United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region V
Great Lakes National
Program Office
536 S. Clark St.
Chicago, Illinois 60605
vvEPA
EPA 905/9-79-002-C
February, 1980
Red Clay Project
Impact of Nonpoint
Pollution Control on
Western Lake Superior
Final
Part
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Preface
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was created because of increasing
public and governmental concern about the dangers of pollution to the
health and welfare of the American people. Noxious air, foul water, and
spoiled land are tragic testimony to the deterioration of our natural
environment.
The Great Lakes National Program Office(GLNPO) of the U.S. EPA was
established in Region V, Chicago, to provide specific focus on the water
quality concerns of the Great Lakes. The Section 108(a) Demonstration
Grant Program of the Clean Water Act(PL 92-500) is specific to the Great
Lakes drainage basin and thus is administered by the Great Lakes National
Program Office.
Several sediment erosion-control projects within the Great Lakes drainage
basin have been funded as a result of Section 108(a). This report describes
one such project supported by this office to carry out our responsibility
to improve water quality in the Great Lakes.
We hope the information and data contained herein will help planners and
managers of pollution control agencies to make better decisions in
carrying forward their pollution control responsibilities.
Madonna F. McGrath
Director
Great Lakes National Program Office
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EPA 905/9-79-002-C
February, 1980
IMPACT OF NONPOINT
POLLUTION CONTROL
ON
WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR
"Western Lake Superior Basin Erosion-Sediment Control Project'
RED CLAY PROJECT
FINAL REPORT
PART III
Application, Monitoring
A Cooperative Interstate Effort Between the
Ashland, Bayfield, Carlton, Douglas, and Iron County
Soil and Water Conservation Districts
Prepared by:
STEPHEN C. ANDREWS
Project Director
RALPH G. CHRISTENSEN CARL D. WILSON
Section 108(a) Program Coordinator Project Officer
Prepared for:
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Great Lakes National Program Office
536 South Clark Street, Room 932
Chicago, Illinois 60605
(312) 353-2117
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Great Lakes National Program
Office, Region V, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
11
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COOPERATING AGENCIES AND PERSONNEL
Arrowhead Regional Development Commission
Richard Isle
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources
Dan Retka
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
John Pegors
Minnesota Soil and Water Conservation Board
Steve Pedersen
Vern Reinert
National Association of Conservation Districts
William Horvath
Northland College
Robert Brander
Tom Klein
Virginia Prentice
Northwest Regional Planning Commission
Mark Mueller
John Post
United States Army Corps of Engineers
Louis Kowalski
United States Bureau of Indian Affairs --USDI
Charles McCudy
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Ralph Christensen
Carl Wilson
United States Geological Survey
Eno Giacomini
Steve Hindall
Vito Latkovich
William Rose
Ron Wolf
iii
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United States Soil Conservation Service - USDA
Clarence Austin
Don Benrud
John Oirrada
Steve Payne
John Streich
Peg Whiteside
University of Minnesota-Duluth
Don Olson
Michael Sydor
University of Minnesota-Extension
Arnie Heikkila
University of Wisconsin-Extension
William Lontz
Raymond Polzin
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Tuncer Edil
Peter Monkmeyer
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Bruce Brown
University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
Bob Burull
University of Wisconsin-Superior
David Bray
Donald Davidson
Philip DeVore
Albert Dickas
Larry Kapustka
Rudy Koch
Joseph Mengel
William Swenson
Paul Webster
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Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water Conservation Districts
Don Houtman
Eugene Savage
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
John Konrad
Wisconsin Department of Transportation
Emil Meitzner
Wisconsin Red Clay Interagency Committee
William Briggs
Garit Tenpas
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART II
A. Administration, Public Information and Education
Cooperating Agencies and Personnel. .
......... 'ill
Table oi' Contents ......
............ • vi
Introduction ................. ,
Summary Report ................. 2
Executive Committee Project Reports .......... 43
Project Specialist Report ..............
Information/Education Report ..............
National Association of Conservation Districts ...... 66
Madigan Beach Film Report .............. 72
PART II
B. Research
Red Clay Slope Stability Factors
Effect of Red Clay Turbidity and Sedimentation
on Aquatic Life
Vegetation and Red Clay Soils Stability ......... 266
Vegetational Cover Analysis ............... 276
Effect of Vegetative Cover on Soil/Water Content
and Erosion Control
Role of Plant Roots in Red Clay Erosion ......... 338
Evaluation of Red Clay Interagency Committee
Works Project
Roadside and Streambank Erosion Surveys ......... 489
Field Analysis of Streambank and Roadside Erosion . . . .495
PART III
A. Applications
Cooperating Agencies and Personnel ............ ill
Table of Contents ....... -
............ vi
Introduction ................... -^
Summary Report ....... ........... 2
vi
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PART III
A. Applications (cont.)
Erosion and Sediment Control Project Evaluation ^3
1_ ~^) y
Shore Protection Evaluation
PART III
B. Monitoring
Editor's Note: Water Quality Monitoring Data 328
Hydrologic Characteristics of the Upper Nemadji
River Basin, Minnesota J
Editor's Note: Water Quality Monitoring Data 377
Bedload Transport in the Lower Nemadji
River, Wisconsin
Meteorological Monitoring of the Red Clay Project . . . .385
vii
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INTRODUCTION
The Final Report of the Red Clay Project is presented in
three parts: Part One, published in November 1978, presents
a summary of results, conclusions and recommendations for the
Project; Part Two consists of the texts of the Final Reports
prepared in the areas of general administration, public
information and education, and research; Part Three consists
of the texts of the Final Reports prepared in the fields of
installation, applications research and monitoring.
In the case of Parts Two and Three, the technical
appendices accompanies the appropriate text.
The Table of Contents for Parts Two and Three are both
found in their entirety in each document for cross-referencing
purposes. It should be noted, that some reports do not have a
corresponding appendix. In the case of Erosion Survey Phases
I & II, prepared by Bray, Dickas and Webster, the appendix is
so large as to prohibit publication. Similarly, the water
quality data generated by the U.S. Geological Survey is
referenced by STORET reference number and are not presented
in toto.
Specific requests for information should be forwarded
to the Principal Investigator responsible for the project.
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PROJECT SUMMARY
Stephen. C. Andrews
Project Director
Since the first settlers arrived in the western Lake
Superior basin, the red clay soils dominating the region have
presented problems. For those involved with lumbering,
construction, agriculture and transportation, the primary
concern was the pervasiveness of the erosion problem and
associated damages and costs.
With the formation of soil and water conservation
districts in the 1930's and WO's, the red clay erosion
problem, particularly as it affected agriculture, began receiving
attention. In the early 1950 's the first systematic study of
erosion and land use problems was initiated in Wisconsin by the
governor-appointed Red Clay Interagency Committee. This early
work was primarily aimed at demonstrating techniques for reducing
upland and roadside erosion and stabilizing streambanks. The
focus of this committee's efforts was more on treating the
erosion problem than on abating water pollution.
The first Lake Superior Water Quality Conference in the
early 1970 's focused some attention on the south shore erosion
and sediment problems. In response, Wisconsin's Red Clay
Interagency Committee was given the charge of identifying the
extent of the problem and outlining an erosion and sediment
abatement plan.
At about this same time, the soil and water conservation
districts from Douglas County, Wisconsin and Carlton County,
Minnesota met jointly to consider ways of reducing erosion in
the Nemadji River Basin. With assistance from the Northwest
Wisconsin Regional Planning Commission, the Onanegozie Resource
Conservation and Development Project and the Pri-Ru-Ta Resource
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Conservation and Development Project, the two districts prepared
plans for studying the problems and originated proposals for
funds to implement the plans.
In 1973 the Wisconsin Board of Soil and Water Conservation
Districts was instrumental in arranging a tour of the red clay
area for representatives from Region V of the United States
Environmental Protection Agency. The Environmental Protection
Agency was authorized by Congress to demonstrate new methods
for improving water quality in the Great Lakes with funding
provided by Section 108 of the 1972 Amendments to the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act. In May of 197^ with a grant from
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the continuing
assistance of many agencies, the soil and water conservation
districts from Ashland, Bayfield, Douglas and Iron Counties
in Wisconsin and Carlton County in Minnesota began the Red
Clay Project.
This document is the final report of the Red Clay Project.
It is the summary report which presents the project's findings,
conclusions and recommendations and is accompanied by a
technical report which contains detailed accounts on the
various research and demonstration activities.
NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION PROBLEMS
With the passage of the 1972 Amendments to the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act (Public Law 92-500), a renewed
national emphasis was placed on solving the problems of water
pollution. This act granted powers and authorities for studying
the problems and for planning workable ways to solve them.
The act classified the serious water quality problems which
inspired it into two major types based on their source.
"Point" sources of pollution include readily identifiable sources
such as municipal sewage treatment plants and industrial
waste discharge systems. "Nonpoint" sources of pollution are
less easily identified because they are varied and diffuse.
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They include runoff and seepage from agricultural land, urban
areas, forestry activities, construction and maintenance
operations, and mining sites.
Common pollutants from nonpoint sources are sediment,
nutrients, pesticides, heavy metals and salts. Of these,
sediment is the most abundant and, in some ways, is the most
severe because it is not only a pollutant itself, but transports
other pollutants.
RED CLAY PROBLEMS
The red clay area of the western Lake Superior basin
extends in a narrow band from northeastern Minnesota to the
western portion of Michigan's upper peninsula. The predominant
soils in this area are red clays interspersed with sands and
silts. They were originally deposited as lake sediment during
glacial periods but now, due to lake recession and geologic
uplift, they form much of the land mass of present-day Lake
Superior's south shore.
The soils are young and are undergoing a high rate of
natural erosion as a geologic equilibrium evolves. When man
settled in the area his lumbering, construction and agricultural
activities removed the established vegetation and altered
drainage patterns in ways that accelerated this already high
rate of erosion. Present-day activities, although not intensive,
do still aggravate the erosion processes. In turn, erosion is
detrimental to man's land and water-based activities alike.
The major nonpoint sources of pollution in this area are
the lakeshores, streambanks and other slopes. The damaging
pollutants are sediment, turbidity and color. The heterogeneous
mixture of clay and sand produces soils with very little stability
which, when exposed to varying moisture conditions on steep
elopes, often erodes severely. Once in the water, the heavy
particles settle out as sediment and the fine particles remain
suspended for long periods increasing the water's turbidity.
Further, the red clays contain approximately 2 percent extractable
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iron oxide which produces a very visible and objectionable
color. It is this iron oxide which is responsible for the
red color of the streams and the red plumes where streams
discharge into Lake Superior. This phenomenon occurs even
when the turbidity and sediment rates are low.
THE RED CLAY PROJECT
The Red Clay Project was a research and demonstration
project sponsored by five soil and water conservation districts
from two states. The local district supervisors were committed
to the task of seeking practical solutions to the many forms
of red clay erosion and the resulting water quality problems. To
assist them in their task, they applied for and received a
grant from the United States Environmental Protection Agency
under the provisions set forth in Section 108 of the 1972
Amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (PL 92-500).
The overall objectives of this partnership were to demonstrate
economically feasible methods of improving water quality, to
assess the capabilities of existing institutions to cooperatively
implement a pollution control program and to provide data and
recommendations that could be used in future programs.
The agreement between the federal Environmental Protection
Agency and the local soil and water conservation districts
involved considerably more interagency cooperation than a
strictly two-way, federal-local alliance. Soil and water
conservation districts have been legally empowered by their
respective states to enter into cooperative agreements with
other units of government and their agencies to accomplish common
objectives. Since their inception, districts have built up
working relationships with numerous federal, state and local
agencies. Using their legal authorities and these established
relationships, the soil and water conservation districts from
Ashland, Bayfield, Douglas and Iron Counties in Wisconsin and
Carlton County in Minnesota joined together and called upon
their cooperating agencies to help them develop, implement and
evaluate the Red Clay Project.
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To govern this complex association of institutions,
the sponsoring districts formed an executive committee with
equal representation from each district. The Douglas County
Soil and Water Conservation District was designated the fiscal
agent and it assumed responsibility for the grant with the
Environmental Protection Agency. The chairman of this five-
member committee was also from the Douglas County District.
The function of the executive committee was to set administrative
policy, approve programs and administer financial affairs.
Although the Douglas County Soil and Water Conservation
District was appointed the fiscal agent, under the terms of the
grant agreement the individual districts maintained the authority
to manage programs within their district. This authority held
by the individual districts included the power to write contracts,
make local financial decisions and operate and maintain their
own programs and installations. This procedure allowed
districts to manage the project in their area consistent with
their ongoing programs and policies.
In a similar manner, each soil and water conservation
district retained the power to conduct other Red Clay Project
operations in a manner consistent with the established order
in that district. A voluntary compliance approach was used to
solicit participation by local units of government and private
landowners. Participation, therefore, depended upon individual
priorities, budgets and the ability to provide local services
and to meet local costs. The solicitation of landowners for
participation in the Red Clay Project was done by each conservation
district following procedures established by that district. The
cost-share rates were consistent with local conservation aid
programs and were not specifically designed to encourage program
participation with artificially high rates.
Although many of the project operations were controlled
by the individual soil and water conservation districts, overall
procedural uniformity was maintained through the use of an
operations manual. This manual, prepared especially for the
project, outlined procedures for reviewing and approving program
items and for obtaining reimbursements in a timely fashion.
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AREAS OF STUDY
Early in the development of the project, several directions
for field study were identified by the executive committee and
the project director with the assistance of a multiple-agency
technical and research advisory committee. Research and field
demonstration projects were chosen which would increase the
understanding of the mechanisms affecting the pollutant load
to area streams and to Lake Superior. Areas of study were also
selected which would, in turn, identify the effects of this
pollutant load on the streams and the lake. An attempt was
made to incorporate a wide range of problem areas but at the
same time to have them complement one another and provide an
integrated picture of the erosion and water quality problems
of the red clay area. A premium was placed on the generation
of data essential to the formulation of useful recommendations
for the development of long-term water quality programs.
Geographical study areas which were selected were
representative of conditions in the entire watershed. Research
was conducted only in the Nemadji River basin. The monitoring
of water quality and climatic conditions was carried out in
all geographic areas where research and field demonstration
activities were performed. The following criteria were used
to select geographical areas for project studies:
1. The proportion of loamy glacial till and sandy beach
deposits in the uplands with respect to the clayey lacustrine
basin.
2. The relationship of present land use patterns within the
study area to land use patterns in the basin. The ratio of
open cropland and pasture to woodland was used to indicate
the relative intensity of land use within the area.
3. The presence of actively eroding areas along the river
channels and drainageways. Erosion conditions in the
geographical areas were representative of those in the
entire basin.
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4. The roadside erosion taking place within the study areas
Roadside erosion in the study areas was also representative
of the entire basin.
5. The land ownership patterns. Land rights were generally
easier to obtain and it was assumed that ongoing practice
maintenance would be easier on publicly owned land.
6. Access to the work sites. Most of the eroding areas
in the basin had very limited access. Although it was
necessary to construct some roads, this was minimized by
attempts to select easily accessable sites.
7. The distribution of geographical study areas to coincide
with political boundaries. An attempt was made to have
at least one study area in each soil and water conservation
district. The work done in each study area was determined
by the needs of the sponsoring district, the budget limitations
of that district and the project and the uniqueness of the
site and the proposed work.
Using these considerations, six geographical study areas
were selected. In the following discussion, references made
to the sediment-producing capabilities of these watersheds were
based on the use of the Universal Soil Loss Equation during the
planning stages of the project. The study areas delineated for
the Red Clay Project were:
1. Skunk Creek Watershed in Carlton County, Minnesota —
A relatively high sediment-producing basin covering
approximately 10.? square miles. Land use intensity within
the basin was relatively low. There were, however, numerous
streambank and roadside erosion sites in this subwatershed.
2. Little Balsam Creek Watershed in Douglas County, Wisconsin -
A moderate sediment-producing watershed covering about 5.4
square miles. Land use intensity within the basin was
judged to be relatively low.
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3. Pine Creek Watershed in Bayfield County, Wisconsin ~
A moderate sediment-producing basin covering approximately
15.7 square miles. Land use intensity here was estimated
to be moderate.
4. Spoon Creek Watershed in Iron County, Wisconsin —
A moderate sediment-producing watershed covering about
three square miles. Land use intensity was low.
5. Madigan Beach in Ashland County, Wisconsin — As a site
for shoreline protection work, Madigan Beach was selected
for its high, actively eroding bluffs and exposure to
severe, Lake Superior storms.
6. Indian Cemetery Beach on Madeline Island in Ashland
County, Wisconsin — As another area for shoreline protection
demonstrations, this site was selected for its low bluff,
narrow beach and cultural and historical significance.
RED CLAY SLOPE STABILITY STUDIES
Red Clay Project researchers undertook studies of the
condition and behavior of the soils within the Lake Superior
red clay area. The purpose of the studies was to utilize
available sampling and testing techniques and opportunities
to determine the depths of the zones in which massive slope
failure normally occurs. Also studied were the mechanical
properties and behavioral traits of the soils and their
relationships to slope stability and rates of erosion.
These studies resulted in findings which have broadened
the field of information on which our understanding of the soils
of this region is based. Several conclusions were arrived at
from which corrective measures can be derived. The findings and
conclusions are:
1. The clay soils of this region generally contain approximately
two percent extractable iron oxide.
2. Man's early removal of the forest cover, modification of
natural drainage patterns and other activities have promoted
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drying in a five to seven foot thick surface zone of
the clay soils.
3. Drying in this surface zone has changed the mechanical
behavior of the clay from a plastic solid to a brittle
solid susceptible to fissuring and massive slope failure.
4. Moisture accumulation in fissures provides the necessary
lubrication for flowing and sliding to occur within the
surface zone.
5- The topography of the red clay area will continue to
evolve under the influence of natural processes.
6. There are workable practices which man can incorporate
into land use plans which will slow natural erosion
processes.
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF VEGETATION IN
MODERATING RED CLAY EROSION
The Red Clay Project conducted research on the relationship
between erosion and vegetation. Two studies were done to
determine how vegetation helps control the amount of water in
the soil. Soil stability was suspected to be related to a
rather narrow range of moisture content. Dry conditions
encouraged soil fractures and crumbling, while wet conditions
created liquid-like conditions and soil slippages. Another
study was undertaken to determine the way plant roots exert
holding power to counteract soil movement.
The findings and conclusions of these studies are:
1. Vegetation plays a major role in retarding erosion in the
geologically young red clay soils. However, no type of
vegetation alone can completely offset the natural erosion
forces.
2. Grasses and herbaceous plants yield beneficial anti-
erosion effects. However, their relatively shallow and weak
roots do not serve to prevent massive slope failure in
surface zones where brittle clay conditions already exist.
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3. Woody plant species have stronger root systems which do
help prevent slides.
4. Of all vegetation types, climax woody species (such as
firs, pines and maples) provide the best erosion control
because of their stronger root systems and the manner
in which their canopies intercept rainfall.
5. Woody climax vegetation species are not efficient at
lowering soil moisture content.
6. Herbaceous species and some woody species (aspens) are
relatively more efficient at removing water from soil.
7. The use of vegetative methods specifically for reducing
soil moisture content in the surface zones of red clay soils
has not been shown to be beneficial for controlling
massive slides. Species which are best suited for water
removal (grasses and aspens) are most effective in drier
years when they tend to lower moisture content too far
which, in turn, induces fracturing, fissure formation and
a greater potential for massive slide erosion.
THE EFFECTS OF RED CLAY TURBIDITY AND SEDIMENTATION ON
AQUATIC LIFE IN WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR BASIN RIVERS
Research was undertaken to assess the effect of relatively
low levels of sedimentation and turbidity on aquatic life in red
clay area streams. Through systematic water quality monitoring,
sampling aquatic life populations and assessing the aquatic
environment, researchers studied behavioral patterns of numerous
species of aquatic life in both natural and laboratory settings.
Researchers were looking for relationships between these
aquatic animal species and varying levels of nutrients, turbidity
and sedimentation.
Previous aquatic life studies in other areas had focused on
situations where man's activities such as logging, mining and
agriculture had Had the effect of creating extremely high levels
of stream sedimentation. The glacial lake deposits of the
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Nemadji River system are highly erodible even under strictly
natural conditions. However, due to the nature of the inter-
relationship between red clay erosion and red clay sediment, the
small particle size of the clay and the amount of extractable
iron oxide in the clay, the general condition of the streams
is one of low sediment loads, low turbidity and a high amount
of color.
Aquatic problems attributed in the past to red clay
turbidity have included the substitution of undesirable fish
species for more desirable ones, negative effects on spawning
runs, decreased oxygen levels and increased nutrients as well
as general observations on "adverse effects on biological life
processes." None of these statements can be supported by the
findings from this research in the Nemadji River basin.
Analysis of areas of Lake Superior and the Nemadji River
system which are turbid throughout the year due to erosion of
unconsolidated glacial lake deposits indicated that any direct,
physical effects of this turbidity and resultant low level
sedimentation are minimal. Furthermore, although turbidity does
induce important changes in aquatic life behavioral patterns,
changes found through this research were, for the most part,
considered beneficial rather than detrimental to the survival
of native species.
Although a positive balance seems to have been struck
between present levels of turbidity and sedimentation, and existing
aquatic life in the red clay portions of the Nemadji River, the
potentially severe effects of erosion on aquatic life elsewhere,
or even here under artificially accelerated conditions, should
not be underestimated. It is well known that soil mismanagement
can upset the natural balance to the extent that severe short
and long-term consequences are inevitable for aquatic flora
and fauna.
The findings of this research are that:
1. Red Clay does not contribute significant quantities of
nutrients to Lake Superior but may serve to transport
nutrients contributed from other sources.
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2. Oxygen levels are not significantly affected by red clay
or associated organics.
3. Primary production does not appear to be significantly
affected by turbidity within the range of depths at which
most production occurs in these relatively shallow streams.
4. Bacteria exhibit no definite trends with turbidity within
sites, but do seem to have higher counts in turbid than in
non-turbid sites. Fungal counts exhibit opposite trends.
Bacterial and fungal populations are generally beneficial
to the aquatic system as they are the primary food source
for many of the macroinvertebrates.
5. Number of macroinvertebrates per unit area, total number of
taxa, diversity, and biomass are not significantly affected
by clay turbidity and siltation within the Nemadji River
system.
6. The size of particles on the stream bed had much greater
effects on macroinvertebrates than turbidity and sedimenta-
tion. Only where sand was the primary product were significant
detrimental effects of erosion identified.
7. All genera of insects which occurred in clear streams also
occurred in turbid streams. Certain insects generally
associated with silts, especially certain mayflies and
beetle larvae, were found only in the turbid streams.
8. Laboratory monitoring of activity and respiration of the
stonefly demonstrated no significant effects at turbidity
levels normally encountered in the Nemadji River basin.
9. Fish populations were not demonstrated to change as a
result of turbid conditions but rather, because of water
temperature and discharge differences between turbid and
clear water sites. All species benefitted from increased
cover which is harder to maintain in turbid streams due
to increased tendencies for slippage at toes of the clay
banks.
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10. Walleye in the lower Nemadji River, the Duluth-Superior
harbor, and Lake Superior benefit from red clay turbidity
as it enables them to inhabit the shallow, more productive
waters.
11. Rainbow smelt and four species of suckers successfully
reproduce in the turbid areas of the Nemadji River.
12. Egg survival bioassays with walleye and rainbow smelt
indicated decreased survival at turbidities over 10 ftu.
Survival was at least half of control at turbidities
prevalent in the Nemadji River. Levels of sedimentation
in the bioassay were much higher than in the natural system,
probably resulting in higher egg mortality than would
naturally occur.
13. Channel form and available cover are the primary factors
affecting fish population size for all species in the
Nemadji River system.
LAND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Although the Red Clay Project offered innovative opportunities
and unique challenges, most of the "on-land" erosion control
measures were not entirely new to local officials, farmers and
other managers of the land. All the counties had long been
designated soil and water conservation districts and had applied
conventional soil conservation programs frequently in cooperation
with the Soil Conservation Service and other institutions.
What was new was the opportunity to accelerate these programs
in areas of each district where red clays pose widespread and
persistently critical erosion problems. What was unique was
the challenge of adapting conventional soil management techniques
to the perplexing red clay conditions. What was innovative was
a mandate to apply these traditional measures in combinations and
in locations which would yield some demonstrable impact on water
quality.
A typical five-step, problem-solving approach was followed
by investigators in assisting with land management practices.
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Generally, the first step was to identify critical problems and
inventory their locations. The second step was to develop
alternative solutions. The third step was to assist in the
selection of the most feasible and acceptable solutions. And
the fourth and fifth steps were to implement and evaluate the
selected land management practices. The presence of an over-
riding objective of enhancing water quality, and not simply of
preventing soil loss, served to influence the work, and decisions
about it, throughout each of the five problem solving steps.
Thus, to cite a hypothetical example, given a choice between
treating a severely critical fertile area which had little
likelihood of loading its eroding soil into a water course or
treating a moderately critical fallow-soil area which was certain
to degrade a nearby body of water, the latter would receive
attention through the Red Clay Project.
The Universal Soil Loss Equation was used as an indication
of soil loss and the effectiveness of land treatment. The
equation could not address the problem of transport nor could
it be applied to raw streambanks or slide areas adjacent to
streams. In Pine Creek, 90% of the land area averaged .15 tons
per acre per year soil loss. Little Balsam Creek study area
averaged .55 tons per acre per year and Skunk Creek was within
the allowable soil loss (3-5 tons per acre per year). The
average annual estimated soil loss for the study areas was
slightly less than 1.0 ton per acre. These soil loss estimates
indicate that a relatively small percentage of the total land
area contributes a disproportionately large share of the sediment
in streams and lakes. The task of matching conservation practices
to such critical areas is a process which must include an awareness
to conditions specific to each site as well as a sensitivity
to landowner attitudes, project costs and potential benefits.
Although any erosion control practice may be appropriate
under certain conditions, those practices which have be,en found
to be the most applicable to conditions encountered during the
course of the Red Clay Project are listed below. The selection
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of these practices as the most applicable is based on evaluations
using the Universal Soil Loss Equation and on-site inspections.
1. Maintenance of Vegetative Cover. This practice includes
managing for trees, grasses, crop residue and other
materials which maintain surface cover and protect the soil
from erosion.
2. Livestock Exclusion. This practice removes or restricts
livestock entry into critical areas. Complementary practices
are necessary to maintain this practice.
3. Alternate Watering Facilities. This is a complementing
practice for livestock exclusion. Watering facilities
allow for proper distribution of livestock and provide an
alternative to instream watering.
4. Stock Trails and Walkways. This is a complementing
practice for livestock exclusion. Livestock trails and
walkways provide access to areas without creating additional
erosion.
5. Livestock Stream Crossing. This is a complementing
practice for livestock exclusion. Livestock are kept out
of streams and provided access to pasture and watering
areas. Streambanks and other critical areas are also
protected.
6. Critical Area Seeding. This includes the establishment of
permanent vegetative cover on critical areas.
7. Grassed Waterways and Diversions. This practice involves
the safe disposal of runoff in properly installed and
maintained grass channels. It reduces soil erosion and
provides stable outlets for runoff.
8. Animal Waste Management Systems. This practice includes
the control of running water through areas of heavy use
by livestock and the development of a system of storage,
disposal and utilization for animal wastes to reduce
water pollution. Components of an animal waste system
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are waste storage facilities, water disposal and erosion
protection devices (diversions and waterways), animal
waste disposal plants, and cropping systems.
9. Sediment Traps. These practices are basins created by
water retention structures to trap and store sediment.
10. Streambank Protection and Slide Stabilization. This
includes any protection and stabilization practices which
withhold significant amounts of sediment from adjacent
waters.
11. Floodwater Retarding Structures. These structures serve
the primary purpose of temporarily storing floodwater and
controlling its release.
THE EVALUATION OF WORKS PREVIOUSLY INSTALLED BY THE
WISCONSIN RED CLAY INTERAGENCY COMMITTEE
From 1958 through 1967, erosion control practices were
installed in Ashland, Bayfield and Douglas Counties by the
Wisconsin Red Clay Interagency Committee. These practices
were monitored and evaluated by that committee and their findings
were previously reported. Members of the committee were asked
by the Red Clay Project to reevaluate their work to determine
the effectiveness of the erosion control methods and practices
after adequate time had elapsed for them to have responded to
a wide range of weather conditions. The reevaluation also
provided current data on erosion control practices and procedures
which could be compared with practices and procedures used by the
Red Clay Project.
The work done by the Red Clay Interagency Committee
primarily consisted of roadside and streambank erosion control
measures. Some upland treatments such as grassed waterways were
also installed. The reevaluation concluded that, after a lapse
of ten to twenty years:
1. Generally, most of these accepted erosion control
practices withstood the weathering effects of the past
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one to two decades and helped stabilize the areas where
they were installed.
2. When treating bank erosion, stabilizing the toe of the
bank is of primary importance.
3. Proper slope modification, seedbed, preparation and
seeding mixtures are necessary to establish protective and
stabilizing vegetation.
STREAMBANK AND ROADSIDE EROSION SURVEY
The Red Clay Project undertook a program to collect all
existing data on the extent of roadside and streambank erosion
problems and to inventory as many of the unsurveyed areas as
possible within time and monetary limits.
During the first phase of this program, the literature-
search, the most recent survey data on streambank and roadside
erosion in the red clay area was collected from all available
sources. This information was recorded on maps and in tabular
form. The second phase was to survey erosion sites along those
roadsides for which data was not obtained in the literature-
search and, thereby, making complete the erosion survey of all
roadsides in the red clay area of the five counties. Portions
of three rivers whose watersheds contrast agricultural land use,
recreational use, and undeveloped or wild area were also
inventoried. The purpose of the streambank survey was to compare
erosion patterns in an attempt to determine the impact of land
use.
The information collected from this study was used as
support data for other project activities and will be available
for future use by researchers, soil and water conservation districts
and others applying conservation practices. The findings of the
comparative streambank survey are:
1. Despite differences in land use, the major cause of erosion
along all three streams was basically natural. Direct
erosion by differential stream discharge undercutting and
the resulting bank failure constituted nearly all of the
observed erosion sites.
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2. At only a few sites was erosion observed that could be
directly related to agricultural use and here the direct
cause was that of migrating livestock.
3. Man-caused erosion on the banks of the recreational-use
stream was evidenced at canoe entry and exit sites. The
damage caused by recreational and agricultural use was
categorized as minor.
SHORELINE DEMONSTRATION, MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Protective, preventive and remedial erosion control
measures employable under conditions typical of those encountered
along the western Lake Superior shoreline were demonstrated by
Red Clay Project researchers at two sites in Ashland County.
Interest evidenced in this aspect of Red Clay Project work was,
to some extent, attributable to the severity of the problems and
the uniqueness of the areas involved. Interest also centered
around a contrast in techniques, one conventional and the other
innovative.
One of the sites, Madigan Beach, was selected for its
high, actively eroding bluffs and its exposure to severe storms.
Here a technology entirely innovative for Lake Superior, the
installation of Longard tubes, was employed. Longard tubes
are large, flexible vinyl tubes filled with sand and coated with
a protective epoxy paint. They were placed in a variety of
patterns designed to protect the base of shoreline bluffs and
to build up a protective sand beach. Design layouts used by
Red Clay Project researchers included differentially-spaced
groins, seawalls and groin-seawall combinations.
The second site, the Indian Cemetery on Madeline Island,
was chosen because of its low bluff, narrow beach and historical
and cultural significance. Here a conventional rubble-mound
revetment was installed.
Both shoreline protection projects underwent construction
during the summer of 1977- Subsequently they were monitored
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and evaluated by Project investigators. At the end of the
Red Clay Project, arrangements were made for the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers to initiate a continuous monitoring process
for the work at these two locations.
Findings and conclusions which can be offered on the
basis of monitoring and evaluation activities completed to
date are:
1. Longard tubes appear to be competitive in both cost
and performance with more conventional shore protection
and beach stabilization structures.
2. Bluff modifications may be an important factor in the
successful performance of Longard tubes.
3. Rubble-mound revetments provide positive shore protection
at sites with conditions similar to those found at the
Indian Cemetery site.
WATER QUALITY MONITORING
Monitoring of water quality and sediment was conducted
at thirteen project stations. The samples were analyzed for
over fifty physical, chemical and biological parameters. In
addition, a ground water study was undertaken in Calrton County,
Minnesota and a bedload transport study was conducted in the
Nemadji River in Douglas County, Wisconsin.
The findings of these activities are:
1. The streams of the red clay area are predominantly
event-response in character.
2. Pesticides and herbicides were not found at any concentration
in either the water or bottom material samples.
3. Heavy metals were not found except for trace concentrations
at detection levels.
4. Pecal coliform — fecal streptococci ratios indicate
livestock and wild animals as the primary contributors of
fecal waste. Game management and farm animal estimates
indicate that 50% or more of the fecal waste is generated
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2
by non-farm animals (population density of 18 persons/mi ,
15 deer/mi2, 10 farm animals/mi2). Shifts in contribution
did not occur with fluctuation in flow.
5. Nemadji River suspended sediment concentrations range from
2 mg/L to 1190 mg/L with a 3 year daily mean of 77 mg/L.
6. Nemadji River total phosphorus concentrations range from
.01 mg/L to .36 mg/L with a 3 year mean of .08 mg/L.
7. Nemadji River total nitrogen concentrations range from
.10 mg/L to 2.4 mg/L with a 3 year mean of .63 mg/L.
8. Nemadji River organic nitrogen concentrations range from
.1 mg/L to 2.2 mg/L with a 3 year mean of .48 mg/L. Organic
nitrogen is approximately 76% of the total nitrogen and is
consistent with expectations of forested watersheds.
9. Except at stations immediately downstream from construction
activities it was impossible to identify construction
related changes in suspended-sediment concentrations.
10. In a very small watershed such as Pine Creek it was possible
to identify upward suspended-sediment concentration shifts
that were not related to changes in flow and were probably
the result of bank collapse or in-stream activities.
11. The Minnesota ground water study found that in the deep
valleys of the upper Nemadji River there is a tendency for
upward movement of ground water. This upward movement
may cause wetting of fissure zones from beneath thus
triggering slides.
12. The Nemadji River bed load transport study found that only
3% of the total sediment load is transported on the bed
of the river.
WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR BASIN RAINFALL AND
TEMPERATURE MONITORING
The Red Clay Project conducted a monitoring program designed
to record on a continuous basis the intensity of rainfall and
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wind and to profile the temperature of the air and soil. The
program used existing monitoring technology wherever possible,
but also involved the development of new low-cost instrumentation
techniques. It took place at locations throughout the Skunk,
Little Balsam and Pine Creek watersheds.
This micrometeorological data base was generated for its
usefulness in illuminating otherwise latent cause and effect
relationships between soil loss due to erosion and natural
phenomena such as the presence and intensity of rainfall and
significant fluctuations of soil temperature along steep banks.
The information gathered represented a support service to other
research activities and, as such, provided no independent
conclusions. However, the results are reflected in related
research work.
One of the major developments of this program was the
production and refinement of a low-cost system for continuously
monitoring precipitation, wind, air and soil parameters at
remote sites.
INSTITUTIONAL COOPERATION
The first organized efforts to systematically study red
clay erosion and sedimentation problems were distinguished by a
unique and extraordinary amount of interagency cooperation.
In Wisconsin, the Red Clay Interagency Committee was composed
of several state and federal agencies based in the state capital.
When working in the red clay area, they received cooperative
assistance from locally-based representatives of many more
local, state and federal agencies. The Carlton County Soil and
Water Conservation District in Minnesota joined with the Douglas
County District in Wisconsin to form an interstate alliance of
conservation districts to seek approaches and funding sources for
solving their shared problems.
This Multiple agency approach was continued by the Red Clay
Project. Rather than attempting an elaborate analysis of what
institutional systems might work best, it was determined to use
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existing relationships developed over the years by county soil
and water conservation districts. Throughout the United States,
enabling legislation had been passed in each state that permitted
the creation of conservation districts as special purpose units
of state government. Although they developed differently over
the past forty years, districts generally evolved into political
entities having effective working relationships with nearly
every local, state and federal unit of government and agency
concerned with natural resource conservation.
