United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Great Lakes
National Program Office
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
EPA-905/9-77-007-D
September 1978 ./
xvEPA
environmental impact
of land use
on water quality
-supplemental comments-
Final Report on the
Black Creek Project
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November, 1977 EPA-905/9-77-007-D
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
LAND USE ON
WATER QUALITY
Final Report
On the
Black Creek Project
(Supplemental Comments)
By
JAMES LAKE
Project Director
And
JAMES MORRISON
Project Editor
Prepared for
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY
Great Lakes National Program Office
536 South Clark Street
Chicago, Illinois 60605
RALPH G. CHRISTENSEN CARL D. WILSON
Section 108a Program Project Officer
UNDER U.S.EPA GRANT NO.G005103
ALLEN COUNTY SOIL & WATER
CONSERVATION DISTRICT
VS. Department of Agriculture, SCS, ARS
Purdue University, University of Illinois
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Great Lakes National Program
Office of Region V, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Chicago,
and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Environmental Protection
Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Biological Integrity of a Headwater Stream: Evidence of Degradation,
Prospects for Recovery ................................................ 3
Conservation District Involvement in 208 Nonpoint Source
Implementation ................................... * ................... 26
Quality of Black Creek Drainage Water: Additional Parameters ........... 36
Algal Availability of Soluble and Sediment Phosphorus in Drainage
Water of the Black Creek Watershed ................................... 38
Metallic Cation Concentrations in Water Samples ........................ 79
Soil Conservation Service .............................................. 84
Subsurface Drainage Model with Associated Sediment Transport ........... 86
Reconciling Streambank Erosion Control With Water Quality Goals ....... 101
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INTRODUCTION
This volume concludes the final report on a project to investigate
the enviornmental impact of land use on water quality, undertaken with
funding from the U. S. Enviornmental Protection Agency -- Region V, in
Allen County, Indiana.
Three other volumes provided an overview of the project, presented
a detailed technical report, and provided extensive data collected dur-
ing the project.
This volume presents some additional data not reported in the ori-
ginal three volumes. It also serves as a vehicle for personnel involved
in the project to make observations and comments concerning its find-
ings.
The theme of the Black Creek Project, as outlined in the previous
three volumes, was to design a program of best management practices to
reduce non-point pollution of the Black Creek. The project was designed
to furnish information which could be useful in reducing agricultural
non-point pollution in the Maumee River and in Lake Erie.
Under the direction of the Allen County Soil and Water Conservation
District, with assistance from the Soil Conservaton Service and the
Agricultural Research Service of USDA, and with research assistance from
Purdue University and the University of Illinois, various aspects of the
problem of non-point source pollution were investigated.
Authors of papers presented in the volume have, for the most part,
been associated with the Black Creek project for a considerable period
of time. In order of the appearance of the papers they are:
James Karr —Karr is associate professor in the Department of Ecol-
ogy, Ethology, and Evolution at the University of Illnois. He has been
responsible for biological investigations throughout most of the pro-
ject.
Dan Dudley —Dudley, an aquatic biologist, was employed by the
Allen County Soil and Water Conservation District to work with Dr. Karr
on studies of the biology of the Black Creek system.
James Lake —Lake was director of the Black Creek project for five
years. He is currently a water quality specialist with the National
Association of Conservation Districts.
R. E. Williams —Williams is special projects director of the
National Association of Conservation Districts.
Darrell Nelson —Nelson is professor of Agronomy at Purdue Univer-
sity. He operated the laboratory at Purdue which analyzed water and
soil samples. He has also investigated several aspects of nutrient and
sediment dynamics.
R. A. Dorich —Dorich is a graduate student in the Department of
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Agronomy at Purdue.
David Beasley —Beasley worked, on the project as a graduate
instructor at Purdue University. His Phd dissertation involved the
ANSWERS model of sediment transport and detatchment developed as a part
of the project. He is currently an associate professor in the Depart-
ment of Agricultural Engineering at Purdue.
Dan McCain —McCain, an employee of the Soil Conservation Service,
was district conservationist in Allen County throughout the Black Creek
Project. As district conservationist, he was responsible for planning
for the application of best management practices and for overseeing the
technical assitance provided to individual landowners.
Del Bottcher —Bottcher investigated tile flow in the Black Creek
area while doing research for a Phd. He is currently a member of the
Agricultural Enginering Department at the University of Florida, Gaines-
ville.
Ed Monke —Monke is professor of agricultural engineering at Pur-
due. He has been involved with the modeling effort on the project and
with other investigations of sediment dynamics.
Larry Huggins —Huggins, professor of agricultural engineering at
Purdue, has been involved with modeling and with remote data acquisi-
tion.
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BIOLOGICAL INTEGRITY OF A HEADWATER STREAM:
EVIDENCE OF DEGRADATION, PROSPECTS FOR RECOVERY
by
James R. Karr* and Daniel R. Dudley**
ABSTRACT
Although detailed knowledge of the structural and functional
dynamics of natural ecosystems is not yet available, sufficient
information is available to suggest that land use in the headwaters
of major rivers has impact on the quality of the water resource through-
out a river system. The major functional attributes of streams seem to
derive from the form of energy inputs. In natural headwater streams
organic matter produced outside of the stream provides the major energy
source, generally in the form of leaves and twigs. Heavily shaded
stream channels limit plant growth in the stream. Insect communities
are dominated by shredders and collectors which process the coarse
particulate organic matter which is of terrestrial origin. Dominant
fish are usually invertivores. Modifications of watersheds result in
shifts in these attributes of headwater streams to attributes more
typical of larger streams. These include high in-stream plant pro-
duction (especially algae), benthic communities dominated by grazers
and collectors, and fish communities dominated by omnivores. Environ-
mental conditions associated with intense agricultural activities
include: high nutrient availability; modified inputs of organic
material; increased input of sunlight; imbalance in temperature and
dissolved oxygen characteristics; modified habitat structure; and
seasonal low flows. The presence of autotrophic rather than heter-
trophic communities signals the loss of a naturally functioning
headwater stream. All of these result in degradation of water resource
quality in both headwaters and downstream areas. Efforts at recovery
and restoration are both possible and likely to be profitable if they
improve stream conditions for the three primary variables which affect
the biological integrity of a stream. These variables are energy source,
water quality characteristics, and habitat structure.
*Associate Professor, Department of Ecology, Ethology and Evolution,
Vivarium Building, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois 61820
**Aquatic Biologist, Allen County Soil and Water Conservation District,
Executive Park, Suite 103, 2010 Inwood, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805.
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INTRODUCTION
Public Law 92-500 sets forth a goal of restoring and maintaining the
physical, chemical and biological integrity of the nation's waters. This
task requires knowledge of the structural and functional characteristics
of natural aquatic ecosystems.
In this paper we outline some of the basic principles associated
with running water systems, with emphasis on the biology of natural
streams. We follow with a discussion of the characteristics of the
stream ecosystem in Black Creek, a heavily agricultural watershed in
the Maumee River basin. Finally, we outline some general
principles which are important in consideration of plans for recovery
and restoration of headwater streams modified as a result of high
intensity agriculture. Obviously, a complete restoration to pristine
conditions is not a viable alternative in today's society. However,
an understanding of natural stream systems can lead to rational decision
making in determining the degree of natural integrity necessary to
optimize the broadest range of societal needs.
PERSPECTIVE ON LOTIC ECOSYSTEMS
The running water or lotic environment exhibits continuity over
time. Climatic and geological processes effect many changes on streams
but major drainage patterns persist despite the movements in the precise
location of channels. In contrast, lakes often disappear as their
basins are reduced through natural successional processes. In this
sense, streams are the most stable, long-lasting, freshwater environments.
On a small scale, however, the streams of a region may suffer ex-
treme environmental stresses due to droughts, floods or temperature
extremes. Many species can be entirely eliminated from a stream due to
such naturally occurring events. However, the loss is only temporary
because aquatic life has evolved mechanisms to reinvade the decimated
areas. Even these extreme fluctuations in environmental conditions have
not prevented many species from inhabiting the most temporary headwater
streams. In the words of ichthyologist Carl L. Hubbs, "where there is
water, there are fishes..." and, we could add, at least a modest array
of aquatic life upon which fishes depend.
Life in running waters has undergone a tremendous diversification
over many millenia. This great diversity of aquatic and semi-aquatic
organisms is possible, in part, due to the wide variety of habitats
present in natural stream systems. Many physical, chemical and bio-
logical factors act together to create this habitat diversity. A
familiar example known to aquatic biologists for many years involves
the association of organisms with submerged objects found in swiftly
flowing water. The variations of current velocities around an object
(e.g. a rock) result in a zonation of plant and animal species
according to their current preferences (Hynes, 197Q). Thus, on a
single substrate type, current diversity affords several habitat
niches, each with its own set of species. Current is also responsible
for eroding or depositing the substratum and thereby creates a patchy
network of substrate (bottom) types cross-wise and length-wise in the
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stream channel. This phenomenon typically qreates the pool-riffle
complexes of natural stream systems. Due to the persistence of the
lotic environment through time, the adaptation of aquatic life to re-
invade decimated streams, and the interaction of many environmental
factors, the running water environment supports a biological system of
extreme complexity.
Streams have many characteristics besides the biota they contain.
Excess water is carried from the land in moist times and streams re-
charge groundwater in times of drought. A variety of substances are
carried downstream with the water. The impact of the raindrop on the
land's surface and the overland flow of rainfall runoff dislodge soil
particles. Soil material reaching stream channels is referred to as
sediment. Sediment is a rather dynamic element of running water
systems for it can be suspended in water, transported as bedload or
permanently deposited in the channel or floodplain. In any of these
modes, sediment is an important component of the physical, chemical and
biological properties of a stream. Generally, raindrop impact is of
minor importance in generating sediment from well-vegetated natural
watersheds. However, as man modifies watersheds, exposing the soil
surface, sediment transport increases, thus altering many stream
characteristics.
Water reaching streams through sub-surface percolation and ground-
water contains various dissolved ions. The amount and concentrations
of these are dependent on local soil types and the parent rock material.
Streams also receive inputs of organic matter from the terrestrial
environment. Studies of the Hubbard Brook ecosystem have shown that 1%
of the nutrients cycling in a mature forest are lost through stream
export (Likens et al. 1977). Export of nutrients and energy (in the
form of organic matter) from the terrestrial environment provides many
essential requirements for aquatic life. Ecological changes begin when
these loss rates increase beyond the capability of the stream biota to
assimilate and process them. When man precipitates this problem we have
cultural eutrophication.
BIOLOGICAL INTEGRITY
The biological integrity of stream ecosystems has been viewed from
two primary perspectives: structural and functional attributes.
Structural characteristics include such parameters, as number of species,
number of individuals per species, and the kind of species present.
These can be measured relatively quickly for many groups of organisms
and, thus, have been more frequently used than functional attributes.
Early approaches in this area involved the identification of indicator
species; presence of sludge worms (Tubificidae), for example, instead
of stoneflies (Plecoptera) indicates a polluted stream.
Other researchers have used various diversity indexes to evaluate
the biota and hence the quality of a water resource. Typically, the
higher the number of species (or the more similar the abundance among
species in two faunas with the same number of species), the lower
the pollution in an area. While these simplistic measures are
indicative, they often involve only one or two community attributes
and attempts to generalize from them can be misleading. More importantly,
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they may be useful indexes for monitoring stream quality but they do not
explain the causal relationships responsible for "polluted" biota-.
Without knowledge of the causal relationships the indexes are subject
to major error.
In recent years studies of the functional attributes of stream
ecosystems have been pioneered by Cummins and his associates at Michigan
State University (Cummins 1974). This approach stresses a more dynamic
view of stream ecosystems in evaluating process-oriented attributes
such as production, respiration , energy flow, nutrient cycling, and
trophic dynamics. It is a fundamental postulate that many process-
oriented attributes of running water ecosystems change as streams
increase in size from headwaters to mouth.
A classification system developed by Kuehne (1962) is commonly used
by aquatic biologists to discuss the progressive increase in stream
size. According to this system, the smallest streams in a watershed
are first order. When two first-order streams join, they form a
second order stream; when two second-order streams join, they form
a third order stream; etc. Ecological discussions of streams typically
consider three lumped size classes: the headwaters (1st to 3rd order),
intermediate-sized rivers (4th to 6th order), and large rivers (7th
and larger orders).
The transition from small headwater areas to major rivers is
referred to as the stream continuum. Structural and functional attri-
butes of natural stream ecosystems change along this continuum (Table 1).
These attributes serve as reference points to assess the status of the
stream ecosystem in any location. Measured attributes conforming to
theoretical foundations suggest a functionally intact ecosystem, while
divergence from those attributes indicates a degraded ecosystem.
Before presenting a more detailed assessment of the Black Creek
and Maumee River systems, we present a brief primer on stream biology
for those not familiar with the general patterns characteristic of
natural streams.
A PRIMER ON STREAM BIOLOGY
The focus of the process-oriented functional approach to the study
of ecosystems is energy. In stream ecosystems the form and source of
the energy and nutrients are especially important in determining eco-
system characteristics. The energy contained in the chemical bonds
of organic matter is one form of energy. Organic matter is the basic
food for animals, fungi and many bacteria. The process of breaking
the chemical bonds to release energy and simpler compounds is respiration.
Production is the reverse process in which energy in the form of solar
radiation and simple compounds are converted into complex organic
compounds. Obviously, plants are the major producer organisms and
high production rates are dependent upon abundant sunlight and essential
nutrients. The fundamental energy relationship can be expressed by
the production (P) to respiration (R) ratio: P/R >1 when production
exceeds respiration, P/R <1 when respiration excedes production. In
streams, this basic energy flow characteristic is sensitive to the
organic loading from the terrestrial environment, the amount of sunlight
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Table 1. General characteristics of running water ecosystems according to size of stream.
Modified from Cummins, 1975.
Stream
size
Small
headwater
streams
(stream
order
1-3)
Medium
sized
streams
(4-6)
Large
rivers
(7-12)
Primary
energy
source
Coarse particulate
organic matter
(CPOM) from the
terrestrial
environment
Little primary
production
Fine particulate
organic matter
(FPOM) , mostly
Considerable
primary
production
FPOM from
upstream
Production
(trophic)
state
Heterotrophic
P/R <1
Autotrophic
P/R >1
Heterotrophic
P/R <1
Light and Trophic status of dominant
temperature
regimes Insects Fish
Heavily Shredders Invertivores
shaded
Collectors
Stable
temperatures
Little Collectors Invertivores
shading
Scrapers Piscivores
High daily (grazers)
temperature
variation
Little shading
Planktonic Planktivores
Stable collectors
temperatures
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_ Q _
and nutrients and also the form or availability of nutrients (simple
compounds vs. complex organic compounds).
Headwater streams in a natural watershed are heterotrophic. That
is, they have productiort to respiration ratios (P/R) of less than 1.0
and are dependent on food produced outside of the stream (allocthonous
material). Instream production is minor, generally from small populations
of moss or periphytic algae ( algae attached to r.ocks or other sub-
strates) . One study in a New Hampshire watershed (Fisher and Likens 1973)
showed that 99% of the energy requirements for the biota of a headwater
stream was of allocthonous origin. A very different watershed in Oregon
demonstrated the same general pattern (Sedell et al. 1973). In this
situation the persistence of the biotic community depends on a regular
input of food (organic matter) from external sources. The terrestrial
environment supplies much of the energy input in the form of leaf litter
shed in the fall when temperatures are low. To effectively process and
utilize this energy, stream organisms must be capable of processing large
volumes of organic matter at reasonable rates. Since much of the pro-
cessing occurs in the fall at low temperatures, Cummins (1974) refers
to this as an energy compensated ecosystem.
The particle size of organic matter entering a stream is just as
important to stream ecosystem functioning as the amount, type or timing
of energy input. In undisturbed headwater areas, the terrestrial environ-
ment produces particulates of relatively large size (such as leaves,
twigs, etc.), referred to as coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM).
Bacteria and fungi quickly colonize the CPOM and, as a result of their
metabolic activity, speed the process of fragmentation into smaller
particles—fine particulate organic matter (FPOM). (Any organic particle
less than 1 millimeter in diameter is considered FPOM, regardless of its
source.) The breakdown process of CPOM is accelerated by benthic invette-
brates, primarily aquatic insects, which ingest and further fragment
(or shred) the CPOM. Organisms with this functional capacity are called
shredders. Shredders utilize some of the energy contained in the CPOM
along with the rich growths of attached bacteria and fungi. But most of
the CPOM is simply converted to FPOM and is available for use by another
functional group of aquatic organisms called collectors. Collectors
either filter FPOM from the water or gather it from the sediments
(Cummins 1973). Because of structural adaptations, most collector
organisms utilize FPOM only within a narrow size range, thus illustrating
the critical nature of organic matter particle size in stream ecosystems.
The natural association of shredder and collector organisms in headwater
streams results in a highly efficient utilization of energy (organic matter)
input. Cummins (1975) has estimated that the biota processes about 80%
of the particulate organic matter (POM) and 50% of the dissolved organic
matter (DOM) in natural first to third order streams.
Functional attributes are markedly different in undisturbed inter-
mediate sized rivers. The stream becomes autotrophic (P/R >1) as the
stream becomes less shaded and algae and vascular plants increase in
abundance. CPOM inputs are reduced, resulting in decreased shredder
abundance. Incoming allocthonous material is primarily FPOM from head-
water areas and a variety of collector organisms are common. The auto-
trophic status of the stream accounts for the presence of a third functional
group of aquatic macroinvertebrates. These are the scraper or grazer
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organisms that exploit the energy source of the abundant periphytic algae
and vascular plants. As the name implies, many of the organisms harvest
the plant material by scraping it from submerged objects. A few scrapers
can always be found in natural headwater streams but their abundance is
severely limited by the low rate of primary production.
Further downstream in large rivers (7th to 12th order) the stream
again becomes heterotrophic due primarily to increasing turbidities
reducing light penetration and, therefore, the potential for photosyn-
thesis. The primary production that does occur is generated by phyto-
plankton (free-floating algae). Free-floating collectors (zooplankton)
are also present, utilizing the phytoplankton and suspended FPOM as food.
Collectors also predominate in the sediments as FPOM is the major energy
source. Few scrapers or shredders occur in a large river environment.
This review has followed the stream continuum from headwaters to
mouth, stressing the major impact of energy inputs on the functional
attributes of the macroinvertebrate communities of running water. The
fish fauna also reflects the energy sources available in a stream.
However, fish can be more directly related to the value in human terms
of the water resource (commercial and sport fish, shellfish, etc.).
Cummins (1975) categorized the functional attributes of fish communities
according to the food habits of the dominant fish. Predominant food
habits are somewhat different for the three major ecological areas of
an undisturbed river system. In headwater streams, fishes that feed
upon macroinvertebrates (invertivores) are dominant. Invertivores along
with piscivores (fish that consume other fish) dominate intermediate-sized
rivers. (Because few fish are entirely piscivorous, we have classified
all predominantly piscivorous fish as invertivores/piscivores, while the
invertivore category was reserved for strict invertivores.) Finally, in
large rivers dominant members of the fish community are planktivores
(fishes feeding upon both phytoplankton and zooplankton). Two additional
categories of fish according to food habits are omnivores (consuming both
plant and animal matter in approximately equal portions) and herbivores
(consuming primarily plant material). These functional groups are rarely
dominant in natural running water systems.
We might now shift to an examination of the situation in Black Creek.
When stream conditions diverge from those outlined above, we assume this
is an indication of a degraded ecosystem.
THE BIOTA OF BLACK CREEK
Our review of lotic ecosystems has pointed out several key points
concerning natural headwater stream structure and function. Two principles
have specific bearing on interpreting the status of the Black Creek eco-
system, a headwater area within the Maumee River basin. First, shredder
organisms are common in headwater streams and they process CPOM into FPOM
that is utilized by other organisms. Secondly, there is very little
primary production in headwater areas and therefore very few grazer or
scraper organisms that utilize algae. We know that a combination of major
changes in the watershed landscape caused by agriculture and urbanization
has altered the natural headwater characteristics of the Black Creek basin.
