United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region V
Great Lakes National
Program Office
536 South Clark
Chicago, Illinois 60605
EPA 905/9-79-002-B
February, 1980
&EPA Red Clay Project
Final
Part II
Impact of Nonpoint
Pollution Control on
Western Lake Superior
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Preface
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was created because of increasing
public and governmental concern about the dangers of pollution to the
health and welfare of the American people. Noxious air, foul water, and
spoiled land are tragic testimony to the deterioration of our natural
environment.
The Great Lakes National Program Office(GLNPO) of the U.S. EPA was
established in Region V, Chicago, to provide specific focus on the water
quality concerns of the Great Lakes. The Section 108(a) Demonstration
Grant Program of the Clean Water Act(PL 92-500) is specific to the Great
Lakes drainage basin and thus is administered by the Great Lakes National
Program Office.
Several sediment erosion-control projects within the Great Lakes drainage
basin have been funded as a result of Section 108(a). This report describes
one^such project supported by this office to carry out our responsibility
to improve water quality in the Great Lakes.
We hope the information and data contained herein will help planners and
managers of pollution control agencies to make better decisions in
carrying forward their pollution control responsibilities.
Madonna F. McGrath
Director
Great Lakes National Program Office
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EPA 905/9-79-002-B
February, 1980
IMPACT OF NONPOINT
POLLUTION CONTROL
ON
WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR
"Western Lake Superior Basin Erosion-Sediment Control Project"
RED CLAY PROJECT
FINAL REPORT
PART II
Administration, Public Information, and Education
Research
A Cooperative Interstate Effort Between the
Ashland, Bayfield, Carlton, Douglas, and Iron County
Soil and Water Conservation Districts
Prepared by:
STEPHEN C. ANDREWS
Project Director
RALPH G. CHRISTENSEN CARL D. WILSON
Section 108(a) Program Coordinator Project Officer
Prepared for:
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Great Lakes National Program Office
536 South Clark Street, Room 932
Chicago, Illinois 60605
(312)353-2117
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Chicago, tt- 60604-
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Great Lakes National Program
Office, Region V, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
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COOPERATING AGENCIES AND PERSONNEL
Arrowhead Regional Development Commission
Richard Isle
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources
Dan Retka
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
John Pegors
Minnesota Soil and Water Conservation Board
Steve Pedersen
Vern Reinert
National Association of Conservation Districts
William Horvath
Northland College
Robert Brander
Tom Klein
Virginia Prentice
Northwest Regional Planning Commission
Mark Mueller
John Post
United States Army Corps of Engineers
Louis Kowalski
United States Bureau of Indian Affairs --USDI
Charles McCudy
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Ralph Christensen
Carl Wilson
United States Geological Survey
Eno Giacomini
Steve Hindall
Vito Latkovich
William Rose
Ron Wolf
iii
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United States Soil Conservation Service - USDA
Clarence Austin
Don Benrud
John Ourada.
Steve Payne
John Streich
Peg Whdteside
University of Minnesota-Duluth
Don Olson
Michael Sydor
University of Minnesota-Extension
Arnie Heikkila
University of Wisconsin-Extension
William Lontz
Raymond Polzin
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Tuncer Edil
Peter Monkmeyer
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Bruce Brown
University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
Bob Burull
University of Wisconsin-Superior
David Bray
Donald Davidson
Philip DeVore
Albert Dickas
Larry Kapustka
Rudy Koch
Joseph Mengel
William Swenson
Paul Webster
IV
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Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water Conservation Districts
Don Houtman
Eugene Savage
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
John Konrad
Wisconsin Department of Transportation
Emil Meitzner
Wisconsin Red Clay Interagency Committee
William Briggs
Garit Tenpas
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART II
A. Administration, Public Information and Education
Cooperating Agencies and Personnel ............ iii
Table of Contents .................... vi
Introduction ....................... -]_
Summary Report ..................... 2
Executive Committee Project Reports ......... . . 43
Project Specialist Report ................ 55
Information/Education Report ............... 52
National Association of Conservation Districts ...... 66
Madigan Beach Film Report ................ 72
PART II
B. Research
Red Clay Slope Stability Factors
Effect of Red Clay Turbidity and Sedimentation
on Aquatic Life
Vegetation and Red Clay Soils Stability ......... 266
Vegetational Cover Analysis ............... 276
Effect of Vegetative Cover on Soil/Water Content
and Erosion Control
Role of Plant Roots in Red Clay Erosion ......... J88
Evaluation of Red Clay Interagency Committee
Works Project ...................... 457
Roadside and Streambank Erosion Surveys ......... 489
Field Analysis of Streambank and Roadside Erosion . . . .495
PART III
A. Applications
Cooperating Agencies and Personnel ............ iii
Table of Contents ..................... vi
Introduction ....................... ]_
Summary Report ...................... 2
vi
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PART III
A. Applications (cont.)
Erosion and Sediment Control Project Evaluation 4-3
Shore Protection Evaluation 133
PART III
B. Monitoring
Editor's Note: Water Quality Monitoring Data 328
Hydrologic Characteristics of the Upper Nemadji
River Basin, Minnesota 329
Editor's Note: Water Quality Monitoring Data 377
Bedload Transport in the Lower Nemadji
River, Wisconsin 3/o
Meteorological Monitoring of the Red Clay Project . . . .385
vii
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INTRODUCTION
The Final Report of the Red Clay Project is presented in
three parts: Part One, published in November 1978, presents
a summary of results, conclusions and recommendations for the
Project; Part Two consists of the texts of the Final Reports
prepared in the areas of general administration, public
information and education, and research; Part Three consists
of the texts of the Final Reports prepared in the fields of
installation, applications research and monitoring.
In the case of Parts Two and Three, the technical
appendices accompanies the appropriate text.
The Table of Contents for Parts Two and Three are both
found in their entirety in each document for cross-referencing
purposes. It should be noted, that some reports do not have a
corresponding appendix. In the case of Erosion Survey Phases
I & II, prepared by Bray, Dickas and Webster, the appendix is
so large as to prohibit publication. Similarly, the water
quality data generated by the U.S. Geological Survey is
referenced by STORET reference number and are not presented
in toto.
Specific requests for information should be forwarded
to the Principal Investigator responsible for the project.
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PROJECT SUMMARY
Stephen C. Andrews
Project Director
Since the first settlers arrived in the western Lake
Superior basin, the red clay soils dominating the region have
presented problems. For those involved with lumbering,
construction, agriculture and transportation, the primary
concern was the pervasiveness of the erosion problem and
associated damages and costs.
With the formation of soil and water conservation
districts in the 1930 's and 1940's, the red clay erosion
problem, particularly as it affected agriculture, began receiving
attention. In the early 1950 's the first systematic study of
erosion and land use problems was initiated in Wisconsin by the
governor-appointed Red Clay Interagency Committee. This early
work was primarily aimed at demonstrating techniques for reducing
upland and roadside erosion and stabilizing streambanks. The
focus of this committee's efforts was more on treating the
erosion problem than on abating water pollution.
The first Lake Superior Water Quality Conference in the
early 1970 's focused some attention on the south shore erosion
and sediment problems. In response, Wisconsin's Red Clay
Interagency Committee was given the charge of identifying the
extent of the problem and outlining an erosion and sediment
abatement plan.
At about this same time, the soil and water conservation
districts from Douglas County, Wisconsin and Carlton County,
Minnesota met jointly to consider ways of reducing erosion in
the Nemadji River Basin. With assistance from the Northwest
Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission, the Onanegozie Resource
Conservation and Development Project and the Pri-Ru-Ta Resource
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Conservation and Development Project, the two districts prepared
plans for studying the problems and originated proposals for
funds to implement the plans.
In 1973 the Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water Conservation
Districts was instrumental in arranging a tour of the red clay
area for representatives from Region V of the United States
Environmental Protection Agency. The Environmental Protection
Agency was authorized by Congress to demonstrate new methods
for improving water quality in the Great Lakes with funding
provided by Section 108 of the 1972 Amendments to the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act. In May of 1974 with a grant from
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the continuing
assistance of many agencies, the soil and water conservation
districts from Ashland, Bayfield, Douglas and Iron Counties
in Wisconsin and Carlton County in Minnesota began the Red
Clay Project.
This document is the final report of the Red Clay Project.
It is the summary report which presents the project's findings,
conclusions and recommendations and is accompanied by a
technical report which contains detailed accounts on the
various research and demonstration activities.
NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION PROBLEMS
With the passage of the 1972 Amendments to the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act (Public Law 92-500), a renewed
national emphasis was placed on solving the problems of water
pollution. This act granted powers and authorities for studying
the problems and for planning workable ways to solve them.
The act classified the serious water quality problems which
inspired it into two major types based on their source.
"Point" sources of pollution include readily identifiable sources
such as municipal sewage treatment plants and industrial
waste discharge systems. "Nonpoint" sources of pollution are
less easily identified because they are varied and diffuse.
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They include runoff and seepage from agricultural land, urban
areas, forestry activities, construction and maintenance
operations, and mining sites.
Common pollutants from nonpoint sources are sediment,
nutrients, pesticides, heavy metals and salts. Of these,
sediment is the most abundant and, in some ways, is the most
severe because it is not only a pollutant itself, but transports
other pollutants.
RED CLAY PROBLEMS
The red clay area of the western Lake Superior basin
extends in a narrow band from northeastern Minnesota to the
western portion of Michigan's upper peninsula. The predominant
soils in this area are red clays interspersed with sands and
silts. They were originally deposited as lake sediment during
glacial periods but now, due to lake recession and geologic
uplift, they form much of the land mass of present-day Lake
Superior's south shore.
The soils are young and are undergoing a high rate of
natural erosion as a geologic equilibrium evolves. When man
settled in the area his lumbering, construction and agricultural
activities removed the established vegetation and altered
drainage patterns in ways that accelerated this already high
rate of erosion. Present-day activities, although not intensive,
do still aggravate the erosion processes. In turn, erosion is
detrimental to man's land and water-based activities alike.
The major nonpoint sources of pollution in this area are
the lakeshores, streambanks and other slopes. The damaging
pollutants are sediment, turbidity and color. The heterogeneous
mixture of clay and sand produces soils with very little stability
which, when exposed to varying moisture conditions on steep
elopes, often erodes severely. Once in the water, the heavy
particles settle out as sediment and the fine particles remain
suspended for long periods increasing the water's turbidity.
Further, the red clays contain approximately 2 percent extractable
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iron oxide which produces a very visible and objectionable
color. It is this iron oxide which is responsible for the
red color of the streams and the red plumes where streams
discharge into Lake Superior. This phenomenon occurs even
when the turbidity and sediment rates are low.
THE RED CLAY PROJECT
The Red Clay Project was a research and demonstration
project sponsored by five soil and water conservation districts
from two states. The local district supervisors were committed
to the task of seeking practical solutions to the many forms
of red clay erosion and the resulting water quality problems. To
assist them in their task, they applied for and received a
grant from the United States Environmental Protection Agency
under the provisions set forth in Section 108 of the 1972
Amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (PL 92-500).
The overall objectives of this partnership were to demonstrate
economically feasible methods of improving water quality, to
assess the capabilities of existing institutions to cooperatively
implement a pollution control program and to provide data and
recommendations that could be used in future programs.
The agreement between the federal Environmental Protection
Agency and the local soil and water conservation districts
involved considerably more interagency cooperation than a
strictly two-way, federal-local alliance. Soil and water
conservation districts have been legally empowered by their
respective states to enter into cooperative agreements with
other units of government and their agencies to accomplish common
objectives. Since their inception, districts have built up
working relationships with numerous federal, state and local
agencies. Using their legal authorities and these established
relationships, the soil and water conservation districts from
Ashland, Bayfield, Douglas and Iron Counties in Wisconsin and
Carlton County in Minnesota joined together and called upon
their cooperating agencies to help them develop, implement and
evaluate the Red Clay Project.
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To govern this complex association of institutions,
the sponsoring districts formed an executive committee with
equal representation from each district. The Douglas County
Soil and Water Conservation District was designated the fiscal
agent and it assumed responsibility for the grant with the
Environmental Protection Agency. The chairman of this five-
member committee was also from the Douglas County District.
The function of the executive committee was to set administrative
policy, approve programs and administer financial affairs.
Although the Douglas County Soil and Water Conservation
District was appointed the fiscal agent, under the terms of the
grant agreement the individual districts maintained the authority
to manage programs within their district. This authority held
by the individual districts included the power to write contracts,
make local financial decisions and operate and maintain their
own programs and installations. This procedure allowed
districts to manage the project in their area consistent with
their ongoing programs and policies.
In a similar manner, each soil and water conservation
district retained the power to conduct other Red Clay Project
operations in a manner consistent with the established order
in that district. A voluntary compliance approach was used to
solicit participation by local units of government and private
landowners. Participation, therefore, depended upon individual
priorities, budgets and the ability to provide local services
and to meet local costs. The solicitation of landowners for
participation in the Red Clay Project was done by each conservation
district following procedures established by that district. The
cost-share rates were consistent with local conservation aid
programs and were not specifically designed to encourage program
participation with artificially high rates.
Although many of the project operations were controlled
by the individual soil and water conservation districts, overall
procedural uniformity was maintained through the use of an
operations manual. This manual, prepared especially for the
project, outlined procedures for reviewing and approving program
items and for obtaining reimbursements in a timely fashion.
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AREAS OF STUDY
Early in the development of the project, several directions
for field study were identified by the executive committee and
the project director with the assistance of a multiple-agency
technical and research advisory committee. Research and field
demonstration projects were chosen which would increase the
understanding of the mechanisms affecting the pollutant load
to area streams and to Lake Superior. Areas of study were also
selected which would, in turn, identify the effects of this
pollutant load on the streams and the lake. An attempt was
made to incorporate a wide range of problem areas but at the
same time to have them complement one another and provide an
integrated picture of the erosion and water quality problems
of the red clay area. A premium was placed on the generation
of data essential to the formulation of useful recommendations
for the development of long-term water quality programs.
Geographical study areas which were selected were
representative of conditions in the entire watershed. Research
was conducted only in the Nemadji River basin. The monitoring
of water quality and climatic conditions was carried out in
all geographic areas where research and field demonstration
activities were performed. The following criteria were used
to select geographical areas for project studies:
1. The proportion of loamy glacial till and sandy beach
deposits in the uplands with respect to the clayey lacustrine
basin.
2. The relationship of present land use patterns within the
study area to land use patterns in the basin. The ratio of
open cropland and pasture to woodland was used to indicate
the relative intensity of land use within the area.
3. The presence of actively eroding areas along the river
channels and drainageways. Erosion conditions in the
»
geographical areas were representative of those in the
entire basin.
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4. The roadside erosion taking place within the study areas.
Roadside erosion in the study areas was also representative
of the entire basin.
5. The land ownership patterns. Land rights were generally
easier to obtain and it was assumed that ongoing practice
maintenance would be easier on publicly owned land.
6. Access to the work sites. Most of the eroding areas
in the basin had very limited access. Although it was
necessary to construct some roads, this was minimized by
attempts to select easily accessable sites.
7. The distribution of geographical study areas to coincide
with political boundaries. An attempt was made to have
at least one study area in each soil and water conservation
district. The work done in each study area was determined
by the needs of the sponsoring district, the budget limitations
of that district and the project and the uniqueness of the
site and the proposed work.
Using these considerations, six geographical study areas
were selected. In the following discussion, references made
to the sediment-producing capabilities of these watersheds were
based on the use of the Universal Soil Loss Equation during the
planning stages of the project. The study areas delineated for
the Red Clay Project were:
1. Skunk Creek Watershed in Carlton County, Minnesota —
A relatively high sediment-producing basin covering
approximately 10.7 square miles. Land use intensity within
the basin was relatively low. There were, however, numerous
streambank and roadside erosion sites in this subwatershed.
2. Little Balsam Creek Watershed in Douglas County, Wisconsin —
A moderate sediment-producing watershed covering about 5.4
square miles. Land use intensity within the basin was
judged to be relatively low.
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3. Pine Creek Watershed in Bayfield County, Wisconsin —
A moderate sediment-producing basin covering approximately
15.7 square miles. Land use intensity here was estimated
to be moderate.
4. Spoon Creek Watershed in Iron County, Wisconsin —
A moderate sediment-producing watershed covering about
three square miles. Land use intensity was low.
5. Madigan Beach in Ashland County, Wisconsin — As a site
for shoreline protection work, Madigan Beach was selected
for its high, actively eroding bluffs and exposure to
severe, Lake Superior storms.
6. Indian Cemetery Beach on Madeline Island in Ashland
County, Wisconsin — As another area for shoreline protection
demonstrations, this site was selected for its low bluff,
narrow beach and cultural and historical significance.
RED CLAY SLOPE STABILITY STUDIES
Red Clay Project researchers undertook studies of the
condition and behavior of the soils within the Lake Superior
red clay area. The purpose of the studies was to utilize
available sampling and testing techniques and opportunities
to determine the depths of the zones in which massive slope
failure normally occurs. Also studied were the mechanical
properties and behavioral traits of the soils and their
relationships to slope stability and rates of erosion.
These studies resulted in findings which have broadened
the field of information on which our understanding of the soils
of this region is based. Several conclusions were arrived at
from which corrective measures can be derived. The findings and
conclusions are:
1. The clay soils of this region generally contain approximately
two percent extractable iron oxide.
2. Man's early removal of the forest cover, modification of
natural drainage patterns and other activities have promoted
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drying in a five to seven foot thick surface zone of
the clay soils.
3. Drying in this surface zone has changed the mechanical
behavior of the clay from a plastic solid to a brittle
solid susceptible to fissuring and massive slope failure.
A-. Moisture accumulation in fissures provides the necessary
lubrication for flowing and sliding to occur within the
surface zone.
5. The topography of the red clay area will continue to
evolve under the influence of natural processes.
6. There are workable practices which man can incorporate
into land use plans which will slow natural erosion
processes.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF VEGETATION IN
MODERATING RED CLAY EROSION
The Red Clay Project conducted research on the relationship
between erosion and vegetation. Two studies were done to
determine how vegetation helps control the amount of water in
the soil. Soil stability was suspected to be related to a
rather narrow range of moisture content. Dry conditions
encouraged soil fractures and crumbling, while wet conditions
created liquid-like conditions and soil slippages. Another
study was undertaken to determine the way plant roots exert
holding power to counteract soil movement.
The findings and conclusions of these studies are:
1. Vegetation plays a major role in retarding erosion in the
geologically young red clay soils. However, no type of
vegetation alone can completely offset the natural erosion
forces.
2. Grasses and herbaceous plants yield beneficial anti-
erosion effects. However, their relatively shallow and weak
roots do not serve to prevent massive slope failure in
surface zones where brittle clay conditions already exist.
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3. Woody plant species have stronger root systems which do
help prevent slides.
4. Of all vegetation types, climax woody species (such as
firs, pines and maples) provide the best erosion control
because of their stronger root systems and the manner
in which their canopies intercept rainfall.
5« Woody climax vegetation species are not efficient at
lowering soil moisture content.
6. Herbaceous species and some woody species (aspens) are
relatively more efficient at removing water from soil.
7. The use of vegetative methods specifically for reducing
soil moisture content in the surface zones of red clay soils
has not been shown to be beneficial for controlling
massive slides. Species which are best suited for water
removal (grasses and aspens) are most effective in drier
years when they tend to lower moisture content too far
which, in turn, induces fracturing, fissure formation and
a greater potential for massive slide erosion.
THE EFFECTS OF RED CLAY TURBIDITY AND SEDIMENTATION ON
AQUATIC LIFE IN WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR BASIN RIVERS
Research was undertaken to assess the effect of relatively
low levels of sedimentation and turbidity on aquatic life in red
clay area streams. Through systematic water quality monitoring,
sampling aquatic life populations and assessing the aquatic
environment, researchers studied behavioral patterns of numerous
species of aquatic life in both natural and laboratory settings.
Researchers were looking for relationships between these
aquatic animal species and varying levels of nutrients, turbidity
and sedimentation.
Previous aquatic life studies in other areas had focused on
situations where man's activities such as logging, mining and
agriculture had had the effect of creating extremely high levels
of stream sedimentation. The glacial lake deposits of the
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Nemadji River system are highly erodible even under strictly
natural conditions. However, due to the nature of the inter-
relationship between red clay erosion and red clay sediment, the
small particle size of the clay and the amount of extractable
iron oxide in the clay, the general condition of the streams
is one of low sediment loada, low turbidity and a high amount
of color.
Aquatic problems attributed in the past to red clay
turbidity have included the substitution of undesirable fish
species for more desirable ones, negative effects on spawning
runs, decreased oxygen levels and increased nutrients as well
as general observations on "adverse effects on biological life
processes." None of these statements can be supported by the
findings from this research in the Nemadji River basin.
Analysis of areas of Lake Superior and the Nemadji River
system which are turbid throughout the year due to erosion of
unconsolidated glacial lake deposits indicated that any direct,
physical effects of this turbidity and resultant low level
sedimentation are minimal. Furthermore, although turbidity does
induce important changes in aquatic life behavioral patterns,
changes found through this research were, for the most part,
considered beneficial rather than detrimental to the survival
of native species.
Although a positive balance seems to have been struck
between present levels of turbidity and sedimentation, and existing
aquatic life in the red clay portions of the Nemadji River, the
potentially severe effects of erosion on aquatic life elsewhere,
or even here under artificially accelerated conditions, should
not be underestimated. It is well known that soil mismanagement
can upset the natural balance to the extent that severe short
and long-term consequences are inevitable for aquatic flora
and fauna.
The findings of this research are that:
1. Red Clay does not contribute significant quantities of
nutrients to Lake Superior but may serve to transport
nutrients contributed from other sources.
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2. Oxygen levels are not significantly affected by red clay
or associated organics.
3. Primary production does not appear to be significantly
affected by turbidity within the range of depths at which
most production occurs in these relatively shallow streams.
4. Bacteria exhibit no definite trends with turbidity within
sites, but do seem to have higher counts in turbid than in
non-turbid sites. Fungal counts exhibit opposite trends.
Bacterial and fungal populations are generally beneficial
to the aquatic system as they are the primary food source
for many of the macroinvertebrates.
5. Number of macroinvertebrates per unit area, total number of
taxa, diversity, and biomass are not significantly affected
by clay turbidity and siltation within the Nemadji River
system.
6. The size of particles on the stream bed had much greater
effects on macroinvertebrates than turbidity and sedimenta-
tion. Only whe're sand was the primary product were significant
detrimental effects of erosion identified.
7. All genera of insects which occurred in clear streams also
occurred in turbid streams. Certain insects generally
associated with silts, especially certain mayflies and
beetle larvae, were found only in the turbid streams.
8. Laboratory monitoring of activity and respiration of the
stonefly demonstrated no significant effects at turbidity
levels normally encountered in the Nemadji River basin.
9. Fish populations were not demonstrated to change as a
result of turbid conditions but rather, because of water
temperature and discharge differences between turbid and
clear water sites. All species benefitted from increased
cover which is harder to maintain in turbid streams due
to increased tendencies for slippage at toes of the clay
banks.
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10. Walleye in the lower Nemadji River, the Duluth-Superior
harbor, and Lake Superior benefit from red clay turbidity
as it enables them to inhabit the shallow, more productive
waters.
11. Rainbow smelt and four species of suckers successfully
reproduce in the turbid areas of the Nemadji River.
12. Egg survival bioassays with walleye and rainbow smelt
indicated decreased survival at turbidities over 10 ftu.
Survival was at least half of control at turbidities
prevalent in the Nemadji River. Levels of sedimentation
in the bioassay were much higher than in the natural system,
probably resulting in higher egg mortality than would
naturally occur.
13. Channel form and available cover are the primary factors
affecting fish population size for all species in the
Nemadji River system.
LAND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Although the Red Clay Project offered innovative opportunities
and unique challenges, most of the "on-land" erosion control
measures were not entirely new to local officials, farmers and
other managers of the land. All the counties had long been
designated soil and water conservation districts and had applied
conventional soil conservation programs frequently in cooperation
with the Soil Conservation Service and other institutions.
What was new was the opportunity to accelerate these programs
in areas of each district where red clays pose widespread and
persistently critical erosion problems. What was unique was
the challenge of adapting conventional soil management techniques
to the perplexing red clay conditions. What was innovative was
a mandate to apply these traditional measures in combinations and
in locations which would yield some demonstrable impact on water
quality.
A typical five-step, problem-solving approach was followed
by investigators in assisting with land management practices.
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Generally, the first step was to identify critical problems and
inventory their locations. The second step was to develop
alternative solutions. The third step was to assist in the
selection of the most feasible and acceptable solutions. And
the fourth and fifth steps were to implement and evaluate the
selected land management practices. The presence of an over-
riding objective of enhancing water quality, and not simply of
preventing soil loss, served to influence the work, and decisions
about it, throughout each of the five problem solving steps.
Thus, to cite a hypothetical example, given a choice between
treating a severely critical fertile area which had little
likelihood of loading its eroding soil into a water course or
treating a moderately critical fallow-soil area which was certain
to degrade a nearby body of water, the latter would receive
attention through the Red Clay Project.
The Universal Soil Loss Equation was used as an indication
of soil loss and the effectiveness of land treatment. The
equation could not address the problem of transport nor could
it be applied to raw streambanks or slide areas adjacent to
streams. In Pine Creek, 90% of the land area averaged .15 tons
per acre per year soil loss. Little Balsam Creek study area
averaged .55 tons per acre per year and Skunk Creek was within
the allowable soil loss (3-5 tons per acre per year). The
average annual estimated soil loss for the study areas was
slightly less than 1.0 ton per acre. These soil loss estimates
indicate that a relatively small percentage of the total land
area contributes a disproportionately large share of the sediment
in streams and lakes. The task of matching conservation practices
to such critical areas is a process which must include an awareness
to conditions specific to each site as well as a sensitivity
to landowner attitudes, project costs and potential benefits.
Although any erosion control practice may be appropriate
under certain conditions, those practices which nave been found
to be the most applicable to conditions encountered during the
course of the Red Clay Project are listed below. The selection
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of these practices as the most applicable is based on evaluations
using the Universal Soil Loss Equation and on-site inspections.
1. Maintenance of Vegetative Cover. This practice includes
managing for trees, grasses, crop residue and other
materials which maintain surface cover and protect the soil
from erosion.
2. Livestock Exclusion. This practice removes or restricts
livestock entry into critical areas. Complementary practices
are necessary to maintain this practice.
3. Alternate Watering Facilities. This is a complementing
practice for livestock exclusion. Watering facilities
allow for proper distribution of livestock and provide an
alternative to instream watering.
4. Stock Trails and Walkways. This is a complementing
practice for livestock exclusion. Livestock trails and
walkways provide access to areas without creating additional
erosion.
5. Livestock Stream Crossing. This is a complementing
practice for livestock exclusion. Livestock are kept out
of streams and provided access to pasture and watering
areas. Streambanks and other critical areas are also
protected.
6. Critical Area Seeding. This includes the establishment of
permanent vegetative cover on critical areas.
7. Grassed Waterways and Diversions. This practice involves
the safe disposal of runoff in properly installed and
maintained grass channels. It reduces soil erosion and
provides stable outlets for runoff.
8. Animal Waste Management Systems. This practice includes
the control of running water through areas of heavy use
by livestock and the development of a system of storage,
disposal and utilization for animal wastes to reduce
water pollution. Components of an animal waste system
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are waste storage facilities, water disposal and erosion
protection devices (diversions and waterways), animal
waste disposal plants, and cropping systems.
9. Sediment Traps. These practices are basins created by
water retention structures to trap and store sediment.
10. Streambank Protection and Slide Stabilization. This
includes any protection and stabilization practices which
withhold significant amounts of sediment from adjacent
waters.
11. Floodwater Retarding Structures. These structures serve
the primary purpose of temporarily storing floodwater and
controlling its release.
THE EVALUATION OF WORKS PREVIOUSLY INSTALLED BY THE
WISCONSIN RED CLAY INTERAGENCY COMMITTEE
From 1958 through 1967, erosion control practices were
installed in Ashland, Bayfield and Douglas Counties by the
Wisconsin Red Clay Interagency Committee. These practices
were monitored and evaluated by that committee and their findings
were previously reported. Members of the committee were asked
by the Red Clay Project to reevaluate their work to determine
the effectiveness of the erosion control methods and practices
after adequate time had elapsed for them to have responded to
a wide range of weather conditions. The reevaluation also
provided current data on erosion control practices and procedures
which could be compared with practices and procedures used by the
Red Clay Project.
The work done by the Red Clay Interagency Committee
primarily consisted of roadside and streambank erosion control
measures. Some upland treatments such as grassed waterways were
also installed. The reevaluation concluded that, after a lapse
of ten to twenty years:
1. Generally, most of these accepted erosion control
practices withstood the weathering effects of the past
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one to two decades and helped stabilize the areas where
they were installed.
2. When treating bank erosion, stabilizing the toe of the
bank is of primary importance.
J>» Proper slope modification, seedbed, preparation and
seeding mixtures are necessary to establish protective and
stabilizing vegetation.
STREAMBANK AND ROADSIDE EROSION SURVEY
The Red Clay Project undertook a program to collect all
existing data on the extent of roadside and streambank erosion
problems and to inventory as many of the unsurveyed areas as
possible within time and monetary limits.
During the first phase of this program, the literature-
search, the most recent survey data on streambank and roadside
erosion in the red clay area was collected from all available
sources. This information was recorded on maps and in tabular
form. The second phase was to survey erosion sites along those
roadsides for which data was not obtained in the literature-
search and, thereby, making complete the erosion survey of all
roadsides in the red clay area of the five counties. Portions
of three rivers whose watersheds contrast agricultural land use,
recreational use, and undeveloped or wild area were also
inventoried. The purpose of the streambank survey was to compare
erosion patterns in an attempt to determine the impact of land
use.
The information collected from this study was used as
support data for other project activities and will be available
for future use by researchers, soil and water conservation districts
and others applying conservation practices. The findings of the
comparative streambank survey are:
1. Despite differences in land use, the major cause of erosion
along all three streams was basically natural. Direct
erosion by differential stream discharge undercutting and
the resulting bank failure constituted nearly all of the
observed erosion sites.
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2. At only a few sites was erosion observed that could be
directly related to agricultural use and here the direct
cause was that of migrating livestock.
J. Man-caused erosion on the banks of the recreational-use
stream was evidenced at canoe entry and exit sites. The
damage caused by recreational and agricultural use was
categorized as minor.
SHORELINE DEMONSTRATION, MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Protective, preventive and remedial erosion control
measures employable under conditions typical of those encountered
along the western Lake Superior shoreline were demonstrated by
Red Clay Project researchers at two sites in Ashland County.
Interest evidenced in this aspect of Red Clay Project work was,
to some extent, attributable to the severity of the problems and
the uniqueness of the areas involved. Interest also centered
around a contrast in techniques, one conventional and the other
innovative.
One of the sites, Madigan Beach, was selected for its
high, actively eroding bluffs and its exposure to severe storms.
Here a technology entirely innovative for Lake Superior, the
installation of Longard tubes, was employed. Longard tubes
are large, flexible vinyl tubes filled with sand and coated with
a protective epoxy paint. They were placed in a variety of
patterns designed to protect the base of shoreline bluffs and
to build up a protective sand beach. Design layouts used by
Red Clay Project researchers included differentially-spaced
groins, seawalls and groin-seawall combinations.
The second site, the Indian Cemetery on Madeline Island,
was chosen because of its low bluff, narrow beach and historical
and cultural significance. Here a conventional rubble-mound
revetment was installed.
Both shoreline protection projects underwent construction
during the summer of 1977* Subsequently they were monitored
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and evaluated by Project investigators. At the end of the
Red Clay Project, arrangements were made for the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers to initiate a continuous monitoring process
for the work at these two locations.
Findings and conclusions which can be offered on the
basis of monitoring and evaluation activities completed to
date are:
1. Longard tubes appear to be competitive in both cost
and performance with more conventional shore protection
and beach stabilization structures.
2. Bluff modifications may be an important factor in the
successful performance of Longard tubes.
3. Rubble-mound revetments provide positive shore protection
at sites with conditions similar to those found at the
Indian Cemetery site.
WATER QUALITY MONITORING
Monitoring of water quality and sediment was conducted
at thirteen project stations. The samples were analyzed for
over fifty physical, chemical and biological parameters. In
addition, a ground water study was undertaken in Calrton County,
Minnesota and a bedload transport study was conducted in the
Nemadji River in Douglas County, Wisconsin.
The findings of these activities are:
1. The streams of the red clay area are predominantly
event-response in character.
2. Pesticides and herbicides were not found at any concentration
in either the water or bottom material samples.
3. Heavy metals were not found except for trace concentrations
at detection levels.
4. Fecal coliform — fecal streptococci ratios indicate
livestock and wild animals as the primary contributors of
fecal waste. Game management and farm animal estimates
indicate that 50% or more of the fecal waste is generated
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f^
by non-farm animals (population density of 18 person's/mi ,
? ?
15 deer/mi , 10 farm animals/mi ). Shifts in contribution
did not occur with fluctuation in flow.
5. Nemadji River suspended sediment concentrations range from
2 mg/L to 1190 mg/L with a 5 year daily mean of 77 rng/L.
6. Nemadji River total phosphorus concentrations range from
.01 mg/L to .36 mg/L with a 3 year mean of .08 mg/L.
7. Nemadji River total nitrogen concentrations range from
.10 mg/L to 2.4 mg/L with a 3 year mean of .63 mg/L.
8. Nemadji River organic nitrogen concentrations range from
.1 mg/L to 2.2 mg/L with a 3 year mean of .48 mg/L. Organic
nitrogen is approximately 76% of the total nitrogen and is
consistent with expectations of forested watersheds.
9. Except at stations immediately downstream from construction
activities it was impossible to identify construction
related changes in suspended-sediment concentrations.
10. In a very small watershed such as Pine Creek it was possible
to identify upward suspended-sediment concentration shifts
that were not related to changes in flow and were probably
the result of bank collapse or in-streain activities.
11. The Minnesota ground water study found that in the deep
valleys of the upper Nemadji River there is a tendency for
upward movement of ground water. This upward movement
may cause wetting of fissure zones from beneath thus
triggering slides.
12. The Nemadji River bed load transport study found that only
3% of the total sediment load is transported on the bed
of the river.
WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR BASIN RAINFALL AND
TEMPERATURE MONITORING
The Red Clay Project conducted a monitoring program designed
to record on a continuous basis the intensity of rainfall and
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wind and to profile the temperature of the air and soil. The
program used existing monitoring technology wherever possible,
but also involved the development of new low-cost instrumentation
techniques. It took place at locations throughout the Skunk,
Little Balsam and Pine Creek watersheds.
This micrometeorological data base was generated for its
usefulness in illuminating otherwise latent cause and effect
relationships between soil loss due to erosion and natural
phenomena such as the presence and intensity of rainfall and
significant fluctuations of soil temperature along steep banks.
The information gathered represented a support service to other
research activities and, as such, provided no independent
conclusions. However, the results are reflected in related
research work.
One of the major developments of this program was the
production and refinement of a low-cost system for continuously
monitoring precipitation, wind, air and soil parameters at
remote sites.
INSTITUTIONAL COOPERATION
The first organized efforts to systematically study red
clay erosion and sedimentation problems were distinguished by a
unique and extraordinary amount of interagency cooperation.
In Wisconsin, the Red Clay Interagency Committee was composed
of several state and federal agencies based in the state capital.
When working in the red clay area, they received cooperative
assistance from locally-based representatives of many more
local, state and federal agencies. The Carlton County Soil and
Water Conservation District in Minnesota joined with the Douglas
County District in Wisconsin to form an interstate alliance of
conservation districts to seek approaches and funding sources for
solving their shared problems.
This multiple agency approach was continued by the Red Clay
Project. Rather than attempting an elaborate analysis of what
institutional systems might work best, it was determined to use
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existing relationships developed over the years by county soil
and water conservation districts. Throughout the United States,
enabling legislation had been passed in each state that permitted
the creation of conservation districts as special purpose units
of state government. Although they developed differently over
the past forty years, districts generally evolved into political
entities having effective working relationships with nearly
every local, state and federal unit of government and agency
concerned with natural resource conservation.
Soil and water conservation districts in Minnesota and
Wisconsin are functionally alike in terms of objectives, authorities
and district operations. In both states, districts have similar
legal responsibilities to conserve the natural resources within
their boundaries. They also have similar legal authorities to
enter into agreements with other units of government to accomplish
common goals. The major difference between them is that in
Wisconsin, district supervisors are elected members of the county
board who serve on the agriculture committee while in Minnesota,
supervisors are elected at large.
Because of the wide geographical area covered by this basin-
wide research and demonstration project and because of its five-
district, two-state sponsorship, a multiple agency approach to
project operations was selected. The sponsoring soil and water
conservation districts formed a project-governing executive
committee consisting of equal representation from each of the
districts. The Douglas County Soil and Water Conservation
District was designated the fiscal agent for the entire project
and its representative to the committee served as chairman.
The committee met monthly to conduct project business. Through
agreements, the scope of work and procedures for each district
were identified.
Representatives from participating agencies were called
together to form a technical advisory committee, an information-
education advisory committee and a program advisory committee.
These committees met in special sessions and, upon request at
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the monthly meetings to advise the executive committee regarding
project operations. Because none of the districts had staff
trained in managerial capabilities, project staff were hired
through contracts with capable agencies. All project work
elements were accomplished by cooperating agencies and institutions
working under contract for the project.
As was stated earlier, the intent of the Red Clay Project
was for the existing institutions, soil and water conservation
districts, to run the project. No systematic attempts were
made to analyze or evaluate these relationships. The following
findings and observations are based on subjective assessments
by the project director, project specialist and other investigators
closely involved with the management and operations of the project.
1. Five soil and water conservation districts from two states
effectively sponsored and managed a basin-wide research and
demonstration project.
2. The multiple agency approach followed by the project
proved to be highly successful even though differences in
standards, funding mechanisms and implementing procedures
between states posed many communication and operation
difficulties.
3. The application of conservation practices was influenced
by landowner attitudes, long-range costs and site-specific
conditions as well as potential benefits, immediate costs
and the general applicability of considered "best" management
practices.
4. The application of conservation practices relied upon the
voluntary compliance of landowners and units of government.
Attempts to prepared and implement a sediment control
ordinance met with considerable resistance from local elected
officials.
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5. In certain critical areas, zoning ordinances or regulations
may be the most effective tool to achieve erosion control.
6. Due primarily to a lack of adequate funds, there was a
noticeable inability on the part of some town-level and city
departments of government to cooperate with soil and water
conservation districts.
7. None of the sponsoring soil and water conservation districts
had staff capable of managing district affairs and projects.
8. Soil and water conservation districts had to rely principally
upon federal and state funds to carry out a program of the
magnitude and intensity of the Red Clay Project.
9. Higher cost share rates did help induce landowner cooperation,
however many other factors (e.g. landowner attitudes,
practice maintenance, landowner age, specific farm conditions,
encouragement from neighbors and professionals) were influential
in determining which practices were applied.
RECONTCENDATIONS
Soil and Water Conservation Districts should be designated
as the local management agency.
The local management agency should be given early and continuous
involvement in establishing and managing any future non-point
source pollution control programs, plans and strategies affecting
its area.
The local management agency should be adequately staffed,
and constituted so as to provide balanced representation of
the area and its water quality interests.
In rural areas where regional problems have been identified,
multijurisdictional cooperation should be used as an effective
approach for management programs.
Because of significant differences in standards, funding
mechanisms and implementing procedures, non-point source
pollution control programs in rural area should not involve more
than one state.
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Multi-agency programs should have a common focus through
a single set of goals, objectives and policies to insure
effective management and uniform results.
Sufficient evaluation should be conducted prior to
implementation to clearly identify critical areas and influential
parameters, thus ensuring cost-effective abatement.
Sufficient, but not excessive, levels of cost-sharing should
be provided as an incentive for cooperation and to help defray
landowner costs.
The local management agency should provide educational
programs for citizens, cooperating units of government and agencies
to establish and maintain an awareness of water pollution problems
and abatement strategies.
The local management agency and its staff should establish
close working relationships with units of government, utilities,
private landowners and industries to ensure the implementation of
erosion and sediment control practices in conjunction with their
construction and maintenance activities.
Conservation plans should be prepared for identified
critical areas so that specific remedial measures can be applied
to those natural or man-induced problem areas where water quality
benefits warrant land treatment.
The selection for use of any one, or combination of,
management practices should take into consideration site-specific
conditions, costs, landowner attitudes and potential benefits.
The local management agency should place a high priority
on management practices that provide the greatest benefit at
the lowest cost.
Where possible, maximum use should be made of management
and vegetative measures. Structural engineering solutions should
only be considered where benefits outweigh costs and environmental
concerns. Innovative management techniques, sensitive to
conditions specific to particular sites and locations, should be
encouraged.
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In order for long-range water quality benefits to be
realized, management practices should be maintained and
monitored for extended periods of time.
Water quality programs for the abatement of non-point
source pollution should be closely coordinated with other natural
resource conservation programs to avoid duplication of effort
and expense and to ensure maximum efficiency of all resource
conservation and environmental protection programs.
A voluntary compliance approach should be established in
future nonpoint source pollution control programs as a first, and
preferable, management procedure.
State regulations or local ordinances should be adopted
only where effective management techniques necessitate.
If regulatory programs are used, the state water quality
management agency should be responsible for setting minimum
standards and for overall enforcement.
If regulatory programs are used, the local management agency
should be responsible for monitoring compliance and recommending
enforcement action.
The toes of slopes at erosion-prone sites should be
protected by vegetation or other means.
On streambanks, disturbed areas and other erosion-prone
sites, vegetation should be established as early as possible and
maintained continuously. For long-term protection, advanced
successional woody species should be established, due to their
greater root strength. In non-critical areas, woody species
should also be phased into a herbaceous cover, whenever possible.
Policies restricting human and livestock activities to those
which are compatible with erosion control should be incorporated
with active management for protective vegetation on streambanks,
disturbed areas and other erosion-prone sites.
Stream channel deepening should be minimized through methods
of retarding upland runoff.
In managing for fish habitat, vegetation and woody root
systems that aid in the maintenance of undercut banks, steep-
sided channels and deep pools should be preserved.
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Along streambanks and associated drainage areas, slope
stability equations should be employed to demarcate a safe zone
within which all human activity that arrests or reverts the
successional process would be prohibited.
On or near slopes where surface moisture is low, surface
drains and diversions should be used to control water accumulation
in fissures.
Longard tubes should be considered a cost-effective alternative
where shore protection is warranted. When possible, and practical,
installation should be accompanied by regrading of the bluff and
reestablishment of vegetative cover.
FRAMEWORK FOR LOCAL MANAGEMENT AGENCY IMPLEMENTATION OF
RED CLAY PROJECT RECOMMENDATIONS
Three primary recommendations emanating from the Red Clay
Project are basic to the implementation of a water quality
program at the local level and serve as the foundation upon
which this framework was developed. These recommendations and
basic assumptions are: that soil and water conservation districts
should be the local management agencies for implementing the
nonpoint source pollution control portion of any future water
quality programs, that soil and water conservation districts
must have adequate administrative and technical staff, and that
districts, as local management agencies, must have early and
continuous involvement in establishing, managing and evaluating
water quality programs.
The framework assumes that adequate funding is available.
It is important to note that when funding is provided from outside
sources (non-local management agency), conditions are usually
attached which determine, in part, how the funds are expended.
Elements of the 208 programs currently being developed in states
across the nation would undoubtedly have an impact on the
refinement and use by local management agencies of this process.
The following is a step-by-step process designed for soil
and water conservation districts acting in the role of local
management agencies to carry out the administrative and
procedural recommendations of the Red Clay Project in an expedient
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manner. By following this generalized problem-solving procedure
and filling in where needed with the details regarding their
geographical area of concern, districts can, in essence, implement
a long range program for nonpoint source water pollution abatement,
The following implementation process incorporates the procedural
recommendations of the Red Clay Project which can apply to all
soil and water conservation districts in Minnesota and Wisconsin
as well as to similar districts throughout the nation. Project
recommendations relating specifically to the Lake Superior red
clay area have been presented in the "recommendations" section
of this report but are not included in the following framework.
STEP 1, IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS AND AREAS OF CONCERN
Purpose:
The first step in this, or any, problem solving process is
the identification of the types of problems that exist. Once this
is done, an initial estimation of the severity of the problems
should be made along with a determination of their geographical
extent. The determination of the extent of the problems should
include data from monitoring, research and public opinion.
When shared problems are evident, such as might exist
between local management agencies within the same watershed,
every attempt should be made to pool problem-solving resources.
Agreements to cooperate should be established between the
involved units of government and all concerned agencies. Unless
justification and incentives are unique, such consortia that
cross state lines should be avoided.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—other local units of government (municipalities, town boards,
county boards or their committees)
—resource conservation agencies
—industries
—private landowners and land managers
—special interest groups
—interested citizens
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Activities:
—gather citizen and local government input
—inventory records to determine current knowledge of problems
—survey the extent of the problems
—identify other local management agencies with similar problems
—identify a coordinating group for local management agencies
with similar problems
STEP 2, DEFINITION OF PURPOSE
Purpose:
Once the problems have been identified and the geographical
and managerial areas of concern have been delineated, those
agencies involved must develop a system of goals, objectives
and policies. It is important that a single set of goals,
objectives and policies be established for everyone working on
the program. This is essential where geographical areas transcend
political boundaries and agency jurisdictions.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—local, state and federal units of government
—natural resource conservation agencies
—industries
—private landowners and land managers
—special interest groups
—interested citizens
Activities:
—secure cooperative agreements with involved agencies
—hire local management agency administrative and technical
staff
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—conduct cooperative work sessions and planning meetings
—identify work responsibilities for involved agencies and
groups
—prepare goals, objectives and policies
—conduct public advisory meetings to review and, if necessary,
revise goals, objectives and policies
STEP 3, INVENTORY AND ASSESSMENT
Purpose:
The third phase of the program is to prepare a detailed
inventory of the resources and the problems in the affected
area. This inventory process is necessary for assessing the
extent and severity of the problems and will help identify
critical areas and determine treatment needs. Not only should
the land resource be assessed, but there should be sufficient water
quality monitoring prior to implementation to determine the
exact nature of the problems and to serve as a base for measuring
accomplishments.
The culmination of the inventory and assessment process is
the assignment of priorities to the problem areas. Critical
areas which contribute the most to the pollution load of the
waters must be identified and ranked according to need and
treatment potential. Non-critical areas can also be assigned
priority for treatment under complementary or subsidiary programs.
This entire process will require considerable manpower and
time.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies
—local units of government
—private landowners and land managers
—special interest groups
—interested citizens
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Activities:
—arrange for water quality monitoring by qualified personnel
—identify and map critical areas with the assistance of land-
owners and cooperating agencies
—set priorities for critical areas
—establish cost share rates
—conduct public advisory meetings to review and, if necessary,
revise critical area priorities and cost share rates
STEP 4, SECURING LANDOWNER COOPERATION
Purpose:
An important aspect of this entire procedure is the acquisition
of landowner cooperation. The most direct method would undoubtedly
be the use of regulatory methods. This approach, however, does
little to improve landowner attitudes, encourage cooperation
or solicit effective planning and participation. One indirect
method, high rates of cost sharing, may encourage cooperation,
planning and participation but, again, does not necessarily
improve landowner attitudes.
The development of a good conservation ethic among landowners
is necessary to ensure the continued involvement of the landowner
in the application and maintenance of conservation practices.
Ideally, this should be done throughout the planning and
implementation processes and not merely as one step in the
process. From the beginning, continuous and concerted educational
programs must be undertaken by local management agencies. Only
through education can recusant landowner attitudes be altered
and can a conservation ethic be developed which would facilitate
cooperation, planning and participation and lessen the need for
any regulatory programs.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies
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—local units of government
—private landowners and land managers
—public landowners and land managers
—special interest groups
—interested citizens
Activities:
—initiate and maintain continuing informational programs
for the general public
—sponsor educational programs to encourage cooperation from
private landowners and units of government
—establish close working relationships with private and
public landowners
STEP 5, PREPARATION OF CONSERVATION PLANS
Purpose:
When critical areas needing treatment have been identified
and assigned priority, conservation plans for treating these
areas must be drawn up by landowners and qualified professionals.
Conservation plans must be directed at specific problems in
critical areas and at the potentially most effective treatments
for these problems. Conservation planners can not rely solely
on pre-established, generalized, "best" management practices.
Site-specific considerations that must go into critical
area conservation plans include: assumed efficacy of the
proposed practices for each specific site, the costs of installing
the remedial measures, the costs for maintaining the practices,
the potential benefits to be derived from treatment, and landowner
attitudes.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—private landowners and land managers
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—public landowners and land managers
—resource conservation agencies
—other qualified conservation planners
Activities:
—develop alternative treatment practices
—select the most workable and acceptable measures in
cooperation with landowners
—secure implementation, operation and maintenance contracts
with landowners
STEP 6, INSTALLATION OF CONSERVATION PRACTICES
Purpose:
The types of practices included in conservation plans must
be determined by the specific characteristics of each individual
site. Efforts should be made to use innovative techniques to
meet unique site needs. Managerial or non-structural control
practices generally can be used more pervasively — and,
consequently, more effectively — and at lower costs than
structural treatments. In some instances, structures may be
recommended where land and water use demands intensive protection.
In other instances, regulatory systems, such as ordinances, may
be recommended. This may be the case where livestock and human
use must be restricted on eroding or erosion-prone zones.
The amount spent on the installation of a conservation
practice is a function of the tradeoffs made between the greatest
potential benefits and the lowest actual costs. Coupled with a
strong educational program, cost sharing should be used as an
incentive for program participation. It must be cautioned, again,
that excessive cost share rates, because they do nothing to
improve landowner attitudes, should be discouraged except in
extreme problem areas where immediate treatment is needed.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies
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—private landowners and land managers
—public landowners and land managers
Activities:
—provide assistance and supervision for the implementation of
conservation practices by landowner
—cooperate with landowners to ensure timely and successful
completion of the contract
STEP 7, MAINTENANCE OF PRACTICES
Purpose:
Local management agencies should be responsible for
inspecting installations and for working with landowners to
ensure their continued operation and maintenance. Policies
and guidelines will have to be set to provide for inspections,
to guarantee continued maintenance and to correct maintenance
violations.
In addition to monitoring treatment activities on the
land, water quality monitoring will have to be continued to
make certain that benefits are ensuing from the applied
practices. When water quality benefits are no longer derived
from practices, consideration will have to be given to altering
practices to meet the needs. When water quality improves to the
point where remedial measures are no longer needed, alternate,
less costly management practices should be used to maintain the
elevated levels of water quality.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies
—private landowners and land managers
—public landowners and land managers
Activities:
—inspect practices to determine compliance and efficiency
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—meet individually with landowners to encourage practice
maintenance
—set policies for correcting instances of noncompliance
STEP 8, EVALUATION AND ADJUSTMENT
Purpose:
Conservation practices have to be continually monitored,
evaluated and, if needed modified. The entire water quality
management program should also be evaluated continually and
changed if necessary. There is nothing unalterable about
goals, objectives and policies. When they are no longer
applicable to the problems at hand, they should be modified to
reflect the current situation. The changing problems, needs,
goals and objectives can only be analyzed through a continuous
evaluation process.
To aid in the evaluation and adjustment of water quality
programs, supplementary natural resource conservation programs
can be easily and effectively tied in throughout the process.
As an example, the federal Resource Conservation Act program can
be used to help evaluate water quality programs or, conversely,
evaluations of local water quality programs could be used as a
part of the Resource Conservation Program. Similarly, local
management agencies can work with ongoing Agricultural Stabilization
and Conservation Service programs to set cost share rates and
administer cost share programs. And as a final example, the
application of conservation practices for ongoing soil and water
conservation district programs can be readily tied in with the
application of conservation practices for water quality programs.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies
—special interest groups
—industries
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—conservation professionals
—private landowners and land managers
—public landowners and land managers
—interested citizens
Activities:
—continue collection of water quality and land management data
to determine practice efficiency
—evaluate data and program operations with cooperating agencies
—establish standards and guidelines for altering ineffective
practices
—seek citizen input on program effectiveness and revise, if
necessary, goals, objectives and policies
STEP 9, IMPLEMENTING REGULATORY SYSTEMS (OPTIONAL)
Purpose:
Given sound educational programs and reasonable cost share
rates, general program compliance and practice implementation
could be achieved through the voluntary compliance of landowners.
At the very least a voluntary compliance system should "be used
initially and then, if this fails or if certain practices, such
as restricting use, necessitate, a regulatory approach could be
tried.
Because of the sensitive nature of regulatory programs,
local and state responsibilities must be carefully delineated.
For this process, all past experiences as well as innovative
techniques should be utilized. Many landowners have expressed
the desire that, if needed, regulations and ordinances should be
developed and administered at the local (county) level. Locally-
elected officials, however, are generally hesitant to take on this
responsibility, probably because of their close contact with the
affected landowners.
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If regulations are used, the state should set minimum
standards and should be responsible for overall enforcement.
Local management agencies should have the authority for working
with landowners to settle disputes, supervise compliance and
recommend enforcement action.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies
—private landowners and land managers
—public landowners and land managers
—county boards or their committees
—town boards
Activities:
—obtain citizen input on the need for local ordinances and in
developing ordinances if deemed necessary
—develop ordinances in cooperation with county and town units
of government
—establish standards, supervise compliance and make recommendations
for enforcement actions
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS
More than four years of erosion, sediment control and
water quality demonstration activities are represented in the
findings, conclusions and recommendations summarized above.
Some of these results belie conventional, or popularly held
beliefs, views and attitudes; particularly those refining public
perceptions of the nature of the red clay problem or proposing
new approaches and methods. But far from all that has been
accomplished was unexpected or innovative. Indeed, much project
emphasis was intentionally focused on ways in which traditional
land use-related institutions, procedures and techniques could
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be reoriented to meet the challenges posed by society's renewed
dedication to clean water.
What was learned from this experiment has significance
for the process of non-point source water pollution control as
well as for the participants. In addition, several tools have
been developed or refined during the course of the Project. A
few concluding observations in these three areas are offered
below as a way of further distilling the gist of the experience
and relating it to the future.
Process:
Red Clay Project activities suggest that key ingredients
to successful water quality management fall into three fundamental
steps of the management process. As such, these ingredients
become conditions or prerequisites which, on the basis of this
project's experience, are felt to be needed to sustain effective
programs. These conditions are grouped below as they relate
to a generalized management process.
1. THOSE CONDITIONS THAT AID IN THE DEFINITION OF THE
PROBLEMS AND THE GOALS:
—a problem-encompassing management institution, even if
multijurisdictional
-5-a common set of goals, objectives and policies, even
'Where multiple agencies and levels of government are
involved
—a persistent emphasis on critical area identification and
assigning priorities
—the careful involvement of a full range of inter- and
intra-governmental as well as private-sector representatives
—an ongoing, continuous and broad-based educational program
2. THOSE CONDITIONS THAT AID IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF ALTERNATIVES
AND THE MECHANISMS FOR SELECTING FROM AMONG THEM:
—the preparation of critical area management plans
39
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—the matching of alternative management practices with
site specific conditions and landowner attitudes
—the generation of cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness
information
3. THOSE CONDITIONS THAT AID IN THE IMPLEMENTATION, GUIDANCE
AND EVALUATION OF THE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM:
—the designation of a soil and water conservation body
as the local management agency
—the reliance on voluntary compliance prior to regulation
—the use of reasonable cost sharing to encourage voluntary
compliance
—an emphasis on local innovation and on non-structural,
low-cost practices
—the use of continuous, long-term monitoring programs
Participants:
The Red Clay Project results have the potential of affecting
three major groups of participants in non-point source water
pollution programs in a variety of important ways. A few of
the impacts which can be expected are:
Landowners and Private Interests
—increased confidence that abatement actions undertaken
will have recognizable water quality payoffs
—continued assurance that society will assist with the
problem through technical assistance and cost sharing
—improved participation opportunities
—expanded knowledge base through research, information
and education
Local Units of Government and Their Agencies, including the
Local Management Agency
—increased assurance that water quality programs are both
beneficial and acceptable through planning and public
participation
40
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—greater focus for cooperative action and joint programs
through critical problem identification and setting
priorities
—more effective reliance on the full spectrum of management
tools — preventive and remedial, voluntary and regulatory,
structural and non-structural — through formulation of
alternatives
Non-Local Units of Government and Their Agencies
—enhanced opportunity for society-wide goals to be achieved
in responsive and innovative ways
—improved focus for meaningful roles in cooperation with
local program partners
—increased assurance that substantial allocations of time,
staff and financial resources will meet the test of cost-
effectiveness
Tools:
The Red Clay Project has served to spotlight several tools
of the trade that promise important dividends for water quality
management. Some of these are conventional, such as comprehensive
critical area erosion surveys, an open and continuous planning
function, and a posture of intensive interagency cooperation.
Others are refinements of existing technologies, such as the
development of a solid state monitoring system for constant
recording of precipitation, wind, air and soil factors at remote,
unmanned sites. While still others pose unique opportunities
for progressive or enterprising management institutions. The
last category would include the use of zoning setback formulas for
structures adjacent to critical slopes in such a way as to
establish a balance between the location's erosion rate and the
design life of the proposed structure. It would also include the
identification and designation of safe-zone areas, or erosion
conservancy zones, where all land-disturbing activities would be
excluded in the interest of erosion control.
41
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Perhaps above all else, the Red Clay experience stands as
evidence that much of the foundation upon which highly complex
water quality problems can be addressed may now be in place.
It is possible to overcome traditionally difficult social,
economic, political and institutional obstacles through a manage-
ment perspective balanced by research, technical and financial
assistance, and by interagency cooperation and public education.
Existing federal, state and local resources, public and private,
can be combined in a partnership for enhanced water quality.
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RED CLAY PROJECT REPORT
Paul Brown, Chairman
Red Clay Executive Committee
and
Douglas County Representative
It has been my privilege to serve on the Executive Committee
of the Red Clay Project since its beginning. There was a great
concern before the project, if it would even be possible for a
cooperative effort of five counties, several federal agencies
and two states and several State agencies would even work. If
the Red Clay Project proves nothing else, it proved it possible.
It wasn't always easy and wasn't always fast but there was a
genuine effort of cooperation between all parties concerned.
Although there are very unique characteristics of red clay
which set those soils apart from many other types of soils, I
believe many of the studies concerning rainfall, vegetative cover,
tree cover and water action on the foot of slopes can be applied
to other areas across the whole of the United States.
This was a demonstration project, therefore, different ways
to resolve some of the problems of erosion were tried. I hope
they all will succeed although I'm sure some will either fail
or prove too costly to use over large areas of our national
shoreline.
The three years have gone by quickly and I would like to
thank EPA for their concern for quality water for the other
generations to come. Also I would like to thank the other
Federal agencies and State agencies of Wisconsin and Minnesota
for their cooperation in trying to look at the many different
ways of resolving some of the problems. It has been a pleasure
to serve on the Committee and work with the people involved.
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RED CLAY PROJECT REPORT
Robert Dusenbery
Ashland County Representative To
The Red Clay Executive Committee
The first Lake Superior Water Quality Conference, held in
1970, pointed out that the red clay soil entering Lake Superior
through erosion was considered a pollutant.
The Ashland County Soil and Water Conservation District
saw the higher lake levels, we were experiencing, accelerating
the shoreline erosion process. The Ashland County Soil and
Water Conservation District was concerned about the International
Joint Commission Lake Levels Regulatory Controls that maintains
Lake Superior at consistantly higher levels than its natural or
normal fluxuations, accelerating the shoreline erosion process
and degrading the water quality of this unique pristine body.
The Ashland County Soil and Water Conservation District
requested the help of the Northwest Regional Planning Commission
in developing testimony in opposition to the regulatory plans
of the International Joint Commission and the opposition of the
implementation of such plans were read into the Public Hearing
Record of the International Joint Commission by the Northwest
Regional Planning Commission at Sault Saint Marie, Ontario in
May 1973 > and at Duluth, Minnesota, in June 1973-
It was with this background of concern about shoreline
erosion and its problems that Ashland County welcomed the opportunity
to participate with two shoreline erosion control projects in the
EPA's Red Clay Project under section 108 of Public Law 92-500.
The Ashland County Soil and Water Conservation District was
disappointed in what we considered unnecessary delay in the
issuance of permits to construct our projects from the Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources and the United States Army Corps of
Engineers. This one year delay of construction added one year of
inflation costs, thus, we were forced to scal.e down our projects
to fit the money allocated. We also lost one year of monitoring
activity.
Looking back at our involvement as Red Clay Executive
Committee members, it has been a unique and exciting committee
experience. These were not just a series of reports to be filed,
but as committee members we got to see a number of material things
in place, which I'm sure gave all of us a sense of accomplishment.
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We had an excellent Project Director in Steve Andrews, an
Executive Committee that was a pleasure to serve with and
agency cooperation that crossed state lines that operated with a
smoothness that pleased everyone involved in the Red Clay Project.
The Ashland County Soil and Water Conservation District feels
confident that the answers provided by monitoring our two projects
will give concerned lakeshore property owners some of the answers
they are looking for in the way of cost - benefit information on
shoreline protection alternatives.
Ashland County and other participating districts will carry
the successful land treatment, land management practices into the
water quality planning program as required by section 208 of
Public Law 92-500, the Federal Clean Water Act.
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RED CLAY PROJECT REPORT
by
Ila Bromberg
Bayfield County Representative To
The Red Clay Executive Committee
I served on the Executive Committee of the Red Clay Project
as the delegate from Bayfield County, from funding notice in
the summer of 197^ until April, 1978.
There were four Wisconsin counties (Bayfield, Ashland, Iron,
Douglas) and Carlton County in Minnesota. Douglas County served
as the fiscal agent and Paul Brown of that county the committee
chairman. Iron County did not participate after preliminary
investigation into site selection and the project in that county
was aborted due to costs higher than the county could spend.
The Executive Committee selected Stephen Andrews in the fall
of 1974 as Executive Director. The position was under the
supervision of Northwest Planning Commission, paid for by EPA
Red Clay grant funds. A secretary was hired and Donald Houtman,
a former State Board Soil and Water employee assigned to the
Red Clay Project, joined the staff the next year, with the approval
of the Executive Committee.
I am not certain as to the exact method used to determine,
on the original grant application, as to how projects were chosen
for which county, as I was not a member of the Bayfield SWCD until
1974. Bayfield County tells me that the Fish Creek Watershed
project (later confined to Pine Creek Tributary Watershed) was
the county's third choice. Both the County and the Town of Pilsen,
in which Pine Creek is located, gave lukewarm approval to the
watershed re-vitalization attempt, as long as it didn't mean
financial committments of any great amount.
I have been lead to believe that all counties vied for
highway projects, only Carlton and Douglas being successful.
This is important as counties are usually able, and willing, to
contribute local shares, through County Highway Dept., for road
problem areas.
MANAGEMENT
In the early months of the project, the Executive Committee,
in my opinion, (myself especially included) was inept and inexperi-
enced in both the management and technical aspects of the undertaking.
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In Andrews we found a director experienced in bureaucracy
and a knowledgeable geologist, so he was given carte blanche
decision making by our committee. I would like to emphasize
that Andrews was encouraged in this authority by the Executive
Committee and, with the exception of myself and possibly Iron
County, the Committee remained quite comfortable with the arrange-
ment the four years I served on the Committee. I was forced to
be the exception when my Soil and Water District strongly objected
to some of the decisions approved by the Committee.
Consequently, I apparently stand alone on the Executive
Committee in questioning the advisability of permitting the
decisions on research, monitoring and individualized techniques,
being made by management and agency people.
The EPA conducted quarterly progress reports in Superior.
Technical conferences were held yearly after the proposals
actively got under way. Though the Executive Committee was not
necessarily discouraged from attendance, they took no active part
in either the quarterly or technical conferences. In hindsight,
I would recommend that quarterly and technical conferences should
have been a function of, and chaired by, the Executive Committee.
The technical conferences, though extremely interesting to
those involved in the project, were poorly attended or understood
by the public, and we wound up pretty much "talking to ourselves."
In conclusion: my opinion is that the project was well
managed, we chose an able director, with the principal critique
that the committee willingly abdicated their authority.
RESEARCH
A giant chunk of grant money went into research projects
concerned with Red Clay soils and the flora and fishlife found
in association with clay soils. The researchers were "local"
(Superior and Duluth) which had the decided advantages of both
accessability and good public relations. They all appeared to
be competent professionals.
It is probably too early to assess the value of each
research to future goals of soil and water conservation but this
is an aspect that, hoepfully, will be carefully scrutinized.
I have seriously questioned the relationship of several of
the research programs in soil loss corrections. In my opinion,
Dr. Joe Mengel of UW-Superior, has done the most comprehensive
work on red clay associated soil types. Most of his research
was complete before the Red Clay Project's inception and was
available for our use in various aspects of the program.' His
formula for predictability in slope stabilization (or failure)
is well accepted professionally and an excellent guide for both
the professional and layman.
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One fishery's research was being pretty well duplicated by
the Wisconsin DNR. It is difficult to foresee all duplications
in research but, in future grants, care should be made to avoid
parallel expenditures.
Two aspects of research have produced some surprises and
could be of value to other agencies in unexpected ways—
I. Dr. Olson (UMD) has invented, for the astonishingly low sun
of about $10,000 a rain guage with a memory that records both
the daily precipitation, the time of day and the force of rainfall.
2. A plant association study (UW-Superior) has revealed a vast
difference in understudy forest growth between aspen rejuvenation
and mixed hardwoods which suggests an unknown chemical content
in Aspen. My local county and DNR foresters are very interested
in the study results; the research may prove more relavent to
foresters than to soil management.
COUNTY PROJECTS
IRON COUNTY declined participation although Marvin Innes of
Iron County remained active on the Executive Committee.
The proposed structure on Spoon Creek would have been
interesting in that it was to be somewhat different from any
other structure. A dam to operate as a flood water deterrent,
was to be constructed below the confluence of two ephemeral
branches. At our on-site tour in September 1974» a colony of
beaver were in process of construction of a sizeable dam on the
west branch of Spoon Creek. A SCS employee remarked that we
could sink a small fortune into a man-made dam or protect the
beaver and get it done for nothing.
DOUGLAS COUNTY opted on two ingenious structures, one about
one-quarter mile or so below the other on a spring fed stream
(as well as farmland improvement, etc.).
I've no comment, except that time will tell whether either
(one much more costly than the other—but both expensive) will
be a practical erosion tool. The costs would appear prohibitive,
unless the protection is of some property of value.
ASHLAND COUNTY'S projects have been unique in that both involve
local Indian interests. The Madeline Island site is a somewhat
conventional structure, mostly under water, that was built to
protect a very unusual historic cemetary. The cemetary contains
the remains of Chief Buffalo, the handsome Chippewa who was the
model for the bronze busts that adorn both the U.S. Senate and
the U.S. House of Representatives buildings in Washington, D.C.
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The Longard tubes installed on Madigan Beach (Bad River
Indian Reservation) are the envy of every Wisconsin County
participating in the project and are being monitored with
interest. Relatively inexpensive as shoreline structures go,
if successful as a beach builder, it has real practical potential.
The bank above the tubes, except for a small section of access,
was left untouched, is almost perpendicular and eroding badly.
Until this bank reaches an angle of repose (if it does; it
threatens the success of the tubes. In retrospect, it is
regrettable that one section of beach was not stabilized before
the placement of tubes for comparison of results. If the tubes
do fail, it would be my suggestion "try again."
The survival of both Ashland projects are somewhat dependent
on the Corps of Engineers' (sanctioned by IJC) future decisions
on the level of Lake Superior. If the water level continues to inch
upward, the structures may not have been given a chance, if failure
does occur.
CARLTON COUNTY'S participation has been the most diversified.
The State of Minnesota supported the project with monies that
have allowed varied demonstration of structures as well as a
diversity of farmland practices.
It has also been the county plagued with tragedy, with the
failure of Elin Dam and roadside banks collapsing before the
end of the project.
Since Dr. Mengel (UW-S) had, previous to the Red Clay project,
developed a formula to determine slope angle needed to achieve
stability, the judgment of the SCS engineer who formulated the
structures' plans, is decidedly questionable.
If we learn nothing else from the Carlton County experience,
we find we can't out-engineer Mother Nature.
BAYFIELD COUNTY - The original grant request would have,
hopefully, been sufficient to stabilize the farmland soils in
the Pish Creek Watershed. The area is large and the soil problems
serious so the Pine Creek branch was selected with 4-9 farms
involved in the watershed. The SCS selected about 2 dozen farms
in need of farmland practices that should improve water quality;
the remainder considered land already adequately treated.
Bayfield County SWCD approved the plans, with a stipulation
that a bank slide on North Fish Creek just above the confluence
with Pine Creek be stabilized. The Town of Pilsen also agreed
to cooperate and were particularly insistent on the bank stabili-
zation as they were in danger of losing a Town road to the slippage.
(Before the 194-6 flood the river channel had not undercut the
hillside).
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Almost immediately the project ran into difficulties,
especially with the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources,
who either did not wish to cooperate or were plagued beyond
belief with inefficiency.
SCS helped farm owners apply for the needed permits and the
project arranged a day (Sept. 1974) specifically for DNR
personnel to inspect the Fish Creek and Spoon Creek sites. The
only DNR person to show was Cy Kabat of Madison; Spooner ignored
the engagement until Kabat gave verbal approval (by default of
the Spooner office) at which time the stuff hit the fan.
If it was DNR's intention to sabotage the project, they
did it well. The farm participation dropped to 9 landowners as
DNR red tape and lack of cooperation brought practices to a halt.
Requests for permits were ignored as were letters by other agency
people. Only the interference from elected people brought results
and then one step at a time. The permits took from 7 months to
3 years. Two structures requiring permits were dropped from plans
but we left the requests in to see how long it would take if the
applications for permits were not pursued. It has been over 3
years, and as far as I know no response has ever been made by DNR.
This is not that all individuals in DNR were uncooperative; some
people in the Brule office really tried to be of assistance.
The slide on North Pish Creek ran into more difficulty than
that caused by DNR lack of cooperation. Neither agency nor
management people felt that the hillside could be stabilized
without some question of success. The cost estimate of $8,000
grew to $80,000, necessitating county dollar involvement beyond
which Bayfield County was willing to pay.
Three monitoring stations had been installed (one later
removed). The cost to USGS for monitoring Pine Creek mushroomed
from $58,000 to $129,000, which infuriated local officials. A
severe drought in 1976 and the abandonment by farmers in partici-
pating in the project rendered most of the monitoring useless.
When the contract with USGS was signed there was no written
provision which would have required USGS to supply the project
with a written evaluation of the monitoring, and they have refused
the evaluation unless more funds were provided (which was denied
by the Executive Committee).
On the plus side, the farmers who did participate seem well
pleased with the practices and structures made possible by the
EPA grant. I am sure they are sincere in their stated committments
that the practices agreed to will continue and that the advantages
of good soils management will be broadcast the best means possible—
Example.
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Note: In 1977 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that government
agencies, operating with federal monies, are not required to
obtain state and local permits. The Corps of Engineers did issue
the permit required for the Fish Creek structure earlier this
year.
SUMMARY
One thing that the Red Clay Project was supposed to ascertain
whether agencies could cooperate across state lines as well as
with each other. Considering the complexity of such an undertaking,
the experiment seemed to work well.
With the exception of the Wisconsin DNR all agencies I have
mentioned, as well as UW-Ext. and the Dept. of Transportation, made
a sincere effort to work together. There were problems but the
desire to cooperate was not one of them.
Soil Conservation Service played the major role as technical
advisors, and except for the criticism previously alluded to in
Carlton County, did an excellent job. Statewide, from the state
conservationist down to field technicians, I found the service to
be highly capable professionals.
It is regrettable that the "remains" of perhaps the most
important agency was never actively involved in the Red Clay
Project—the old Red Clay Interagency. No longer a group, the
individuals could have been a real asset in the adventure. We owe
them a great deal, not only in the first demonstration project of
this type, which they accomplished literally with pennies (Whittlesly
Creek in Bayfield County) but by the instigation to do something
about roadside erosion and seeding. They also made possible the
grant to fund us. I regret they did not participate actively; nor
do I know why they did not. But I would like to salute those of
the old group that I personally know: Cy Kabat, George Wright,
Chuck Stoddard, Garit Tenpas - "Without you, there would have
been no Red Clay Project."
At the time that the Executive Committee voted to add a
State Board SWCD member (Houtman) to the Red Clay staff, I, alone
stubbornly voted "no". My advice came from locals and other agency
people, whose reservations were not against the individual but the
State Board having an "inside track". I am pleased to admit that
I was wrong in my vote. I feel that the State Board staff is
exceptionally efficient, attuned to local governments and will
play a very effective role in the nuts and bolts part of the
Clean Water Act—if SWCDs will support them. I have found a
reluctance, which I do not agree with, on the part of Districts,
and some agency people, to support the State Board as I feel that
they should; this reluctance seems based on a fear tha't the Board
will become a competitive agency, too strong, and will lose contact
with local interests.
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Consequently, by not giving statewide support to the Board,
a great chunk of the authority in Wisconsin of the Clean Water Act
is being exercised by the Wisconsin DNH, over whom local interests
have never and will never have any influence.
If the SWCDs in Wisconsin are to have any influence over the
land use regulations that will, without doubt, accompany Clean
Water funding, in my opinion, they are going to have to give more
support to the State Board and staff, including an increase in staff
across the state—then be interested and concerned enough with both
good soil practices and clean water to get involved.
WHAT DO I THINK THE PROJECT HAS PROVEN?
Positively, that most of the practices on both farmland and in
structures will no doubt work.
Negatively, that cost factors we encountered are probably-
going to be so excessive as to be totally impractical if applied
statewide and under the cost sharing ratios used in the Red Clay
Project.
I don't believe that either land use regulations and/or cost
sharing on a giant scale will ever accomplish the job the Clean
Water Act mandates; the costs would be too high. But if the
legislature can be convinced to provide incentives, such as tax
breaks, to volunteer landowners and funds can be made available
(SCS) for technical assistance, we improve our chances of making
progress, though the 1980's as the deadline for potable water is
unrealistic.
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RED CLAY PROJECT REPORT
Gerhard Oltmanns
Carlton County Representative to
the Red Clay Executive Committee
As I look back on nearly four years of the Red Clay Project,
I will have to pick the good from the not-so-good.
First, it was a pleasure working with the Red Clay Committee
and the various agencies, some of which I did not agree with or
think necessary.
Part one of the Red Clay Project was a huge success. This
was composed of many parts, listed under Upland Treatment.
Some of these were as follows: pasture management, fencing
cattle from hillsides and streams to prevent erosion, waterways -
both rock and grass, stock-watering ponds, seeding roadsides and
gullies to prevent erosion, small sediment dams that control
water run-off, and rock gabions in wash-outs.
The Highway 103 project was a success except for a few
slides, which are only a small part.
The not-so-good part is the Elim Dam and the Hanson Dam.
The excessive amount of rain is one reason these dams are not
finished. Had we known a little more about red clay soil at
the beginning, these also might have been finished. This was a
pilot project, and many things can happen.
All in all, the Red Clay Project has enlightened many people,
and taught us all much about how to stop or prevent soil erosion.
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RED CLAY PROJECT REPORT
by
Marvin Innes
Iron County Representative To
The Red Clay Executive Committee
Iron County occxipies the east boundary of the Red Clay
Project area. Erosion and. sedimentation from our red clay soils
is a main problem here as it is throughout the area. And, for
this reason, it is regrettable that Iron County could not have
played a more active role in the Red Clay Project.
The Iron County Soil and Water Conservation District's
original proposal was for the construction of a flood water
retarding structure on the Oronto River/Parker Creek at Saxon
Harbor on Lake Superior. Cost estimates were deemed too high
for this project.
The second proposal called for the construction of a debris
basin on Spoon Creek. This, too, ran aground when cost over-
run problems were encountered. Iron County sought other methods
of funding but none were found available. As a result, this
project was also abandoned.
At this point the Iron County SWCD, working with the Red
Clay Project staff and other cooperating agencies, tried to
identify other possible projects. These were discovered to be
either duplicates of on-going projects in other counties or did
not meet project criteria. Another problem was trying to design
suitable projects but at a cost feasible for Iron County to
participate.
In light of this the Iron County SWCD elected to withdraw
from active participation in the Red Clay Project. However, the
county's SWCD did continue to support the Red Clay Project and
the programs which were developed in the other four counties. A
member of the Iron County SWCD also remained active on the Red
Clay Project's Executive Committee.
During Iron County's participation, a little over $38,000 of
project funds were utilized in the county for preliminary
engineering, surveying and roadside seeding on 1.5 acres of road-
side. The county's University Extension staff also contributed
to the Informational and Educational (I & E) efforts of the
project.
Although Iron County's role in the Red Clay Project was
limited, the county's SWCD did appreciate the opportunity to
work with the Red Clay staff, the SWCD's from Ashland, Bayfield,
Douglas, and Carlton counties, and all of the agency personnel
involved with the project.
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REPORT TO THE RED CLAY PROJECT
BY THE WISCONSIN BOARD OF SOIL
AND WATER CONSERVATION DISTRICTS
By
Donald S. Houtman*
The Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water Conservation Districts was
instrumental in establishing the Red Clay Project. Through its field
representative working with the involved soil and water conservation
districts, the state board encouraged and assisted the formation of the
project by the districts. The field representatives were particularly
effective in helping the districts secure a grant from the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency to partially fund the proposed erosion and
sediment control program.
In April of 1974, the state board opened a field office in
Spooner, Wisconsin in order to work more intensively with the districts
in northwestern Wisconsin. The board's representative in this office
worked closely with the districts and the cooperating agencies in plan-
ning the project. The primary agencies involved in this stage of the
project were the Northwest Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission
(principal participant and recipient of an $80,000 grant from the Upper
Great Lakes Regional Commission for preparing a Red Clay Project grant
proposal and work plan). The Pri-Ru-Ta Resource Conservation and
Development Project (Wisconsin), the Onanagozie Resource Conservation
and Development Project (Minnesota), the Arrowhead Regional Development
Commission (Minnesota), the Minnesota Soil and Water Conservation Board
and the Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water Conservation Districts.
The Red Clay Project began operations with the approval of the
funding grant and the opening of a project office in Superior, Wisconsin.
The state board field representative in Spooner continued working on the
project and supporting the sponsoring districts in Wisconsin, devoting
from 25% to 50% of his time as "in-kind" services during 1974 and 1975.
Through the efforts of the board representative in Spooner, an
agreement was reached with the project for the state board to supply
specific services to the project and the sponsoring soil and water
conservation districts. In October of 1975, the state board signed a
contract with the Red Clay Project to provide the position of project
specialist. The board representative stationed in Spooner assumed this
position. The new representative in the board's Spooner office and
Madison-based board staff continued to provide " in-kind" support for the
project at a level comparable to that which existed prior to the creation
of the project specialist position. The duties of the project specialist
were listed in the contract between the board and the project. r In
essence, the specialist served as assistant to the director and staff to
the project. The only full-time project staff housed in the projects'
office were the director, the specialist and secretarial support. Others
working on the project were responsible to different agencies and were'
not considered project staff.
55
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There were two phases of the Red Clay Project in which the project
specialist had reportable responsibilities: the information and educa-
tion program and work with the sponsoring soil and water conservation
districts. In addition to these activities the project specialist, in
association with other state board staff, initiated several educational
and information-gathering programs related to the overall goals of the
project.