Soil and water conservation districts in Minnesota and
Wisconsin are functionally alike in terms of objectives, authorities
and district operations. In both states, districts have similar
legal responsibilities to conserve the natural resources within
their boundaries. They also have similar legal authorities to
enter into agreements with other units of government to accomplish
common goals. The major difference between them is that in
Wisconsin, district supervisors are elected members of the county
board who serve on the agriculture committee while in Minnesota,
supervisors are elected at large.
Because of the wide geographical area covered by this basin-
wide research and demonstration project and because of its five-
district, two-state sponsorship, a multiple agency approach to
project operations was selected. The sponsoring soil and water
conservation districts formed a project-governing executive
committee consisting of equal representation from each of the
districts. The Douglas County Soil and Water Conservation
District was designated the fiscal agent for the entire project
and its representative to the committee served as chairman.
The committee met monthly to conduct project business. Through
agreements, the scope of work and procedures for each district
were identified.
Representatives from participating agencies were called
together to form a technical advisory committee, an information-
education advisory committee and a program advisory committee.
These committees met in special sessions and, upon request at
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the monthly meetings to advise the executive committee regarding
project operations. Because none of the districts had staff
trained in managerial capabilities, project staff were hired
through contracts with capable agencies. All project work
elements were accomplished by cooperating agencies and institutions
working under contract for the project.
As was stated earlier, the intent of the Red Clay Project
was for the existing institutions, soil and water conservation
districts, to run the project. No systematic attempts were
made to analyze or evaluate these relationships. The following
findings and observations are based on subjective assessments
by the project director, project specialist and other investigators
closely involved with the management and operations of the project.
1. Five soil and water conservation districts from two states
effectively sponsored and managed a basin-wide research and
demonstration project.
2. The multiple agency approach followed by the project
proved to be highly successful even though differences in
standards, funding mechanisms and implementing procedures
between states posed many communication and operation
difficulties.
3. The application of conservation practices was influenced
by landowner attitudes, long-range costs and site-specific
conditions as well as potential benefits, immediate costs
and the general applicability of considered "best" management
practices.
4. The application of conservation practices relied upon the
voluntary compliance of landowners and units of government.
Attempts to prepared and implement a sediment control
ordinance met with considerable resistance from local elected
officials.
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5. In certain critical areas, zoning ordinances or regulations
may be the most effective tool to achieve erosion control.
6. Due primarily to a lack of adequate funds, there was a
noticeable inability on the part of some town-level and city
departments of government to cooperate with soil and water
conservation districts.
7. None of the sponsoring soil and water conservation districts
had staff capable of managing district affairs and projects.
8. Soil and water conservation districts had to rely principally
upon federal and state funds to carry out a program of the
magnitude and intensity of the Red Clay Project.
9. Higher cost share rates did help induce landowner cooperation,
however many other factors (e.g. landowner attitudes,
practice maintenance, landowner age, specific farm conditions,
encouragement from neighbors and professionals) were influential
in determining which practices were applied.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Soil and Water Conservation Districts should be designated
as the local management agency.
The local management agency should be given early and continuous
involvement in establishing and managing any future non-point
source pollution control programs, plans and strategies affecting
its area.
The local management agency should be adequately staffed,
and constituted so as to provide balanced representation of
the area and its water quality interests.
In rural areas where regional problems have been identified,
multijurisdictional cooperation should be used as an effective
approach for management programs.
Because of significant differences in standards, funding
mechanisms and implementing procedures, non-point source
pollution control programs in rural area should not involve more
than one state.
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Multi-agency programs should have a common focus through
a single set of goals, objectives and policies to insure
effective management and uniform results.
Sufficient evaluation should be conducted prior to
implementation to clearly identify critical areas and influential
parameters, thus ensuring cost-effective abatement.
Sufficient, but not excessive, levels of cost-sharing should
be provided as an incentive for cooperation and to help defray
landowner costs.
The local management agency should provide educational
programs for citizens, cooperating units of government and agencies
to establish and maintain an awareness of water pollution problems
and abatement strategies.
The local management agency and its staff should establish
close working relationships with units of government, utilities,
private landowners and industries to ensure the implementation of
erosion and sediment control practices in conjunction with their
construction and maintenance activities.
Conservation plans should be prepared for identified
critical areas so that specific remedial measures can be applied
to those natural or man-induced problem areas where water quality
benefits warrant land treatment.
The selection for use of any one, or combination of,
management practices should take into consideration site-specific
conditions, costs, landowner attitudes and potential benefits.
The local management agency should place a high priority
on management practices that provide the greatest benefit at
the lowest cost.
Where possible, maximum use should be made of management
and vegetative measures. Structural engineering solutions should
only be considered where benefits outweigh costs and environmental
concerns. Innovative management techniques, sensitive to
conditions specific to particular sites and locations, should be
encouraged.
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In order for long-range water quality "benefits to "be
realized, management practices should be maintained and
monitored for extended periods of time.
Water quality programs for the abatement of non-point
source pollution should be closely coordinated with other natural
resource conservation, programs to avoid duplication of effort
and expense and to ensure maximum efficiency of all resource
conservation and environmental protection programs.
A voluntary compliance approach should be established in
future nonpoint source pollution control programs as a first, and
preferable, management procedure.
State regulations or local ordinances should be adopted
only where effective management techniques necessitate.
If regulatory programs are used, the state water quality
management agency should be responsible for setting minimum
standards and for overall enforcement.
If regulatory programs are used, the local management agency
should be responsible for monitoring compliance and recommending
enforcement action.
The toes of slopes at erosion-prone sites should be
protected by vegetation or other means.
On streambanks, disturbed areas and other erosion-prone
sites, vegetation should be established as early as possible and
maintained continuously. For long-term protection, advanced
successional woody species should be established, due to their
greater root strength. In non-critical areas, woody species
should also be phased into a herbaceous cover, whenever possible.
Policies restricting human and livestock activities to those
which are compatible with erosion control should be incorporated
with active management for protective vegetation on streambanks,
disturbed areas and other erosion-prone sites.
Stream channel deepening should be minimized through methods
of retarding upland runoff.
In managing for fish habitat, vegetation and woody root
systems that aid in the maintenance of undercut banks, steep-
sided channels and deep pools should be preserved.
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Along streambanks and associated drainage areas, slope
stability equations should be employed to demarcate a safe zone
within which all human activity that arrests or reverts the
successional process would be prohibited.
On or near slopes where surface moisture is low, surface
drains and diversions should be used to control water accumulation
in fissures.
Longard tubes should be considered a cost-effective alternative
where shore protection is warranted. When possible, and practical,
installation should be accompanied by regrading of the bluff and
reestablishment of vegetative cover.
FRAMEWORK FOR LOCAL MANAGEMENT AGENCY IMPLEMENTATION OF
RED CLAY PROJECT RECOMMENDATIONS
Three primary recommendations emanating from the Red Clay
Project are basic to the implementation of a water quality
program at the local level and serve as the foundation upon
which this framework was developed. These recommendations and
basic assumptions are: that soil and water conservation districts
should be the local management agencies for implementing the
nonpoint source pollution control portion of any future water
quality programs, that soil and water conservation districts
must have adequate administrative and technical staff, and that
districts, as local management agencies, must have early and
continuous involvement in establishing, managing and evaluating
water quality programs.
The framework assumes that adequate funding is available.
It is important to note that when funding is provided from outside
sources (non-local management agency), conditions are usually
attached which determine, in part, how the funds are expended.
Elements of the 208 programs currently being developed in states
across the nation would undoubtedly have an impact on the
refinement and use by local management agencies of this process.
The following is a step-by-step process designed for soil
and water conservation districts acting in the role of local
management agencies to carry out the administrative and
procedural recommendations of the Red Clay Project in an expedient
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manner. By following this generalized problem-solving procedure
and filling in where needed with the details regarding their
geographical area of concern, districts can, in essence, implement
a long range program for nonpoint source water pollution abatement.
The following implementation process incorporates the procedural
recommendations of the Red Clay Project which can apply to all
soil and water conservation districts in Minnesota and Wisconsin
as well as to similar districts throughout the nation. Project
recommendations relating specifically to the Lake Superior red
clay area have been presented in the "recommendations" section
of this report but are not included in the following framework.
STEP 1, IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS AND AREAS OF CONCERN
Purpose:
The first step in this, or any, problem solving process is
the identification of the types of problems that exist. Once this
is done, an initial estimation of the severity of the problems
should be made along with a determination of their geographical
extent. The determination of the extent of the problems should
include data from monitoring, research and public opinion.
When shared problems are evident, such as might exist
between local management agencies within the same watershed,
every attempt should be made to pool problem-solving resources.
Agreements to cooperate should be established between the
involved units of government and all concerned agencies. Unless
justification and incentives are unique, such consortia that
cross state lines should be avoided.
Actors:
—local management agencies
other local units of government (municipalities, town boards,
county boards or their committees)
—resource conservation agencies
—industries
—private landowners and land managers
—special interest groups
—interested citizens 29
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Activities:
—gather citizen and local government input
—inventory records to determine current knowledge of problems
—survey the extent of the problems
identify other local management agencies with similar problems
—identify a coordinating group for local management agencies
with similar problems
STEP 2, DEFINITION OF PURPOSE
Purpose:
Once the problems have been identified and the geographical
and managerial areas of concern have been delineated, those
agencies involved must develop a system of goals, objectives
and policies. It is important that a single set of goals,
objectives and policies be established for everyone working on
the program. This is essential where geographical areas transcend
political boundaries and agency jurisdictions.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—local, state and federal units of government
—natural resource conservation agencies
—industries
—private landowners and land managers
—special interest groups
—interested citizens
Activities:
—secure cooperative agreements with involved agencies
—hire local management agency administrative and technical
staff
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conduct cooperative work sessions and planning meetings
—identify work responsibilities for involved agencies and
groups
—prepare goals, objectives and policies
—conduct public advisory meetings to review and, if necessary,
revise goals, objectives and policies
STEP 3, INVENTORY AND ASSESSMENT
Purpose:
The third phase of the program is to prepare a detailed
inventory of the resources and the problems in the affected
area. This inventory process is necessary for assessing the
extent and severity of the problems and will help identify
critical areas and determine treatment needs. Not only should
the land resource be assessed, but there should be sufficient water
quality monitoring prior to implementation to determine the
exact nature of the problems and to serve as a base for measuring
accomplishments.
The culmination of the inventory and assessment process is
the assignment of priorities to the problem areas. Critical
areas which contribute the most to the pollution load of the
waters must be identified and ranked according to need and
treatment potential. Non-critical areas can also be assigned
priority for treatment under complementary or subsidiary programs.
This entire process will require considerable manpower and
time.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies
—local units of government
—private landowners and land managers
—special interest groups
—interested citizens
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Activities:
—arrange for water quality monitoring by qualified personnel
—identify and map critical areas with the assistance of land-
owners and cooperating agencies
—set priorities for critical areas
—establish cost share rates
—conduct public advisory meetings to review and, if necessary,
revise critical area priorities and cost share rates
STEP 4, SECURING LANDOWNER COOPERATION
Purpose:
An important aspect of this entire procedure is the acquisition
of landowner cooperation. The most direct method would undoubtedly
be the use of regulatory methods. This approach, however, does
little to improve landowner attitudes, encourage cooperation
or solicit effective planning and participation. One indirect
method, high rates of cost sharing, may encourage cooperation,
planning and participation but, again, does not necessarily
improve landowner attitudes.
The development of a good conservation ethic among landowners
is necessary to ensure the continued involvement of the landowner
in the application and maintenance of conservation practices.
Ideally, this should be done throughout the planning and
implementation processes and not merely as one step in the
process. From the beginning, continuous and concerted educational
programs must be undertaken by local management agencies. Only
through education can recusant landowner attitudes be altered
and can a conservation ethic be developed which would facilitate
cooperation, planning and participation and lessen the need for
any regulatory programs.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies
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—local units of government
—private landowners and land managers
—public landowners and land managers
—special interest groups
—interested citizens
Activities:
—initiate and maintain continuing informational programs
for the general public
—sponsor educational programs to encourage cooperation from
private landowners and units of government
—establish close working relationships with private and
public landowners
STEP 5, PREPARATION OF CONSERVATION PLANS
Purpose:
When critical areas needing treatment have been identified
and assigned priority, conservation plans for treating these
areas must be drawn up by landowners and qualified professionals.
Conservation plans must be directed at specific problems in
critical areas and at the potentially most effective treatments
for these problems. Conservation planners can not rely solely
on pre-established, generalized, "best" management practices.
Site-specific considerations that must go into critical
area conservation plans include: assumed efficacy of the
proposed practices for each specific site, the costs of installing
the remedial measures, the costs for maintaining the practices,
the potential benefits to be derived from treatment, and landowner
attitudes.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—private landowners and land managers
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—public landowners and land managers
—resource conservation agencies
—other qualified conservation planners
Activities:
—develop alternative treatment practices
—select the most workable and acceptable measures in
cooperation with landowners
—secure implementation, operation and maintenance contracts
with landowners
STEP 6, INSTALLATION OF CONSERVATION PRACTICES
Purpose:
The types of practices included in conservation plans must
be determined by the specific characteristics of each individual
site. Efforts should be made to use innovative techniques to
meet unique site needs. Managerial or non-structural control
practices generally can be used more pervasively — and,
consequently, more effectively — and at lower costs than
structural treatments. In some instances, structures may be
recommended where land and water use demands intensive protection.
In other instances, regulatory systems, such as ordinances, may
be recommended. This may be the case where livestock and human
use must be restricted on eroding or erosion-prone zones.
The amount spent on the installation of a conservation
practice is a function of the tradeoffs made between the greatest
potential benefits and the lowest actual costs. Coupled with a
strong educational program, cost sharing should be used as an
incentive for program participation. It must be cautioned, again,
that excessive cost share rates, because they do nothing to
improve landowner attitudes, should be discouraged except in
extreme problem areas where immediate treatment is needed.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies
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—private landowners and land managers
—public landowners and land managers
Activities:
provide assistance and supervision for the implementation of
conservation practices by landowner
—cooperate with landowners to ensure timely and successful
completion of the contract
STEP 7, MAINTENANCE OF PRACTICES
Purpose:
Local management agencies should be responsible for
inspecting installations and for working with landowners to
ensure their continued operation and maintenance. Policies
and guidelines will have to be set to provide for inspections,
to guarantee continued maintenance and to correct maintenance
violations.
In addition to monitoring treatment activities on the
land, water quality monitoring will have to be continued to
make certain that benefits are ensuing from the applied
practices. When water quality benefits are no longer derived
from practices, consideration will have to be given to altering
practices to meet the needs. When water quality improves to the
point where remedial measures are no longer needed, alternate,
less costly management practices should be used to maintain the
elevated levels of water quality.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies
—private landowners and land managers
—public landowners and land managers
Activities:
—inspect practices to determine compliance and efficiency
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—meet individually with landowners to encourage practice
maintenance
—set policies for correcting instances of noncompliance
STEP 8, EVALUATION AND ADJUSTMENT
Purpose:
Conservation practices have to be continually monitored,
evaluated and, if needed modified. The entire water quality
management program should also be evaluated continually and
changed if necessary. There is nothing unalterable about
goals, objectives and policies. When they are no longer
applicable to the problems at hand, they should be modified to
reflect the current situation. The changing problems, needs,
goals and objectives can only be analyzed through a continuous
evaluation process.
To aid in the evaluation and adjustment of water quality
programs, supplementary natural resource conservation programs
can be easily and effectively tied in throughout the process.
As an example, the federal Resource Conservation Act program can
be used to help evaluate water quality programs or, conversely,
evaluations of local water quality programs could be used as a
part of the Resource Conservation Program. Similarly, local
management agencies can work with ongoing Agricultural Stabilization
and Conservation Service programs to set cost share rates and
administer cost share programs. And as a final example, the
application of conservation practices for ongoing soil and water
conservation district programs can be readily tied in with the
application of conservation practices for water quality programs.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies
—special interest groups
—industries
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—conservation professionals
—private landowners and land managers
—public landowners and land managers
—interested citizens
Activities:
—continue collection of water quality and land management data
to determine practice efficiency
—evaluate data and program operations with cooperating agencies
—establish standards and guidelines for altering ineffective
practices
seek citizen input on program effectiveness and revise, if
necessary, goals, objectives and policies
STEP 9, IMPLEMENTING REGULATORY SYSTEMS (OPTIONAL)
Purpose:
Given sound educational programs and reasonable cost share
rates, general program compliance and practice implementation
could be achieved through the voluntary compliance of landowners.
At the very least a voluntary compliance system should be used
initially and then, if this fails or if certain practices, such
as restricting use, necessitate, a regulatory approach could be
tried.
Because of the sensitive nature of regulatory programs,
local and state responsibilities must be carefully delineated.
For this process, all past experiences as well as innovative
techniques should be utilized. Many landowners have expressed
the desire that, if needed, regulations and ordinances should be
developed and administered at the local (county) level. Locally-
elected officials, however, are generally hesitant to take on this
responsibility, probably because of their close contact with the
affected landowners.
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If regulations are used, the state should set minimum
standards and should be responsible for overall enforcement.
Local management agencies should have the authority for working
with landowners to settle disputes, supervise compliance and
recommend enforcement action.
Actors:
—local management agencies
—resource conservation agencies
—private landowners and land managers
—public landowners and land managers
—county boards or their committees
—town boards
Activities:
—obtain citizen input on the need for local ordinances and in
developing ordinances if deemed necessary
—develop ordinances in cooperation with county and town units
of government
—establish standards, supervise compliance and make recommendations
for enforcement actions
CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS
More than four years of erosion, sediment control and
water quality demonstration activities are represented in the
findings, conclusions and recommendations summarized above.
Some of these results belie conventional, or popularly held
beliefs, views and attitudes; particularly those refining public
perceptions of the nature of the red clay problem or proposing
new approaches and methods. But far from all that has been
accomplished was unexpected or innovative. Indeed, much project
emphasis was intentionally focused on ways in which traditional
land use-related institutions, procedures and techniques could
-------
be reoriented to meet the challenges posed by society's renewed
dedication to clean water.
What was learned from this experiment has significance
for the process of non-point source water pollution control as
well as for the participants. In addition, several tools have
been developed or refined during the course of the Project. A
few concluding observations in these three areas are offered
below as a way of further distilling the gist of the experience
and relating it to the future.
Process:
Red Clay Project activities suggest that key ingredients
to successful water quality management fall into three fundamental
steps of the management process. As such, these ingredients
become conditions or prerequisites which, on the basis of this
project's experience, are felt to be needed to sustain effective
programs. These conditions are grouped below as they relate
to a generalized management process.
1. THOSE CONDITIONS THAT AID IN THE DEFINITION OF THE
PROBLEMS AND THE GOALS:
—a problem-encompassing management institution, even if
multijurisdictional
—a common set of goals, objectives and policies, even
where multiple agencies and levels of government are
involved
—a persistent emphasis on critical area identification and
assigning priorities
—the careful involvement of a full range of inter- and
intra-governmental as well as private-sector representatives
—an ongoing, continuous and broad-based educational program
2. THOSE CONDITIONS THAT AID IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF ALTERNATIVES
AND THE MECHANISMS FOR SELECTING FROM AMONG THEM: •
—the preparation of critical area management plans
39
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—the matching of alternative management practices with
site specific conditions and landowner attitudes
—the generation of cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness
information
3. THOSE CONDITIONS THAT AID IN THE IMPLEMENTATION, GUIDANCE
AND EVALUATION OF THE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM:
—the designation of a soil and water conservation body
as the local management agency
—the reliance on voluntary compliance prior to regulation
—the use of reasonable cost sharing to encourage voluntary
compliance
—an emphasis on local innovation and on non-structural,
low-cost practices
—the use of continuous, long-term monitoring programs
Participants:
The Red Clay Project results have the potential of affecting
three major groups of participants in non-point source water
pollution programs in a variety of important ways. A few of
the impacts which can be expected are:
Landowners and Private Interests
—increased confidence that abatement actions undertaken
will have recognizable water quality payoffs
—continued assurance that society will assist with the
problem through technical assistance and cost sharing
—improved participation opportunities
—expanded knowledge base through research, information
and education
Local Units of Government and Their Agencies, including the
Local Management Agency
—increased assurance that water quality programs are both
beneficial and acceptable through planning and public
participation
40
-------
—greater focus for cooperative action and joint programs
through critical problem identification and setting
priorities
—more effective reliance on the full spectrum of management
tools — preventive and remedial, voluntary and regulatory,
structural and non-structural — through formulation of
alternatives
Non-Local Units of Government and Their Agencies
—enhanced opportunity for society-wide goals to be achieved
in responsive and innovative ways
—improved focus for meaningful roles in cooperation with
local program partners
—increased assurance that substantial allocations of time,
staff and financial resources will meet the test of cost-
effectiveness
Tools:
The Red Clay Project has served to spotlight several tools
of the trade that promise important dividends for water quality
management. Some of these are conventional, such as comprehensive
critical area erosion surveys, an open and continuous planning
function, and a posture of intensive interagency cooperation.
Others are refinements of existing technologies, such as the
development of a solid state monitoring system for constant
recording of precipitation, wind, air and soil factors at remote,
unmanned sites. While still others pose unique opportunities
for progressive or enterprising management institutions. The
last category would include the use of zoning setback formulas for
structures adjacent to critical slopes in such a way as to
establish a balance between the location's erosion rate and the
design life of the proposed structure. It would also include the
identification and designation of safe-zone areas, or erosion
conservancy zones, where all land-disturbing activities would be
excluded in the interest of erosion control.
41
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Perhaps above all else, the Red Clay experience stands as
evidence that much of the foundation upon which highly complex
water quality problems can be addressed may now be in place.
It is possible to overcome traditionally difficult social,
economic, political and institutional obstacles through a manage-
ment perspective balanced by research, technical and financial
assistance, and by interagency cooperation and public education.
Existing federal, state and local resources, public and private,
can be combined in a partnership for enhanced water quality.
-------
RED CLAY PROJECT EVALUATION
EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL
Prepared by
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Soil Conservation Service
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SEDIMENT AND EROSION CONTROL
On July 10, 1975, the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) entered into a 3.5 year
cooperative agreement with the Douglas County Soil and Water
Conservation District (SWCD), the designated fiscal agent of
the Red Clay project.
Under this program, demonstration erosion and sediment
control measures were planned amd installed by the soil and
water conservation districts of Ashland, Bayfield, Douglas,
and Iron Counties, Wisconsin, and Carlton County, Minnesota.
The SCS provided technical assistance through these districts.
The following was provided by the SCS:
1. A soil survey and interim report for the Nemadji
River and Fish Creek basins.
2. Land use analysis and soil loss inventory for
specified study areas.
3. Conservation plans which were used to develop con-
tracts to cost share the installation of conserva-
tion systems in Bayfield, Carlton, and Douglas
Counties.
4. Site survey, design, and construction inspection for
structural measures installed by local contract.
5. Technical assistance in preparing an operations
manual.
6. Project evaluation.
Three representative study areas were selected in the Red
Clay project: Pine Creek in Bayfield County, Skunk Creek in
Carlton County, and Little Balsam Creek in Douglas County.
Spoon Creek study area in Iron County was initially select-
ed but measures were found nonfeasible. Iron County chose not
to participate in the project.
Lacustrine clay soils or "red clays" are the dominant
nonpoint source problem in the three study areas. Significant
portions of each area contain glacial outwash sands.
The study areas coincide with watershed boundaries and
are as follows:
Pine Creek - Bayfield County, 15.7 square miles
(10,048 acres)
Skunk Creek - Carlton County, 10.7 square miles
(6,848 acres)
Little Balsam Creek - Douglas County, 5.4 square miles
(3,450 acres)
-------
Ownership in the three study areas ranges from 20 percent
public ownership in the Skunk Creek study area to 53 percent
in the Little Balsam Creek study area. Over half the private
landowners in Red Clay are absentee. Only 15 percent of the
resident landowners classify themselves as farmers.
Collectively, the upland acreage in the three study areas
is not intensively used. Woodland is the major land use.
Significant amounts of land are government-owned and maintained
in natural conditions. Farming is basically supplemental and
is based on grass production in the form of hay or pasture for
small numbers of beef and dairy cattle. The majority of land-
owners are 50 years of age or older.
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Nonpoint source pollution in the Red Clay region is highly
visible in streams and in Lake Superior. Initially, it was be-
lieved that the major contributing areas were:
1. Roadsides that were improperly maintained to control
erosion.
2. Landslides and raw streambanks that produce high
volumes of sediment.
3. Upland farming operations.
Roadsides
Roadside erosion in the red clays occur on newly con-
structed road "improvements" that are not properly designed or
vegetated; on old roadsides where vegetation has not been es-
tablished; and on roadsides where "maintenance" activities
destroy existing vegetative cover.
The installation and maintenance of properly designed
road ditches and waterways with the establishment of vegeta-
tive cover on all road ditches and rights-of-way should reduce
soil loss and subsequent sediment pollution from these sites.
Landslides
Landslides are a natural occurring phenomenon in the Red
Clay areas. They can produce high volumes of sediment. Sev-
eral structural measures were planned and installed in an
effort to control this problem.
Streambank stabilization utilizing rock riprap and
drainage was installed at one site on Little Balsam Creek,
Douglas County, at a construction cost of $160 per lineal
foot. Rock-filled concrete log cribs were used at another
site to stabilize the slope. Construction cost was $825
per lineal foot.
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LAND USE IN LITTLE BALSAM CREEK STUDY AREA
LAND USE IN PINE CREEK STUDY AREA
LAND USE IN SKUNK CREEK STUDY AREA
46
-------
On Skunk Creek in Carlton County, construction to stabi-
lize a streambank and roadside erosion site was completed in
June 1977. The construction cost is $232,849 for the total
work planned or $370 per lineal foot. Evaluation of all
structural measures is continuing.
A streambank and slide stabilization measure planned in
Fish Creek, Bayfield County, was not installed because of_high
cost ($90,000). The local sponsors could not provide their
share of the cost. In Carlton County, plans were completed in
1977 to stabilize four slide areas. The plans used bin walls,
log cribs, cell blocks, and rock-filled gabions. Cost was es-
timated at $204,000. All bids were rejected due to lack of
funds.
Floodwater retarding structures, Elim and Hanson dams,
are currently under construction in Carlton County, Minnesota.
These structures were planned to protect streambanks through
the reduction of floodwater flows. Sediment storage is a second-
ary benefit. The construction cost is $230,000 and $200,000,
respectively.
Floodwater retention measures were initially planned in
Douglas and Iron Counties but were dropped when investigation
indicated they were not feasible.
Upland Areas
Treatment of upland areas was based on working with pri-
vate landowners on a voluntary basis through the local soil
and water conservation district. Landowners became district
cooperators and were assisted in developing a conservation plan
of operations (CPO).
The CPO was used to develop the Red Clay Long Term Agree-
ment (LTA). This was a contract between the landowner and the dis-
trict. It provided cost sharing for the installation of up-
land conservation practices.
Cost-shared practices and the rates were determined by
the local district. Priority practices were assigned higher
rates of cost sharing. This provided extra installation
incentive. (See appendix A for practices considered.)
The cost-share rates of each district keyed on these
problem areas. High rates of cost sharing, 80-100 percent,
were authorized for exclusion fencing of livestock, alternate
watering facilities, livestock stream crossings, stock trails,
and livestock watering ponds.
Cost sharing was also authorized for a wide range of
other complementing conservation practices on the uplands.
Hayland planting and management, pasture planting and manage-
ment, diversions, grassed waterways, drainage ditches, and
tree planting maintained noncritical portions of the land unit
at low levels of soil loss. Installation of these complementing
practices secured proper treatment on the entire land unit.
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PROBLEMS
Farm in Red Clay project area before installation
of conservation practices under Red Clay Project
Long-Term Agreement. Yard wastes wash downhill
through rutted cattle trails into the stream at
the base of the slope. A dilapidated wooden
bridge serves as a crossing for livestock. A
clean water diversion, stock trail, crossing,
fencing and waterway were installed in this area.
-------
Roadside erosion is a problem throughout the Red
Clay project area. Spring runoff water eroded
the toe of the slope and the slope slide down
into the ditch bottom. Vegetative cover combined
with structural stabilization of the ditch bottom
would stabilize this situation.
Streambank erosion
and landslips are
common on most
streams in the Red
Clay project area.
High stream flows
due to melt water
and storm events
tear soil away
from unstable
streambanks.
Landslips then
occur after the
soil has been
displaced.
49
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The Red Clay project LTA was used by 9 landowners in
Pine Creek, 26 in Skunk Creek, and 4 in Little Balsam Creek.
Approximately 90 percent of the contracted practices are
installed.
The estimated total cost per LTA is $12,500 in Pine Creek
$9,000 in Skunk Creek, and $6,300 in Little Balsam Creek.
Estimated per acre treatment costs average $70 per acre in
Pine Creek, $55 per acre in Skunk Creek, and $100 per acre
in Little Balsam Creek.
In the Pine Creek study area approximately 50 percent of
the total estimated cost per LTA was allocated to provide
treatment on critical areas. The remaining 50 percent was
used to install complementing practices on the remaining
acreage in the unit. &
Effectiveness of the practices installed will depend on
landowner maintenance. The project had no maintenance provi-
sion.
In Carlton County the Youth Conservation Corps (YCC)
worked on some critical area sites in the Skunk Creek watershed
that were difficult to treat with mechanical treatment.
Soil loss evaluations were conducted in the study areas
during the accelerated planning phase. The Universal Soil Loss
Equation (USLE) was applied to all land in the study areas.
Landowners were provided the evaluations and were encouraged
to accompany SCS staff on field investigations.
The USLE was used as an indicator of soil loss and the
effectiveness of land treatment. It cannot address the problem
of sediment delivery to streams.
The USLE indicated that the majority of the soil loss from
the three study areas is coming from critical areas. These
areas are steep, 10-45 percent, slopes that are adjacent to
streams or drainageways. They are in either grass or woodland
vegetation and are either pastured or found in natural con-
ditions.
In the Pine Creek study area, the annual allowable esti-
mated soil loss ranges from 3-5 tons per acre. Approximately
6 Percent, or 654 acres, had an annual estimated soil loss of
18.6 tons per acre. The remaining acreage averaged .15 ton
per acre per year soil loss.
Soil loss in the Skunk Creek study area is slightly less
than 1.0 ton per acre per year. Approximately 120 acres were
estimated to exceed the allowable soil loss.
The average annual estimated soil loss for the Little
Balsam study area is .55 ton per acre. Hayland averages .3
ton per acre, idleland .1 ton per acre, pasture .8 ton per
acre, and woodlands with slopes up to 18 percent with canopy
cover from 50-90 percent and ground cover 70-100 percent
average .6 ton per acre.
50
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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Best Management Practices (BMP's) are the practices found
to be most effective in treating critical areas in the Red
Clay Project area. The following is a list of those practices:
Practice Study Area
Maintenance of Vegetative Pine, Skunk, Little Balsam
Cover
Livestock Exclusion From Pine, Skunk, Little Balsam
Critical Areas (with
fencing or management)
Alternate Watering Facilities Pine, Skunk, Little Balsam
Stock Trails & Walkways Pine, Skunk, Little Balsam
Livestock Stream Crossings Pine, Skunk, Little Balsam
Critical Area Seeding Pine, Skunk, Little Balsam
Grassed Waterways Pine, Skunk
Animal Waste Management Pine, Skunk
Systems
Sediment Traps Skunk
Streambank Protection and Pine, Skunk, Little Balsam
Slide Stabilization
Floodwater Retarding Skunk
Structures
Maintenance of Vegetative Cover
This practice includes trees, grasses, crop residues, or
mulch that maintain surface cover and protect the soil from erosion.
Livestock Exclusion
This practice removes and restricts livestock entry into
critical areas.
Alternate Watering Facilities
This is a complementing practice for livestock exclusion.
Watering facilities provide proper distribution of livestock
and alternatives to instream watering.
Stock Trails and Walkways
This is a complementing practice of livestock exclusion.
Livestock trails and walkways provide access to areas without
creating additional erosion.
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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Livestock exclusion
from critical areas
allows vegetation
to redevelop and
build up a natural
protective mulch on
the soil surface.
Note the excellent
cover conditions
that have developed
in the critical area
where livestock have
been excluded by
fencing.
Stock trails and walkways were installed as complimenting
practices to livestock exclusion. This practice allowed
cattle access through critical areas to designated pasture
areas. Note exclusion fencing and grassed waterway in the
photo.
52
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A wooden bridge
livestock cross-
ing with a
fenced and rocked
livestock trail
keeps cattle from
entering this
stream.
Alternate watering facilities such as this dug out
livestock watering pond were installed as a compli-
menting practice for livestock exclusion. Cattle
are provided water in designated pasture areas. This
helps keep cattle out of streams, out of critical areas,
and provides for better grazing distribution on pastured
lands.
-------
This livestock watering facility located
away from the stream utilizes stream water
and gravity to supply water for livestock.
Grassed waterways safely carry
erosive runoff water off this field.
54
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The maintenance of vegetative cover such as trees,
shrubs, grasses, legumes, crop residues and other
materials protects the soil from the erosive effects
of moving water. Conservation practices compliment
each other to sustain good cover conditions.
Critical area seeding
is usually necessary
to establish vegetative
cover on critical areas.
This roadside has been
fertilized, seeded,
mulched, and jute
netted in the channel.
This treatment will
protect the soil from
washing until the
seeding establishes.
55
-------
Streambank protection and slide stabilization
measures protect the toe of the slope along the
Streambank from erosion and counter weight the
slope reducing land slippage.
56
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Livestock Stream Crossing
This is a complementing practice of livestock exclusion.
Bridges or culverts are used to keep livestock out of streams.
Critical Area Seeding
The establishment of permanent vegetative cover on critical
areas.
Grassed Waterways and Diversions
The safe disposal of runoff water in properly installed
and maintained grass channels reduces soil erosion and pro-
vides stable outlets for runoff water.
Animal Waste Management Systems
This practice includes the control of water runoff and a
storage system, disposal, and utilization of animal wastes to
reduce water pollution. Components of an animal waste system
are waste storage facilities, water disposal and erosion pro-
tection (diversions and waterways), animal waste disposal
plans, and cropping systems.
Sediment Traps
Basins designed to trap and store sediment.
Streambank Protection and Slide Stabilization
This practice includes vegetative and structural meas-
ures to provide surface cover and reduce or eliminate soil
movement on streambanks and slides.
Floodwater Retarding Structures
Release storm runoff slowly thereby reducing streambank
erosion downstream from the structure.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Prior to implementation of similar erosion and sediment
control projects there should be more detailed evaluations
carried out to inventory the problems, the potential solu-
tions, and project objectives.
Planning must be site-specific and target on solving the
special purpose.
A special project should be staffed with people having
commitments only to that special project. This can be done
with staff under Intergovernmental Personnel Act (IPA) agree-
ment. Adequate staffs must be provided to meet all contract
obligations. Continuity of staff should be maintained through
a project.
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Contracts for personnel services must clearly define agen-
cy and individual responsibilities and objectives. This will
provide better working relationships and more efficient opera-
tions. K
Innovative practices must be given a high priority. Prac-
tices that are cost-effective (provide the greatest benefit at
the lowest cost) are necessary. To obtain this latitude, de-
sign and approval authorities should be allowed to the staff
of special projects. Approval authority must be at the lowest
possible level to maintain good relations with local interests
and maintain innovative integrity.
Vegetative and agronomic solutions should be given prior-
ity over structural measures. Structural solutions can over-
extend local resources, and this can result in the refusal of
local decisionmakers to install a plan. The best plans if
not installed are useless.
Staff must have and maintain close working relationships
with the soil and water conservation districts, landowners.
other assisting agencies, and all others involved with the
project.
Project size should be such that staff can be located in
close proximity to the project area.
Provisions should be made for monitoring and other evalu-
ations of project activities until their effectiveness is de-
termined.
Landrights, all permits, and funding must be secured
prior to preparation of final plans.
Projects of the physical size and with the governmental
complexity of the Red Clay project should be avoided. Demon-
stration projects should be limited to one county and state.
Commitment of Federal, State, and local funding should be
secured prior to commencement of project operations.
