
0
I
20
I
40
I
60
I
80
I
730.0 -
725.0 -
720.0 -
715.0 -
STA.458 + 50
\
\
\
\
STA. 459+00
730.0 -
725.0 -
720.0 -
715.0 -
STA. 459 +50
STA. 460+00
730.0 -
725.0 -
720.0 -
715.0 -
STA. 460 + 50
STA. 461+00 n-u
-97-
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Table 1. Fartlcal Size Analysis
Sta
457400
4574-50
458400
4584-50
459400
4594-50
460400
4604-50
461400
Total
%
Sand
87.2
84.2
77.8
75.2
72.6
60.5
48.7
38.2
29.9
%
Greater
than
2 nnn
18.6
9.3
3.1
2.9
4.6
.5
.5
.4
.0
%
1 to
2 nun
7.8
5.7
1.4
1.2
1.4
.3
.2
.3
.1
%
.5 to
1 mm
21.0
16.3
3.4
4.6
4.8
1.9
.8
.5
.3
%
.25 to
• 5 xnxn
29.0
31.2
28.8
38.9
33.1
23.1
13.5
5.0
2.4
%
.1 to
.25 mm
8.5
16.1
32.0
18.9
20.5
23.6
21.4
18.7
14.2
%
.05 to
1 inm
2.3
5.5
9.1
8.8
8.2
11.2
12.5
13.4
12.9
As can be seen from the analysis, particals with the highest settl-
ing velocity fall out at the head of the basin and decreased in volume
as stationing progressed down stream. A factor of interest is the high
percent of particals accumulated of less than 0.05 mm in diameter or in
the silt and clay classification. Results of a water sampling (grab
sample) taken at the inlet and outlet of the basin is given in table 2,
which also indicates a degree of light sediment fall out.
Table 2. Water Sample Analysis
Sample Description
Solids mg/L
Soluble F ppm
Total P filtered ppm
Total F unfiltered ppm
NH^ + ppm
N03 - ppm
Total N filtered ppm
Total N unfiltered ppm
Basin
Inlet
412.0
286
331
1044
31
3.09
4.72
12.01
Basin
Outlet
360.8
235
280
1010
31
3.09
4.25
8.65
Since we are continuing to collect data, we can not at this time
make a prediction as to the study. We are aware of the problems pre-
sented by not being able to control the inflow to the basin or to create
a uniform velocity through the basin. It is known that on several occ-
asions the actual flow has far exceeded the design flow - this may have
caused a flushing action. From the amount of sediment trapped and from
observation of the sand bars down stream from the basin, it is known that
the bed load movement in Black Creek is considerable.
-98-
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GRASSED WATERWAY DESIGN
Claudius F. Poland*
Grassed waterways and outlets are natural or constructed waterways
shaped to required dimensions and vegetated for safe disposal of runoff
from a field, diversion, terrace or other structures.
The grass-lined waterway is used when rainfall exceeds the rate or
volume at which the soil can take in and store moisture. Surplus water
will pass over the land in the form of runoff. Since the success of any
soil conservation program depends on the removal of this surplus water
without undue erosion, the area needed for waterways should be dedicated
to this purpose.
The satisfactory performance of a vegetated waterway depends on it
having the proper shape, as well as the preparation of the area in a
manner to provide conditions favorable to vegetative growth. Between
the time of seeding the cover and the actual establishment, a waterway
is unprotected and subject to considerable damage unless special
protection is provided. Waterways subject to constant or prolonged flows
require special supplemental treatment, such as grade control structures,
stone centers, or subsurface drainage capable of carrying such flows.
After establishment, protective vegetative cover must be maintained.
Vegetative outlets and waterways are used for the following purposes:
1. As outlets for diversions and terraces,
2. To dispose of water collected by road ditches or discharged
through culverts,
3. To rehabilitate natural draws carrying concentrations of runoff.
The waterway may be protected by using a combination of the following
steps that best fit the needs of the site.
1. Construct the waterway in advance of any other channels that
will discharge it.
*Agricultural Engineer, U.S. Soil Conservation Service, Area H,
Kendallville, Indiana
-99-
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2. Establish the vegetative cover according to recommended tech-
niques.
a. Protect the channel seeding with mulch (manure, stubble,
straw, jute netting, or wired and staked mulch).
b. Sod the channel.
c. Irrigate the new seeding or sodding to insure and hasten
establishment if needed.
3« Carry prolonged flow in a subsurface drainage system.
4. Use stable natural waterways where possible.
5. Maintain vegetative cover by mowing, fertilizing, and performing
other maintenance work as needed.
Vegetative waterways may be built to three general shapes or cross
sections — parabolic, trapezoidal, or "V" shaped. Parabolic waterways
are the most common and generally are the most satisfactory. It is the
shape ordinarily found in nature. Small flows are less likely to
meander. The cross section should be designed to permit easy crossing
of equipment where necessary.
The most satisfactory location for a waterway is in a well-vegetated
natural draw. These locations should be used where possible since they
have one or more of the following advantages:
1. Flattest grade in the immediate area,
2. Most stable channel conditions,
3. Adequate capacity,
k» Soil and moisture conditions most favorable to vegetative growth,
5. Sufficient depth for outletting diversions, terraces, and rows
at grade.
Surveys
The total drainage area and subwatershed divides can be determined
by field inspection or by the use of a stereoscope on an aerial photograph,
and sketched on the photograph for measurement. U.S.G.S. maps may be used
to determine drainage areas.
The original ground surface should, be profiled and cross sectioned
in enough detail to permit dividing the waterway into reaches of approxi-
mately uniform slope and shape.
The design of a waterway is the determination of a channel dimension
that will carry the estimated flow without damage to the channel or its
lining. Vegetative linings vary in their protective ability according to
-100-
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type and density. Therefore, safe velocities under various conditions
are a matter for careful consideration.
Design Storm Frequency
Waterways are constructed to discharge the peak flow expected from
a storm of at least a ten-year frequency. Out-of-bank flow may be
permitted on land slopes parallel to the channel where the slope is not
greater than one percent and it is evident that no erosion damage or
serious crop damage will result.
Vegetative Retardance Factor
The design of a vegetated waterway is more complicated than for a
bare channel, since the value for "N" (Mannings coefficient of roughness)
varies where grass linings are used. Vegetation tends to bend and
oscillate under the influence of velocity and depth of flow. Thus, the
retardance to flow varies as these factors change.
Large and small channels of different cross-sectional shape and
bed shape, and with different vegetal covers, the retardance coefficient
"N" varies with VR. The term VR is the product of velocity and the
hydraulic radius. This relationship will be referred to as the
"N-VR relationship", which is recommended as the basis for vegetated
channel design.
Design Data
The following information is required for designing a waterway:
1. Watershed area in acres, together with the soil characteristics,
cover and topography. This information is used to estimate
runoff.
2. Grade of the proposed waterway in percent slope (this is the
fall in feet per 100 feet of length).
3. Vegetated cover adapted to site conditions.
14-. Erodibility of the soil in the waterway.
5. Expected height at which vegetative cover will be maintained.
6. The permissible velocity for the conditions encountered.
7. Allowance for space that will be occupied by the vegetative
lining.
Design Procedures
Waterways are frequently planned where the slope is variable and
where there is a wide difference in the watershed area at various points
along the channel. In such cases, the waterway is designed in reaches.
-101-
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A reach is usually a portion of the watershed having a near-uniform
slope and drainage area. A point of significant break in slope is a
point of division "between two reaches. The point of entrance of a
tributary vhere the watershed is significantly increased also may be
a point of division between two reaches. When the limits of two or
more reaches have been determined, each reach is designed separately.
Drainage of Waterways
Vegetated waterways, to be effective, must not be subjected to
low flows of long duration or kept wet for long periods. A tile
system providing drainage and protecting the center of the waterway
should be considered where prolonged low flows or wet conditions
prevail.
Tile lines should be parallel to the center of the vegetated
waterway but be offset from the centerline at least one-fourth the
top width of the waterway. Two lines may be required in some cases,
one each side of the center. The tile line(s) may be outletted
through a drop structure at the end of the waterway if there is a
significant difference in elevation between the tile and channel
outlets, or through a standard tile outlet.
The following is an example of design of a sod waterway in
Black Creek Watershed:
Given: 1*82 acres drainage area
Watershed topography 0 to 3$
Watershed cover 20$ cultivated
30$ small grain
1*0$ hay and pasture
10$ woods, farmsteads, and roads
Grade - Q.jfr
Vegetative cover (after establishment) - tall fescue
Condition of vegetation:
Good stand - mowed (V to 6")
Good stand - headed (6" to 18")
Soil - moderately credible
Permissible velocity - 4.0 f.p.s.
Find Q: When Q is found from 10 year storm of 2k hour
duration in Black Creek Watershed, Allen Co., Indiana.
From TP to - Qio 24 hr. = 3.87" rainfall
From Chapter 2 of S.C.S. Engineering Field Manual
Q = 210 c.f.s.
From Chapter 7 of S.C.S. Engineering Field Manual
Exhibit 7-5 (0.25 percent slope) V± = 4.0; T = 20.4';
D = 3.9'; V2 = 3.9 f.p.s.
Note; The sod waterway would be deep and narrow, therefore, the water-
way would be difficult to cross. The dimensions were changed as follows:
VL = 3.0; T = 36'; D = 2.8'; V2 = 3«0 f.p.s.
-102-
-------
The above dimensions include growth of vegetation. The drawing
shows 4' each side of waterway and 0.31 to 0.51 depth for freeboard.
They are sometimes added to the design for safety, which has been done
for waterways that have large drainage areas in Black Creek Watershed.
-103-
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_, Subsurface Drain, Technical Standards and Specification,
USDA-SCS-Indiana, August
, Grassed Waterway or Outlet, Technical Standards and
Specifications, USDA-SCS-Indiana, March 1973
Coyle, J.J., Engineering Field Manual, Chapter 7. Grassed Waterways
and Outlets
Indiana Fazm Drainage Guide, Mimeo ID-55, Purdue University, Cooperative
Extension Service in Cooperation with USDA Soil Conservation
Service, 1966
-104-
-------
NUTRIENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MAUMEE RIVER
by
L. E. Sommers, D. W. Nelson, and D. 6. Kaminsky, Jr.*
ABSTRACT
The nutrient content of surface runoff, tile drain effluents and
surface waters in the Black Creek watershed was evaluated. Rainulator
studies indicated that an average of 3.5 and 3.8% of N and P, respec-
tively, was lost in surface runoff after surface application of fertilizer,
A study of tile effluents indicated that concentrations of N and P
present were comparable to or greater than those found in surface waters.
Based on average concentrations, tile effluents and surface runoff are
equally important as sources of nutrients entering surface waters in the
watershed. Routine analysis of surface water samples within the watershed
indicates that the median concentrations of N are higher than those found
in the Maumee River while the reverse trend was observed for P.
^Associate Professors of Agronomy and formerly Research Assistant, Purdue
University, W. Lafayette, IN, 47907.
-105-
-------
The nutrients of primary concern in eutrophication are N and P.
Because of the capacity of many blue-green algae, a major component
of the micro flora in eu trophic waters, to fix atmospheric N2 whenever
the "available" N status of waters becomes depleted, much emphasis
has been placed on the factors controlling the forms and amounts of
P entering streams, lakes, etc. This rationale was instrumental in
implementing bans on phosphate detergents in some states, including
Indiana. Such actions will influence P entering natural waters
from point-sources (e.g., sewage treatment plants). Of equal signifi-
cance to point-sources are non-point sources of nutrients, including
agricultural land.
The two major sources of nutrients entering natural waters from
agricultural land include surface runoff and subsurface drainage
(ground water and tile drain effluent). Obviously, nutrient losses
via these routes will be influenced by factors such as land use,
fertilizer usage, management practices, climate, topography, soil
type, etc. Furthermore, the ultimate form of a particular nutrient,
i.e., N or P, entering a body of water will be controlled by physical,
chemical and biological processes occuring during removal from the land
and transport through drainage ditches, streams, etc. The objectives
of this paper will be (1) to present data on the forms and amounts of
N and P in surface runoff, tile drain effluents and surface waters of
the Black Creek watershed and (2) to evaluate the realtionships between
various nutrients in water samples.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Evaluation of Nutrient Losses in Surface Runoff
The rainfall simulator described by Meyer and Mannering (1) was
used to evaluate the loss of fertilizer and native soil N and P from
four soil types found in the Black Creek watershed. The characteristics
of the four soils studied are as follows: Haskins loam - 0.1 to 0.32
slope, 12.5% clay, 44.5% silt, 1021 ppm total N, and 363 ppm total P;
Nappanee clay loam - 0.7 to 0.8% slope, 29.5% clay, 41.5% silt, 1557 ppm
total N and 706 ppm total P; Morley clay loam - 4.7 to 5.2% slope,
33% clay, 43.5% silt, 1240 ppm total N and 366 ppm total P; Hoytville
silty clay - 0.3 to 0.7% slope, 43.8% clay, 42% silt, 2969 ppm total N
and 3164 ppm total P. All plots were disked once at right angles to
the slope and once up and down slope. Two plots of each soil type were
fertilized with 56 kg P/ha of triple superphosphate and 168 kg N/ha
as NH4N03. Rainstorms were applied at an intensity of 6.35 cm/hr. Two
rainstorms were applied to the plots, one of sixty minute duration and
one of thirty minute duration.
Monitoring of Tile Drain Effluents
Water samples were obtained from 283 tile outfalls during the period
-106-
-------
May 13 to June 7, 1974. An estimate of flow was obtained at the time
of water sample collection but it should be noted that tile flows were
during the declining phase of the hydrograph.
Water quality parameters in the tile effluents were determined
by the following procedures: suspended solids by filtering a sample
through a 0.45 p filter, drying, and weighing the dried filter;
total P (2), total N (3), NH4+ and N03~ (4). Both filtered (0.45 y)
and unfiltered samples were analyzed for chemical constituents.
Soluble inorganic P was determined in filtered samples (5). All
water samples were preserved by freezing.
Monitoring of Stream Water
Grab samples were obtained from 13 sites in the Black Creek water-
shed and from one site on the Maumee River (Fig. 1). The results
represent analysis of approximately 150 samples collected from each of
the 14 sampling sites during the 19 March, 1973 to 29 December, 1974
time period. Automatic pump samplers (PS-69) were employed at 3 sites
(Nos. 2, 6 and 12) to follow changes in water quality during storm
events. All water samples were preserved and analyzed as described
above.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Evaluation of Nutrient Loss in Surface Runoff
As determined by rainulator studies, the losses of soil and
nutrients were low from these gently sloping soils (Table 1). In view
of the experimental conditions employed (i.e., N and P fertilizer
were applied to the soil surface just prior to application of a 6.5 cm/hr
rainstorm), the nutrient losses obtained should be regarded as maximum
values for the soils studied. Soil losses from rainstorms applied
ranged from 0.15 to 2.18 tons/acre for the Nappanee clay loam (~1% slope)
and Morley clay loam (~5% slope). Previous research (6) has shown
that soil losses of 21.4 and 24.7 tons/ha resulted from two successive
rainstorms applied to a conventionally tilled Bedford silt loam (8.3 to
12.4% slope). Due to the low percent slope possessed by the majority
of soils in the Black Creek study area, it is likely that the total
amount of runoff and soil erosion occurring on these soils will be low
when compared to the bulk of data collected during soil erosion
research.
It is evident from looking at the data that fertilizer application
resulted in increased nutrient loss from soils (Table 1). The increases
are the greatest in the soluble ammonium, nitrate and inorganic P fractions.
Sediment P also appears to increase with fertilizer addition probably as
a result of sorption of added inorganic P by the clay fraction in soil.
The loss of sediment N does not seem to be markedly affected by fertiliza-
tion.
-107-
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o
00
I
V^ 13 Wann at Killian
^\
RoM
Cr««k or Drain
Town
Protottd Motor Monitoring Sfotk
SMiiPWil Satin*
Drop S1ructnr«"— -- -
Major Channel Slabilitation *_
•idontifbd « of Ool*
WORK LOCATION MAP
ALLEN COUNTY SOIL AND WATER CONSCT/ATION DISTRICT
WITH
CNVIRONMCNTAL PROTECTION AOCNCV
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
USD* SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
Fig"." 1. Location of routine water quality monitoring sites in the Black Creek study area.
-------
Table 1. Losses of soil and fertilizer N and P in surface runoff from fertilized and non-fertilized
plots of four soil types
I
o
I
Runoff
Rainstorm .
No.a Treatment Total
Solids
tons /ha
NH^-N
N in runoff as
NOVN
Sed. N Sum
i i\- —in
P
Soluble
Inorg. P
_i
in runoff as
Sed. P
Sum
Haskins loam
1 U
F
2 U
F
1 U
F
2 U
F
1 D
F
2 U
F
305
368
239
264
168
210
195
251
253
233
256
283
2.28
2.05
1.24
1.17
0.32
0.42
0.29
0.77
0.41
0.78
0.68
0.88
0.67
0.51
0.91
5.47
0.30
8.63
0.23
8.10
0.54
8.63
0.23
8.10
7.06
5.47
0.91
2.58
1.98
2.95
0.74
7.32
17.08
30.27
3.40
5.46
52.70 61.31
54.20 67.47
30.26 35.39
32.00 42.06
Nappanee clay
17.00 20.20
41.30 56.40
13.10 15.38
36.70 52.12
Hoytville silty
38.50 56.12
27.80 77.18
39.50 43.46
54.30 75.96
0.19
3.02
0.21
1.15
loam
0.13
1.40
0.12
0.51
clay
0.54
2.06
0.49
0.88
24.10
29.10
10.60
12.00
3.80
8.84
3.79
9.31
8.22
15.94
13.78
19.91
24.46
33.37
10.93
13.23
3.06
10.39
4.02
9.95
9.06
18.20
14.38
20.89
Morley clay loam
1 U
F
2 U
F
395
389
280
289
3.94
4.38
3.19
3.70
1.07
16.29
0.66
14.07
3.67
7.77
3.48
7.25
200.90 205.88
242.22 266.26
113.37 117.84
133.20 157.18
0.04
1.15
0.03
0.56
27.13
59.05
22.08
33.37
27.29
60.40
22.16
33.94
Rainstorms 1 and 2 were for 60 and 30 min. respectively.
''u, unfertilized plots; F, fertilized plots.
-------
The percent of the various types of N and P found in the runoff as
compared to the total amounts of N and P in runoff is listed in Tabxe 2.
In unfertilized plots the large majority of the N found in runoff is in
the sediment. On the contrary, with fertilized plots the proportion of
sediment N in runoff decreased as the NH^-N and NOj-N originating from
fertilizer increased. However, the fraction of sediment N in runoff from
fertilized plots was at least 41% and in most cases greater than 50% of
the total N. In unfertilized plots, almost all the P in runoff was
sediment P. When plots are fertilized the percentage of total P in
runoff present as sediment P decreases but stays at relatively high levels.
Data from the fertilized plots reveals that at least 85% of the total P
in runoff was in the sediment phase. From the above data it can be con-
cluded that the most effective way to control loss of P and, to a lesser
extent, N is to control soil erosion. Substantial decreases in the total
nutrient load would have occurred if soil erosion were decreased. Most
likely the amounts of soluble N and P in runoff would decrease If the
fertilizer were incorporated in a way that would also minimize erosion.
The majority of soluble inorganic N and P in runoff is derived from
fertilizer (Table 3). In most cases the majority of sediment N is
derived from the soil. The Nappanee clay loam was an exception since the
sediment N derived from fertilizer sources was quite high. This finding
may be due to the high clay content of the soil which would Increase the
probability of large amounts of added NH^ present on the exchange sites of
the eroded soil. A substantial proportion of the sediment P appears to
be derived from the added fertilizer. This finding is further substantiated
by the increased concentration of P in the sediment from fertilized plots
as compared to the level in sediment from unfertilized plots. The
increases in sediment P and N in runoff resulting from fertilizer are
apparently due to the attachment of ammonium to cation exchange sites
and the soprtion of phosphate by the clay mineral surfaces shortly after
fertilization. These nutrients are then carried from the plots as compon-
ents of the sediment during erosion.
Total inorganic N removed in runoff from the two storms varied from
0.4 to 2.2% of the fertilizer N applied (Table 4). Losses of fertilizer N
from the Raskins soil were substantially lower than from the other three
soils. The elevated sand and lower clay content of the Haskins soil may
have allowed Increased infiltration. Thus, ammonium and nitrate were
leached Into the soil profile, reducing their susceptibility to runoff.
The total amount of fertilizer N lost in all forms varied from 0.8% to 5.9%
of that added (Table 4). The losses of added N from the Haskins soil again
were much lower than the other soils which seems to indicate the clay
content of the soil may be the difference since the fertilizer N lost in
the sediment phase was probably in the form of ammonium on the cation
exchange sites.
The percentages of soluble inorganic P removed by runoff water varied
from 0.3Z-0.7% of that added and the amount of added P lost in all forms
varied from 2.0-8.0% (Table 4). The losses of fertilizer P were larger than
-110-
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Table 2. Percentage distribution of the total amounts of N and P in surface runoff among the N and p
components in runoff from fertilized (F) and unfertilized (U) plots of four soil types.
% of total N in runoff as:
Rainstorm
No.
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
Storm
duration
min.
60
60
30
30
60
60
30
30
60
60
30
30
60
60
30
30
Treat-
ment
NH+-N
NO~-N
Sol.
Org. N
Sed. N
% of total P in runoff as:
Sol.
Inorg. P
Sol.
Org. P
Sed. P
Raskins loam
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
U
F
1.1
7.6
2.6
13.0
1.5
15.3
1.5
15.5
1.0
11.2
0.5
10.7
0.5
6.1
0.6
9.0
11.5
8.1
4.9
6.1
Nappanee
9.8
5.2
A. 8
14.0
Hoytville
30.4
39.2
7.8
7.2
Morley
1.8
2.9
3.0
4.6
1
4
7
4
clay
4
6
8
0
.4
.0
.0
.6
loam
.5
.3
.5
.0
86.0
80.3
85.5
76.1
84.2
73.2
94.9
70.4
0.
9.
1.
8.
3.
13.
3.
5.
8
1
9
7
2
5
0
1
0.7
3.8
1.1
0.6
0.8
1.4
2.7
1.3
98.5
87.2
97.2
90.7
96.0
85.1
94.3
93.6
silty clay
0
0
0
0
clay
0
0
0
1
.0
.6
.8
.0
loam
.1
.0
.0
.7
68.6
49.0
90.9
71.5
97.6
91.0
96.5
84.7
6.
11.
3.
4.
0.
1.
0.
1.
0
3
6
2
1
9
1
6
3.3
1.1
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.0
90.7
87.6
95.8
95.3
99.4
97.8
99.6
98.3
-------
Table 3. Percentage of plant nutrients In runoff water and sediment from fertilized soil derived from
fertilizer.8
Form of N in runoff
i
— i
ro
i
Soil
type
Raskins loam
Nappanee clay loam
Hoytville sllty loam
Morley clay loam
Rainstorm
No.
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
Sol.
Inorg. N
% of
26.9
67.1
80.3
93.7
54.7
73.2
80.3
80.7
Sed. N
N derived from
2.8
5.4
58.8
64.3
0.0
27.3
17.1
14.7
Z of all
N forms
fertilizer
9.1
15.8
64.2
70.5
27.3
42.8
22.7
25.0
Form of P in runoff
Sol.
Inorg. P
Z of
93.7
81.7
90.7
76.5
73.8
44.3
96.5
94.6
Sed. P
P derived from
17.2
11.7
57.0
59.3
48.5
30.8
54.1
33.8
E of all
P forms
fertilizer
26.7
17.4
61.9
59.6
50.2
31.2
54.8
34.7
Calculated by subtracting the nutrient loss from the untreated plot from that of the fertilized plot, dividing the
difference by the nutrient loss from the fertilized plot, and multiplying the resultant value by 100.
-------
Table 4. Amount of added fertilizer nitrogen and phosphorus lost in runoff from four soil types.
Soil Rainstorm
type NO .
Raskins loam l
2
Nappanee clay loam 1
2
Hoytville silty clay 1
L 2
CO
Morley clay loam 1
2
^Percent of stAAaA nut- ri ****+*, i«n<- .i — ....
Added N
Sol. inorg
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.9
1.5
1.3
0.6
1.9
1.2
1.0
2.2
lost in runoff as:
. N All N forms
of added N -
0.4
0.4
0.8
2.1
2.1
4.2
1.3
1.9
3.2
3.6
2.3
5.9
Added P
Sol. inorg
%
0.5
0.2
0.7
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.3
lost in runoff as:
. P All P forms
of added P
1.6
0.4
2.0
1.1
1.1
2.2
1.6
1.2
2.8
5.9
2.1
8.0
subtracting the nutrient loss from untreated
-------
N losses as compared to the amounts of fertilizer N and P applied. The
greater losses of applied P are apparently due to the sorption of phosphate
on soil colloidal surfaces (e.g., clays, hydrous oxides of Fe and Al)
since the largest amount of P in runoff is carried by the sediment. In
summary the quantities of fertilizer nutrients lost in runoff from the
four soils do not represent significant monetary losses to the farmer
and the nutrient losses are low considering the severity of the experi-
mental conditions. The incorporation of the fertilizer would have likely
reduced losses.
Water Quality of Tile Drain Effluents
A total of 283 tile drains In the Black Creek watershed were sampled
in the spring of 1974 to obtain an estimate of solids, N and P concentra-
tions in effluents from tiles draining agricultural land. The concentrations
of NHt-, N05, total N and total P in tile effluents are shown in Table 5
along with data for surface water samples collected near the outlet of the
drainage ditch. For this and other water quality data presented, both the
median and mean values were calculated. Because water samples collected
during or shortly after a rainfall event may contain concentrations several
fold higher than those encountered routinely, the median value is of
interest when describing the "average" concentration of constituents in
water samples. Inspection of the data in Table 5 shows that the mean
value of most constituents is greater than the median; however, the mean
and median may be comparable in some cases. The purpose of these analyses
was to compare water quality in tile effluents and surface water; therefore
median concentrations will be emphasized. It should be noted that the
surface water data in Table 5 was obtained at only one sampling site
while from 7 to 65 tile effluent samples were collected from each drainage
ditch.
Tile effluents possessed greater concentrations of N than surface
waters (Table 5). In many cases the median concentration of NH^- and NC^-N
was twice that found in surface water samples. With the exception of
site 6, tile effluents contained elevated concentrations of total P when
compared to surface waters. The increased total P levels at site 6 may be
a reflection of domestic wastes originating from the town of Harlan. Based
on this data, it is apparent that the significance of nutrient loss from
agricultural land through tiles will be dependent on the quantity of water
entering surface waters from this source. Assuming that 3.0 to 6.0 ha-cm
(-3.0-4.5 acre-in) of water passes through tile drains and that NO^-N - 10mg/l,
total N - 30 mg/1 and total P - 1 mg/1, losses in tile drain effluents for
N03-N, total N and total P will be 7-16, 14-32 and 0.3-0.6 kg/ha, respectively.
The rainulator data presented previously suggest that, on the average, 3.5%
and 3.8% of fertilizer N and P are lost in surface runoff, resulting in losses
of 5.9 kg N/ha and 2.1 kg P/ha. If both fertilizer and soil nutrient sources
are included, total N and total P losses were from 11-42 kg N/ha and 2-9 kg P/ha
for the rainulator plots. Thus, based on these results it appears that
effluents from tile drains may be as important a mechanism for loss
of nutrients from agricultural land as runoff of fertilizer applied
to the soil surface and subjected immediately to an
-114-
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Table 5. Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in tile drain effluents and surface waters.
01
I
Drainage
ditch
Smith-Fry (2)
Wertz (3)
Gorrell (4)
Richelderfer (5)
Dreisback (6)
Lake (7)
Black Creek (12)
Wann (13)
Type of
sample
T
W
T
W
T
W
T
W
T
W
T
W
T
W
T
W
NH/
Median
0.54
0.25
0.36
0.26
0.40
0.32
0.81
0.51
0.66
0.50
0.72
0.21
0.72
0.26
0.32
0.20
t*
Mean
1.02
0.35
0.51
0.36
0.56
0.45
1.96
1.04
9.83
0.87
5.80
0.34
2.64
0.40
0.50
0.28
NO^-N
Median
10.85
5.70
7.33
3.95
4.41
4.04
7.69
5.20
5.88
3.90
4.66
5.60
8.18
5.07
8.68
3.92
Mean
9.62
5.47
10.20
4.04
4.57
4.22
10.38
5.26
7.52
3.91
5.97
5.72
9.83
5.02
10.28
4.10
Total N
Median
mg/1
12.72
6.82
12.20
5.43
9.09
5.30
13.90
6.62
15.30
6.03
12.54
6.84
15.63
6.20
10.40
5.10
Mean
13.42
6.55
13.95
5.75
8.92
5.72
17.83
7.38
22.79
6.16
26.62
7.10
15.86
5.98
12.89
5.18
Total P
Median
0.052
0.152
0.028
0.138
0.096
0.130
0.073
0.435
1.470
0.436
0.047
0.162
0.036
0.192
0.030
0.102
Mean
- •-
0.378
0.240
0.060
0.306
0.236
0.291
0.587
0.621
2.543
0.628
2.312
0.340
0.710
0.364
0.812
0.227
-------
intensive rainstorm. It must be realized that the nutrients in tile drains
and surface runoff originate from fertilizers (both inorganic and organic)
and from mineralization of soil N and P.
Water Quality of Surface Waters
The median concentrations for various constituents in water samples
collected from March, 1973 to December, 1974 are presented in Table 6.
Median values are used to indicate the predominant concentrations found.
In general, water samples collected in the watershed (sites 1 and 13)
contained lower concentrations of P and higher levels of N than samples
obtained from the Maumee River (site 14). However, the distribution
between soluble and particulate forms of N and P were similar in water
samples collected from the watershed and the Maumee River. On the average,
83% of the total N was present as soluble species (i.e., NH^, NO^, and
organic N) and 30% of the total P was in soluble forms. As discussed
previously, this distribution between solid and liquid phases results from
the capacity of suspended sediments to sorb soluble P whereas inorganic N,
especially NO^j, remains in solution. A similar result was obtained for
water samples from tile drains. The levels of soluble inorganic N and P
were always in excess of the often quoted values limiting algal growth
(i.e., 0.1 mg N/l and 0.01 mg P/l). However, concentration data must be
interpreted cautiously because the total loading of N and P is the
important parameter when considering the impact of agricultural drainage
on the Great Lakes.
Instantaneous loadings were calculated for water samples obtained
after installation of weirs at 7 sampling locations. The weirs were
installed during February, 1974. From 50-60 samples per site are included
in the loading data presented in Table 6. The median value of each loading
is likely an approximation for the amount of material lost from each
subwatershed during base flow. Because water samples are obtained weekly
and whenever an event occurs, the mean is considerably greater than the
median for all components in water samples. Obviously, extrapolation of
instantaneous loadings to an annual basis is suspect at best, necessitating
the use of automatic pump samplers to obtain accurate records of flow
during an event. However, instantaneous loadings indicate differences
between sites and the data also will be useful in evaluating models sub-
sequently developed from pump sampler data. Preliminary data from the
pump samplers suggest that total N and P losses during a single event
range from 0.4-7.4 and 0.01-1.4 kg/ha, respectively. Extrapolation of
instantaneous loadings to an annual basis yields losses ranging from 10-118
and 0.5-4.0 kg/ha/yr for total N and P, respectively. Thus, even though
serious limitations exist in employing instantaneous loadings to calculate
nutrient losses, the median values for nutrient loadings are realistic.
-116-
-------
6.
of
quaUty
for
ol)tatMd ,„.
— —————— — — _____^____ — _
Site
1
2
4
6
10
11
12
13
14
Suspended
solids
129
118
124
106
126
129
104
108
128
115
114
115
109
126
NH.-N
4
0.25
0.25
0.26
0.32
0.51
0.50
0.21
0.28
0.40
0.88
0.26
0.26
0.20
0.23
NO-N
_,.. 3
7.44
5.70
3.95
4.04
5.20
3.90
5.60
2.23
3.29
3.34
6.66
5.07
3.92
2.96
Soluble
7.02
5.66
4.60
4.32
5.88
4.66
5.86
2.84
4.28
5.48
6.51
4.93
4.44
3.68
Particulate
N
mg/1
1.42
1.16
0.82
0.98
0.74
1.37
0.98
0.80
0.90
1.16
1.28
1.28
0.65
0.74
Soluble
Inorg. P
0.041
0.021
0.017
0.018
0.092
0.105
0.028
0.033
0.150
0.270
0.029
0.029
0.012
0.073
Soluble
P
0.064
0.054
0.050
0.054
0.137
0.164
0.061
0.067
0.200
0.335
0.063
0.066
0.033
0.106
Particulate
P
0.117
0.098
0.088
0.076
0.298
0.272
0.101
0.132
0.220
0.435
0.127
0.126
0.069
0.252
-------
Table 7. Instantaneous loadings for components in surface waters,
MU- M 1KH-N Total N Sol, inorg . P Total P
,!„ Medi.? Mean MSiu^-M^ M^ ite^ Media, Me.. M.dlan Hea.