INFORMATION AND EDUCATION PROGRAM
The information-education program was set up primarily to
facilitate project operations and to help achieve the goal of promoting
proper land management within the project's geographical area. The
principal participants in the development and operation of the
education program included representatives from the University of
Wisconsin-Extension, the University of Minnesota-Extension, the
University of Wisconsin-Superior, the University of Minnesota-Duluth,
Northland College, the Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water Conservation
Districts and project staff. A central committee composed of
representatives of these agencies was formed to oversee the educational
program. Project-wide activities including conferences, tours, workshops,
public meetings, newspaper specials and exhibits were conducted under
contract with the University of Wisconsin-Extension with the assistance
of the above-mentioned agencies. Other project-wide activities including
tours, conferences, news media reports and specials, newsletters,
brochures, slide-tape sets, exhibits and photographs were produced by
the project specialist with assistance from cooperating project and agency
personnel.
A considerable amount of latitude was given to the local sponsors in
conducting those portions of the information and education program
affecting citizens within their geographical boundaries. While an over-
all plan for the information and education program was developed which
included a timetable for the implementation of these local activities,
the project managerial attitude was such that provisions were not made
for the coordination and implementation of these activities. In other
words, central direction for the implementation of local activities was
not necessarily provided by project management nor authorized to be
provided by the project specialist, project staff or other involved
participants. Consequently, without central direction or coordination,
many of the local (county-wide) workshops, public meetings, field tours
and other citizen-contact occasions were not as effectively implemented
as they could have been. This, in turn, undermined/ or at least did not
serve to strengthen, local support for the project and the water quality
and land management goals of the project.
The central, or project-wide, information and education activities
fairly well followed the initial plan and can be considered to have been
successful. Conferences were held annually as planned to review the
status of the project for concerned professionals and interested public.
Except for the final tour, no project-sponsored, planned tours were
conducted. Numerous, well-attended tours, however, did take place not
as planned project activities but, rather, in response to requests from
different groups or to meet specific needs. Radio, television and
newspaper coverage of the project occurred in response to efforts of the
project staff and in response to specific news items. No radio or
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television specials were prepared, but several newspaper specials were
written by project staff and cooperating agency personnel. A news-
letter was published on an as-needed basis which nearly worked out to
be quarterly. Several presentations on the project were given to
special interest groups upon request. An introductory and a conclud-
ing brochure were prepared and distributed. One slide-tape set was
prepared and used with presentations and exhibits. Several exhibits
were prepared and used at major events throughout the project area and
the two states. Rather than having one prepared exhibit, the exhibit
format was prepared and the content was modified to meet the needs of
individual situations.
In summary, the information and education program was successful
at informing local, state, national, and in some instances even
foreign individuals, agencies and interest groups of the project and
its accomplishments. The several components of the program (tours,
conferences, newsletters, etc.) were put together in a way that met the
needs of the project and those interested in the project. The one
shortcoming of the program was in not being able to most advantageously
meet the informational and educational needs of landowners who were
potential project participants. For this, a system of individual or,
even better, small group (5-6 individuals) meetings would have to have
been built systematically into the information and education program.
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION DISTRICTS
A major component of the project specialist's position was to work
with the sponsoring soil and water conservation districts to assist
them in their role as sponsors and to help them prepare for future
nonpoint source water pollution abatement programs. Work with the
sponsoring districts involved assistance with district program develop-
ment, district participation in the project, the Bayfield County/Pilsen
Township sediment control ordinance development, a red clay area stream-
bank and roadside erosion survey and the development of guidelines or a
framework for district participation in future erosion and sediment
control programs.
District Program Development and Project'Participation
Prior to the onset of the Red Clay Project, the soil and water
conservation districts in the project area generally were not considered
to be the most active and most involved districts in the two states.
This probably was due not to any inactivity on the part of individuals
but, rather, to the fact that these were not highly agricultural areas
and district programs in the past traditionally were associated with
agricultural concerns. Because of this, relatively weak, inactive
districts evolved in the five-county project area. The descriptive
terms of "weak" and "inactive" refer to the number and regularity of
meetings held per year, the number and type of business items discussed
at meetings, the number and types of programs in which they were
involved, and the subjectively-assessed level of interest displayed by
supervisors and cooperating agency personnel.
After the start of the project and probably as a direct result of it,
there was a noticeable increase in nearly all of the five districts'
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activities. This resulted not only from a need to manage the project in
their own counties but also from a change in the perception of the role
of a soil and water conservation district. With the project there was
a realization that districts need not be involved in only agricultural
activities and doors were opened to other fields of natural resource
conservation.
In working with the districts on program development, the tools of
the Red Clay Project were used to set examples for the districts and to
help motivate them. For example, a project-wide newsletter was
published which featured activities and programs of the districts as
well as project events. Many project meetings were structured to
involve districts and to provide examples of preferred meeting formats.
Much was done to help publicize the districts' programs through
presentations at area and state meetings and through the use of
exhibits, displays and the audio-visual materials. In addition,
considerable assistance was given to districts in their planning,
reporting and other on-going activities.
In general, the sponsoring districts have- experienced success in their
program development through participation in the Red Clay Project. This
success, however, is limited. While there is an increased awareness of
natural resource concerns and a desire to preserve the existing high
quality of these resources, natural resource conservation is still not
an item of high priority in these counties. Consequently, limited
county funds and manpower resources are not directed toward those areas
of relatively low priority, including soil and water conservation.
The need for increased soil and water conservation is not uniformly per-
ceived and maybe, in this area where many of the erosion problems are
natural phenomena not directly related to man's current activities such
as farming, this perception is justified.
Bayfield County/Pilsen^ Township Sediment Control Ordinance
The work plan for the Red Clay Project called for the development
and implementation of a sediment control ordinance in that portion of
Bayfield County involved in the Red Clay Project. This, apparently,
from discussions with supervisors and cooperating agency personnel, was
put in the plan against the advice of these same supervisors and
agency representatives. According to these representatives of the soil
and water conservation district, there was no need to impose regulations
on landowners of Pilsen Township where, in their perception, man's land-
disturbing activities had very little effect on the sediment load of the
area streams. Furthermore, if the project was to explore the use of
regulations, the district representatives felt that this should be done
in the Lake Superior shore area of the county where increased tourism
and development was expected.
Given this background and these underlying attitudes, it is not
surprising, then, that there was little support at the district level
for the development and implementation of a sediment control ordinance
in Pilsen Township. The district did approve the Red Clay Project
work plan which included a provision for the Pilsen Township ordinance.
However, it was made obvious when work was attempted on the development
of the ordinance that they approved the plan reluctantly.
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At a meeting of the Bayfield County Soil and Water Conservation
District, approval was given to the project to start work on the develop-
ment of a sediment control ordinance. However, the supervisors did not
agree to actively participate nor did they request any of their
cooperating agency personnel to participate, In other words, they would
let the project staff work on it but offered considerable resistance
through nonparticipation. The authority to develop and implement
sediment control ordinances in Wisconsin lies with the soil and water
conservation districts and the county boards. In order to be success-
ful, any such ordinance would have had to have been prepared with the
close cooperation of the district, the county board and the township.
This willingness to participate and cooperation never evolved.
Some work was done by the project specialist with residents of the
township to explore the idea of developing and implementing an ordinance.
Suprisingly, the landowners exhibited more of a willingness to work on
this than did the elected officials. They tended to realize that if
water pollution abatement programs were going to work, some type of
regulations would have to be used. The elected officials at the county
level, however, may have realized this but did not want to be in the
position of having to enforce an ordinance. After this initial contact
with township landowners, project staff were requested by a few district
supervisors to stop all further work on the development of the ordinance
until further notice. Apparently there was some trouble between
landowners in the red clay area of the county and the county zoning
committee and these supervisors felt that further talk of ordinances
and regulations would additionally aggrevate an already volatile situa-
tion. Work was halted in accordance with the supervisors' request and
no further notice was given by the supervisors to resume work on this
program.
Experiences with this attempt to develop a sediment control ord-
inance under existing Wisconsin state statutes have not been all nega-
tive. One positive insight gained from this portion of the Red Clay
Project is the realization that landowners may not be as averse to
accepting land management regulations as one might initially suppose.
Landowners, generally, did express the attitude that if water quality
goals were to be met, regulations of some type would be needed. The
unanswered question, however, is, Are water quality goals reasonable
and worth achieving? Landowners also, generally, expressed a willing-
ness to work on the development of needed regulations, realizing that
if the people affected by the regulations were involved in developing
what went into them, the regulations would be more meaningful and
effective and would stand a better chance of being complied with.
Another observation derived from work on the sediment control
ordinance involves the vital role played by state regulatory agencies.
In Wisconsin, there is considerable criticism expressed by local
elected officials toward the state natural resource regulatory agency,
in this case, the Department of Natural Resources. The criticism
usually centers around the need for permits for activities affecting
navigable waterways, the time consumed in obtaining permits and, general-
ly,the regulatory nature of the governance of such activities. However,
if the state agency (DNR) were not to assume this function, one likely
alternative would be for regulations to be enforced at the county level.
The experience in Bayfield County has indicated that this is not a
preferable alternative. Consequently, in spite of the criticism of the
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Department of Natural Resources,that agency is performing a vital
regulatory function relieving local officials of this onus and
allowing them to work more harmoniously with landowners in their
counties.
Streambank and Roadside Erosion Survey
Prior to direct involvement with the Red Clay Project, the Wisconsin
Board of Soil and Water Conservation Districts was preparing a proposal
to survey the extent of erosion along streambanks and roadsides in the
Wisconsin portion of the Lake Superior basin. Local support for this
project was obtained and different sources of funding were explored.
Funding was not obtained through these sources. After the state
board entered into a contract with the Red Clay Project, the proposal
was presented to the project for consideration. The project agreed to
conduct the program but, because of several limitations, it was modified
to work only in the red clay area and to include Minnesota as well as
Wisconsin, to include a survey of the extent of existing information
on Streambank and roadside erosion, to complete the roadside erosion
survey and to conduct only a sample survey of Streambank erosion.
This program was conducted by the Red Clay Project under contract
with the University of Wisconsin - Superior and is reported on elsewhere
in this report. The information compiled through this project is made
available to districts and other local conservation agencies through
the district offices, the University of Wisconsin - Superior and the
Board of Soil and Water Conservation Districts. It is essential inform-
ation for understanding the existing state of Streambank and roadside
erosion and the amount of current control work. It is also essential
data for planning and conservation program development.
Framework for Implementing Red Clay Project Recommendations
In the contract between the project and the state board, one
of the primary responsibilities of the state board was to develop a
mechanism for presenting the findings of the Red Clay Project in a
manner that could be readily used by soil and water conservation
districts and other agencies and units of government which could con-
ceivably be designated as local management agencies for erosion and
sediment control programs. This objective of the state board was
established to help the sponsoring districts gain increased management
potential from their Red Clay Project experiences. It was also
established to help meet the project goals of developing a " ....
long-term, basin-wide erosion and sediment control program," and devel-
oping and assessing".... institutional arrangements for implementing
basin-wide programs for erosion and sedimentation control."
A list of twenty-eight recommendations were generated by the Red
Clay Project. These were derived from the research and demonstration
work done by the project and from the experiences gained in the
management of the project. Based on these recommendations, an eight-
stage framework was developed which could be used by districts to
implement a comprehensive erosion and sediment control program. This
framework addresses the major implementation concerns, the necessary
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actors and activities, and the temporal sequence of activities in
implementing a control program. This framework encorporates all of
the recommendations of the Red Clay Project. The recommendations and
the framework are presented in the final summary report of the Red
Clay Project entitled: Impact of Nonpoint Pollution Control on
Western Lake Superior: A Summary Report.
*Red Clay Project Specialist with the Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water
Conservation Districts
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RED CLAY PROJECT INFORMATION AND EDUCATION PROGRAM
Services Contracted with University of
Wisconsin- Ext ens ion
Raymond E. Pol z in*
The Douglas County Soil and Water Conservation District,
acting as fiscal agent for the Red Clay Project, on February 9,
1976 contracted with University of Wisconsin-Extension for
certain information and education services. It was the intent
of this agreement that UWEX in cooperation with the Red Clay
Project staff, involve representatives of University of Wisconsin-
Superior, University of Minnesota-Extension, and the Sigurd Olson
Institute of Northland College in educational activities to be
conducted in the five county area for the duration of the Project.
Included in the contract developed by the Project staff and
University-Extension were listed specific activities to be carried
out. While the spirit of the agreement was followed, variances
in the plan developed as the staff perceived changing needs and
opportunities. It became apparent that different audiences had
different expectations from the Project and different levels of
understanding about the techniques being demonstrated.
Local officials, for example, at early stages of the Project
expected funding to carry out erosion abatement in areas which
they considered critical. Environmental groups at some points
were critical of the locations and methods chosen for demonstrations.
It was necessary to explain again and again that the Environmental
Protection Agency was funding the Project to determine cost
effective methods of improving water quality. Much of the effort
of the Information and Education Program was aimed at gaining this
understanding.
Monthly meetings of the five-county executive board provided
an opportunity to assess the level of understanding regarding the
Project. In addition to District Supervisors, the participants
were agency representatives and concerned citizens. These board
meetings frequently offered opportunities to provide correct
information to the media.
I & E ACTIVITIES
A variety of activities and methods were employed to bring
the public information about the Red Clay Project. These activities
will be briefly described.
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Public Meetings
As the Project began it was necessary to meet in each of the
counties with landowners and local officials. These meetings
arranged by County Extension Agents gave an opportunity to review
background information and present the Project staff and agency
representatives to outline plans for the area. These face-to-face
presentations helped to correctly interpret the intent of_the
Project. As the Project progressed, additional meetings in some
communities helped to encourage landowner participation.
Physical Models
In order to involve young people of the areas a plan to
construct physical models of target watersheds was conceived.
William Lontz, Area Extension Environmental Specialist, worked
with an ecology class at Superior Senior High School in building
a scale model of the Little Balsam watershed. A second model of
the Pine Creek watershed was completed by a class at the Ondassagon
High School.
In addition to developing an interest in local geology and
the Red Clay Project, the completed models were used as exhibits
at fairs and in public meetings.
Tours
Tours ranged in scope from the two hour visit to a construction
site to the two day final tour in August of 1978. In most cases
the tours did not attract the general public but they provided an
opportunity to involve the media with on the spot coverage of
Project activities. Since many of the construction sites and
land treatment sites were not very accessible, the organized tours
provided a chance to visit these locations.
Exhibits
The Project staff was directly involved in the preparation of
exhibits for several events. Materials were provided by all of
the agencies working on the Project. Extension agents arranged
for photo exhibits plus physical models at fairs in all five
counties. These exhibits were also used at report conferences,
SWCD conventions, and other field days.
Newspaper Reports
Local newspaper coverage of major Project activities was quite
satisfactory. Reporters were involved in tours and conferences.
Local papers also made good use of releases by Extension agents
and other agency people. Newspaper specials and coverage of the
Project by large newspapers was somewhat disappointing. The
Agricultural Journalism Departments of both the University_of
Wisconsin and the University of Minnesota assisted with write-ups
but were not very successful in getting published in the large
regional publications.
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Non-Point '83
Extension agents used a slide set developed to tell the
Red Clay story to a number of audiences. When the film
Non-Point '83" was released it became a useful tool in explaining
the intent of the Project.
A study guide was developed for use in a classroom situation.
The guide was pre-tested in both university and high school classes.
In a special effort with the schools of Bayfield, Ashland,
and Iron Counties, the Sigurd Olson Institute used the film with
the study guide in sixteen classroom presentations.
Conferences
It was the responsibility of University-Extension to arrange
for annual report conferences. Physical facilities of the University
of Wisconsin-Superior and Northland College were made available for
these events. Attendance at these events was largely the principle
investigators and representatives of the agencies involved in the
Project.
Civic Organizations
Presentations on the Red Clay Project were made to service
clubs, farm organizations, community clubs and other civic groups.
Extension agents. Project staff, and Soil Conservation Service
personnel participated. The film "Non-Point '83" or the Red Clay
slide set were frequently used to stimulate thought and discussion.
Television Coverage
Three local television stations filmed Red Clay Project
activities at different times. It seems that the most dramatic
activity of the Project was the installation of the Longard tubes
on the South Shore of Lake Superior. This has received television
coverage from time to time.
Radio Programs
_ Radio coverage of Red Clay Project activities was carried out
primarily by Extension agents on their regular radio programs. This
investigator conducted one half hour interview on Station WWJC.
SUMMARY
All information and educational activities were carried out
in cooperation with the Project director and staff assistant.
Since this investigator also served as secretary to the five-
county executive board it was possible to assess at monthly intervals
the need for additional educational effort. While the educational
effort was not aimed at a massive program with the general public
it was designed to provide current and correct information to all
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who "needed to know". Educational materials such as the brochure,
newsletters, exhibits, etc. developed by the Project staff were
most helpful in the educational effort.
In conclusion, the cooperation of Steve Andrews, Project
Director, and Donald Houtman, Project Assistant, was much
appreciated. Special mention must also be made of the significant
planning assistance given by Arnold Heikkila, University of Minnesota-
Extension, and William Lontz, University of Wisconsin-Extension.
County Extension Agents David Radford of Carlton County, Harry Lowe
of Bayfield, Dwaine Traeder of Ashland, and John Koch of Iron, are
all to be commended for the leadership given in their respective
counties.
* Douglas County Agricultural Agent with the University of
Wisconsin-Extension
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NACD CONTRACT WITH RED CLAY PROJECT
William J. Horvath
North Central Regional Representative, NACD
On March 21, 1973 following a telephone conversation
with Carl Wilson, Chicago Office, Environmental Protection
Agency, about Section 108 of the Water Pollution Control Act
of 1972, meeting arrangements were made by Vernon Reinert,
then the Regional Representative for the State of Wisconsin,
Board of Soil and Water Conservation Districts and the NACD
North Central Regional Office.
The meeting was held at the Central Wisconsin Airport,
Mosinee, Wisconsin on March 30, 1974- • The purpose of that
meeting was to explore a Section 108 grant in the Red Clay
area of Wisconsin.
Attending that meeting were representatives of Soil and
Water Conservation Districts in Wisconsin and Minnesota and
state and federal agencies interested in the Red Clay area
problems. Also in attendance were Carl Wilson, Ralph
Christensen and Fred Risley of Region V, EPA. A four hour
exchange of information and discussion on Section 108
demonstration grants ensued.
Out of this discussion evolved what is known as the
Red Clay Project and the EPA Section 108 demonstration grant
to five county soil and water conservation districts in
Wisconsin and Minnesota. And out of this meeting grew the
idea for film on nonpoint pollution.
NONPOINT '83 FILM CONTRACT
Following is the sequence of events relative to produc-
tion of the film:
June 6, 1974- Contract was made with film producers
on possible cost of film.
March 5? 1975 Justification for the film on non-
point pollution control submitted to
Red Clay Project Office.
September 3, 1975 First meeting with Steve Andrews,
Red Clay Project Director on film
contract.
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October 2, 1975
October 9, 1975
December 8, 1975
December 22, 1975
January 6, 1976
January 26, 1976
February 27, 1976
March 31, 1976
July 1, 1976
August, 1976
April 20, 1977
June 15-16, 1977
July 19, 1977
First meeting with Robert Burull,
Director of Telecommunications on
possible film contract with the
University of Wisconsin-Stevens
Point.
Technical Advisory Committee meets
with film producer to outline objec-
tive of the film. Permanent Advisory
Committee composed of Carl Wilson,
EPA; Steven Andrews, Red Clay Project;
Leo Mulcahy, Wisconsin State Board of
Soil and Water Conservation Districts;
Rich Duesterhaus, SCS, Washington, D.C.;
James Lake, Black Creek EPA Project.
Final contract for production of the
film completed.
Steven Andrews approves contract
between NACD and the University of
Wisconsin-Stevens Point.
NACD enters into formal contract with
University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
for film production.
NACD enters into formal contract with
Red Clay Project.
First installment paid to film producer
per contract.
Inventory of possible film site selec-
tions is completed.
Second installment paid to producer on
acceptance of film script.
Producer begins shooting footage for
film in various locations across
country.
Technical Advisory Committee meets to
review film footage shot and changes
in script.
Technical Advisory Committee meets to
review all footage shot and .approve
final film script.
Third installment paid to producer for
completion of filming.
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September 14, 1977
October 31, 1977
November 8, 1977
November 28, 1977
December 14-, 1977
December 22, 1977
December 28, 1977
February 6, 1978
February 26, 1978
March 1, 1978
March 1, 1978
Technical advisory committee reviews
answer print.
Red Clay Executive Committee reviews
answer print and gives approval for
additional copies.
Special showing of film to EPA staff,
Chicago.
Fourth installment paid to producer
upon approval of interlock screening.
Special Preview Showing of film in
Washington, D.C. to over 400 people
from environmental agencies and other
organizations.
Prints of film delivered to NACD and
EPA Red Clay Project from Gordon Lab
per contract.
Promotional brochure on film delivered
per contract to Red Clay Project Office,
EPA, and NACD.
Film shown to 2000 district officials
at national convention in Anaheim,
California.
Videotape copy of film and 15 second
film clip for use on TV delivered to
NACD and Red Clay Project.
Fifth installment paid to producer
for completion of project.
Contract amendment and final payment
made to NACD.
The contract between the Red Clay Project and NACD called
for a $62,200 project of which 75% or $46,650 would be federally
funded and 25% or $15,550 in costs would be services performed
by NACD.
The contract as written called for four items:
1. Deliverance of a full length 2T?% minute color film on
nonpoint pollution.
2. A finished 3/4 inch videotape of 25 minutes duration
suitable for cable broadcasting.
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3. 1,000 copies of suitable promotional material on the
film.
4-. Two film clips on nonpoint pollution suitable for use
on TV.
In fulfillment of this contract, NACD:
1. Delivered five prints of the film for use.in the Red
Clay Project area, 10 copies for use by EPA Regional
offices and 10 copies to the NACD Film Library for
rental purposes to NACD's 3,000 member districts.
2. Delivered a 3/4- inch videotape for use in the Red Clay
Project area TV stations.
3. Delivered 1,000 copies of a promotional brochure on the
film to the Red Clay Project Office for use in the area.
In addition, NACD mailed its 24-,000 copies to districts,
others who use NACD's Film Library, and other film
libraries.
4-. Delivered 2 copies each of two 15 second TV clips suit-
able for use on TV stations in the Red Clay area. In
addition, 8 copies of each of the two film clips (one
of which deals with conservation tillage and the others
with irrigation) are in NACD's Film Library for districts'
use in their education programs.
NACD FILM - VIDEOTAPE PROJECT OBJECTIVES
As established by the Technical Advisory Committee at
their first meeting on October 9, 1975 5 the film and videotape
would, be produced to fulfill the following objectives:
General
1. To identify and relate content to Public Law 92-500,
Section 108.
2. To illustrate and identify nonpoint source polluting
areas as they affect the quality of water with emphasis
on farming, but including silvicultiiral and non-
agricultural.
3- To illustrate the effects of nonpoint source pollution
on water quality.
Content
1. To educate and inform two specific population groups —
the land user, and the local Soil and Water Conservation
District Board Members.
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2. To illustrate the land user and his local district working
closely together to solve nonpoint source pollution
problems.
3- To motivate for spontaneous voluntary response with an
underlying message of possible regulatory requirement
without the former.
4. To emphasize district involvement, flexible approaches
and problem solving through the unique combination of
the land user and the district cooperating and working
toward a thoughtful successful solution.
5- To balance environmental and food needs, and to reinforce
the value of present nonpoint pollution control practices
as contrasted with practices which must be developed in
the same successful style as other conservation practices
have been implemented.
6. To include regional-national landscape and terrain foot-
age with accompanying nonpoint source problem examples
so that a nationwide audience can identify the importance
of district involvement, cause and effect, and a vigilant
awareness within a familiar area.
To carry out these objectives, over 75000 feet of film
was shot in the following locations to demonstrate the wide
variety of nonpoint pollution problems and best management
practices: Albuquerque, NM; Dane County, VI; Fort Vayne, IN
(Black Greek Project); Jacksonville, FL; Mead, KB; Minot, ND;
Portland, OR; Spokane, VA; Red Clay Project area in Visconsin
and Minnesota; Vancouver, VA; Vashington, D.C. metropolitan
area; Yuma, AZ.
Vhile the film concentrates 10 of the 27/Ł minutes in the
Red Clay Project area, the film is usable for a wide audience
across the country. The sale of 50 copies of the film through
our Film Library and rental of the 10 copies booked through
the summer of 1978 are good indications of the response to
the film.
The film has been copyrighted in EACD's name and submitted
for awards by the producer.
In addition, some of the footage not used in Nonpoint '83
has been used in another film produced for NA.CD to promote its
Soil Stewardship Program.
Ve believe that the production of the film, videotape
and film clips have accomplished several things:
A. These visual aids have helped develop an understanding
that nationally nonpoint problems are varied and that
the district approach can be effectively utilized to
combat these problems.
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B. These visual aids have filled a void in that no visual
aids up to this time have addressed these nonpoint
problems in terms of water quality.
C. Additional prestige and understanding of the value of
demonstration projects has been added due to the visual
impact and nationwide exposure.
D. These visual aids have helped to solidify NACD's position
that the network of 3,000 local conservation districts
working cooperatively with state and federal agencies
are appropriate bodies to implement nonpoint water
quality programs.
HACD is proud of the end products it contracted for
because they will serve our country well. NACD is also
proud that it delivered these services in essentially the
time frame of the contract and within the budget allocated.
The original contract of $60,000 was amended on June 24,
1977 for $1,500 for increased cost and numbers of film prints
and again on November 15, 1977 for $700 due to increased cost
of the 25,000 flyer announcements.
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MADIGAN BEACH FILM
Daniel Woods
Owner and Director
Farout Films Inc
During the 1977 installation of the Longard Tube system
at Madigan Beach, Tony Wilhelm of Wilhelm Engineering took 16mm
film footage of the installation process. Mr. Wilhelm then offered
the use of the footage to the Red Clay Project.
The Project Executive Committee was interested in using
the footage and after some discussion, decided to proceed with
the production of a 10-15 minute film depicting the Madigan Beach
story. The Project acquired the services of Dan Woods of Farout/
Woods/Basgen Films. The film was completed in late April 1978.
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RESEARCH
73
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RED CLAY SLOPE STABILITY FACTORS
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK DRAINAGE 92°15' W., 45°30' N,
DOUGLAS COUNTY, WISCONSIN
by
J. T. Mengel Jr. and B. E. Brown *
Prepared in Cooperation with:
Wisconsin Department of Transportation, District 8
Sponsored by:
United States Environmental Protection Agency
and
The Red Clay Project
Under terms of Grant Number G-005140-01
1979
Professor, Department of Geosciences, University of Wisconsin-Super3
Professor, Geology Department, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
General Statement
Data collected in this investigation amplified knowledge of the
mineralogical character and mechanical behavior of the red clay
previously reported * and established a basis for recognizing
slope stability type areas in the red clay plain which borders
the northwestern side of Lake Superior.
The location of the Little Balsam Creek study area and the red
clay area of Douglas County is shown in Figure 1.
The location of the 85 borings made to establish the stratigraphic
succession are located on Figure 2. The log of each boring is
given in Appendix 1.
Mineralogical and grain size determinations are summarized in
Table 1 of Part II. Atterberg Limit determinations for these
soils samples are also reported in Table 1.
Man's removal of the forest cover, modification of the natural
drainage and other practices have promoted drying of a 5-7 foot
thick surface zone throughout the red clay area. Slope instability
results when: (1) decreased moisture causes fissure development in
the brittle surface zone, which slides over plastic clay below if
moisture accumulates in the fissures, and (2) increased slope angle
and lack of toe support result from erosion of the base of a slope,
allowing the surface to fail.
The changes which promote drying also affect the rate and quantity
of runoff, thereby uncovering lateral and vertical erosive capa-
cities as stream volumes and velocities increase. Even in localities
where forest cover remains along portions of a stream course the
entire natural relationship between streams and bank materials has
been altered within the memory of those now living. The result has
been an acceleration in the time rate of bank failure and an in-
crease in its frequency throughout the red clay area. The topography
will continue to evolve under the awesome power of natural processes
but if humans use the land according to a plan which incorporates
realistic agricultural and engineering practices, their rate of
operation can be slowed and a new equilibrium established.
Recommendations
1. Channel deepening in any part of the red clay area be minimized
through methods to retard upland runoff.
2. Slope toes be protected by vegetation or other means especially
in reaches not now being actively eroded.
3. Efforts be made to maintain and improve vegetative cover and
accumulation of a water-retaining mat of organic-rich materials
which protect slopes from sheet erosion and maintain soil mois-
ture at levels similar to those found at depths of about 10
feet or more.
75
* Mengel and Brown, 1976
-------
=Borehole Location
.- "•""*"
Siali Ba»lar<
DOUGLAS CO.
<^DEPAHTHENT OF TRANSPORTATIOH
JAN. 1975 »0
Figure I-Location of Area of investigation
-------
FIG. 2 - BOREHOLE LOCATIONS
-------
Design of constructed slopes should include plans to:
1. Develop slope cover as soon as possible and riot as the
last detail of a construction schedule.
2. Bench to reduce land area involved; to permit the design
of steeper slopes within critical height requirements
and to control water run off down slope by interception
and control on each bench.
Acknowledgements
It .is a pleasure to recognize the central role in this investigation
played by the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, District 8 and
the personnel of its Materials Division, especially Mr. Emil Meitzner
The investigation would have been impossible without the wholehearted
cooperation of Mr. Meitzner in all phases of the work.
The generous cooperation of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural His-
tory Survey and of the United States Soil Conservation Service is
also gratefully acknowledged.
-------
Part I
STRATIGRAPHIC SUCCESSION, SLOPE FAILURE PROCESSES
AND
SET-BACK SUGGESTIONS
79
-------
Stratigraphic Succession
The Little Balsam Creek drainage was selected for investigation
because it is representative of many of the geologic and engineer-
ing conditions in the Nemadji River watershed and other parts of
the red clay plain.
In Douglas County, the altitude of the plain ranges from about
625 feet above mean sea level along Lake Superior to about 1100
feet along the South Range, a sand covered highland with a lava
bed rock core which is the south boundary of the red clay area
(Figure 1). The plain is underlain by several layers of glacially
derived materials. These Quaternary age sediments are underlain
by red sandstones or black basaltic lava flows of late Precambrian
(Keweenawan) age.
The Quaternary age sediments accumulated at a time when the last
continental glacier to cover the region was retreating but still
filled the eastern end of the Lake Superior basin, impounding high
level lakes in the west end (Fawand, 1969). The floor of these
lakes, now the surface of the Plain, is being dissected by a drain-
age system which is still in a geologically youthful stage of evo-
lution, and undergoing the kind of valley deepening and widening
characteristic of such a stage.
In the Little Balsam Creek drainage south of the 1050 topographic
contour the Stratigraphic succession within about 30 feet of the
upland surface is a clean fine to medium grained brown sand contain-
ing small amounts of gravel and rare boulders. A similar sand is
present along the South Range across the county. The sands are
above the level of strong lake action and exhibit a knob and kettle
or channeled outwash topography which contracts sharply with the
smooth upland surface of the red clay plain below an elevation of
1100 feet. In the Little Balsam area and elsewhere the sand grades
laterally into the clay of the plain within a short distance.
North of the 1050 foot contour in the Little Balsam drainage the
gently rolling upland surface of the plain is underlain by a red-
brown clay layer which is up to about 25 feet thick. Beneath this
layer the succession may include one of three other layers: (1) a
second, older red clay; (2) brownish gray or grayish brown clays
which show varves in some outcrops (SW 1/4-Sec. 34-T47N-R15W for
example) (3) a fine to medium grained brown sand. The sands and
varved clays may represent a time of temporary ice retreat between
the times of ice advance recorded by the two red clays. The top
of the older red clay layer shows markedly higher penetrometer
strength than does the varved clay or basal part of the younger
red clay.
Figure 3 shows the general extent of the portions of the red clay
area underlain by each type of Stratigraphic succession. Area I,
including the coastal townships, much of Superior and the area
south of the city, is underlain by two red clays having little
other material between. Area II, the St. Louis River valley and
the higher elevation adjacent to the South Range, is the portion
of the red clay area wherein the upper and lower red clay layers
are separated by considerable thicknesses of sand. Area III in-
80
-------
Slope Stab/hi^ Type
-------
The stratigraphic succession determines the slope stability anele
characteristics of each zone and influences the slope failure pro-
cesses . r
Slope Failure Processes
In the red clay district a variety of slopes are to be observed
ranging from those which are undergoing intense modifications to
those which are approaching equilibrium. An equilibrium slope
is the most nearly stable slope attainable under a given set of
material and environmental circumstances. These slopes exhibit
the lowest degree of inclination and are found under full natural
plant cover in situations relatively protected from geologic and
human disruption. In the red clay district such slopes have in-
clinations of about 6 to 10 degrees and typically are about 8
degrees. They occur along stream reaches protected by wide flood
plains and along shore stretches well protected by beaches At
the other end of the stability spectrum are banks subject to
current and/or wave attack along the coast line or on the outer
side of meander curves where active erosion of the slope toe is
occurring. v
General slope conditions are easily identifiable on U.S. Geological
buryey 7 l/2_minute topographic map quadrangles although the scale
of the maps is not suitable for making precise slope angle deter-
minations or for most types of construction site evaluation. Slope
features such as degree of inclination, profile shape, and smooth-
ness are indicators of the particular processes which are active
Lake Superior coast line slopes (Area I) locally exceed 60 degrees
although typical slopes are no more than about 30 degrees These
slopes are highly irregular in detail and exhibit a closely spaced
irregular contour patterns on topographic maps. In Lakeside and '
?i°Vfnia? townships, and generally throughout Area I below about
the y 00 foot topographic contour the inclination of stream valley
WSi ?-7rf y exceeds 20 degrees and most slopes range between 12
and 17 degrees, measured rise over run, toe to crest (Figure 4)
Most such slopes are convex in profile and exhibit regular topo-
graphic contour patterns. In Superior township detailed maps exhibit
j-rregularit:ies' characteristic of slopes on which sliding
In theory_ (Carson and Kirkby, 1972) slope flattening depends on the
transporting capacity of the most active erosion agents and bears a
functional relationship to bank inclination. The present investiga-
tion clearly indicated that on most natural clay slopes of less than
15 degrees creep is the principal erosion agent, and that on steeper
slopes lands liding coupled with creep, mud flows, and occasional
clay block slides or falls are the principal agents. Creep is par-
ticularly prominent everywhere because of the great depth (5-8 feet)
of frost penetration results in heave of as much as several inches
and because of moisture-related expansion and contraction of the
montmorillonite-rich clay.
82
-------
A gradational spectrum of land slide types may be observed. On
slopes of about 15 to 18 degrees shallow translational slides -
slides where materials move a thin sheet nearly parallel to the
slope surface - may originate on any part of the slope. Such
slides can be seen in Sections 8, 18 and 20, T48N, R12W. Trans -
lational movements affect only a layer of slope surface perhaps no
greater than 4-6 feet deep. Within this layer, during dry weather,
penetrometer-indicated bearing strength is usually over 4.5 tons
per square foot (TSF) at the surface. Strength values decline to
less than 0.5 TSF at depths of 2-4 feet and then rise to values
near 1.0 TSF as depth increases. The surface layer is also pene-
trated by a mat of roots which further serve to give it cohesion.
Such root systems of grass, shrubs, and canopy trees are limited
to no more than about the uppermost 3-4 feet. This is the approxi-
mate depth to which moisture-related shrinkage cracks develop and
permit water entry.
Sliding takes place along shear surfaces at the base of this coherent
upper crust. It is promoted by crack development which in turn is
related to modification of the surface vegetation. Natural jointing
in the clay doubtless also contributes to the development of open
fissures.
Slope failure can be initiated through undercutting of the slope toe
by stream or lake action. First evidence of failure along the toe
are high angle slips which allow blocks of material only a foot or
so thick to slide down steep fractures into the water body. Fail-
ures migrate up slope where translatory and/or rotational sliding
along shallow shear surfaces initiates one or several small, steep
curving escarpments perhaps 2 to 4 feet high and 25 to 150 feet wide
across the slope. Water entry into fissures opened by the sliding
promotes movement as does water supplied from any granular horizons
within the clay unit.
If very rapid toe erosion takes place, as it may on the outer side
of some stream meanders and commonly does along the lake, rotational
failure occurs along steeper, deeper and broader arcs and bank fail-
ure is potentially more destructive and dangerous. Once sliding
takes place there is a tendency for very rapid removal of the badly
cracked and remoulded toe materials and erosion rates are higher than
they would be for undisturbed native clay. More or less rotational
failures related to stream activity can be observed in NW-NW, Sec. 33,
T48N, R12W and in Superior where U.S. Highways 2 and 53 cross Bear
Creek; and lake related rotational slides can be seen along most of
the coast. These latter are best observed from the air. In Superior
township (Area II), failures are influenced by the presence of sand
layers and probably also by artesian water conditions, or by water
pressures within isolated sand bodies. A portion of County Trunk
Highway A was permanently destroyed and the flow of the Nemadji River
temporarily obstructed by such a slide which occurred during 1966 in
SE Sec. 1, T48N, R14W. Similar serious rotational slippage also ob-
structed the Nemadji during 1973 in NE Sec. 21, T47N, R15W and a num-
ber of other such failures have taken place elsewhere in the Nemadji
and in both of the Pokegama river drainages.
83
-------
In Superior township (Area III) failure can, and frequently does
take place on slopes of less than 15 degrees and some slopes with
as gentle as 6 degrees inclination are still not in equilibrium. In
all parts of the red clay district bank height does not necessarily
determine sliding and disruptive failures can take place on slopes
no more than 10 to 15 feet high. Accordingly all slopes should be
viewed as potentially dangerous to construction works if their in-
clinations exceed suggested equilibrium angles. The likelihood
of sliding increases with each added degree of inclination and
probably no clay slopes in the district will long remain free from
sliding if their inclination exceeds 15 degrees and a height
of 10 feet. Since natural slopes in the red clay district evolve
concurrently with a plant cover, and plants regulate moisture con-
tent, cracking, and soil removal, it is probable that constructed
slopes higher than about 10 feet will fail at 15 degree inclinations
unless measures are taken to protect them as quickly as possible.
Vegetation on all slopes should be protected from serious disruption
if natural equilibrium conditions are to be maintained. Thompson
(1945) notes the value of willows in protecting stream banks from
erosion along the Brule River, and such protection is amply evident
along the Amnicon River as well. Since toe erosion is particularly
apt to trigger bank failure willow growth should be encouraged where
feasible.
Along the St. Louis River and elsewhere in Area II where sandy layers
are major slope-forming materials, bank inclinations are typically
steeper than 30 degrees and may locally be nearly vertical. Failure
takes place in sandy materials throug individual grain movements at
the surface, which are aided by strong winds in winter, spring, and
fall, through very shallow translatory sliding, and through mass
movements controlled by incipient high angle fracture surfaces. Rill
development is also a factor in sand slope decay.
Construction Set-Back Suggestions
Construction set-back from bank crests can be estimated for each of
the red clay regions of Douglas County using Chart I. This chart is
based on average conditions and local exceptions may occur. Evalua-
tion aid may be obtained from the Superior representative of the
Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Department of Geo-
sciences, University of Wisconsin-Superior, (715)392-8101, Extension
261.
Construction setback from bank crests can be estimated by making use
of the basal angle of the slope (Figure 4). To determine the basal
angle of a slope two points must be established: The crest, where the
land first becomes relatively level and the toe, where the land be-
comes relatively level on the inner margin of a flood plain or at the
edge of a stream. The two points must lie along a line whose bearing
coincides with the steepest slope at the place where the determina-
tion is made. The steepest slope for any condition will be at right
angles to the average compass trend direction of the slope. After
the two points have been established, the vertical angle formed by a
straight line joining the points is measured with an Abney Level or
other instrument for determination of vertical angles, and the verti-
cal bank height determined with the hand level. In heavily wooded
areas or where slope conditions preclude establishing a line of sight,
-------
WATER
BODY
00
VJ1
CONCAVE - CONVEX SLCtPE
CONVEX SLOPE
TOE
SLOPE RUN (HORIZONTAL)
UPLAND
SURFACE
CREST
CONCAVE SLOPE
SLOPE RISE
(VERTICAL)
-------
CHART I-STREAM VALLEY SIDE SLOPES
SETBACK DISTANCES CORRESPONDING TO VARIOUS BANK HEIGHTS
AREA I
MAXIMUM COMMON
ST. LOUIS RIVER BANK
SLOPE
AREA I
MAXIMUM COMMON
STREAM BANK SLOPE
AREA I.n
MINIMUM STABILITY
SETBACK ANGLE
AREA I . El AREA in
JUDGEMENTAL MINIMUM STABILITY
SETBACK ANGLE SETBACK ANGLE
SETBACK CISTANCE (FT.)
SCALE; 1"= 50' VERTICAL ANC HCRIZCNTAL
ENTER CHART BY PLOTTING MEASURED BANK BASAL ANGLE AT THE ZERC POSITION, TRACE THIS ANGLE TO THE MEASURED BANK HEIGHT, MEASURE FOUNDATION
SETBACK FROM BANK CREST BY FOLLOWING MEASURED BANK FREIGHT LINE TO THE RIGHT OF THE 15° BASAL ANGLE LINE (AREA I,II). IN AREA III AND
ELSEWHERE, ^'UCGEMENT OF LOCAL CONDITIONS MAY INDICATE USE OF 12° OR 8° BASAL ANGLE CRITERION TO DETERMINE REASONABLE SETBACK.
86
-------
the vertical height of the bank can be determined with the level
in the usual manner and the slope distance with a tape. These
quantites can be plotted on graph paper and the basal angle mea-
sured from the plot.
Enter Chart 1 with this angle and knowledge of the measured bank
height to determine set-back distance for individual structures.
Slopes of 8 degrees are about as gentle as any which occur in the
red clay region and have the highest degree of stability under
natural weathering, erosion and vegetation conditions. Slopes
with basal angles from 8 to 15 degrees look deceptively stable,
but are subject to soil creep, and at angles close to 15 degrees
may experience minor translatory slides. In this regard it is
well to recognize that there may be no obvious downs lope movement
for years while materials are loosened and prepared for transport
by the erosion agents and that then the net erosion of decades
may take place in a short time.
Slopes having basal angles of more than 15 degrees are actively
unstable and subject to periodic sliding. Adjustments are prob-
able within the life of a typical structure, here arbitrarily
defined as 60 years (three generations), and no major structure
should be built here or major modification of vegetation be under-
taken.
Resurvey of slope basal angles should be made as necessary to assess
changing natural conditions or changes proposed by man. Ordinarily
the basal angle will be nearly constant for long periods because of
the slow rate of growth in valley width, but the angle should be
re-determined at the time of property sale in order that the pur-
chaser may understand existing conditions and future outlook.
87
-------
APPENDIX 1
BOREHOLE LOGS
4127 (1)
Depth Thickness
0-1
1-2.5
2.5-11
11-14.5
14.5-19.5
TD=19.5
1
1.5
8.5
3.5
Sand, light brown.
Silt, brown.
Clay, stiff, silty .
Clay, stiff, with blue gray mottling
and trace of weathered granite pebbles
Clay, stiff with brown silt layers.
4128 (2)
Depth Thickness
0-3
3-4
4-13
13-20
20-24.5
TD=24.5
3
1
9
7
4.5
Sand, reddish brown.
Silt, reddish brown.
Clay, light brown, silty
Clay, blue gray, silty.
Clay, gray.
4129 (3)
Depth Thickness
0-1.5
1.5-3.5
3.5-6
6-15
15-24.5
TD=24.5
1.5
2
2.5
9
9.5
Sand
Silt,
Silt,
Clay
dark brown.
red brown.
red brown, silty, w/trace gravel
Clay, reddish brown w/trace of silt
4130 (4)
Depth Thickness
0-1
1-4.5
4.5-6.5
6.5-10
10-14
14-17
17-20
20-29.5
TD=29.5
1
3.5
2
3.5
4
3
3
9.5
Sand-
Silt, dark brown to black mottled.
Silt, reddish brown mottled-
Clay, yellowish brown, mottled, silty
w/trace of gravel •
Clay, reddish brown, mottled, silty.
Silt, reddish brown w/sand and some clay
Sand, reddish brown fine w/some silt;
saturated w/water in hole at 20 feet.
Silt, dark brown, w/trace of gravel and
some sand•
-------
Al-2
BOREHOLE LOGS
4131 (5)
Depth Thickness
0-2
2-4
4-14.5
14.5-23
23-24.5
TD=24.5
2
2
10.5
8.5
1.5
Sand.
Silt, reddish brown with some clay layers.
Silt, reddish brown with a little fine sand,
Silt, reddish brown with a little sand and
gravel and dense silt and sand layers.
Sand, fine with some silt,
4132 (6)
Depth Thickness
0-6
6-21
21-23.5
23.5-29.5
TD=29.5
6
15
2.5
6
Sand,
Sand, fine, with some pea size gravel,
Sand, fine, with some gravel layers.
Sand, fine.
4133 (7)
Depth Thickness
0-1
1-10
10-15
15-20
20-29.5
TD=29.5
1
9
5
5
9.5
Sand, fine.
Sand, reddish brown.
Sand, medium coarse,
Sand, silty w/trace of gravel,
Glacial fill, sandy with some silt and
pea size gravel.
4134 (8)
Depth Thickness
0-11.5 11.5
11.5-20 8.5
20-22.5 2.5
22.5-29.5 7.0
TD=29.5
Sand, silty with some pea size gravel.
Sand, with fine sand and silt layers.
Sand, fine to medium grained,
Silt, with fine sand.
89
-------
Al-3
BOREHOLE LOGS
4135 (9)
Depth Thickness
0-9 9 Silt with some sand and gravel
9-24.5 15.5 Sand with silt layers.
TD=24.5
4136 (10)
Depth Thickness
0-5 5 Sand, fine with some silt .
5-19 14 Silt with some fine sand and gravel layer .
at 11-12 feet and becoming densely layered
at 17 feet.
19-24.5 6.5 Silt and fine sand with silt layers.
TD=24.5
4137 (11)
Depth Thickness
0-10.5 10.5 Silt with some clay.
10.5-24.5 14 Sand, fine, densely layered
TD=24.5
4236 (12)
Depth Thickness
0-1 1 Top soil, black, silty .
1-28 27 Clay, brown, very stiff, with a little silt
and layers of silt at 8-9, and 15-16.
28-68 40 Clay, medium brown with a little silt and
sand •
68-73 5 Silt, gray, firm, with some sand and gravel
73-80.5 7.5 Sand, brown, fine to medium grained, very
dense.
TD=80.5
90
-------
Al-4
BOREHOLE LOGS
4273 (13)
Depth Thickness
0-1 1 Sand, road bed on dark brown top soil.
1-23 22 Clay, red, w/little silt, sand, trace of
pea size gravel.
23-24.5 1.5 Clay, interlayered red and gray.
24.5-34.5 10 Clay, olive gray, stiff, silty with trace
of sand.
TD=34.5
4274 (14)
Depth Thickness
0-1 1 Sand, gravel road bed on dark brown top
soil .
1-22 21 Clay, red brown, w/little silt, sand, trace
of pea size gravel -
22-28.5 6.5 Clay, red brown, interlayered with clay, gray
to olive brown.
28.5-34.5 6 Clay, dark gray to olive brown or olive
yellow, moderately silty with trace of sand.
TD=34.5
4275 (15)
Depth Thickness
0-1 1 Sand, gravel of read bed on brown top soil-
1-29.5 28.5 Clay, red brown, stiff, with some silt,
sand and pea size gravel -
29.5-34.5 5 Clay, gray to olive gray, mottled, silty.
TD=34.5
4276 (16)
Depth Thickness
0-2 2 Top soil, clay, red brown silty w/trace
of sand .
2-21 19 Clay, yellowish red, very stiff, silty with
trace of sand and gravel •
21-25 4 Clay, silty, gray brown •
25-27 2 Clay, light brownish gray, moderately silty-
27-29.5 2.5 Clay, gray silty.
TD=29.5
91
-------
Al-5
BOREHOLE LOGS
4277 (17)
Depth Thickness
0-1.5 1.5 Clay, reddish brown, silty.
1-5-3.5 2 Layers of clay, gray, silty and clay red
brown silty.
3-5-12 8.5 Clay, gray brown silty w/some fine sand.
12-13 1 Clay, red brown, soft, silty.
13-16.5 3.5 Clay, dark gray, soft, silty.
16.5-19.5 3 Clay, dark red and gray, soft, silty
w/some fine sand.
TD=19.5
4278 (18)
Depth Thickness
0-1 1 Sand and gravel of road bed.
!-26 25 Clay, dark reddish brown, stiff, with little
silt, sand, pea size gravel;boulder at 10.5.
26-27.5 1.5 Clay, reddish brown, sandy.
27.5-29.5 2 Sand, brown, fine w/a few pieces of pea
size gravel.
TD=29.5
4279 (19)
Depth Thickness
0-24.5 24.5 Clay, reddish brown, with some silt, sand
and pea size gravel.
TD=24.5
4280 (20)
Depth Thickness
0-11.5 11.5 Clay, reddish brown, w/some silt, sand
and gravel.
11.5-23.5 12 Clay, reddish brown interlayered w/gray clay
w/some silt, sand, and gravel.
23.5-39.5 16 Silt and fine sand, reddish brown, with some
clay, saturated below 34 feet.
TD=39.5
92
-------
Al-6
BOREHOLE LOGS
4281 (21)
Depth Thickness
0-1 1 Top soil .
1-9.5 8.5 Clay, dark red, stiff, moderately silty
to sandy .
TD=9.5
4282 (22)
Depth Thickness
0-1 1 Sand and gravel of road bed .
1-9.5 8.5 Clay, dark red, stiff, moderately silty to
sandy w/few white carbonate concretions .
TD=9.5
4283 (23)
Depth Thickness
0-4.5 4.5 Sandy beach material with some pea size
gravel .
4.5-12.5 8 Sand, brown, fine to silty.
TD=12.5
4284 (24)
Depth Thickness
0-24.5 24.5 Clay, dark red, slightly silty to silty
with few pebbles of pea size gravel .
TD=24.5
4586 (25)
Depth Thickness
0-39.5 39.5 Clay, reddish brown, w/some silt and sand
and few pieces of pea-size gravel. Stiff
TD=39.5 near surface.
4587 (26)
Depth Thickness
0-34.5 34.5 Clay, reddish brown with some silt and
sand and few pieces of pea-size gravel
TD=34.5 Stiff near surface.
93
-------
Al-7
BOREHOLE LOGS
4588 (27)
Depth Thickness
0-29.5 29.5 Clay, reddish brown with some silt and
sand and a few pieces of pea-size gravel.
TD-29.5 Boulder or large cobble at 14 feet. Stiff
near surface.
4589 (28)
Depth Thickness
0-24 24 Clay, reddish brown, with some silt and
sand and a few pieces of pea-size gravel.
Stiff near surface.
24-39.5 15.5 Sand, brown, fine medium grained, clean,
with several 1 to 1.5 ft. thick layers of
loamy sand interlayered.
TD=39.5
4590 (29)
Depth Thickness
0-10.5 10.5 Clay, reddish brown, with some silt and
sand and a few pieces of pea-size gravel.
Stiff.
10.5-19.5 9 Sand, brown, medium grained with some pea-
size and larger pieces of gravel.
TD=19.5
4591 (30)
Depth Thickness
0-24.5 24.5 Clay, reddish brown, with some silt and
sand and a few pieces of -pea-size gravel.
Stiff near surface.
24.5-34.5 10 Clay, red brown, with some silt and sand
and a few pieces of pea-size gravel. Stiff
TD=34.5
4604 (31)
Depth Thickness
0-14.5 14.5 Clay, dark red, stiff, w/trace silt, sand
and pea-size gravel.
14-5 ~ Sand, brown, medium to fine grained, slightly
moist.
TD=14.5
-------
Al-8
BOREHOLE LOGS
4605 (32)
Depth Thickness
0-13.5 13.5 Clay dark red, stiff with trace silt,
sand and pea-size gravel.
13.5-24.5 11 Sand, brown, medium grained w/pea to small
gravel in deeper layers.
TD=24.5
4606 (33)
Depth Thickness
0-16.5 16.5 Clay, dark reddish brown, very stiff, with
trace sand, silt, calcareous concretions.
16.5 - Sand, red brown w/pea-size to fine gravel,
including sandstone pebbles.
TD=16.5
4607 (34)
Depth Thickness
O-ii 11 Clay, dark reddish brown, stiff, with some
silt, sand and pea-size gravel.
11-19.5 8.5 Clay, dark reddish, stiff with much sand
and pea-size gravel.
TD=19.5
4608 (35)
Depth Thickness
0-24.5 24.5 Clay, dark reddish brown, stiff with some
silt, sand and pea-sized gravel.
TD=24.5
4609 (36)
Depth Thickness
0-3 3 Fill and top soil.
3-5.5 2.5 Sand, yellowish brown, medium, clean with
a little clay.
5.5-12.5 7 Sand, red brown, medium w/a little gravel
and enough clay to mould.
12.5-13.5 1 Basalt.
TD=13.5
95
-------
Al-9
BOREHOLE LOGS
4610 (37)
Depth Thickness
0-1
1-16.5
16.5-24.5
TD=24.5
1
15.5
8
Fill.
Clay, red brown with large amount of silt,
sand and some gravel.
Sandstone, yellow brown, fine, clean.
4611 (38)
Depth Thickness
0-22
22-24.5
TD=24.5
22 Clay, dark reddish brown, stiff, with a
little silt, sand and pea-size gravel.
2.5 Clay, silt, sand, red brown.
4612 (39)
Depth Thickness
0-24.5
TD=24.5
24.5
Clay, dark reddish brown, stiff, with some
silt, sand, and pea-size gravel.
4613 (40)
Depth Thickness
0-24.5
TD=24.5
24.5
Clay, dark reddish brown, stiff, with some
silt, sand, and pea-sized gravel.
96
-------
APPENDIX 1
BOREHOLE LOGS
4688 (41)
Depth
0-5.5
4689 (42)
Depth
0-19.5
19.5-29.5
Thickness
5.5
5.5-7.0
7.0-9.5
9.5-11.5
11.5-13.5
13.5-14.5
14.5-19.5
19.5-24.5
TD=24 . 5
1.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
1.0
5.0
Thickness
19.5
10.0
Clay, red brown, stiff w/some silt,
sand and pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, very sandy.
Gravel, brown sandy.
Clay, red brown, with thin gray layers.
clayey.
very stiff, w/a little
red brown,
red brown,
Sand,
Clay,
sand.
Sand, red brown, medium grained with a
trace of pea gravel and some clay.
Clay, red brown, sandy.
Clay, red brown, slightly silty, sandy,
trace pea gravel, occasional thin gray
silty layers.
Clay, dark gray, slightly silty with a
trace of fine sand.
TD=29.5
4690 (43)
Depth
0-9.5
TD=9.5
4691 (44)
Depth
0-3.0
3-24.5
Thickness
9.5
Thickness
3.0
21.5
Clay, dark red brown, stiff, slightly
silty, sandy, trace of pea gravel.
Road fill
Sand, yellow brown grading to red brown,
medium grained with trace of pea gravel
and clay.
TD=24.5
-------
Al-2
BOREHOLE LOGS
4941 (45)
Depth Thickness
0-5.5 5.5
5.5-7.5 2.0
7.5-34.5 27.0
TD=34.5
Clay, red brown, stiff with much silt,
sand, some pea gravel.
Clay, brown, with large amount silt
and fine to medium grained sand.
Sand, brown, fine to medium grained
with variable amounts of clay and
fine gravel.
4942 (46)
Depth Thickness
0-4.5
23.0-29.5
TD=29.5
4943 (47)
Depth
0-2.0
2.0-3.0
3.0-9.5
9.5-14.5
14.5-19.5
TD=29.5
4.5
4.5-6.0 1.5
6.0-9.5 3.5
9.5-23.0 13.5
6.5
Thickness
2.0
1.0
6.5
5.0
5.0
Sand, red brown, fine to medium grained
with large but variable amounts of clay
and pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a little
silt, sand, and rare pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, slight amount of silt,
sand, pea gravel.
Clay, gray brown to brown gray, stiff
with a little silt, sand, and gravel to
one inch diameter.
Clay, brown, with small amount silt and
fine sand.
Road fill
Clay, black, organic rich, very finely
sandy.
Clay, red brown, stiff, a little silt,
sand, pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, stiffer and with a
little more pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, more plastic, a little
less pea gravel.
98
-------
Al-3
4944 (48)
Depth
0-1.0
1.0-19.5
TD=19.5
4945 (49)
Depth
0-6.0
6.0-7.5
7.5-10.0
10.0-14.5
14.5-19.5
TD=19.5
Thickness
1.0
18.5
Thickness
6.0
1.5
2.5
4.5
5.0
BOREHOLE LOGS
Road fill
Clay, brown, very stiff, slightly
silty, sandy, trace of pea gravel,
Sand, light brown, medium grained
with trace of pea gravel.
Silt, brown, w/some very fine sand
and clay.
Sand, brown, fine to medium grained,
very high clay content.
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a
little silt, fine sand, pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, very stiff, with
some thin gray layers. "hard pan".
4946 (50)
Depth
0-1.0
1.0-1.5
1.5-9.5
9.5-13.5
TD=13.5
4947 (51)
Depth
Thickness
1.0
0.5
8.0
4.0
Thickness
0-.5
.5-1.5
1.5-2.0
2 . 0-4 . 5
4.5-7.5
7.5-14.5
0.5
1.0
0.5
2.5
3.0
7.0
Road fill
Silt, gray brown, sandy
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a
little silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, brown, stiff, with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel. Frictional
refusal at 13.5.
Road fill
Top soil, black, sandy.
Silt, gray brown
Clay, red brown, stiff with a
little silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, stiff with much
sand, pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel.
TD=14.5
99
-------
Al-4
BOREHOLE LOGS
4948 (52)
Depth
0-3.0
3.0-3.5
3.5-19.5
TD=19.5
4949 (53)
Depth
0-3.5
3.5-5.5
5.5-12.0
12.0-18.0
18.0-19.5
19.5-24.5
TD=24.5
4950 (54)
Depth
0-4.0
4.0-15.0
15.0-29.5
TD=29.5
4951 (55)
Depth
0-4.0
4.0-12.5
12.5
TD=12.5
Thickness
3.0
0.5
16.0
Thickness
3.5
2.0
6.5
6.0
1.5
5.0
Thickness
4.0
11.0
14.5
Thickness
4.0
8.5
Top soil, brown to black
Silt, brown to gray
Clay, red brown, stiff with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel. A very thin
sand seam with water at 14.5.
Sand, yellow brown, medium grained
with some pea gravel.
Sand, red brown fine to medium
grained, no pea gravel.
Sand, red brown, fine grained to
silt, considerable clay.
Clay, dark red brown, stiff with a
little silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, dark gray, stiff with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, dark red brown, with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, red brown very stiff, with a
little silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, yellow brown, trace of silt.
Clay, reddish brown, with trace
silt and sand.
Clay, red brown, stiff with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, very stiff with a
little silt, sand, pea gravel.
Refusal, few chips of dark gray
basalt bed rock.
100
-------
Al-5
4952 (56)
Depth
0-1.0
1.0-24.5
TD=24.5
Thickness
1.0
23.5
BOREHOLE LOGS
Road fill
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a
little silt, sand, pea gravel.
4953 (57)
Depth
0-5.5
5.5-9.5
9.5-13.5
13.5-19.5
TD=19.5
Thickness
5.5
4.0
4.0
6.0
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a
little silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, grayish red, stiff, silty.
Clay, red brown, stiff with a
little silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, very stiff, with
much pea gravel.
4954 (58)
Depth
Thickness
2.0
4.5
26.0
Sand, brown, medium grain with a
little pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, with much silt,
sand, pea gravel.
Sand, brown, medium to coarse
grained, with variable but small
amounts of clay.
TD=32.5
4955 (59)
Depth
0-1.0
1-8.0
8.0-14.5
TD=14.5
Thickness
1.0
7.0
6.5
Road fill
Sand, yellow brown, medium to
coarse grained.
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a
little silt, sand, pea gravel.
4956 (60)
Depth Thickness
0-29.5
TD=29.5
29.5
Sand, brown, medium to coarse
grained, with a little clay and
pea gravel.
101
-------
Al-6
4966 (61)
Depth
0-4.5
4.5-9.5
TD=9.5
4967 (62)
Depth
TD=26.0
4968(63)
Depth
0-29.5
TD=29.5
Thickness
4.5
5.0
Thickness
0-1.0
1.0-6.5
6.5-14.0
14.0-18.00
18.0-21.5
21.5-24.0
24.0-26.0
1.0
5.5
7.5
4.0
3.5
2.5
2.0
Thickness
29.5
BOREHOLE LOGS
Sand, yellow brown, medium to coarse
grained with a little fine gravel.
Clay, dark reddish brown, stiff,
with a little silt, sand, pea
gravel.
Road fill
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, mottled olive gray brown with
a little silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a
little silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, reddish dark brown, silty.
Clay, grayish red brown.
Sand, dark reddish brown, medium
grained with considerable clay.
Sand, yellow brown with a little
pea gravel, rare crystalline rock
boulders in sand pit near by.
4969(64)
Depth
0-24.5
TD=24.5
Thickness
24.5
Sand, yellow brown, medium grained.
Upper 2.5 feet with some cobbles
and boulders.
4970(65)
Depth
0-9.5
9.5-13.0
13.0-17.0
17.0-19.5
TD=19.5
Thickness
9.5
3,. 5
4.0
2.5
Sand, yellow brown, medium grained
tending to be more silty with depth,
Clay, reddish brown, stiff, with a
little silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay reddish brown, stiff, very
sandy with many small pebbles.
Sand, reddish brown, very clayey.
102
-------
Al-7
BOREHOLE LOGS
4971 (66)
Depth
0-11.0
11-12.5
12.5-29.5
TD=29.5
4972 (67)
Depth
0-9.5
9.5
TD=9.5
4973 (68)
Depth
0-16.5
16.5
TD=16.5
4974 (69)
Depth
0-13.0
13.0-22.5
22.5
TD=22.5
4975 (70)
Depth
0-3.5
3.5-12.5
12.5
TD=12.5
Thickness
11.0
1.5
17.0
Thickness
9.5
Thickness
16.5
Thickness
13.0
9.5
Thickness
3.5
9.0
Sand, yellow brown, medium to coarse
grained, with small amount of fine
gravel gradually becoming finer
grained with depth.
Silt, dark red brown.
Clay, dark red brown, soupy, with
a little silt, sand, pea gravel.
Sand, red brown, medium grained,
clayey with a little pea gravel.
Refusal - probably basalt bed rock
Sand, red brown, medium to coarse
grained, with a little fine gravel
and enough clay to mold in hand.
Refusal - probably basalt bed rock,
Sand, dark reddish brown, medium
grained with a little pea and fine
gravel and enough clay to mold
in hand.
Sand, dark brownish gray, clayey
and pebbly with rare boulders.
Refusal - weathered and fractured
basalt.
Sand, yellow brown, medium grained
with a few stiff yellow brown clay
layers.
Sand, red brown, clayey with a
little pea and fine gravel.
Refusal - possibly a boulder in
fine gravel.
103
-------
Al-8
4976 (71)
Depth
0-2.0
2.0-19.5
TD=19.5
5077 (72)
Depth
0-1.5
1.5-34.5
TD=34.5
5078 (73)
Depth
0-29.5
TD=29.5
5090 (74)
Depth
0-21.5
21.5-24.5
24.5-27.5
27.5-29.0
29.0-34.5
TD=34.5
5091 (75)
Depth
0-5.5
5.5-7.5
7.5-24.5
TD=24.5
Thickness
2.0
17.5
Thickness
1.5
33.0
Thickness
29.5
Thickness
21.5
3.0
3.0
1.5
5.5
Thickness
5.5
2.0
17.0
BOREHOLE LOGS
Road fill over thin brown to black
top soil.
Clay, red brown, stiff with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel.
Road fill over black organic rich
top soil.
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel, gradually
declines in stiffness with depth.
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel. Slightly
more pea gravel 20-24.5.
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel. Slightly
more pea gravel 15-20.
Clay, red brown, with a little silt,
sand, pea gravel and a few stiff
yellow brown sandy layers.
Clay, red brown, very stiff, more
silt, sand, pea gravel.
Sand, brown, fine to medium grained,
saturated.
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a little
pea and fine gravel and a few thin
brown, medium grained sand layers.
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel and a few very
thin grayish silt layers.
Sand, brown, silty toward top grading
downward to coarse grained with pea
gravel, saturated.
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a little
pea and fine gravel.
104
-------
Al-9
5092 (76)
Depth
0-1.0
1.0-29.5
TD=29.5
Thickness
1.0
28.5
BOREHOLE LOGS
Road fill
Clay, red brown, stiff becoming
gummy with depth, with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel.
5093 (77)
Depth
0-1.0
1.0-8.0
8.0-24.5
TD=24.5
5094 (78)
Depth
0-1.0
1.0-24.5
TD=24.5
5100 (79)
Depth
0-1.5
1.5-2.5
2.5-19.5
19.5-34.5
TD=34.5
5101 (80)
Depth
0-0.5
0.5-10.0
10.0-14.5
TD=14.5
Thickness
1.0
7.0
16.5
Thickness
1.0
23.5
Thickness
1.5
1.0
17.0
15.0
Thickness
0.5
9.5
4.5
Road fill
Clay, red brown, stiff, a little
silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, brownish red, stiff, with
variable but generally more silt,
sand and pea gravel than above.
Road fill
Clay, red brown, stiff, with a
little silt, sand, pea gravel.
Several high angle joint sets
evident in ditch exposures.
Road fill
Clay, dark gray w/marsh vegetation,
Clay, red brown, stiff w/trace
silt, pea gravel.
Clay, red brown, no strength
("slop").
Black forest soil.
Clay, red brown, very stiff w/trace
silt, sand, pea gravel.
Sand, brown, medium to coarse with
a little fine gravel. Nearly dry.
105
-------
Al-10
5102 (81)
Depth
0-13.0
13.0-21.5
TD=21.5
5103 (83)
Depth
0-8.5
8.5-24.5
TD=24.5
5216 (83)
Depth
TD=11.5
5217 (84)
Depth
0-12.5
12.5-14.5
TD=14.5
Thickness
13.0
8.5
Thickness
8.5
16.0
Thickness
4.5
3.5
1.5
2.0
Thickness
12.5
2.0
BOREHOLE LOGS
Clay, red brown, very stiff, with
trace silt, sand, pea gravel and
a few very thin grayish clay
layers in the interval.
Sand, brown, medium to coarse with
some pea gravel. Nearly dry.
Clay, creamy red brown, stiff, with
trace silt, sand, pea gravel.
Clay, dark red brown, with trace
silt, sand, pea gravel, strength
higher than above.
Clay, brown, silty, with some fine
gravel.
Silt, light brown, w/fine sand and
enough clay to be molded.
Clay, red brown, with a trace silt,
sand, pea gravel.
Silt, dark gray, very fine, won't
roll into 1/8" threads. Too
difficult to drill.
Clay, red brown, stiff with a little
silt, sand, pea gravel and calcareous
concretions.
Sand, brown, fine, silty at top
becoming medium grained with fine
gravel. Nearly dry.
106
-------
Al-11
BOREHOLE LOGS
5218 (85)
Depth Thickness
0-1.0 1.0 Road fill
1.0-2.0 1.0 Organic rich clay
2.0-4.5 2.5 Clay, red brown, stiff, with trace
silt, sand, pea gravel.
4.5-9.5 5.0 Clay, brown, stiff with trace silt,
sand, fine gravel. A few very thin
silty clays.
9.5-24.5 15.0 Clay, light red brown, stiff with
trace silt, sand, fine gravel.
TD=24.5
107
-------
REFERENCES
Aguilera, N. V., Jackson, M. L. (1953) Iron oxide removal from
soils and clays Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings
17:359-364.
Carson, M. A., and M. J. Kirkby, (1972) Hillslope Form and Process,
Cambridge University Press.
Fawand, W. R., (1969), The Quaternary History of Lake Superior:
Proceedings 12th Conf. Great Lakes Res., pp. 181-197,
International Association Great Lakes Research
Jackson, M. L. (1953) Soil Chemical Analysis, Advanced Course.
Published by the author, Madison, Wisconsin.
Mengel, J. T., and Brown, B. E. (1976) Red Clay Slope Stability
Factors. Final report for the USEPA, Grant #G-005140-01.
Meyers, David C. (1977) The Mineralogy of the Red Clay and its
relation to slope stability in Douglas County, Wisconsin.
M. S. Thesis, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.
Passaro, R. N. (1961) A study of the laterial mineralogical varia-
tions in the Fulton mudstone of Kentucky. M.S. thesis,
Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.
Thompson, J. W. (1945) A survey of the larger aquatic plants and
bank flora of the Brule River; Brule River Survey, Trans-
actions Wisconsin Academy of Science, 36, pp. 57-76.
Volk, Robert L. (1974) Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks Hemphill,
Austin, Texas.
108
-------
PART II
MINERALOGY AND PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
IN THE RED CLAY
109
-------
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN THE RED CLAY
DISPERSION AND SEPARATION METHODS
The particle size distribution data (as well as mineral-
ogical and mechanical data) is summarized in Table 1. Samples
from holes 4236 to 4284 were the first group to be analyzed and
are dealt with in detail in the final report on the Little
Balsam Creek area (Mengel and Brown, 1976). Samples from drill
holes 4586 to 4613 were analyzed by David C. Meyers and his re-
port is found in an M.S. thesis "The Mineralogy of the Red Clay
and its Relation to Slope Stability in Douglas County, Wisconsin"
(1977). Samples from drill holes 4689 to 5103 make up a group
not reported on previously but cover a representative range of
Red Clay locations. The locations of the drill holes referred
to above can be found on the index map, Part I.
Particle size distribution measurement requires dispersion
and separation. Dispersion methods used on the above samples
can be outlined as follows:
1) Sample groups 4236-4284 and 4689-5103.
a) Removal of iron oxide colloidal pigment by citrate-
dithionite method of A^uilera and Jackson (1953) ,
b) Dispersion of aggregate using sodium hexametaphosphate
dispersant (0.51) .
2) Sample group 4586-4613.
a) Removal of soluble carbonates using pH 5.0 acetic
acid sodium acetate buffer solution,
b) Dispersion with 0.01N sodium oxalate solution.
110
-------
The methods used above will result in some final differences
in results particularly as regards carbonate contents, since
the pH 5.0 treatment is designed to remove carbonate material.
The separation methods used in the sample groups can be
outlined as follows:
1) Sample group 4236-4284. Sand (greater than 44 microns)
is separated using wet sieving procedures, silt fractions
were separated at 20 microns and at 5 microns by gravity
settling procedures, and clay fractions were separated
at 2 microns and 0.2 microns by centrifuge washing
techniques. The general methods used here can be found
in detail in Jackson (1956, p. 101). An independent
check on particle size results for the clay fractions
were made using the pipette method outlined by Volk
(p. 37, 1974).
2) Sample group 4586-4613. Sand (greater than 44 microns)
was separated by wet sieving, silt (44-2 microns),
coarse clay (2-0.2 microns), and fine clay (less than
0.2 microns) were separated by centrifuge techniques,
Passaro (1961, p. 68). Total silt and clay were deter-
mined by the pipette withdrawal method to validate the
centrifuge data. As noted, samples in this group were
done by D. Meyer.
3) Sample group 4689-5103. Sand (greater than 44 microns)
was separated by wet sieving, and centrifuge techniques
were used to separate silts (44-2 microns), coarse clay
(2-0.2 microns) and fine clays (less than 0.2 microns),
111
-------
CLAY (<2M)
SAND
(<44M)
10
SILT
(44-2H)
c\j
Figure 1. Sand (>44y) , silt (44-2y), clay (<2y) diagram for
all samples from the Red Clay.
-------
(Jackson, 1956, p. 101).
DISCUSSION OF PARTICLE SIZE RESULTS
Reference to Figure 1 (sand, silt, clay triangular diagram)
will serve to characterize the particle size distribution and
variation in the Red Clay material. Sand/silt/clan mean values
(derived from Table 1) and their standard deviations are:
Sand; 4% + 41; Silt; 32 + 11%; Clay; 62% ± 111. Since silt and
clay are the main components they must vary together such that
when one goes up the other must go down. The silt/clay ratio
varies from 0.28 to 0.87 with the mean ratio at 0.52 using the
standard deviation limits given above. The 62 samples of Table 1,
with the exception of one or two extremely sandy samples all fall
within the range of materials classified as clay, although some
of the siltiest samples are in the silty clay field on the tri-
angular diagram, Figure 1. There will be a correlation between
the mineralogy and the particle size distribution since the clay
minerals are concentrated in the finer sizes below 2y and 0.2y
and the quartz, feldspar, carbonate minerals are largely in the
silt size range. For instance, there is a moderately strong cor-
relation (r=0.65) between the silt content and carbonate content
of those Red Clay samples for which carbonate amounts were deter-
mined .
Since sand tends to be low in amount and is not the active
fraction in these materials it is of interest to plot the silt
(20-2y), coarse clay (2-0.2y), and fine clay (<0.2y) on a triangular
diagram (Figure 2). The mean percentage values for 61 samples
are: silt; 43, coarse clay; 43, fine clay; 24, with standard
deviations of 13, 7, and 9 respectively. But there is a decided
113
-------
FINE CLAY (<0.2H)
SILT
30
20
(44-2p)
COARSE
CLAY
(2-0.2u)
Figure 2. Silt (44-2u), coarse clay (2-0.2y), and fine
clay (0.2u) diagram for holes 4236-4284 and
4689-5103.
-------
difference in the fine clay amounts in the samples worked on
by Brown and those worked on by Meyers. This difference is
statistically significant. Samples 4236-4284, and 4689-5103,
worked on by Brown, have a mean fine clay content 29.9 with a
standard deviation of 7.1. The samples of 4586-4613 worked on
by Meyers have a mean fine clay content of 17.3 with a standard
deviation of 6.1. The difference between the two means is 12.3
which is about two standard deviations and would indicate that the
difference is not random but real. This difference in the means
is apparently due to laboratory procedure since there is not a
corresponding significant difference in the mechanical data from
the two data sets. For instance the mean of Plasticity Index
values for the "Brown" samples is 32.9 with a standard deviation
of 10.5 and the similar mean for the "Meyer" samples is 32.4
with a standard deviation of 6.7. These two sets are from the same
population. Also the total clay (<2u) amounts are not signi-
ficantly different in samples from the two laboratories. The
overall mean clay content for the "Brown" samples is 67.3,
SD = 15.5, and for the "Meyer" samples the mean is 59.0, SD =7.3.
The difference in the means of 8.3 is considerably less than two
standard deviations. This is to say then that one or both groups
of values for fine clay amounts is considerably in error. Since
the "Meyers" fine clay data does not correlate nearly as well
as the "Brown" data with the Plasticity Index and the Liquid
Limit data the "Meyers" fine clay data will not be used in the
balance of this report. The triangular diagram (Figure 2) show-
ing silt, coarse clay, and fine clay from the 32 "Brown" samples
indicates a relative uniformity in the coarse clay/fine clay
115
-------
ratio which is close to 60/40. The greater variability in the
silt content shows on the diagram as an elongate trend perpendi-
cular to the silt base.
MINERALS IN THE RED CLAY
TYPES AND AMOUNTS OF MINERALS
The determination of the types and amounts of different
clay and non-clay minerals was carried out by x-ray diffraction.
The assemblage of clay minerals in the Red Clay is similar from
place to place and from different depths in a single location.
That is, the Red Clay contains similar clay minerals in all of
the locations so far sampled. The principle clay minerals are
smectite, illite, and chlorite. These are species stable under
conditions of neutral to alkaline pH's and relatively high con-
centrations of cations such as calcium and magnesium. Very little,
if any, kaolinite is observed (its presence in small amounts
is obscured by the presence of chlorite) and there is only minor
occurrence of interlayered clay minerals. The quantities of
illite, chlorite and smectite reported in Table 1 for each sample
come from the following:
(I clay species in silt) x (%silt) + (% clay species in co.
clay) x (I co. clay) + (Iclay species in fine clay ) x
(% fine clay) = total % clay species.
In the silt and coarse clay there are non-clay minerals (quartz,
feldspars, carbonates) present and the quantities present have
r
been determined by internal standard x-ray diffraction methods.
In the silt and coarse clay the relative proportions of the clay
minerals are estimated from x-ray diffraction peak heights. The
quantity (100-sum quartz + feldspars + carbonates) is put equal
116
-------
to the sum (chlorite + illite + smectite) and in this way the
relative clay proportions derived from diffraction peak heights,
can be turned into weight percentages.
Table 1 reports only relative clay mineral percentages for
the samples analyzed by D. Meyers. He determined the relative
proportions chlorite/illite/smectite in the fine and coarse clay
fractions but did not determine the amounts of non-clay minerals
present and so the relative proportions cannot be converted into
weight percentages of the whole sample.
The triangular diagrams (Figures 3 and 4) serve to summarize
the proportions of clay versus non-clay minerals in the Red Clay
and the proportions of illite to chlorite to smectite in the fine
clay (where no non-clay minerals are detected). Figure 3 depicts
clay minerals versus primary minerals where mean and standard
deviation values are: Quartz + feldspars; 34 + 6, Carbonate.s;
12 + 6, Clay minerals; 53 + 6. Figure 4, based on both Brown
and Meyers data, depicts the smectite/illite/chlorite proportions
in the fine clay and the mean and standard deviation values are:
smectite; 53 ± 9, chlorite; 23 ± 6, illite; 23 ± 5.
CORRELATION OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND CLAY MINERAL
TYPES WITH LIQUID LIMIT AND PLASTICITY INDEX DATA
A number of least squares fits and correlations were deter-
mined for the quantities referred to in the above title. Repre-
sentative of these are the following:
1) Plasticity Index (PI) versus I total (<2y) clay. The
data points are plotted on Figure 5 along with the least squares
117
-------
CLAY MINERALS
QTZ +
FLD
30
CARBONATES
Figure 3.
Quartz/feldspar, carbonate, and clay mineral
amounts in the Red Clay Drill holes 4236-4284
and 4689-5103.
oo
rH
-------
SMECTITE
CHLORITE
ILLITE
Figure 4. Chlorite, illite, smectite amounts in the <0.2y
clay. All drill holes included.
-------
Pl= -0.1 + .51(%<2MCLAY)
r= .84
Sy.x= 3.0
o
GXJ
% <2MCLAY
Figure 5. Plasticity index versus percent <2y clay.
All data included.
-------
line. The equation for the line, its correlation coefficient
and the standard error are:
PI = 0.1 + 0.51 (%<2y clay)
r = .84
Sy.x = 3.0
Four data points, circled on Figure 5, were not used in the least
squares calculations.
2) Plasticity Index versus I fine clay (<0.2y).
Surprisingly the correlations for this relationship are in
general not improved from the correlations in (1) above. The
equations, correlation coefficient, and standard error for the
PI data and the fine clay amounts from holes 4236-4374 and 5077-
5103 are:
PI = 1.0 + 1.07 (% fine clay)
r = 0.73
Sy.x = 5.4
3) Plasticity Index versus % Smectite (Figure 6)
This correlation also is as strong as (1). The equation,
correlation coefficient, and standard error for samples from
4236-4274 and 5077-5103 are:
PI = -0.9 + 1.6 C% smectite)
r = 0.85
Sy.x = 3.6
The circled points were discarded in the correlation calcu-
lations.
121
-------
50 -
Pl= -0.9 + 1.6(% SMECTITE)
r= .85
Sy.x= 3.6
25
CM
(\J
% SMECTITE
Figure 6. Plasticity index versus percent smectite,
Data from holes 4236-4274 and 5077-5103.