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PINE CREEK STUDY AREA
Topography
Pine Creek is an entrenched stream with a continuous
base flow. The stream flows in a southeasterly direction
entering Fish Creek about 2 miles southeast of the Village
of Moquah. The gradient in the stream ranges from 20 to 50
feet per mile. The watershed comprises a drainage area of
approximately 15.7 square miles (10,048 acres) in east-
central Bayfield County (project area map). It is 4.5 miles
wide and 5 miles long at the extremes. The difference in
elevation between the rim of the watershed and the outlet
at Fish Creek is approximately 600 feet. The red clay which
covers this area was deposited as sediment during the high
water stage of glacial Lake Duluth.
Thick sand and gravel deposits overlay clay in the
northwest portion of the watershed. Some areas along the
margin are occupied by sandy loam glacial till. Clayey
soils make up the remaining area. Hibbing, Superior, and
Vilas soils predominate in the watershed.
There are 26 recognized soil types in the study area.
These soils make up a total of 20 land capability units
which are used in determining land treatment needs. A more
detailed description of the soils is given in the Fish Creek
Special Soil Survey Report.
Ownership
Land ownership in the Pine Creek study area is divided
between private individuals, county, and Federal government.
The 76 private landowners control about 65 percent of
the land in the study area. Twenty-seven are absentee and 49
are resident.
Fourteen of the absentee landowner parcels are entirely
woodland. Eleven parcels have some open land that is rented
for forage. The remaining three parcels are idle land.
Farming in the study area provides supplemental income.
Most of the landowners have outside jobs. Of the 49 resident
landowners, only 5 consider themselves as full-time farmers,
and 13 as part-time. Many residents have grown up where they
now live.
Land use in the study area is nonintensive. The 18
(part-time and full-time) farm operations total 3,411 acres.
There were approximately 671 animals on those farms. The
operations include 12 dairy, 5 beef, and 1 dairy-beef operation.
60
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The age breakdown of the landowners in the study area
is as follows:
Age
25-35
35-45
45-55
55-65
65-75
No. of Landowners
1
4
9
20
15
Land Use
The 15.7 square-mile Pine Creek study area is divided
into five main land uses: woodland, idle land, wildlife,
cropland, hayland, and pasture. Land areas were assigned a
land use type based on interviews with the landowner or on
what appeared to be the dominant use on areas where landowners
were not available. Field investigations and interviews
were conducted during 1976 and 1977.
About 59 percent (5,976 acres) of the study area is
devoted to woodland, 2,504 acres is privately-owned, and
3,472 acres of woodland is divided between Bayfield County
Forests and the Chequamegon National Forest. The county and
National forests in the study area range from the well-managed
grass-legume stands to predominantly woods.
LAND USE IN PINE CREEK STUDY AREA
Idle land totals 316 acres, or 3 percent of the area.
These areas have not been assigned a specific use by the
landowner and are dominated by grass and shrubs. These areas
provide benefits to upland wildlife.
61
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Wildlife land represents 2 percent of the study area.
These areas vary from lowland marshes to steep hillsides and
ravines. Size, location, or topography does not make it
practical to manage these areas for another land use.
Cropland accounts for only 3 percent of the Pine Creek
study area.
Hayland makes up 21 percent of land use in the study
area. This land use is assigned to areas that are managed
to produce hay crops, usually a grass-legume mixture.
Timothy-alfalfa or timothy-birdsfoot trefoil are the most
commonly used mixtures, with clover-timothy as a third choice
The hay is usually cut during June and early July. One
crop of hay is taken off of most fields each year. This
allows the landowner to use the same fields for pasture
during the remainder of the growing season.
Slightly more than 12 percent of the study area is used
for continuous pasture. Areas that are used primarily for
livestock grazing, exercise, or yarding facilities are
assigned to this land use.
Soil Loss Data
, r^, Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) was applied to
b,5Yb acres of privately-owned land in the study area. The
land units were inspected in the field by Soil Conservation
Service (SCS) personnel. The area was walked and assessed
according to land use. This information was coordinated with
soils mapping.
The landowner was encouraged to accompany SCS on soil
loss inspections, where possible. This gave the landowner
an understanding of the problems and potential solutions. A
summary of the evaluation was available to the landowner.
Maximum annual allowable estimated soil loss without
losing productive capabilities for the study area ranges from
3-5 tons per acre. Six hundred and fifty-four acres, or approxi.
mately 10 percent, of the privately-owned land exceeds the
allowable recognized soil loss. These critical areas aver-
aged an estimated 18.6 tons per acre soil loss.
Three hundred and seventy-one acres of woodland was esti-
mated to average an annual soil loss of 14.1 tons per acre.
These wooded ravines and gullies have 5-35 percent slopes.
Some areas are pastured and some are in natural condition.
Forty-two acres of hayland with 3-22 percent slopes
average an annual estimated 17 tons per acre per year soil
loss. Poor management and land usage account for the excessive
soil loss.
62
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Pasture areas with 5-30 percent slopes that are overgrazed
with poor cover conditions have an estimated average annual
soil loss of 25.7 tons per acre.
Estimated annual soil loss on the remaining 5,922 acres
in private ownership averages .15 ton per acre.
Land Adequately Treated
Land was considered to be adequately treated in the Red
Clay project when the total estimated soil loss for a land
unit was less than the total allowable soil loss for the
land unit. This approach is different than the definition
of "Land Adequately Treated" as defined in the SCS Technical
Guide.
The Pine Creek study area is using the project definition
of land adequately treated.
Five thousand and forty-four acres of private land
units are considered as land adequately treated. Eighteen
land units totalling 1,532 acres could not be considered as
adequately treated. Critically eroding areas on these units
increased total soil loss above allowable levels.
The USLE cannot address the transport of sediment. It
does identify critical high sediment producing areas and can
be used to establish treatment priorities.
Conservation Planning & Treatment
Land treatment measures which would be required to reduce
soil loss and sediment were developed. The detailed land -
use and soil loss calculations revealed that intensive
treatment would be limited to critically eroding areas. The
upland practices thought to be needed in the Pine Creek study
area are described in appendix A.
The SCS assisted district cooperators in developing con-
servation plans. These conservation plans would serve as a
basis for the district to provide cost sharing to landowners
for installing land treatment practices.
The Bayfield County Soil and Water Conservation District
(SWCD) and the other cooperating districts developed the Red
Clay project long term agreement (LTA). This was the document
used to contract with private landowners for cost share to in-
stall upland conservation practices. The soil and water conser-
vation district established a docket of cost-sharable practices
See appendix A.
63
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LAND TREATMENT PRACTICES
Practices Ba
Access Road
Agricultural Waste Management
Systems
Brush Management
Conservation Cropping Systems
Critical Area Planting
Crop Residue Management
Diversions
Drainage Field Ditch
Farmstead and Feedlot Windbreaks
Fencing
Field Windbreak
Floodwater Retarding Structure
Grade Stabilization Structure
Land Adequately Treated
Land Smoothing
Livestock Exclusion
Pasture and Hayland Management
Pasture and Hayland Planting
Pond
Recreation Area Improvement
Stock Trails, Walkways, and
Watering Facilities
Stream Channel Protection and
Slope Stabilization
Stripcropping
Subsurface Drainage
Tree Planting
Woodland Improvement
Woodland Site Preparation
yfield
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Cost-Sha
Carlton
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
red
Douglas
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-------
The LTA contract provided cost-share incentive to land-
owners to apply upland conservation practices. The contracts
required that all needed erosion control practices be in-
stalled. Participants were required to install all practices
in the LTA contract or risk loss of cost sharing already re-
ceived. LTA contracts could be modified by mutual consent of
both parties.
The contracting and contract servicing procedure was:
1. The soil and water conservation district requests
that the SCS prepare LTA documents based on cooperator's
conservation plan.
2. Soil and water conservation district and landowner
jointly accept and sign the contract.
3. Contract is reviewed and approved by the Red Clay
project executive committee.
4. Red Clay project director provides a certification
of funding.
5. SCS supplies technical assistance for practice instal-
lation and certifies satisfactory completion of practice accord-
ing to specification.
Prior to the Red Clay project there were 13 district coop-
erators in the study area. Conservation plans had been devel-
oped with 5 landowners. There are now 20 district cooperators,
16 conservation plans, and 9 LTA's.
Best Management Practices
Best management practices were recommended on the
basis of a reduction in soil loss and improvement of water
quality. Vegetative cover is the most important factor
in maintaining or reducing levels of soil loss in the study
area.
The practices most effective in improving water quality
in the Pine Creek area are:
Fencing (For Livestock Exclusion)
Animal Waste Management Systems
Critical Area Planting
Livestock Stream Crossings (Trail & Walkway)
Grassed Waterways
Cost-share rates for these practices varied from 50 to
100 percent.
65
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Other practices that were more popular with landowners
were cost shared to encourage landowner participation in the
program. The practices were well accepted:
Pasture and Hayland Management 70$
Land Smoothing 59$
Drainage Ditches 50$
Livestock Water Facilities 100$
Practices Applied
<-un .initial estimates of conservation practices needed
in the Fine Creek study area were overestimations. A list
of the contracted and installed practices follows:
Practice Planned Applied
Conservation Cropping System 43 ac. 22 ac
Pasture and Hayland Planting 160 ac. 141 ac*
Drainage Field Ditch 4,350 ft. 4,350 ft.'
Hydraulic Ram 2 i
Livestock Trail and Walkway 4,500 ft. 4 500 ft
Fencing 50,415 ft. 47*715 ft!
Livestock Crossing 6 5
Access Road 110 ft> no ffc>
Stock Water Tank 4 i|
Livestock Exclusion 355 ac. 314 ac
Grassed Waterway 2.7 ac! 2.1 ac!
Heavy Use Area Protection 1.1 ac. 1 1 ac
Pasture and Hayland Management 152 ac 152 ac*
Diversion ^450 ft. 1,450 ft!
Critical Area Planting 1.5 ac. 5 ac
Land Smoothing 73 ac>' 53 ac*
Livestock Pond 3 o
Well i ^
Woodland Improvement 118 ac 118 ac.
Wildlife Upland Habitat Management 35 ac. 31 ac*
Brush Management 5 ac. 5 ac<*
Eight landowners carried out their Red Clay project LTA's.
Practice Acceptance
The practices needed to control erosion are complementary
to recognized farming practices in the study area. Therefore,
the best management practices which provided economic benefits
and reduced soil loss were the most popular.
66
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Long Term Agreements
Landowners under contract tended to delay installation
or carry over practices from one year to the next. Installation
of practices may conflict with farm operations. During
these times practices are assigned a lower priority by the
farmer. Followup by field office personnel was required to
maintain landowner interest.
Contract revisions have been developed as needed on
contract landowners. The revision is used to add or delete
a practice that was not in the original LTA. It can be
initiated by the landowner or the planner. Final approval
authority rests with the project director.
One problem associated with the LTA is the revision of
contracts to secure cost sharing on related practices.
Several contract holders changed the land use on a planned
unit and requested cost sharing for related practices that
would improve the unit. This caused problems when dealing
with a strict time frame as in the Red Clay project.
Practices need to be planned well in advance to allow completion.
Some landowners use this method of "beating the system".
They have learned to understand the contract and know how to
make it work for them to secure their wants and needs.
Installation of.Practices
Practices were installed according to plans and specifi-
cations without problems. SCS field office personnel provided
construction inspection during installation of structural prac-
tices. These practices were installed by private contractors
secured by the landowner.
The landowners installed several practices themselves.
Most notable were fencing and hayland planting. SCS staff
provided the specifications and layout. After installation,
the practices were inspected. The threat of not receiving cost
sharing was incentive to apply a practice properly. This was
true in both landowner and contractor installations.
Project Acceptance .
Many of the landowners contacted indicated that they
were retired or were getting, ready to retire. There was little
enthusiasm toward the project in this group.
Potential agreements were lost because the landowners only
wanted to install certain practices. They were interested
until they learned that other practices would be requi'red to
completely treat the unit.
67
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Cost Sharing
Cost-share rates and contract requirements were outlined
to landowners in the study area. Nine landowners agreed to
participate in the program. Others did not participate
because they could not see the need for such a project. Cost
sharing had little effect on project acceptance. Some land-
owners saw the program as "just something else the government
wants us to do".
Duration
The effectiveness of the practices depend on the land-
owner's willingness to maintain them after the contract
period. Landowners have expressed greater concern over
maintaining fences than other practices. One landowner
commented that maintaining fences would be a problem.
Cost of Control
A total of 1,720 acres are under LTA with an average of
191 acres per LTA. There are about 180 animals on those
acres, an average of 20 per farm. The average estimated
cost per LTA is $13,447.
An average of 50 percent of the total estimated cost
per LTA was allocated to provide treatment to the high
sediment-producing critical areas. The remaining 50 percent
went to install complementing practices on the unit.
In all cases, treatment included provisions for continued
usage of areas defined as pasture and hayland. This meant
that livestock stream crossings and walkways had to be
included with exclusion fencing.
Example: One contract called for the installation of 2
livestock stream crossings and exclusion fencing at a total
estimated cost of $6,000.. This work provided protection to
18 acres of wildlife land and provided livestock access to 4
acres of pasture and 6 acres of hayland. Road access was
already available to these 2 areas, and 2 acres of the
pasture could have been used as hayland. The same protection
could have been secured with 600 feet of fencing and the
landowners agreement to restrict cattle from the pasture and
hayland areas.
68
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FISH CREEK STUDY AREA
Two branches of Fish Creek originate in sandy till and
outwash soils bordering the Lake Superior plain and flow
northeasterly through lacustrine clays deposited on the bed
of glacial Lake Duluth. North Fish Creek and South Fish
Creek join shortly before entering Lake Superior. Along the
lower two-thirds of their length, the streams meander through
valleys cut up to 100 feet below the surrounding plain level.
In these reaches, landslides are numerous where the stream
impinges against the steep clay valley walls. Flood plain
deposits vary from cobbles to clay and organic materials.
Problem Identification
The demonstration site given highest priority by the
district was on North Fish Creek just above the junction with
Pine Creek. The stream was forming an oxbow, undercutting
the north valley wall, creating a landslide 50 to 60 feet
high and about 200 feet long. Slope on the eroding face was
about 1:1. Slabs of earth caved and slid off, especially in
the springtime, contributing sand, clay, and occasional boul-
ders to the sediment load. Cracks of progressive slides were
numerous in back of the actively eroding face, extending into
a town road which ran up the hill. Seeps were present on the
slide face, and the road ditch emptied across the cracks at
the top of the slide.
Geometry of the site limited alternatives for slide and
streambank stabilization. The town road had been relocated
to run on a narrow ridge. The Fish Creek slide was on the
south side of the ridge and numerous smaller slides have caused
abandonment of the old road on the north side of the ridge.
Drop from road to the creek was about 60 feet in a horizontal
distance of 200 feet.
Alternatives
Alternatives considered were:
1. Sloping and seeding.
2. Buttressing the toe and sloping.
3. Relocating the stream, with or without slide
stabilization measures.
Space limitations precluded use of the first two alter-
natives without channel relocation. One-side streambank pro-
tection was not considered technically feasible since it was
felt that the slide would continue to move under and over the
bank protection.
Preliminary designs were prepared for relocating the
channel through the river loop in approximately mid-valley.
Once the stream was moved, various methods of stabilizing
the slide were also explored to determine rough costs. From
a water quality standpoint the most cost-effective solution was
to relocate the channel, removing the stream from the source
69
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?f sediment and allowing the slide to continue until a stable
bank slope developed. Final plans and specifications were
developed for this alternative.
Drainage area above the demonstration site was 37 square
miles. Floodflow for the 10-year design storm was estimated
to be 1,500 cfs. Plans called for a 24-foot-wide rock-lined
^a"n^V001fe?t long' Tne channel was dimensioned to main-
tain natural stream water surface elevation upstream and
downstream of the constructed channel at design flows and to
permit fish immigration at all times. Cost estimate for
construction was $85,000. Plans and specifications were
forwarded to the sponsors, but no construction is anticipated
?^er^hen?r°jec^ Spoor's applied for the required permits
from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, but as
of June 1, 1978, no permits had been issued.
Evaluation
The situation encountered on Fish Creek is typical of
problems in the Red Clay region. Interest of local residents
in stabilizing the slide was based primarily on maintaining
use of the town road, rather than on improving water quality.
^?nt=tnoHthe^high.eStilfiated construction cost, the residents
maintained interest as long as they thought the road could be
saved from sliding. When residents were told that the pro-
posed works would improve water quality but would not save the
road, interest evaporated. In this region, roads are con-
sidered a much more critical need than improved water quality.
With this philosophy prevalent, even water quality programs
with a high cost-sharing ratio will not be successful unless
other benefits important to local people are a part of the
package.
70
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CARLTON COUNTY SKUNK CREEK WATERSHED STUDY AREA
Description
Skunk Creek watershed was selected as a pilot study area
because it represented average watershed conditions within the
Minnesota portion of the Nemadji River watershed.
Skunk Creek watershed comprises a drainage area of ap-
proximately 10.7 square miles (6,870 acres) in southeastern
Carlton County, Minnesota. The watershed lies 7 miles east
of Barnum, Minnesota. It is about 6 miles long and approxi-
mately 3.5 miles wide at its widest point. Skunk Creek, the
main stream, drains the southern and western parts of the
watershed. It is joined by Duesler Creek in the central part
and Elim Creek in the northern part. The Soo Line Railroad
bisects the watershed in a northeast-southwest direction.
Elevation of Skunk Creek watershed ranges from about
805 feet at the east end to 1,090 feet above sea level at the
extreme west end. It is mostly underlain by lake-laid sedi-
ment of glacial Lake Duluth. Surface deposits in the eastern
part consist mainly of clay with some silt and fine sand
layers. Skunk Creek and its tributaries are entrenched into
this erosive sediment up to more than 100 feet at the lower
end. Gently undulating sandy deposits, wet in depressions,
are located in the central portion of the watershed. A small
island of loamy glacial drift lies in the west-central part.
The upper end is a gently sloping to rolling sandy and grav-
elly outwash plain. &
Underlying rock is Hinckley and Fond du Lac formations
of the Precambrian Age. It is mainly quartzose and arkosic
sandstone and interbedded shale. These are too deep to in-
fluence the work carried on by the Red Clay project.
Overlying the bedrock is debris from four major glacia-
tions that covered the area. This deposit, called drift, is
quite dense and slowly permeable. It is composed of sand,
silt, and clay with pockets and lenses of clean sand, in
places water-bearing. This drift is exposed in the west-
central part of the watershed. A strip through the middle of
the watershed has been modified by wave action to form a
sandy beach deposit.
There are 25 different kinds of soils in the Skunk Creek
watershed. These soils make up a total of 18 land capability
units which are used in determining land treatment needs. A
more detailed description of the soils in each capability
unit, their characteristics, and limitations are contained in
the Carlton County Soil and Water Conservation District (SWCD)
office located in Barnum, Minnesota.
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Ownership
Private ownership acreage within the Skunk Creek water-
shed is approximately 80 percent (5,470 acres) and State
ownership approximately 20 percent (1,400 acres). Fifty
landowners were identified in the study area. Approximately
10 percent are absentee landowners.
The majority of landowners depend on off-farm income
to support their families, with only 7 landowners deriving
their total income from their farming operation. Their farm
acreages are rather small (approximately 190 acres) when com-
pared with the Minnesota average.
Livestock enterprises are the major source of farm in-
come within the Skunk Creek watershed. Of the 50 landowners,
10 have beef operations, 10 are dairy farmers, 6 owners rent
hayland to neighboring farmers, and 24 are devoted to wood-
land and recreational enterprises.
Average age of the landowners within the Skunk Creek
watershed is 50 years, with on-farm income averaging about
$9,000 per year.
Land Use
The watershed is rural with no population centers, major
industrial or recreational sites. About 73 percent of the
watershed is woodland, 16 percent cropland, 7 percent pasture,
and 4 percent other land uses such as roads.
LAND USE IN SKUNK CREEK STUDY AREA
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LEGEND
—— «. Watershed Boundary
— Streams
^ Towns. Vii
H—1~ Railroads
Scale in Miles
by
WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR BASIN
Wisconsin-Minnesota
Skunk Creek
Cartton County, Minnesota
A.-hlaml. Baj field, ("arli^n ['"ugla.-
n
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Landowner Participation
When the project started, 14 landowners were cooperators
with the Carlton County SWCD. During the Red Clay project
22 landowners signed up as cooperators. Planning assistance
available to landowners provided the opportunity for 26 coop-
erators to develop long term agreements (LTA's), 7 cooperators
to develop conservation plans, and 6 inventory and evaluations
were prepared at the request of the landowners. (See exhibit 2.]
Resident landowners had a better participation rate than
the absentee landowners. Five of the 7 full-time farmers had
LTA's prepared.
The excellent cooperation and participation of land-
owners within the watershed was due to a number of factors:
(1) group planning methods were used; (2) Carlton County SWCD
actively encouraged landowners to cooperate; (3) key leaders
within and outside the watershed encouraged their neighbors
to participate; and (4) a vigorous program of contacting in-
dividuals to explain the program.
Conservation Planning and Application
The group planning approach was used to plan improve-
ments. All landowners were invited to a planning meeting
conducted by the Carlton County SWCD assisted by the Soil
Conservation Service (SCS), Red Clay project, and the Department
of Natural Resources (DNR), Division of Forestry. The services
of each were explained, and the land users were given an oppor-
tunity to cooperate. All landowners were contacted by the
Carlton County SWCD and SCS personnel to encourage participa-
tion. As a result of this meeting and personal contacts, 26
Red Clay LTA's were developed and several woodland management
plans were developed with the DNR, Division of Forestry.
Four levels of service were provided by SCS in the
project:
1. Red Clay LTA consisting of a conservation plan
and Red Clay cost sharing. These landowners
were willing to treat a majority of their sedi-
ment-producing lands to improve water quality
of the area.
2. Conservation plan with Agricultural Conservation
Program (ACP) cost sharing, an ongoing program
administered by the Agricultural Stabilization
and Conservation Service (ASCS).
3. An inventory and evaluation providing data con-
cerning water quality on the property.
4. No assistance - this was a result of the land-
owner rejecting assistance.
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Conservation plans were used as a basis for Red Clay
LTA's. These LTA's were developed with the assistance of
SCS technicians. The property was viewed with the land-
owner, potential erosion and sediment-producing areas were
identified, and alternate solutions were proposed. A de-
cision was made by the landowner as to the most suitable
solution for his operation. Approval of the plan by the
landowner, Carlton County SWCD, and Red Clay Executive Com-
mittee preceded practice installation. (See photo 2.)
Soils maps and other inventory data, with recommenda-
tions for improving water quality, were prepared for land-
owners (usually woodland recreation property) who chose not
to have a conservation plan prepared.
Red Clay Cost Sharing; Land treatment problems in the
Skunk Creek watershed were solved by using a variety of
practices. Land treatment needs to control upland erosion
problems were minimal, but erosion on streambanks, ravines,
and other steep slopes was moderate to severe. (See photo 1.)
Cost-shared practices selected by the Carlton County SWCD to
control erosion and practices to improve the landowner's eco-
nomic status are equally important in this low income area.
Some of the practices selected also provided a means to com-
pensate a landowner for fencing out some of his lands for
project activities.
Rates were approximately 75 percent of total cost in the
beginning of the project. As the project progressed, it be-
came evident that additional cost sharing would be necessary.
A need arose to provide alternate sources of livestock water
where cattle were excluded from streams. Cost-share rates
were increased to 100 percent for this and stream channel
protection to encourage participation. Without special proj-
ect cost sharing it would have been difficult to get practice
application because most landowners in Skunk Creek watershed
have limited assets and income.
76
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The following conservation practices and cost-sharing
rates were adopted by the Carlton County SWCD and used in pre-
paring Red Clay LTA's:
Cost-share
Practice Rates
(Percent)
Pasture and Hayland Planting 75
Brush Management 50
Tree Planting 75
Woodland Improvement 75
Water Impoundment Reservoirs (Livestock Ponds) 75
Floodwater Retarding and Sediment Trap Structures 90
Diversions 75
Stream Channel Protection & Slope Stabilization 100
Grassed Waterway 75
Stock Trails, Walkways, or Watering Facilities 100
Drainage Field Ditch 50
Agricultural Waste Management Systems 75
Fencing for Livestock Exclusion 100
Practices Applied: Conservation practices that provide
the needed protection and some economic benefit were selected
by most landowners. Practices which were only conservation-
oriented required a higher percentage of cost sharing than
those that provided some economic benefit. Fencing out stream-
banks is an excellent example.
Practices were installed according to standards and speci-
fications found in section IV of the field office technical
guide for the Carlton County SWCD. SCS and SWCD office per-
sonnel provided construction inspection during installation of
conservation practices.
There were no major problems associated with the instal-
lation of these practices. A good working relationship
existed between the landowners, SCS, and SWCD technicians
and local contractors.
The following conservation practices were applied by land-
owners in the Skunk Creek watershed:
Multi-purpose dams were built in the watershed
by land users. Deeply entrenched ravines lend
themselves to this type of practice. The
majority of these structures are used for live-
stock water as well as sediment traps. (See
exhibit 3 for additional information - also
photo 3.)
77
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Photo No. 1
Land slippage is a natural
occurring process that has
been accelerated by man's
activities within the water-
shed. Slides like these
and streambank erosion are
nrajor contributors of sedi-
ment to the water courses
in Red C].qy areas.
Photo No. 2
Conservation planning with
individual landowner contacts
produce excellent results.
39 landowners had conserva-
tion plans or inventory and
evaluations prepared on their
farms. ^$% of the lands in
the watershed were planned.
26 LTA's were prepared during
the planning process.
Photo No. 3
This is a typical struc-
ture installed during the
project designed to serve
a multi-purpose - livestock
watering as well as sedi-
ment traps.
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Fencing for livestock exclusion was included
in the docket of cost-shared practices avail-
able to land users. A cost-share rate of 100
percent encouraged about 60 percent of the
landowners to participate in the fencing pro-
gram. Some reasons farmers would not fence
streams include loss of livestock access to
water in streams, loss of pasture adjacent to
streams, and concern about maintenance of fence.
Stream crossings usually consisted of culverts
and graveled walkways. Nearly all landowners
who fenced streams also developed stock trails
and stream crossings to allow cattle access to
pastures across the streams. (See photo 4.)
Since cattle were excluded from streams, watering
pits and ponds were included in the upland treat-
ment program. The district board approved pasture
and hayland seedings as cost-shared practices to
offset areas lost by the fencing exclusion prac-
tice. Many of the pastures were overgrazed, and
it was believed that improved forage production
would reduce this problem. (See photos 6 and 7.)
Grassed waterways were established on a number of
farms and in an abandoned township road ditch to
correct gullying problems.
Areas cleared earlier by logging and subject to
erosion were planted to trees.
One animal waste system was planned for construc-
tion, but the farm was sold, and wet conditions
prevented it from being constructed. High costs
discouraged farmers from adopting this practice.
However, two operators moved their feedlots away
from streambanks and agreed to incorporate the
manure into the soil shortly after spreading,
thereby reducing runoff of animal wastes. (See
photo 5.)
Diversions were established to divert water to
a safe outlet.
Brush management was utilized for pasture manage-
ment as a form of compensation for fencing cattle
from gullies and steep slopes.
Woodland improvement was used to improve stand
and ground cover conditions.
79
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Photo No. $
District Conservationist Benrud
providing on site assistance to
landowner in applying his conserva-
tion plan. A well planned followup
program was initiated to assure the
practice application's staying on
schedule.
Photo No. U
Fencing out water courses caused
landowner problems in utilizing
lands on the opposite side of the
watercourse. Stream crossings
such as this allowed landowner
easy access to the lands and pro-
vided a way for livestock to
cross these water courses, pro-
tecting the water quality.
Photo No. 6
Because of a shortage of ade-
quate pasture land, many of
the streambanks were over-grazed
resulting in poor production.
Lands in this condition would be
much more susceptible to erosion.
80
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Sediment trap structures were esspecially designed
for this project. These structures had a per-
forated inlet, principal spillway, and a grassed
auxiliary spillway to trap sediment at the
lowest cost. (See photo 10.)
Several critical eroding sites in the Skunk Creek
watershed were seeded by the Carlton County SWCD
with assistance from the Youth Conservation Corps
(YCC). A crew of eleven youths and two super-
visors worked on sites near Elim Creek. One
site consisted of a 6-foot gully which leads into
Elim Creek. The district hired heavy equipment
to shape the area prior to hand-seeding, sodding,
and mulching. Other sites required hand-shaping,
seeding, and mulching. In addition to critical
area seeding, 1,000 feet of creek was snagged to
free it from debris and reduce streambank erosion.
(See photo 8.)
Stream channel protection and slope stabilization
practices were constructed to reduce streambank
erosion and slides. (See photo 9.)
Floodwater retention dams were constructed to pro-
vide temporary storage of floodwater and for its
controlled release. The controlled release rates
are expected to reduce downstream erosion. (See
photo 11.)
Approximately 90 percent of practices planned in the
LTA's were applied in spite of wet working conditions in the
fall of 1977 and during the 1978 construction season. Seven con-
tractors worked in the watershed constructing practices for
landowners. (See table 1 for further information.)
Methods of Practice Application; A variety of methods
were used to apply conservation practices identified in the
landowner's LTA or conservation plan. All of the agronomic
practices were applied by landowner with his equipment. Most
of the fence installation for livestock exclusion was accom-
plished by the landowner. Fencing around Elim dam was a part
of the contract. Livestock crossings, watering facilities,
and sediment trap structures were constructed by local con-
tractors. These contractors were hired by the landowner, and
all arrangements were executed by the landowner. Some criti-
cal area treatment work was done by utilizing the YCC assis-
tance available to Carlton County SWCD through the Minnesota
DNR. Carlton County SWCD made arrangements, provided neces-
sary materials, and supplied supervision.
Modification of Agreements: Modification of LTA's were
usually made at the request of the landowner. Only 10 percent
of planned practices were deleted by modification. Most
changes were made in the last six months of the project.
81
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Table 1. Treatment Status in Skunk Creek;
Need
Unit
Treatment
A. Management
Conservation Plans No.
Conservation Plans Ac.
District Cooperators No.
District Cooperators Ac.
Land Adequately Treated Ac.
Livestock Exclusion Ac.
Woodland Improvement Ac.
Inventory & Evaluation No.
B. Land Treatment Practices
Access Roads Ft.
Brush Management Ac.
Conservation Cropping Ac.
System
Critical Area Treatment Ac.
Diversions (Inc. Ft.
Drainage Field Ditch)
Farmstead Windbreak Ac.
Fencing (Inc. Elim Dam) Ft.
Floodwater Retarding No.
Structures
Grassed Waterways Ac.
(Roadside)
Grassed Waterways (Field) Ac.
Pasture and Hayland Ac.
Management
Pasture and Hayland Ac.
Planting
Livestock Watering Ponds No.
Livestock Watering No.
Facilities (Wells
and Pumps)
Drainage Tile Ft.
Tree Planting AC.
Sediment Trap No.
C. Stream Channel Protection
Slope Stabilization Ft.
33
5,266
36
5,822
6,514
236
9
6
6,800
44
209
20
5,700
0
36,000
2
1.1
1.6
1,413
493
18
3
4,770
18
3
830
As of June 1, 1978
82
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Photo No,, 7
District Conservationist Benrud
and Extension Agent Monson dis-
cussing pasture and hayland man-
agement with a cooperator during
a farm visit. Emphasis placed
on forage production has resulted
in a marked increase in produc-
tion of quality forage.
Photo No. 8
Youth Conservation Corps (YCC)
labor was provided by Minnesota
DNR to Carlton County SWCD
in 1977 and 1978. The YCC
people worked on critical
area sites that were hard to
reach or were rather small.
This is just one of the many
programs the Carlton County
SWCD utilized during the
Red Clay Project.
Photo No. 9
Stream channel protection saw
different methods tried. This
particular structure provides
a concrete culvert in lower
left of pacture to handle
normal flows. In periods of
high flow the water would flow
over the drop structure„
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Photo No. 10
Example of the sediment
traps that were designed
and constructed in the
Skunk Creek Watershed.
Photo No. 11
Flood water retention
dams were constructed on
Skunk and Elim Creeks.
This is the pipe being
laid on the structure
in Skunk Creek known as
Hanson dam.
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Reasons for modification included:
1. Landowner unable to complete practice by end of proj-
ect .
2. Landowner not fully understanding practice at planning
time.
3. Landowner unable to secure contractor or materials
during contract period.
4. Change in farming operation between development of
LTA and application of practice.
Cost of Control: Per acre cost for the installation of
practice to treat each acre averaged $55. The installation
costs varied from $1.40 to $140 per acre for the LTA's.
Cost per farm for implementing the LTA averaged $9,000,
of which the Red Clay project cost-shared $5,900, and $3,100 was
the landowner's cost. Red Clay assumed approximately 65 per-
cent of the cost and the landowner 35 percent.
Technical Assistance Requirements: Approximately 25 man-
hours of SCS time was required to complete each Red Clay LTA.
In addition to SCS time, district employees spent an average
of 10 man-hours per LTA.
Application of planned practices required 50 man-hours
of SCS technical time for each LTA. Carlton County SWCD fur-
nished an additional 30 man-hours per LTA to apply the planned
practices.
In summary, approximately 115 man-hours of technical
assistance was required for the planning and implementation
of each of the 26 LTA's. This does not include the time spent
on structural measures installed through formal contract.
Land Adequately Treated: Land is considered adequately
treated, according to tne Ked Clay Project Work Plan, when
"using land within its capability on which the conservation
practices that are essential to its protection and planned
improvement have been applied". Prior to the Red Clay project
there were 13 conservation plans prepared on 30 percent of
Skunk Creek watershed.
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After
Red Clay
Project
During the Red Clay project, 26 LTA's and 7 conservation
™ SA6re P^ePared W"h landowne^ within the watershed, anS
an additional 6 inventory and evaluations were also prepared.
tha? Q?nn^nSeVPl?n^and Practices applied, it was determined
that 95 percent of the watershed met the Red Clay project plan
definition of land adequately treated.
Structural Measures
=niy f^the Pr°Ject Planners recognized that streambank
and slides were the largest source of stream sediment?
Engineers and scientists studied the causes of these slides
? en™8 thelr erosion int° the stream. Carlton Coun-
slid? StaM?}St?* by SCS> Ch°Se floodwater retention dams and
slide stabilization measures to reduce streambank erosion
P?ahf0 th* SlZe °f theSe structu^s, the district secured land
rights and exercised a formal contract to install these struc-
L U r*6 3 •
. Floodwater Retarding Structures: Floodwater retarding
structures with improved sediment trapping provisions should
demonstrate one alternate method of improving water quality.
JeduP^hi^L3^™ funoff slowly, streambank erosion should be
reduced below the structures. Quality of released water will
be improved by sediment retention in the pool.
When planning began there was only one United States
Geological Survey (USGS) class A station near the mouth of the
Nemadji River which provided about 1 year of data. Data from
this gauge indicated reduction of peak flows would substan-
tially reduce yearly sediment load (tons/year) and high sedi-
ment concentrations (mg/liter) during peak flows.
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Seven sites were considered in the Skunk Creek watershed.
To determine the feasibility of each structure site, flood
peak reduction, expected cost, and construction problems were
evaluated. Two sites, Elim Creek dam and Hanson dam were
selected, designed, and built in Skunk Creek watershed. Table
2 shows the flood peak reduction expected downstream from the
dams.
Table 2. Flood Peak Reduction Expected Downstream From Dams
Return
Period
(Years)
Peak Flood Reduction
(Percent)
50
10
r,l • &
Elim
84
85
94
Hansond
1?
75
Both5
Dams
39
47
47
Q
Dams
50
52
a
b At County Road 103 . ,
c At USGS gauge station near County Road 103 - includes
upland ponds
Elim Creek Dam; Elim Creek dam, a 45-foot high earthen
structure, was designed with a back slope of 3:1 with a sta-
bility berm and a front slope of 3:1 above pool level berm,
and a 3.5:1 below the pool. Compaction of red clay fill was
soecified at 95 percent of standard proctor and moisture at
or above optimum. Principal spillway is a 24-inch diameter
pipe conduit with a two-stage inlet. Maximum release rate is
42 cubic feet per second per square mile (CSM). Permanent
pool capacity is 0.33 watershed-inch, slow drawdown capaci-
ty is 0.91 inch, high stage is 1.69 inches, and total re-
tarding storage is 2.60 inches. All disturbed or construc-
tion areas would be seeded with adapted grass species and
mulched to control erosion and promote vegetation growth.