'sec
0.005 0.013 0.024 0.091
! 0.03 0.15 1.39 2.26 1.27 3.47
2 0.15 0.33 3.03 4.66 3.31 6.07 0.011 0.032 0.070 0.406
3 o.02 3.05 0.33 55.65 0.52 77.02 0.001 1.431 0.005 10.352
4 0.04 0.15 0.49 1.48 0.67 1.70 0.002 0.014 0.014 0.111
5 0.02 0.28 0.23 5.39 0.25 5.34 0.005 0.104 0.014 0.543
? 6 0.06 0.16 0.79 1.45 1.13 1.88 0.021 0.052 0.090 0.313
13 0.20 20.82 4.65 90.27 5.51 123.25 0.012 0.603 0.118 19.148
-------
REFERENCES
1. Meyer, L. D., and J. V. Mannering. I960. Soil and water conservation
tt"lmtor- Tran8' Int> Congr- Soil sci- 7th
2. Sommers, L. E., D. W. Nelson. 1972. Determination of total P in soils-
" dl8e8tl0n Procedu«- Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.
3. Nelson, D. W., and L. E. Sommers. 1975. Determination of total nitrogen
in natural water. J. Environ. Qual. 4 (In Press). nitrogen
*' f^rTf' ^ M^ and,D> R* Keeney> 1965> SteaB Distillation methods
Acta S0"1 anmonium' nit«te. and nitrite. Anal. Chim.
* forPSl i*: ^ J;/' Rile?' 1962- A -^"^ -ingl. solution method
Acta 27: 25^67? Ph<>8phate in natural waters. Anal. Chim.
j . • . --, -. . and J. V. Mannering. 1973. Nitroeen
and phosphorus composition of surface runoff as affected by tillage
method. J. Environ. Qual. 2: 292-295. •••"•••.age
-119-
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EFFECTS OF LAND TREATMENT ON THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
by
James R. Karr* and Owen T. Gorman**
ABSTRACT
A fundamental assumption of the Black Creek Study
is that the Universal Soil Loss Equation is the best
estimator of the sediment potential of a watershed.
It may be the best estimator of soil loss from small
areas, but evidence from an intensive study of a forest
plot on the Wertz Drain suggests that this assumption
may be invalid at the watershed level. The average
suspended solids load of the Wertz Drain in agricul-
tural areas above and below the forest is 90 to 95 mg
per 1 while at the downstream end of the forest the
average is near 74 mg per 1. As the stream flows
through the forest it acts as a natural sediment basin,
reducing sediment load by about 28%. Furthermore, the
biota reflects the relatively high water quality in
the forest. Because of the shading by trees and the
meandering nature of the stream inside the forest,
temperature, oxygen, sediment, and nutrient regimes
are more buffered than in channeled areas. This re-
sults in fewer algal blooms and a more stable (also
more diverse) resident fish fauna than is found in
other nearby streams.
Seasonal influxes of fish from the Maumee River spread through
the entire Black Creek Study Area in the spring and in late summer.
These fish are in search of suitable spawning and nursery areas.
Bridge construction at Ward Road and rip-rap, in association with
stage-recorder weirs, temporarily blocked fish movements into sev-
eral of the tributaries of Black Creek in 1975. Smaller numbers of
fish entered Black Creek in 1975 than in 1974; reductions in large
fish were particularly striking. Fish populations also declined
following bank reconstruction. The extent to which fish communi-
ties did not regenerate due to the reconstruction or due to stream
blockages is not clear. Available evidence suggests that both
factors are very important. Preliminary studies of age and growth
of Black Creek fish show that the maximum age is lower and the size
at any age is often smaller than for other populations of the same
species. Problems of low growth rates, declining populations, and
reductions in spawning and nursery areas for fish suggest that we
should strive for more improvements in the quality of our water
resource systems. Several recommendations are made for the devel-
opment and implementation of future projects.
* Associate Professor, Department of Ecology, Ethology, and Evolution,
Vivarium Building, University of Illinois, Champaign, HI"10" 618f°'
**Research Assistant, Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue Uni-
versity, West Lafayette, Indiana 47097.
-120-
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INTRODUCTION
Borivli National Park near Bombay, India has been protected from
clearing of forests to preserve the watershed as a source of pure water
for the city. This policy explicitly recognizes
(1) that the terrestrial environment influences the quality
of run-off water from an area, and
(2) the dependence of human society on a reliable source of
high quality water.
It is gratifying to see a land management policy with such fore-
sight in a region with high population and consequent pressure for food
production and other land use.
Unfortunately, land use management policy in North America (and in
most of India) has involved the clearing of natural vegetation. Because
ot the needs of our advanced industrial society, it is rarely possible
to manage natural drainage systems to ameliorate the effects of human
activity and insure a supply of high quality water. We depend on manage-
ment of urban, industrial and agricultural systems to minimize effects on
water resources, while simultaneously maximizing the benefits produced
by industry and agriculture. Since it is virtually impossible to opti-
mize for several factors simultaneously, compromises are inevitable.
The Black Creek Sediment Control Project has been designed to
measure the effects of "various land use and agricultural practices on
erosion and resulting effects on sedimentation and water quality " The
present paper is an attempt to synthesize results of biological studies
conducted as a portion of the Black Creek project. These studies were
not initiated in their present form until the late spring of 1974 well
after the other aspects of the project were under way. Before present-
ing the details of the Black Creek work, I shall summarize the results
of selected earlier studies on rivers "as expressions of their terrestrial
environments" (1). This will be followed by a brief review of the
characteristics of the Black Creek Basin and selected results of our
studies through October 1975. Finally, recommendations for further work
either as part of the Black Creek Project or other studies, will be sug-
gested. 5
STREAMS AS ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
At least as early as 1901 scientists recognized the connection
between water bodies and the lands and atmosphere, which surround them
U;. Any attempts to maintain or improve the quality of a water re-
source must recognize that interrelationship. All of the organisms in
a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow
of energy leads to a clearly defined trophic structure, energy flow
and nutrient cycling comprise a primary unit of study, the ecosystem.
Only by employing the multidisciplinary approach to ecosystem manage-
ment can we expect to manage wisely over the long term.
-121-
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Some would maintain that "the various forms of life in a river are
purely incidental, compared with the main task of a river, which Is to
conduct water run-off from an area toward the oceans" (3). Viewed from
the perspective of a geomorphologist thinking in millions of years or an
engineer attempting to control the river this may be true. But, I be-
lieve a word of caution is in order. The living systems in and around
rivers determine to a great extent the quality of water in a stream. As
such those living systems are of major importance in the development of
policies for the management of a water resource. When we consider man
and his crops and livestock we include a major component of the living
system associated with our rivers and even the most near-sighted among
us would not call these components of the living system incidental.
In a project like the Black Creek Study it is important to recog-
nize the many factors which impinge on the system. We have attempted to
summarize those factors in Fig. 1. Since we are primarily concerned in
the present project with the quality of outflow water, we have concen-
trated on those factors which bear direct effects on water quality.
Three external factors are of primary importance in determining
characteristics of both the terrestrial and stream environments. These
are the sun, the ultimate source of virtually all of the energy in bi-
otic systems, the atmosphere, including wind, particulate matter, CO,,
and 0 , and climatic patterns. The latter includes amount and seasonal
distribution of rainfall as well as temperature and humidity.
The terrestrial environment develops as a consequence of the inter-
action of these external factors and, among other things, parent mater-
ial and topography. These factors and associated biotic communities
determine the nature of soils developed in an area. Man's activities as
a consequence of urban, agricultural and industrial needs l"Ploge on all
of these factors to govern inputs of nutrients, chemicals, allochthonous
forms of energy, sediment and other characteristics which affect the
quality and quantity of runoff water entering the stream system.
In the stream the quality and quantity of water (including its
seasonal distribution) and bottom type and gradient characteristics of
the stream bed affect the development of the biotic community of the
stream. For small streams like those typical of Black Creek, energy from
allochthonous sources provides most of the energy input to the biotic
community. A major energy pulse develops in the fall, for example, with
the input of leaves from plants in the surrounding terrestrial environ-
ment. As mentioned above, all of these factors interact in very complex
ways to affect the quality of water exiting the system.
Clearly, the major impact of man in recent decades has been nega-
tive and we are now making major efforts to reduce those impacts within
the constraints of satisfying the demands of human society. Too ^equent-
ly, in my opinion, our efforts are directed toward the goal of conquering
tie natural syste; and its delicate balances. With wise use we can take
advantage of the natural purifying characteristics of ^e land-'water sys-
tem to clean the effluents of human society. What we nf V%Tr~?*ht
ledge of the capabilities of that system and the technological foresight
to use those capabilities wisely.
-122-
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Climate
'arent
' Material
Atmosphere
Sun
ENVIRONMENT
Natural >luman
Biological *-•» Influences
rComrnunities
RUNOFF .WATER.
Quality
Quantity
Timing
WATER
iuantity*-
[Physicp-chemical
Conditions
[BbTTOM TYPE
BIOTA
Producers
Herbivores
Carnivores
Decomposers
QUALITY
and
QUANTITY
of
OUTFLOW
WATER
Fig. 1. General Model of the Primary Factors
Governing the Quality and Quantity of
Outflow Water from an Ecological Sys-
tem.
-123-
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EFFECTS OF MODIFYING NATURAL HABITATS
«!v be Picked up before water reaches the ground (4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)
Rafter it has filtered through vegetation (11 and above references) .
Nutrient input to terrestrial ecQS.yst?ms in+rain. "^"J^"* S*f
inlhe pSTtS'dSdS reflect Increased pollution of air masses pass-
=
systems.
SSSs
vrlth more complex vegetation cover (14) .
-124-
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1OO
O
s
Q.
50
2O
18
S 300
| 200
100
•
-------
rivers such as the Illinois River in recent decades apparently due to
the increased plantings of soybeans and also the use of heavy, powered
farm machinery (19). Smaller streams like those in the Black Creek sys-
tem may silt in seasonally, but much of the finer material may be flushed
out during flood periods. The sediment may then become a problem for
downstream areas.
EFFECTS OF CHANNELIZATION
Following clearing of land for agricultural or other purposes, man
has often encountered flood or drainage problems which prevent or at
least modify his use of the land. Various forms of channel modification
to control runoff rates are used by many agencies to solve flood,
drainage, and related conservation problems. Regrettably, major areas of
our stream systems have been subjected to the extreme of channel modifi-
cation despite the fact that it is "at the bottom of the list of measures
to be employed in watershed development" (20). On the negative side the
effects of channel modification include destruction of existing and po-
tential recreational areas, alteration or destruction of fish and wild-
life habitat, destruction of bottomland timber resources, and the perma-
nent alteration of the natural beauty of an area. More severe downstream
flooding is another common hazard of channelization. On the positive
side channel modification may result in the development of a navigable
stream, local flood control, and improved drainage allowing increases in
arable land, among others (21).
Since this paper deals primarily with the impacts of land use on
aquatic biota, we shall focus on discussion of the biotic systems. A
number of recent studies (e.g., 21, 22, 23, 24) have compared channelized
and unchannelized portions of streams yielding the following general con-
clusions :
(1) Channelization reduces complexity of the stream (pool-riffle
complexity, meandering topography to straight ditch), reduces
the length of the stream and typically makes the stream
shallower.
(2) Reduced stream lengths result in an increased gradient and
higher flow velocities. Channel erosion may be extreme as
streams attempt to re-establish the original gradient. This
problem can be reduced but not avoided by producing well-
sloped and seeded banks.
(3) Greater daily and seasonal changes in water temperature with
more extreme means are typical of channeled streams.
(4) Turbidities are consistently higher in channelized areas.
(5) Benthic invertebrate communities are less diverse in
channelized areas because of the lack of diversity of
colonization sites.
(6) Standing crops of benthic insects commonly decline follow-
ing channelization. In one study there were 68 g per acre-
foot in an unchanneled area of the Missouri River but only
8 g per acre-foot in channelized reaches.
-126-
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(7) The number of fish species usually declines in channeled
areas and there is often a shift from game to non-game
species. Extensive sedimentation resulting in the loss of
pools and tremendous water level fluctuations are limiting
factors resulting in loss of sport fishes.
(8) Number of individuals and total fish biomass is lower in
channeled areas; the standing crop of catchable fish de-
clines in channeled areas.
(9) Population structures shift to a predominance of smaller fish
in channeled areas. This may be due to mature fish moving
out of the area, or more likely to shortened lifespans and
slower growth rates (see Growth Rates of Black Creek Fishes
below).
(10) In the Chariton River in Missouri "the combined effects of
a poorer environment and reduced stream length resulted in
an estimated 87.0% reduction in total standing crop (of
fish) in the studied channelized section" (24).
(11) Over time many characteristics of the biota regenerate, with
fish recovery occurring in about 15 years when measured by
species diversity. Other measures of quality (species com-
position, biomass, etc.) respond more slowly.
In an extensive study of the streams of Champaign County, Illinois,
Larimore and Smith (25) showed that drainage activities lowered the water
table, eliminated marshes and ponds, and caused extensive fluctuations
in flow. All of these factors had a significant negative impact on the
fish communities of the county.
Clearing and modification of streambanks may also be undertaken in
an effort to "beautify" a section of stream. Often such activities re-
sult in significant negative effects because original streams are often
in a dynamic equilibrium with terrestrial environments. Accelerated
erosion, bank slippage, and reduced stream productivity are consequences
of poorly planned bank modifications (26). Although it is not often
realized these alterations may reduce the ability of a stream to effec-
tively deal with the pollutants of a modern society; that is, the stream
may act as a natural purification agent in a more or less natural state
but after modification by man that facility is lost.
THE BLACK CREEK SYSTEM
The Black Creek Study was initiated by the Allen County Soil and
Water Conservation District with technical assistance from the Soil Con-
servation Service and Purdue University. Project objectives include
demonstration and evaluation of methods for reduction of sediment and
related pollutants in the Maumee River by control of soil erosion. Fund-
ing for this effort has been granted to the district by the Environmental
Protection Agency under Section 108—Demonstration Grants. The Black
Creek Basin was selected as a demonstration watershed representative of
the Maumee Basin. The Soil Conservation service was to determine the
types of land treatment to be applied to the watershed and Purdue Univer-
sity developed a detailed research and monitoring program.
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The Black Creek Study Area is an area of 4870 hectares which drains
into the Maumee River through Black Creek in northeastern Allen County,
Indiana. As one moves from the northwest to southeast across the basin
(Fig. 3), three major land types are encountered. The first is a region
Wertz Dram
Uplands
Fig. 3. Map Showing Major Features of the
Black Creek Basin. Numbers Indicate
Locations of Fish Sample Stations.
of rolling uplands of glacial till followed by a beach ridge area asso-
ciated with the margin of the old Lake Maumee. Indiana Highway 37
parallels the edge of the band of old shore line deposit material. The
area then slopes down quickly to a level area of wave-scoured lake-bottom
tills. Topographic relief is generally low except in selected areas of
the uplands in the northwest or in the entrenched areas of Black Creek
near its junction with the Maumee River.
Climatologically, the area is in a continental climate receiving
about 900 mm of rainfall per year with a mean annual temperature near
10 C.
Following the recession of the recent glaciers and the old Lake
Maumee the Black Creek Basin was probably a mosaic of oak-hickory forest
on upland areas with swamp associated forest and even some marshland on
the lower less well-drained areas. At present 96% of the area is devoted
to agricultural activities, mostly in cropland (81%), while the remaining
4% is devoted to urban and built-up activities. The small unincorporated
village of Harlan is located in the western end of the basin.
Streams in the area consist of an east flowing Black Creek with five
tributary streams flowing south to intersect the main Black Creek channel.
All of the major tributaries (Driesbach, Richelderfer, Upper Gorrell,
Wertz, and Smith-Fry Drains) have their origins in the upland area, flow
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across the beach ridge, and intercept the main Black Creek channel in the
area of the lake bottom tills. The major features of the watershed are
summarized in the accompanying map (Fig. 3).
All of the streams have been subject to varying degrees of channel
modification in the past 50 years. In the late 1920s and early 1930s,
the main channel of Black Creek was dredged to lower the water table and
speed drainage. Since that time the major drains (Driesbach, Richelder-
fer, and Smith-Fry) have been cleaned with a combination of bottom-dipping
and brush removal on a 15 to 20 year rotation, the most recent major work
occurring in the early fifties. The smaller drains (Upper Gorrell and
Wertz) are smaller and channel maintenance has been the responsibility of
individual landowners. The magnitude of channel modifications on these
drains have been less than in the other drains. One large project to
clear the Wertz Drain was undertaken in the mid to late fifties. One
small forest area on Wertz Drain (Fig. 3) has been undisturbed in recent
years and is a major study plot for the biological studies.
RESULTS
The work undertaken as part of the biological studies on the Black
Creek project have covered a wide range of subjects from the effects of
streamside vegetation on suspended solids to several aspects of popula-
tion and community dynamics of fish. It is not possible to outline all
of these studies in detail at this time, so some of the highlights will
be discussed. Although we do not expect the major conclusions presented
here to change significantly with further field work, the precise quan-
titative aspects of results may change as more data are collected and
analyzed.
Water Quality in the Wertz Woods Area
Laboratory methods; All water samples for the Black Creek Study
are analyzed in the Water Quality Laboratory of the Department of Agron-
omy, Purdue University. Routine analyses include suspended solids and
nitrogen and phosphorus components. Generally, methods are those of
Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes (EPA-1971). Compre-
hensive outlines of laboratory procedures can be found in the operations
manual for the Black Creek Study (27).
Results; The general program of water sampling in the Black Creek
Study involves routine and often automated sampling of water at a num-
ber of locations around the watershed. While the sampling effort yields
large amounts of data on the nature of outflow waters, detailed intra-
watershed variation due to vegetation types, and other factors is not
adequately monitored. In an effort to resolve that problem, at least in
part, the section of the Wertz Drain between Knouse and Antwerp Roads
was selected as an intensive study site (Fig. 4). Between those two
roads there is about 1800 m of stream channel, of which about 550 m
meanders through a small patch of mixed forest. Tree dominants in the
forest include oaks (Quercus), hickories (Carya), maples (Acer), and beech
(Fagus).
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Wertz Woods
Study Area
Allen County,
Indiana
Water (5V!
Sample
Stations
Fig. 4. Detailed Map of Intensive Study
Area Around Wertz Woods.
Several sets of water samples were taken in the forest tract in 1974
(Fig. 5). These showed a significant decline in suspended solids as the
stream flows through the forest, and stimulated the development of a more
extensive sampling procedure. Within the 1800 m section of stream, 12
sample stations were established. Three upstream stations (#10-12) are
in a region of grass waterway bordered by agricultural land. Stations
6-9 are within the main woodlot area and 4-5 are in a small extension of
forest bordering the stream. The remaining stations (1-3) are in a region
of grass waterway bordered by agricultural land. Station 2 is on a bend
in the stream in an area with several large cottonwoods (Populus). A
steep badly eroded bank is located just above station 2. Inside the for-
est no grass stabilizes the bank, and the stream forms a complex of pools
and riffles meandering widely through the forest. Just below station 7 a
badly eroded tile drain enters the main channel.
Since February 1975 we have collected water samples regularly from
the Wertz Drain. On 11 October 1975, we obtained our normal complement
of 12 water samples plus two extra samples from each of the six even-
numbered stations. Although some results indicate high variation among
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"-» 160
MM • ^^ ^^
I
-------
sediment load with season (Fig. 7b). There is some indication that early
and late in the year sediment loads are low. Loads are higher in early
summer (May-June) and seem to decline in late summer (July-August). The
12O
8O
4O
Wertz Woods
Station 6
5 0.1
012O
leo
c
0)
a
m
JMO
1.1 i i i l i t
1 10
Flow Rate (cfs)
t
.
JFMAMJJASO
Month
N D
Fig. 7. Relationship Between Suspended Solids and Flow
Rate and Season for Water Sample Station 6 in
the Wertz Woods. Data from July 1974 to October
1975.
late summer decline is probably associated with the development of high-
density vegetation cover during that period. Early fall increases in
sediment load may be due to the harvest season and the decline in plant
populations.
When all data for each sample station are utilized we can determine
the mean and standard error of the mean for the sediment load at all sta-
tions (Fig. 8). Clearly, there is a striking decline in the sediment load
as the water flows through the forest area. Furthermore, very soon after
the stream leaves the forest, sediment load increases and stabilizes near
a level characteristic of the Wertz Drain above the forest.
-132-
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in
TJ
I
E
4)
Q.
tf)
3
1OO
90
80
70
12 11 1O 9 87 6543
Station Number
2 1
Fig. 8. Mean and Standard Error of Suspended Solids Load in
Wertz Drain Study Area. Data from July 1974 to
October 1975. Sample sizes vary from 12 to 16 at
each station.
Variations within the agricultural and forested section of the
stream are also of interest. For example, the typical increase at
station 5 is apparently due to the nearby entry of a large drainage tile
from adjacent fields. Considerable erosion is evident at that point.
Note that even the presence of a small finger of forest extending south
from station 5 results in a decline of sediment load to station 3. As
the stream continues south to station 2 sediment loads increase signifi-
cantly until they approach levels above the forest area.
A series of t-tests to determine the significance of variation in
sediment load shows that stations above the forest are not significantly
different in suspended solid content from the lower two stations. Sta-
tions 10-12, and 1-2 are significantly higher than stations at the lower
end of the forest (stations 4 and 6) indicating that the forest acts as
an effective sediment trap in reducing suspended solids by about 28%.
At very high stream flows, the forest apparently has little impact
on reducing sediment loads. We obtained water samples shortly after a
very heavy rain (about 10 cm in 2 hours) on 20 May 1975. From station 12
to 1 there was a gradual increase in suspended solids through the Wertz
Drain Study Area (Fig. 9). Furthermore, the increased load of sediment
seems to be a general phenomenon as the load increased from the head-
waters of the streams to near the junction of Black Creek and the Maumee
River (Fig. 9). These results suggest that the forest acts as a very
efficient trap for removing suspended solids during most flow rates
(>95%, Beasley, pers. comm.) but at very high flow rates the forest has
no value as a sediment trap.
-133-
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20 May 1975
Waterway
Drop Struct.
-Forest-
A B 12 11 109 87 65 4 3
Sample Location
Ettie
Road
1 1
21
Fig. 9. Suspended Solids Loads on Morning of May 20,
1975 after Unusually Heavy Rainfall Event.
Stations 1-12: Wertz Woods Study area. Sta-
tion A: Driesbach Drain at lower end of grass
waterway, near Cuba Road. Station B: Three
samples (outflow of tile drainage, overflow
from drop structure, and Driesbach Drain main
channel) taken from Driesbach Drain at inter-
section of Grabill and Cuba Roads. C: Main
Black Creek channel at Ehle Road.
The presence of the forest may, however, conflict with another of
agriculture's needs in water management—rapid drainage to prevent or at
least reduce water damage on agricultural land, Classical theory con-
cludes that trees and brush act as obstructions to water flow and prevent
rapid runoff and drainage. This slowing down of runoff might help down-
stream users of the floodplain, however, by giving a more controlled out-
flow of water on their lands, thereby reducing flood crests and flood
damage. The conflicts involved in this problem cannot easily be resolved,
particularly in view of the varying cost and benefit situations of dif-
ferent users of the water resource system.
A number of other water quality parameters are measured as outlined
in the procedures manual for the Black Creek Study. Content of soluble
nitrogen in the water increases significantly after the water flows out
of the south end of the forest, although it does not change significantly
between stations12 and 6 (Fig. 10). The slopes of the curves are simi-
lar among the months but the heights of the curves vary. Generally, the
values are high in the February to June period and low from July to
October. It seems likely that the high nitrogen levels result from field
runoff and are correlated with the seasonality of nitrogen fertilizer
application and its availability at high levels in times of plant growth.
Particulate nitrogen and nitrate (NO,) shows similar variation among
seasons and stations.
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e
a
a.
at
3 D-Q cr°
I I
I I
12 11 10 9 87 654
Station Number
8 Feb. 1975
23 Mar. 1975
.0-0 11 July 1975
J I
2 1
Fig. 10. Soluble Nitrogen Loads in Several
Sets of Water Samples from Wertz
Woods Study Area, 1975.
Other parameters of water quality (NH,, and phosphorus in several
forms) do not show any striking variation with season or among stations,
Fish Communities of Black Creek
Field Methods; Twenty-five sampling stations were established
throughout the watershed to monitor changes in fish community structure
(Fig. 3). Each sample station consists of a 100 m segment of stream.
Visual observations are made at each station before quantitative samples
are attempted. Fish samples are obtained by seining with 1/4-inch mesh
minnow seines. A block seine is placed at the lower end of the sample
station and the stream is seined downstream to the block seine. In areas
that are difficult to seine we commonly make several sweeps to provide a
more complete sample. In most areas only a single sweep with the seine
is necessary.
For several months in 1974 most fish were kept to allow positive
identification of fish and to provide specimens for food habits, fecun-
dity, and age and growth studies. Continuing studies now involve identi-
fication and counting of fish and the return of fish to the stream. In-
tensive marking studies have been initiated in several sections of stream
to monitor the stability of faunas in specific pools. Cold-branding with
silver letters cooled in liquid nitrogen has been the most successful
marking procedure to date. Several intensive studies of the structural
diversity of stream channels are also in progress.
Species composition and distributions; A total of 29 species of
fish representing 21 genera and 9 families have been collected in the
Black Creek basin (Table 1). This represents about 17% of the species
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Table 1. Fish Species Collected from the Black Creek Study Area and
Their Status in the Basin.
Scientific (Common) Name
Status in the Black Creek Basin
Semotilus atromaculatus
(Creek Chub)
Pimephales promelas
(Fathead Minnow)
P_. notatus
(Bluntnose Minnow)
Ericymba buccata
(Silverjaw Minnow)
Campostoma anomalum
(Stoneroller)
Notropis cornutus
(Common Shiner)
IJ. stramineus
(Sand Shiner)
N_. spilopterus
(Spotfin Shiner)
N_. umbratilis
(Redfin Shiner)
Phenacobius mirabilis
(Suckermouth Minnow)
Notemigonus chrysoleucos
(Golden Shiner)
Cyprinus carpio
(Carp)
Erimyzon oblongus
(Creek Chubsucker)
Catastomus commersoni
(White Sucker)
Distributed throughout the area; some
movements especially influx in spring.
Most abundant in upstream areas.
Common throughout the basin but most
abundant in small streams below P_.
promelas areas.
Common throughout the basin especially
in silty to sandy areas.
Uncommon but distributed throughout.
Abundant to common throughout; some
migration in spring.
Generally restricted to areas in the
main channel of Black Creek; move
upstream to some extent in late spring
and early summer; often found in same
areas as E_. buccata.
Common below station 12; uncommon in
rest of basin except in fall when
large numbers invade.
Rare throughout the basin, except in
early summer.
Rare in Black Creek below station 15.
Uncommon below station 12; resident
population in Wertz Woods.
Common and often large in main Black
Creek channel; numbers declined after
banks pulled in 1974.
Uncommon in basin except common in
Wertz Woods.
Abundant in sprint migration (esp. large
individuals) ; permanent residents through-
out Wertz Woods.
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Table 1. (continued)
Scientific (Common) Name
Status in the Black Creek Basin
Carpiodes cyprinus
(Quillback Carpsucker)
Moxostoma sp.
(Redhorse)
Fundulus notatus
(Black-striped Topminnow)
Percina maculata
(Black-sided Darter)
Etheostoma nigrum
(Johnny Darter)
15. caeruleum
(Rainbow Darter)
Lepomis cyanellus
(Bluegill)
L.. macrochirus
(Green Sunfish)
L_. microlophus
(Redear Sunfish)
Micropterus salmoides
(Largemouth Bass)
Labidesthes sicculus
(Brook Silverside)
Ictalurus natalis
(Yellow Bullhead)
I. melas
TBlack Bullhead)
Esox lucius
(Northern Pike)
Dorosoma cepidianum
(Gizzard Shad)
Common in Black Creek near Maumee River;
sporadic in rest of area, most abundant
in late summer and fall.
One specimen.
Common to abundant, esp. in areas with
dense growth of aquatic plants and in
late summer and early fall.
One specimen.
Common, esp. in rocky areas.
Uncommon.
Common throughout.
Common trhoughout.
Collected occasionally.
Young sporadic in several areas.
One individual caught in Black Creek
near Maumee River.
Small individuals sporadic throughout
basin; some large residents in Wertz
Woods and below station 12.
Several large individuals seen or
captured in spring 1974.
Common near Maumee River; many migrate
upstream in late summer and fall.
and 33% of the families known from the State of Indiana (28). The minnow
family, Cyprinidae, is represented by the largest number of species (12)
with the bass family (Centrarchidae) being represented by the second
largest number of species (4). The minnows make up the largest number of
individuals in the basin but in terms of biomass the sucker family (catas-
tomidae) is the dominant group, especially during the late spring and
early summer migration period.
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Early in the present century the eminent ecologist Victor Shelford
studied the fishes of tributary streams that enter Lake Michigan near
Chicago (29) . He showed that longitudinal succession was a common phe-
nomenon in streams; that is, as one moves from the headwaters of a stream
towards its mouth the increase in stream size is accompanied by increas-
ing diversity in the fish fauna. This is certainly true in Black Creek
where downstream stations contain as many as 14 species in a 100 meter
sample and upstream stations typically contain 2 to 4 species. At low
flow seasons upstream stations may have no fish. In general, an increase
in stream size is accompanied by an increase in fish species diversity.
However, three other variables are particularly important in affecting
fish community structure within the Black Creek Drainage. The three
variables are:
(1) Season
(2) Degree of channel and/or bank modification, and
(3) Nature of terrestrial environment in the immediate
vicinity of the stream.
Effects of season; Large scale migrations of fish from the Maumee
River have been documented for the past couple years in late spring and
late summer periods (Figs. 11 and 12). These migrations seem to be asso-
ciated with spawning attempts as most of the fish moving upstream carry
heavy loads of eggs and sperm. Species involved in spring spawning peri-
ods include white sucker, creek chub (Fig. 11), and the northern pike.
In the spring of 1974 at least two and probably four large pike were cap-
tured or observed upstream in Black Creek as far as stations 18 and
20. The lengths of two of these fish were 51 and 61 cm.
A second group of species move into the Black Creek system during
the late summer and fall. These include spotfin shiner, gizzard shad,
and a carpsucker. The most comprehensive data are available for the
spotfin shiner in 1974 (Fig. 12). Note that small numbers of relative-
ly small fish are captured in the spring and summer while many larger
fish are captured in the fall. By winter large numbers of young of the
year are present, but all large spawners have departed. In March of
1975 large numbers of small yearling spotfins (weights less than 2.0 g)
were moving downstream, presumably in search of the larger stream areas
at the lower end of Black Creek and in the Maumee River. Small numbers
of yearling spotfins were caught in the June through August period of
1975 and populations increased in September and October. However, the
fall migration of 1975 had perhaps half the number of individuals of the
preceding year and most fish were significantly smaller. Fish captured
in 1975 had an average weight of 1.5 g while the mean weight in 1974 was
slightly over 5 g. Furthermore, the distribution of spotfins was more
limited in 1975 than in 1974. It is not possible to determine the pre-
cise cause of these changes in spotfin populations. Several alternatives
are possible. High mortality of adults in the 1975 spawning season may
be due to stream blockages. Alternatively, channel modifications in
Black Creek channel may have reduced survivorship. Finally, heavy con-
struction at Ward Road (station 12) in spring and summer 1975 may have
prevented migration into Black Creek. There can be little doubt that
these factors have had a significant effect on the fishes of several of
our sample stations.
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White Sucker
5O
18O
24O
3OO
Total Length (mm)
Fig. 11.
Frequency Distribution of Total Lengths for Creek Chub
(Semotilus atromaculatus) and White Suckers (Catostomus
commersoni) Caught in Black Creek Drainage. Note that
the proportion of large fish is high in the spring
(spawning months). N.B. - The number of individuals
captured varies from month to month due to different
sampling intensity.
Spotfin Shiner
1974
M A M J J A
Month
SON
Fig. 12. Seasonal Changes in Spotfin Shiner Abundances and Mean
Weights in Black Creek Above Station 12, March-December,
1974.
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Effects of channel modification and terrestrial environment: The
effects of channel and bank modifications can most easily be demonstrated
by examining changes in the fish communities at station 15 on Black Creek
and at the lower end of Driesbach Drain (station 6).
Our first 50-m sample at station 15 was made on 12 April 1974 when we
captured 210 fish. Fifty-nine of these fish had average total lengths of
over 150 mm indicating the high biomass in that section of stream. Larger
individuals were creek chubs, white suckers, common shiners, and green
sunfish. Capture histories for two 50-m sections at station 15 are given
in Table 2. At the peak of spring migration densities are lower in 1975
than in 1974 indicating that the large spawning fishes are not reaching
the area or are not able to use the area following the bottom dipping and
bank modifications carried out in late spring 1974. Although densities
are up in 1975 in the lower segment, fish size is small and biomass is
low (Table 2). At the time of the April 1974 sample the stream showed
Table 2. Densities and mean weights for fishes captured at station 15
during 1974 and 1975. Two 50-meter segments to this sample
station. The upper segment is now a straight channel without
rip-rap while the low section is associated with an extensive
rip-rap bank.
Number of fish Mean weight (g) Biomass (g)
per meter per individual per meter
Upper Segment
1974
12 April 4.20 25.85 108.6
20 May 1.00 12.71 12.7
14 Sept. 5.22 2.90 15.1
1975
5 April 0.42 2.40 1.0
19 April 0.34 2.10 0.7
3 May 0.36
24 July 0.08
11 Oct. 0.20 0.92 0.2
Lower Segment
1974
20 May 1.04 6.79 7.1
1975
5 April 2.74 1.43 3.9
19 April 5.14 3.40 17.5
3 May 1.62 2.48 4.0
24 July 4.02
11 Oct. 3.92 1.83 7.2
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the effects of earlier channel modification but erosion and deposition
areas with some segregation of particle sizes was evident. The mean depth
of the stream was near 50 cm while following channel modification in 1974
water depth averaged only about 10 cm. The decline in fish populations
at this station seems primarily attributable to the channel modifications
reducing the depth and stream bottom diversity. However, from these data
it is difficult to distinguish between the effects of stream modifications
and barriers produced by construction activities.