In addition, recent channelization or stream bank protection work has
created extremely unnatural channel configurations throughout much of the
watershed. An examination of the aquatic macroinvertebrate and fish
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communities illustrates the severe nature of these alterations and the
nearly total loss of natural headwater ecosystem structure and function.
Macroinvertebrates.
Aquatic insects were collected for two years as part of the Black
Creek Project (McCafferty 1976, Lake and Morrison 1978). We have ex-
amined those data to provide information on the structural and functional
characteristics of the aquatic ecosystem of Black Creek. Unfortunately,
biomass data are not available so only a qualitative approach is possible.
The relative occurrence of various taxonomic groups was noted on a scale
of 0.0 to 1.0 by dividing the number of stations at which the group was
reported by the total number of stations sampled in the Black Creek
watershed (12). This index is not representative of numerical abundance
but does yield a rough estimate of the importance of each taxonomic group
in making up the total aquatic insect fauna. All except two taxonomic
groups were classified according to the trophic categories of Cummins
(1973). Lack of species identification and insufficient food studies
prevented trophic category classification for Chironomidae and Stratio-
myidae. We believe the exclusion of these groups from our qualitative
analysis has no significant effect on our conclusions concerning the
structure and function of the ecosystem based on the other 25 taxa.
Shredder organisms, the processors of CPOM, are very rare in Black
Creek (Fig. 1). This may be due to a combination of several factors
related to the man-induced alterations of the Black Creek watershed; an
alteration in the kind of CPOM input, a reduction in the amount of CPOM
input, and insufficient opportunity for shredder colonization of CPOM.
An alteration in the kind of CPOM seems an inevitable result of converting
woodland to agricultural uses. The fact that most CPOM has nearly equiv-
alent caloric and protein values suggests that the shift in the kinds of
CPOM input alone should have minor influences on shredder populations
(Cummins 1973). Some reduction in amount of CPOM may result as land use
changes from woodland to agriculture, although input of CPOM continues
in the form of crop residue, grasses, and leaf litter. A more important
factor creating low shredder populations in Black Creek seems to be the
limited opportunity for shredder organisms to colonize CPOM. The natural
habitat or micro-environment for most shredder organisms is a leaf pack.
Packs form around obstacles in the stream channel or in slack water and
consist of leaf litter and other detritus. The uniform, unobstructed
channels in Black Creek offer few locations where leaf packs can form.
Therefore, a substantial amount of the CPOM input to streams like Black
Creek is never subject to shredder colonization and processing within the
stream. Instead, it is washed from the headwaters to downstream areas
where biotic communities must cope with the material.*
Another indicator of the degraded Black Creek ecosystem is the
number of herbivorous taxa in the scraper or grazer category (Fig. 1).
^Studies show that sediment particle size has a significant influence on
the rate of CPOM breakdown (Reice, 1974). Silt and sand substrates
retard the conversion of CPOM to FPOM while the conversion is most
efficient on gravel and rock substrates. A lack of the natural hetero-
genity (i.e. patchy distribution) of sediment particles in recently
channelized streams thus retards the efficient processing of CPOM
that remains in the system.
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Such grazer populations are indicative of a high level of primary pro-
ductivity not characteristic of natural headwater streams. Greater
primary production in disturbed watersheds results from the increased
availability of nutrients and sunlight. Similarly, collector taxa are
abnormally abundant. Since little CPOM is converted to FPOM in Black
Creek, these collectors probably utilize FPOM resulting from primary
production and the processing of the grazer organisms. Finally, a sub-
stantial organic loading from septic tank effluent arid storm water runoff
may be an important source of FPOM for collector organisms.
Fishes.
Perturbations of the Maumee, River fish fauna since 1850 have been
described by Trautman (1957). Of paramount importance in the decline of
many commercially important game fishes was the ditching and drainage of
the Black Swamp, a vast lowland area in northwest Ohio. The natural
streams and wetland areas of the Black Swamp were vital spawning grounds
for the muskellunge, northern pike, lake sturgeon, walleye, smallmouth
bass, and several species of suckers (Trautman and Gartman 1974). These
fishes, once abundant, have been extirpated from the basin or have been
greatly reduced in numbers. Coinciding with the decline in commercially
valuable fishes has been the increased abundance of rough fishes—carp,
quillback, gizzard shad, drum, and buffalo fish. Man's activities in
the Maumee River basin have probably not significantly altered the total
numbers or biomass of the fish community. However, man-induced alter-
ations have drastically changed the species composition. We have examined
the data available on species composition within the Maumee River basin.
We will now relate these changes to the basic transitions in community
functions along the stream continuum. Briefly reviewing the transitions
of food habits, natural fish communities are dominated by invertivores in
headwater streams, invertivores and piscivores in moderate-sized rivers,
and planktivores in the largest river sections.
A 90-year series of observations on the fishes of Gordon Creek, a
headwater tributary of the Maumee River, is available and provides
valuable information on long-term trends in fish populations (Trautman
1939, Trautman and Gartman 1974). Our fish studies in Black Creek, only
20 miles from Gordon Creek, are an excellent supplement to this record
because we can offer insights into the short term fluctuations of head-
water stream fishes. Our data has been supplemented by that from other
published sources to compile Appendix 1, a listing of the pertinent
information concerning each species of the Maumee River basin fauna.
To stress the functional changes that have occurred in Black Creek^and
the Maumee River, a summarv table based on food habit classification
is provided in Table 2, including the native fauna and introduced species.
Species-that we consider lost from the native fauna have been extirpated
or so greatly reduced in numbers that they are insignificant in the
current structure and function of the fish community.
The drastic shift in species composition (community structure)
mentioned above has been paralleled by a basic alteration in the functional
composition of the fish community. The most significant functional changes
appear to be in the mid-river fauna (Table 2). Nine species (including
northern pike, smallmouth bass and walleye) of invertivores/piscivores
have been lost from the system or have declined in abundance. Although
deteriorating water quality was undoubtedly a contributing factor in the
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Table 2. Summary of population trends since 1850 by stream size and food type for the fish fauna
of the Maumme River.
Stream size
Headwaters
Mid-river
Large river
Food habits of dominant species
in native fauna
Invertivores
Invertivore-
Piscivores
Planktivores
Number of species
with decreasing populations
with increasing populations
6 Invertivores
2 Invertivore-
Piscivores
2 Omnivores
1 Herbivore
2 Invertivores
2 Omnivores
1 Herbivore
6 Invertivores
8 Invertivore-
Piscivoresa
1 Invertivore
1 Invertivore-
Piscivorec
1 Omnivorec
1 Invertivore-
Piscivore
2 Planktivoresb
K
i
lost
4 Invertivores
3 Omnivores
5 Invertivores
1 Invertivore-
Piscivore
1 Invertivore
1 Invertivore-
Piscivore
introduced
3 Invertivores
1 Invertivore-
Piscivore
3 Invertivore-
Piscivores
2 Omnivores"
1 Invertivore-
Piscivore
1 Planktivore
Declining abundances of these top predators reduces their spawning migrations and, thus, their
impact on headwater ecosystems.
'"'These species invade headwater and mid-river segments as drainages are modified.
"Shifting headwater ecology results in invasion of headwaters by these species.
^These species are common invaders, at least seasonally, in upstream areas.
-------
- 13 -
disappearance of some species, for other species the destruction of head-
water spawning habitat has been the critical factor (Trautman and Gartman
1974) . Some remaining invertivore/piscivore species of the mid-river
fauna continue to face this problem in the upper Maumee River. Currently,
northern pike seek out a few remaining areas of marginal spawning habitat
within the Black Creek watershed. Spawning success has been observed but
recruitment of young into the next generation must surely be limited in
many areas by the rarity of adequate nursery habitat. This is one way in
which conditions in headwater streams can affect the structural and
functional composition of the downstream or mid-river fisheries. The
functional aspects of the alteration may be particularly disruptive to
the fish community because the top predators are reduced thus removing
a natural check on forage and rough fish populations.
A native species (drum) and three introduced species have partially
filled the functional gap left by the decline or loss of the nine species
of mid-river invertivores/piscivores. (It is interesting to note that the
drum does not utilize headwater areas for spawning.) However, the dominant
mid-river fauna has shifted away from the natural condition of invertivores
and piscivores to dominance by omnivores—the carp, quillback, and gold-
fish (Table 2). Again, as with the disappearance of some species, certain
water quality characteristics are related to the abundance of these rough
fish. However, observations in Black Creek and Gordon Creek suggest a
contributing factor in carp and quillback abundance is their use of
headwater streams for spawning grounds.
The harsh environmental conditions of many headwater streams cannot
be tolerated by desirable game fishes (i.e., northern pike), but can still
be suitable for the spawning of carp and quillback. In the late spring
hundreds of these rough fish can be found in the small first and second
order streams, 10-15 km upstream from the river. Success in spawning is
variable and appears to be highly weather-dependent—high water is needed
to reach the spawning areas but a subsequent low flow period is required
to insure survival of eggs and larval fish. Five years of record in the
Black Creek watershed reveals that if successful spawning is achieved,
the young carp and quillback dominate the headwater fish community
until September or October when they migrate to larger streams and rivers.
This is a second way in which the headwater stream environment dramatically
influences the mid-river fish community, both in terms of functional
composition (omnivores dominant vs. invei Livure/piscivorcs cioininani;,1
and in terms of resource value (rough fish vs. game fish).
Impoundments on the Maumee River have contributed to the increased
abundance of the characteristic large river fauna—the planktivores (gizzard
shad and buffalo fish). The importance of headwater areas Lu the spawning
of these two species is minimal but numerous young gizzard shad are con-
sistently captured in Black Creek each fall. The same phenomenon holds
for the spotfin shiner and possible the drum—two abundant mid-river species.
These species appear to utilize headx^ater streams as a supplemental food
resource, perhaps in response to population pressures. The relative
importance of the headwaters to these fish species is currently unknown.
We have stressed changes in the species composition of the Maumee
River basin's mid-river fauna and have pointed out the disruption of
-------
- 14 -
natural community functioning. Conditions in the headwater streams are
seen as important contributing factors in these changes. Are there
changes in the functional relationships of the headwater fish fauna? Yes,
and the invasion by mid-river omnivores is the major reason (Table 2). As
mentioned above, carp and quillback young dominate the community in years
when good spawning success is achieved (Table 3). However, in poor
spawning years the resident fish fauna is more abundant and dominated by
invertivores. If the invasion of downstream omnivores is ignored,
there has been no change in the dominant functional group of headwater
fishes. The records from Gordon Creek and elsewhere in the Maumee basin
reveal the loss of species intolerant of degraded water quality (especially
high turbidity and elevated water temperature) but this decimation has
not been selective towards one functional group.
Table 3. Total number of species and individuals and number and percent
of individuals of rough fish (carp, carpsucker, and shad).
Note that the spawning success of the rough fish varies from
year to year.
Sample
Station
12 - July
1974
1975a
1976
1977
Total
species
12
14
17
15
number of
individuals
127
206
348
286
Number of
rough fish
10
3
13
167
Percent
rough fish
7.9
1.5
3.7
58.4
Station 29
July 1976 17 348 13 3.7
July 1977 16 372 190 51.1
August 1976 18 1138 378 33.2
August*1977 16 407 191 46.9
a Means for 2 samples
Other indications of resource degradation.
While considerable effort has been expended to document the functional
attributes! few studies8have examined the detailed characteristics of lotic
ecosystems in areas of high intensity agriculture. During the past five
years of working in Black Creek we have identified ecological factors
which seem to be tied to the declining integrity of stream ecosystems.
1. Allocthonous organic matter inputs: FPOM input from sewage and
stormwater runoff is substantial as evidenced by high bacterial contam-
ination (Dudley and Karr 1979). This change along with the modification
in form and content of CPOM discussed earlier results in major structural
and functional changes in the stream ecosystem.
2. Nutrient availability: Concentrations of simple nutrient forms
(P04, N03, NH4) are high. In addition, inputs of complex organic compounds
associated with CPOM are not effectively processed.
-------
- 15 -
3. Sunlight availability: A predominance of unshaded stream
channels results in high solar energy input. Coupled with available
nutrients (#2 above), this results in buildup in algal populations (CPOM)
which is either subject to slow decay in the headwaters or is washed
downstream in large quantities during high flows. These algal blooms add
to the organic load of the aquatic system and change the physical character-
istics of the stream environment (reducing current velocities, covering
natural substrates, etc.).
4. Temperature and dissolved oxygen imbalance; Seasonal and daily
patterns of temperature and dissolved oxygen are exagerated and poorly
buffered from environmental influences (weather extremes, organic loading,
etc.).
5. Stream habitat characteristics: The diversity and stability of
high quality stream habitat is low (Gorman and Karr 1978). The ditching
and drainage efforts prevalent in some agricultural watersheds perpetuates
this problem.
6. Seasonal low flows; The loss of natural vegetation and install-
ation of complex drainage networks results in rapid runoff instead of
slow release of excess water. As a result extreme lowflows during dry
periods, especially in late summer and early fall, place considerable
stress on aquatic ecosystems.
All these factors contribute to degradation in water resource
quality in agricultural watersheds. But the causal interactions among
these variables and biological integrity remain poorly understood.
Detailed studies of these functional relationships of disturbed headwater
streams are needed.
In summary, our ecological assessment of the Black Creek system
reveals autotrophic community attributes instead of the normal hetero-
trophic community to be expected. This fundamental shift in energy flow
signals the loss of a naturally functioning headwater stream. This appears
to be a common phenomenon throughout intensive agricultural areas. Major
downstream impacts on the fishes of the Maumee River occurred nearly a
century ago but we have shown the headwater environment continues to
influence the mid-river fish community. It is imperative that some
measure of natural headwater community function be maintained if we
are to preserve and restore valuable downstream aquatic resources.
RECOVERY AND RESTORATION
A critical problem in water resource management is our inability
to view streams as biological systems with natural functional, structural,
and stability properties. Stream channels are too frequently viewed
(and put to work) as drainage pipes or conduits in both urban and agri-
cultural settings. The benefits of enhanced drainage are often cited
as reduced flooding and improved crop production but little thought is
given to the preservation of benefits lost through short-circuiting of
the natural processing potential of our stream ecosystems. The result of
this short-circuiting is manifest in a number of downstream problems
involved in declining water-resource values. To solve these problems
innovative stream management policies are needed in headwater areas.
The Black Creek project was not designated to utilize such a stream
-------
- 16 -
management approach but perhaps we can learn from its shortcomings in
this area.
A considerable portion of project money and effort was expended on
stream channel related activities (streambank protection and stabiliz-
ation). Motivations for these activities were threefold: reducing
erosion by stabilizing stream banks, enhancing the drainage efficiencies
of the stream network, and winning favor amoung the agricultural commun-
ity by installing popular practices. In the Black Creek watershed the
first two motives cannot justify the majority of stream channel work
done. Mildner (1976) found that only 5% of the sediment exported from
Black Creek originates from streambank sources clearly showing a poor
return on money spent to reduce streambank erosion. [In other watersheds,
streambank sources may generate 50% of the sediment therefore improving
the cost-benefit ratio (Evans and Schnepper 1977). The point is the
magnitude of the problem should be investigated on a case by case basis].
Although quantitative data are lacking, project designers admit that in
only a few cases was streambank work necessary to maintain or improve
the drainage characteristics of Black Creek. Thus, agricultural pro-
duction was not significantly affected by stream channel activities.
[Again, this conclusion is not universally true, but in very few cases
is the issue explored by designers.] This leaves as valid justification
only the winning of favor among the farm community and thereby gaining
support for other conservation practices. Black Creek project admin-
istrators point to this as a requirement for obtaining a high degree of
participation in agricultural conservation programs. While it does have
merit, this reasoning results in a trade-off of water-resource values—
stream ecosystem functions are sacrificied to obtain reduced pollution
from cropland runoff. Innovative approaches are needed that encompass
headwater stream functioning and pollutant loading for both are essential
to downstream water-resource values.
From the principles outlined above we can suggest general approaches
which might be developed to improve the biological integrity of water
resources. Three sets of variables are known to have a major impact on
the integrity of a stream biota (Figure 2). These are the nature of
the energy source (Cummins 1974, this paper), physical and chemical
characteristics of water (Hynes 1974, Warren 1971), and structural
aspects of stream habitat (Allen 1975, Gorman and Karr 1978). Each of
the primary variables includes a complex array of factors. A partial
list of the components of these variables that are of obvious signifi-
cance follows:
Energy Source: allocthonous organic matter vs. primary production
in the stream; particle size distribution of
particulate organics.
Water Quality: temperature; dissolved oxygen content; soluble
organics and inorganics; heavy metals, toxic
substances; water volume; temporal distribution
(seasonality and low flows) of water availability.
Habitat bottom type; water depth; current velocity; avail-
Structure: ability of spawning, nursery, and hiding places;
diversity of "habitats" in small scale areas.
-------
- 17 -
ENERGY
SOURCE
WATER
QUALITY
HABITAT
STRUCTURE
BIOLOGICAL
INTEGRITY OF
AQUATIC BIOTA
Figure 2. Primary variables affecting the structural and functional
aspects of the biota of a headwater stream.
-------
- 18 -
As has been emphasized in earlier papers (Gorman and Karr 1978,
Karr and Schlosser 1978), a patchwork approach attacking only one of
these areas will be doomed to failure if other factors also limit the
biotic community; comprehensive efforts to improve the biological
integrity of our waterways must evaluate and alleviate problems existing
in all of these areas.
At the same time we must recognize that a variety of societal and
resource constraints limit our ability to protect and/or restore all
headwater streams. Agricultural productivity must be improved to meet
growing food and fiber demands. But can we affort to maximize production
in entire basins such as the Maumee River, the largest tributary entering
the Great Lakes and the second largest drainage in Ohio? To do so is
to sentence much of the water resources of the Great Lakes Basin to
continued degradation.
The preservation or recovery of natural streams in selected headwater
areas of a river basin may sacrifice agricultural productivity in a
small area but yield substantial improvements in downstream water resources.
Studies from a number of areas (Cairns et al. 1977) have shown that re-
covery and restoration is not only possible but profitable from a societal
perspective. Successes in the Thames River in England (Gameson and Wheeler
1977) and Lake Washington near Seattle (Edmondson 1977) give cause for
optimism. The only question remaining, in our opinion, is: Are we up
to the challenge?
-------
- 19 -
REFERENCES
Allan, J. D. 1975. The distributional ecology and diversity of benthic
insects in Cement Creek, Colorado. Ecology. 56: 1040-1053.
Allison, D. and H. Hothem. 1975. An evaluation of the status of the
fisheries and the status of other selected wild animals in the Maumee
River basin, Ohio. State of Ohio, Department of Natural Resources,
Division of Wildlife, Columbus. 15 pp.
Cairns, J. Jr., K. L. Dickson, and E. E. Herricks (eds.). 1977. Recovery
and restoration of damaged ecosystems. Univ. Press of Virginia,
Charlottesville. 531 pp.
Carlander, K. D. 1969, 1977. Handbook of freshwater fishery biology
Vols. I, II. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames. 752 pp., 431 pp.
Cummins, K. W. 1973. Trophic relations of aquatic insects. Ann. Rev. Ent.
18: 183-206.
Cummins, K. W. 1974. Structure and function of stream ecosystems.
BioScience. 24: 631-641.
Cummins, K. W. 1975. The ecology of running waters: theory and practice.
Pp. 277-293 jln Proc. Sandusky River Basin Symp. Int. Ref. Grp. on
Great Lakes Pollution from Land Use Activities, International Joint
Commission. 277-293.
Dudley, D. R. and J. R. Karr. 1979. Concentration and sources of fecal
and organic pollution in an agricultural watershed. Water Resources
Bulletin. In press.
Edmundson, W. T. 1977. Recovery of Lake Washington from eutrophication.
Pp. 102-109 in Cairns, J. Jr., K. L. Dickson, and E. E. Herricks
(eds). Recovery and restoration of damaged ecosystems. Univ.