Reed canarygrass sprigs were planted around the pool_to in-
troduce a water-tolerant grass without disturbing existing
vegetation. (See exhibit 3.)
A construction contract for Elim dam was advertised in
the spring of 1976. Five bids were received on June 3, 197b»
ranging from $121,206 to $187,098. The SCS engineer's estimate
was $114,081. The construction contract was awarded to
Lincoln Construction Company for $121,206. Construction
began on August 9, 1976, but was delayed until October due
to delivery of principal spillway conduit. Installation ot
conduit and part of riser was completed November 19, _1976.
Freezing weather at that time stopped placement of fill, and
construction was suspended for the winter.
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nsa .„
the berm was observed on July 21, 1977. Cracks parallel to
H£ TTrF""^: --—«- ^b.:1^ a;
sr.. inL^rsoSZA-rs^n^i tKii^ir-
tion could be completed and repair plans prepared. S
Julv p? 1?J??tig^i?n and monitoring Phase was begun on
July 22, 1977, which revealed the following:
1. Movement occurred above the berms, and no signifi-
cant movement was observed below the be?Ss? 8
2. ggterial above the berms had a density range of
»b. 4 to 93.1 percent of standard proctor density with
?™TS8? °iA°'5 PerCent' Moisture conten? ranged
Jo ? ; to 14.5 percent above optimum moisture con-
tent which indicated that fill was compacted to sat-
u r*3. c> 1 o n •
3. Material below the berms had a density range of 87 5
to 99.0 percent standard proctor density with an
rl™ahen°l 9io Percent- The moisture content ranged
irom 4.4 to 13.3 percent above optimum moisture con-
tent, which again indicated fill was compacted to
saturation.
4. Complex soil mechanics testing indicated that shear
strength at the lesser density was significantly
nnmh?r than recluired for the design. Weaker strength,
combined with a saturated fill, resulted in slope
failure.
5. No significant movement occurred below the berms
pal sPillway conduit extended only one inch
was anticipated in the design.
Review of construction inspection procedures revealed that
rapid compaction method (Hilf method) did not give Accurate
density and moisture for red clay materials. The procedure
fit? Dea^H h?nS±ty" Peak 10W6r than the true raaxiraum den-
sity peak and a higher optimum moisture. This method gave
the impression that fill was well within construction specif i-
iSvi??? ~??«n inpfact " was not» as verified in the above
investigation. Procedure outlined by Method A, ASTM D698
gives correct maximum density and optimum moisture control
SQU^e? ° devel°P shear strengths needed for design and
should be used for construction control.
In August 1977, a modification to remove fill to berm
elevation was issued. Due to wet weather (7.0 inches of rain
o? fJS W6en AufuSt 29 and November 15, 1977) and beginning
of freezing weather, earthmoving was suspended for the winter
and an overflow channel lined with plastic was installed to '
protect remaining fill and prevent erosion d"iig the Shutdown
period.
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In March 1978, final design changes and modifications
were completed and consisted of the following:
1. Lengthen principal spillway by adding 40 feet of
conduit and constructing a new stilling basin
downstream. Foundation drain outlet and emergency
spillway were also lengthened downstream.
2. Downstream slope was flattened to 4:1.
3. Upstream slope was flattened to 3 1/2:1, thus
covering about one-half the upstream berm. No
changes were made below the pool.
4. Fill specifications were changed to control moisture
content within -2 to +5 percent of optimum and a
density not less then 93 percent of maximum (ASTM
D698, Method A).
5. Stockwatering system through the embankment would
be abandoned by removing pumphouse and vent pipe
and capping remaining pipe.
6. Reed canarygrass was added to the seeding mixture,
and a fiber blanket (excelsior) mulch would be used
on slopes steeper than 4:1.
During the snowmelt runoff in 1978, the plastic liner
in the overflow channel was severely damaged. It appeared
the 20 mil plastic was torn by the sharp corners 6f ice chunks
pushed by shallow water flowing down the channel. The plastic
failed on the lower portion of the channel and gullying occurred
to about a two foot depth.
Construction during 1978 consisted of cleaning out the
overflow channel, removing the remaining fill to the old berm
elevation (Elev 925), lengthening the principal spillway, and
placing earth fill to the new compaction specifications. There
were frequent rains until mid-July which delayed construction
progress and a heavy 4-inch rain in August which overflowed
the fill and caused some erosion damage. About 10,000 cubic
yards of modified fill were placed in 1978. About 18,000 cubic
yards of fill remained at the close of the 1978 construction
season.
During the winter of 1978-79, the partial fill was left
unprotected. The fill top was about 6 feet above the pool,
thus, providing for a flow of 4.0 CSM through the orifice
on the principal spillway. The snowmelt runoff in 1979 exceeded
the orifice capacity and the overflow caused a 4 foot deep by
12 foot wide gully. Observations indicate the peak snowmelt
runoff was 15-20 CSM.
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Construction during 1979 consisted of removing weather
damaged fill (loosened by frost and wetted) and placing
earth fill to within 5 feet of the top of fill. Wet fall
weather prevented its completion. About 2500 cubic yards
of earth fill remains to be placed at the end of the 1979
construction season.
During 1978, nineteen compaction tests were taken. The
results of seventeen tests ranged from 96 percent to 108
percent of standard proctor density. The moisture content
ranged from two percent below to seven percent above optimum.
Two tests were considered too wet without standard proctor
comparison. After standard proctor comparison, fill
represented by two more tests had to be removed and recompacted
to meet specifications.
Durin§ 1979» twenty-three compaction tests were taken.
The test results ranged from 94 percent to 106 percent of
standard proctor density. The moisture content ranged from
three percent below to eight percent above optimum. Fill
represented by five tests was removed and recompacted to
meet specifications.
,„«« The earth fill, seeding and sodding should be done in
1980. This will complete Elim dam.
Cost of construction resulting from the above problems
increased cost from $121,000 to $219,000. Since the cause
of these problems has been identified and can be avoided in
the future, a realistic construction cost would have been
$157,000. This does not include technical assistance cost.
Hanson Dam; A 36-foot high dam on Skunk Creek was
planned when investigations revealed this to be a good site
to control peak flows in Skunk Creek. The dam was designed
with 3:1 backslope, a stability berm, 3 1/2:1 front slope,
and a pool level berm. Compaction of red clay fill was
again specified at 95 percent of standard proctor and moisture
at or^above optimum. Principal spillway is a 36-inch diameter
conduit with two-stage inlet. Maximum release rate is 36 CSM.
Permanent pool capacity is 0.06 watershed-inch; slow drawdown
capacity is 0.51 inch; high stage is 1.43 inches, and total
retarding storage is 1.94 inches. (See exhibit 3 for additional
information.)
Construction plans for Hanson dam were completed in
January 1977. Work was advertised, and five bids were received
on March 27, 1977, ranging from $130,680 to $199,957. SCS
engineer s estimate was $133,417. Linder Construction, low
bidder, met the contract requirements and began work in mid-May.
bxcept for some delays in concrete work caused by subcontractors.
construction proceeded on schedule until early August.
90
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Experience at Elim dam caused an investigation of
compaction at Hanson dam where the same specifications and
test procedures were being used. Investigation showed that
8,000 cubic yards of fill needed removal and replacement.
A reanalysis of slope stability indicated a need for
the following modification:
1. Change placement fill specifications controlling
moisture content to within -2 to +4 percent of
optimum (ASTM D698, Method A).
2. Flatten upstream slope to 4:1.
3. Flatten downstream slope to 3 1/2:1.
4. Add Reed Canarygrass to seeding mixture.
5. Add riprap to stilling basin to accept added
slope length.
Due to wet fall weather, fill could not be completed
during 1977. For erosion protection during seasonal shutdown
disturbed areas were mulched, temporary diversions were cut
in the borrow area, and the foundation excavation hole acted
as a debris settling basin.
During the snowmelt runoff in 1978, the foundation
excavation hole collected most of the construction site sediment.
The sediment was 2 to 3 feet deep in the deepest area. ^
Observations indicated the flow downstream was clear during
the snowmelt runoff.
Construction during 1978 consisted of cleaning the sediment
out of the foundation area, removing about 2,000 cubic yards of
the substandard fill and placing earth fill. There were frequent
rains which delayed construction progress until mid-July. A£ter
the flow caused by the 4-inch rain in August had subsided, the
contractor closed the bypass channel and began pumping
streamflow into the principal spillway. About 14,000 cubic
yards of fill were placed to new specifications in 1978. About
23,000 cubic yards of fill remained to be placed in 1979.
During the winter of 1978-79, the partial fill was left
unprotected. The fill top was about 6 feet above the pool level,
thus providing for a flow of 4.7 CSM through the orifice of the
principal spillway. The snowmelt runoff in 1979 exceeded the
orifice capacity and the overflow caused some shallow gullying.
The fill was nearly level so the flow was shallow and spread out
about 70 feet wide. The gullies started about one foot deep near
the center of the fill and increased to about two feet deep over
the downstream slope. Observations indicate the peak snowmelt
runoff was about 11 CSM at the dam.
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Construction during 1979 consisted of removing the weather
damaged fill, placing earth fill, seeding and mulching.
During 1978, thirty-two compaction tests were taken. The
results of twenty-nine tests ranged from 89 percent to 107 percent
of standard proctor density. The moisture content ranged two
percent below to ten percent above optimum. Three compaction
tests were considered too wet without standard proctor comparisons,
After standard proctor comparisons, fill represented by nine more
tests was removed and recompacted to meet specifications.
During 1979, twenty-five compaction tests were taken. The
results of twenty-four tests ranged from 92 percent to 103 percent
ot standard proctor density. The moisture content ranged from
optimum to seven percent above optimum. One test was considered
too wet without standard proctor comparison. The fill represented
by four additional compaction tests with standard proctor
comparisons was removed and recompacted to meet specifications.
The dam was completed with the seeding and mulching on
September 8, 1979. 6
Actual construction cost, excluding cost for removal and
nnnentJ^ substandard fill, but including modifications, was
,000. This reflects a realistic construction cost for
this dam. Technical assistance costs are not included.
Landslide and Streambank Erosion Control; The first
priority streambank site, just north of bridge on County Road
103, was chosen because it was (1) easily accessible, (2)
the priority request of district, and (3) the best site for
public to see results. This was an active slide that extended
from the streambank to the hilltop across the road. It moved
vertically down approximately 4 feet between August 1975 and
June 1976.
Final design consisted of a 48-inch culvert to pass a
once in 4 year storm after Elim and Hanson dams were built
and a concrete drop structure to carry flow from larger storms.
A concrete structure was used in favor of rock-filled cribs
because concrete was considered a feasible material and a
rock-filled crib structure was planned in another location on
Skunk Creek. By raising the overflow channel, an earth buttress
could be placed against the slide and the opposite valley wall
to provide the force needed to stabilize the slide. The culvert
outlet was located separate from the structure to provide easier
construction and dewatering.
South of the bridge on County Road 103 about 4,000 cubic
yards of excess excavation was expected. Therefore, this work
was included in the north side contract so excess excavation
could be used as fill in the buttress.
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Immediately southeast of the bridge, near station 27 +
10 cut llopes were reshaped and flattened to 2:1 providing
drainage in road ditch and an erosion control berm on the cut
slope. It was recognized that a 2:1 slope may not be stable,
but a flatter slope would have meant cutting more of the ex-
isting vegetation (timber) and disposing of a large amount of
excess excavation at some remote location since no disposal
area was available in the immediate area. This area would be
seeded with a different grass-legume mixture to demonstrate
plant water use (growth) in stabilizing clay slopes by lower-
ing water content of the soil. The entire disturbed area
would be mulched with straw with a small amount of asphalt
added to anchor the mulch.
Gabion structure wingwall extension on the bridge was
another structural method to reduce streambank erosion. This
structure also provides an outlet for drainage to the north-
west.
A demonstration of tile drainage was proposed for this
contract:
1. A new drainage concept, known as a fin drain, was
installed to demonstrate a method of intercepting
seepage flow in a cut slope from station 30+ 50
to 33 + 50. The fin drain consists of small verti-
cal tubes inserted into a plastic tile. Vertical
tubes and tile are covered with filter cloth.
These vertical fins intercept the horizontal seep-
age and allow moisture to move down the fin and
into the tile. This installation would be the
first tried in red clays.
2 Tile drains were installed in the road ditch to
intercept seepage flow and provide a better grow-
ing condition for a grassed waterway.
3 Tile drains on upland were installed to intercept
excess rainfall that ponds in shallow depression
and seeps out valley slope, providing moisture for
clay sliding.
Construction plans for Red Clay Erosion Control Part I
were completed, and a contract for this work was advertised
in the summer of 1976. Four bids were received on August 15,
1976, ranging from $218,612 to $317,277. The SCS engineer's
estimate was $211,359. Holmes Construction, the low bidder,
met contract requirements and began construction on September 10,
1976. During construction, sliding occurred November 197b be-
tween station 15 + 55 and 20 + 50. (See exhibit 4.)
This was due in part to faulty construction techniques
of unnecessary stockpiling fill at the top of the old slide
area. Structure foundation was in place and rose 6-11 inches
across headwall (weir) section. The corner furthest from
slide (right wingwall) did not raise. This structure has been
93
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arvQ7 and has lowered 2-3 inches since Febru
(See exhibit 3E*pansion J°ints have accepted the movements.
of lQ?£St ?LohS cons^uction was completed during the fall
of 1976. Some concrete was poured during the winter, and
final shaping and seeding was completed in May and June 1977
Final cost including modifications, additions and Quan
tity variations was $226,117. A portion of road fill for
Hnnlahin^' graveiing' and adding ^P^ under the bridge was
done by Carlton County. These costs ($6,731) were includ-
ed in the project budget.
°tobr 7'11' 1977, three inches of rain and
SOilS' F°llowi^ th* rain, several
1. A large slide occurred near station 27 + 10 des-
troying the berm and vegetative demonstration.
(See exhibit 4 for station locations.) As stated
before, engineers recognized that 2:1 or even 3-1
may not be flat enough to resist sliding. However
an extensive slope stability analysis was not done
on these cut slopes because it was recognized that
Hatter slopes would not be feasible due to large
amounts of earth that would have to be wasted with
no available area for wasting. Furthermore, it
afforded an opportunity to check different cut-slopes
and berms with vegetative practices.
2. A small slide occurred near the top of the slope
west of station 23 + 00 and slid down the slope over
the grass and into the sodded waterway. The materi-
al was removed from the waterway by the county so
the waterway could function properly. The slide
appears to be a result of localized seepage and
some minor overflow.
3. Another slide is developing in the same slope at
station 19 + 00. Again, a localized seepage pocket
is suspected to be the main cause of the problem.
4. Another small slide near station 32 + 00 moved against
fin drain section. The cause of this was seepage higher
up the slope and insufficient compaction against fin
drain at toe of the slide. Manufacturer's recommen-
dations were followed for installation. However, in
red clays compacted backfill appears to be a neces-
sary addition to the procedure.
Preliminary plans to stabilize these slide areas were
presented to the Carlton County SWCD in November 1977. They
decided not to repair these slides but to concentrate on new
streambank construction. Field surveys of additional slide
areas were conducted in 1975 and 1976. Construction plans to
94
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onnirol four slide areas were completed in April 1977. T1?ese
plans included various methods to control streambank erosion:
1 Buttressing slide with a bin wall structure and
straighten and line channel with riprap. Bin walls
were chosen in favor of rock cribs because cribs
were planned for another site.
2 Using concrete log cribs to build a grade stabiliza-
tion structure on Skunk Creek. In time the creek
upstream will fill with sediment, thereby further
stabilizing sliding for about 500 feet upstream.
Design details of log crib structure were taken
from "Report on Debris Reduction Studies for
Mountain Watersheds, 1959".
3. Lining channel slope with cell blocks to reduce
erosion. Cell blocks were an innovative idea that
has been used in New York and Michigan. They are
as economical as riprap. A sheet pile dam was
added downstream to prevent undercutting of cell
block slope lining.
4. Lining channel slope with rock-filled gabions.
These four areas were designated Red Clay Erosion Con-
trol Part II, and were advertised for bids. Two bids were
received on June 14, 1977: $451,370 and $426,036. The SCS
engineer's estimate was $204,001. Both bids were rejected
due to lack of funds. Initial plans were to readvertise two
of the slide areas in January 1978 but were later canceled
due to lack of funds.
Other alternatives were considered in reducing stream-
bank erosion. None of these alternatives were utilized in
final plans because of a shortage of funds. They are men-
tioned to provide insight in future projects of this type.
They are as follows:
1. Install low-head dams just below slide areas.
These would be built of rock or rock-filled gabions.
2 Line channel banks with logs fastened together and
laying parallel to the streamflow. These logs
could be of native untreated timber for low cost
but would have a 5-10 year life. For longer pro-
tection life, treated timbers or concrete "logs"
were considered but were a more costly protection.
3 Vegetate the valley slopes with plants that use
more soil water, drying out the soil for better
stability. These types of plants are called "bio-
logical pumps". After some study, plant scientists
doubted these would have any success.
95
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4. Drain valley slopes and slides by drilling from
valley bottom horizontally (or slightly CpwardI
in-
eer. ciay
Operation and Maintenance
nlo Project activities end on December 31, 1978 A total
plan for operation and maintenance needs to bedevelojed by
the.Carlton SWCD. It should consider all aspects of the
loollr ^ SUC? ^ ^ aCtlVe followuP Program ?rencSuragl
cooperators to maintain the practices applied Additional
practice application should be motivated through exist?™
programs such as ACP or other cost-sharing programs §
Evaluation of Effectiveness
Evaluation techniques employed by SCS included:
1* mokf ?0li l°ss.calculations before and after treat-
program. determine ^^ctiveness of upland treatment
2. Monitor and analyze sediment trapping efficiency.
3' fri?dl?^lly observe function of most measures in
5. Review data from USGS stream gauging stations.
Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and its
etteetiveness of applied conservation practices.
:1 SCS teohni=ia"S have estimated 90
8 Skunk creek erodes from
microscopic clay particles. This can be observed as
sediment bars in the channel which look like gravel but are
in fact "clay aggregates" that appear to be gravel. These
"clay aggregates" can be readily settled out of water in dams
specifically designed for that purpose. If "clay aggregates"
irnd?v?d,lnifl?Wing W?ter' they will eventually dispel into
individual clay particles which will remain suspended in water
for extremely long periods of time. The only feasible ways of
96
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controlling clay sediments are to prevent erosion in^the^first
place or to remove clay from the transport system while it is
still in "clay aggregate" form. Based upon this, sediment
trapping was planned for Skunk Creek watershed.
Both Elim Creek and Hanson dams included improved sediment
trapping provisions. A USGS stream gauge station was installed
above Elim Creek dam to determine sediment entering Elim Creek
dam. A sediment survey of the reservoir by SCS will determine
sediment trapped by dam. It is estimated about 80 percent
of sediment entering the pool will be trapped. Since August
1977 the pool has partially filled several times, and outflow
appears to be clean and clear. Sediment surveys are not
planned on Hanson dam or the other small dams in Skunk Creek
watershed. The small dams are built on smaller streams where
streambank and upland erosion is minimal. Sediment trapped
by these will be visually observed by technicians in the field.
A series of 3 small structures were built in an eroding
section of Elim Creek about 1 mile upstream from the pool of
Elim Creek dam. These are low-head, earth fill, pipe outlet
structures. These structures were designed to limit the
average velocities and reduce to scouring. These structures
provide enough detention time to settle out sands and coarse
silts from the watershed above. These basins are expected
to fill with sediment in about 25 years. From observations,
streambank erosion has been greatly reduced and minor
sedimentation is apparent.
Periodic Observation of Measures; Conservation measures
to date appear to be reducing erosion as planned. Observation
of 2,800 feet of upland drain tile showed continuous flow
during 1977. Flow varied from near zero to 2 gallons per
minute (GPM). Assuming an average flow of 1 GPM, about 0.4
inches of water were drained from 4 acres tiled each month.
This is about 3 inches drained in an 8-month period from
April - November. This indicates that tile drains are
effective in removing excess water. Road ditch and fin drain
tile have also been flowing almost continuously but with
lesser amounts.
Streambank protection measures appear to furnish the
best and most positive form of streambank erosion control.
Floodwater retarding structures with slow releases^will reduce
storm peak flows and result in reduced erosion. Since lack
of funds and insufficient project time prohibited full
treatment of streambank erosion problems, it is estimated
38 percent of streambank erosion will be controlled by floodwater
retarding structures, streambank protection, drainage practices,
and slide stabilization measures. About 75 percent of the
pastured streambanks were excluded from livestock grazing. An
additional amount of channel and bank erosion was controlled
by conservation practices such as sediment traps, farm ponds,
critical area treatment, livestock exclusion, etc. (See
table 1.)
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. ..S*°Pe Indicators: Eight slope inclinometers were in-
stalled in March - April 1977. Locations are shown on exhib-
it 4. These are read periodically. To date they have shown
that no significant movements have occurred. However, should
movement occur, these should provide forewarning so measures
can be implemented to counteract slide. Data from these in-
clinometers will also help locate the failure plane which
will be helpful in slide analysis.
Cost of Control versus Improvement of Water Quality:
Additional monitoring will be necessary before full extent
of water quality improvement can be completely evaluated.
No "before" information is available for "before-after"
comparison. A sampling station was installed in a similar
uncontrolled watershed (Deer Creek) to provide information
for a "side-by-side" comparison.
In future projects, sampling should be started 5-10
years before construction to provide adequate base data for
evaluation and influence the construction planning. A simi-
lar period is needed following construction.
In this project, sampling should continue several years
after construction to prove or disprove the theory that con-
trolling flows with dams reduces downstream sediment load.
Detrimental Effects on Water Quality
During the construction period, a short-term increase in
sediment delivered to the water can occur. By proper sediment
control techniques and practices net increase of sediment
can be kept to a minimum or eliminated. By considering prac-
tices installed and weather that occurred, it is possible to
estimate the sediment delivered to the water. Utilizing
methods outlined in the "Urban Runoff, Erosion and Sediment
Control Handbook, SCS, USDA" it could be estimated that less
than 300 tons of sediment would be delivered past the USGS
gauge at the lower end of the project area.
Best Management Practices for Area: Best management
practices for Skunk Creek were a combination of upland con-
servation practices, floodwater retarding and sediment trap
structures, critical area treatment, and livestock exclusion.
Watershed characteristics and experience were used in making
this determination.
Watershed evaluation indicated most watercourses and
ravines were being grazed by cattle and sheep. Livestock
exclusion by fencing and livestock crossings over water-
courses and ravines would reduce potential water quality prob-
lems. Most of the erosion and sediment-producing areas are
adjacent to watercourses. Critical area treatment of eroded
sites and slides appears to be an effective method of con-
trolling sediment. Although the majority of the watershed
is relatively flat, utilization of conservation practices is
needed to assist landowners with improvement of their land
resources to compensate for acreage reduction due to live-
stock exclusion.
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Accomplishments Other Than Water Quality: Production on
cooperating farms has increased.Numerous farmers reported
increased yields, up to 300 percent, where pasture and hayland
planting had been carried out. Farm income increased substan-
tially because larger forage yields support added livestock.
Wildlife populations appear to have increased due to im-
proved habitat and added watering facilities.
Another plus for the project was increased public aware-
ness of the soil and water conservation and its services.
With slope and slide stabilization practice, Carlton
County will save maintenance costs on that section of road.
Road alignment and grade was improved through the old slide
area which will provide a safer and more maintainable road.
Undermined bridge abutments were repaired and further under-
mining should be halted by riprap and gabions placed there.
Both Elim Creek and Hanson dams provide vehicle crossing
over the top to adjacent landowners. Pools provide ample
water supply for livestock, wildlife, and firefighting.
Agency Participation
District: Success or failure is in direct proportion
to involvement and leadership exerted by local sponsors. The
Red Clay project has seen locally-elected SWCD supervisors
actively involved from project inception. This project also
established the district's ability to cooperate with more
than one district. It provided institution and intergovern-
mental cooperation needed to successfully implement a water
quality improvement program.
Carlton County SWCD was a sponsor of the Red Clay proj-
ect. It was their leadership, work, and dedication that
made the project successful. The District Board set priori-
ties, established rates of cost sharing, accepted construc-
tion contracts, secured easements, provided additional
supplies, and secured additional labor force.
Ged Oltmanns, Red Clay Project Committeeman and SWCD
Supervisor, assisted by SCS, secured easements for contract
portion of the project. A total of 7 easements were pro-
cured from landowners.
The District Board successfully secured local funding
from county and State sources. Carlton County furnished
$45,000 and 2 full-time employees for the project.
The Minnesota SWC Board contributed $105,100 of -erosion
and sediment control funds. The YCC assistance for critical
area treatment work was engaged through efforts of the
district and the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources.
(See exhibit 4.)
99
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District responsibilities in a project of this magnitude
become increasingly demanding of time and efforts. There
were times when district supervisors did not have the time
available to meet all demands placed on them. It is this
type of situation where experienced and capable district em-
ployees are needed to administer decisions made by the board.
Districts need to develop a program and funding sources suf-
ficient to maintain an experienced and permanent staff.
Soil Conservation Service: The Red Clay project con-
tracted with SCS to provide technical assistance for a land
treatment and structural design and construction program.
During the project all landowners in Skunk Creek watershed
were contacted by Carlton County SWCD staff and SCS personnel,
An evaluation of assistance provided to the sponsors for
this project suggests the following recommendations:
1. Adequate staff to concentrate on project activities
must be provided. Personnel ceilings need to be
given special consideration to provide this staff.
2. A close working relationship between the project
staff, landowners, and SWCD must exist.
3. Continuity of staff from project beginning to com-
pletion must be established.
4. Project size should be such that staff can be lo-
cated in close proximity to SWCD headquarters.
Onanegozie Resource Conservation and Development Area:
Onanegozie RC&D area funds assisted in construction of two
roadside erosion control measures.
United States Geological Survey: USGS installed moni-
toring stations both upstream and downstream of the Elim
structures. Another station was located on Deer Creek near-
by to compare an untreated watershed.
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources: During the
early planning stage, Minnesota DNR provided hydrological
assistance and flying time to survey the Nemadji River water-
shed. Where construction permits were required, DNR assisted
sponsors in processing these requests in a timely manner.
Minnesota DNR, Division of Forestry, participated in interest
meeting and developed a number of woodland management plans
with cooperators in Skunk Creek watershed.
Minnesota Extension Service: Extension Service had a
contract with the Red Clay project to provide public educa-
tion and information relating to project goals and accomplish-
ments. During project activities, Extension information
specialists took a number of pictures relating to progress.
In the process, a series of news articles were prepared and
published by local newspapers.
100
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Pictures were also used in displays at the Carlton County
fair and other public places to keep local people informed on
project progress.
Extension Service held one meeting on wells and water
problems to which watershed landowners were invited.
County and Township: Good cooperation was shown by
Carlton County in the project. Carlton County Highway Depart-
ment furnished culverts for two livestock crossings and did
road and bridge repair directly related to project activities.
Township boards were reluctant to cooperate with the
project because funds were lacking. They secured one easement
for an RC&D roadside erosion measure in Skunk Creek watershed.
State of Minnesota: Future projects of this magnitude
should involve the State of Minnesota to a greater extent.
Much of the experience gained in the Red Clay project can be
utilized and implemented in other parts of the state.
101
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EXHIBIT 2
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
LANDOWNER
PARTICIPATION
i Cooperator i Conserva- I LTA's
Agreements tion Plans
Before Project
After Project
I I&E's I Landowners I
102
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O
vx
LEGEND
Watershed 3oundary
— Streams
—.— Railroads
== Roads
D Watering Facility
=1 Pond or Dam
-_ Sediment Trap
-»--*- Diversion
... Siopp stabilization
WESTERN LAKE SUPERIOR B^SIN
SKUNK CREEK
Carlton County, Minnesota
COMPLETED WORK LOCATON MAP
Prepared toy
U S Dept of Agriculture
Soil ConssfNation Servce
September 1978
EXHIBIT 3
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DOUGLAS COUNTY
105
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LITTLE BALSAM STUDY AREA
Description
The Little Balsam watershed comprises a drainage area of
approximately 5.4 square miles (3,450 acres) in western
Douglas County, about 12 miles south of Superior. It is
about 4 miles long and about 2.5 miles wide. The stream has
an overall grade of 104 feet per mile. Little Balsam Creek
originates about 2 miles south of the unincorporated Village
of Patzau. It flows in a northerly direction and joins Big
Balsam Creek about one-half mile north of County Highway
"B". Big Balsam Creek is a tributary of the Nemadji River.
Topographically, the area is representative of the
Nemadji Basin. A flat to gently undulating landscape domi-
nates with large pockets of wet and poorly drained areas
common. Steep 30-40 percent slopes are common along all
major drains and streams.
The elevation of the watershed ranges from 800 to 1,200
feet above sea level. It is partly within the lake-laid
sediments of glacial Lake Duluth and partly in drift.
Surface deposits of the northern portion consist of lacustrine
clay with some silt and fine sand layers. A sandy glacial
beach divides the watershed. South of the beach a till
plain of outwash sands rises in elevation about 150 feet in
a half mile. It levels to a gently undulating ground moraine
with little relief. Little Balsam Creek originates in the
numerous swamps and marshes of this till plain.
There are 38 recognized soil types in the Little Balsam
study area. The soils represent a total of 18 land capability
units which are used in determining land treatment needs. A
more detailed description of the soils is in each capability
unit. Their characteristics and limitations are provided in
the Nemadji Basin Soil Survey Report.
Ownership
Ownership of the acreage within the Little Balsam Study
area is divided between private landowners, county, and
village government. The 3,450 acres in the watershed ownership
break down as follows:
Private 1,620 acres 4? percent
Douglas County 1,545 acres 45 percent
Village of Patzau 285 acres 8 percent
TOTAL 2,450 acres 100 percent
Twenty-nine private landowners were identified in the
study area. They were categorized as absentee and resident.
In 1976, absentee landowners numbered 13 and controlled 649
acres. The 16 resident landowners controlled 971 acres.
106
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Private ownership averaged 55 acres. Ownership ranged
from 9 acres to 200 acres. Seven units were larger than 90
acres; 9 units were 40-79 acres; and 13 units were smaller
than 39 acres.
Land use in the Little Balsam study area was identified into
five main types; hayland, pasture, idleland, wildlife, and
woodland. Present land use is at a level of intensity that
is complementary to low levels of soil loss.
The 5 farm operations total 440 acres and provide supple-
mental income. Land use is not intensive. These units are
on red clay soils.
LAND USE IN LITTLE BALSAM CREEK STUDY AREA
Beef cattle and hay production are the farm operations.
The heavy red clay soils, when adequately drained, support
good stands of hay. In January 1978, a census of livestock
in the study area counted 40 beef cattle or other livestock
on 3 farm units.
Soil Loss
The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) was used as an
indicator of soil loss and effectiveness of land treatment.
Calculations were made on 1,620 acres of private land, 80
acres of Douglas County woodland, and 258 acres of land in
the Village of Patzau. This work was carried out during the
1976 field seasons.
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) personnel made onsite
inspections of each land unit. The area was walked and
mapped according to land use. This information was transferred
to soil maps to provide the soils information needed.
10?
-------
The landowner was encouraged to accompany our staff on
soil loss investigations when possible. This gave the
landowner an idea of what land use problems they faced and
led to excellent cooperation. Where possible, landowners
were supplied with written evaluations and summaries of soil
loss data.
Land Adequately Treated
Land was considered to be adequately treated in the Red
Clay project when the total estimated soil loss for a land
unit was less than the total allowable soil loss for the
land unit. This approach is different than the definition
of "Land Adequately Treated" as defined in the SCS Technical
Guide.
Average annual estimated soil loss for the 3,450 acres
in the Little Balsam study area is .55 ton per acre per
year. The average allowable soil loss for the Little Balsam
study area is 3.0 tons per acre per year.
Using the project definition of land adequately treated,
the entire 3,450 acres of the study area were considered
adequately treated without additional land treatments.
Average annual estimated soil loss on hayland was .3
ton per acre per year. In most cases, management could not
appreciably reduce soil loss, but would make areas more
productive.
Idleland loses .1 ton per acre per year. This land is
in a natural condition and has 80-100 percent vegetative
ground cover.
Pasturelands average .8 ton per acre per year annual
soil loss. The higher soil loss occurs as a result of over-
grazing, sparse vegetation, and steep slopes. Improvement
of cover and rotational grazing can reduce soil loss to
approximately .3 ton per acre per year.
Woodlands estimated average annual soil loss is .6 ton
per acre. The majority of woodlands is managed in a natural
condition. Canopy cover ranges from 50-90 percent, with
vegetative ground cover ranging from 70-100 percent. Slopes
range up to 18 percent.
There are woodland areas where greater than allowable
soil loss occurs. These areas are the steep 18-45 percent
slopes in woodlands, with 50-80 percent canopy cover and 80
percent ground cover adjacent to streams or natural drainage-
ways. An average soil loss of 4.2 tons per acre was calculated
on 8? acres of this woodland. These areas are in a natural
condition.
108
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LAND TREATMENT PRACTICES
Cost-Shared
Practices
Access Road
Agricultural Waste Management Systems
Brush Management
Conservation Cropping Systems
Critical Area Planting
Crop Residue Management
Diversions
Drainage Field Ditch
Farmstead and Feedlot Windbreaks
Fencing
Field Windbreak
Floodwater Retarding Structure
Grade Stabilization Structure
Land Adequately Treated
Land Smoothing
Livestock Exclusion
Pasture and Hayland Management
Pasture and Hayland Planting
Pond
Recreation Area Improvement
Stock Trails, Walkways, and Watering
Facilities
Stream Channel Protection and Slope
Stabilization
Stripcropping
Subsurface Drainage
Tree Planting
Woodland Improvement
Woodland Site Preparation
Bayfield
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Carlton
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Douglas
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
109
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The Little Balsam study area is as close to a natural
state as can be found in the Red Clay area. Land use intensity
is low. It is the low intensity use that makes the estimated
soil loss low. When these areas are cleared for cropland or
when the intensity of use alters present conditions then
significant increases can be anticipated in soil loss figures
The conditions in this study area indicate that vegetative
cover is the best method of reducing soil loss.
Land treatment measures which would reduce soil loss and
sediment were developed. It was anticipated that these
measures would be required to adequately protect the study
area; however, the detailed land use and soil loss calculations
revealed that only small portions of the study area needed
treatment. The upland practices thought to be needed in the
Little Balsam study area are described in appendix A.
_ Five conservation plans were developed. The conserv-
ation plan is a record of the land treatment measures the
landowner decides to apply, the amount to be applied, and
the anticipated date of installation. The plan then served
as a basis for cost sharing to carry out the installation
of land treatment measures.
e Dou§las County Soil and Water Conservation District
and the other cooperating districts developed the Red
Clay project long-term agreement (LTA). This was the document
used to cost share with private landowners to install upland
conservation practices. The SWCD established a docket of
cost-sharable practices. See appendix A.
The Red Clay project LTA provided incentive to landowners
to apply upland conservation practices they may not install
on their own. The contracts required that all needed erosion
control practices be installed within the three-year contract
period.
The district required that LTA participants install all
erosion control practices regardless of cost sharing. Partic-
ipants were also required to install all the practices in the
contract or risk loss of cost sharing they had received.
Contracts could be modified by mutual consent of the district
and the participant.
The contracting and contract servicing procedure is:
1. The SWCD requests that the SCS prepare LTA documents
based on cooperator's conservation plan.
2. The SWCD and landowner jointly accept and sign the
contract .
3. Contract is reviewed and approved by the Red Clay
project executive committee.
4. Red Clay project director provides a certification
of funding.
110
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5 SCS supplies technical assistance for practice in-
stallation and certifies satisfactory completion of
practice according to specification.
6. Landowner submits certification payment form to
the Red Clay project director.
7. SCS conducts annual contract status review to check
that the landowner is in compliance with the LTA.
Provisions for operations and maintenance terminate
at the end of the project.