Some indication of the relative effects of these two factors can be
obtained by examining the capture history at station 6. Weirs with
automatic water samplers were installed at several locations between 4
and 13 February 1974 including one about 40 meters downstream from sta-
tion 6. In the spring of 1974 these weirs did not block fish migrations
but following the addition of rock, some weirs became effective barriers
to fishes. Station 6 exemplifies this situation (Table 3).
Table 3. History of captures of fish and disturbances at station 6,
Black Creek at Brush College Road.
Number of fish
Date per 100 meters Mean weight per Number of
of stream individual species
1973
24 July
1974
Feb.
5 March
12 April
20 May
18 October
1975
23 March
5 April
3 May
29 May
16 June
25 June
10 July
24 July
26 August
26 September
11 October
11 October3
201 13.53
9
Weir installed at Brush College Road
301
69
Stream channelized
10
32
3
0
9
Unusually heavy rains
174 Not
63
129
68
105
94
63
20
19
9.87
5.70
1.00
4.5
1.6
0
1.1
; floods
weighed
—
—
—
—
—
—
5.52
3.59
8
7
2
3
1
0
1
9
6
10
8
8
9
11
5
4
a Not including one large creek chub over 150 mm long.
Note that high populations and species numbers were recorded in summer
1973 and spring 1974 before the stream was channeled. After channeliza-
tion there was a precipitous decline in number of individuals. Numbers
remained low up to the present although the number of species has returned
to 1973 levels. Under normal circumstances an increase in the number of
-141-
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fishes might be expected, even in a channeled area, with the spring migra-
tion. However, the weir and associated rock at Brush College Road prevented
such a migration until the high water following the rains in May 1975.
This 29 May sample contained large numbers of small fish although -o
weight data are available because the fish were returned to the stre\m.
Note that while fish reached station 6 after the May storm, the major
spawning runs of early spring 1975 had passed and reproduction was likely
to have been too late and/or well below average. The blockages at the
weirs have been removed so that should not be a factor in the spring of
1976.
Another incident demonstrates the effectiveness of the weirs in
blocking fish movements. In September 1974 many spotfin shiners were
captured in Black Creek. Near station 18 just west of Bull Rapids Road,
one 50 meter sample netted over 100 spotfin shiners. Many spotfinswere
found throughout the east-west portion of Black Creek but very few were
captured above the weirs on Black Creek and Smith-Fry and Wertz Drains.
The water below the bridge at Brush College Road was swarming with spot-
fins but none were captured 40 meters upstream of the weir at station 6.
The construction of a new bridge on Black Creek at Ward Road may
have been the most detrimental barrier to fish migration and reproduc-
tion in 1975. A large conduit pipe formed a sizable waterfall and
torrent within the pipe, producing an effective barrier to even the
largest fish attempting to reach spawning areas in Black Creek and its
tributaries. On 19 April 1975 we sampled the pool just below the con-
duit and captured many large and small fish. Six large white suckers
were captured in the small pool; they averaged 270 mm total length. When
released they continued their unsuccessful struggle to move upstream.
All over the drainage, the combined effects of barriers and chan-
nelization were dramatic. Which is the most important is not easy to
determine at this time because of the lack of controlled experiments.
However, one thing is clear. If the fish cannot reach high quality
spawning grounds, they will not reproduce and their populations may be
doomed. This problem could result in a decline in fish abundance in
Black Creek and in the nearby Maumee River, especially in those species
which use the Black Creek basin as nursery and spawning grounds.
Our "control" stream, the Wan, just east of Black Creek is instruc-
tive. This stream was channelized about 5 years ago, but has no migra-
tion barriers to our knowledge. The history of fish captures at station
13 on the Wan shows consistently more species when compared to similar
stations in Black Creek (Fig. 13). Data on weights also indicate larger
and more stable average weight at station 13 than at station 6. Since
the stream channel at station 13 has high densities of several aquatic
plants, our sampling methods are inadequate for accurate determination
of population densities. When one corrects for such problems densities
are more stable, presumably due to the buffering effects of the vegeta-
tion and several deep pools which allow fish to survive through the
rigorous summer and winter temperature extremes. Presumably even with
channelization a stable fauna can develop after return of channel diver-
sity and instream vegetation. The question is how does a "healed,"
channelized stream like the Wan compare to a natural stream?
We can most nearly approximate this in our studies in the forest
on Wertz Drain discussed above. Observations to date show that these
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8
.,
n 4
E
I I I
Fig. 13.
Jul AMJJAS MAMJJASO
1973 1974 1975
Month
Changes in the number of fish species caught
in 100 meter samples from station 6 (Black
Creek above Brush College Road) and station
13 (Wan Creek above Knouse Road).
pools and riffles house a rich and varied fish fauna, much of which seems
to be resident throughout the year. During July of 1974 several days of
intensive studies were conducted in the section of stream associated with
the woods. Outside the woods in the channelized areas of the stream, few
fishes could be found in the algae choked ditches where water temperatures
reached as high as 28 C. Inside the woodlot the deep pools contained many
fish and water temperatures were much lower at 19 C. In addition, no
algal growth was noted. Over the past 18 months the general structure of
the stream has remained stable by comparison to the ditches where pools
may silt in rapidly (e.g., the settling basin) with heavy rainfall and
whole banks may erode rapidly. In the forest large deep pools allow
fishes to survive through dry periods in August and September while near-
by, channeled areas of stream are either too hot, too choked with algae
or dry. Pools, then, protected from the direct rays of the sun prevent
the local extinction of fish populations in sections of streams where
drought conditions allow little or no net flow.
An intensive survey of the fishes of several pools in the Wertz Woods
in the period April to October 1975 demonstrate this. Each pool is
seined after the stream above and below is blocked to prevent the escape
of fish. Seining continues until the capture rate per seine haul ap-
proaches zero. Each fish is then measured and cold-branded to allow
individual identification. Although individuals cannot consistently be
found in disturbed areas like stations 6 and 15 we commonly capture the
same individuals in the sample pools inside the Wertz Woods. In October,
for example, 4 out of 10 fish captured in three different pools had been
previously captured (Table 4). In addition, while the larger of these
pools are only 20 to 25 meters long, they consistently contain many
individuals of 8 to 10 species. Adults up to 20 cm long are not uncom-
mon, and they seem to survive in the area throughout the year.
-143-
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Table 4. Species composition, densities, and percent of individuals previously captured in three pools
in Wertz Woods, 11 October 1975.
Species
Silver jaw Minnow
Bluntnose Minnow
Fathead Minnow
Creek Chub
Common Shiner
Stoneroller
Creek Chubsucker
White Sucker
Green Sunfish
Johnny Darter
TOTALS
—
Pool
Number of
indiv.
6
4
—
14
—
—
2
2
—
1
29
#3
recap.
0
0
—
57
—
—
0
100
—
100
37
Pool
Number of
indiv.
12
28
1
21
3
—
—
9
2
17
93
#5
recap.
0
42
100
42
100
—
—
100
100
17
41
Pool *
Number of
indiv.
4
21
2
26
1
1
8
14
1
7
85
F15
recap.
100
19
100
19
100
100
62
78
0
14
40
Tot
Number of
indiv.
22
53
3
61
4
1
10
25
3
25
207
als
recap
18
30
100
36
100
100
50
88
67
20
40
-------
Growth Rates of Black Creek Fishes
We have completed the first stage of our analysis of length-weight
data for 12 of the more common fish species captured in the Black Creek
Study area. Length-weight regression data are summarized in Table 5.
A comparison of these data with the results of other studies is incom-
plete but suggests that growth dynamics of Black Creek residents is
inferior to other populations of the same species.
Table 5. Summary of length-weight regression for fish collected in
Black Creek, Spring and Summer, 1974.
Species Intercept Slope r N
Creek Chub
Common Shiner
Red fin Shiner
Spotfin Shiner
Silver jaw Minnow
Sandshiner
Stoneroller
Fathead Minnow
Bluntnose Minnow
White Sucker
Rainbow Darter
Johnny Darter
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
Log W =
-5.30
-5.44
-5.21
-4.74
-4.97
-6.15
-5.30
-4.56
-5.11
-4.99
-5.59
-4.73
+3.21
+3.27
+3.18
+2.85
+2.97
+3.66
+3.21
+2.81
+3.17
+3.03
+3.42
+2.87
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
Log L
.995
.956
.910
.965
.944
.969
.975
.737
.973
.997
.842
.911
320
97
51
64
159
45
30
14
24
63
44
18
The scales of fishes often show growth rings by which the age of
the fish can be determined. Although the method of aging by growth rings
is not without problems (30, 31), some inferences about Black Creek
fishes are possible.
Spotfin shiners from Black Creek have a maximum age of III which is
not unusual for the species (Table 6). Maximum age for the species in
the Des Moines River in Iowa was II (data from other studies are taken
from the excellent summaries provided by Carlander, Ref. 31). The gen-
eral similarities in the Iowa and Indiana fish are presumably due to the
fact that both populations are dependent on a large river for food and
habitat throughout most of their lives. As discussed earlier, this
species is rare in the Black Creek drainage above station 12 except in
the late summer and fall spawning season.
Creek chub on the other hand are resident in Black Creek throughout
the year. Some large individuals seem to enter the stream in the spring
spawning season. Creek chub from Black Creek have the surprisingly low
maximum age of III whereas populations from other areas commonly include
fish of age V and VI (Georgia, North Carolina, New York, Michigan, Iowa)
with some even attaining age VII (Ohio, New York). This strongly sug-
gests that Black Creek does not contain high quality creek chub habitat,
especially for older individuals.
-145-
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Table 6. Growth data for several species of Black Creek fishes.
Species
Spotfin Shiner
Creek Chub
White Sucker
Combined
Males
Females
Maximum
age class
III
III
IV
IV
IV
Number of
individuals
78
177
94
29
40
Mean total Mean calculated total length
length (mm) at annulus formation (mm)
66,
114.
84
101
93
1
1 27.9
2 56.4
57.3
54.3
61.0
2
50.5
93.6
88.8
82.9
92.9
3 4
84.0
134.3
131.1 172.6
132.7 177.9
127.2 162.1
a Scales read for this number of individuals.
-------
The situation for the white sucker is similar in that the maximum
age for Black Creek fish was IV while age VIII fish are not unusual and
age X to XII fish have been recorded in several areas.
Generally, these data indicate that longevity in Black Creek fish
is below that found in many areas. This is due to a complex of factors
including habitat quality and stream size.
In addition to the reductions in maximum age just discussed, Black
Creek fish tend to be smaller than (Illinois) or about the same size
(Ohio, Oklahoma) at any age as fish from other areas. The situation is
similar in white suckers. Populations from throughout the midwest have
lengths at the third annulus of over 200 mm and often over 300 mm, while
Black Creek fish have average lengths of 131 mm at the time of formation
of the third annulus (Table 6).
It is clear that the growth of Black Creek fishes as measured by
several parameters is inferior to many populations of the same species
in other parts of the midwest.
DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The decay in water quality experienced in recent decades is pre-
dictable from knowledge of the effects of clearing natural vegetation,
modification of stream channels, and intensification of land-use by
human society. Our problem is to manage urban, industrial, and agri-
cultural man to minimize effects on water resources, while maximizing
benefits to human society. Conflicts in short- and long-term goals are
a major source of problems in the optimization process.
Although a model of sediment dynamics for a drainage basin is an
admirable goal, evidence from a small study area in the Black Creek
watershed suggests that small scale changes in land use may have a
profound effect on sediment and nutrient dynamics. Caution should be
exercised in the application of the Universal Soil Loss Equation to
estimate sediment potential of a watershed. Small scale variation in
the vegetation cover near the stream and characteristics of the stream
channel (especially pool and riffle frequency and meander characteris-
tics) are particularly significant. They affect the sediment and nutri-
ent dynamics of the stream and the nature of the stream biota, a prime
indicator of water quality.
In the future, management and research programs dealing with non-
point source pollution problems (especially sediment and its causes)
should:
(1) Understand small scale patterns in land use and how they
affect sediment yields. This is especially important in
the design of networks for collection of water samples.
(2) Integrate comprehensive biological studies in the early
planning stages. The biota of an aquatic system is
probably the best indicator of water quality.
(3) Develop a comprehensive information network to insure
that all project participants are aware of management
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and research programs. An unexpected change in land or
stream-bank management can send shock waves through es-
tablished research programs. Similarly, advanced warn-
ings of changes can allow other researchers to generate
new experimental studies.
(A) View the biota as an integral part of a very dynamic
system. The biota must be monitored throughout the
year rather than in only a single season.
(5) Ask how we can use the biota to clear the effluents of
modern society. Many aquatic organisms will provide
"free" effluent treatment service if we manage for that
service.
The Black Creek Study is a model project for solving problems within
the Lake Erie basin. By carefully evaluating the effects on the biota of
activities in this study, we can more realistically predict the consequen-
ces of management alternatives on a wider geographic scale. The fishes
of Black Creek are part of a complex food web which "feeds" the biotic
systems of Lake Erie. Failure to maintain the biotic systems of Black
Creek will inevitably result in failure at the level of the Great Lakes
Basin. We can compare the small streams of the basin to the leaves of
a tree (or corn plant). If the leaves, which feed the tree, are diseased
the tree will not be healthy. The tree may even die.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
D. Espenlaub, A. Gora, W. Gorman, S. Lonze, D. Ratcliffe, K.
Ratcliffe, J. Scoles, and B. Trask have helped in many phases of the
field and laboratory studies. L. Getz and R. W. Larimore made helpful
comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. Water sample analyses
were conducted in the Water Analysis Laboratory at Purdue University
under the direction of L. Sommers. R. Christiansen and C. Wilson of
Region V USEPA, J. Lake, and staff of the Allen County Soil and Water
Conservation District, and Soil Conservation Service have responded
promptly to our requests for information. We thank all these people
and the Purdue staff in the Black Creek Study for advice and assistance.
REFERENCES
1. Sioli, H. 1975. Tropical rivers as expressions of their terres-
trial environments. In F. B. Golley and E. Medina (eds.). Tropical
Ecological Systems: Trends in Terrestrial and Aquatic Research.
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2. Forel, F. A. 1901. Handbuch der Seenkunde. Stuttgart: Engelhorn.
(Reference not seen.)
3. Einstein, H. A. 1972. Sedimentation (Suspended Solids). In R. T.
Oglesby, C. A. Carlson, and J. McCann (eds.). River Ecology and Man.
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4. Junge, C. E. and R. T. Werby. 1958. The concentration of chloride
sodium, calcium, and sulphate in rainwater over the United States
J. Meteor. 15: 417-425.
5. Madgewick, H. A. and J. D. Ovington. 1959. The chemical composi-
tion of precipitation in adjacent forest and open plots. Forestry
6. Likens, G. E. , F. H. Bormann, N. M. Johnson, and R. S. Pierce. 1967.
The calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium budgets for a small
forested ecosystem. Ecology 48: 772-785.
7. Hart, G. E., A. R. Southard, and J. S. Williams. 1973. Influence of
vegetation and substrate on streamwater chemistry in Northern Utah
Project Completion Report. Utah Water Resources Research Center
Project OWRR 017, A-007-Utah.
8. Likens, G. E. and F. H. Bormann. 1974. Acid rain: A serious re-
gional environmental problem. Science 184: 1176-1179.
9. Likens, G. E. and F. H. Bormann. 1975. An experimental approach
in New England landscapes. In A. Hasler (ed.). Coupling Land and
Water Systems. Springer-Verlag. N. Y., pp. 7-29"! - -
10. Likens, G. E. 1972. The chemistry of precipitation in the central
Finger Lakes Region. Tech. Report 50. Water Resources and Marine
Sciences Center. Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.
11. Voigt, G. K. 1960. Alteration of the composition of rainfall by
trees. Amer. Midi. Natur. 63: 321-326.
12. Likens, G. E. , F. H. Bormann, R. S. Pierce, and D. W. Fisher. 1971
Nutrient-hydrologic cycle interaction in small forested watershed-
ecosystems. In M. P. Duvigneaud (ed.). Productivity of Forest
Ecosystems, Proc. Brussels Symp. UNESCO, pp. 553-563.
13. Janzen, D. H. 1974. Tropical blackwater rivers, animals, and
mast fruiting by the Dipterocarpaceae. Biotropica 6: 69-103,
14. Branson. F. A. 1975. Natural and modified plant communties as
related to runoff and sediment yields. In A. Hasler (ed.).
Coupling Land and Water Systems. Springer-Verlag. N. Y.,pp, 157-172.
15. Bormann FH., G. E. Likens, T. G. Siccama, R. S. Pierce, and J. S.
taton. 1974. The export of nutrients and recovery of stable condi-
tions following deforestation at Hubbard Brook. Ecol. Monogr. 44:
~~2. / / •
16. Hornbeck, J. W. , R. S. Pierce, and C. A. Federer. 1970. Stream-
flow changes after forest clearing in New England. Water Resources
Research 6: 1124-1132.
17. Hornbeck, J. W. and R. S. Pierce. 1969. Changes in snowmelt runoff
after forest clearing on a New England watershed. Proc. Ann. East-
ern Snow Conf. 1969, pp. 104-112.
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18. Anonomous. 1940. Influences of vegetation and watershed treatments
on run-off, silting, and stream flow. USDA Misc. Publ. No. 397.
80 p.
19. Starrett, W. C. 1972. Man and the Illinois River. In R. T. Ogles-
by, C. A. Carlson, and J. A. McCann (eds.). 1972. River Ecology
and Man. Academic Press, N. Y., pp. 131-169.
20. Martin, J. V. 1971. The place of channel improvement in watershed
development. In E. Schneberger and J. L. Funk (eds.). Stream
Channelization: A Symposium. North Central Division, American
Fisheries Society. Spec. Publ. 2,pp. 12-16.
21. Lopinot, A. 1972. Channelized streams and ditches of Illinois.
111. Dept. of Cons.,Div. of Fisheries, Spec. Fish. Rep. 35. 59 p.
22. Menendez, R. 1968. Survey of dredging and bank stabilization prac-
tices in Hampshire County, West Virginia. In D. W. Robinson and
A. L. Gerwig (eds.). Interagency Stream Disturbance Symp. Proc.
W. Virginia Dept. Nat. Res., Charleston, W. Virginia,pp. 6-10.
23. Hansen, D. R. 1971. Stream channelization effects on fishes and
bottom fauna in the Little Sioux River, Iowa. In E. Schneberger
and J. L. Funk (eds.). Stream Channelization; A Symposium. North
Central Division, American Fisheries Society. Spec. Publ. 2, pp.
29-51.
24. Congdon, J. C. 1971. Fish populations of channelized and unchan-
nelized sections of the Chariton River, Missouri. In E. Schneberger
and J. L. Funk (eds.). Stream Channelization; A Symposium. North
Central Division, American Fisheries Society. Spec. Publ. 2, pp.
29-51.
25. Larimore, R. W. and P. W. Smith. 1963. The fishes of Champaign
County, Illinois, as affected by 60 years of stream changes. 111.
Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 28: 299-382.
26. Robinson, D. W. 1968. General Problem Review. In D. W. Robinson
and A. L. Gerwig (eds.). Interagency Stream Disturbance Symp. Proc.
W. Virginia Dept. Nat. Res., Charleston, W. Virginia, pp. 1-5.
27. Allen County Soil and Water Conservation District. 1974. Opera-
tions Manual. Black Creek Study. Allen County, Indiana. Project
No. G005103, EPA-905-74-002.
28. Nelson, J. S. and S. D. Gerking. 1968. Annotated key to the fishes
of Indiana. Indiana Aquatic Research Unit, Project 342-303-815.
Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana. 84 p.
29. Shelford, V, E. 1911. Ecological succession: stream fishes and
the method of physiographic analysis. Biol. Bull. 21: 9-34.
30. Carlander, K. D. 1950. Some considerations in the use of growth
data derived from scale studies. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 79: 187-194,
31. Carlander, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology.
Vol. I. Iowa State Univ. Press. Ames, Iowa. 752 p.
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COMPUTER MONITORING OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS IN A WATERSHED
by
L. F. Huggins*
Problems associated with collecting hydrometeorological data are
typical of most "field" data which must be continuously monitored by
unattended instrumentation. Currently, the vast majority of such re-
quirements utilize numerous sensors each connected mechanically or
electrically to an individual, strip-chart recorder. The most seri-
ous problems with such data acquisition techniques is that of trans-
cribing these analog strip-charts into a computer compatible format
for analysis and permanent storage. Transcribing procedures are la-
bor intensive and, therefore, costly and error prone.
In addition, this transcribing usually necessitates a time lae
of days to weeks between data acquisition and the availability of re-
sults for interpretation and dissemination. A second serious problem
associated with the use of individual strip-chart records is that of
time registration errors between multiple recorders, i.e. the indi-
cated chart times from various recorders are all subject to different
It appears that the situation described above is on the verge of
rapid change. A period of intense effort directed toward the instal-
lation of field-based instrumentation designed to automatically ac-
quire, monitor and file environmentally related data is at hand.
True, the technological capability to accomplish these tasks has
existed for several years; however, the cost-benefit relationship for
such systems has generally been unattractive for all but specialized
applications. Recent technological breakthroughs concerning inexpen-
sive microcomputers and very low power integrated circuits have now
provided manufacturers with incentive to develop general purpose,
reasonably priced instrumentation suitable for automated field instal-
lations. The purposes of this paper are: (1) to discuss the implica-
tions of this trend as they relate to the environmental field, (2) to
delineate the considerations important for implementation of automated
field data acquisition systems, and (3) to outline the system, identi-
fied by the acronym ALERT, presently being installed in the Black
Creek watershed.
GENERAL IMPLICATIONS
It is only natural when one considers selection of an automated
data acquisition system to initially think only in terms of automating
Wes
University,
-151-
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manual procedures. While situations exist for which this approach is
the most appropriate one, careful consideration should first be given
to the many potential benefits that may be obtained by computer con-
trolled systems designed as complete integrated systems. In other
words, in order to fully exploit the potential of a new technology it
is often desirable to break substantially with previous methodology.
A particularly good example of this relating to the selection of a
data recording format has been outlined by Langham (1971) and will be
illustrated in the subsequent discussion of the Black Creek ALERT sys-
tem. Based on these considerations it is convenient to classify auto-
mated data acquisition systems as either data logging or computer con-
trolled designs.
The primary design objective of the numerous commerically avail-
able automatic data logging systems is to provide periodic scanning of
multiple sensors (transducers). The resulting data is stored on a
computer compatible media which will subsequently be transported to a
remote (off-line) computer for analysis and filing. Some of the more
sophisticated models have programmable alarm levels and remote activa-
tion as options.
The user benefits of data logging systems are: (1) reduction of
the labor (and the long time delay between data recording and avail-
ability of the analysis) associated with strip-chart records; (2)
elimination of the transcribing errors associated with converting the
data into a computer compatible format prior to analysis and permanent
file storage; (3) elimination of time registration errors that occur
when each variable being monitored is recorded on independent clock-
driven charts; and (4) the capacity of monitoring a large number of
variables (channels) at a very small incremental cost increase, i.e.
the primary expense is associated with the basic controller and re-
cording device rather than with increasing the number of channels
scanned. The price range of presently available data loggers is on
the order of $2,500 to $10,000 depending upon the options and output
media selected. Most of the presently available units require a-c
line power for operation. In addition, almost all units require the
associated sensors to present a voltage or current output proportional
to the variables being monitored.
Computer controlled data acquisition systems differ from data
loggers primarily in the size and sophistication of the unit, a full
scale computer being used in the computer controlled system, employed
to control operational sequence. In fact, since many of the data log-
gers utilize a programmable micro-processor as their control unit, the
entire field of automatic data acquisition could logically be viewed
as a continuous progression of devices rather than as two distinct
classes. However, for the purposes of this presentation it is desir-
able to persist with the concept of two distinct categories, i.e. data
loggers and computer controlled systems.
The computer controlled class of data acquisition systems dis-
cussed herein will refer to those installations which employ a full-
scale computer remote to the transducers in the field to control ac-
quisition, analysis and filing of the data. The computer, preferably
\ some type of time-shared system in order to greatly reduce the cost
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allocated to the data acquisition function, would be in direct and
continuous communication with the field transducers; such a computer
is referred to as being "on-line". This class of acquisition system
requires, in addition to an elemental multi-channel scanner based in
the field with the sensors, a communication link over which to send
data to the computer and a "port" or access connection to the computer
itself. r
While computer based acquisition systems are usually more expen-
sive to install than data logging systems, their capabilities and
benefits are dramatically greater. In addition to all the advantages
of data logging systems they offer virtually instantaneous analysis of
incoming data and the capacity for sophisticated monitoring of condi-
tions in the field. This different level of analytical capability has
several important implications.
Computer based data acquisition systems can be programmed to moni-
tor incoming data and to automatically issue advanced warnings to pub-
lic officials of impending hazardous conditions. This monitoring can
be much more sophisticated than the simple alarm-level off-line re-
cording of data logging systems. For example, while monitoring the
rainfall intensity and flow distributions within a watershed, the com-
puter could be programmed to recognize potentially hazardous rainfall
patterns. Detection of such conditions would then automatically cause
the computer to initiate a complete flood routing program to forecast
water levels in the drainage system. If this routing indicated likely
hazardous flood levels, responsible public agencies could immediately
begin efforts to inform the public about appropriate courses of action.
Computer based acquisition systems normally provide a complete
two-way communication link between the field instruments and the com-
puter. Therefore, the transmission of information should not be re-
stricted to only data from the field transducers to the computer. It
is entirely feasible for the computer, on the basis of incoming data,
to send information back to the field to effect control of all phases
of the monitoring equipment, i.e. a closed-loop control situation. A
simple example of such an application would be to have the computer
control the time interval between water samples taken to determine
pollution levels during rapidly changing flow conditions. Multiple
parameter condition tests can readily be programmed into the computer
which can then transmit operational commands to the field water samp-
ling equipment. Such multiple parameter tests can serve to signifi-
cantly improve the integrity of the resulting data by collecting sam-
ples frequently when conditions are changing rapidly. Simultaneously,
laboratory analysis costs can be reduced because the sampling interval
would be automatically increased during periods of slow change.
Still another important implication of computer based acquisition
systems is their capacity to continuously verify proper operation of
S6 ??• CJf?ed transducers« Such verification significantly improves
the reliability of the data base and simultaneously provides more effi-
cient utilization of technically trained staff servicing the equipment.
This increased efficiency results from the elimination of much of the
time normally required by routine site visitation to verify proper
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equipment operation.
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT CRITERIA
Selection of a particular configuration of field transducers and
equipment to automate a data acquisition process ultimately must de-
pend upon the specific application, Barrett, et al (1975). However,
it is possible to delineate some general factors that need to be con-
sidered when configuring such systems.
The following list of evaluation criteria, listed in order of de-
creasing significance, are suggested as a guide for selecting indi-
vidual transducers and the associated acquisition equipment for en-
vironmental monitoring:
1. unattended operational reliability over environmental
extremes,
2. low unit cost for transducers and transmission links,
3. battery powered operational capability,
4. early conversion of transducer outputs into a digital
format,
5. prevention of time registration errors, and
6. compatibility with a variety of transducer outputs.
While the above list is given in a suggested priority order, individual
circumstances certainly could change the relative position of one or
more factors. Each entry needs further elaboration to allow it to be
viewed in proper perspective.
Field sensors and acquisition equipment must operate over a wide
ranee of adverse environmental conditions with only an occasional site
visit to provide maintenance attention. Until problems of keeping a
sizeable network of such field instrument operational have been ex-
perienced first-hand it is difficult to appreciate the importance of
this selection criteria. Remote computer monitoring equipment is
capable of detecting only gross failures; it cannot detect deterio-
ration of calibration accuracy nor effect the repair of a nonfunc-
tional sensor. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to evaluate the
operational reliability of prospective components of a system. Some
of the factors that merit consideration in making such an evaluation
ty of material and workmanship in the product; (2) de-
(5) if available, an evaluation of the experience of
UlfiLLl U.LOl*kU.L.^-^ 9 **»»*• \^ / * *• 1 1 fc J r\ r*
other users of the equipment. In configuring an ^tallation one
•should always keep in mind that one of the most reliable means of as
suring opeTtiona'l continuity is to include as much system redundancy
as the budget will permit.
One of the major benefits of the drastic reduction in labor as-
sociated with automated acquisition systems is the capability to moni-
tor a targe number of transducers with little or no increase in opera-
ting costs? This offers the promise of increased utility from larger
and broader data bases, i.e. monitoring more factors. However, this
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promise is obtainable only if the unit costs of the field transducers
and components necessary to connect them to the acquisition system are
relatively low. Obviously, compromise on this objective of low cost
is sometimes neceasarv in order to obtain an adequate level of opera-
Numerous examples could be given for applications of environmen-
tal monitoring at locations which require the equipment to be battery
powered because line power is not economically available. However
even for installations where power is available, battery operation 'is
often a significant or even essential feature. Several uses of en-
vironmental data require a continuous, long-term record of data. Even
infrequent gaps due to short term power interruptions can be quite
troublesome. Battery operation is especially important for systems on
which the mOSt critlcal data are collected during storm events ^
the probability of temporary power outage is highest. Various schemes
are available to provide an uninterrupted power supply, but probably
the simplest and most satisfactory is to acquire equipment with low
power consumption which inherently uses batteries as its primary power
source If line power is readily available it can be used to continu-
ously trickle charge the batteries; otherwise, solar, wind or water
power can be used for charging batteries.
»h- / maj°f ty °f environmental transducers employ sensing elements
which provide a continuous output (analog) proportional to the vari-
able being monitored. However, available and foreseeable technologies
to assure low cost, error free data transmission and storage require
digital information. Therefore, it is generally desirable to provide
for conversion of analog sensor outputs into a digital format as early
as possible along the transmission route to the central processor.
Many uses for broadly based environmental data are more concerned
with accurate relative times between two or more events than with their
S^M ^ °f°CCurrence- This ^ especially true when one is at-
tempting to model processes such as non-point source pollution. For
such applications the problem of time registration errors beSeen inde-
pendent recorders is very troublesome. This problem can readily be
alHata ^"^ * "T^ "rec°rder" wit" • Dingle time base for
all data. This is an inherent design characteristic of almost all
automated systems and one of their important benefits.
form "data" fr°m transducers in more than one
format can be a significant factor in the economic viability of an
automatic data acquisition system. This flexibility is important in
two regards: incorporation of existing transducers into a system and
delay of system obsolescence. While almost all modern systems require
an electronic data input, this can take the form of a voltage, current
or frequency proportional to the monitored variable or of a switch
closure which occurs after a preselected increment of change. The
ability to accept a variety of these forms can significantly affect
the feasibility of modifying an existing network of instruments to
incorporate an automated acquisition capability. Similarily, this
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might be added at a future date.
ALERT
The development of a system designed to accomplish the Acquisi-
tion of Local Environmentally Related Trends, ALERT, on the Black
Creek project was intended to accomplish two primary objectives: (1)
to automate the process of collecting hydrometeorological data from
the Black Creek catchment in order to reduce data transcribing delay
and labor while expanding the scope of the data collected and (2) to
demonstrate a "real-time" acquisition system capable of providing a
data base to permit hydrologic simulation of watershed responses con-
currently with naturally occurring storm events. An integral part of
the second objective involves using the computer to generate opera-
tional commands to control pumping samplers which collect water
quality samples of the runoff. The availability of simultaneous data
from a network of sensors dispersed over the watershed together with
the predictive capabilities of the on-line computer are intended to
improve the quality of these water samples. This improved quality
is anticipated as the result of using short sampling intervals when
pollution concentrations are likely to be changing rapidly and much
slower sampling rates when conditions are stable. The rapid samp-
ling rates make possible an accurate evaluation of total quantity of
pollutants in the runoff while slow rates during stable conditions
reduce the number of samples collected and the cost of subsequent
laboratory analyses. While the ALERT system was designed to satisfy
the objectives of a specific project, the requirements were of such
a nature that the resulting system is directly applicable to a large
percentage of environmental data acquisition applications.
One characteristic of environmental data which complicates the
problem of automating its acquisition is the spatial variability of
many of the factors of interest. This characteristic necessitates the
installation of numerous sensors in widely dispersed patterns. Evalu-
ation of several alternative transducer designs and transmission tech-
niques resulted in the selection of a data encoding approach developed
by Goodspeed and Savage (1969) and evaluated rigorously by Langham
(1971) The concept was named the "incremental integral approach by
Langham, but is known more commonly as event recording. This approach
involves recording the elapsed time required for each variable to
change by a preselected increment in lieu of the level of each vari-
able at selected time intervals.
The incremental integral concept can be implemented either by
incorporating the principle in the design of individual transducers or
by using a micro-processor to rapidly scan multiple sensors on a time
interval basis and then output the corresponding event-type data. The
former approach was chosen because such equipment, designed to operate
on battery power, was commercially available.