Press of Virginia, Charlottesville.
Evans, R. L. and D. H. Schnepper. 1977. Sources of suspended sediment:
Spoon River, Illinois. North-Central Section Geological Society of
America, Southern Illinois Univ., Carbondale. 10 pp, mimeo.
Fisher, S. G. and G. E. Likens. 1973. Energy flow in Bear Brook, New
Hampshire: an integrative approach to stream ecosystem metabolism.
Ecol. Monogr. 43: 421-439.
Gameson, A. L. H. and A. Wheeler. 1977. Restoration and recovery of the
Thames Estuary. Pp. 72-101 in Cairns, J. Jr., K. L. Dickson, and
E. E. Herricks (eds.). Recovery and restoration of damaged ecosystems.
Univ. Press, of Virginia, Charlottesville.
Gorman, 0. T. and J. R. Karr. 1978. Habitat structure and stream fish
communities. Ecology. 59: In press.
Hubb, C. L. and K. F. Lagler. 1958. Fishes of the Great Lakes region.
Cranbrook Inst. Sci., Bull. 26: 1-213.
-------
- 20 -
Hynes, H. B. N. 1970. The ecology of running waters. Univ. Toronto
Press, Toronto. 555 pp.
Hynes, H. G. N. 1974. The biology of polluted waters. Univ. Toronto
Press, Toronto. 202 pp.
Karr, J. R. and 0. T. Gorman. 1975. Pp. 120-150 in Effects of land
treatment on the aquatic environment. U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Chicago. EPA 905/9-75-007.
Karr, J. R. and I. J. Schlosser. 1978. Water resources and the land-water
interface. Science 201: 229-234.
Kuehne, R. A. 1962. A classification of streams, illustrated by fish
distribution in an eastern Kentucky creek. Ecology. 43: 608-614.
Lake, J. and J. Morrison (eds.). 1978. Environmental impact of land use
on water quality: Final report on the Black Creek project (Data
Volume). U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Chicago.
EPA-905/9-77-007-C.
Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, R. S. Pierce, J. S. Eaton, N. M. Johnson.
1977. Biogeochemistry of a forested ecosystem. Springer-Verlag,
New York. 14-6 pp.
McCafferty, W. P. 1976. The aquatic macroinvertebrates of Black Creek,
Allen County, Indiana. Final Report. Dept. of Entomology,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IND. 61 pp.
Mildner, W. 1976. Streambank erosion in Black Creek watershed, Indiana.
Prep, by USDA Soil Conserv. Servic. An assigkment of the U.S. Task
C. work group of the International Reference Group on Great Lakes
Pollution from Land Use Activities. 5 pp. + 2 appendices, mimeo.
Pflieger, W. L. 1975. The fishes of Missouri. Missouri Dept. of
Conservation, Jefferson City, Missouri. 343 pp.
Reice, S. R. 1974. Environmental patchiness and the breakdown of leaf
litter in a woodland stream. Ecology. 55: 1271-1282.
Sedell, J. R., F. J. Triska, J. D. Hall, N. H. Anderson, and J. H. Lyford.
1973. Sources and fates of organic inputs in coniferous forest streams.
streams. Cont. 66, Coniferous Forest Biome, IBP, Oregon State
Univ. 23 pp. Cited in Cummins, 1974. BioScience.
Trautman, M. B. 1939. The effects of man-made modifications on the fish
fauna in Lost and Gordon Creeks, Ohio, between 1887-1938. Ohio
J. Sci. 39: 275-288.
Trautman, M. B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Press.
Columbus. 683 pp.
Trautman, M. B. and D. K. Gartman. 1974. Re-evaluation of the effects of
man-made modifications on Gordon Creek between 1887 and 1973 and
especially as regards its fish fauna. Ohio J. Sci. 74: 162-173.
Warren, C. E. 1971. Biology and water pollution control. W. B. Saunders,
Philadelphia. 434 pp.
-------
Appendix I. Abundances, Population Trends, and Ecological Classifications for All Fish Found in the
Maumee River Basin, excluding Petromyzontidae, Salmonidae, and Anguillidae.
ACIPENSERIDAE
Lake Sturgeon - Acipenser fulvescens
LEPISOSTEIDAE
Spotted Gar - Lepisosteus oculatus
Longnose Gar - L. osseus
AMIIDAE
Bowfin - Amia calva
CLUPEIDAE
Alewife - Alosa pseudoharengus
Gizzard Shad - Dorosoma cepedianum
OSMERIDAE
Rainbow Smelt - Osmerus mordax
HIODONTIDAE
Mooneye - Hiodon tergisus
UMBRIDAE
Central Mudminnow - Umbra limi
ESOCIDAE
Grass Pickerel - Esox americanus
Chain Pickerel - E. niger
Northern Pike - E. lucius
Muskellunge - E. masquinongy
Current
Relative
Abundance3
E
E
U
U
U
VC
R
R-E
U
U
R
C
R-E
Population
Trend Since
1850b
E*
D**
D**
D**
N+
j**
N+
D**
E*
D**
N++
D*
E*
Typical
Stream Food
Sizec Habitsd
LR 1
MR 2
LR, MR 2
MR 2
LR 3
LR, MR 3
LR, MR 2
LR 1
HW 4
MR, HW 2
MR 2
MR 2
MR 2
I
NJ
-------
Appendix I. (cont'd.)
CYPRINIDAE
Stoneroller - Campostoma anomalum
Goldfish - Carassius auratus
Southern Redbelly Dace - Phoxinus erythrogaster
Carp - Cyprinus carpio
Silverjaw Minnow - Ericymba buccata
Bigeye Chub - Hybopsis amblops
Silver Chub - H_. storeriana
River Chub - Nocomis micropogon
Horneyhead Chub - N^. biguttatus
Golden Shiner - Notemigonus crysoleucas
Emerald Shiner - Notropis atherinoides
Popeye Shiner - N_. ariommus
Blacknose Shiner - N. heterolepis
Bigeye Shiner - N[. boops
Common Shiner - N^. cornutus
Pugnose Minnow - N^ emiliae
Spottail Shiner - N. hudsonius
spilopterus
stramineus
. umbratilis
Silver Shiner - N_. photogenis
Rosyface Shiner - N^. rubellus
Spotfin Shiner - N[.
Sand Shiner - N_.
Redfin Shiner -
Mimic Shiner - N_. volucellus
Suckermouth Minnow - Phenacobius mirabilis
Bluntnose Minnow - Pimephales notatus
Fathead Minnow - P_. promelas
Blacknose Dace - Rhinichthys atratulus
Creek Chub - Semotilus atromaculatus
C
C
U
vc
C
U
E
U
U
U
C
X
X
R-E
VC
R-E
C
U
U
A
U
A
U
U
A
C
U
VC
I*
N*
D**
N*
S*
D**
E++
S++
E*
D**
S++
E
E
E*
S*
E**
D**
I*
I*
I*
E*
N*
S*
I*
S*
MR, HW
MR
HW
MR
MR, HW
HW, MR
MR, LR
MR
HW
LR, MR
LR, MR
MR
HW
MR, HW
HW
MR
LR, MR
MR
MR
MR, HW
MR, HW
HW
MR
MR, HW
HW, MR
HW
HW
HW
5
4
5
4
1
K?)
•p
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
?
1
1
1
1
4
1
4
4
4
1
CATOSTOMIDAE
Quillback - Carpiodes cyprinus
White Sucker - Catostomus cbmmersoni
Creek Chubsucker - Erimyzon oblongus
Lake Chubsucker - E. .sucetta
C
VC
U
E
I*
S*
S*
D+H
MR
MR, HW
HW
HW
4
1
1
1
-------
Appendix I. (cont'd.)
CATOSTOMIDAE (cont'd.)
Northern Hog Sucker - Hypentelium nigricans C
Bigmouth Buffalo - Ictiobus cyprinellus VC
Harelip Sucker - Lagochila lacera X
Spotted Sucker - Minytrema melanops U
Golden Redhorse - Moxostoma erythrurum C
Shorthead Redhorse - M. macrolepidotum U
Greater Redhorse - M_. Valenciennes1 R-E
Silver Redhorse - M. anisurum R
Black Redhorse - M_. duquesnei R
ICTALURIDAE
Channel Catfish - Ictalurus punctatus C
Black Bullhead - I_. me las C
Yellow Bullhead - I_. natal is C
Brown Bullhead - !_. nebulosus C
Tadpole Madtom - Noturus gyrinus U
Brindled Madtom - N^. Miurus U
Stonecat - 1J.. flavus C
CYPRINODONTIDAE
Banded Killifish - Fundulus diaphanus E
Blackstripe Topminnow - F_. notatus C
POECILIIDAE
Mosquitofish - Gambusia affinis R
PERCOPSIDAE
Trout-Perch - Percopsis omiscomaycus R
APHREDODERIDAE
Pirate Perch - Aphredoderus sayanus E
PERCICHTHYIDAE
White Bass - Morone chrysops C
j**
E
D**
S*
S**
D*
D++
S*
N
E**
E*
S**
MR
LR, MR
MR
HW
MR
MR
MR
MR
MR
HW
MR
HW
LR
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
S**
S*
S*
S*
E*
D++
S**
D++
I*
MR
MR, HW
MR, HW
MR, HW
HW
HW
MR, HW
HW
HW
4
1
1
1
1
K?)
1
1
1
to
U)
-------
Appendix I. (cont'd.)
CENTRARCHIDAE
Rock Bass - Ambloplites rupestris
Bluegill - Lepomis macrochirus
Green Sunfish - L_. cyanellus
Orangespotted Sunfish - L_. humilis
Longear Sunfish - L_. megalotis
Pumpkinseed Sunfish - L_. gibbosus
Redear Sunfish - L_. microlophus
Warmouth Sunfish - L_. gulosus
Largemouth Bass - Micropterus salmoides
Smallmouth Bass - M. dolomieui
Black Crappie - Pomoxis nigromaculatus
White Crappie - P_. annularis
PERCIDAE
Eastern Sand Darter - Ammocrypta pellucida
Greenside Darter - Etheostoma blennioides
Rainbow Darter - E_.
Iowa Darter - E_. exile
Fantail Darter - E_.
Least Darter - E_. microperca
Johnny Darter - E_. nigrum
Orangethroat Darter - E_. spectabile
Yellow Perch - Perca flavescens
Logperch Darter - Percina caprodes
Channel Darter - P_. copelandi
Gilt Darter - P_. evides
Blacksided Darter - P_. maculata
Sauger - Stizostedion canadense
Blue Pike - S_. vitreum glaucum
Walleye - S_. vitreum vitreum
SCIAENIDAE
Freshwater Drum - Aplodinotus grunniens
caeruleum
flabellare
C
C
vc
C
u
C
R
R
C
C
C
C
R-E
C
C
R-E
U
U
C
u
C
C
E
X
C
R
X
C
N*
S*
N*
D*
S*
++
D
N*
D*
++
D**
S++
S**
D**
S*
S*
S++
D++
E
S*
D++
T^H" I
D*
j**
MR
MR
HW
HW-MR
MR, HW
MR, HW
MR, HW
MR., HW
LR, MR
MR
LR, MR
LR, MR
MR
MR
HW& MR
MR, HW
HW & MR
HW
MR, HW
HW
LR, MR
MR & HW
MR
MR
HW
MR & LR
LR
MR
MR &LR
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
I
ro
-------
Appendix I. (cont'd.)
COTTIDAE
Mottled Sculpin - Cottus bairdi U E*** HW
ATHERINIDAE
Brook Silverside - Labidesthes sicculus C S** MR
Current relative abundances; from Allison and Hothem 1975
A - Abundant. A species so numerous as to be usually one of the dominant species.
VC - Very common. A species which is readily catchable, usually in large numbers.
C - Common. A species, which, considering its catchability under various conditions and times,
is found usually in moderate to large numbers.
U - Uncommon. A species occuring rather regularly in collections, but usually in small numbers.
R - Rare. A species recorded only once or very infrequently, and invariably in small numbers.
E - Endangered. Indicates that the species is also on the list of endangered wild animals of Ohio.
X - Extinct in watershed.
b c
Population trend since 1850 Major habitat; stream size category
S - Stable. No major change in abundance. HW - headwaters
I - Increase. Significant increase in abundance. MR - Intermediate-sized rivers
D - Decrease. Significant decrease in abundance. LR - Large rivers
N - Introduced. Non-native species now present through
release or invasion and native species whose presence
is due primarily to stocking and escape from ponds. Food habit category based on
E - Lost. Species whose numbers have been so drastically information found in Pflieger 1975,
reduced they are considered extirpated or extremely rare. Hubbs and Lagler 1958, and Carlander
Source of information 1969/ 1977 .
*£•*-• m .1. * „ *. -,niA 1- Invertivore
* faunistic surveys, Trautman and Gartman 1974 „ . .
** life history and habitat data, Pflieger 1975 2 ~ Invertivore/Piscivore
*** c • ^ • m ^ -ir,™ 3 - Planktivore
*** faunistic surveys, Trautman 1939 .
+ life history and habitat data, Hubbs and Lagler 1958 _ , .
++ ,. . . . ,-,-,. -, „ ^ -,^-,r- 5 - Herbivore
T faunistic surveys, Allison and Hothem 1975
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CONSERVATION DISTRICT INVOLVEMENT
IN 208 NONPOINT SOURCE IMPLEMENTATION
R.E. Williams James E. Lake
Director, Special Projects Water quality Specialist
NACD, Washington, D.C. NACD, Washington, D.C.
The activities of conservation districts have been on-going for
more than forty years in the United States.
The conservation movement began in 1937 when model legislation was
furnished to the states by President Roosevelt providing for the crea-
tion of conservation districts by state law. Since that time? all
states, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands have adopted such laws. Some
3,000 conservation districts have been created throughout our nation.
Most state's district laws provide for establishment of districts
as political subdivision of the state. Although state laws governing
conservation districts vary in some respects, their purposes are the
same everywhere; that, is, to focus attention on land, water, and related
resource problems; to develop programs to solve those problems; and to
enlist the support and cooperation from all public and private sources
to accomplish district goals.
Conservation districts are managed by local citizens who know their
local problems. Usually districts have from five to seven officials who
are either elected or appointed depending on the laws of the particular
state. There is a growing trend to provide for the election of these
governing bodies at the general election. Over 17,000 men and women now
serve as district officials. Originally, conservation districts pri-
marily served agricultural cooperators; cities and towns not being
included within most districts' boundaries. However, in recent years,
conservation districts have either by amendment to the district Jaw or
by the redefining of district boundaries included the entire soil and
water resource areas encompassing urban and city dwellers as well.
Most conservation officials are farmers and ranchers, however, they
are being joined more and more in recent years by bankers, homeowners,
sportsmen, businessmen, county officials, and many other citizens con-
cerned about natural resources. An increasing number of states are
requiring representation on district governing bodies by urban and non-
farm interest.
In every district, officials develop and continually maintain a
long range plan which contains facts about the soil, water, and related
resource problems of their district. The long range plan also outlines
measures that can be taken to correct the problems identified. The long
range plans must continually be updated in order to provide current
resource information that is needed to assess current problems and to
provide a base for setting new priorities. All districts prepare an
annual plan of operations to guide the current year's activities. To
accomplish the goals spelled out in the long range plan and the annual
plan of operations, district officials have developed working agreements
with many local, state, and federal agencies.
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Through a memorandum of understanding, districts receive federal
assistance from the United States Department of Agriculture's Soil Con-
servation Service to provide technical assistance to individual landown-
ers and land users for planning and installing conservation practices
needed on their lands. Districts also have memorandums of understanding
and cooperative arrangements with many other federal, state, and local
agencies.
There are now over 2 million district cooperators throughout the
nation. These cooperators have been working with conservation districts
voluntarily to apply conservation practices (many are synonymous with
Best Management Practices) on their land for the last 40 years. How-
ever, with all these indications of success, the fact still remains that
there is a tremendous job to be accomplished in soil and water conserva-
tion. New problems continue to arise, and millions of acres of our
valuable cropland are still unprotected and are eroding at a rate
accelerated by man's activities that will deplete the soil resource if
it continues. Furthermore, the resulting sediment is recognized as the
largest single polluter of our streams by volume. In addition, it is
recognized that water quality can be further degraded by the excessive
nutrients and pesticides carried by sediment.
In 1977, the General Accounting Office reported in a survey of the
effectiveness of conservation work throughout our country. The report
indicated that the Soil Conservation Service estimated an average of 9
tons of soil per acre per year was being lost from our nation's crop-
lands, and that a significant amount of cropland losing soil in excess
of the tolerable soil loss limits has not been protected by the applica-
tion of erosion control practices. In fact, the report indicated that
42% of the 335 million acres of cropland harvested in 1975 did not have
adequate erosion control techniques applied.
In recent years, attention has turned toward the effects of erosion
and related pollutants on water quality. Several major events over the
past few years have led to the involvement of conservation districts in
208 water quality planning. In 1970, a National Sediment Conference
identified sediment as a serious polluter of our nation's waters. Con-
servation districts became more concerned about those water quality
problems that might be created by agricultural activities. In 1972, the
National Association of Conservation Districts, EPA, the Council of
State Governments, SCS, and others worked to develop a Model State Act
for Soil Erosion and Sediment Control to be considered for use
throughout the country. The Model Act was published by the Council of
State Governments in its 1973 Suggested State Legislation. Following
this, NACD received a grant from EPA to assist individual states hold
sediment control institutes. The purpose of these institutes was to
discuss the problems related to sedimentation and water quality; to dis-
cuss potential legislation and sediment control programs that could be
implemented to reduce these problems; and to educate individual district
officials as to the seriousness of erosion, sediment, and related water
quality problems. Forty-five sediment institutes were held in coopera-
tion with State Soil and Water Conservation agencies, SCS, State associ-
ations, conservation districts, and others throughout the country.
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As of 1977, 15 states, the Virgin Islands and the District of
Columbia had adopted various forms of sediment control legislation. The
legislation in these states is quite diverse and may vary a great deal
from the model legislation introduced in 1972. However, the control of
erosion and sediment is an important feature of all of these laws.
A brief summary of the sediment control laws in three of these
states follow:
Virginia
The efforts of Virginia's Soil and Water Conservation Commission
and the Erosion and Sediment Control Task Force of the Governor's Coun-
cil on the Environment in 1971-72 resulted in the 1972 enactment of a
bill for erosion and sediment control on land disturbing projects other
than agricultural or silvicultural.
The purpose of the law was to establish and implement a statewide,
coordinated program to control erosion and sediment and, to conserve and
protect the land, water, air, and other natural resources of Virginia.
The State Soil and Water Conservation Commission was assigned responsi-
bility for administering the law.
Guidelines, standards, and criteria were adopted by the Commission
and became effective July 1, 1974. Local control programs consistent
with the state program are developed and carried out by (1) the soil and
water conservation district; (2) where appropriate, by counties, cities,
and incorporated towns; or (3) by a joint venture between a district and
a county, city or town. These local programs are approved by the Com-
mission.
^If any county, city, town, or district fails to fulfill these
requirements, the Commission develops and adopts a program to be carried
out by the district, or if there is no district, by the county, city, or
town.
The local programs require an erosion and sediment control plan
approved by the local government before land disturbing activities can
begin. The local authority can require an applicant to insure that
emergency measures for appropriate conservation be taken at the
applicant's expense. To insure this, the authority can require a letter
of credit, cash escrow, performance bond, or other legal arrangement
before issuing the permit.
Iowa
Iowa's erosion and sediment control law requires abatement of ero-
sion when a complaint is filed with the commissioners of a conservation
district, provides for adoption of soil loss limit regulations by dis-
tricts, and provides for state financed cost-sharing for installing
necessary work within specified time limits.