In the Little Balsam study area there were 29 possible
Red Clay project LTA's. Four Red Clay project LTA's were
prepared. Limited participation was due to low intensity of
land use. Landowners did not feel that they had a problem.
Water Quality
Opportunities for improving water quality through upland
treatment measures are limited. This is supported by the land
use and soil loss evaluations and by landowner acceptance of
the accelerated treatment program.
Best Management Practices
Best management practices are being recommended on the
basis of a reduction in soil loss and improvement of water
quality. Under present management conditions it has been
shown that little reduction in soil loss can be obtained by
the installation of additional conservation practices; how-
ever, key practices must be maintained if the current low
rate of soil loss is to be maintained.
Maintenance of vegetative cover is the most important fac-
tor in maintaining or reducing levels of soil loss in this
study area. The practices that maintain or improve vegeta-
tive cover must be considered as the best management prac-
tices.
Livestock exclusion from woodlands and streambanks has
been the practice that has indicated the greatest reduction
in soil loss. Removing livestock from steep, wooded areas
has shown an estimated reduction in soil loss of up to 50
percent. This practice has also been used to exclude cattle
from streams.
Watering facilities will be necessary for livestock that
have been using streams for water.
Stock trails may be needed to bring cattle to watering
facilities without causing additional erosion.
Critical area seeding may be needed to stabilize eroded
areas caused by overgrazing or cattle damage.
Ill
-------
noo* J1?berustandJ?-mPr>ovement and proper harvesting are
needed in the woodland. Equally important will be the loca-
tion of access roads and critical area seeding.
Landowners were cooperative and interested in soil loss
evaluations; however, the inventories indicated only minor
problems. Therefore, landowners decided not to participate
in the land treatment aspect of the project.
It is uncertain how landowners would have responded if
soil loss evaluations had indicated moderate to severe
problems.
Practices Applied
Initial estimates of conservation practices needed in
tne Little Balsam study area were overestimations. A list
of the contracted and installed practices follows:
Exclusion Fencing 12,900 Ft.
Hayland Planting 52.5 Ac!
Pasture Planting 4o!s Ac!
Livestock Watering Facility '1
Streambank Protection 100 Ft
Drainage Ditch 12,000 Ft!
One landowner carried out his Red Clay project LTA, and
he also was the only landowner to receive any cost sharing.
The following practices were installed:
Livestock Watering Facility 1
Exclusion Fencing 3 850 Ft
Stock Trail '100 Ft]
Practice Acceptance
The practices needed to control erosion are complemen-
tary to good farming practices in the study area; therefore
the best management practices are well accepted. Practices
which provided economic benefits in addition to soil loss
reduction generated the most interest. Practices such as
hayland planting which landowners judged to be marginal from
both economic and soil erosion control standpoint were often
not installed.
Installation of Practices
Practices were installed according to plans and specifi-
cations without problems. SCS field office personnel provided
construction inspection during installation of structural
practices. These practices were installed by private contractors
working for the landowner.
112
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The landowners installed several practices themselves.
Most notable were fencing and hayland planting. SCS staff
provided the specifications and layout. After installation
the practices were inspected. The threat of not receiving
cost sharing was incentive to apply a practice properly. This
was true in both landowner and contractor installations.
Cost Sharing
There was not sufficient participation in the cost-sharing
program to judge the impact of incentive payments; however,
those that did participate willingly complied with specifica-
tions. This was partly due to cost sharing.
Duration
There were no provisions in the contracts for continuing
operation and maintenance. Although the practices fit into
the land use patterns and some participants realized an eco-
nomic benefit, there is doubt that all installed measures
will be maintained for their useful life.
Cost of Control
The per acre cost for the installation of practices in
the Little Balsam study area averaged $98.50 per acre. This
is based on an estimated total cost of practices contracted
on the four Red Clay project LTA's. The total estimated
cost of upland treatment in the project area on the four Red
Clay project LTA's was $25,110. This covered 255 acres.
The project was to have made cost-share payments of $18,lor.
Of the 255 acres under contract, 63 acres exceeded the
allowable soil loss. The remaining 192 acres were estimated
to be within the allowable soil loss under present management.
Districts
The soil and water conservation district (district) has
an important role to play in the implementation of conservation
practices for improvement of water quality. Districts pro-
vide local support and leadership that enhance the implemen-
tation of State and Federal programs. The more support a
local district gives to a program the more will be accomplished
113
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NEMADJI BASIN ROADSIDE TREATMENT
Roadside erosion is a major source of sediment in the
Nemadji Basin. Under present monitoring conditions and
techniques it is impossible to measure how much sediment is
deposited into waters of the Nemadji Basin each year.
The two main reasons for roadside erosion in the Nemadli
Basin are: J
1. New construction of road ditches is not properly
designed or constructed to safely carry runoff.
This is compounded by the failure of some units of
government to provide for the establishment of
vegetative cover.
2. A large percentage of roadside erosion results
from roadside maintenance. Built-up sediments are
removed from road ditches and channels to improve
drainage. This removes cover on unstable slopes
and concentrates runoff water. Small landslips
develop and sediment deposition is deposited in
road ditches and downstream.
Roadside erosion surveys have shown that three types of
erosion conditions occur along the roadsides of the basin:
1. Small bare areas subject to erosion produce low-
sediment volume.
2. Large bare areas subject to rill erosion produce
large volumes of sediment per acre.
3. Large bare areas subject to gullies, landslips,
and slides produce the largest volumes of sediment
per acre.
The data in table 1 indicates that roadside erosion is
a problem on township, city, and county roads. The Red Clay
project project director approached the units of government
in the basin in hopes of developing a plan to initiate a
roadside treatment program. The townships of Summit and
Superior, the City of Superior, and Douglas County agreed to
participate in a roadside treatment program.
Officials of the participating units of government were
involved in determining where work was needed. The objective
was to stabilize roadbanks and reduce erosion and sedimenta-
tion. The townships were to provide 25 percent of the total
cost, Douglas County 25 percent, and the Red Clay project 50
percent.
-------
Table 1. Wisconsin Nemadji Basin Roadside — Erosion Problems
and Estimated Cost a
Douglas County
Township Roads
City Roads
County Roads
State Roads
TOTAL BASIN
Treatment
Sheet
Erosion
15.3
5.4
4.3
1.6
26.6
Seeding
Rill
Erosion
Acres
9.5
5.2
4.2
1.4
20.3
Shaping &
Seeding
Slides
and
Gullies
2.5
3.0
1.0
1.0
7.5
Shaping
& Structural
• Based on initial roadside erosion survey conducted in the
Nemadji Basin in 1975.
Best Management Practices
To be applied on small bare areas subject to
Seeding:
sheet erosion.
Includes fertilizing, seeding, and mulching.
Shaping and Seeding; To be applied on larger areas
with rills and small gullies. Areas are shaped by hand or
with equipment to prepare a seedbed. The area is then
fertilized, seeded, and mulched.
Constructed Channels; To be applied on areas where un-
controlled runoff water has contributed to gullies and
slides. Grade stabilization structures, rock-lined channels,
drains, and jute netting are combined with shaping, fertilizing,
seeding, and mulching.
The SCS surveyed, designed, and prepared detailed
engineering plans and specifications. The erosion control
construction was to be completed the summer of 1978. A
complete set of roadside erosion control plans were completed
for each unit of government in May 1977. The plans were
provided to the Red Clay project project director.
The roadside erosion control plans developed for the
Nemadji Basin were simplified as much as possible. Standard
designs and easily-understood standard design sheets were
used on all the sites. The purpose was to provide designs
that would safely carry runoff without eroding, deterior-
ating or requiring continual maintenance and yet be practical
and simple to construct.
115
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Most designs called for reshaping the ditch to the
specified shape of a designed channel. The slopes and
present ditch locations and configurations were used in the
designs to keep excavation to a minimum. Attempts were made
to utilize vegetation in stabilizing the channels and exposed
eroding areas. Jute netting was used in the design of most
channels to protect the new construction until vegetation
could be established. Mulch was planned to protect new
seedings on all other locations.
Engineering plans for the reconstruction of waterways
(road ditches) presented some problems with rights-of-way
and easements. Most town roads have a 32-foot right-of-way
from the centerline of the road. This was not adequate for
the construction planned and it would be necessary for the
unit of government to obtain easements.
The_removal and proper disposal of excess spoil material
at the time of construction was necessary. This greatly
increased the cost of treatment.
The project director presented plans and specifications
to the respective units of government involved. The SCS was
to provide construction inspection. The local units of
government were to provide their share of funds and either
contract administration or installation services. The plans
were not installed.
Streambank Problems
Erosion in the sandy soils is scattered along the stream-
banks, although some sandy slides are present where the
stream undercuts steep valley walls. Between Foxboro Road
and Highway B, streambank erosion predominates with a few land-
slides, supplying clay and sand sediments. Downstream of High-
way B erosion occurs along streambanks and on the face of
active landslides. Slumped material which slides into the
creek also contributes sediment.
Except where roads or railroads cross the creek, stream-
bank erosion and slides do not pose economic or safety
problems. Reduction of sediment load in the stream was the
primary goal of structural work in the watershed.
Solutions Considered
Various alternatives were considered for reducing sedi-
ment load. Hydrologic studies were made to determine the
effectiveness of floodwater retarding structures in reducing
erosion and sediment transport. Five structure locations
were analyzed. The analyses showed that while floodwater
retarding structures could reduce peak flows up to 25 percent,
the effect on flood elevations was negligible. In addition,
it was believed that stream erosion potential downstream
from the structures might even increase, due to longer dura-
tion of flows and the possible increased energy level of the
cleaner water.
116
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Since the structures were of limited effectiveness in
controlling erosion, they were assigned a low priority from
a technical standpoint.
Grade stabilization structures were considered for both
stream and tributary locations. They were assigned low
priority by the Douglas County SWCD.
Protection of eroding streambanks was another method
considered to reduce sediment load in Little Balsam Creek.
Sites considered were primarily in sandy soils in and just
below the beach deposits. Two high priority sites were
selected by the district; one where Foxboro Road crosses
Little Balsam Creek, and the second at the Soo Line Railroad
track stream crossing.
Foxboro Road-Soo Line Roadside Treatment
The Foxboro Road crossing consisted of a 6 X 10-foot
concrete box culvert through a 25-foot high road fill.
Side slopes on the fill varied between 1:1 and 2:1, with the
steepest slopes in the vicinity of the culvert. Existing
road ditches were inadequate for most rainfalls. Surface
runoff concentrated at the low point on the fill and ran ot1
the edges, eroding the road shoulders as well as the side
slopes? High streamflows eroded road fill at the inlet and
outlet of the culvert as well. In addition, foot traffic by
fishermen and others prevented natural revegetation of the
steep slopes.
Methods considered to prevent erosion at the site in-
cluded:
1. Replacement of the existing culvert with a longer
conduit, permitting flatter slopes.
2. Replacement of the culvert with a bridge.
3. Use of reinforced earth to stabilize steep side
slopes.
U. Use of gabions, bin walls, or sheet piling to
extend the culvert length and stabilize slopes.
Preliminary cost estimates were prepared for the various
alternatives, and gabions were selected as the most cost-
effective. Detailed plans and specifications were prepared
to extend the culvert both upstream and downstream and to
stabilize the steep banks. Plans also called for construction
of road ditches and stabilizing the gullies where road ditches
dropped to creek level. Timber stairways were planned for
both sides of the embankment to protect vegetation from pedes-
trian traffic.
117
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For convenience in contracting, work for Foxboro Road
n?dn!ihe iS
-------
Alternatives considered for stabilizing the landslides
uphill from the toes included:
1. Sloping
2. Piling
3. Plantings
4. Chemical stabilization
5. Counter-weighting the toe
6. Drainage
7. Stream diversion
Because of the topograpy of the stream valley and the
restrictions on altering the class I navigable trout stream,
sloping, counterweighting, and stream diversion were not
selected as viable alternatives. Types of drainage which_
seemed most applicable were horizontal drains, french drains,
fin-type drains, and blanket drains.
Subsurface Investigation
Foundation conditions at the Foxboro roadside and Soo
line sites were not complex, requiring minimal investigation.
A detailed subsurface investigation was required on the
Little Balsam Creek slides, however. An investigation plan
was prepared with six goals in mind.
•
1. Delineate stratigraphy.
2. Locate zones of sliding or weakness.
3. Determine key parameters such as moisture, density,
strength, ground water levels, and fluctuations.
4. Monitor subsurface conditions before, during, and
after construction.
5. Determine which tools are the most effective in
investigating the red clays.
6. Provide supplemental data to other Red Clay project
investigators.
The plan was prepared for slides 7, 4, 2, and 5, based
on topography and past experience in investigating the
clays.
Slide 6 was omitted because it was the most stable and
least accessible.
119
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f™f , ^egan with one 70-foot deep hole and one 25-
foot hole, taking continuous cores with 3-inch Shelby tubes
Cores were extruded on the site, logged visually, and pocket
pentrometer readings and moisture samples were taken. These
two holes were used as benchmark borings to correlate with
static cone pentrometer borings. A total of eight Dutch cone
pentrometer borings were made, measuring point resistance on
five and both point resistance and sleeve friction on three.
The primary purpose of the Dutch cone drilling was to locate
zones of strength and weakness. When these zones were
located, the third phase of drilling was to sample the zones
for laboratory testing. Samples were tested for gradation,
Atterberg limits, density, moisture content, shear strength
consolidation, and permeability. Seven observation wells
were installed during drilling operations. In addition one
open pit was dug by hand to provide a detailed onsite look
at the upper five feet of soil profile.
Conclusions
_Preliminary analysis of the data collected was not con-
clusive. Because of time limitations in the project, desien
of structural works had to proceed before much of the soil
mechanics test data was available. Designs were based pri-
marily on two sources of information—cone pentrometer data
and ground water levels.
Observation wells were installed in December 1976. Bv
February 1, 1977, all had stabilized. Three wells were
installed on the lake plain level, behind the landslides.
January 1 ground water levels in these holes ranged from 16
to 10 feet below surface. Ground surface elevations of
these wells ranged from 51 to 56 feet above creek level.
Ground water levels on slide faces ranged from 4 to 11 feet
below the surface. It should be pointed out that these
levels were measured following over one year of record
drought.
The Dutch cone pentrometer hydraulically measures
resistance of in-place soil to penetration by a cone-shaped
probe. Gage readings are converted to strength in kg/cm2
and plotted against depth in meters.
Plots of pentrometer readings were immediately available
for design use. Use of the cone allowed a continuous deter-
mination of in-place strength through the soil profile.
Figure 1 is an example of the plots. Soil strengths obtained
from the Dutch cone can generally be correlated to unconsoli-
dated undrained triaxial shear tests through the use of a
constant, but no attempt was made at such a correlation on
this project. The primary function of the pentrometer was to
locate zones of strength and weakness. This information
was then used to determine the depth to which protective
works should extend. Preliminary and final designs were
based on these sources.
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Figure 1
As more information became available in the period from
February 1, 1977 to March 1, 1978, a more detailed analysis
of the data was made. With only one year of records, obser-
vation well readings show few reliable trends. Most wells
fluctuated greatly during spring thaw, with considerable
variations in water levels throughout the summer and fall.
Fluctuations during thaw in 1977 ranged from 0 to 15.5 feet.
Four wells responded with jumps from 7.5 to 15.5 feet. Water
level in one well dropped two feet, but gradually returned to
its original level in about two months. Two wells showed no
response to thaw for about two months. Fluctuations in these
two wells also seemed to lag about two months behind major
precipitation events. Table 2 summarizes well fluctuations
between thaw in March and freeze-up in December 1977. Fig-
ure 2 shows precipitation and water level information to date.
Patterns which appear to be forming are:
1. Wells behind the slides fluctuated most greatly.
2. There appears to have been an overall rise in ground
water levels during 1977.
3. The effects of drainage installed in remedial meas-
ures are not yet significant.
121
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Analyses of data from laboratory testing were equally
inconclusive. Several observations are possible, however.
1.
2.
3.
Ten samples were tested for Atterberg limits and
natural moisture content. All ten of these samples
were naturally within the plastic moisture content
range.
Two samples
Results show
feet, to be
other, from
solidated.
sampling, it
clays below
ting.
were tested for consolidation potential.
one sample, from a depth of 4.5 to 6.5
nearly normally consolidated, and the
8.5 to 10.5 feet deep, to be undercon-
While this represents a very limited
seems to indicate that the lacustrine
the weathered zone are still consolida-
An attempt was made to correlate index soil proper-
ties to soil strength. No correlation was apparent
with consolidated undrained triaxial tests or the
cone pentrometer data. There does appear to be a
relationship between unconsolidated undrained
strengths and the numerical difference liquid limit
minus the theoretical saturation for the soil sample
at natural density.
This plot is shown in figure 3. All soils plotted classi-
fied as CH were within the plastic range at natural state.
I t » i I i
Figure 2
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t-or SOfurcrtfd C//
samples within p/ost/'c.
Itoo
uid Limr't — Thr&rfHt-al
to
Figure 3
Table 2. Observation Well Fluctuations - 1977
Observation
Well #
247
435
537
237
735
725
425
Well
Depth
(feet)
35
70
40
12.5
16
38
25
Bottom
Elevation
(MSL datum)
829
792
811
826
823
791
799
Depth
to Water
(feet)
1 1-18
10-28
5-19
0.5-7.5
1-7
1-8
0.5-6.5
Range of
Fluctuation
(feet)
7
18
14
7
6
7
6
In an attempt to relate this strength correlation to
slope stability, the liquid limit minus theoretical satura-
tion was also plotted against the critical height calculated
from the unconsolidated undrained strength. Critical height,
defined as the height of slope which produces a state of in-
cipient movement for a given slope angle was computed using
the methods in "Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice", Terzagh
and Peck, Wiley and Sons, Second Edition 1968. This plot is
shown in figure 4. The calculated critical height appears to
be substantially greater than those observed in actual slope
failures in the field. Terzagh and Peck point out, however,
that cracks in fissured brittle clays reduce the critical
height. Cracking observed in the hand-dug pit extended to at
least five feet and appeared to continue to greater depth.
In addition, weathering of the massive clays rapidly intro-
duces an extensive network of closely spaced fine cracks.
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Considerately of this fa9tor would then relate critical height
to liquid limit, theoretical saturation, and depth of weather-
ing in the soil profile. While this correlation is not con-
clusive, it would seem to merit further investigation.
^ 3V s/efs
/•'/ s/ape
Figure 4
STRUCTURAL MEASURES INSTALLED
Preliminary plans and cost estimates for slides 2 4
5, and 7, were presented to the district. Two sites, slides
2 and 4, were selected as highest priority for construction.
Site 2
The active portion of slide 2 covered an area roughly
100 by 120 feet on the east bank of Little Balsam Creek.
Ground surface was hummocky, the result of numerous shallow
progressive slides working from stream level upward. Average
slope on the active portion was about 4 1/2:1. Old slide
scarps and hummocks were also present between the active
portion and the hilltop, about 55 feet above creek level.
The stabilization method chosen for this site was a
system of gravel-filled trench drains with rock-filled concrete
log cribs providing toe protection and drain outlets.
Trench drains were selected as the least expensive, most
flexible, and most durable method to drain the upper
stiff, highly fissured soils and underlying soft clays.
Bottom elevations for the drains were determined from cone
pentrometer data and topography. Six drains, 9 to 18
feet deep, were to be dug, running up and down slope. The
lower ends of these drains tied into the rock-filled cribs,
and another trench drain paralleling the creek tied the upper
ends together. The cribs were also selected for flexibility
and durability, and ease of construction. Their mass should
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provide a counterweight to the slide toe, and the high per-
meability is desirable for a drain outlet. Rockfill also
provides high strength while permitting some flexibility.
Cribs were 11.4 feet high and extended to about 6 feet below
creek bottom.
During installation of the cribs and drains, the slide
was shaped and smoothed to remove hummocks and potholes, and
seeded and mulched. Slope inclinometers were installed both
on and above the stabilized area to monitor any future
movements. Pore pressure transducers were also installed to
provide detailed information in hydrostatic pressure distri-
bution. These instruments were installed following the
completion of construction in January 1978. Monitoring is
continuing.
Site 4
The active portion of slide 4 consisted of raw bank
extending about 130 feet along the west creek bank. As the
streambank eroded, the slope toe undercut and slumped. The
bank was sparsely vegetated and sliding to an elevation
about 20 feet above creek level, with numerous scars of old
slides.
Remedial measures for this site were riprap streambank
protection with a four- to seven-foot-deep trench drain to
intercept seepage at the top of the active area. The trench
drain outlets through a buried corrugated metal pipe. A
synthetic filter cloth was laid between the clay bank and
the riprap as a transition layer. The site was also shaped,
seeded, and mulched. Construction was completed in December
1977. Slope inclinometers and pore pressure transducers
were installed in January 1978. Monitoring is continuing.
Factors Affecting Installation
A variety of factors hampered a smooth flow of work in
the project. The planning period was about one year. This
required that a great deal of basic information be assem-
bled and analyzed in a very short time. As a result, cost
figures and structural measures planned were not always
accurate or the most appropriate. This created some con-
fusion when practices or costs later presented to the dis-
tricts varied substantially from those in the work plan.
A longer planning period would have permitted enough time
for a more detailed and accurate plan, and helped prevent
some of the confusion and inefficiencies experienced.
Time was also a limiting factor during the operations
and evaluation periods. Very little data could be collected
on streamflows, sediment loads, erosion rates, ground water
levels, or landslide movement before design and construction
had to begin. The tight scheduling frequently required prompt
125
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action by the districts. Prompt action was not always taken
or even possible. This caused serious delays and greatly
increased inefficiencies. Also, the time period between the
end of construction and the end of the project was too short
to collect enough data to analyze the effect of water quality
improvement measures. Location of the work sites also pre-
sented some difficulties. Some sites were in forested areas
initially accessible only on foot. The need to brush survey
lines added considerably to survey time and manpower required.
All-terrain drill rigs were needed for foundation investiga-
tion. The construction of access roads for heavy machinery
increased construction costs up to 30 percent.
Structural measures planned for Little Balsam and Fish
Creeks required permits from the Wisconsin Department of
Natural Resources (DNR). Six months elapsed between application
for and the granting of permits for Little Balsam Creek works.
This lag delayed the start of construction about six weeks.
The nature of the clay soils encountered in the project
area were a very important factor during construction. Ma-
chinery bogs down easily in the soft wet clay, severely
limiting a contractor's efficiency. On the Little Balsam
Creek sites, both contractors waited until a frost crust
formed before beginning earthmoving. While freezing weather
made excavation much simpler, it made the use of convention-
al earthfill specifications impossible. The effects of freez-
ing fill m smoothing and shaping slopes is not yet known.
Winter construction on the clays should be considered, but
specifications covering the use or disposal of frozen mater-
ials, including ice and snow, should be detailed and tailored
to each job.
Several recommendations can be made that should help
prevent recurrence of some contract administration problems
experienced on Little Balsam Creek. Although there was
limited contractor interest in erosion control jobs of this
size, the importance of selecting a contractor experienced
in erosion control work and familiar with Federal contracts
cannot be overemphasized. Not only would this increase the
quality of constructed works, but would help reduce the
detrimental effects of working in or near streams during the
construction period.
A well-organized preconstruction conference can prevent
much confusion during construction. The contracting officer
project engineer, and inspector should meet in advance to '
clearly determine authority, responsibility, and latitude
assigned to each. An article-by-article review of the con-
tract would be advisable. During the preconstruction confer-
ence, the delegation of authority and responsibility could
be reviewed with the contractor. Other items which should
be discussed thoroughly with the contractor include compli-
ance with safety and health requirements, terms of DNR or
Corps of Engineers' permits, and pollution control require-
ments, especially where dewatering is required. Perhaps a
126
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special attempt to briefly discuss these items at site
showing would also be beneficial.
If construction is to proceed according to the terms of
the contract, the contracting officer must play an active
role in contract administration. Often, decisions must be
made immediately. This requires that the contracting officer
be thoroughly familiar with the technical and administrative
provisions of the contract as well as site conditions and
work progress. In addition, he must be immediately avail-
able. If the contracting officer must be out of reach
temporarily, an alternate should be designated and kept up-
to-date. In the event that the contracting officer does not
have the time to maintain this type of close involvement
with the work, greater authority and responsibility should
be delegated to the project engineer or other technical
representative.
EVALUATION OF STRUCTURAL WORKS
At the present time, it is not possible to evaluate the
effectiveness of structural measures in improving water
quality. No sediment delivery and transport data are available
either before or after construction. The only comparison
which will be made here is the cost per foot of bank treated
on Little Balsam Creek. Site 2, with the most massive
landslide activity, had a construction cost of $b25 per
lineal foot. Slide 4, more limited in active movement, had
construction costs of $160 per lineal foot.
In light of these high costs and the limited areas
treated, it appears that structural protection from erosion
will not be cost-effective. While seeding of eroding areas
would only reduce rather than prevent erosion, it is recom-
mended that this approach be used in improving water quality
in the Little Balsam Creek watershed. On a basin approach,
the most effective means of reducing erosion and sediment
loads would probably be to allow the watershed to revert to
timber cover. Even if erosion induced by man's activities
is eliminated, geologic erosion will continue and the Nemadji
will still run red.
EVALUATION REPORT-SPOON CREEK STUDY AREA
Spoon Creek watershed consists of 3.0 square miles
almost entirely within clayey glacial lakebed deposits. An
unnamed tributary parallels Spoon Creek, draining over half
the watershed, and joins the creek about one mile above its
confluence with Oronto Creek. The stream has an average
grade of approximately 1.8 percent and meanders through a
narrow valley incised 20 to 40 feet deep. Erosion occurs
primarily along the streambanks although gully erosion is
significant. Bedrock outcrops in the lower portion of the
stream, forming ledges in the creek bottom.
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Preliminary figures for sediment transport estimated
that about 930 tons of sediment passed through the lower
portion of the stream yearly. In view of this load and
watershed characteristics, a debris basin, intended solely
to trap sediment, was planned for the study area. Four
structure locations were considered, and a centerline
approximately 300 feet below the junction of the creek and
tributary was selected as most effective.
Two designs were analyzed for the debris basin. Using
standard design procedures, a 28-foot high dam with a 16-
foot deep sediment pool would function as a sediment trap
for a 50-year life. Sediments would consist of sand, silt
and a portion of the incoming clay. Another design was
considered which would hold water long enough for a greater
portion of the suspended clay to flocculate and settle,
increasing trap efficiency. Because of the limited flood-
water storage available in the narrow valley, this alterna-
tive was not feasible. The cost estimate for the latter
structure was also more than double the standard design.
_ Preliminary plans were prepared for the standard debris
basin design. Cost estimate was $150,000. Final plans and
specifications were not prepared, pending a decision by the
Iron County SWCD to proceed. In December 1977 the
I^nii* for?aily notified the project that local funding
was not available and plans for structural measures in the
study area were dropped.
Evaluation
It would be difficult to assess the cost-effectivess of
this type structural measure without extensive stream monitor-
ing and some assessment of the value of a ton of sediment
reduction. Estimated sediment yield for the watershed was
about one-half ton per acre. The lower end of the watershed
is forest, with little evidence of damage due to sediment
deposition. To determine cost-effectiveness, a value must
be established for improvement of water quality.
BOREA ROADSIDE TREATMENT
Within the Nemadji Basin the Red Clay project picked
Borea roadside as a special demonstration roadside erosion
treatment site. After road construction by the town, the
road ditch and bank were without cover and were eroding
The intent was to use this as an example of roadside treatment
The Red Clay project project director requested the
SCS to provide plans, surveys, and specifications. Superior
Township agreed to furnish installation services equaling 25
percent of the cost. The Red Clay project assumed the
balance.
128
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The roadside treatment work was completed early in the
fall of 1976. A dormant seeding of birdsfoot trefoil, crown-
vetch, brome, and fescue was made. The area was seeded,
fertilized, and mulched in one operation, using a hydro-
seeder. Wood fiber with a binder was used as a mulch on the
entire area. Original plans called for the use of jute net
in the bottom of the channel. In place of the netting a
triple application of wood fiber mulch was used in the
channel area.
The wood fiber mulch did an adequate job of protecting
the soil surface of the roadbank from eroding. It did not
protect the channel bottom which developed a small gully.
No operation and maintenance was planned or carried out.
Evaluation and Recommendation
The Borea special demonstration failed to convince
township, county, and city officials that roadside erosion
treatment is needed and practical. Their attitude, in part,
stems from the complexity and high cost of installing cor-
rective measures. Another contributing factor is the poor
local understanding of maintaining vegetated versus bare
earth roadbanks. Data showing either savings or costs from
vegetated roadbanks has not been available. If savings
could be shown, roadside seeding should be accepted.
The detailed plans prepared included a combination of
all best management practices. The structural components of
these plans added cost and complexity, which made roadside
treatment impractical to local people. As a result, the
seeding and minor shaping components of the plans were not
carried out. These components would have treated 75 percent
of the area needing treatment at a cost of 25 percent of the
total estimated cost. Seeding and shaping should be the
first increment of a roadbank stabilization program.
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DEFINITIONS OF LAND TREATMENT PRACTICES
1. ACCESS ROAD is constructed as part of a conservation
plan to provide needed access to other conservation
measures. The estimated cost includes clearing,
earthwork, gravel surfacing, and seeding.
2- AGRICULTURAL WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM is a planned sys-
tem to contain and manage liquid and solid livestock
wastes with disposal in a manner which does not degrade
air, soil, or water resources. The cost is an average
typical cost of those recently constructed.
3- BRUSH MANAGEMENT is management of brush stands to re-
store plant communities and specific needs of the land
users. The cost includes both chemical and mechanical
brush control.
4- CONSERVATION CROPPING SYSTEM is growing crops in combina-
tion with needed cultural and management measures. Crop-
ping systems include rotations that contain grasses and
legumes as well as rotations in which the desired bene-
fits are achieved without the use of such crops. The
cost includes the land user's cost of establishing and
maintaining contour strips, rotations, etc.
5- CRITICAL AREA PLANTING is stabilizing sediment-producing
and severely eroded areas by establishing vegetative
cover. This includes woody plants, such as trees, shrubs
or vines, and adapted grasses or legumes established by
seeding or sodding to provide long-term ground cover
(does not include tree planting mainly for the production
of wood products). The acreage of this item does not
include roadside seeding needed and seeding as part of
other conservation measures.
6. CROP RESIDUE MANAGEMENT is using plant residues to pro-
tect cultivated fields during critical erosion periods.
The cost is indicative of the added expense in converting
to mulch tillage practices.
7. DIVERSION is a channel with a supporting ridge on the
lower side constructed across the slope for the purpose
of diverting water to areas where it can be disposed
of safely. The cost includes earthwork and seeding.
8. DRAINAGE FIELD DITCH is a graded ditch for collecting
excess water within a field. It does not include grassed
waterway or outlet. The quantity of this item is in-
tended for application on the cropland.
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9. FARMSTEAD AND FEEDLOT WINDBREAK is a belt of trees or
shrubs established next to a farmstead or feedlot. The
cost is for tree planting and materials.
10. FENCING is enclosing or dividing an area of land with
a permanent structure that acts as a barrier to live-
stock or people. The quantity shown in the table is
that needed for livestock exclusion from gullies and
steep slopes. The cost is for material and labor.
11. FIELD WINDBREAK is a strip or belt of trees or shrubs
established to reduce wind erosion on open fields. The
cost is for tree planting and materials.
12. FLOODWATER RETARDING STRUCTURE is a single-purpose
structure providing for temporary storage of floodwater
and for its controlled release. This structure is de-
signed to trap sediment also, though not considered a
purpose. The cost is the estimated construction cost
for sites indicated on the work map.
13. GRADE STABILIZATION STRUCTURE is built to stabilize the
grade or to control head-cutting in natural or artificial
channels. (Does not include stream channel improvement,
streambank protection, diversions, or structures for
water control.) The higher cost is representative for
construction of a low-head, crib-type structure located
in the stream channel to control gradient. The lower
cost is representative for construction of high-head,
pipe drop-type structure for small watersheds.
14. GRASSED WATERWAY is a natural or constructed waterway or
outlet, shaped, and graded, with vegetation established
to safely dispose of runoff from a field, diversion,
terrace, or other structure. The cost includes earth-
work and seeding.
15. LAND ADEQUATELY TREATED is using land within its capa-
bility on which the conservation practices that are
essential to its protection and planned improvement have
been applied.
16. LAND SMOOTHING is removing irregularities on cropland
surfaces by use of special equipment.
17. LIVESTOCK EXCLUSION refers to areas where grazing is not
wanted. The cost for doing such is the amount shown for
fencing.
18. PASTURE AND HAYLAND MANAGEMENT is proper treatment and
use of pastureland or hayland. The cost includes mowing
and fertilization.
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19- PASTURE AND HAYLAND PLANTING is establishing long-term
stands of adapted species of perennial, biennial, or
reseeding forage plants. (Includes pasture and hayland
renovation, does not include grassed waterway or outlet
on cropland.)
20. RECREATION AREA IMPROVEMENT is establishing grasses,
legumes, shrubs, trees, or other plants or selectively
reducing stand density to improve an area for recrea-
tion. The construction cost is included in other prac-
tices .
21. STOCK TRAILS, WALKWAY OR WATER FACILITY is a trail,
walkway, or watering facility provided to improve access
to water for livestock when fencing is used to exclude
livestock from prior watering areas.
22. STREAM CHANNEL PROTECTION AND SLOPE STABILIZATION in-
cludes all those structural measures designed to control
or reduce the amount of streambank erosion and stream
side slope failure (clay slides).
23. STRIPCROPPING is the growing of crops in a systematic
arrangement of strips or bands on the contour to reduce
erosion. The cost includes the land user's cost of es-
tablishing and maintaining strips.
24. SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE is a conduit installed beneath the
ground surface which collects and/or conveys drainage
water. The cost includes installation and material.
25. TREE PLANTING is the planting of tree seedlings or cut-
tings. Costs include materials and planting.
26. WOODLAND IMPROVEMENT is removing unmerchantable or
unwanted trees,shrubs, or vines.
27. WOODLAND SITE PREPARATION is treating areas to encourage
natural seeding of desirable trees or to permit refores-
tation by planting or direct seeding.
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EVALUATION OF SHORE PROTECTION DEMONSTRATIONS
AT MADIGAN BEACH AND MADELINE ISLAND, WISCONSIN
by
T. B. Edil1, P. L. Monkmeyer , N. M. Becker ,
A 9
J. A. Shands and P. R. Wolf
The southwestern part of Lake Superior is bordered to
a large extent by bluffs composed of a distinctive "red
clay" soil. Deposited by glaciers 10,000 to 12,000 years
ago, the highly erosive nature of the red clay has led to
degradation of area streams and parts of the coastal zone,
in addition to severe recession along some portions of the
Lake Superior shoreline. In 1974, in an effort to address
these environmental changes, an erosion control program
known as the Red Clay Project was organized.
Later in 1974 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
responded to proposals concerning this program which were
submitted by the Red Clay Interagency Committee, the local
Soil and Water Conservation Districts, and the Northwestern
Wisconsin Regional Planning and Development Commission.
Federal assistance for the initiation of sediment and ero-
sion control demonstration projects was granted to the 'red
clay1 districts of Ashland, Bayfield, Douglas, and Iron
Counties in Wisconsin, and Carlton County in Minnesota.
Since the selection of the demonstration sites, this phase
of the project has included a study of offshore and beach
characteristics at these sites, and the establishment of a
field monitoring program in connection with performance
evaluation of the control structures. For a description of
some of the preliminary field studies as well as early
project background, the reader is referred to Edil, Pezzetta,
and Wolf (1975) and Edil (1975).
This report traces the development and evaluation of
shore protection demonstrations at Madigan Beach and a site
on Madeline Island, both located in Ashland County,
Associate Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
and Engineering Mechanics, University of Wisconsin-Madison,
Madison, Wisconsin.
2Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univer-
sity of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin.
3Research Assistant, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison,
Wisconsin.
4Research Assistant, Department of Engineering Science and
Mechanics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.
133
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Wisconsin. The first two sections of this report describe
the natural features of the Madigan Beach site, as well as
the shoreline protection structures installed there The
next two sections describe the aerial mapping and geotech-
nical features of the bluffs. A wave climate study for
Madigan Beach is presented, followed by a preliminary
evaluation of the performance of the shoreline structures
^oMd^Crip£ionu°f.a 9roundwater analysis undertaken
the Madigan Beach site is presented. And finally a
section devoted to the Madeline Island site completes the
report.