-------
4) Liquid limit versus total clay (<2y) (Figure 7).
The relationship, correlations coefficient and standard
error for all samples, except the circled point is:
LL = 10.0 + 0.78 (%<2y clay)
r = .76
Sy.x = 5.8
5) Liquid limit versus fine clay (<0.2y), Holes 5077-5103.
This group of samples in which the fine clay determina-
tions were done in a uniform way show a very strong correlation.
The equation, correlation coefficient, and standard error are:
LL = 24.5 + 1.43 (%<0.2y clay)
r = 0.93
Sy.x = 3.7
6) Liquid limit versus smectite content.
One would expect high correlation coefficients for this
relationship since the smectite clay is the most active clay
mineral in the clay fraction. However the correlations although
strong are not so strong as those relating the liquid limit to
the fine clay as in 5) above. This is probably due to the
difficulty in getting accurate smectite determinations by x-ray
diffraction and may represent experimental error more than any
lack of effect due to smectite content. Using just the samples
from holes 5077-5103 which have the most uniform treatment the
relationship is:
LL = 4.4 + 2.84 (% smectite)
r = 0.83
Sy.x = 6.0
123
-------
LL= 10.0 + 78(%<2jj CLAY)
r= .76
Sy.x= 5.8
oj
50 75
%<2HCLAY
Figure 7, Liquid Limit versus percent <2y clay. All
data included.
-------
The six equations developed above show, as expected, a strong
relationship between the mechanical properties of the Red Clay
its particle size distribution and its mineralogy. The most
useful of the relationships developed above are those which re-
late the amount of <2y clay to the liquid limit and the plasticity
index, since the amount of this fraction of the clay is relatively
easily determined as compared to the fine clay or the smectite
contents.
125
-------
SUMMARY
1. The clay fraction of the Red Clay is a uniform deposit
with regard to mineralogy and size distribution. The
major variations in the Red Clay are due to variations in
the contents of silt and sand, and in the carbonate contents
of the silt fraction.
2. There are strong correlations between mechanical behavior
and size distribution and clay mineral content. The pre-
dictive relationships for the most important of these are:
Plasticity Index = 0.1 + 0.51 x percent<2y clay,
Liquid Limit = 10 + 0.78 percent <2y clay.
126
-------
Table 1. Size distribution, mineral contents, and mechanical parameters of Red Clay Samples
Sample
4236
19.5
4236*
24.5
4236*
29.5
4236*
34.5
4236*
49.5
4236*
54.5
4236
59.5
4278
7
4278
12
4281
8'
4282*
9'
4283
8'
4284
7'
%
Sand
2
7
0.5
4
3
4
41
40
4
6
10
6
46
53
18
%
Silt
47
30
29
42
44
48
49
32
30
23
24
36
35
23
25
24
22
21
15
43
49
31
30
%
C. Clay
21
32
31
27
28
21
41
38
32
33
13
36
35
34
37
36
43
42
6
7
26
25
%
F. Clay
29
30
29
31
32
27
24
22
41
43
9
36
34
33
31
30
35
34
5
6*
25
24
%
Quartz
20
15
18
19
23
20
48
19
28
21
22
60
32
%
Feldspars
13
11
9
8
14
14
16
26
12
17
16
26
19
%
Carbonate
25
10
24
20
5
4
3
11
10
13
13
1
12
%
Illite
11
18
13
10
13
22
9
13
16
12
17
3
14
%
Chlorite
11
19
14
15
27
21
8
29
30
32
25
4
15
%
Smectite
16
24
18
18
12
17
5
18
23
20
21
2
10
PL
21.4
23.7
22.8
22.6
36.2
27.5
16.1
24.6
27.1
22.9
29
_
22.1
LL
45.5
54.0
40.3
39.4
71.2
78.0
28.6
54.3
58.2
54.7
63.7
_
42.5
PI
24.1
31.0
17.5
16.8
35
58.5
12.8
29.7
31.0
31.8
34.7
_
20.4
CM
*Mineral per cents do not include contributions from the sand fraction
-------
In samples 4586-4613 %
numbers have relative
validity only.
4586
23.5
4587
4
4587
22.5
4588
3
4589
21.5
4590
1
4590
9.5
4591
7.5
4591
21.5
4591
24.5
4591
31.5
4604
4.5
4604
13.5
4605
6
4605
12.5
4606
1
4606
3
%
Sand
0.5
4
0.3
0.5
5
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
5
%
Silt
39
35
31
44
38
44
51
48
48
40
34
37
36
44
40
24
25
%
C. Clay
49
43
54
42
43
45
36
40
42
44
47
46
47
33
35
52
52
%
F. Clay
12
18
16
14
16
9
10
9
8
15
17
15
15
21
25
22
16
%
Quartz
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
%
Feldspars
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
%
Carbonate
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
%
Illite
18
19
19
11
13
13
12
17
13
13
13
14
17
11
9
15
14
%
Chlorite
30
25
25
13
22
22
16
15
22
25
30
23
21
21
25
17
27
%
Smectite
12
19
19
17
17
14
13
13
12
20
19
18
18
16
20
36
22
PL
24
36
36
25
29
22
21
21
20
30
30
24
32
22
25
39
37
LL
53
76
76
54
61
49
45
42
43
60
67
60
69
49
63
81
78
PI
30
40
40
29
32
27
24
22 to
1 CM
H
23
30
37
36
37
27
38
42
41
-------
Sample
4606
8.5
4607
1
4607
3
4607
17.5
4608
3
4609
4.5
4611
2
4611
5.5
4611
20.5
4602
2
4612
9.5
4613
0
4613
2
4613
4.5
4613
21.5
%
Sand
4
11
0.3
6
5
2
0.4
5
8
5
8
7
7
11
10
%
Silt
37
33
56
26
41
39
42
39
36
24
29
26
35
38
34
%
C. Clay
39
32
33
52
42
38
44
35
36
44
39
33
34
40
38
%
F. Clay
30
24
10
15
12
20
14
21
20
27
23
34
27
11
18
%
puartz
%
Feldspars
%
Carbonate
%
Illite
11
15
11
22
12
12
13
10
11
14
15
%
Chlorite
21
22
18
20
20
24
26
24
15
30
25
%
Smectite
20
14
11
19
15
16
13
17
17
20
16
PL
31
21
18
35
35
24
23
24
23
38
25
34
27
23
29
LL
61
44
34
74
74
58
50
53
54
75
65
70
61
50
59
PI
30
23
16
39
39
43
27
29
31
40
40
36
34
27
30
PENCT
O^
rH
-------
Sample
4689*
11.5
4689*
12.5
5077*
4.5
5077*
22.5
5090*
5.5
5090*
7.5
5090*
16.5
5090*
24.5
5091*
13.5
5093*
5.5
5093*
8.5
5100*
2.5
5100*
5.5
5100*
17.5
5100*
21.5
5101*
6.5
5102
6.5
5103
6.5
5103*
8.5
%
Sand
6*
19*
4*
6*
2*
3*
5*
6*
6*
1*
2*
2*
4*
3*
5*
1*
6*
%
Silt
16
20
24
13
17
30
19
12
13
9
22
20
25
11
11
47
43
36
43
%
C. Clay
46
38
44
47
50
43
44
46
47
53
46
44
42
49
48
33
38
43
31
%
F. Clay
32
24
27
34
31
23
31
36
34
36
30
34
28
37
35
19
19
21
20
%
Quartz
18
14
17
14
14
ND
16
16
12
14
16
19
16
15
15
24
22
19
19
%
Feldspars
18
14
16
14
20
ND
17
18
12
12
15
14
14
19
17
18
17
20
21
%
Carbonate
6
11
16
7
14
ND
11
9
6
12
10
3
11
7
8
18
21
18
14
%
Illite
13
10
10
14
12
10
12
11
13
13
14
11
11
12
11
9
9
10
9
%
Chlorite
18
15
17
23
14
18
17
17
24
19
21
14
17
21
22
12
13
15
14
%
Smectite
22
18
18
23
23
19
22
22
25
27
23
37
26
23
22
18
18
18
17
PL
ND
ND
ND
33.7
30
27.6
ND
33.1
28.7
32.5
35.1
32.2
31.2
34.9
33.2
25
35
26.5
27.7
LL
ND
ND
ND
72.4
69.7
56.0
ND
75.6
66.6
77.1
72.1
67.7
73.2
80.1
73.8
48.5
49.2
56.2
53.9
PI
ND
ND
ND
38.7
39.5
28.4
ND
42.5
37.9
o
44.6 ^
37.0
35.5
42.0
45.2
40.6
23.5
14.2
29.7
26.2
*Mineral percents do not include contributions from sand fraction
-------
THE EFFECTS OF RED CLAY TURBIDITY AND SEDIMENTATION
ON AQUATIC LIFE IN THE NEMADJI RIVER SYSTEM
by
P. W. DeVore, L. T. Brooke and W. A. Swenson*
Red clay erosion in southwestern Lake Superior has been
a natural process along shorelines and in tributary streams
and rivers since decline of lake levels following the
Pleistocene period. Exposure of the unconsolidated glacial
lake deposits resulted in fairly high and constant rates of
erosion long before man began to alter the landscape. Rates
of erosion along the Lake Superior shoreline have averaged
up to 3.1 meters/year since 1938 (1) with contributions of
2 x 10^ metric tons of red clay soils annually (2). An
additional 5.6 x 10^ metric tons are added by stream erosion
(3). There is evidence that rates of erosion were accelerat-
ed by logging operations during the late 1800's, but this
increase probably did not add significantly to the impact
of the red clays on the Lake Superior ecosystem.
Despite persistent turbidities and sedimentation in
southwestern Lake Superior, the fishery has been historically
productive. Lake herring (Coregonus artedii) seem to have
thrived as the clays added nutrients to the somewhat sterile
environment and the reduced photic zone concentrated the
plankton (4). Not until introduction of rainbow smelt
(Osmerus mordax) resulted in another planktivore selecting
this same concentrated food source, which included larval
herring, did herring stocks collapse (4,5). Walleye (Stizoste-
dion vitreum vitreum) continue to benefit from the moderate
turbidities in the lake and river mouths. The resultant low
light intensities in the relatively productive inshore areas
and broad shallows such as the Duluth-Superior estuary allow
walleye stocks to reside in these waters without retreating
to deep water sanctuary. The walleye population in south-
western Lake Superior is one of five stocks in the entire
Great Lakes not experiencing declines (6). Red clay turbidity
is a possible contributor to this stability.
Nutrient inputs to Lake Superior due to red clay erosion
may have had a significant impact on production before settle-
ment of the basin, but orthophosphate loading today from
shoreline and stream erosion (302 metric tons annually) is
only 3.7% of the contribution from industrial and municipal
wastes in the Duluth-Superior area (7). Contributions of
metals and other solutes are also insignificant when com-
pared to present loadings from other sources (8). An ex-
ception to this is silica, which is loaded at a rate of
14,400 metric tons per year. This may be an important
element in maintenance of diatom populations, the primary
group of phytoplankton in Lake Superior. Silica depletion
"CLSES
131
-------
in Lake Michigan may have contributed to limitations in
diatom production in those waters (9).
The only detrimental effects which have been well ident-
ified from moderate rates of sedimentation are those on
salmonid reproduction. Substantial rates of flow must occur
through the gravel for selection by the female as a spawning
site (10,11) and for survival of eggs and emergence of fry
(12,13,14). Reviews of adverse effects on the benthic fauna
(15) do not identify any effects of low level sedimentation,
perhaps because such studies are rare in the literature.
The Nemadji River System produces 89% of the total
erosional material of streams entering Lake Superior from
Wisconsin. The study of aquatic life in the Nemadji River
was begun with the realization that red clay erosion: 1)
had minimal direct physical impacts on aquatic life in Lake
Superior, 2) resulted in spatial redistribution of organisms
and affected species interactions in Lake Superior, 3) was
a fairly general characteristic of the Nemadji watershed with
few areas severely aggravated by man (90% of the watershed
is second growth forest), and 4) resulted in low turbidity
levels which seldom exceeded 100 ftu's (65 mg/1).
The effects of turbidity and sedimentation on aquatic
life have generally been studied in situations where there
are massive movements of soils (e.g. logging operations,
poor agricultural practices over large areas) or a source
of inorganic sediment (sand pit washing, mining clay wastes,
etc.). The burden of sediment which is discharged into stream
and river systems under these conditions has afforded ex-
cellent opportunities to assess the direct and indirect
effects of extremely high levels of stream sedimentation on
aquatic life (16,17,18). Few studies, however, have measured
the effects of erosion and the resultant turbidity and sed-
imentation which occur naturally in a young river system
flowing through highly erodable bed materials such as is
the situation in the glacial lake deposits characterizing
the Nemadji River Basin. This study offered the unique
opportunity to assess the effect of relatively low level
sedimentation in such a system.
NEMADJI BASIN STUDY AREA
The Nemadji River Basin includes 740 km2 (460 mi2) in
Carlton and Pine Counties, Minnesota and Douglas County,
Wisconsin. The basin is essentially a level plain represent-
ing a portion of the abandoned lake bed of glacial Lake
Duluth. Lake deposits of clay, silt and sand comprise*the
central portion of the Nemadji watershed. The Nemadji is a
young river meandering through a level plain of highly erod-
able lake sediments. Land use is 90% second growth forest.
The area was clearcut in the early 1900's and is now predomi-
132
-------
nantly regrowth of aspen, birch and some pine (19).
Two tributaries to the Nemadji River were selected for
implementation of erosion control measures and were of_primary
interest to this study. These are the Skunk Creek Basin in
Minnesota, a relatively high sediment-producing watershed
covering 17.2 km2 (10.7 mi"), and Little Balsam Creek in
Wisconsin, a moderate sediment-producing basin covering
9.7 km2 (6 mi2). Skunk Creek remains relatively turbid year-
round. Stream discharge varied from 0-5.78 cms (0-2OH cfs)
in April-September 1976. The average gradient is 6.25 m/km
(33 ft/mi). Little Balsam Creek is a relatively clear trout
stream which maintains a more stable discharge [0.02-1.87
cms (0.75-66 cfs) in November 1975-September 1976]. Average
gradient is 20 m/km (105 ft/mi). Land use within both water-
sheds is of relatively low intensity. The primary sediment
producing problems are stream bank and roadside erosion.
Site Selection
Thirteen study sites were initially selected in the
Nemadji River, Balsam Creek, Little Balsam Creek, Empire
Creek, Skunk Creek, and Elim Creek. These sites were_chosen
to represent stream and river channel types which typify the
Nemadji River watershed. After 1975, four sites (nos. 2,3,
6,7) were eliminated due to the redundancy of the information
gained, the time requirements for adequate sampling and
analysis of benthic samples, and the expansion of the project
objectives to include more extensive monitoring of sites
selected for intensive erosion control structures (i.e.
nutrients, microbial populations, and primary production).
After the first sampling period in 1976, site 1 (closest to
the mouth of the Nemadji River) was found to be subject to
periodic organic pollution from industrial sources. The
response of the benthos was such that interpretation of the
effects of erosion and sedimentation was meaningless. This
site was thereafter sampled only to monitor fish movements.
Most of the interpretation of the effects of erosion and
sedimentation is therefore restricted to 2 sites on the
Nemadji River (sites 4 and 5), two sites on Little Balsam
Creek (nos. 8 and 9), one site on Empire Creek (no. 10),
two sites on Skunk Creek (nos. 11 and 13), and one site on
Elim Creek (no. 12). Summaries of data on macroinvertebrate
diversity, abundance, and biomass are presented on all sites,
including those eliminated in 1975 and 1976, in the Appendices
Site locations are shown in the gradient map of the
Nemadji River and tributaries considered in this study (Figure
1). Initial site selection and site descriptions are as
follows (Appendix A includes additional site characteristics):
Site 1; The Nemadji River 0.8 km (0.5 mi) upstream
from its mouth. The channel is broad (46 m), deep (2.5 m)
133
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38O
VM
4O 60
Distance from Lake Superior (km)
80
Figure 1. Gradient map of the Nemadji River and selected tributaries
with location of sampling sites.
-------
and of uniform shape. There is no definable gradient.
Current and direction of water flow over the sand substrate
is influenced by Lake Superior seiches.
Site 2; The Nemadji River approximately 8 km (5 mi)
above the mouth. The river is narrower (22 m), deep (2.5 m
average) and slow-moving. Currents and water levels are
influenced by Lake Superior seiches. The stream bed is
bordered by clay banks resulting in some erosion. The sub-
strate is composed of clay, sand and some gravel.
Site 3; Approximately 30 km (18 mi) above the mouth.
The river is shallow (<1 m) with a gradient 0.66 m/km (3.5
ft/mi). Average width is 11.3 m. Erosion of the banks in
this region result in a predominantly unstable sand substrate,
Site ^: Nemadji River 35 km (22 mi) above the mouth is
physically similar to Site 3.
Site 5: Nemadji River 47 km (29 mi) above the mouth.
The river character changes to a pool-riffle pattern with
rubble and gravel more prevalent in the stream bed. Average
width is 20.7 m. Average depth is 0.5 m. Soils in this
location are predominantly silts and clays resulting in a
low sand bedload. The gradient is approximately 1.7 m/km
(9 ft/mi).
Site 6: North Branch of the Nemadji River 80 km (50 mi)
from the mouth. The river has a typical pool-riffle con-
figuration with rubble and boulders prevalent in the sub-
strate. Average width and depth are 11.7 m and 0.5 m re-
spectively.
Site 7; Balsam Creek is classified as trout water by
the Wisconsin DNR, but the reaches sampled are turbid
throughout the year. The substrate has large quantities of
rubble with heavy silt in the pools. Average width and
depth are 8.0 and 0.6 m respectively.
Site 8; Little Balsam Creek below proposed erosion
control sites. The substrate is gravel and rubble in rif-
fles and sand in pools. There is some clay sediment but
the stream remains clear aside from spring floods. The
gradient is 20 m/km (105 ft/mi). Average width and depth
are 3.7 and 0.25 m.
Site 9: Upper reaches of Little Balsam Creek well
above the area planned for bank stabilization. Rubble and
sand make up the substrate. Discharge is lower than in the
previous station. Average width and depth are 2.0 and 0.15 m.
Site 10; Empire Creek which occupies an adjacent drain-
age basin to the Little Balsam with stream length, water-
shed size, and water quality very similar to the Little
Balsam. The substrate is sand and small gravel with very
135
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little rubble. This undisturbed watershed was selected to
allow more meaningful interpretations of changes in Little
Balsam Creek associated with erosion control. Average width
and depth are 2.0 and 0.25 m.
Site 11; Skunk Creek above the influx of Elim Creek
(where a flood water retaining structure is being construct-
ed) and above most of the bank stabilization and channeliza-
tion planned for Skunk Creek. The substrate is about 35%
rubble with silt and clay in the pools. Average width is
3.0 m. Average depth is 0.45 m.
Site 12: Mouth of Elim Creek which is an intermittent
stream that is monitored when a stream flow exists to assess
the effects of the proposed sediment retaining structure.
The substrate is largely rubble and gravel.
Site 13: Skunk Creek below the proposed construction
area, an area physically similar to Site 11, although there
is more silt and clay and less rubble. The gradient is
about 6 m/km (33 ft/mi). Average width and depth are 4.9
and 1.0 m.
Additional sites: Three additional sites were monitored
for major nutrients beginning in August, 1976. These in-
cluded two Skunk Creek sites and one Elim Creek site. The
Skunk Creek sites were above and below the area to be im-
pounded by the Hanson dam. The Elim Creek site was above the
dam to be constructed on this tributary. These sites were
included with nutrient monitoring information from sites
11, 12, and 13 to assist in interpretation of the effects
of the dams on nutrient loads.
METHODS
Three products of erosion which affect the aquatic
ecosystem are nutrient input, turbidity and sedimentation.
Each of these factors has possible effects associated with
it, as outlined in Table 1. Studies conducted in the Nemadji
River System were designed to measure most of the potential
effects.
Table 1. Potential Effects of Erosion on Aquatic Ecosystems
Nutrient Input
Turbidity
Reduced Light Penetration
Primary Production
Rooted Plants
Reduced Visibility
Inhibits Sight-Feeding Fish
Organism Interactions (Behavioral Changes)
Increased Substrate for Microrganisms
136
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Sedimentation
Direct Effects on Organism
Clogging Gills
Inundation
Fish Egg and Fry Mortality
Change in Substrate
Cover Rocky or Riffle Areas
Eliminate Interstitial Space
Change Character of Substrate in Pools
Chemical and Physical Characteristics
Dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity, and tempera-
ture were measured each time a site was visited from August,
1975 through October, 1977. Dissolved oxygen and temperature
were measured with a Yellow Springs Instrument Model 54
D.O. meter. Conductivity was monitored with a Yellow Springs
Instrument Model 33 SCT meter. Turbidity was measured in
Formazin Turbidity Units (FTU) using an Ecolab Model 104
Turbidimeter (Ecologic Instruments, Inc.).
Average width and depth at normal flow were measured at
each site. Qualitative estimates of stream bank erosion,
vegetative cover, and water color were made at all sites.
The stream substrate was classified by visual appraisal
according to the soil particle size classification described
in "Biological Field and Laboratory Methods for Measuring
the Quality of Surface Water and Effluents" (20).
The relationship between turbidity (FTU) and suspended
solids (mg/1) was calculated by mixing varying amounts of
red clay soil from the banks of the Nemadji River with Lake
Superior water. The relationship was derived using 35
turbidity levels from 0.2 to 1000 ftu. Turbidity was measur-
ed with the turbidimeter, after which the sample was filtered
through a preweighed Gelman A/E glass fiber filter (0.45 urn).
The filters were dried for 18 hr at 80°C and weighed.
Filters rarely collected all the suspended solids. To ac-
count for this the turbidities of the filtrates were measured,
and the difference between the initial and final turbidi-
ties of the samples was considered equivalent to the sus-
pended solids collected on the filters.
The data was plotted and a line was fitted by the least
square method (Figure 2). The equation for the line is:
Y = .61 X + 4.1
Where Y is suspended solids in milligrams/liter and X is
turbidity in formazin turbidity units. The correlation
coefficient is 0.99.
137
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300
Figure 2. Relationship of mg/1 suspended
solids and formazin turbidity
units (FTU) estimated from 35
turbidity levels between 0.2
and 1000 FTU.
Primary Production
Standing crop of periphyton on artificial substrates
was measured in Empire, Little Balsam and Skunk Creeks during
the ice-free months from late 1976 through August 1977 using
chlorophyll a as an estimator. Four replicate glass slides
(25.4 x 76.2 mm) at two depths (4 and 30 cm) and two posi-
tions (horizontal and vertical) were used as standard sub-
strates for collection and analysis. Constant exposure
depths were maintained by mounting the slides on a floating
frame which compensated for limited variation in water levels.
Three weeks exposure was used to allow sufficient time for
colonization and growth to fairly stable levels (20,22).
Slides were collected at site 8 on Little Balsam Creek and
site 13 on Skunk Creek in September 1976. Collections were
made at these sites and site 10 on Empire Creek and site 11
on Skunk Creek in October 1976 and May, June, July and early
and late August 1977. Attempts to collect samples during the
remainder of 1977 were thwarted due to repeated destruction
of samplers by high water.
Slides were collected, emersed in 50 ml of 90% aqueous
acetone, and kept cold in the dark until return to the lab-
oratory. They were then stored at approximately 4°C for
24 hours. Samples were only shaken, as the algae was com-
posed entirely of diatoms which disrupt easily. Optical
densities of the chlorophyll solutions were determined
138
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using a Perkin-Elmer Hitachi 200 spectrophotometer (after
10 minutes of centrifuging at 500 g). Readings were made
at 750, 663, 645 and 630 nanometers (nm) .
Chlorophyll a concentrations were determined after
subtracting the 750 nm reading (to correct for turbidity)
using the following formulas:
Ca = concentration chlorophyll a in extract =
11.64 D - 2.16 D + 0.10 D
Ca x vol. of extract
mg chlorophyll a/m = _
3.87 x 10~3 m2
(area of slide)
A two-way analysis of variance was used to test for differ-
ences due to depth and angle of orientation within each
station and sampling period. A three-way analysis of vari-
ance with site, depth and position as factors was not used
as it consistently yielded significant three-way interactions,
making interpretation of main effects invalid.
Microorganisms
Analysis of the microbial population of the Little
Balsam Creek (Site 8), Empire Creek (Site 10), and Skunk
Creek below Elim (Site 13) began in April 1977 and continued
through January 1978. (see Appendix C for specific dates)
Samples were taken at three week intervals during this
period. Sampling began again during spring runoff in March
1978 and continued through the end of May 1978. Samples
were collected in sterile whirlpacs and kept on ice until
processing upon return to the laboratory. Microbial analy-
sis of the water samples consisted of counts of total bac-
teria, fungi, and fecal coliform bacteria as well as identi-
fication of the major bacteria.
Five milliter dilutions of 1:10, 1:100, 1:1000, and
1:10,000 were filtered through 0.45 urn membrane filters for
enumeration of total bacteria. The filters were placed in
sterile petri dishes containing an absorbant pad saturated
with M-TGE broth (Difco). The samples were then incubated
at 20°C for five days. This method of enumeration allows
one colony to develop from one bacterium or cluster of
bacteria. It therefore does not allow for the identifi-
cation of more than one bacterium per clay particle.
Fungi was enumerated with the plate count method. The
growth media used was Sabouraud agar (Difco). This agar
provides a pH of 5.6 which promotes the growth of fungi and
inhibits bacterical growth. The agar was added to sterile
petri dishes containing either 2 ml of an undiluted water
139
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sample or 1 ml of 1:10, 1:100 or 1:1000 dilutions. The
petri dishes were incubated for five days at 20°C, after
which colonies were counted.
Fecal coliform bacteria were enumerated with 10 to 100
ml water samples. The procedure used was that for membrane
filtration in "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Waste Water" (21).
Identification of the major bacteria in each stream
was accomplished by isolation of the colonies and performing
the following tests on each isolate:
1. Gram stain
2. Acid-fast stain
3. Endospore and capsule stain
4. Hydrolysis of gelatin
5. Reduction of. litmus milk
6. Reduction of nitrates
7. Production of indole
8. MR-VP Test
9. Fermentation of carbohydrates (lactose, glucose,
fructose)
10. Utilization of citrate, uric acid, and am-
monium phosphate
Macroinvertebrates
Field Studies
Macroinvertebrates were collected with both bottom
samples and artificial substrate samples at all sites. The
use of an artificial substrate allowed comparison of sites
with dissimilar substrates and demonstrated the effect of
a stable substrate on insect abundance and diversity.
Six benthic samples were collected from each site
during each sampling period. There were four sampling periods
between August and November 1975 and three (spring, summer,
and fall) in both 1976 and 1977. A total of 552 benthic
samples were collected and analyzed. A sieving sampler
(Surber Square Foot Sampler) was used except at sampling sites
nearest the mouth where water depth exceeds 2m. A grab
sampler (Ponar dredge) was used at these sites. If both
pools and riffles occurred at a site, three samples were
taken in pools and three in riffles. Otherwise a transect
of six samples was taken across the stream.
Artificial substrate samplers (Hester Dendy - surface
area 0.11 m^) were used at all sites. Two pairs of samplers
were placed in the stream, one pair in a pool and one in a
riffle (opposite sides of stream if there was no pool-
riffle continuum), and left for six weeks. A total of 180
samples were collected. Sampling periods began in September
1975, and June and September, 1976 and 1977. The samples
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were collected by careful removal over a sieve to prevent
loss of insects.
All samples were preserved in the field in 10% formalin
or 70% isopropyl alcohol. They were washed in the laboratory
through a U.S. Standard No. 35 sieve and hand picked.
Generic identification of all insects was performed using
keys by Hilsenhoff (23), Pennak (24), and Usinger (25).
The dry weight of all samples was measured after drying
at 80°C for 24 hr and cooling in a dessicator. The biomass
of the chironomids was derived separately from all other
invertebrates, largely because of the necessity of previous
separation for identification by examination of head cap-
sules, but also to illustrate their importance in terms of
biomass as opposed to total number.
Laboratory Studies
Laboratory studies were conducted to assess the effects
of turbidity at different flow rates on respiration and
activity of the stonefly, Pteronarcys dorsata. P_. dorsata
is a large insect and was fairly common in the Nemadji River.
Nymphs were collected in the Nemadji River in October
and November, brought immediately to the laboratory, and
acclimated to laboratory water temperatures (10-11 C).
They were held under experimental conditions at a 12 hr
light, 12 hr dark cycle for several days prior to testing.
Nymphs were fed decaying leaves every two days.
Activity experiments: The activity experiments were
conducted in the same glass experimental troughs used in
the egg bioassay experiments. Water turbidity and flow
rates were also maintained with the same system (see egg
bioassay methods).
Animal movements were recorded using a Gilson Polygraph
(Model ICT-5H). Four troughs with four chambers per trough
(16 total nymphs) were used in each experimental run. The
four channel polygraph was therefore connected through a
timing switch which changed chambers, providing for moni-
toring of four replicates at each turbidity level for 15
min/hr. Two electrodes of stainless steel screen were sub-
merged on opposite sides of each chamber and held in posi-
tion by electrical spring clips (Figure 3). Any movement
by the nymphs was recorded as pen deflections on graph
paper. The type of movement recorded was observed to be
whole body movement.
At least two experimental runs were performed at each
of three water velocities, nominally 0.4, 0.8, and 1.5 cm/
sec. Turbidities were nominally 1.5, 25, 60, and 150 FTU.
These concentrations represent the range occurring season-
14-1
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Figure 3. Laboratory apparatus used to measure
response of P_. dorsata illustrating
electrode chamber and polygraph con-
nection.
ally in the Nemadji River. With one exception, experiments
were run for 24 hours. The 20/21 December-experiment lasted
14 hr.
Respiration Experiments: Respiration rates were deter-
mined by a method similar to that used by McDiffett (26).
Pint Mason jars were used as respiration chambers. Narrow
sections of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe were glued to the
bottom of the jars to contain magnetic stirring bars. Plas-
tic screens, supported by stainless steel wire platforms,
were placed in jars to elevate the nymphs above the stirring
bars and provide a substrate.
Water for each experiment was mixed to the desired
turbidity level using red clay from the banks of Little
-------
Balsam Creek and dechlorinated tap water. The water was
aerated for several hours before experiments began to insure
saturation.
Five respiration chambers were used for each experiment;
four received insects and one served as a control. A measur-
ed volume of water was added to each chamber and the cover
was carefully replaced to exclude air bubbles. A sixth
sample was taken and fixed immediately for dissolved oxygen
determinations.
The respiration chambers were kept at 6 C for two hours.
Water in each chamber was stirred slowly with a magnetic
stirrer. At the end of the incubation period, water was
siphoned into 300 ml BOD bottles. Replicate dissolved oxygen
determinations were made using the azide modification of the
iodometric method (21). Samples were titrated over water of
the same turbidity to aid in identification of the starch
end-point.
The experiment was repeated five times at five different
turbidity levels. The nominal turbidity levels were 2.5,
100, 250, 500, and 1000 FTU.
Fish
Field Studies
Field studies included monitoring of all sites for fish
species composition, population size, total fish biomass,
and evidence of reproductive success. Larval fish drift
was also monitored each spring in the lower portion of the
Nemadji River to assess the spawning success of Lake Superior
species which utilize the watershed.
Fish sampling; Sampling was conducted at each site with
electrofishing equipment or trap nets. Backpack electro-
fishing gear was used on Little Balsam, Empire, and Elim
Creeks where water volumes were fairly small. The output
mode most commonly used on these 350 watt units was 220 V.
DC. A 1000 watt stream shocker was used in the mid-portion
of the Nemadji River, generally 440 V. pulsed DC. Skunk
Creek was fished with either unit, depending on water volume
and accessibility. Fish were collected primarily with 24 hr
sets of Minnesota Standard trap nets at the mouth of the
Nemadji River where water depth averages 2.5 m.
All fish collected in the field were identified and
counted and a random sample of each species weighed and
measured to establish length-weight relationships within each
stream. Scale samples were taken from brown trout (Salmo
trutta) brook trout (Salyelinus fontinalis) and creek chubs
(Semotilus atromaculatus)for comparison of growth rates
between sites.
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In the headwater streams of the Nemadji watershed
(Empire, Skunk, Little Balsam, and Elim Creeks), 61 meters
of stream was electrofished to sample a series of successive
pool-riffle areas. Ten times the average width of the river
was electrofished at sites on the Nemadji where the river
was_fairly wide. This insured inclusion of the different
habitat types (pools and riffles generally occur at intervals
of 5-7 times the stream width).
Population and biomass estimates were made at each site
using the Delury fish-out method (27). Stream sections were
electrofished three times in succession with no return of
fish to that section until all sampling was completed. This
allowed estimation of population size. Calculated length-
weight relationships were used to estimate biomass.
Larval fish drift: Larval fish drift was monitored
each spring (1976-1977) in order to estimate spawning success
of the Lake Superior species which spawn in the Nemadji River,
The Nemadji has spring runs of steelhead (Salmo gairdneri),
longnose suckers (Catostomus catostomus), white suckers
(Catostomus commersoni), shorthead redhorse (Moxostoma
macrolepidotum), silver redhorse (Moxostoma anisurum), and
rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax). Most of the hatching fry
of all species except steelhead drift passively downriver
until they reach the lake, making possible rough estimation
of total fry production if stream discharge is known.
Drift samples were collected with two drift nets, one
set at the surface and one immediately below at 0.5 meters.
The nets used in 1976 had a mouth opening of 30.5 x 14 cm.
In 1977 nets were 40 x 22 cm. All drift samples were collect-
ed with 15 minute sets. Current velocity was measured at
the mouth of each net with a Pygmy Gurley Current Meter.
Daily discharge is monitored at this site by the U.S. Geo-
logical Survey. Their data was used to compute daily larval
fish drift after drift densities had been calculated.
Sample collection began in early May in each year and
was terminated in mid-June after the major hatches were
gone. Two 24 hr periods were sampled in 1978, one during
the peak of the smelt hatch and one during the sucker hatch,
to assess drift periodicity.
All samples were collected at Douglas County Road 'C'
due to the availability of discharge estimates and manage-
able water depths. This site is 18 km upstream from the
mouth, but there is very little suitable spawning habitat
below this point. The site was also felt to be far enough
below most major spawning areas to eliminate the drift'
periodicity typical of sucker fry which initially emerge
from the gravel at night. Subsequent 24 hr samples, however,
demonstrated some diurnal periodicity.
144
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Laboratory Studies
Laboratory studies were conducted to assess the impact
on red clay turbidity and sedimentation of egg survival in
walleye, rainbow smelt, and longnose suckers and habitat
selection in turbidity gradients for brook trout and creek
chubs.
Egg survival bioassay: A constant flow temperature and
turbidity controlled apparatus was constructed for incubat-
ing fish eggs. The apparatus was essentially a gravity flow
system (Figure 4). Water entered a common reservoir where
temperature modifications were made before dividing the
flow and increasing the turbidity in one half of the water
supply to the desired maximum (4). The other half remained
clear (2 FTU). Proportionate mixing of the turbid water
with the clear water resulted in intermediate turbidities.
Clay from the banks of the Little Balsam Creek (site 8) was
used in the laboratory tests. Turbidity was measured with
a Ecologic Instrument Model 104 turbidimeter.
Turbidity levels varied between years. The nominal
levels sought were 0, 10, 25, 50 FTU in 1976 and 0, 25, 50,
and 100 FTU in 1977 and 1978 (Table 2). The levels were chosen
to simulate conditions which could occur in the Nemadji River
during the time of rainbow smelt, walleye and longnose sucker
egg incubation. Actual mean turbidity values were within
7.4% of the nominal values (Table 2).
The incubation chambers were constructed to allow
simulation of stream substrate and current conditions. Two
channels constructed of glass were used for each turbidity
level with the channels subdivided into three sections by
530 ym stainless steel screen. Each chamber was 3 cm wide,
2.5 cm deep and 19.0 cm long. All of the channels were
filled to a depth of 2.0 cm with sand or gravel (<_ 20 mm but
> 10 mm in diameter). Both sand and gravel were used in
T976. Egg survival did not differ between substrates. Only
gravel was used in 1977 and 1978. Each species of fish was
incubated in two separate channels which differed in current
velocity by a factor of approximately two. The means and
ranges of the low and high flow velocities were 1.92 cm/sec
(1.38-2.87) and 3.41 cm/sec (2.92-3.90).
Flow volume was measured using a stopwatch and graduat-
ed cylinder. Flow velocities were calculated using the
formula R = V/DW where R is flow velocity in cm/sec, V is
flow volume in cm^/sec, D is the mean water depth in the
channel (cm) and W is the width (cm) of the channel.
Eggs and sperm were taken from more than a single
individual of each sex except during 1977 when only a single
female walleye was available (Table 3). The eggs were spawn-
ed into glass jars. Sperm was added to the eggs which were
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Figure 4. Constant flow egg incubation bioassay
apparatus. Water entering the clear
water tank is thermally modified prior
to distribution to the clear water and
turbid water mixing tanks. Turbid
water is generated in the mixing tank
by spraying water over clay balls.
Proportional dilution is accomplished
in four mixing chambers prior to
delivering water at a controlled
rate into the experimental troughs.
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Table 2. Egg incubation experiment mean and nominal (in
parentheses) turbidity, mean temperature, and
duration. Experiments were conducted with eggs
from rainbow smelt, walleye, and longnose sucker
during 1976-1978.
Species of eggs
incubated
Mean Turbidity (FTU)
Duration Mean
of test Tempera-
(days) ture(QC)
(0) (10) (25) (50)
1.3 9.2 23.2 48.5
1.0 9.3 23.5 49.9
(0) (25) (50) (100)
2.0 27.2 52.8 100.9
2.0 24.6 46.7 94.1
(0) (25) (50) (100)
2.2 23.1 46.3 96.2
1976
Rainbow Smelt
Walleye
1977
Rainbow Smelt
Walleye
1978
Walleye
Longnose Sucker 2.3 24.0 46.8
93. 7
14
24
16
19
21
17
10.0
10.3
then allowed to "harden" before transport to the laboratory
at'the spawning temperature. When egg fertilization occurred
in the laboratory, eggs were allowed to "harden" before
placing them in the study chambers.
, The studies were terminated before hatching occurred
except the earliest hatch of rainbow smelt and walleye in
1976 which were observed passing through the incubation cham-
ber screens. Rainbow smelt hatch (median time) in 34 days
at 6 C, 27 days at 8 C and 19 days at 10 C (J. Howard Mc-
Cormick, U.S.E.P.A. Environmental Research Laboratory,
Duluth, Minnesota, Personal Communication). Walleye hatch
(median time) in 34 days at 6 C, 27 days at 9 C and 15 days
at 12 C (28). Longnose suckers hatch in 11 days at 10 C
and 8 days at 15 C (29). In all cases termination of the
studies occurred before the expected median hatch day
(Table 2).
Water temperatures for incubation were near the mid-
range for successful incubation of each species. In all
cases the incubation temperatures used were slightly lower
than the optimum for survival.
14-7
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Table 3. Location, date, water temperature and sex ratio of fish used to obtain fertilized
eggs in egg incubation laboratory tests.
Rainbow Smelt
Capture site of spawners
Spawning date
Water temperature (C)
Number females:Number males
1976
Allouez Bay,
Douglas County
April 29
10.6
5:8
1977
Allouez Bay,
Douglas County
April 29
6. 0
5:8
1978
CO
Walleye
Capture site of spawners
Spawning date
Water temperature (C)
Number females:Number males
Bad River
Ashland County
May 7
13. 5
St. Louis River
Douglas County
May 4
8. 0
1:2
St. Louis River
Douglas County
April 28
7.0
2:3
Longnose Sucker
Capture site of spawners
Spawning date
*
Water temperature (C)
Number females:Number males
Nemadji River
Douglas County
May 2
10 (estimated)
3:3
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Gradient Selection; This study was designed to determine
the responses of brook trout and creek chubs to levels of
red clay turbidity similar to those occurring naturally in
the Nemadji River System. These species were used as test
organisms for the following reasons: 1) both species are
locally abundant within the Nemadji River system; 2) they are
associated with the headwaters of streams (30); and 3) in
field studies brook trout were found primarily in clear
streams while creek chubs were more abundant in turbid streams.
Brook trout used in the study had a mean length of 16.4 ±
3 cm. They were collected from Empire and Little Balsam
Creeks. Creek chubs were collected in Skunk Creek, the Ne-
madji River, and Sargent Creek in St. Louis County. Fish
were collected using a 350 watt backpack AC-DC current
electroshocker. They were acclimated in the laboratory for
a minimum of two weeks before being used in the behavior
tests.
A continuous flow turbidity gradient tank was set up
in a 610 cm x 46 cm tank. A 520 cm length of the tank was
closed off with screens and divided into two sections.
Plexiglass gates could be lowered to restrict movements be-
tween the two areas. White insulation board was placed over
the tank and existing windows located on one side. Two
regimes of turbidity were established within the tank during
gradient experiments. Turbidities averaged 7.1 FTU in the
upstream section and 61.1 FTU in the downstream section.
Turbidities during the control runs when no clay was intro-
duced averaged 2.3 FTU in both sections.
. A layer of gravel was used for substrate. Twelve 180 mm
lengths of 102 mm diameter PVC pipe were half buried in the
gravel to provide uniform overhead cover in all sections.
A 15-watt light bulb suspended in each of the four sections
provided 4.4 ft-candles of light at the water surface. The
lights were controlled using dimming and brightening equip-
ment described by Drummond and Dawson (31). Natural photo-
periods were used during the experiment. Viewing slits were
cut in the insulation board above the level of the lights
to allow observation of the fish and at the same time pre-
vent the fish from seeing the observer.
Temperature was uniform within the chamber during each
test but varied from 8.0 to 14.7 C through the course of
the study. Clay used to produce turbid water was from the
banks of Little Balsam Creek, part of the Nemadji River
watershed.
Turbidity was maintained using the continuous flow clay
turbidity source tank described by Swenson (4). Water was
introduced into the gradient tank from the source tank or a
clear water source by a series of 4 pipes. The 1st pipe was
in front of the upstream screen 15 cm from the bottom and
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created a current in the tank. Pipes 2, 3, and U were buried
in the substrate to create a spring-like situation. Clear
water could be introduced through all the pipes and turbid
water through pipes 3 and 4. Dechlorinated city of Superior
water was used in the study.
Fish groups were subjected to either a control test
(in which no clays were introduced) or the turbidity gradient.
Fish were acclimated to the tank for two days prior to obser-
vations. Fish were then observed 7 times daily during the
daylight hours for the following 2 days. During the obser-
vation periods the gates were lowered and distribution and
use of cover was recorded. A mirror attached to a pole was
used when necessary to find fish using the covers. Four
brook trout_or 20 creek chubs were used in each test. Four
gradient trials and four controls were run with each species.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Chemical and Physical Characteristics
_Potential adverse impacts of red clay erosion on water
quality have been identified as oxygen depletion and nutrient
inputs (32). Adequate monitoring of oxygen levels in red
clay areas has been conducted in this study to demonstrate
that oxygen is not depleted by the red clays or associated
organic compounds. The lowest level of oxygen saturation
recorded was 54.6% (Table 4). Average saturation levels at
sites with the highest mean annual turbidities (Skunk Creek)
exceeded 92%.
Bahnick (7) showed that orthophosphate is removed from
water by red clay in solution if it exceeds an equilibrium
concentration of 0.06-0.13 mg/1. Turbid water sites on Skunk
Creek had average orthophosphate concentrations within these
ranges (Table 5). Clear-water sites (Empire and Little Balsam
Creeks) had generally higher average orthophosphate levels
than turbid water sites with the exception of Elim Creek
and Skunk Creek downstream from Elim which appeared to be
influenced by barnyard runoff.
Red clay, although not contributing significantly to
orthophosphate levels in the watershed, may serve to transport
these nutrients to Lake Superior when runoff from domestic
and barnyard wastes causes phosphate concentrations to
exceed the equilibrium concentration. Nutrient contributions
from the Nemadji River watershed are relatively insignificant
when compared to those from municipalities, however (7).
Primary Production
Estimates of the standing crop of periphyton in clear
(Empire and Little Balsam) and turbid-water (Skunk Creek)
tributaries were intended to identify the effect of turbidity
150
-------
Table 4. Turbidity, dissolved oxygen, percent oxygen saturation, conductivity, and
temperature ranges and means (in parentheses) at eight sites in the Nemadji
River System for the period August 1975-October 1977 (sites are described in
Appendix A).
Site
Description
Nemad ji R.
(near mouth)
Nemad ji R.
(Central Portion)
Nemad j i R.
(Central Portion)
Little Balsam Cr.
(Near Mouth)
Little Balsam Cr.
(Headwaters)
Empire Cr.
Skunk Cr.
(Above Elim)
Elim Cr.
Skunk Cr.
(Below Elim)
Turbidity
No. (FTU)
1 12-200
(51.6)
4 7-300
(45.3)
5 4-460
(51. 5)
8 2-63
(10.5)
9 2-9
(4.6)
10 1-28
(6.4)
11 12-200
(40.6)
12 4-500
(68.3)
13 10-500
(54.2)
Dissolved
Oxygen
(ppm)
6. 0-11.7
(8.6)
6. 0-13.4
(10.1)
7. 0-13.4
(10.5)
9.2-12.8
(11.0)
6.7-12.2
(9.4)
9.4-12.8
(10.6)
8.8-12.4
(10.3)
8.0-12.8
(10.7)
7. 0-12.7
(10. 0)
% Oxygen
Saturation
54.6-96.4
(80.2)
54.6-112. 0
(92.1)
64.2-119.1
(96.1)
88.2-123.1
(99.0)
57.4-107.6
(84.0)
85.1-105.7
(93.0)
80. 0-113. 0
(94.2)
79.4-124.6
(98.2)
70.5-122.1
(92.9)
Conductivity
y mho /cm
82-300
(186.4)
99-280
(187.4)
70-309
(172.8)
48-182
(123.1)
30-179
(96.4)
47-191
(114.1)
43-232
(139.3)
110-276
(174. 9)
59-238
(154.0)
Temperature
°C
1.2-22.
1.3-25.
1.6-23.
1.8-18.
1.5-16.
1. 5-12.
0.5-21.
1.9-20.
0.3-21.
2
0
3
2
2
8
1
0
9
-------
Table 5. Nitrite, nitrate and ortho- and total phosphate,
ranges and means (in parentheses) for ice-free
periods between August 1976 and April 1978. (see
Appendix B for complete data breakdown)
NO 2
(ppb)
NO 3
(ppb)
0-P04
(ppb)
T-P04
(ppb)
Little 0.0a-74.50 0.0a-533.80
Balsam (6.72) (88.47)
Empire 0.0a-37.90 O.Oa-263.54
(3.28) (42.62)
Skunk at 0.0a-12.20 0.0a-126.93
Hanson Dam (1.02) (28.13)
Skunk Above 0.0a-13.53 O.Oa-56.38
Elim (0.85) (18.04)
Skunk Below 0.0a-42.30 0.0a-76.30
Elim (2.35) (18.91)
Elim Below O.Oa-25.92 0.0a-161.21
Dam (5.29) (36.48)
Elim Above 0.0a-26.40 O.Oa-338.88
Dam (5.45) (67.76)
0.Oa-868.37
(98.43)
0.Oa-886.88
(96.10)
0.Oa-216.37
(62.93)
O.Oa-246.52
(39.76)
0.Oa-535.57
(99.65)
0.Oa-793.26
(200.59)
0.Oa-649.52
(144.23)
0.0a-1219.17
(514.63)
0.Oa-1094.54
(307.03)
42.8-1160.54
(326.82)
60.3-610.95
(242.35)
38.8-1168.79
(463.43)
0.0a-1028.92
(623.07)
46.0-890.84
(540.06)
Below minimum detectable level
on primary production. The influence of red clay turbidity on
light penetration (4) and covering of suitable substrates as
a result of sedimentation are effects which should reduce
production in turbid waters. Confounding factors in comparing
production between sites were the possibility of increased
nutrient loads associated with higher turbidities and the
higher average temperature in Skunk Creek. Concentrations of
major nutrients, however, were found to be generally lower in
turbid then in clearwater sites (Table 5). The measurements
of standing crop in this study do not necessarily reflect the
total amount of primary production in these tributaries.
More suitable substrate for diatom attachment (more rock and
rubble) occurs in both Little Balsam and Empire Creeks than
in Skunk Creek. This study was therefore designed only to
assess the effect of existing conditions within each tributary
on production on a standard substrate.
Standing crop of chlorophyll a_ was plotted with data from
1977 preceding that from fall 1976 to demonstrate seasonal
trends in primary production (Figure 5). The early increase
in production in the spring and early decrease in the fall at
the Skunk Creek sites is a result of minimal ground water
152
-------
4 CM
30 CM
to
to
to
00
EMPIRE
HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL
MI
to
20
0
LITTLE
BALSAM
\
SKUNK
(ST 11)
SKUNK
(ST 13)
*rr "-n
DATE
A
I/ \-
Vr,
DATE
Figure 5. Mg/m2 of chlorophyll a on glass slides
at 4 and 30 cm and in Horizontal and
Vertical Orientations in Empire, Little
Balsam and Skunk Creeks.
discharge. Stream discharge in Skunk Creek depends primarily
on run-off, and water temperatures are very responsive to
ambient air temperature, warming more rapidly during spring
and declining faster in the autumn. Empire and Little Balsam
Creeks have much greater ground water discharges, resulting
in more stable flows and cooler temperatures which are not
as responsive to air temperatures.
Comparisons between chlorophyll a concentrations extract-
ed from vertically and horizontally oriented slides showed
chlorophyll to be significantly lower on horizontal slides
153
-------
at the Skunk Creek sites during all sampling periods (Table
6), Production was also significantly lower on horizontal
slides on Little Balsam Creek during all 1977 sampling periods,
but during 1976 production on the horizontal slides was
generally higher (Table 7). This variation can be accounted
for by the extremely low discharges which occurred in Little
Balsam Creek during 1976. The reduced discharges resulted
in minimal sedimentation on the slides. Empire Creek had
significantly lower periphyton populations on horizontal
slides in two of the four 1977 sampling periods. The May
1977 period was one of high stream discharge which resulted
in sand sediment on the horizontal slides, thus decreasing
production. Significant differences in June 1977 occurred
when extremely low levels of chlorophyll were present (Table
7). When production was high (July and early and late August),
there were no significant differences due to angle of orien-
tation.
Empire Creek is the only watershed with no clay soils,
and sedimentation was minimal except when discharges were
high enough to transport sand to the water surface. In
general the angle of orientation of the slides had little
effect on periphyton production at this site. Differences
in standing crop due to orientation were shown to be fairly
pronounced at the other three sites, with differences about
as great on Little Balsam Creek, which is characterized by
very low turbidities, as in the relatively turbid Skunk Creek
sites. Minimal quantities of silt and clay therefore resulted
in a decrease in periphyton populations equal to that where
sedimentation rates were relatively high.
Production varied significantly at 4 and 30 cm in clear
water Empire Creek during two sampling periods (Table 6).
These differences were only between 0.7 and 4.5 percent
(Table 7), however, and were detectable only because of a
very small variance within the replicate slides. Reductions
in chlorophyll concentrations with depth were highly signifi-
cant during all 1977 sampling periods on Little Balsam Creek,
but 1976 samples demonstrated either no difference or in-
creased production with depth (Table 7). This anomaly was
due partially to different placement of the periphyton
samplers. The 1977 sets were in shaded area-s while samplers
were in fairly open areas in 1976. The diatoms, which com-
prise the algal periphyton in these streams, are adapted
to fairly low light intensities, and decreased production
often occurs if light intensities are too high (33). Sig-
nificant reductions in production were recorded at 30 cm
during all periods except one at the two Skunk Creek sampl-
ing sites.
Reduction in standing crop of periphyton with depth
appears to be as great on the relatively clear-water Little
Balsam Creek as the turbid Skunk Creek sites. Turbidity at
levels encountered in Skunk Creek during this study apparently
does not -have a great effect on production at 30 cm. Esti-
-------
vn
vn
Table 6. Effect of depth (4 vs. 30 cm) and angle of orientation (horizontal vs. vertical) on
chlorophyll a expressed as F-values for two-way analyses of variance. The AOV were performed
independently for each site within each time period.
Period
Empire Creek
D1 A2 DA3
Little Balsam Creek
D1 A2 DA3
Skunk Creek
(Station 11)
D1 A2 DA3
Skunk Creek
(Station 13)
D1 A2 DA3
9/3/76 20.62++ 10.6++ 39.18++ undetectable
10/26/76 undetectable .002 2.19 1.9 undetectable undetectable
5/31/77 0.37 34.96++ 15.79++ 68.75++ 101.08++ 40.29++ 44.15++ 70.26++ 1.29
6/20/77 3.49 37.7++ 0.59 45.6++ 83.87++ 36.01++ 104.38++ 655.41++ .058 98.62++ 134.43++ 29.98++
7/12/77 7.27+ 2.34 6.89+ 2138.0++ 770.0++ 310.0++ 47.3++ 14.52++ 0.41 98.6++ 430.0++ 21.42++
8/1/77 11.73++ 1.98 0.25 28.45++ 46.9++ 22.73++ 24.59++ 52.77++ 6.34+ 29.97++ 170.68++ 37.29++
8/22/77 36.99 + + 96.68 + + 23.31 + + 32.02 + + 138.0++ 2.14 1.22 74.9++ 12.88 + +
+ Significant at the 0.05 alpha level.
++ Significant at the 0.01 alpha level.
1 D = Depth
A = Angle of orientation.
3 DA = Depth x angle interaction.
-------
Table 7. Chlorophyll a/m on glass slides in Empire, Little Balsam and Skunk Creeks at two
depths in horizontal and vertical positions for seven periods between September
1976 and August 1977. Values are the average of four replicate slides at each
treatment combination.
vn
Empire Creek
(Site 10)
Little Balsam Creek
(Site 8)
Skunk Creek
(Site 11)
Skunk Creek
(Site 13)
9/3/76
10/26/76
5/31/77
6/20/77
7/12/77
8/1/77
8/22/77
4
30
4
30
4
30
4
30
4
30
4
30
4
30
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
Horiz .
Vert.
undetectable
undetectable
1.01
2.14
0.27
.06
23.71
23.54
23.87
23.62
24.01
4.32
2.79
0.87
0.71
24.58
23.46
24.04
23.70
25.33
Horiz.
32.42
27.69
6.1
4.34
2. 55
1.11
0.75
0.15
32.41
23.52
26.36
25.66
26.4
24.88
Vert.
24.17
53.88
2.55
4.21
14.72
3.86
12.90
2.68
46.64
26.67
45.04
28.97
44.24
30.96
Horiz.
Vert.
undetectable
undetectable
undetectable
undetectable
4
3
12
5
57
36
28
26
27
25
.57
.18
.97
.13
.38
. 04
.99
.37
.1
.20
6.
4.
33.
25.
72.
46.
3S.
31.
33.
29.
98
99
27
06
61
88
47
46
10
87
Horiz .
Vert.
undetectable
undetectable
undetectable
undetectable
3.01
5.1
0.25
32.97
23.84
24.47
23.83
25.95
24.67
11.63
23. 67
6.91
76.64
51.57
43.76
31.72
27.35
28.03
-------
mates of total annual production derived from measuring the
areas under the curves in Figure 5 show significantly lower
levels only in Empire Creek (Table 8), with slightly depress-
ed levels at site 13 on Skunk Creek. Water temperature and
incident light (Empire Creek has the lowest mean annual
temperature and densest tree canopy) therefore have greater
effects than the turbidity and sedimentation encountered in
this study.
Table 8. Relativized values for total annual production on
glass slides at two depths and two angles of
orientation on Empire, Little Balsam and Skunk
Creeks.
Little Balsam
Empire Creek Creek Skunk Creek Skunk Creek
Depth (Site 10) (Site 8) (Site 11) (Site 13)
(cm) Horiz. Vert. Horiz. Vert. Horiz. Vert. Horiz. Vert,
4
30
0.39
0.37
0
0
.43
.37
0. 61
0.55
1.
0.
00
78
0.65
0.48
0.
0.
95
78
0.46
0. 39
0.94
0.63
A greater reduction in standing crop with depth on the
vertical slides than on the horizontal slides resulted in
significant interactions between depth and angle of orienta-
tion in the two-way analysis of variance for Little Balsam
Creek and site 13 on Skunk Creek (Table 6). Two out of
four interactions were significant on Empire Creek and only
one out of five at site 11 on Skunk Creek. This might be
expected as light would be more limited with a vertical
orientation, thus reducing production. The absence of this
interaction at site 11 on Skunk Creek resulted from a fairly
equal decrease in production on both horizontal and vertical
slides. The reasons for this different type of light re-
sponse are not readily apparent.
Microorganisms
The natural stream ecosystem is driven primarily by
organic inputs from terrestrial sources, with primary pro-
duction generally assuming a relatively minor role as an
organic source. The stream insects which eat the leaves^
or filter particulate organics from the water derive minimal
nutritional value from the organic source itself, but depend
primarily on the bacterial and fungal populations which de-
compose the organics. Nitrogen fixing bacteria, which compose
a portion of the periphyton, provide the primary nutrition
for grazing insects (3*O. Microorganisms are thus the basic
food source for stream macroinvertebrates as well as the
agents which make streams such efficient processors of ter-
restrial organics.
157
-------
Microorganisms which inhabit streams include terrestrial
bacteria washed into the stream, microorganisms that are
able to sustain life on a low level of organics, and micro-
organisms that need a substrate for their proliferation (35).
Terrestrial bacteria assume a relatively minor role as very
few survive long in water. The microbial population is
influenced by factors such as the concentration of dissolved
nutrients, particularly phosphates, the availability of
organic nitrogen (for types unable to utilize inorganic
nitrogen), and the presence of particulate matter in the
water column (36).
Monitoring of microbial populations was begun in this
study when it was noted that the macroinvertebrate population
in the turbid stream equaled or exceeded those in clear-water
streams. Clay particles have been cited as a suitable sub-
strate for microorganisms as they absorb and concentrate
organics and nutrients (37, 38, 39). Microbial growth is
therefore possible in this microenvironment where enzymes
and nutrients may be so dilute as to be limiting in the water
column. It was thought that the clays and associated micro-
fauna could be enhancing macroinvertebrate populations by
serving as a food source in turbid streams. In addition to
assisting in developing understanding of the importance of
turbidity to the trophic stature, monitoring of microorganisms
served to determine whether human or animal wastes were
entering these streams.
Average bacterial counts for 1977 and 1978 (Table 9)
were higher in turbid Skunk Creek (site 13) than in the
clearwater Little Balsam (site 8) and Empire (site 10)
Creeks. Although many other physical, climatic and chemical
factors influence microbial populations, a positive trend
with turbidity exists. The fungi population exhibits the
opposite trend with turbidity, with lower numbers in Skunk
Creek than in Little Balsam and Elim Creeks.
The trends which appear in between site comparisons of
bacterial and fungal counts are not apparent for within
stream counts. No consistent correlations were found between
turbidity and microbial counts at given sites. Factors
associated with rainfall and increasing turbidities caused
greatly fluctuating populations and obscured relationships.
After rainfalls there was a temporary rise in the bacterial
populations, apparently due to an influx of terrestrial
microbes and to increased nutrients and dissolved or parti-
culate organics which trigger a proliferation of native
stream bacteria. The population drops rapidly as most
terrestrial microorganisms die and the organics are depleted.
Although higher bacterial populations were suggested in
turbid sites, the results reveal no startling differences
due to turbidity. However, bias associated with the enumera-
tion technique may mask more significant differences. The
158
-------
membrane filter technique used for enumeration allowed only
one colony to be formed per clay particle, even if several
bacteria were present on each particle.
Table 9. Turbidity, bacteria and fungi range and means (in
parentheses) in Little Balsam Creek (site 8), Empire
Creek (site 9), and Skunk Creek (site 13) during
1977 and 1978.
Site
Turbidity
(FTU)
Total
Bacteria
(No./ml)
Fecal
Coliform
(No.7100 ml)
Fungi
(No./ml)
Little Balsam
(Site 8)
1977
1978
Empire
(Site 10)
1977
1978
Skunk
(Site 13)
1977
1978
3-22
(5.45)
4-25
(9.9)
2-6
(2.8)
3-25
(8.6)
10-66
(29.1)
22-220
(82.6)
102-3200
(1058.4)
90-2740
(762.9)
400-1280
(833.0)
50-1400
(542.9)
520-8000
(2205)
230-9100
(2702.9)
0-114
(29.8)
0-18
(6.9)
0-134
(36.3)
0-7
(3.6)
0-1030
(274.5)
0-325
(119.6)
13-6500
(1178.3)
14-310
(84.0)
5-5900
(907.6)
12-505
(138.3)
33-650
(188.4)
32-325
(95.6)
The fact that clay particles may concentrate bacteria
and fungi is potentially benefical to macroinvertebrates as
they are more readily available to the large number of insects
which feed by filtering particles from the water column.
The major groups of bacteria found in Little Balsam,
Empire, and Skunk Creeks did not differ appreciably between
sites (Table 10). Flayobacterium, which was found at all
sites, is very common in aquatic systems. Bacillus, which
was abundant during periods of high discharge and turbidity
in Skunk Creek, is commonly found in soils and reflects the
higher rates of erosion prevalent in the Skunk Creek basin.
159
-------
Bacillus was not common during periods of low-flow, indicating
poor survival in water.
Table 10. Major groups of bacteria in Little Balsam, Empire
and Skunk Creeks in order of magnitude of occurence.
Little Balsam Empire Skunk
Creek Creek Creek
(site 8) (site 10) (site 13)
Proteus i>{ Proteus Proteus
Flavobacterium* Micrococcaceae** Bacillus*
Micrococcaceae** Flavobacterium Flavobacterium
Micrococcaceae
* Genus
* ftFamily
Macroinvertebrates
Field Studies
The effect of heavy sedimentation on stream macroinverte-
brates has been shown by some authors to affect the numbers
and biomass of organisms with very little associated change
in species composition (17, 18). Herbert e_t al. (18) found
the bottom fauna to be 3.3 times more numerous where heavy
clay sediment was not polluting the stream. No changes in
species composition were noted. Turbidity levels of the
polluted stream in that study varied from 900-7500 ppm, a
minimum of 6 times the high levels normally found in the
Nemadji Basin. Other authors, including studies cited by
Cordone and Kelly (15) and Chutter (40) and studies by King
and Ball (41) and Nuttal and Bielby (42) found significant
changes in the composition of the bottom fauna with increased
siltation.
The effect of sedimentation on the benthic fauna seems
to be manifested primarily through changes in the character
of the stream substrate. Complete inundation of pools and
riffles by silt and sand, as has occurred in several studies,
would have obvious effects on faunal composition through for-
mation of a monotypic environment. It is also a very unstable
environment, unsuitable for trapping detritus and prone to
be flushed away during floods. When a rocky stream substrate
is not completely covered, reduction in the benthic'popula-
tion may occur through elimination of interstitial space.
The preference (or greater population size) of insects has
been found to be large rubble>medium rubble>gravel>bedrock>
sand (43, 44, 45). Generally, the more interstitial space,
the higher the preference for the substrate.
160
-------
Rates of deposition in areas of the Nemadji River Basin
where most of the erosional products are clay are not great
enough to inundate the rocky substrate. The most dramatic
effects of erosion are in reaches of the river where large
quantities of sand are contributed to the bed load. The
substrate in these areas is extremely unstable and harbors
the lowest benthic populations in the system (site 4, Figure
6). Only the biting midges, Ceratopogonidae, seem to be
adapted to this shifting sand. In more upstream areas of
the Nemadji and in the tributaries where little sand is con-
tributed to the bed load a pool-riffle continuum is formed
with stable substrates and resultant increases in benthic
populations.
8
0
M 400
3
o
ifc
o
3
3 200
4 3
MiMAOJI
f » 10 11
LITTLE BALSAM IMPIII SKUHK
12 13
HIM SKUNK
Figure 6. Average number of organisms in Surber
samples from sites on the Nemadji
River and tributaries in 1975, 1976,
and 1977.
Streams have been classified as rich, average, and poor
on the basis of weight of benthic organisms per unit area
(46) and number of organisms per unit area (47). Applying
Madsen's classification (47), most Nemadji system sites
would be classified as 'rich' (>200 organisms/0.092 nr) (Table
11). The exceptions are site 4 on the Nemadji River, which
was always 'poor' and sites 5 (Nemadji River), 10 (Empire
Creek), and 12 (Elim Creek), which varied between rich and
poor (Table 11).
161
-------
Table 11. Stream classification on the basis of density of
macroinvertebrates (Madsen, 1935). Sites are
classified as "rich" if densites exceed 200/
0.092 mS "average" if density > 100 but < 200/
0.092 mS and "poor" if densities < 100/0.092 m2,
Densities are yearly averages for combined pool
and riffle benthic samples (see Figure 6).
SITE
Description No.
Nemadji R. 4
(Central Portion)
Nemadji R. 5
(Central Portion)
Little Balsam Cr. 8
(Near Mouth)
Little Balsam Cr. 9
(Headwaters)
1975
Poor
Rich
Rich
Rich
YEAR
1976
Poor
Poor
Rich
Rich
1977
Poor
Poor
Rich
Rich
Empire Cr.
Skunk Cr.
(Above Elim)
Elim Cr.
Skunk Cr.
(Below Elim)
10
11
12
13
Poor
Rich
Rich
Average
Rich
Rich
Rich
Rich
Rich
Average
Rich
With the exception of Elim Creek (site 12), the only
sites which were not consistently classified as rich were
those with small or consolidated substrate. The turbid
tributaries with stable substrates support as large a benthic
population as do those streams with minimal erosion and high
water clarity (Figure 6). The lowest populations, in fact,
occur in Empire Creek, with the exception of the Nemadji
River sites with unstable substrate. Empire 'Creek has the
lowest mean annual turbidities and no clay in the watershed.
Small gravel predominates in the riffle areas as opposed to
rubble and large gravel at sites with higher macroinvertebrate
densities. The lack of the larger substrates does not allow
maintenance of a large standing crop of macroinvertebrates.
The higest average number of benthic organisms (site 9 on
Little Balsam Creek) is in an area with an extremely stable
discharge and rubble in both the pools and riffles.
The importance of available substrate in dictating
standing crop of macroinvertebrates is further illustrated
by the high biomass generally found on the Hester Bendy
162
-------
samplers at sites 4 and 5 on the Nemadji River (Figure 7).
This contrasts with biomass in benthic samples (Figure 8).
The high biomass values are a result of both the types of
insects which occur and the relative attractiveness of the
substrates. The large stonefly, Pteronarcys dorsata, is
common in the Nemadji River and rare or absent at other sites.
It is easily attracted by these artificial substrate samplers,
and the presence of one or two stoneflies is enough to greatly
increase total biomass.
* 98 9 10 11 12 11
NEM/IDJI UTTLE BALSAM EMPIRE SKUNK ELIM SKUNK
Figure 7. Average macroinvertebrate
biomass (gms. dry wt.) on
Hester Bendy samplers (0.11 m )
from sites on the Nemadji
River and tributaries in 1975,
1976, and 1977.
163
-------
Figure 8. Average macroinvertebrate biomass
(gms. dry wt.) in Surber samples
(0.092 in2) from sites on the
Nemadji River and tributaries
in 1975, 1976, and 1977.
There is also evidence that these multiplate samplers
are more attractive and more heavily colonized where the
natural substrate is fairly hostile as in the drifting
sand characterizing site 4. Correlation of the Shannon-
Weaver diversity indices between benthic and artificial
substrate samplers at all sites for autumn 1977 yielded a
correlation coefficient of -0.838 (n = 7, P < 0.05). This
would indicate an active selection of the artificial sub-
strate when available substrate was unattractive or unin-
habitable, and a rejection if a suitable natural substrate
was available. Consideration of only artificial substrate
samplers may therefore not reflect the true macroinvertebrate
population but rather use of the provided substrate by
opportunistic individuals from the stream drift. Similar
results were found with artificial substrate samplers by Wene
and Wickliff (13). The correlation was not as strong when
other sampling periods were included in the analysis.
Active recruitment of macroinvertebrates to artifical
substrate was observed again when comparing the number of
organisms and genera in the sandy substrate with the Hester
Dendy samples and Surber sample from detritus at site 4
-------
(Table 12). Mid-channel sand samples contained very few
genera or numbers of invertebrates. Detritus samples con-
tained many more genera and a large number of individuals.
Hester Dendy samples, while intermediate in total number of
organisms, attracted a large number of genera, further
illustrating the effect of substrate conditions.
Table 12. Average number of organisms and genera in Surber
samples from detritus areas, mid-channel sand
substrate, and Hester Dendy samplers at site 4
in the Nemadji River.
Sample type
No. of
genera
' No. of
organisms
Detritus
Mid-channel
Hester Dendy
17. 0
. 3
26.0
115.0
18.5
87.5
The total number of taxa (generic level) occurring at
the various sites is also insensitive to clay sedimentation
(Figure 9). Again, only the Nemadji River sites with unstable
sand substrates demonstrate a significant decrease.
SSR
s a s
80
60
O
5
4 5
NEMADJI
8 9 10 11 12 U
LITTLE. 1ALSAM EMPIRE SKUNK ElIM SKUNK
Figure 9
Total number of taxa encountered
in Surber samples from sites on
the Nemadji River and tributaries
in 1975, 1976, and 1977.
With the lack of responsiveness in both total number of ^
organisms and number of taxa, it is not surprising that species
165
-------
diversity does not change in relation to existing levels of
turbidity or sedimentation (Figure 10). The differences
which were formerly apparent in total numbers and number
of taxa in site 4 on the Nemadji River are, in fact, obscured,
The sandy substrate at this site is not an environment which
limits survival in so much as it prevents occupation. No
species dominates this area, resulting in occupation by
many genera in fairly low numbers and a relatively high
species diversity. Species diversity is thus a very poor
index of the effects of turbidity and sedimentation under
conditions encountered in this study.
4.0-
z
o
z
z
NEMADJI
B 9 10 11 12 13
LITTLE IALSAM EMPIRE SKUNK ELIM SKUNK
Figure 10.
Shannon Weaver Diversity Indices
from benthic samples from sites
on the Nemadji River and tribu-
taries in 1975, 1976, and 1977.
The possibilities of an increased microbial fauna
associated with suspended clay particles and reduced primary
production in the turbid streams (which did not prove to be
true) were felt to offer the potential to affect the trophic
structure of the insects. All genera were therefore assigned
to a functional group according to Merrit and Cummins (48)
or Hynes (30) (Appendix G provides a complete list of
macroinvertebrates and assigned group). Some difficulties
were encountered as many of the insects are opportunistic
and can readily switch from one mode of feeding to another.
The lumping of grazers, scrapers, gatherers, and collectors
into one group (collectors) eliminated much of this problem.
An exception was Palpomyia (Ceratopogonidae) which is classi-
166
-------
fied as a carnivore or a collector. It was classified as
a predator for this exercise (Appendix G).
Consideration of functional groups of insects by site
did not demonstrate any differences in the relative number
of each group which could be related to turbidity or sedi-
mentation (Table 13). The herbivore (i.e. shredders, filt-
erers, and collectors) to carnivore ratios did not demonstrate
any trends between clear water (sites 8, 9, and 10) and turbid
water (sites 5, 11, 12, 13) streams. The disproportionately
high number of carnivores at site 4 was a result of classify-
ing Palpomyia, the dominant organism, as a carnivore. The
only other obvious differences in composition are the reduced
number of filterers at sites 4, 10, and 12 and fewer shredders
at sites 4, 11, 12, and 13. The low number of filterers is
related primarily to the substrate type. Hydropsychidae
(Trichoptera) compose the largest portion of this group, and
they require large rock or rubble which does not occur in
sites 4 and 10. Site 12 has suitable substrate but is in-
termittant and does not seem to be rapidly recolonized by
this group. The shredders are composed primarily of stone-
flies (Plecoptera). The reduced numbers at sites 4, 5, 11,
12, and 13 (all of the turbid sites) would seem to indicate
that this group is inhibited by turbidity and sedimentation.
No genera occurring at clear-water sites were absent from the
turbid sites, however, and stoneflies are extremely sensitive
to high water temperatures (30). The higher average temp-
eratures in the turbid sites could therefore effect this
change in total numbers. The clear water sites (8, 9, and
10) have superior aquifers and maintain much cooler temp-
eratures through the summer months (Appendix A).
The taxonomic composition of the turbid and clear water
sites differed slightly, but no invertebrates seemed to be
hampered by existing levels of turbidity or sedimentation.
At the ordinal level, there is a distinct reduction in the
number of Plecoptera (stoneflies), '(Table 14), but this Was
most likely due to temperature, as was previously discussed.
The mayflies (Ephemeroptera), generally considered one of the
most sensitive orders of insects for pollution studies,
showed significantly greater population densities in turbid
Skunk Creek than in the clear-water tributaries. No genera
seemed to be hindered by turbid or silty conditions, but
silt-loving genera such as Caenis sp., Hexagenia sp., and
Ephemera sp. increased significantly. The family Heptageniidae
and Isonychia sp. also increased in numbers.
Oligochaetes are one of the most sensitive indicators
of silt in the substrate. The largest numbers occurred in
the lower reaches of the Little Balsam where small quantities
of clay and silt are found in the predominantly sand sub-
strate of the pools. The relative numbers of oligochaetes
remained low at all times. Oligochaetes represented 1% or
less of the benthos in areas with no clays in the sediment
167
-------
Table 13. Average number of predators, shredders, filterers, and collectors/0.092 m with percent
composition, total number of taxa in each group, and herbivore to carnivore ratios at
8 sites in the Nemadji River system. Estimates are based upon Surber samples collected
during 1975-1977.
SITE NO.
10 11 12 13
No. % No. % NoT % No. % NCK % No. % No. % No. %
Carnivores 12.3 43.6 12.0 11.7 19.3 7.2 47.6 11.3 24.3 12.8 25.6 7.6 21.1 9.5 20.7 9.7
# taxa 13 21 25 29 25 28 23 27
Shredders 0.2 0.5 1.7 1.6 20.0 7.5 56.9 13.5 27.6 14.6 10.5 3.1 2.1 1.0 4.2 2.3
# taxa 5 6 14 15 14 13 11 13
Filterers 1.2 4.4 45.8 44.5 91.5 34.1 138.5 33.0 29.4 15.5 95.1 28.2 27.2 12.2 54.7 25.8
# taxa 58797879
Collectors 14.5 51.5 43.4 42.2 137.8 51.3 177.3 42.2 108.3 57.1 206.2 61.1 172.4 77.3 131.8 62.2
# taxa 45 47 49 46 45 59 45 50
Cn Herbivore/ 1.3 7.6 12.9 7.8 6.8 12.2 9.6 9.2
00 Carnivore
-------
Table 14.
cr>
vD
Percent composition in benthic samples of major groups of organisms for all
samples collected during 1975-1977. Chironomidae is listed separately from
other Dipterans.
Nemad j i
Plecoptera
Ephemeroptera
Trichoptera
Coleoptera
Diptera
Chironomidae
Other
Megaloptera
Odonata
Hemiptera
Oligochaeta
Nematoda
Hydracarina
Limpets
Hydra
Hirundinea
Q T> Tt a c^-yt n H a Łi
4
1.12
7.96
0.28
0.50
47.70
38.79
0.06
0.11
3.25
0.02
5
3.05
16.20
38.90
4.23
27.75
7.04
2.70
0. 03
0. 03
0.03
0.02
Little Balsam
8
7.32
8.98
39.46
0.62
31.54
6.81
0. 02
5.07
0. 02
0.14
0.02
0.02
9
14.16
8.77
19.64
0.32
36.73
18.83
0.18
0.01
1. 00
0.19
n i 9
Empire
10
15.18
6.09
3.24
0.13
55.79
18.74
0.34
0.27
0.04
0. 07
0.06
n m
Skunk
11
3.23
21.18
18.54
15.70
26.51
9.47
0.02
0.17
0.17
3. 99
0. 08
0. 31
0.38
0.06
n 9R
Elim
12
4.50
22.68
8.93
5.65
53.36
6.34
0.08
0.06
0.06
2.15
0.06
0.08
0.06
0.02
n n9
Skunk
13
2.22
11.82
24.10
16.27
34.45
6.20
0. 04
0.03
0.03
3.17
0.16
1.22
0.18
0.02
n i n
-------
while they comprised 2.5-5.0% of the samples from areas where
red clay erosion was occurring.
The beetle larvae, Optioservus sp., is perhaps the best
indicator for levels of silt which are detrimental to spawn-
ing success of the salmonids which require a free flow of
water through the rocky riffles. Optioservus sp., which
represent most of the Coleoptera in Table 14, is found almost
entirely in riffle areas and occurs in significant numbers
only where there is silt in the interstitial spaces of the
riffles. Optioservus is a major portion of the benthos in
Skunk Creek and occurs in significant numbers in the riffle
areas of site 5 on the Nemadji River (Table 14) where there
are substantial quantities of silt. It occurs infrequently
in those sites occupied by trout and the Nemadji River site 4
where sand predominates in the substrate.
Laboratory Studies
Laboratory analysis of the levels of turbidity which
affect activity and respiration in the stonefly, Pteronarcys
dorsata, demonstrated that turbidities must be much higher
than those encountered in the Nemadji River system to elicit
any response, at least for the test organism. At the nominal
turbidity levels of 2.5, 100, 250, 500 and 1000 FTU, respira-
tion rates were not significantly higher except at the 1000
FTU level (Table 15).
Table 15. Mean respiration rates of Pteronarcys dorsata with
levels of significance for comparisons with Control
(2.5 FTU).
Turbidity Level (FTU)
2.5 100 250 500 1000
yl 02/g dry wt/hr 338.95 275.71 407.21 295.35 709.41a
aSignificantly different at .01.
The similarity in respiration rates at. all but the
highest concentration of suspended solids suggests a threshold
effect. There was a noticeable amount of clay covering the
nymphs in the 1000 FTU experiment (highest concentration).
At no other concentration was the covering apparent. The
covering of clay extended over nearly the entire body of each
animal, including the gills. The increased respiration rate
was most likely due to the movements of the animal to rid
itself of this covering. Respiration rates of the nymphs
during the 2.5 to 500 FTU experiments were similar to those
of P_. californica (49).
The stonefly numphs exhibited different activity levels
170
-------
at the nominal turbidities of 1.5, 25, 60, and^150 FTU at
the three current velocities. There were no significant
trends at 1.6 cm/sec (Figure 11) (P = .54). Activity in-
creased with turbidity at 0.8 cm sec (Figure 12) but was
not significant at the 95% confidence level (P = .059).
There was a significant increase in activity at 0.4 cm/sec
(P = .03) (Figure 13). Activity did not increase appreciably
until turbidities reached the highest level (150 FTU).
Application of a Kruskal-Wallis test (51) showed a significant
difference in activity between the experiments at the dif-
ferent water velocities [P = 0.0001].
I
i
•s
1
Figure 11. Mean activity of
P. dorsata nymphs at turbid-
Tties of 1.5, 25, 60, and
150 FTU at the 1.6 cm/sec
flow rate.
I
21 41 SO 10
Sut|Mnd«d Solids (mg/1 )
Figure 12. Mean activity
of P_. dorsata nymphs at
turbidities of 1.5, 25,
60, and 150 FTU at the
0.8 cm/sec flow rate.
3190
1 2MI
3
4H1T
29 48 M
Solidl (ma/I )
Figure 13. Mean activity of
P. dorsata nymphs at tur-
bidities of 1.5, 25, 60,
and 150 FTU at the 0.4 cm/
sec flow rate.