Functionally, the output of a transducer designed to produce in-
cremental integral data need be nothing more than a simple switch clo-
sure These switch closures indicate to the central acquisition system
-156-
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that the monitored variable has changed by its preselected increment,
i.e. an "event" corresponding to a known increment of change. The
central acquisition system is required to note only the time at which
this switch closure occurred. From such a data file the complete
record of the variable's value as a function of time can be recon-
structed. When numerous transducers, i.e. switch closures, are being
monitored by a single central system each switch must be uniquely
identified and simultaneous closures must be handled. This can readily
be accomplished by numbering each switch (and then transmitting the
switch's number to the central location) and by a priority arbitration
scheme. Of course, transducers which monitor variables that are
bidirectional, e.g. temperature, employ two switches, one to indicate a
positive incremental change and a second to indicate a negative change.
The incremental integral concept provides four primary advantages
for application to field data acquisition systems. Of greatest signi-
ficance is the assurance of recording relatively high-frequency changes
which might be missed with systems using the more common constant time
interval sampling approach. This is especially useful because the
rates of change of different environmental variables differ by orders
of magnitude. Of course, the sampling interval of the classical ap-
proach can be made very short to reduce the probability of missing in-
, frequent but rapid variations. However, the result of a short sampling
interval is a high volume of redundant data and a corresponding in-
crease in data storage, transmission and processing costs. Thus, the
second advantage of the incremental integral approach is really a
corollary of the first: elimination of collecting and storing redun-
dant data. Thirdly, the incremental integral concept permits a com-
pact data format, a single "character" switch number, which simplifies
data transmission requirements and thereby reduces equipment costs.
Finally, it is directly compatible with some existing environmental
transducers, e.g. tipping bucket raingages and wind anemometers, and
allows inexpensive adaptation of others, e.g. water stage, pan evapora-
tion and wind direction.
The primary disadvantage of an incremental integral encoding ap-
proach is the stringent demands it places upon the data transmission
linkages. Because it eliminates the transmission of redundant data
characteristic of time interval sampling, the consequences of data
"lost" due to bad transmissions are more serious. If the central ac-
quisition system fails to detect that a switch closure has occurred
it will continue to indicate an erronous value for that variable un-
til a new "benchmark" value is reestablished. This benchmark must be
reestablished either by the normal periodic site visits of qualified
.personnel or, if the field equipment is sufficiently sophisticated, by
automatic retransmission of benchmark levels under command of the
central computer.
The specific configuration of the ALERT system can best be des-
cribed by reference to the block diagram of Figure 1. The remote
sensor blocks actually correspond to dispersed locations within the
catchment which are each capable of supporting multiple transducers
and receiving control commands from the remote computer. Information
is transmitted between the central receiver and the remote locations
over a closed loop telephone link (solid lines in Figure 1) or battery-
powered FM radio telemetry links. The choice between a telephone or
-157-
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radio transmission linkage is determined by the degree of availability
of a telephone drop at a given remote site and the distance from the
central receiver. The radio transmitters employed are limited to an
8 km radius.
PAPER TAPE
PUNCH
CENTRAL
RECEIVER
-o
/t"
(~] DEDICATED
\^/ TELEPHONE LINE
COMPUTER
MODEM
MODEM
REMOTE
SENSORS
Fig. 1. Block diagram of ALERT system.
The transfer of information between the central receiver and the
remote sites is controlled by electronics at the central receiver.
The central "receiver" actually provides a complete two-way communi-
cation path and is continually transmitting control commands to the
remote locations. These control commands are either instructions to
operate instruments at the remote sites, e.g. the pumping water samp-
lers, or polling instructions to synchronize the transfer of data from
the various remote transducers to the central receiver. Upon receipt
of its polling character an individual remote site will immediately
transmit the switch number of any of its transducers which have de-
tected their preselected increment of change.
Data from the remote transducers received by the central sta-
tion is simultaneously transferred to two outputs. First, the data
is presented to a battery operated paper tape punch which records a
permanent record of the remote station number and its associated trans-
ducer switch number. Secondly, the site and switch number data are
serialized and, through a modem* interface, transmitted over a dedi-
cated telephone line to a remote on-line computer on the Purdue campus
approximately 250 km away.
The on-site paper punch provides a back-up record and degree of
redundancy essential to maintaining a continuous historical data file
*Modem is an acronym for modulator-demodulator. Operating in pairs,
these devices provide a standard means of converting the voltage or
currents generated and required by computers into tones suitable for
transmission over telephone lines.
-158-
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in the event of interrupted communication with the remote computer.
Of course, any on-line, real-time analysis and control capability is
lost during such conditions.
The on-line computer on the Purdue campus is a minicomputer run-
ning a time-sharing operating system designed to facilitate data ac-
quisition and real-time control applications. The Black Creek instal-
lation is seen by the computer as simply one of several simultaneous
users active on the system. The operating program which controls com-
munication with the Black Creek station has four primary responsi-
bilities: (1) assembling the incoming data into suitable files and
permanent storage of these files on magnetic disk and/or tape, (2)
maintenance of a dynamic file of the instantaneous level of all vari-
ables being monitored in the watershed and the operational status of
all transducers, (3) providing a preliminary analysis of incoming
data in order to issue feed-back control commands to operate the water
sampling equipment, and (4) detection of storm conditions in the water-
shed that indicate the need to activate a complete real-time simulation
of the hydrologic behavior of the catchment.
The distribution of data acquisition sites throughout the Black
Creek watershed is shown on the map in Figure 2. Immediately adjacent
to the central station, at location 6, which houses the central "re-
ceiver" electronics, paper tape punch and long-distance telephone in-
terface, are those transducers monitoring parameters which exhibit
little spatial variability: solar radiation, wind velocity and direc-
tion, humidity, pan evaporation, air temperature and barometric pres-
sure. In addition, this site also has transducers for rainfall, soil
temperature (10 cm bare soil), water stage on upper Black Creek and a
pumping water sampler. Other remote locations monitor the variables
as summarized in Table I.
Table 1. Remote Measurement Distribution
Station Communication Link Variables Monitored
2 Telephone Stage, Soil Temperature
Water Quality
3 Telephone Stage, Rainfall
4 Telephone Stage
8 Radio Rainfall, Soil Tempera-
ture
9 Radio Rainfall
10 Radio Rainfall, Soil Tempera-
ture
12 Telephone Stage, Rainfall, Water
Quality
The ALERT system, in terms of the previously outlined subdivisions,
would classify as a computer controlled system. However, in order to
improve overall system reliability by the principle of redundancy, the
concept of a stand-alone data logging system has also been included
(via the punched paper tape system). The complete system was designed
-159-
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I
o
ENVIRONMCNTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
USD* SOIL CONSERVATION SCRVICE
Fig. 2. Map of Black Creek Watershed showing remote transducer sites.
-------
with the requirement of on-line, real-time analysis capabilities as one
of the major goals. The ultimate capabilities of such systems are en-
tirely determined by the operating program installed in the remote com-
puter. While the principle of event type data encoding was selected
for the transducers, the actual hardware installed in the field does
allow one to intermix transducers using a time interval sampling ap-
proach. Furthermore, the interfacing hardware and data transmission
scheme were deliberately selected to permit the use of any time-sharing
computer system that provides a goal of 24-hour service.
SUMMARY
General trends in the area of automating the acquisition of en-
vironmental data were reviewed. Because of the rapidly developing
technologies of micro-processors and low-power integrated circuits it
was concluded that we are on the threshold of rapid and fundamental
change in the methodologies that are economically feasible. The im-
plications of these changes and the factors which need consideration
as one becomes involved in this transition were outlined. Finally, a
specific example of one very general purpose system, ALERT, currently
being activated on the Black Creek watershed was discussed in terms
of its design philosophy and functional characteristics.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Barrett, J. R., L. F. Muggins and W. L. Stirm. 1975. Environ-
mental data acquisition. Environmental Entomology, Vol. 4, No. 6,
pp. 854-859.
2. Goodspeed, M. J. and J.V. Savage. 1969. A multi-channel digital
event-recorder for field applications. J. of Sci. Instr., Vol. 2,
pp. 178-182.
3. Langham, E. J. 1971. New approach to hydrologic data acquisition.
Proc. Am. Soc. Civil. Eng., J. Hydro. Dir., HY12:1965-78.
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PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND LAND TREATMENT COSTS
by
James E. Lake*
ABSTRACT
The Black Creek sediment control study, an Environmental Protection
Agency-funded project to determine the environmental impact of land use
on water quality is finishing its second year of activities. The project,
which is directed by the Allen County Soil and Water Conservation Dis-
trict, is an attempt to determine the role that agricultural pollutants
play in the degradation of water quality in the Maumee River Basin and
ultimately in Lake Erie.
The Black Creek project was designed and developed by a consortium
of the Environmental Protection Agency, the Soil Conservation Service
of the United States Department of Agriculture, Purdue University, and
the Allen County District. It is a response to allegations, first brought
to the attention of Allen County residents at a Conference on the future
of the Maumee River sponsored by Rep. J. Edward Roush in January of 1972.
At the conference, sediments and related pollutants were named as
major contributors to the degradation of water quality in Lake Erie. It
was further suggested that agricultural operations significantly increas-
ed the amount of sediment and sediment related pollutants.
The Black Creek Sediment Study, funded by a grant of nearly $2 million,
is an attempt to discover the role that agricultural operations play in
the pollution of the Maumee River and how that role can be diminished
through the application of significant land treatment practices.
The project represents a multi-agency, multi-discipline approach
to the total problem of non-point source pollution. It involves dem-
onstration, through a program of accelerated land treatment with the
assistance of the Soil Conservation Service, applied research by Purdue
University, administration by the Allen County Soil and Water Conserva-
tion District, and cooperation from a variety of state, federal, and local
agencies.
MANAGEMENT
The Black Creek Project being conducted by the Allen County Soil and
1Allen County Conservationist in charge of directing the "Black Creek
Study" Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water Quality for the Allen
County Soil and Water Conservation District.
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Water Conservation District to study the Environmental Impact of Land
Use on Water Quality was the first project of its kind in the nation.
However several other projects like it have been started since the
Black Creek project was initiated in October 1972. The project came
about due to the need to gain more information about non-point pollution
in the Maumee River basin. This need surfaced as the result of a con-
ference sponsored by U.S. Congressman J. Edward Roush in January 1972
to discuss the condition of the Maumee River non-point pollution was
labeled as the major contributor to the rivers degradation, with sediment
being the worst single pollutant. The information that came about at
this seminar lead the district to be strongly concerned and eventually
lead to the districts request for a demonstration grant from the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Funding for the Black Creek Project was obtained through the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Grants Administration Branch, under
Demonstration Project - Section 108. The project is estimated to cost
a total of $2.5 million dollars with approximately $2 million dollars
being received from the grant. The balance of the money is generated
locally from various sources. The district signed a contract and re-
ceived the grant from the Environmental Protection Agency in October
1972. EPA has made a committment of the total dollars estimated as
well as the complete time period originally planned. The grant however
is regulated such that funds are received by the district only on a
reimbursable basis. In other words the district submits vouchers to
the Environmental Protection Agency on a quarterly basis showing the
total expenditures made during the quarter. EPA then reimburses the
district 75% of their total cost. An initial advance however was award-
ed to the district in order to have some operating funds. All corres-
pondence and memos pertaining to the contract between the district and
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency are handled between Carl Wilson,
the EPA Project Officer for the Black Creek Study and myself. Using the
money that the district has been awarded by the U.S. EPA, the district
in turn has sub-contracted with both the U.S. Soil Conservation Service
and Purdue University. The sub-contract with the Soil Conservation
Service is for the purpose of receiving from them technical assistance
for planning and application in the watershed area.
The contract with SCS encompasses approximately $197,000 dollars
which the district is using to reimburse the Soil Conservation Service
for placing additional Soil Conservationist and Soil Conservation Techni-
cians in the project office to assist in the accelerated planning and
application program. During some time of the sub-contract period calls
for more than one man-year of additional soil conservation assistance.
For example in a period of October 1972 through October 1975, 1.8 man-years
of Soil Conservationist assistance is provided in the contract. At the
present time the Soil Conservation Service has exceeded that agreement
and provided the project with two Soil Conservationist, full time in the
project area. During this same period of time the contract calls for 1.1
man-years of Soil Conservation Technician assistance. At the present
time we have only a part time technician, but the balance of the man hours
are received from area engineering staff. On occasion we receive assist-
ance from the State Office staff. The thing that is unique about the
Black Creek project and the district's relation with the Soil Conservation
Service is that the district is directing the program. In this project,
the Soil Conservation Service is truly assisting the district, not the
-163-
-------
reverse. For example, due to the excellerated land treatment program
needed in the Black Creek area a special technical guide for standards
in applying practices was developed. The normal soil conservation
standards and specifications have been altered in a few cases by the
district for the needs of the Black Creek project. During the course
of the project activity the district has found need from time to time
to make further changes in standards and specifications. The district
has also been in the position to direct the type of work to be done,
the priority for getting it done, as well as who will do it. The ex-
perience gained by the district through this project and especially
through the sub-contract between the Soil Conservation Service and the
district has been a real learning experience for the district and is an
opportunity that other districts should make every effort to seek.
The district has also used grant funds to enter a sub-contract with
Purdue University Research Foundation to obtain the services of Purdue
University in monitoring and evaluating the land use activities as they
relate to water quality in the watershed area. With the recent increase
in the sub-contract as the result of Dr. Larry Huggins program for real
time meteorological monitoring in the project area. The total sub-contract
with Purdue is $1,181,000 million dollars for the total project period.
The district, has. to rely heavily on the expertice of the Purdue specialists
to monitor and evaluate watershed activities. The district officials have
very little knowledge about monitoring activities, therefore are not in the
position to scrutinize Purdue's activities as closely as the activities of
the Soil Conservation Service. The district has and does, however make
recommendations as to the general areas that should be monitored, specific
sites to be used as collecting points, and have had a great deal to say
about the timing of the monitoring activities.
Due to the financial aspect of the sub-contracts between Purdue and
the district, many of the district's suggestions are abided by. The
guidelines the district uses for directing both the sub-contractors
(SCS and Purdue) are the original Plan of Work, entitled "Environmental
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality", dated May 1973, and the "Operations
Manual" EPA document #905-74-002 dated August 1973. Due to the complexity
of the project and the district's role with the U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency as well as both sub-contractors the district has been
placed in a position where it had to "grow-up" to meet the challenge, and
it has met the challenge gallantly.
In addition to the two major sub-contracts the district has an
agreement with the Allen County Data Processing Agency to program all
dollar expenditures and dollar committments as well as print all of the
district's checks for payment. This service has been a real asset to
the proper financial management of the Black Creek Project. A sample of
a computer generated print-out of the Black Creek financial status has
been attached as an appendix to illustrate the service being provided
by Allen County Data Processing. This service is almost essential in
order to know the long range financial committments and balances in order
to program the funds for the entire project period. In addition to all
these contractual agreements the district has "Memorandum of Understand-
ings" with several state organizations including: The Department of
Natural Resources, State Soil and Water Conservation District Committee,
State Highway Department, State Board of Accounts and several others.
-164-
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We also have Memorandums of Agreements and working relations with the
Allen County Surveyor's office, Allen County Plan Commission, and of
course the Allen County Council and Allen County Commissioners who
provide local funding to the district. In addition to working with all
these agencies and departments the district has the obligation to assist
the private landowners who live in the Black Creek watershed. After
all if we cannot communicate and work with private landowners, then all
the agencies and department's assistance is of little value. Therefore
the most important attribute of the district program is that they have
the local "grass roots" contact with the private landowner. The private
landowner is in tune with and has confidence in his local district official.
It is through the local district officials that federal agencies are able
to carry out their objectives which is the case in the Black Creek Project.
As a district we enjoy the challenge and we maintain that we are the only
agency of government that can work with so many other agencies as well
as private landowners and bring them all together like the "spokes of a
wheel" and come out with successful unified program approach. See figure
9.1 for organization of project personnel.
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
Overall Costs Versus Budget
As I previously mentioned, the Black Creek Project was estimated
to cost $2.5 million dollars of which $2 million would be received from
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency with a twenty-five percent match
required from the local sources. As with everything else, costs have
been consistantly higher than was previously expected. However, we have
managed to conduct the study to date within the originally allocated bud-
get as can be seen on figure 9.2.* Several internal transfers of money
have been necessary, however to do so. For example, money had to be
taken (with permission from the EPA Project Officer) from supplies app-
ropriation and placed in the equipment appropriation to cover the higher
than anticipated equipment costs of both the district and Purdue budgets.
All the money was appropriated based on a yearly estimate and it has
been necessary at times to transfer money from one year to another in
order to cover expenditures.
In looking closely at figure 9.2, one can see that expenditures were
not as high in the early stages of the project as was expected but were
higher than expected the second year. In order to revise the budget for
1974 and 1975, money was taken from the appropriations for 1972 and 1973.
The one budget that was most seriously underestimated was that of the
district. As can be seen in figure 9.3,* only $22,000 was appropriated
for the entire district project costs. It was soon recognized that the
staff placed in the project office was not adequate to meet the demands
of the project. Personnel from the Soil Conservation Service were not
adequate to handle the increased number of landowner requests and engineer-
ing requirements generated from this accelerated land treatment program.
*Taken from Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water Quality - progress
report EPA 905/9-75-006, dated November 1975.
-165-
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Cft
01
ORGANIZATION
of
PROJECT PERSONNEL
Environmental
Protection Agency
Carl D. Wilson
Allen County Soil and
Water Conservation District
1. James E. Lake
2. Ellis F. McFadden
3. (Roger E. Roeske)
scs
c.
J. Gillman
Purdue
R. Z. Wheaton
Planning and
Application
1. L.W. Kimberlin
3. J.C. Branco (K.
4. T.D. McCain
5. C.F. Poland
6. D.E. Brown (G. h
7. s.W. Steury (G.
B. Bollman)
'ans)
Pyle)
oods
Carlile)
Sociological
Modeling and
Prediction
E.J. Monke
1. R.M. Brooks
2. (W. Miller)
Monitoring Laboratory
Analysis
I
Experimental
Plots
Rainulator
Studies
Biology
Studies
1
Technical
1. R.E. Land
Ditch
Banks
3. R.Z. Wheaton
4. (D. Beasley)
5. (D. Bottcher)
2. L.E. Sommers
3. E. Hood
1. H.M. Galloway
2. (D. Griffith)
1. J.V. Mannering
2. B. Johnson
1. J.L. Hamelink
2. (J. Karr)
3. W.P. McCafferty
1. R.Wheaton
Figure 9.1 Organization of Project Personnel
-------
Rather than attempt to re-finance in order to place more Soil Conserva-
tion personnel in the project office, it was decided by the District
Board of Supervisors to hire our own additional staff to meet the demands.
Thefefore, money was transferred from the land treatment portion of the
project to the district budget in order that the district could hire a
professional engineer of their own. This revised increased cost is re-
flected in figure 9.3. The district board felt that this was a sound
expenditure in that there would be no delays in getting the man placed
in the project office and that there would be no further problems such
as transfers, and relocations, etc. By hiring its own employee, the
district felt it would have more control of the operations at the project
office level through the duration of the project. As can be seen in
figure 9.4* and 9.5*, both Purdue and the Soil Conservation Service were
able to keep project expenditures within the original appropriation.
The only minor changes in the budgeting for these sub-contracts were a
few transfers of money from the early years of the project to later
years in the project.
Land Treatment Goals Versus Accomplishments Versus Expenditures
The most important aspect of the entire Black Creek Project is the
application of practices on private land in order to monitor the affects
of land treatment on water quality. A total of $750,000 was committed
to land treatment activities. These funds were to be used as cost-share
incentives to landowners for the installation of needed land treatment
practices. This amount was approved by careful thought by a team from
the Soil Conservation Service and the district which studied the entire
Black Creek watershed area during the development of the work plan and
set up goals for each of 34 different conservation practices identified
as needed in the Black Creek area. These goals were based on soil types,
land capability units, and the agricultural land uses that existed in the
watershed at the beginning of the project. These goals were based on
100 percent land treatment accomplishments over the entire watershed area.
Average unit costs were established for each practice, and a budget was
set up for each practice based on the goal times the unit cost. See
table A-10 which was inserted from the original work plan, Environmental
Impact of Land Use on Water Quality, dated May 1973. The total goal for
land treatment times the unit cost for these practices is a little over
$1 million. Since it was decided it would cost at least $1 million for
total land treatment in the watershed area, and the district determined
that it would like its average cost-share incentive to the landowners to
be 75 percent of total cost, a figure of $750,000 was placed in the
budget for cost-sharing to private landowners for land treatment. We also
realized that 100 percent land treatment was not practical to obtain,
therefore, we felt that $750,000 would be more than adequate.
In reviewing table A-10 which outlined the land treatment goals and
estimated installation costs one must realize the amount of effort and
thought that went into the development of this table. In order to arrive
at the budget for land treatment the district and SCS had to carefully
scrutinize what practices were applicable in the Black Creek watershed
*Taken from Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water Quality - progress
report EPA 905/9-75-006, dated November 1975.
-167-
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TABLE A-10 - BLACK CHEEK STUDY
Maumee Elver Basin
Land Treatment Goals & Estimated Installation Costs
ITSK
Land Adeauately Treated
Cropland to Grassland
Cropland to Woodland
Cropland to Wildlife & Heo.
Cropland to Other
District Cooperators
District Cooperatdrs
Conservation Plans
Conservation Plans
Conservation Plans Revised
Conservation Plans Revised
Conservation Cropping System
Critical Area Planting
Crop Residue Management
Diversions
Farmstead & Feedlot Windbreaks
Field Border
Field Windbreak
Grade Stabilization Structures
Grassed Waterway or Outlet
Holding Ponds & Tanks
Livestock Watering Facility.
Minimum Tillage-
Pasture & Haylahd Management
Pond
Protection During Development
Eecreation Area Improvement
Sediment Control Basin
Stream Channel Stabilization
Stream Channel Stabilization
Streambank Protection
Surface Drains
Terraces , Gradient
Terraces . Parallel
Tree Planting
Wildlife Habitat Management
Woodland Improved Harvesting
Woodland Pruning
SUBTOTAL
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE (SCS)
TOTAL INSTALLATION COSTS
UNIT
Ac.
Ac.
Ac.
Ac.
Ac.
So.
Ac.
No.
Ac.
No.
Ac.
Ac.
Ao.
Ac.
Ao.
Ft.
Ao.
Ft.
Ft.
No.
Ac.
No.
Ac.
Ac.
N9.
Ac.
Ac
Ao.
No.
Ao.
No.
Ft.
Ft.
Ft.
Ac.
Ft.
Ft.
Ft.
It.'
Ac.
Ao.
Ao.
Ao.
Ao.
GOAL
10,573_
It
10
9li
35
11.8
__7i7,!t7 ,
170
10.610.
6
1.01.0
7,10.8
769
10
7.1*91
39,200
75
288,320
12,000
368
68
11
300
215
28
7,656
1.02
501
39
118
12
6
90,000
5,000
122,000
300
90,500
11,000
11,000
200.300
10
222
200
610
50
TJNIT
HilCE $
1.50
2.00
hOO.OO
1.50
o.5o
80.00
0.30
0.05
500.00
U5o.oo
5j.6oo.oo
75-00
20.00
200.00
6.50
18.00
70.00
2jiOO.OO
100.00
200.00
5.000.00
0.50
6.00
2.00
5.00
0.1.0
0.25
0.75
o.«>
80.00
70.00
15.00
20.00
30.00
TOTAL
COST
11,127
1,538
lt.000
Ilj236,
19.600
6,000
86,1.96
600
lSli.000
30,600
61,600
22,500
It, 300
5j600
19. 76k
7,236
35jP70
97,500
11.800
2.UOO
30,000
1.5,000
36,000
2ki,ooo
1,500
36,200
2,750
8.250
80,120
800
i5,51jQ
3,000
12,200
1.500
1,169,827
197,361.
1,367,191
1 YEARLY GOALS AMD PROJECT INSTALLATION COSTS (DOLLARS)
Oot.72-3ct.73
GOAL
671
tiQ
2,091.
16
1,002
3
520
600
-
1
600
2,600
-
25-&QO
- "
30
9
1
-
20
2
300
20
50
2
3
-
6
3.000
-
10,000
-
3,000
-
-
16,068
-
-
^
20
10
COST
900
-
1(00
900
1,300
-
7,500
15,000
U.050
5.600
-
1,950
360
3.500
5,000
300
-
30.000
1.500
20,000
-
1,200
-
-
6,1427
-
300
Loo
300
107,687 .
U6,50oV
151., 187
Oot.73-0ot.7li
GOAL
2,612
1*
20
8
60
3.110
53
3,317
3
520
1,978
20?
2
1,997
10,000
21
51,866
3,199
88
18
2
80
U7
2,010
87
12K
8
28
3
23.591.
2^00
32,525
80
21., 127
2,933
2,933
50,360
3
59
1)0
Ili3
10
COST^
2,967
100
800
2,995
5.000
1,680
15,560
160
U.,000
8,100
11,200
6,000
9U>
1.000
13.266
1,566
8,680
20,000
2,800
600
11.797
12.000
65^50
1+00-
9,651
733
2,200
20,114.
2W
U.130
600
2,860
300
277,829
36,813
311i,672
Oct.7L-Oot.75
§OAL
3,533
10
29
,„ 11
29
J«S1?_
57
3.589
2,637
273
1*
2,663
13,500
28
102.U88
' k, 265
117
2U
k
107
66
9
2,722
1U3
i2s
lit
h2
k
31.U58
2,000
1)3,365
105
32,170
3,910
3,911
66.-360
h
79
7U
217
13
COST
3,955
5U6
1,600
3,995
6.750
2.2UO
30.7U7
213
58,500
10,800
22. WO
8,02_5
1,320
1,800
17,691.
2.57h
11,550
35,000
U.200
800
15,729
12,000
86,730
?25
12,8OT
978
2,933
27,3ttti
320
5,530
1.110
li.3liO
390
395,506
55,291
U50.797
Oct.75-0ot.76
GOAL
3.757
U5
16
19
977
UU
2.733
2,203
291
3
2,231
13,100
26
108.966
__U^16
133
17
h
113
82
12
2,593
152
162
15
IA
5
31.91.8
2,000
36,110
115
31,203
li.157
U.1S6
65.512-
3
81i
66
230
17
3,305
582
1,200
3.3J46
6,550
2,080
32,689
227
66.500
7.650
22.1.00
8,1,75
1.61)0
16.851.
2.736^
11.3k)
37.500
U.500
1,000
-
15.971.
12^000
72,220
?IS
12,1.81
1,039
3,117
26,205
21.0
5,880
990
1..600
510
388,805
1.5.705
U31..510
Oct.76-0ot.77
iOAL
-
-
COST
13.025
13.025
I/ Fence to exclude livestock; 2/ Structural protection; 3_/ Quantity shown includes only tile under grassed waterways and surface drains; \jj Includes cost
associated with preparation of detailed work plan.
oo
i
April 1973
-------
and then estimate the amount of each practice that was needed for total
land treatment. Once this task was completed, a unit price had to be
established for each identified practice. In order to do so we had to
rely on our past experience as to what it costs to install the practice,
and in some cases, had to apply an educated guess for those practices
which had very little information about costs. At this point in time
we can say that we were quite successful in applying unit prices to the
34 practices listed In table A-10. There were a few practices however,
that we set our unit costs too low. One example is Farmstead and Feed-
lot Windbreaks in which we set the unit price at $80 per acre and we
have since then changed to $330 per acre as a result of action by the
board of supervisors. We also used an estimated unit price of $500 per
Grade Stabilization Structure and found out later that structures depend-
ing on the type and size can range from $150 to $1500 per installation.
We estimated that Stream Channel Stabilization which is the placement of
rip-rap stone for erosion protection along streambanks would take
approximately one ton of stone per foot for adequate protection. The
stone has cost us anywhere from $8 to $10 a ton placed, therefore making
the cost $8 to $10 per foot. We estimated the unit price for Minimum
Tillage application in the watershed to be $6.50 per acre and we have
been rather unsuccessful in getting large amounts of minimum tillage
applied to meet the Black Creek standards and specifications. Recently
the board had adopted a new unit cost of $7 per acre. We may find that
this price is not high enough. In considering the cost of tile drains
which would accompany various erosion control practices, we estimated
that the installation cost to be approximately 40£ per foot. This unit
cost is adequate for four inch drainage tile, however when constructing
large Grass Waterways, large Terrace systems or extension Surface Drain-
age or Diversions, four inch tile are not adequate for the drainage area
entering it. Therefore larger tile sizes are needed, and as a result in-
creased cost per foot. Since the time of the development of table A-10
we have set a new unit price for tile drainage based on the size of tile
recommended by the Soil Conservation Service. We do restrict tile drain-
age cost-sharing to only those tile drains that are associated with an
erosion control practice. In order to update table A-10 and to give the
reader a feeling for the local policy making control obtained by the
district on this project, I have inserted table 2.1* which shows various
practice specifications and cost-sharing changes which have been adopted
by the board of supervisors during the duration of the project to date.
It is very beneficial that the district has the control to be able to ad-
just and change practice specifications and cost-sharing to meet the
needs of the local watershed project. If the practice and cost-sharing
rates were ridgid and not subject to change many difficulties would have
been created by some of the original estimates included on table A-10.
This reiterates the need for keeping a program which involves dealing
with private landowners in the hands of local administration.
Figures 9.6* through 9.38 illustrate the goals by year, the planned
committment for application, the total accomplishments to date (bar graph)
and an original cost-share funds appropriated for each practice. In
analyzing these figures it is obvious that in most cases the goal is
*Taken from Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water Quality - progress
report EPA 905/9-75-006, dated November 1975.
-169-
-------
significantly higher than committments or accomplishments. There are
a few cases, (see Grade Stabilization Structures, figure 9.14, Stream
Channel Stabilization, figure 9.28) where the accomplishments and ex-
penditures exceed the original estimate. This is very gratifying.
These two practices were installed at a faster rate than originally ex-
pected. Other practices that have been applied at very high levels are
Conservation Cropping System (figure 9.6), Critical Area Planting (figure
9.10), Field Borders (figure 9.12), Grassed Waterway (figure 9.13).
Even with the accelerated application of these practices, 100 percent
of the goal has not been reached on any of them. This indicates that
either the goals were originally set too high or that there is more re-
quired to obtain concentrated land treatment than providing technical
assistance and cost-sharing assistance.
Several practice accomplishments have been quite discouraging, such
as Contour Farming (figure 9.7), Farmstead and Feedlot Windbreak (figure
9.11), Field Windbreak (figure 9.13), Land Smoothing (figure 9.17), Min-
imum Tillage (figure 9.20), Pasture and Hayland Planting (figure 9.22),
Sediment Control Basin (figure 9.26), Strip Cropping (figure 9.30), Tree
Planting (figure 9.33) and Woodland Practices (figure 9.35 and 9.37).
Some of these practices are apparently not very adaptable to the
Black Creek watershed area. Farmers have been very reluctant to accept
these practices even with high levels of cost-sharing incentives.
One practice of great concern is Minimum Tillage. Minimum tillage
is frequently cited as a key practice for lowering erosion in the Maumee
Basin area. Even though minimum tillage sounds like a very promising
erosion control technique, it has not been readily accepted by farmers
in the watershed area. There has not been sufficient research and dem-
onstration on minimum tillage in the heavy lake bed soils to encourage
and educate the farmer to attempt to using it. When farmers are con-
vinced that minimum tillage will not reduce yields and lower their in-
come potential, they will be willing to adapt the practice. If farmers
can be shown that minimum tillage will save them money, as well as soil
it will be readily accepted basin wide.
It has often been said that if funds were made available at a level
high enough to insure the farmer sufficient levels of cost-sharing
assistance, many practices which have been encouraged by the Soil Conser-
vation Service for years would be installed rapidly. We are learning
from the Black Creek project that even when high levels of funding are
provided to farmers for proper installation of conservation practices,
there is one other factor more important then money. This is the decision
by the private landowner as to the suitability of practice on his farm.
If the farmer is not willing to install the practices because he cannot
see any value in applying certain practices, no level of funding will be
sufficient to encourage application of them. Planning, technical assistance,
and adequate financial cost-sharing have little value without the decision
of the private landowner to install the practices needed. This leaves
the question as to how to get the landowners to make the decision to in-
stall needed conservation practices. We hope that this project might
give us insights to this question.
-170-
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Practice
Conservation Cropping
System
Crop Residue Management
Diversion
Farmstead and Feedlot
Windbreak
Grassed Waterway
Minimum Tillage
Pasture Planting
Pond
Spec .
Change
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
Cost-
Share
Change
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
The Change Is
Change to pay only on farms
where a change in rotation
is made.
Change to pay only on farms
where a change in rotation
is made. 70% of $1.50/ac.
to 80% of $1.50/ac.
Reduce inlet cost-share for
$150.00 each to $50.00 each.
Increase from $80.00/ac. to
$300.00/ac.
To include payment on a cubic
yard or lineal foot basis.
Increase base rate to $7.00
/ac . Have three options :
80%, 65%, 30%.
Price unit from $70.00/ac.
to $100.00/ac.
Increase cost-share on seeding
to 80% of $75.00/ac. Increase
seed and mulch to 80% of
$150.00/ac.
Reason
This was a give-away to
landowner on flat land
that required no changes
to meet specifications.
To make a little more in-
centive and to stop give
aways for no change.
This puts cost of tile
back on the tile practice
specifications and cost-
share.
Incentive to buy larger
trees.
Make excavation costs
easier and faster.
Incentives to get more
minimum tillage.
More incentive to plant
permanent pasture.
Make rates uniform with
other seeding practices.