The shore protection structures which are central to
this project have been in place for only one year; conse-
quently only preliminary assessments of their potential
will be discussed. Positive demonstration of success can
be evaluated only after a number of years of statistically
representative weather, both pleasant and stormy.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MADIGAN BEACH SITE AND DEMONSTRATION
Location and Description of the Site
Madigan Beach is located on the southern shore of
Lake Superior approximately 25 kilometers (15 mi) east of
the town of Ashland, Wisconsin (Figure 1.1). Located in
Ashland County, it is situated 2 kilometers (1 1/4 mi) west
of the Iron-Ashland county line on the Bad River Indian
Reservation. Madigan Beach is accessible by a secondary
road extending northeast from U.S. Highway 2, which is only
about 4 kilometers (2 1/2 mi) south of the site. The study
site extends along some 630 meters (2100 ft) of shoreline
from 210 meters (700 ft) east of the northern end of
Madigan Road to 420 meters (1400 ft) west.
The beach itself is narrow, extending from the base of
rather steeply inclined clay bluffs which rise 18 meters
(60 ft) above the water level (Figure 1.2). These bluffs
attain slopes as steep as 53° from the horizontal, although
the average slope is 34° to 37°. it is very evident that
much of the bluffs lies in various stages of slope insta-
bility, a condition which is aggravated by the undercutting
effects of each major storm.
The bluffs are composed chiefly of fine-grained sands
and silts which exhibit a reddish appearance—hence the
name "red clay". On top of the bluffs, the terrain con-
sists of a grassy and wooded plain, somewhat swampy in
places due to the poor drainage of the clay. The stand of
trees is young, and consists of birch, poplar and some
evergreens. The site is uninhabited — there is evidence
that it was once developed as a campground, but never used
as such.
134-
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V>J
vn
47 N
8UW
Figure 1.1. Location of Demonstration Sites on Lake Superior
-------
Figure 1.2. Madigan Beach Site
(Note: Bluffs are 18 meters high.)
Shoreline Orientation and Fetch Exposure
The shoreline at Madigan Beach extends in an almost
unbroken line for some 8-9 kilometers (5-6 mi). The
geodetic bearing for this shoreline segment is approxi-
mately N 55° W.
The site is exposed to wind and wave action on
Lake Superior from the northwest to the southeast, moving
in a clockwise direction. However, fetch exposure greater
than 160 kilometers (100 mi) extends only from the north-
east direction. The Apostle Islands limit the fetch
distances to under 30 kilometers (20 mi) from the northwest
to the north, and there is virtually no effective fetch
exposure from the northeast to the southeast due to the
sheltering effect of the Keweenaw peninsula.
Site Geology
The bluffs are composed of red clays and silts. These
clays and silts are glacial lake sediments, deposited
10,000 to 12,000 years ago during the Pleistocene Epoch.
It was during this period that the glaciers carved out the
present Lake Superior basin (Martin, 1965). Meltwaters
from the retreating glaciers formed, among other basins,
Glacial Lake Keweenaw, and later, Glacial Lake Duluth.
Their southern boundaries extended further south than the
present Lake Superior shoreline, and it is likely that
136
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during their existence lacustrine sedimentation fed by
melting glaciers to the north formed the extensive red
varved and nonvarved sediments, which make up the red clays
of northern Wisconsin (Paull and Paull, 1977). At the
Madigan Beach site, these red clays and silts are approxi-
mately 37-46 meters (120-150 ft) thick.
Beneath the red clays lies the Freda sandstone, a
thick, fine-grained feldspathic sandstone laid down during
the PreCambrian Era (Paull and Paull, 1977). Of Upper
Keweenawan age, in the Oronto group, the Freda sandstone
was deposited approximately 600 million years ago. The
thickness of the Oronto Group may be as great as 6000
meters (20,000 ft) (Thwaites, 1912).
Also present may be beds of shale, conglomerates, and
quartzose sandstones in addition to arkosic sandstones, but
the lack of detailed geologic logs in the vicinity pre-
cludes further discussion as to the exact nature of this
formation. It does provide the local, confined aquifer in
the area, with the red clay above providing relative con-
finement (U.S. Geological Survey, personal communication).
It is likely that at one time Paleozoic rocks were deposited
and eroded in this region, causing the large unconformity
(erosional vacuity in the geologic record).
Longard Tube Demonstration Project
In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of low-cost
shore protection at Madigan Beach, Longard tubes were
chosen. These tubes are large, elongated, impermeable
polyethylene casings filled with sand. Initially developed
in Europe, they have recently been installed in Michigan
(Armstrong, 1976), and at other locations in the
United States. In the past, they have been used to form
groins, seawalls, or groin-seawall combinations to provide
effective and relatively inexpensive shore protection when
located in an appropriate environment.
While Longard tubes come in various sizes, those used
at Madigan Beach are 1.75 meters (69 in) in diameter, and
when filled, weigh approximately 4500 kilograms/meter (3000
Ib/ft). These are the largest tubes made and the
Madigan Beach project includes the largest grouping of
these particular tubes presently in existence in the world.
A filter cloth is usually placed beneath a tube and anchored
with a secondary tube 0.25 meters (10 in) in diameter to
minimize scour and tube settlement.
The layout of the tubes is shown in Figure 1.3. Con-
straints on the length of the shoreline available for pro-
tection made it impossible to develop an ideal layout, in
which the groin and seawall sections could be tested free
of any interference with each other. An additional design
feature included the regrading of one of the bluff slopes to
a more stable inclination of 22° from the horizontal, and
establishment of a vegetative cover on this regraded slope.
137
-------
LAKE SUPERIOR
L.T-10
V.'ATER E
VM
00
655
LT-II
WATER EDGE7 I EAsT i
Figure 1.3. Longard Tube Layout at Madigan Beach
-------
FLUCTUATION OF LAKE SUPERIOR WATER LEVEL
Due to their large surface area, and the restricted
discharge of their outflow channels, the Great Lakes are
considered to be a naturally regulated water system (Inter-
national Joint Commission, 1976). That is, the enormous
storage capacity of the lakes tends to absorb unusual
seasonal fluctuations in precipitation and evaporation,
resulting in a much more uniform release of water through
the discharge channels of the system. Although there is
some artificial regulation, it is severely restricted by
the natural characteristics of the basin and its channels.
Lake Superior, the largest of the Great Lakes, covers
an area of 82,000 square kilometers (31,700 mi2). Sources
of water inflow into Lake Superior include precipitation,
runoff, and possibly, groundwater seepage. Diversion from
the Albany River basin through the Long Lake and Ogoki
projects in Canada accounts for an additional inflow of
approximately 150 m3/s (5000 cfs). Water losses from
Lake Superior include evaporation and drainage through the
St. Mary's River into Lakes Michigan and Huron, which
behave hydraulically as a unit lake. The total outflow
through the St. Mary's River ranges from 55,000 to 125,000
cfs, as specified by the 1955 Modified Rule of 1949
(International Joint Commission, 1976).
Lake Superior outflows have been regulated since 1921.
The regulation rules for outflow control have been changed
four times (1941, 1951, 1955, 1964) as the understanding of
Great Lakes hydrology has improved, and also in response to
changing economic interests. Concern about the extremely
low Great Lakes levels in the early 1960's prompted the
United States and Canada, in 1964, to ask the International
Joint Commission to study those factors which affect water
level fluctuation and formulate possible solutions which
would attenuate the fluctuations. As a result, the Inter-
national Great Lakes Levels Board was established to study
these problems, and its recommendations were published in a
report in 1973. Due to critically high water levels that
same year, the International Joint Commission, in an effort
to drop water levels on the lower Great Lakes, reduced the
Lake Superior outflow, as specified by the 1964 departures
from the 1955 Modified Rule of 1949, by 25%.
Figure 2.1 shows the monthly mean water level of
Lake Superior from 1860 to 1975 (International Joint Com-
mission, 1976). Both annual and long-term fluctuations are
recorded, but relatively short-term fluctuations, caused by
seiches and ice-jams are not represented here. Therprinci-
ple causes of long-term fluctuations are the long-term
changes in precipitation in the Great Lakes Basin. The
annual fluctuations are related to the changes in seasonal
precipitation rates and the rate of water movement through
the hydrologic system. When higher water levels prevail,
139
-------
, I860
1865
IB70
598
o —
I-
ill
UJ
604
602
1925
1930
os rr.oy fe be!*een 60G -f 7ft 60197 A
Figure 2.1. Mean Monthly Water Level of Lake Superior - 1860-1975
-------
the effects are inundation of shorefront land and waves
breaking much closer to the shore, or directly on the
beach. This results in damage and property loss at the
shoreline during almost every episode of high water levels.
Figure 2.2 shows the monthly changes in the
Lake Superior water level measured at Duluth, Minnesota
during 1975 through September 1978. High water levels
occurred in the month of October 1977, and the lake level
began to rise again during the spring and summer of 1978.
The peak level in 1977 occurred shortly after the instal-
lation of the Longard tubes at Madigan Beach. Relatively
high water levels on this end of Lake Superior coupled with
fall storms, which tend to be the most severe storms of the
year, suggest that the autumn season has provided and may
continue to provide the most revealing test of endurance
for the Longard tubes at Madigan Beach.
602.00-
601.03-
z
o
< 600.00
599.00-
JFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASOND
1975
1976
1977
1978
Figure 2.2.
Mean Monthly Water Level Measured
at Duluth, Minnesota
141
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SHORELINE MAPPING
Introduction
As a means of monitoring the changes in the shoreline
that have taken place since the groins were installed, shore-
line mapping has been performed. The shoreline location and
configuration prior to the installation of the groins was
documented by aerial photographs exposed on October 27, 1976.
These photos, taken by the Wisconsin Department of Transpor-
tation, were exposed using a precision aerial camera. The
negative scale was 500 feet per inch. The locations of the
top of slope and toe of slope along the shoreline, as of that
date, are shown in Fig. 3.1.
To document the location and configuration of the shore-
line at some date after the installation of the groins,
aerial photos were taken on June 5, 1978. These"photos,
taken by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, had
a negative scale of 1000 feet per inch. They clearly
showed the location of the groins and shoreline. The
positions of the groins and the locations and configurations
of the top of slope, toe of slope and water-land interface
along the shoreline as of this date are all shown super-
imposed on the same map referred to earlier.
Mapping Procedure
The procedure used to prepare the attached shoreline
map was to utilize a Kern PG-2 stereoplotter. The stero-
plotter was oriented in a vertical mode which coincided
with the orientation of the aerial photos. The photos, al-
though of differing scales and taken on different dates,
were oriented with respect to each other and brought to a
common scale by means of bringing the small building and the
access roads shown on the map into coincidence. This did
not allow for mapping to as high an accuracy as would have
been possible if discrete control points common to both
sets of photos had been available. However such common
discrete points were not available and the building and
and roads are all that could be used.
Additional difficulties encountered in the mapping
were that heavy shadows were cast on the slope and shore-
area by the high bank, and on the June 5, 1978 photos the
trees were in full leaf. Because of these problems, in
several areas the top and toe of slope were partially ob-
scured and not clearly visible on the photos.
Shoreline Recession
Shoreline recession rates were of particular interest
at three key sites in the project area. These loca-
tions are shown at sections identified as A-A, B-B and
C-C in Fig. 3.1. At section A-A, located approximately
halfway between groins number 5 and 6, the recession of
the top of slope from October 27, 1976 to June 5, 1978
142
-------
LAKE SUPERIOR
TOE OF SLOPE (1978)
TOE OF SLOPE (1976)
SHORE LINE
(1978)
(1978)
BUILDING
MADIGAN BEACH
ASHLAND COUNTY, WIS.
PLOTTED FROM AERIAL PHOTOS
BY.' P.R.WOLF- DEC, 1978
BH: BORE HOLE
150 300
SCALE IN FEET
Figure 3.1.
-------
has been approximately 25 feet, while the toe of the slope
shows essentially no recession over this period of time.
At section B-B, located approximately halfwav between
groins number 4 and 5, the top of the slope receded ap-
proximately 15 feet from October 27, 1976 to June 5, 1978,
while the toe of slope at this location receded approxi-
mately 20 feet over the same period of time. At section
C-C located at groin number 3, the top of slope receded
approximately 20 feet from October 27, 1976 to June 5,
1978. No measurable recession occurred at the toe of
slope at this location during this period of time.
Recommendations for Future Work
It is recommended that this shoreline monitoring
program using aerial photography be continued in order
to document the effects of installation of the groins.
The following specifications are recommended:
(1) Aerial photography should be obtained annually.
(2) The aerial photography should be exposed in the Spring
after the snow has melted but prior to the time the
leaves come out on the trees, or in the fall prior to
snow and after the leaves are off the trees. This
will enable the top of slope to be most clearlv seen
on the photos.
(3) The photo scale should optimally be 500 feet per inch,
and should be obtained by flying at 3000 feet above
ground using a 6-inch focal length precision camera.
A scale of 1000 feet per inch is considered too small
to provide the desired mapping accuracy.
(4) Photographic overlap should be 60 percent.
(5) The photos should be taken by flying parallel to
the shoreline, and should be exposed such that 80
percent of the photo coverage is over land and only
20 percent of the photo coverage is over water.
(6) Ground control points installed in the area in 1976
should be panelled (targeted) prior to flight for
each year's photography. (Three of these control
points are shown as W-3-1, B-5-1, and B-l-1 on the
attached map). Panelling of these points will enable
orienting each set of photos accurately.
(7) Black and white infrared film should be used.
If the above specifications are adhered to, a highly
precise record of shoreline recession at this site can
be obtained.
144
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GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE MADIGAN BEACH SITE
General Geotechnical Characteristics
The Madigan Beach and Madeline Island sites (see subse-
quent section entitled "Madeline Island Shore Protection
Demonstration") are examples of two Distinct geon«orphologxcal
settings along the western Lake Superior shoreline. The
shoreline profile at the Madigan Beach site consists of
Kufrs rLing 18 meters (60 ft) above the beach and main-
taining temporary steep inclinations in excess of 40 with
the hSrizon?al. The processes of undercutting and slumping
are evident and the bluff faces are mostly exposed and
without any of the vegetation and trees which are dominant
in the upland.
The Indian Cemetery site on Madeline Island, on the
other hand, occupies a very low terrace up to 0.6 peters
(2 ft) above the level of the lake and a line of shrubs and
low woody vegetation parallels the property at the water s
edge.
Subsurface Exploration
In order to determine the soil characteristics a pro-
gram of subsurface exploration was carried out in 1^6.
Three bore-holes were drilled on the top of the bluffs at
the Madigan Beach site (see Figure 3.1 for the locations)
and samples were obtained for textural and geotechnical
analysesT The borings and observations of the materials
exposed on the bluff face indicated the presence of a 4.5
to 6 meter (15 to 20 foot) thick, reddish-brown, stiff,
silty clay layer of low plasticity on the top, underlain
by a thick (more than 12 meters or 40 feet), very dense
brown sandy silt or silty sand, ^he geotechnical properties
of the bluff materials are summarized in Table 4.1. This
highly erodible (cohesionless) sandy silt makes up most of
tnfblu?f material and is underlain by a reddish-brown,
rather stiff, clay layer of high plasticity mostly below
the lake level. A mineralogical analysis of this lower
clay layer was undertaken by X-ray diffraction, whicn
revealed the presence of quartz, illite, kaolinite, and a
small quantit? of montmorillonite. The difference in the
plasticities of the upper and lower clay layers appears
to stem primarily from the difference in their clay frac
tions (26% and 63%, respectively) rather than a mineralo-
gical difference. Detailed grain-size analyses of the
bluff sediments clearly indicate that these deposits are
highly variable in their textural characteristics. Piezo-
meters were also installed in the bore holes and the ground
water level was monitored periodically.
Bluff Processes
This discussion is concerned with the observed condi-
tions of the bluffs at the Madigan Beach site during the
-------
°f Soil SamPles from Madigan Beach Bore Holes
Soil Description
and Group Texture**
»*ol* * Sand X Silt % Cl.,y
_,
^.sti- Water Unit
I^x
A'ngle-H-
i-j-i_
of Cohesion
Internal Intercept
H
CT>
Reddish iirovn.
/•!„„ . _ /"i . ,, n £ \
'. '-fr'^*- uo.r:i} jU— O;rJ
Brown, very dense KL
sandy silt or or 7-18 78-90 3-4 — - 1S 2 0, >,00
silty san.d(6-16m) SM 3 J-°°
Reddish Brovm,
rather stiff
jS.L'i""11 •* " 26 " 51 31 » i-«s ».
C Lover Clay Ion)
* Accordir.e to fhp llr.if-torl Qn-ii n m^,n< *•„• -_.v . . /-.orT^, ^
•^ (kg/cm^)
19° 0.8
37° 0
. 21° 0
** 4 VA !>~- j -. A m- ^ ~~ — -— vr.-oi.i-i Designation: D 2487-69 and D 2488-69)
+ c T" I » 0.07<4ram; 0.0/4mm > Silt > O.OC2r,m; 0.002mn > Clay
-^ Standard Penetration Resistance, N(ASTM Designation: D 1586-67)
++ Drained Shear Strength Parameters.
-------
1976-78 period. Various environmental factors and processes
and where they appear on a bluff are shown in Figure 4.1
Song with the types of failures and changes in bluff
geomltry The bluff processes have their origin in clima-
tolSgicIl factors such as wind, precipitation and tempera-
ture 9 ?n addition to these factors, slope geometry and the
o
h-
LU
-I
LU
TOP RETREAT
DEEP SLIPS
TOP
SHALLOW FAILURES
AND
FACE DEGRADATION
rSOLIFLUCTION
J SHEETWASH
/] SEEPAGE
f FEATHERING
FACE
.TOE
EROSION
BY
WAVE
TOE
RECESSION
ACTION
TOE
ACCUMULATION
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE
Figure 4.1 Bluff Processes
nature of bluff materials also play a role in the develop-
ment of bluffs. Madigan Beach appears to be subject to
severe climatological forces and this, coupled with the
erodible (cohesionless) materials forming the bulk of the
bluffs, results in a highly active environment for slope
evolution. The photoreconnaissance surveys conducted
periodically since 1974 have revealed the action of bluff
face degradational processes such as sheetwash, solifluc
tion, and seepage effects along with the dominant action
of waves. The sandy silt materials of the bluffs, while
highly erodible under surface processes, are strong below
the surface when they are confined (the effective angle
of internal friction, ', is 37°). This makes the bluffs
highly stable against immediate rotational slips fid they
sustain fairly steep inclinations in excess of 40 "man
parts of the shoreline. This situation is helped by the
presence of clay layers, some 6 meters (20 ft) thick,
capping the top of the bluffs.
In order to monitor the changes in slope morphology,
a number of cross-sections (perpendicular to the shore-
-------
line) have been surveyed periodically. Five of these b
cross-sections, from the southeast and northwest end of
demonstration project, are given in Figures 4?2 to 4.6.
31 Se1^ °f thSSe Cross-sections are marked on Figure
Ten? r
top recession. Finally, Cross-section 5 in Figure 4 6
SvTf™ natu^l bluff - 1976 before it was ?egraded in
1977 from an inclination of 42° down to 22° to 2S° o *,.\
The bluff top recessions measured IS the fiel? at these
'
and
3 m to 11 m between Cross-sections 1
ina ^"S
1977^78
'
-
noted that the aerial photographs cover a 2 -year De?iod
during which the Longard tubes were in place^nl/fn ?he
" 1S Pf?bablT due to the errors involved in read-
scale aerial photographs available. The
S- (^Urlng the Peri°d When the demonstra-
the 1976-78 and the 1977-78 values) It
ros— tion 4 recently e^perilnced "
recession due to a deep slip which
4 ' 2 ^ that Cross-section 5 was
in 1977-7 1977 resulting in zero recession
Table 4.2 Bluff Top Recession in meters (feet)
Cross
Section
1
2
3
4
5
Aerial Photo
1976-78
3.0(10.0)
5.2(17.0)
5.2(17.0)
11.3(37.0)
2.1(7.0)
Field Measurement
1976-78 1977-78
2.0(6.5)
2.4(7.9)
0.7(2.3)
0.8 (2.7)
3.5(11.5)
0
0
Stability Analysis and Stabilization of Bluffs
The stability of the bluffs was analyzed using a com-
?S?rr bafod-?n the Bish°P Simplified Method of
aalvs ^ ?' 19^)1l.,The meth°d US6S the Affective stress
analysis of slope stability and utilizes the drained strength
148
-------
,2.0m
CROSS-SECTION 1
_,. June, 1976
June, 1977
June, 1978
10
20 30 40
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE < METERS )
Figure 4.2. Bluff Profiles in Cross-section 1
-------
. 2.4 m
vn
o
0
CROSS-SECTION 2
June, 1976
June, 1977
June, 1978
10
20 30 40
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE ( METERS )
50
Figure 4.3. Bluff Profiles in Cross-section 2
-------
vn
CROSS-SECTION 3
August, 1977
November, 1977
September, 1978
10 20
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE (METERS)
Figure 4.4. Bluff Profiles in Cross-section 3
30
-------
vn
ro
CROSS-SECTION 4
November, 1977
September, 1978
\ Failure Surface
S. F. = 0.79
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE ( METERS)
Figure 4.5. Bluff Profiles in Cross-section 4
-------
H
vn
0
CROSS-SECTION 5
June. 1976
July, 1977 & 1978
10 20
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE (METERS)
Figure 4.6. Bluff Profiles in Cross-section 5
-------
parameters of bluff materials and the measured pore-water
pressures as estimated from the piezometer readings. The
subsurface exploration and laboratory tests provided the
necessary information about the bluff materials to perform
the stability analysis. This procedure is suitable for
analyzing the stability against rotational slump but it
does not account for other slope processes, i.e., the face
degradation. The method and its successive application to
evolving coastal bluffs have been found to be satisfactory
in explaining the safety against slumping along the Lake
Michigan shoreline (Edil and Vallejo, 1977). The end pro-
duct of this analysis is a minimum safety factor against
slumping and the location of an associated circular failure
surface. The safety factor, SF, is defined as the ratio of
the shearing resistance to the shear stresses along the
failure surface. The factor computed by the procedure
referred to above is termed the "long-term" safety factor
and indicates the eventual safety of a bluff against slump-
ing. A safety factor of unity indicates a condition of
limiting stability while increasing values of safety factor
greater than unity imply increasing stability and a value
of less than unity implies instability in the long-term.
The safety factor, in general, depends on slope geometry
(height and inclination), slope materials (shear strength
and unit weight), and ground water conditions (its level
in the slope).
The stability analyses performed on the initially
measured profiles of Cross-sections 1, 2 and 3 (Figures 4.2,
4.3 and 4.4) resulted in safety factors of 1.36, 1.16 and
1.30, respectively, indicating the general stability of
these bluffs against slumping. Cross-section 2 had already
gone through a deep-seated major slide involving a 3.4
meter (11 ft) drop of an 8.8 meter (29 ft) wide section at
the top when surveyed in 1976 as shown in Figure 4.3. The
initially surveyed profiles of Cross-section 4 resulted in
safety factors less than unity and, thus, instability. Two
of the potential circular failure surfaces and the corres-
ponding safety factors are shown in Figure 4.5. This bluff
maintained its stability since 1976; however, during the
latter part of the Summer of 1978 slumping occured result-
ing in the recession of the bluff top as marked by the
approximate intersection of the predicted failure surfaces.
Cross-section 5 was also analyzed and it was found to
have potential for slumping as indicated by the failure
surface in Figure 4.6. The bluff segment in this area was
chosen for the slope stabilization demonstration. After
considering a number of alternatives including terracing,
berms and various combinations of these, it was decided to
regrade the bluff to a uniform slope of about 2.5:1 or 22°.
This inclination was determined to be safe based on a
similar analysis. The bluff stabilization demonstration
included surface water diversion in the upland and seeding
of the bluff face to prevent surface erosion. The project
154-
-------
was completed in Fall of 1977 and the vegetation did not
have a chance to grow before the spring thaw and rains of
1978. Therefore, a certain amount of gullying developed
early in the Summer of 1978. However, by Mid-summer,
1978, vegetation had grown and this bluff segment appeared
stable against both slumping and face degradation as
shown in Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7. Stabilized Bluff Segment
Summary Remarks
The bluffs at Madigan Beach are formed mostly in ero-
dible, cohesionless soils and are subject to various severe
forces of erosion and degradation which include wave
action, but not exclusively. This situation results in
rapid evolutionary processes modifying the geometry of
these bluffs. However, the bluff materials have relatively
high strength against slumps along deeper slip surfaces
and this results in bluff inclinations far steeper than
stable in the short-term. Deep-seated slips have been
observed and are expected to occur in steeper segments of
the bluffs even if the wave action is reduced at bluff toe.
A certain amount of bluff recession has continued to take
place, even though at a reduced rate, in the bluff segments
which were not stabilized in the demonstration project
after the installation of the Longard tubes. Slope stabili-
zation in terms of regrading to a stable inclination and
providing surface protection in terms of diverting surface
drainage and vegetation not only protect the bluff from
further recession but also protect the shore protection
structures from the damage of the sliding bluff.
155
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WAVE CLIMATE STUDY
Introduction
Shoreline erosion and littoral drift occur in response
to the interaction between offshore winds, waves, and the
coastlines. Because of this inseparable relationship, a
knowledge of local wave climate is essential in any inves-
tigation involving shoreline erosion. Unfortunately, this
wave climate information is not readily available, since
the collection of extensive hydrologic and meteorologic
data is not only expensive in terms of manpower and equip-
ment, but must extend over a long period of time to assure
statistical significance. Frequently, the data base at
the site of interest is very imprecise and covers only a
short period of time, hydrologically speaking.
During World War II, in an effort to devise a reliable
method for predicting wave climate, new techniques for wave-
forecasting were developed. These procedures use meteoro-
logical data, in particular barometric pressure and wind
velocities, to predict the characteristics of the wind-
generated waves that will arrive at specified shore loca-
tions. A logical extension of these procedures is hind-
casting: the use of existing meteorologic information to
reconstruct "old waves" that arrived at shore locations at
specified times in the past when storms were known to occur.
These may then be used as a data base to build a frequency
distribution and recurrence interval of wave heights. From
these statistics, design information for coastal engineering
projects may be compiled.
In the vicinity of Madigan Beach, no historical record
of wave data exists. Only visual reports of estimated wave
heights, miles from the site are available. In the absence
of information, deep water waves were 'reconstructed'
using a hindcast model for Lake Superior. These waves were
then refracted and shoaled into shallow water by means of a
numerical procedure until their characteristics indicated
the point of breaking. Using wave features such as
the wave height at breaking, the wave celerity (velocity of
propagation of the wave form) at breaking, and the angle
the wave crest makes with the shoreline, it has been
possible to estimate the wave energy flux at this point.
This has made it possible to predict the effects of the
integrated wave energy on the site, especially on the
littoral drift, over nearly nine months of time.
The Wind Data
The wind data analyzed in this report were recorded at
a manned U.S. Coast Guard Station on Devil's Island.
Devil's Island is the northernmost of the Apostle Islands,
and is located approximately 55 kilometers (34 mi) north-
northwest of Madigan Beach (see Figure 1.1). In that this
156
-------
distance is within the range of medium- to small-scale
weather circulation patterns, the winds at Devil's Island
were considered to be representative of winds in the
vicinity of Madigan Beach.
The wind data were purchased from the National
Climatic Center in Asheville, North Carolina. Because the
data were not considered to be highly accurate by the
National Climatic Center, the information was not provided
in digital form; the data came as photocopies of the origi-
nal handwritten weather logs. These logs contained the
date, hour of observation, the wind direction in terms_of
the 16 compass directions (i.e., N, NNE, NE, etc.) a wind
velocity in knots (one-minute averaged value), the air
temperature, the barometric pressure, sky appearance,
and occasionally, wave direction and estimated height.
This information was subsequently punched onto computer
cards.
The Coast Guard Station which recorded the information
is located approximately 65-70 meters (70-80 yds) from the
water's edge. The meteorological equipment at this station
is located at the station approximately 12 meters (40 ft)
above the lake level (U.S. Coast Guard, Bayfield, Wisconsin,
personal communication).
Recent studies have indicated that wind data collected
over land differ from wind data collected over water, and
that land-based wind data must be transformed if they are
to represent lake winds and be used for hindcasting
(Resio, 1976). This point was considered and it was
decided that because the present data were obtained on
a rather small island, they are essentially representative
of lake winds from all directions except from the south and
southeast, where the wind passes over the Bayfield peninsula
and other islands before reaching Devil's Island. However,
Madigan Beach is not exposed to southerly winds on the
seaward side. As a result, wind modification of this type
was deemed unnecessary.
Another issue considered was the height at which the
wind velocity measurement was made. Different hindcast
models require different instrument heights to assure
representative winds. For example, Pierson (1964) uses
winds measured at 19.5 meters and Liu (1971) develops a
wind velocity profile from heights at 4, 8, 12, and 14
meters, to which he fits a friction velocity U*. Assuming
a neutral stability logarithmic wind profile, wind veloci-
ties at 19.5 meters were calculated using a form of the
Prandtl-von Karman universal velocity distribution law,
after Pierson (1964),
U = Uin [1 + ln(z/10) (C )1/2A] (1)
Z ID -i-u
157
-------
where Uz = windspeed at a height z meters
U10 = windsPeed at a height 10 meters
K = von Karman constant
C10 = 10 meter drag coefficient,
= (0.80 + 0.114 U Q)10~3
(Sheppard (1959), see Pierson (1964)).
Comparing the wind velocity at 12.2 m (40 ft) and 19.5 m
(64 ft) , velocity differences range from 3 to 6%, the differ-
ences increasing with increasing wind velocity. Because
the differences between the 19.5 meter and 12.2 meter data
sets were well within the range of observational errors,
the original wind observations were used without transforma-
tion to a different altitude.
Comparison of Devil's Island Wind Observations with those
Obtained on Shj.p_s_ ~ ~ —
Wind data from ships were analyzed in order to check
the validity and consistency of the Devil's Island wind
measurements. Observations of wind directions and veloci-
ties collected by ships sailing in Lake Superior were
obtained from the National Climatic Center in Asheville,
North Carolina. These observations are compiled in the
International Marine Surface Synoptic Observations (IMSSO)
which are available in a machine listing. Only those ship
observations taken by ships in very close proximity to
Devil s Island were permitted in the comparison (±0.1°)
Devil's Island is located at 47.1° N, 90.7° W.
In Table 5.1 the date and time of observation, ship's
coordinates, measured wind direction and velocity, and
comparable Devil's Island wind direction and velocity are
given._ Also included in parentheses are the Devil's Island
wind direction and velocity data obtained two to three hours
nf f'. These were included because occasionally the lagged
Devil s Island data agreed more closely with the ship data
than that taken at the same hour, or within one hour, since
observations were not always simultaneous. In Figure 5 1
wind directions taken on the ship and on Devil's Island'are
compared. The dots correspond to the same hour of observa-
tions, and the crosses to the lagged Devil's Island observa-
tions^ The dashed line is a linear relationship of slope 1
There is some data clustering about the dashed line, but the
large amount of scatter suggests that a strong linear
relationship between the ship data and Devil's Island data
does not exist.
Figure 5.2 compares ship wind velocities with
Devil's Island wind velocities. The dot observations are
taken at the same hour (or with one hour of lag); the crosses
158.
-------
Table 5.1. Comparison of Wind Observations Made by
H
vn
vD
Date & Hour
3
5
7
3 Jan
8 Jan
8 Jan
18 Jan
23 Jan
28 Jan
28 Jan
29 Jan
Feb
Feb
Feb
19 Feb
21 Feb
28 Feb
20 Mar
20 Mar
28 Mar
29 Mar
16 Apr
19 Apr
26 Apr
2 May
2 May
4 May
9 May
10 May
11 May
17 May
18 May
20 May
21 May
23 May
1800
0600
0800
1800
1800
0600
0600
1200
0600
1200
1800
1800
0000
1200
1200
1800
0600
1800
1200
0000
1200
1200
1800
1200
0600
1200
1800
0600
0000
1800
1200
1200
Ship
Coordinates
N W
47. 2
47. 1
47 2
47. 2
47 i
47 9
47 2
47 9
47 2
47.2
47 2
47 I
47 2
47.2
47.1
47.2
47.1
47.2
47 2
47.2
472
47 1
47.1
47.2
47.2
47 2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47 2
47.2
47.1
90. 8
90. 9
90 . 8
90. 7
90. 8
90. 7
90 . 7
90 . 7
90 . 8
90.7
90 . 7
90 . 8
90. 7
90.7
90.8
90.7
90.7
90.7
90. 7
90.8
90 . 8
90.8
90.8
90.7
90.7
90 . 7
90.8
90.8
90.8
90. 7
90.7
90.7
Obtained by Ship
Direction Velocity
(Azimuth) (knots)
315
068
045
315
202
315
338
045
045
022
248
248
225
315
045
068
090
180
202
315
068
248
248
180
045
225
068
068
248
045
000
068
27
10
10
24
15
15
06
35
10
20
24
20
16
23
24
20
37
20
07
10
11
16
10
12
14
14
13
08
13
14
13
18
Obtained on
Direction
(Azimuth)
315 (315)
338 (068)
068 (180)
292 (315)
225 (135)
225 (225)
225 (225)
022 (068)
135 (135)
045 (022)
292 (292)
248 (225)
225 (202)
292 (315)
068 (068)
068 (068)
112 (112)
315 (292)
270 (270)
270 (270)
090 (090)
270 (022)
068 (045)
270 (292)
090 (090)
225 (338)
022 (022)
180 (202)
202 (270)
068 (022)
068 (068)
068 (068)
Devil's Is.