171
-------
The results of the activity experiments suggest that
the water flow rate and the concentration of suspended solids
interact to affect the activity of P_. dor sat a nymphs.
Activity increased among treatment combinations as the sus-
pended solid concentration increased and the velocity de-
creased. The increased response to turbidity at lower flow
rates is the reverse of what would be expected if the effect
of suspended material was related primarily to abrasion,
assuming increased abrasion would increase and not decrease
activity.
The reason for the increased activity of the nymphs is
most likely behavioral. Behavioral mechanisms that are
plausible include enhanced activity due to reduction of light
by suspended solids, increased activity to remove any clays
settling on the body, and increased activity in an effort to
avoid a silted substrate. Activity of stream dwelling insects
is known to be linked to very low light intensity (52, 53).
Because of the abrupt light-to-dark change as the laboratory
lights turned on and off and the extreme darkness of the 12
hr night period in these experiments , the effect of increased
activity with decreased light due to suspended solids would
be evident only during the lighted period. However, the
small dimensions of the glass troughs allowed light to
penetrate to the depth of the nymphs at all suspended solids
levels. Therefore, increased activity due to light reduction
is unlikely in this experiment. No significant difference
was found between the daytime activity in the control versus
turbid water troughs at flow rates of 0.8 cm/sec (? = 0.56)
or 0.4 cm/sec (p = 0.36) using a Wilcoxon Two-Sample test.
An alternative explanation is that the clay settling on
the animals may have irritated them or reduced their ability
to exchange gases through the gills and body integument.
Since the ventro-lateral position of the gills of the nymphs
protects them from becoming silt-covered, the latter explana-
tion seems unlikely. A general irritational effect cannot,
however, be ruled out.
It is known that some species of stream dwelling insects
avoid substrates that are covered with silt (54, 55, 56, 57).
The settled clay may have influenced the results of these
experiments, by increasing activity as the nymphs moved about
in search of more suitable substrate.
In addition, current speed is known to affect the distri-
bution of some aquatic insects (40, 57, 58), Pteronarcys
dorsata was normally collected in areas of very low flow rate,
namely^in^leaf packs and in debris near the edges of the
Nemadji River. If one assumes an optimum, low, currerit
velocity for P_. dorsata and a hierarchy of effects of current
velocity and settled solids, the decreased activity at higher
flow rates is more easily explained. Since all experiments
at the same turbidity had comparable clay deposition rates
172
-------
(Table 16), at the 1.6 cm/sec flow rate the effect of current
on the activity of the nymphs may have been more important
than the reaction of the nymphs to the settled clay. The
low activity at all suspended solids levels indicates that
at flow rates that are abnormally high for their micro-
habitat the nymphs lower their activity. Lowering the
activity would lessen the chance of being carried away by
the current. The generally higher activity levels in the
0.8 cm/sec as compared with the 0.4 cm/sec experiments can
be explained by the combined effects of deposited sediment
and current velocity. The 0.8 cm/sec flow rate was most
likely above the optimum for this species, but below the^
threshold that reduced activity. In this case the activity
of the nymphs was enhanced by both the flow rate (as they
increased activity to seek a more suitable velocity) and
deposited solids. At the 0.4 cm/sec flow rate, the velocity
was nearer the optimum and there was a general decrease
in activity. In this case, the settled clay affected the
activity more than did the current velocity, resulting in
a significant increase in activity at the highest turbidity
level. Rabeni and Minshall (57) found that both current
velocity and a thin silt covering_on the substrate affected
the distribution of many aquatic insects.
Table 16. Sediment deposition rates for the mean turbidities
at each experimental flow rate during activity
experiments with ]?. dorsata.
Turbidity
Experimental Flow Rates (cm/sec)
1.6 ' 0.8 „ . 0.4
150
60
25
2.5
1.
6.
3.
8.
5 x
142
758
392
10
X
X
X
-6
ID'7
io-7
10-8
1
6
3
8
.587
.708
.418
.608
X
X
X
X
10"
10"
10"
10"
6
7
7
8
1.
6.
3.
8.
631 x
253 x
429 x
872 x
10"6
io-7
10"7
10~8
Although the maximum suspended clay concentrations were
different in the activity and respiration experiments (150
and 1000 FTU, respectively), the results support Hynes' (50)
general statement that "There seems to be little evidence
of any direct effect of suspended matter on animals . . ."•
The effects are those produced by the settling of suspended
material, either onto the substrate or onto the animal. The
experiments suggest that increased movement of the nymphs,
evident as increased respiration and activity, is due to an
irritational effect of clay settled onto the animal. In
the activity experiments this reaction could have been
173
-------
augmented by movement to avoid a silted substrate.
The relation between suspended solids concentration,
water_velocity and activity of P. dorsata nymphs is complex.
Activity tends to increase with increased suspended solids
concentration, and is also influenced by water velocity.
The increased activity of the nymphs as suspended solids
concentration increased indicates irritation of the nymphs
by settled clay or an avoidance reaction to a silted substrate.
Water velocity increased activity when it was not at some
optimum (here at approximately the 0.4 cm/sec flow rate).
The increased activity observed in these experiments suggests
that the nymphs would move from areas of siltation and non-
optimum water velocity in nature. The presence of the
nymphs in the Nemadji River suggests that the suspended
solids concentrations are generally not high enough to cause
loss of the species from the fauna. If suspended solids
levels increased to levels similar to the highest used in these
experiments (approximately 1000 FTU), some of the fauna could
be eliminated.
174
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Fish
Field Studies
Thirty-five species of fish were collected in the Nemadji
watershed during this study. Appendix H identifies the species
collected and their relative abundance by site. The Nemadji
River and the turbid tributaries (Skunk and Elim Creeks)
were dominated by the minnow (Cyprinidae) and sucker (Catos-
tomidae) families. Clearwater tributaries (Empire and Little
Balsam Creeks) were inhabited primarily by brown trout
(Salmo trutta), brook trout, mottled sculpin (Cottus bairdi),
and brook stickleback (Culaea inconstans). The small number
of species in the cold headwaters resulted in low species
diversity. Species diversity was lowest in the upper portion
of Little Balsam Creek (site 9) and in Empire Creek (site 10;
Table 17). More species occurred near the mouth of the
Little Balsam (site 8) where minnows were common. Species
diversity was correspondingly higher. The increased number
of species was apparently the result of greater living space,
slightly higher water temperatures, and the close proximity
of warmer, more turbid Balsam Creek which supports a diverse
minnow population.
Table 17. Shannon Weaver species diversity indices, total
number of species, average number of fish/hec and
fish biomass/hec in sites on the Nemadji River and
Little Balsam, Empire, Skunk and Elim Creeks (see
Appendix I for sampling period estimates from
which averages were derived).
Site
Species No. Fish/
diversity species hec.
Kg/
hec.
10
11
Nemadji R.
(near mouth)
Nemadji R.
(central portion)
Nemadji R.
(central portion)
Little Balsam Cr.
(near mouth)
Little Balsam Cr.
(headwaters)
Empire Cr.
Skunk Cr.
(above Elim)
12 Elim Creek
2.91
3.19a
3. 05a
2. 59
1.52
1.32
2.69
2.31
13
20
23
9
6
4
9
8
14
13 Skunk Cr. 3.00
(below Elim)
adoes not include sucker spring spawning runs.
1300a
3287a
9252
4087
7340
8545
13127
7487
19. 4a
21. 2a
70.5
46.0
120.1
66.7
98.2
96.7
175
-------
Species diversity was higher in the turbid warmwater
streams than in the streams with low turbidity. The highest
diversity was in site 4 on the Nemadji River. It was also
characterized by the lowest standing crop of fish (Table 17).
Suitable habitat was restricted to the very narrow river
margins where roots and branches provided shelter and the
only habitat other than relatively sterile drifting sand.
The occurrence of many species, and absence of a dominant
species, resulted in a high diversity value. Site 5 contained
more species than any other site as it had a fairly diverse
pool-riffle habitat which supported a variety of stream
dwelling species as well as providing spawning habitat for
Lake Superior species. Skunk and Elim Creeks, the other
turbid sites, had fairly high diversity values due to the
variety of minnows and other small fish common to these
streams.
The species of fish which inhabited a given stream or
site was dictated primarily by the stream origin and resultant
water temperatures. The Nemadji River headwater streams are
in both sandy and clay type soils. Those streams originating
in sandy reaches have good aquifers and are generally cold-
water trout streams. Those in areas dominated by clays have
very poor aquifers and receive most of their discharge from
surface runoff. These streams will either not support trout
or are very poor trout waters due to marginally high water
temperatures and unstable discharges. Of the study streams,
Empire and Little Balsam Creeks originate in sandy areas.
Skunk and Elim Creeks and that part of the main body of the
Nemadji River sampled originate or flow primarily through
clay soils and do not support viable populations of cold-
water fish.
Differences in discharge and temperature made interpreta-
tion of differences in fish populations among the study streams
difficult to relate directly to clay turbidity or sedimenta-
tion. The Nemadji River and turbid tributaries support fish
populations dominated by minnows but no major predators.
Three trout were found in three years of sampling Skunk
Creek. A few migrant spawning brown trout and steelhead and
a rare northern pike or rock bass composed the predator
population in the Nemadji River with the exception of a large
population of walleye during late spring and early summer in
deeper reaches of the river close to Lake Superior. This
lack of predators in the turbid streams is probably related
more to channel form, temperature, and discharge than turbidity.
Lake trout have been shown to avoid turbid waters in
Lake Superior (4) and it is possible that the waiting-watching-
darting which typifies feeding behavior in stream-dwelling
trout is hindered by turbid water. However, low discharges
and marginal temperatures which characterize turbid streams
in the Nemadji drainage are probably more inhibitory to trout
habitation than turbidity. Herbert et al. (18) found no
176
-------
change in distribution of trout at turbidities up to 60 ppm
(92 FTU). This turbidity is reached only during periods of
high water in the Nemadji River System. Laboratory studies
by the same group (59) demonstrated no effect on survival
at turbidities less than 270 ppm (436 FTU). Even this is
quite low compared to the results of other studies on the
direct effects of turbidity. Wallen (60) found no direct
effect on warmwater fish at 100,000 ppm (164,000 FTU).
MacCrimmon (61) found no effect on survival of young Atlantic
salmon in streams at 1150 JTU (approximately 1100 FTU). _A
review of the direct effects of suspended sediments on fish
(15) suggests that levels which are directly harmful are
far above those which reduce fish populations through the
indirect effects of habitat alteration, destruction of the
food supply, or impairment of reproductive success. Our
studies in the Nemadji River watershed have demonstrated
that none of these indirect effects occur except in areas
where sand is the primary erosional product.
The limited overlap of fish species between clear and
turbid water streams restricted specific comparisons of growth
to creek chubs between the Nemadji River (avg. turb. = 51.5
FTU) and Skunk Creek (avg. turb. = 54.2 FTU) and brook trout
between Empire (avg. turb. = 6.4 FTU) and Little Balsam
(avg. turb. =4.6 FTU) Creeks. Creek chubs, although occasion-
ally collected in Little Balsam Creek, were present only
seasonally when they migrated from Balsam Creek into which
Little Balsam Creek flows. Age and growth data from Little
Balsam creek chubs was therefore not reflective of conditions
within the stream and was not considered in comparison with
the turbid sites.
Results of the Nemadji River - Skunk Creek comparisons
demonstrated a significantly higher growth rate (P <0.025)
for Skunk Creek creek chubs (Table 18). This is probably a
result of the higher average temperature in Skunk Creek.
Although these results might not be surprising in light of
temperature differences, it does indicate that there are no
detrimental effects due to slightly elevated turbidities.
(Although average turbidities were similar, Skunk Creek
maintains a higher low flow turbidity which was compensated
in the Nemadji River by higher high water turbidities.)
Brown trout growth was calculated for fish captured in
Little Balsam and Empire Creeks (Table 19). Comparison of
growth rates between fish from these creeks cannot be made
as sampled fish had completed only one year of growth in
Empire Creek. Comparison of growth between Little Balsam
Creek brown trout and brook trout showed brown trout grow
faster in this stream. It appears that the same is true
in Empire Creek but only the first years growth is known.
177
-------
Table 18. Calculated and grand average calculated total
lengths (mm) of creek chubs (Semotilus atramaculatus)
captured in Nemadji River sites 4 and 5 and Skunk
Creek sites 11 and 13. Fish captured during 1976
and 1977 were combined for analysis.
Nemadji River
Number
Age of fish
V 1
IV 2
III 8
II 35
I 21
Grand Average
Length
Skunk Creek
Number
Age of fish
V 2
IV 8
III 17
IV 30
I 23
Grand Average
Length
1
44
60
40
47
45
47
1
65
58
56
54
53
57
Total Length (nun) at Age
234
64 91 121
86 110 147
60 82
70
70 94 134
Total Length (mm) at Age
234
99 138 168
84 112 137
78 103
75
84 118 153
5
140
140
5
199
199
178
-------
Table 19. Calculated and grand average calculated total
lengths (nun) of brown trout (Salmo trut'ta) captured
in Little Balsam Creek sites 8 and 9 and Empire
Creek site 10. All fish were captured during 1976.
Little Balsam Creek
Total Length (mm) at Age
Age
III
II
I
Number
of fish
2
6
12
1
118
93
100
2
175
145
3
240
Grand Average Length 104 160 240
Empire Creek
Total Length (mm) at Age
Number
Age of fish 1
I 12 100
Grand Average Length 100
Comparison of growth rates between Empire (site 10)
and Little Balsam (site 9) Creek brook trout (Table 20)
demonstrates better conditions for growth in Empire Creek.
The importance of suitable discharge and cover for trout
growth (Empire Creek has a higher discharge and undercut
banks) is well illustrated by this comparison as trout^grow
faster despite very low macroinvertebrate populations in
Empire Creek (Figure 6). Suitable habitat in^Empire Creek
resulted in greater population biomass than Little Balsam
Creek (Table 17) as well as better growth rate.
The reliance of trout on water discharge as a dimension
of space (by allowing food to come to them instead of actively
seeking) makes them one of the best adapted predatory game
fish for small streams or shallow rivers where little foraging
space is available. Streams the size of Little Balsam and
Empire Creeks would not provide adequate space for any other
game species. The middle reaches of the Nemadji River, with
widths exceeding 20 meters, are typified by shallow pools
and no undercut banks. The lack of living space for large
fish other than trout, water temperatures which are^not
tolerated by trout, and lack of winter refuge when ice forms
on this shallow river combine to provide a habitat which is suit-
able only for year around residency of small fish species and as
179
-------
a^seasonal spawning ground for some Lake Superior fish.
Similar effects can be seen in Skunk Creek where the poor
aquifers result in very low summer discharges which make
the stream a series of warm pools. Neither stream velocities
nor temperatures are suitable for trout.
Table 20. Calculated and grand average calculated total
length (mm) of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)
captured in Little Balsam Creek sites 8 and 9
and Empire Creek site 10. All fish were captured
during 1976 in Empire Creek. Fish from Little
Balsam Creek were collected during 1976 and 1977.
Little Balsam Creek
Total Length (mm) at Age
Age
III
II
I
Grand
Number
of fish
2
8
24
Average Length
1
96
85
93
91
2
124
130
127
3
158
158
Empire Creek
Age
Number
of fish
Total Length (mm) at Age
1 2
II 15
I 32
Grand Average Length
93
92
92
154
154
The single most important factor regulating fish popula-
tion size within the Nemadji River System is channel form.
The species which inhabit different portions of the system
are dictated primarily by water temperature and discharge,
but physical characteristics of the channels which provide
cover and depth are uniformly beneficial to all of these
populations. Maximum standing crops and production for both
warm and cold water fish are inevitably associated with
habitat diversity (see reviews 62, 63). One of the most
important components of habitat involved in the concept of
"suitable living space" for fish is cover, which might be
provided by water depth, overhanging banks, submerged rocks,
logs, and other "snags". Suitable cover has been demonstrated
to be the primary factor regulating population size of brown
180
-------
trout (64) and is similarly important for other species.
Cover in the form of roots along channel banks harbored the
largest concentrations of fish in both Skunk Creek (primarily
minnows) and Little Balsam Creek (trout). The toes of the
clay banks in these streams slump rather than form undercut
banks, eliminating this excellent form of cover.
The influence of channel form and undercut banks on
carrying capacity of the stream is well illustrated by a
comparison of the two Little Balsam Creek sites and Empire
Creek. These streams have similar discharges, water quality,
and water temperatures but the sandy banks in Empire Creek
are steep-sided and undercut. Banks in the lower Little
Balsam (site 8) are clay and seldom undercut. Cover is
primarily in the form of roots and logs. The upper Little
Balsam (site 9) has a lower discharge but there are no clay
soils. There is consequently more cover in the form of cut
banks and rubble. Many authors have cited food supply as
a limiting factor for trout populations (65, 66, 67).
However, Empire Creek maintains a much higher population
and biomass of trout than the lower Little Balsam despite
extremely low standing crops of macroinvertebrates (Figure 6),
the primary food source for stream dwelling salmonids. The
small macroinvertebrate population is not a result of cropping
by the trout populations, but the prevelance of small and
consolidated gravel and rock as opposed to the larger rock
and rubble in the riffle areas of Little Balsam Creek.
Site 8 on Little Balsam Creek has the highest fish population
density (Table 21), but the populations are variable and
composed primarily of minnows (44.5%). Site 9 (Little Balsam
Creek) and 10 (Empire Creek) have lower total numbers of fish
but trout numbers per hectare are much higher (49 and 320
percent, respectively) as is biomass, including total fish
biomass. Trout biomass in upper Little Balsam and Empire
Creeks exceeds that in the lower Little Balsam Creek by
15 and 207 percent, respectively. The increased numbers of
"desirable" and "catchable" fish can be attributed entirely
to channel form, cover, and the resultant increase in "suit-
able living space."
A similar response can be seen in population numbers and
biomass at sampling sites in the warmwater streams (Table 17).
Site 4 on the Nemadji River, with the least habitat diversity,
has the lowest average population density and biomass. As
habitat diversity increases at site 5, biomass and population
size increase. In the Skunk and Elim Creek stream complex,
differences in these closely associated sites are again
related to channel form. Sites 11 and 13 on Skunk Creek differ
in pool size and available cover. Site 11 has relatively
smaller pools and more bank cover. This results in more fish
but a smaller biomass as the fish are generally smaller
than those occupying the larger pools at site 13. Population
densities are very high in Elim Creek (site 12), as is total
biomass. Elim Creek is an intermittant stream and the highly
fluctuating water levels minimize sediment accumulation,
181
-------
Table 21. Population size (fish/hec) and biomass (kg/hec) for major fish groups in Little
Balsam and Empire Creeks for sampling periods between October, 1975 and October,
1977. Biomass estimates appear immediately below population estimates.
00
ro
Site Family
8 Salmonidae
Little Balsam Cr.
Catostomidae
Cyprinidae
Other
9 Salmonidae
Little Balsam Cr.
Catostomidae
Cyprinidae
Other
10 Salmonidae
Empire Cr.
Catostomidae
Cyprinidae
Other
10/75
3237
80.4
3725
17.6
0
0
133
0.6
738
3.9
164
0.2
0
7299
10.9
4757
97.6
0
0
0
0
1804
12.1
5/76
1153
20.4
266
8.9
665
10.2
266
3.3
1066
55.7
0
0
0
0
902
1.1
2870
55.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
6/76
754
29.2
2439
128.2
1552
3.6
887
17.2
3690
67.5
0
0
0
0
902
2.7
4347
130.0
0
0
0
0
1886
4.9
8/76
1685
12.9
0
0
7317
36.9
2971
7.1
1969
13.0
0
0
0
0
328
1.1
9268
223.5
0
0
0
0
820
6.2
9/76
1685
75.7
0
0
14900
21.6
10820
10.8
3609
72.4
0
0
0
0
574
1.2
13369
123.9
0
0
0
0
984
11.1
10/77
399
3.6
0
0
266
3.3
399
2.0
2215
43.0
0
0
0
0
1066
4.3
2871
50.8
0
0
0
0
1066
5.3
Averag
1486
37.
1072
25.
4117
12.
2579
6.
2215
42.
27
0.
1845
3.
6247
113.
1093
6.
;e
0
8
6
8
6
03
6
5
6
-------
resulting in a large percentage of rubble in both the pools
and the riffles. This results in diverse habitat which is
rapidly inhabited by the smaller Skunk Creek fish when stable
flows are maintained.
Cover is one of the most important factors in mainte-
nance of large populations for all species complexes in the
Nemadji River System. Cover limitations as a result of bank
slumpage is the major red clay associated feature affecting
aquatic life. Practices commonly associated with "river
cleanup" such as stump and snag removal could reduce the best
cover available in these streams. Snag removal will eliminate
the cover provided by the snag as well as the pool which is
generally formed behind the snag. The result is a reduction
in living space for larger fish as a featureless sand or
silt substrate is formed where a pool and cover previously
existed. Similar consequences as a result of stream channel-
ization, which generally results in a wide, shallow channel,
are well documented (68). Practices which slow the rate of
toe erosion of the banks may be beneficial in maintaining
steeper banks and greater water depth which are forms of
cover.
The major importance of the Nemadji River to fish is
as a spawning ground for Lake Superior populations. Turbidity
in the lower reaches and mouths of rivers has been cited as
a potential deterrent to spawning runs of trout (32).
However, significant spawning runs of steelhead occur in the
Nemadji River during its most turbid periods. Trout traverse
up to 100 km of river to spawn in headwater streams where
clays are minimal in the sediments.
Fish reproduction in most of the Nemadji River proper
is limited to those species which do not bury their eggs.
The salmonids, which bury their eggs, require fairly high
rates of water flow through a rocky substrate for selection
as a spawning site (10, 11), survival of eggs, and emergence
of fry (12, 13, 14). Natural rates of siltation in the
Nemadji River are much too high for successful reproduction
of these fish.
The warm and coolwater species which migrate from Lake
Superior to utilize area streams and rivers for spawning
include burbot (Lota lota), walleye (Stizostedion vitreum
vitreum), rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax), suckers (both
Catostomus sp. and Moxostoma sp.) and shiners (Notropis
antherinoides and N. cornutus). All of these fish broadcast
their eggs over rocky areas where they settle and adhere to
the substrate or find refuge in the interstitial spaces.
Both field monitoring and laboratory bioassays were conducted
to assess spawning success of these species (except shiners
and burbot) in the Nemadji River System and the effect of
turbidity and siltation on egg survival.
183
-------
All species mentioned above except the walleye utilize
the Nemadji River for spawning. Walleye have not been ob-
served to spawn in the Nemadji River, although they do spawn
in the adjacent Pokegama River which has similar levels of
turbidity and siltation. It therefore seems likely that
factors other than turbidity discourage use of the Nemadji
by spawning walleye. Catches of walleye in the lower Nemadji
indicate abundance is highest after spawning is completed
in other streams and is corelated with migrations of emerald, and
common shiners. Migrating shiners did not demonstrate the
close association with cover as resident prey sized fish
did and probably represented an available food resource
which attracts walleye to the stream.
Spawning success of the major runs of smelt, longnose
and white suckers, and silver and shorthead redhorse was
monitored using daily drift net samples, during the periods
of hatch. All of these species drift passively back to the
harbor and Lake Superior after hatching, enabling rough
estimates of total hatch when stream discharge and drift
densities are known.
Smelt and suckers (all four species) hatched success-
fully in the Nemadji River in both 1976 and 1977. Larval
smelt production in 1976 was estimated at just 20,000,000
(Figure 14). The major portion of the smelt hatch was missed
in 1977, but the tail of the curve indicated similar trends.
Sucker production in 1977 was estimated in excess of
23,000,000 (Figure 15). Estimates in 1976 were not possible
as fry were concentrated at the surface. Up to 2000 fry
were captured in 15 minutes in the net with a mouth opening
of 0.04 m2. The only other species of fry captured is
unidentified, but is probably a minnow (Cyprinidae). Numeri-
cal estimates of the unknown species were 590,000 and
1,900,000 in 1976 and 1977 respectively. Although some fry
production may occur in clear water tributaries, the col-
lection of viable eggs and emergent fry in the Nemadji
River indicate that most production occurs within the turbid
waters.
Resident stream fish also reproduced successfully in
the clear and turbid water tributaries. Young-of-year
brook trout, brown trout, mottled sculpins, and brook stickle-
backs were found in Empire (site 10) and Little Balsam
(sites 8 and 9) Creeks. Young-of-year rainbow trout were
also captured on two occasions at site 9, indicating success-
ful spawning by lake-run steelhead. Fish which were noted
to spawn successfully in turbid Skunk Creek included white
sucker, johnny darter, mottled sculpin, and creek chubs.
Laboratory Studies
Egg Survival Bioassay: Some survival of rainbow smelt
eggs occurred at all treatment concentrations' during the two
184
-------
00
vn
400
350
300
250
«• 200
'o
M
I ISO
ac
S
Ł 100
so
J 1976
DISCHARGE
1 SMELT
( 'UNKNOWN'
1
1 \ ! 1 I i K
1 '
1 1 ll 1 ' *
: ! ' ' I i
' 1 11
1 1 'I
1 l»
1 1 '
1 1 1 \
1 \ \ \
•V-~~ v'\ J
1 *^_^ ^ ^_ ^X
8 12 16 20 24 ' ' 28 ' ' i 5 9 " 13 17 ' " 21
MAY JUNE
24
20
16 M
u
Ul
12 -
u
s
8
4
Figure 14.
Daily numerical estimates of rainbow smelt and an
unknown (probably a minnow) fry production in the
Nemadji River, 1976. Estimates were made using fry
drift density and stream discharge (cms).
-------
3SO
300
2SO
200
-------
Table 22. Survival of three species of fish eggs incubated
at different turbidities during three spawning
seasons. Survival is described as mean percent
and (in parentheses) percentage range of fish
eggs surviving to hatch.
Species of • Year Nominal Turbidity (FTU)
eggs incubated g 10 25 50 100
Rainbow Smelt 1976 40.7 42.9 42.3 45.2
(32-57) (30-57) (33-50) (36-74)
1977a 25.6 18.8 9.5 3.8
(9-42) (14-24) (0-30) (1-8)
Walleye 1976 47.2 47.2 29.5 29.5
(32-66) (10-74) (4-58) (6-58)
Longnose
1977a
1978
Sucker 1978
47.0
(41-52)
4.6
(0-14)
29.4
(0-44)
22.8
(21-26)
3.6
(0-8)
12.3
(0-26)
22.2
(9-40)
1. 5
(0-4)
10.2
(0-40)
7.0
(1-20)
8.6
(0-18)
19.6
(2-38)
Significant(P<0.01)reductions in survival due to
treatments.
The effects of turbidity on walleye egg survival were
tested during three years (1976-78). The 1976 and 1977
results (Table 22, Figure 16) were consistent with one
another showing similar survivals at all the duplicated
treatment exposures. Results of the 1976 test showed no
difference between the nominal 0 and 10 FTU turbidities but
did show reduced survival at all test concentrations above
10 FTU. However, this reduction in survival was not sig-
nificant (P > 0.10). The 1977 test showed nearly the same
results as the 1976 tests through the nominal 50 FTU treat-
ment and showed further reduction in'survival to 7.0% at the
highest treatment (94.1 FTU). The difference was significant
(P < 0.01). In 1978 survival was greatly reduced from the
previous two years at all but the highest turbidity (100 FTU
nominal). Eggs during this test became heavily infected with
a fungal growth which resulted in mortalities of otherwise
healthy eggs. Egg survival in 1978 was impacted more by this
growth than the turbidity treatments.
18?
-------
3
ut
Z
ui
U
100
80
60
40
20
WALLEYE
VI
^
Z
UI
U
100
so
60
40
20
RAINBOW SMELT
1976
1977
20 40 60 80
TURBIDITY (FTU)
100
Figure 16.
Survival of walleye and rainbow
smelt eggs (mean and range) in-
cubated at various turbidities
(FTU).
Survival of longnose sucker eggs was not significantly
different from the controls (P > 0.1) at any turbidity level
(Table 22). Some survival occurred at all treatments but
the survival was lower than expected in the controls due to
high incidence of fungal growths on the eggs. Two replicates
had unusually high survival because of lack of fungal growths
in the incubation chambers, and were not included in the
analysis (a nominal 50 FTU treatment had 76% survival and a
nominal 100 FTU treatment had 70% survival).
188
-------
Rainbow smelt, walleye, and longnose suckers which
spawn in streams broadcast eggs over a rocky substrate,
generally in a riffle area. Spawning in riffle areas insures
minimal siltation over the substrate. All three species have
eggs which are adhesive and attach to the substrate immediate-
ly after fertilization (20). The rainbow smelt egg is
stalked and waves in the current a short distance off the
substrate (
-------
success is not known). Prevailing turbidities in the Nemadji
River therefore do not prevent either selection of the sub-
strate or hatching success for suckers or rainbow smelt.
Results of this study indicate that walleye could also
spawn successfully in the river.
The 100 FTU threshold identified as reducing egg survival
is probably very low compared to the turbidity required to
have similar effects in the natural system. The two factors
which contributed most directly to egg mortality throughout
this study were sedimentation and fungal growth. It is not
suspected that fungal growth would have as significant an
effect at naturally occurring egg densities. Turbidities
of 100 FTU or higher occur only at high stream discharges in
the Nemadji River, resulting in water velocities which do
not allow significant sedimentation on the rocky riffle areas
utilized for spawning. At present erosional levels in the
watershed, it does not seem probable that clay turbidity and
sedimentation significantly impacts spawning success of those
species which broadcast their eggs except where associated
sand sedimentation eliminates important gravel spawning areas.
Rates of clay erosion which resulted in some inundation of
the spawning areas would be required to affect survival.
Only in those tributaries used by spawning salmonids is it
likely that relatively low levels of clay erosion and sedi-
mentation have adverse effects on fish production.
Gradient Selection: Brook trout exhibited no preference
for either clear or turbid water (chi-square, P = 0.18).
Turbidities varied from 7.1 FTU in the upstream section to
61.1 FTU in the downstream section of the gradient chamber
(Table 23). During the control tests the turbidity averaged
2.4 FTU in both sections.
Two-tailed t-tests showed a significant decrease in the
use of cover (P < 0.001) and the time associated with the
substrate (P < 0.01) in the clear upstream sections (7.1 FTU)
when compared to the controls (2.4 FTU). Cover was used
45.3% of the time during the turbidity tests and 77.2%
during the control tests. Time associated with the substrate
was 76.7% during the turbidity tests and 90.6% during the
control tests (Table 24).
The data suggests that brook trout do not avoid relatively
low levels of turbidity. Brook trout were found in the lower
section of Little Balsam Creek which had turbidities up to
63 FTU (43 mg/1). Platts (71) reported brook trout in the
South Fork Salmon River which had a mean suspended solids
concentration of 54 ppm. Herbert et a^L. (18) found that the
length and weight of brown trout from a portion of the Camel
River containing 60 ppm suspended solids differed very little
from those in clearwater Cornish streams.
190
-------
Table 23. Number of brook trout observed in each section
in gradient and control tests with mean and
standard deviation of turbidities in each section.
Gradient
Date
11/17-18/77
12/5-6/77
6/11-12/78
6/23-24/78
Mean
11/28-29/78
6/8-9/78
6/15-16/78
6/28-29/78
Mean
Sec.
No. fish
obs.
13
25
21
27
21.5
15
25
28
28
24
I
Turb.
(FTU)
11. 9 ± 2.3
4.5 ± 0.9
8.2 ± 1.2
5.1 ± 1.6
7.1
1
2
3
3.25
2.3
Sec.
No. fish
obs .
43
31
35
29
34.5
Control
41
31
28
28
32
II
Turb.
(FTU)
59.7 ± 11.
56.8 ± 8.
77.0 ± 21.
50.8 ± 14.
61.1
1
2
3
3.5
2.4
5
1
7
2
191
-------
Table 24. Percent use of cover and association with bottom
by brook trout in turbidity gradients and clear
water controls. Only the upstream section of the
gradient test is included due to difficulty in
observation of fish in the more turbid downstream
section.
Gradient
Date
11/17-18/77
12/5-6/77
6/11-12/78
6/23-24/78
Turb.
(FTU)
11.9
4.5
8.2
5.1
% using
cover
69.2
44.0
47. 6
33.3
% associated
with bottom
92.3
72.0
81.0
70.3
Mean 7.1 48.5 78.9
11/28-29-77 1.0 94.6 100.0
6/8-9/78 2.0 69.6 83.9
6/15-16/78 3.0 51.8 78.6
6/28-29/78 3.4 92.9 100.0
Mean 2.4 77.2 90.6
Brook trout should be expected to be adapted to living
in waters which are periodically turbid because discharge and
related turbidity normally vary in lotic environments (30).
Periodic_turbidity may, in fact, be associated with increased
food availability as stream invertebrate drift increases and
terrestrial foods are washed into the stream during high
discharge periods. Surges of turbidity could conceivably
result in increased activity and feeding and decreased use of
cover. Decreased use of fixed cover could also resultrfrom
decreased light penetration. MacCrimmon and Kwain (72) found
that rainbow trout exhibited a photonegative response to
increases in overhead light by retreating under cover.
Decreased use of cover in the clear section in the gradient
experiments was probably a result of decreased motivation to
192
-------
seek shelter as cover was available in adjacent water in the
form of turbidity.
Although reduced light penetration serves as a form of
cover, it does not offer many of the stimuli generally
associated with fixed cover. Migrations of salmonids occur
primarily at night in clear water but may occur throughout
the day in highly turbid waters (73, 74). The increases
in turbidity may therefore decrease the need for some other
forms of cover, but it does not provide a current shelter or
thigmotactic or visual reference which have been cited as
important in cover selection for brown trout (75).
The decrease in time associated with the substrate with
increasing levels of turbidity (Table 24) is probably related
to the decreased use of fixed cover and the general decrease
in the importance of substrate associated stimuli. The
reduced light intensity therefore allowed for less restricted
positioning in the water column at the low water velocities
used in this study. At higher velocities the substrate may
maintain more importance as it provides a current shelter.
Creek chubs preferred the turbid section of the gradient
tank (P < 0.001) (Table 25). Turbidities average 5.75 FTU in
the upstream section and 56.6 FTU in the turbid downstream
section. Turbidities averaged 2.25 FTU in both sections
during the control tests.
Although the data suggests that creek chubs prefer
turbid over clear water, Scott and Grossman (29) state that
creek chubs prefer clear water habitats. Trautman (76)
lists creek chubs as abundant inhabitants of small streams and
creeks which have scoured bottoms of sand, gravel, and
boulders, well defined riffles, and pools with brush, roots,
or other sufficient cover for retreat. Our field studies
found that creek chubs were the most abundant species in
turbid sites. They comprised over 50% of the biomass in
Elim (site 12) and Skunk Creeks (site 13). Creek chubs were
rare or absent in the clear water sites, although other
differences such as water temperature or pool depth could
affect this distribution. McCrimmon (61) found creek chubs
to be much more common in warm streams than in cold.
Copes (77) observed schooling behavior in all types of
stream habitat in creek chubs smaller than 180 mm. The
levels of turbidity in this study did not affect the school-
ing behavior of the fish. Schools of creek chubs were seen
swimming out of the turbid areas several times. Turbidity may
give added protection by visually isolating these smaller
forage fish from potential predators. The added cover
provided by these relatively low levels of turbidity may
enhance the suitability of the habitat for creek chubs.
193
-------
Table 25. Number of creek chub observed in each section in
gradient and control tests with mean and standard
deviation of turbidities in each section.
Date
12/7-8/77
1/10-11/78
7/24-25/78
8/3-4/78
Mean
Section 1
Gradient
Adjusted #
fish obs.
71
105
145
91. 25
Turb.
(FTU)
7.17 ±1.9
6.60 ± 2.3
4.82 + 1.73
4.41 ± 1.09
5.75
Section 2
Adjusted #
fish obs.
Turb.
(FTU)
216 54.5 ± 10.6
229 49.0 ± 10.1
175 68.8 ± 17.0
134 54.2 ± 13.7
188.5 56.6
Control
12/11-12/7!
1/4-5/78
7/19-20/78
8/9-10/78
Mean
112
230
167
130
159.75
2
2
2
3
2. 25
168
70
113
135
121.5
2
2
2
3
2.25
The preference of creek chubs and apparent indifference
of brook trout to the levels of turbidity used in this study
suggest very little negative impact of turbidity on these
species. Although trout were not generally found in the
turbid tributaries, temperature and discharge were not suitable
for salmonid habitat. Creek chubs spawned successfully in
the turbid tributaries as young-of-year were quite abundant.
However, constant levels of turbidity similar to those in this
study would result in levels of sedimentation which would
decrease or eliminate spawning success of trout. The direct
effects of low level turbidity (not including sedimentation)
would therefore seem to have very little effect on distribu-
tion of brook trout. The only effect on brook trout seemed
to be behavioral changes in cover use and selection. The
trout did not avoid turbidity, indicating that low level
turbidity in itself would not cause distributional changes
within a watershed.
194-
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CONCLUSION
The potentially severe effects of erosion and sedimenta-
tion on aquatic life should not be underestimated. Adequate
documentation exists to identify the severe short and long
term effects of soil mismanagement on all levels of the
aquatic flora and fauna (reviews 15, 59, 78). It should
not be assumed, however, that relatively low levels of erosion
are detrimental to all aquatic systems. Analysis of turbid
areas of Lake Superior (4) and the Nemadji River System, which
is turbid throughout the year due to erosion of unconsolidated
glacial lake deposits, indicate that the direct physical
effects of low level turbidity and sedimentation are minimal.
More important effects within these systems are behavioral
changes, many of which could be considered beneficial to
indigenous species (4).
Problems attributed to red clay turbidity have included
replacement of desirable by less desirable fish species,
discouragement of spawning runs, decreased oxygen levels,
increased nutrient levels, and general statements of "adverse
effects on biological life processes." None of these, state-
ments have proven true through our studies in the Nemadji
River System. Accusations such as "turbid streams are unat-
tractive and difficult to fish" (79) are harder to refute,
and may stand as some of the more damning evidence against
moderate turbidities in cool and warm water streams.
The only conclusive detrimental biological effects of
relatively low levels of clay sedimentation are the adverse
impacts on salmonid reproduction. These have not been ad-_
dressed through our studies, but adequate documentation exists
in the literature to identify the sensitivity of salmonid
eggs in redds, which require a flow of water through the
gravel, to sedimentation (12, 13, 14). There is also evidence
that salmonids will avoid turbid waters, both in lakes (4)
and in streams. This seems to be a result of their reliance
on sight feeding on drifting macroinvertebrates, at least in
lotic systems. Our laboratory studies and available field
studies (4, 18, 61), however, indicate that normal turbidities
in the Nemadji River System do not exceed the threshold level
which would completely discourage use by salmonids. Repro-
ductive success in the Nemadji River System, much of which
is too warm for salmonids, does not seem to be greatly af-
fected by existing turbidities judging from both documented
reproductive success of smelt and suckers and egg survival
bioassays on these species and walleye.
An initial objective of this project was to assess the
effects of experimental erosion control procedures on the
aquatic biota. Much of this construction was not completed
until late in the project period, negating the possibility of
a direct assessment of its effects. The difficulties in
identifying any changes within the river system due to clay
195
-------
turbidity and sedimentation, however, indicates that factors
such as temperature, discharge, and channel form have much
greater effects than present levels of clay erosion in the
basin. A threshold clay turbidity which directly affects
aquatic life or which results in rates of clay sedimentation
which might impair reproductive success of species now spawn-
ing successfully or respiratory functions of the invertebrates
seems to be on the order of 1000 FTU, and this at low to nor-
mal flow rates. It is therefore unlikely that the erosion
control devices will have any major effect on the biota in
areas where clay is the primary erosional product. Rates
of erosion must reach that at which the rocky substrate
becomes inundated, as in extensive areas of the lower Nemadji
River where sand is a major component of the substrate, before
significant changes in the fauna will occur. The sand in
the lower Nemadji River resulted in an unstable monotypic
substrate and a channel form which is uniformly shallow and
devoid of cover. The very low macroinvertebrate populations
and fish densities in this area were the only severe effects
of erosion identified in the river system. If sand erosion
in the lower areas of the Nemadji River could be curbed, the
25 km of river which is now dominated by this sandy substrate
may revert to a much more productive pool-riffle configuration.
Existing levels of streambank erosion in this river system
should therefore not be assumed to have widespread detrimental
effects on the aquatic biota. The watershed is relatively
unperturbed at this time and erosion control practices cannot
be expected to have a significant positive effect on aquatic
resources. Careful management along roadside right-of-ways
and curbing extensive cattle grazing of streambanks will help
to prevent widespread degradation of the system, but the most
positive results of the present erosion control engineering
studies will probably be the development of techniques to pre-
vent slippage of hillsides and losses of roads and personal
property.
SUMMARY
1. Red clay does not contribute significant quantities
of nutrients to Lake Superior but may serve to transport
nutrients contributed from point sources.
2. Oxygen levels are not significantly affected by red
clay or associated organics.
3. Primary production does not appear to be significantly
affected by existing turbidities within the range of depths
at which most production occurs in these relatively shallow
streams.
M-. Bacteria exhibit no definite trends with turbidity
within sites, but do seem to have higher counts in turbid
196
-------
than in non-turbid sites. Fungal counts exhibit opposite
trends. Bacterial and fungal populations are generally
beneficial to the aquatic system as they are the primary food
source for many of the macroinvertebrates.
5. Number of macroinvertebrates per unit area, total
number of taxa, diversity, and biomass are not significantly
affected by clay turbidity and siltation within the Nemadji
River System.
6. Substrate size had much greater effects on macro-
invertebrates than turbidity and sedimentation. Only where
sand was the primary -product were significant detrimental
effects of erosion identified.
7. All genera of insects which occurred in clear streams
also occurred in turbid streams. Certain silt-loving insects,
especially certain mayflies and beetle larvae, were found
only in the turbid streams.
8. Laboratory monitoring of activity and respiration
of the stonefly Pteronarcys dorsata demonstrated no signifi-
cant effects at turbidity levels normally encountered in the
Nemadji River System.
9. Fish populations were not demonstrated to change
as a result of turbid conditions. Water temperature and
discharge differences between turbid and clear water sites
accounted for species changes. All species complexes bene-
fitted by increased cover which is harder to maintain in turbid
streams due to increased tendencies for slippage at toes of
the clay banks.
10. Walleye in the lower Nemadji River, the Duluth-
Superior Harbor, and Lake Superior benefit from red clay
turbidity as it enables them to inhabit the shallow, more
productive waters. Availability of prey fish populations in
the Nemadji River appears to be a factor limiting residency
of walleye and other predators.
11. Rainbow smelt and four species of suckers success-
fully reproduce in the turbid areas of the Nemadji River
System.
12. Egg survival bioassays with walleye and rainbow
smelt indicated decreased survival at turbidities over 10
FTU. Survival was at least half of control at turbidities
prevalent in the Nemadji River. Levels of sedimentation in
the bioassay were much higher than in the natural system,
probably resulting in higher egg mortality than would normally
occur.
13. Channel form and available cover are the primary
factors affecting fish population size for all species com-
197
-------
plexes in the Nemadji River System.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The major effect of the red clays on the aquatic biota
are associated with characteristics of the soils which affect
channel form. Undercut banks and other channel character-
istics which provide cover have major impacts on all types
of fish populations. The major recommendations which can
be identified through this study are therefore related to
preservation of the toes of slopes to maintain undercut
banks (though they seldom occur in these soils), steep sided
channels, and pool depth, all of which provide forms of cover.
Recommendations are as follows:
_1. Retaining peak discharges after rainfall could slow
erosion rates and preserve streambanks. Floodwater retaining
structures may be effective, but barriers in streams and
substitution of a lake for a stream environment is potentially
disruptive and self-defeating. More desirable controls would
be retention by adequate vegetative cover and leaf litter and
land use practices which minimize runoff.
2. Vegetation which stabilizes streambanks may allow
undercutting, steeper banks, and deeper pools. Woody root
systems provide excellent cover for forage fish and harbored
major fish concentrations in study streams.
3. Removal of stumps and other snags is definitely de-
trimental to fish populations. The pools eroded around such
structures coupled with the associated cover provide some of
the best habitat in these turbid streams. The erosion is
insignificant compared to benefits to fish populations.
H. The grazing of cattle and other livestock on stream-
banks breaks down slopes, eliminates cover, potentially
decreases stream depth, and generally disrupts the stream
biota. Livestock exclusion is recommended.
198
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Platts, W.S. and W.F. Megahan. 1975. Time trends in riverbed
sediment composition in salmon and steelhead spawning
areas: South Fork Salmon River, Idaho. Trans. 40th N.
Am. Wldl. and Nat. Res. Conf., 229-239.
Rosenberg, D.M. and A.P. Weins. 1975. Experimental sediment
addition studies on the Harris River, N.W.T., Canada:
the effect on invertebrate drift. Verh. Internat. Verein.
Limnol., 19:1568-1574.
Samsel, G.L., Jr. 1973. Effects of sedimentation on the
algal flora of a small recreational impoundment. Water
Res. Bull., 9(6):1145-1152.
Saunders, J.W. and M.W. Smith. 1964. Changes in a stream
population of trout associated with increased silt.
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 22(2):395-404.
20?
-------
Shelton, J.M. and R.D. Pollack. 1966. Siltation and egg
survival in incubation channels. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.,
95:183-187.
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suspended and deposited sediments on estuarine organisms,
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Publ. AD-763-227, 62 p.
Tebo, L.B., Jr. 1957. Effects of siltation on trout streams.
Soc. Am. Foresters, Proc. 56th Mtg., 198-202.
Trautman, M.B. 1933. The general effects of pollution on
Ohio fish life. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 63:69-72.
Vanderpost, J.M., and B.J. Dutka. 1971. Bacteriological
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Great Lakes Res., pp. 137-156.
Wallen, E.I. 1951. The relationship of turbidity to temper-
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32:20-26.
Ward, A.B. 1938. Placer mining and the anadromous fish of
the Rogue River. Science, 88(2289):441-443.
Wene, G. 1940. The soil as an ecological factor in the
abundance of aquatic chironomid larvae. Ohio J. of
Sci., 40:193-199.
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208
-------
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are particularly indebted to Glenn Warren, who con-
ducted the laboratory investigations on activity and respi-
ration in stoneflies and assisted in identification of the
macroinvertebrates, to Ken Gradall who conducted laboratory
investigations on turbidity gradient selection in fish, and
to Cay Jollymore who conducted microbial analyses, water
chemistries, and assisted in many aspects of the project.
We also thank the many students who so patiently sorted in-
sects, larval fish, and assisted with field and laboratory
work.
This research was conducted as part of the Western Lake
Superior Basin Erosion-Sediment Control Project. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Region V Grant No. G 0051M-0-01,
209
-------
APPENDICES
210
-------
Appendix A -
Summary of Physical and Chemical Characteristics
of Sampling Sites, 1975-1977.
211
-------
SITE 1 - NEMADJI RIVER
Bank Erosion - None
Streambank Vegetation - 30% grass, 70% brush
Normal Water Color - Brown
Average Width - 46 m
Average Depth - 2.5m
Date
Thalweg Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
pH
Substrate - clay, silt, sand
(continued)
8/19
1975
<0.
<0.
6.
21.
295
67.
015
05
0
0
8
8/29
1975
<0.
<0.
16
7.
18.
260
85.
015
05
9
9
6
9/29
1975
0.
31.
8.
11.
138
81.
04
5
9
3
4
10/20
1975
12
8.8
11. 8
142
81. 5
12/8
1975
28
11
1
82
82
7
.5
.7
. 2
.6
.43
4/16
1976
101
9.3
10.5
85
83. 0
6.95
4/29
1976
95
6.0
11.2
123
54.6
5/5
1976
—
9
10
122
87
7
-
.7
. 8
.7
.5
-------
Site 1 (continued)
Date
Thalweg Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (ymho)
ro
v>j % Oxygen Saturation
PH
5/17 6/4
1976 1976
12
9.3
16.8 17.2
198
96.4
_ _ _ _ _ _
6/14
1976
24
22.2
300
6.8
8/24 9/13
1976 1976
25 21.5
8.3
18.8
278
89.7
7.28
10/11
1976
33.5
8.2
9.4
214
71.7
_ _ _
4/21 Range
1977
220 12-220
6-11.7
1.2-22.2
82-300
54.6-96.4
6.8-7.5
Avg
51.6
8.6
13.9
186.4
80.2
7.2
-------
SITE 2 - NEMADJI RIVER
Bank Erosion - Moderate to Severe
Streambank Vegetation - 18% grass, 50% brush, 10% deciduous,
30% barren
Normal Water Color - Brown
Average Width - 22 m
Average Depth - 2. 5 m
8/19 8/29 9/29 10/20 12/8
Date 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975
Thalweg Velocity (mps) <0.015 <0.015 0.12
Turbidity (ftu) 7 13 14 12.5 29
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) 6.7 8.6 9.1 10.6 11.9
Temperature (°C) 19.5 17.8 12.0 7.5 1.5
Conductivity (ymho) 263 238 141 169 80
% Oxygen Saturation 73.5 91.1 84.7 88.4 84.7
pH --- --- —- 7.35
Substrate - mostly sand, some clay, fine gravel, rubble
-------
SITE 3 - NEMADJI RIVER
Bank Erosion - Slight
Streambank Vegetation - 35% grasses, 55% brush, 10% barren
Normal Water Color - Brown
Average Width - 11.3 m
Average Depth - 0.4 m
Date
Thalweg Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
pH
9/4
1975
0.38
10
9.9
20.1
251
110
9/17 10/1
1975 1975
0.38
10 6
10.4
14.9 9.6
220 170
91.4
10/20 11/17 12/8
1975 1975 1975
0.44 0.59
12.5 54
10.9 13.3
7.7 1.3
182 95
91.4 94.1
222.5
(slush)
12.1
1.2
172
85.4
7.8
Substrate - 10% fine gravel
90% sand
215
-------
SITE 4 - NEMADJI RIVER
Bank Erosion - Slight to Moderate
Streambank Vegetation - 25% grass, 70% brush, 5% barren
Normal Water Color - Brown
Average Width - 12.8 m
Average Depth - 0.3 m
Date
IX)
M
cn
Thalweg Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
pH
Substrate - 12% fine gravel
88% sand
(continued)
9/4
1975
0.45
10
10.1
19. 9
242
112
— _ _
9/17 10/2
1975 1975
0.29
10 7
10.6
13.3 11.3
223 185
97
_ « _ _ _ _
10/2
1975
0.
1.
10
11.
7.
183
96.
_ _ _
2
31
38
5
6
2
11/17
1975
0.
1.
73.
13.
1.
110
96.
_ _ .
56
83
5
4
9
4
12/5
1975
27
12. 0
1.3
210
84.9
7.35
4/16
1976
92
9
10
99
82
6
.5
.2
.3
.1
.75
4/3
197
95
6.
11.
123
54.
— — —
0
6
0
2
6
-------
Site 4 (continued)
Date
Thalweg Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (ymho)
M % Oxygen Saturation
^j
pH
5/17
1976
21
9.7
15.1
205
96.9
___
6/2
1976
20. 5
9.4
21.2
106.7
— — _
6/14
1976
42
21.3
263
7.2
6/29
1976
19.8
200
_ _ _
8/9
1976
18
9.4
20.2
261
104.7
7.09
8/24
1976
25. 0
280
_» —
9/13
1976
16. 5
8.7
17.8
258
92.2
7.4
10/11
1976
20
11.3
8.3
205
96.2
_ _ _
continued
-------
Site 4 (continued)
Date
Thalweg Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen ( ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity ( mho)
% Oxygen Saturation
pH
4/21
1977
300
11. 95
5.9
128
95.7
_ _ «
5/9
1977
32
7.4
10.5
182
66.4
•» _ _
6/9
1977
14
9.4
14.4
170
92.4
— — _
8/17
1977
28
18.7
_ _ _
9/14
1977
40
9.2
14.6
120
90.9
« .. _
10/26
1977
29. 5
11.8
8
100
99.7
«. mm _
Range
7-300
6.0-13.4
1.3-25.0
99-280
54.6-112
6.8-7.4
Avg
45.3
10.06
13.5
187.4
92.1
7.2
-------
SITE 5 - NEMADJI RIVER
ro
Bank Erosion - Slight
Streambank Vegetation - 30% grass, 60% brush, 5% deciduous, 5% barren
Normal Water Color - Brown
Average Width - 20.7 m
Average Depth .5 m
Date
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
pH
Substrate - 5% rubble
9/11
1975
0.26
0.84
9
11.7
16.0
204
119.1
10/1 10/22
1975 1975
0.30 0.33
0.90 1.00
4 9
10.4 11.4
9.5 8.2
158 167
91.1 96.8
15% medium gravel
11/17 12/10
1975 1975
0.56
73.5 82
13.4 12.2
1.9 1.6
110 98
96.4 87.0
7.7
45% sand
4/16
1976
89. 5
9.8
10.3
110
87.5
6.62
4/30
1976
87
7.0
10.9
123
64.2
(Continued)
coarse gravel
15% fine gravel
-------
Site 5 (continued)
Date
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
rO n J -i_ • • j_ t i \
Q Conductivity (nmho)
% Oxygen Saturation
pH
5/17
1976
15
10.1
17. 5
225
106.3
6/4 6/14 6/29 8/9
1976 1976 1976 1976
10.5 30 21
9.9
13.9 23.3 22.7 21.1
309 210 268
— 112.2
7.15
9/13
1976
15.
9.
18.
247
100.
7.
5
45
2
9
4
10/11
1976
14
11.
7.
186
92.
___
2
1
5
(continued)
-------
Site 5 (continued)
Date
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature ( C)
ro Conductivity (ymho)
M
% Oxygen Saturation
pH
4/21
1977
400
6. 5
111
5/9
1977
22
9.2
14.8
192
91. 3
6/9
1977
12
10
15
183
99.7
8/17 9/14
1977 1977
21 41
9.6
18.5 14
140
93.6
«. «• ^ ^ ^ «™
10/26
1977
24
12.4
7.5
70
103.4
_ _ .
Range
4-460
7.0-13.4
1.6-23.3
70-309
64.2-119.1
6.62-7.7
Avg
51.
10.
12.
172.
96.
7.
5
5
9
8
1
2
-------
SITE 6 - NEMADJI RIVER
Bank Erosion - Slight
Streambank Vegetation - 20% grass, 40% brush, 5% herbaceous,
10% coniferous, 20% deciduous, 5%
barren
Normal Water Color - Brown
Average Width - 10.7 m
Average Depth - 0.5 m
Date 9/11 10/3 10/24 11/19 12/10
1975 1975 1975 1975 1975
Pool Velocity (mps) <0.015 0.03
<0.05 0.1
Riffle Velocity (mps) 0.69 0.79
2.28 2.58
Turbidity (ftu) 12 8 8.5 62.5 16
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) 10.6 10.0 10.4 12.4
Temperature (°C) 15.4 8.5 7.8 1.2
Conductivity (ymho) 136 102 114 72
% Oxygen Saturation 106.5 85.5 87.4 87.5
pH —- 7.3
Substrate - 15% boulder
30% rubble
20% coarse gravel
10% medium gravel
5% fine gravel
20% sand
222
-------
SITE 7 - BALSAM CREEK
Bank Erosion - Moderate
Streambank Vegetation - 10% grass, 60% brush, 5% herbaceous,
5% coniferous, 10% deciduous, 10%
barren
Normal Water Color - Brown
Average Width -8.0m
Average Depth - 0.6 m
Date 9/4 9/17 10/2 10/22 11/17 12/5
1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975
Pool Velocity (mps) 0.13 0.13 0.08 0.55
0.43 0.27 1.80
Riffle Velocity (mps) 0.53 0.78 1.65
1.75 2.55 5.40
Turbidity (ftu) 32 —- 22 19 67.5 20
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) 9.5 10.0 10.9 13.4 12.4
Temperature (°C) 16.7 11.0 8.3 7.8 1.7 1.2
Conductivity (ymho) 171 169 127 138 75 245
% Oxygen Saturation 98.2 85.1 91.6 95.9 87.5
pH — —- — 7.6
Substrate - 60% rubble
5% coarse gravel
20% sand
10% silt
5% clay
223
-------
SITE 8 - LITTLE BALSAM CREEK
Bank Erosion - Moderate
Streambank Vegetation - 20% grass, 35% brush, 15% gerbaceous, 25% deciduous, 5% barren
Normal Water Color - Clear
Average Width - 3.7 m
Average Depth - 0.75 m
*> Date
IX)
8/19
1975
9.3
18.2
165
99.4
___
8/27
1975
2
10.2
15
179
101.7
— — —
9/30
1975
0.11
0.81
2
10.5
10.6
148
94- • 5
_ .. _
10/21
1975
0.09
0.65
2.5
11.2
9.3
144
97.6
_ _ _
11/18
1975
0.47
1.49
63
12.2
3.1
79
90.6
__ _
12/5
1975
6
12.6
1.8
116
90.4
7.7
4/16
1976
10
10.9
10.3
48
97.3
6.65
4/27
1976
3.5
9.8
11.3
70
89.0
_ _ _
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (pmho)
% Oxygen Saturation
PH
Substrate - 25% rubble, 15% coarse gravel, 5% medium gravel, 10% fine gravel, 35% sand, 10%
silt
(continued)
-------
Site 8 (continued)
Date
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature ( C)
Conductivity (ymho)
IX)
(^ % Oxygen Saturationv
pH
5/18
1976
3
11.4
13.9
148
110.9
7.6
6/2
1976
2
12.8
13. 4
123.1
— — —
6/14
1976
12
16.0
178
7.1
8/9
1976
2
10.8
14.8
175
107.1
_ _. _
9/13
1976
3
10. 05
15.0
182
100.2
7.5
10/11
1976
5
11.6
7.9
149
97.7
__ _
3/3
1977
22
0.75
52
___
4/21
1977
36
5.4
72
_ _ _
5/12
1977
3
11
7.5
125
94.0
___
(continued)
-------
Site 8 (continued)
Date
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
pH
6/22
1977
3
11
12.5
140
103.6
8/17 9/14
1977 1977
2 3
9.2
11.5 13.3
Ill
88.2
_ _ _ ___
10/26
1977
24
12.1
6.2
57
97.6
___
Range
2-63
9.2-12.8
1.8-18.2
48-182
88.2-123.1
6.7-7.7
Avg
10.
11.
10.
123.
99.
7.
5
0
4
1
0
3
-------
SITE 9 - LITTLE BALSAM CREEK
ro
ro
Bank Erosion - Slight
Streambank Vegetation - 25% grass, 31
5% barren
Average Width - 2.0 m
Average Depth - 0.15 m
Date
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
pH
Substrate - 20% rubble
10% coarse gravel
5% medium gravel
5% fine gravel
55% sand
5% silt
brush, 30% herbaceous, 5% deciduous, 5% coniferous,
8/19
1975
7.4
12.7
150
70.0
8/27
1975
3
9.2
12.7
139
87.0
^ M. mm
9/30
1975
0.04
0.32
5
8.3
10.2
100
74.0
mm mm mm
10/21
1975
0.02
0.44
3
8.85
9.0
91
76.6
w _*.
11/18
1975
0.15
0.81
5.5
12.2
3.2
47
90.9
mm mm mm
12/5
1975
-
6
12
1
39
86
7
--
.5
.1
.5
.1
.45
4/16
1976
4
9.7
10.2
30
86.6
6.65
4/27
1976
4
9.9
9.2
33
86.0
— — —
5/18
1976
5
10.
16.
95
102.
6.
0
1
1
5
(continued)
-------
Site 9 (continued)
Date
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (pmho)
ru % Oxygen Saturation
oo
PH
6/2
1976
5.5
11. 3
13. 0
107.6
6/14
1976
8.5
15.1
130
6.9
6/29
1976
5
14.7
122
8/9
1976
3
9.2
12.5
170
86.6
_ _ _
9/13
1976
3.5
7.8
12.4
179
73.2
7.38
10/11
1976
5
6.7
8.6
165
57.4
___
4/21
1977
4.5
5.1
48
5/12
1977
2
9.5
11.2
92
86.8
(continued)
-------
Site 9 (continued)
ro
Date
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity ( ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
PH
6/22
1977
3
8.2
15. 0
102
81.8
___
8/17 9 /14
1977 1977
4 5.5
8.4
10.5 12.5
65
79.1
«. _> « • •-• MJ
10/26
1977
7
11.6
7.0
35
95.6
«. — —
Range
2-8.5
6.7-12.2
1.5-16.1
30-179
57.4-107.6
6.6-7.5
Avg
4.6
9.4
10.6
96.4
84.0
7.0
-------
SITE 10 - EMPIRE CREEK
Bank Erosion - Slight
Streambank Vegetation - 20% grass, 5% brush, 30% herbaceous, 5% coniferous, 40% deciduous
Normal Water Color - Clear
Average Width - 2.0 m
Average Depth - 0.25 m
Date
^ Pool Velocity (mps)
o
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
PH
Substrate - 5% coarse gravel
10% medium gravel
15% fine gravel
70% sand
( continued)
8/27
1975
2
10.4
12.1
135
97.0
9/29
1975
0.09
0.83
2
9.8
10.5
133
88.0
10/23
1975
0.14
0.66
3. 5
10.4
7
122
85.7
11/18
1975
0.31
0.56
28
11.4
4.1
70
87.0
12/5
1975
11
12.8
1.5
60
91.1
8. 0
4/16
1976
--
5.
10.
9.
47
86.
6.
•-
5
0
0
2
85
4/27
1976
5
9.8
9.1
66
86.2
_ _ _
5/21
1976
2
11.2
10
120
99.4
7.5
6/2
1976
2
10.6
15
105.7
•B __ .M
-------
Site 10 (continued)
6/29 8/9 9/13 10/11 4/21 5/12 6/22 8/17 9/14 10/26 Range Avg
Date 1976 1976 1976 1976 1977 1977 1977 1977 1977 1977
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu) 12 3 3.5 6 24 2 12 25 1-28 6.4
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) 10.6 9.4 10.6 12.5 10.6 11.2 9.6 11.8 9.4-12.8 10.6
Temperagure (°C) 14.9 14.0 14.9 6.8 4.3 6 11.5 11.0 12.5 6.5 1.5-15 9.5
Conductivity (ymho) 158 182 191 145 70 120 150 --- 110 60 47-191 114.1
V>J
H % Oxygen Saturation —- 103.3 93.6 86.8 95.9 85.1 103.0 —- 90.4 95.9 85.1-105.7 93.0
pH 6.8 ___ 7.42 6.8-8.0 7.3
-------
SITE 11 - SKUNK CREEK
Bank Erosion - Moderate to Severe
Streambank Vegetation - 35% grass, 35% brush, 5% coniferous, 10% deciduous, 15% barren
Normal Water Color - Brown
Average Width - 3.0 m
Average Depth - 0.45 m
Date
v>i Pool Velocity (mps)
ro
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
Substrate - 35% rubble
5% coarse
10% sand
(continued)
8/20
1975
18
8.8
16. 9
190
91.4
ravel
9/11
197
<0
<0
—
12
10
12
165
97
--
5
.015
. 05
-
.4
.4
.7
-
40%
10%
10/3
1975
<0.015
<0. 05
0.34
12
10
7.6
145
83.6
silt
clay
107
197
<0
<0
0
2
39
10
7
132
88
--
23
5
.015
.05
.69
.25
. 5
.6
.4
.2
-
11/19
1975
0.
1.
1.
4.
114.
12.
3.
98
92.
41
33
45
75
5
3
4
1
12/10
1975
28.5
12.4
1.7
98
88.7
7.7
4/16 4/28
1976 1976
30.5 54
10.1 11.0
9.8 8.1
80 90
88.6 88.6
6.55
5/17
1976
43
10.
16.
172
113
7.
9
9
9
-------
Site 11 (continued)
Date
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
ro
v»
^ Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
pH
6/3
1976
45
9.4
21.1
106.6
_ _ _
6/14
1976
52
20.9
200
— — —
6/30
1976
46
17.2
130
_ — —
8/9
1976
29
9.9
19.5
198
108.6
6.9
9/13
1976
21.5
8.85
16
232
90.1
7.3
10/11
1976
27
10.1
5.0
148
80. 0
— — —
3/30 4/21
1977 1977
26 200
.5 3.1
43 108
5/12
1977
12
9.6
13
180
91.4
— — —
(continued)
-------
Site 11 (continued)
IV)
Date
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
pH
6/22
1977
12
9.0
17
155
93.7
8/18 9/14
1977 1977
14 28
9.8
13 14.5
133
96.6
10/26
1977
29.5
12.4
7.0
89
102.1
Range
11. 5-200
8.8-12.4
.5-21.1
43-232
80-113
6.6-7.9
Avg
40.
10.
11.
139.
94.
7.
6
3
5
3
2
3
-------
SITE 12 - ELIM CREEK
Bank Erosion - Moderate
Streambank Vegetation - 40% grass, 45% brush, 5% coniferous, 5% deciduous, 5% barren
Normal Water Color - Clear to brown
Average Width - Intermittent
Average Depth - Intermittent
9/10 10/3 10/24 11/19 12/10 4/16 4/28 5/17 6/3 6/14 6/30
Date 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1976 1976 1976 1976 1976 1976
ro Pool Velocity (mps) dry 0.62
vn
Riffle Velocity (mps) dry 1.26
Turbidity (ftu) dry 4 140 107.5 18 18.5 18.5 16 25 86 46
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) dry —- --- 12.3 12.2 10.3 10.7 10.4 9.4
Temperature (°C) dry — — 4.8 1.9 10.1 8.9 18.3 16.8 20.0 16.5
Conductivity (ymho) dry —- — 111 125 118 140 276 — 221 160
% Oxygen Saturation — — 95.6 87.8 91.1 92.2 111.4 97.4
pH 7.3 6.7 7.8
Substrate - 20% rubble 10% sand
40% coarse gravel 10% clay
20% medium gravel
(continued)
-------
Site 12 (continued)
8/9 9/13 10/11 4/21 5/12 6/22 8/18 9/14 10/26 Range Av
Date 1976 1976 1976 1977 1977 1977 1977 1977 1977 —
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu) 5 — — 500 7 40 16 82 32 4-500 68.3
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) 11.4 -— — —- 9.2 10.7 8.0 12.8 8.0-12.8 10.7
TemperatureC ?C) 19.3 dry dry 7.9 14 14.2 13 14.8 7.51.9-20.0 12.5
Conductivity (ymho) 228 dry dry 160 250 220 155 110 110-276 174.9
% Oxygen Saturation 124.6 — — 89.7 104.7 79.4 106.8 79.4-124.6 98.2
pH 6.9 — — —- 6.7-7.8 7.2
-------
SITE 13 - SKUNK CREEK
Bank Erosion - Slight to Severe
Streambank Vegetation - 5% grass, 35% brush, 20% coniferous, 25% deciduous, 15% barren
Norman Water Color - Brown
Average Width -4.9m
Average Depth - 1.0 m
Date
•
Pool Velocity (mps)
ro
-^ "1 "D-I-C-P1— Wx^Tx-**-,-I-*-TT f TV*1-. l~t ^
^-J Kirrle Velocity (.mps;
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature ( C)
Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
pH
Substrate - 30% rubble
5% sand
20% silt
45% clay
8/20
1975
_ _ _
22
7.8
16.7
190
80.1
9/10
1975
^ n me
< U . U_I_o
<0.05
21
10.1
13. 0
178
96.2
10/3
1975
*• n n ~\ c.
< U . U lo
<0.05
00 o
. Z L
13
10.1
10.3
170
90.3
10/24
1975
*• n me:
< U . Ul 0
0.32
Oc LL
. DH
135
11.0
7.6
152
92-0
11/19 12/10
1975 1975
117 28
12.2
1.8
150
87.5
7.1
4/16
1976
36
9.4
10.0
98
83. 2
6.65
4/28
1976
38
10.6
6.8
100
86.9
5/17
1976
33
10.2
17.1
182
106.1
(continued)
-------
Site 13 (continued)
Date
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
^ Temperature (°C)
V>J
00 Conductivity (ymho)
% Oxygen Saturation
PH
6/3
1976
41
9.7
16
98.8
6/14
1976
68
20.8
192
6/30
1976
74
15.8
140
8/9
1976
32
10. 6
21.9
215
122.1
7.0
9/13
1976
500
7.0
15.8
238
70.5
7.2
10/11
1976
27
10.6
6.8
160
86. 8
__ _
3/30
1977
89
0.3
59
— _ _
4/21
1977
260
3.9
115
___
5/12
1977
10
9.9
12
180
92.1
(continued)
-------
Site 13 (continued)
Date
Pool Velocity (mps)
Riffle Velocity (mps)
Turbidity (ftu)
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm)
Temperature (°C)
IV)
\Q Conductivity (pmho)
% Oxygen Saturation
PH
* not including 9/13/76
6/22
1977
13
9.4
17
165
97.8
___
8/18 9/14
1977 1977
15 42
9.0
12 15
143
89.7
_ — — — _ _
10/26
1977
24.5
12.7
7.5
99
105.9
» « _
Range
10-500
7.0-12.7
0.3-21.9
59-238
70.5-122.1
6.7-7.2
Avg
54.
10.
11.
154.
92.
7.
2*
0
8
0
9
0
-------
APPENDIX B. Turbidity and nitrite, nitrate, orthophosphate,
and total phosphate levels in Little Balsam
Creek, Empire Creek, Elim Creek above and below
the dam, and Skunk Creek below Elim Creek and
above and at the Hanson Dam.
Turbidity
Date (FTU)
9/7/76
9/27/76
10/11/76
11/2/76
3/31/77
4/18/77
5/9/77
6/6/77
6/20/77
8/1/77
8/29/77
9/12/77
10/3/77
10/24/77
12/12/77
3/29/78
4/17/78
5/9/78
5/11/78
5/16/78
5/23/78
2
3
5
1.2
22
8.1
3
3
3
3
5
3
3
4
3
18
25
21
7
16
4
Nitrite
VK/1
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
15.90
LITTLE BALSAM
Ortho-
Nitrate Phosphate
Pg/1 yg/1
59.5
20. 53
0.0*
20.65
73. 97
0. 0*
336.2
23. 2
42.1
27.93
18.12
17.72
15.86
39. 91
533.80
"* 50.39
0. 0*
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
868.37
136.2
133.23
139.62
15. 32
42.86
0. 0*
57.69
50. 56
28.48
47. 54
589.10
1393.32
463.47
Total
Phosphorus
yg/1
0. 0*
132.76
0. 0*
176.31
612.8
1001.75
541.27
793.43
924.39
614.41
154.03
1219.17
1005.86
r
*below minimum detectable levels
(continued)
240
-------
Appendix B (continued)
EMPIRE CREEK
Ortho- Total
Turbidity Nitrite Nitrate Phosphate Phosphorus
Date (FTU) yg/1 yg/1 yg/1 VE'/l
9/7/76
8/27/76
10/11/76
11/2/76
4/18/77
5/9/77
6/6/77
6/20/77
8/1/77
8/29/77
9/12/77
10/3/77
10/24/77
12/12/77
3/29/78
4/17/78
5/9/78
5/11/78
5/16/78
5/23/78
2
2
6
2
6
2
2
2
2
4
2
3
2
3
7
25
12
6
4
4
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0.0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0. 0*
14. 64
52. 8
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
73.12
96.2
24.8
39.1
11.66
14.42
10.48
0. 0*
0.0*
19.29
263. 54
27.45
0.0* 307.2
0.0* 376.20
0.0* 0.0*
0.0* 66.98
34.42 382.76
179.24 294.43
141.79 727.84
52.25
0.0* 12.38
0.0* 0.0*
0.0* 90.96
0.0* 328.13
886.88 1094.54
25.48
44.61
437.44
839.45
288.56
* below minimum detectable levels
(continued)
-------
Appendix B (continued)
ELIM ABOVE DAM
Ortho- Total
Turbidity Nitrite Nitrate Phosphate Phosphorus
Date (FTU) yg/1 Mg/l yE/i UE/i
8/3/76
9/7/76
9/27/76
10/11/76
3/31/77
4/18/77
5/9/77
6/6/77
6/20/77
8/1/77
8/29/77
9/12/77
10/3/77
10/24/77
12/12/77
15
dry
dry
dry
18
33
3
7
8
78
25
8
4
6
26
0.0*
stream
stream
stream
11.31
16.32
0. 0*
0. 0*
26.4
0. 0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
1.1.4
0.
bed
bed
bed
215.
338.
14.
32.
72.
26.
28.
15.
11.
16.
40.
0* 0.0* 0.0*
9 0.0*
88 649.52 777.72
2 150.13 721.01
4
3
17 471.32 490.75
91 81.37
65 17.36 890.84
95 0. 0 376. 93
24 15.38 788.66
52 57.24 269.93
*below minimum detectable levels
(continued)
242
-------
Appendix B (continued)
ELIM CREEK BELOW DAM
Ortho-
Turbidity Nitrite Nitrate Phosphate
Date (FTU) yg/1 yg/1 yg/1
8/3/76
9/7/76
9/27/76
10/11/76
3/31/77
4/18/77
5/9/77
6/6/77
6/20/77
8/1/77
8/29/77
9/12/77
10/3/77
10/24/77
12/12/77
13
dry
dry
dry
350
21
7
40
36
54
33
82
38
31
27
0. 0*
stream
stream
stream
25.92
0.0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0.0*
11.64
11.77
10. 24
0. 0*
14.14
0.0* 0.0*
bed
bed
bed
161.21 282.99
0.0* 793.26
0.0* 160.25
30.5
41.7
20.07 365.53
30.66 202.38
27.95 22.03
13.02 0.0*
14.93 31.33
43.85 148.14
Total
Phosphorus
yg/1
0.0*
420.31
872.25
712.15
768.77
857.29
557.32
1028.92
390.82
*below minimum detectable limits
(continued)
-------
Appendix B (continued)
Date
8/3/76
9/7/76
9/27/76
10/11/76
11/2/76
3/31/77
4/18/77
5/9/77
6/6/77
6/20/77
8/1/77
8/29/77
9/12/77
10/3/77
10/24/77
12/12/77
3/29/78
4/17/78
5/9/78
5/11/78
5/16/78
5/23/78
SKUNK CREEK
Turbidity Nitrite
(FTU) yg/1
43
30
108
27
50
89
25
10
21
45
66
35
42
17
22
14
43
194
220
56
22
22
0. 0*
0.0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
52.35
BELOW ELIM CREEK
Ortho-
Nitrate Phosphate
yg/1 yg/1
0. 0*
12.34
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
12.73
38. 2
26.1
32.8
14. 24
22.74
12.74
17. 08
12.86
37.18
250.97
47. 33
0.0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0.0*
0. 0*
89.12
535. 57
76.71
388. 27
69. 32
30. 08
57. 02
40.65
45.6
160.89
101.17
105.86
432.70
1013.96
362.36
Total
Phosphorus
yg/i
44.4
38.8
248. 61
49.49
217.81
829.59
705.21
434.94
___
626.29
924. 39
376. 93
1168.79
337. 09
676.47
T
*below minimum detectable levels
(continued)
-------
Appendix B (continued)
Date
8/3/76
9/7/76
9/27/76
10/11/76
4/18/77
5/9/77
6/6/77
6/20/77
8/1/77
8/29/77
9/12/77
10/3/77
10/24/77
12/12/77
SKUNK CREEK
Turbidity Nitrite
(FTU) yg/1
4
dry
dry
dry
10
4
7
5
11
8
8
30
10
15
0.0*
stream
stream
stream
0. 0*
12.2
0. 0*
0.0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
AT HANSON
Nitrate
yg/1
60.40
bed
bed
bed
126.93
26.2
17.9
26. 8
0.0*
18.73
0.0*
24.98
13.04
22.63
DAM
Ortho-
Phosphate
yg/1
0.0*
49. 96
91.89
216. 37
93.93
160.69
0.0*
0.0*
Total
Phosphorus
yg/1
42.8
472.12
213.42
596.12
1160.54
75. 51
53.91
274.4
*below minimum detectable levels
(continued)
-------
Appendix B (continued)
Date
8/3/76
9/7/76
9/27/76
10/11/76
11/2/76
3/31/77
4/18/77
5/9/77
6/6/77
6/20/77
8/1/77
8/29/77
9/12/77
10/3/77
10/24/77
12/12/77
SKUNK CREEK
Turbidity Nitrite
(FTU) yg/1
33
22
25
27
26
26
21
12
13
35
61
35
28
21
25
13
0. 0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0.0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0. 0*
0. 0*
13. 53
ABOVE HANSON DAM
Ortho-
Nitrate Phosphate
yg/1 yg/1
14.17
13.4
0. 0*
0. 0*
0.0*
0.0*
56.38
40.2
24.8
55.2
13. 56
17.81
0.0*
12.16
0. 0*
39.0
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
0.0*
0. 0*
58.15
59. 03
246. 52
131. 59
0. 0*
14. 09
0.0*
0.0*
Total
Phosphorus
yg/1
60.3
117.6
78. 53
67. 55
173.12
293.76
253.27
442. 53
610. 95
508.43
116.62
99.79
516.19
*below minimum detectable levels
24-6
-------
APPENDIX C• Turbidity and total bacterial, fungal, and fecal
coliform counts from December, 1976 through May,
1978 in Little Balsam, Empire, and Skunk Creeks.
Date
12/14/76
4/18/77
5/9/77
6/6/77
6/20/77
8/1/77
8/29/77
10/3/77
10/24/77
11/3/77
11/14/77
12/1/77
12/12/77
1/25/78
3/29/78
4/10/78
4/17/78
5/2/78
5/9/78
5/11/78
5/16/78
5/23/78
Turbidity
(FTU)
4
8
3
3
3
3
5
3
4
4
3
3
3
4
18
25
4
4
21
7
4
4
LITTLE BALSAM
Bacteria/ml
1,400
1,660
1,420
925
3,200
224
102
910
1,090
1,050
220
1,250
650
950
15,600*
610
860
90
5,480
380
510
120
CREEK
Fungi/ml
6500
34
300
175
13
48
51
670
310
14
16
120
15
29
TNTC**
Fecal
Coliform
Bacteria/
100 ml
114
2
3
0
0
3
0
0
9
18
5
2
13
* High number due to spring runoff (not averaged in)
**Too numerous to count
(continued)
-------
Appendix c (continued)
Date
12/14/76
4/18/77
5/9/77
6/6/77
6/20/77
8/1/77
8/29/77
10/3/77
10/24/77
11/3/77
11/14/77
12/1/77
1/25/78
3/29/78
4/10/78
4/17/78
5/2/78
5/9/78
5/11/78
5/16/78
5/23/78
Turbidity
(FTU)
3
6
2
2
2
2
4
3
2
4
2
2
4
7
25
3
6
12
6
4
4
EMPIRE CREEK
Bacteria/ml
TNTC**
1,200
1,280
TNTC**
13,600*
860
440
560
640
900
400
1,220
750
4,600
840
880
90
2,800
200
340
50
Fungi/ml
5900
35
300
77
5
36
71
925
505
12
13
200
23
77
TNTC**
Fecal
Coliform
Bacteria/
100 ml
___
134
5
6
2
5
4
0
1
5
2
7
6
* High counts due to runoff from heavy rainfall
** Too numerous to count
(continued)
248
-------
Appendix C (continued)
Date
12/14/76
4/18/77
5/9/77
6/6/77
6/20/77
8/1/77
8/29/77
10/3/77
10/24/77
11/3/77
11/14/77
12/1/77
12/12/77
1/25/78
3/29/78
4/10/78
4/17/78
5/2/78
5/9/78
5/11/78
5/16/78
5/23/78
(FTU)
45
25
10
21
45
66
35
17
22
48
26
19
15
34
43
194
34
30
220
56
22
22
SKUNK CREEK
Bacteria/ml
680
TNTC**
1,060
TNTC**
5,800
8,000
660
520
770
1,210
1,260
1,800
970
960
15,200*
2,270
2,040
230
7,520
9,100
1,280
240
Fungi/ml
TNTC**
42
650
150
33
67
65
980
2200
41
45
TNTC**
32
35
TNTC**
Fecal
Coliform
Bacteria/
100 ml
1030
12
56
2
2
325
0
232
55
28
178
19
* High count due to spring runoff-not used in averaging
**Too numerous to count
249
-------
APPENDIX D. Summary of average number of macroinvertebrates 0.092 m 2 for all sampling
periods. Pool averages, riffle averages, and the combined pool-riffle
average are included.