Table 2.1 Changes in Practices Specifications and Cost-Share
-------
ro
Practice
Strip Cropping
Terraces-Gradient
Terraces-Parallel
Grassed Waterway
Pasture Management
Pond
Contour Strip Cropping
Terraces
Fencing
Spec.
Change
Yes
No
No
Cost-
Share
Change
No
Yes
Yes
The Change Is
Make payments on consecutive
years on same area.
Reduce inlet cost-share for
$150.00 each to $50.00 each.
Reduce inlet cost-share for
$150.00 each to %50.00 each.
Reason
FOLLOWING CHANGES EFFECTIVE JULY 14, 1975
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Increase cost-share to 90%
Increase cost-share from 65%
of $18.00/ac. to 65% of
$50.00/ac.
Allow construction of \ ac.
livestock ponds and pay 75%.
Also remove $1800.00 hold down
on other ponds and pay maximum
of 60% of estimate.
Increase unit price from $5.00
per acre to $10.00 per acre.
Increase cost-share to 90%
Change specification to allow
1 barb on woven wire or 4
barbed wire fences.
More incentives to apply
practice.
This puts cost of tile
back on the tile practice
specifications and cost-
share.
This puts cost of tile
back on the tile practice
specifications and cost-
share.
Added incentive for more
waterways.
Added incentive and help
to cover cost of increased
fertilizer and lime.
Incentive for more ponds.
Incentive for more of the
practice.
Incentive for more of the
practice.
To make a more workable
specification.
-------
Practice
Field Border
Diversions
Livestock Exclusion
Spec.
Change
No
No
Yes
Cost-
Share
Change
Yes
Yes
Yes
The Change Is
Reduce cost-share from 70% to
60%
Increase cost-share to 90%
Start paying for excluding
livestock from woods. Pay
70% of $4.00 per acre.
Reason
Make payments to end
of project more equit-
able.
Incentive for more of
the practice.
Encourage landowners to
keep livestock out of
woods.
-•J
CO
I
-------
ORIGINAL COST APPROPRIATION
- — REVISED COST APPROPRIATION
x---ACTUAL COST
•4-
74 '75
YEAR ENDING IN OCTOBER
KEY TO FIGURE 9.2 THROUGH 9.38
'76
'77
733,056.66 (6/30/75)
-f-
'72 '73 '74 '75 '76
Figure 9.2 Project Appropriations and Expenditures
7S-6
'77
-174-
-------
$22,40I.OQ
$22,366.10 (6/30/75)
(6/30/75)
'72 '73 '74 '75 '76
Figure 9.3 District Appropriations and Expenditures
-175-
-------
900 T
o 600
o
o
CO
ae.
§ 300
0
,924.00
$357,465.48 (6/30/75)
79-S
'72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77
Figure 9.4 Purdue Appropriations and Expenditures
240 T
$197,364.00
75-4
'72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77
Figure 9.5 Soil Conservation Service Appropriations and Expenditures
-176-
-------
$7232.55
76
'75
7418
'74
73
75 T
'72 '73 '74 '75 '76
Figure 9.6 Conservation Cropping System
'77
76
769
75
73
72
$999.70
'73 '74 '75
Figure 9.7 Contour Farming
'76
77
-177-
-------
12
'76i
'75
7471
'74
'73
O 8
§
CO
§ 4
$10,303.40
'72 '73 74 75
Figure 9.8 Crop Residue Management
76
19.4
'76
'75
'74
'73
4 .
in
tc.
§ 2
* 4,600.00
\
12,315.08 (6/30/75)
75-23
'72 '73 '74 '75
Figure 9.9 Critical Area Planting
'76
'77
-178-
-------
'76
39,200
'75
'74
'73
$12,740.00
'73 '74 '75
Figure 9.10 Diversion
'76
\
75-24
—I
'77
6 r
'76
75
'75
'74
§
o
M
«M*
I
>3 '74 '75
Figure 9.11 Farmstead and Feedlot Windbreaks
3,900.00
'77
-179-
-------
288,320
'76
'75
'73
'72
$53,222.80,
$12,580.89(6/30/75)
'73 '74 '75
Figure 9.12 Field Border
'76
\
73-26
—H
'77
12,000
76
'75
'74
450 T
'72 '73 74 75
Figure 9.13 Field Windbreaks
$390.00
\
77
-180-
-------
M 19,600.00
'76
368
'75
'74
'73
\
~7
$107,202.62
* 52,686.74 (6/30/75)
72 '73 '74 '75
Figure 9.14 Grade Stabilization Structure
'76
75-28
1
'77
30
66
'76
'75
'74
20
8 10
0 >»•-'
* 21,890.00
' • —«-J
1
$19,890.00'
$10,966.52 (6/30/75)
72 '73 '74 '75
Figure 9.15 Grassed Waterways
76
75-29
—I
'77
-181-
-------
czn
w
o
o
Ol
DOLLARS (xlOOO)
09
ro
.o
DOLLARS (xlOOO)
8
-1 s
-------
45 T
215
'76 r—i
'75
'74
'73
$32,045.00
$2,560.00 (6/30/75)
72 '73 '74 '75
Figure 9.18 Livestock Exclusion (fencing)
'76
\
76-32
H
'77
28
'76
'75
'74
•73
§
3,640.00
72 '73 '74 '75 '76
Figure 9.19 Livestock Watering Facility
\
'77
-183-
-------
7656
'76
'75
'74
'73
72
$ 32,346.60
'73 '74 '75
Figure 9.20 Minimum Tillage
76
6T
'76
'75
'74
'73
40
— 1
MMV
•MIWB
2
O 4 "
•MBBBi
If
0
o
X
ce
s..
0-
'7
$4,703.40
$362.70(6/30/75)
/
'73 '74 '75
Figure 9.21 Pasture and Hay land Management
-184-
-------
30 T
'76
'75
501
'74
'73
$22,795.00
72 '73 '74 '75 '76
Figure 9.22 Pasture and Hayland Planting
77
75 T
'76
39
75
'74
'73
$63,375.00
73 '74
Figure 9.23 Pond
75
'76
\
75-37
77
-185-
-------
15 T
'76
118
'75
'74
'74
$7670.00
Figure 9.24 Protection During Development
16.1
'76
'75
'74
S 2
§
$2,560.00
'72 '73 '74 '75
Figure 9.25 Recreation Area Improvement
'76
\
-186-
-------
30
'76
f 19,500.00
20
to
oc.
8
10
$ 13,624.46
MMMM
$1101.03(6/30/75)
,-/
75-40
'73 '74 '75
Figure 9.26 Sediment Control Basins
'76
'77
$29,250.00
30 T
*2,974.50
* 625.00 (6/30/75) V
74 '75 "76
Figure 9.27 Conservation Field Trials
-187-
-------
'76
'75
'74
'73
9Q -
96,000
.—
••*•
p^^
m*^m
o 60'
o
o
M
V)
_J
_l
§ 30
• °'
'73 '74 '75 '76
Figure 9.28 Stream Channel Stabilization
78-41
77
'76
122,000
'75
'74
73
180 T
$ 158,600.00
\
'72 '73 '74
Figure 9.29 Streambank Protection
-188-
-------
'76
300
'78
'74
$975.00
* 0 (6/30/75)
'73 '74 '75
Figure 9.30 Stripcropping
7S-44
'76
'77
90,500
'76
75
'74
'73
'73 '74 '75
Figure 9.31 Surface Drains
-189-
-------
-J
Ul
1 I-
01
DS
DOLLARS(xOOO)
vo
o
JO
CO
CO
9
S*
GB
3
a>
DOLLARS (xlOOO)
8 §
01
CO
10
H
N«*
5*
O
i
£
5'
09
>l S
-------
12
'76
222
'75
in
-------
OJ
J
2! ui
1 1
s
18
1 1 !
•
0
DOLLARS (xlOO)
vo
ro
. o
DOLLARS (xlOOO)
en O
4-
-------
2200
'76
'75
74
o 8 •
i
'72 '73 '74 '75 '76
Figure 9.38 Terraces, Parallel and Gradient
-193-
-------
MAINTENANCE
In developing the format and procedure for conducting the Black
Creek Study, the cost of necessary maintenance on practice application
throughout the duration of the project was not adequately considered.
Any time that a large amount of land treatment is accomplished on a
concentrated watershed area, a certain cost for maintenance is unavoid-
able. This became very evident in the spring of 1975 when on May 20,
the watershed received a four and one-half inch rain over a period of
two and one-half hours. This was equivalent to a one hundred year rain.
Many of the practices that were installed were able to handle the severe
stress, however there were areas where excessive damage did occur.
Also, other practices have shown evidence of needing continual mainten-
ance. One shortcoming of using federal funds for cost-sharing assistance
is that the landowners are quite willing to accept funds for new practices
and new construction on their land. However when the greater amount of
the money spent for those practices comes out of the federal dollar rather
than their own, it is quite difficult to encourage them to spend the
necessary money to maintain these practices thereafter.
More than $200,000 has been spent in large construction in the
watershed, along the main channel and its tributaries. Each year there
is going to be a need for several thousand dollars worth of maintenance.
Private individuals often feel that roads, ditches and many other services
should be provided to them at no cost by the county, state or federal
government. The question must be asked, "who is the government?". Of
course, the answer is the tax payers themselves. Therefore, any costs
incurred by the governmental agencies for roads, drainage, erosion con-
trol, etc., is going to be generated out of tax dollars.
The usual procedure in Allen County for drainage maintenance and
erosion control work is through land assessments by the County Surveyor's
office to cover the cost of maintenance on legal drains. People in the
Black Creek area often feel that money that has already been spent by
them, for the reconstruction of the Black Creek drain is all they should
have to spend, and that the county should maintain the drain. This
creates difficulty for the surveyor. Due to our experimental and some-
times elaborate project work, we have created higher costs for maintain-
ing the drainage system in the Black Creek watershed. In looking back
at the development of the Black Creek project one would probably insist
that so many dollars be set aside for maintenance costs to cover the
cost of necessary repair work that comes about during a project of this
type. If a project like Black Creek is to be conducted again, maintenance
should be considered as a very high priority in the program organization.
PLANS FOR COMING YEAR
Land Treatment
Several things are being considered to improve the land treatment
accomplishments in the coming year, including employment of another
district employee to contact landowners who have a plan for applying
conservation practices sometime during the program period. The follow-up
-194-
-------
specialist being considered would spend his time seeing to it that
scheduled land treatment practices are actually installed. Our ex-
perience in the past has been that unless the farmer is contacted
during the critical times when installation of the practices must be
accomplished, landowners may overlook the practice and delay installing
it. The hiring of a follow-up specialist would probably increase the
amount of actual practice installation significantly. Since there are
only two construction seasons left in the project period, a strong follow-
up program is essential.
The original scope of the project was to start planning on the west
side of the watershed area progressing eastward until the entire water-
shed was canvassed. Data collected by Purdue have indicated that it is
going to be difficult to recognize water quality changes as a result of
land treatment activities. Therefore, the district has directed soil
conservation personnel to concentrate planning activities on the Dreis-
bach Drain located on the west side of the watershed in order to main-
tain the highest concentration of land treatment possible. Hopefully
this will give Purdue every chance possible to detect any results of
concentrated land treatment in a subwatershed area. Further land
treatment over broad areas of the watershed would not be significant
to the monitoring program. In order to attempt to gain a high level
of land treatment in the Dreisbach Drain subwatershed, the district has
increased its cost-sharing rates on several critical erosion control
practices.
As of next year, grass waterways, terraces, sediment control basins
and several other erosion control practices most significant to the
upland areas of the watershed will be cost-shared at 90 percent. This
gives Soil Conservation Service planners a chance to recontact land-
owners who were not cooperative in the early stages of the .program to
see if they can encourage them to cooperate with the higher cost-share
incentives. Purdue will attempt to detect through their data collection
any water quality change that can be attributed to land treatment in the
area of heavy application versus the areas in the eastern portion of the
watershed where application of land treatment practices have been avoided.
It is important to note, however, that the sub-watershed, Dreisbach in
the western portion of Black Creek has a large concentration of rolling
up land soils. The eastern portion of the Black Creek area has a large
concentration of level lake bed soils. Therefore land treatment practices
are needed much greater in the Dreisbach area. One thing that concerns
both the district and the representatives doing the modeling and pre-
dictions for Purdue is that to date it has been very difficult to even
relate land treatment activities to water quality results. Hopefully
some correlation can be detected in the coming years.
RESEARCH
In order to improve and expand the research and monitoring activities
being conducted by Purdue University, three new programs will be started
in the coming year. The first is a real time, on-line monitoring network
for the automatic sampler stations in the Black Creek watershed. Dr.
Larry Huggins has been awarded a contract from the Environmental Protection
Agency as a part of the Black Creek project to install a complete weather
station in the watershed area as well as a dedicated telephone line system
-195-
-------
which will relate direct information from the monitoring sites in the
Black Creek watershed area to the computer terminal at the Purdue Laf-
ayette campus. This will enable Purdue to automatically record the
weather events as well as to rely on the automatic sampling system around
the clock. It will also allow Purdue to have better control over when
samples are taken. For example, the automatic samplers are now triggered
by the volume of flow coming over a weir, with the new real time monitor-
ing system Dr. Larry Huggins will be able to increase the number of
samples that can be taken on the upside of the hydrograph and reduce
the number of unnecessary samples taken on the downward side of the hy-
drograph. This new project will have a significant influence on the
quality of data being collected in Black Creek area.
Another aspect to be undertaken during the next year is that of
automatically sampling the tile drainage flow. Del Bottcher, a graduate
assistant under Dr. Edwin Monke, had developed a pumping sampler which
will sample the flow from tile drainage systems. Initial studies of tile
drainage flows have indicated that there are measurable amounts of soil
being carried through the drainage tile systems. By installing the aut-
omatic tile sampler, the quality and quantity of the samples will improve
significantly. This will enable Purdue to pinpoint the amount of sediment
that can be attributed to tile drainage transport.
The third change in the research and demonstration effort by Purdue
University which will be seen next year relates to conservation tillage
research. Our efforts in the last two years have been through small
demonstration plots on several sites in the Black Creek area. This app-
roach has proven to be rather unsuccessful because of the lack of con-
trolled research with the small demonstration plots. The farmers who
have cooperated with these small plot trial have not been interested to
the point of maintaining a quality control. Without having replicated
plots, the information being obtained from the small single plot trials
has been almost useless in terms of research data. In order to improve
this program, Dr. Don Griffith, a Purdue minimum tillage specialist,
has requested the district to rent several large plots of approximately
20 acres each. This will allow Purdue to place a main in the watershed
area to supervise and actually install the minimum tillage trial. This
effort will involve the purchase of a tractor and planter and other
equipment necessary to farm and maintain these research plots. The large
plots will allow replicated trials sufficient to provide research data.
If these plots are successful, they should serve as excellent educational
tools which will help to encourage minimum tillage in the future. This
more expanded approach to conservation field trials could hold many answers
to the future successes or failures pertaining to minimum tillage in the
Maumee Basin area.
SUMMARY
In summarizing the activities of the Black Creek Project to date, one
can be quite satisfied and pleased with the accomplishments that have been
recorded. Many needed answers will be obtained from the work being con-
ducted on this project. This project should provide the type of information
that is needed for future decisions relating to land use and water quality.
As director of the Black Creek Project I am looking forward with great
anticipation to the activities of the coming year, and I am appreciative
of the great effort and cooperation that has been received from all partici-
-196-
-------
pating agencies and private landowners. May this project be one for
which we can all be proud of for many years to come.
-197-
-------
APPENDIX #1
Computer Print-Out
Allen County Data Processing
-198-
-------
SOIL
HATER CONSERVATION
DATE 10/17/75
ACCOUNT TITLE
IMU.
**» DISTRICT **»
100-101 SALARY AND MAGES
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
100-102 FRiVGE BENEFITS
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
100-103 CONSULTANT SERVICES
.,-, APPROPRIATED
lS ' PAYMENTS
1 COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
100-104 E5OIPHENT
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
100-105 SUPPLIES
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
FIRST SECOND
YEAR YEAR
. »
2.150.00 7.912.50
516.50 6,225.00
1.633.50 li 687.50
180.00 63.04
63.04
180.00
910.73 899.08
910.73 849.08
175.00 200.00
101.10 90. 7«
THIRD
YEAR
12.200.00
10.265.00
1.915.00
397.38
397.38
900.00
784.87
115.13
200.00
130.21
PAGE 1
FOURTH FIFTH
VfSR — VETER
2.300.0O 2,400.00
2,300.00 2,400.00
500.00 356.19
500.00 356.19
200.00 200.00
UNENCUMBERED
73.90
109.22
69.72
200.00
200.00
-------
SOIL
HATER CONSERVATION
ACCCUNT
NO.
100-106
100-107
100-108
ro
0
o
1 100-109
DATE 10/17/75
TITLE
TRAVEL
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
PUBLICATION COSTS
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
OTHER - GOV. UNITS
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
SAVINGS ACCOUNT
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
DISTRICT TOTALS
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
PROJECT OVERVIEW
FIRST SECOND
YEAR YEAR
410.00 545.00
410.00 539.32
5.68
197.08 877.92
197. OB 838.26
39.66
500.0O
500.00
4,022.81 10,997.54
2,135.41 8,655.48
1,887.40 2,342.06
PAGE 2
THIRD FOURTH FIFTH ' • •_
YEAR YEAR YEAR
; -.-. •".; ..;. =•' - -Y:
800.00 100.00
770.32
29.68 10O.OO • , •»"
~*S'
50.00 50.00 100.00
15.96 /r;
34.04 50.00 100.00 , "h*
1,000.00 900.00 1,000.00
185.8Z
814.18 900.00* 1,000.00
•'."'-
15,547.38 4,050.00 4,056.19
12,569.63
2,977.75 4,050.00 4,056.19
-------
SOIL
MATER CONSERVATION
DATE 10/17/75
ACCOUNT TITLE
*** PURDUE »**
2OO-201 SALARIES
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
PROJECT OVERVIE
FIRST SECOND
YEAR YEAR
4,485.81 91,926.21
4,485.81 91,926.21
THIRD
YEAR
~
114,466.98
94,217.25 ; -
20,249.73
PAGE
FOURTH
YEAR
"
87,145.00
87,145.00
3
FIFTH
YEAR
--' "•- "9
87,177.00
87,177.00 JT'f
200-202 FRINGE BENEFITS
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
200-203 EQUIPMENT
APPROPRIATED
' PAYMENTS
0 COMMITMENTS
— • UNENCUMBERED
1
2UO-2O4 SUPPLIES AND EXPENSES
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
462.39 3,661.57
462.39 3,661.57
24,548.62
24,548.62
•.•••• '.'..'. "'••,' . ' •••-.-.
1 ' ' ". • -
128.43 23,256.52
128.43 21,882.37
1*374.15
3,292.04
3,037.58
254.46
14,876.38
8,977.99
5,898.39
23,685.05
19.064.45
4,620.40
2,132.00
2,132.00
4,000.00
4,000.00"
15,500.00
15,500.00
1 "3"
2,725.00 *" <
2,725.00
4,000.00
4,000.00 -
10,700.00
„* * » .-
« Vs*".:.
10,700.00 \ :
200-205 TRAVEL AND PER DIEM
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
7,000.00 19,700.00
1,400.36 16,394.23
5,599.64 3,305.77
14,700.00
13,755.92
364.00
580.08
15,000.00
15,000.00
12,100.00
12,100.00
-------
SOIL
HATER CONSERVATION
DATE 10/17/75
ACCOUNT TITLE
NO.
200-2O6 CONSTRUCTION
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED.
200-208 OTHER RESEARCH EXPENSES
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
: . COMMITMENTS '
UNENCUMBERED
P R O J E C
. FIRST
YEAR
1,275.00
1,275.00
T 0 V E R V I
SECOND
YEAR
19,904.54
19,904.54
3,850.00
1,222.70
2,627.30
I U PAGE 4
THIRD FOURTH FIFTH
YEAR YEAR YEAR
• ' '•"''.''•'
10,295.46
10,293.30
2-1*
7,500.00 7,500.00 8,000.00
2,743.78
4,756.22 7,500.00 8.000.00
200-2O9 INDIRECT COST
ro
0
1
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS '
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
PURDUE TOTALS- '" •' '"TK
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
2,884.38
2,884.38
16,236.01
9,361.37
6,874.64
55,888.21
55,888.21
242,735.67
235,428.45
7.307.22
68,658.41 52,354.00 52,145.00
60.584.85
8,073.56 52,354.00. 52,145.00
257,474.32 183,631.00 176,847.00 .
212,675.32
364.OO
44,435.00 183,631.00 176,847.00
-------
SOIL
HATER CONSERVATION
DATE 10/17/75 T7 "
ACCOUNT TITLE ^
NO.
. . **» SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
.*
300-301 PROFESSIONAL SALARY 6 8ENIFITS
APPROPRIATED
'-. , PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
PROJECT OVERVIEW
FIRST SECOND THIRD
YEAR YEAR YEAR
'•' ' •*. " "/''.. 'v
21,514.02 40,760.98 36,650.00
21,514.02t ... 36,034.17 18,863.11
4,726.81 17,786.89
PAGE 5
FOURTH FIFTH
YEAR YEAR
: ' , ' .''--••;' :,'•=•?
16,500.00 13,025.00
. ' . . ,
16,500.00 13,025.00 -
300-302 SUB-PROFESSIONAL SALARY £ BEN
, APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
- UNENCUMBERED
300-305 CARTOGRAPHIC COST •' '• .
fjj — APPROPRIATED
O - "-•>' PAYMENTS
W --" ' COMMITMENTS
1 . , UNENCUMBERED
300-306 SOIL MECHANICS TESTING COST
- APPROPRIATED
. . . .- . . - • • PAYMENTS
- ! -•- ..-. / . COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED
5,852.45 22,183.55 18,641.00
5,852.45 21,863.56 7,748.48
319.99 10,892.52
""
1,500.00
914.53
585.47
2,300.00
1,761.75
538.25
18,437.00 : ,
18i437.00 x
o
•;•':"': '• ' •- • • . ;" .•-/:; \
'• • • • •• . • : • '-vV:'.<:
'-"•..'."'•--"• • . '•: ":'- • ''.:" -:.•". .•••-.-. . ' • '
300-307 OTHERS - .
APPROPRIATED
PAYMENTS
COMMITMENTS
: • - * ' • ": . . ...''"'
UNENCUMBERED
-------
SOIL i WATER CONSERVATION
DATE 10/17/75 PROJECT OVERVIEW PAGE 6
ACCOUNT TITLE FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH
"""NO." YEAR YEAR YEAR ~~ YEARYEAR
SOIL CONSERVATION SRVC TOTALS
APPROPRIATED 28,866.47 65,244.53 55,291.00 34,937.00 13,025.00
PAYMENTS ~2T.261.dO~ "~ 59,659.45 ^6,611,59 "
COMMITMENTS
UNENCUMBERED 585.47 5,565.05 28,679.41 34,937.00 13,025.00
I
ro
o
-------
UATE 10/17/75 OUTSTANDING
' 200-205
400-401
400-402
ro
o
en
i
400—403
400-404
P.O KEY NO ARTICLES OR SERVICES
200 2060000286 PURDUE RESEARCH FOUNDATION
IUIAL KA1U
TOTAL COMMITTED
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
CONSERVATION CROPPING SYSTEM
000 2700160012 LAVERN STEURY
UUU 2fUUlfcUU12 LAVtHN SlbUKT
000 2700160010 PERRY E POISEL
000 2700160014 EMANUEL BRANOENBERCER
000 2700220006 KENNETH JAMES
000 2700200008 BEN EICHER
000 2700330024 NOAH LENGACHER
1 UI AL PAiU
TOTAL COMMITTED
ToTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
CONTOUR FARMING
OOO 2700200008 BEN EICHER
UUU /,'OUiUUUUS BtN bJCHfcK
000 2100060007 VIRGIL HIRSCH
000 2100060007 VIRGIL HIRSCH
UUO 2/UU1VUUU1 JALUB J GKAUtK
TOTAL PAID
IUIAL IUMM1 1 ILL)
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
LHII11AL AKbA PLANT INb
000 2100080005 HERBERT WOE8BEK1NC
000 HI JOSEPH R GRABER
000 2fUUlbUUU9 V1LIUK bCHHUCRtK
000 2100050007 HELEN WEIKER
000 2100050006 KENNETH HIRSCH
000 210UUbU016 MAX WUbBBbKINU
TOTAL PAID
IUIAL UUHHIIItU
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
CROP RESIDUE MANAGEMENT
000 2100080003 CHRIS ROEMKE
000 2100080003 CHRIS ROEMKE
000 2100080005 HERBERT WUtBBtKlNG
OOO 2100080005 HERBERT NOEBBEKIN6
001 2200020014 JUANITA E LAKE
OOZ ZZOUUZOO14 JUANITA E LAKE
003 2200020014 JUANITA E LAKE
OO1 2700160019 DENNIS A BENNETT
C 0 M M I T T
P.O. DATE
01/07/75
06/03/75
06/03/ /S
07/14/75
07/14/75
UB/<£C>/ f*t
08/26/75
09/10/74
Ov/25/ 74
11/26/74
09/10/74
09/10/74
10/02/73
10/02/73
1U/10/ I*
01/02/74
06/28/74
u// 14/75
08/15/75
09/O3/74
ID/01/ f4
01/02/74
01/02/74
01/02/74
01/02/74
01/02/74
Ul/OZ/ f4
01/02/74
01/02/74
MENTS LISTING
1ST YEAR 2ND YEAR 3RD YEAR
364.00
364.00
5,599.64* 3, 305,. 77* 580.08*
85.00 2,928.55 2,570.75
7.^0
124.80
9fl«40
104.40
<:,4?03.£u l,o^/.20
334.80
85.00* 725.35* 608.75*
266.50 354.90
16.00
16.00
* 266.50* 322.90*
i,uvu.uu <:, !<::>. UB i,3o^.vi
640.00
26O.OO
260.00
260.00
520.00
320.00
1,090.00 1,225.08
900.00 1,360.00
* * 24.92*
498*75 2 f 096 . 75
14.70
9.45
PAGE 1
4TH YEAR 5TH YEAR
15,000.00* 12,100.00*
1,148.25 500.00
15.60
13.6V
21.00 >
15.60 ,
46.80
114.60
1,033.65* 500.00*
278.30 100.00
24.00
• 16.00
241.50* 84.00*
* *
4,132.90 3,3f9«Oa
27.30
27.30
4U.45
31.50
3U*^5
45.15
-------
WATER CONSERVATION
DATE IC/
P.3
001
002
OOO
OOO
000
ooo
000
000
000
ooo
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
rv> ooo
o ooo
1 ooo
ooo
000
000
000
ooo
ooo
000
oco
000
000
000
000
000
000
ooo
000
000
000
000
ooo
ooo
000
17/75
KEY NO
2700160019
2700160019
2700290013
27OO290013
2700350005
2700350005
2700350005
2700210001
2700210001
2700260012
2700280010
2700330019
2700330019
2200010006
2700210003
2700260005
2200020003
2200020003
2200020005
2200020015
2200020015
2200020015
2200020018
2200020018
0221001T17
0221001117
2700280008
27O028OOO8
2200010018
2200010018
2200010018
2700320001
2700320001
2700270002
21000600D3
2100060003
2100060005
2100060005
2700290009
2700290009
2700350004
2700350004
2200010003
2200010003
2200010005
2200010005
2100050007
2100050007
3UTSTANDI
ARTICLES OR SERVICES
DENNIS A BENNETT
DENNIS A BENNETT
FOGLE BROTHERS
FOGLE BROTHERS
MARVIN STIEGLITZ
MARVIN STIEGLITZ
MARVIN STIEGLITZ
VICTOR SCHMUCKER
VICTOR SCHMUCKER
ALFRED KUfcHKb
ALFRED ROEMKE
ALVIN LENGACHER
ALVIN LkNGACHER
VIVIAN LOUDEN
VIVIAN LOUDEN
KtNNblH 5CHLATTEK
KENNETH SCHLATTER
DON A WOLF
RALPH THIMLAR
MARGUERITA YODER
nAKbUtKHA YUUbK
MARGUERITA YODER
DELBERT DELAGRANGE
bbLBbRl DbLAGRANGE
FRANKLYN WADE
FRANKLYN WADE
FRANKLYN HADE
HARRIETT DANIELS
HARRIETT DANIELS
GENE FUELLING
JOHN LENGACHER
"JOHN" LENGACHER
RAY GERIG
RAY GERIG
RAY GERIG
KENNETH AMSTUTZ
KENNETH AMSTUTZ
ROGER EHLE
RICHARD YERKS
RICHARD YERKS
BRUCE YERKS
BRUCE YERKS
MENNO LENGACHER
MENNO LENGACHER
OLIVER STIEGLITZ
OLIVER STIEGLITZ
J GLADMYN KLOPFENSTElN
J GLADWYN KLOPFENSTElN
HERBERT GERIG
HERBERT GERI6
HELEN WEIKER
HELEN WEIKER
NG COMMITTMENTS LIST
P.O. DATE 1ST YEAR 2ND YEAR
01/02/74
01/02/7*
01/03/7*
01/03/7*
01/0*/7*
01 /O*/ 7*
01/04/74
01/14/75
01/14/75
01/Z4/75
01/24/75
02/03/75
02/03/75
02/27/75
02/27/75
O3/05/ f4
03/05/74
04/01/75
04/20/75
05/07/74
05/07/74
05/07/74
Ob/07/7*
05/07/7*
05/07/74
05/07/74
05/07/74
05/07/74
05/08/7*
05/08/74
05/28/74
05/28/74
06/03/7*
06/03/74
06/03/7*
06/03/7*
06/03/7*
06/6*/7*
06/14/74
06/14/7*
06/14/74
06/14/74
06/17/74
06/17/7*
06/18/7*
06/18/7*
07/29/7*
07/29/7*
07/29/7*
07/2977*
08/15/75
08/15/75
ING
3RD YEAR 4TH YEAR
149.10
191.10
191.10
336.00
9T77D
328.00
75.60
21TCUD
384.00
12.00
56.70
56-.7TT
31.50
4.20
* 4.20
30.45
115.50 "
38.85
35.70
35.70
26.25
29.40
127.05
24.15
74.55
39.90
29.40 '
42.00
51.60
PAGE 2
5TH YEAR
4.20
1*9.10
191.10
152.00
91.20
JB4.0U
75.60
210.00
3U4.UO
56.70
31 *5u
4.20
30. *5
115.50
31. bO
26.25
127.05
24.15
74.55
39.90
29.40
42.00
51.60
-------
DATE 1O/17/75
1
ro
0
i
P.O
000
000
000
ooo
000
ooo
000
ooo
000
000
000
000
000
000
000
ooo
000
000
000
000
000
000
TOTAL
TOTAL
TOTAL
KEY'NO
2200010004
2200010004
2200010004
270022000*
220001001*
220001001*
2200010014
2100050006
2100050006
2700340011
2700340011
2700330009
2700340008
2700340008
2700350008
2700350004
2200020019
2200020019
2200110001
2200110001
2200120006
2200120006
PAID
SOIL £ WATER CONSERVATION
OUTSTANDING COMMITTMENTS LISTING
ARTICLES OR SERVICES
MAX ARCH! BOLD
MAX ARCHIBOLD
MAX ARCHIBOLD
KENNETH JAMES .. '
PAUL KOR7E . *J5
PAUL KORTE •
PAUL KORTE
KENNETH HIRSCH
KENNETH HIRSCH
CUV BEEReOHER
GUY BEERBOWER = ~ ?
ALFRED E APPLE6ATE " "**
WILLIAM YERKS
WILLIAM YERKS
LOIS DEAN
LOIS DEAN
PAUL AMSTUTZ
PAUL AMSTUT2 i
WAYNE GERIS
WAYNE GERIG
DALE GERIG
DALE GEftTC
P.O. DATE
08/26/7*
08/26/7*
08/26/7*
08/26/75
08/27/7*
08/27/74
08/27/74
09/03/74
09/03/74
09/03/7*
09/03/7* •
09/25/7*
10/24/7*
10/24/74
10/24/74
10/24/7*
10/31/7*
10/31/7*
11/04/7*
11/04/74
11/04/74
11/04/7*
COMMITTED
UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
400-405 DIVERSIONS
002 2700260005
001 2700260005
000
001
002
004
O03
000
TOTAL
TOTAL
2700210002
2700300001
2700300001
2700300001
2700300001
2700200008
PAID
COMMITTED
RALPH THIMLAR
RALPH THIMLAR
AMOS LENGACHER
DAVID LENGACHER
DAVID LENGACHER
DAVID LENGACHER
DAVID LENGACHER
BEN EICHER
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
: : ' •" . • '."••/...
400-406 FARMSTEADS FEEDLOT WINDBREAKS
000
TOTAL
TOTAL
TOTAL
400-407 FIELD
002
001
000
000
001
2100050010
PAID
ELMER C BOHR EN
04/20/75
04/20/75
07/14/75
08/18/75
08/18/75
08/18/75
08/18/75
11/22/7*
12/10/7*
COMMITTED
UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
BORDER
2700280010
2700280010
2700210015
2700330019
22O00100O6
ALVIN LENGACHER
ALVIN LENGACHER
FERHAN GRABES
VIVIAN LOUDEN
KENNETH SCHLATTER
02/03/75
02/03/75
02/05/75
02/27/75
03/05/7*
1ST YEAR 2ND YEAR 3RD YEAR
115
-' 21
.50
.00
PAGE 3
4TH YEAR 5TH YEAR
6.