Velocity
(knots)
15 (15)
03 (10)
10 (05)
17 (19)
02 (05)
10 (07)
10 (07)
17 (08)
05 (07)
14 (09)
19 (--)
04 (10)
06 (04)
10 (12)
20 (20)
20 (20)
20 (10)
20 (20)
10 (08)
08 (10)
18 (18)
05 (04)
07 (06)
05 (02)
05 (03)
10 (04)
09 (08)
10 (12)
07 (07)
08 (08)
04 (07)
10 (10)
-------
Table 5.1
(contd)
o
25 May 0000
28 May 0600
1 Jun 1800
1 Jun 1800
4 Jun 0600
5 Jun 0000
6 Jun 1800
21 Jun 0000
21 Jun 0600
25 Jun 1200
27 Jun 0600
30 Jun 0600
30 Jun 1800
4 Jul 0600
13 Jul 0600
15 Jul 1200
15 Jul 1800
19 Jul 1200
21 Jul 1800
24 Jul 0600
25 Jul 0600
28 Jul 0000
2 Aug 1800
5 Aug 0600
6 Aug 1200
8 Aug 1200
8 Aug 1800
9 Aug 1200
10 Aug 0600
11 Aug 1200
12 Aug 1200
13 Aug 0600
15 Aug 0000
20 Aug 1200
21 Aug 1200
24 Aug 1200
47.2
47.2
47.1
47.2
47.2
47.1
47.2
47.1
47.2
47.1
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.1
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.1
47.1
47.1
47.2
47.1
47.1
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.1
47.1
47.2
47.2
90. 8
90. 8
90.8
90. 7
90. 7
90. 7
90. 8
90. 7
90. 8
90.7
90. 8
90. 8
90. 7
90. 7
90. 7
90.8
90. 7
90. 7
90. 7
90. 8
90. 7
90. 7
90. 8
90. 7
90. 7
90. 7
90.7
90.7
90. 7
90.8
90.8
90.8
90.7
90. 7
90.8
90.7
158
022
225
248
068
068
045
068
045
068
045
022
068
180
180
022
CAL
225
180
270
338
248
225
000
CAL
158
225
270
292
315
158
315
135
112
248
000
18
16
20
08
20
16
19
24
10
04
12
14
09
08
08
07
00
16
05
10
16
16
17
10
00
18
11
10
13
02
17
24
07
15
11
14
045 (068)
158 (158)
248 (000)
248 (000)
090 (068)
090 (248)
338 (000)
112 (045)
270 (090)
068 (090)
248 (248)
022 (135)
270 (225)
248 (248)
202 (202)
045 (022)
248 (202)
270 (270)
158 (180)
270 (270)
135 (112)
248 (248)
270 (270)
045 (045)
090 (090)
248 (248)
270 (248)
248 (225)
248 (248)
068 (045)
202 (090)
292 (315)
135 (045)
090 (090)
248 (292)
090 (202)
05 (04)
08 (07)
05 (03)
05 (03)
18 (20)
10 (10)
08 (06)
03 (02)
02 (08)
08 (06)
07 (08)
03 (10)
15 (08)
06 (06)
04 (07)
04 (03)
03 (07)
10 (15)
04 (10)
12 (12)
08 (10)
08 (08)
06 (07)
15 (14)
07 (10)
10 (08)
08 (08)
05 (04)
07 (07)
05 (08)
03 (05)
15 (11)
03 (09)
14 (15)
10 (10)
05 (05)
-------
Table 5.1. (contd)
26 Aug 0000
26 Aug 0000
26 Aug 1200
27 Aug 0600
4 Sep 0600
5 Sep 1800
6 Sep 0600
11 Sep 0600
12 Sep 1800
13 Sep 1200
15 Sep 0600
18 Sep 1800
20 Sep 1800
21 Sep 0600
21 Sep 1200
21 Sep 1200
26 Sep 1800
27 Sep 1200
3 Oct 0000
15 Oct 1200
16 Oct 1800
18 Oct 0000
20 Oct 1200
21 Oct 1200
27 Oct 0000
27 Oct 0600
4 Nov 1800
11 Nov 0000
16 Nov 1200
24 Nov 1200
28 Nov 1800
9 Dec 1800
12 Dec 0000
12 Dec 0600
24 Dec 1200
30 Dec 1800
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.1
47.1
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.1
47.2
47.2
47.1
47.2
47.1
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.1
47.1
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.2
47.1
47.1
47.1
47.1
47.1
90.7
90.7
90.7
90.7
90.8
90.7
90.7
90.8
90.7
90.8
90. 7
90.7
90.7
90.8
90.8
90.7
90.8
90. 8
90.7
90.8
90.7
90.7
90.7
90.8
90.8
90.8
90.6
90.8
90.8
90. 8
90.8
90.8
90.7
90.7
90.8
90.8
248
248
225
270
248
248
315
338
315
338
225
112
338
338
338
000
225
225
225
270
180
090
248
248
202
202
248
068
180
022
180
202
315
338
202
292
20
20
20
08
15
17
10
18
22
18
25
18
11
25
25
22
05
07
19
19
05
12
16
18
17
20
24
28
10
24
15
12
13
13
22
22
248
248
225
225
270
270
000
000
292
292
248
270
315
000
292
292
045
000
270
270
090
112
202
225
225
180
248
315
338
045
180
000
338
338
225
270
(270)
(270)
(248)
(248)
(248)
(292)
(338)
(338)
(315)
(000)
(248)
(248)
(338)
(338)
(292)
(292)
(022)
(000)
(248)
(270)
(090)
(158)
(270)
(270)
(180)
(225)
(248)
(248)
(068)
(045)
(135)
(202)
(338)
(045)
(270)
(338)
09
09
10
05
06
06
08
12
15
05
13
13
18
18
10
10
07
04
13
20
08
03
11
10
12
09
07
07
05
12
08
06
12
06
10
08
(12)
(12)
(10)
(06)
(12)
(08)
(06)
(14)
(12)
(04)
(13)
(10)
(18)
(18)
(10)
(10)
(04)
(05)
(15)
(15)
(09)
(05)
(ID
(12)
(08)
(10)
(08)
(05)
(05)
(12)
(12)
(07)
(06)
(07)
(16)
(10)
-------
338
315
292
270
"£ 248
I
O 202
Z
180
v>
~ 158
UJ
Q
, 135 -
Z
2 112 H
o
Ul
5 90 -
a
a
? 68
45 -
22 -
•; •:' .
/
/
/
.Same hour of
observation
0 22 45 68 90 112 135 158 180 202 225 248 270 292 315 333
WIND DIRECTION - SHIPS (Azimuth)
Figure 5.1. Comparison between Wind Directions Measured
on Ships, and at Devil's Island
-------
£91
WIND DIRECTION - DEVILS ISLAND (Azimuth)
^
H-
Q
1-1
0)
H
^"•*
O
O
rt
" — "
Z
O
o
3)
m
o
H
O
Z
1
I
TJ
W
^
^*
N
3
c
5
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0 •
ro "
^
en '
01
CO '
8 •
_t .
M
u
en
en .
00
^
03 <
0
O •
ro
ro
en
ro
Xk •
03
ro
0
ro_
ro
u
en
CO
CO
00
X
•+* + * *
\
X
* s +* »* * * *
\
\
^ * * + «. +*
\
s
N » »
N
\
* N »
\
\
. N
"* N
S
* * \
\
+ * * \ * * **
\
\ ^ »*
N
J •»• * N N ** ** "*
\
» . » * * x*: x **
N
N
* V*
\
* \ *
^
* * -*•»•• •»*
* * •» <•
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N ->
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1-
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CO Q.
3- 0-
Is
W
-------
I—'
Q
Z
V)
V)
LU
Q
Ul
Q
Z
• Same hour of
observation
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
WIND VELOCITY- SHIPS fkts)
Figure 5.2. Comparison between Wind Velocities Measured
on Ships, and at Devil's Island
-------
38 •
36 •
34 •
32
30
28
26
"
22
< 20
_i
UJ
o
O
o
a
z
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
*+ * *
Devils Island data
lagged 2 3 hours
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 35 38
WIND VELOCITY-SHIPS ( Ms*
Figure 5.2. (contd)
-------
are observations in which the Devil's Island data are
lagged two to three hours. The ship velocity observations
are consistently much greater. One possible reason for this
may be the difference in height of instruments, since the
ship's anemometer may well be located higher above the water
surface than is the one at Devil's Island (12.2 meters).
Observe from Table 5.1 that two different ships at
nearly the same location may record different information.
An example of this occurs on January 28, when two ships at
47.2 N, 90.7° W recorded directions different by 23° and
wind velocities different by 9 knots. Because of this
inconsistency only general directional trends may be
inferred. For lack of consistent evidence to the contrary
we may assume that the Devil's Island data are at least as
valid as the ship data. Moreover, the Devil's Island data
provide a continuous record at a fixed location. The
Devil's Island data were therefore used without any
corrections or modifications.
Data Sorting Program - SORT
This program is designed to sort the raw wind data in
order to prepare the wind record for hindcasting. Its pur-
pose is to sort wind observations into discrete events which
are azimuthally dependent. Each event is, in addition, char-
acterized by an average wind speed and duration of occurrence.
The program arranges the data in the following way.
Each wind observation is compared with the previous obser-
vation with respect to azimuth. Recalling that wind direc-
tions were reported in one of the sixteen compass directions,
a 22.5° drift in azimuth in either direction is tolerated.
That is, if the second observation is within 22.5° of the
first observation, it is counted as contributing to the
event. The third observation's azimuth is then compared to
the first observation, using the same criterion as before.
An event is considered complete when the azimuth of an
observation is no longer within the 22.5° tolerance range.
The duration of the event is computed by taking the differ-
ence between times of first and last observation. The
average speed of the event is the average of the wind
velocities of each observation contributing to an event.
A test for a new event is initiated by comparing a new
observation with that observation immediately preceding.
For example, consider the following sequence of observations.
Observation # Azimuth Wind Velocity (kts) Time Date
1 202.5 10 0200" 1I7V75
2 202.5 12 0400 11/1/75
3 180.0 11 0600 11/1/75
4 135.0 08 0800 11/1/75
5 90.0 03 1100 11/1/75
6 45.0 05 1400 11/1/75
7 67.5 04 1700 11/1/75
166
-------
Two discrete events are present in this sequence. The
first event has a wind azimuth of 202.5°, an average
velocity of 11 knots, and a duration of 4 hours. Observa-
tion #4 is not included in this event because the differ-
ence between its azimuth and the azimuth of Observation #1
is greater than 22.5°. Next, Observation #4 is compared
with Observation tt3 to determine if the difference in
azimuth satisfies the criterion for an event. It does not,
since |180°-135°|>22.5. This is also true when comparing
Observation 15 with Observation 14. However, observe that
when considering Observations #6 and #7, the difference,
|45°-67.5°|, does not exceed 22.5°, and hence the beginning
of another event has been identified.
The output from this sequence of observations is as
follows:
Date Azimuth Average Velocity (kts) Duration (Hours * 100)
1171/75 202.5 11.0 40°
11/1/75 45.0 4.5 300
Input Information: Presently, all data are read and
stored on a file; the sorting program reads its input from
this file. Each observation must include the date, hour of
observation, azimuth, and speed. The data consist of the
month, day, and year. The observation hour may range from
0000 to 2400. The wind direction is in azimuth, beginning
with geographic North as 0°. The wind speed is in knots,
although this part of the program does not specify a
particular set of units.
Output Information: The results are printed out for
visual inspection. A file containing this information is
created as well, for the results become the input for the
wave hindcasting program. In addition to the events, all
calm observations are also printed out, so that the percent-
age of time over which the air was calm may also be
calculated.
Wind Data Analysis; In order to determine the effects
of waves on the demonstration site it was necessary to
identify a year that could be considered typical. Which
year might be chosen is not self-evident since no one year
can easily be categorized as typical in hydrologic or
meteorologic terms. It is difficult to pinpoint exactly
which variables to include in determining a representative
year. Compounding this problem further was the need to seek
out a typical year during the late 1960's and early 1970's
so that this year would coincide with the high water levels
on the Great Lakes.
r
The typical year was selected in the following way.
Meteorologic data from Duluth, Minnesota and Marquette,
Michigan were collected. An examination of annual tempera-
ture, precipitation, heating degree days, and cooling degree
days was made for 40 years of record. The mean annual
16?
-------
temperature, precipitation, and heating and cooling degree
days were computed over this period, and compared to the
annual values from 1967 to 1976. It was determined that
the 1975 temperatures and precipitation were closest to the
mean value; therefore 1975 was selected as the typical year
Later on, upon completion of a wind power analysis, it was
found that although 1975 was typical in hydrologic terms,
it was an unusually windy year.
The complete calendar year 1975 was analyzed using the
sorting program, and the results compiled in the form of a
wind rose (Figure 5.3). The most frequent wind azimuth is
west-southwest, although this will not contribute to waves
at Madigan Beach, where the wave exposure extends from
azimuth 305° to 124°, clockwise. Among those directions
from which wave attack is possible at Madigan Beach, the
wind blew most frequently from the east-northeast.
NW
ENE
WSW
W
SE
ESE
* Shoreline orientation at
Madigan Beach
Calm conditions 3.2% of time
Figure 5.3.
Wind Rose for Winds Measured at
Devil's Island, Year 1975
168
-------
It is important to consider also the effects of tem-
perature in this analysis. During a portion of the winter,
the shoreline freezes to closed-pack ice. It is therefore
unnecessary to hindcast waves from winds during these times,
since their impact on the shoreline will be substantially
reduced by the presence of the ice. For this reason, the
wind data covering the period 1 January to 3 April were
excluded from the data set used in hindcasting; the infor-
mation concerning the ice pack was obtained from the NOAA
Technical Report on Great Lakes Ice Cover (Leshkevich, 1976).
During the period 3 April to 31 December, the air was
calm 3.5 percent of the time. Eighty-five percent of the
time, the wind could be classified by "events"—an event
being characterized by the wind blowing from one direction
for two or more hours (see discussion of Data Sorting
Program). The remainder of the time, 11.5 percent, the
wind was shifting directions. Over the entire period, 561
discrete events were recognized, and for each event the
frequency as a function of direction was computed.
An interesting factor in wave climate studies is wind
duration. One would like to know not only how frequently,
for example, a 12 knot wind from the northwest occurred,
but also, the length of time it lasted. An event having
high winds, but short duration, has far less capability of
causing damage than do lengthy events having the same
direction and velocity. Armstrong (1976) noted that long
storm duration rather than wave heights caused the most
damage to one of several Michigan demonstration sites. This
is a shortcoming of the popular wind rose—due to its two-
dimensional nature, the duration of an event is not included.
Figure 5.4 addresses this problem. For each wind
direction, an event is grouped into a speed and duration
class, one of a 49-element array. It is then classified by
its frequency of occurrence among the 561 events. Upon
inspection, most common are those events of short duration
and low velocity, which is to be expected. Particularly
interesting is the occurrence of long duration, fairly high
velocity events from the northeast, east-northeast, and east.
Such events also occur from the southwest, south-southwest,
and west-southwest, although the wind speeds are generally
lower. In general, this type of diagram could be used to
answer design-related questions if the data base were
larger. Compilation of many years of data in this manner
could be very useful in some coastal engineering studies.
Such a program of data collection and analysis is clearly
beyond the scope of the present study.
169
-------
-o
o
FREQUENCY OF
OCCURRENCE
(percent)
NORTH-NORTHWEST
DURATION (hours)
OF -4
OCCUHRENCE NORTH
(p«rcont) I
SPEED
DURATION (hour.)
NORTHEAST
Figure 5.4. Frequency of Wind Events at Devil's Island, 1975
-------
FREQUENCY OF
OCCURRENCE
(p«rc«nt)
EAST-NORTHEAST
SPEED (knot.)
FREQUENCY OF [.4
OCCURRENCE I
I percent)
EAST
FUEOUENCY OF
OCCURRENCE
(percent!
SOUTHEAST
SPEED (Vnatt)
FHSOUENCY OF
OCCURRENCE
^percent)
SPEED (knoti)
EAST-SOUTHEAST
^s. X1 DURATION (hOur»)
I ^<^ ,.-*
1 \^ <* 1>
.^' ^
1 ^^ -^ ^
Figure 5.4. (contd)
-------
FaEO'JC\CY OF
OCCURRENCE
SOUTH
o.
S»EEO (knoll)
DURATION (noun)
FREOUCNCY OF
OCCURRENCE
fP5fc
SOUTH-SOUTHEAST
DURATION fhoart)
FREQUEHCV OF
OCCURRENCE
(perconl) "3
SPCEO (knot.)
SOUTHWEST
«' ^ DURATION fhoun)
*' J»
FREQUENCY OF
OCCURRENCE
(percent)
SOUTH-SOUTHWEST
' ...* %
SPEED 'knots)
DURATION ,'houn)
Figure 5.4. (contd)
-------
FREQUENCY OF
OCCURRENCE
(percent)
WEST
SPCEO ()mo:s)
DURATION (hours)
FREQUENCY Of
OCCURRENCE
(porconO
WEST-SOUTHWEST
SPEED (Vnotj)
FREQUENCY OF
OCCURRENCE
(percent)
NORTHWEST
DURATION (hour.)
FRFOUENCY OF
OCCURRENCE
(percent)
WEST-NORTHWEST
DURATION (tour.)
Figure 5.4. (contd)
-------
Hindcasting
Introduction: In the years immediately following
World War II, Sverdrup and Munk (1947) developed a rela-
tively simple and straightforward method of forecasting and
hindcasting waves. However, due to the inherent complexity
of wind-generated waves it soon became evident that a knowl-
edge of the distribution of energy throughout the frequency
spectrum, which describes an irregular wave field, was
essential to successful forecasting and hindcasting.
Spectral Method; One of the first spectral techniques
used to describe and forecast (or hindcast) water waves was
introduced by Pierson, Neumann, and James in 1955. Since
then, many spectral models have been proposed in the lit-
erature - including among others those of Pierson and
Moskowitz (1964), Barnett (1968), Inoue (1967), and
Hasselmann (1976). As reviewed by Dexter (1974), these
different models may be broadly classified as 'empirical
spectral' models or 'theoretical spectral1 models. The
former prescribe empirical formulas which are used to des-
cribe spectral growth and decay; the latter involve the
modeling of spectral response to energy transfer both from
winds and within the spectrum.
To date, it has not been fully demonstrated that any
one particular model accurately represents wave spectral
growth, shape, and distribution for many different sea
states. The present limitations on obtaining the highly
accurate meteorologic data required by each model, are
certainly a contributing factor to the multiplicity of
available models.
The model chosen to hindcast waves on Lake Superior to
Madigan Beach was developed by Liu (1971). It is an empir-
ical spectral model, and specifically addresses fetch-
limited deep-water waves; that is, the wave energy is not
fully developed due to a limited fetch. Liu has used this
model to forecast waves on Lake Michigan and Lake Ontario
(1971, 1976) with a relative degree of success. In 1976,
Liu compared his model with those of Hasselmann (JONSWAP),
Mitsuyasu, and Sverdrup, Munk, and Bretschneider (SMB) for
two wave events on the Great Lakes. His study showed that
none of these models is consistently accurate over a range
of different storm events. The Liu model was chosen since
it was specifically developed for the Great Lakes, models
fetch-limited spectra, and is not too complex to present
storage problems on the available digital computer.
The Liu Fetch-Limited Spectrum - Basic Characteristics;
Derived by applying a similarity analysis to wind and wave
data recorded at a Lake Michigan research tower, Liu's
general fetch-limited spectral equation is
174
-------
4
S(u>) = (ag2/F 1/4o)5) exp [-b (g/U*F 1/4co) ] (2)
o
where S (to) = frequency spectrum of the water surface
displacements (L2T)
a) = circular frequency, where the frequency and
wave period T are related by u) = 2TT/T (T L)
a = 0.4, a dimensionless constant (-)
2
g = acceleration due to gravity (L/T )
F = fetch (L)
UA= friction velocity (L/T)
2
F = non-dimensional fetch parameter; gF/U* (-)
o
b = 5.5 x 10 , a dimensionless constant (-)
To develop a wave power spectrum for hindcasting, S (u) must
be calculated for various frequencies. Integrating under
the curve of S (to) , the energy per unit area E can be compu-
ted for each event.
Figure 5.5 shows the different fetches over which
waves were hindcast toward Madigan Beach. To use the Liu
model at various locations, the fetch associated with each
hindcasting direction must be specified. One must also
choose the frequency and upper limit of periods to be used.
In this study the energy density was computed for each
integer wave period from 1 to 15 seconds. This was a result
of the following: Hypothetical events were constructed,
varying wind direction, intensity, and duration. In all
instances, the frequency spectrum, S (LO) , for the 15 second
period was smaller than the largest frequency spectrum of
the event by a factor of at least 1024 (ft2 sec). Due to
its relative insignificance, the 15 second period was con-
sidered a sufficient cutoff period for spectrum development.
This conclusion applies only to the Madigan Beach site, and
should not be extended to another site without further
investigation.
Modifications to the Liu Model: The Liu model was
modified slightly in order to accommodate the possibility of
a duration-limited spectrum. In the duration-limited case,
wave energy is not fully developed due to lack of time.
That is, a storm condition will not prevail over a long
enough period of time to develop a complete wave spectrum.
As suggested by Phillips (1958), the fetch F may be
related to a duration t by:
F = 1/2 C • t (3)
175
-------
Azimuth
0
22
45
68
90
112
315
338
-o
Fetch (km)
27
156
352
61
16
30
31
M12
Figure 5.5. Hindcast Directions
-------
where 1/2 C = group velocity, which is the velocity at which
Sewave energy travels in deep water. Before a spectrum was
was
reproduced in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2. Minimum Duration of Wind Action Needed to
Generate a Practically Fully Arisen Sea (after Neumann,_1953)_
Wind Speed
(knots)
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
T
xmin
(hours)
2.4
3.8
5.2
6.6
8.3
10
12
14
17
20
23
27
Wind Speed
(knots)
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
Tmin
(hours)
30
34
38
42
47
52
57
63
69
75
81
88
In order to formulate a working relationship between wind
velocity and minimum duration, a third order polynomial was
fitted to the values of this table. The polynomial fit
produced:
O
T = 1.0539 * 10~4 V3 + 2.2058 * 10~ V
min
- 2.1712 * 10 V + 0.3586
(4)
where Tmin is the minimum duration in hours and V is the
wind spSed in knots. Figure 5.6 is a plot of this function,
where the stars are actual data points and the crosses are
the calculated points. Figure 5.7 is a plot of the residu-
als. The random scatter about zero indicates that a third
degree fit is reasonable.
In the hindcasting model the minimum duration as a func-
tion of the wind speed of each event was calculated using
Eq 4. This value was then compared to the duration of the
event. If the duration was smaller than Tmin, the event was
considered duration-limited, and the fetch was then defined
by Eq. 3. When this occurred, the fetch was recomputed for
each period before S(u>) was calculated.
After the energy density, E, was computed for a speci-
fic event, the significant wave height associated with this
event was determined. The significant wave height, H1/3,
is the mean height of the largest third of all waves
177
-------
100.000
90.000
80.000
70.003
60.010
40.0.00
20.030
10.000
o.oco
0.000
y - 1.0539 X 10-V * 2.2058 X lo'V - 2.171j X lO^x + 0.3586
where x - wind velocity in knots
y « duration in hours
1 I
U.rno
I I
24. (TO 36
30.000
WIND VELOCITY (knots)
Figure 5.6. Minimum Duration vs Velocity
178
-------
1.000
.too
,600
.".00
7. .200
o
-.600
-.800
-1.000
i
36 ooo
^D VELOCITY (knots)
td.OOC
Figure 5.7. Residuals
179
-------
produced, and has been statistically associated with the
energy density (Longuet-Higgins, 1952) as follows:
Hl/3 = 2'83 (5)
dP«,nr^£ T\ results of deep-water wave analysis
described above, in nearshore coastal engineering studies
one must refract and shoal the waves into shallow water? '
WaVSS to bend and steepen and
depth
reaeso78 to
brPakfL h ' K ak' WaVe ener9Y and wave height at
breakmg have been recognized to be integrally related to
19e63meSomaranS?6? ""f1"11" ' and litto«l drift (Bagnold,
iybJ, Komar, 1976). in order to investigate the littoral
drift at Madigan Beach, these breaking wive character?^
tics were calculated using a numerical refraction scheL.
Refraction and Shoaling
ha4.u Th
-------
In linear wave theory, the power transmitted by a
train of long-crested, sinusoidal waves is
P = c bH2(y/8)
g
where C is the wave group velocity, b is the spacing
betweengtwo wave orthogonals (lines drawn perpendicular to
the wave crest, and parallel to the direction of wave
advance), H is the wave height, y is the specific weight of
the water. If there is no lateral flow of energy along the
wave crest, then the power transmitted between two ortho-
gonals will remain constant.
Wave height changes in the nearshore zone may be _
computed as the wave advances, according to the following
relation:
H
-H /
where the subscript o refers to deep-water conditions.
Assumptions; The following assumptions were made in
the refraction analysis.
1. Water waves are essentially irrotational.
2. Wave amplitudes are small with respect to wave length.
3. Waves are two-dimensional, and monochromatic.
4. Energy flux between wave orthogonals is constant.
5 Waves are traveling in intermediate and shallow water,
and therefore the celerity is a function of water depth
and wave length.
6. Changes in the bathymetry are gradual.
7 The effects of winds, currents, and reflections from
the shoreline and underwater bottom features are
negligible.
Application; The refraction process may be performed
manually (see the Shore Protection Manual (1975) for _
details, pp. 2-69 to 2-73). However, this procedure_is
very laborious and impractical if a number of waves is to
be refracted. Far more satisfactory in terms of efficiency
are the numerical techniques, for which a number of algo-
rithms have been developed. For this study, a method
developed by Dobson (1966) is used.
181
-------
Dobson's refraction program allows for both refraction
and shoaling but will not account for any reflection,
at!raj S?read of energy) , or energy dissipa-
s. technique differs slightly from other
' JqUeS ^ that lfc US6S a Srid of dePths with
c surface to describe the local variation of
nn ^ 9rid Position. Further details are described
in Dobson's report.
Modifications of the Dobson Refraction Program- in
order to use Dobson's refraction program at the University
of Wisconsin it was modified slightly by Shands (1977)
In addition, a breaking wave criterion was added to deter-
mine if the wave had broken, or the refraction process had
been terminated for other reasons. Also a subroutine to
print out depth input information was added as a check.
Further modifications entailed changing some of the
input statements to release the program's present depen-
ouTnn,°V?P ?ata ln thS f°rm °f Cards' *nd some of the
output statements to reduce the voluminous printed output.
The final values of the breaking wave parameters (e.g
wave length, depth, celerity, angle with respect to shore-
Tir™^? /^ ?t0red ln a f±le for f^ther manipulation.
The modified statements are indicated with a star (*) in
Appendix 3. \ / -LU
v^r^h?leCti0^ °f/ave Period: Among the various input
variables needed for the program is the wave period If
one uses the SMB (Sverdrup-Munk-Bretschneider) technique
oTwh?^ hindcasting with * significant wave, the question
method V^6 PeriSd t0 refract d°es n°t arise, since the
method relies on the average period of the one-third
i™?eSt«.rTS;K However' when one hindcasts using a spec-
tral method, the energy is distributed over a range of
frequencies, each frequency having its own celerity.
Exactly which frequency or frequencies one must use to
refract waves into shallow water is unclear. Pierson
™rar\and/amSS U955) su^est that each frequency com-
ponent should be refracted separately, and that the compo-
nents should then be combined at the site of breaking
Proper justification for this approach, especially the
recombination, has not appeared in the literature.
In a field study Liang (1978) has used the period
corresponding to the peak of the spectrum. Since this
particular period, herafter referred to as the peak period
corresponds to the largest energy contributor to the spec- '
trum, it could be considered representative of the wave
energy (and wave height). In the present study, this peak
period is used to characterize the refracted waves.
An analysis was performed to compare this peak period
with the period TI/;J generated by the SMB method. Given an
182
-------
event with a fetch, duration and average wind speed, the
period corresponding to the peak of the energy density
spectrum was found, and the period of the mean one-third
highest waves was determined using the SMB forecasting
curves in the Shore Protection Manual (1975). Figure 5.8
shows a linear plot of these two periods. They correspond
quite well, and using linear regression, they may be
related by the equation
T = 0.92 T , - 0.24 (8)
SMB peak
From this it may be concluded that the spectral peak period
is not radically different from that produced by the widely
used SMB method, certainly well within limits of accuracy of
this study. Therefore, Tpeak was used in all calculations.
Input Parameters: In addition to the wave height, and
period, other data wnich must be furnished to the refrac-
tion program include the initial direction of wave propaga-
tion, and the bathymetry of the nearshore region. Depth
information from the hydrographic survey (Appendix 4) on
June 7 and 8, 1976 was superimposed on a square mesh
arid, extending from deep water through shallow water to
the breaker zone. Depths were rounded to the nearest foot
to provide a generalized representation of the hydrography.
In practice, the wave is refracted across the grid at five,
equally-spaced, parallel intervals in order to fully inves-
tigate refraction in the entire grid region.
Sediment Transport
The problems created by the erosion and deposition of
coastal sediment have become increasingly important to the
coastal engineer. The shoaling of harbors and waterways,
beach accretion due to groin fields, and recession of
waterfront property as a result of wave attack are all
consequences of sediment transport in progress.
To be able to predict the direction and extent of
sediment transport in critical erosion and accretion
regions would be especially helpful in the formulation of
total sediment budget evaluations at coastal sites. This
would be a first step in solving many coastal engineering
problems. At the present time, the hydromechanics of _
sediment transport, the theoretical and observed behavior
of waves and currents, and the observed rates of sediment
transport have not been fully synthesized to provide a
generally accepted sediment transport model. Moreover, a
major drawback in model development is the lack of suffici-
ent data to describe the wave climate completely. -
During a field study by Komar and Inman (1970) , the
relationship between wave energy flux and resultant
immersed-weight sediment transport rate was investigated
183
-------
gWq
I SA awbj, .8.s
E
_JL_
-L
pasj
SNS,
•e
CO
-------
in two dynamically different environments. The analysis
was performed using gaged wave data, and measurements of
fluorescent sand tracers to document sediment transport.
This relationship may be limited to the case of swash
transport, the zigzag motion of particles across the beach
face (Komar, 1976) . However, due to the absence of current
and longshore current data, other sand transport mechanisms
could not be investigated. The Komar/Inman sediment trans-
port relationship was used to estimate net and gross trans-
port rates at Madigan Beach.
Wave Energy Flux Model: The longshore component of
wave energy flux per unit length of beach, P^, may be
defined in the following manner:
P = (ECn), cos ab sin ab (9)
where (ECn)b is the wave energy flux per unit wave crest
length evaluated at the breaker zone b, and ab is the angle
the breaking wave makes with the shoreline. The cos ab
factor converts the energy flux to a unit shoreline length,
and sin ab is the component of this flux in the longshore
direction.
Komar and Inman (1971) and Komar (1976) found, using
field experimental data, that the longshore component of
wave energy flux per unit length of beach P£ and the
immersed weight transport rate 1^ could be related by
I£ = 0.77 P£ (10)
As developed by Inman and Bagnold (1963) , I£ is
related to S.,, the volume transport rate, by
where g = acceleration due to gravity
p , p = density of the sand particles and
s water, respectively
a' = correction factor for pore space in
sand packing, and assumed to be 0.6.
Combining Eqs . 9, 10, and 11 and assuming the particle
density to be that of quartz (see Appendix 2 for further
detail) , the following equation was used for volume trans-
port rate .
? 3
S0 = 0.048 H, C, n, cos a, sin a, (ft /sec) (12)
X, ODD D D
where the coefficient applies to short-crested waves. In order
to calculate the volume of material moved by each event, it
185
-------
is necessary to multiply by the duration of the event A
computer program was written to calculate the volume of
sediment moved during each event, and its direction of
motion with respect to the shoreline (Appendix 3). From
these values, both net and gross transport rates were
computed.
Results
In a preliminary computer run, estimates of the sedi-
ment volume that was moved during the ice-free period from
April 3 to December 31, 1975 were obtained. These esti-
mates indicate that the sediment moved primarily in the
northwest direction. However a secondary, but not insig-
nificant, drift in the southeast direction was also
identified.
The conclusion of a net sediment flux to the northwest
is supported physiographically by a prominent local feature-
Chequamegon Point off Ashland, Wisconsin. In his classic
text on Wisconsin geography and geology, Martin (1932) illus-
trated sand spit formation using Chequamegon Point, where
the sediment is supplied from the southeast, as an example
In order for Chequamegon Point to form initially and then
remain as a permanent feature, there would have to be a
constant influx of sediment from the southeast. The calcu-
lated resultant flux in the northwest direction at
Madigan Beach, which is approximately 13.7 kilometers (8.5
mi) from Chequamegon Point, supports this contention.
In order to predict the amount of annual bluff reces-
sion, the next step would be to formulate a sediment budget.
This predicted recession value could then be compared to
recession rates measured from aerial photographs. A sedi-
ment budget could be constructed in the immediate vicinity
of Madigan Beach, assuming one could assign a value to
sediment influx from streams. The local wave energy into
this small 'control volume1, could be computed because there
was available information on the winds, and nearshore
bathymetry (Appendix 4). However, detailed nearshore
bathymetry along the remainder of the 19.3 kilometer (12 mi)
stretch of critically eroding shoreline as well as the wave
climate there are not known, and so the local lake energy
at each point, or within discrete 'control volumes', cannot
be evaluated. Because of this, a total sediment budget in
the red clay bluffs region cannot be constructed at this
time.
186
-------
EVALUATION OF THE LONGARD TUBES AT MADIGAN BEACH
Comparison between Fall Season 1977 and Fall Seasons 1970
through 1976
Fall 1977 wind data obtained at Devil's Island Coast
Guard Station were analyzed to compare the 1977 fall storm
season with previous storm seasons. This provided a means
for determining the severity of the first storm season
withstood by the Longard tubes.
One may begin by defining E as the wave energy per
unit area,
E = 1/8 yH2 [F/L or FL/L2] (13)
where H is the wave height and y is the unit weight of
water .
We may also define P, the wave power as
P = 1/8 yH2 C n b [FL/T] (14)
where C is the celerity of a wave, n is the ratio of the
group velocity of the wave train to the wave celerity and
b is the width between wave orthogonals . To find the
amount of power produced by the breaking waves near the
shoreline for a wind event, it is necessary to refract the
deep-water waves into shallow water. One could either
refract the individual wave components and then recombine^
them at the breaking location, or simply refract the signif-
icant wave height. The latter analysis was performed _ in
this case. The wave speed at breaking is also determined
by the refraction analysis.
One may construct the total wave energy produced over
a number of events N, each event consisting of a period of
fairly uniform wave conditions. This would mean a summa-
tion of the product of the total energy in one wave, the num-
ber of waves reaching the breaker zone in that event, and the
ratio n, to reflect the transmission speed of energy.
N 2
TOTAL ENERGY = Z (1/8 yH Xn)i • (number of waves) i
or,
N ~ (duration of the event) i
Et = ^ d/8 yH Xn)± • - (wave period^ - (15)
The wave period here could be represented by the signifi-
cant period, or the period associated with the peak of the
spectrum, since they do not greatly differ. In this case
the peak period is chosen. The wave length is given by X.
18?
-------
Substituting the power, Eq. 14 into Eq. 15,
N
E4_ - £ P. • (duration) . (16)
fc i=l x !
or, per unit width of wave,
- Et N
ET = -ft- = _z (Pi/bi) • (duration). (17)
_
The power, P^, may be expressed as the product ECn where E
is the energy, 1/8 yH2, C the wave celerity, and n the
quantity ^[1 + gi^^kd ] • Here k (= 2n/X) is the wave
number, A is the wave length, y is the unit weight of water
and d is the local water depth. To calculate the wave
power when the wave breaks, the wave height H, celerity C,
and water depth d are all evaluated at this location
through the refraction program. Since the component of
power orthogonal to the shoreline is the one which causes
the most damage, P..^ is multiplied by cos2 a, where a is the
angle the breaking wave crests makes with the shoreline.
One "cos a" converts the energy flux to a unit shoreline
length and the other one identifies that component which
moves toward the shoreline. Therefore, the perpendicular
component of energy flux per unit length of shoreline
becomes
a [(FL/T)/L] (18)
and
p • duration of wave event = 1" . [FL/L] (19)
Then, the total energy E^ perpendicular to the shoreline
and per unit length of shoreline for N events is
_ N _
EJ_T = ^ P_|_i * duration. (20)
Now we are able to compare the fall storm seasons of
1970 through 1976 with that of 1977 by comparing the total
energy per unit width of shoreline produced during the
period October through mid-December. The total energy per
unit length of shoreline moving toward the shore in the
fall of each year was computed by classifying the wind
history of this period into events using the SORT program,
hindcasting each event toward Madigan Beach, refracting the
deep-water waves into shallow water, and then, through a
small modification in the sediment transport program,
188
-------
predicting the energy flux produced at breaking by each
event. The energy flux was then oriented toward the shore
and multiplied by the duration of the event to find the
energy per unit length of shoreline associated with_each
event. The sum of these energies from October to mid-
December represents the total energy per unit length of
shoreline moving onto the beach in the fall of that year.
Total energy ratios were obtained by dividing each
year's total fall energy per shoreline width by the total
energy per shoreline width produced during the 1977 season.
Table 6 1 shows the ratios. It is evident that 1977 was an
average'year, some years, like 1975 and 1976, having much
more severe weather and others having less windy weather.
Table 6.1.
yeari
1970 0.6
1971 1-2
1972 0.7
1973 2.2
1974 0.1
1975 8.5
1976 7.4
1977 1.0
Longard Tubes - Changes in Tube Position
Shortly after placement of the Longard tubes at
Madigan Beach, the horizontal and vertical position of each
tube was recorded by the Wilhelm Engineering Company, Inc.,
Ashland, Wisconsin. With field data taken on September 28,
1977, a data base was established before the winter storm
season.
Eight and one-half months later, on June 13, 1978,
Wilhelm Engineering Company resurveyed the horizontal and
vertical positions of each tube. Figure 6.1 shows the
horizontal positions of each tube. The shaded tubes repre-
sent the 1978 positions, and the outlined tubes, the 1977
positions. The shadelines along the water's edge indicate
the beach width increase at the time of the June 1978
survey.