Site 1
pool
riffle
total
Site 2
VJl POOl
o riffle
total
Site 3
pool
riffle
total
Site 4
riffle
pool
total
Site 5
riffle
pool
total
Per 1
Early
Sept
1975
17.0
34.0
10.0
11. 5
5.7
10.8
6. 0
6.7
176. 3
52.3
124.8
Per 2
Late
Sept
1975
94.0
63.7
71.3
69.6
66.3
37.7
23.7
21.7
674.7
172.3
417.5
Per
Oct
1975
78
—
52
122
—
115
28
—
17
—
24
25
381
47
214
3 Per 4 Per 5
Nov June
1975 1976
•0 55.0
•2 39.8
. 0
—
.2
.3
-
.0
_ ___
.3 4.0 8.3
.0 5.7 6.5
.3 74.0
.3 8.0 27. 3
.0 5.8 50.7
Per 6 Per 7 Per 8 Per 9 Per 10
Aug Oct June Aug Nov
1976 1976 1977 1977 1977
15.7 40.3 210.0 39.0 29.0
15.8 45.3 105.0 48.7 17.0
68.3 98.7 102.3 117.7 10.7
5.7 9.0 85.7 36.7 31.0
37.0 53.8 94.0 72.7 12.1
(continued)
-------
Appendix D (continued)
Site 6
pool
riffle
total
Site 7
pool
riffle
total
Site 8
riffle
pool
total
Site 9
riffle
pool
total
Site 10
riffle
pool
total
Per
Earl
Sept
1975
21.
141.
151.
180
299.
276.
299.
180.
276.
114.
85.
99.
40.
60.
50.
1
y
6
5
5
7
2
7
0
2
0
0
5
0
0
0
Per
Late
Sept
1975
84
528
306
4
318
161
893
69
480
505
82
293
159
27
93.
2
.0
.5
.25
.7
.7
.7
. 0
.0
.8
.0
. 0
.5
.0
.0
0
Per 3
Oct
1975
145.
253.
199.
24.
255.
140.
305.
210.
255.
181.
1632.
906.
143.
43.
93.
0
0
0
3
7
0
7
7
0
3
0
7
3
3
0
Per
Nov
1975
79.
62.
71.
180.
24.
102.
539.
396.
471.
4
3
7
0
0
7
3
7
3
0
Per 5
June
1976
269.3
142.3
192.0
528. 3
56.0
292.2
335.7
66.7
201. 0
Per 6
Aug
1976
1074.
361.
715.
788.
412.
600.
254.
46.
150.
3
3
0
0
3
2
3
3
3
Per 7
Oct
1976
386.0
63.0
224. 5
693.3
89.0
391.2
331.7
93.7
212.7
Per 8
June
1977
235.
60.
147.
1194.
150.
672.
68.
45.
57.
3
7
8
7
3
5
3
7
0
Per 9
Aug
1977
509.
454.
481.
1002.
424.
712.
404.
514.
504.
3
3
8
0
7
2
7
7
7
Per 10
Nov
1977
89.3
31.0
60.2
61.7
27.7
44.7
262.7
13.7
138.2
(continued)
-------
Appendix D (continued)
ro
vn
ro
Site 11
riffle
pool
total
Site 12
riffle
pool
total
Site 13
riffle
pool
total
Per
Ear
Sep
197
458
115
282
—
—
*~ ~
379
88
207
• 1
-ly
>t
'5
.7
.0
.3
-
-
~
.7
.7
.5
Per 2
Late
Sept
1975
163.7
1295.7
440. 2
_ _ —
567.3
195.3
334.2
Per 3
Oct
1975
501.
317.
409.
— — —
490.
53.
272.
!
0
3
2
7
7
2
Per 4 Per 5
Nov June
1975 1976
354.3 678.0
200.3 84.0*
277.3 382.8
116.3
208.3
162.3
410.7
38.7
224.7
Per 6
Aug
1976
301.3
77. 0
189. 2
_ _ _
553.0
553. 0
667.3
24.7
346.0
Per 7
Oct
1976
557.7
76.3
317.0
_ _ _
_ __
220.7
47.0
133.8
Per 8
June
1977
937.
240.
588.
124.
373.
248.
155.
113.
134.
i
7
0
8
3
3
8
7
0
3
Per Ł
Aug
1977
422.
797.
610.
408.
71.
240.
595.
168.
381.
)
3
7
0
3
7
0
3
0
7
Per 10
Nov
1977
122. 0
64. 7
93. 3
32
55. 7
43.8
154. 0
19. 7
86. 8
-------
APPENDIX E . Total number of taxa encountered at sampling
sites during 1975, 1976 and 1977.
1975 1976 1977
Site 4
riffle
pool 32.0 18.0 40.0
total 42.0 21.0 47.0
Site 5
riffle 63.0 40.0 44.0
pool 39.0 26.0 31.0
total 79.0 46.0 52.0
Site 8
riffle 67.0 58.0 65.0
pool 51.0 57.0 59.0
total 79.0 80.0 81.0
Site 9
riffle 55.0 62.0 80.0
pool 56.0 49.0 62.0
total 77.0 76.0 96.0
Site 10
riffle 49.0 64.0 59.0
pool 41.0 44.0 54.0
total 67.0 73.0 74.0
Site 11
riffle 73.0 63.0 62.0
pool 55.0 51.0 60.0
total 97.0 82.0 78.0
Site 12
riffle 32.0 51.0
pool — 76.0 45.0
total — 85.0 61.0
Site 13
riffle 65.0 56.0 68
pool 50.0 43.0 51
total 84.0 72.0 78
253
-------
APPENDIX F
Summary of Shannon Weaver diversity indices for each sampling period, 1975-1977.
Station 4
riffle
pool
total
Station 5
^ riffle
vn pool
•^ total
Station 8
riffle
pool
total
Station 9
riffle
pool
total
Station 10
riffle
pool
total
Per 1
Early
Sept
1975
_ __
2.324
3.176
1.705
3.642
2.839
2.780
0.792
1.641
2.568
3.431
3.362
2.017
3.134
3.319
Per 2
Late
Sept
1977
— _ _
3. 584
2.666
2.758
2.899
3.403
3. 282
3. 828
3.490
3.432
3. 937
3.740
2.679
3.494
3.049
Per 3
Oct
1975
_ _ _
3. 274
3.317
3.441
2. 288
3.742
3.465
3.659
3.366
3. 530
3.817
3.812
2.587
3.458
3.123
Per 4
Nov
1975
3.022
3.921
3.653
3. 729
4.268
3.272
4.598
3.970
3.688
4.123
3.109
2.117
2.992
Per 5
June
1976
2.192
1.788
3.637
3. 058
3.839
2.743
3.449
3. 525
3.607
2.995
3.934
2.751
3. 307
3.271
Per 6
Aug
1976
0.780
0.585
3. 357
1.086
3. 544
3.140
2.368
3. 523
3.229
2.810
3.654
2.451
2.738
2.960
Per 7
Oct
1976
1. 003
0. 808
3.293
3.302
3. 560
3. 049
3.076
3.455
3. 051
3.787
3.404
2.700
3. 568
3.329
Per 8
June
1977
3.331
3. 331
3.300
2.292
3.442
3.065
4.232
3. 579
2.078
3.103
2.562
3.840
3.325
4.333
Per 9
Aug
1977
2. 244
2.731
3.257
3.353
3.711
4.304
3.879
4. 394
3.764
3.842
4.149
3.011
2. 699
3.245
Per 10
Oct
1977
1. 566
1.961
2.496
3.766
3.783
3.285
3. 591
3.763
4.164
3. 331
4.196
2. 378
3. 654
2.599
(continued)
-------
Appendix F (continued)
ro
VJl
vn
Station 11
riffle
pool
total
Station 12
riffle
pool
total
Station 13
riffle
pool
total
Per 1
Early
Sept
1975
3.256
3.148
3.750
2.474
3. 548
3.165
Per 2
Late
Sept
1975
3.313
2.541
4.549
3.865
2.310
4.098
Per 3
Oct
1975
4.041
2.858
4.321
__ _
3.899
3.463
4.142
Per 4
Nov
1975
3.636
2.774
3.721
___
Per 5
June
1976
3.998
3.700
3.520
4. 598
4.767
3. 399
3.292
3.570
Per 6
Aug
1976
4.096
3. 774
4.466
_ _ _
3.909
3.909
3.287
3.924
3.421
Per 7
Oct
1976
3.459
3.770
3.906
2.812
3.512
3.474
Per 8
June
1977
2.913
3.631
3.624
3.745
2.654
3.226
3.752
3.618
4.022
Per 9
Aug
1977
4.104
3.684
3.984
3.635
3.791
3.892
3.741
4.071
4.195
Per 10
Oct
1977
3.253
3.424
3.677
3.931
3.752
4.347
3.971
3.459
4.149
-------
APPENDIX G
GENERIC LIST OF MACROINVERTEBRATES
ENCOUNTERED IN THE NEMADJ I RIVER WATERSHED,
INCLUDING THEIR FUNCTIONAL GROUP
Plecoptera
Pteronarcidae
Pteronarcys shredder
Nemouridae
Amphinemura shredder
Nemourashredder
Leuctridae
Leuctra shredder
Zealeuctra shredder
Capnudae
Allocapnia shredder
Paracapnia shredder
Taeniopterygidae
Taeniopteryx^ shredder
Perlidae
Acroneuria predator
Paragnetina predator
Phasganophora predator
Perlinellapredator
Perlodidae
Isoperla predator
Chloperlidae
Hastanerla predator
Alloperla predator
Ephemeroptera
Siphlonuridae
Isonychia filter feeder
Ameletus collector
Acanthynetropus predator
Heptagenndae
Heptagenia collector
Rhithrogena collector
Stenonema collector
Stenacron collector
Epeorus collector
Baetidae
Baetis collector
Centroptilum collector
Cloeon collector
Heterocloeon collector
Paracloeodes collector
Pseudocloeon collector
Leptophlebiidae
Habrophlebia collector
Leptophlebia collector
256
-------
Paraleptophlebia
Choroterpes
Ephemerellidae
Ephemerella
Caenidae
Caenis
Brachycercus
Ephemeridae
Ephemera
Hexagenia
Baetiscidae
Baetisca
Tricorythidae
Tricorythodes
Odonata
Gomphidae
Gomphus
Ophio'go'mphus
Aeshnidae
Boyeria
Hemiptera
Belostomatidae
Belostoma
Corixidae
Mesoveliidae
Mesovelia
Trichoptera
Philopotamidae
Dolophilodes
Chimarra.
Wormaldia
Psychomyiadae
Lype
Psycnomyia
Polycentropodidae
Cyrnellus
Neureclip'sis
Nyctiophylax
Phylocentropus
Polycentropus
Hydropsychidae
Cheumatopsyche
Hydropsyche
Rhyacophilidae
Rhyacophilia
Glossosomatidae
Agapetus
Glossosoma
Protoptila
Hydroptilidae
Hydroptila
Ochrotrlchia
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
predator
predator
predator
predator
predator
predator
collector
collector
collector
collector
predator
filter
predator
filter
predator
filter
filter
predator
scraper
scraper
scraper
scraper
collector
257
-------
Orthotrichia collector
Agraylea"collector
LeucotrTchia collector
Brachycentridae
Micrasema shredder
Brachycentrus filter
Phryganeidae
Ptilostomis shredder
Phryganeidae
Ptilostomis shredder
Limnephilidae
Hesperophylax shredder
Hydatophylax shredder
Pseudostenophylax shredder
Pyconopsycheshredder
Onocosmoecus shredder
Lepidostomatidae
Lepidostoma shredder
Molannidae
Molanna scraper
Helicopsychidae
Helicopsyche scraper
Leptoceridae
Ceraclea collector
Oecetis~ predator
Nectopsyche shredder
Setodes" collector
Megaloptera
Sialidae
Sialis predator
Coleoptera
Dytiscidae
Liodessus predator
Hygrptus predator
Illybius predator
Agabus ~ predator
Hydroporus predator
Hydrophilidae
Anacaena shredder
Hydrobius shredder
Helophorus shredder
Gyrinidae
Gyrinus predator
Dineutus predator
Elmidae
Dubiraphia collector
Microcylloepus collector
Optioservuscollector
Stenelmiscollector
Dryopidae
Helichus scraper
258
-------
Diptera
Empididae predator
Rhagionidae
Atherix predator
Stratiomyidae
Sciomyza collector
Tipulidae
Tipula shredder
Antocha collector
Dxcranota predator
Pedicia" predator
Limnoph'ila predator
Pilariapredator
Hexatoma predator
Limonia~ shredder
Helius~ collector
Psued'olimnophila
Prionocerashredder
Erioptera collector
Chaobondae
Chaoborus predator
Ceratopogonidae
Palpomyia predator
Dasyhelia collector
Dixidae
Dixa collector
Dixella collector
Simulidae
Prosimulium filter
Eusimulium filter
Silmulium filter
Cnephxa filter
Tabanidae
Chrysops collector
Tabanus~~ predator
Psychodidae
Pericoma collector
Chironomidae
Tanypodinae
Procladius predator
Tanypus predator
Psectrotanypus collector
Clinotanypuspredator
Coelotanypus predator
Natarsia predator
Ablabeslnyia predator
Pentaneura predator
Labrundinia predator
Nilotanypus predator
Guttipelopia predator
Zavrelimyia predator
Conchapelopia predator
Larsiapredator
259
-------
Diamesinae
Potthastia
Prodiames'a
Orthocladinae
Corynoneura
ThienemannTella
Symbiocladius
Psuedosmittia
Epoicocladius
Diplocladius
Rheocricotopus
Psectrocladius
Cardiocladius
Brillia
Trissocladius
Plecopteracoluthus
Eukieff eriella"
Heterotrissocladius
Parametriocnemus
Smittia"
Orthocladius
Cricotopus
Chironominae
Stempellina
Faratanytarsus
Cladotanytarsus
Rheotanytarsus
Micropsectra
Tanytarsus
Stictochir'onpmus
Lauterborniella
Microtendipes"
Paratendipes
Cryp±ocladopelma
Demi cry ptochiro'nomus
Paracladopelma
Harnischia
Parachironomus
Cryptochironomus
Stenochironomus~
Polypedilum
Nilothauma
Endochironomus
Phaenopsectra
Psuedochironomus
X'enochironomus"
Dicrotendipes
Einfeldia
Glyptotendipes
Chironomus
Kiefferulus
Paralauterborniella
collector
collector
collector
collector
parasite
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
predator
shredder
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
filterer
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
collector
predator
predator
collector
collector
collector
scraper, collector
collector
predator
collector
collector
shredder, collector
collector, shredder
collector
collector
260
-------
Annelida
Oligochaeta
Hirudinea
Nematoda
Hydracarina
Gastrapoda
Ancylidae
Pelecypoda
Sphaeridae
Amphipoda
Hyallela
Gammarus
Isopoda
261
-------
APPENDIX H
FISH SPECIES COMPOSITION BY SITE WITH RELATIVE ABUNDANCE
SITE
10 11 12 13
ro
0^
(V)
Percidae
Perca flavescens (yellow perch)
Stizostedion vitreum vitreum (walleye)
Percina caprodes (logperch)
Etheostoma nigrum (johnny darter)
Salmonidae
Salmo trutta (brown trout)
Salmo gairdneri (rainbow trout)
Salvelinus fontinalis (brook trout)
Catostomidae
Catostomus cat0stomus (longnose sucker)
Catostomus commersoni (white sucker)
Moxostoma anisurum Ts"ilver redhorse)
Ictaluridae
Ictalurus melas (black bullhead)
Noturus gyrinus (tadpole madtom)
Noturus flavus (stonecat madtom)
Cyprinidae
Semotilus atromaculatus (creek chub)
Nocomis biguttatus (hornyhead chub)
Cyprinus carpio (carp)
Hybognathus hankinsoni (brassy minnow)
Notropis atherinoides~(emerald shiner)
(continued)
U
SA
U
R
U
U
N
SA
SA,C
SA,C
Moxostoma macrolepidotum (shorthead redhorse) SA,C
A
C
U
U
U
A
R
SA
U
R
R
R
R
R
N
SA
SA
SA
SA
N
N
N
C
C
N
R
SA
R
U
C
C
U
U
U
N
N
C
C
C
N
U
SA
C
R
C
N
N
N
C
N
N
N
N
R
R
A
C
N
A
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
R
N
N
N
N
R
N
N
SA
SA,C
SA,C
SA,C
N
U
N
N
N
U
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
C
N
N
N
C
N
N
N
C
N
N
N
-N
N
A
N
N
R
N
N
N
N
C
N
N
N
N
C
N
N
N
N
N
A
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
U
R
N
N
N
C
N
N
N
N
N
A
N
N
R
N
-------
Fish Species Composition by Site with Relative Abundance (continued)
SITE
10 11 12 13
Notropis cornutus (common shiner) U C,SAC RNNCRC
Notropis heterolepis (blacknose shiner) U R U NNNNNN
Notropis stramineus (sand shiner) R R R NNNNNN
Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow) R N N NNNRRR
Rhinichthvs cataractae (longnose dace) R U C AUNCCC
Rhinichthvs atratulus (vlacknose dace) R U C CNNAAA
Semotilus margarita (pearl dace) R U U NNNUUU
Osmeridae
Osmerus mordax (rainbow smelt) SA SA SA NNNNNN
Centrarchidae
o^ Ambloplites rupestris (rock bass) C U C NNNNNN
^ Pomoxis nigromaculatus (black crappie) R N R N.NNNNN
Percopsidae
Percopsis omiscomaycus (trout-perch) U U C NNNCRC
Esocidae
Esox lucius (northern pike) U U R NNNN.NN
Gadidae
Lota lota (burbot) SA U U NNNNNN
Gasterosteidae
Culaea inconstans (brook stickleback) R N R NANRRR
(continued)
-------
Fish Species Composition by Site with Relative Abundance (continued)
SITE
1 I 5 8 9 10 11 12 13
Umbridae
Umbra limi (central mudminnow) U U R NNNRRR
Cottidae
Cottus bairdi (mottled sculpin) R R R ACCAAC
ro
(Ł
-P" A-- abundant
SA - seasonally abundant
C - common
U - uncommon
R - rare
N - not present
-------
APPENDIX I. Population size (fish hec" ) and biomass (kg hec~ )
in sites on the Nemadji River and Little Balsam,
Empire, Skunk and Elim Creeks. Biomass estimates
appear immediately below population estimates.
Site
4
5
8
9
10
11
12
13
i 10/75
866
7.7
133
2.4
7095
98.6
8202
14.9
6561
109.7
13887
81.8
___
7669
195.2
5/76
974
157.8
*
2350
42.8
1968
56.8
2870
55.2
5358
92.3
13731
223.8
6394
61.7
6/76
1507
13.0
792
6.4
5631
178.2
4593
70.2
6234
134.9
3445
38.5
7677
35.0
12788
99.2
8/76
1629
13.0
3932
35.2
11973
56.8
2297
13.3
10088
229.7
_ __
8398
82.6
7767
39.7
9/76
1522
44
3180 .
39.7
27405
37.3
4183
73.6
14353
134.9
10411
112.4
___
6662
99.7
10/77
8400
22.5
1064
9.0
3280
47.3
3937
56.1
9623
9.1
22703
51.4
3639
116.9
Avg.
1300
19.
3287
21.
9252
70.
4087
46.
7340
120.
9545
66.
13127
98.
7487
96.
4
2*
5
0
1
7
2
7
*does not include 5/76 collection when spawning suckers were
very numerous.
265
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VEGETATION AND RED CLAY SOIL STABILITY
by
Lawrence A. Kapustka, Donald W. Davidson and Rudy G. Koch*
*Project Associate, CLSES; Associate Professors-Biology;
UW-Superior.
266
-------
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
Vegetation effectively reduces both surface and slump
erosion by intercepting precipitation, reducing the velocity
of precipitation, retaining soil particles and reinforcing
soil structure (1, 2). Among the most significant features
in this regard are (a) an increase in the shear strength of
soils as a result of reinforcement by roots and^(b) soil
arching, the transfer of stress across a potential failure
surface in the soil (2). Significant correlations between
tree cover and slope stability have been developed in several
field studies (3, 4, 5, 6, 7). Swanston (8) found an apparent
cohesion and shear strength that is not reflected by the phy-
sical properties of Karta soils in southeastern Alaska. His
study of root deterioration following clearcutting indicated
that the contribution by tree roots to soil shear strength
diminished within 3-5 years. This rate of decay coincided
with the observed lag time for landslide acceleration follow-
ing the harvest.
Currently, vegetation is used effectively to reduce
erosion along roadsides and other construction situations^in
which the erosional forces are minimal once construction is
completed and the initial ground cover has developed (9, 10).
Although these plant properties related to erosion
abatement are accepted generally, the relative contributions
of each applied to a specific problem are speculative.
Studies performed during the past 2-1/2 years have_sought to
define the capacity of vegetation to moderate erosion of the
red clay zone of the Nemadji River Basin which empties into
western Lake Superior. These investigations have had 3 main
thrusts: 1) the desciption of the vegetation, pre-settle-
ment and contemporary; 2) the influence of the vegetation
on soil water content and 3) the distribution and strength
of plant roots in the region.
The Nemadj i Basin
2 2
The Nemadji River drains an area of 1200 km (460 mi )
in Douglas County, northwestern Wisconsin and Carlton and
Pine Counties, northeastern Minnesota (Figure 1). This
stream carries a heavy burden of eroding clay soil (5.4 x
10° mton annually) from this relatively young landscape and
is a major contributor of red clay in Lake Superior (11).
Soils
The soils of the Nemadji River Basin are derived from
glacial till and lake sediments. The clays of lacustrine
origin, the predominant soil type, are of the montmoril-
lonite type <2 y diameter. Beach sands, unsorted sand, silt
and clay from glacial drift comprise the remaining soil com-
ponents. Generally, the lacustrine clay zones are well
26?
-------
drained whereas the glacial till zones are poorly drained
(12, 13).
The clays, remarkably uniform throughout the study area,
have a bulk density (g-cnr3) ranging between 0.94 and 1.12
with a mean of 1.05. The plastic limits range from 20-30%.
The_liquid limits typically range from 40-80% (14). Auger
borings reveal relatively uniform moisture content >40% for
depths greater than 3 m.
Climate
The climate is typical of the western Great Lakes area.
The following table summarizes recent climatic data for three
stations in or near the basin.
Climate Summary
Superior, Cloquet, Moose Lake,
WI MN MN
Precipitation (in.)
Average Annual 27.9 29.1 27.5
Temperature (F.)
Average daily maximum 50.2 50.4 52.4
Average daily minimum 30.8 27.0 28.0
Average January maximum 22.2 18.7 20.8
Average January minimum 2.9 -2.8 -2.2
Average July maximum 77.7 80.2 81.0
Maximum 105 105 99
Minimum -37 -45 -49
Average frost free days 173 167 169
About 3.5 inches of precipitation per month occurs from
May to August, and 1 inch or less during December through
February. The growing season is relatively short and the
average temperatures are cool.
Weather data for the Little Balsam subbasin appears to
fluctuate more than at the nearest official weather monitor-
ing site, the Duluth International Airport. For the months
May-October rainfall in the Little Balsam sites was 242.6 mm
for 1976 and 741.2 mm for 1977 (17). At Duluth total rain-
fall amounts for the same periods were 332.0 mm and 604.8 mm
respectively. The 30 years mean precipitation for the period
is 526.6 mm (11). For the western Lake Superior region the
typical annual evapotranspiration potential is less than
the expected annual precipitation. The probability of 'evapo-
transpiration exceeding precipitation is only 1 year in 50
\ j- y / •
268
-------
SUMMARY
Vegetation
Presett'lenient; As revealed from survey records of
1860 the Nemadji Basin as a whole was dominated by white
pine (Pinus strobus L.) with an importance percentage of
27.2. Almost one-fourth of the white pine were 60 cm DHB
or larger, a size unmatched by any other tree in the forest.
Spruce (Picea spp.), tamarack (Larix laricina Du Roi)_and
birch (Betula spp.) were other species contributing signifi-
cantly to the character of the forests. As a synthetic _1
unit, the forests were moderately dense with 187 trees-ha
The average diameter of the trees was near 28 cm.
Major communities determined from the survey records
included flood plain forest types exemplified by ash (Fraxinus
spp.); upland and ravine forests indicated by significantly
larger tree diameters in the ravines; and on a large scale
white pine and tamarack forests. The.white pine community
was restricted chiefly to the elevations <330 m which ap-
proximates the lake bed of glacial Lake Duluth. Similarly
tamarack tended to occupy the sandy, poorly drained soils
outside the former lake bed.
Contemporary Vegetation: Human impact on the vegetation
of this region has been significant since the logging
activities of the last century. After the forest cover_
had been removed, much of the area was converted to agri-
cultural use. This usage seemingly reached its maximum
extent during the 1920's and 1930's. Gradually, agricultural
interests have diminished and much of the area is reverting
to forest cover. Genera-ly the vegetation pattern of the
Nemadji Basin as a whole shows evidence of disturbance.
Vegetation and Soil Moisture
The various species and vegetation cover types have
significant effects on the redistribution of rainfatl as
it moves through the canopy. The open canopy species such
as aspen (P. tremuloides), and white birch (B_. papyriferu)
have the least influence wheras fir and spruce have the
greatest influence on intercepting rainfall. The greatest
importance of this is in reducing the impact of rain on the
soil surface. Particularly when the tree surfaces have
become dry do the dense canopy species reduce the amount
of moisture reaching the soil surface.
The measures of soil moisture indicate major differences
in soil moisture conditions among the various vegetative
covers. Grassed areas, including pasture and abandoned
agricultural fields, and aspen experienced the greatest
drying of the soil. However during years with normal
269
-------
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amounts of precipitation the soils of all cover types remain
at near field capacity for the majority of the summer,
The measures of red clay consistency demonstrate a
rather narrow range of soil stability with respect to soil
moisture content. Our measures of the permanent wilting
point of the soils indicate that plants can draw down the
soil water content to 11.8±0.3% thereby inducing soil
fracturing. Large fissures (>2 cm wide and several meters
long to depth of 15 cm or more) were common in the grassy
areas in 1976. Many of these fissures remained throughout
1977 and 1978. During wet periods when precipitation
exceeds evapotranspiration the soils exceed the liquid
limit and are subject to liquid flow.
Vegetation and Soil Stability
Measurements of soil slumping indicates the major
activity occurs during the spring thaw period, especially
if the soil was wet prior to freeze-up. Plants develop the
potential to remove significant amounts of water from the
soil only after the expansion of leaves, which in this region
occurs in mid to late May. A comparison of the soil moisture
conditions of 1976 and 1977 suggest that plants can have a
significant draw down of soil moisture only during the
drier than normal years. In unusually dry years certain
vegetative covers, especially the grass and sparse aspen
areas, the soils dry below the plastic limit creating
future erosion problems.
Surface Runoff
The volume of runoff in areas with slumping was consider-
ably higher than in stable areas for both grassed and wooded
areas and tended to increase logarithmically with increasing
amounts of precipitation.
The sediment load was extremely variable, especially in
the grassed areas. Again major differences are apparent
between the slumped and stable areas. The major difference
occurred between the grassed and the wooded areas with
approximately 10-fold more sediment in the runoff from the
grassed areas.
Root Distribution and Root Strength
Trends in root distribution with respect to depth and
soil type reflect differences in vegetation cover significant
to erosion control. In the wooded clay soils (Table 1) up
to 55% of the root mass was found in the upper 10 cm of soil
with an additional 20% in the 10-20 cm layer. For smaller
roots (i.e. <1 mm diam.) as much as 70% (dry weight basis)
occur in the upper 10 cm and 90% in the upper 20 cm of soil.
-------
By comparison, the grassy slopes contain approximately
1/5 to 1/3 as much root mass as the wooded areas (Table 2).
Furthermore the upper 10 cm harbor as little as 30% of all
roots in the 50 cm profile. Generably the grassed areas
have a rather uniform distribution throughout the remainder
of the profile. This uniformity appears to result from the
distribution of Equisetum rhizomes, while the grass roots
diminish rapidly with depth.
These patterns of root distribution and the measure
of root tensile strength suggest a significant relationship
between erosion activity and certain vegetation types. The
major slumping activity occurred in grassed transects and
in open aspen dominated transects. The herbaceous areas are
characterized by a sparse rooting system and relatively weak
roots. The aspen typically has weak roots. Similar transects
with a mixture of fir or hazel both which ahve roots signifi-
cantly stronger than aspen had less slumping activity. Al-
though it is difficult to determine cause-effect relation-
ships from vegetation sampling, the relatively high impor-
tance of hazel in the non-slumped areas and its scarcity in
the slumped areas may indicate that the stronger hazel roots
have been effective in holding the soils of the non-slumped
sites.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
It appears as if reduction of soil water content by
plants may lead to counterproductive results. The vegetation
types most effective in soil water depletion are effective
only in drier years and then lower the water content of the
clay below the plastic limit. Consequently, other vegetation
types which tend to have greater amounts of cover, appear
to be more effective in reducing erosion due to other factors.
Perhaps the most significant 'factor is the relatively stronger
roots of the more advanced successional woody species.
Because of the relatively shallow rooting pattern and the
relatively weaker roots of the herbaceous plants compared
to woody plants, slumping and surface erosion tends to be
greater in areas with predominant herbaceous cover. Al-
though no vegetation is expected to abate completely the
erosion forces of this geologically young region, woody
climax vegetation appears to be most capable of ameliorating
the process.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following guidelines for management of vegetation
in the red clay zone are intended to be simple, feasible
practices that will lead to significant reduction of erosion,
--On construction sites, vegetation should be established at
the earliest opportunity.
-------
-Where possible, woody species should be phased into the
herbaceous cover.
-Among woody species, the more advanced successional species
are preferred, largely due to their greater root strength.
-Along stream banks and associated drainage areas, soil
stability equations should be employed to demarkate the
"100-year safe zone." Within this zone, all human activity
that arrests or reverts the successional process should be
prohibited. This includes logging and unnecessary con-
struction unless these activities are consistant with forest
management practices that promote advanced successional
stands.
-In critical erosion sites, the establishment of advanced
successional woody vegetation should be actively promoted
by acceptable methods of forest management including
planting of seedlings, selective cutting, and fertilizer
application.
273
-------
REFERENCES
1. Penman, H. L. 1963. Vegetation and hydrology. Tech.
Commun. No. 53, Commonwealth Bureau of Soils, Harpenden.
2. Gray, D. H. 1976. The influence of vegetation on slope
processes. In Proceedings GLBC Workshop, 2 Dec. 1976,
Chicago, IL.
3. ^ 1973. Effects of forest clear-cutting on the
stability of natural slopes: Results of field studies.
Interim report to National Science Foundation, Dept. of
Civil Engineering, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
4. 1971. Reinforcement and stabilization of soil
by vegetation. Journ. of the Geotechnical Engineering
Division, ASCE, Vol. 100, No. GT6, pp. 696-699.
5. Marsh, W. M. and Koerner, J. M. 1972. Role of moss in
slope formation. Ecology, Vol. 53, No. 3, pp. 489-493.
6. Bishop, D. M. and Stevens, M. E. 1964. Landslides on
logged areas in Southeast Alaska. U.S. Forest Service
Research Paper NOR-1.
7. Anderson, H. W. 1972. Relative contributions of sedi-
ment from source areas and transport processes. USDA
Agric. Res. Serv. Sedimant Yield Workshop, Oxford, Miss.
Nov. pp. 28-30.
8. Swanston, D. N. 1970. Mechanics of debris avalanching
in shallow till soils of southeast Alaska. U.S. Forest
Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-103.
9. Bailey, R. W. and 0. L. Copeland. 1961. Vegetation
and engineering structures in flood and erosion control.
Ogden Utah Intermountain Forest and Range Expt. Station,
Forest Service USDA.
10. Highway .Research Board. 1973. Proceedings of confer-
ence workshop—Erosion causes and mechanisms, prevention
and control. (26 Jan. 1973) Washington, D.C.
11. Sydor, M. 1976. Red clay turbidity in western Lake
Superior. Univ. of Minnesota-Duluth, Final Report, EPA
Grant #R005175, 150 p. unpublished.
12. Mengel, J. T. 1973. Geology of the Twin Ports area,
Superior-Duluth. Geology Dept., University of Wisconsin-
Superior.
-------
13. Andrews, S. C., R. G. Christensen and C. D. Wilson.
1976. Impact of non-point pollution control on Western
Lake Superior. Technical Information Service, Spring-
field, VA.
14. Mengel, J. T. and B. E. Brown. 1976. Culturally in-
duced acceleration of mass wastage on red clay slopes,
Little Balsam Creek, Douglas County, Wisconsin. Uni-
versity of Wisconsin-Superior.
15. U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau (Decennial
Census of United States Climate-Climatic Summary of the
United States—Supplement for 1951 through 1960).
Climatography of the United States No. 86-17 MINNESOTA.
Washington, D.C. 1964.
16. U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau (Decennial
Census of United States Climate-Climatic Summary of the
United States—Supplement for 1951 through 1960).
Climatography of the United States No. 86-41 WISCONSIN.
Washington, D.C. 1965.
17. Olson, D. E. 1978. Red Clay Project; Annual Report
1976-1977 and Quarterly Progress Reports for 1977.
Department of Physics, University of Minnesota-Duluth.
18. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1977.
Local climatological data, annual summary with compara-
tive data. Duluth, Minnesota.
19. Visher, S. S. 1966. Climatic atlas of the United
States. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
275
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VEGETATIONAL COVER ANALYSIS
by
R. G. Koch, S. H. Stackler, L. M. Koch, and L. Kapustka*
Vegetation cover, and related factors such as litter
and organic content of soil, is known to be important in
controlling and/or reducing erosion rates (1). Other fac-
tors such as slope, soil particle size, soil chemistry and
water content are also important.
This project was designed to provide an analysis of
cover on two watersheds in the Nemadji Basin. This, in
turn, could be useful in determining locations of specific
demonstration projects, serving as a guide in developing
practical land management procedures, utilizing present
cover capabilities in minimizing red clay erosion and to
provide, from the historical record, an indication of cover
prior to the settlement of the area.
I. PRESETTLEMENT VEGETATION OF THE NEMADJI RIVER BASIN
Survey Records
Survey records are a source of information about early
vegetation. They were written in the field and followed a
previously determined plan, thus constituting a well defined
sample of the vegetation which can serve as the basis for
quantitative and qualitative analysis.
Bourdo (2) discusses the use of the General Land Office
survey records in vegetational analysis and provides a good
review of problems that may be encountered. The work on the
presettlement vegetation of the Nemadji Basin involved exam-
ination of surveying records for two states and three
counties. Difficulties encountered stemmed from several
factors, as described below.
Nomenclature: Correlation of surveyor's tree names
with those"in use today was not a significant problem. Most
names were readily recognizable, though a few were encoun-
tered which were initially puzzling. As an example, an
entry "Lynn" appears to be similar to "Lind" and "Linde"
which must be a reference to Linden (Tilia americana), more
familiar to us as basswood.
r
'''Associate Professor, Biology; Project Assistant; Project
Associate; and Project Specialist, Center for Lake Superior
Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-Superior
54880.
2?6
-------
More troublesome, however, was the usage of names which
varied between surveyors. Probably the most obvious example
of this was encountered with the birches. The Douglas_
County (Wisconsin) records typically recognized only birch,
rarely distinguishing between the yellow birch (Betula
lutea) and the paper birch (B_. papyrifera).
In the Minnesota records nearly all birches were re-
corded as either yellow birch or paper birch. Because_of
this uneven treatment, it was not possible to distinguish
between the birches in the analytical work.
In a similar fashion, the records available to us did
not always distinguish between the pines, spruces and oaks.
The identity of a few names, such as "spruce pine" were not
established with certainty. These names of uncertain mean-
ing were not common.
Bias undoubtedly crept in when bearing trees were
selected for the iron marks. Since (with the exception of
beech which was not reported in our area) the surveyors had
to remove the bark to mark the bole with a timber scriber,
it is likely that trees with loose bark were included more
frequently. The relocation of corners would be easier for
the field crews if uncommon species were identified, and it
is likely that many surveyors tended to do this._ Diameters,
especially of large trees, were likely to be estimated, as
were distances between the trees selected and the corner,
particularly when this distance, was great. These estimated
distances and diameters tend to show up in the data as
rounded numbers, such as 20, 25 or 30 inches, or 40, 50 or
60 links.
Measurement errors were also probable. The most common
was the exclusion of the tree's radius in measuring the tree-
to-corner distances. When the tree size was large, this
could be a significant source of error. Our data suggested
relatively small trees, and so the error from this source
was thought to be too small to warrant correction.
The records used in this study were obtained from a
number of sources, and represent work originally done at
different times by different surveyors. A list of the
records examined by township follows:
Douglas County, Wisconsin
T46N, R15W William E. Daugherty, Deputy Surveyor 1860
(xeroxed copies of the original)
T45N, R14W T45N, R15W TU6N, R14W
T47N, R14W T47N, R15W TH8N, R14W
277
-------
Data from blueprint records of Douglas County Plat
Book, maintained at the Douglas County Historical
Museum and/or Zoning Administrator's Office, Douglas
County.
Pine County, Minnesota
T45N, R18W B. F. Jenness, Deputy Surveyor
T45N, R17W B. F. Jenness, Deputy Surveyor
T45N, R16W Alex L. Bradley g E. Edward Davies,
Deputy Surveyors
Xeroxed copies of 1869 surveyor's line field notes
and updated township line notes of Pine County,
Register of Deeds Office, Pine County, Minnesota.
Carlton County, Minnesota
T46N, R18W Milton Nye, Deputy Surveyor
T46N, R17W Milton Nye, Deputy Surveyor
T47N, R18W Milton Nye, Deputy Surveyor
T47N, R17W Milton Nye, Deputy Surveyor
Xeroxed copies of 1858 surveyor's line field notes,
kept by Neubert Swanson, Carlton County Surveyor at
Moose Lake. Township lines filled in from blueprint
records of Carlton County Plat Book, located in
Register of Deeds Office, Carlton, Minnesota.
T46N, R16W T47N, R16W T48N, R16W
TH8N, R17W T46N, R18W
All information from blueprint records of the Carlton
County Plat Book, Register of Deeds Office, Carlton,
Minnesota.
Analysis
Point-centered quadrats of the plotless methods now
common in plant ecology were originally derived from pro-
cedures used by the early surveyors. As a result, the data
contained in the surveying records can be analyzed by stand-
ard plotless procedures. However, since the points recorded
by the surveyors were not restricted to discrete stands,
caution in interpretation is necessary.
Corners at which four trees were recorded provide
better data than those at which only two trees were recorded.
Because of the limitation inherent in using data from two-
tree corners, it was necessary to separate two-tree (2-
point) and four-tree (4-point) data. The latter provided
estimates of density which are unavailable with two point
data.
2?8
-------
From the surveying records, tree species, diameter at
breast height, and distance from the corner (for four-point
corners) as well as the location of the corner were record-
ed on work sheets from which punched data cards were pre-
pared. These data were subjected to computer analysis to
provide Frequency, Density, Dominance, and Importance Per-
centage measures of the vegetation recorded by the survey-
ors. A discussion of these procedures is provided by Greig-
Smith (3).
By using different combinations of data points, it was
possible to summarize the data for each township, the two
study basins (Little Balsam Creek and Skunk Creek), for the
entire Nemadji Basin, for the area once under the glacial
Lake Duluth, and for areas in or out of the deeply eroded
stream beds.
Species Distribution: By using the computer, it was
possible to identify every corner at which a given species
occurred, and to print the number of individuals of a given
species at a point corresponding to the location of the
corner. Such maps, though somewhat distorted (because of
computer printer limitations), indicate the distribution of
given species within the basin.
Ordination: Numerous ordination techniques have been
developed as a means of displaying or summarizing data of
community composition. The ordination can be used to assist
in formulating hypotheses or merely to display phytosocio-
logical information in graphic form. Frequently an ordina-
tion leads to a recognition of relationships that exist
between species, populations or community structure and
environmental factors.
Among the various techniques of ordination (4) are
those which compare communities on the basis of (a) similar-
ity of species present and (b) percentage composition of
species in the respective communities. When dealing with
extremely diverse habitats, species presence is preferred
since it is less subject to sampling error (5). However,
in the less diverse habitats such as the Nemadji Basin per-
centage composition provides discriminations. In this
study, the survey data of the vegetation of the Nemadji
River Basin (Townships, including both 2-point and 4-point
data are considered as communities.) were used to calculate
the Bray-Curtis (6) ordination as modified by Gauch and
Whittaker (5).
The end points selected were chosen to reflect the geo-
graphical distribution of species.
Results
Although the work reported here is a summary of the
vegetation as recorded by surveyors, it is not possible to
279
-------
determine, a_ priori, discrete vegetation stands for analysis.
As a result, all summaries in the basin included corners
representing different vegetation types. The end result is
a synthetic picture of the forest without regard to local
variation patterns which must have been present. The inter-
pretations must be tempered by the realization that the
summaries are based on broad, inclusive categories.
Frequency: In the Nemadji Basin as a whole (Table 1),
white pine(Pinus strobus) had the highest I.P. (Importance
Percentage) value. Nearly one fourth of all of the white
pines were 24 in. DBH or larger, a size practically un-
matched by any other tree in the forest. However, spruce
(Picea spp.) occurred with near or greater frequency. Next
in significance was tamarack (Larix laricina) and birch, if
the birch species were grouped (Betula spp.). The density
of the forest is 75 trees per acre, with an average point to
tree distance of 7.3 feet. The average diameter of the
trees was near 11 inches.
Table 1. Summary of pre-settlement vegetation of the
Nemadji Basin. F = % frequency of points at which species
was present; I.P. = Importance Percentage = relative density
+ relative dominance + relative frequency. (Only species
with I.P. >5 reported.)
Species
2 pt.
4 pt.
I.P.
I.P.
Abies balsamea
Betula papyrifera
Betula spp.
Larix~laricina
Picea spp.
Pinus resinosa
Pinus strobus
Populus spp.
35,
20,
28,
41,
50,
8,
41,
4
1
5
4
2
2
4
17.2
9.5
6.1
8. 7
12.7
14.4
3. 3
22. 3
5.6
16.4
24.4
10.5
24.7
35.2
9.9
38.0
17.3
4.9
9.4
4.1
11.0
13.9
6.3
27.2
6.5
n =
X dbh ( in . )
X point-to-tree distance
(ft.)
X density (trees/acre)
2050
10.7
n.d.
n. d.
1296
11.5
7.3
75.8
In comparison with the whole basin, the two study
areas, Little Balsam Creek and Skunk Creek watersheds
(Table 2) appear to be somewhat different. In the Litftle
Balsam, maple (Acer saccharum) is the dominant tree, though
white pine has a high I.P. value. The Skunk Creek Basin
has white pine as a dominant species with little maple
reported. Both areas have tree diameters a bit larger than
the basin average, but the sample sizes are too small in
280
-------
both instances to allow firm conclusions about their unique-
ness .
Table 2. Summary of pre-settlement vegetation of the Little
Balsam Creek and Skunk Creek Watersheds. F = % frequency of
points at which species was present; I.P. = Importance Per-
centage = relative density + relative dominance + relative
frequency. (Only species with I.P. >5 reported.)
Species
LITTLE BALSAM
2 pt.
F I.P.
SKUNK CREEK
2 pt. 4 pt,
I.P.
I.P.
Abies balsamea
Acer saccharum
Betula lutea
B_. papyrifera
13. spp.
Fraxinus nigra
Larix laricina
Picea spp.
Pinus spp.
Pinus strobus
Populus spp.
Thuja pccidentalis
22.2
77. 7
n. r .
11.1
55.6
n. r .
11.1
22.2
22.2
44.4
n. r .
11.1
5.1
23.8
n. r .
2. 7
17.1
n. r .
2. 5
5. 7
9.2
21. 7
n. r .
4. 5
n.r.
n.r.
8.3
25.0
n.r.
16. 7.
41.7
25.0
n.r.
100.0
25.0
25.0
n.r.
n.r.
2.9
6.0
n.r.
5.0
10.6
6.2
n.r.
43.7
6. 5
7.2
30.8
7. 7
23.8
46.2
n. r.
n. r.
23.1
30.7
n. r.
53.8
7.7
n.r.
9.0
2.0
8.0
21.2
n.r.
n.r.
6.8
15.3
n.r.
33. 5
2.2
n.r.
n
X
X
X
=
dbh ( in . )
point- to- tree
distance
density (trees/
acre)
36
12.4
n. d.
n. d.
50
14.6
n. d .
n. d.
52
12.8
6.0
113. 3
When maps of the Nemadji Basin were examined, it ap-
peared that many corners fell into the deeper ravines eroded
by small streams. When all corners thus identified were
examined as a group in comparison to the corners on the more
level lake plane (Table 3), it was apparent that the two
areas differed in vegetation. The original hypothesis was
that the steep slopes of the ravines generally would be less
stable. Disturbance from slumping would occur, resulting in
data which would indicate a somewhat younger, smaller forest
than the adjacent uplands. Just the opposite was observed,
however. The ravine stands apparently consisted of somewhat
larger trees and appear to be slightly more dense.
281
-------
Table 3. Comparison of pre-settlement vegetation between
ravine and upland corners of the Nemadji Basin. F = % fre-
quency of points at which species was present; I.P. = Impor-
tance Percentage = relative density + relative dominance +
relative frequency. (Only species with I.P. >5 reported.)
RAVINE
2 pt. 4 pt.
UPLAND
2 pt. 4 pt
Species
I.P.
I.p.
I.P.
I.P.
Abies balsamea
Betula papyriTera
Betula spp.
Larix "laricina
Picea spp.
Pinus resinosa
Pinus strobus
Populus spp.
n =
X dbh (in.)
X point-to-tree
distance (ft.)
X density (trees/
acre)
59.1 16. 5
25.8 8.0
4.7
2.9
16.7
10. 6
50.0 14
3.0 0
59.1 28.9
12.1 4. 2
264
11.9
n.d.
n.d.
20.4
20.4
10.2
12. 2
7
6.3
6.1
3. 6
4. 8
34.7 12.1
4.1 3.1
69.4 47.5
4.1 1.3
196
14.0
7.1
79.4
31.8 8.4
19.3 5.8
30.3 9.4
46.0 14.2
50.2 14.3
9.0 3.8
38.8 21.3
17.9 5.8
1786
10.6
n.d.
n.d.
15.6 4.6
25.1 10.2
10.5 4.3
27.0 12.2
35.3 14.3
10.9 7.0
32.4 22.9
19.7 7.6
1100
11.0
7.3
75.2
A final comparison (Table 4) was undertaken to examine
the nature of the vegetation within and without the boundary
of the former glacial Lake Duluth. From ordination patterns
and species distribution maps, there was a strong indication
that the 1100 foot contour line formed an approximate bound-
ary between two major vegetational types. Since this same
contour line generally marks the uppermost zone of influence
of the old lake, corners were separated on the basis of
their location in reference to the 1100 contour line. Vege-
tation in the two areas differ with tamarack the dominant
species but nearly equaled in I.P. by spruce and white pine)
outside of the old lake bed. Inside, white pine is the major
dominant with no near challengers. In addition, the corners
outside of the old lake bed influence tended to be smaller
and denser, consistent with a tamarack dominated forest type.
282
-------
Table 4. Comparison of pre-settlement vegetation between
corners located inside the 1100 ft. contour line (approxi-
mate outer boundary of glacial Lake Duluth) and outside.
F = % frequency of points at which species was present;
I.P. = Importance Percentage = relative density + relative
dominance + relative frequency. (Only species with I.P.
>5 reported.)
Inside (Less)
1100' Contour
Species
Abies balsamea
Betula papyrifera
Betula spp.
Larix laricina
Picea spp.
Pinus resinosa
Pinus strobus
Populus spp.
n =
X dbh (in. )
X point-to-tree
distance (ft . )
X density (trees/
acre)
2 pt.
F I.
42
16
23
30
56
8
56
15
. 8 11
. 7 4
.1 6
. 3 8
.1 15
. 3 3
.4 27
.2 4
1058
11.2
n.d.
n.d.
4 pt.
P.
.6
.8
. 7
.9
.6
.0
.8
.9
F
21.
21.
8.
19.
35.
8.
49.
11.
8
8
6
0
6
0
4
5
I. P.
6.6
8.5
3.1
8.2
13. 8
4.6
36.4
4.3
Outside 1100'
Contour
2 pt.
4 pt.
F I. P.
27
23
34
53
44
8
25
19
696
12
7
67
.7
. 7
.9
. 4 7.
.8 7.
. 3 11.
. 3 16.
. 0 13.
.1 3.
.4 13.
.4 6.
992
10.2
n.d.
n.d.
2
6
0
9
0
8
0
3
F
10.
27.
12.
31.
34.
12.
24.
2.4.
I. P.
0 2.9
3 10.7
7 5.7
3 14.8
7 14.1
0 9.2
7 13.4
0 9.6
600
10.0
6.8.
86.9
Species Distribution: Computer plotted maps of species
distribution provided additional information about the early
vegetation. The distribution of the birches (Figure 1) re-
flects the nomenclatural problem discussed earlier and is a
surveying artifact. Other maps indicate that s'pecies dis-
tribution is more or less random, i.e. no clear patterns are
discernable. One exception to this is the map for the ashes
(Fraxinus sp.). This taxon appears to be distributed along
stream courses, but the smaller number of individuals re-
ported is limiting. The maps for white pine and tamarack
(Figure 2), however, show them to occupy separate areas of
the basin. The line of separation is somewhat parallel to
the 1100 foot contour line which is an approximation of the
old glacial Lake Duluth bed. This boundary tends to sepa-
rate sandy, poorly drained soils outside of the former lake
bed from the clayey, better drained soils of lacustrine
origin. No other discernable patterns relating tree species
to soil, slope or other characteristics of the basin were
noted.
283
-------
TJ
H-
OP
4
0>
NJ
•n
H-
(D
ro
oo
en
fl>
o-ro
-------
Size Class Profiles: When the size class frequency
distributions of various species are tabulated, some inter-
esting comparisons are possible. Probably most interesting
are those of white pine (Figure 3). This tree, the major
dominant in the basin, is represented with individuals in
every size class, but tends to have many individuals 24
inches or larger DBH. A smaller number of smaller sized
trees suggest some reproduction is occurring in the basin
and all sub-parts examined with the exception of the cor-
ners located in the ravines. Here there is evidence of no
reproduction. Further, the species composition in the
ravines suggest a pattern characteristic of greater forest
maturity than the comparative upland corners. White pine
comprises 30.7% of the species reported in the ravines as
compared with 13.9% in the uplands. Two species groups gen-
erally associated with younger forests, birch (Betula spp.)
and poplar (Populus spp.), show the reverse trend, though not
as dramatically. Thus,birch comprises 14.6% of the trees in
the ravine compared with 18.8% in upland forests. Compar-
able figures for poplar are 4.1% and 6.7% respectively.
Ordination; The distribution of Pinus strobus and
Larix~Iaricina suggest that the boundary of the glacial
Lake Duluth was a major demarkation of forest types. _How-
ever, the ordination did not support this interpretation.
the percentage of wetlands of each township appears to be
correlated with community (township) position on the^ordin-
ation as determined by percentage similarity. Upon inspec-
tion of Figures 4 and 5, one can see that P. strobus and L_.
laricina dominate opposite extremes.
II. CONTEMPORARY VEGETATIONAL COVER
Procedures
Based upon a review of the aerial photography of the
basins, it was possible to determine, prior to the field
season, major vegetative stands. Throughout the summer,_
collections were made in an effort to enumerate the species
present in the basin, but the major work effort was directed
toward quantifying the species composition of the previously
identified stands, revising the delimitation of these stands
and noting their extent for an accurate map of their cover-
age.
Trees: Sampling trees was done following point-
cent ered~~quadr at procedures. Twenty-five points along north
bearing transects were sampled at each location. The loca-
tion of the transects was determined by using a transparent
plastic grid which was placed over the basin map. By refer-
ring to a table of random numbers, locations on the grid^
were determined and that location was selected as the ini-
tial point of the transect. In the field, the actual site
285
-------
30
20-
10-
OufsicU
Duliifh Basin
Iniid.
Lain Duluih Basin
30-
20-
ui 1
3
O 1
Raw ln«*
. r
3O-
NMNod}| Rlvvr Basin
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 5*9
08H(ln.)
4 « 8 10 12 14 10 18 2b 22 24
OBH (in.)
Figure 3. Size Class Distribution of Pinus Strobus.
286
-------
Plnus slrobus
L 1
I
% SWAMP PER TOWNSHIP
| 0-25
— 25-50
I 50-75
— 75 -TOO
SPECIES COMPOSITION
10-20%
20-30%
30-40%
ro
oo
Lorli lorlclno
Figures 4-5.
Ordination of Nemadji River Basin forest communities
(townships) showing community position and percentage
of white pine (Firms strobus), Figure 4; and tamarack
(Larix laricina), Figure 5.
-------
of each transect was made by throwing a stone over the
shoulder and starting the transect at the site of impact.
A compass was used to identify the transect line which was
projected north from the initial point. Additional points
were taken every 75 meters (by pacing) along the transect.
If the vegetational boundary was reached before completing
25 points, an additional transect was determined.
Shrubs: A 100 square meter area was selected for
sampling at every five points along the transect line at
the time the tree data was being gathered. Stems of each
species of shrub in the sample area were counted and re-
corded.
_Because this procedure provided only frequency and
density data for shrubs, it was later modified for use in
comparing vegetation between slumped and non-slumped sites.
Shrubs_were classified in the field into six size classes,
as modified from Loucks and Schnur (7). The size classes
used were:
1) <15 cm tall
2) >15 cm high and <0.5 cm dia. at 15 cm
3) 0.5-1.0 cm dia. at 15 cm
4) 1.0 cm dia. at 15 cm to 1.0 cm at breast height
(1. 37 m)
5) 1.1-2.9 cm at breast height
6) 3.0-9.9 cm at breast height
Herbs: Sampling of the herbaceous cover was made by
clipping all the non-woody plants at ground level from a
0.25 m circular quadrat in the stands sampled. The general
location of each quadrat was determined by the same proce-
dure used to determine the initial point of the transect.
Once in the field at the general location of the sampling
point, the specific quadrat location was determined by
throwing the hoop over the left shoulder. The plants were
sampled within the hoop where it landed. Generally, the
plants were sorted to species in the field and placed in
paper bags. Upon returning to the laboratory, they were air
dried and stored until they could be oven-dried to constant
weight and their weights determined. The biomass thus de-
termined for the herbaceous plants was used as the basis for
defining major constituents of the herbaceous cover in the
study area.
Analysis
Trees; In all cases, analysis of the data was done by
computer and follows standard procedures as outlined by
Grieg-Smith (3). For the trees, the procedure used to
examine the presettlement composition of the basin was used
to summarize the major tree species present. The density,
dominance and frequency of each species, and the relative
288
-------
density, relative dominance and relative frequency for each
was calculated. In addition, the number of trees per unit
area, average diameter and the mean point-to-tree distance
for each defined woody stand was determined.
Shrubs: Shrub data was also summarized to give^density
and frequency as well as the relative density, relative fre-
quency and importance value.
Herbs: Herbaceous cover was summarized using the same
procedures as for the previous data except that dominance
was based upon phytomass (in grams) of the species present.
Density values are not available with this data. In addi-
tion, sampling of the herbaceous cover was done three times
(spring, summer and fall) during the growing season in order
to obtain information about the seasonal changes in species
composition.
Community Typification
The relative extent of each community type as identi-
fied in aerial imagery and substantiated in the field^in the
two basins is presented in Table 5. Areas are determined
from planimetric measurements from the completed map and
represent a rough index of the importance (in area covered)
of each community type.
An enumeration of the species present in the study
areas is presented in Appendix I.
Brief descriptions of the communities and their major
constituent species are presented in Appendix II.
Tables 1-6 in Appendix III summarize the major (as
determined by Importance Value) tree species within the
Little Balsam communities sampled. Tables 7-12 present
similar data for shrubs. Tables 1-6 in Appendix IV summar-
ize the woody vegetation in the Skunk Creek communities
sampled. Since the community composition differs between
the study basins, it was not feasible to obtain equivalent
samples of each community type, particularly for woody vege-
tation.
Tables 1-11 in Appendix V summarize the major herba-
ceous species, by season, (as determined by Importance
Value) found in the two study basins. Sampling periods were
in late May to•early June (vernal), mid July (aestival) and
late September (autumnal). The stands reported represent
cover types that constitute some 85% of the basins (see
Table 5) and were those stands where a minimum of five
quadrats were sampled over the season. Over 200 species
were reported from the quadrat samples but less than 10% of
these constituted over 75% of the total phytomass.
289
-------
Table 5. Major Vegetation Types and Area, Little Balsam
and Skunk Creek Basins.
Little Balsam
Skunk Creek
Area
(Acres)
% of
Total
Area
(Acres)
% of
Total
Woodlands
I. Aspen Hardwoods
II. Northern Hardwoods
A. Aspen/Birch
Dominant
B. Oak/Maple
Dominant
C. Maple/Basswood
Dominant
III. Conifer
IV. Ravine Forest
V. Plantations
Wetlands
VI. Hardwood Swamp
VII. Conifer Swamp
VIII. Bog
IX. Marsh
A. Wet Shrubland
B. Marsh
Fields
X. Abandoned
A. Herbaceous
B. Shrubby
XI. Agricultural Fields
XII. Construction Zone
418
962
409
147
70
182
28
378
21
64
102
2
29
542
13. 3
30.5
13.0
4.7
2.2
5.8
0.9
12.0
0.6
2.0
3.2
0.1
0.9
10.8
201
2999
288
73
138
213
43
600
231
10
206
7
41
28
1455
7
3.0
45.2
4. 3
1.1
2.1
4.7
.6
9.0
3.5
.2
3.1
.1
.6
.4
21.9
0.1
The mean phytomass (g/m2) for each community type iden-
tified and sampled is given in Table 6 below. Highest
values are found in the open areas, with one exception.
290
-------
Table 6. Average Phytomass (g/m2) of Herbaceous Cover by
Stand (n)= number quadrats
Little Balsam Skunk Creek
Aspen (20) 50.1 ( 6) 47.6
Aspen-Birch (17) 51.6 (34) 47.6
Oak-Maple (18) 23.6 4 43.7
Maple-Basswood (2) 14.3 (3) 27.6
Coniferous* ( 5) 36.6 3) 87.3
Ravine Forests (18) 68.5 (15) ^.3
Plantations , , „< ~o'h
Wetland-Forest ( 7) 304.8^ (18 63.4
Field-Shrubby ( 9) 141.3 ( 6) 108.8
Field-Herbaceous (4) 120.6
Agricultural ( 4) 120.6 (20) 117
aThese stands were very dissimilar between basins as indi-
cated by the I.S. (see Table 7).
blncludes unusually high Equisetum samples.
GYoung pine plantation and very open.
Maps which illustrate the location of the major commu-
nity types in each basin were prepared using available
aerial photography. Field reconnaisance was used to verify
the accuracy of the maps, and changes were made where neces-
sary. These maps are attached in Appendix VI.
Vegetation of slumped and non-slumped sites was examin-
ed by use of previously defined sampling procedures. Table
7 summarizes the results of vegetative sampling. Only those
species with Importance Percentage (I.P.) values exceedxng
five are included.
Discussion
Community Composition: A comparison of the composition
of the plant communities between the two basins reveals that
vegetation is not very similar (Table 6). The index of^
similarity between the basins for each stand was determined
as:
I.S. = -^j- where w = smallest phytomass value of
a+b each species occurring in both
basins, and
a+b = sum of phytomass in each basin,
The aspen and wetland hardwood stands which are char-
acterized by unequal samples show the lowest I.S. values,
probably a result of sampling. The other stands have low
291
-------
Table 7. Comparison of Major (I.P. Values> 5.0) Species Vegetation on Slump Sites and Non-Slump
Sites, Nemadji River Basin, (n = quadrat number) ,
Taxa SLUMP
(n =
Relative Relative
Dominance Density
Populus tremuloides
Abies balsamea
Picea glauca
Betula papyrif era
Populus tremuloides
Abies balsamea
Diervilla lonicera
Cbrylus cornuta
Rosa sp.
Salix sp.
Cbrnus rugosa
C. stolonifera
Jraxinus sp.
Viburnum
rafinesquianum
Fragaria virginiana
Equisetum arvense
Carex sp.
Lathyrus venosus
Aster macrophyllus
Sanicula marilandica
Oornus canadensis
' 21)
Relative
Frequency
= — _ — _ =_ ____ _ — __
NCN - Slump
Importance Relative Relative
Frequency Dominance Density
Density = 248 trees/hectare
46-2 42.3 50.0 46.2
43.0 44.2 31.8 39.7
6.2 7.7 9.1 7.6
4.6 5.8 9.1 6.5
21.9 5.6 7.6 11.7
11.6 10.3 4.7 8.8
6.2 14.5 5.4 8.7
7.2 8.6 6.5 7.5
4.6 9.6 6.5 6.9
5.5 4.7 5.8 5.3
6.5 5.2 4.0 5.2
5.1 5.0 5.1 5.1
11.6 N.A. 6.5 9.0
9.5 N.A. 6.1 7.8
7.4 N.A. 4.3 5.9
7.4 N.A. 3.5 5.4
6.1 N.A. 4.4 5.2
: — _ ___ — ______
(n = 18)
Relative Importance
Freouencv Percentage
TREES "^
Density = 606 trees/hectare
44.4 44.9 36.7 42.0
30.0 37.6 23.3 30.3
22.3 12.8 23.3 19.5
SHRUBS
19-9 3.8 8.2 10.6
11.6 7.2 5.1 8.0
18.6 19.8 7.2 15.2
4.5 11.0 6.7 7.4
13.5 17.6 7.2 12.7
4.2 8.1 4.1 5.5
3.7 6.5 5.1 5.1
HERBS
5.2 N.A. 5.6 5.4
34.0 N.A. 8.9 21.5
8.4 N.A. 4.5 6.4
6.1 N.A. 4.5 5.3
C\J
(J^
OJ
-------
I.S. values which suggests that vegetation in both basins is
dissimilar. (An I.S. of .85 is an arbitrary value reflect-
ing sampling error for considering stands to be similar. )
The low I.S. values are consistent with the differing land
use practices observed between the basins.
An examination of species diversity for the stands ^re-
ported in the Appendix revealed relatively low indices in
all instances, perhaps in part the result of small sample
sizes. Two diversity indices were determined for these
stands (Table 8). These were Simpson's Index of Diversity:
and the Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index:
Ni
where — is the decimal
' N importance
percentage for
each species .
Table 8. Comparison of Diversity and Similarity for Stands.
Stand
Aspen
Aspen-Birch
Ravine Forest
Wetland Hardwoods
Agricultural Fields
_.— —___ — —— — — — — —— — — — —
Shannon-
Wiener
1.454/1.197
1. 551/1. 556
1.232/1. 333
1. 055/1. 579
1.605/1.613
Simpson
.071/.098
. 051/.058
.1077. 098
. 218/.041
.032/.037
Index of
Similarity
0.21
0. 53
0.44
0. 26
0. 59
_____ __———————
Two stands (aspen and wetland hardwoods) show dissimilar
diversity indices between basins,_but this is probably a
reflection of dissimilar sample sizes.
Forest Communities: If the forested stands are ar-
range d~a^cording~To~a"^ikely successional pattern from aspen
to the maple-basswood unit, it is possible to examine the
relationships between each component of the vegetation.
Because of the site characteristics of the wetland hardwoods
and the coniferous stand of the Skunk Creek Basin (both
poorly drained), they are omitted from further analysis
since it is assumed they are not representative of upland _
successional stages. The vegetation of the ravine forest_ is
distinctly a bottomland forest type (with high concentrations
of elm and ash) and also is omitted from comparisons since
they likely represent a response to a specific environment
and do not fit into the upland successional sequence.
293
-------
m
e
a
<
|
•o
•i
L.
CM
I
E
01
VI
I
TJ •—
__ .O
a 3
°- -5 i
— H* V)
70
60
50
40
30-
2 •
10
700
600
500
400
00
00
100-
0J 0A 0
35
30
25
20-
ID-
60
50
30
20-
Liffle Balsam Little Balsam Skunk
Aspen Conifer- Aspen-
Aspen Birch
Liffle Balsam Lit tie Balsam Skunk
Aspen- O k Maple-
Birch Maple Basswood
Figure 6. Community structure of successional stands ranked in order
of decreasing Importance Percentage (IP) of aspen (Populus
tremuloides). "
(XI
-------
Figure 6 illustrates the relative values of aspen impor-
tance, tree density (#/ha2), shrub density (#/25 m2) and
herb phytomass (g/m2) between these stands.
Correlations of various components of the vegetation
were sought. A significant correlation of potential impor-
tance to the erosion problem is the inverse relationship
between aspen I.P. and total stand density (trees-ha^)
(r=-0.87, significant at 0.01 level). Linear regression
analysis of shrub density and herb biomass reveals no trend
(r=0.01). The correlation of tree density and shrub density
was not significant (r=0.46), nor is there any demonstrable
relationship between shrubs and aspen importance (r=0.03).
The aspen tend to be more open than other types, having ^200
trees-ha2 compared to 450 trees-ha2 in the maple basswood.
Since the diameters of all communities was similar (X=19.7±
1.47 cm) the aspen stands also had the smallest phytomass.
No significance was found between tree density and herb
phytomass (r=0.50). Likewise there is a positive, but not
significant trend between density and aspen importance per-
centage (r=0.64). If shrub density and herb phytomass are
relativised (expressed as a percentage of the maximum value)
and combined, there is a moderate inverse trend, but.no
significant correlation (r=-0.69) between tree density and
the shrub-herb component.
Documentation of these trends would require additional
datapoints, not currently available. The data suggests,
however, that the increase in biomass of the herbs to be
expected under a more open canopy in the less dense stands
of aspen may be less than anticipated. Additional work to
clarify the potential relationships between aspen and ground
cover may be warranted.
Comparisons of presettlement tree vegetation and cur-
rent vegetation reveals significantly different stand com-
position. It should be noted that ravine forests, both then
and now, are characterized by trees somewhat larger than
upland forests. Since the composition of the presettlement
and current ravine forests are so dissimilar, however, this
comparison may be insignificant though it suggests ravines
provide a better environment for growth for trees than up-
land sites even though disturbance from slumping may be
adverse to growth. However, present vegetation between
ravines and upland sites is not similar which contrasts with
the situation apparently present with presettlement vegeta-
tion. The composition of the forests, as extracted from the
surveying records revealed forests in which trees differed
in size between ravine and upland sites, but not in species
composition or the relative significance between species.
Slump-non-slump vegetation. Based on the I.P. values
reported in Table 7, white birch (Betula papyrifera) and
hazel (Corylus cornuta) are more important in the vegetative
295
-------
cover of non-slump (stable) areas. Interestingly, birch has
a higher modulus of rupture (an indirect measure of root
tensile strength) value (44,000 Kp) (see plant root tensile
strength discussion) than aspen, fir or spruce (ca. 35,000
Kp). A comparison of the tensile strength of shrub roots
reveals that hazel has much stronger root strength than
other shrub species tested. The occurrence of these stronger
rooted species in greater abundance on non-slumped sites
suggests that they may have an important role in slope sta-
bility. However, this conclusion must be accepted with cau-
tion because slump vegetation is on disturbed sites which are
more open, a factor which may be a major factor in determining
the cover. Many of the species with stronger root strength
tend to be shade tolerant so their establishment on slump
sites is slower. Aspen forests and fields constitute the major
vegetation types on clay soils in the basins. Both provide
good ground cover though forest stands contribute less sedi-
ment than herbaceous cover types. The effect of plant roots
and transpiration to soil stability, reported elsewhere, sug-
gests that not all cover types are equally suited to reducing
red clay erosion.
296
-------
REFERENCES
1. Meeuwig, R. 0. Soil Stability on High Elevation Range-
land in the Intermountain Area. U.S. Forest Service,
Res. Pap. INT-94.
2. Bourdo, Eric A. 1956. A Review of the General Land
Office Survey and of Its Use in Quantitative Studies of
Former Forests. Ecol. 37(4):754-768.
3. Grieg-Smith, P. 1964. Quantitative Plant Ecology, 2nd
ed. London: Butterworth & Co.
4. Orloci, L. 1972. Ordination by Resemblance Matrics.
Handbook of Vegetation Science. Ed. R. Tuxen, Pt. V.
Ordination and Classification of Communities, ed. by
R. H. Whittaker. Junk, The Hague.
5. Gauch, H. G. and R. H. Whittaker. 1972. Comparison of
Ordination Techniques. Ecology 53:'868-875.
6. Bray, J. R. and J. T. Curtis. 1957. An Ordination of
the Upland Forest Communities of Southern Wisconsin.
Ecol. Monog. 27:325-349.
7. Loucks, Orie L. and B. J. Schnur. 1976. A Gradient in
Understory Shrub Composition in Southern Wisconsin in
J. S. Fralish, G. T. Weaver and R. C. Schlesinger. Proc.
of the First Central Hardwood Forest Conference, Oct.
1976. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
297
-------
APPENDIX I
FLORA OF THE SKUNK CREEK BASIN, CARLTON COUNTY,
MINNESOTA AND OF THE LITTLE BALSAM BASIN,
DOUGLAS COUNTY, WISCONSIN
Nomenclature of the dicots follows Gleason and Cronquist
(1) except for the monocots which follows Voss (2). In a
few instances more recent nomenclatural changes have been
used. The order of families follows the familiar Engler-
Prantl sequence but within families and genera taxa are
listed alphabetically. The basin in which each taxon oc-
curs is indicated with a B (for Little Balsam) or S (for
Skunk Creek). An asterisk (*) denotes sight record only.
SPECIES LOCATION
Lycopodiaceae
Lycopodium annotinum L. B
L. clavaturn L.B, S
LJ. complanatum L. var. B, S*
flabelliforme Fern.
LJ. lucidulum Michx. B, S
—• okscurum L. var. B, S
dendroideum (Michx.)
DC. Eat.
Equisetaceae
Equisetum arvense L. B, S
E. fluviatile L. B, S
E_. hymale L. B, S
E_. palustre L. B
—' PPatense Ehrh. B, S
E_. scirpoides Michx. B, S
.E_. sylvaticum L. B, S
Ophioglossaceae
Botrychium matrecariae- S
folium A. Br.
B_. virginianum (L. ) Sw. B, S
Botrychium sp. S
HABITAT
conifer swamp
moist woods, conifer
woods
moist woods
creek bank, shady
moist woods
shady mature hard-
woods
roadside bank, ditch,
sand, gravel, clay
shallow water, ditch,
creek bank
open disturbed areas,
sand, clay
sandy creek bank
open to shady moist
woods
steep creek bank,
shady moist conifer
woods
moist woods
shady, moist deciduous
woods (uncommon)
shady, moist deciduous
woods (uncommon)
sunny open woods, sand
(uncommon)
298
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Osmundaceae
Osmunda cinnamomea L. B* , S
0_. claytoniana L. B, S
0_. regalis L. B
Polypodiaceae
Athyrium filix-femina B, S
(L.) Roth. var.
michauxii (Spreng.)
Farwell.
Dryopteris cristata (L.) B, S
A. Gray
D. spinulosa (O.F. Mull.) S
Wat. var. americana
(Frisch.) Fern.
D. spinulosa (O.F. Mull.) B, S
Wat. var. spinulosa
Gymnocarpium dryopteris B, S
(L.) Newm.
Matteuccia struthiopteris B, S
(L.) Todaro.
Onoclea sensibilis L. B, S*
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) B*, S
Kuhn.
Thelypteris phegopteris B
(L.)Sidsson
Pinaceae
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. B*, S
Larix laricina" (DuRoi) K. B
Koch
Picea abies Karst.? B
P. glauca (Moench.) Voss. B, S
Pinus banksiana Lamb. B*, S
P. mariana (Mill.) BSP. B*, S*
P. resinosa Ait. B*, S
P. strobus L. B*, S*
Thuja occidentalis L. B, S
shady ash swamp,
creek bank, peat
rich hardwoods,
swamp woods
dense shade, ash/fir
swamp (uncommon)
ditch, wet meadow,
moist woods, swamp
wet ditch, creek
bank, wet shady
woods, bog
shady woods
wet ditch, creek
bank, wet woods,
bog, ash swamp
creek bank, moist
shady woods, swamp
shady moist woods,
swamps
wet ditch, edge of
swamp woods
roadside, old field,
dry open woods
creek bank, wet
woods, swamp
moist woods, swamp
bog
maple woods, intro-
duced (uncommon)
rich moist woods
dry woods, sand
moist woods, conifer
swamp, bog
dry woods, sand
woods, sand
wet woods, conifer-
swamp
Typhaceae
Typha latifolia L. B, S
wet ditch, marsh
299
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Sparganiaceae
Sparganium chlorocarpum
Najadaceae
Potamogeton sp .
Alismataceae
Alisma plantago-aquatica
L.
Sagittaria cuneata
Sheldon?
S_. latifolia Willd.
Gramineae
Agropyron repens (L.)
Beauv.
Agrostis gigantea Roth.
Andr-opogon gerardi Vitm.
Avena fatua L.
A. sativa L.
Beckmannia syzigachne
(Steudel.) Fern.
Brachyelytrum erectum
(Schreb.)Beauv.
Bromus ciliatus L.
B_. inermis Leyss.
B_. kalmii Gray
Calamogrostis canadensis
CMichx.)Beauv.
Cinna latifolia (Trev.)
Griseb.
Danthonia spicata (L.)
Beauv.
Digitaria ischaemum
(Schreb.) Muhl.
Echinochloa crusgalli
(L.) Beauv.
E_. muricata (Beauv.) Fern.
Elymus canadensis L.
E. virginicus L.
B, S creek bottom, bog,
peat (uncommon)
pond of drainage
water, sand bottom
(uncommon)
B woodland pool
B creek bottom
S bog shore, peat
B, S roadside, sand,
gravel
B, S wet ditch, old field,
wet meadow, bog/
field edge
B, S roadside, dry sand
and gravel
B railroad ballast
S cultivated in field,
cracks in pavement
S wet roadside ditch,
clay (uncommon)
B, S wet ditch, moist,
open woods
B, S wet ditch, mesic
woods
B, S roadside, railroad
tracks, old field
B, S mowed field, dry
woods, sand, woods/
field edge
B, S wet ditch, bog
B, S moist woods
B, S dry woods, sand
B dry roadside, sand
B road, sand
B road, sand
S roadside, wet ditch
S roadside, railroad
tracks, creek bank,
clay, sand
300
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Eragrostis^ pectinacea B
(Michx7) Nees.
Festuca obtusa Biehler S
f\ ovina L. B, S
F. saximontana Rydb. S
Glyceria canadensis S
(Michx.) Trin.
G. grandis S. Watson B
Glyceria striata (Lam.) B, S
Hitche.
Hordeum jubatum L. B, S
Hystrix patula Moench B, S
Leersia oryzoides (L. ) B
Sw.
Leptoloma cognatum B
(Schult.) Chase
Milium effusus L. S
Muhlenbergia frondosa B, S
(Poir.)Fern.
M. glomerata (Willd.) S
Trin.?
Oryzopsis asperifolia B, S
Michx.
Panicum capillare L. B
P_. lanuginosum Ell. S
Ł. miliaceum L. S
P_. praecocium Hitche. B, S
and Chase
Phalaris arundinacea L. B, S
Pheum pratense L. B, S
Poa annua L. S
P_. compressa L. B, S
P. nemoralis L. B, S
P_. palustris L. B, S
Luzula acuminata Raf. B, S
Liliaceae
Allium tricoccum Ait. B
Asparagus officinalis L. B
Clintonia borealis (Ait.) B, S
RaT.
dry roadside, sand
hardwood swamp
roadside, old field
(uncommon)
roadside, gravel
(uncommon)
bog edge, peat
wet ditch, sand
creek bank, alder
swamp, wet woods
roadside ditch, old
field
shady creek bank
roadside ditch
railroad ballast
railroad tracks
(uncommon)
old field, creek
bottoms
creek bottoms
creek bank, moist
woods
old field
roadside
railroad tracks
(uncommon)
roadside
roadside, old field,
creek bank, clay
roadside, old field,
sand, clay
creek bottoms
old field
roadside, railroad
tracks, old field,
old woods
wet meadow
open woods, creek
floodplain, clay
shady wet woods, swamp
old farm yard, sand
rich woods, creek
banks
301
-------
SPECIES
Hemerocallis fulva L.
Lilium superbum L.
Maianthemum canadense
Desf.
Smilacina racemosa (L.)
Desf.
S_. stellata (L.) Desf.
-' t:r:Lfolia (L.) Desf.
Smilax herbacea L. var.
lasioneuron (Small.)
Rydb.
Polygonatum pubescens
(Willd.) Pursh
Streptopus amplexifolius
(L>} DC>
S_. roseus Michx.
Trillium cernuum L. var.
macranthum Eames and
Wieg~.
T. grandiflorum (Michx.)
Salisb
Uvularia grandiflora Sm.
U. sessilifolia L.
Iridaceae
Iris versicolor L.
L- virginica L. var.
shrevei (Small.)
Anders.
Sisyrinchium montanum
Greene
P_. pratensis L.
Puccinellia pallida
(Torr.) Clausen?
Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv.
S_. italica (L.) Beauv.
Spartina pectinata Link.
Triticum aestivum L.
Cyperaceae
Carex aurea Nutt.
C^ TrTtumescens Rudge
C_. pensylvanica Lam.
C. retrorsa Schw.
LOCATION
B,
B,
B,
B,
B,
B
S
S
B,
B,
B,
S
'B,
B,
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
S
B
B, S
B, S
B, S
B
B
B
B
S
B
B, S
B
HABITAT
roadside, old farm-
yard, excape
wet ditch, edge of
popple woods
rich woods, fir
forest, river
bottoms
rich, moist woods
creek bottoms
bog, conifer swamp,
fir forest
shady creek bank
shady moist woods
rich woods
rich, moist woods
rich woods, creek
bottoms
moderately open woods
shady woods, clay
sunny to shady woods
sparse shade, alder
swamp
wet ditch, bog shore,
creek bank, clay
wet meadow, open
bank, clay
old field
bog edge, peat
(uncommon)
roadside, clay, sand,
gravel
railroad ballast
moist roadside, sand
railroad ballast,
cultivar
sandy soil, wet ditch
woods
railroad tracks, open
woods
swampy area along
creek
302
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Carex spp. B, S
Cyperus schweinitzii B
Torr.?
Eleocharis obtusa (Willd.) B, S
Schultes
Eriophorum spissum Fern. B
Eriophorum sp. B, S
Scirpus atrovirens Willd. B, S
S_. cyperinus (L. r~Kunth. B, S
Araceae
Arisaema atrorubens (Ait.) B, S
Blume
being determined
wet ditch
bog, sandy flood-
plain
bog margin
bog, dry creek bed,
sand
wet meadow, wet ditch
wet meadow, wet ditch
floodplain, rich
woods, clay creek
bank
Lemnaceae
Lemna minor L.