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Iowa was the first state in which districts experienced this new
responsibility governing agricultural lands. A key stipulation in the
Iowa law is that cost-sharing and technical assistance must he available
before a landowner can -be required to install measures to meet the
requirements of the law. »
Maryland
Maryland's Statewide Sediment Control Act was adopted in 1970 by
the Maryland General Assembly. The Department of Natural Resources is
the responsible agency. The Act requires that before land is cleared,
graded, transported, or otherwise disturbed for any purpose (except
agriculture and single-family dwelling construction) the proposed earth
change shall first be submitted to and approved by the appropriate soil
conservation district. State projects, federal projects or projects on
state-owned lands are approved by the Department of Natural Resources.
Under the Act, each county and municipality is required to adopt grading
and sediment control ordinances and have them approved by the Department
of Natural Resources (DNR). All 23 counties and Baltimore City adopted
ordinances by the end of 1972. The Maryland Attorney General has ruled
that "protective stormwater measures may be imposed by the Soi.1 Conser-
vation District" under the 1970 Sediment Control Law.
In 1972, when Congress passed amendments to the Clean Water Act,
P.L. 92-500, it possibly enacted the most significant legislation
involving conservation districts since their creation. Never before in
the 40 plus years of conservation district activities in this country
have the challenges and opportunities been greater than they are today
as a result of Section 208 of that law. Section 208, as you know,
requires that each state develop state or areawide plans for controlling
pollution from both point and nonpoint sources. Nonpoint sources
include such areas as agriculture, silviculture, surface mined areas,
and construction sites. Districts, because of their experience, became
directly involved in nonpoint planning for these activities in many
states. Some of the key provisions of Section 208 that have provided
the opportunity for district involvement are: the emphasis on local
involvement, the requirement for identification of water quality prob-
lems by source, and the need for development of best management prac-
tices that will help solve the identified nonpoint source water quality
problems. The provisions also require that the agency or aqencies to
manage the nonpoint program be designated by the governor. All of these
provisions led very naturally to the involvement of conservation dis-
tricts.
The language of Section 208 also spells out that the programs are
to be carried out at the local and state levels with local public parti-
cipation playing a major role in formulation and implementation of the
208 plans. Soil Conservation districts are the key local agency for
involving rural landowners and concerned citizens. As local landowners
themselves, district officials provide the grass roots contact between
government at all levels and the local people.
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In addition, districts have perfected working arrangements which
allow the integration of federal, state, and local governmental agen-
cies. Through this cooperation, conservation districts also have the
technical expertise to provide landowners assistance in making decisions
affecting nonpoint source pollution control on their land. They also
have a tremendous amount of necessary resource information such as soil
surveys, resource maps, Conservation Needs Inventory data, soil loss
information (Universal Soil Loss Equation) that is needed to identify
the critical areas where water quality problems do exist.
In addition, districts with the technical assistance of SCS have
the expertise to assist landowners with the development of plans outlin-
ing Best Management Practices on their lands. Many existing and well-
known conservation practices that have been used for years such^as
grassed waterways, terraces, erosion control structures, minimum til-
lage, pasture land management, and many others are "Best Management
Practices" whenever they are identified as the best known means of con-
trol for agricultural nonpoint source water quality problems addressed
in a 208 plan. Just because we have developed a new term which
describes those measures to be applied to solve water quality problems
related to agriculture, it doesn't mean that we scrap all the existing
technical methods that we have used in the past. Instead, we will be
focusing on how to use our technical experience more efficiently in
addition to searching out new methods of control which will also be
recognized as Best Management Practices to improve water quality.
Districts have some real challenges to meet, and in some cases
changes to make, in their own organization, in order to accomplish the
objectives of the nonpoint source control efforts under Section 208. ^To
meet these challenges, districts will need to, and are, reassessing
their priorities. The days of the "first-come-first-serve" approach for
assistance are numbered. Setting priorities for conservation planning
and application is a responsibility of conservation districts. Not only
is this an important aspect of 208 planning, but of on-going district
programs as well. The Soil Conservation Service has agreed to provide
technical assistance in accordance with the priorities set by district
officials. This means that technical assistance should, and will be,
available to landowners and operators on a "worst-first" basis in the
future. It will mean, that instead of working with the most aggressive
landowners who request assistance for relatively minor problems, the
Soil Conservation Service, and other district cooperating agencies such
as the Cooperative Extension Service, must concentrate on working_with
the less progressive operators who, usually have the more difficult
problems, but are more hesitant to request assistance. As a result of
this approach, implementation will be accomplished in the critical areas
first in order to have the greatest and most immediate impact on water
quality.
With the growing responsibilities conservation districts are being
asked to assume, the need for additional district administrative and
technical staff is critical. In many states, county and state govern-
ment provide funds to enable districts to fill at least part of this
manpower need.
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Federal personnel ceilings limit the number of SCS and other agency
personnel available to districts. If some additional manpower needs can
be met from state and local sources, better use of SCS technical assis-
tance can be made in solving critical land protection and water quality
problems.
Districts will need to continually improve their educational and
information programs in the future in order to show the need for addi-
tional support.
Districts are demonstrating their ability to make these adjustments
as well as their ability to manage programs for the installation of Best
Management Practices in several programs already underway in the ^coun-
try. The following programs are illustrative of districts' abilities to
manage programs in the future. The three examples that will be briefly
discussed are the Pennsylvania Clean Streams Program, the Montana
National Streambed and Land Preservation Law, and the Black Creek
Demonstration Project in Indiana.
PENNSYLVANIA CLEAN STREAMS PROGRAM
Several developments in Pennsylvania revealed the need for an
expanded program for erosion and sediment control. These included the
erosion and sediment problems created by industrial development and
urbanization; a growing interest in, and citizen support for, total
watershed management programs; and the general recognition that sediment
was the largest single pollutant, by volume, of water sources.
On September 21, 1972, following study by the Environmental Quality
Board (EQEO and public hearings, rules and regulations for erosion and
sedimentation control were adopted by the ECB pursuant to the existing
Clean Streams Law. Under the regulations, all earth-moving activities,
regardless of size, must have an erosion and sedimentation control plan.
In addition to an erosion and sedimentation control plan, earthmoving
activities greater than 25 acres must, with certain exceptions, have an
erosion and sediment control permit from DER.
The Department of Environmental Resources developed an operating
procedure that would utilize conservation district expertise in the pro-
gram. The staffs of the Bureau of Water Quality Management, the Bureau
of Soil and Water Conservation, and the Bureau of Litigation and
Enforcement jointly developed this procedure.
On projects requiring'departmental permits, an application for an
erosion and sedimentation control permit is submitted to the conserva-
tion district along with an erosion and sediment control plan. The con-
servation district has 45 days during which to act upon the application.
Following technical review, the conservation district board, at an offi-
cial meeting, takes action to recommend to the department that a permit
should either be issued or denied. This recommendation is forwarded to
the department's regional office where the permitting process takes
place.
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Through a department policy established by the Secretary of the
Department of Environmental Resources, the Bureau of Soil and Water Con-
servation is to provide technical support on erosion control matters to
other bureaus within the Department. Inspection and enforcement activi-
ties are handled by the Office of Deputy for Protection and Regulation
and Deputy for Enforcement within the Department. Included in the
operating procedures is a provision that the Department may delegate
portions of the enforcement program to local jurisdictions.
Tne resources management portion of the program has been assigned
to the Bureau of Soil and Water Conservation and the 66 conservation
districts. Tne Bureau's Division of Soil Resources and Erosion Control
implements the Department's program through informational, training,
administrative, and liaison activities. Districts provide information,
planning assistance, plan review, and land-use monitoring assistance to
the Department of Environmental Resources. Twenty-three districts have
requested and have been delegated authority in the inspection portion of
the program to date.
MONTANA NATIONAL STREAMBED AND LAND PRESERVATION LAW
In 1975, the Montana Legislature passed the Natural Streambed and
Land Preservation Act, referred to as S.B.310. Tnis law provides that
conservation districts must review and approve all proposed projects
which affect perennial streams such as channel change; new diversions;
riprap; jetties; new dams and reservoirs; commercial, industrial and
residential developments; snagging; dikes; levees; debris basins; grade
stabilization structures; bridges and culverts; recreation facilities;
commercial agriculture; and certain fanning, grazing and recreation
activities. Conservation districts have the option of modifying this
list to meet local needs.
When a district receives a proposed project, the Department of Fish
and Game (DFG) is notified. If the DFG or the district requests it, a
review team consisting of representatives of the district, DFG, and the
private landowner examines the site of the proposal. If agreement is
not reached, the District Court is asked to appoint an arbitration
board. Technical assistance is provided by the Soil Conservation Ser-
vice to all members of the team.
Under S.B. 310, the conservation districts held hearings on their
proposed rules and regulations. There was substantial publicity on the
new program in the newspapers, the special articles appeared in farm
livestock magazines.
In 1976, the first year the law became effective, Montana districts
processed some 2,000 proposals.
THE BLACK CREEK STUDY, Allen County, Indiana
The Black Creek study was undertaken in 1972 by the Allen County
Soil & Water Conservation District as a result of a grant from the
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Environmental Protection Agency, Fteqion V, Chicago. Technical assis-
tance was provided by the Soil Conservation Service and research support
was provided by Purdue University, the Agricultural Research Service,
and the University of Illinois.
The project demonstrated the ability of a Soil & Water Conservation
District to efficiently administer an extensive program for non-point
pollution control. The reliance on the local conservation district for
the administration was shown to be a very important aspect of public
acceptance and voluntary participation.
The Allen County Conservation District also demonstrated the abil-
ity of a district of efficiently handle cost sharing funds and to carry
out long term contracts with private landowners.
Some of the major points substantiated and highlighted by the Black
Creek study were that:
* The cost of achieving treatment on every acre of land to improve
water quality would be extremely high. It probably would not be
physically possible regardless of cost; therefore, water quality
improvement must be approached by treating the critical areas
first. It is therefore obvious that the critical areas must be
identified for any watershed before treatment efforts begin.
* Once critical areas are identified, Best Management Practices need
to be selected for treating the critical areas. Best Management
Practices for the Black Creek Watershed were identified by the Dis-
trict Board of Supervisors with assistance from the Soil Conserva-
tion Service staff. These included: field borders, grade stabili-
zation structures, grassed waterways, livestock exclusion, pasture
planting, sediment control basins, terraces, Limited channel pro-
tection, and tillage methods which increase crop residue and sur-
face roughness.
* Farm-by-farm Conservation Plans were found to be essential in pro-
grams of water quality improvement. The plans should be simple in
format and selective in approach. Obligations of participating
farmers must be clearly delineated.
* A voluntary program with sufficient incentive payments and techni-
cal assistance, can achieve significant land treatment aimed at
improving water quality. Regulations or the threat of regulation
may be required to achieve treatment on land owned by the rela-
tively small number of non-cooperators.
* Traditional cost-sharing programs, based on a fixed percentage pay-
ment for every practice, are not adequate to sell best management
practices for water quality improvement. While an overall average
might be set, local districts should have the responsibility to set
the rate for individual practices within the limitations.
* Public information is critical to a successful land treatment pro-
grams. Landowners and the general public should be kept up to date
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on all phases of a program from conception through planning to
implementation.
A recent significant opportunity for district involvement in Best
Management Practice Implementation arises out the new amendments to the
Clean Water Act signed by the President on December 15, 1977. The,agri-
cultural cost-sharing section introduced by Senator Culver of Iowa
authorizes $200 million in fiscal year 1979 and £300 million in fiscal
year 1980 to be used for cost-share assistance for implementation of
Best Management Practices in rural areas having significant nonpoint
water problems identified in the 208 water quality plan.
The amendment passed the Senate and House with very little dissent.
Districts are identified in the law as the local governmental agency
responsible for determining (in cooperation with the Secretary of Agri-
culture) priority among individual landowners and operators requesting
assistance to assure that the most critical water quality problems are
addressed first, and for approving cooperator's plans outlining Best
Management Practices to be installed on their land with cost-sharing
pursuant to long-term contracts. This important legislation has specif-
ically named conservation districts for direct involvement in carrying
out the law.
The program which is being developed pursuant to this legislation
will be called the Rural Clean Water Program. The Secretary of Agricul-
ture has designated the Soil Conservation Service as the lead agency
responsible for carrying out this program.
In order for landowners to be eligible for participation in the
program, their land must be identified as part of the critical areas
addressed in a 208 plan certified by the governor of that state and
approved by EPA.
Since this program is directed at designated critical areas with
significant water quality problems, it is necessary that priorities be
set, and funds assigned accordingly both on a national and state basis.
For this reason, not every district or county will be included in the
program.
The Rural Clean Water Program provides four options to the Secre-
tary of AGriculture through SCS for carrying out the program at the
state and local levels. These include entering into agreements for
administration for all or part of the program with:
1. Soil Conservation Districts, or
2. State Soil Conservation Agencies, or
3. State Water Quality Agencies, or
If none of the above, then
4. Transfer of funds from SCS to ASCS for administration of the
program.
Regardless of the option selected, district officials will be jointly
responsible for setting the priorities for assistance as well as be
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soley responsible for approving plans on which contracts for cost-
sharing will be based.
Districts have been working with state and areawide agencies to
develop the nonpoint source phase of 208 plans for some time now. In
fact, in over half the states, the state conservation agencies are
preparing the agricultural nonpoint plans under contracts from the state
water quality agencies. In many other states, districts are actively
assisting in the development of the agricultural nonpoint plan through
cooperative agreements.
As a result of this participation, and the fact that they have the
expertise and working tools to accomplish implementation, conservation
districts are being identified in many plans as the management agency
for implementing the agricultural nonpoint plan.
In summary, the outlook for conservation districts as a result of
the 208 water quality effort is excellent. The opportunity for dis-
tricts to get conservation on the land has never been greater. The
changes taking place in district operations are all positive changes
toward meeting modern needs, more efficient use of resources, people,
and tax dollars to protect both our soil and water resources.
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Quality of Black Creek Drainage Water:
Additional Parameters
Darrell W. Nelson and David Beasley
The Black Creek Project was initiated to measure the effects of
land use activities and crop production systems on drainage water qual-
ity from an agricultural watershed. Emphasis has been placed on meas-
urement of sediment, N components, and P components in drainage water.
However, the scale of the study permitted measurement of a number of
other important water quality parameters on a weekly basis to arrive at
a more complete picture of water quality in the watershed.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Duplicate water samples were taken on a weekly basis during the
period January 1, 1975 to December 31, 1977 at 19 sites within the
watershed and at locations on river systems in Allen County. Samples
were taken with a plastic pail and subsamples transferred to 500 ml
plastic bottles. Subsamples were taken to the field laboratory where
measurements of pH, turbidity, carbonate alkalinity, and bicarbonate
alkalinity were performed within three hours of collection. At the time
of sampling, the water temperature and dissolved oxygen concentration
were measured in situ with a Yellow Springs Dissolved Oxygen Meter. All
quantitative measurements were performed as outlined by the U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency (1971).
Data on water quality parameters was transferred to and stored on
magnetic tape. Data was stored by sampling station, sampling data, and
parameter. A plotting routine was used to present the data as the water
quality parameter versus time.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figures 1 through 9 are water quality data obtained from Site 2
(Smith Fry Drain at Notestine Road) during the period January 1, 1975 to
December 31, 1977. The results indicate the pH was very uniform
throughout the period (average about 7.3). Turbidity values reflected
the relationship of the sampling time to the most recent rainfall event.
Samples with high turbidity were taken during or immediately after a
rainstorm, whereas those with low turbidity were taken during base flow
conditions. Water temperature closely parallelled the air temperature
seasonal variation. Water temperatures between 24 and 28 degrees cen-
tigrade were commonly measured during the summer months. Dissolved oxy-
gen concentrations normal,y varied between 4 and 9 mg/1, however, high
values (>10 mg/1) were observed consistently during the spring of 1977.
Essentially no carbonate alkalinity was present in water samples col-
lected from Site 2. Bicarbonate alkalinity normally was 200-300 mg/1.
However, values as high as 900 mg/1 were measured during October, 1975.
Figures 10 through 18 are water quality data from Site 6 (Black
Creek at Bush College Road) during the three-year sampling period.
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Turbidity and pH data are similar to those for Site 2. However, turbi-
dity values vjere more consistent than those for Site 2. It is interest-
ing that the pH values were almost identical to those for samples taken
from Site 2 (average of 7.2). Temperature and dissolved oxygen data are
very similar to those from Site 6. At no time did the dissolved oxygen
concentration fall below 2.5 mg/1 and was generally between 5 and 10
mg/1. Water temperatures as high as 31.5 degrees centigrade were
observed during the summer of 1975. Alkalinity concentrations in water
samples were almost identical to those in samples from Site 2. A peak
in bicarbonate alkalinity was observed in October, 1975, however, the
maximum obtained was 900 mg/1. Alkalinity values normally ranged
between 200 and 400 mg/1.
Figures 19 through 27 provide water quality data from Site 14 (Mau-
mee River at State Highway 101 bridge) during the period January 1, 1975
to December 31, 1977. Water pH values were similar to those observed at
Sites 2 and 6 (i.e., 7.2 to 7.4), however, a low pH «5.0) was measured
during early March, 197S. The low pH was likely the result of indus-
trial discharges because at no time during the study were low pH values
observed in drainage water from agricultural land. Turbidity in the
Maumee River was more consistent with time than in drainage water meas-
ured at Sites 2 and 6. However, the turbidity values reflected the time
period between the last major runoff event and the sample collection.
Dissolved oxygen content of the Maumee River was normally in the range
of 3 to 5 during the summer, however, values as low as 2 were obtained
on two occasions. Water temperature parallelled air temperature changes
with season. Peak water temperatures of 27-28 degrees centigrade were
observed during summer months in 1975 and 1977. Bicarbonate and total
alkalinity values were normally between 200 and 300 mg/1, however, high
alkalinity (900 mg/1) were measured during October, 1975.
The water quality parameters measured in B]ack Creek drainage water
and the Maumee River suggest that reasonable water quality is present
during much of the year. High temperatures and relatively low dissolved
oxygen concentrations obtained in summer months may limit development of
a cold water fishery. However, at no time did the dissolved oxygen con-
tent dip below 2.5 mg/1 in agricultural drainage water. The water qual-
ity in the agricultural watershed was at least as good as, and often
better, then that in the Maumee River in terms of suitability for biota.
The portion of the agricultural watershed impacted by septic tank
discharges (Site 6) had water quality which was not greatly different
from that of a purely agricultural part of the watershed (Site 2) when
pH, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen, and temperature are the criteria.
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ALGAL AVAILABILITY OF SOLUBLE AND SEDIMENT
PHOSPHORUS IN DRAINAGE WATER OF THE
BLACK CREEK WATERSHED*
by
R. A. Dorich and D. W. Nelson**
Phosphorus (P) has been shown to be the nutrient most limiting
algal growth in surface waters of the Great Lakes Region of the United
States. Furthermore, addition of P to many bodies of water in this
region induces accelerated growth of aquatic organisms and ultimately
results in an algal bloom and nuisance weed accumulation. Following the
death of these photosynthetic organisms, degradation of the cells by
aerobic bacteria leads to rapid depletion of dissolved oxygen in a por-
tion or all of the water column in the lake and numerous water quality
problems result. Development of anaerobic conditions in a lake system
is a key characteristic of an advanced state of eutrophication.
The death of photosynthetic organisms and subsequent aerobic break-
down of dead biomass was the major cause of oxygen depletion in over
£600 square kilometers of the hypolimnion of the central basin of Lake
Erie in 1970. The excessive algal growth in Lake Erie was assumed to
result from high P loadings to the lake from municipalities, industries,
and nonpoint sources. Therefore, P input into Lake Erie has received
considerable attention in recent years. Although point source
discharges were identified as major contributors of pollutants to Lake
Erie, agricultural activities in the Maumee River Basin were suggested
as a major contributor of sediment and related pollutants to Lake Erie.
In response, a cooperative project involving the Allen County (Indiana)
Soil and Water Conservation District, the Soil Conservation Service and
Purdue University was initiated.(funded by a U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency Demonstration Grant) to assess the role of agriculture in
pollution of the Maumee River and to evaluate management alternatives in
crop production to minimize impacts on water quality.