46.
115.
54.
312.
60.
69.
30
6.30
6.30
80 . .. .*£
50 ' •• . "J:
115.50
60
54.60
90 ' •::-"-j5
312.90 , a
•:M
90
60.90
30
69. 3D ""
52.50 S
52.50 «
36.75
36.75
106.05
309.75 1,118
189.00 666
* * 312
1,845.00 2*250.00 4,387
.00
.75
.00*
.50
3,663.
4,69.
4,257.
45.
135.
106. OS
55 3,475.70
35* 99.30*
so , .-.=-;
00 • t
00 -'i
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
90. OO
207.36
45.00
63
67
483
1,031.25 191.06
956
813.75* 2,058.94* 3,430
1,092.00 1,456
32
169
32
* 1,092.00* 1,254
• 00
.50
.9*
.80
.70*
.00
.00
.79
• OO
.21*
24,415.72 17,558.83
II
1,327
3,927.00
• IU
.20
180.
4,O77.
1,352.
1,352.
,4
00
5Q* » 1
00
oo* '•»..;
11,247.85
640.50
126.00
-------
DATE 10/17/75
ro
O
00
1
400-408
400-409
P.O
002
000
000
ooo
ooo
ooo
ooc
000
ooc
ooo
000
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ooo
ooo
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000
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ooo
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TOTAL
TCTAL
TOTAL
GRADE
OOO
000
000
004
003
000
001
002
000
001
002
003
002
KEY NO
2200010006
2700280035
2700280008
2700280008
2700280008
2700350007
2700270002
2700290009
2200010012
270O270015
2100080003
2700160008
2700160008
2700160014
2100050007
270O3OOOO1
2700220006
2700350001
2700200008
270C330009
Z1OO06OOO7
27001900O1
2200110001
2700330024
2700330024
21C0050010
PAID
COMMITTED
SOIL & HATER C
OUTSTANDING CONMITT
ARTICLES OR SERVICES
KENNETH SCHLATTER
DON HERTIG
JCHN LENGACHER
JOHN LENGACHER
JGHN LENGACHER
JAMES C KEES
ROGER EHLE
MENNO LENGACHER
GILFORD DOENGES
EFFIE MCMAKEN
CHRIS ROEMKE
DAVID ZEHR
DAVID ZEHR
EMANUEL BRANDENBERGER
HELEN WEIKER
DAVID LENGACHER
KENNETH JAMES
JOHN FISHER
KbNNETH HIRSCH
BEN EICHER
ALFRED E APPLEGATE
VIRGIL HIRSCH
JACOB J GRABER
WAYNE GER1G
NOAH LENGACHER
NOAH LENGACHER
ELMER C BOHREN
UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
WINDBREAK
2700320081
2700150007
ORVAL THOMAS
VINCE GEISTHHITE
P.O. DATE
03/05/74
05/27/75
05/28/74
05/28/74
05/28/74
05/31/74
06/04/74
06/17/74
07/02/75
07/07/75
07/14/75
07/14/75
07/14/75
07/14/75
08/15/75
O8/18/75
08/26/75
08/28/75
O9/O3/74
09/10/74
09/25/74
10/02/73
10/16/74
11/04/7*
11/26/74
11/26/74
12/10/74
05/28/74
07/12/73
PAID
COMMITTED
UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
STABILIZATION STRUCTURES
2700280010 ALVIN LENGACHER
2700210015
270C260005
2700280008
2700280008
2700350007
2200010012
2200010012
2700280037
2700220006
2700220006
2700220006
270O3500D1
FERMAN GRABER
RALPH THIMLAR
JOHN LENGACHER
JOHN LENGACHER
JAMES C KEES
GILFORD DOENGES
GILFORD DOENGES
KENNETH JAMES
KENNETH JAMES
KENNETH JAMES
KENNETH JANES
JOHN FISHER
02/03/75
02/05/75
04/20/75
05/28/74
05/28/7*
05/31/7*
07/02/75
07/02/75
07/14/75
08/26/75
08/26/75
08/26/75
08/28/75
ONSERVATION
MENTS LISTING
1ST YEAR 2ND YEAR 3RD YEAR
945.00
441.00
294.00
252. OO
441.00
210.00
105.00
252.00
336.00
288.96
147. OO
241.50
945.00
l.ObO.OO
451.50
567.00
441. OO
231. OO
210.00
210.00
210.00
14,200.62 7,425.39
3,1*2.02 9,379.86
* 7,073.06* /53.5S*
1O4.00 138.45
56.00
80. OO
80.00 So.OO
* 24.00* 82.45*
10,850.00 48,600.00 17,627.62
480.00
607.50
300.00
255.00
157.50
576.00
300.00
75.00
309.90
900.00
82.50
v 2*«3*
4TH YEAR
231.00
241.00
234.00
378.00
576. OO
357.00
•
2,783.50
8,464.35*
147.55
147.55*
12,125.00
112.50 ""
PAGE 4
5TH YEAR
£
V*
_,
~?%
•p
• '»,»•!
*%&^
* **
" '" **£*
•t*
',,,i
*
-------
WATER CONSERVATION
UATE 10/17/75 OUTSTANDING
P.C. KEY NO ARTICLES OR SERVICES
001 ^700350001 JOHN FISHER
000 ^700280089 PAUL E KOBLE
001 2100060007 VIRGIL HIRSCH
TOTA1L PAID
TOTM. COMMITTED
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
001 2700290009 MENNO LENGACHER
S 002 2700160008 DAV10 ZEHR
1 001 2700160008 DAVID ZEHR
001 2700160009 VICTOR SCHMUCKER
002 2700160009 VICTOR SCHMUCKER
COC 2700160010 PERRY E POISEL
001 2700160014 EMANUEL 8RANDENBERGER
OOZ 2700160014 EMANUEL BftANDENBERGEft
001 2700300001 DAVID LENGACHER
002 2700300001 OAVIO LENGACHER
003 2700360001 DAVID LENGACHER
30i 2700350001 JOHN FISHER
001 2700350001 JOHN FISHER
OO1 2700290013 FOGLE BROTHERS
002 2700290013 FOGLE BROTHERS
000 2100050006 KENNETH HIRSCH
001 2700280089 PAUL E KOBLE
002 2700280089 PAUL E KOBLE
OOO 2100060007 VIRGIL HIRSCH
001 2700190001 JACOB J GRABER
002 2700190001 JACOB J GRABER
TOTU. PAID
TOTAL COMMITTED
TOTM. UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
400-411 HOLDING PONDS C TANKS
000 2200020014 JUANITA E LAKE
COMMITTMENTS
P.O. DATE 1ST YEAR
08/28/75
09/15/75
10/02/73
10,411.95
438.05*
5,512.44
62/03/75
02/03/75
02/03/75
62/63/75
62/03/75
62/05/75
02/05/75
04/01/75
04/01/75
04/01/75
05/28/74
05/28/74
06/03/75
06/03/75
06/04/74
06/04/74
06/17/74
06/17/74
07/14/75
07/14/75
07/14/75
07/14/75
07/14/75
07/14/75
07/14/75
08/18/75
08/18/75
66/18/75
08/28/75
08/28/75
09/02/75
09/02/75
09/03/74
09/15/75
09/15/75
10/02/73
10/16/74 "••
10/16/74
5.512.44
*
01/02/74
LISTING
2ND YEAR 3RD YEAR
60.00
42.097.96 5,055.61
988.50 3, 139.27
5,513.54* 9,432.74*
6,265.00 19,340.06
417.12
160.00
36.00
371.04
60.00
240.00
568.52
160.00
72.00
126.16
96.00
12.00
60.00
96.00
18.00
288.00
60.00
792.72
: 135.00
160.00
336.00
60. OO
1.440.OO
94.50
13.50
960.00
180.00
5,454.06 10,444.25
7,034.56
810.92* 1,861.25*
19. 020.0O 12,460.00
4TH YEAR
1,875.00
256.00
2,243.50
9,881.50*
8,772.50
36.00
384.00
1,248.00
300.00
•
60.00
192.00
1.OO8.OO
72.00
120.00
384.00
108. OO
3,912.00
4,860.50*
8.560.OO
2,800.00
PAGE 5
5TH YEAR
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-------
DATE 10/17/75
P.O
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2200010006
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2700210003
2700210003
2200020003
2200020003
.2200020005
2200020005
2200020015
22O002001S
2200020015
2200020018
2200020018
0221001117
0221001117
2200010018
2200010018
2700320001
2700320001
27OO3200O1
2200010005
2200010005
2100050007
2200010014
2200010014
2200010014
2100060003
2100060003
2100060014
2100060014
2100060014
2700350008
2700350008
2700350008
2200020019
22OO020019
2200020019
2200110001
22OO1 10001
2200110001
2200120006
220012000*
1
SOIL &
OUTSTANDING
ARTICLES OR SERVICES
JUANITA E LAKE
ALFRED ROEMKE
ALFRED ROEMKE
VIVIAN LOUDEN
VIVIAN LOUDEN
KENNETH SCHLATTER
KENNETH SCHLATTER
DON A WOLF
DON A WOLF
MARGUERITA YOOER "-,„••
MARGUERITA VODER , >*•
MARGUERITA YODEK - > ,
DELBERt DELAGRANGE
OEL8ERT DELAGRANGE
FRANKLYN HADE
FRANKLYN MADE - ,
FRANKLYN WADE **
HARRIETT DANIEL!*, "
HARRIETT DANIELS
HARRIETT DANIELS
GENE FUELLING
~5El«E FUELLING
RAY GERI6
RAY GERIG
RAY GERlG
KENNETH AMSTUTZ
KENNETH AMSTUTZ
KENNETH AMSTUTZ
HERBERT GERIG
HERBERT GERIG
HELEN HEIKER
HELEN WEIKER
PAUL KORTE
n>SUL KORTE
PAW. KORTf
RICHARD YERKS
RICHARD YERKS
RICHARD YERKS
BRUCE YERKS
BRUCE YERKS
BRUCE YERKS
LOIS DEAN
LCIS DEAN
LOIS DEAN
PAUL AMSTUTZ
PAUL ANSTUTZ
PAUL AMSTUTZ
WAYNE GERI6
WAYNE GERIG
WAYNE GERI6
DALE GERIG
DALE CEKIK
DALE GERIG
WATER CONSERVATION
COMMITTMENTS LIST
P.O. DATE 1ST YEAR 2ND YEAR
01/02/74
01/24/75
01/24/75
02/27/75
02/27/73
03/05/74
03/05/74
04/01/75
04/01/75
OS/O7/74,
05/07/7*
05/07/74
05/67/74
05/07/74
05/07/74
05/07/74
05/07/74 ;
05/07/74
05/07/74
05/07/74
05/08/74
05/08/74
06/03/74
06/03/74
06/O3774
06/03/74
06/03/74
06/03/74
07/29/74
07/29/74
08/15/75
08/15/75
08/27/74
06/87/74 -
08/27/74
08/31/73
08/31/73
08/31/73
08/31/73
08/31/73
08/31/73
10/24/74
10/24/74
10/24/74
10/31/74
10/31/74
10/31/74
11/04/74
11/04/74
11/04/74
11/04/74
11/04//4
11/04/74
46.80
I N G
3RD YEAR
280
.80
20.80
150
.80
176.80
130.00
572.
629.
119.
104.
260.
182.
525.
5777
00
20
60
00
00
00
20
20
4TH YEAR
159.60
132.36
It 040. 00
268.80
280.80
156.00
ZOTSO —
150.80 —
260.00
176.80
130.00
208. OO
90.30
572.00
629.20 —
119.60
104.00
Z50YTJ0
IttTja
525.2U
PAGE 7
5TH YEAR
223.60
159.60
• y
132.30 -'<
1.040.00
268.80
280.80 -: ~-'l.f%
156.00
20.80 ?
150.80
260.00
176.80
130.00 ...A -
208.00
90.30
572.00 ^:f
629.20
119.60
104.00
260.00
182.00
525.20
-------
DAT
400-416
1
ro
r\i
i
400-417
E 10/17/75
P.O KEY NO
TOTAL COMMITTED
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED
PASTURE & HAYLAND
000 2100080003
OOO 2100080005
000 2200020014
001 2700160019
002 2700160019
000 2700230005
000 2700350005
000 2700210001
OOo 2700210001
000 2700280010
000 2700280010
000 2700300002
000 2700300002
000 16
OOC 2700280008
000 2700280008
000 2700290009
OOO ZZOOOZOOO9
000 2200020009
000 2200020009
000 HI
001 270029000*
000 220001000*
ooo 220001000*
OOO 220001001*
001 2100050006
001 2100050006
002 2100050006
000 2700290032
000 2100050009
000 2700190001
000 2700190001
000 2700290046
000 2100050010
000 2100050010
TOTAL PAID
TOTAL COMMITTED
SOIL
OUTSTANDI
ARTICLES OR SERVICES
BALANCE
MANAGEMENT
CHRIS ROEMK6
HERBERT HOEBBEK1NG
JUANlTA £ LAKE
DENNIS A BENNETT
DENNIS A BENNETT
BILL SMITH
MARVIN STIEGLITZ
VICTOR SCHMUCKER
VICTOR SCHMUCKER
ALVIN LENGACHER
ALVIN LENGACHER
CHRISTIAN GKABER '
CHRISTIAN GRABER
EZRA LENGACHER
JOHN LENGACHER
JOHN LENGACHER
MENNO LENGACHER
JESSE GRABfcR
JESSE GRABER
JESSE GRABER
JOSEPH R GRABER
JOSEPH R GRABER
MAX ARCHIBOLO
MAX ARCHtBOLO
PAUL KORTE
KENNETH HIRSCH
KENNETH HIRSCH
KENNETH HIRSCH
MENNO GRABER
HERMAN 1 WOEBBEKlNG
JACOB J GRABER
JACOB J GRABER
MR & MRS GAY MARTIN
ELMER C BOHREN
ELMER C BOHREN
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
PASTURE £ HAYLAND PLANTING
000 2100080003
001 2700160019
002 2700160019
000 2700210001
000 2700280010
000 2700280010
000 2700300002
000 2700300002
000 2700300002
CHRIS ROEMKE
DENNIS A BENNETT
DENNIS A BENNETT
VICTOR SCHMUCKER
ALVIN LENGACHER
ALVIN LENGACHER
CHRISTIAN GRABER
CHRISTIAN GRABER
CHRISTIAN GRABER
£ WATER CONSERVATION
NG COMMITTMENTS LISTING
P.O. DATE
01/02/74
01/02/74
01/02/74
01/02/74
01/02/74
01/02/75
01/04/74
01/14/75
01/14/75
02/03/75
02/03/75
03/04/74
03/04/74
04/17/74
O5/Z8/74
05/28/74
06/17/74
06/24/74
06/24/74
06/24/74
06/28/74
08/03/73
08/26/74
08/26/74
08/27/74
09/03/74
09/03/74
09/03/74
09/10/74
10/01/74
10/16/74
10/16/74
11/06/73
12/10/74
12/10/74
01/02/74
01/02/74
01/02/74
01/14/75
02/03/75
02/03/75
03/04/74
03/04/74
03/04/74
1ST YEAR 2ND YEAR 3RD YEAR
3,250.00
67.50* 5,076.10* 5,673.90*
620.10 1,573.10
23.40
23. 4O
117.00
105.30
140.40
14U.4U
Z9z.:>o
175.50
81.90
23.40
117.00
280. 8O
71.40
9O.OO
47.60
362.70
257.40 1,472.60
* * 100.50*
2,548.00 9,101.50
147.00
147.00
735.06
539.00
4TH YEAR
5,643.00
2,337.10*
1.378.4O
15.10
58.50
35.10
17&.5O
11.70
128.70
140.40
362. IO
927.70
450.70*
8,871.00
245.00
1,470.00
490.00
490.00
PAGE 8
5TH YEAR
5,799.00
901.00*
1,131.80 '
58.50
" k
105.30
140.40
128.70
128.70
105.30
23.40
Z3.4O
23.40 "~ "
51.90
178.50
47.60
1,015.10
1T6.7O*
2,275.00
490.00
-------
OAT E 10/17/75
"•• " "" ""J U UTSTANDING COMMITTMENTS 1 I <; T T M e r..,.,-
P.O KEY NO ARTICLES OR SERVICES
000 i70Q280008 JOHN LENGACHER
1)01 2700160012 LAVERN STEURY
002 2fO0160012 LAVERN STEURY
001 2700160012 LAVERN STEURY
000 2200020009 JESSE GRABER
OOO ^200020009 JESSE GRABER
000 2700290004 JOSEPH R GRABER
000 2700200008 BEN EICHER
000 2700160010 PERRY E POISEL
000 2700160012 LA VERN STEURY
000 2700160014 EMANUEL BRANDENBERGER
000 2100050009 HERMAN L WOEBBEKING
TOTAL PAID
TOTAL COMMITTED ~
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
000 2700160019 DENNIS A BENNETT
OOO 2700300002 CHRISTIAN GRABER
INS 002 2700190001 JACOB J GRABER
(jj 001 2700190001 JACOB J GRABER
TOTAL PAID
TOTAL COMMITTED
400-420 RECREATION AREA IMPROVEMENT
000 2100080003 CHRIS ROEMKE
OOO 2700280035 DON HERTI6
OOO 2100060003 RICHARD YERKS
000 2700190001 JACOB J GRABER
TOTAL PAID
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
OOO 2100080003 CHRIS ROEHKE
TCTAL COMMITTED
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
400-422 CONSERVATION FIELD TRIALS • ' .
000 2700270002 ROGER EHLE
P.O. DATE
03/04/74
05/28/74
06/03/75
06/03/75
06/03/75
06/24/7*
O6/24/74
08/03/73
09/10/74
09/10/7*
09/15/75
09/15/75
09/15/75
10/01/74
10/16/7*
01/02/7*
03/04/7*
06/24/74
10/16/74
10/16/74
02/01/7*
05/27/75
08/31/73
10/16/74
12/10/7*
05/06/75
06/04/74
1ST YEAR 2ND YEAR
147.00
735.00
637.00
1,911.00
* *
4,250.00 12,000.00
1,440.00
2,814.48 6,093.58
1,440.00
1,435.52* 4, 466.42*
374.29 1,015.71
200.00
500.00
374.29 75.00
800TOT —
* 140.71*
10, 317.03
1.101.03
9,216.00* *
74.50 725.00
3RD YEAR
420.00
441.00
245.00
49.00
3*3.00
343.00
2,037.00 —
6,721.50*
22,750.00
1,800.00
52.50
1, BOO. 00
1,919.60
3,652.50
I/, 177. 90*
100.00 —
50*00
150.00 —
675.00
145.00*
3.307.43
3,307.43
3.307.43
*
725.00
4TH YEAR 5TH YEAR
196.00
539.00
— 980.00 -."F
490.00 , .'"*
- *4i.oo — ! ':ys
1,225.00 ' " ; "" ,\
980.00 — **
910.00
, • —if
«, /bO.OO 686.00 ~
121.00* 1,589.00*
24,375.00 " — : T
1.800.00
t
1,800.00
1 Ti.
"\V
350.00* *
• '
725.00 725.50r
200.00
-------
SOIL S
DATE 10/17/75 OUTSTANDI NG
P.O KEY NO ARTICLES OR SERVICES
000 Ml JUANITA LAKE
000 Ml JUANITA LAKE
000 M2 RICHARD YERKS
OOO M2 RICHARD YERKS
OOO M2 RICHARD YERKS
001 2700200008 BEN EICHER
002 2700200008 BEN EICHER .
002 2700200008 BEN EIGHER..-
001 2700200008 BEN EICHER-
OBZ — 2700260006 BEN ElCHEft ~~
O01 2700200008 BEN EICHEK "' „ ; •• ,
000 2100060007 VIRGIL HIRSCH
060 2160060667 VlRGlL HIRSCH
TOTAL PAID
TOTAL COMMITTED
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE v -
400-423 STREAM CHANNEL SIABTLIZATION 2
000 2700350005 MARVIN STIEGLITZ
000 2700280008 JOHN LENGACHER
traO HZ TOSTEPH R GRABkK
000 2700210002 AMOS LENGACHER
^ TOTAL PAID
— • TOTAL COMMITTED
-P» TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
400-424 STREAMBANK PROTECTION ' r i- f
000 2700350005 MARVIN STIE6LITZ
000 — 2700286668 — JOHN LENGACHER
TOTAL PAID
TOTAL COMMITTED •.
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE- "-,.'">• ,
400-426 SURFACE DRAINS
000 2200020009 JESSE GRABER
000 2100050006 KENNETH HIRSCH
TOTAL PAID
TOTAL COMMITTED
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
40O-427 TERRACES, GRADIENT
000 2700280010 ALVIN LENGACHER
TOTAL PAID
TOTAL COMMITTED
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
400-428 TERRACES, PARALLEL - - ;A
000 270020000* BEN EICHER t- -
NATER CONSERVA
COMMITTMENTS
P.O. DATE 1ST YEAR
06/14/74
06/14/7*
08/08/74
08/08/74 • ;."••-
08/08/74 "
09/10/74
09/10/74
09/10/74
09/10/74
09/10/7*
09/10/7*
10/02/73
10/02/73
7*.50*
01/04/74
05/28/74
U6/ZB/T4
07/14/75
2,758.46
*
3,972.50
01/04/7*
05/28/74
3,972.50
•"';'"• *
780.00
06/24/74
09/03/74
780.00*
02/03/75
*
09/10/7* .
T I 0 N
LIST
2ND YEAR
:;'" -. ('•:
" V , .
625.00
100.00*
3,200.00
600.00
4,312.00
*
42,282.50
3.7W.7*
34,616.92
3,684.33*
6,273.15
350.00
105.00
350.00
5,818.15*
476.45
476.45*
1,43O.OO
I N G
3RD YEAR 4TH YEAR
150.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
75.00
100.00
100.00
350.00 100.00
10O.OO* 100.00*
998.40
998.40 •
5,790.37* *
15,374.50 11,943.00
1,590.71
13,783.79* 11,943.00*
875.00
12.60
875.00
7,476.60* 5,112.65*
635.70 675.35
635.70* 611.35*
5,757.00
PAGE 10
5TH YEAR
150.00
100.00 "\
100.00 ;»?
vi
.50* ,J
*
•fiS
' . * - -•-
.
*
.- .. : -.',.- .••;. ;.'~?
-------
DATE iq«ya7/75
P-0. KEY NO ARTICLES OR SERVICES
TQTAIi. UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
002 2700210001 VICTOR SCHMUCKER" --> --' '
OXBB Z700280010 ALVIN LENGACHER -
OOa 2700210003 DON A WOLF
OOIT- 2200020009 JESSE GRABER
-~,».~.- OOO! ,£700160014 EMANUEL BRANOENBERGCR •
" f a
-------
DATE 10/17/75 OUTSTANDING
P.O KEY NO ARTICLES OR SERVICES
TOTAL PAID
TOTAL COMMITTED
TOTM. UNENCUMBERED BALANCE ,.
400-433 WOOOLAMD IMPROVEMENT
000 270C290013 FOGLE BROTHERS
COO 2700210003 DON A WOLF
OOO 2100060003 RICHARD YERKS
OTKT 2700190001 JACOB J GRABtR «
OOO 270O190001 JACOB J GRABER : '-:••_
TOTAL PAID
TOTAL COMMITTED
TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
400-43+ UCOOLANO PRUNING . t
000 2100060003 RICHARD YERKS ;
OJHJ — 2100060014 BKUCE YERKS
TOTAL PAID
TOTAL COMMITTED •
> TOTAL UNENCUMBERED BALANCE
1
ro
COMMITTMENTS
P.O. DATE 1ST YEAR
, 195.00*
260.00
01/03/74
04/01/75
08/31/73
10/16/7*
10/16/74
260.00*
08/31/73
08/31/73
*
L I S T I
2ND YEAR
195.00
195.00*
1,859.00
320.00
320.00
1,539.00*
45.00
+5.00*
N G
3RD YEAR
390.00
331.50*
2,821.00 .
640.00
640.00
2,181.00*
598.50
480.00 -
46.50*
PAGE 12
4TH YEAR 5TH YEAR
146.25
_ ^7>25* [ ?
2,490.00 500.00
240.00
80. OO
80. OO
320.00 80.00
2,170.00* 420.00*
331.50
331. SO* \ *
V
•-'''•'*
.- to.
-i\
-"',
'."H
-------
SYNOPSIS OF THE RED CLAY PROJECT
Stephen C. Andrews*
ABSTPJLCT
n-im, plan ±B the final rePOI>* on the first or plan-
Si?? 5ha!\ a ^^ch and demonstration grant from the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (0005140-01}
S?e£ ?Cti0?/28 0V*li° Law 92-500 (19727Amendments to
the Water Pollution Control Act) to the Soil & Water Conser-
CO™??P?- ^r -Asnland' Bayfield, Douglas and Iron
Counties in Wisconsin and Carlton County in Minnesota. The
™* «I ° f . thlns P^6^ is to evaluate various structural and
non-structural methods and techniques of controlling erosion
and sedimentation, which will cause an improvement of water
quality in area streams and ultimately Lake Superior.
The work plan is the result of evaluations and surveys
a;7" apea °f Wisconsin and Minnesota^
r *f County' Minnesota and the Wisconsin
Counties of Bayfield, Douglas and Iron were performed under
JnS0??^* between the U.S.D.A., Soil Conservation Service
^ ^ sPonsors. The Lake Superior shoreline evaluations
were the result of a subcontract between Ashland County,
i^011?1^1^ Dl>- T^nCer Edil Of tne Civil Engineering Depart-
?e^>P nf%hninerSlt:7-^ Wisc°nsin, Madison. The Extension
Service of the University of Wisconsin and the University
of Minnesota were responsible for the formulation of the
Inventory and Evaluation program.
The grant proposal, as submitted to the U.S.E.P.A.,
outlined a planning phase which called for surveys and
evaluations by the Soil Conservation Service leading to the
S^ii6S J°n sPeci£ic sites within target watersheds that
would be appropriate for assessment of the various recom-
mended techniques. Concurrently, Dr. Edil was to identify
Euperior
. The proposal also called for the development of an
information and education program which would provide forums
aS,i°^mats ^or the dissemination and feedback of information,
attitudes and concepts concerning all phases of the project.
,-HO ^n.addition;', ^ne Proposal indicated a need for the
identification of institutional roles and responsibilities
Ton Western Lake Superior Basin Erosion and Sediment
Control Program, Superior, Wisconsin.
-217-
-------
necessary to conduct not only the implementation phase but
for work to be accomplished beyond the life of the project.
These work elements have been accomplished and are
discussed in further detail in the work plan.
It is felt that the project will generate useful infor-
mation and demonstrate viable techniques that will be appli-
cable to other areas regarding:
1. Cost-effective and environmentally compatible
methods of enhancing water quality through
erosion and sedimentation control.
2. Protection of our valuable water resources as
well as those of land.
3. Cooperative management techniques for planning
and implementation of similar projects.
SYNOPSIS OF THE RED CLAY PROJECT
The peculiar qualities of the red clay soils on the
South Shore of Lake Superior have puzzeled residents since
the first white settlers arrived. Road building was diffi-
cult and the harvest of forest products was costly. Those
who tilled the soil found the red clay to be surprisingly
productive but very difficult to manage. Railroad engineers
found long trestles and much piling needed to span the V
shaped valleys of the South Shore Streams.
But it was in the mid 1950's that the first systematic
research on land use problems of the red clay soils of North-
western Wisconsin was begun. Early efforts were aimed at
stabilizing streambanks, and reducing roadside erosion to
cut down on the sedimentation in lakes and streams. Tech-
niques such as mulching, vegetative covers, and erosion con-
trol structures were demonstrated.
State and Federal agencies with the help of local civic
groups and private industry teamed up to study the problem.
An Interagency Red Clay Committee consisting of the Soil
Conservation Service, the Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources, the University of Wisconsin College of Agricul-
ture, and the Wisconsin Department of Transportation was
organized to carry out the research.
While sedimentation of the streams and lakes has long
been of concern, it was not until about 1970 that the
suspended clay was considered a pollutant. The first Lake
Superior Water Quality Conference, called to focus on the
taconite tailings situation on the North Shore, was the_
occasion at which the public was made aware of the nutrients
entering the lake through erosion. When the finger was
pointed at the South Shore, Governor Lucey order the Red Clay
-218-
-------
RED CLAY PROJECT
Location Map
PINE
NEMADJI BASIN
1. Skunk Crk Basin
2. Balsam Crk Basin
H ' H
S 13
5 10
F.liloj
-Ashland
Shoreline
Fish Creek
Basin
DOUGLAS
BAYFIELD
"1
^T* !SQronto-Parker
ASHLAND
I
j IRON j
-------
Interagency Committee to study the situation. The committee
was charged with inventorying the extent of the sediment-
ation and outlining a plan of action to reduce this pollu-
tion.
At this same time the Soil and Water Conservation
Districts in Douglas County Wisconsin and Carlton County
Minnesota had begun to meet jointly to consider ways of
reducing sedimentation from the Nemadji watershed. The City
of Cloquet had secured S.P.A. funding for a waterline in
cooperation with the City of Superior. This $8.4- million
project which takes water from Lake Superior experienced a
water quality problem with high turbidity resulting_from re-
suspension of clay deposits by wave action. The Soil and
Water Conservation Districts with help from the Northwest
Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission developed proposals
for studying the problem.
Meanwhile the Soil and Water Conservation Districts
responded to the report of the Red Clay Interagency Committee
by accepting responsibility for developing a program to re-
duce red clay sedimentation. The Lake Superior Division of
the Pri-Ru-Ta Resource Conservation and Development Project
District agreed to team up with the Carlton County Soil and
Water Conservation District to develop project proposals.
During these planning efforts the Wisconsin State Board
of Soil and Water Conservation Districts had been assisting
the local districts. In June of 1973 the State Board was
instrumental in arranging a tour of the five counties by
representatives from the Chicago office of the United States
Environmental Protection Agency. Because this agency was
already involved with water quality problems at the Head of
the Lakes, they were very interested in the Red Clay project
proposals. It was with the continued encouragement of
U.S.E.P.A. officials that the subsequent proposals were
developed.
WORK PLAN
Skunk Creek Study Area
Skunk Creek, a Nemadji River tributary, is located in
the eastern portion of Carlton County Minnesota. It is
approximately 6900 acres of which 73% is forest land, 16%
cropland, 7% is pasture and the remaining is in miscellane-
ous use. The soils are; clay in the eastern downstream
portion, sands in the central portion and glacial tills with
some outwash plains in the western area.
The Skunk Creek Study Area was selected to demonstrate
sediment reduction and improved water quality through the
application of structural erosion control measures. This
will probably include flood retarding structures, grade
Stabilization structures, ripraping of channel banks, instal-
-220-
-------
lation of drains on slopes.
At the same time we will attempt to provide 100% upland
treatment within the Skunk Creek Basin.
At the present, the Onanegozie RC&D has a work plan for
the roadside erosion control work needed in the basin and
they will continue that program to completion independent of
the Red Clay Project.
In the Skunk Creek study area research is proposed
which will:
1. Identify the effects of erosion control measures
on aquatic life. This will be accomplished by
monitoring fish and aquatic insect population at
selected sites above and below areas slated for
bank stabilization.
2. Provide a picture of present and historical
vegetative cover patterns which, when related
to run-off data should identify the most effect-
ive vegetative cover for controlling erosion.
This will be accomplished by examination of
historical records, ground truthing of existing
aerial photographs, identification of vegeta-
tional composition of the study area.
3. Identify the role of plant roots in retarding or
acceleration of erosion. This will be accom-
plished by monitoring and evaluating erosion
areas and correlation of root distribution
patterns along established transects.
4. Provide evidence that ground water flow may be
causing or aggrevating soil instability. This
will be accomplished by the carrying out of
ground water studies by the United States
Geological Survey.
Water quality and sediment monitoring is planned at
three sites in the basin. Two class "A" stations and one
class "B" station are being installed by the U.S.G.S. at
locations which will effectively monitor our activities.
The study of soil carried by runoff water requires a
high density of precipitation measurements with useful
resolution of rate over the dynamic range to be encountered.
To overcome this problem, a low cost recording intensity of
rainfall gauge coupled with a digital memory system will be
installed on a one per square mile basis (15)- In addition
three wedge-type, total rainfall gauges will be placed in the
basin for a comparison with measurement made with other
gauges.
-221-
-------
The temperature of the soil at several depths and air
temperatures will "be measured with silicon type sensors.
Three temperature recorders will be placed in the study area.
Carlton County has a long history of cooperation with
the RC&D and A.S.C.S. cost-sharing programs and they have
given us support at every point where necessary. The Soil
& Water Conservation District requested and received from
the County a committment of $4-5,000 and six man years. The
County is also seeking $120,000 from the State of Minnesota
Natural Resources Commission. The receipt of these funds is
somewhat tentative at this time although the County has
received a favorable response on its application.
Little Balsam Creek Study Area
Little Balsam Creek, another Nemadji River tributary
is located in west-central Douglas County Wisconsin. It is
approximately 3,500 acres of which 88% is woodland, 5% crop-
land, 5% open idle land and 2% pastured woodland. The soils
are represented by tills and general moraine in the southern
portion, beach deposits in the central and red lacustrine
clays in the northern portion.
In the Little Balsam Creek study area research is pro-
posed which will:
1. Identify the effects of erosion control measures
on aquatic life. This will be accomplished by
monitoring fish and aquatic insect population at
selected sites above and below areas slated for
bank stabilization.