B, S wet ditch along rail-
road tracks
Juncaeae
Juncus bufonius L. ?
J. effusus L.
J. greenei Oakes and
Tuck.
J. tenuis Willd.
B sandy roadside
B, S wet ditch, sandy
shore of pond,
clay bank
B wet ditch
B, S wet meadow, roadside
ditch
Fagaceae
Quercus borealis Michx. B, S
Q. macrocarpa Michx. B, S
Ulmaceae
Ulmus americana L. B, S
Moraceae
Humulus lupulus L. S
mixed woods, sand
mixed hardwoods, sand
and clay
hardwood swamp
creek bottoms
(uncommon)
Urticaceae
Laportea canadensis (L.) B, S
Wedd.
Pilea pumila (L.) Gray. S
Santalaceae
Comandra umbellata (L.) B, S
Nutt.
creek bank, moist
shady woods
creek bank, wet woods
dry sand and gravel,
railroad tracks
303
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Aristolochiaceae
Asarum canadense L.
Polygonaceae
Polygonum achoreum Blake
P^aviculare L.
P. cilinode Michx.
P_. coccineum Muhl.
• convolvulus L.
• eriectum L.
—
P_. hydropTper L.
P_. lapathifolium L.
P_. pensylvanicum L.
Orchidaceae
Corallorhiza maculata Raf .
C_. trifida Chat.
Cypripedium acaule Ait.
C_. calceolus L.
C_. reginae Walt.
Habenaria clavellata
CMichx.!Sprang.?
H. hyperborea (L.) R. Br.
H. psycodes (L.) Spreng.
Salicaceae
Populus balsamifera L.
P_. gradidentata Michx.
P_. tremuloides Michx.
Salix bebbiana Sarg.
S_. discolor Muhl.
S_. interior Rowlee
S_. pedicellaris Pursh.
S. petiolaris Sm.
B, S creek bottoms, hard-
wood swamp
B roadside gravel
S roadside, gravel,
clay
B, S old field, woods
path, roadside,
sand
S dry creek
S dry creek, roadside,
gravel
B roadside
S moist disturbed area,
sand
B, S roadside, ditch, sand
B sandy road, disturbed
shady woods
B, S shady woods, creek
bottoms
B conifer swamp, ash/
fir woods
(uncommon)
B rich, shady woods
(uncommon)
S creek bank, clay
(uncommon)
B bog on sphagnum
hummock
B, S hardwood swamp, wet
woods, wet meadows
B, S wet open woods, road-
side ditch, clay
B, S creek bank, wet woods,
clay
B, S dry to moist woods,
clay
B, S open woods, clay
B hedgerow, young
woods, creek bank
B open woods, road
bank
B open area long creek
S bog- edge
B open area near creek
304
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Betulaceae
Alnus rugosa (DuRoi) B, S
Spreng.
Betula alleghaniensis B
BrTtt.
B. papyrifera Marsh. B, S
Corylus americana Walt. B, S
C. cornuta Marsh. B, S
Ostrya virginana (Mill.) B
K7~Koch
P_. persicaria L. S
F. sagittatum L. B, S
P_. scandens L. ? B
Rumex acetosella L. B, S
R. crispus L. B, S
R. obtusifolius L.
R^. patientia L. S
Chenopodiaceae
Chenopodium album L. B, S
Salsola kali L. S
wet ditch, creek
bank, swamps
creek bottoms, rich
woods (uncommon)
dry to moist woods
dry to moist woods,
creek bank, clay
moist woods, wet
ditch, creek bank
low wet woods, clay
ditch, roadside, sand
wet ditch
roadside, clay
roadside, railroad
tracks, creek bank,
clay and sand
roadside, ditch, clay
and sand
shady creek bottoms,
sand
wet ditch
roadside, sand and
gravel
roadside, gravel
Amaranthaceae
Amaranthus retroflexus
L.
Nyctaginaceae
Mirabilis nyctagineus
(Michx.) MacM.
Aizoaceae
Mollugo verticillata L.
railroad tracks,
roadside, sand and
gravel
B, S open field, railroad
tracks, sand and
gravel
B, S* sandy road, railroad
ballast
Portulacaceae
Portulaca oleracea L.
Caryophyllaceae
Arenaria lateriflora L.
Cerastium fontanurn Baumg,
Lychnis alba Mill.
B, S sandy road, garden
B, S shady mesic woods
B, S weedy clearing, woods
path
B, S old field, railroad
tracks, roadside,
ditch
305
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Saponaria officinalis L. B, S
Silene antirrhina L. B
S_. cucubalus Wibel. B, S
Stellaria calycantha B
(Ledeb.) Bong.
S_. longifolia Muhl. B, S
Nymphaceae
Nuphar advena Ait.
Ranunculaceae
Actaea pachypoda Ell. B, S
A. rubra (Ait.) Willd. B, S
Anemone canadensis L. B, S
A. cylindrica Gray B, S
A. quinquefolia L. B, S
A. riparia Fern B, S
A. canadensis L. B, S
Caltha palustris L. B, S
Clematis virginiana L. S
Coptis trifolia (L.) B, S
Salisb.
Hepatica americana (DC.) B, S
Ker.
Ranunculus abortivus L. B, S
var. acrolasius Fern.
R. acris L. B, S
R_. pensylvanicus L. S
R. recurvatus Poir. B, S
R. septentrionalis Poir. B, S
railroad tracks,
roadside ditch,
sand
railroad ballast
(uncommon)
railroad tracks, sand
and gravel
shady wet woods
roadside ditch, bog,
hardwood swamp
bog, in 4 inches
water, peat
shady hardwood swamp,
creek
creek bank, creek
bottomland, hard-
wood swamp
wet ditch, roadside
roadside ditch,
woods/field edge,
clay
mixed hardwoods,
roadside
open woods, wet
ditch, roadside,
wet woods, sand
open woods, creek
bank, roadside
wet ditch, swamp
creek bank, roadside,
clay
shady hardwood swamp
open woods, clay
shady hardwood swamp,
moist woods
wet meadow, roadside
ditch, hardwood
swamp, creek
bottoms
wet ditch
alder swamp, wet
ditch, shady hard-
wood swamp
creek bank, dry creek
bed
306
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Thalictrum dasycarpum
Fisch and Ave-Lall.
T. dioicum L.
B, S ditch, roadside,
shady creek bank
B, S open woods, shady
creek bank
Berberidaceae
Caulophyllum thalictroi-
des (L.71Michx.
Papaveraceae
Sanguinaria canadensis L.
B, S
(uncommon)
creek bank, shady
woods, swamps
Fumariaceae
Corydalis sempervirens S
(L.) Pers.
Dicentra cucullaria (L.) B
Bernh.
Crucifereae
Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. B, S
Berteroa incana (L.) DC. S
Capsella" bursa-pastoris B
(L.) Medic.
Cardamine pensylvanica S
Muhl.
Erysimum cheiranthoides L.
Lepidium densiflorumS
Schrad.
Raphanus raphanistrum L. S
Rorippa islandica (Oeder) S
Borbas var. fernaldiana
Butt, and Abb!
Thlaspi arvense L. B
Crassulaceae
Penthorum sedoides L. S
moist open woods,
sand
creek bottoms
(uncommon)
old field, creek
bottoms, clay
railroad tracks
roadside edge, sand
hardwood swamp
roadside ditch
roadside ditch
weed in oat field,
clay
wet ditch, wet
meadow
dry gravel (uncommon)
creek bank, gravel
(uncommon)
Saxifragaceae
Chrysosplenium americanum B, S
Schw.
Mitella diphylla L. B, S
M. nuda L. B, S
Saxifraga pensylvanica L. B, S
swamp thicket
shady moist woods
(uncommon)
shady, moist woods,
creek bank
(uncommon)
hardwood swamp, creek
bottoms, shady wet
meadow
30?
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Ribes americanum Mill.
R. cynobasti L.
R_. glandules urn Grauer.
R. hirtellum Michx .
R. triste Pall.
Rosaceae
Amelanchier bartramiana
(Tausch.) Roemer
A. laevis Wieg.
A. sanguinea (Pursh.) DC.
A. spicata (Lam.) K. Koch
Agrimonia striata Michx.
Crategus punctata Jacq.?
Fragaria yirginiana
Duchesne
Geum alleppicum Jacq.
G_. canadense Jacq.
G_. laciniatum Murr.?
G_. rivale L.
Potentilla argentea L.
P_. norvegica L.
P_. palustris (L.) Scop.
P_. recta L.
P_. simplex Michx.
Prunus americana Marsh.
P. nigra Ait.
P_. pensylvanica L.
P. virginiana L.
Rosa acicularis Lindl.
ssp~.sayi (Schw. )
Lewis
R. blanda Air.
B, S shady hardwood swamp,
creek bank
S shady conifer woods,
clay
B, S moist woods, swamps,
creek banks, clay
B, S moist woods, creek
bank, swamp thicket
B, S creek bank, creek
bottoms, shady
hardwood swamp,
clay
B woods clearing
B open mixed hardwoods
B hedgerow
B, S open mixed hardwoods,
creek bottoms, sand
B, S roadside, ditch
B roadside clearing
B, S railroad track, bank,
roadside bank, sand
B, S old field, railroad
tracks, clay
S shady hardwood swamp
S shady hardwood swamp
B, S moist open woods,
hardwood swamp
S roadside ditch, sand
and gravel
B, S dry open woods, creek
bank, sand and clay
S open water, bog
(uncommon)
B old field
B, S edge of open woods,
railroad tracks,
sand
B old farmyard
B, S open woods, wet
thicket creek bank
B roadside edge
B, S hedgerow, old field,
shady creek bank,
clay
B, S railroad tracks, road
bank, clay, gravel
B, S roadside ditch, rail-
road track, open
hardwoods
308
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Rubus allegheniensis
Porter
R. canadensis L.
R. hispidus L.
R. parviflorus Nutt.
R. pubescens Raf.
R. strigos'us' Michx.
Spiraea alba DuRoi
S_. tomentosa L.
Waldsteinia fragarioides
(Michx.) Tratt.
Leguminosae
Amphicarpa bracteata (L. )
Fern.
Astragalus canadensis L.
Caragana frutex Koch
Lathyrus ochroleucus
Hook.
L_. palustris L.
r. venosus Muhl. var.
~~ intonsus Butt, and
St. John
Medicago sativa L.
Melilotus alba Desr.
M. officinalis (L.) Lam.
Trifolium arvense L.
T_. aureum Poll.
T. campestre Schreb.
T. hybridum L.
T_. pratense L.
T. repens L.
Vicia americana Muhl.
Geraniaceae
Geranium bicknellii
Britt.
B old field, hedgerow
B cedar swamp
S railroad tracks
B rich moist woods,
creek banks
B, S rich moist woods
B pasture, open woods
S swamp thicket
S bog/field edge
(uncommon)
B* , S* dry to moist woods
B, S dry creek, creek bank
B old field, roadside
edge (uncommon)
B road bank, cultivated
(uncommon)
B, S roadside, woods/field
edge
B roadside edge, gravel
B, S roadside edge, rail-
road tracks, open
woods, clay
B", S fields, railroad
tracks
B, S railroad ballast,
roadside, sand and
gravel
B, S railroad ballast,
roadside, sand and
gravel
B, S roadside, sand and
gravel
S roadside ditch
B, S roadside bank, ditch,
clay
B, S railroad tracks,
roadside edge, clay
B, S railroad tracks,
roadside, clay
B, S roadside, dry woods,
sand and clay
B, S open woods, roadside
bank, ditch, clay
roadside ditch, clay
309
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Oxalidaceae
Oxalis stricta L.
Polygalaceae
Polygala paucifolia
WiTTd".
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia maculata L.
E_. podperae Croiz.
E_. serpyllifolia Pers
Callitrichaceae
Callitriche hermaphro-
ditica~.
C_. heterophylla Pursh,
Anacardiaceae
Rhus typhina L.
Toxicodendron rydbergii
(Small.) Rehder
Aquifoliaceae
Ilex verticillata (L.)
Gray
Nemopanthus mucronatus
(L.) Trel.
Celastraceae
Celastrus scandens L.
Aceraceae
Acer negundo L.
A. rebrum L.
A. saccharum Marsh.
A. spicatum Lamb.
B, S field edge, creek
bank, roadside
ditch, railroad
tracks
path in open woods
(uncommon)
B railroad ballast
S railroad ballast
(uncommon)
B, S railroad ballast,
cracks in pavement
S ruts in road
(uncommon)
B rooted in shallow
running water
(uncommon)
B railroad track bank,
sand
B*, S roadside edge, dis-
turbed creek bank,
open oak woods
B, S creek bank, swamp,
marsh
B, S bog edge, conifer
swamp, edge of
boggy ditch
creek bank, clay
(uncommon)
S creek bank, clay
B, S mesic woods, clay and
sand
B, S rich, moist shady
woods
B, S alder swamp, rich
shady woods, oak
woods
310
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Balsaminaceae
Impatiens biflora Walt
Vitaceae
Parthenocissus quinque-
folia (L.) Planch.
P_. vitacea (Knerr.)
Hitchc.
Tiliaceae
Tilia americana L.
Hypericaceae
Hypericum majus (Gray)
Britt.
H. perforatum L.
Triadenum fraseri (Spach)
61.
Violaceae
Viola adunca Sm.
V_. conspersa Reich.
V_. cucullata Xit.
V_. novae-angliae House
V. pubescens Ait".
V_. renifolia Gray
V_. sororia Willd.
Thymelaceae
Dirca palustris L.
Onagraceae
Ciraea alpina L.
C_. quadrisulcata (Maxim)
Franch. and Sav.
Epilobium angustifolium
L.
E_. ciliatum Raf.
Oenothera biennis L.
B, S wet ditch, wet woods,
creek bank
B low shady wet woods
B, S open woods, creek
bank
B, S rich mesic woods,
edge of wet woods,
field
B, S roadside, bog edge,
wet woods, wet
meadow
B ditch, sand
S wet ditch
S roadside, sand
B, S open woods, old field
B, S creek bank, moist
woods, clay
B moist open hardwoods
B, S creek bottom, hard-
wood swamp, shady
woods, clay
B creek bottom, moist
shady woods, sand
B creek bottoms
dry to mesic woods
B, S shady hardwood swamp,
cedar swamp
(uncommon)
B creek bank, sand
B, S roadside, ditch, clay
S wet ditch
B, S roadside, railroad
ballast
311
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Araliaceae
Aralia hispida Vent. B
A. nudicaulis L. B, S
A. racemosa L. B
Panax trifolium L. B, S
Umbellifereae
Carum carvi L. B, S
Cicuta maculata L. B, S
Heracleum lanatum Michx. B, S
Osmorhiza claytonia B, S
("Michx.) C.B. Clarke
0_. longistylis (Torr.) S
B.C.
Sanicula marilandica L. B, S
Slum suave Walt. B
Cornaceae
Cornus alternifolia L. B, S
C_. canadensis L. B, S
C_. racemosa Lam. S
C_. rugosa~Lam. S
C. stolonifera Michx. B, S
Ericaceae
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi S
(L.)Spreng.
Chamaedaphne calyculata B*, S
(L.)Moench
Chimaphila umbellata (L.) B
Bart.
Gaultheria hispidula (L.) B
Muhl.
G_. procumbens L. S
Kalmia polifolia Wang. B
Ledum groenlandicum Oeder. B, S
Moneses uniflora (L.) S
Gray
railroad ballast,
gravel (uncommon)
shady woods, open
oak woods
shady hardwood swamp
shady hardwood swamp,
moist deciduous
woods
old farmyard, old
field, clay
roadside ditch, wet
woods, clay
creek bank, hardwood
swamp, clay
hardwood swamp, wet
shady woods, creek
bottoms
shady hardwood swamp
wet shrubby ditch,
open woods
rich woods, woodland
pool
rich woods, creek
bank (uncommon)
mesic woods, old
field
shrubby woods edge
shady oak woods, sand
open field, creek
bed, open woods,
clay
roadside, sand
bog edge, sand
rich, shady woods
shady conifer swamp
dry open woods ,r sand
bog edge
bog,edge, conifer
swamp
shady birch/fir
woods (uncommon)
312
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Monotropa uniflora L. B, S
Pyrola asarifolia Michx.? B, S
P. elliptica Nutt. B, S
P_. rotundifolia L. ? S
P_. secunda L. S
Vacciniurn angustifolium B, S
Ait.
V_. myrtilloides Michx. S
V_. oxycoccos L. B
Primulaceae
Lysimachia ciliata L. B, S
L_. thrysiflora L . B
Trientalis borealis Raf. B, S
shady dense woods,
creek bank
moist shady woods,
creek bank
moist open woods
shady conifer woods
(uncommon)
shady conifer woods
moist woods, conifer
swamp
open woods, clay
conifer swamp
roadside ditch, wet
meadow, shady
hardwood swamp
dense alder swamp
-rich shady woods,
creek bottoms
Oleaceae
Fraxinus nigra Marsh. B, S
F_. pennsylvanica Marsh. B
Gentianaceae
Halenia deflexa (Sm.) S
Griseb.
Apocynaceae
Apocynum androsaemifolium B, S
L.
Asclepiadaceae
Asclepias exaltata L. B
A. ovalifolium Decne. S
A. syriaca L.B, S
Convolvulaceae
Convolvulus sepium L. S
C~!spithaineus L. B, S
Polemoniaceae
Collomia linearis Nutt. B
hardwood swamp, creek
bottoms
creek bottoms, clay
path in open woods
(uncommon)
roadside, railroad
tracks, old field
railroad tracks bank,
sand (uncommon)
railroad tracks
roadside, railroad
tracks, sand, clay
roadside, sand
pine woods, ditch
along railroad
tracks, sand
slope below railroad
tracks, clay
313
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Boraginaceae
Cynoglossum boreale Fern. S
Myosotis scorpioides L. B
Verbenaceae
Verbena hastata L. B
Labiate
Galeopsis tetrahit L. var. B, S
bifida (Boenn.) Lej.
and Court.
Glecoma hederacea L. B, S
Lyeopus americanus Muhl. B, S
L_. uniflorus Mxchx. (?) B, S
Mentha arvensis L. B, S
Prunella vulgaris L. B, S
Scutellaria galericulata B, S
L.
S. lateriflora L. B, S
Stachys palustris L. B, S
Solanaceae
Physalis heterophylla S
Nees.
SoIanurn dulcamara L. B, S
Scrophulariaceae
Agalinis tenuifolia B
TVahl.) Raf.
Castilleja coccinea B, S
(L.)Spreng.
Chaenorrhinum minus (L.) B
Lange
Chelone glabra L. S
Gratiola neglecta Torr. S
Linaria~vulgaris Hill. B, S
Mimulus ringens L. S
oak woods, sand
(uncommon)
alder swamp, creek
bank
roadside ditch, wet
meadow
wet ditch, creek bank,
open moist woods
pasture, grazed woods,
grazed creek bottom
wet ditch, wet woods
wet ditch, open swamp,
sand
open wet disturbed
area, creek bottoms
bare clay, pasture,
railroad ballast
wet ditch, alder
swamp, marsh
wet ditch along rail-
road tracks, creek
bottoms, sand
roadside ditch, creek
bank, open popple
woods
roadside, clay
open wet woods, dis-
turbed creek
bottoms
roadside ditch, sand
wet meadow, roadside
ditch, clay
railroad ballast
(uncommon)
wet roadside ditch
wet ditch
roadside, sand, clay,
gravel
shady creek bank,
clay (uncommon)
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
Scrophularia lanceolata
Pursh.
Verbascum thapsus L.
Veronica longifolia L.
V\peregrina L.
V_. serpyllifolia L.
Lentibulariaceae
Utricularia cornuta
Michx.
U. intermedia Hayne
B creek bank, roadside,
sand
B, S roadside, clay
B road bank, clay
B, S roadside ditch, open
wet area in woods
B lawn weed
S open shallow water in
bog (uncommon)
S open shallow water in
bog (uncommon)
Plantaginaceae
Plantago major L.
P. patogonica Jacq.
B, S center strip, dirt
road, clay and
gravel
S roadside, gravel
(uncommon)
Rubiaceae
Galium asprellum Michx,
IT* boreale L.
G_. tinctorium L.
G\ trifidum L.
G. triflorum Michx.
S lowland hardwoods
S railroad tracks,
gravel
S wet ditch
S wet ditch
B, S creek bottoms, open
woods, roadside,
sand
Caprifoliaceae
Diervilla lonicera Mill. B, S
Linnaea borealis L. B, S
Lonicera canadensis B, S
Marsh.
L_. dioica L. S
L. hirsuta Eat. B, S
L_. tatarica L.? S
Sambucus pubens Michx. B, S
Symphoriocarpus albus S
(L.) Blake.
Viburnum lentago L. B, S
V. opulus L. S
V. rafinesquianum Schultes B, S
roadside, old field,
sand
open to shady mesic
woods, conifer
swamp
mixed hardwoods,
partly shady, sand
creek bottoms, road-
side, clay
shady young woods
wet roadside ditch
shady hardwoods
swamp, roadside/
woods edge
roadside bank
old field, clay
mesic woods, roadside
ditch
roadside, old field,
open woods, clay
315
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
V_. trilobum Marsh. B, S
Cucurbitaceae
Echinocystic lobata B
(Michx.) T. and G.
Campanulaceae
Campanula aparinoides S
Pursh.
C_. rotundifolia L. B
Lobelia inflata L. B
Compositeae
Achillea millefolium L. B, S
Ambrosia artemisiifolia B, S
L. ~
A. psilostachya DC. S
Artemisia ludoviciana S
Nutt.
Anaphalis margaritaceae B, S
(L.) Benth. and Hook
Antennaria neglecta B, S
Greene
A. neodica Greene B
A. plantaginifolia Mitt. B
Arternesia biennis Willd. B
A. caudata Michx. B
A. serrata Nutt. S
Aster ciliolatus Lindl. B, S
A. ericoides L. B
A. lateriflcTrus (L.) Britt. B
A. macrophyllus L. B, S
A. pilosus Willd. B, S
A. puniceus L. B, S
A. simplex Willd. B, S
A. umbellatus Mill. B, S
Bidens cernua L. S
B. frondosa L. B
woods edge, hardwood
swamp
creek bank (uncommon)
shady hardwood swamp
old field (uncommon)
sandy ditch
roadside, railroad
tracks, sand,
gravel
roadside, sand,
gravel, clay
moist, disturbed soil,
clay
old field
creek bank, old field,
open woods
old field
old field
old field
roadside, sand
roadside, sand
creek bank, dense
vegetation
roadside, old field,
wet meadow, open
woods
dry bare slope, clay
woods/field edge
moist roadside ditch,
open woods
wet ditch, old field,
sand
wet ditch, old field,
sand
roadside bank, wet
ditch, creek bank
wet ditch, creek bank,
wet woods
bog edge, creek bank,
clay
roadside, sand, bare
clay banks
316
-------
SPECIES
LOCATION
HABITAT
13. tripartite. L.
Chrysanthemum leucan-
themum L.
Cirsium arvense (L. )
Scop.
C_. muticum Michx.
C_. vulgare (Savi) Tenore
Conyza canadensis (L.)
Cronq.
Crepis tectorum L. ?
Erigeron anuus (L.) Pers,
E. philadelphicus_ L.
Eupatorium maculatum L.
E_. perfoliatum L.
Gnaphalium uliginosum L.
Helianthus^ annuus L.
H. decapetalxs L. (?)
H. giganteus L.
H. maximiliani Schrad.
H. strumosus L.
Heliqpsis_ helianthoides
(TTT Sweet ?
Hieracium aurantiacum L.
H. florentinum All.
H. pratense Tausch.
L. canadensis L.
Liatris aspera Michx.
171pycnostachya Michx. ?
B, S
B, S
B, S
S
S
B, S
B, S
B, S
B
B, S
B
S
B, S
B
B, S?
B
B, S
B, S
B, S
Lactuca binennis (Moench.) B, S
Matrecaria matricarioides
(Less.) Porter
Petasites frigidus^ (L.)
Fries.
B, S
S
S
B, S
B, S
bog edge, peat
old field, clay
roadside ditch, old
field
wet ditch, sand
roadside, sand, clay
roadside, gravel
old field
old field, shady
mesic woods, clay
roadside, bank, woods
path, creek bank,
open woods, clay
wet roadside ditch,
hardwood swamp
wet ditch, sand
•wet ditch, roadside,
clay
disturbed road, sand
edge of wet, shady
woods
wet roadside ditch,
old field, edge of
wet woods, sand
old field, clay
moist roadside ditch,
sand, wet woods,
edge of bog
old field, clay
roadside, creek bank
below railroad
tracks
roadside, old field
roadside, disturbed
gravel berm, sand,
gravel
roadside, railroad
tracks, field/woods
edge, shady hard-
wood swamD
dry ditch, old field,
woods edge, clay
roadside, sand
bank above railroad
tracks, clay
roadside, sand, gravel
wet ditch, open woods,
rich swamp woods
317
-------
SPECIES
P. sagittatus (Pursh.)
Gray
Prenanthes alba L.
Rudbeckia hirta L.
'
L.
R. pinnata (Vent.) Barnh
S^enecio aureus L.
S_. pauperculus Michx.
Solidago canadensis L.
S_. flexicaulis L.
S_. gigantea Ait . ?
-' g_ramxnifolia (L.)
Salisb.
S_. juncea Ait.
•
Ait.
S_. uliginosa Nutt .
Sonchus qleraceus L.
Tanacetum vulgare L.
Taraxacum officinale Web.
Tragopogon dubius Scop.
LOCATION HABITAT
B culvert ditch, clay
B, S wet ditch, creek bank,
shady hardwoods
B, S wet meadow, ditch
along railroad
tracks
B, S moist roadside ditch,
wet creek bank,
sand, clay
S unused road, dry clay
B, S wet ditch, wet shady
wood, hardwood
swamp (uncommon)
B, S old field, oak woods,
creek bottom, sand,
clay
B dry old field
B, S shady creek bottoms
S old field
B, S roadside ditch, bog
edge, sand
B, S dry old field, sand
(uncommon)
B, S roadside, dry old
field, clay
B, S creek bank, bog
B roadside ditch, wet
meadow
B, S disturbed parking
area, roadside bank,
clay
B, S roadside, old field,
clay
B, S roadside, railroad
ballast, old field,
clay
318
-------
REFERENCES
(1) Gleason, Henry A. and Arthur Cronquist. 1963. Manual
of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and
Adjacent Canada. D. Van Nostrand Co., New York. 810 p,
(2) Voss, Edward G. 1972. Michigan Flora, Part I.
Cranbrook Institute of Science. Bloomfield Hills,
Mich. 488 p.
319
-------
APPENDIX II
COMMUNITY DESCRIPTION
I. Aspen Hardwoods
This forest type is the least mature of the northern
forest communities and is found in areas of heavy soil
where previous growth has been removed by clear-cutting or
fire. The area within the Little Balsam Basin north of
Douglas County B is primarily of this type. The largest
area in the Skunk is in the northeast corner of the basin,
north of the creek and east of Highway 103. It is charac-
terized by a dense stand of young, even-aged trees, a full
component of shrub species and a ground cover of primarily
weedy invaders. The major tree is the quaking aspen or
popple (Populus tremuloides), a pioneering species which
produces abundant wind carried seeds, germinates well on
moist open soil and grows rapidly for several years until
checked by shading.
Accompanying aspen on the drier sites but less common
is the paper birch (Betula papyrifera), a species auteco-
logically similar to popple and a member, at some stage,
of all the northern hardwood forest types. Basswood (Tilia
americana), ash (Fraxinus sp.) and red maple (Acer rubrum)
are found as samplings in the understory.
The shrub component is similar to the shrub stands
found in other areas, being dominated by red osier dogwood
(Cornus stolpnifera) and with equal portions of hazel
(Corylus sp.), willow (Salix sp.), roses (Rosa sp.), june-
berries (Amelanchier sp7~5 arid Viburnums (Viburnum sp.).
Ground cover consists of grasses, sedges, rushes
(Juncus sp. and Luzula sp.) and the invading species of
rosesCPotentilla sp., Fragaria sp. and Geum sp.) and
composites such as (Hieracium sp. and Taraxacum sp.)
II. Northern Hardwoods
A. Aspen/Birch: This community occurs on the heavier
soils south of Douglas County B and west of Patzau in the
Little Balsam. It dominates the southern half of Skunk
Creek. It appears to be a successional stage between the
aspen hardwoods previously described and the northern hard-
woods discussed below. Aspen (Populus tremuloides) and
paper birch (Betula papyrifera) remain major component
species but the more shade tolerant species appear in *
greater numbers and as a higher proportion of the whole.
Of these sugar maple (Acer saccharum), balsam fir (Abies
balsamea) and ash (Fraxinus spT5are equally abundant with
red maple (Acer rubrum), basswood (Tilia americana) and red
oak (Quercus borealis) being of lesser importance.
320
-------
The hazels (Corylus americana and C. cornuta) dominate
the shrub layer which includes saplings of the major trees,
mountain maple (Acer spicatum) and black alder (Ilex
verticillata).
Ground layer species are similar in this and the two
following hardwood groups. Their occurrence is related
primarily to soil moisture, available nutrients and total
insolation. Common here are bunchberry (Cornus canadensis),
Canada anemone (Anemone quinquefolia), twisted stalk
(Streptopus sp.), wild sarsapanlla (Aralia nudicaulis),
black snakeroot (Sanicula marilandica) and blueberry
(Vaccinium angustifoliaTT
II. Northern Hardwoods
B. Oak/Maple: This forest type is fairly common on
the lighter soils in the central and southwest part of the
Little Balsam. It occurs as scattered woodlots on the
sandy soils of the northwest corner of Skunk Creek Basin.
It is a moderately mature woodland with fewer and larger
trees than in either of the previously described communi-
ties .
Aspen is present only in greatly reduced numbers and
species characteristic of mesic and dry mesic sites predom-
inate. Paper birch (Betula papyrifera) is dominant with
red maple (Acer rubrum), sUgar maple TAcer_ saccharum) and
red oak (Quercus borealis) all common.
Fewer shrubs grow in the shady understory. Instead,
this area is a nursery for samplings of the mesic species.
The herbaceous layer is composed of light loving
forbes that flower in later spring, including all of the
herbs mentioned in the previous grouping as well as winter-
green (Gaultheria procumbens), wild oats (Uvularia
sessilifolia)and a dense layer of bracken fernCPteridium
aquilinum).
II. Northern Hardwoods
C. Maple/Basswood: Communities of this type are
restricted to small areas of rich moist soil in the west
portion of the Little Balsam. A few small areas occur in
the northwest corner of the Skunk Creek Basin. Trees are
mature, widely spaced with a broad branching pattern which
forms a closed canopy.
Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) is the major tree species
with red maple (Acer rubrum)and basswood (Tilia americana)
common, and ironwood (Ostrya virginiana), paper birch
(Betula papyrifera), white ash (Fraxinus americana) and
balsam fir (Abies balsamea) also present.
321
-------
Low light limits shrub growth. Those shrubs present
are small and few in number, and include low evergreen
vines such as bunchberry (Cornus canadensis) and twin-
flower (Linneae borealis). Beaked hazel (Corylus cornuta),
currents~(Ribes sp.) and Viburnum (Viburnum sp.) are also
present.
Herbaceous cover is rich with spring flowering forbes
being dominant. Commonly occurring species include wild
lily-of-the-valley (Maianthemum canadense), starflower
(Trientalis borealis!), bedstraw (Galium triflower) , rice
grass (Oryzopsis sp.) and the sedge (Carex pehsylvanica.
III. Conifers
This unusual community probably results from human
disturbance at least in so far as selective cutting is
involved. (It covers a moderately small area in the west
central part of T46N, R15W, sec 3, west of the creek.)
The soil is dry but heavy; the slope gentle. Species
diversity is low but the trees are relatively mature and
dense. The major species is white spruce (Picea glauca),
grading into a mixed popple (Populus tremuloides)/spruce
woods nearer the creek.
Shrub growth is minimal in the denser woods, but as
the trees thin out toward the hilltop the hazels (Corylus
sp.) and alder (Alnus rugosa) become increasingly common
with some red osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera) and
willow (Salix sp.) present.
Within the community itself the ground is bare in most
spots except for a thick duff of needles. Little other
than sparse grass, bunchberry (Cornus canadensis) and large
leaved aster (Aster macrophylluslis present.
The conifer communities in the Skunk Creek Basin are
dominated by balsam fir. The largest areas are in the
extreme southwest corner of the basin and northeast of the
junction of Carlton County 5 and Carlton County 6.
IV. Ravine
This association does not represent a coherent commu-
nity of plants as much as a collection of species with
similar tolerances growing in a very specialized and re-
stricted area: the steep slopes along the creek in the
central section of the basins. The location is cool, moist
and shady. The ravine forest grades into northern hard-
woods of the upland and the swamp woods of the creek
bottoms and has species in common with each.
Several tree species are common, with balsam fir
(Abies balsamea) being visually the most abundant, followed
-------
by sugar maple (Acer saccharum), American elm (Ulmus
americana), black ash (Fraxinus nigra), aspen (Populus
tremuloides) and red maple(Acer rubrum).
The shrub layer is quite rich and dense consisting
about equally of young balsam fir and alder (Alnus rugosa),
with saplings of the major trees, some hazel (Corylus sp.)
and red osier dogwood (Cornus stolonifera).
Ground cover is rich and unique including pink pyrola
(Pyrola asarifolia), spotted coralroot (Corallorhiza
maculata), wood nettle (Laportea canadensis), and wild
ginger (Asarum canadense), along with many species from
rich woods and bottomlands.
V. Conifer Plantations
Pine plantations are found at several sites in the
Little Balsam Creek Basin, all of limited extent. Small^
plantations are scattered throughout the Skunk Creek Basin
adjacent to agricultural fields. They occur in agricul-
tural areas, are fairly mature and probably result from an
attempt to manage unprofitable fields for forest improve-
ment or soil conservation. Red pine is chosen because it
grows quickly, requires little care, and is relatively
disease free. Dense planting, a heavy duff of fine needles
and increasingly acid soil prevent colonization of shrub
and herb species.
VI. Hardwood Swamp
The swamps of this type sampled were primarily in the
southern third of the Little Balsam Basin. Large areas
of swamp exist northwest of the Soo Line tracks in the_
Skunk Creek Basin, with smaller areas along the creek^it-
self. They exist on pockets of peaty soil in depressions
and grade directly into northern hardwood communities on
the upland.
Conditions are relatively severe and species diver-
sity is limited. Black ash (Fraxinus nigra) is the major
species present. These trees are quite widely spaced^and
mature with thick trunks and narrow crowns. Present^in
much smaller numbers in the drier areas are balsam fir
(Abies balsamea) and paper birch (Betula papyrifera).
Ash saplings and mountain maple (Acer spicatum) domi-
nate the shrub layer with saplings of balsam fir and
american elm (Ulmus americana), gooseberries (Ribes sp.)
and hazel (Corylus sp.) present in moderate numbers as
well.
The ground cover is rich and diverse as the ashes
admit light late into the spring. Ferns and sedges are
323
-------
abundant and the uneven terrain among the ash roots pro-
vides habitat for many forbes. Common among these are
goldthread (Coptis trifolia), naked mitrewort (Mitella
nuda), dwarf blackberry (Rubus pudescens) and the violets
(Viola sp.)
.VII. Conifer Swamp
This cover type, with the hardwood swamp, occupies a
large and relatively inaccessible portion of the southern
half of the Little Balsam Creek Basin. The largest area
in the Skunk Creek Basin is drained by the northern fork
of the creek, with a few smaller areas along other branches.
It is found on heavy, wet soils and probably indicates a
successional stage between the wetter black spruce/tamarack
swamps and the maple/basswood community of the northern
hard-woods type.
The leading dominants are white cedar (Thuja occiden-
talis) and balsam fir (Abies balsamea) with cedar occurring
both in dense single species stands and scattered through-
out the canopy. Black ash (Fraxinus nigra), American elm
(Ulmus americana) and yellow birch (Betula lutea) occur
with less frequency. Sugar and red maple (Acer saccharum
and A. rubrum) may occur as seedlings or saplings^
The understory consists primarily of plants tolerant
of low light levels: mosses, ferns, sedges, grasses and
some Ericaceous shrubs.
VIII. Bogs
Bogs as considered here include a gradient of commun-
ities from a sedge-shrub mat around open water to a closed
woodland of acid tolerant conifers. This community type is
found in patches in depression in the southwest corner of
the Little Balsam Creek Basin and grades to both shrub wet-
lands and conifer swamps. The two bogs in the Skunk Creek
Basin are 1/M- mile east of Carlton County 5. Its extent is
limited because very specific geologic, hydrologic and envi-
ronmental factors are necessary for its formation. The
major species composing a bog mat are the Sphagnum mosses,
the sedges (Carex sp., Eriophorum sp. and Scirpus sp.) and
the Ericaceous shrubs such as leather leaf (Chamaedaphne
calyculata), bog laurel (Kalmia polifolia) and Labrador tea
(Ledum groenlandicum). Blueberries(Vaccinium angustifol-
ium)and cranberries (V^ oxycoccos) may also occur, as may
members of the orchid and lily families. The shrub margin
may consist of alder (Alnus sp.) supplemented by shrubs
more restricted to bog habitats such as black alder (ilex
verticillata) and the mountain holly (Nemapanthus
mucronata).
324
-------
Black spruce (Picea mariana) and tamarack (Larix
laricina) are the major tree species present. While^they
sometimes occur together, more frequently tamarack will
occupy the young advancing edge of the bog while spruce
rings it on the landward side and fills the older, firmer
peat basins. Seedlings and saplings of some mesic species,
sugar maple (Acer saccharum) and white pine (Pinus strobus)
may also occur.
IX-A. Marsh
Marshes are found uncommonly only in the Skunk Creek
Basin and are generally too small to show on the map. They
occur along cleared portions of the creek bottom, adjacent
to roadside and railroad right of ways and along the margin
of small ponds. Sedges (Carex sp.) are very common as are
some grasses (Calamogrostis sp. and Glyceria canadensis).
Less commonly encountered species include cattails CTypha
sp.), water hemlock (Cicuta maculata), knotweed (Polygonum
sp.), blueflag (Iris sp.), mints (Lycopus sp. and Mentha
sp.) and Joe-Pye weed (Eupatorium maculatum).
IX-B. Wet Shrublands
This community is relatively common in the^moist open
areas of the central, more heavily settled portion of the
Little Balsam Creek Basin but are nowhere extensive. In
the Skunk Creek Basin it occurs along the upper reaches of
the creek branches. Roadside ditches, old fields on clay
soils, creek bottomlands and banks, beaver meadows and bog
and conifer swamp margins all may show the species component
characteristic of this community.
The major species present are the alders (Alnus rugosa)
and the willows (Salix sp.). Density increases_in propor-
tion to increasing soil moisture, as does the diversity of
the flora. The wetter thickets have an understory of marsh
species including ferns, mints (Mentha arvensis, Lycopus
uniflorus and Scutellaria galericulata), bedstraws (Galium
sp.) and other weak stemmed species such as jewelweed
(Impatiens biflora) and arrowleaf tearthumb (Polygonum
sagittatum). Herbs in the drier stands resemble wet meadow
species with grasses, sedges, Iris and composites all
occurring frequently.
X. Abandoned Fields
Many fields in the central inhabited area of the Little
Balsam Creek Basin have been removed from cultivation and
are producing a weedy, forbes-dominated hay. The more re-
cently abandoned areas (group A) produce primarily herba-
ceous vegetation; woody vegetation has begun to invade lands
in disuse (group B). In the Skunk Creek Basin both areas
occur on the margins of active fields, primarily in the
325
-------
northern half of the basin along Carlton County 6. Each is
characterized by a large number of species with blooming
times spanning the growing season. Most of the weedy spe-
cies on_the floristic list (Appendix I) are found in aban-
doned fields as well as in the more recently disturbed
areas such as roadsides, ditches, railroad tracks and yards.
Typical late spring forbes include buttercup (Ranunclus
acris), yellow rocket (Barbarea vulgaris), strawberry
(Fragaria virginiana), pussy-toes (Antenharia sp.) and
sorrel (Rumex acetosella). Through the summer and early
fall composites dominate. Common among these are the ox-
eye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum), Devil's paintbrush
(Hieracium aurantiacum), pearly everlasting (Anaphalis
margantacea) and the abundant old field goldenrod
(Solidago nemoralis). Herb cover of the shrubby old-fields
(group B) is very similar since the shrub cover rarely is
dense enough to affect the penetration of sunlight or pre-
cipitation. The invading shrubs are thin stemmed and
rarely over 8 feet tall. Typical species are red osier
dogwood (Cornus stolonifera), the viburnums (Viburnum
lentago, V_. rafinesquianum and V. trilobum) , the hawthorns
(Cratequs sp7) and the 3uneberrresTAmelanchier sp.).
XI-A. Agricultural
These include the hayed fields and cultivated fields
in the immediate vicinity of Patzau, Little Balsam Creek
Basin. Fields in the Skunk Creek Basin occur primarily in
the northern half of the basin along Carlton County 6. The
hay fields are similar in species composition to the aban-
doned fields discussed in Section X, but with a lower di-
versity and a higher percentage of legumes: (Trifolium
pratense, T. repens, T. hybridum, Melilotus alba, M.
officianalTs and Medicago sativa).Species avoided by
livestock tend to increase in grazed fields and include
the docks (Rumex sp.), thistles (Cirsium sp.) and tansy
(Tanacetum vulgare). Some of the cultivated crop grains
such as rye, oats and wheat may appear as isolated plants
or in scattered patches.
XI-B. Pastures
The main pastureland in the Skunk Creek Basin in the
sheep farm south of Elim Church on Carlton County 6 and
north of the Soo Line railroad tracks. A few smaller
areas^occur adjacent to active fields along Carlton County
6. Like the abandoned fields, these areas support many
grasses such as quickgrass (Agropyron sp.), red top
(Agrostis sp.), timothy (Phleum pratense) and bluegrass
(Poa^sp.). However, they differ from the fields in sup-
porting a higher abundance of "weedy" broad-leaved species
such as the thistle (Cirsium sp.), dock (Rumex sp.) and
tansy (Tanacetum vulgare).
326
-------
APPENDIX III
SAMPLING SUMMARIES OF WOODY VEGETATION FOR THE
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK BASIN
327
-------
IV)
CO
Table 1. Density and Frequency of Trees Sampled in Northern Hardwood
(Aspen-Birch Type) Forest (n=300).
————————— — — ——————— —
Species
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Be tula papyrifera Marsh.
Acer saccharum Marsh.
Abies balsamea (L. ) Mill.
Fraxinus nigra Marsh. %
Acer rubrum L.
Tilia americana L.
Quercus borealis Michx. f.
— — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Density
64.97
66.38
59.32
57.91
52.26
39.55
31.07
19.77
Frequency
40.00
49.33
44.00
29.33
28.00
30.67
20.00
14.67
Relative
Dominance
23.32
13.81
8.99
10.79
10.77
6.06
7.19
7.07
Relative
Density
15.33
15.67
14.00
13.67
12.33
9.33
7.33
4.67
Relative
Frequency
14.15
17.45
15.57
10.38
9.91
10.85
7.08
5.19
Impor-
tance
17.60
15.64
12.85
11.61
11.00
8.75
7.20
5.64
(Density: 423.7 trees/hectare; mean diameter = 19.8 cm; mean Point-to-Tree
Distance = 4.9m)
Table 2. Density and Frequency of Trees Sampled in Northern Hardwood
(Oak-Maple Type) Forest (n=300).
Species
Betula papyrifera Marsh.
Acer rubrum L.
Acer saccharum Marsh.
Quercus borealis Michx. f.
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Abies balsamea (L. ) Mill.
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
__ — _ _ _ _ — _
Density
132.78
79.67
61.97
44.26
29.51
30.99
25.08
==n = = ====:==
Frequency
52.00
41.33
37.33
25.33
17.33
20.00
12.00
Relative
Dominance
23.91
11.79
15.17
20.11
9.51
4.98
4.38
Relative
Density
30.00
10.00
14.00
10.00
6.67
7.00
5.67
Relative
Frequency
22.29
17.71
16.00
10.86
7.43
8.57
5.14
Impor
tance
25.40
15.84
15.06
13.66
7.87
6.85
5.06
(Density = 442.6 trees/hectare; mean diameter = 19.8 cm; mean Point-to-Tree
Distance = 4.8m)
-------
Table 3. Density and Frequency of Trees Sampled in Ravine Forests
(n=200)
Species
Acer saccharum Marsh.
Ulmus americana L.
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Acer rubrum L.
Populus balsamifera L.
Tilia americana L.
Density
26.47
27.79
42.35
41.03
31.76
29.17
26.47
15.88
Frequency
36.00
24.00
32.00
38.00
36.00
30.00
22.00
16.00
Relative
Dominance
18.15
21.18
10.27
7.25
10.44
9.09
7.94
6.68
Relative
Density
10.00
10.50
16.00
15.50
12.00
11.00
10.00
6.00
Relative
Frequency
13.33
8.89
11.85
14.07
13.33
11.11
8.15
5.93
Impor-
tance
13.83
13.52
12.71
12.27
11.93
10.40
8.69
6.20
r\j (Density = 264.7 trees/hectare; mean diameter = 20.5 cm; mean Point-to-Tree
^ Distance = 6.2m)
Table 4. Density and Frequency of Trees Sampled in Wetland Hardwoods
(n=40).
Species
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.
Betula papyrifera Marsh.
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Density
349.48
136.75
45.56
30.39
,
Frequency
70.00
50.00
30.00
10.00
Relative
Dominance
61.38
14.93
8.00
6.43
Relative
Density
57.50
22.50
7.50
5.00
Relative
Frequency
36.84
26.32
15.79
5.26
Impor-
tance
51.91
21.25
10.43
5.56
(Density = 607.8 trees/hectare; mean diameter = 18.6 cm; mean Point-to-Tree
Distance = 4.1m)
-------
Table 5. Density and Frequency of Trees Sampled in Coniferous Stands
(n=60).
Species
Picea glauca (Moench) Voss.
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Betula papyrifera Marsh.
Pinus resinosa Ait.
==———— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
Density
96.85
68.60
20.18
12.11
Frequency
66.67
53.33
20.00
13.33
Relative
Dominance
40.22
32.04
3.11
3.81
Relative
Density
40.00
28.33
8.33
5.00
Relative
Frequency
32.26
25.81
9.68
6.45
Impor-
tance
37.49
28.73
7.04
5.08
(Density = 242.1 trees/hectare; mean diameter =2.12 cm; mean Point-to-Tree
Distance = 6.4m)
VjJ
v>i
0 Table 6. Density and Frequency of Trees Sampled in Aspen Hardwoods
(n=240).
Species
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Betula papyrifera Marsh.
Ulmus americana L.
_
Density
159.07
24.34
7.82
Frequency
95.00
28.33
15.00
Relative
Dominance
74.67
11.26
2.54
Relative
Density
76.25
11.67
3.75
Relative
Frequency
56.44
16.33
8.91
Impor-
tance
69.12
13.25
5.07
(Density = 208.7 trees/hectare; mean diameter = 17.0 cm; mean Point-to-Tree
Distance = 6.9m)
-------
VM
Table 7. Density and Frequency of Shrubs Sampled in Northern Hardwood
(Aspen-Birch Type) Forests (15 Quadrats).
Species
Corylus americana Walt .
Acer rubrum L.
Corylus cornuta Marsh.
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Acer saccharum Marsh.
Acer spicatum Lam.
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.
Ilex verticillata (L.) Gray.
Alnus rugosa (DuRoi) Spreng.
Corylus americana Walt.
Density
1.95
.49
.95
.63
.60
.40
.16
.32
.21
.31
Frequency
.47
.67
.33
.47
.47
.47
.33
.07
.13
.07
Relative
Density
29.38
.44
14 .29
.46
.05
. 04
2.41
.83
3.22
.63
Relative
Frequency
10.77
1C O Q
ID . OO
7 CO
. by
10. / i
1 f\ T7
10 . / /
10 . * /
. 69
1C A
. D4
. 08
1C A
. O4
Impor-
tance
40.15
00 00
ŁiŁt . OO
91 QR
fii. , f7O
or\ oo
&\J , ZO
1 Q oo
±y . o«&
1C B1
ID . ol
~t f\ -\i
1U. 11
607
.01
60 n
. oU
61 Y
. 1 1
Table 8. Density and Frequency of Shrubs Sampled in Northern Hardwood
(Oak-Maple Type) Forest (15 Quadrats).
— =
Species
Acer saccharum Marsh.
Acer rubrum L.
Corylus cornuta Marsh.
Corylus americana Walt.
Acer spicatum Lam.
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
Density
3.39
.67
1.12
.88
.24
.24
.28
.04
Frequency
.53
.73
.40
.20
.47
.27
.13
.20
Relative
Density
46.01
. 06
15.22
11.96
.26
.26
. 80
.54
Relative
Frequency
13.79
1 o fl*7
lo . y /
10. 34
. 17
LA . Ol
. yu
3 A K
. 4O
. 17
=========
Impor-
tance
59.81
OQ f\*)
6O , \Jf>
n c ec
40 . OD
1 <7 ~\ Q
1 / . lo
1 Pi °.°.
1O . oo
i r\ i K
1U . ID
7O!^
. ZD
5"7O
. 16
-------
VM
(X)
Table 9. Density and Frequency of Shrubs Sampled in Ravine Forests
(10 Quadrats).
Species
Abies balsamea (L. ) Mill.
Alnus rugosa (DuRoi) Sprene:.
Corylus cornuta Marsh.
Cornus stolonifera Michx.
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
Acer sjpicatum Lam.
Acer saccharum Marsh.
Tilia americana L.
Acer rubrum L.
Corylus americana Walt.
Ostrya virginiana (Mill. )K. Koch
========
Density
1.60
1.22
.54
.36
.36
.46
.26
.16
.08
.18
.16
Frequency
.70
.70
.40
.40
.40
.30
.40
.30
.30
.20
.20
Relative
Density
25.40
19.37
8.57
5.71
5.71
7.30
4.13
2.54
1.27
2.86
2.54
Relative
Frequency
12 73
12 73
7 27
7 27
7 27
5.45
7 27
5 45
5 45
3.64
3.64
Impor-
tance
QO -1 *)
oo r\ct
Ofj . Ut7
1 ^i R4
1 9 QQ
1 9 QQ
J.^ . t?Ł7
12.76
n4O
7 QQ
679
6.49
6.18
Table 10.
Density and Frequency of Shrubs Sampled in Wetland Hardwood Forests
(2 Quadrats).
Species
Acer spicatum Lam.
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
Abies balsamea (L. ) Mill.
Ribes sp.
Ulmus americana L.
Corylus cornuta Marsh.
Alnus rugosa (DuRoi) Sprener.
Density
1.20
1.10
.60
.70
.40
.30
.20
Frequency
1.00
1.00
1.00
.50
.50
.50
.50
Relative
Density
26.67
24.44
13.33
15.56
8.89
6.67
4.44
Relative
Frequency
20
20
20
1 O
10
10
10
Impor-
tance
46.67
44 44
S^ ^
OK K.C
18 8Q
1 fi R7
14.44
-------
VM
VM
VM
Table 11. Density and Frequency of Shrubs Sampled in Coniferous Stands
(3 Quadrats).
Species
Corylus americana Walt.
Corylus cornuta Marsh.
Alnus rugosa (DuRoi) spreng.
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
Cornus sp.
Rosa sp.
Cornus stolonifera Michx.
Salix sp.
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.
Picea glauca (Moench) Voss.
Virbunum sp.
Rubus sp.
Ribes sp.
Acer saccharum Marsh.
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Density
3.67
2.47
1.60
.53
1.40
.33
.93
.93
.13
.60
.33
.27
.13
.07
.07
Frequency
.33
.33
.67
1.00
.33
.67
.33
.33
.67
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
.33
Relative
Density
27.23
18.32
11.89
3.96
10.40
2.48
6.93
6.93
.99
4.46
2.48
1.98
.99
.50
.50
Relative
Frequency
5
5
10
15
5
10
5
5
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
Impor-
tance
32.23
23.32
21.88
18.96
15.40
12.48
11.93
11.93
10.99
9.46
7.48
6.98
5.99
5.50
5.50
-------
VM
Table 12. Density and Frequency of Shrubs Sampled in Aspen Hardwood Forests
(12 Quadrats).
Species Density
Cornus stolonifera Michx.
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Corylus cornuta Marsh.
Salix sp.
Rosa sp.
Amelanchier sp.
Corylus americana Walt.
Viburnum sp.
Viburnum rafinesquianum Schult.
Tilia americana L.
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
Acer rub rum L.
2.40
.93
.68
.57
.55
.40
.58
.47
.50
.23
.18
.28
Frequency
.92
.92
.50
.58
.33
.42
.25
.33
.17
.25
.25
.17
Relative
Density
29.09
11.31
8.28
6.87
6.67
4.85
7.07
5.66
6.06
2.83
2.22
3.43
Relative
Frequency
15.49
15.49
8.45
9.86
5.63
7.04
4.23
5.63
2.82
4.23
4.23
2.82
Impor-
tance
44.58
26.81
16.73
16.73
12.30
11.89
11.30
11.29
8.88
7.05
6.45
R 9.F,
-------
APPENDIX IV
SAMPLING SUMMARIES OF WOODY VEGETATION FOR THE
SKUNK CREEK BASIN
335
-------
VM
Table 1. Density and Frequency of Trees Sampled in Northern Hardwoods
(Aspen-Birch Type) Forest (N=792)
Species
Populus tremuloides Michx
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.
Betula papjrrifera Marsh.
Fraxinus nigra Marsh.
Acer rubrum L.
Density
96.59
53.10
45.02
38.48
19.24
Relative
Density
31.69
17.42
14.77
12.63
6.31
Frequency
56.06
37.88
38.89
25.25
17.68
Relative
Frequency
24.45
16.52
16.96
11.01
7.71
Importance
Value
28.62
16.27
15.90
11.50
7.01
(Density = 304.8 trees/hectare; mean diameter = 19.7 cm; mean Point-to-Tree
Distance = 5.7m)
Table 2. Density and Frequency of Trees Sampled in Northern Hardwoods
(Maple-Basswood Type) Forest (N=100)
Species
Acer saccharum Marsh.
Betula papyrifera Marsh.
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Tilia americana L.
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.
Acer rubrum L.
Ulmus americana L.
Density
146.63
57.76
48.88
44.43
62.21
35.55
8.89
Relative
Density
33.00
13.00
11.00
10.00
14.00
8.00
2.00
Frequency
64.00
40.00
24.00
32.00
20.00
24.00
8.00
Relative
Frequency
26.67
16.67
10.00
13.33
8.33
10.00
3.33
= =:=:= = = = = =: = :=:=
Importance
Value
32.53
13.89
11.34
10.57
9.78
7.31
5.06
zz — — — — — — — —— —
(Density = 444.3 trees/hectare; mean diameter = 20.8 cm; mean Point-to-Tree
Distance = 4.7m)
-------
Table 3. Density and Frequency of Trees Sampled in Conifer Type
Forests (N=60)
Species
Picea mariana (Mill.) BSP.
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Picea glauca (Moench) Voss.
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.
Pinus strobus L.
Density
363.19
149.55
64.09
53.41
10.68
Relative
Density
56.67
23.33
10.00
8.33
1.67
Frequency
93.33
73.33
33.33
26.67
6.67
Relative
Frequency
40.00
31.43
14.29
11.43
2.86
Importance
Value
49.72
26.47
12.27
9.76
1.78
= :=:==::=====::=== =
(Density = 640.9 trees/hectare; mean diameter = 15.9 cm; mean Point-to-Tree
distance = 3.9m)
Table 4. Density and Frequency of Shrubs Sampled Northern Hardwoods
(Aspen-Birch Type) Forest (N=40)
Species
Crateagus sp.
Amelanchier sp.
Cornus sp .
Prunus pensylvania L.f.
Alnus rugosa (DuRoi) Spreng
Dirca palustris L.
Acer saccharum Marsh.
Betula papyrifera Marsh.
Corylus cornuta Marsh.
Rosa sp.
— — — — — — _____ _ ____;
Density
4.14
1.52
1.22
.94
.74
.67
.42
.31
.66
.52
Relative
Density
29.87
10.93
8.80
6.75
5.30
4.80
3.03
2.24
4.77
3.72
Frequency
.65
.40
.50
.50
.23
.23
.33
.33
.18
.23
Relative
Frequency
11.21
6.90
8.62
8.62
3.88
3.88
5.60
5.60
3.02
3.88
_ — ______ — __ — .
Importance
Value
41.08
17.83
17.42
15.37
9.18
8.68
8.63
7.84
7.78
7.60
-------
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-------
APPENDIX V
SUMMARY OF MAJOR GROUND COVER SPECIES BY STAND
Little Balsam Watershed
(Tables 1-6)
Skunk Creek Watershed
(Tables 7-11)
2
B = Phytomass (gms/m )
RB = Relative Phytomass
F = Frequency
RF = Relative Frequency
IP = Importance Percentages
339
-------
Table 1. Summary of Seasonal Herbaceous Quadrat Sampling in Aspen Hardwoods,
Little Balsam.
Vernal (n = 7) Aestival(n = 8) Autumnal (n = 5)
Species B RB F RF IP B RB F RF IP B RB F RF IP
Aster macrophyllus 18.4 44.7 .71 9.6 54.4 19.7 29.9 .63 7.6 37.5 9.6 21.6 .40 7 1 28 7
Carex sp. 6.3 15.4 .71 9.6 25.0 9.5 14.4 .75 9.1 23.5 5.9 13.3 .80 14.3 27.6
Fragaria virginiana 1.9 4.7 .57 7.7 12.4 3.5 5.4 .63 7.6 13.0 1.2 2.6 .40 7.1 9.8
Rubus pubescens 2.4 5.8 .43 5.8 11.6
Maiantnemum canadense 1.7 4.1 .43 5.8 9.8
Aralia nudicaulis 5.9 9.0 .25 3.0 12.0
Sanicula marilancTica 2.3 3.4 .50 6.1 9.4
Rhus radicans 4.8 7.4 .13 1.5 8.9
Vaccinium sp. 7.8 17.7 <20 3.6 21.3
Geum laciniatum 3.4 7.7 .20 3.6 11.3
-------
Table 2. Summary of Seasonal Herbaceous Quadrat Sampling in Northern Hardwoods
(Aspen/Birch), Little Balsam.
Vernal (n = 5)
Aestinal (n = 5)
Autumnal (n = 5)
Species
B
RB
RF
IP
B RB
F RF
IP
B
RB
RF IP
Aster macrophyllus
Pteridium aguilinum
Maianthemum canadensis
Carex pensylvanica
Clintonia borealis
Bromus sp.
Viola sp.
Aralia nudicaulis
Athyrium sp.
Glyceria striata
Diervilla lonicera
Apocynum androesaemi-
folium
Luzula acuminata
Juncus sp.
13.2
5.1
1.
1.
1.
2.
0,
35,
13,
2,
4,
4,
5,
1,
.80 8.1 43.2 4.6 7.9
.40 4.1 17.6 8.0 13.8
,60 6,
,40 4,
,40 4,
,20
,60
2
6
1
1
1
0
1
8,
8,
8,
7,
7,
7.2
8.9
,1
.1
,4
12.4
15.3
8.8
5.3
5.7
57 7.8
14 2.0
15.7 15.4
15.8
71 9.8 22.2
14 2.0 17.3
,14 2.0 10.7
,29 3.9 9.3
,14 2.0 7.7
26.5 1.0 17.2 43.8
7.7 13.2 .60 10.3 23.6
9.8 16
7.5 13
9
0
,20
,20
3.4 20.3
3.4 16.5
-------
PO
Table 3. Summary of Seasonal Herbaceous Quadrat Sampling in Northern Hardwoods
(Oak/Maple), Little Balsam
Species
Maianthemum canadense
Pteridium aguilinum
Clintonia borealis
Aster macrophyllus
Carex sp.
Acer r_ubrum( seedlings)
Diervilla loniceraa
Lycopodium complanatum
L. obscurum
Vernal (n =
B
1.4
2.8
1.9
1.2
1.6
RB
13.3
20.1
13.7
8.4
11.5
F
.83
.33
.50
.67
.33
6)
RF
13.5
5.4
8.1
10.8
5.4
Aestival (n = 5)
IP
26.9
25.4
21.8
19.3
16.9
B RB
2.1 7.6
5.8 20.9
10.3 36.9
1.2 4.3
F
1.00
.20
1.00
.80
RF
16.1
3.2
16.1
12.9
IP
23.7
24.1
53.0
17.0
=— _ .
Autumnal (n
R
9.6
3.6
3.5
3.6
2.6
RB
32.3
12.1
11.8
12.1
8.7
F
.71
.14
.57
.14
.29
= 7)
RF
15.1
3.0
12.1
3.0
6.1
IP
47.5
15.1
24.0
15.2
14.7
apartially woody.
-------
Table 4. Summary of Herbaceous Quadrat Sampling in Ravine Forests,
Little Balsam.
= Vernal (n = 7) Aestival (n = 4) Autumnal (n = 7)
Species
Aster macrophyllus
Carex sp.
Equisetum hyemale
Carex pensylvanica
Rubus pubescens
Aralia nudicaulis
B
13.9
5.4
6.7
4.8
3.6
RB
32.3
12.7
15.5
11.1
8.3
F RF
.71 11.6
.43 7.0
.14 2.3
.29 4.7
.14 2.3
IP
43.9
19.7
17.9
15.8
10.7
B
6.5
7.2
76.8
2.9
RB
6.1
6.7
72.3
2.8
F
1.00
.75
.25
.75
RF
14.3
10.7
3.6
10.7
IP
20.4
17.4
75.9
13.5
B
13.3
7.5
29.6
RB
21.0
11.8
46.8
F RF
.86 15.8
.43 7.9
.29 5.3
IP
36.8
19.7
52.1
Pyrola rotundifolia 3.5 5.6 .57 10.5 16.1
Table 5. Summary of Wetland Hardwood Forests, Little Balsam. ^
___ _ _ _____ ______ __ ___________ _ _ — ___ __ ____________________ __ _ ^
Vernal (n = 2) Aestival (n = 8) Autumnal (n = 2)
Species
Equisetum hyemale
Carex sp.
Rubus parviflorus
Saxafraga pensyl-
vanica
Equisetum arvense
Uvularia sessili-
B
503.1
14.1
12.9
4.4
RB
92.9
2.6
2.4
.82
F RF
.50 10
.50 10
.50 10
.50 10
IP
102.9
12.6
12.4
10.8
B
72.1
2.5
11.5
4.8
RB
67.2
2.3
10.7
4.5
F
.67
.67
.33
.33
RF
10
10
5
5
IP B RB
77.
12.
15.
9.
2 220 82.3
3 8.4 3.2
7
5
F RF IP
.5 7.7 90.5
.50 7.7 10.9
folia
Matteuccia struthio- 29.3 11.0 .50 7.7 18.7
pteris
-------
Table 6. Summary of Herbaceous Quadrat Sampling in Agricultural Fields,
Little Balsam.
Vernal (n = 5) Aestival (n = 6) Autumnal (n = 6)
Species B BE F RF IP B RB F RF IP B RB F RF IP
Poa sp. 12.6 19.2 .60 7.1 26.3 4.0 3.0 .33 3.2 6.2
Fragaria virginiana 8.0 12.2 .60 7.1 19.4 18.1 9.4 .83 7.8 17.2 11.2 8.3 1.00 9.5 17.9
Bromus s"p. 8.0 12.1 .60 7.1 19.3
Aster sp. 8.0 12.1 .40 4.8 16.9 18.9 14.0 .67 6.3 20.5
Solidago sp.a 3.7 5.6 .80 9.5 15.1 13.9 7.2 .50 4.7 11.9 38.0 28.3 .67 6.3 35.5
Agropyron repens 4.8 7.3 .40 4.8 12.1 15.5 8.0 .50 4.7 12.7
Agrostis""stoloni- 26.2 13.6 .50 4.7 18.3
f era
Phleum pratense 18.6 9.7 .50 4.7 14.4 14.9 11.1 .67 6.3 17.5
Solidago canaden- 21.2 11.0 .17 1.6 12.6
sis
PteTTdium aquilinum 20.7 10.7 .17 1.6 12.3
Carex sp. 9.4 7.0 .67 6.3 13.4
Aster simplex
a
including Si. canadensis in vernal sample only.
-------
Table 7. Summary of Seasonal Herbaceous Quadrat Sampling in Aspen Hardwoods,
Skunk Creek.
Vernal (n = 2) Aestival (n = 2) Autumnala (n = 2)
Species B RB F RF IP B RB F RF IP B RB F RF IP
Carex sp. 5.5 19.1 1.00 10.5 29.6 4.2 5.6 1.00 10.5 20.3 5.6 14.6 .50 20.0 34.6
Clintonia borea- 6.2 21.2 .50 5.3 26.5
TTs
Aster macro- 5.8 19.9 .50 5.3 25.2 42.0 55.6 1.00 10.5 66.2
ehyllus
«
Mulhenbergia sp. 4.8 16.4 .50 5.3 21.6
Tralictrum dioi- 1.2 4.0 1.00 10.5 14.5
cum
Fragaria virgin- 1.0 3.3 .50 5.3 8.6 5.5 7.3 1.00 10.5 17.9 1.0 2.6.50 20.0 22.6
lana
Sanicula marilan- 6.4 8.5 1.00 10.5 19.1
dica
Cinna latifolia 31.4 81.5 .50 20.0 101.5
a
atypical sample with low species number.
ir\
-------
Table 8. Summary of Seasonal Herbaceous Quadrat Sampling in Northern Hardwoods
(Aspen/Birch), Skunk Creek.
Vernal (n = 5) Aestival (n = 13) Autumnal (n = 12)
Species B RB F RF IP B RB F RF IP B RB F RF IP
Aster macrophyllus 9.3 23.4 .78 8.4 31.8 23.6 43.1 .77 8.9 52.1 10.1 20.1 .58 9.3 29.4
Pteridium aguilinum 5.3 13.3 .11 1.2 14.5 6.7 12.2 .15 1.8 14.0
Carex sp. 3.5 8.8.44 4.8 13.7 2.0 3.7.54 6.3 9.9 9.5 22.6.58 10.6 29.6
Rubus pubescens 2.1 5.4 .56 6.0 11.4 2.6 4.8 .61 7.1 11.9
Asarum canadensis 3.9 9.8 .11 1.2 11.0
Fragaria virginiana 2.0 5.1 .44 4.8 9.9 1.5 2.7 .62 7.1 9.9 3.3 6.6 .33 5.3 11.9
Athyrium sp. 2.5 6.4.11 1.2 7.6
v>j Maianthemum canadense 0.2 0.6 .56 6.0 6.6 1.4 2.6 .77 8.9 11.6
^ Sanicula marilandica 2.4 4.3 .38 4.5 8.8
Vaccinium sp. 8.7 17.3 .10 1.3 18.7
Luzula s"p. 2.9 5.8 .33 5.3 11.1
-------
Table 9. Summary of Seasonal Herbaceous Quadrat Sampling in Ravine Forests,
Skunk Creek.
Vernal (n = 5) Aestival (n = 5) Autumnal (n = 5)
Species _ B RB F RF IP B RB F RF IP B RF F RF IP
Carex sp. 12.0 49.4 1.00 13.9 63.3 16.6 23.8 1.00 10.0 36.3 9.4 28.5 .80 11.4 39.9
Aster macro- 3.8 15.8 .40 5.5 21.4 15.5 22.3 .80 8.3 30.6 11.9 36.3 .80 11.4 47.7
phyllus
Fragaria virgin- .61 2.5 .60 8.3 10.8 1.5 2.1 .60 6.3 8.4 1.0 32.9 .60 8.6 11.5
iana
Rubus~pubescens .96 3.9 .40 5.5 9.5 0.4 0.6 .60 6.3 6.8 1.0 2.9 .40 5.7 8.6
Mitel la nuda .50 2.0 .40 5.5 7.6
Equisetum arvense 2.6 3.8 .40 4.2 7.9
Lonicera"sp7a 17.1 24.5 .20 2.1 26.5
========
a
partially woody, ground layer.
-------
Table 10. Summary of Seasonal Herbaceous Quadrat Sampling in Hardwood Wetlands,
Skunk Creek.
Vernal (n = 6) Aestival (n = 6) Autumnal (n = 6)
Species B RB F RF IP B RB F RF IP B RB F RF IP
Laportea canadensis 11.9 26.2 .33 3.9 30.2 11.2 19.2 .33 3.5 22.7
Carex sp. 5.7 12.5 .83 9.8 22.3 12.3 14.2 .83 10.6 29.2 3.8 11.9 .67 11.8 23.6
Asarum canadensis 4.7 10.3.33 3.9 14.2 3.0 9.5.17 2.9 12.4
Fragaria virginiana 2.4 5.3 .50 5.9 11.2 1.4 4.6 .50 8.8 13.4
Aster macrophyllus 3.4 7.5 .17 2.0 9.5 4.3 3.7 .17 1.8 9.2 4.3 13.5 .33 5.9 19.4
Viola sp. 3.4 7.4 .17 2.0 9.4 2.7 4.6 .50 5.3 9.9
Athyrium sp. 3.3 7.4.17 2.0 9.3
Rubus pubescens 2.7 4.6.50 5.3 9.9
Solidago sp. 6.5 11.2 .17 1.8 13.0
Glyceria striata 2.3 4.0.33 3.5 7.5
Elymus virginicus 8.3 26.3 .17 2.9 29.3
Aster sp. 3.5 n.2 .33 5.9 17.1
-------
Table 11. Summary of Seasonal Herbaceous Quadrat Sampling in Agricultural Fields,
Skunk Creek.
;===============:=============
Vernal (n = 6) Aestival (n = 8) Autumnal (n = 7)
Species B RB F RF IP B RB F RF IP B RB F RF IP
Poa sp. 13.5 16.6 .67 6.8 24.0
EFo'mus sp. 7.9 9.6 .67 6.8 16.4 26.6 16.1 .14 1.7 17.8 6.7 6.4 .28 3.6 10.1
Agrostis sp. 6.9 8.5 .50 5.1 13.6 20.4 12.3 .28 3.4 15.8
Achillea millefolium 2.6 3.2 .83 8.5 11.7 10.1 6.1 .57 6.8 12.9
Luzula acuminata 6.8 8.4 .17 1.7 10.1
Fragaria virglniana 2.7 3.3 .67 6.8 10.1 17.9 10.8 .71 8.5 19.3 8.7 8.3 .86 10.9 19.2
Carex sp. 3.9 4.8 .33 3.4 8.2 5.7 5.5 .29 3.6 9.1
Phleum pratense 15.2 9.2 .57 6.8 16.0,33.3 31.9 .57 7.3 39.1
Aster ciliolatus 8.6 5.2 .43 5.1 10.3
Solidago sp. 7.9 7.6 .14 1.8 9.4
-------
APPENDIX VI
VEGETATION COVER MAPS
Little Balsam Watershed
Skunk Creek Watershed
350
-------
Forest Types
(jjjif-j I. Aspen Hardwoods
II. Northern Hardwoods
^H A- Aspen/Birch Dominant
1:^1 B, Oak/Maple Dominant
C. Maple/Basswood Dominant
RH III.- Coniferous
|| IV. Ravine Forests (Birch/Fir)
K3 V. Plantations
Wetlands
^^ VI. Hardwood Swamp
H VII. Conifer Swamp (Cedar/Ash)
VIII. Bog
IB IX. Wet Shrubland
Field
X. Abandoned Fields
I A, Herbaceous
| B. Shrubby
| C. Wet
XI. Agricultural Fields
1 A. Field
3 B. Pasture
XII. Construction Zone
-------
-------
VEGETATIVE COVER
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK BASIN
SCALE IN MILES
0 1/8 1/4 1/2 I
352
-------
Woodlands
[illljji) I. Aspen Hardwoods
II. Northern Hardwoods
{|:|:|i|:j| A. Aspen/Birch Dominant
|:::: :| B. Oak/Maple Dominant
|:::::;| c, Maple/Basswood Dominant
|j III. Conifer
[ ] IV. Ravine Forest
[•vy V. Plantations
Wetlands
VI. Hardwood Swamp
VII. Conifer Swamp
VIII. Bog
IX. Wet Shrubland
Fields
X. Abandoned Fields
A. Herbaceous
B. Shrubby
XI. Agricultural Fields
355
-------
VEGETATIVE COVER
SKUNK CREEK BASIN
SCALE IN MILES
0 1/8 1/4 1/2
-------
EFFECT OF VEGETATION COVER ON SOIL WATER CONTENT
OF RED CLAY SOILS AND EROSION CONTROL
Lawrence A. Kapustka and Rudy G. Koch*
This project sought to determine the relationships of
the various vegetational covers found in the red clay area
to soil water content and to identify the role of these
plant-soil moisture relationships in red clay erosion.
METHODS
Site Location and Instrumentation
Field sites were situated in the Little Balsam Creek
Basin. The sites for the individual plots were selected to
maximize the types of vegetational cover available in a
relatively small area, thus minimizing expenditures in
equipment and field monitoring time, as well as to provide
better control conditions for soil and slope.
A central weather station located on the Johnson property
(T46N, R15W, S3) was established prior to the spring thaw,
1976. The station was serviced weekly from 5 April 1976
through 27 September 1976, and 4 April 1977 through 5 November
1977. Instrumentation in the weather unit included: pyrano-
graph, hydrothermograph, and total precipitation. Weather
monitoring summaries were developed from respective recording
chart readings at 2 h intervals.
Nine sites were identified within a 200 m radius of the
weather station to represent the following vegetation covers:
aspen, birch, fir, maple, pine, grazed pasture, bare of vege-
tative cover, and abandoned (agriculture) field. The last
cover type was represented by both a shallow and a deep
enclosure. The plots (1.0 m x 2.0 m), were enclosed by a
perimeter of glavanized, corrugated roofing metal buried to
a depth of approximately 10 cm. The one "deep enclosure"
(abandoned field) had the metal buried to a depth of one meter
to provide a grassy area isolated from the potential influence
of roots of neighboring trees.
Five gypsum conductivity blocks were mounted in 1.3 cm
(1/2 in.) diameter plastic water pipe with the sensors
exposed at 5, 15, 30, 60 and 100 cm below the burial line.
Three of these probes were installed in each of the nine
*Project Specialist, C.L.S.E.S. and Assoc. Prof., Biolgoy;
UW-Superior
355
-------
enclosed plots. Auger holes (5 cm diam.) were drilled and
the probe assembly was placed at the desired depth with
disturbance to the soil and vegetation held to a minimum.
Five sets of thermistor probes were assembled and in-
stalled in the study area in a similar manner.
Soil moisture and soil temperature were monitored weekly
with a Beckman Model SMB-1 Soil Moisture Bridge and an
Atkins electronic thermometer respectively. Water holding
capacity of the red clay was determined following the proce-
dures described by Hilgard (1).
Permanent wilting point was determined with young sun-
flower plants (2nd - 3rd set of leaves) following the methods
of Briggs and Shantz (2).
Throughfall-Stemflow
Eighteen trees representing Populus tremuloides, Betula
papyrifera, Acer rubra, Quercus borealis, Abies balsamea,
Picea glauca, and Piu"us strobus were prepared for monitoring
stemflow (SF) and throughfall (TF) during 1976. In April
1977, 10 aspen and 10 birch representing a wide range of tree
sizes were equipped for monitoring. Rain gauges were placed
in a fixed pattern under the canopy to detect the amount of
TF which was then compared to the amounts of incident pre-
cipitation measured in gauges in the open (3). Three gauges
were placed along each of the cardinal directions (with the
bole of the tree being the origin) to collect TF of the inner
canopy, middle canopy, and outer canopy. A polyurethane
collar was molded to the trunk of each tree to enable collec-
tion of SF water following procedures described by Likens
and Eaton (4). During the 2 years of monitoring 35-50 rain
periods (depending on the time of installation for the
various specimens) were measured for SF and TF.
Plant Growth on__Amen_d_ed__Spils
Seeds of species used to revegetate erosion zones of
red clay soils in Wisconsin and Minnesota were obtained from
Trico Services, Inc., 2102 W. Michigan Street, Duluth,
Minnesota 55806. Five replicates of 50 seeds each were
placed on moist filter paper and incubated at 25 +_ 3°C.
Germinated seeds (those with radicle extension past the seed
coat) were removed and tallied. Germination value was
calculated after Czabatior (5).
Initial measures of soil pH and organic carbon content
indicated a possible requirement for soil amendments to achieve
optimum plant growth on exposed sites. Clay soil, for ruse
in controlled environment studies, was collected from an
exposed bank near Little Balsam Creek (T46N, R15W, S3). The
soil was air dried, pulverized, and sifted through a 2.0 mm
mesh screen to remove gravel and unbroken aggregates of clay.
356
-------
The pH of the soil was 8.1 (5 water: 1 soil/v/w) and
the organic carbon content (Wakley-Black Value; 6) was 0.2%.
Lots of soil were amended with CaSOij to achieve a final
pH = 7.3, with CaO to achieve pH = 8.6. Seeds of Festuca
elatior, F. rubra, Lolium perenne and Bromus inermis were
planted in glass cylinders 4 cm diameter x 10 cm in height
and equipped with a siphon watering system that maintained
the soil moisture content at 90% or more of field capacity.
Five to 6 seedlings were maintained in each of 7 jars for
each species-pH treatment. Plants were exposed to 16 hour
light: 8 hour dark periods with corresponding temperatures
of 25.5° and 15.5° C respectively, and continuous 65-70%
relative humidity.
The water supply was removed 3 weeks after plantings.
Measures of leaf water potential (Wescor C-52 psychrometer),
xylem water potential (PMS pressure bomb), fresh and oven
dry (80° C, 48 h) weights were obtained the day the water
was withdrawn and on subsequent days 1, 2, 3, 4, 7 and 8.
The soil moisture content was determined gravimetrically for
each jar at the time of harvest.
Additional experiments to determine the influence of
soil organic carbon content on growth were conducted with the
same species. Lots of soil were amended to achieve 2% and
4% carbon with either peat moss or pulverized aspen leaves
as the source of carbon. Half of the treatments received
Hoagland's nutrient solution at a rate equivalent to 50 kg
N-ha~l. Twenty seedlings were maintained per jar for 5
weeks. Weekly measures of height were recorded. After 5
weeks, the plants were harvested to obtain fresh and dry
weights.
RESULTS
Weather
Summaries of ambient temperature, relative humidity,
solar insolation, wind and precipitation for the 1976-77 field
seasons are presented in Appendix I.
Soil Temperature
Comparisons of soil temperatures of the 5 vegetative
cover types reveal significant differences among all sites
for virtually the entire monitoring period. In general ±he
sites in order of decreasing temperatures were: pasture,
ungrazed grass, birch, maple, pine. These differences are
seen most clearly at the greater soil depth. Some of these
differences, particularly the pine and maple sites, are
possibly a result of slope position and not solely a character-
istic of the vegetation and the associated ground cover.
(See Appendix II for graphs of 1976 soil temperature profiles),
357
-------
1977 data is not presented as it followed a pattern similar
to 1976 data).
Soil Water Holding Properties
The water holding capacity of three soil samples expres-
sed as percentage dry weight were 50.46, 55.87, and 56.10%.
The mean permanent wilting point was determined from
6 replicates to be at 11.8% soil moisture with the S.E. = 0.3%.
Soil Moisture
The unusually dry summer of 1976 provided excellent
conditions for monitoring the effects of vegetation cover
types of soil moisture. Depletion of soil moisture was con-
siderable in all plots as precipitation declined. The most
effective cover types with respect to the depletion of soil
moisture were grazed pasture, abandoned field with predominant
grass cover ans aspen. Much less effective were 'fir, pine,
maple, and bare ground. (See Appendix III for graphs of
1976 soil moisture profiles.)