The Black Creek Drainage Basin, Allen County, Indiana was used as a
test watershed for the project because it is typical of small
subwatersheds along the Maumee River. Chemical measurements of P load-
ing can be used to indicate the quantities of P transported from soil to
water systems. However, the majority of P deposited in waters is sedi-
ment bound. In order to effectively quantitate the impact of P input on
the water quality of the Maumee River (and ultimately to Lake Erie), the
proportion of total P transported which is available to algae must be
determined. Therefore, the objectives of this study were: (i) to deter-
mine the quantities and proportions of soluble and sediment-bound P
which were available to algae and (5i) to determine the availability of
sediment-bound P fractions to algae.
* A contribution ot tne Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station,
Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN 47907. This study was sup-
ported in part by Grant No. G005103 from the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Purdue Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Paper No. 7220.
** Research Assistant and Professor of Agronomy, respectively.
-------
- 39 -
MATERIALS AND METHODS
PAAP Bottle Test for the A3gal Availability of Soluble Phosphorus
Four-liter water samples were obtained following rainfall events on
March 28 and June 30, 1977 from seven sites (Figure 1) within the Black
Creek Watershed, Allen County, Indiana. Following centrifugation to
separate the sediment from the water, water samples were filtered
through a 0.45 micrometer mean-pore diameter Millipore filter. The
method used in determining the quantity of soluble inorganic phosphorus
(SIP) available to algae was a modification of the Provisional Algal
Assay Procedure Bottle Test (PAAP) (USEPA, 1971). The PAAP method is
based on Liebig's Law of the Minimum, i.e., "growth is limited by the
substance that is in minimal quantity in respect to the needs of the
organism." When all the growth requirements of an organism are met with
the exception of one nutrient, the organisms potential for growth is
controlled by the limiting nutrient. Therefore, the effect of a
nutrient's concentration can be assessed by supplying a nutrient in
varying concentrations to an organism given all other growth require-
ments and evaluating the growth response of the organism. The quantity
of available P in the Black Creek Water sample was calculated by compar-
ing the population of a selected alga (Selanastrum capricornutum), grown
for 4 days in a water sample to a standard curve (algal population plot-
ted against the concentration of soluble P) generated by growth of S_.
capricornutum in PAAP nutrient medium containing known levels of P
(ranging from 0.0 to 0.20 microgram P/l). Furthermore, by adding a
specific nutrient directly to water samples (a nutrient spike) under
study and quantifying the growth response of S_. capricornutum, a compar-
ison to the assay organism's growth in water samples spiked with a
nutrient over that of the organism grown in the unamended water sample
indicates that the specific nutrient was deficient in the sample in
respect to the needs of the organism. To determine the nutrient limit-
ing algal growth in water samples, phosphorus (0.1 mg P/l) and micronu-
trients (complete range used in PAAP medium) were added to separate ali-
quots of all samples and the effect of the added nutrients on the growth
of S_. capricornutum determined.
Algal Availabil ity of_ Sediment-Bound Phosphorus
Sediment collected by centrifugation of each water sample was
resuspended in deionized water, diluted to 50 ml to create a sediment
suspension concentrate, and sterilized by exposure to 4 megarads of
gamma radiation. Aliquots of the sterilized sediment suspension concen-
trates were used to prepare the sediment-algal cell mixtures for incuba-
tion. An attempt was made to add a constant quantity (37.2 microgram of
total P per flask) of sediment-bound P to 250 ml flasks containing 60 ml
of PAAP minus P medium. After a two week incubation at 26 +- 1 degrees
C and 4300 lux (flourescent light), the entire contents of each flask
were analyzed for P components.
The method used to determine the quantity and fraction (ammonium
flouride, NaOH, or HCl-extractable) of sediment-bound P available to
-------
i
o
C
0)
"8
•fi
3
-------
- 41 -
algae was a modification of a method developed by Sagher and Harris
(1975). The Sagher and Harris method consists basically of a two-part
test system: (i) a sediment-algal incubation (in PAAP minus P medium) to
assess the quantity of available sediment P by following changes over a
4-week period in the amounts sediment P sequentially extracted with
ammonium flouride (0.5 N, pH 7), NaOH (IN) HC1 (0.5M) and (ii) a
sediment-free algal incubation in PAAP medium (containing 0.2 mg P/l
which corresponds to partial availability of sediment P in sediment-
algal incubations,) to asses the extractability of algal P by the same
sequential ammonium flouride, NaOH and HC1 procedure. Because part of
the phosphorus extracted from the sediment-algal mixture originated from
algal cells, the results of extractions of the sediment-free incubation
were used to correct values obtained from the extraction of the
sediment-algal incubations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Algal Availability of Soluble Phosphorus
Selanastrum capricornutum exhibited a typical sigmoid growth rate
at medium and high levels of P (0.05, 0.075, 0.1, and 0.2 mg P/l) in the
growth medium. Figure 2 illustrates the growth rate of S_. capricornutum
in medium containing 0.1 mg P/l. At the 0.015 mg/1 concentration of P,
the algal growth rate curve overall was flatter and the portion normally
labelled as "logrithmic" was less steep than those of higher P levels.
The stationary phase of growth was initiated after 96 hours of incuba-
tion for all treatments, but occurred at lower cell densities for each
decrease in P concentration.
Figure 3 shows the relationship between cell density after 96 hours
and initial P concentration of the PAAP medium. The cell density
remained relatively constant at P concentrations greater than 0.1 mg/1.
A similar growth response has been observed by other investigators who
have shown maximum algal growth at a P concentration of 0.075 mg/1
(Fitzgerald and Uttormark, 1974). This level (0.1 mg/1) represents the
P concentration at which cells were apparently fulfilled in their need
for P for the rate at which they were growing in these incubations.
This leveling of algal growth at P concentration above 0.1 mg/1 may be
looked upon in this experimental system as the critical level of P or
that level of available P at which nearly maximum cell production takes
place. Furthermore, data observed throughout this study indicates that
S. capricornutum did not respond when incubated for four days in PAAP
medium containing 0.005 mg P/l. The lack of response at the P level of
0.005 mg/1 and positive response at 0.015 mg/1 suggests that the lower
threshold of sensitivity of the alga for P lies between 0.005 and 0.015
P/l.
Table 1 provides data on the amounts of available P in water sam-
ples determined by the algal bioassay procedure (Figure 3) in unamended
and spiked water samples. The available P levels in the March and June
samples averaged 0.096 (range was 0.076 to 0.128 mg/1) and 0.031 mg/1
(range was 0.012 to 0.052 mg/1), respectively. The available P as
-------
6.5
to
o:
Z5
o
X
•
o
Ul
o
Lu
O
CD
O
6. 1 .
5.7.
5.3.
4.9
4.5
0
35 70 105 140
INCUBflTION TIME (HOURS)
Figure 2. Growth curve of S>. capricornutum in PAAP medium (0.1 mg P/l)
-------
- 43 -
21
CO
-J
-J
UJ
o
o
.J
Ixl
CJ
U.
O
CD
O
5.1
4.8
0 .05 .1 .15 .2
MG P/L IN REFERENCE MEDIUM
Figure 3. The effect of initial phosphorus concentration on cell
numbers of after £ four day incubation J_n PAAP medium. Bars represent
the sandard deviation of the mean.
-------
- 44 -
quantitated by bioassay never exceeded the soluble inorganic P (SIP) or
total soluble P levels in unamended water samples obtained in March and
June. Fitzgerald and Uttormark (1974) found that creek water often con-
tains P compounds which are included in chemical determinations as solu-
ble phosphorus, but which are not biologically available.
TABLE 1
Availability to algae of soluble phosphorus in stream
water as affected by initial phosphorus centrations,
and phosphorus and micronutrients amendments.
Site no.
Initial P
concentration
in water
SIP TSP
Available P in water
as determined from
cell count of bioassay of:*
U** P MN
March
2
3
4
5
6
12
14
Ave.
June
2
3
4
5
6
12
14
Ave.
0.106
0.121
0.121
0.171
0.250
0. 135
0.131
0.149
0.069
0.038
0.045
0.053
0.072
0.047
0.161
0.069
0.123
0.150
0.139
0.173
0.443
0.153
0.148
0.190
0.100
0.063
0.075
0. 072
0.091
0.171
0.190
0.109
0.080 a
0.076 e
0.109 a
0.128 a
0.110 a
0.086 a
0.083 a
0.096 a
0.030 a
0.015 a
0.027 a
0.035 a
0.045 a
0.012 a
0.052 a
0.031 a
0.084 a
0.032 b
0.108 a
0.105 a
0.068 a
0.063 a
0.095 a
0.079 a
0.016 a
0.031 b
0.038 a
0.120 a
0.094 b
0.015 a
0.042 a
0.051 a
0.097 a
0.100 a
1.107 a
0.106 a
0.105 a
0.110 a
0.128 b
0.107 a
0.036 a
0.016 a
0.039 a
0.043 a
0.039 a
0.016 a
0.265 b
0.064 a
* U, unamended water samples; P, water samples spiked with 0.1 mg P/l;
MN, water sample spiked with micronutrients
**Numbers in a row followed by the same letter are not statistically
different (at the 95% level of significance).
On the average, P addition did not affect the amounts of algal
available P present in the March of June samples. One sample (Site 3)
taken in March exhibited a decrease in available P as a result of P
addition. Hutchinson (1957) previously has shown inhibition in algal
growth upon amendment of water samples with P. In contrast, two P-
amended June samples (Sites 3 and 6) contained higher amounts of avail-
able P as compared to the unamended samples indicating that growth of S_.
capricornutum in these samples was limited to an extent by low available
P concentrations. In one sample (Site 6), the amount of available P
found after P addition was nearly equal to the 0.1 mg/1 critical level
-------
- 45 -
suggesting that P was the major factor limiting growth. The addition of
P to June samples from Site 3 resulted in slightly increased P availa-
bility; however, the response was much less than that expected if growth
was only limited by low P concentration.
On the average, addition of micronutrients to the growth medium did
not affect the ability of algae to utilize P in water samples. However,
in two of the fourteen samples a significant increase in apparent avail-
able P was observed as a result of micronutrient addition. These
results were obtained in both the March and June samples _of Site _ 14
(Maumee River) which suggests that micronutrient deficiencies were lim-
iting the growth of S_. capricornutum in these samples and addition ^of
the micronutrients enabled the algal cells to better utilize the P which
was present. The finding that micronutrient (B, Mn, Zn, Co, Cu, Mo, or
Fe) deficiencies may limit that growth of algae in stream waters in sup-
ported by Scherfig et al., (1973) who observed limitation of algal
growth by low concentrations of iron in similar incubation systems, and
by Fitzgerald and Uttormark (1974) who reported that low iron concentra-
tions commonly limit algal growth in surface waters. In addition, other
investigators have not been able to detect soluble iron in Black Creek
water samples taken during the period from 1974 through 1977 (unpub-
lished data, D. W. Nelson).
Samples taken in March and June from the rural portion of the
watershed (the area only affected by agricultural activities) contained
lower quantities of available soluble P than did samples from the
rural-urban portion (the area affected by agricultural activities as
well as septic tanks). Furthermore, for the June period a higher pro-
portion of SIP present in samples from the rural-urban area was avail-
able to algae as compered to that present in samples from strictly agri-
cultural areas. However, the proportion of SIP present in Maumee River
samples was higher than that in any samples collected within the Black
Creek Watershed.
Availability of Sediment-Bound Phosphorus to Algae
Table 2 summarizes the concentration of suspended solids and P com-
ponents initially present in the sediment used for bioassay. Although
the amount of soluble (desorbed) inorganic P was significant initially
(2-4 micrograms P/flask) . Variations in total, sediment P recovered ini-
tially for each treatment (Table 2) may result from the method used to
add the sediment slurry to the incubation flask. The type of suspended
material and the difficulty in maintaining homogeneity during the remo-
val of aliquots from the sediment solution concentrate may be additional
sources of error. Table 3 provides data on the final cell densities and
the proportions of total sediment P immobilized by algal cells from each
sample during a two-week incubation in PAAP minus P medium. On the
average, the proportion of sediment P which was available for algal
assimilation was similar in March and June samples. In March samples,
the proportion of total sediment P which was algal available ranged from
9.8 to 29.0% (average 20%), whereas the range in June samples was 15.9
to 30.8% (average 21.4%). These proportions are slightly higher than
results reported by Wildung and Schmidt (1973) using lake sediments in a
-------
- 46 -
dialysis assay system. There were no apparent relationships between
algal cell densities and the proportion of total sediment P assimilated
by algae.
TABLE 2
Forms and amounts of phosphorus present
initially in sediment bioassay samples.
Site no.
2
3
4
5
6
12
14
Ave.
?.
3
4
5
6
12
14
Ave.
Sampling
date
March
March
March
March
March
March
March
—
June
June
June
June
June
June
June
—
Suspended
solids
98
119
339
29
25
28
20
94
26
42
36
37
60
50
27
40
Total P
Sed iment
inorganic P
PAAP-P Medium
27.31 12.96
27.
29.
31.
27.
28.
30.
28.
30.
29.
23.
26.
29.
34.
27.
2.8.
78
20
33
33
50
31
89
65
00
36
25
11
41
97
53
13.
17.
19.
15.
15.
16.
15.
15.
15.
13.
12.
21.
19.
15.
16.
57
47
66
74
26
11
82
07
62
59
00
73
85
61
21
47.4
48.8
59.8
62.7
57.6
53.5
52.3
54.7
49.2
53.9
58.2
45.7
74.6
57.7
57.9
56.8
Sed iment
organic P
11.86
11.77
9.20
7.89
7.01
10.10
11.06
9.77
11.45
9.44
7.95
11.38
4.92
12.05
7.05
9.19
41.2
42.4
31.5
25.5
25.6
35.4
35.9
33.8
37.3
32.9
34.0
43.4
16.9
35.0
26.1
32.2
Soluble P
2.49
2.44
2.44
2.04
4.58
3.15
3.64
2.97
4.13
3.83
1.82
2.87
2.45
2.51
5.31
3.27
9.1
8.8
8.3
6.5
16.7
11.0
11.8
10.3
13.5
13.2
7.8
10.9
8.4
7.3
19.7
11.5
The proportion of sediment inorganic P immobilized by algae cells
and cell numbers observed after a two week incubation period are
presented in Table 4. A higher percentage of sediment inorganic P was
available to algae in June samples than in March samples (33.0 as com-
pared to 27.0%, respectively). However, for three of the five sampling
sites studies, no difference in availability of sediment inorganic P
were observed when comparing March samples to June samples. Two June
samples (Site 4 and 6) show increases (19 and 7%, respectively) in the
percentage of sediment inorganic P which was immobilized into algal
cells as compared to results from the March samples. The large
increases in inorganic P available in samples from these sites resulted
in the average increase when all sites were considered. The average
proportions of sediment inorganic P which were available are lower than
the 53 to 83% values reported by Sagher and Harris (1975) for lake sedi-
ments .
The highest proportion (averaging 37.7 and 46.2% for March and June
samples, respectively) of available sediment inorganic P was phosphate
sorbed an amorphous Al and Fe oxide complexes (extractable with 0.5 N^
ammonium flouride, pH 7). In addition, a significant percentage
(averaging 56.2 and 62.3% for March and June samples, respectively) of
-------
- 47 -
TABLE 3
Population of S. capricorntum and Proportion of
Total Sediment Phosphorus Immoblized by Cells Growing
for Two Weeks in Sediment: PAAP Systems.
Site no.
Sampl ing time
March
Cell Algal Cell
density available P density
June
Algal
available P
2
3
4
5
fi
12
14
Ave.
8.529
9.599
4.242
5.225
6.500
—
—
6.8.19
29.0
15.0
9.8
24.7
21.3
—
—
20.0
5.175
8.551
5.954
5.000
6.591
5.900
P. 408
6.511
15.2
18.0
21.5
15.9
30.8
20.4
28.2
21.4
TABLE 4
Population of S. capricornutum and proportions of
sediment inorganic phosphorus immobilized by cells
growing for two weeks in sediment: PAAP systems.
Sampling time
March June
Cell Cell
Site no.
2
3
4
5
6
12
14
Ave.
density
8.520
9.599
4.242
5.225
6.500
—
—
6.819
Available P
26.7
27.9
15.0
34.8
30.7
—
—
27.0
density
5. 175
8.551
5.954
5.000
6.591
5.900
8.408
6.511
Available P
26.7
29.0
34.1
31.1
37.7
32.7
40.9
33.1
the ammonium flouride extractable fraction of sediment inorganic P was
assimilated by algal cells. Significant proportions (averaging 33.1 and
40.8% for March and June samples, respectively) of the available sedi-
ment inorganic P were present as iron complexed phosphate extractable
with N NaOH. Furthermore, during the two week incubation, a substantial
perceHtage (averaging 23.6 and 30.0% for March and June samples, respec-
tively) of the MaOH-extractable P was immobilized into algal cells. A
higher proportion of sediment inorganic P was available to algae in sam-
ples taken in March and June from the rural-urban portion of the
watershed (32.7 and 34.4%, respectively). The highest proportion of
-------
- 48 -
sediment inorganic P which was assimilated by algae was observed in
Maumee River sample collected in June.
the
IMPLICATIONS
The Black Creek project was in part initiated to evaluate the
impacts of agricultural drainage on water quality in the Maumee River
and Lake Erie. Therefore, an assessment is required as to the relative
impact of soluble and sediment-bound P in drainage water upon the poten-
tial for water entering Lake Erie to support algal growth. Numerous
assumptions are required to calculate the input of algal available P
into the western basin of Lake Erie from the Maumee River watershed.
These assumptions are listed in Table 5.
TABLE 5
Information used in calculating algal available P
discharge into Lake Erie from the Maumee River.
Parameter
Value
citation
Sediment loads
of Maumee River
Water discharge
from Maumee River
watershed to Lake Erie
Maumee River
Watershed area
SIP concentration in
Maumee River water
Total P concentration
suspended, sediment
Volume of water in
western basin of Lake Erie
495 kg/haMonke et al. (1975)
23 cm/yr Monke et al. (1975)
1,711,500 ha Monke et al. (1975)
0.076 mg P/l Sommers et al. (1975)
1990 mg/kg Sommers et al. (1975)
70 cubic km Blanton and Winklhofer
(1972)
As indicated by the information in Table 5, the total amounts of
sediment and sediment-bound P discharged to Lake Erie by the Maumee
River average 847,000 and 1,685 metric tons per year, respectively.
Assuming 20% of the total sediment P is ultimately available to algae
(as found in this study), approximately 337 metric tons of available P
will be discharged with sediment loads each year into Lake Erie.
Approximately 3.94 times ten to the twelfth liters of water con-
taining 299 metric tons of SIP are discharged into Lake Erie each year
from the Maumee River. The SIP discharge value is based upon a SIP con-
centration of 0.076 mg/1, the average level measured in numerous water
-------
- 49 -
samples collected at Site 14 (Figure 1). It is possible that the SIP
concentration in the Maumee River watershed entering Lake Erie is lower
than that measured at Fort Wayne, Indiana. However, no information^ was
available to adjust the SIP concentrations used in the calculations.
Assuming that 50% of the SIP is available to algae (as was found in this
study), about 150 metric tons of available SIP are discharged to Lake
Erie annually.
Considering both soluble and sediment-bound P forms, approximately
487 metric tons of algal available P are discharged into Lake Erie each
year. These calculations suggest that sediment-bound and soluble P pro-
vide 69.2 and 30.8% of the P available to algae in Maumee River
discharge, respectively. It is unlikely that the concentration of SIP
in agricultural drainage water can be reduced below 0.06 mg/1, therefore
control of soil erosion (sediment input into streams) is essential to
lower amounts of algal available P discharged into surface waters of
midwestern united States.