2. Provide a picture of present and historical
vegetative cover patterns which, when related to v
runoff data should identify the most effective
vegetative cover for controlling erosion. This
will be accomplished by examination of historical
records,, ground truthing of existing aerial photo-
graphs, identification of vegetational composition
of the study area.
3- Identify the role of plant roots in retarding or
acceleration of erosion. This will be accomplished
by monitoring and evaluating erosion areas and
correlation of root distribution patterns along
established transects.
4. Provide data concerning those plants (both natural
and planted) which are most effective in serving as
soil moisture "pumps" and thus aiding red clay
stability. This will be accomplished by monitoring
weather elements, soil moisture, runoff and seepage
on plots of typical vegetation types.
5. Provide an objective summary -of slope conditions
as they exist within the study area and assess the
-222-
-------
condition and behavior of soils within the zone
normally involved in slope failure and erosion.
This will be accomplished through analysis of slope
morphometry and the physical/chemical properties
of sediments obtained from core samples.
The Little Balsam Creek study area was selected to
demonstrate water quality improvement and sediment reduction
through the application of upland treatment practices, road-
side erosion control and structural control measures. To
adequately monitor these works, we have planned the instal-
lation of two class "A" monitoring stations and one class "B"
station.
The study of soil carried by runoff water requires a
high density of precipitation measurements with useful reso-
lution of rate over the dynamic range to be encountered. To
overcome this problem, a low cost recording intensity of rain-
fall gauge coupled with a digital memory system will be in-
stalled on a one per square mile basis (10). In addition
three wedge-type, total rainfall gauges will be placed in
the basin for a comparison with measurement made with other
gauges.
The temperature of the soil at several depths and air
temperatures will be measured with silicon type sensors.
Three temperature recorders will be placed in the study area.
Douglas County is the only area where we will be doing
roadside control measures. The other counties have strong
RC&D programs which cost share in the work. Douglas County
however, does not participate in the RC&D program to any
extent and thus has a greater roadside erosion control need.
The Project will be working on approximately 27 acres, how-
ever, the County's need for work is approximately 100 acres
more than we can do. During the next year, the Project in-
tends to urge greater participation in the ongoing RC&D
program. All this is not to say, that the County is not
interested in the program. The County Board has committed
approximately $55,000 in cash for a portion of the local
share. In addition they are providing an office and act as
fiscal agent for the grant.
Pine Creek Study Area
Pine Creek is a tributary of Fish Creek in Northeast-
ern Bayfield County. It's 10,000 acres are divided equally
between woodland and openland. Nearly 30% of the land is
used for active cropland. As such the Pine Creek study area
has the most intensive agriculture of all the study areas.
The Pine Creek study area was selected to represent the
entire Fish Creek Basin shortly after the initial inventory
work was completed. The preliminary studies pointed out that
there was not enough money or manpower available to provide
land treatment for the entire basin. The alternative was to
-223-
-------
pick a smaller, yet physically similar watershed within the
Fish Cre.§k Basin as a study area. After considering land
ownership, soils, type of farm operations and land use the
Pine Creek study area was selected to represent the entire
Fish Creek Basin.
The Pine Creek study area was selected to show the
affect of applied land treatment and land use management on
sediment and erosion control.
The monitoring planned for this "basin includes two
class "A" stations and one class "B" station.
The study of soil carried by runoff water requires a
high density of precipitation measurements with useful
resolution of rate over the dynamic range to be encountered.
To overcome this problem, a low cost recording intensity
of rainfall gauge coupled with a digital memory system will
be installed on a one per square mile basis (12). In
addition three wedge-type, total rainfall gauges will be
placed in the basin for a comparison with measurement made
with other gauges.
The temperature of the soil at several depths and air
temperatures will be measured with silicon type sensors.
Three temperature recorders will be placed in the study area.
While the local share ($73,000) is primarily derived
from cost-sharing on land treatment with the land owners, the
County did commit $4-3,000 in cash to insure the Project's
success in the study area. In addition, the Apostle Island's
Integrated Grant has provided $10,000 to be spent in Bayfield
County for Project purposes.
Ashland Shoreline Study Area
Ashland County wa.s selected to demonstrate shoreline
protective devices include ripraping and selected config-
urations of Longard tubes.
Early surveys of four potential sites indicated that
the Indian Cemetery site on Madeline Island would be an
appropriate location for ripraping. In addition to provid-
ing demonstration capability, it also will protect a valu-
able archeological resource. Madigan beach, about 15 miles
east of the City of Ashland' was chosen for the Longard tube
research and demonstration area. This beach has many high
erodible clay bluffs which need stabilization. The primary
problem is one of waves eating out the toe of these slopes.
It is felt that Longard tubes in seawall and grain config-
urations may be useful in stabilizing the bluffs.
Both of the sites discussed above are on land belonging
to the Bad River Tribal Council. The Council has passed the
necessary resolutions to allow us to use both sites for the
Project. Ashland County has committed $4-0,000 of the
$60,000 local share. Here, as in Bayfield County, The
-224-
-------
Apostle Islands Integrated Grant has provided $10,000 to
help defray local costs.
Oronto-Parker Watershed Study Area
The Oronto-Parker Watershed lies in the northern area
of Iron County, Wisconsin. The watershed (11,500 acres) is
predominately woodland.
This watershed was selected to demonstrate the effects
of a single purpose sediment basin on sediment load and water
quality.
The site originally picked for the sediment basin was
on the lower reach of Oronto Creek gust above its confluence
with Parker Creek. Subsequent investigation showed Oronto
Creek to be a very important Brown Trout spawning stream. In
addition it became apparent that the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers also had long range plans for the harbor area. _To
overcome these two potential objections to the selected site,
further investigations of the watershed were conducted to
find a suitable alternative.
Spoon Creek, a tributary of Oronto Creek with a water-
shed of 2,000 acres was selected as being representative of
the larger watershed.
Monitoring of this sediment basin will be accomplished
through the installation of one class "A" monitoring station
and one class "B" station.
The study of soil carried by runoff water requires a
high density of precipitation measurements with useful resol-
ution of rate over the dynamic range to be encountered. To
overcome this problem, a low cost recording intensity of
rainfall gauge coupled with a digital memory system will be
installed on a one per square mile basis (12). In addition
three wedge-type, total rainfall gauges will be placed in the
basin for a comparison with measurement made with other
gauges.
The temperature of the soil at several depths and air
temperatures will be measured with silicon type sensors.
Three temperature recorders will be placed in the study area.
INFORMATION DISSEMINATION AND EDUCATION
The success of the Project is heavily dependent on the
ability of the Soil & Water Conservation Districts to as-
similate the work of a number of technical agencies and
institutions and to promote their recommendations throughout
the local jurisdictions so as to assure full and effective
implementation for demonstration purposes. The variety of
suggested measures ranges from structural modifications to
non-structural regulations and from prevention to control,
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with the overriding evaluation measure "being cost-effect-
iveness. A highly critical element in the success of such
an action-oriented program will, necessarily, be the public's
understanding and acceptance of the general red clay problem,
the Red Clay Project's goals and objectives as well as its
specific recommendations as they are advanced.
Goals and Objectives
The broad goal, then, of the information and education
program is to have a diverse group of target audiences at
local, state and national levels become aware and knowledge-
able of red clay erosion and sediment problems and alternate
solutions to these problems as they are developed by the
activities of the Red Clay Project.
In working toward this general goal, there are several
key objectives which must be met. These are:
1. Increase public understanding of the problems
associated with red clay soils in the region.
2. Increase public understanding of the full range
of possible preventive and corrective measures
for handling these problems.
3. Improve public awareness of the purpose and pro-
gress of the Wisconsin/Minnesota Western Lake
Superior Basin Erosion-Sedimentation Control
Project, including especially, a sensitivity to
the unique demonstration points cited for each Soil
& Water Conservation District's project.
4-. Improve public awareness of the potential environ-
mental and economic impacts associated with the
erosion and sedimentation control program.
5. Provide forums through which the public can par-
ticipate in reviewing specific aspects of the
program.
6. Provide forums through which the public can par-
ticipate in implementing specific program
recommendations, such as land use planning and
regulatory controls.
Target Clientele and Audience Groups
The complexity of the Red Clay Project demands an
information and education delivery system which has the
capability to effectively represent it at various local
levels as well as in areas far removed from the demonstra-
tion sites. At these various levels the program must be
clarified, explained to, and discussed with both public
officials and private individuals and groups, professional
personnel and lay people. Additionally, it will be necessary
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for the executors of an information and education effort to
work closely with groups related both formally and informally
to the overall Project and the problems it addresses.
Forums and Formats
An information and education effort for a project of
this type and magnitude must draw freely from the full range
of available delivery mechanisms. Six distinct types of
forums and formats are indicated as follows:
1. A series of conferences, workshops, public meetings,
and tours will be held throughout the lifespan of
the Project. They will be devoted primarily at
first to general problems and needs and changing,
over time, to focus on specific problems and
Project progress. The work elements listed below
will be systematically coordinated with each other
and with overall Project activities.
a. A series of conferences—At least once a year,
planned conferences will be held at central
locations for interested technical and pro-
fessional personnel at the county, multi-
county, state and national level. Technical
information, project progress, publications
and papers will be presented at these confer-
ences.
b. Series of workshops—These will be primarily
by basin and for local officials and inter-
ested citizens. At least two workshops per
year will be held in strategic locations in
the area of the Red Clay Project to provide
forums for participation on Project status
and review.
c. Series of planned public meetings—At least
two public informational meetings will be
held each year in strategic locations within
the Project area, on the problems, possible
alternatives, and status of the Project.
d. Series of planned service-club-type meetings—
A speaker's packet will be prepared so the
Project Director or his representative can
make presentations on the Red Clay Project
at service-club-type meetings when requested
to do so. As the Project progresses, this
packet will be kept current.
e. Series of field tours—At least two on-site
tours of each demonstration project will be
held each year in the Red Clay Project area.
The clientele is to include professionals and
interested citizens.
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2. The media—radio, TV, newspapers, and newsletters
will regularly be provided with pertinent infor-
mation reporting generally related issues as well
as specific developments as the work of the Project
progresses. In this regard, the executors of the
outreach effort will be encouraged to use both
their serial columns and slots as well as other
media formats.
a. Radio specials—At least two fifteen-
minute radio programs will be scheduled
each year to be presented on tape to each
of the stations in the Project area. These
tapes will deal with progress or status of
the Project and can include interviews of
specialists involved in the Project.
b. TV specials (video-taped)—At least two,
thirty-minute TV specials will be scheduled
per year to be presented to each of the TV
stations that have viewing audiences in the
Project area. These also will be carefully
planned and should include specialists in-
volved in the Project and include progress in
any of the demonstration areas.
c. Newspaper_specials—At least once a year, a
Sunday edition special or series will be
presented on the status of the Project. The
specials may be timed to coincide with the
completion of pertinent demonstration or
research activities.
d- TV, radio, newspaper—The Project Director and
staff will keep these media informed on a
regular basis of news developments on the
Project. If county agents have a regular
radio, newspaper column or TV slot they will
also be kept informed of Project develop-
ments, so this material can be presented
through the media.
e. Newsletter special—A specific Red Clay
Project Quarterly Newsletter will be developed
and ah appropriate mailing list established.
In addition, the Project Director, and staff
will keep other sponsors of newsletters, such
as Regional Planning Commissions and RC&D
projects, informed of events for publicity to
be used in their regularly scheduled news-
letters.
3. Special attention will be given to the presentation
of technical work progress and reports of the Pro-
ject through public orientated formats such as
prepared fliers and slide-tape sets.
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a. Fliers (brochures)—A flier or "brochure or
series of brochures that describe the pro-
blems and Project objectives will be developed
and appropriately disseminated.
b. Slide-tape documentary—A narrative slide
presentation will be developed concerning the
Red Clay Project and will be maintained and
modified as changes in the Project develop.
This slide set presentation can be requested
by public interest groups to inform their
clientele of Project development and activ-
ities.
The preparation and use of materials such as physi-
cal models of the Project areas, maps, and photo-
graphic representations will be accomplished in
such a way as to meaningfully involve non-program
related groups such as school groups and other
interested organizations.
a. A three dimensional physical model—Appro-
priate models will be developed of each of
the study areas and will include the demon-
stration sites and structures as they are
developed. These will be mobile displays or
exhibits for use at public meetings and in
classrooms or window displays.
b. Illustrative maps—A set of five illustrative
relief maps of the total Project will be
developed with demonstration sites and struc-
tures indicated. These maps will be dis-
played in different selected sites of the
total Project area for review by the .general
public.
c. Photos—Specific demonstration site projects
will be illustrated through a series of photos
for each basin. These photos will be used to
embellish the mobile displays.
Soil erosion and sedimentation control programs
such as the Red Clay Project are recognized as a
first line defense in a broad non-point pollution
control program. Under Section 108 of PL92-500,
several such projects are underway in the Great
Lakes Basin. A film for national distribution will
be made of the Red Clay Project. This film may
also include portions of other, similar, 108
projects. There are two others which may be
included in the film. They are the Black Creek
Watershed Project in Indiana and the Washington
County Project in Wisconsin.
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INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
The Red Clay Project is a unique and complex demon-
stration program involving two states, five local units of
government (S.W.C.D.'s) and several cooperating govern-
mental agencies and non-governmental institutions. The
total Project area lies within the western Lake Superior
watershed "basin, however, within this basin, there are five
separate subwatersheds or study areas. Each of the five
S.W.C.D.'s has within its geographical "boundaries one of the
five_study areas. In addition, each of the five study areas
has its own goals, objectives and demonstration activities to
be performed, monitored and evaluated.
In a project of this magnitude and complexity, it is
difficult to segregate the variety of activities for dis-
cussion purposes and then to reintegrate them in order to
relate them-back to the overall Project goals. This pro-
cess, however, is crucial to the effectiveness of the re-
search and demonstration project. To do this requires a
complex institutional management system.
The management system, no matter how complex, must be
clearly delineated. A full understanding is needed of the
inputs from participating agencies and institutions and the
operating characteristics of regulatory and implementing
authorities. This understanding is essential in order to
help secure the needed cooperation, to help reduce the
possibility of duplication of efforts and to help prevent
potential conflicts with other programs.
The institutional management section of the work plan
will briefly review the legal authorities making the Project
possible. It will then outline the Project goals and object-
ives, explain how each participating institution's activities
will complete objectives which lead to the fulfillment of
the Project's goals. The internal management system will be
discussed to indicate how the various components of the
Project fit together and the Project's goals can be achieved.
Legal Authority
Local Authority; S.W.C.D.'s which have been in existence
since the mid 1930 s, have been actively involved in the
whole process of non-point source pollution control, includ-
ing erosion and sedimentation control. The four S.W.C.D.'s
in Wisconsin were created pursuant to Wisconsin Statutes
92.05 and the one S.W.C.D. in Minnesota was organized accord-
ing to Minnesota Statutes 40.00. All five S.W.C.D.'s are
special purpose units of state government with the legal
authority to plan and implement erosion and sediment prevent-
ive and control measures within their jurisdictions (Chapter
92, Wisconsin Statutes and Chapter 40, Minnesota Statutes).
As special purpose units of government, the S.W.C.D.'s are
empowered with the authority to cooperate with, and enter
into agreements with, other equally empowered units of
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government and agencies (Wisconsin Statutes 92.13, 66.30
and Minnesota Statutes 40.01, 471.59).
Federal Legislation; The first federal legislation to
provide a "basis for "broad federal agency participation in
water quality management was the temporary Water Pollution
Control Act of 1948. A more comprehensive law was adopted
in 1956, strengthened "by the 1961 amendment and further
amended and strengthened and "broadened by the Water Quality
Act of 1965. In 1972, Congress enacted a major landmark
revision of these national water quality programs with its
passage of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend-
ments of 1972 (PL 92-500).
Under these laws, federal activities for improving
water quality were instigated, broadened and increased to
provide a wide variety of programs including those_which
provide for: research programs, comprehensive basin_surveys
and plans for-controlling water pollution, promulgation of
standards of water quality for interstate waters, and
enforcement actions for the abatement of pollution of inter-
state or navigable waters.
It was the passage of PL 92-500 which added impetus to
the drive to clean up the nation's waters. This was done
by placing an emphasis on strong action programs and devis-
ing viable enforcement techniques. A few of the more impor-
tant provisions of this law, and those which relate to the
Red Clay Project, include Sections 108, 305 and 314.
1. Title I - "Research and Related Programs", Section
108 - "Pollution Control in Great Lakes".
This, section provides authorization for the E..P.A.
to enter into agreements with and provide assist-
ance for, states or their political subdivisions
to research and demonstrate new techniques for
retarding or controlling pollution in the water-
sheds of the Great Lakes.
2. Title II - "Standards and Enforcement", Section
305 "Water Quality Inventory".
This section provides that the states and the
E.P.A. shall prepare water quality inventories
which identify existing water quality problems of
navigable waters, point and non-point sources of
pollutants and recommended remedial programs.
3. Title III - "Standards and Enforcement", Section
314 - "Clear Lakes1^~~~~~
This section provides that each state shall pre-
pare a classification of all publicly owned lakes
including procedures, processes and methods
(including land use treatments) to control sources
of pollutants and thereby beginning the process of
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restoring water quality.
Goals and Objectives
The specific activities, objectives and goals to be
accomplished in the five separate study areas have been
previously discussed. It has been particularly difficult
to discuss these objectives and activities separately be-
cause _there is a considerable amount of overlapping of
activities of one research program covering more than one
study area. In essence then, there are five study areas,
each having its own objectives and demonstration activities;
a variety of research activities with their own objectives,
not necessarily related ,to the study area objectives in each
case; several project^wide, self-contained programs with their
own objectives; and finally, a set of Project goals and
objectives to which all of the previously mentioned object-
ives and activities must be related.
The ultimate goal of the Project is to research and
demonstrate methods of enhancing water quality through the
use of erosion and sedimentation control techniques (structural,
non-structural, institutional and managerial) on geologi-
cally young, highly unstable clay soils. The planning phase
of the Project has developed five secondary project goals,
each with its own set of objectives. These goals are:
Goal I: The development of recommendations and plans
for S.W.C.D.'s to develop long-term, basin-wide programs for
erosion and sedimentation control.
Goal II; The development of institutional arrangements
Ior implementing basin-wide porgrams for erosion and sediment-
ation control.
Goal III: The implementation of cost effectiveness
analyses on the techniques demonstrated during the life of the
Project in order to provide a guide to S.W.C.D.'a in imple-
menting long-term control programs.
Goal IV; The demonstration and evaluation of new or
innovative techniques and methods for retarding, controlling
or preventing erosion and sedimentation.
Goal V: The promotion and installation of proper land
use practices consistent with the capabilities and limit-
ations peculiar to the highly erodible red clay soils.
PARTICIPATING ORGANIZATIONS AND WORKING RELATIONSHIPS
There are numerous institutions and agencies making
direct input into this Project. Additionally, there are
several others supporting the Project indirectly, making
contributions where possible. This section will discuss the
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Project participants, their work activities and their
relationship to the entire Project and other work groups.
International Organizations
International Joint Commission - (IJC): The IJC is a
permanent body established by the United States and Canada
to carry out the purposes of the Boundary Waters Treaty of
1909. One of the major responsibilities of the IJC is to
investigate and make specific recommendations on specific
problems along the common frontier referred to the IJC by
the governments of the United States and Canada. The IJC
has been actively studying the pollution problems in the
Great Lakes (including specific studies in Lake Superior)
through its Pollution from Land Use Activities Reference
Group (PLUARG).
Regular communication with the IJC has been maintained
by the Project. The Project Director is a Technical Special-
ist for "Task C" of PLUARG. "Task C" is the detailed survey
of selected watersheds to determine sources of pollutants,
their relative significance and the assessment of the degree
of pollutant transmission to boundary waters. Additional
liaison between this Project and IJC is accomplished through
the regular interaction of the USEPA and the IJC.
Federal Agencies and Programs
United States Geological Survey - (USGS); The USGS
will contract with the Project to do the water quality
monitoring work in the Skunk Creek, Little Balsam, Pine
Creek and Spoon Creek study areas.
Water quality monitoring will play an important role
in evaluating the overall success of the Project as well
as the success of the specific control techniques being
monitored. In that all techniques will be subjected to
evaluations and cost effectiveness analyses, it will be
imperative to determine the actual effectiveness of specific
techniques in reducing sediment load.
In Wisconsin study areas, USGS and the Project will
receive assistance from the WDNR for water quality monitor-
ing. USGS and WDNR will maintain close liaison with each
other and with the Project to insure the accumulation of
useful data. The data produced will be of direct use to
the research being conducted in each of these study areas.
Bureau of Indian Affairs - (BIA): The two sites select-
ed for shoreline demonstration projects are situated on land
owned by the Bad River Indian tribe. The Indian tribe has
been kept informed of the Project intentions and have shown
an interest in the successful application of the proposed
demonstration projects. The BIA has aided in securing the
endorsement for these projects from the Bad River Tribal
Council.
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Department of the Army Corps of Engineers - (the Corps);
The Corps has the responsibility for the maintenance and
protection of harbors and shorelines. The Corps also is the
permitting agency for any structural work that may be deie in
these areas.
From the onset of the Project, communication has been
maintained with the Corps. When appropriate, all designs
and specifications will be submitted to them for compliance
with permit regulations.
USDA Soil Conservation Service - (SGS); The SCS is a
federal agency which, unlike most large agencies, has close
local contact with field based personnel in nearly every
SWCD. This agency provides technical planning and imple-
mentation assistance to all SWCD's and furnished leadership
and expertise in the development of district programs.
Although SCS is one federal agency, it is department-
alized into state, area and district units of operation.
These units normally work only within their own geographical
jurisdictions. For purposes of the Project, a work force of
several field and supportive personnel has been assigned to
work within the entire project area. This has required the
coordination and cooperation of two state units, two area
units and five district units within the SCS.
In that SCS works closely with the SWCD's providing
technical_assistance for district programs, the Project will
rely heavily on them for surveys, inventories, engineering
recommendations and construction standards and specifications.
They will also work widely with landowners to plan for, and
help implement, necessary land use practices.
In addition to the ongoing district programs throughout
the Project area, SCS will provide technical work for the
Project in the Skunk Creek, Little Balsam Creek, Pine Creek
and Spoon Creek study areas. Their work will be concentrated
on the preparation and implementation of conservation farm
plans; design work and specifications for certain structural
measures; and general assistance for landowner contract
administration, program development and evaluation.
State Agencies and Institutions and Organizations
Wisconsin and Minnesota Departments of Natural Resources
(WDM and MDNR):The DNR's of the two states are somewhat
different in organization and structure but are still func-
tionally similar in their relationships to SWCD's. The DNR's
cooperate with SWCD's and other agencies in conducting
surveys and evaluations leading to wise development of water-
sheds. The DNR's also advise the districts and landowners
on the planning, development and utilization of resources.
Further, technical and some financial assistance is available
to the SWCD's from the Departments for preparing plans and
implementing and evaluating activities for the conservation
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of natural resources.
The DKR's also function as the primary regulating and
permitting agencies in the two states. In this capacity,
the DNR's must approve designs and specifications of all
work to "be done on "bodies of navigable waters falling
within their respective jurisdictions.
Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water Conservation
Districts - (VBSVCD) and Minnesota State Soil and Water
Conservation Commission (MSWCGj:These two agencies have
similar functions in their respective states as the parent
"bodies or agencies providing policy guidance and assistance
to SWCD's. The WBSWCD and the MSWCC work closely with
SWCD's administering certain funds to districts, coordinating
district programs and securing the cooperation of various
local, state and federal agencies to plan and implement
SWCD programs.
The WBSWCD and the MSWCC will be working closely with
the Project and its sponsoring SWCD's by acting in advisory
capacities to the Project Executive Committee and the
SWCD's. The WBSWCD has one full-time Project Specialist
assigned to the Project, under contract; and the MSWCC will
be working more closely with the Project through its re-
organized and expanded staff.
Red Clay Interagency Committee - (BCIC); This organ-
ization was formed in Wisconsin in 195^ to study the problems
of the red clay soils in Northwestern Wisconsin and to make
recommendations for correcting these problems. The RCIC
has been a loosely structured organization, but one which
has provided a considerable amount of useful background
data and recommendations for the Project. The RCIC meets
periodically and its members play a major role in advising
the Project and evaluating the Project activities.
Institutions of Higher Education: Several colleges and
universities throughout the two states have been instrumental
in the preparation of portions of the information dissemi-
nation and education program, the Ashland Shoreline study
area program, and the planned research programs. They will
also be instrumental in implementing these programs.
Those institutions participating are: the University
of Wisconsin-Madison, the Center for Lake Superior Environ-
mental Studies of the University of Wisconsin-Superior, the
Sigurd Olson Institute of Northland College, the University
of Minnesota-Duluth and the University of Wisconsin-
Milwaukee.
These institutions also have a multitude of programs
involved with water quality of the Great Lakes and to a
lesser degree with erosion and sedimentation control. Close
liaison will be maintained to coordinate all ongoing activ-
ities between these institutions and the Project.
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University of Wisconsin-Extension - (UVEX) and
University of Minnesota-Extension (UMEX): The Extension
"branches of the university systems are responsible for
carrying on the educational function of the universities
away from university campuses. They have been classified
here as state institutions; however, they are complex
institutions with federal (USDA) and county affiliations.
Extension personnel are either state-based or area-based
with state and federal funding, or they are county-based
with state, federal and county funding.
County-based Extension personnel work closely with
SWCD's planning and implementing the educational phases
of district programs. State-based and area-based personnel
add support services for the county personnel in working
with SWCD's.
Both UWEX and IMEX will be working directly with the
Project on the information dissemination and education
program. In this capacity, they will be coordinating
the efforts of all groups working on this program.
Wisconsin Department of Transportation - (WDOT); The
WDOT is intricately involved with the Red Clay Project on
a cooperative basis. There has been and will continue
to be a mutual exchange of information and materials
which will prove beneficial to both parties. Through the
research and demonstrations generated by the Project, the
WDOT can obtain vital information for road construction
and maintenance on the erosive properties of the red clay
soils. Conversely, the WDOT provides the Project with
considerable material and expertise concerning roadside
erosion, subsurface deposits, road construction standards
and specifications, etc.
Multi-county Agencies
Northwestern Wisconsin Regional Planning and Develop-
ment Commission - (NWRP&DC) and the Arrowhead Regional
Development Commission - (ARDC);The service of the re-
gional planning commission is that of advisory planning
for the purpose of guiding the coordinated physical
development of a multi-county region. Land use plans,
transportation plans, and water and wastewater management
plans are important results of regional planning commission
effort. The regional planning commission typically works
closely with many federal, state and local government
agencies and with private individuals and groups in the
region. Local planning assistance is a major and signif-
icant regional planning commission activity.
The ARDC and the NWRP&DC will continue to relate to
the Project through their normal activities with sponsor-
ing SWCD;s. Both commissions will continue to give plan-
ning, coordinative and administrative assistance to the
Project. The NWRP&DC is also supplying the position for
the Project Director under contract with the Project.
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Resource Conservation and Development Projects -
(RC&D's);Each of the districts participates in a Resource
Conservation and Development programs on a local level. The
Wisconsin Counties make up the Lake Superior Division of
the Pri-Ru-Ta RC&D. Carlton County, Minnesota participates
in the Onanegozie RC&D.
Both of the RC&D Projects were instrumental in initiat-
ing the Project and were active in the planning phase. They
will continue to relate to the Project in an advisory
capacity. Further, they will continue to operate in their
normal fashion with their member SWCD's. The work performed
by the RC&D's will be complementary to the Project's work.
It is not the intent of the Project to replace these programs
in any aspect. On the contrary, it is hoped that methods
demonstrated by the Project may, in the long run, enhance
RC&D programs.
INTERNAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The Red Clay Project is sponsored at the local level
by five Soil and Water Conservation Districts (SWCD's) in
two states. These SWCD's have co-sponsored an application
for federal funding under Section 108 PL92-500. While
this application and the acceptance of the grant offer
binds the SWCD's of the various counties together the supra-
structure created by this bond will be guided by a con-
stitution and by-laws which will be formulated at a later
date. This constitution and by-laws will provide the
basis for an internal management system for the Project.
To supplement the constitution and by-laws, an operations
manual will be developed which will spell out the procedures
for obtaining reviews and approvals of specific work items in
a timely fashion.
While these five SWCD's represent two states, their
interactions with the state agencies of Wisconsin and
Minnesota are similar enough that we may discuss them on
a project wide level rather than on a county level. The
major difference between the SWCD's in the two states is
that in Wisconsin the supervisors are selected from the
local county board of supervisors and in Minnesota the
supervisors are elected directly. In Wisconsin, by law,
the SWCD supervisors are the members of the Agriculture
and Extension Committee. This system allows for greater
interaction with other local units of government and their
committees, but it does promote a greater reliance of the
SWCD on the county boards for funding and approval of
activities. In Minnesota, the system of directly electing
SWCD supervisors provides for a greater autonomy on the part
of the supervisors, but it does tend to lessen the direct
working relationship with other local units of government.
Wisconsin Statutes 66.30 and 92.13 and Minnesota
Statutes 4-71-59 and 4-0.01 permits joint exercise by SWCD's
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of any power as duly required of or authorized to the SWCD
"by statutes enable the SWCD to cooperate with other SWCD's
or governmental units through intergovernmental contracts.
These districts are the legally constituted authorities to
carry out measures for the control and prevention of erosion
and sediment damages. Soil and Water Conservation Districts,
the boundaries of which in these two states coincide with
county boundaries, are, for all intents and purposes,
working parts of county government.
The district cooperates with landowners and occupiers
in developing and implementing plans for soil erosion control,
improved water management, and related objectives. The
county board of supervisors, the federal Soil Conservation
Service, the federal Agricultural Stabilization and Conser-
vation Service, the University Extension Service and other
state and local agencies, and private organizations collab-
orate with the Soil and Water Conservation Districts. In
Wisconsin, the district may formulate land use regulations
which, if adopted by ordinance of the county board, may
require installation of various kinds of water-control
structures on private lands, use of particular methods of
cultivation, observance of specified cropping programs and
tillage practices, retirement from cultivation of highly
erosive areas, and other land management measures for con-
serving soil and water resources. Such land use ordinances,
if adopted and enforced, could have substantial beneficial
effects of improving the quality of the waters of streams
and lakes. A*bill to enable Minnesota districts with similar
authority is pending.
Project Executive Committee
The SWCD's have joined together by agreement to sponsor
the Project. In order to facilitate project-wide decision-
making, they have formed a Project Executive Committee con-
sisting of equal representation from each of the five SWCD's.
As mentioned, this is the ultimate decision-making body of
the Project. Each SWCD representative acts as an inter-
mediary between the Committee and his SWCD, relating infor-
mation and seeking necessary SWCD approval for decisions
directly affecting his or her SWCD.
The Douglas County SWCD and its representative on the
Executive Committee act as fiscal agent for the Project. In
this capacity, it deals directly with the USEPA and imple-
menting groups in all contractual and fiscal affairs.
Project Director
The Project Director, hired by NWEP&DC and furnished
under contract to the Project, is responsible for overall
Project operations and making day-to-day decisions guided
by the policy and decisions made by the Executive Committee.
His job is administrative and coordinative. Working
directly with the Executive Committee and the implementing
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groups, his job is to interpret Executive Committee policy
to the implementing groups to insure the smooth operation
of the Project.
Staff Services
The Project Director has at his disposal the services
of staff personnel to assist him in conducting project
operations and seeing that the Project goals are met. The
WBSVCD has supplied a full-time Project Specialist, under
contract, to provide specified services to assist the
Project Director. In addition, the Project has hired,
through the Project's fiscal agent, needed secretarial
services. If the financial parameters allow, there is
also the potential for expanding the Project staff to in-
clude additional secretarial services, specialists, consul-
tants, and assistants.
Advisory Bodies
During the formative and planning phases of the Project,
several advisory committees and groups were in existence
to advise the Executive Committee and the Project Director.
These included: the Project Advisory Committee, the Tech-
nical Interagency Consortium, the Research Advisory Committee
and the Information-Education Committee.
In addition, several non-project organizations and
agencies were called upon for advice, assistance and plan-
ning evaluations. During the course of the implementation
phase of the Project, these groups may be asked to reconvene
on an ad hoc basis to assist with specific matters.
Implementing Bodies
To insure the timely implementation of Project activit-
ies and the completion of Project objectives and goals,
three implementing bodies are recognized. The Research
Committee, consisting of the principal investigators of
contracted research activities and selected Project staff,
is responsible for maintaining liaison with the Project
Director, coordinating research activities, and seeing to
the ultimate completion of all research aspects of the
Project.
The Demonstration Committee consists of those principal
investigators and Project staff responsible for the imple-
mentation of demonstration activities (i.e. structure instal-
lation, vegetative trials, land use practices, etc.). This
committee will provide liaison with the Project Director,
coordinate all demonstration activities, and supervise the
installation of structures, trials, and practices.
The Information Dissemination and Education Committee
consists of Project staff and those representatives from
educational institutions responsible for information dis-
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RED CLAY PROJECT
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
and
PLOW CHART
Minnesota
Wisconsin
Carlton
County
SWCD
Ashland
County
SWCD
Douglas
County
SWCD
Bayfield
County
SWCD
Iron
County
SWCD
Executive Committee
Project
Director
Project
Specialist
_- — "~~
rch
ttee
_— *
Demonstration
Committee
*.-
Informs
Educat:
Commitl
1-
-240-
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semination and public education. As with, the other commit-
tees, they will work directly with the Project Director to
keep him informed, to coordinate activities and to insure
the timely implementation of specific activities.
ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION METHODS
Due to the complexity of the Red Clay Project, it is
difficult to discuss without repetition, the various
analysis procedures and evaluation techniques as they apply
to the five separate study areas and the numerous demon-
stration and research activitiesi At this point, it is
sufficient to state that all field and laboratory analysis
methods follow standard formats and, where applicable, are
consistent with USEPA recommended guidelines.
It is important to discuss analysis and evaluation
methods relating the various self-contained work elements to
the Project's overall goals and objectives. While it is
essential to have self-contained systems of analysis and
evaluation in each of the Proj'ect's work areas, it is even
more important from the standpoint of the entire Project to
devise a system to analyze and evaluate the research and
demonstration elements for separate activities in order to
show interrelationships between them and with the Proj'ect
goals. The end result of any such system, or set of systems,
would be a complete evaluation of the Proj'ect, the develop-
ment of systems which would be applicable to other projects
and programs, the production of evaluation reports, pub-
lications and recommendations, and, ultimately, the attain-
ment of the Project goals.
Methods of Analysis
As was mentioned in the introduction, research activ-
ities will be subject to standard analyses consistent with
USEPA recommendations. The research activity is being con-
tracted to competent institutions and individuals familiar
with the standard research and analysis techniques. This
standardization of techniques will insure data compatibility.
The efficacy of the demonstration activities in improv-
ing water quality will be analyzed by the USGS monitoring
systems described in this plan. Their handling of all the
monitoring will insure a standard system of data collection
and storage for later retrieval.
The VBSWCD Project Specialist, as a Project staff member,
will be responsible for working with other Project staff to
analyze the numerous research and demonstration programs to
relate them directly to the Project goals and objectives.
This will be done through an ongoing process of program
coordination and review. This type of analysis will be
managerial and somewhat subjective, relying on the more
objective analyses being performed in the various programs
-24T-
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and study areas. The objectiveness of this type of analysis
will be met by the reports and publications produced. These
reports and publications will analyze and evaluate the pro-
grams and will contain recommendations for their potential
use in erosion and sedimentation control programs to improve
water quality.
The one overriding analysis to which all research and
demonstration aspects of the Project will be subjected is
a cost-effectiveness analysis. Through this type of an
analysis, the measured results of the programs can be viewed
in light of their costs. The result will be a meaningful
analysis of control measures and research activities with
indications as to their realistic applicability to other
demonstration projects or long-term erosion and sediment-
ation control programs.
Methods of Evaluation
Evaluation of any program should be a continual pro-
cess. This is necessary to assess current status, catch
any mistakes or errors and make necessary changes in pro-
gram direction and emphasis. The Red Clay Project has built
into its operational structure a system of quarterly and
annual review meetings as well as ad hoc meetings of the
various operational committees. These will serve the dual
purposes of periodically reviewing Project progress and
providing the format for ongoing program evaluation.
In addition to the various review meetings, ongoing
program evaluation will be accomplished by visual, photo-
graphic, research and other appropriate methods. Upland
treatments in the demonstration program will be periodic-
ally evaluated visually, making use of the generally
accepted Universal Soil Loss Equation method. Structural
facilities in the demonstration program will be continually
evaluated by visual and photographic documentation. Erosion
rates within the treated areas will be compared to rates in
the untreated areas. Where streambank protection and sedi-
ment traps are planned, complete land surveys will be run.
A geometric comparison of existing, as-built and end-of-^
project conditions will be made. Sedimentation and erosion
will be measured from time of construction to the end of
the Project.
The Project staff, through its management system, will
be responsible for all program evaluation. To assist with
this, the WBSWCD Project Specialist has been hired to
accomplish specific objectives regarding program evaluation.
Through the processes of programs coordination, data review,
supplemental academic research and technical documentation,
all programs will be evaluated in terms of the Project
goals. Programs will have to lend themselves to helping
achieve the goals and objectives. That is, they must fit
into the development of long-term, basin-wide control pro-
grams for SWCD's in a cost-effective manner, successfully
-242-
-------
rv < a •
^ ° -o^- •&
,a*.0*
-------
(I- <«Qn^ ' "'On Kff S. l ( tOo
"^s^^e*-'
•r^_ ^o.^& 5 9&oV^a«^ /.r P^ .
^7%o. -V&V^ *oV^°o
•^o£ ^^^9cr^
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demonstrate new or innovative techniques for control-
ling erosion and sedimentation to improve water quality,
provide new data for erosion and sedimentation control on
red clay soils, and/or be of value in disseminating
information or educating specified audiences.
Periodic evaluations will "be contained in interior
publications, reports and documents. Final evaluations,
of course, will be contained in the final Project report
to USEPA as well as in recommendations to the sponsoring
SWCD's.
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EXPLANATION OF ABBREVIATIONS USED
Abbreviation
ARDC
ASCS
CLSES
Corps, the
GLBC
IJC
MDNR
MPCA
MSWCC
NACD
NWRP&DC
Project, the
RC&D
RCIC
RP&DC's
SCS
SWGD
UGLRC
UMD
UMEX
USBIA
USDA
USDI
USDOC
USEPA
USGS
UWEX
UW-Mad
UW-Mil
UVS
WBSWCD
WDNR
WDOT
Agency, Institution or Organization
Arrowhead Regional Development Commission
Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation
Service
Center for Lake Superior Environmental
Studies (University of Wisconsin-Superior)
United States Army Corps of Engineers
Great Lakes Basin Commission
International Joint Commission
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
Minnesota Soil and Water Conservation
Commission
National Association of Conservation
Districts
Northwestern Wisconsin Regional Planning
and Development Commission
The Minnesota/Wisconsin Western Lake
Superior Basin Erosion and Sedimentation
Control Project (the Red Clay Project)
Resource Conservation and Development
Project
Red Clay Interagency Committee
Regional Planning and Development Commis-
sions
Soil Conservation Service
Soil and Water Conservation District
Upper Great Lakes Regional Commission
University of Minnesota-Duluth
University of Minnesota-Extension
United States Bureau of Indian Affairs
United States Department of Agriculture
United States Department of the Interior
United States Department of Commerce
United States Environmental Protection
Agency
United States Geological Survey
University of Wisconsin-Extension
University of Wisconsin-Madison
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
University of Wisconsin-Superior
Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water Conser-
vation Districts
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
Wisconsin Department of Transportation
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BACKGROUND, DEVELOPMENT, AND OBJECTIVES
OF THE WASHINGTON COUNTY PROJECT
by
T. C. Daniel*
ABSTRACT
The primary objective of the project is to demonstrate the effec-
tiveness of land treatment measures in improving water quality, and to
devise the necessary institutional arrangements required for the prepara-
tion, acceptance and implementation of a sediment control ordinance or
other management program applicable to incorporated and unincorporated
areas on a county-wide basis.
The conceptualization of the project, the participation and involve-
ment of appropriate interest groups and the development of project
objectives is reviewed. Each objective is discussed with emphasis on
strategies for implementation and accomplishments to date.
*Assistant Professor of Soil Science, Department of Soil Science,
University of Wisconsin—Madison, Wisconsin.
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Development of the Washington County Project began in April of 1973
as a result of the Governor's Conference on Sediment and Erosion Control
held at Madison, Wisconsin (1). Preliminary meetings followed, identi-
fying those organizations and agencies concerned with non-point pollution,
particularly sediment. During the two year period, the list of partici-
pants in the project was expanded to include representatives of federal,
state and local agencies, academic institutions, elected officials and
appropriate interest groups. An executive committee representing the
participants was created and charged with the responsibility of review-
ing the status of the non-point pollution problem, identifying the major
problems needing investigation, developing project objectives, and provid-
ing a mechanism for project implementation (Table 1). For detail con-
cerning the organization, roles and responsibilities of the various
committees involved in the project the reader is referred to the Washing-
ton County Work Plan (2).
Table 1. Organizations and Agencies Involved in the Development of the
Project
Abbreviations Organizations and Agencies
NACD National Association of Conservation Districts
SEWRPC Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission
USDA-ASCS United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural
Stabilization and Conservation Service
USDA-SCS United States Department of Agriculture - Soil
Conservation Service
US-EPA United States - Environmental Protection Agency
USGS United States Geological Survey
UWEX University of Wisconsin - Extension
UW-MAD University of Wisconsin - Madison
UW-SNR University of Wisconsin - School of Natural Resources
UW-Soil Sci University of Wisconsin - Department of Soil Science
UW-WRC University of Wisconsin - Water Resources Center
WCSWCD Washington County Soil and Water Conservation District
WDNR Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
WGNHS Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey
WSBSWCD Wisconsin State Board of Soil, and Water Conservation
Districts
The remainder of this report will provide information on the background
of the project, project objectives, approaches to achieving those objectives,
and project accomplishments to date.
BACKGROUND OF THE WASHINGTON COUNTY PROJECT
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500)
approaches the problem of the protection and improvement of the quality of
the nation's lakes and streams. The legislation is specific with respect
to the types of pollution to be investigated, the mechanisms and time frame
required and the agency(ies) having primary responsibility for accomplishing
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the control aspects of the law. In the past, the US-EPA has directed efforts
towards the control of point sources of pollution and the development, re-
vision and updating of guidelines for controlling the quality of effluent
discharged from industry, municipal treatment plants and feedlots are being
revised and updated to reflect advances in treatment technology. Addition-
ally, the US-EPA is focusing attention on non-point or diffuse sources of
pollution such as agricultural and urban runoff. Because of their diffuse
character, these pollutional sources are more difficult to quantify and
define. Undoubtedly, controlling these pollutional sources is complicated
by the interrelated complexities and inherent variability in the systems
involved and by the lack of backgound information required to define the
problem. However, control of non-point sources is of great importance for
maintaining the quality of surface waters and management methodology for
minimizing their discharge must be developed.
Sediment transport and deposition is a classic example of pollution
arising from a diffuse source. Nationally, sediment is by volume the single
largest pollutant of the nation's surface waters. Aside from the objection
to sediment from an aesthetic standpoint, deposition of sediment in surface
waters can cause a degradation in water quality resulting from increases
in suspended and bed loads, total dissolved solids and oxygen demand. Eutro-
phying and other components of the eroded material, such as readily avail-
able ortho-phosphate, soluble nitrogen and pesticides, etc. are also released
as a result of the interaction between eroded soil particles and surface
waters. Annually, dredging costs to keep the nation's streams and harbors
open are conservatively estimated at $300 million.
Although erosion and subsequent sedimentation is a natural geological
process which cannot be eliminated completely, man's activities can, and
have, greatly accelerated the process. The rates of soil loss are directly
related to types of land use. Sediment, with its deleterious effect on
water quality, has been identified as the major pollution problem in seven
of the 17 chapters describing the effect of different land use categories
cataloged as potential sources of loading to the Great Lakes by a Refer-
ence Group of the U.S.-Canada International Joint Commission (3). This
comprehensive review of land use in relation to pollutional loading into
the surface waters of the Great Lakes clearly identifies sediment as a
major pollutant and calls for new and innovative programs for its control
and prevention.
The primary source of sediments polluting surface waters is agricul-
tural and other rural lands lacking adequate conservation practices. How-
ever, a second major source of sediment is land undergoing changing use
patterns as exemplified by areas of rapid urbanization (construction sites).
This source comprises a major hazard because it is largely unabated and
conservation practices are normally not applied during construction. Rates
of erosion from urbanizing areas may exceed those from agricultural lands
by factors from 100:1 to 200:1. Sediment loading into surface waters will
continue to increase with time due to the increased demand for agricultural
production which involves both more intensive agriculture and the cultiva-
tion of formerly idle land, and to continual urbanization and the develop-
ment of previously rural lands. The land being newly brought into agricul-
tural production is likely to be critical when evaluated in terms of its
potential erosional hazard either because of the slope or shallowness of
the soil.
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Historically, the problem of soil loss has been viewed strictly as
a rural problem controlled only for the economic benefit of the landowners.
Presently, and to a greater degree in the future, deterioration in water
quality arising from sediment deposition either from rural or urban areas
must be viewed in light of the general public's right and desire for high
quality surface water and included in this evaluation must be the downstream
cost and effect of sediment deposition.
Prior investigations and experience by agencies such as the USDA-SCS
have led to the development of an erosion control technology which if
fully implemented will dramatically reduce soil loss from unprotected crop-
land and construction site areas. The major obstacle has been an inability
to develop and implement programs which provide a uniformly high degree
of land application of conservation practices. Prior experience has shown
that the voluntary and incentive mechanisms have been successful to a point;
however, these programs do not result in a uniformly high degree of implmen-
tation of land practices. Erosion can be controlled—the problem is the
development of new and innovative management programs to correct the inade-
quacies of a strictly voluntary-incentive program.
Solving the basic problems of implementation of conservation practices
necessitates investigating the social, economic, legal and political aspects
of the issue as well as the technical components. Answers to these ques-
tions can only be provided by multi-agency and interdisciplinary programs
devoted to problem-oriented research and demonstration. It is only through
this mechanism that a forum of exchange between those affected by manage-
ment programs and the agencies (federal, state, local) required to develop
and administer such programs that realistic guidelines and methods of
implementation can be developed.
OBJECTIVES
As a result of input from the participants identified in Table 1 the
overall objective of the program is to demonstrate the effectiveness of
land treatment measures in improving water quality, and to devise the
necessary institutional arrangements required for the preparation, accep-
tance and implementation of a sediment control ordinance or other manage-
ment program applicable to incorporated and unincorporated areas on a
county-wide basis. Specific objectives deemed necessary for the successful
attainment of the overall objectives are:
1. Demonstrate through a monitoring program the effectiveness of
sediment and erosion control techniques for improving water
quality.
2. Develop a sediment control ordinance or other management
mechanisms acceptable to landowners and the several govern-
mental authorities responsible for implementing such measures
and determine the combination(s) of institutional arrange-
ments in the form of laws and intergovernmental relationships
involving federal, state, county and municipal governments
required for implementing management programs in incorporated
and unincorporated areas on a county-wide basis.
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3. Develop a model of the personnel required and the technical and
financial assistance needed to implement a sediment control program.
4. Develop and systemize the educational and information dissemina-
tion effort to the general public and appropriate user groups
required for implementing a sediment control program.
5. Provide an evaluation of the feasibility of implementing manage-
ment programs for sediment and erosion control in the Great Lakes
Basin States and other areas where applicable.
PROCEDURES FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF OBJECTIVES
Each of the objectives will be discussed individually with respect to
mechanisms and procedures identified for their implementation. The purpose
of this document is to provide a brief summary of major project activities.
For more detailed information, the reader is referred to the Washington
County Work Plan (2) .
Demonstrating Improvement in Water Quality
The area of water quality vs. land use and its associated runoff neces-
sitated clarifications especially in light of potential regulatory programs.
Two watersheds, one agricultural (Kewaskum) and the other rapidly urbaniz-
ing (Germantown) were selected in Washington County, Wisconsin (Fig. 1).
The Kewaskum Watershed is devoted primarily to a dairying type of agricul-
tural enterprise. A dairy farming area was selected because dairying is
the dominant type of agriculture in the Great Lakes Basin (4). The German-
town watershed has been identified as the area in Washington County sched-
uled for rapid development and subsequent construction activity (5). This
rapid development is a result of population pressure from the nearby Mil-
waukee metropolitan area. Intensive water quality monitoring activiy is
scheduled for the two watersheds and information will be developed on a
total loading basis for selected parameters. Background information will
be developed concerning runoff under present land use conditions with
subsequent information collected as a result of the implementation of
intensive conservation practices. Information provided from this activity
will be utilized in various aspects of developing a management program,
i.e., cost-benefit, background levels of pollutants, effectiveness of con-
servation practices on water quality, and sediment delivery ratio.
Development of a Planning and Management Program for Sediment Control
Efforts in this area focused on identifying and integrating the exper-
tise required to work on the legal, social, political and economic aspects
of the project. Problem areas will be handled by individuals whose research
interests are devoted to the solution of problems of a practical, people-
oriented nature. Definition of objectives and mechanisms of accomplishment
have been evaluated in each discipline for the respective graduate research
assistants and biweekly meetings are in progress to insure coordination.
Specific analysis of existing state and local statutory authorities have
been initiated. An examination of existing federal, state and local
institutional arrangements and their potentials for implementing sediment
control programs also has been initiated.
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Great
Lakes
Drainage
'Basin
Green Bay
Milwaukee
LEGEHO
Great .Lakes Drainage Divide
Study Watershed Boundary
Watershed Streams
KEWASKUM
WATERSHED
LGERMANTOWN
WATERSHED
FIG. 1 Map of Washington County, Wisconsin, showing Its
geographical location and selected project sites
1n the Great Lakes Drainage Basin.
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Personnel, Technical and Financial Requirements
Any management program developed will require clear identification
of staff needs to implement and administer such programs. The importance
of this component cannot be overlooked for, in part, it will determine the
economic acceptability of the different alternatives and become increas-
ingly more critical "hen the results are projected on a regional basis.
The amount or level of personnel required at the local, state or regional
level is less known than the type of personnel required. These activities
will be accomplished in concert and concomitantly with objective 2.
Education and Information Program
Specific local audiences have been identified and informational bro-
chures and slide sets are in various stages of development. Numerous
visual aids, namely slides and film, showing the local leaders and monitor-
ing site installations have been collected. A slide set for use in describ-
ing the project at local meetings is being developed and will be updated
continually. Several informational brochures have been identified which
will provide information concerning sediment effects on water quality and
how the project is being structured to address the total question of non-
point pollution for distribution to state, regional (interstate) and
national audiences. The mechanism of developing appropriate brochures
and visual aid materials will be a coordinated effort among several disci-
plines within the University of Wisconsin-Extension.
Application of Results to Other Areas
The development of a sediment control management plan for Washington
County will serve as a demonstration of technical and institutional mech-
anisms for conducting a county-wide, rural-urban program. The demonstration
must, however, achieve the goal of being implementable on a much broader
geographic scale, i.e., state-wide, regional or perhaps, even national.
It is fully understood that this demonstration can only serve as a proto-
type since other areas will have to develop programs taking into account
their own unique political, legal and economic constraints. However, when
utilizing Washington County as a demonstration site, part of the evaluation
of the alternatives must include those programs which institutionally have
the inherent ability to be projected to state, regional and national scope.
SUMMARY AND PRESENT STATUS
The project was funded in June 1975 with the Wisconsin State Board of
Soil and Water Conservation Districts as the grantee and will continue
through December 1978. Initially, most of the activity centered around
accumulating project and support staff. Interdisciplinary groups have been
established and coordination of activity initiated. Monitoring site instal-
lation will be completed and data will be available in time for the spring
runoff in 1976. Many elected and public officials in Washington County
have been active in all phases of the project and have taken the leadership
role at the local level. Accomplishment of the objectives will be performed
in concert with each other, however, little substantive activity is expected
on objective 3 or 5 until the middle stages of the program.
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REFERENCES
1. Soil Erosion is a Critical National Problem. 1973. Proc. of the
Governor's Conf. on Erosion and Sediment Control. Madison, Wis. Apr.
2. Daniel, T. C. 1975. Washington County Project. Memo Report. Water
Resources Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Madison, Wis.
3. International Reference Group on Great Lakes Pollution from Land Use
Activity. 1974. Prepared by the U.S. Section of Task Group A for
the Pollution from Land Use Activities Reference Group of the Inter-
national Joint Commission. Nov.
4. Great Lakes Basin Commission. 1971. Land use and management—
Appendix 13, In Great Lakes Basin Framework Study. Ann Arbor, Mich.
pp. 13-91. Draft copy.
5. Anonymous. 1969. Germantown, Wisconsin...Comprehensive Plan.
Tech-Search, Inc., Wilmette, 111. p. 16.
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Summary Remarks
By
Carl D. Wilson
In summarizing todays presentations I would like to briefly review
a few items that I feel are pertinent for planning consideration.
From historical data, the annual long term sediment yield from the
Maumee River into Lake Erie is approximately 2,000,000 tons (1,800,000
metric tons) or, in terms of the basin, about 936 lbs/ac(105 kg/ha). The
annual long term precipitation over the Maumee River Basin is around
33 inches (840 mm). Of that amount, less than one-third or around 9.4
inches (240 mm) is runoff into Lake Erie.
For the year 1974-75, the sediment yield from the Black Creek Water-
shed into the Maumee River was 1750 kg/ha. One major storm event in late
May caused over onehalf of the sediment load.
In the Black Creek Watershed alone over 750 tile outlets have been
identified. All flows contained some sediments.
Mr. Mayo has indicated his desire that soil and water conservation
districts get involved and take the lead at the local level to help solve
nonpoint source pollution. The Environmental Protection Agency has no
intention of upsetting any Federal or state on-going programs.
To fulfill the requirements of the water bill it will have to be a
cooperative effort between states and local governments.
Mr. Heitzenrater has stated that:
(1) With regard to agriculture pollution control, one of the key
public decisions will be that level of technical information
that is needed to justify action.
(2) It is now becoming rapidly apparent that water quality is an
integral part of the American agriculture mission. The real
and definite pollution threat from sediments, nutrients, and
pesticides must be dealt with. The main thrust of non-point
source pollution control will come from 208 areawide planning.
(3) There are two recent publications which have been released on
nonpoint source pollution that will be of help to 208 planning
agencies, entitled:
(a) "Interim Report on Loading Dunctions For Assessment of
Water Pollution From Nonpoint Sources", published
November 1975.
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(b) "Control of Water Pollution from Cropland - Volume I
Manual for Guideline Development", EPA-600/2-75-026a
Mr. Churchill has stated that:
(1) The 208 planning and management program is the central adminis-
trative vehicle for both point and nonpoint sources. We have
initiated the areawide program and the governors have designated
149 planning and management agencies, and EPA has granted $150
million to finance the initial two year planning period.
(2) If it is found there are no problems there will be no programs.
From the reports of the Black Creek Project investigators it has be-
come clear that technical assistance and financial incentives are not
sufficient to convince every farmer or landowner to install needed conser-
vation practices.
Data collected during three storms in the Black Creek Watershed in
late February and mid-March has been analyzed. This preliminary data
indicates that in all cases the nutrients and suspended solids transported
by a stream increased with increasing flow. More importantly the nutrients
and suspended solids concentrations also increase with increased flow
with the exception of ammonia and nitrate whose concentrations showed very
little variation during a storm event.
Farmers do not feel that they should stand the cost of soil erosion
programs alone. Education is considered by landowners to be the most
effective tool to get cooperation on protecting water quality.
This is a brief summary of things that immediately come to mind. I'm
sure there are other important things I have left out. We thank you for
your attention and participation in this seminar today.
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SEMINAR ATTENDEES
John R. Adams
Toledo Metro. Area Council of
Governments
German Aguirre
Lawson Associate
South Bend, Indiana
Harry I. Allen
Southwest Illinois Planning Commission
Collinsville, Indiana
Stephen C. Andrews
Douglas County Red Clay Project
M.A. Anthony
NOACA, Cleveland, Ohio
Jerry Arnold
Land-0-Lake
Ft. Dodge, Iowa
Dan Banaszek
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
Jim Barnett
Indiana Farm Bureau, Inc.
Jim Benedum
West Michigan Shoreline Regional
Development Commission
Muskegon, Michigan
Joseph Berta
Illinois Dept. of Agriculture
Earl Bouwer
City of Grand Rapids, Mich.
Ralph M. Brooks, PhD
Purdue University
Paul A. Bucha
Land Improvement Contractors
of America
Thomas M. Berton
Michigan State University
V.W. Case
International Mining & Chemical Corp.
Libertyville, Illinois
Gordon Chesters
Water Resources Center
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin
Ellsworth P. Christmas
Cooperation Extension
Purdue University
Ralph G. Christensen
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
Jack Churchill
USEPA, Washington, D.C.
Richard Cohen
Wisconsin Dept. of Agriculture
Bill Cole
City Engineering Office
City of Grand Rapids, Michigan
Peter G. Collins
Southeast Michigan Council of
Government (SEKCOG)
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Richard L. Connell
City of Grand Rapids, Michigan
Warren Curtis
USDA-SCS
St. Paul, Minnesota
T.C. Daniel, PhD
University of Wisconsin
Danny E. Davis
Clark, Dietz & Associates
Champaign, Illinois
Mr. Peter Davis
HDR Engrs, Omaha, Nebraska
K.W. Delleur
Purdue University
Clarence Dennis
USDA-SCS
Lincoln, Nebraska
Glenn R. Dirks
Illinois EPA
Thomas A. Doane
Prein & Newhof Engineer
Grand Rapids, Michigan
Shirley Dougherty
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
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Charles Ellington
University of Georgia
Roy Elmore
Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission
Chicago, Illinois
Gerry E. Fein
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
Kent Fuller
EPA, Region V, Chicago
Harry Galloway
Purdue University
H.G. Geyer
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Extension Service
Washington, D.C.
D.J. Goodwin
Illinois EPA
Elaine Greening
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
Cathy Grissom
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
Roger Grow
Southcentral Michigan Planning Council
Nazareth, Michigan
Joel J. Hach
Elkhart County Planning Commission
Arlon L. Hanson
USDA-SCS
Champaign, Illinois
Keith G. Harrison
Michigan Area Council of Gov'ts
South Bend, Indiana
Roy Harsen
Illinois Pollution Control Board
Geneva, Illinois
Dennis L. Hatfield
USEAP, Region V, Chicago
Mary E. Hay
Institute for Environmental Studies
University of Illinois
Lawrence L. Heffner
Extension Service-U.S. Department
of Agriculture
Washington, D.C.
Ralph Heinden
State of Michigan
Department of Natural Resources
Paul Heitzenrater
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C.
Gregory A. Hill
Dane Co. Region Planning Council
208 Agency
Sun Prairie, Wisconsin
Robert Hoekstra
Southwestern Illinois Metropolitan
and Regional Planning Commission
Collinsville, Illinois
Douglas S. Hoopes
Farm & Industrial Equipment Institute
Chicago, Illinois
William Harvath
National Assn. of Conservation Districts'
Stevens Point, Wisconsin
L.F. Huggins
Purdue University
Lee W. Jacobs
Department of Crop and Soil Science
Michigan State University
Fred Johnson
Lake Co. Illinois Regional Planning
Commission
Waukegan, Illinois
Gerald F. Johnson
Northwestern Indiana Regional Planning
Commission
Hammond, Indiana
Leonard H. Johnson
American Farm Bureau
Park Ridge, Illinois
J. Benton Jones
Environmental Subcommittee of ECOP
J. Paul Jones
Region 8, Region 3, Williams & Works Inc.
Grand Rapids, Michigan
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Rex Edward Jones
Indiana State Board of Health
Oack Kaps
HDR Engrs.
Omaha, Nebraska
James R. Karr, PhD
University of Illinois and
Purdue University
Al Krause
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
Donald R. Krebs
Henningson Durham & Richardson
Omaha, Nebraska
Surendera Kumar
Illinois EPA
Jim Lake
Allen County SWCD
Richard E. Land
Purdue University
M. Myron Landes
Illinois EPA
Roger J. Landon
Tri-County Regional Planning Commission
Lansing, Michigan
R. Charles Larlham
NEFCO - Akron, Ohio
Bruce J. Lery
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
B.J. Liska
Purdue University
E.B. Long
NOACA - Cleveland, Ohio
Ted Loudon
Michigan State University
Daniel J. Lutenegger
Barton-Aschman Associates
Evanston, Illinois
S.K. Macho TRA
Region 3 & 8, Williams & Works, Inc.
Grand Rapids, Michigan
Jerry V. Mannering, PhD
Purdue University
Francis T. Mayo
Regional Administrator
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
William L. Miller
Purdue University
Shirley Mitchell
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
E.J. Monke, PhD
Purdue University
Dory Montazemi
Ohio-Kentucky-Indiana Regional
Council of Government
Cincinnati, Ohio
Burrell E. Montz
W. Michigan Shoreline
Regional Development Commission
Ken Morgan
Indiana State Board of Health
James B. Morrison
Congressman J. Edward Roush, Office
Leo Mulcahy
Wisconsin State Board of SWCD
Dan McCain
USDA-SCS
Ft. Wayne, Indiana
Ellis McFadden
Allen County SWCD
Charles C. McKee
Soil & Water Conservation Commission
Indiana
Ron Nargang
Lake County Illinois, Soil and Water
Conservation District
Lake Zurich, Illinois
Peter Nebel
Resource Management Associates
West Chester, Pennsylvania
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Margaret E. Nelson
ECOP Subcommittee on Environment
Glenn E. Nitschke
NOACA, Cleveland, Ohio
George Noble
Roy F. Weston Inc.
Northbrook, Illinois
Jam's Norman
Michigan Area Council of Gov'ts (MACOG)
South Bend, Indiana
Dennis Oakes
Region II Planning Comm.
Jackson, Michigan
Gary Oberts
Wisconsin Dept of Natural Resources
Oilman'O'Neal
Indiana Association Soil & Water Cons. Districts
Columbus, Ohio
Steve W. Payne
USDA-SCS
Superior, Wisconsin
David Peterson
West Central Indiana Economic Development
District
Terre Haute, Indiana
Eugene Pinkstaff
U.S. EPA, Region V, Chicago
C.F. Poland
USDA-SCS
Kandallville, Indiana
Vern Reinert
Soil & Water Conservation Board
St. Paul, Minnesota
David C. Rockwell
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
Robert Roller
Tri-County Regional Planning Commission
Lansing, Michigan
Gerald W. Root
USDA-SCS
Madison, Wisconsin
Beverly Roth
SEMCOG-Southeast Michigan Council
of Gov'ts
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Linda Saville
Indiana State Board Health
Berlie L. Schmidt
Dept of Agronomy
Ohio State University
Karyl Schmidt
Planning and Development
Commission
Muncie, Indiana
Robert R. Schneider
Water Resources Center
University of Wisconsin
Washington County 108a Project
Frank H. Schoone
ASCS
Springfield, Illinois
Leo H. Seltenright
Purdue University
Dr. Harvey Shear
International Joint Commission
R.G. Simms
South Central Mich. Planning
Council
Nazareth, Michigan
Lai it Sinha
Illinois EPA
J.A. Smedile
N.E. Illinois Planning
Commission
Chicago, Illinois
L.E. Sommers, PhD
Purdue University
Robert F. Stalcup
West Central Indiana Economic
Development District
Terre Haute, Indiana
Carl R. Stapleton, PhD
GLS Region V Planning and
Development Commission
Flint, Michigan
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Fred Sullivan
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
Oim Sygo
East Central Michigan Region
Essexville, Michigan
David L. Taylor
Purdue University
G.P. Tewari
U.S. Gypsum Co.
Des Plaines, Illinois
Donald Theiler
Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources
Tyrone C. Thompson
Illinois EPA
Randy Thome
Indiana Heartland Coordinating Committee
Indianapolis, Indiana
Joseph Tynsky
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
Patrick J. Tyson
Regional Development Commission
Muskegon, Michigan
Kenneth Walanski
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
R.D. Walker
University of Illinois
Donna Wallace
Illinois EPA
John Walker
Department Crop & Soil Science
Michigan State University
Leo T. Wendling
Extension Agric. Engr.
Kansas State University
William C. White
The Fertilizer Institute
Washington, D.C.
L.F. Wible
South East Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission
Waukesha, Wisconsin
Carl A. Wilhelm
Ohio EPA
Doug Williams
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
Robert E. Williams
National Association of Conservation
Districts
Ted Will rich
Oregon State University
Carl D. Wilson
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
Roll and Z. Wheaton, PhD
Purdue University
Jack S. Wood
Southcentral Michigan Planning
Council
Region III
Kalamazoo, Michigan
Gayle Worf
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Timothy L. Wright
Lake Co. Regional Planning Comm.
Waukegon, Illinois
Donald Wydeven
USEPA, Region V, Chicago
Robert Wydna
Southwestern Illinois Metropolitan
and Regional Planning Commission
Collinsville, Illinois
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
REPORT NO.
EPA-905/9-75-007
I. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOf*NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
5. REPORT DATE
"Non-Point Source Pollution Seminar"
Section 108(a) Demonstration Projects
December 1975
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
. AUTHOR(S)
Ralph 6. Christensen
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Great Lakes Coordinator
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago. Illinois 60604
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
2BH152
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
EPA-G005103 EPA-G005140
EPA-G005139
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Great Lakes Coordinator
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Progress- 1972-1975
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES Compiled by Ralph G. Christensen, Chief, Section 108(a) Program
(P.L. 92-500] in cooperation with project investigators and Carl D. Wilson, Non-Point
Source Coordinator. Region V, Chicago. Illinois. .
16. ABSTRACT
This report is a collection of technical papers presented at the "Non-Point Source
Pollution Seminar" held in Chicago, Illinois on November 20, 1975. The principal
investigators of three Section 108(a) projects present their data and interpretation
thereof, that has been collected on their respective projects through June of 1975.
These projects are sediment/erosion control demonstration projects located in three
different watersheds. Black Creek Watershed in Allen County, Indiana; Nemadji River
Watershed in Western Lake Superior Red Clay Area; and Menomonee River Watershed in
Washington County, Wisconsin.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSATI Field/Group
Water Quality
Sediment
Erosion
Socio-Economic
Land Use
Land Treatment
Nutrients
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Document is available to the public throug
the National Technical Information Service
Springfield^ Virginia 22WI ..v^--.-.-.-
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
h
21. NO. OF PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
-260-
*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1976—650-478 / 1104
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