Following light rains the surface soils (top 5 cm) with
less cover (bare soil and grazed pasture) recharged more
extensively than soils with more cover, reflecting the sig-
nificance of rainfall interception by vegetation. With
larger rains the bare soils were less efficient in capturing
the precipitation than the more vegetated soils. The vegetat-
ed soils tend to have a more porous structure resulting from
a higher organic carbon content, from root penetration and
subterranean animal activity which promotes percolation. In
the more compacted bare soils the surface is readily saturat-
ed and excess moisture is lost as surface runoff.
The summer of 1977 was wetter than normal with numerous
small rains occurring throughout the months of April through
June and mid July through October. Except for a brief period
in early July the soils in all plots remained relatively
saturated (? soil = -1.5 to -4.0 atmos.) throughout the 1 m
profile. The surface soils (upper 15 cm) began to dry down
in the same pattern as observed in 1976.
Stemflow-Throughfall
The marked difference in precipitation between 1976 and
1977 also had an influence on the pattern of SF and TF observed
during the two years. In 1976, the amount of SF for any given
specimen was not correlated with the amount of incident pre-
cipitation. The 1977 data for SF shows a significant correla-
tion. The patterns of TF for 1976 were correlated strongly
with incident precipitation wheras the patterns of TF for 1977
were less rigorously defined. The apparent explanation for
•>
358
-------
these differences in patterns rests with the extent of
wetness of the bark and leaf surfaces. In 1976 the interval
between rain periods generally allowed for considerable drying
of the plant surfaces. Consequently some water was sorbed
by the tree reducing SF and TF tended to be initialed with
the slightest shower.
Even with these differences, general patterns were
discernable. For example, mid to large size birch with its
curled bark tend to have small amounts of stemflow compared
to other deciduous species of similar size. Trees with
lateral branches angled upward have larger volumes of stem-
flow than trees with spreading branches. Although the volume
of stemflow often exceeds 20 1 for rains of 1 cm or more,
this redistribution represents a very small percentage of
•the incoming rain. If stemflow is divided by the projected
area of the canopy the stemflow typically is <1% of the
incident precipitation.
Significant differences in TF were apparent among the
different positions of the canopy (inner, middle, outer) for
many specimens. Also major differences exist among the
species and sizes of trees (Tables 1, 2). Generalized fea-
tures of TF (Figures 1-3) are obtained from the linear
regression analysis of TF and incident rainfall.
0
o
oc
PRECIPITATION (mm)
Figure 1. Relationship Between Precipitation (cm) and Throughfall
(% of Incoming Precipitation).
359
-------
Ul
V
at t-
ui a.
Q. a.
II
o o
DU
o 5
X **•
S o
b'
PRECIPITATION (mm)
Figure 2. Relationship Between Precipitation (cm) and Throughfall
(cm) .
Ul
U —
OK "-
ui a.
a. a.
il
li
s
PRECIPITATION (ram)
Figure 3. Throughfall Patterns for Three Canopy Types. «-
(A. Open canopy type such as aspen; B. Moderately
dense canopy type such as oak; C. Dense canopy
type such as spruce.)
360
-------
Table 1. Summary of physical features of trees used for SF
and TF measures.
Tree Type
ID #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Birch
Birch
Birch
Birch
Birch
Birch
Birch
Birch
Birch
Birch
Birch
Birch
Birch
Oak
Oak
Maple
Maple
Maple
Spruce
Spruce
Fir
Fir
Fir
Pine
Pine
DBH
(cm)
20.2
30.7
28.6
9.3
8.5
18.5
17.6
17.8
7.5
12.3
9.9
5.4
27.8
16.0
29.4
22.8
7.8
6.0
9.6
9.8
11.8
25.3
27.1
16.8
16.6
16.1
26.7
30.4
23.2
25.5
28.5
14.8
25.0
10.7
16.6
13.9
41.3
41.2
Total"1" Canopy
Height Height
(m) Cm)
11.6
14.2
12.8
9. 6
7.5
14.2
13.2
10.4
9.8
13.6
12.2
6.9
21.0
9.0
16.5
15.7
5.9
4.4
6.9
8.9
8.6
8.1
13.5
14. 5
8.1
8.3
14.1
13.4
13.5
9. 5
10. 9
5.6
12.8
7.5
12. 3
8.5
15.0
16.2
8.
12.
11.
8.
6.
13.
12.
9.
8.
12.
11.
5.
19.
7.
12.
13.
5.
3.
6.
7.
7.
5.
11.
11.
7.
7.
16.
11.
10.
8.
8.
4.
12.
7.
12.
8.
11.
12.
y
2
6
9
3
1
0
4
8
6
2
5
1
7
4
9
1
9
7
6
9
4
4
5
3
3
9
2
7
2
3
2
6
5
0
2
4
0
Canopy
Area
(m2)
14. 39
22.63
19.60
2.61
3.62
15.72
8.27
14. 99
2.46
4.32
5.20
3.19
24. 00
16. 88
24.76
48.84
6.51
6.81
7.40
6.54
10.17
24.29
29. 34
9.57
11.41
17.06
52.41
43.48
17.04
36.81
28.17
12.01
19.44
6.07
7. 75
11.33
15.20
35.80
I
bU
40
59
57
48
41
32
53
81
48
60
57
6'5
51
32
49
64
63
51
80
41
57
47
52
62
65
39
36
28
43
47
70
47
13
27
19
33
27
'Canopy Density2^
M
60
55
54
54
50
51
36
51
59
50
60
44
68
47
40
60
70
50
50
86
50
68
64
44
77
76
28
49
45
56
45
69
50
19
27
34
49
27
0
50
68
46
53
52
42
37
47
57
57
54
56
52
50
48
37
80
60
57
82
50
67
50
44
80
78
34
45
31
50
40
60
59
23
22
17
52
40
Mean
53
54
53
55
50
45
35
51
66
52
58
52
61
49
40
50
72
58
52
83
47
64
54
47
73
73
34
43
34
49
44
65
51
18
26
25
45
31
Bark0
Fea-
tures
MF
HF
HF
MF
MF
HF
HF
HF
LF
MF
MF
MF
MF
SC
EC
MC
SC
S
MC
SC
SC
EC
HF
HF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
HF
HF
-^-Measured by triangulation
2Inner, middle and outer, density determined from the mean
light intensity penetrating to the forest floor at 4 loca-
tions (corresponding to the position of rain gauges) ex-
pressed as a percentage of light in an open area all
(continued)
361
-------
measures were taken on clear days between 11:00 a.m. and
1:00 p.m. CST with a Photovolt Model 200 Photorectery.
3
S = smooth, LF = lightly furrowed, MF = moderately fur-
rowed, HF = heavely furrowed, SC = smooth to slightly
curled, MC = moderately curled, EC - extensively curled.
362
-------
TABLE 2. Summary of Regression Analysis for 1976 and 1977
Data. (I = Inner Ring, M = Middle ring, 0 =
Outer ring, T = Total and TF = A + B (PPT).
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
Aspen
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
r2
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0;
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
835
831
831
838
848
872
872
873
847
853
853
852
980
980
980
983
981
974
974
984
956
986
986
984
969
972
972
975
977
988
988
984
978
982
982
983
977
983
983
982
990
976
976
988
-0,
-0,
-0,
-0,
-0,
-0,
-0,
-0.
-0,
-0,
-0,
-0,
0,
0,
0.
-0,
0.
0,
0,
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0,
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0,
-0.
0.
-0.
-0.
-0,
-0.
0.
0.
-0.
0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
A
.195
,180
.180
.185
.116
.112
.112
,118
,19.9
.102
.102
.168
.009
.004
.004
,009
,022
,005
.005
,007
,087
,063
,063
, 090
,057
,100
.100
,084
,004
, 035
,035
.036
,013
,018
,018
,007
,013
,011
,011
,012
,006
,006
,006
,015
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
B
.917
.932
.932
.915
.871
.922
.922
.903
.910
.865
.865
.921
0792
0794
0794
.820
.857
.897
.897
.891
.898
.953
.953
.965
.766
.870
.870
.837
.891
.902
.902
.905
.754
.734
.734
.745
.777
.838
.838
.819
.854
.864
.864
.854
(continued)
363
-------
Table 2 (continued)
Aspen 12
Aspen 13
Birch 1
Birch 2
Birch 3
Birch 4
Birch 5
Birch 6
Birch 7
Birch 8
Birch 9
Birch 10
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
I
M
0
T
r
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
2
973
976
976
981
960
978
978
967
738
763
763
776
384
605
605
587
946
938
938
961
954
964
964
978
973
956
956
975
973
978
978
975
831
963
963
968
893
979
979
960
931
902
902
969
959
966
966
966
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
-0.
-0.
0.
0.
-0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
0.
-0.
A
016
023
023
028
141
140
140
168
116
065
065
023
755
561
561
595
292
436
436
324
016
211
211
098
065
000
000
019
065
128
128
106
136
079
079
005
182
079
079
105
012
013
013
002
298
024
024
085
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
1.
1.
1.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
0.
0.
1.
1.
0.
0.
0.
B
889
911
911
913
879
978
978
951
898
825
825
854
534
877
877
798
033
213
213
103
963
995
995
962
815
907
907
873
815
957
957
878
036
078
078
056
137
009
009
Oil
114
981
981
025
088
910
910
987
(continued)
364
-------
Table 2 (continued)
Birch 11
Birch 12
Birch 13
Oak 1
Oak 2
Maple 1
Maple 2
Maple 3
Spruce 1
Spruce 2
Fir 1
Fir 2
r2
I 0.
M 0.
0 0.
T 0.
I 0.
M 0.
0 0.
T 0.
I 0.
M 0.
0 0.
T 0.
I 0.
M 0.
0 0.
T 0.
I 0.
M 0.
0 0.
T 0.
I 0.
M 0.
0 0.
T 0.
I 0.
M 0.
0 0.
T 0.
I 0.
M 0.
0 0.
T 0.
I 0.
M 0.
0 0.
T 0.
I 0.
M 0.
0 0.
T 0.
I 0.
M 0.
0 0.
T 0.
I 0.
M 0.
0 0.
T 0.
968
982
982
981
943
979
979
980
955
983
983
973
607
539
539
580
760
111
111
771
809
863
863
852
850
853
853
860
822
849
849
840
840
856
856
854
784
799
799
820
806
836
836
855
710
792
792
810
-0.
0.
0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
-0-.
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
A
098
010
010
031
200
156
156
197
027
092
092
057
331
541
541
416
151
061
061
116
142
173
173
144
188
051
051
139
058
123
123
098
189
054
054
082
125
392
392
241
043
112
112
037
028
046
046
045
1.
0.
0.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0
0.
0.
0.
o;
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
B
101
966
966
037
838
969
969
968
783
983
983
885
753
725
725
757
846
830
830
849
669
828
828
747
783
934
934
903
578
703
703
640
713
787
715
619
649
649
659
564
798
798
784
560
941
941
670
(continued)
365
-------
Table 2 (continued)
Fir 3
Pine 1
Pine 2
I 0.832
0 0.846
T 0.879
I 0.842
M 0.908
0 0.908
T 0.887
I 0.798
M 0.843
0 0.843
T 0.836
0.303
0.303
0.189
•0.146
•0.046
•0.046
•0.066
•0.265
•0.010
•0.010
-0.126
B
0.681
0.681
0.719
0.987
0.916
0.916
0.918
1.071
0.702
0.722
0.860
366
-------
Generally, more open canopies such as aspen and birch
are typified by larger amounts of TF, intermediately dense
canopies like oak, maple, white pine have substantial amounts
of TF, whereas dense canopy trees like spruce and fir have
limited TF. From 1976 data the minimum rainfall to obtain
measurable TF ranged from 0.5 mm for a birch to 3.2 mm for
a spruce. Additional interception (precipitation^that never
reaches the ground) occurs during the initial period of rain-
fall as the bark and leaves absorb water.
Experimental measures of water absorption by samples
of bark, indicate a rapid absorption during the initial 2-4
minutes of exposure to water. Saturation is approached within
30 minutes. The amount of absorption (saturation level) was
quite variable (10-60% of weight of water to weight of bark
with a mean of 30%) and revealed no consistent patterns among
species.
Germination and Growth
Of the 7 taxa typically used in roadside plantings,
Lolium perenne displayed the greatest tolerance to^water
stress, reached the highest percentage of germination and
had the highest germination index (a combination of maximum
percentage germination and the rate of germination) (Table 3).
F. elatior, F_. rubra and Lotus cornicnlatus were intermediate
with respect~to water stress, final germination percentage
and germination index. Coronilla, varia and Poa pratensis
responded poorly in all three parameters.
The effect of soil pH on growth of F. rubra, F. elatior,
L. perenne and B_. inermis generally is to show improved growth
Tor all but F_. elatior in soils having the pH adjusted to either
pH 7.3 or 8.6" (Table 4). The measures of plant water poten-
tial, both xylem water potential and leaf water potential
failed to demonstrate any stress corresponding to the different
pH regimes.
The quantity of phytomass acquired in the 3 week period
parallels the germination vigor of the 4 species.
Additions of organic carbon to the soil revealed signifi-
cant differences in growth depending on the source of carbon.
For most of the species tested, the addition of 2% or 4%
peat moss to the clay soil resulted in a significant stimula-
tion in the early growth of the plants whereas similar addi-
tions of aspen leaves diminished the growth. This pattern
was often enhanced with the addition of nutrients. Significant
reduction in height (Figure 4), fresh and dry weight and
chlorophyll content of P_. pratensis, F_. elatior, F_. rubra, and
L. cornicutatus suggest a significant allelopathic response
to aspen leaves (Olson, Kapustka, Koch; unpublished data).
36?
-------
TABLE 3. Germination Index (a) and Mean Cumulations Percentages
Germination (b) of Roadside Species Under Water Stress
Conditions.
WATER POTENTIAL (4)
0 1 3 5 7 10 15
LoTium perenne a 94.2 80.7 73.8 79.2 69.2 37.3 2.3
b 92.4 91.6 86.4 90.0 89.6 72.0 16.4
Festuca elatior
F. rubra
Bromus inermis
Poa pratensis
Lotus corniculatus
Coronilla varia
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
41.4
80.4
62.1
85.6
16.7
40.4
37.6
70.8
48.0
66.4
5.7
36.4
32.
68.
49.
82.
15.
38.
19u
54.
43.
64.
6.
37.
6
8
5
4
0
0
4
4
4
4
5
6
19.
57.
47.
82.
12.
35.
18.
54.
48.
66.
3.
28.
8
2
0
0
7
2
6
0
9
4
5
4
17.0
52.8
37.4
74.0
12. 0
36.4
3.6
25.6
38.4
63.2
1.1
9.6
9.3
41.2
25.6
60.0
9.5
33.2
2.1
16.8
12.9
30.8
0.5
6.0
2.
10.
4.
23.
7.
31.
0
0
0.
3.
0.
1.
4
8
?
2
3
6
4
2
2
6
0
0
0.1
0.4
0.9
4.4
0
0
0.1
0.4
0
0
TABLE 4. Mean Dry Weight (mg) Per Plant After 3 Weeks Growth
in 3 pH Conditions.
pH
7-3 _
Festuca elatior
F_. rubra
Loliym perenne
Bromus inermis
7. 3
8. 9
7.2
11.1
3.9
8.1
10. 3
5.6
10.6
3.4
8
8
6
12
3
.6
.2
.2
.4
. 5
368
-------
REFERENCES
Hilgard, E. W. 1906. Soils: Their formation, properties,
compositions and relations to climate and plant growth
in humid and arid regions. The MacMillan Co., New York.
Briggs, L. J. and H. C. Shante. 1912. The wilting co-
efficient for different plants and its indirect deter-
mination. U.S.D.A. Bureau of Plant Industry. Bull 230.
Eaton, J. S., G. E. Likens and F. H. Bormann. 1973.
Throughfall and stemflow chemistry in the Northern Hardwood
forest. Jour, of Ecol.:495-508.
Likens, G. E. and J. S. Eaton. 1970. A Polyurethane
Stemflow Collector for Trees and Shrubs. Ecol. 51:938-9.
Czabatior, F. J. 1962. Germination valve: an index
combining speed and completeness of pine seed germination.
Forest Science, 8:386-396.
Piper, C. S. 1942. Soil and Plant Analysis. Interscience
Publishers, Inc. New York.
369
-------
APPENDIX I
WEATHER SUMMARIES LITTLE BALSAM CREEK
Week Ending
12 Apr. 1976
19 Apr. 1976
26 Apr. 1976
3 May 1976
10 May 1976
17 May 1976
24 May 1976
31 May 1976
7 June 1976
14 June 1976
21 June 1976
28 June 1976
5 July 1976
12 July 1976
19 July 1976
26 July 1976
2 Aug 1976
9 Aug 1976
16 Aug 1976
23 Aug 1976
30 Aug 1976
6 Sept 1976
13 Sept 1976
20 Sept 1976
10 Apr 1977
17 Apr 1977
24 Apr 1977
1 May 1977
8 May 1977
15 May 1977
22 May 1977
29 May 1977
5 June 1977
12 June 1977
19 June 1977
26 June 1977
3 July 1977
10 July 1977
17 July 1977
24 July 1977
31 July 1977
7 Aug 1977
Ambient
Temp (°C)
6.0
10. 5
4.6
7.0
11.9
11.8
12.0
11.2
16.4
19.3
16.4
16.6
17. 9
19.9
20.2
21.4
18.8
18.2
17.5
22.8
18.5
17.6
18.5
12. 0
2.8
6.8
8. 0
12.0
9.2
14.5
15.1
14.9
14.6
12.3
15.1
18.6
19.1
17.7
19.7
21.9
16.7
17.0
Relative
Humidity %
58.7
72.8
73.4
63.7
48.4
60.5
65.1
81. 5
64.1
76.9
70.2
71.2
69.4
77.0
72.7
73.5
71.9
72.4
77.8
65.6
15.8
62.6
69.2
73.7
62.1
77.9
73.6
51.4
59.8
63.2
82.1
75.1
79.9
75.8
81.2
73.4
74.8
78.0
78.5
74.7
35.4
76.9
Solar
Insolation
cal'um~2 •
da-1
423
307
285
324
485
426
517
304
492
434
387
457
471
434
456
500
481
248
413
317
392
367
309
264
415
345
355
543
535
486
421
472
435
523
465
517
424
393
450
466
392
394
Anemom-
eter _n
km-wk
550. 9
823.1
567.2
542.3
122.3
296.2
301.9
176.0
301.7
458.8
840.3
291.0
113.8
138.7
232.9
253.5
113.8
244.3
171.8
486.1
394.3
405.8
747. 2
149.9
439.4
264.2
262.6
706.9
390.7
333.7
196.0
178.5
151.9
180.6
160.5
90.8
328.4
51.7
195.4
209.1
143.1
229.6
(continued)
370
-------
Appendix I (continued)
Week Ending Ambient RFL Solar Anemom-
Temp (°C) Humidity % Insolation eter
da
-1
14 Aug 1977
21 Aug 1977
28 Aug 1977
4 Sept 1977
11 Sept 1977
18 Sept 1977
25 Sept 1977
2 Oct 1977
9 Oct 1977
16 Oct 1977
23 Oct 1977
30 Oct 1977
6 Nov 1977
14 Nov 1977
16.3
14.1
16.0
16.2
14.0
13.3
9.7
10.5
6.9
6.8
6.2
10.0
6.2
2.7
75.0
77.3
79.6
82.6
83. 8
82.6
90.4
57.3
80.1
64.1
64.9
65.7
N.A.
N.A.
452
216
275
N.A.
238
265
N.A.
260
230
201
167
131
147
N.A.
22.0
70.7
256.4
239.6
321.4
95.1
N.A.
1301.7*
417.3
543.7
307.8
307. 5
203.7
538.4
*Value is for 2 week period.
371
-------
APPENDIX II
Soil Temperature Profiles
372
-------
25-1
20-
15-
|.H
ui
a.
Z
UI
»-
0-
5 CM
i — r
"I "I
270
I i i I
305
95
130
i—r
—T~
165
1—r
—i—i
200
235
Figure 1.
DAY
Weekly Soil Temperature (°C) at Five Sites; (1) Grass,
(2) Pasture, (3) Pine, (H) Maple, (5) Birch at 5 cm
Depth.
-------
25-1
20-
15-
10-
I-
III
a.
0-
15 CM
T I I I I I 1
95 130
i I •
165
200
235
270
i i i i i
305
DAY
Figure 2. Weekly Soil Temperature (°C) at 15 cm Depth.
-------
TEMPERATURE C*
e
p-
TO
0)
fD
X1
00
o
p-
fD
T3
fD
4
PJ
r+
c
4
fD
O
O
OJ
O
O
3
G
fD
M
W
Ut
M
-------
CT>
' I ' ' I I i I i I I i I I I I I I I I i I i I I
95
DAY
300
Figure >4. Weekly Soil Temperature (°C) at 60 cm Depth.
-------
251
20-
I I I I I—till—T-1
-sjn—i i i i i i > i
309
Figure 5. Weekly Soil Temperature (°C) at 100 cm Depth,
-------
APPENDIX III
Soil Moisture Profiles
378
-------
1
vD
-30
305
DAY
Figure 6. Weekly Soil Moisture Conditions (Y Soil) at 5 cm (-
15 cm ( ) and 30 cm ( ) Depth.
-------
0-1
-10-
00
o
at
ui
8
2E
_• -20-
-30
GRASS-«iiel
9
130
ii i i i i
165 ,
200
235
270
305
— I
DAY
Figure 7. Weekly Soil Moisture Conditions (T Soil) at 5 cm (),
15 cm ( ) and 30 cm ( ) Depth.
-------
oo
270
30S
DAY
Figure 8. Weekly Soil Moisture Conditions (Y Soil) at 5 cm ( ),
15 cm ( ) and 30 cm ( ) Depth.
-------
00
ro
-3
305
DAY
Figure 9. Weekly Soil Moisture Conditions (Ą Soil) at 5 cm (-
15 cm ( ) and 30 cm ( ) Depth.
-------
00
III
Ł
s
o
vt
I I I I—III!
-30
305
DAY
Figure 10. 'Weekly Soil Moisture Conditions (* Soil) at 5 cm (
15 cm ( ) and 30 cm ( ) Depth.
-------
Ut
i
VM
00
-20-
-30
95
Figure 11.
270
DAY
Weekly Soil Moisture Conditions (V Soil) at 5 cm (•
15 cm ( ) and 30 cm ( ) Depth.
-------
0 -i
-10 -
00
vn
at
ui
-20 -J
,O
1/1
I I I I I I 1 f f I
270
309
Figure 12. Weekly Soil Moisture Conditions (V Soil) at 5 cm (•
15 cm ( ) and 30 cm ( ) Depth.
-------
oo
en
30
270
305
DAY
Figure 13.
Weekly Soil Moisture Conditions (4* Soil) at 5 cm (•
15 cm ( ) and 30 cm ( ) Depth.
-------
oo
-o
303
Figure 14. Weekly Soil Moisture Conditions CF Soil) at 5 cm ( ),
15 cm ( ) and 30 cm ( ) Depth.
-------
ROLE OF PLANT ROOTS IN RED CLAY EROSION
Lawrence A. Kapustka and Donald W. Davidson
The objective of this study was to determine the extent
that root systems of prevailing trees, shrubs and other vege-
tation retard the erosion of red clay soils. The principle
focus was the possible role of roots in retarding slump
erosion at selected sites along the Little Balsam and Skunk
Creek sub-basins of the Nemadji River Basin which drains
into western Lake Superior.
Our^efforts were directed at correlating the magnitude
of slumping erosion with the distribution and strength of
roots of selected species and vegetation types. The magnitude
of slumping was quantified over a 34 month period by measuring
the movement of marker stakes along transects in portions of
the Skunk and Little Balsam drainage systems. Root distri-
bution patterns were determined from excavation sites in the
vicinity of the transects. Additional measures of surface
runoff were obtained to assess the influence of vegetation
on surface erosion in areas exhibiting massive slumping
activity as well as apparently stable areas.
METHODS
Soil Slumping
In August, 1975 field sites were selected to monitor
mass slumping activity at 10 locations in the Little Balsam
Creek and 12 locations in the Skunk Creek sub-basins (Figures
1 and 2). Each transect extended from the hill-top above the
creek to the stream bank along a compass direction approxi-
mately perpendicular to the stream. A series of 50 cm long
stakes were driven into the ground, above and below the
breaks in the soil surface in areas where breaks occurred,
and at regular intervals where there were no apparent failure
zones. A variety of vegetational types was selected for the
transects with aspen, fir, birch, and grass cover, as well
as bare soil represented. The distance from the base point
at the top of the transect to each of the down-hill stakes
as well as the distance between each of the adjacent stakes
was measured. Between 7-22 August 1975, 1-8 November 1975,
15-22 April 1976, 14-21 October 1976 and 12-23 May 1977,
5-11 August 1977, 12 November 19771 and 21-23 June 1978.
Distances between stakes were recorded to the nearest one-
hundredth of a foot (3 mm).
The accuracy of the transect stake measurements Was
determined by repeated measurements of Little Balsam Transect
No. 9. This transect was judged to be as difficult as any
to measure due to topographic and vegetational features.
"•Only LB 5, 6, and 10 were measured.
388
-------
N
Figure 1: Transect locations in Little Balsam Creek
Basin. Runoff entrapments are located near
Transects No. 5 (grassy) and No. 8 (woodland)
389
-------
Figure 2: Transect locations in Skunk Creek Basin.
-------
The first of five measurements was designated as the base
line, and the deviations from these values in the remaining
four measurements were used to calculate the accuracy of
measurement. The 95% C.I. of deviation of the between-stake
distance was 0.0055 ± 0.0065 ft. (1.7 ± 2.0 mm) while the
deviation of measurements from the crest to each stake was
0.0095 ± 0.0065 ft. (2.9 ± 1.7 mm). Consequently, we believe
differences in subsequent measurements varying >|0.02| ft.
(6.0 mm) indicate movements of the stakes rather than errors
in measurements. Differences of <|0.02| ft. (6.0 mm) were
ignored in our calculations.
Root Distributions
Excavation sites for determining root distribution pat-
terns were located adjacent to 8 of the 22 transects estab-
lished to quantify the slumping. Up to five quadrat^sites
(0.5 m wide x 1.0 m long x 0.5 m depth) were identified for
each transect to^reflect the possible variation in soil and
vegetation environment from the crest to the valley. At each
site the following measurements and/or samples were taken:
(A) the 0.5 m2 quadrat served as the center for a larger
quadrat (10 m x 10 m) in which a complete census
of trees (> 10 cm DBH) was conducted. The following
information was recorded for each tree: a. species
identification; b. geometric position from the
center of the inner quadrat; c. DBH; d. approximate
canopy height.
(B) Sapling and shrub counts are taken within a 5 m x
5 m quadrat concentric with the excavation quadrat.
2
(C) The living herbaceous vegetation within the 0.5 nr
quadrat was clipped at ground level and brought
to the lab where it was sorted as to species or
general growth forms when taxonomic distribution
was difficult. Subsequently, the phytomass_(oven
dry weight) was determined for each identifiable
group.
(D) The litter within the 0.5 m2 quadrat was collected
and treated in the same manner as the herbaceous
cover.
(E) Soil and root samples are obtained.
2
The excavation of the 0.5 m quadrat was accomplished at
10 cm intervals. The visible root material within each 10 cm
level was collected and brought to the lab. Adhering soil
particles were washed from the roots. Subsequently, the
roots were sorted into 12 size-classes based on root diameter
(cm): <0.5, 0.5-0.99, 1.0-1.99, 2.0-2.99, 3.0-3.99, 4.0-U.99,
5.0-9.99, 10.0-14.99, 15.0-19.99, 20.0-24.99, 25.0-29.99 and
391
-------
and 30.0 +. Oven dry weight (odw) of the roots was determined
for each size class.
The soil from each 10 cm level was throughly mixed in
the field and a subsample (approximately 2 kg) was brought
to^the lab to extrapolate the total quantity of roots re-
maining in the soil. The roots in the subsample were care-
fully removed and sorted into diameter size classes. The
mass of the roots from the subsample was adjusted by a multi-
plication factor (mass of soil excavated * mass of subsample x
bulk density of the soil)2.
The relationship between root length and root mass was
determined for roots <5 mm diameter (Table 1). These re-
lationships were used to obtain an estimate of root length
as a function of root mass. The length of roots greater
than 5 mm diameter are measured to the nearest cm. The
root distribution data for each sample therefore consists of:
1, the measured mass of roots retrieved from each depth of
each hole; 2, the measured mass of roots retrieved from the
corresponding soil subsample; 3, the measured length of roots
>5 mm diameter; 4, the calculated length of roots <5 mm
diameter.
Table 1. Length-weight relationships for small roots.
Size Class X ± tQ5 S-
Diameter x
(nun) (cm-g"1) S /X x 100
x
0.
1.
2.
3.
4.
<0
5 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
0 -
.5
0.
1.
2.
3.
4.
99
99
99
99
99
1269.
297.
93.
40.
19.
13.
7
7
5
0
3
1
± 118.
± 33.
± 14.
± 4.
± 2.
± 2.
8
9
1
4
0
6
3.
4.
5.
4.
3.
7.
47
24
68
16
80
08
Soils
Approximately 0.5 kg of the soil sample previously
described was passed through a 2.0 mm sieve. Aliquots of
the soils are oven dried at 105° with forced air ventilation
for 48 h to obtain the odw. All subsequent calculations
2Bulk density values used for the various soil textures were:
sand, 0.95; sandy clay loam, 1.00; sandy clay, 1.05; clay,
1.10.
592
-------
involving soil mass were based on odw. Textural analysis
(1) was performed on the screened soils. Soil organic carbon
content (Walkley and Black Value) was determined according
to the methods outlined by Piper (2). Soil pR values are
determined according to procedures of Rice (3). Exchangeable
Ca, K and Mg were determined for samples from Skunk Creek
Transect 6 and Little Balsam Transect 10 according to pro-
cedures of the Perkin-Elmer Corporation (4).
S urfa'c e Er o s i on
Four sites in the vicinity of Little Balsam Creek
(Transects 5 and 8) were chosen to represent: 1, tree cover -
no slumping; 2, tree cover - slumping; 3, herbaceous cover -
no slumping; 4, herbaceous cover - slumping.
At each site, five enclosures (1.0 m wide x 2 m long)
characterized by different slope and vegetative cover were
constructed to monitor surface erosion during 1976 and 1977.
The perimeters were defined with galvanized metal roofing,
partially buried leaving an ^15 cm border above the soil
surface. A polyurethane border was added between the metal
and the ground surface to insure a proper seal. At the base
of each enclosure, the surface runoff was collected in 20 Si
polyethylene carboys. A 140 a plastic garbage can was
connected as an overflow reservoir from the 20 H container.
After each rain period with >5 mm, the volume of runoff was
recorded. A 100 ml sample was filtered through a 0.45 y
millipore filter system and the dry weight of the suspended
solids trapped on the filter was determined. Conductivity
of the filtrate was measured with a YSI conductivity meter.
Root Tensile Strength
Fresh roots (<2 mm diameter) of selected species were
washed and placed in a rubber holder exposing 5.0 cm of root
length. The diameter of the exposed root segment was measured
with calipers at the ends and the middle. The holder was
attached to an Ametek force gauge and a gradually increasing
force was applied along the longitudinal axis of the exposed
root until failure. Approximately 75 determinations of
tensile strength were made for each specimen. Seeds of
Bromus inermis, Coronilla varia, Festuca arundinaceae.' F. rubra,
Lolium perenne, Lotus corniculatus, Poa pratensis ancl Populus
tremuloides were planted in red clay soil in boxes 15 cm
depth. Except for P_. tremuloides plants were harvested after
seed set had begun.
RESULTS
Vegetation
The vegetation of the transects represents a diverse cross
section of the major types present in the Nemadji Basin. Five
393
-------
principle types are apparent: a) Hardwood dominated by
Populus tremuloides; b) coniferous dominated by Abies balsamea;
c) mixed hardwood coniferous with varying amounts of P.
tremuloides, A. balsamea, Betula papyifera, Pice a glauica, and
Quercus' macrocarpa and d) grass areas (Table 2a, 3).
The shrub and herb layers accent the diversity of types
represented (Table 2b, c).
Soils
Excavations were completed at 35 locations. Two general
types were encountered: the Nemadji-Newson Association
(Skunk Creek 1, 6 and 12 and Little Balsam 5, 6 and 8) and
Ahmeek-Ronneby-Washburn Association (Little Balsam 9 and 10).
Results of soil analysis are in Appendix I.
Textural analysis of the Skunk Creek soils reveal a
pattern of erosion of the surface soils. The soils at the
crest contain a high sand content. Soils downslope have
progressively less sand suggesting that on the slope, ero-
sional forces have removed this more mobile fraction of the
surface leaving behind the more cohesive clay particles.
Soil chemical properties reflect differences in soil
texture and composition and cover. The organic carbon content
is characteristicly low except for the grass covered Little
Balsam Transect 6 and the fir covered Skunk 12 hole 1 and 2.
In general, the sandy soils (Little Balsam 10 and surface
soils of Skunk Creek 6 Hole 1 and 2) are low in exchangeable
ions measured. For the most part the pH values are suitable
for plant uptake of most nutrients. However, the pH of the
predominantly clay soils are sufficiently high in some in-
stances to result in a reduced capacity of plants to extract
P, K, Fe and Mn from the soils (5, 6). Skunk 12 Hole 1
occurred in a poorly drained table top dominated by fir.
Together these features resulted in a very acid soil.
Root Distribution
The mass (Figure 3) and total length (Figure 4) of
roots plotted against depth within the soil profile illustrates
differences in root distributions related to differences in
vegetative cover and soil texture. On similar clay soils
tree cover tended to have about twice the root mass as
herbaceous cover (Table 1) (Appendix II contains root distri-
bution summary for each excavation site). In addition, the
roots from tree cover occur in a relatively steep-sloped
log-linear pattern (Table 5) with roughly 50% of the root
mass in the 0-10 cm level. The rooting pattern under herba-
ceous cover declines very steeply with up to 90+% of all
roots confined to the 0-10 cm level. Furthermore, the dif-
ferences in the amounts of roots in the various size class
is dramatic between grassed and wooded areas. Generally,
394
-------
4-
3-
2-
1-
0-
3-
2~
4-
3-
2-
1-
0
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK 10 WOODS SAND
1 I III
4T
• I I f
SNAKE CREEK 6 WOODS CLAY
i r
SNAKE CREEK 12 WOODS CLAY
i i i « i i i i i
1 2 345 1 2 34
51 2345
DEPTH (craxKT1)
i i i i i i i i n
1 23451234
Figure 3. Mass of roots plotted against depth within the soil profile.
-------
4
3-
2-
1-
0-
4-
3-
' 2-
1-
0-
-1
4
3
2-
1
0
-U
i i i i i r
• i r
T 1
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK 5 GRASS CLAY
» I
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK 6 GRASS COVER CLAY
i i •
LITTLF BALSAM CREEK 9 WOODS SAND
23451 2
i i
3 4
i i
III
123451234
51 2345
DEPTH (cmx KT1)
Figure 3. Mass of roots plotted against depth within the soil profile, (continued)
i
5
-------
4-
3-
2-
1-
0-
m
»-'
t/i
1
§3-
2-
1-
0-
SKUNK CREEK 1 WOODS CLAY
i i i i i i
1 23451
I I
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK 8 WOODS
i
4
T r
5 1
23451 234
DEPTH (cmx 10'1)
I I
3 4
Figure 3. Mass of roots plotted against depth within the soil profile, (continued)
-------
00
Figure
6
5-
4-
3-
2-
6
5-
4
3-
2-
JJ 6
5 51
Z
in ,
-J 4
§3H
(9 2
O
6
5
4-
3H
2
Total length of roots plotted against depth within the soil profile,
SKUNK CREEK 6
SKUNK CREEK 12
*
SKUNK CREEK 1
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK 8
2 3 4 5 1234 51234-512345 1 2 3 4 5
*
SOIL DEPTH ( cm x 10~1 )
-------
VM
8
Figure 4. Total length of roots plotted against depth within the soil profile,
(continued)
6
5H
4
3-
2-
6-
5-
4'
3H
J 6
LITTLE BA1SAMCR.EK 5
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK 6
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK 9
6-
5-
4-
3-
2-
LITTLE BALSAM CREEK 10
2345123451234 51
SOIL DEPTH ( cm x 1(H )
234
~ r
5 1
234
-------
TABLE 2a. Importance percentages of the tree and sapling layer along the slump-transects. (Top number is for trees, bottom
number is for saplings.) Little Balsam Transect 1, 2, 5 and 6 were grassy-
1
Abies balsamea Mill. np
29.2
Acer rubrum L.
A. saccharum Marsh.
Betula papyrifera Marsh.
Fraxinus pennsylvanica var.
Ostrya virginiana K. Koch
Picea glauca voss 22.6
0 ' "P
O Pinus strobus L.
Populus balsamifera L.
P. tremuloides Michx. 77.4
62.4
Prunus virginiana L.
Quercus macro car pa Michx. np
8.4
Salix sp.
Tilia americana L.
Ulmus americana L.
S K
2 3
17.7 13.0
np np
5.4
np
28.1 5.6
np np
17.0 62.5
np np
37.2
np
5.6
np
7.9
np
U N K
6
46.7
58.1
28.2
41.9
10.0
np
11.3
np
. 3.9
np
CREEK
8 10 11 12
18.8 68.4 100 54.8
84.7 33.2 100.0
5.9 np 33.2
8.4 np
3.8 12.0
6.9 np
4.2
np
75.4 13.7 np
np 66.8
9.9
np
L
3
5.3
3.8
np
10.3
np
16.3
35.0
47. 0
7.1
np
52.7
7.8
np
3.7
np
5.2
np
6.0
I T T L E B A
4 7
3.5
13.9
12.4
np
np
13.3
np
11.5
50.4
20.4
33.8 100.0
55.0 86.7
L S A M C R
8 9
23.5
45.8
3.8
np
4.6
np
17.7
np
100.0 34.2
100.0 54.2
16.1
np
E E K
10
22.0
45.0
8.5
np
3. P
20.9
26. 5
27.8
np
6.3
26. 2
np
3.0
np
10.9
np
-------
TABLE 3. Classification of vegetation along the 22 transects.
(Shrub counts are for 5-25 m^ quadrats.)
Skunk Creek 1. Aspen hardwoods; 191 stems and clumps of shrubs
and saplings. P_. tremuloides and A. balsamea
dominant in shrub layer with Ł... macrocarpa also
present.
2. Mixture of Q. macrocarpa, A. balsamea, P_.
tremuloides and P_. glauca; shrub layer not sam-
pled.
3. Aspen hardwoods; shrub layer not sampled.
4. No data
5. No data
6. Coniferous, dominated by A. balsamea; 129 stems
and clumps of A. balsamea and B_. papyrifera
dominating the shrub layer.
7. No data.
8. Aspen hardwoods; 216 stems and clumps in the
shrub layer.
9. No data
10. Coniferous, A. balsamea; 158 stems and clumps
in shrub layer.
11. Sparsely vegetated, the only trees present
only at the top of the transect (A. balsamea);
263 stems and clumps, mostly P_. tremuloides
root sprouts.
12. Coniferous, A. balsamea* 130 stems and clumps
in shrub layer.
Little Balsam Creek 1. Pasture with scattered trees and shrubs
2. Pasture with occasional shrubs.
3. Aspen hardwoods, 161 stems and clumps in shrub
layer.
4. Aspen hardwoods with P_. balsamea and P_. tremu-
loides; 175 stems and clumps in shrub layer,
P_. tremuloides dominant in shrub layer.
(continued)
401
-------
Table 3 (continued)
5. Open grassed area Phleum pratense, Lolium
perenne common.
6. Open grassed area Phleum pratense and L.
perenne common.
7. Aspen hardwoods; 167 stems and clumps in shrub
layer.
8. Aspen hardwoods; 219 stems and clumps in shrub
layers.
9. Mixed conifer - hardwoods, P_. tremuloides, A.
balsamea, and 13. papyrifera dominate; 141 ~
stems and clumps in shrub layer.
10. Mixed conifer - hardwoods and H. papyrifera,
P_. tremuloides and A. balsamea dominate; 88
stems and clumps in shrub layer.
4-02
-------
TABLE 2b. Importance percentages of the shrub layer along the slump transects. Little Balsam transects 1, 2, 5, and 6
were grassy. In Skunk Creek transects 2, 3, and 12 were not sampled.
1
Acer spicatum marsh.
Alnus rugosa
Amelanchier sp. 8.14
Celastrus scandens 1.42
Cornus sp. 28.82
Corylus sp. 13. 60
Crataegus sp. 2.76
Diervilla lonicera 14.58
Lonicera dioica
Prunus nigra
Prunus virginiana 6.00
Ribes sp.
Rosa sp. 15.lt
Rubus parviflora
Rubus strigosus
Salix sp. 1. 37
Vaccinium angustifolium
Viburnum sp. 8.16
SKUNK CREE
236 8
None None
17.64
4.36 16.24
6.38
14.36 10.78
23.09 15.32
8.36 11.68
3.45
6.91 13.80
2.91 3.64
2.54 4.40
2.12
1.97
16.36 13.66
K LITTLEBALSAMCREEK
10 11 12 3 4 7 8 9 10
None
11.92 8.44
6.48 9.34 12.84 17.01 2.66 4.80 8.44 16.67
10.88 19.54 11.21 2.39 2.56 11.36 16.67
31.75 15.21 26.66 18.08 42.95 29.94 55.28
6.96 14.12 11.67 40.33 11.34 23.42 23.96 66.67
1.86
9.98 7.46 2.70 2.77
3.65 2.42
7.38
7.1 12.02 9.87 3.89
1.72
3.86 6.5 3.20 30.02 13.84
4.00
5.16 2.09
23.21 5.98 7.96
5.72 2.21 12.43 2.24 2.56 4.72
-------
TABLE 2c. Mass of Standing Crop (a) and Litter (b) From 0.5 m^ Area From Excavation Sites.
Only Those Categories Having >10 g In At Least One Sample are Presented.
Little Balsam Transect
1
Site Number
Sampling Date
P,opulus tremuloides
Michx.
Betula papyrifera
Marsh.
Abies Balsamea (L.)
Mill.
Quercus borealis
Michx.
Acer saccharum
Marsh.
Tili,a americana L.
Unidentified
Woody Stems
Grasses
Aster sp.
Misc . **
Total
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
1
10 Oct
1975
37.9
68.3
44.4
32.3
148.0
7.4
28.2
4.2
268.9
7.4
623.2
2
21 Oct
1975
21.8
14.5
151.3
11.0
20.2
233.9
2.7
456.5
161.9
772.2
3
8 Nov
1975
0.3
18.8
6.7
75.0
1.0
2.0
20.3
3.1
544.3
59.7
690.5
554.2
869.4
4
8 Nov
1975
20.1
12.3
11.0
15.7
18. 0
2.6
690. 9
3.8
3.6
336.9
6.9
1138.5
10
5
12 Oct
1976
31.0
83.7
1.3
32.6
10.7
135. 3
12.1
23.2
76.3
23.2
414.0
Skunk Creek Transect 6
1
11 Sep
1975
1.7
0.9
0.1
0.4
185.5
13.1
3.8
460.1
19.8
652.4
2
13 Sep
1975
3.0
2.7
677.5
2.5
3.7
486.6
4.0
1173.9
3
23 Sep
1975
0.9
0.4
5.4
0.9
5.3*
2.6
143.3
11.2
705.0
141.8
736.7
4
27 Sep
1975
0.8
19.5
123.4
5.2
8.6
808.2
0.8
3.1
427. 5
314.6
1098.7
5
30 Sep
1975
0.3
31.8
0. 2
336. 5
159.4
2. 0
484.9
339.5
676.5
* Cones
** Includes bryophytes attached to small branches.
(continued)
-------
Table 2c (continued)
Site Number
Sampling Date
Grass
Solidago sp.
Misc.
Total
Site Number
Sampling Date
Solidago sp.
Grass
Fragaria sp.
Umbelliferae
Trifolium sp.
Aster sp.
Misc.
Total
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
1
9 June
1976
9.6
1.7
18.5
165.7
29.8
165.7
1
12 July
1976
16.8
16.2
27.3
____
27.4
228.7
87.7
228.7
Little Ba
2
9 July
1976
55.8
25.6
18.1
201.3
99.5
201.3
Little Ba
2
12 July
1976
14.0
21.2
88.7
7.5
_
13.2
11.7
21.6
22.0
89.2
110.7
Is am Trar
3
10 July
1976
15.5
1.3
6.8
3.1
46.4
19.9
53.2
Is am Trar
3
3 Aug
1976
30.6
22. 3
69.4
6.9
____
5.8
3. 3
19.0
12.8
87.9
82.2
isect 5
4
11 July
1976
23.4
13.7
2.0
113.4
39.1
113.4
isect 6
4
18 Aug
1976
____
45.5
58.0
124.0
8.5
42.9
220.9
58.0
5
8 July
1976
4.2
0.6
0.4
5.2
5
18 Aug
1976
____
41.6
75.0
12.3
5.2
22.2
98.5
75.0
(continued)
4-05
-------
Table 2c (continued)
Site Number
Betula papyrifera
Marsh.
Populus tremuloides
Michx.
Moss
Carex sp.
Aster sp .
Picea glauca (Moench)
Voss
Equisetum sp.
Corylus sp.
Abies balsamea (L.)
Mill.
Cornus sp.
Fraxinus sp.
Miscellaneous
Total
1
a
b 56.7
a
b 1.4
a
b
a 10. 3
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b 2.6
a
b
a
b
a
b 874.4
a 10.3
b 944.0
Skunk
2
._ t 1
31.9
55. 5
87.5
_ _ __
____
1.6
____
0.1
____
____
1555.1
200.2
1587.0
Creek Transect
3
..__
0.9
_ _ _ _
44.4
_ _ _ _
20.2
_ ___
29.4
____
_ _ _ _
____
____
48.1
2086.1
76.1
2116.4
4
_.__
1.3
_ _ _ _
11.4
— — — _
. _ _ _
_ _ _ _
19.7
12.5
25.6
_ _ _ »
332. 0
_ _ __
31.0
1005.9
423. 9
1026. 9
12
5
•»__..
0.1
340. 0
1.9
0.7
_ __ _
3.9
(cones)
0.6
_ __ _
12.4
____
602.7
78.6
127.0
1036.9
131.0
(continued)
406
-------
Table 2c (continued)
Skunk Creek Transect 1
Site Number
Rosa sp.
Crataegus sp.
Diervilla lonicera
Mill.
Fragaria sp .
Carex sp.
Populus tremuloides
Michx.
Viburnum sp.
Amelanchier sp.
Cornus sp.
Grass
Miscellaneous
Betula papyrifera
Marsh. ttfarK;
Total
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
1
20.0
4.2
43.1
11. 1
35.5
13.7
. L
27.1
37.2
«. ^ ^ — «•
1.1
31.9
235.1
172.4
289.8
2
5.9
1.6
2.2
54. 9
93.8
43.6
73.9
270.4
6.6
0.2
135.0
452.7
235.4
3
1.8
0.9
Oc
. 0
31.6
0.2
— — — —
229.9
72.9
8.8
639.6
305.7
680.5
4
19.5
0.4
37.8
127.5
— __
7.6
10.5
794.0
9 . 1
75.8
1000.6
(continued)
407
-------
Table 2c (continued)
Site Number
Cornus sp.
Aster sp.
Quercus borealis
MŁcjlx>
Acer saccharum
Marsh
Populus tremuloides
Michx.
Miscellaneous
Carex sp .
Moss
Total
Site Number
Aster sp.
Cornus sp.
Populus tremuloides
Michx.
Miscellaneous
Total
a
b
a
b
3
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
a
K
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
Little Balsam Transect
123 4
1.0 10.7 147.7 46.2
34.6
3.1 3.3
10.o
2.1 13.1 113.9 50.9
0.7 0.1
25.0 1.4 41.3
41.4 15.4 36.9 19.3
34.2 3.4 5.6
2280.6 437.7 542.5 284.0
11>9
39.0 17.5 153.3
2349.1 467.6 779.2
Little Balsam Transect
1
27.8
140.6
48.5
10.8
80.7
179.2
9
5
89.7
1. 0
47.1
6.0
11.4
134.7
6.6
On
. y
78.2
8
408
-------
in the wooded areas, the <0.5 mm category constitutes 15-22%
of the total root mass. As root diameters increase, the ^
mass gradually diminishes per size class. In the predominantly
grass covered Balsam 6, approximately 60% of the root mass is
in the <0.5 mm size class. The remainder of the root mass
is distributed nearly uniformly among the 4 size classes
between 0.5 and 5.0 mm. The composition of the 2 herbaceous
cover transects is quite different in both quantity and type
of plants. Little Balsam 5 was sparsely vegetated and had
considerable amounts of Equisetum rhizomes occurring uniformly
throughout the 50 cm profile. In the sandy soils roots tended
toward a gently sloping log-linear distribution (Table 4, 5)
but with a greater variance than in the clay soils. From
field observations it was apparent that 50 cm depth was
sufficient to recover essentially all roots in the clay soils.
However, in the sandy soils the roots penetrate to much
greater depths.
Table 4. Summary of root distribution data.
Mean Percentage of
Total Root Mass Total Root Mass in
X ± S- 0-10 cm 10-20 cm
x
Herbaceous Cover - Clay
Little Balsam 5 446 ± 108 39 21
Little Balsam 6 578 ± 80 93 4
Combined 512 ± 67 66 13
Tree Cover - Stand
Little Balsam 9 872 ± 88 44 18
Little Balsam 10 660 ± 83 34 21
Combined 766 ± 67 39 20
Tree Cover - Clay
Little Balsam 8 719 58 18
Skunk 1 824 ± 99 43 18
Skunk 6 1293 ± 382 50 30
Skunk 12 1277 ± 256 57 20
Combined 1124 ± 156 51 23
4-09
-------
TABLE 5.
Regression analysis of root distribution patterns on
total mass and total length of roots at each 10 cm
layer. The form Y = a + bx where Y = log root mass
or log root length and X = soil layer (cm x 1CT1).
Transect Hole r
Balsam 5
Balsam 6
Balsam 8
Balsam 9
Balsam 10
Skunk 1
Skunk 6
Skunk 10
Mass
a
Not log-linear
Not log-linear
1)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
1)
2)
3)
4)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
-0.970
-0.966
-0.963
-0.792
-0.858
-0.737
-0.347
-0.437
-0. 893
-0.847
-0.912
-0.936
-0.941
-0.953
0.400
-0. 966
-0. 930
-0.973
-0.974
-0.970
-0.600
-0.984
-0.997
-0.989
-0.880
2.8730
2.9832
2.7137
2.9082
2. 5427
2.4824
2.1356
2.3190
2.2686
2.9931
2.5667
2. 5196
2.7014
2.8490
2.4045
3. 0298
3.1163
2. 8498
2.8508
3.3426
2.9017
3.1984
3.4321
2.7976
2.8447
b
function
function
-0.3091
-0.2544
-0.2419
-0. 3163
-0.1114
-0.1325
-0. 0407
-0.0578
-0.1192
-0. 3277
-0.1792
-0.1972
-0.2025
-0.2167
-0.0697
-0.3438
-0.302
-0.3635
-0.2431
-0.2563
-0.1159
-0.4046
-0.5440
-0.2302
-0.2089
r
-0.946
-0.920
-0.877
-0. 961
-0.963
-0. 955
-0.481
-0.777
-0. 981
-0.955
-0.971
-0.932
-0.845
-0.937
-0.894
-0.937
-0. 949
-0.910
-0.965
-0.972
-0.716
-0.945
-0.988
-0.992
-0.926
Length
a
5.3662
5.4570
4.9628
5.1389
5. 2633
5.2228
4.6083
4.7186
5. 0519
5.5751
5. 0763
5.2969
5.0086
5.4467
4. 9843
5.3163
5.6678
5.2394
5.3337
5.5953
5.3160
5.6718
5.9978
5.7302
5.1718
b
-0.3430
-0.2012
-0.2466
-0.3528
-0. 2859
-0.2504
-0.0522
-0.0479
-0.2064
-0.3499
-0.2118
-0.3122
-0.1863
-0.3658
-0.2335
-0.3344
-0.3892
-0.3608
-0.2779
-0.3688
-0.1655
-0.5001
-0.5185
-0.4175
-0.2275
The general pattern of root distributions for herbs in
the field was also apparent for plants grown in clay in the
greenhouse. Between 50% and 85% of the total root mass was
confined to the upper 10 cm of soil.
Among the species commonly used to stabilize roadsides
L. perenne and F. arundinacea produced the greatest above
-------
ground phytomass and had 20^25% of their total phytomass as
roots and rhizomes (Table 6). C_.' varia provided a relatively
good amount of root but this occurred primarily as a thick
tap root. Thus the amount of soil reinforcement is less than
for plants with a more diffuse pattern for a similar amount
of root mass, (e.g. P_. 'tremuloides Table 6).
Table 6. Summary of phytomass production of selected species
in red clay soil.
Above Ground Below Ground Ratio
Phytomass Phytomass
Bromus inermis
Coronilla varia
Festuca arundinacea
F. rubra
Lolium perenne
Lotus corniculatus
Poa pratensis
Populus tremuloides
70. 3
33.3-70.0
246.0-258.4
68.8
213-215
34.4-96.4
51.7-66.9
16.1-42.0
66.0
39.6-81.7
74.3-75.3
8.6
40.8-79.0
15.8-23.5
8.3-10.8
39.0-81
1.07
0.85
3.37
8.0
3.98
3.14
6.21
0.46
Root Tensile Strength
Measures of root tensile strength show major differences
among woody and herbaceous species (Table 7). The strength
of small roots (1 mm diam.) of woody plants were 1.5-8.5 x
stronger than of herbaceous plants generally used in roadside
stabilization.
The tensile strength of small roots of deciduous woody
species may be correlated with the strength of wood as measured
by the modulus of repture. Wells (7) demonstrated a relation-
ship among numerous morphological features and the succession-
al position of species in the Eastern Deciduous Forest Complex.
The modulus of rupture was significantly, positively cor-
related with advancing successional development. Representa-
tive values of the modulus of rupture (K Pa) for major taxa
in our area are: willow, 33,00; aspen, 35,000; black ash,
41,000; paper birch, 44,000; American elm, 50,000; red maple,
53,000; northern red oak, 57,000; sugar maple, 57,000; balsam
fir, 34,000; white spruce, 37,000; and white pine, 34,000 (8).
If the relationship between root tensile strength and the
modulus of rupture is widespread, then the more advanced
-------
successional species can be expected to have the greatest
per-unit root strength. Our measures of root strength show
red maple to be substantially stronger than aspen In nearly
the same proportions as the modulus of rupture would suggest
(Table 7). The conifers do not seem to follow this pattern.
Balsam fir, white spruce and white pines exhibit a range of
root tensile strength (Table 7) while the modulus of rupture
for these taxa are similar.
Table 7. Summary of root tensile strength measures.
# of
Species specimens
Alnus rugosa Sprens.
Populus tremuloides Michx.
Cornus sp.
Corylus cornuta Marsh.
Acer spicatum Lam.
Acer rubrum L.
Abies balsamea Mill.
Picea glauca Voss.
Pinus strobus L.
Bromus inermis Leyss
Coronilla varia L.
Lolium perenne L.
Festuca rubra L.
Lotus corniculatus L.
Poa pratensis L.
•"•Estimates derived from linear
Soil Slumping
1
7
1
2
3
1
4
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
r2
69
86-
90
80-
94-
93
88-
qn-
88
70
72
20
72
22
79
regression
Tensile strength
of root 3!
0.1 cm 0.79 cm
diam. diam.
1.
0.96 1.
1.
0.94 1.
0.96 2.
3.
0.97 1.
0.93 1.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
analysis.
2
2
7
8
0
4
2
2
3
5
6
4
9
5
6
30.
50.
69.
219.
198.
715.
98.
55.
71.
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
8
9
9
4
7
9
0
9
5
From the time of installation of the stakes, 7 seasonal
intervals over the 34 month period were observed: I, August
1975-November 1975; II, November 1975-April 1976; III, April
1976-October 1976; IV, October 1976-May 1977; V, May 1977-
-------
August 1977; VI, August 1977-November 1977; VII, November
1977-June 1978. The summary of slumping as determined from
between-stake measurements indicates considerably more
slumping activity occurred during period II and VII than the
other five periods. This is apparent in the number of tran-
sect intervals exhibiting displacement, the magnitude of
individual displacements (both maximum and Ł(displacements|)
and the net displacement along the transect (Table 8).
During period II all 22 transects had net displacements of
>|0.10| ft. In period VII all of the Skunk Creek sites and
three of the Little Balsam sites had displacement >0.10 ft.
Periods I, II, IV, y and VI had 6, 14, 16, 4 transects with
>|0.10| ft. respectively.
Significant soil movement occurred over the 34 month
period (Table 8) with a maximum transect elongation of
6.64 ft in Skunk Creek 11, 3.46 ft in Little Balsam Creek 8.
Seven other transects had >1 foot elongation. In addition,
Skunk Creek 11 and Little Balsam Creek 8 lost a total of
5.0 and 9.5 ft of stream bank during spring floods of 1976,
1977 and 1978.
Three general types of soil movement are apparent in
the data: 1, overall elongation of the transect (positive
displacements); 2, overall compression of the transect
(negative displacements resulting from the crest settling);
3, combinations of positive and negative displacements
relating to the ridge top (Figure 5).
During the periods of higher activity most of the
movement lead to a general elongation of transect while
periods of lesser activity tended to have both positive and
negative displacements. It is likely that both types were
present even in the periods of high activity but were masked
by a general downward slippage.
Although the influence of freeze-thaw is generally
considered to be a major stimulus to trigger slumping, our
data would suggest that soil moisture conditions may be
equally critical. Our maximum activity occurred in the
springs of 1976 and 1978. In both periods the soils were
at or near saturation. The soils in the spring of 1977
were quite dry and there was relatively little slumping.
Although several factors interact to effect erosion,
the type of cover appears to be closely related to the
magnitudes of slumping. The maximum developments occurred
in Skunk Creek Transect 11 which is treeless, Little Balsam
6, a grassed slope and Little Balsam 8, a sparsely covered
aspen area. Aspen covered sites exhibited a wide range of
erosion activity. Generally, the moderately dense aspen
areas having an understory with Corylus sp. appeared to be
more stable than stands with a less developed shrub layer.
The mixed conifer-hardwood stands also appear to be correlated
with greater stability.
-------
TABLE 8. Little Balsam Creek and Skunk Creek Transect Summaries
Transect
Little Balsam
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
^ 10
[^
Skunk
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Transect
Length
August Inter
1975 vals
256.57
347.05
363.17
82.63
119.54
263.10
151.55
128.36
137.51
111.85
314.42
197.84
175.48
171.08
121.i»5
318.06
299.93
132.50
137.53
122. m
130.14
232.97
9
6
6
4
5
10
6
8
5
5
9
9
7
9
7
7
13
3
9
5
8
9
Number Intervals With
Measurable Displacement
I
5
6
4
2
0
5
3
5
3
0
3
4
3
5
5
5
8
2
6
0
5
4
II
8
6
4
4
5
10
6
7
5
5
9
8
7
9
7
6
13
3
8
5
8
9
III
6
5
4
2
5
6
6
4
2
1
3
7
2
7
5
6
5
2
5
2
2
5
Period
IV V VI VII
4
3
1
2
5
8
3
4
0
1
4
4
5
5
4
4
4
0
7
3
8
6
1
1
3
0
3
5
5
6
1
2
5
5
0
2
4
3
3
0
1
0
6
3
5
2
0
1 2
4 5
4
5
1
0 0
7
6
4
7
5
— 10
7
3
8
7
Total
8
6
6
3
4
10
6
8
5
5
9
8
7
9
6
7
11
3
8
4
8
9
Transect
Little Balsam
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Skunk
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
I
-0.10
-0.56
-0.20
-0.05
0.00
-0.08
0.05
0.65
0.06
0.00
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.10
0.07
0.27
0.03
0.04
±0.04
0.00
-0.10
-0.08
II
0.12
0.10
-0.08
0.12
0.11
0.33
0.16
1.54
0.11
0.18
0. 55
0.22
0.10
0.13
0.03
-0.13
0.21
0.14
0.17
0.09
0.31
0.12
Maximum Displacement
III
-0.06
0.10
-0.38
-0.18
0.19
0.36
0.07
0.06
±0.05
-0.17
-0.35
0.10
0.06
-0.10
0.14
0.29
-0.07
-0.07
0.10
0.04
0.19
±0.05
Period
IV V VI
0.07
-0.20
0.05
0.11
-0.12
-0.34
-0.07
0.12
• o.oo
0.11
-0.19
-0.09
-0.06
0.10
-0.08
-0.24
0.34
0.00
0.36
-O.OS
-0.23
-0.19
0.03 —
0.04 —
0.61 —
0.00 —
-0.09 -0.03
0.18 0.10
±0.03 —
-0.11 —
0.04 --
0.05 -0.00
0.09 —
0.10 —
0.00 —
-0.05 --
-0.09 —
-0.15 —
0.60 —
0.00 --
-0.06 ~
0.00 —
0.26 --
-0.13 —
VII
±0.05
0.03
0.00
0.03
0.34
0.10
0.16
0.03
0.00
0.13
0.10
0.16
0.12
0.21
-0.28
0. 57
0.11
2.26
-0.94
Total
0.22
-0.53
0.42
0.13
0.21
0.75
0.31
1.66
0.12
0.13
0.22
0. 22
0.20
0.19
0.39
0.19
0. 80
0.10
-0. 52
0.21
2. 32
-1. 30
-------
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V
rH
X)
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H
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II 4->
H C
II
II 0)
II 2
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
It
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
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10
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M
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-------
Figures : Scheme of three types of slumping activity to
account for: 1) elongation of the transect,
2) compression of the transect and 3) coupled
internal positive and negative displacements,
i.e. rotational slumping.
4-16
-------
Surface Runoff
Following the installation of the surface runoff en-
closures a total of 29 rain periods were monitored during
late summer 1976 and summer 1977. Our system was not suited
to handle the spring melt runoff. Consequently, the runoff
and sediment values we report are applicable for summer
conditions only.
The volume of runoff in areas with slumping was consider-
ably higher than in stable areas for both grassed and wooded
areas (Figures 6, and 7; Table 9) and tended to increase
logarithmically with increasing amounts of rainfall. In
both grassed and wooded areas, the amount of runoff from the
stable soils appears relatively high in the >60 mm category.
This may be due to circumstances as only 3 rains of this
magnitude were recorded and 2 occurred after the soil surface
had frozen and leaf fall had begun. Otherwise the volume
of runoff between the wooded and grassed areas is remarkably
similar.
The sediment load was extremely variable, especially in
the grassed areas (Figures 8 and 9). Again major differences
are apparent between the slumped and stable areas. The major
difference occurred between the grassed and the wooded areas
with approximately 10-20-fold or more sediment in the runoff
from the grassed areas. The estimated soil loss (mton^ha"1)
during the period 25 June - 4- October 1976 are: stable grass,
0.011; slumped grass, 1.727; and slumped woods, 0.225.
During the period 15 May - 15 October 1977 the soil loss
was: stable grass, 0.215; slumped grass, 7.838; stable
woods, 0.036; slumped woods, 0.387.
417
-------
25.0
20.0
15.0-
E 10.0-
.0-
Grass stable
<15
6-30 31-45 46-60 >6
PPT — mm
Figure 6. Mean Surface Runoff of Grassed Areas.
418
-------
25.0
20.0 •
1&0 -
10.0-
Woods slumped
Wood sfable
<15 16-30 30-45 45-60
PT-mm
Figure 7. Mean Runoff of Wooded Areas.
>60
419
-------
TABLE 9. Summary of surface runoff data for 1976 and 1977. The amount of rainfall during
the monitoring periods for 1976 in 8 rain periods was 162 mm and for 1977 in 21
rain periods was 682 mm.
% Slope
1,2
% Cover
1,
Total Runoff
(Ł-m~2)
Total Sediment
(g«m~2)
Conductivity1
(ymhos)
1976
1977
1976
1977
1976
1977
Grass
Stable 21.48 ± 1.65 95 ± 4
Slumped 16.06 ± 1.20 26 ± 13
0.97 58.25 1.1464 21.5376 96 ± 19 202 ± 15
44.63 122.09 172.7176 783.7914 173 ± 16 195 ± 16
. Woods
rv>
o
Stable 16.90 ± 2.13 94 ± 5 nd 47.04
Slumped 30.78 ± 2.80 18 ± 4 13.08 121.93
nd 3.6393 nd 144 ± 37
22.4816 38.6715 178 ± 10 220 ± 30
Values are X ± S for the 5 replicate plots.
"Visual estimate includes litter, lichens and bryophytes.
3
Determined from 3 slope measures in the upper half of the enclosure and 3 in the lower half
of the enclos.ure.
-------
16-30 30-45 45-60 >60
PPT —mm
Figure 3. Mean Sediment Load of Grassed Areas.
-------
Woods stable
Figure 9.
<15 16-30 3Q-45 45-60 >60
PPT-mm
Mean Sediment Load of Wooded Areas.
422
-------
LITERATURE CITED
1. Bouyoucos, G. J. 1936. Directions for Making Mechanical
Analysis of Soils by the Hydrometer Method. Soil Sci.
42:225-229.
2. Piper, C. S. 1942. Soil and Plant Analysis. Inter-
science Publishers, Inc. New York.
3. Rice, E. L. 1964. Physiological Ecology Laboratory
Manual. Univ. of Oklahoma, Norman (unpubl.).
4. Anonymous. 1971. Analytical Methods for Atomic Absorp-
tion Spectrophotometer. Perkin-Elmer Corp. Norwalk,
Conn.
5. Buckman, H. 0. and N. C. Brady. 1969. The Nature and
Properties of Soils. 7th Edition MacMillan Co., London.
6. Russell, E. W. 1961. Soil Conditions and Plant Growth.
9th Edition. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. NY, NY. 688 p.
7. Wells, P. V. 1976. A climax index for broadleaf forest:
An n-dimensional, ecomorphological model for succession.
in J. S. Fralish, G. T. Weaver and R. C. Schlesinger.
Proceedings of the First Central Hardwood Forest Confer-
ence, 17-19 October 1976, Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale.
8. Forest Products Laboratory. 1974. Wood Handbook: Wood
as an engineering material. Forest Service, U.S. De-
partment of Agriculture.
423
-------
APPENDIX I
A. Textural analysis of soils from 5 depths from 5 plots
along Skunk Creek Transects 1, 6, 12 and Little Balsam
Creek Transects 5, 6, 8, 9, 10. The holes are positioned
sequentially from the hill crest (Hole 1) to the stream
bank (Hole 5).
s
Location
and Depth
Hole
Hole
Hole
Hole
Hole
(cm)
1 0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
2 0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
3 0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
4 0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
5 0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
IKUNK
Sand
22
12
10
10
14
22
6
8
4
0
22
19
13
10
8
9
12
7
20
16
n.d.
n. d.
n.d .
n.d.
n.d.
CREEK
Silt
24
22
24
26
26
9
22
18
18
14
21
21
20
20
23
25
20
23
30
30
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
TRANSECT 1 SKUNK CREEK TRANSECT
Clay
54
64
66
64
60
79
72
74
78
86
57
60
67
70
69
64
68
70
50
54
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
Soil
Type
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
Sand
64
73
15
1
4
60
46
61
60
15
46
48
34
16
2
9
26
0
0
0
7
10
8
1
1
Sil
8
3
5
11
12
8
14
5
6
7
10
8
12
12
30
31
22
40
38
40
31
34
28
35
29
t Cl
28
24
80
88
84
32
40
34
34
78
44
44
54
72
68
60
52
60
62
60
62
56
54
64
70
6
ay Soil Type
sandy
sandy
clay
clay
clay
sandy
sandy
sandy
sandy
clay
sandy
sandy
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
loam
loam
loam
loam
loam
(continued)
424-
-------
Appendix I (continued)
SKUNK CREEK TRANSECT 12 LITTLE BALSAM TRANSECT 5
Location % % % % °"° °
and Depth Sand Silt Clay Soil Type Sand Silt Clay Soil Type
(cm)
Hole 1 0-10 86 10 4 sand 10 46 44 silty clay
10-20 88 7 5 sand 2 38 60 clay
20-30 90 5 5 sand 2 32 66 clay
30-40 85 7 8 sand 8 28 64 clay
40-50 84 9 7 loamy sand 4 30 66 clay
0-10 51 19 30 sandy clay loam 12 38 50 clay
10-20 14 20 66 clay 12 38 50 clay
20-30 10 16 74 clay 10 40 50 silty clay
30-40 4 14 82 clay 8 38 54 clay
40-50 4 10 86 clay 10 36 54 clay
0-10 62 14 24 sandy clay loam 8 40 52 clay
10-20 64 10 26 sandy clay loam 10 36 54 clay
20-30 48 12 40 clay loam 10 36 54 clay
30-40 8 19 73 clay 8 38 54 clay
40-50 8 57 35 silty clay loam 8 36 56 clay
0-10 59 12 29 sandy clay loam 8 34 58 clay
10-20 34 18 48 clay 8 29 63 clay
20-30 20 20 60 clay 8 27 65 clay
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
4
8
34
30
28
34
32
22
26
28
26
26
22
22
74
66
38
44
46
44
46
clay
clay
clay loam
clay
clay
clay
clay
8
7
0
0
2
0
0
26
26
16
14
18
12
16
66
67
84
86
80
88
84
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
(continued)
4-25
-------
Appendix I (continued)
LITTLE BALSAM TRANSECT 6 LITTLE BALSAM TRANSECT 8
Location | \\ Soil \ \ 1 Soil—
and Depth Sand Silt Clay Type
Hole 1
Hole 2
Hole 3
Hole M.
Hole 5
(cm)
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40^-50
30
16
10
4
4
28
18
12
10
8
24
22
14
2
2
26
28
34
24
18
26
12
10
14
24
26
30
26
28
28
25
24
26
26
24
22
22
16
16
18
26
22
18
16
16
29
26
22
16
18
44
54
64
68
68
47
58
62
64
68
54
56
70
82
80
48
50
48
60
66
45
62
68
70
58
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
24 30 46 clay
16 28 56 clay
6 22 72 clay
0 16 84 clay
0 16 84 clay
(continued)
426
-------
Appendix I (continued)
LITTLE BALSAM TRANSECT 9 LITTLE BALSAM TRANSECT 10
Location
and Depth
Hole
Hole
Hole
Hole
(cm)
1 0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
2 0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
4 0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
5 0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
%
Sand
80
84
90
84
76
n.d.
n.d.
38
20
18
24
16
16
22
22
52
48
48
46
60
82
80
66
42
25
%
Silt
16
12
4
10
14
n.d.
n.d.
30
34
33
30
30
30
24
24
26
22
20
24
18
10
10
20
42
35
%
Clay
4
4
6
6
10
n.d.
n. d.
32
46
49
46
54
54
54
54
22
30
32
30
22
8
10
14
16
40
%
Soil Type Sand
loamy
loamy
sand
loamy
sandy
n.d.
n.d.
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
clay
sandy
loam
sandy
loam
sandy
loam
clay
sandy
loam
loamy
loamy
sandy
loam
clay
sand
sand
sand
loam
loam
clay
clay
clay
loam
clay
sand
sand
loam
loam
74
84
94
80
90
76
76
80
74
78
76
78
86
88
92
80
82
84
86
86
86
84
86
86
88
%
Silt
12
6
0
6
2
12
10
6
6
8
10
8
8
2
2
10
6
6
4
4
8
8
8
8
4
%
Clay Soil Type
14
10
6
14
8
12
14
14
20
14
14
14
6
10
6
10
12
10
10
10
6
8
6
6
8
sandy
loamy
sand
sandy
sand
sandy
sandy
sandy
sandy
sandy
sandy
sandy
loamy
loamy
sand
sandy
sandy
loamy
loamy
loamy
loamy
loamy
loamy
loamy
loamy
loam
sand
loam
loam
loam
loam
loam
loam
loam
loam
sand
sand
loam
loam
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
sand
427
-------
APPENDIX I
B. Organic carbon and pH measurements of soils from 5 depths
at each location from Skunk Creek Transects 1, 6, 12 and
Little Balsam Transects 5, 6, 7, 8, 10.
SKUNK CREEK SKUNK CREEK SKUNK CREEK LITTLE BALSAM
TRANSECT 1 TRANSECT 6 TRANSECT 12 TRANSECT 5
Location
and Depth
Hole 1
Hole 2
Hole 3
Hole 4
Hole 5
(cm)
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
PH
5.30
5.20
5.40
6. 90
6.40
5.75
6.00
6.85
7.50
7.80
6.10
6.30
6.99
7.30
7.41
7.10
7. 30
7.38
7.54
7. 61
n.d.
n.d.
n. d.
n.d.
n.d.
Org. C
2.55
1.17
0.60
0.36
0.30
1.80
0.84
0.36
0.24
0.18
2.34
1.23
0.12
0.12
0.21
2.10
0. 65
0. 36
0.12
0. 00
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
pH
6.
6.
7.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
7.
6.
6.
6.
6.
7.
7.
6.
6.
7.
7.
7.
6.
6.
7.
7.
7.
21
30
80
82
89
55
71
90
35
30
50
41
60
31
81
49
60
55
00
85
50
89
30
61
16
Org. C
0.57
0.09
0.06
0. 05
0.05
0.83
0.44
0. 07
0.05
0.06
0.41
0.10
0. 09
0.07
0. 05
0.65
0.26
0.10
0.07
0.06
1.34
0. 57
0.22
0.13
0. 09
pH
4.20
3. 94
3. 92
4.07
4.20
5.48
6.42
7.10
7.50
7. 80
7. 55
6.90
7. 75
7.39
6. 80
6.29
6.65
6.70
7.30
7.65
6.99
7.25
7.80
7.90
7.95
Org. C
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
6.
1.
0.
0.
0.
3.
0.
0.
0.
0.
3.
1.
0.
0.
0.
3.
1.
0.
0.
0.
26
18
39
39
18
30
11
45
27
24
30
91
30
20
28
93
20
72
24
21
72
38
60
42
42
PH
7.20
7.20
7.30
7.10
7.01
7.10
6.90
7.30
7.29
7.12
6. 92
7.59
7. 50
7.55
7.80
7.39
7.20
7.40
7.25
7. 30
8.00
7.85
7.20
7.30
7.20
Org. C
2.84
1. 01
0. 57
0.46
0.57
2.06
0. 93
0.68
0.74
0.51
0.93
0.68
0.93
0.52
0.67
0.73
0.85
1.14
0.69
0. 57
0.32
0.40
0.31
0.15
0. 00
(continued)
4-28
-------
Appendix I (continued)
LITTLE
BALSAM
TRANSECT 6
LITTLE
BALSAM
TRANSECT 7
LITTLE LITTLE
BALSAM BALSAM
TRANSECT 8 TRANSECT 10
Location
and Depth
Hole 1
Hole 2
Hole 3
Hole 4
Hole 5
(cm)
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
% ""
pH Org. C
6.70
6.20
6.80
6. 90
7.00
6. 00
7.20
6.70
6.70
7.20
7.15
7.12
7.20
7.35
7.20
7. 00
7.15
6.80
6.74
6.80
6.50
6.80
6.80
7. 35
6. 55
3.61
1.81
1.44
0.41
0. 57
3. 56
1.65
1.34
0.62
0.62
3.51
1.75
0.80
0. 46
0. 52
3. 92
2.12
0.83
0. 52
0.62
3.04
1. 70
1.08
0. 52
0. 36
pH
5.60
6. 05
6. 50
6.83
7.10
n. d.
n. d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n. d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n. d.
n.d.
%
Org. C
2.67
1.32
0.68
0.48
0. 39
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d .
n.d.
n.d.
n. d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n. d.
PH
5.20
5.10
5.10
5.20
5.40
n.d.
n.d.
S..25
6.60
7.25
5.69
6. 05
6.22
6. 51
6.80
5.70
5.55
5.70
5.65
5.70
5.32
5.40
5.65
6. 00
5.98
%
Org. C
0.90
0.36
0.36
0.42
0.18
n.d.
n.d.
0.36
0.38
0.15
1.59
0.60
0.48
0. 36
0.21
1.91
0.67
0.51
0. 33
0.33
1.04
0.48
0. 30
0. 30
0.21
%
pH Org. C
6.50
6.25
5.87
6.48
6. 30
6.43
6.19
6.75
6.13
6.38
6.02
6.70
6.50
6.41
6.09
6.23
6.20
7.23
6.55
6.48
6.99
7. 22
7.40
7.30
7.10
0.34
0.37
0.09
0.05
0.05
0.36
0.14
0.11
0.11
0.07
0.32
0. 05
0.07
0.03
0.03
0.31
0.11
0. 06
0. 03
0. 05
2.58
1.14
0.57
0.36
0.10
429
-------
APPENDIX I
C. Exchangeable Mg, K and Ca (ppm) in soils of Skunk Creek
Transect 6 and Little Balsam Transect 10.
Skunk Creek Transect 6 Little Balsam Transect 10
Hole 1
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
Mg
208
78
198
212
190
K
15.0
5.8
20.8
23.3
n.d.
Ca
97. 5
n.d.
67.5
>720
>750
Mg
19.5
3.2
1. 5
0.0
0. 0
K
6.6
2.0
2.5
2.0
3.4
Ca
145.0
38.8
38.8
25.0
25.0
Hole 2 0-10 126 13.3 97.5 10.0 6.2 105.0
10-20 104 7.8 n.d. 7.0 4.2 67.5
20-30 98 4.0 n.d. 5.5 1.0 67.5
30-40 126 6.7 n.d. 3.2 1.0 52.5
40-50 318 15.8 322.5 3.2 0.3 52.5
Hole 3 0-10 190 18.3 45.0 28.2 9.2 132.5
10-20 176 13.3 n.d. 10.0 5.2 67.5
20-30 218 17.5 67.5 9.0 3.8 67.5
30-40 198 26.7 382.5 4.0 1.6 38.8
40-50 168 29.2 >660 1.5 1.0 67.5
Hole 4 0-10 198 25.0 >660 19.5 9.6 157.5
10-20 126 19.1 >623 10.0 1.6 80.0
20-30 84 17.5 >458 7.0 1.6 67.5
30-40 92 16.7 495 1.5 1.0 52.5
40-50 84 20.8 510 0.0 0.8 38.8
Hole 5 0-10 318 28.3 >608 14.0 8.8 145.0
10-20 218 21.7 397.5 7.0 0.2 80.0
20-30 168 20.0 472.5 3.2 1.6 52.5
30-40 212 18.3 547.5 5.5 0.0 67.5
40-50 184 15.8 497.0 7.0 0.0 67.5
430
-------
APPENDIX II
Summaries of root mass and length for each excavation site
-------
VM
ro
BALSAM T-6, HOLE 1
DATA IN LOG BASE 10, *»******» NO ROOTS
ROOT BIOHASS — GRAM O.D.H.
DJPTH (CM X 10**-1) /ROOT DIAM. (MM)
-0.5
1 2.3382
2 0.9038
3 0.0362
TOTAL
2.5299
1.0609
0.2590
0.5-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30*
1.5318 1.4738 1.1821 1.1384 1.0544 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
0.5432 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
-0.1374 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
4 -0.6128 -1.0603 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** -Q.4803
5******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
TOTALS
2.3565 1.5836 1.4738 1.1821 1.1384 1,0544 ******** «*******• ******** ******** ******** ******** 2.5470
ROOT LENGTH (CM)
1EPTH (CM X 10**-1)
/ ROOT DIAM, (MM)
1
2
3
4
-0.5
5.4414
4.0070
3.1393
2.4903
°«5-l »'2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30+
4.0052 3.4443 2.7838 2.4237 2.1715 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
3.0165 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
2.3359 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
1.4130 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
5******** ******** ******** ******** ******** »******#_******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******,*
TOTALS
TOTAL
5.4627
4.0492
3.2027
2.5252
5.4596 4.0569 3.4443 2.7838 2.4237 2.1715 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 5.4919
-------
VM
BALSAM T-6, HOLE 2
DATA IN LOG BASE 10, ********* NO ROOTS
ROOT B10MASS — GRAM O.D.H.