The above approximations of P inputs into Lake Erie from the Maumee
River can be used to estimate the impact of the Maumee River on the con-
centrations of soluble, sediment-bound, and available P in the western
basin of Lake Erie. The estimate made herein also uses the following
assumptions: (i) The phosphorus inputs (both soluble and sediment) from
the Maumee River becomes uniformly distributed throughout the volume of
the western basin of Lake Erie, (ii) The volume of the western basin of
Lake Erie is 70 cubic km (Blanton and Winklhofer, 1972) and (iii) All P
entering Lake Erie is retained during the year. Under these conditions,
the estimated increases in concentrations of SIP, available SIP, sedi-
ment P, and available sediment P in the western basin of Lake Erie after
1 year would be 3.9, 2.0, 26.2, and 5.2 micrograms/1, respectively.
These increases in available P concentrations may result in significant
increases in algal growth when initial available P levels in water are
25 micrograms/1 or less. At high initial P concentrations, algal growth
would be influenced to a limited extent by these increases in available
P. Furthermore, not all of the added available P will be utilized _by
aquatic plants because the water in Lake Erie has a short residence time
with the annual flow through the Lake being equal to 1/3 of the Lake
volume.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions may be drawn from data obtained during
this study:
(1) Not all of the soluble P in water samples was available to
algae. The level of soluble P available to algae never equalled the SIP
or total soluble P concentration in any of the 14 samples collected from
the Black Creek Watershed or the Maumee River. In samples containing
less than 0.1 mg SIP/1, only about 50% of the soluble P in water samples
was available for algal uptake.
(2) A deficiency of one or more micronutrients limited algal
growth in water samples collected from the Maumee River. If this
-------
- 50 -
deficiency persists throughout the length of the Maumee River, algal
growth rates in the western portion of Lake Erie may be lower than
predicted by P loading data.
(3) Sediment in agricultural drainage water contained substantial
concentrations of algal available P. Excellent algal growth was
observed in media with sediment as the only source of P. However, maxi-
mal algal growth rates (as compared to PAAP) were not achieved in PAAP
minus P media containing sediment. On the average, 20% of the total
sediment P and 30% of sediment inorganic P were available for algal
uptake.
(4) Phosphate loosely sorbed on amorphous Al and Fe oxide com-
plexes supplied the highest proportion of P assimilated by algae. A
higher proportion of the quantity of the P originally present in the
amorphous Al and Fe oxide complex was taken up by algae than in the
other fractions investigated. The quantity of P loosely sorbed on amor-
phous Al and Fe oxide complexes is most important in determining the
overall availability of sediment P to algae.
(5) Intensive crop production systems did not lead to increased
availability of soluble and sediment-bound P in drainage water when com-
pared to Maumee River water. Higher availability of P to algae was
measured in water samples collected from the Maumee River and portions
of the watershed influenced by septic tanks as compared to samples col-
lected from agricultural, portions of the watershed.
(6) A greater quantity of algal available P is discharged annually
to Lake Erie as sediment-bound P than is discharged as soluble P. This
finding suggests that erosion control measures in the watershed which
would lead to reduced sediment discharqe in Lake Erie may result in
decreased algal growth in the western basin.
LITERATURE CITED
Blanton, J. 0. and Winklhofer. 1972. Physical Processes Affecting the
Hypolimnion of the Central Basin of Lake Erie, 1929-1970. Iin Project
HYPO: An Intensive Study of the Lake Erie Central. Basin Hypolimnion
and Related Surface Water Phenomena. Canada Centre for Inland Waters
(also Paper No. 6) and United States Environmental Protection Agency
(also Technical Report TS-05-71-208-24), p.141.
Fitzgerald, G. P. and P. D. Uttormark. 1974. Applications of Growth
and Sorption Algal Assays. Office of Research and Development,
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (Also EPA 660/3-73-
023).
Hutchinson, G. E. 1957. A Treatise on Limnology, Vol. I. Geography,
Physics and Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. N.Y., p. 1015.
Monke, E. J., D. B. Beasely, and A. B. Bottcher. 1975. Sediment Con-
tributions to the Maumee River. In_ Non-Point Source Population Sem-
inar (Progress Report). United States Environmental Protection
-------
- 51 -
Agency. (Also EPA-90. 5/9-75-007). Office of Great Lakes Coordina-
tor, p. 72.
Sagher, A. and R. Harris. 1975. Availability of Sediment Phosphorus to
Microorganisms. Water Resource Center (also Technical Report WIS WRC
75-01), Madison, Wis.
Scherfig, J., P. S. Dixon, R. Appleman, C. A. Justice. 1973. Effects
of Phosphorus Removal Processes on Algal Growth. Office of Research
and Monitoring. United States Environmental Protection Aqency.
(Also EPA-660/3-73-015).
Sommers, L. E. and D. W. Nelson. 1972. Determination of Total Phos-
phorus in Soils: A Rapid Perchloric Acid Digestion Procedure. Soil.
Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 36; 902-904.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1971 In A. F. Bartsch
Algal Assay Procedure Bottle Test. Washington, D. C. Eutrophication
Research Program.
-------
WATER QUALITY DATA FOR SITE 2 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/1/75 TO 12/31/75
I
Ul
155.D 186.0
TIME [DRYS]
217.0 218.0 279.0 310.0 3*1.0 372.0
-------
WATER QUALITY DKTA FOR SITE 2 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/1/76 TO 12/31/76
7.200 -
g 7.000H
a:
6.600-
Ul
U)
31.0 62.0 93.0 12M.O
155.0 186.0
TIME CDRYS]
217.D 2H6.C 279.0 310.0 311.0 372.0
-------
SYM +
PH-STflNDflRO UNITS
SYM 0
TURBIDITY STD. UNITS
888
o
en
a
8
Q
ffi
NJ
CO
-------
SYM A
TEMPERflTURE CDEG. C]
,- ,- ro
.c *j •-
§ s §
I I 1—
SYM X
OISS. OXYGEN CMG/L3
Ln
-------
WZOER QUALITY DATA FOR SITE 2 TINE PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/1/76 TO 12/31/76
as .00
o 21.00-
1
| 17-8
CT
a:
£
£ 14.00-
_ _L_ l_ I...
01
a\
31.0 62.0 93.0
124.0 155.0 166.0 217.0 248.0 2T9.0
TIME [DflYS]
310.0 3H1.0 372.0
-------
WATER QUALITY DATA FOR SITE 2 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/1/77 TO 12/31/77
35.00-1
2H.60-
5 14.00
10.50
3.EO
26.00
I
tn
155.0 166.0
TIME [DRYS1 -
3^1.0 372.0
-------
WATER QUALITY DATA FOR SITE 2 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/1/75 TO 12/31/75
5 SB,
I
M
-------
WKTER QUALITY DATA FOR SITE 2 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/1/76 TO 12/31/76
.0 31.0 62.0 93.0 184.0
155.0 186.0
TIME [DflYS]
217.0 218.0 279.0 310.0
-------
SYH «>
CflRB. flLK. [MG/L]
-c cn
8 8
_! L_
SYM
8 8
BICflRB. flLK. [MG/L]
1 1 1 1
OD
o
SYM Z
flLKRLINITY [MG/L]
en
NJ
H
U)
- 09 -
-------
SYM +
O> OT
8 8
PH-STPNDflRD UNITS
m en
SYM 0
TURBIDITY STD. UNITS
9
en
Ul
3
U1
-T9 -
-------
WATER QUAUTY DATA FOR SITE 6 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/1/76 TO 12/31/76
I
NJ
31.0 62.0 93.0 12S.O
1SS.O 186.0
TIME TOYS]
217.0 2H8.0 279.0 310.0 3H1.0 372.0
-------
WMER QUAUETY DATA FOR SITE 6 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/1/77 TO 12/31/77
8.000-1 3000.
7.400-
7.200-
to
X 6.800-
.0 31.0
155.0 186.0
TIME tDflYS]
-------
WKCER QUAUTY DATA FOR SITE 6 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/1/75 TO 12/31/75
35.00-,
31.50-
O 21.00-
co
i
UJ
10.60-
3.SO-
<" .00 -1
25.00
88.50-
X
93.0 124.0
T
155.0 186.0
TIME tOflYS]
217.0 2H8.0 279.0 310.0 3*1.0 372.0
-------
WATER QUALITY DATA FOR SITE 6 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/1/76 TO 12/31/76
S2.50-
iS 14.00-
10.SO-) 7.50-
(71
cn
.0 31.0 62.0 93.0
155.D 186.0
TIME [DRYS]
-------
WKCER QUALITY DKTA FOR SITE 6 TIME PERIOD OF GKKPR 1/V77 TO 12/31/77
36.00-1
31.50-
X .00-
O 21.00-
§
n.5o-
£ it.oo-
10.50-
7.00-
3.50-
26.00
20.00-
•-• 1S.OO
o
12.50-
2 10.00
a
.00 -j- —
.0
Jf*. I FEB.
31.0 62.0
' I ~ 1
93.0 12M.O
155.0 1B6.0
TIKE CDPYS]
21T.O 2HB.O 279.0 310.0 341.0 372.0
-------
WKTER QUALITY DATA FOR SITE 6 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/1/75 TQ 12/31/75
1000. -i 1000. -i 1000.
flPR. I MY I JUN. i JUL. I MJG. I SEP
.0 31.0
-------
CRRB. RLK. [MG/L3
888
_) L_
SYM
BICflRB. RLK. CMG/LJ
all
I I U
SYM
RLKflLINITY [MG/L1
CTl
L J
a
to
CTl
- 89 -
-------
WATER QUAHETY DATA FOR SITE 6 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/1/77 TO 12/31/77
1000. -i 1000. -i 1000.
JUN. I JUL. HUG. I SEP. OCT. NOV. I DEC
IO
31.0 62.0 93.0 12M.O
155.0 186.0
TIME [DRYS]
-------
WATER QUALITY DKTA FOR SITE 14 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/26/75 TO 12/27/75
8.000-, 3000.
7.600-
to
± 6.800-
155.0 1B6.0
TIME [DPYS]
217.0 248.0 279.0 310.0 311.0 372.0
-------
WATER QUAUTTY DATA FOR SITE 14 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/3/76 TO 12/4/76
7.800
7.200
7.000-
6.800-
05 6.000J
1
-J
-------
WATER QUAHETY DATA FOR SITE 14 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 2/26/77 TO 9/17/77
B.OOO-i 3000.
7.600-
6.600
6. WO
155.0 186.0
TIME [DftYS]
2H.O 2H8.0
279.0 310.0 3tl.O 372.0
-------
WATER QUALITY DKTA FOR SITE 14 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/26/75 TO 12/27/75
31. SO
26.00
SM.60
021.00
O
s
>y 17.50-
£ m.oo-
7.00-
3.50-
.00-1
12-50-
7.38-
6.00-
I
u>
TIME
217.0 2H8.0 279.0 310.0 3tl .0 372.0
-------
WATER QUALITY DATA FOR SITE 14 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/3/76 TO 12/4/76
36.00-] S5.00
(->'21.00-
C3
LLI
D
£ 17.60-
10.50
7.00
3.50
JUN. I JUL. l\ (HUG. »k SEP. I OCI
155.0 186.0
TIME CDflYSl
217.0 2HB.O 279.0 310.0 311.0 372.0
-------
WATER QUMJTY DATA FOR SITE 14 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 2/26/77 TO 9/17/77
28.00
o 21.00-
C3
17.60-
iti it.oo-
3.SO-
22.50
-J
Ol
31.0 62.0
93.0 J2M.O 155.u 18B.O
TIME CDflYS]
215.D 279.0 310.0 341.0
-------
WMEER QUAUTY DATA FOR SITE 14 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/26/75 TO 12/27/75
—r—
62.0
—r •—r—
93.0 12H.O
155.0 186,0
TIME EORYS]
an.o ate.o 279.0 310.0 3ti.o
-------
WATER QUMJTY DKTA FOR SITE 14 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 1/3/76 TO 12/4/76
1000.-i 1000.-
-sl
-4"
[ DRYS1''
-------
WATER QUAUTY DATA FOR SITE 14 TIME PERIOD OF GRAPH 2/26/77 TO 9/17/77
1000. -; 1000. -
I
CO
155.0 186.0
TIME [DHYS]
217.0 2tB.O 879.0 310.0 3H1.0 372.D
-------
- 79 -
METALLIC CATION CONCENTRATIONS IN WATER SAMPLES
Darrell W. Nelson
Selected water samples collected from sites within the Black Creek
Watershed were filtered through a 0.4 micrometer mean pore diameter
Nucleopore membrane filter and the filtrate analyzed for metallic
cations by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. A Varian AA6 spectro-
photometer with deuterium background corrector and an air-acetylene
flame was use for the analyses.
The results demonstrated that the concentrations of soluble Pb, Cu,
Fe, Ni, and Al in the samples were below that detectable by atomic
absorption. Detection limits for Pb, Cu, Fe, Ni, and Al were 0.15,
0.063, 0.3, 0.04, and 0.1 microgram/ml, respectively. The mean Mg con-
centrations at various sampling sites varied from 7.5 to 40.4
microgram/ml, whereas average Ca concentrations varied from 32.2 to 73.3
micrograms/ml. Mean Zn concentrations at various sampling sites varied
from found to vary from 0.001 to 0.009 microgram/ml. It was concluded
that soluble metallic cation concentrations are low in drainage water
from the Black Creek Watershed.
-------
- 80 -
TABLE 1
Concentration of soluble magnesium in filtered
water samples collected from the
Black Creek Watershed.
Site no.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
N
9
11
16
15
17
13
7
8
13
25
10
14
18
19
3
3
10
14
2
X
13.7
24.6
31.3
22.1
27.4
30.3
11.2
9.5
22.0
40.4
12.4
31.8
20.4
16.7
10.8
8.3
21.8
16.7
7.5
Range
2.2
2.0
1.7
1.8
2.1
1.7
2.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.9
2.2
3.3
2.5
9.7
7.7
11.7
2.8
- 39.5
- 51.7
- 78.8
- 84.7
- 64.8
- 49.2
- 20.4
- 19.9
- 51.7
- 73.1
- 32.7
- 59.4
- 41.9
- 30.4
- 11.3
- 9.3
- 32.7
- 24.0
7.5
SD*
10.82
18.41
25.00
22.73
23.47
20.32
6.16
6.04
19.84
26.34
9.21
20.18
13.53
8.67
0.92
1.04
8.08
8.59
0
-------
- 81
TABLE 2
Concentration of soluble calcium in filtered
water samples collected from the
Black Creek Watershed.
Site no.
N
X
Range
__ /i
SD*
ny/ j.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
9
11
16
15
17
13
7
8
13
25
10
14
18
19
3
3
10
14
2
66.5
62.2
54.0
50.8
69.5
70.1
51.0
50.4
62.0
68.4
55.2
54.4
55.0
52.9
37.3
32.2
73.3
43.1
32.5
45.5 -
31.6 -
29.6 -
32.9 -
28.3 -
32.2 -
38.9 -
26.5 -
27.6 -
34.2 -
41.2 -
32.9 -
30.6 -
32.9 -
29.9 -
31.6 -
43.8 -
30.6 -
32.3 -
131.1
84.2
73.4
78.4
113.7
92.6
71.9
79.6
113.7
113.7
101.8
81.1
84.2
78.4
41.5
32.6
113.7
66.9
32.6
26.25
16.11
13.45
15.71
25.29
20.10
11.89
18.28
30.93
23.33
19.32
15.03
17.73
13.81
6.43
0.51
28.68
15.31
0.21
*SD, standard deviation
-------
- 82 -
TABLE 3
Concentration of soluble zinc in filtered
water samples collected from the
Black Creek Watershed.
Site no.
N
X
Range
SD*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
9
11
16
15
17
13
7
8
13
25
10
14
18
19
3
3
10
14
2
0.029
0.044
0.048
0.031
0.033
0.039
0.029
0.038
0.036
0.031
0.037
0.041
0.046
0.030
0.017
0.027
0.028
0.034
0.025
.000 - .076
.020 - .077
.000 - .256
.000 - .102
.000 - .153
.000 - .102
.000 - .076
.000 - .084
.000 - .102
.000 - .059
.000 - .079
.000 - .144
.000 - .122
.000 - .070
.000 - .030
.000 - .060
.000 - .049
.000 - .085
.010 - .040
0.026
0.017
0.063
0.031
0.037
0.024
0.028
0.029
0.031
0.018
0.029
0.033
0.035
0.025
0.015
0.031
0.016
0.024
0.021
stanoara deviation
-------
- 83 -
TABLE 4
Concentration of soluble cadmium in filtered
water samples collected from the
Black Creek Watershed.
Site no.
i
Ji.
2
£*
3
4
5
5
7
a
V,'
9
J
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
N
9
11
16
15
17
13
7
8
13
25
10
14
18
19
3
3
10
14
2
X
O.P05
0.008
0.009
0.007
0.005
0.006
0.000
0.000
0.003
0.005
0.002
0.004
0.004
0.004
0.000
0.001
0.005
Range
mg/1
0.000 - 0.034
0.000 - 0.059
0.000 - 0.059
0.000 - 0.034
0.000 - 0.042
0.000 - 0.029
0.000
0.000 - 0.003
0.000 - 0.023
0.000 - 0.049
0.000 - 0.018
0.000 - 0.014
0.000 - 0.029
0.000 - 0.029
N.D.
N.D.
0.000 - 0.004
0.000 - 0.029
N.D.
SD*
0.012
0.016
0.016
0.010
0.010
0.008
0.000
0.001
0.006
0.010
0.006
0.006
0.008
0.008
0.000
0.002
0.008
*§D, standard deviation
-------
- 84 -
by T. Dan McCain
Soil Conservation Service
INTRODUCTION:
The Soil Conservation Service participated in the Black Creek Pro-
gram by offering accelerated technical assistance to the 175 landowners
in this 12,000 acre agricultural watershed and then working with 121.
The assistance was geared to analyzing the "traditional approach"
to conservation land treatment. Thirty-three practices were identified
so that conceivably all possible land uses, treatment methods and
environmental concerns could be covered.
At the conclusion of this five-year project, 87% of the land area
was under cooperative agreement, 79% of the watershed was covered by
conservation plans with landusers under contract and 66% of the
watershed was treated by applying one or more of the 33 practices.
HOW PLANNING WAS APPROACHED
Plans were developed by Soil Conservationists and applied by tech-
nicians. Many early plans and contracts were extremely lengthy. Later
application of these thorough plans lead to difficulty and inefficiency
as far as application of best management practices was concerned.
Tne concentrated effort under the traditional conservation approach
was to "treat each acre." At the same time there was a compulsion to
make a "showplace of applied conservation" for all to see and appreci-
ate.
Plans were often lengthy because "options" were listed and allowed
for payment and because these were not separated from the "mandatory"
contractual committments. It is now recognized that less than half of
the watershed (5,750 acres) was deemed critical and needing treatment to
improve water quality. It could therefore be concluded that manpower,
money, and time could have been spared if a simpler "best management
practice" (BMP) approach had been utilized. Most early plans listed
contractual committments through the last year of application. We were
committed to an annual follow-up contact during the winter (Jan-Mar)
months. At that time we were often trying to "clean up" and transfer
committments to following years to keep cooperators from being out of
compliance. When the final year arrived, many second, third and fourth
year committments had been delayed to the limit. It was then that we
decided "mandatory and optional" status of planned practices, based upon
which procedures were necessary to control excessive erosion.
Actually the original planner had made determinations of mandatory
needs to meet the basic Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) requirements
for specific soils. What happened is now simple to understand. Lan-
downers, when given an open account and a catalog of nice practices,
will committ themselves beyond their real needs. Most plans contained
-------
- 85 -
nice-to-have or non-essential practices.
Most later plans were written to cover essential practices; how-
ever, it wasn't until after Black Creek's first five years that sim-
plifed planning format was accomplished. A simplified plan is being
used in the Fort Wayne SCS Field Office on all ACP referral work for
1978. Early results are encouraging. Plans are never longer than one
page. Annual follow-up is automatic and the cooperator always has an
updated copy of his committment decisions. From our experiences in the
Black Creek Project some general conclusion can be made as related to
planning of conservation practices that result in improvement of water
quality.