UEPTH (CM X 10**-1) / ROOT DIAM. (MM)
-0.5
1
2
3
4
5
2
1
-0
-0
0
.5779
.5885
.1360
.3610
.0031
0.5-1
1.9613
1
-0
0
.1005
.09(12
.3682
********
1
0
-0
1-2
.8310
.7702
.6344
********
********
1
-0
-0
2-3
.4018
.3968
.3187
********
********
3-4
1.0028
0.1708
********
********
********
4-5
1.026B
0.2073
-0
.0357
********
********
TOTALS
2.
6225
ROOT
2.
0312
1.
8685
1.
4167
1.062S
1.
1195
LENGTH (CN)
DEPTH (CM X
1
2
3
4
5
4
2
-0.5
.6811
.6917
.9672
2.7422
0
4
3
2
10**'
.5-1
.4347
.5818
.3751
2.8415
•1)
3
2
1
/ ROOT DIAM.
1-2
.8014
.7407
.3361
********
3
1
1
2-3
.0035
.2050
.2831
********
(MM)
3-4
2.2882
1.4561
********
********
2
1
1
4-5
.1438
.3244
.0813
********
5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30* TOTAL
0.9650 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 2.7728
******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 1.7852
******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 0.4998
******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 0.4424
******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** Q.0031
0.9650 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 2.0199
5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30+
1.9239 ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
1.3244 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
1.0813 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
******* ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
5 3.1062 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
TOTALS
TOTAL
5.7116
4.7292
3.0853
3.0956
3.1062
5.7257 4.5045 3.8390 3.0184 2.3478 2.2366 1.9239 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 5.7574
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BALSAM T-6, HOLE 5
DATA IN LOG BASE 10, »*******3 NO ROOTS
ROOT BIOMASS -• GUAM 0.0.U.
DEPTH (CM X 10**-1) / ROOT OIAH. (MM)
1
2
3
4
5
2
0
0
-0
-0
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.5157
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0
2
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1
0
0
0
0
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1
0
0
0
0
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.8226
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.2971
.5343
.6256
1
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-0
-0
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3-4
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.262
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TOTALS
2.
5268
2.
2159 1
•
9965
1.
8879
1.
5572
ROOT LENGTH (CM)
DEPTH (CM
1
2
3
4
5
5
3
3
2
2
-0.5
.6188
.7891
.4429
.9678
.9838
X
0
4
2
2
2
2
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.6755
.7514
.5518
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3
2
2
2
2
/ ROOT
1-2
.9095
.5720
.4945
.3426
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DIAM.
3
1
1
2
2
2-3
.4244
.6692
.8988
.1361
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(MM)
2
***
1
1
0
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TOTALS
4-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30t
1.5457 1.5883 0.7818 ******** ******** ******** ********
0,0674 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
0.1014 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
-0,0405 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
-0.8180 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
TOTAL
2.8778
1.0759
1.0218
0.9073
0.9593
1*5610 1.5883 0.7818 ******** ******** ******** ******** 2.9000
4-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30+ TOTAL
2.6628 2.2401 1.2550 ******** ******** ******** ******** 5.6769
1.6692 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 3.B535
1.2185 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 3.5499
1.2449 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 3.1757
0.4673 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 3.2518
$.6300 4.6892 3.9670 3.4897 2.842S 2,6781 2.2401 1.2550 ******** ******** ******** ******** 5.6094
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BALSAM T-9, HOLE 4
DATA IN LOG BASE 10, ********s NO ROOTS
ROOT BIOMASS — CRAN 0.0.U.
DEPTH (CM X 10**-1) / ROOT OIAM. (MM)
1
2
3
4
5
-0.5
1.9832
1.3456
1.0942
0.8936
0.5905
0.5-1
1.4665
1.0837
0.
0.
0.
8443
6419
7172
1
1
1
1
1
1-2
.6384
.3714
.1751
.0443
.0875
1
1
1
0
0
2-3
.5096
.2416
.1895
.7551
.9099
1
1
0
0
0
3-4
.4023
.0401
.8588
.8174
.7246
1
4-5
.2685
0.9506
1
0
0
.0873
.5562
.8439
TOTALS
2.1537 1
.7632 2.
0223
1.
8979
1.
7427
1.
7014
ROOT LENGTH (CM)
1
2
3
4
5
DEPTH (CM
-0.5
5.0863
4.4487
4.1973
3.9967
3.6937
X
0.
3.
3.
3.
3.
3.
10**-1)
5-1
9398
5570
3176
1152
1905
/ BOOT DIAM. (MM)
3
3
3
3
3
1-2
.6089
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.1456
.0148
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3
2
2
2
2
2-3
.1114
.8434
.7913
.3568
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2
3-4
.6876
2.3255
2.1441
2.1027
2.0100
2
2
4-5
.3856
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2.2044
1,
1,
.6733
,9610
TOTALS
5.2569 4
.2365 3
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3.4996
3.1
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2.1
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5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30+
1.6927 1.6337 0.8746 ******** ******** ********
1.8459 ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
0.8273 1.1651 0.8158 1.4508 ******** ********
1.4307 1.2334 1.4599 1.6662 ******** ********
1.6791 ******** 0.2924 0.7979 ******** ********
2.3028 1.8736 1.6515 1,9078 ******** ********
5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30+
2,3706 1.9187 0.9541 ******** ******** ********
2.5033 ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
1.5795 1.5049 0.6988 1.3008 ******** ********
2.3006 1.8448 1.5312 1.4311 ******** ********
2.3780 ******** 0.4770 0.9029 ******** ********
TOTAL
2.5375
2.2181
2.0982
2.1996
1.9900
2.9500
TOTAL
5.1370
4.5471
4.3062
4.1137
3.9242
3.0127 2.2668 1.7073 1.7400 ******** ******** 5.3303
-------
BALSAM T-9, HOLE 5
DATA IN LOG BASE 10. ********* NO ROOTS
HOOT BIOMASS — GRAM O.D.M.
DEPTH (CM X 10**-1) / ROOT DIAH. (MM)
-0.5
1 1.9265
2 1.3228
3 1.3004
4 1.1135
5 0.6535
TOTALS
2.1550
0.5-1
1.5177
1.1227
1.1178
0.9001
0.6B38
1.8578 1
1-2
1.5479
1,2293
1.2837
0.7361
1.1070
.9528
2-3
1.3493
0.9249
1.27U4
0.8744
O.U973
1.8137
3-4
1.2604
0.8191
0.9029
0.6267
0.6248
1.6153
4-5
1.3315
1.1709
1.0822
0.4862
0.5718
1.7415
ROOT LENGTH (CM)
DEPTH (CM
•0.5
1 5.0297
2 4.4260
3 4.4036
4 4.2167
5 3.7566
TOTALS
5.2582
X 10**-1)
0.5-1
3.9910
3.5960
3.5911
3.3735
3.1571
/ ROOT
1-2
3.5183
3.1998
3.2541
2.7065
3.077S
4.3311 3.9232
DIAM.
2-3
2.9511
2,5267
2.8802
2.4761
2.4991
3.4155
(MM)
3-4
2.5457
2.1045
2.1882
1.9121
1.9101
2.9007
4-5
2.4485
2.2880
2.1993
1.6033
1.6889
2.8585
5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30+ TOTAL
1.8195 1.1594 1.1467 1.1709 ******** ******** 2.5103
1.4203 1.3782 ******** ******** ******** ******** 2.1181
1.2129 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 2.0321
0.7233 0.7353 ******** ******** ******** ******** 1.7149
0.0730 1.8632 ******** ******** ******** ******** 2.0496
2,0610 2.0671 1.1467 1.1709 ******** ******** 2.8613
5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30+ TOTAL
2.4277 1.2785 0.9998 0.6988 ******** ******** 5.0863
2.4244 1.9634 ******** ******** ******** ******** 4.5212
1.7850 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 4.5072
1.6625 0.9998 ******** ******** ******** ******** 4.2970
1.3008 1,5560 ******** ******** ******** ******** 3.9465
2.8197 2,1955 0.9998 0.6988 ******** ******** 5.3343
-------
BALSAM T-10, HOLE 1
DATA IN LOG BASE 10, ********s NO ROOTS
ROOT BIOMASS — CRAM O.D.N.
DEPTH (CM X 10**-1) / ROOT DIAM. (MM)
ro
-0.5
1 1.2175
2 1.2344
3 1.4963
4 1.2392
5 0.9745
TOTALS
1.9626
0.5-1
1.2536
1.2177
1.1998
1.3162
0.9796
1.9058 1
1-2
1.2167
1.2423
1.1172
1.2882
0.5746
.8463 1
2-3 3-4
1.0061 0.5648
0.8255 1.4390
0,8626 0.9233
0.7529
0.2924
.5015
0.3085
•0.3487
1.6233
4-5
1.0660
1.3009
0.7359
-0.5883
0.8758
1,6517
ROUT LENGTH (CM)
DEPTH (CM
-0.5
1 4.3206
2 4.3375
3 4.5994
4 4.3423
5 4.0777
TOTALS
5.0658
X 10**-1)
0.5-1
3.7269
3.6910
3.6732
3.7895
3.4529
4.3792 3
/ ROOT
1-2
3.1871
3.2128
3.0877
3.2587
2.5451
.8168 3
DIAM.
2-3
2.6078
2.4273
2.4644
2.3547
1.8942
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(MM)
3-4
1.8501
2.7244
2.2086
1.5938
0.9367
2.9087
4-5
2.1831
2.4179
1.8530
0.5288
1,9929
2.7687
5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30*
1.0489 0,4268 ******** ******** ******** ********
1.0988 ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
1.5986 ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
1.2255 1.0246 ******** 1.8531 ******** ********
0.5107 0,8658 ******** 0.0941 ******** ********
5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30+
1.6432 0.6020 ******** ******** ******** ********
1.9392 ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
2.2941 ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
1.8973 1,3008 ******** 1.5560 ******** ********
1.3422 1.1759 ******** 0.0000 ******** ********
2.6320 1.S908 ******** 1.5679 ******** ********
TOTAL
1.9551
2.0712
2.0830
2.2150
1.6480
1.9215 1.3137 ******** 1.8606 ******** ******** 2.7303
TOTAL
4.4543
4.4689
4.6666
4.4824
4.1866
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vn
BALSAM T-10, HOLE 4
OATA IN LOG BASK 10, ********* NO ROOTS
ROOT BIOMASS — GRAM 0.0.N.
DEPTH (CM X 10*«-1) / ROOT DIAM. (MM)
1
2
3
4
5
-0.5
2.1698
1.6207
1.1808
0.6578
O.H443
TOTALS
2.3350
0.5-1
1.5708
1.4643
1.1100
0.6287
0.5693
1.9404 2
1-2
1.6086
1.3470
2.0031
1.0069
0.3877
.2458
2-3
1.3272
1.2901
2.0153
-0.2276
-0.2456
2.1628
3-4
1.0935
1.1524
1.8256
0.3510
0.1959
1.9883
4-5
1.0468
0.9264
1.1187
0.3598
-0.3080
1.5502
5-10
f.4407
1.4913
1.8644
1.0068
********
2.1519
10-15
********
1.17U4
********
********
********
1.1784
15-20
********
********
********
********
********
********
20-25
********
********
********
********
********
********
25-30
********
********
********
********
********
********
30 +
********
********
********
********
********
********
TOTAL
2.4741
2.2583
2.5860
1.5344
1.1977
2.9612
ROOT LENGTH (CM)
1
2
3
4
5
DEPTH (CM
-0.5
5.2729
4.7238
4.2840
3.7610
3.9474
TOTALS
5.4381
X 10**-1)
0.5-1
4.0441
3.9377
3.5834
3.1020
3.0426
4.4137 4
/ ROOT
1-2
3.5790
3.3175
3.9736
2.9773
2.3582
.2163
DIAM.
2-3
2.9289
2.8919
3.6171
1.3741
1.3562
3.7645
(MM)
3-4
2.3789
2.4377
3.1109
1.6363
1.4812
3.2736
4-5
2.1638
2.0435
2.2358
1.4768
0.8091
2.6672
5-10
1.9681
2.1068
2.5033
1.7479
********
2.7747
10-15
********
1.5182
********
********
********
1.3182
15-20
. ********
********
********
********
********
********
20-25
********
********
********
********
********
********
25-30
********
********
********
********
********
********
30+
********
********
********
********
********
********
TOTAL
5.3089
4.8129
4.5841
3.9102
4.0107
5.5124
-------
BALSAM T-10, HOLE 5
DATA IN LOG BASE 10, ********a NO ROOTS
ROOT BIQMASS — GRAM 0.0.W.
DEPTH (CM X 10*9-1) / ROOT DIAM. (MM)
1
2
3
4
S
-0.5
1.6931
1.4351
1.2681
0.9107
0.8794
TOTALS
2.0445 1
0.5-1
1.6364
1.1145
1.0907
0.5947
0.8133
.8979 1
1
1
1
0
0
•
1-2
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.4901
.1561
.7139
.7618
8576
1
1
1
0
0
1.
2-3
.3465
.1072
.2654
.7896
.7538
8146
1
1
1
1
0
1.
3-4
.3521
.4590
.2450
.1478
.9208
9601
1
4-5
.4008
0,9246
1
0
0
1.
.3615
.7870
.5243
8196
5-10
1.6519
1.5781
********
********
1.3898
2.0303
ROUT LENGTH (CM)
1
2
3
4
5
DEPTH (CM
-0.5
4.7963
4.5382
4.3712
4.0139
3.9825
TOTALS
5.1477 4
X 10**-1)
0.5-1
4.1097
3.5879
3.5640
3.0680
3.2866
.3712 3
3
3
3
2
2
•
/ ROOT
1-2
.1712
.4605
.1266
.6844
.7323
8281
DIAM.
2
2
2
2
2
3.
2-3
.9483
.7090
.8672
.3914
.3555
4163
(MM)
2
2
2
2
2
3.
3-4
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.7444
.5303
.4332
.2062
2454
2
2
2
1
1
4-5
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.0416
.4786
.9041
.6414
2.9367
5-10
2.3669
2.2918
********
********
2.2451
2.7813
10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30*
1.4762 ******** ******** ******** ********
0.1920 ******** ******** ******** ********
1.3615 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
****** ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
1.3898 ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30*
1,7631 ******** ******** ******** ********
0,4770 ******** ******** ******** ********
2.2451 ******** ******** ******** ******** ********
TOTAL
2.4032
2.2055
2.0177
1.6393
1.7905
1*4982 ******** ******** ******** ******** 2.7944
TOTAL
4.8968
4.6300
4.4754
4.0995
4.1033
1.7850 ******** ******** ******** ******** 5.2470
-------
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03
SKUNK T-6, HOLE 2
DATA IN LUG BASE 10, ********* NO ROOTS
ROUT BIOMASS — GRAN 0.0.N.
DEPTH (CM X 10**-1) / ROOT OIAM. (NH)
-0.5
1 2.3455
2 1.4491
3 1.0686
4 0.6490
5 0.5577
TOTALS
2.4304
0.5-1
2.1241
1.5162
1.3421
0.9962
1.0089
1-2
1.5053
1.5081
1.2709
0.8379
0.6099
2.3180 1.9723
2-3
1.4470
1.2858
0,9630
0,5590
0.7520
1.8178
3-4
1.5265
1.4501
1.0329
0.5106
0.9292
1.9259
4-5
1.6336
1.2640
1.0215
0.0527
0.2501
1.8738
5-10
1.5959
1.5918
1.5498
1.1402
1.2267
2.1601
10-15
0.2995
1.4272
0.0041
********
1.1974
1.6594
15-20
1.5518
1.3677
1.1974
********
********
1.8732
20-25
1.6920
2.2534
********
********
********
2.3587
25-30 30+
1.7837 0.6011
******** ********
******** ********
******** ********
******** ********
1.7837 0.6011
TOTAL
2.8338
2.6307
2.1308
1.6339
1.8222
3.1315
ROUT LENGTH (CM)
DEPTH (CM
-0.5
1 5.4486
2 4.5522
3 4.1717
4 3.7522
5 3.6609
TOTALS
5.5336 •
X 10**-1)
0.5-1
4.5974
3.9895
3.8154
3.4696
3.4822
4.7913 3
/ ROOT DIAM. (MM)
1-2
3.4758
3.4785
3.2413
2.8083
2.5804
.9428
2-3
3.0488
2.8875
2.5648
2.1607
2.3538
3.4196
3-4
2.6118
2.7355
2.3182
1.7959
2.2146
3.2112
4-5
2.7507
2.3811
2.1386
1.1698
1.3672
2.9909
5-10
2.2037
2.1955
2.1000
1.3008
1*7990
2.7205
10-15
0.3010
1.5438
0.6020
********
1.4769
1.8509
15-20
1.2550
1.3422
1.1459
********
********
1.7121
20-25
1.5560
1.8322
********
********
********
9_ni&i
25-30 30+
1.3008 1.5438
******** ********
******** ********
******** ********
******** ********
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TOTAL
5.5133
4.7013
4.3799
3.9770
3.9294
Wf f n * *
5.6214
-------
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SKUNK T-6, HOLE 5
DATA IN LOG BASE 10, »*******a NO ROOTS
ROUT BIOMASS — GRAM O.D.I*.
DEPTH (CM X 10**-1) / ROUT UIAM. (MM)
vn
-0.5
1 2.1563
2 1.6784
3 1.0115
4 0.8131
5 0.5755
TOTALS
2.3253
0.6-1
1.8641
1.6779
1.0209
0.6799
0.6202
2.1467 2
1-2
1.7395
1.1370
1.2034
0.9756
0.8915
.0077
2-3
1.3908
1,0941
1.0234
1.2788
0.9876
1.8823
3-4
1.4261
1.1295
1.2015
0.7935
1.0876
1.8721
4-5
0.9447
0.9203
0.3358
0.8266
1.1145
1.5912
5-10
1.6532
1.8389
1.6861
1.6440
1.4704
2.3731
10-15
1.6385
1.8634
1.5243
1,7698
********
2.3197
15-20
1.7315
1.3862
1.5529
********
********
2.0566
20-25
2.0821
1.7461
********
********
0.3299
2.2520
25-30
2.4544
1.6918
2.2005
********
1.8511
2.7508
30+
2.7726
2.3070
********
********
********
2.9004
TOTAL
3.1677
2.7901
2.5335
2.1918
2.jM»55
3.4374
ROOT LENGTH (CM) , ., - ,
DEPTH (CM
-0.5
1 5.2595
2 4.7H15
3 4.1147
4 3.9162
5 3.6786
TOTALS
5.4285
X 10**-1)
0.5-1
4.3375
4.4513
3.4942
3.1532
1.0935
4.6?01 3
/ ROOT
1-2
3.7100
3. 107 4
3,1739
2.9460
2 .8620
kWW'J,
DIAM.
2-1
2,992.5
2.6959
2.6252
.2,8806
2*5894
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3-4
2.7114
2.414,8
2.4868
2.0788
2.1729
3.1574
4-5
2.0617
2.0373
1,4529
1.9*4 37
W*
2.7082
j -5-10
2.1786
3.1071
2.2691
2,2i24
2.2249
2.9474
: 40-15
1.8385
2.39.23
1.88,62
1.9819
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2.6888
15^20
1.7,400
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2.0290
20-25
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1,9490
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1.7240
********
1.4911
2.2851
lOt.
2.1899
1.6718
********
********
********
2.3049
, TOTAL
5.3238
,4.8884
4.2727
4.0716
3.8884
5.5117
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DATA IN LUG BASE 10, **«*****B HO HOOTS
KUUT BIOMASS — GRAM O.D.M.
DEPTH (CM X 10**-1) / HOOT IMAM. (MM)
1
2
3
4
5
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2.1039
1.8535
I.1B27
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0.2920
0
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1
1
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1.
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•
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1.
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1.
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1.
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KUUT LENGTH (CM)
1
2
3
4
5
DEPTH (CM
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5.2070
4.95bb
4. 2859
3.9699
3.3951
TOTALS
X
0
4
3
3
3
2
10**-1)
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2
3
3
3
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2.5449
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1
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(MM)
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2
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2
2
3-4
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2
2
2
1
1
4-5
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5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30* TOTAL
1,8788 1.7793 0.9334 ******** ******** ******** 2.6280
1.5546 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 2.9038
1.4455 0,9375 ******** ******** ******** ******** 2.0435
1.3063 0.6527 ******** ******** ******** ******** 1.8628
-0.1349 1.3602 ******** ******** ******** ******** 1.6977
2.2050 1.9832 0.9334 ******** ******** ******** 2.9340
5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30+ TOTAL
2.6420 1.8973 0.6988 ******** ******** ******** 5.2568
2.4145 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 5.0084
2.2829 1.2550 ******** ******** ******** ******** 4.3914
2.1757 1,4621 ******** ******** **************** 4.1175
0.4770 1.7556 ******** ******** ******** ******** 3.6149
5.4512 4.4498 3.8889 3.3902 3.1416 2.8981 3.0182 2.2620 0.6988 ******** ******** ******** 5.5111
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DATA IN LOG BASE 10, »*******- NO ROOTS
HOOT BiOMASS — GKAM 0.0.N.
UtHTII (CM X 10**-1) / KOOT DIAH. (MM)
VJl
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1 1.5497
2 1.2823
3 0.7566
4 0.6532
5 0.4030
TOTALS
1.8283
0.5-1
1.3690
0.9663
0.9971
0.3564
0.4715
1.6797 2
1-2
1.3924
1.4922
1.3948
0.7664
1.4163
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1.3710
1.6437
1.6399
1.2629
1.2241
2.1649
3-4
1.0057
1.2512
0.6737
0.5620
1.0315
1.6727
4-5
0.9955
0.7516
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1.2087
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1.0536
1.6916
1.2288
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1.8887
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0.8465 ********
0,9472 ********
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20-25
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********
********
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********
********
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TOTAL
2.1410
2.2627
2.0608
1.5387
1.7726
2.7244
KOOT LENGTH (CN)
DEPTH (CM
-0.5
1 4.6528
2 4.3854
3 3.8598
4 3.7563
5 3.5061
TOTALS
4.9314
X 10**-1)
0.5-1
3.8429
3.4396
3.4705
2.8297
2.9444
/ HOOT I)1AM.
1-2
3.3628
3.4627
3.3652
2.7368
3.3867
4.1530 4.0214
2-3
2.9728
3.2455
3.2417
2.8646
2.8259
3.7667
(MM)
3-4
2.2911
2.5365
1.9591
1.8473
2.3169
2.9581
4-5
2.1125
1.8687
0.7742
********
0.3701
2.3258
5-10
1.5182
1.6987
1.8862
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2.2037
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******** ********
1.3008 ********
1.3220 ********
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******** ********
1.6125 ********
20-25
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********
********
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25-30
********
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30+
********
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********
********
********
********
TOTAL
4.7445
4.5077
4.1599
3.8881
3.8693
5.0692
-------
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DATA IN LUG BASE 10. *»**«***B NU ROOTS
ROUT blOMASS -- GMAH 0.0.M.
DEPTH (CM X 10**-1) / hOOT 01AM. (MM)
1
2
3
4
5
1
0
-0
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0
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. 0 1 7 5
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1
1
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1
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0
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TOTALS
1.
6592
1.
4735 1
•
7844
2.
3766
1.
6490
HOOT LtNGTH (CM)
DEPTH (CM
1
2
3
4
S
4
3
3
3
3
-0.5
.6890
.7266
.0057
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X
0
3
2
3
2
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.0935
3
3
2
2
2
/ KUOT
1-2
.3566
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DIAM,
3
3
3
3
3
2-3
.0638
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(KM)
1
2
2
2
2
3-4
,5571
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.3171
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TOTALS
4.
7623
3.
9469 3
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7548
3.
9784
2.
9343
4-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-2S 25-30 304 TOTAL
0.2725 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 2.0100
0.1708 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 1.9636
0.1989 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 1.9462
1.0324 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 1.8461
1.17U4 -0.0250 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 1.7396
0.6027 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 2.6261
4-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30* TOTAL
1,5578 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 4.7738
1.2879 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 3.9886
1.3160 ******** **************** ******** ******** ******** 3.7349
2.3178 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 3.6493
1.0920 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 3.5776
1.7198 ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** ******** 4.9180
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RED CLAY PROJECT QUARTERLY REPORT
EVALUATION OF RCIC WORKS PROJECT
April 1, 1977
by
Garit Tenpas
William Briggs
Int X pcXtc tion
The Red Clay Interagency Committee which has been conducting erosion control
and sediment reduction projects in Wisconsin since 1955 was invited by the
Red CCT/_Project (Soil and Water Conservation District sponsors of Ashland,
Douglas, Bayfield and Iron Counties) in a letter of April 16, 1976 from
Stephen Andrews, Project Director, to George Wright to undertake some follow-
up studies on its past activities in the Lake Superior basin. Specifically
the nature of the study would be to evaluate the effects of erosion control
measures introduced there after several years.
At its meeting on May 3, 1976, the RCIC members agreed to consider
drafting a proposal contingent on a tour of the sites on June 3-4, 1976. The
tour was conducted by the RCIC members with some of the staff of the Red Clay
Project, one of the members of the Red Clay Project Executive Committee
(Ila Bromberg) and for one of the sites, a local landowner, R. Galligan, a
former member of the State Soil and Water Conservation District Committee also
participated. At the end of the tour, it was agreed that the RCIC would make
the proposal and invite Mr. William Briggs, a former member of the RCIC,
employee of the Soil Conservation Service at Madison and now retired and
Mr. Garit Tenpas, former director of the Wisconsin Experimental Station at
Ashland, now located at Marshfield, to conduct the field studies.
A proposal was drafted by Messrs- W. Briggs, G. Tenpas, L. Massie,
C. Laughter, and C. Rabat for the RCIC.
The proposal was accepted and Messrs W. Briggs and G. Tenpas completed
their observations and field evaluation studies on July 20-21, 1976.
467
-------
Procedures
Messrs. W. Briggs ana G. Tenpas examined all of the sites on
July 21-22, 1976 at which the RCIC conducted studies in the past. The
selected sites were studied and current conditions recorded.
Following the field work, W. Briggs and G. Tenpas prepared their
observations in a list under a format similar to that used to describe
sites contained in past reports, particularly the "Second Progress Report
by the Red Clay Interagency Committee, July 1964'» (see Appendix XI Work-
sites, Objectives, Results and Recommendations). Messrs. Briggs, Tenpas
and Peterson prepared the rough drafts of the report. RCIC members
reviewed the rough drafts, and recommended changes. The procedures for
drafting the project proposal, reviewing and developing the report are
contained in Appendix III, Minutes of the RCIC meetings.
Results and Recommendations
The results of the 1976 field work together with county maps showing
locations of study sites are presented in Appendix II, Worksixes, Objec-
tives, Results, and Redommendations as an addition to prior informaTion.
This format achieves continuity of prior publications by the RCIC. Study
sites on the maps are identified by numbers corresponding to those used
in the narrative section.
Appendix II also includes some interim observations between 1963 and
1976 that had not been covered in previous publications. Two sites, Trask
Creak and Airport Road, contained in previous reports, are dropped from the
appendix because it was concluded by the RCIC that they were not substan-
tive «ao\(igh to warrant further documentation. Other than these two sites,
the information on all other sites listed in Appendix II are contained
in prior RCIC publications.
Appendix II contains detailed information on site characteristics,
results of treatments and recommendations.
468
-------
SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS ON CRITICAL SI FES ON THE RED CLAY SOILS OF
NORTHERN WISCONSIN — BASED ON STUDIES CONDUCTED BY THE RED CLAY
INTERAGENCY COMMITTEE
Methods to control erosion by the establishment and maintenance of
suitable vegetation have been tried and tested over a 10 to 15 year
period. The recommendations discussed in this report are based on an
evaluation of the trials conducted by the Red Clay Interagency Committee.
General Recommendations
A permanent desirable vegetation is established by selecting a suitable
seeding mixture, inoculating all legumes, using adequate amounts of plant
food and doing a good job of mulching the area. Prescription seeding for
the particular site should be followed. A mixture of grasses and legumes
are the most desirable, but grass may be used alone.
1. Banks - Cuts, Fills and Gullies
Due to moisture collecting in the soil from seepage
frequent sloughing and slippage occurs on red clay cut and
fill slopes.
a. Highway location and design.
It is recommended that where possible the alignment
of the roadway be adjusted so as to reduce or eliminate
side hill cut and fill sections by crossing the natural
contours at right angles.
b. Sloping and seed bed preparation.
Shape the back slopes of cut sections to a 4:1 or
flatter slope and fill sections to a 3;1 slope. A satis-
factory seed bed should be prepared.
c. Fertilizer application.
Apply 500# of 20-10-10 (nitrogen-phosphate-potash) or
its equivalent per acre. No lime is generally needed since
the red clay road banks are usually calcareous.
4-69
-------
d. Seeding mixture
Mixtures of grasses and legumes have generally provided
a better ground cover than grasses alone. Long lived
legumes such as Empire Birdsfoot Trefoil and Emerald Crown-
vetch should be a part of mixtures where legumes are desired.
Alfalfa and red alsike and white clovers usually have dis-
appeared in a few years. Birdsfoot trefoil establishes
quickly and has proven to be very persistent except in shady
areas. Crownvetch is very persistent but it is slow to
establish a thick stand and is not adapted to poorly-drained
areas. Because birdsfoot trefoil is adapted over a wide
range of conditions, and establishes easier than crownvetch
it would be the legume of choice in most sites.
Northern brome grass and tall fescue have proven to be
the most persistent and have the best ground cover of all the
grass species tested. Avoid excessive amounts of competitive
species, such as annual, domestic or perennial ryegrass often
used to obtain a quick cover. Seeding without a nurse crop
is the most desirable method when the seeding is mulched.
When it is not possible to use a mulch then the addition of
one bushel of small grain per acre to the mixture will help
to establish a quick ground cover and aid in soil stabilization.
The basic seeding mixture should consist of the following:
6 to 8 pounds Empire Birdsfoot Trefoil
, 10 to 15 pounds Smooth Brome grass (Canadian or Sac)
5 pounds Tall Fescue (Alta or Ky 31)
5 pounds Emerald Crownvetch
On well-drained sites Northern Brome grass is well adapted
and so Tall Fescue can be left out of the mixture. On poorly-
drained sites Tall Fescue should replace the Northern Brome
grass and crownvetch should be left out.
-------
The highlights of the field studies are as follows: Generally the
worksites observed are stabilized. Some changes in conditions since prior
observations include a deterioration of the baskets containing rocks
(Gabions) at the Brule River which have broken open, possibly caused by
ice damage. Some of the rocks are slipping out. As expected, stands of
birdsfoot trefoil and crownvetch either continue to predominate at the sites
or have increased. There is some evidence that vegetation on some of the
plots could be strengthened by adding fertilizer. Reed canary grass has
taken over the vegetation in the Raspotnik Waterway, but was seeded by
the landowner. Previously this was in brome grass and legumes. Other
sites generally remain stabilized including the high bank (Galligan Farm)
on the Whittlesey Creek, White River, Town of Eileen and the channel at
the mouth of the Whittlesey Creek.
The one site that has changed the most since the late 1960's is the
Hunt Waterway. This site which was formerly stabilized, has now been
encroached on with cultivation extending into the waterway. This encroach-
ment is a result of a tennant-farmer disregarding practical land use manage-
ment.
Worksites, Objectives, Results and Recommendations
The locations and results of the field observations are contained in
Appendix II which in addition to county maps keyed to each location,
includes sites and characteristics, objectives, pretreatment and results
of treatments from the date corrective erosion control action was taken
through the summer of 1976.
Generally the bank and waterway stabilization practices were highly
successful, except in the case of the Hunt Waterway where encroachment by
cultivation occurred. The importance of stabilizing the toes of steep
banks is exemplified at the Catlin Road Site (No. 3), the Galligan Brothers'
farm on the Whittlesey Stream (No. 12), and the Brule River stream bank
(No. 10). The importance of properly sloping the banks before applying
vegetation establishment practices is exemplified on several sites, parti-
cularly Town of Eileen (No. 4) and White River (No. 6).
471
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Specific Recommendations on Critical Sites
The results of the erosion control practices were utilized to update
the specific recommendations for critical site erosion control. These are
presented in the remainder of this section. Details of erosion control
practices, their relationship to land use management, photographs of sites
and equipment, and related information are contained in the following
reports authored Jby the Red Clay Interagency Committee: 1957. Whittlesey
Watershed; 1960. Whittlesey Watershed; a program report of the Red Clay
Interagency Committee, 196H. Second progress report by the Red Clay
Interagency Committee and 1967. Erosion and sedimentation control on the
red clay soil of northwestern Wisconsin, Soil Conservation Board, Madison,
Wisconsin.
4-72
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e. Time of seeding.
To obtain the best legume-grass stands the seeding should
be made as early in the year as practical but not later than
July 15. Legume seedings made later may survive under very
favorable circumstances but the chances of success are poor.
Grasses can normally be seeded until September 1.
When seedings must be made late in the season, it may be
desirable to seed only the grasses and seed the legumes the
following spring. Successful seedings have often been made
by broadcasting the legume seed on the surface of the ground
after the snow has melted but while the ground is freezing
at night and thawing during the day. This freezing and thaw-
ing action allows the dense legume seed to work its way into
the soil.
f. Mulching.
Mulching is an essential step for all successful seedings.
Straw mulch (1 1/2 tons per acre) with slow-setting asphalt
emulsion (150 gallons per acre) has consistently proven to be
the most practical and effective mulch tried to date. Grass
hay and asphalt emulsion would rate below straw but both have
been superior to wood products such as Turf-fiber.
g. Maintenance.
After the desired legumes and grasses have become estab-
lished mowing is not considered necessary except for control
of weeds. Subsequent fertilizer treatments have not proven
necessary especially where a high percentage of legumes in the
mixture provides the nitrogen needed for good grass growth.
Do not spray legumes with herbicides. Remove undesirable
woody species (trees and shrubs) from sensitive slopes.
473
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2. Grassed Waterways
a. Seed bed preparation.
The waterway must be properly designed and shaped.
b. Lime and fertilizer application.
Get a soil test and apply lime and fertilizer accordingly.
If available, spread approximately 15 tons of barnyard manure
per acre. Work the fertilizer and manure into the top 3 to H
inches of soil. Seed and mulch immediately.
c. Seed mixtures.
In seeding mixtures using several species, the vegetation
on critical area seedings can be expected to vary consider-
ably from year-to-year until one or two species predominates
or becomes the climax species on that site.
Well-drained waterways; In well-drained waterways Empire
Birdsfoot Trefoil and Creeping Red Fescue have proven to be
excellent climax species and can withstand high velocity flow.
Brome and tall fescue are included for quick cover. The grass
waterway seeding mixture should consist of the following
mixture per acre:
6 to 8 pounds Empire Birdsfoot Trefoil
10 pounds Northern Brome grass
10 pounds Tall Fescue
3 pounds Creeping Red Fescue
Poorly-drained waterways; In poorly-drained waterways
that are too wet to support birdsfoot trefoil and Creeping Red
Fescue, it has been determined that Reeds Canary Grass thrives
and becomes the climax species. The following seeding mixture
is recommended per acre:
10 to 15 pounds Reeds Canary Grass
4-74
-------
Some have been successful with an alternative method of
disking Reeds Canary Grass sprigs into the ditch bottom.
d. Time of seeding.
See recommendations for Banks - Cuts, Fills and
Gullies.
e. Mulching.
See recommendations for Banks - Cuts, Fills and
Gullies.
Good protection is provided by a heavy jute mesh ("Soil
Saver" — a Ludlow product). It comes in Vx225' rolls. No
special equipment is necessary but its use is largely dependent
upon availability of hand labor.
3. Stream Banks
a. Sloping and seed bed preparation.
High velocity drainages should be diverted before runoff
reaches the face of the slope. Tops of slopes should be rounded
to remove overhangs. Rills and gullies should be filled where
possible.
b. Toe stabilization.
Wherever bank erosion is occurring or is potential, toe
stabilization is necessary to prevent stream deterioration
and at times complete destruction through sedimentation.
Several techniques were tested.
Gabions; The installation of Gabions at the toe of
the bank is one of the best practices. These consist of
wire baskets filled with rocks. The Gabions are commer-
cially constructed of #9 or heavier wire and should be a
corrosion resisting metal. While installation is relatively
simple, assistance should be solicited from the Department
of Natural Resources and Soil Conservation Service personnel.
4-75
-------
Some failures on tnese Gabions has been noted after 12
years due to poor quality wires.
Rock Rip-Rap: The use of rock rip-rap backed by a suit-
able bed of filter material is also an alternative proven
means of toe stabilization.
Sheathing and Deflectors; Installation of sheathing and
deflectors and stream diversion are other important methods of
toe stabilization and protection. Measures to stabilize the
toe of slopes must extend vertically to the high water elevation.
c. Seeding and mulching.
After achieving adequate toe stabilization, Reeds Canary
Grass at 10 to 15 pounds per acre or spriggings (sod pieces)
with one foot spacing should be used from the waterline to
the high watermark. For critical areas above the high water-
line use the seeding and mulching recommendation for Banks.
476
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WORK SITES - METHODS AND OBSERVATIONS
Sites and Characteristics
Agriculture - waterways
(1) Hunt Waterway (1958)
Constructed waterway on
CR land. Cut into red
clay subsoil. The seed-
ed area was flooded by a
hard runoff resulting
from culvert area field
drainage. The waterway
and field were seeded
under CR in spring 1958
in separate operations.
Objectives and Experimental
Work Performed and Date
Hand seed and fertilize 20
plots with mixtures of grass
& legumes and 400 #/acre of
10-10-10 in the waterway.
Mulch with Fin equipment.
The mulch was not tied or
disked into soil. Reseed
and mulch site in 1959.
Results and Recommendations
In 1958 mulch floated and washed away in heavy
July rainfall - severe cutting occurred in water-
way on lower 2/3 of its length. August 28, 1958,
legumes showed up well where soil was not washed
away. Alsike was poor, alfalfa, trefoil and red
clover were good. Grasses were weak with peren-
nial ryegrass being best. On May 1959, alfalfa,
trefoil and red clover dominated their plots.
Alsike poor, grass growth was weak; but the best
stands were made by ryegrass, orchard and southern
brome. The 1959 reseeding was successful. Sane
washing occurred 2nd year. As of 1963, BF-trefoil
has sealed the old scars and stabilized these
spots.
7-21-76 Adjoining field has been worked up and
seeded to oats (meadow). Waterway from the road
culvert to anout plot 10 has been completely re-
worked. (This is to the area where the waterway
turns north.) Some remnants of species can be
found in worked up areas.
Some digging occurred on rest of planting. Cover
is excellent of any species still remaining. On
wet areas reed canarygrass looks excellent but
needs some maintenance. The combination of BF-
trefoil and red fescue looks very good and is con-
sidered the best plot today. Orchardgrass, rye-
grass, alfalfa, red clover and several other
species except for occasional remnants disappeared
from the waterway several years ago.
O-
-------
Sites and Characteristics
(2) Raspotnik Waterway
(6-27-61)
Off Highway 63. About
600 feet long. Shaped,
graded, mulched and
seeded by Red Clay
Committee. Very vul-
nerable to erosion
without a formed
waterway and stabili-
zation treatments.
Road Banks
(3) Experimental Plot(1958)
Catlin Road (Whittlesey
Watershed). Raw bank,
south slope 1:3 slope.
Soil very wet. Prepared
seed bed in some plots
with Klodbuster. Klod-
buster did not clog with
wet clay, where used.
The other sites even
though they were badly
rilled were not drag-
ged before seeding.
Objectives and Experimental
Work Performed and Date
Stabilize waterway. Seed and
mulch with three treatments.
Upper-Turfiber; middle-hay
disked into soil with
Turfiber on top; lower-hay
disked into soil topped
with asphalt-hay mulch.
Seed mixture per acre S.
brome. 40 #; seaside bent
4 #; timothy 4 #; BF-trefoil
4 #.
Develop methods of estab-
lishing bank cover and deter-
mine results of seeding three
replicate plots of bluegrass,
red fescue, red top, d. rye-
grass, wh. dutch clover.
All plots were hand seeded,
fertilizer followed by
mulching.
Results and Recommendations
1961 seeding successful. All mulch treatments
effective. 1962 sod weakened by grazing but
still effective. 1963, the waterway is stabil-
ized, especially if grazing is prevented.
1963. Overall the waterway rates very good.
Predominantly brome grass today.
Very few breaks,
stabilized.
The waterway is considered
7-20-76 Excellent waterway. No gullying found.
Reed canarygrass is the predominant species. It
was seeded by the fanner without any ground pre-
paration using a cyclone seeder probably in 1962.
Few remnants of brome and BF-trefoil can still be
observed. Center of waterway needs mowing. This
was recommended to the farmer.
00
By 1959 the legumes were taking over, mostly sw.
clover and alfalfa; grasses were poor. Ground
cover good first year - holding second year. Pre-
soaking of seed showed no advantage. Some volun-
teer sweet clover and spots of mulch remained.
1959-62: Bank erosion continued in the badly rilled
sites. As of 1963: Generally the bank is stabil-
ized (BF-trefoil dominant, volunteer?).
It was observed that the north road ditch needed a
drop structure of some sort.
6-15-65 Estimated content of vegetation is:
Kentucky bluegrass ...... 30-40%
Quackgrass 20-30%
Red Fescue 20-30%
Alfalfa 10-20%
-------
Sites and Characteristics
Objectives and Experimental
Work Performed and Date
00 Town of Eileen (1959)
Relocation of the north-
south road and construc-
tion of a new bridge left
raw red clay slopes
approximately 300 feet
long on the southern
approadh to the new
bridge. The slope of
the bank coming down
the road toward the
bridge varied from 0
to 40 feet. To reduce
costs the slopes were
graded with a 1-1/2 to
1 side slope when wet.
As a result the soil was
so hard and compacted
that numerous passes
with the Klodbuster
barely scratched the
surface.
1959: Establish vegetative
cover rapidly to prevent
excessive erosion and bank
slippage. The latter
objective is difficult but
it was felt a good cover
would help. The entire
area was seeded with a
standard mixture of 30#
per acre of Kentucky
bluegrass 40%; red fescue
30%; red top 15%; domestic
ryegrass 10%; white clover
5%. After seeding the area
was thoroughly mulched with
straw and the asphalt was
applied heavier than
normal.
Kesults and Recommendations
7-20-76 Road has been widened probably in 1975.
North bank appears completely reshaped and re-
seeded. Today this bank consists of a fair stand
of young crownvetch. Washing in the ditch bottom
on the north side (west end) remains a problem
since no drop structure has been added.
Willows along the south side of the road have
helped stabilize the toe of the down slope. Mixed
vegetation is excellent.
1959: Ten days after seeding - despite frequent
heavy rains, the mulch held well. W. wheat and
barley were beginning to sprout. Three weeks
after seeding the W. wheat and barley were grow-
ing rapidly and thickly; the entire area was
green. Under the mulch a lot of grass and legume
seeds were sprouting. By October 31, the barley
and W. wheat were 8-12 inches high. The small
grass and legume plants were very prolific
though in number quite small. In two places the
steep banks showed some slippage. Where the
mulch cover was adequate and uniform the growth
was good, but where it was thin or missed, the
growth was very poor or absent.
1960-62: Despite good sod cover the steeply
graded banks collapsed.
-------
Sites and Characterist ics
1963 (June 12). After
the bank collapsed, the
sites were regraded
(slopes 3-4' to I1),
reseeded and mulched.
(5) Sand River (Highway
13)(1959)
A new highway develop-
ment. The seeding was
near the bridge construc-
tion. This area has
been seeded unsuccess-
fully the previous
year. No soil prepara-
tion was possible
because of wet ground
and inaccessibility to
site with equipment.
Objectives and Experimental
Work Performed and Date
1963: Stabilize bank with
Turfiber, straw-asphalt and
Glassroot mulch treatments.
Glassroot (a discontinued
product of. Pittsburgh Plate
Glass Co. fiber glass pro-
duct) was applied in the
waterway as well as one plot
on the slope. Seeding mix:
10# Empire BF-trefoil; 10#
Emerald crownvetch; 10#
Creeping red fescue.
6/3-5 1958 Determine if
mulching and fertilizing
with the mulcher and hydro-
seeder will produce a better
growth of bank vegetation
than the conventional methods
used to establish cover.
Control areas received
only the conventional
treatment of sloping,
grading and seeding stan-
dard roadside mixture of
Results and Recommendations
1963: Because of extreme droughty conditions all
vegetative growth was retarded. Under Turfiber
growth was negligible and best under the straw-
asphalt mulch. Glassroot completely 'prevented
erosion in both sites.
1964 - Seedings rate fair.
6-14-1965 Birdsfoot trefoil is good. Emerald
crownvetch where established is good. Grass is
short of nitrogen.
Fall, 1965 Birdsfoot trefoil rates excellent.
Some poplars invading on north end and should be
removed.
7-20-1976 Birdsfoot trefoil and crownvetch doing
an excellent job of stabilization. This is an
outstanding example of what can and should be
done. It appears that part of the area needs
fertility.
Crownvetch on north end excellent. Birdsfoot
trefoil rates excellent. Reed canarygrass in
wet areas is excellent. No washing in ditches.
Poplars still present. All grasses and legumes
used here have a place in roadside stabilization.
1959-60: Doubled mulched plots showed improved
growth. Upper and drier portions of the slope
had the poorest seeding. Double fertilization
showed improved growth. Road bank well established
but ditch bottom showed considerable washing.
Unraulched area on top of slope would rate 9 on
stand on scale of 1-10 with 10 representing a
complete failure. Mulched areas would rate 5-6
on stand. Much variation between species perfor-
mance. In general legumes, alfalfa, red clover,
BF-trefoil and white clover looked the best.
o
90
-------
Sites and Characteristics
Objectives and Experimental
Work Performed and Date
30# per acre of Kentucky blue-
grass 40%; red fescue 30%; red
top 15%; domestic ryegrass 10%;
white clover 5%. Test various
seeding mixtures and rates put
on in 10x60 foot plots. Both
grasses and legumes were used.
Results and Recommendations
Alsike clover and the vetches gave very poor
stands. Of' the grasses timothy and ryegrass and
red top looked promising. Reed canary, bluegrass,
hrome and the fescues were generally quite poor.
1961-63: Crownvetch growth spectacular; some plots
now solid with crownvetch. BF-trefoil very strong
in all plots; grasses almost gone. Slippage con-
tinues at "soil-breaks." Under good sod between
"soil-breaks" there is no bank slippage.
7-20-1976 The county has removed material that
has moved down into the road ditch and today only
a few skips remain. The cover is 95% or more and
the whole area is fairly well stabilized. BF-
trefoil is the predominant species on both sides
of the road. Remnants from most of the original
grasses used can be found. This includes hrome,
reed canarygrass, red fescue and tall fescue. The
grass plots are a light green color and the need
for additional nitrogen fertilization is clearly
indicated.
A small amount of woody invasion is occurring and
this should be eliminated.
CO
(6) White River(1960)
The State Highway
Commission rebuilt
this road with well-
shaped and graded
banks. Study plots
on banks and ditches
were left for the
committee. The re-
mainder of the banks
and waterways were
hydroseeded (standard
highway mix) and
mulched by a con-
tractor.
Compare seeding mixtures and
fertilizer treatments, in-
stall and observe Ludlow
"soil-saver" in a road
ditch for erosion control
value. The seed mixtures,
plot locations and results
are given in the Appendix
of the 2nd Progress Report
of the RCIC, 1964. Seeded
June 29, 1960.
1960-63: All seeding mixtures showed excellent
growth the first year with tall fescue being
most outstanding among both grasses and legumes.
Alfalfa topped the legumes in 1960. As of 1963,
BF-trefoil dominates all vegetation with crownvetch
also showing spectacular growth in some places now
holding over 50% of a plot. Reed canarygrass is
strong among grasses with tall fescue and smooth
brorae following. (See Trials on the White River
Site in the Appendix).
-------
Sites and Characteristics
Objectives and Experimental
Work Performed and Date
(7) Douglas County(1962)
A south shore park area,
newly graded with grad-
uated slope to Lake
Superior on red clay
soils. Douglas County
requested assistance in
stabilizing this bank.
Rapidly stabilize this area
using Finn hydroseeder and
Turfiber. The International
Paper Company to supply all
equipment and operators.
Employ standard seed mix-
tures and Turfiber rates.
Results and Recommendations
Nitrogen topdressing has shown striking results
in improving sod stands. Potash and phosphate
showed only a small response.
In road ditch, "soil saver" controlled erosion
but vegetative growth slow and poor.
6-l»f-1965 BF-trefoil shows up very strong. Most
perennial grasses provided very satisfactory cover.
Birdsfoot trefoil and crownvetch rate best of
legumes by far.
7-21-1976 BF-trefoil and Emerald crownvetch have
persisted and out-performed alfalfa, red clover
and Alsike clover. Of the grasses that were
seeded, one still finds amounts of tall fescue,
creeping red fescue and northern brome gras.
Their persistence is in the same order as given.
Their stand is from fair to good. Tall fescue co
should be recommended for sandy sites. Reed ^
canarygrass has persisted very well and shows
excellent growth. However, it is tall and should
be recommended for the wet site only.
The road ditch today is 50% Birdsfoot trefoil;
45% Reed canarygrass; and 5% Garrison creeping
foxtail.
_Although moisture conditions were excellent, all
sod species grew slowly, in fact, the only growth
during the summer of 1962 was in the "rills." By
1963 sod cover developed satisfactorily with BF-
trefoil predominating.
In 1975, a great deal of BF-trefoil present. There
is still an unstable bank above the lake. This
simply verifies the need for toe stabilization of
lake shore eorsion.
-------
Sites and Characteristics
(8) Miscellaneous Road Banks
Near Ashland(1962J
Several small sites were
involved for Turfiber
supplemental work.
(9) Wanabo Road(1964)
Two miles west of
Washburn. Bare, south
exposed red clay banks.
Objectives and Experimental
Work Performed and Date
To get supplemental informa-
tion on Turfiber.
Apply seed mixtures and
Turfiber with the hydroseeder
(4#'s BF-trefoil; 4#'s tall
fescue; and 1# perennial rye-
grass; 10-10-10 fertilizer
and 1-1/2 bales of Turfiber
per acre.
Using Turfiber as mulch with
and without oats. Seedbed
worked up lightly by hand
prior to seeding. Accidently
in one hydroseeder load 2400
#/acre 10-10-10 was used.
Seeded 6-9-1964.
Results and Recommendations
1962: The only growth was in the rills with tall
fescue predominating. BF-trefoil though included
in the seeding, was almost absent.
1963: Though the overall seeding failed the ero-
sion control result was successful. The rills are
stabilized with the grass growth filling in between
the rills.
Very heavy rain on night of seeding 6-9-1964 nearly
completely washed off Turfiber, and probably most
of plant food.
9-12-1964 No growth of any vegetation except »
sparce growth of crownvetch.
7-20-1976 Emerald crownvetch has gradually taken
over. Some BF-trefoil is still left. Today the
area treated has 95% cover and the adjacent check
area is about 45% covered.
One conclusion of this trial is that Turfiber and
similar cellulose mulches will not provide adequate
mulch for uniform moisture condition during the
germination of the seedling. In similar areas
where straw mulch was used, complete cover and
stabilization took place within a couple of
years.
-------
Sites and Characteristics
(10) Brule River Mulching
and Seeding
On Department of
Natural Resources land
north of Highway 13 near
the Brule. Roadside
site treated was a
road ditch bank and
the ditch itself.
Location along a town
road. Drainage is
both ways. There
has been extremely
heavy deer traffic.
In area west of mulched
area by small stream,
some ribbon grass was
transplanted.
(11) University of Wisconsin
Experiment Station"
Road Ditch and
Shoulder (1967)
Newly graded red clay
roadsides.
Objectives and Experimental
Work Performed and Date
Using seed mixture best
adapted to site but using
various mulching methods.
This included glassroot and
straw mulch. Seed mixture
50% Canadian brome; 25% tall
fescue; and 25% BF-trefoil.
The trefoil was not inocu-
lated. 400 # 10-10-10 seeded
by hand July 16, 1964.
To observe ribbon grass.
To put into practice best
recommendation to date. To
try glassroot in road ditch.
Try some pre-soaked seed.
Seeded 6-13-1967.
Brome grass 10# P/A
Tall fescue 5#
BF-trefoil 5#
Crownvetch 5# on some
areas
Results and Recommendations
9-23-1964 Total vegetation is best-on straw
mulch plots. Fair to good stand of brome and tall
fescue. BF-trefoil could be found, but all plants
were small and spindly (presumably lack of inocula-
tion). In areas of heavy deer traffic, the glass-
root had mostly disappeared. It was carried off
when tangled in deer hoofs. Ribbon grass has made
good growth and rows are easily seen from the road.
7-20-1976 Deer still keep parts of stand trampled.
Grass cover pretty well has stabilized the bank.
BF-trefoil still a small portion of the stand.
Some ribbon grass shows up well in large clumps.
Ribbon grass is very attractive, but reed canary- ^
grass, would have likely done much better.
1967 - No special benefits from the pre-soaked
seeds. Glassroot in the ditch bottoms washed out
by heavy rains the day after seeding (on 6-14-1967).
It piled up by road culvert. Undoubtedly much seed
from road ditch also washed away.
7-21-1976 Stand basically is excellent and pre-
dominantly BF-trefoil. Crownvetcb and brorae grass
are also good. Perennial sweetpea persists to
this date at most plot divisions. There is some
invasion of weeds on both sides of the road; how-
ever, the ditches are now stabilized.
-------
Sites and Characteristics
Objectives and Experimental
Work Performed and Date
Results and Recommendations
(12) Madigan Road(1967)
Red clay soils located
on the road to the Odana
Campsite and Picnic
Area. Natural vege-
tation has covered a
portion of the area
and other sites which
had not yet revegetated
were used for this
study.
(13) Birch Hill - Lower Falls
load"
Near Iron County line.
Some rather sandy sites,
but some of the lower
Falls road is clayey
(1967)
Fertilized 266 #/A with 16-8-8.
All mulched with straw mulch
1-1/2 T/A with 150 gallons
asphalt emulsion P/A.
Seeded both sides of road.
Putting into practice the best
findings to date. Use of
glassroot on steep road
ditch. 400# 16-10-10; 10#
BF-trefoil; 7# tall fescue;
1# Kentucky bluegrass; and
1# creeping red fescue.
Areas were seeded and ferti-
lized in one operation with
a hydroseeder. Stage mulch
was applied by hand by an
Indian work crew about a
day later. Seeded 6-13-1967.
Application of findings to
date. 250# 16-10-10; 35?
JJF-trefoil; 3# Emerald
crownvetch; 3# tall fescue;
and 1# creeping red fescue.
Seeded 6-13-1967. Seeded
with hydroseeder and straw
mulch was spread with an
Indian highway crew a day
later. Hand planting of
perennial sweetpea on bank
beyond reach of hydroseeder.
Seeding came good and establishment was rapid.
Birdsfoot trefoil consistently rated excellent.
The steepest valley with the glassroot continued
to erode.
7-19-1976 Roadside well stabilized by BF-trefoil.
Excellent stand. On steep area where glassroot
was used, erosion has been curtailed, but some
cutting still occurring. Woody vegetation—mostly
willows and poplars—invading rather badly.
LT\
3
Birdsfoot trefoil came good where seeded. On the
upper part of the big bank, some perennial sweet-
pea is growing.
7-0.9-1976 Excellent stand of BF-trefoil on road-
side, on fills, and on steep banks where seeded.
Perennial sweetpea has persisted for nine years
and looks good. Willow, birch and quacking aspen
invading hillside, especially on upper part. On
the sandy portion of the fill, spotted knapweed,
undesirable for stabilization, is spreading rapidly.
-------
Sites and Characteristics
Long Road, Marengo(1968)
East and west one-mile
long road — cuts and
fills on both sides.
Mixed soil conditions.
(15) Whittlesey Watershed
(1958-76)
(a) Whittlesey Creek
Channel (1958-76). This
site is located at the
mouth of the Whittlesey
about 1/2 mile from
Lake Superior begin-
ning at the bridge on
Highway 13 three miles
west of Ashland. In
1949 the U.S. Corps of
Army Engineers estab-
lished a new channel to
eliminate the frequent
flood road and bridge
damage occurring up to
1949. The new channel
Objectives and Experimental
Work Performed and Date
To try on a full sized scale
the best of red clay findings
to date. This was approxi-
mately 7 acres in size.
Hydroseeder and mulcher used.
350# 10-10-10 fertilizer used
per acre. Seeding mixture per
acre:
BF-trefoil
Timothy
Oats
10#
3#
15#
Last load had 1# Kentucky
bluegrass that went on about
2 acres in the mixture. Used
straw, some excelsior and
some chopped hay.
Dredge original channel and
revert flow to it. Minimum
maintenance dredging (cost
about $500) was applied in
1960.
Results and Recommendations
8-28-1968 Good seeding except on southern
exposed slopes. Excelsior was used as a mulch
but it failed since it did not adhere to the soil
and the wind blew it off the slope in 1968.
1975 Basically the seeding has accomplished its
purpose.
7-21-1976 Ditches and banks are completely
stabilized—except for one small washout on the
steepest hill. Cover and growth excellent.
03
1960: Redredging very effective.
1963: The 1958 original channel diversion and the
1960 maintenance dredging remain very effective
with no further evidence of sedimentation.
1976: The drainage is effective and there is
little evidence of any sedimentation since 1963.
-------
Sites and Characteristics
filled within a few
years and flooding and
serious erosion damage
continued. In 1958
the RCIC diverted the
channel to its normal
course for a cost of
about $1,500.
(16) Galligan Bros, on
Whittlesey (1958)
The stream bank has
several raw, steep red-
clay banks with sand
lenses.
Objectives and Experimental
Work Performed and Date
Results and Recommendations
Determine whether stream bank
erosion can be controlled.
Treatments included: several
methods of mulching and mulch
materials; toe stabilization
with cement bagging and willow
planting (see report in text)
and bulldozing new channels
and banks. The owner of one
bank with town assistance,
bulldozed and graded upper
part of bank (removed over-
hang) and installed diversion.
tOO #/A 10-10-10, straw and
asphalt. Some florocaps
with hydroseeder included
crownvetch, and some woody
species.
In 1958 when most of the mulching work was done,
heavy rains washed off the mulch and seeding.
While the cement bagging retarded erosion, it was
washed out in two years. Some of the willows re-
main, but without other toe stabilization work,
are only very limited in erosion control. Bull-
dozing of a new channel and bank in 1962 has been
effective but more maintenance work is needed.
7-20-^.976 This big bank is 90% protected with a
good cover. About 10% still subject to erosion.
The area that has not healed is immediately below
an overhang. Birdsfoot trefoil found throughout
long slope but mainly in upper half. In lower por-
tion of slope, crownvetch is giving excellent
cover and protection. Some woody invasion very
evident with blackberry, poplar, aspen, etc.
On the smaller sites with shorter slopes located
approximately 100 yards downstream, where only
natural revegetation has taken place, the bank is
only 40 to f5% covered after this 18-year period.
This points out the value of reseeding and mulching
since during the insuing year many tons of sedi-
ments needlessly washed away.
CN-
CO
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Sites and Characteristics
(10) Brule River Stream
Bank -
Located about one-
fourth mile south of
Brule, WI. Steep red
clay banks. These are
mostly exposed to the
south and on a sharp
turn of the Brule
River.
Miscellaneous
(5) Glob Seeding of
Woody Species
At Highway 13 (Sand
River) site.
Objectives and Experimental
Work Performed and Date
Stream bank control using rock
filled wire baskets or Gabions.
Some willows were planted on the
steep slopes. Willows had been
healed in for sometime prior to
planting. Work performed by
DNR crew.
Gabions were constructed of
heavy, zinc-coated chicken
wire. (Not standard Gabion
basket).
To directly seed woody
species including some
shrubs and tree species
using a hydroseeder. Tree
seed is mixed in a rather
heavy slurry and applied
in "globs," May 19, 1964.
Results and Recommendations
1966-73 Gabion? have done an excellent job of
toe stabilization. Willows never did grow well.
There was fair initial survival but gradually they
disappeared.
7-20-1976 Many Gabions have opened at the bottom
and rocks are coming out of the basket. The rocks
are still pretty much in place and the wire is
intact on the top. Clay moving down the slope
has largely covered the Gabion creating an added
measure of stability. It is doubtful that the
rocks can withstand much flooding or iceflow. No
willows found. Banks have considerably woody
invasion. Some people traffic. Disappointed
that the Gabions did not last longer (note con-
struction material).
CO
CO
1964: Torrential rains immediately after the
"glob" seeding washed most of the mulch and
undoubtedly most of the seed away. On June 9,
1964 a few trees and shrubs were germinating.
This turned out to be a very dry year.
7-20-1976 Some shrubs and small trees are grow-
ing on most of the areas "glob" seeded. After
12 years these woody plants growing undoubtedly
have come from nearby seed sources.
"Glob" seeding of woody species for all apparent
purposes has been unsuccessful in the red clay
area.
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PHASE I
FIVE COUNTY ROADSI DE/STREAMBANK RED CLAY EROSION SURVEY:
WISCONSIN/MINNESOTA
D. R. Bray, P. L. Webster, D. J. Call and A. B. Dickas*
In a contract dated 4 October 1977? a preliminary investi-
gation was undertaken to establish the known extent of Pleistocene
red clay erosion along the transportation network and major
stream banks of Douglas, Ashland, Bayfield and Iron Counties,
Wisconsin and Carlton County, Minnesota. This contract was
drawn up between the Center for Lake Superior Environmental
Studies of the University of Wisconsin-Superior and the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (acting through their Grant Number
G-005140) with two (2) specific questions in mind, as follows:
1. Within the five (5) county subject area what is the
extent of Pleistocene aged red clay sedimentation?
2. Of this sedimentation extent, how much has been
analyzed as to the extent and habit of roadside and
trunk streambank erosion?
Preliminary discussion indicated the best approach to the
solution to these questions was through the five (5) stages
listed below (as outlined in the contract).
1. Establish a five (5) county base map of scale allowing
ease of determination of geographic area and length.
2. Establish as an overlay the extent (outline) of known
red clay sedimentation.
3. Search regional and state records and collect copies of
all that pertains to past surveys of subject area road-
side and streambank erosion.
4. Compile such records into an uniform format.
5. Establish as an overlay, and in cartographic code, the
pertinent and relevant information obtained in stage 4.
"Center for Lake Superior Environmental Studies, University of
Wisconsin-Superior.
489
-------
These tasks were accomplished throughout the period
October 1977 - April 1978 by the signatories of this report.
Details and final results of each state consititue the remaining
portions of this report.
ESTABLISHMENT OF FIVE COUNTY BASE MAPS
From a list of individuals compiled in association with
Mr. Steve Andrews, Project Director of EPA grant number G-005140,
maps were sought which displayed the required road network,
political boundaries and stream systems. After comparison of
various maps (State Highway, United States Geological Survey,
Soil Conservation Center, etc.), two were chosen for establishment
of a master base set.
The Wisconsin base was obtained from Mr. Thomas Weix, Area
Resource Conservationist with the Pri-Ru-Ta Resource Conservation
and Development (RC&D) project office, Spooner, Wisconsin. This
map contained all four Wisconsin subject counties drawn to a
scale of 1/253,44-0 (I11 = 4 miles). A similar map for Carlton
County, Minnesota, drawn to the scale of 1/220,400 (1"= 3.5 miles)
was obtained from Mr. Donald Benrud, District Conservationist with
the Soil Conservation Service, Barnum, Minnesota.
Because of scale differential, and for ease of handling, a
common base was established with a scale of 1" = 1.33 mile. For
clarity of data presentation it was decided to present each
county as a separate base map, with Bayfield County subdivided
as a result of overall county dimensions. Thus, as a final
product six (6) county bases, to an uniform scale, were drafted.
Scale uniformity was established by use of a Model 55 Map-0-
Graph, with technical assistance from Professor Adolf Kryger of
the University of Wisconsin-Superior Geosciences Department. The
Map-0-Graph projection was initially traced in pencil onto Albany
tracing paper as a series of draft maps. From this pencil draft
a final copy series, employing India ink and Chartpak transfer
lettering, was constructed. These final maps were drawn in two
(2) colors: black for lettering, political units and transportation
network, and blue for trunk and tributary drainage courses.
490
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ESTABLISHMENT OF KNOWN RED CLAY SEDIMENTATION OVERLAY
Because of financial difficulties associated with multiple
reproduction of this proposed overlay, it was commonly agreed
by both contractee and contractor that this boundary should be
added to the master set of six (6) maps. Thus this boundary,
in red, constituted the third (3rd) color to be employed on
the master maps.
The Wisconsin extent of known red clay sedimentation was
transferred off a Pri-Ru-Ta soil map titled "Land Resource Areas
Map," dated 10 October 1968. Comparable Minnesota information
was supplied by Mr. Donald Benrud from Soil Conservation Service
records.
Transferral to the master maps was again accomplished by
Map-0-Graph projection.
SEARCH FOR RECORDS OF PAST SURVEYS OF
SUBJECT ROADSIDE AND
STREAMBANK RED CLAY EROSION
Many individuals and organizations were contacted in person
or by telephone survey so as to uncover this information. The
results of these surveys are given in outline form for ease of
presentation. Most, if not all, shoreline has been identified
as erosion, however, specific sites have not been identified.
Wisconsin Sources
—Dr. Meredith Ostrom (State Geologist) and Mr. Roger
Springman of the Wisconsin Natural History and Geological
Survey, Madison, Wisconsin. This source could offer no
direct help or data other than a contract which had been
let to Dr. Joseph Mengel of Superior, Wisconsin, to analyze
overall sediment load of certain northern Wisconsin streams,
While this study is still underway, it will not directly
relate to locations or extent of streambank erosion.
-Mr. Richard Livingston of the Northwest Wisconsin Planning
Commission office in Spooner, Wisconsin. While this
commission has planning studies underway for future soil
-------
erosion control, their files did not contain any present
data on the subject.
-Mr. William Rose of the United States Geological Survey
regional office in Madison, Wisconsin. While this source
had much information on northern Wisconsin stream discharge,
sediment bed load and regional geology, they possessed
no specific red clay erosion information.
-Mr. John Streich, Conservationist with the Douglas County
Soil Conservation District in Superior. This service was
able to contribute much information and ultimately was
responsible for supplying the majority of subject matter
for Douglas County.
—Mr. Thomas Weix, Area Resource Conservationist with
Pri-Ru-Ta RC&D project office, Spooner. Except for
supplying the original map employed in drafting the
Wisconsin master base maps, no additional data was
available from this source.
—Mr. Gregory Sevener of the State of Wisconsin Department
of Natural Resources office in Spooner, Wisconsin. No
red clay soil erosion information was available.
—Mr. Emil Meitzner, Materials Engineer with the Superior
Office of the Wisconsin Department of Transportation.
This office supplied maps and descriptions of numerous
erosion sites along state and county roads in Douglas,
Bayfield and Ashland Counties. Only a minority of these
sites had a description of erosion problems and recommenda-
tions; the remaining listed only geographic location and
approximate length with no additional data.
—Mr. Clarence Austin, District Manager of the Soil
Conservation Service for Ashland, Bayfield and Iron
Counties. This source, coupled with that information
obtained from Mr. John Streich, supplied the majority
of the Wisconsin data obtained in this report.
4-92
-------
-Mr. Dennis Van Hoff of the Ashland Office, Coastal Zone
Management program. Here reference was given to the
Northwest Wisconsin Planning Commission office.
Minnesota Source
—Mr. Donald Benrud, District Conservationist, Soil
Conservation Service, Barnum, Minnesota. Prom this
excellent source it was learned that the roadways of
Carlton County had been totally surveyed for soil erosion
characteristics and that few of the rivers within the
red clay belt had been similarly analyzed. This resulted
in the sole source of Minnesota information.
COMPILATION OP SOIL EROSION RECORDS
INTO AN UNIFORM FORMAT
All such records have been reproduced and are presented
within this report. In many cases the information had to be
typed as the originals were in the form of field notes. Maps
and/or copies of aerial photographs are also included for
complete reference.
The formats have been minimized as much as possible. In
those very few cases where it was deemed desirable to continue
the format as presented, so as to not lose any information in
translation, the original style of presentation was maintained.
ESTABLISHMENT AS AN OVERLAY SYSTEM,
IN CARTOGRAPHIC CODE,
THE PERTINENT INFORMATION OBTAINED IN STAGE THREE
During this final stage the information that was gathered
o'toT^LI T^f StaSeS three (3> aad fOUP W WaS -constituted
onto a MYLAR plastic sheeting overlay for each of the master set
of six (6) base maps. Each overlay was registered to the master
set. An acceptable cartographic code was determined as a result
of several meetings between the contractor and contractee, as
xoxxows•
493
-------
-solid orange line superimposed over the transportation
network will indicate where red clay erosion surveys
have already been accomplished
-solid orange data adjacent to the roadways will indicate
a construction site (potential-sites may or may not
have had construction done: reference back to technical
appendix for further reference to actual work sites) such
as seeding, mulching cribbing or soil bank grading
This singular color was chosen due to expenses of multi-
color printing of the MYLAR overlays.
In addition to the above work, conducted according to
specifications of the contract, several additional services
were rendered by the Center for Lake Superior Environmental
Studies. These involve the following:
-production of twenty-five (25) black line ammonia copies
of each of the six (6) master maps with the red clay
sedimentation boundary outlined in red; total copies
equal one hundred and fifty (150)
-printing of twenty-five (25) single color copies each of
the MYLAR overlay for each of the six (6) master maps by
Weber Printing Company of Park Falls, Wisconsin; total
copies equal one hundred and fifty (150)
494-
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PHASE II
FIELD ANALYSIS OP RED CLAY STKEAMBANK AND HIGHWAY EROSION
by
D. R. Bray, P. L. Webster and A. B. Dickas"
In a contract dated 4 October 1977, a preliminary investi-
gation was undertaken to establish the known extent of Pleistocene
red clay erosion along the transportation network and major
streambanks of Douglas, Ashland, Bayfield and Iron Counties,
Wisconsin and Carlton County, Minnesota. This contract was
drawn up between the Center for Lake Superior Environmental
Studies of the University of Wisconsin-Superior and the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (acting through their Grant
Number G-005140) with two (2) specific options in Ld, as
follows:
1. Within the five (5) county subject area what is the
extent of Pleistocene aged red clay sedimentation?
2. Of this sedimentation extent, how much has been
analyzed as to the extent and habit of roadside and
trunk streambank erosion?
The solution of these questions was accomplished in a five
April
1. Drafting of five (5) county base maps of scale allowing
ease of determination of geographic area and length.
2. Drafting of an overlay system displaying areas of
recorded red clay roadside/streambank erosion.
3. Superimposition of known extent of red clay sedimentation
on base maps.
4. Search of regional and state records and collection
of all information that pertains to past surveys of
subject erosion.
5. Compilation of such records and maps into a uniform
format report.
'Center for Lake Superior Environmental Studies, University of
Wisconsin-Superior. university of
495
-------
In late April of 1978 the above tasks were completed and
submitted to Mr. Steve Andrews, Project Director of the Red Clay
Erosion Demonstration Project. At that time one final task
remained: that of surveying the erosion sites in those areas of
the five county subject area that had yet to be analyzed. This
report deals with the accomplishments completed under this
second phase.
After several meetings with Eed Clay Project personnel it
was agreed that a complete survey, including all stream trunk
streams and first order tributaries, and remaining roadside
analysis, could not be accomplished in the designated period
June through August 1978. Rather four (4) target areas were
chosen for additional erosion data collection. These areas
were:
1. All remaining stretches of roadside erosion.
2. A sector of a red clay basin that has been subjected
principally to recreation usage.
3. A sector of a red clay basin that has been utilized
principally for agricultural purposes.
4. A sector of a red clay basin that has been maintained
basically in a virgin state.
SPECIFIC TARGET AREAS
Prom Phase I review it was learned that the majority of
the roadsides within the five (5) county red clay zone had
been erosion surveyed to date. The two (2) remaining sectors
completed during Phase II were:
1 All roadsides within Ashland County within the
townships of Gingles, Sanborn, and White River, plus
portions of Marengo, Ashland and Morse Townships.
2. Roadsides within the following townships of Douglas
County: Parkland, Northern Oakland, Amnicon, Northwest
Hawthorne, Cloverland, Northern Brule and Northern
Maple .
496
-------
This analysis entailed driving all state, county and township
roads in the above mentioned sectors to locate and catalogue all
roadside erosion sites. Locations were plotted on a cartographic
overlay to be employed in conjunction with the maps completed
during Phase I. Each written description contains dimensions
in feet (length, width and height), type of erosion and volume
of erosion. The format of this data presentation conforms to
that used in the Carlton County section of the Phase I final
report for ease of comparison.
As previously mentioned, sections of three (3) red clay
drainage basins were chosen for purposes of comparing red clay
erosion along trunk stream courses being utilized for differing
purposes. After field analysis, attempts were made to compare
and contrast erosion -data so as to determine human impact versus
natural erosion within these differing basins. The Bois Brule
of Douglas County and the White River of Bayfield/Ashland County
were canoed, while the North Pish of Bayfield was analyzed on
foot. Specific tasks included location of erosion sites on a
topographic map base, determination of dimensions (length, width
and height) of erosion site in feet, type of erosion (slide or
washout), probable cause and approximate age. As in the roadside
analysis, these locations are presented in outline description
and are plotted on an overlay to be used with the maps constructed
during Phase I. Again, the format previously employed within
Carlton County was utilized for ease of comparison.
In both roadside and streambank analysis black and white
Photographs were occasionally taken of unusual slides so as to
make the written description more meaningful to the reader
* description of the specific stretch or trunk stream within
each basin is as follows:
1. Bois Brule River: that approximate sixteen (16) mile
length of thalweg lying between the intersection of
Highway PP north to entry into Lake Superior. This
river was chosen because it is utilized basically as
a recreational water course: fishing, canoeing and
kayaking.
497
-------
2 North Fish River: that approximate twenty (20) mile
length of thalweg lying between the upper crossing of
Highway 2 (Section 29, T4?N, R6W Bayfield County) and
the crossing of Highway 2 near the University of
Wisconsin Experimental Station (Section 2, T4?N, R5W
Bayfield County). This site was chosen as one heavily
influenced by agricultural utilization.
3 White River: that approximate fifteen (15) mile
length of thalweg from near intersection of Highway
63 with County Road E (Section 1, T45N, R6W Bayfield
County) northeast to the White River Flowage Dam
(Section 6, T46N, RA-W Ashland County). This stretch
of river was chosen as an area representative of a
relatively virgin sub-course, minimally impacted by
the activities of man.
GENERAL REPORT OF ACTIVITIES
The portion of this survey concerning roadside erosion was
completed during the period from June 5 to July 3, 1978. Before
beginning the actual survey a meeting was held with Donald Benrud
and his staff at Barnum, Minnesota in order to determine exactly
how the survey of Carlton County was originally conducted, i.e.
the survey after which Phase II work would be patterned. It
found that the original surveys were done quite early « «"
spring of the year when vegetation cover was minimal. Nevertheless,
it was agreed that an adequate and comparative dob during the
month of June could be conducted. Mr. Benrud •Witio^
supplied information relating to field methodology and level of
da" TllTove mentioned roads were driven by project associates
Paul L. Webster and David R. Bray, one driving, and one keeping
notes and recording data. Each site was plotted on a standard
township map and later transferred to a plastic overlay created
in Phase I of this project. Each map site was numbered and a
corresponding description was recorded. This description included
4-98
-------
dimensions of the site in feet (length, width, depth) from which
volume was calculated. Type of erosion was recorded as either
sliding or washing, and classified as either disturbance or
inadequate design. Location was noted as ditch bottom, inslope
or backslope or some combination of the three, and an attempt '
was made to date the site as either under or over three years of
age. Additional notes were added where necessary.
The accuracy of measurement or roadside erosion was made to
the nearest foot, though it was found that in longer sites
accurate measurement of depth and width was highly subjective
because each varied greatly along the length of a chosen site.
In order to arrive at an acceptable estimate of volume, it was
necessary for the project personnel to average depth and width
along any individual erosion site length.
That portion of this survey concerning streambank erosion
was completed in the period from July 6 to August 1, 1978.
The streambank erosion survey entailed many different
problems even though the same general type of data determined
as a result of the roadside surveys was sought. A similar data
format was employed for the roadside survey except that the
section on "Location" and that on "Cause" was deleted. Instead
of recording site locations on township maps, topographic maps
were employed which intended to portray better detail concerning
the rivers flow plus a better overall indication of bank elevation,
as expressed by contour analysis.
Because of time limitations and difficulties of directly
measuring each site, it was decided to estimate length as well
as width and depth. The largest problem encountered with estimating
the w,dth and depth of sites was related to the fact that so much
material had slid into the river proper and had thus been completely
washed away that it became a matter of attempting to reconstruct
approximately what each site had looked like prior to the slide
and then estimating the differences. Along much of the White River
and North Pish Creek every meander along the river contained a
major slide. For the most part the slides were not active at the
time of site visit, although some heavy rains were encountered
during the field season.
499
-------
In reviewing the relationship of erosion to use activity
in the differing river basins studied, it was found that despite
the differing natures of the three rivers (natural, agricultural
and recreational) the major cause of erosion in all three was
basically natural (i.e. direct erosion by differential stream
discharge and undercutting and resulting slumping of streambanks)
and thus would be virtually uncontrollable. In only a few sites
was erosion seen that could directly be related to agricultural
use and here the direct cause was that of migrating I""**-
Man-caused erosion was evidenced only along the Bois Brule Elver
at recreational canoe entry and exit sites near the highway FF
bridge and along highway 15, and even here damage was categorized
as minor. . ...
The remaining portions of this report contain details
regarding each specific and analyzed erosion site.
500
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-905/9-79-002 B
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Impact of Nonpoint Pollution Control on Western
Lake Superior Red Clay Project
Final Part I]
S. REPORT DATE
February 1980
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
'. AUTHOR(S)
Stephen C. Andrews - Project Director
8. PERFORMING-ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
I. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Douglas County Soil and Water Conservation District
Douglas County Courthouse
Superior, Wisconsin 5-4880
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
^ACT/GRANT NO.
S005140
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Great Lakes National Program Office
'Room 932, 536 South Clark Street
Chicago, Illinois 60605
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final - May 1974-Dec.l978
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Section 108(a) Program Coordinator-Ralph G. Christensen
U.S. EPA Project Officer- Carl D. Wilson
16. ABSTRACT
This project was in support of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act(PL 92-500).
The objectives are to demonstrate economically feasible methods of improving
water quality, to assess the capabilities of existing institutions to
cooperatively implement a pollution control program and to provide data
recommendations that could be used in future programs. The monitoring of
water quality and climatic conditions were carried out in all geographic areas
where research and field demonstration activities were performed. This
document is the final report of the Red Clay Project.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COS AT I Field/Group
Sediment
Erosion
Water Quality
Institutional
Socio-economic
Nutrients
Land treatment
.c
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Document available from Performing Office
or NTIS, Springfield, Virginia 22151
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
21. NO. OF PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
if U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1980—654-585
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