Understanding needs, treatment costs, critical areas, water quality
goals and working relationships with farmers are all important in gettm
conservation practices applied to improve water quality. If all else
fails, use the "KIS" approach — Keep It Simple. •
Treating only areas of the watershed that are critical areas makes
sense. You work harder, sooner with fewer people and accomplish more
water quality improvements, more efficiently, and at a considerable sav-
ings in cost-sharing monies. Evidence of this potential savings can be
derived from Figure 33, page 249 Black Creek Final Report Vol. II. This
chart plots costs for 4 broad practice catigories. Elimating production
practices and other treatment (recreation, wildlife and wood .land) on
non-essential areas could reduce the overhead considerably.
Tne drawback to planning with the traditional approach has now been
recognized by the SCS. Changing times and the emphasis on water quality
has helped the national revision of the SCS Conservation Planning Manual
(Oct. 1978)
Influence we need to generate with ]arge farmers should be toward
Best Management Practices. They should understand water quality objec-
tives and then be able to make decisions affecting the outcome.
Treating each acre is too meticulous unless this treatment is
needed to control excessive erosion. As far as water quality is con-
cernded, If we expect to "clean the waters" for fishing and swimming by
1983 or even 1993 we must use an efficient, effective methods, on those
areas needing treatment.
-------
Subsurface Drainage Model with Associated
Sediment Transport
A. B. Bottcher, E. J. Monke and L. F. Muggins
ABSTRACT
A computer model using GASP IV simulation language to simulate the
water flow and sediment concentration from a subsurface drainage system
was developed. The model used a one-dimensional form of the Richard's
equation and an existing tile flow formula by Toskoz and Kirkham to
express the water movement process. The particle detachment model,
based on a force balance relationship, is driven directly by the output
of the flow model. Data required by the model includes rainfall distri-
bution, evapotranspiration, soil hydraulic properties, and the drainage
system layout.
Calibration and verification were accomplished using data collected
on a seventeen hectare tile drainage system located on a flat Hoytville
silty c]ay soil. A comparison of the simulated and observed results
indicate that the mode] will reliably predict water yield, sediment
yield and the sediment concentration curve. However, some difficulty
occurred in simulating the actual shape of the flow hydrograph.
INTRODUCTION
The movement of rainfall through a soil profile to a subsurface
drain line is a very complex hydraulic and transport problem. Water, as
it moves through the profile, can pick up fine soil particles and chemi-
cals which may ultimately reach our lakes and streams. Many factors,
such as saturated or unsaturated flow, hydraulic gradient, physico-
chemical effects on soil particle bonding, absorption-desorption, diffu-
sion, and chemical and biological transformations can influence tran-
sport. At the field level, factors such as soil cracking, freeze-thaw
conditions, non-homogenity and varied plant growth serve to further com-
plicate efforts to conceptionalize, much less model subsurface drainage
transport systems. Most of these factors have been studied either in
the laboratory or theoretically for ideal-controlled conditions. How-
ever, for the field scale and multi-variable systems, knowledge is still
quite limited.
Existing research has dealt primarily with water movement since
root zone moisture control has been the primary incentive for subsurface
drainage. However, recent studies have shown that subsurface drain out-
flow is not necessarily clean water *nd may indeed be contributing to
the degradation of the water quality in lakes and streams (Baker and
Johnson, 1976; Schwab, Nolte and Brehm, 1977).
This paper explores the impact of subsurface drainage as a sediment
source and describes a model that may be used to predict both flow and
sediment concentration as a function of time for a single storm event or
series of such events. The ability to determine sediment loading
-------
- 87 -
potentials of drained fields with varying soil types by using available
soil properties data will help to facilitate '208' planning efforts.
Also, significant amounts of nutrients are associated with the sediment
(Lake, 1977). In addition, a reliable water flow and sediment transport
model will provide a solid basis for more complex nutrient or pesticide
transport models yet to be developed.
FLOW MODEL
In general both unsteady and steady subsurface flow models are
based on a numeric technique to solve Richard's equation, in two-
dimensional as (Merman, 1976; Hillel and van Bavel, 1976; and Nature,
King and Jeppson, 1975):
6 r K,m - St, _ 6^Q) - d9 fl)
8^rK(9) Sz1 -&r -at (i)
where t is the tension head, K the hydraulic conductivity, 0 the water
content, and t time.
Water balance techniques have also been used when large scale
(field or watershed size) subsurface flow problems were to be solved
(Bird and McCorquadale, 1971). However, water balance models do not
provide the detailed picture of water movement within the soil profile
that theoretical models such as those based on Richard's equation pro-
vide.
The flow model presented in this paper uses a one-dimensional form
of Richard's equation in the unsaturated zone above the watertable and
uses the tile flow formula developed by Toskoz and Kirkham (1961) to
move water from the watertable to the drain line. According to Toskoz
and Kirham,
qt = Ks ' H/(S ' F + H) (2)
where qt is flow into drain line per unit length, Ks is the saturated
hydraulic conductivity of the lower profile, H is the height above the
drain line to the midpoint of the watertable, S is the drain line spac-
ing, and F is a function given by:
F= I ( in(S/iTR)) + (3)
IT
oo,
5 - (cos(Tr'2-R/S)-cos(m'ir) •(coht3n(2'm'ir'D/S)-l)
,m
m=l
where R is the drain line radius and D is the depth to the impeding
layer below the drain line. This formula was chosen because it yields
the equilibrium watertable height during a constant rainfall intensity,
thereby assuring continuity of flow at the unsaturated-saturated flow
interface.
The unsaturated flow regime is solved numerically by dividing the
-------
- 8P -
soiJ profile into N layers of which only the layers above the current
wat-ertable height are considered (Figure 1). The change in water con-
tent in each layer is determined by combining the following finite
difference forms of the two fundamental relationships from which
Richard's equation is founded, namely:
SOIL SURFACE
TILE DEPTH
Unsaturated
Assumption
I
LAYERS
Saturated
Assumption
(spacing)
Figure 1. Soil Profile of Tile Drainage System
Darcy's Law (vertical flow),
q = -K(9)(
and the equation of continuity,
A© = Aq
A~t A~z
(4)
- (5)
Combining equations (4) and (5) and inserting layer notation yields the
water content rate of change in the ith layer:
2SE" '*'*!
where layers are labeled from the surface downward such that the drain
line layer is the Nth layer. The above set of L (number of layers above
watertable) finite difference equations are solved simultaneously by the
Runga-Kuttu-England algorithm available in. the GASP IV simulation
language (Pritsker, 1974).
The following assumptions were made to facilitate the description
and solution of the unsaturated flow portion of the problem:
-------
- 89 -
1. Vapor movement of water is negligible for the duration of a
storm period.
2. Flow is isothermal.
3. Osmotic gradients are not present.
4. Biological effects are negligible.
5. Water is homogeneous in nature.
6. Hydraulic conductivity is iso tropic and is a linear function of
water content.
7. Tension is a linear function of water content.
P. Hysteresis does not exist in either the tension or hydraulic
conductivity relationships with water content.
9. Hydraulic conductivity is the same for all layers.
10. The tension versus water content relationship is the same for
all layers.
11. The watertable surface is rectangular in shape.
12. Hydraulic gradient and hydraulic conductivity change linearly
between the center points of two adjacent layers.
The linear assumptions were used to reduce computer costs for the
initial modeling effort. Also, metal tests showed little difference in
simulated results when nonlinear relationships were used. The model can
be extended to allow tension and hydraulic conductivity relationships to
be different in each layer. However, Data is normally lacking to
describe a soil profile in this detail.
The boundary conditions used to solve the set of finite difference
equations of the form shown by equation (*) were determined for the sur-
face layer by evapo transpiration (ET) , rainfall rate (RR) and the pro-
file moisture deficit (MD) , and for the lowest unsaturated layer by the
tile flow formula.
ET was computed by a diurnal expression which required the monthly
average evapotr inspiration, ETma. The expression used to describe ET
was:
ET = ETma (1 - cos (t ' Cj) ' C2) (7)
where C, and C~ are constants which provide for a 24 hour cycle and a
relative daily fluctuation, respectively. Evapo transpiration rates and
daily fluctuation were determined from data given in the literature
(Linsley, Kohler and Paulhus, 1975; Schwab, Frevert, Edminster and
Barnes, 196^). The expression for the MD replenishment rate (MDR) was
determined empirically during the calibration procedure of the model.
The MDR expression used was:
MDR = C3 x e
(C4 ' WD - 1)
where C-, and C, are constants which represent the relative direct chan-
nelization (caused by soil cracking or well developed soil structure)
and the variable setting of aggregation between flow channels, respec-
tively. Rainfall was determined from observed recording raingage
records.
The upper boundary condition was set by control ing the water input
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- 90 -
to layer one by the following procedure:
^ in1 = n, if (RR - ET) <= MDR and
profile water content <= equilibrium
water content (MD > D).
or
ln
RR : ET - MER for all other cases except if
surface water storage exists, in which case an
imaginary surface layer is set equal to the
build up the
of eay
by the tile flow formua The ^sition of %Hlle °Utfl°W *S
flow interface (watertabJe) if **\ „ * * unsafcur*ted-saturated
tinuity between the two f?ow re<^Ls ' 3cc^dingly to maintain con-
PARTICLE DETACHMENT
(critical level for Ppinq to occur)
particle detachment^ ^u?d occur
is
size a threshold
rMChert before
ponents:
and (3) hydraulic drag forces
considered to be the only fOj.v.c LU
the tensile stresses per unit area,
Fc =
tensile strength of the
particle
three
force, Fg,
es3 sting force which he
°f
and
-------
- 91 -
where V is the volume of the particles, YS and Vto are the specific
weight of the particle and water, respectively, n is the porosity of the
particle, and c( is the angle of the flow direction from vertical.
Zaslavsky considered only vertically upward flow.
Hydraulic drag forces were assumed to be the pressure head loss due
to flow resistance of the soil. These drag forces were considered pro-
portional between the macroscopic and the microscopic partic.le environ-
ment as given by the expression:
Fh = aj'V-yW'q/K ^ (11)
where a^ is a shape factor and K is the hydraulic conductivity of the
soil. Equation (11) could have been obtained from a more complete
microscopic consideration of the drag and lift, forces on an individual
particle since these forces are also directly proportional to q. An
expression yielding critical flow values, Q , was then derived as:
0 = *'*?;?* -K-D2 (12)
c 2 d Vw
where b is a general geometric factor, D is the hole or channel diameter
where water exists in the soil , and d is the particle diameter. The
coefficient of KD was approximately constant for a given soil so that
the values remaining on the right side of equation 02) can be lumped
together into a sinqle coefficient which is measurable in the labora-
tory.
Advancement of Theory
The theory as presented in the previous section considered piping
as a surface phenomenon which progresses into the soil as failure con-
tinues. However, internal detachment of soil particles will also occur
in some subsurface drainage systems. This internal erosion rarely
causes failure of the soil profile, or of the drain line itself but does
contribute to the degradtion of water quality.
Internal erosion may be viewed as a surface phenomenon on a micros-
copic scale. Therefore, it is possible to use the basic force balance
relationship developed by Zaslavsky with the following modifications.
First, point forces which are the forces of physical contact between
particles need to be considered, and secondly, the cohesive forces need
also to be viewed on a microscopic scale. The effect of soil water
chemistry on cohesive forces between soil particles are neglected
because, at best, only general trends are presently known for these
relationships (Sarquman, 1973).
Zaslavsky's cohesive force relationship was expanded to provide for
a cohesive force determination for each particle size. This was done by
assuming that the cohesive force on a particle is proportional to the
square inverse of the particle size and directly proportional to tensile
strength of the soil. However, the actual functional relationship
between particle size and cohesive forces can vary considerably because
of different types of attractive and repulsive forces (hydration, Van de
-------
- 92 -
Waals, electrostatic, osomotic and orientation) coming into play at
various times (Landau, 1974). An estimate of the mean cohesive force on
particles with a qiven size are as follows:
fc(d) = CK'ot/d'
(13)
with
CK = 1/SN ' (1/d^'f.
where N is the total number of particles in the layer of shear in which
tensile strength is determined, i represents a particle size interval
and f. is the fraction of the N particles which are in the interval i.
These equations are based on the assumption that cohesive forces are
responsible for the tensile strength of a soil.
Point forces, Fp, are those forces of physical contact, between par-
ticles. The net point force on a particle is the sum of all physical
contact forces on the particle just before the particle could be
detached by hydraulic forces. The size of the particle influences these
forces as well as the matrix configuration around the particle. There-
fore, a distribution of point forces must be determined for a given par-
ticle diameter. Figure 2 provides a hypothetical point force distribu-
tion which can be described for some particle sizes by the function
relationship, fp(Fp).
>,
4*
•H
A
(0
•8
Net Point Force
Figure 2. Hypothetical Point Force Distribution
As seen in Figure 2 particles sizes capable of being eroded are
-------
- 93 -
given by the area under the curve to the left of the detachment force,
F . The detaching force, which is a function of d and q, is the Differ-
ence between the hydraulic force and the component of the sum of the
cohesive and gravitational force in the direction of the hydraulic
force. Using these relationships a parameter for erosion per unit soil
volume per unit time is defined as:
Fm
E. = C3f fpi (Fp)'dFp (15)
o
where C3 is an empirically determined constant. The total area under
the curve of fq(d) is defined to be unity.
To obtain the total soil movement per unit time, TE, the unit ero-
sion parameter, E, must be summed over the entire profile, namely:
TE = ^TA Ej'dA
i
where A is the saturated section of the soil profile above the impeding
.layer. Equation (16) assumes unit thickness to provide for the volume
integration of the two dimensional model. The erosion potential in the
unsaturated zone is assumed zero.
In the expression for the total erosion rate, the only variable in
its formulation that is a function of short term time is q which appears
in the expression for Fh. This, plus the assumption that the saturated
streamline pattern is relatively stable, allows the water flux in the
saturated profile to be given as a function of the flow into the drain
line only. Therefore, regardless of the streamline pattern shape, total
erosion becomes a function of the single time dependent variable, qt,
and the point force distribution.
The point force distribution is the controlling factor in the
determination of the soil loss from a subsurface drainage system. It
can be determined directly, if sediment loading data are available for
the given system, by differentiating equation (15) which yields:
i
ra
m
size
The point force distribution and cohesive forces for the particle
interval will normally be very difficult to determine. Therefore,
one is forced to use a lumped or equivalent particle size until better
data becomes available. The assumption of an equivalent single particle
size yields the following lumped point force distribution:
where C4 is a constant to assure unit area under the distribution func-
tion. The ordinate of the fp1 distribution is given as qt above, but as
indicated F is a direct function of qt so equation (18) is the same as
m
-------
- 94 -
equation (17) for a single equivalent particle size.
MODEL CALIBRATION
Many parameters required by the model were readily available from
observed data or literature, but a few were not. The unknown parameters
and. relationships were empirically determined to assure the model would
simulate recorded events without losing the flexibility of a theoreti-
cally based model.
Several parameters were fixed and were not subject to change during
calibration: tile lateral spacing, tile radius, depth of tile, area of
the drainage system, tension versus water content, curve, rainfall and
evapotranspiration. The twenty-five year old drainage system layout was
determined from records of the landowner. ET was determined from the
literature. A recording weighting bucket raingage provided for a con-
tinuous rainfall intensity data file. The tension versus water content
relationship was experimentally* determined and then approximated as a
linear function. Saturated hydraulic conductivity, deep seepage and
coefficients for the rate of replenishment of the moisture deficit were
determined by calibration procedures. Moisture deficit was estimated at
the start of a simulated run.
Calibration Procedures
The hydraulic conductivity (first parameter calibrated) was assumed
to be a linear function of water content after multiple attempts, using
nonlinear relationships, showed limited change in model predictions.
Because of this linearization, saturated hydraulic conductivity was con-
sidered alone. The model was run repeatedly for different values of
saturated conductivity holding other parameters constant. An initial
estimate of the conductivity was made using data given in the Soil Sur-
vey Report. Best estimates were made for the other parameters yet to be
determined. The characteristic being observed was the ability of the
model to provide the hydraulic response of the leading edge of the
hydrograph. Other parameters were observed to have an insignificant
effect on this characteristic. The final saturated hydraulic conduc-
tivity selected was three centimeters per hour.
The second parameter calibrated was deep seepage. Deep seepage was
varied significantly within a range of reasonable values (.00-0.01
centimeters/hour) and was observed to have a negligible effect on the
model output. Therefore, deep seepage was arbitrarily set at .001
centimeters/hour.
The last parameters considered during calibration were constants of
equation (8) needed to describe the replenishment rate. They were
determined by systematic variation of their initial input values. The
moisture deficit was determined by the actual moisture deficit
* experiments were run by Edward R. Miller, graduate student at
Purdue University.
-------
- 95 -
replenished by rainfall durinq the selected calibration storm. C3 acted
as a multiplier factor for the overall size of the tile outflow hydro-
graph. C4 had a more significant impact on the shape of the trailing
edge of the tile hydrograph. After calibration, the accepted values
were: C3 = 0.1, C4 = 0.8, and a moisture deficit equal to 4.2 centime-
ters. C3 and C4 should remain constant for a given profile. However,
the moisture deficit must be estimated for each storm simulated if it
has not already been provided by previous simulations. The moisture
deficit would be zero for very wet antecedent moisture conditions.
All flow related calibration procedures were accomplished for a
single well-behaved event in late June, 1977. This event was selected
because it was an isolated storm resulting from a single strong rainfall
event preceded by a relatively dry period. The dry antecedent condi-
tions provided a significant response of the system to the moisture
deficit relationship. Also, the time separation of this calibration
period and the verification period assured less interference between the
two periods. However, the sediment calibration of the model was based
on all of the non-thaw periods of records.
The sediment erosion relationships used in the model were deter-
mined empirically from observed data and the particle detachment theory.
The theory predicted sediment loading to be a function of tile flow as
determined by the point force distribution fp(Fp). As observed with
actual data, sediment concentrations remained nearly constant during
periods of varying flow except for an initial flush of sediment follow-
ing a prolonged dry spell. Otherwise the point force distribution was
found to be constant according to equation (6) since the sediment load-
ing was considered directly proportional to flow.
The reason for observed high initial sediment concentrations is not
well understood. However, its behavior was easily described mathemati-
cally. The initial flush followed an exponential decay which was fairly
consistent for a]1 storms monitored. The peak sediment concentration
was approximately three times the equilibrium concentration with a decay
constant of approximately fifteen hours. The equilibrium sediment con-
centration was observed to be approximately sixty milligrams per liter.
Figure 3 shows the final output of the calibrated model compared
with actual data from which it was calibrated. The remaining discrepan-
cies between the actual and simulated, curves are a result of the
theoretical flow model not truly representing the actual flow mechanisms
occurring in the field. The difference is particularly noticeable dur-
ing the leading edge of the hydrograph where the flow theory deviates
the greatest from the field situation.
COMPARISON OF SIMULATION RESULTS TO OBSERVED DATA
The validity of any model must ultimately be determined by compar-
ing its output to observed data. Graphical results for water and sedi-
ment yields predicted by the developed computer mode] are shown in Fig-
ure 4.
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- 96 -
Actual Flow
— Simulated Flow
Actual Sediment Cone.
Simulated. Sediment Cone.
15
30
45
Time (hours)
Figure 3. Actual vs Simulated Results for Calibration Storm
An 18-day period of record beginning at 9:00 AM on Apri] 21. 1977
T6^ -2* m0del/ ™5 *>rio* was chtsen because it
LSTlflCantmUltipJepeak flow event recorded which
f- ?• * freeze~thaw Condition. The total tile discharge
o ^Catl°n P8"0*3 rePresented "early fifty percent of the
total discharge for the two years of record.
Flow Prediction
General agreement between actual and simulated flow is seen in Fig-
ure 4. However, some differences did occur which were partially the
result of assumptions and approximations made for soil properties that
were not _o the rwi.se available. Even when performed in thelaboratory,
determination of soil properties such as hydraulic conductivity and the
tension characteristic curve are subject to large error. This fact when
t?alynr1lTable arield Varlati°nS in^rferes with the acquisition o?
tern M
tem affecting
fleld 3nd 3 time ^^ticm of the soil sys-
would also cause the model to imprecisely predict the
I9tter WaS 6vident ^ direct channelization of
rih - v, byP1SS sections of the soil matrix. This
resulted in a higher hydraulic conductivity until the profile became wet
-------
- 97 -
40
30
20
10
Actual Flow
• —— — Simulated Flow
• Actual Sediment Cone.
.. Simulated Sediment Cone.
S-l
0)
•r-\
r-H
0
U
100
100
150
200 250
Time (hours)
jOO
350
^00
Figure 4. Actual vs Simulated Results of Tile Flow and Sediment Yield
at which time the channels either swelled shut or collapsed from ero-
sion. This phenomenon was corrected by the use of the moisture deficit
replenishment relationship.
The overall performance of the flow model was good. It predicted
when and where flow events occurred and provided a very close approxima-
tion of the total volume of water discharged from the tile drainage sys-
tem (3.00 and 3.28 centimeters equivalent depth for actual and simu-
lated, respectively).
Sediment Concentration Prediction
The ability of the model to accurately predict the sediment concen-
tration in the tile effluent was attributed to the relative stability of
the sediment concentration during periods of varying flow and the con-
sistent nature of the decay in the high sediment concentration at the
beginning of an event. Total sediment yield was predicted well by the
model (428 and 402 kilograms for actual and simulated, respectively).
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
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- 98 -
Summary
A computer model programmed in the GASP IV simulation language was
developed to predict flow and sediment loadings from ? subsurface
drainage system using natural rainfall data as input. In the flow por-
tion of the model, the soil profile above the tile was divided into
twenty (variable to 100) horizontal layers. A modified form of
Richard's equation was used to describe the water movement between the
unsaturated layers above the watertable and a tile flow formula
developed by Toskoz and Kirkham was used below the watertable. The
boundary condition at the soil surface was determined by rainfall, eva-
potranspiration and the moisture deficit of the soil profile. The boun-
dary condition at the watertable was controlled by conservation of mass
and the tile flow formula.
The sediment moment portion of the model was based on a particle
detachment theory and an empirical analysis of the sediment flush
observed at the beginning of flow events. The particle detachment
theory predicted that the sediment yield from a subsurface drain was a
function only of the drain outflow and a point force distribution which
was found to be uniform. Tne initial flush was adequately described by
an exponentia] decay function with a fifteen hour decay constant.
Calibration and verification of the model was completed using data
collected from a seventeen hectare drainage system on a HoytviJle silty
clay soil. An automatic drain sampling station was constructed to col-
lect water samples at a rate directly proportional to drain flow. Drain
flow and rainfall were recorded continuously. A large storm event in
late June, 1977, was used to calibrate the model. The varied parameters
were the moisture deficit replenishment coefficients, deep seepage, and
the saturated hydraulic conductivity.
Verification of the model was accomplished by simulating the most
active flow period of the two years of record. The only variable
requiring an initial estimate was the moisture deficit. Simulated
results compared well with observed data.
Conclusions
The following conclusions are based on experiences gained in the
model development and comparisons made between the simulated and actual
data.
One-dimensional Dareyian flow theory provided only a fair represen-
tation of the actual flow mechanisms existing in the soil profile. The
leading edge of a flow hydrograph deviated most from theory.
Tne model required values of hydraUlic conductivity for Hoytville
silty clay higher than previously reported in soil survey reports.
Reported values of hydraulic conductivity would not allow the model to
simulate the rapid hydraulic response of the tile drains to rainfall.
Linearization of both the tension and hydraulic conductivity versus
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- 99 -
water content relationships provides a reasonable representation of the
actual data in view of the variability and reliability of this data.
Nonlinear relationships did not significantly improve the ability of the
model to simulate actual data. Nonlinear expressions also increased the
computer run times significantly.
Direct or partial channelization of rainwater to the subsurface
drains does exist. Water was observed reaching the drains long before
the actual moisture deficit of the soil was replenished. This may in
part be the result of deep cracking of the soil profile. The detection
of surface applied chemicals in the drains shortly after application
supported the presence of channelization.
The particle detachment theory was in agreement with observed data
except during the initial period of sediment flush. The cause of the
high sediment concentration at the beginning of a storm is not well-
understood, but it does follow a well-described exponential decay pat-
tern. However, the potential for the high sediment at the beginning of
a storm is directly affected by the length of time the soil profile is
at or below the equilibrium water content. It was found the greates
initial flush of sedements ocurred after long dry periods. Using this
potential relationship and the observed exponential decay relationship,
the model predicted the sediment loading from a subsurface drainage sys-
tem.
Point forces on soil particles which detach and move into the sub-
surface drains are negligible as indicated by the uniform point force
distribution. Therefore, point force considerations may not be neces-
sary for subsurface sediment transport models.
REFERENCES
1. Merman, C. R. 1976. Soil water modeling I: A generalized simula-
tion of steady, two-dimensional flow. Trans. ASAE 19(3): 466-470.
2. Baker, V. L. and H. P. Johnson. 197*. Impact of subsurface
drainage on water quality. Proceedings 3rd National Drainage Sym-
posium. Chicago, 111. pp. 91-9P.
3. Bird, N. A. and V. A. McCorquadale. 1971. Computer simulation of
tile systems. Trans. ASAE 14(1): 175.
4. Hillel, D. and C. H. M. van Bavel. .1976. Simulation of profile
water storage as related to soil hydraulic properties. Jour. SSSA.
Div. S-l, 40(6): 807-815.
5. Lake, James. 1978 Environmental impact of land use on water qual-
ity. J. Morrison. (ed.) EPA-905/9-77-0007B, Region V, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Chicago, 111.
6. Landau, H. G., Jr. 1974. Internal erosion of compacted cohesive
soil. Ph.D. Thesis. Purdue University, W. Lafayette, Ind.
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- 100 -
7. Linsley, R. K. Jr., M. A. Jtohler and J. H. Paulhus. 1975. Hvdrol
cgy for Engmeer. McGraw-Hill, inc.. New York, N?i. £ 179-184.
8. Natur, P. s., L. G. King and R. w. Jeppson. 1975.
erosion
12. Schwab, G. 0., B. H. Nolte, and R. D. Brehm. 1977. Sediment from
drainage systems for c]*y soils. Trans. ASAE 20(5): So-SSS.
13. Schwab, G 0. R^ K Revert, T. W BAninster and K. K. Barnes.
. Y? r C°nSerVatl°n ^ineering. John Wiley and
' Snnn'J' "^ °; Kirkham-. 19fil- Graphical solution and interpre-
tation of a new drain-spacing formula. J. Geoph. Res. fifi: 509-516.
15. Zaslavsky ,D and G. Kassiff. 1965. Theoretical formulation of
piping mechanisms in cohesive soils. Geotechnique, Vol 15,^. 3.
M» jUD.
-------
RECONCILING STREAMBANK EROSION CONTROL
WITH WATER QUALITY GOALS
* **
Daniel R. Dudley and James R. Karr
ABSTRACT
The reality of sediment as a pollutant and the obvious presence of
streambank erosion in many areas has precipitated many streambank
erosion control programs. But streambank erosion is a complex problem
which may, in many cases, be a minor contributor to sediment loads.
More comprehensive cost-benefit analysis must be undertaken before
massive programs to stabilize streambank are implemented. The effects
of streambank erosion control on sediment loads, drainage efficiency,
and the biological integrity of downstream water resources must be care-
fully evaluated. A critical areas approach should be implemented to
replace the wholesale modification of stream channels so common in the
past.
Aquatic Biologist, Allen County Soil and Water Conservation District,
Executive Park, Suite 103, 2010 Inwood, Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805
Associate Professor, Department of Ecology, Ethology, and Evolution,
Vivarium Building, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois 61820
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- 102 -
Sediment can act as a water pollutant in two primary ways. First,
excessive sediment may cause direct damage to a variety of organisms
(Sorensen et al. 1977). Second, even when present in moderate amounts,
sediment serves as a vehicle for the transport of nutrients, pesticides,
and other material in water (Stewart et al. 1975). The reality of
sediment as a pollutant and the obvious presence of streambank erosion
in many areas has prompted streambank erosion control programs by Soil
and Water Conservation Districts and the Soil Conservation Service.
It is tempting to issue a blanket statement that all streambank
erosion is a scar upon the landscape and that we should attempt to erase
it. But streambank erosion is a more complex problem than it might
appear at first glance. Arguments to proceed with caution include,
simply, the exorbitant cost of treatment in addition to more complex
issues. In this paper we consider three problems at the center of the
streambank erosion controversy. These are the need to:
1- determine the magnitude of the problem relative to
total sediment yield throughout a watershed;
2. determine the actual crop loss due to drainage impairment
and loss of crop land; and
3. consider headwater-stream channels as complex biological
systems with a multiplicity of functions that are vital to
downstream water-resource values.
Two recent studies clearly demonstrate that the magnitude of
streambank erosion varies among watersheds. A study by the Soil Con-
servation Service indicates that streambank erosion is not a major
source of sediment pollution in the Black Creek watershed. This study
(Mildner 1976) done in conjunction with the Black Creek project
revealed that only 6% of the sediment reaching the Maumee River from
Black Creek originated in stream channels. From these data it is
hard to justify massive efforts to stabilize stream channels throughout
a watershed on the premise of reducing sediment export.
For the farmer, laymen, and even some "experts" it is hard to
reconcile this conclusion with observations of large volumes of soil
washed from eroding banks. However, when considering streambank
erosion it is important to remember a few facts to keep the proper
perspective on the larger issue of sediment pollution. A cubic yard
of soil weighs approximately one ton and a mile long reach of eroding
streambank may lose 100 cubic yards or tons of soil in one year,
(A rate nearly twice that estimated by Mildner for Black Creek.)
This may sound like a considerable loss but it is small when con-
sidered from a watershed perspective. One hundred acres of cropland
in the Black Creek watershed typically lose as much soil to streams
as the mile long reach of eroding streambank. However, this type
of erosional loss is simply not visually detectable; a 100 ton loss
spread evenly over 100 acres of cropland equals approximately
0.01 inches of soil. Since only 23% of stream channels in Black
Creek have erosion problems (Mildner 1976), the sediment contribu-
tions of cropland far outweigh streambank erosion.
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- 103 -
In contrast, a study of the sources of suspended sediments in the
Spoon River, Illinois (Evans and Schnepper 1977) demonstrates that
streambank erosion may be a major contributor of suspended material
in our waterways. They found that 44% of the sediment transported
from the watershed of a 31 mile reach of the Spoon River came from the
stream channel itself. These two studies clearly demonstrate that
treatment of stream channel erosion, to be cost effective, must only
be attempted in critical locations where such erosion contributes
significantly to the sediment exported from the watershed.
A far more serious problem connected with streambank erosion is
damage to crops caused by drainage impairments or actual loss of
cropland. Individual losses or washouts of cropland and other prop-
erty can be dramatic but are limited to a few isolated cases.
Obviously, in such critical problem areas, streambank erosion con-
trol measures may be justified and quite effective in solving the
immediate problem. However, impaired drainage caused by loss o : tile
outlets or the impedence of storm flows is far more commonplace. In
many low gradient ditches throughout the Maumee basin tile outlets
can be blocked by the accumulation of sediment in the ditch bottom.
Often the source of this blockage comes from slipping banks and lack
of sufficient water velocity to carry trapped sediment downstream.
Tile drainage can also be impaired when storm flows recede so
slowly that the tile outlets are covered with water for extended
periods of time. Again, a critical factor acting to slow storm run-
off may be the accumulation of sediment within the channel. Sediment
deposition reduces the capacity of the channel to hold water and also
slows runoff by causing the water to meander from one side of the
channel to the other.
After a stream has been channelized, progressive changes occur
that lead to less than maximum drainage efficiencies. Fundamental
physical laws governing natural processes dictate this reality
(Yang 1971). Streambank erosion is but one of the complex factors
involved in causing drainage impairment. Other factors include
changes in bed roughness, pool-riffle frequency, meander frequency,
and channel profile (Stall and Yang 1972). Within the constraints of
the system (land topography, channel bottom material, etc.), these
factors create channels with minimum rates of potential energy
expenditure and less than maximum drainage efficiency.
In some streams, therefore, the maintenance of clean, straight
ditches with maximum drainage efficiencies can be a costly and never
ending battle (Haddock 1976, Karr and Schlosser 1978). To be cost
effective, the benefits realized through increased crop yield must
exceed the costs of maintaining a satisfactory level of drainage
(through streambank erosion control and bottom-dipping). Unfor-
tunately, such cost-benefit analyses are lacking in much drainage
oriented work carried out by government agencies and the private
landowner.
A third and vitally important consideration in streambank
erosion control programs involves the headwater stream environment.
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- 104 -
Throughout much of the Midwest, truly natural stream environments
rarely exist because man has greatly altered the landscape to create
productive cropland. Much of the productive farmland in the Maumee
basin is dependent upon the drainage provided by channelized streams.
Such streams are typically uniform in depth and width and have
shifting sand bottoms. Woody vegetation is often removed from the
banks, and snags and sand bars are removed periodically.
However, as we have already noted, streams have a tendency to
return to a more natural condition. The uniform stream bed is
readjusted to become a series of deep pools with sand or silt bottoms
alternating with shallower, gravel-bottomed areas, called riffles.
Unless kept in check, woody vegetation colonizes the banks. Weather-
ing and storm flows create areas of bank erosion that impart a degree
of meandering to the formerly straight channel. After a period of
time (10-20 years) the channelized stream returns to a semi-natural
stream environment.
What is the fate of the aquatic life that must face the environ-
mental conditions of channelized vs. semi-natural streams? Biological
studies conducted in Black Creek (Gorman and Karr 1978) and elsewhere
(see Karr and Schlosser 1977 for references) have documented the
unstable aquatic communities in channelized streams. In essence, the
biota of headwater streams exists in a very degraded state in channel-
ized areas.
As noted elsewhere in this volume (Karr and Dudley 1978) these
degraded communities are important determinants of downstream water
resource values. Fish communities in agricultural watersheds are as
much a product of poor physical stream environment (uniform channels,
shifting sand substrate, etc.) as any specific water pollutants
(sediment, sewage, etc.). Fish-populations and other aspects of
aquatic life are healthier and more stable in a semi-natural stream
environment. In short, aquatic life that evolved in the presence of
meanders, pools and riffles, and the shade and cover of woody bank
vegetation can only be maintained in the presence of these naturally
occurring stream features. Efforts that seek to curtail all forms of
streambank erosion (i.e. create maximum drainage) through constant
re-channelization make the semi-natural stream environment with
healthy, useful aquatic resources an impossibility.
Until these problems, are given serious consideration, sound and
rational programs to correct streambank erosion will not be forth-
coming. Society has two basic choices for managing the total resource
base in an agricultural area. The first is to achieve maximum agri-
cultural production from the area independent of the consequences to
other resources. Alternatively, we can strive to optimize the level of
agricultural production with the conservation of the remaining resources,
including minimizing downstream impacts. The second strategy means
less than maximum farm production but is the only way to insure the
sound conservation of all our nation's resources, including water.
Current national laws (PL-92-500, the Clean Water Act of 1972) make
it clear we must conserve our water resources. This means we cannot
design streambank erosion control and drainage practices solely to
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maximize agricultural production.
Regrettably, no standards for evaluation and implementation of
streambank erosion control programs that adequately consider these
problems are available. However, some general guidelines can be
suggested. Streambank erosion control should only be permitted where
it will be cost effective; that is, where significant reductions in
sediment transport can be obtained for the dollars spent. In general
we feel this will involve a "critical areas" approach. Further, con-
trolling streambank erosion in low gradient ditches is necessary to
maintain crop productivity in flat land where tile drainage is needed.
Programs with this goal should stress the development of stable bank
slopes and vegetation cover to help stabilize the bank. Regular
efforts to maintain bank protection can help to minimize radical and
expensive efforts at longer tine intervals.
Massive programs are often incompatible with clean water goals
when they are carried out over entire watersheds. It is simply not
possible to have a stream ecosystem with any degree of biological
integrity in a watershed where 100% of the headwater channels have been
modified to provide maximum drainage. The potential exists, however,
for an acceptable level of biological integrity in watersheds with a
relatively small percentage of natural or semi-natural headwater
streams. Little or nothing is known about what that percentage should
be.
The challenge to water resource planners, engineers, biologists,
economists, and the farm community is to discover innovative ways to
select and maintain the number of semi-natural streams needed to con-
serve water resources while continuing to provide adequate drainage
for farm production needs.
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LITERATURE CITED
Evans, R. L. and D. H. Schnepper. 1977. Sources of suspended sedi-
ment: Spoon River, Illinois. North-Central Section, Geological
Society of America, Southern Illinois Univ., Carbondale. 10 pp,
mimeo.
Gorman, 0. T. and J. R. Karr. 1978. Habitat structure and stream
fish communities. Ecology. 59: In press.
Karr, J. R. and D. R. Dudley. 1978. Biological integrity of head-
water stream: evidence of degradation, prospects for recovery.
In J. Lake and J. Morrison (eds.). U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Chicago. EPA-905/9-77-007-D. In press.
Karr, J. R. and I. J. Schlosser. 1977. Impact of nearstream vegeta-
tion and stream morphology on water quality and stream biota.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, GA. EPA-600/3-77-097.
103 pp.
Karr, J. R. and I. J. Schlosser. 1978. Water resources and the land-
water interface. Science 201: 229-234.
Haddock, T., Jr. 1976. A primer on floodplain dynamics. J. Soil
and Conserv. 31: 44-47.
.Mildner, W. 1976^ Streambank erosion in Black Creek watershed,
Indiana. Prep* by USDA Soil Cons. Serv. An assignment of the
U.S. task C. Work Group of the International Reference Group on
Great Lakes Pollution from Land Use Activities. 5 pp. +2
Append., Mimeo.
Sorenson, D. L., M. M. McCarthy, E. J. Middlebrooks, and D. B. Porcella.
1977. Suspended and dissolved solids effects on freshwater
biota: A review. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis,
Otegon. EPA-600/3-77-042. 73 pp.
Stall, J. B. and C. T. Yang. 1972. Hydraulic geometry and low
streamflow regimes. Univ. Illinois, Water Resources Cent., Res.
Rept. No. 54, 31 pp.
Stewart, B, A., D. A. Wollhiser, W. H. Wishmeier, J. H. Caro, and
M. H. Frere. 1975. Control of water pollution from cropland.
Vol. I- A manual for guideline development. EPA-600/2-75-026a.
Ill pp.
Yang, C. T. 1971. Potential energy and stream morphology. Water
Resources Res. 7: 311-322.
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107
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-905/9-77-007-D
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water
Quality-Final Report on the Black Creek
Project (Volume 4-Additional Results)
5. REPORT DATE
October 1977
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
James B. Morrison-Technical Writer and Editor
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Allen County Soil and Water Conservation Dist.
Executive Park, Suite 103
2010 Inwood' Drive
Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
2BA645
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
EPA Grant G005103
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Great Lakes National Program Office
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final Report-1972-1977
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Carl D. Wilson- EPA Project Officer
Ralph G. Christensen- Section 108 (a) Program Coordinator
16. ABSTRACT
This is an addition to the Final Technical Report of the Black Creek
sediment control project. This project is to determine the environmental
impact of land use on water quality and has completed its four and one
half years of watershed activity. The project, which is directed by the
Allen County Soil and Water Conservation District, is an attempt to
determine the role that agricultural pollutants play in the degradation
of water quality in the Maumee River Basin and ultimately in Lake Erie.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COS AT I Field/Group
Sediment
Erosion
Land Use
Water Quality
Nutrients
Land Treatment
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
21. NO. OF PAGES
Document is available to the public
Through the National Technical Infor-
mational Service, Springfield.VA 2216
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
1
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (R«v. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
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