189
-------
LAKE SUPERIOR
WATER EDGE -, WEST SEAWALL
0
I
SCALE
100 FT
30. 5 M
LAKE SUPERIOR
LT_ 3 CENTER SEAWALL
Figure 6.1. Longard Tubes - Horizontal Displacements
190
-------
LAKE SUPERIOR
LT-6
SCALE
100 FT
_J
30.5 M
LAKE SUPERIOR
CENTER SEAWALL
Figure 6.1. (contd)
191
-------
LAKE SUPERIOR
LT-IO
0
I
SCALE
100 FT
I
30.5 M
LT-
LAKE SUPERIOR
WATER EDGE
Figure 6.1. (contd)
192
-------
Table 6.2 summarizes the horizontal and vertical dis-
placements for each tube as deduced from the Wilhelm plans.
Figure 6.2 shows the vertical elevation changes along the
crest of each Longard tube. In general, the seawall tubes
have exhibited some translation, buckling, and rotation
since emplacement. Vertical settling has been as great as
1.4 meters; however, on the average, the amount of settling
has been under 0.6 meters. The occasional slight increase
in tube elevation is probably due to some resettlement of
sand within the tubes. Nearly all of the groin tubes have
translated. Buckling and rotation have occurred in the
tubes also. Two of the groins, LT-2 and LT-9, have exhi-
bited 1.6 and 1.3 meters of settling, respectively, on
their lakeward ends. Except for this, the groins have,
generally, settled less than one foot along the tube length.
As pointed out above, the shadelines indicate that a
protective beach was forming at the time of the survey. The
beach width increase was as great as 15 meters in places at
the time of the June 1978 survey. Naturally, this width is
very sensitive to water level changes, including wind setup.
In all instances, the southeast side of the groins was trap-
ping the sediment, indicating that the predominant movement
of littoral drift was from southeast to northwest prior to
June, 1978. This is due to the groin's ability to inter-
cept the sediment on the updrift side until the updrift
area fills in, at which point the littoral drift continues
moving around the end of the groin, downstream.
Bathymetric Comparison 1976-1978
The Longard tubes installed as seawalls and groins at
Madigan Beach are intended to function as shore protection
measures in two ways. First, the seawall tubes are to be a
direct protective structure for the bluffs, intercepting
waves and runup which would otherwise strike and undermine
the bluffs. Second, the groin tubes are meant to interrupt
the longshore sediment drift, trap the sediment at the site,
and serve to build protective beaches. In this way, waves
which formerly broke close to and on the beach directly at
the toe of the bluff, are expected to break farther from
the bluffs in the shallow water created by the sediment
buildup, and hence minimize bluff erosion and improve water
quality.
In order to assess the amount of beach buildup, as
manifested by the change in beach width, and the amount of
sediment trapped in the nearshore region at this site,
hydrographic surveys of the Madigan Beach site were con-
ducted in June of 1976 and 1977, before the installation of
the Longard tubes in 1977, and also in June, 1978. Appen-
dix 4 describes the surveys which were conducted, as well
as the resulting bathymetry. In order to compare the
hydrography of one year with the next, nine profiles were
developed. A base line was constructed parallel to the
193
-------
Summary of Longard Tube Displacements as of June 13, 1978
vD
Tube
LT-1
LT-2
LT-3
LT-4
LT-5
LT-6
LT-7
LT-8
: ========= ============== —
Horizontal Displacement
Displacement 3 feet to the NW. NW edge of
bluffward tube has separated from lakeward
tube, rotating to the south 8 feet
3 to 5 foot translation to the NW plus
lakeward movement of 2 feet
Rotation of tube lakeward, with NW edge of
tube as turning point axis, maximum dis-
placement 6 feet
NW third of tube has buckled lakeward,
dragging remainder of tube lakeward.
Displacement ranges from 2-10 feet
S-shaped buckling along tube length, with
NW half moving lakeward 5 to 7 feet. SE
half movement a maximum of 2 feet
Lakeward half of tube bending to 6 feet to
the SE about tube midpoint
Slight (1 foot) translation towards the
bluff. Small amount of buckling 45 feet
from NW end
Slight movement of the tube in towards the
bluff. Lakeward end has bent towards the
NW 2 1/2 feet
Vertical Displacement
General settling of the tubes, 2-2.2
foot settlement of lakeward tube,
3.4-4.6 foot settlement of bluffward
tube, with greatest settling on NW edge
5.2 feet of settlement on lakeward edge
of tube, 0.5-1.4 feet of settlement
along tube length, 0.4 foot bulge where
LT-2 joins LT-3
Less than 0.5 foot bulge on NW half,
1.7 feet of settlement of SE edge of
tube
Settlement along entire length of tube,
ranging from 0.9 to 2.1 feet
Settlement from 1 to 2.7 feet along
tube except for 0.2 foot bulge along
SE end
0.5 foot and less of settlement along
Settlement along entire tube, ranging
from 0.1 to 1.0 foot
Settlement along total tube length,
ranging from 0.2 to 0.8 foot
-------
Table 6.2. (contd)
LT-9 General tube translation to the NW of
about 4 feet. Bluffward quarter shows
some bending to the NW (slight)
4.3 feet of settlement on extreme lake-
ward edge of tube, although little
(0.2 foot) or no settlement elsewhere
LT-10 Bluffward third of tube has rotated towards
the SE 3 feet. Lakeward quarter is also
bending towards the SE, a maximum displace-
ment of 3 feet
Settlement along lakeward end, from 0.5
to 1.6 feet. 0.9 foot bulge occurs at
bluff end of tube
LT-11 Separation of LT-11 from LT-12 of 10 feet.
No motion at lakeward edge of tube. Some
buckling occurring at lakeward third of
tube
Tube settlement of 3.2 feet of lakeward
edge and 1.5 feet of settlement at the
waterline, but negligible settlement at
bluff edge
LT-12 SE half of tube shifted bluffward 5 feet.
Tube has translated to the NW 3 feet
General tube settlement, from 2 feet at
the NW end to 0.7 foot at the SE
VJi
-------
LT-1
609-
607-
605-
603-
607-
605-
603-
601-
Lakeward
LT-2
611
609-
607-
60S-
603'
609
607J
Blulfward
LT-3
LT-4
610
608-
606-
608-
606-
LT-5
LT-6
Z
o
LU
-J
LU
604
602
600
598 J
608-
606-
LT- 8
60S
603
601
LT-10
606
604-
602-
600-
598
609
C07.
605-
596J
LT-12
LT-7
LT-9
LT-11
Figure 6.2.
Nets , LT-1.3.4.5.7 and 12 NW lo SE
LT-2,6.3.9.10 and 11 NEtoSW
All elevations IGLD(l355)
Elevation Changes Along the Crest of
Each Longard Tube
196
-------
shoreline in a northeasterly direction, (N 123.5° E) 30
meters (100 ft) north of BM"A". Profiles spaced 122 meters
(400 ft) apart were constructed perpendicular to this line.
Figure 6.3 shows the location of these profiles with
respect to the local topography and the Longard tubes.
Each profile length is 732 meters (2400 ft). Figure 6.4
shows how the hydrography has changed along each proflie_
from 1976 to 1978. The lake level, measured in conjunction
with each survey at Madigan Beach, has decreased approxi-
mately 0.18 meters (0.6 ft) from 1976 to 1978.
Table 6.3 summarizes the nearshore hydrographic
changes along each profile, comparing 1976/1977 to 1978.
These nearshore changes may be attributed to the installa-
tion of the Longard tubes.
It is obvious that some significant changes have^
occurred since the first field survey was undertaken in
1976. Indeed depth changes of as much as one meter (3 ft)
are evident between the 1976 and 1977 surveys, both made
prior to the installation of the tubes. One may therefore
conclude that the offshore bathymetry is undergoing contin-
uous changes, quite independent of those changes that might
be attributed to the tubes.
It is also evident that between 1977 and 1978 depths
in the offshore region decreased uniformly and signifi-
cantly—in some instances as much as 1.5 meters (5 ft).
At the present time no explanation for this change is
available. However, it would not be reasonable to assume
that the change is due to the Longard tubes, since the
effect of the tubes is much more local. Whether or not
the reduced depth is a long-term or short-term effect must
await further study. In any event the accumulated volume
of sand in the off-shore region is enormous.
The purpose of the off-shore hydrographic measure-
ments was to establish input for the refraction and shoal-
ing analysis. The second and third off-shore surveys were
run largely to confirm earlier results, and not to identify
changes in off-shore bathymetry. As a matter of fact, it
was hoped that a fairly stable off-shore environment would
provide a constant background for the sharp contrasts
expected in the near-shore region in the vicinity of the
Longard tubes. That not being the case, the range of the
near-shore region which is affected by the tubes is not
well defined.
It is, however, possible to make some rather definite
statements about the shoreline and the region that extends
several hundred feet off shore. A gradual increase of the
beach width is evident when traversing the beach from^the
southeast to the northwest—the maximum increase of width
being 30 meters (100 ft). In addition the sediment base
197
-------
<
o
H
vD
CO
0 200ff
61 m
SCALE
Figure 6.3. Location of the Hydrographic Profiles
-------
Table 6.3. Summary of Bathymetric Profiles and their Changes at Madigan Beach for 1976,
1977, and 1978
Section
A-A'
B-B1
C-C1
M D-D1
vD
vD
E-E1
F-F'
G-G1
H-H1
I-I'
Comments
Located approximately 150 meters northwest of the Longard tube structures. Near-
shore, within 300 meters, there appears to be no substantial change in bathymetry.
Located approximately 25 meters northwest of double seawall, LT-1. Within 60
meters of the shore, nearly 1 meter of buildup of sediment. Beach has also built
out nearly 30 meters into lake.
Located southeast of groin LT-2, directly in front of seawall LT-3 and below the
regraded slope. Beach has built out 27 meters.
Located between groins LT-6 and LT-8, and directly lakeward of seawall LT-7.
Beach width has increased by 15 meters.
Located southeast of groin LT-10. Nearly 9 meters of beach buildup at this
location. Little discernible sediment increase in the nearshore region.
Located southeast of groin LT-11 and in front of eastward tip of seawall LT-12.
About 12 meters of beach buildup.
Located 125 meters southeast of easternmost Longard tube. Three meters of width
increase at this site.
Located 250 meters southeast of shore protection structures. Data base is not
sufficient to determine the amount of beach width increase or decrease.
Located approximately 350 meters southeast of shore protection structure.
-------
5-
,- 15-
20
25-
SECTION A-A'
1977
WOO 1500
DISTANCE OFFSHORE (fe«t)
Figure 6.4a. Bathymetric Profile - Section A-A'
0-
25-
30-
SECTION 8-B'
1000 1500
DISTANCE OFFSHORE (fe«t)
2000
Figure 6.4b. Bathymetric Profile - Section B-B'
200
-------
0
5-
20
25
SECTION C-C'
30-
500
1000 1500
DISTANCE OFFSHORE (l««t)
Figure 6.4c. Bathymetric Profile - Section C-C'
SECTION D-D
SOO
1000 1500
DISTANCE OFFSHORE (f««t)
2000
Figure 6.4d. Bathymetric Profile - Section D-D'
201
-------
10
25
30
SECTION E- E'
1978
1976
SCO
1000 1500
DISTANCE OFFSHORE Ue«t)
Figure 6.4e. Bathymetric Profile - Section E-E1
•£• 15-
25-
SECTION f-f
500
1000 1500
DISTANCE OFFSHORE !f««l)
2000
Figure 6.4f. Bathymetric Profile - Section F-F1
202
-------
0-
15-
25
30-
SECTION G-G'
1000 1500
DISTANCE OFFSHORE (feet)
Figure 6.4g. Bathymetric Profile - Section G-G
H
O-l '
— IS-
:
a. JO-
ui *w
25-
SECTION H-H'
1000 150°
DISTANCE OFFSHORE lint}
Figure 6.4h. Bathyraetric Profile - Section H-H1
203
-------
SECTION I-I1
— 15
|
25
-1978
30-j
1976
DISTANCE OFFSHORE (f«»l)
Figure 6.4i. Bathymetric Profile - Section I-I'
has increased by as much as a meter (3 ft) or more (in one
section 2 meters (6 ft)) in the vicinity of the tubes (see
Figure 6.4, Sections C-C ' , D-D', E-E ' , F-F ' ) , while updrift
(Sections G-G ' , H-H ' , and I'l') and downdrift (Sections A-A '
and B-B') the beach has clearly eroded. It should be
pointed out that this erosion has occurred in conjunction
with definite evidence of shoreline recession at these
unprotected locations.
This initial assessment of the sediment buildup around
the tubes cannot be expected to reveal the long-term effec-
tiveness of the Longard tubes. There is no alternative but
to continue monitoring over a number of years in order to
observe the tubes under a variety of hydrologic and meteo-
rologic conditions. Furthermore a more intensive monitor-
ing scheme, involving not annual, but seasonal field
observations will be required to identify the short-term
phenomena that contribute to the sediment problem.
Field Inspection - October 7 and 8, 1978
Madigan Beach was revisited on October 7 and 8, 1978
and the Longard tubes were inspected for further movement
and changes. Since the June, 1978 survey, the site experi-
enced heavy rains on August 10, and a severe storm on
September 12. The following tubes exhibited the most
dramatic changes :
LT-1 Double Seawall - This seawall has separated from
204
-------
the crib on the southeast end, and the bluff edge (see
Figure 6.5). The northwest halves of both tubes have
rotated and subsided, causing the bluffward tube to
fall behind the lakeward tube, whereas before, the
bluffward tube was stacked atop the lakeward tube.
Large pebbles on the crest of these two tubes
(Figure 6.6) suggest that during a storm event,
waves broke over the tubes; water collected behind the
tubes in a reservoir, creating a driving head condi-
tion upon drainage. This could have formed a quick
condition beneath the tubes, causing further tube
subsidence and rotation. The unprotected bluffs
northwest of this seawall are rapidly being eroded.
LT-3 Seawall - The tie-in crib on the northwest end of
this tube is severely damaged. The regraded slope
behind the seawall was becoming deeply incised with
erosion channels before the vegetative cover took
hold. Beach sand on the top of this seawall
indicates the waves have washed over the top of the
tube (Figure 6.7).
LT-6 Groin - Nearly 7 meters out from the south end,
there is a tear approximately 1 meter in diameter in
the groin, exposing the sand filling to wave and water
action (Figure 6.8). Due to the presence of nearby
logs and driftwood, it can be assumed that this tube
Figure 6.5.
Separation of the Double Seawall
205
-------
was punctured by floating tree trunks which acted like
rams during severe waves (Figure 6.9). Numerous other
small punctures surround this tear.
LT-11 Groin - Eleven meters out, the groin has sub-
sided almost one meter (3 ft) (Figure 6.10). Another
2.5 meters (8 ft) out, the groin has sunk out of sight,
below the accumulated sand. This tube is no longer
functioning as a sediment-trapping groin.
LT-12 Seawall - This tube has separated 1.5 meters
(4.5 ft) from LT-11, and the northwest crib is com-
pletely gone. Along the southeast end there is a sub-
stantial sediment buildup. Drift logs and timber
piled on the top of this seawall indicate that waves
have washed over this tube also (Figure 6.11).
Horizontal and vertical displacements in all tubes
indicate that shifting and settling of the tubes have
occurred. In addition, bulges and flattening due to a
redistribution of tube filler is evident. Many of the
tubes exhibit small punctures along the sides and tops
(Figure 6.12).
Figure 6.6. Double Seawall
206
-------
UT
*8*9
doj, uo
*Z.'9
-------
Figure 6.9. LT-6
General Comments; Beach sediment buildup is greatest
on the southeast end of the site, near LT-12, and between
LT-2 and LT-6, where the groins are spaced far apart. The
large amount of timber debris on the beach between LT-9
10, and 11 (Figure 6.13) indicates the recent presence of
eroding waves. Furthermore comparison of bluffs farther
northwest (behind seawalls) with those to either side of
the site affirms that where they are unprotected by the
Longard tube seawalls, the bluffs are still eroding.
Figure 6.14 shows the tremendous amount of erosion in
a transverse gully; one year ago, the gully contained a
construction road which permitted access of heavy construc-
tion equipment onto the beach. High water levels, storm
activity and runoff from the bluffs carved out this gully.
One hundred to one hundred fifty meters (300-500 ft)
in either direction of the demonstration site, the beach
width narrows considerably, and active bluff erosion is
very evident. From this it may be concluded that the
Longard tubes have slowed bluff recession, despite their
present unstable configuration.
208
-------
Figure 6.10. LT-11
Figure 6.11. Driftwood Atop LT-12
209
-------
Figure 6.12. Punctures in Longard Tubes
Figure 6.13. Debris on Beach
210
-------
Figure 6.14. Erosion in Gully (Foreground)
During their first year of performance, the Longard_
tubes have reduced bluff recession and enabled a protective
beach to begin to be established. Damage to the tubes has
ranged from reshifting and translation to puncture and sub-
mergence. There is some question whether or not a number
of tubes will still be effective in a year or two. As a
short-term, inexpensive form of shore protection, they
could probably serve more effectively in a lower energy
environment. Overtopping, puncture, and subsidence have
all collectively worked to undermine the effectiveness of
the Longard tubes at this site, even though during this
year they have enhanced beach development and retarded
recession.
From the observations made to date it can be stated
that the double-seawall configuration (one on top of the
other) is highly unstable in the Madigan Beach environment.
Moreover it appears to be inappropriate in view of the
higher cost (nearly double that for a single tube).
211
-------
A more durable method of securing the ends of Longard
tube seawalls is needed. The tie-in crib, made of short
txmber piles, has clearly failed to resist the effects of
wave-action as manifested by direct wave forces and the
indirect undermining of the structure.
_ The toppling of trees from the top of the bluffs offers
sucS'tr^T t t0 thS tUbSS bY Pouring them. Clearing
such trees from a site may be a first step toward reducing
the damage caused by trees and tree branches which are
deposited in the nearshore zone. However, a clearing pro-
trees^ T" ^^ eliminate the Problem since suchP
cleared ^PP^ed from neighboring areas which cannot be
Lastly, it is important to consider the length of the
monitoring period over which these comments were made
This is essential due to the observed irregularity of 'storm
events on the Great Lakes. At another site (not on
Lake Superior) Brater (1978) showed (see Figure 6.15) that
over one four-year period (1945-1949) not asingle storm
generating waves 4 feet or more in height was observed,
while over another four-year period (1955-1959) some 16 such
storms were recorded. It is therefore evident that any
f°Ur years or less
K tO ten s w° be
to obtain some confidence in any conclusions.
Cost of Longard Tube Installation
The cost per foot of shore protected by the Longard
variable depending on a number of factors.
i .
^ COSt °f S1S Pro^ect was $130,000 for construction
he lotTl "*! *%a ^°nal-$13'500 for engineering services
**
-
14RR , construction included the installation of
^!^ VaPp£°?: 4" m) °f Longard tubes plus the modifi-
cation and stabilization of a segment of the bluffs. In
terms of unit cost, this comes to approximately $100 per
7??nn($ 3° PSr meter) of tube installation and $93 per foot
to a
-------
ro
H
VN
4J
H—
X
C2
LU
X
UJ
70
582 i
r-|530 "~.
>
573 uj
bJ
576 y
J574 <
7576 -'
Figure 6.15. Storm Wave Heights and Lake Elevations
(after Brater, 1978)
-------
GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE AT MADIGAN BEACH
The extent of groundwater influence on slope erosion
and degradation is not well documented in the recent liter-
ature. The following two examples have been found.
Investigations along the Chester River in Maryland have
shown that bank erosion was due in part to the emergence of
groundwater from an unconfined aquifer through the banks of
the river (Clarke, 1972). Groundwater seepage (unconfined)
has also been cited as a prime cause of bluff recession
near Toronto, Ontario (Bird and Armstrong, 1970). Examples
of cases where seepage from a confined aquifer contributes
to erosion, and detailed descriptions of this process are
apparently not available.
In Ashland county, the general hydrogeologic setting
is characterized by a semi-confining layer of red clay
overlying a sandstone artesian aquifer. The thickness of
the red clay, while greater than 45 meters (150 ft) in
places, becomes less extensive in the Copper River Falls
area, and thins to zero near the city of Ashland. A value
for the thickness of the sandstone aquifer (Freda sandstone)
is apparently unavailable.
Figure 7.1 shows the elevation of water levels in both
industrial and private wells in Ashland County. These
elevations were computed from water levels on the driller's
logs. In all likelihood, these levels are slightly differ-
ent from the potentiometric levels today, although large
drawdowns in the aquifer are not very likely due to the
moderate needs of the population and of industry. It
should be noticed that flowing wells were discovered in the
town of Ashland. They are designated by F in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.2 shows a schematic of a cross section through
the_bluff at Madigan Beach. There were three shallow obser-
vation wells at the site, none extending over 20 meters (65
ft) in depth. None of these wells perforates the aquifer--
all are cased and finished in the red clay, which at this
site is composed predominantly of very fine-grained sands
and silts. In all instances, the water level elevations in
these shallow wells are higher than the water level of
Lake Superior.
Also shown in this schematic are water level data from
two abandoned water wells located at the site. Well #1 and
Well #2 were measured on October 7, 1978. The difference
in the static water levels obtained from the driller's logs
when the wells were drilled in 1964, and those obtained in
October, 1978 was 0.3 meter (1 ft). These wells are
finished in the aquifer, and so their static water levels
reflect the pressure head at the bottom of the well, within
the aquifer.
In all but one instance, the water levels in the wells
which perforate the aquifer were higher than the water
214
-------
LAKE SUPERIOR
hJ
I—1
vn
17 KM
1MI
609*
f •
Flowing w*H
Figure 7.1. Elevation of Water Levels in Wells
-------
912
Elevation in Feet
c
(D
-J
uj £ m
o o o
1 i • I i . 1 ,
1' ' \
at
o
o
, I
o) o> en
CO O) (O
O o O
1 . , I , , i
:;XVKO- 1
J»
cn
o
cr
(D
PJ
ft
H-
O
o
hti
n
h
o
en
(D
n
rt
H-
o
3
rt
2
a
(D
fil
o
(n
C Q-
— 01 .
n-
n '
m
Q.
O
D>
to
u
ro
u
-------
levels in the shallow observation wells. Therefore, if a
flow connection between these two well groups can be estab-
lished, water should move out of the aquifer and into the
bluffs, and probably into Lake Superior. This is in accor-
dance with Darcy's Law, which states that water flows from
higher to lower piezometric head. It was therefore pro-
posed to study the Madigan Beach site to determine if it is
indeed a groundwater discharge area and if this site might
be experiencing erosion not only from wave action and sur-
face runoff, but also from groundwater seepage from the
aquifer below.
One likely sign of discharge would be seepage along
the bluff face and toe. At this site, the frequent slumping
of the bluff would tend to mask such seepage. If seepa are
occurring along the bluff toe beneath a slumped portion of
bluff, water could be draining through the beach to the
lake, without being visible. Circumstantial evidence in
support of some seepage was obtained. During the emplace-
ment of one of the Longard tubes, LT-12, a quick condition
was encountered, and subsequently the position of LT-12 was
changed. Since a quick condition develops when the seepage
force equals or exceeds the submerged weight of the soil,
the origin of the driving head is of some interest.
During the October, 1978 field inspection, the bluff
contact with the beach was examined for seeps. A freshly
eroded area northwest of the double seawall LT-1 appeared
to be the site of a local seep (Figure 7.3). The darker
sand in the mid-foreground was still wet, while sand else-
where along the bluff edge had long since dried out. _Near
this site (Figure 7.4) flow structures were apparent in
the bluff face, where clay lenses had been dragged upward
due to relatively rapid water expulsion. This type of
structure was also observed during a site visit in February,
1978 in the gully between LT-8 and LT-9 (Figure 7.5).
Although the field observation of seepage and the
difference in potentiometric head seemed to suggest that
groundwater from the aquifer was appearing at the base of
the bluffs, some further evidence of the origins of the
seeps was sought. To obtain such evidence, the two deep
abandoned water wells at the site were employed to test a
recently proposed technique for measuring vertical ground-
water velocities from temperature data within these wells.
Theory
Due to the small natural heat-flux density from the
earth, curvatures in the earth's thermal profile can be
caused by heat transport through convection of vertically
moving groundwater. Using this idea, Stallman (1960)
presented the mathematical equations for the simultaneous
transfer of heat and water in the earth, and suggested
that this could provide a technique for measuring vertical
groundwater velocities.
21?
-------
Figure 7.3. Local Seep at the Bluff Toe
Figure 7.4. Flow Structures in the Bluff
218
-------
Figure 7.5. Flow Structures in the Bluff
The general equation of motion through an isotropic,
homogeneous, fully saturated porous medium for simultaneous
non-steady heat and fluid flow is (Stallman, 1960):
? 2 9 c P
3 T , 3 T , 3 T _ o o
2" 22 K
3x 3y 3z
(v T) 3(v T) 3(v T)
3x
3y
cp 3T
K 3t
(21)
where T = temperature at any point in time t
c = specific heat of fluid
o
p = density of fluid
c = specific heat of solid-fluid complex
p = density of solid-fluid complex
K = thermal conductivity of solid-fluid complex
v ,v ,v = components of fluid velocity in the x,y,z
x Y z directions, respectively
x,y,z - cartesian coordinates
t = time since flow started.
219
-------
Considering the flow to be one-dimensional (vertical) and
steady, Eq. 21 reduces to
92T ,copovz,
TT - ( — — }
dZ
(22)
Bredehoeft and Papadopulos (1965) solved this equation
in terms of a function, and presented type curves to find
vertical velocities, given temperature measurements at
depth intervals in a well. Figure 7.6 shows the type
curves for the function f(g,z/L) where
f (B,z/L) = TZ _ T° (23)
L o
and
TZ = temperature measurement at any depth z
TO = uppermost temperature measurement
TL = lowermost temperature measurement, where
L = vertical length of section over which
measurements are taken
and 3 - COPOVZL/K (24)
3 is positive for downward flow and negative for upward flow.
In an evaluation of this method, Sorey (1971) pre-
sented cases where predicted velocities agreed well with
values computed from pump tests and water budget methods.
In general, the consensus was that measurements should be
taken at least 50 feet below the ground surface to avoid
the effects of the diurnal wave. Casing type, either steel
or plastic, was found to have no measurable effect on
temperature profiles. Temperature oscillations due to
convection have been observed in wells 16 inches in diam-
eter, but for small diameter wells (2-4 inches) , and a
geothermal gradient between 0.01 and 0.1°C/m, this is
apparently not a serious problem.
Field Measurements
A temperature probe was assembled, and field measure-
ments were taken on October 7 and 8, 1978. Information
about the probe and calibration are given in Appendix 1.
Temperature measurements were taken in both deep wells.
Well #1 had its pump housing still attached but no pump
handle; a tripod and hoist lifted the housing and the probe
was slipped between the inner and outer casings. Difficul-
ties slipping the probe past the piston invalidated results
from this well. Well #2 was discovered to have neither
pump _ nor cap. The probe was slipped down this well with
no difficulties, and two sets of measurements taken.
220
-------
WELL #2 ORIGIN 65 FEET
IX)
IX)
01
Figure 7.6. Temperature Gradient Function
f(3,z/L) vs Normalized Depth after
Bredehoeft and Papadopulos
N
0.9 h
1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
f(£,z/L)
Figure 7.7. Data and Type Curves
for October 7, 1978
-------
During the calibration process in the laboratory, it
was found that the temperature probe was sensitive to
velocities as well as temperature changes. Since veloci-
ties were not expected in the well, the probe was cali-
brated under quiescent conditions. However, during both
the afternoon test in Well #2 on October 7th, and the
morning test on the 8th, the probe indicated velocities
at a depth of 21 meters (70 ft). This point is located
^^ff3 x ft) below the static water level and 18 meters
(60 ft) above the bottom of the well. A plausible explana-
tion for this velocity is a crack in the casing. Checking
this, since the top of the well screen is at 132 foot depth
and assuming 6 meter (20 ft) casing sections (Department'of'
Natural Resources, personal communication) this 21 meter
(70 ft) anamoly is likely to be located close to a casing
joint. y
After reducing the data, it was found that despite the
assumed leak at 21 meters (70 ft), a type curve of g = -2 5
could be fitted to the data for temperatures from a depth
interval extending 20-27 meters (65-89 ft) (Figure 7-7).
Rearranging Eq. 24,
' 3 K
v =
z c p L
From Birch (1942, p. 259), typical values for thermal
conductivities of water saturated clay are approximately
K = 2 X 10 calorie/sec °C. Assuming c = 1 calorie/g °C
and pQ - 1 g/cmj and solving, one obtains
vz - 6.84 X 10~6 cm/sec
or 7.1 ft/yr.
This is a first estimate of the magnitude of the vertical
component of groundwater flow at Madigan Beach.
It is apparent from an examination of the potentio-
metric surfaces and the results of the temperature measure-
ments that there is groundwater flow from the confined
aquifer through the bluffs into the lake. As a consequence
of this flow, the grain-grain contacts within the bluff are
weakened, and preferential flow paths may form potential
glide planes for bluff section slippage. Further investi-
gation is needed to fully explore the extent of the role
this groundwater seepage plays in bluff degradation and
erosion. Groundwater discharge and bluff erosion are
expected to be related in a slightly different fashion than
the Chester River and Toronto examples due to the relatively
large pressure head at Madigan Beach.
-------
MADELINE ISLAND SHORE PROTECTION DEMONSTRATION
Site Location and Description
The Madeline Island site (see Figure 1.1) is adjacent
to an Indian cemetery located approximately 0.5 kilometers
(0.3 mi) south of the Village of LaPointe. This site occu-
pies a very low terrace, 0.3 to 0.6 meters (1-2 ft) above
?he present lake level. Only a line of shrubs and woody
vegetation at the high waterline has protected the histor-
ically important Indian cemetery. Directly north of the
site a dog-leg shaped breakwater, which was constructed
prior to 1916, protects the entrance to the Madeline Island
Marina.
Site Orientation and Fetch Exposure
The site is oriented in a north-south direction and
faces the Bayfield Peninsula. Although the fetch exposure
is limited to only several miles, short, wind-generated
waves, possibly augmented by diffracted waves originating
in the open water portion of Lake Superior have caused
severe erosion and shoreline recession at the
Madeline Island site (Edil and Monkmeyer, 1978).
Field Studies - Results
Hydrography: Nearshore field surveys were conducted
on June 9 ,1976 and June 15, 1977. Hydrography_was deter-
mined during each survey using a transit and Philadelphia
rod. From a baseline established on the shoreline, orthog-
onal transects were run 30 meters (100 ft) into_the water,
with elevations shot every 8 meters (25 ft). Figures 8.1
and 8.2 show the hydrography obtained in June of 1976 and
1977.
Soil Borings: Three borings performed at the
Madeline Island site in 1976 indicated primarily coars-
grained materials down to a depth of 4.5 meters (15 ft)
from the ground surface (Stoll, 1976). To a depth of 2
meters (7 ft), there was light brown, fine to medium size,
medium dense sand (Standard penetration resistance: N - 10
to 15, according to the ASTM Designation: D 1586-87) with
traces of silt and gravel. This layer was underlain to a
depth of 3.5 meters (11 ft) by a light brown, fine to
coarse-grained, dense sand (N = 30) with traces of silt.
Below 3.5 meters to the total depth of boring was a brown,
fine-grained dense sand layer (N = 25) with traces of silt
and gravel. This type of subsurface soil information is
particularly useful when assessing the stability of shore
protection structures such as the rubble revetment con-
structed at this site (Edil and Monkmeyer, 1978).
Sediment Samples: Grab sediment samples were hand-
collected at Madeline Island on June 9, 1976 and June 15,
1977. The locations of these samples as well as the 1974
223
-------
Figure 8.1. Bathymetry at Madeline Island Site - 1976
224
-------
.59623
•597.33
•595-53
•596.53
•597.53
596.53
59723
• 597.93
INDIAN BURIAL GROUNDS
Water level elevation 60321 (t (IGLD)
0 5p FT
15 M
Figure 8.2. Bathymetry at Madeline Island site - 1977
225
-------
samples are shown in Figure 8.3. These nearshore sediment
samples were primarily coarse-grained, moderately to well-
sorted sands (Table 8.1). Medium to coarse-grained sand
was observed along the northern half of the beach, while
medium-sized (14 mm diameter) pebbles were noted at the
southern end of the site, possibly indicative of a high
wave energy area.
Table 8.1.
Sedimentological Data for Lake Superior Shore-
line Samples - Madeline Island
Sample
Number
MIA-1
MIA- 2
MIA- 3
1+50 25
1+50 75
Standard
Mean Grainsize Deviation
(phi) (mm) (Sorting)
1.14 0.454 0.42
medium sand
0.12
coarse
-3.71
medium
0.09
coarse
0.40
coarse
0.920 0.71
sand
13.9 0.59
pebbles
0.940 1.57
sand
0.758 1.76
sand
Skewness Kurtosis
0.16 5.00
-1.05 4.85
0.11 0.97
-0.99 3.42
-1.12 3.03
Notes:
1. Grainsize parameters are based on graphical techniques
of Folk and Ward (1957) and the method of moments,
Carver (1971).
2. Sorting Scale.
<0.35 Very well sorted
0.50 Well sorted
0.71 Moderately well sorted
1.00 Moderately sorted
2.00 Poorly sorted
4.00 Very poorly sorted
>4.00 Extremely poorly sorted
3. Grade scale based on Wentworth (1922).
Shoreline Recession: Approximately 1220 meters (4000
ft) of shoreline was mapped in the area of the
Madeline Island site for the years 1939, 1951, and 1973.
Shoreline geometry has changed considerably in the vicinity
of the Marina inlet, due in part to the recent Marina con-
struction. There also exists a significant amount of
natural recession in the area; as much as 20 meters (65 ft)
226
-------
LAKE
SUPERIOR
60 (t
Figure 8.3.
Location of Sediment Samples
at Madeline Island Site
22?
-------
of recession took place from 1939 to 1973, or an average
rate of about 0.5 meters (1.6 ft) per year (Edil, Pezzetta,
and Wolf, 1975). Combining this with the shoreline
geometry and slope, the volumetric rate of sediment loss
was computed to be 0.29 cu m/m/yr (Edil and Monkmeyer,
1978).
Shore Protection
Due to the immediate need at the Madeline Island site,
a positive shore protection structure was required. A
rubble mound revetment was recommended. Using locally
available materials, the construction was completed in
September, 1977 (Figure 8.4). The site plan and cross-
section are given in Figures 8.5 and 8.6. The total cost
of construction of this project was $44,990, with engineer-
ing services totalling an additional $11,500. The cost
therefore averaged $673/meter of protected shoreline. To
date, the rubble revetment has checked recession at the
Madeline Island site and appears to offer the long-term
protection required for the Indian cemetery.
Figure 8.4.
Rubble Revetment Constructed
at Madeline Island Site
228
-------
NATURAL
BRUSH
INDIAN
BURIAL
GROUNDS
APPROXIMATE
LIMITS OF
COVER LAYER
CREST OF
STRUCTURE
LAKE
SUPERIOR
FRONT TOE
OF STRUCTURE
Scale
30 iy o
to 6" o 10
feet
20meters
(approx.
Figure 8.5.
Site Plan of the Rubble Mound Revetment
at the Indian Cemetery Site
229
-------
ro
V>J
o
DESIGN WAVE HEIGHT = 4.0'
TOP OF CREST
ELEV0 608.3
DESIGN STILL
WATER LEVEL
ELEV. 605.3
NATIVE
GRASS
COVER
LAYER AVG. ^
(D5Q) £ 16" (±400 Ibs
LOW WATER DATUM
ELEV 602.3
Vertical and Horizontal Scale
3 1.5 03 6 9 feet
1 0.5 0 *""l ^"w*™«»« meters (approx.)
Figure 8.6. Cross-Section of the Rubble Mound Revetment
at the Indian Cemetery Site
-------
CONCLUSIONS
The following are the conclusions of the Madigan Beach
demonstration Project, effective October 1978.
1 Longard tubes appear to be competitive in both cost and
performance with more conventional shore protection and
beach stabilization structures. However, the results
of only a single year of monitoring cannot be expected
to be very meaningful, when consideration is given to
the variability of the hydrologic cycle and the wave
climate, from year to year.
2. The cost per foot of shore protected by the Longard
tubes is somewhat variable depending on a number of
factors. Currently, it may range from as little as $130
to as much as $330 per meter ($40 to $100 per foot) of
shore front protection. Therefore Longard tubes are
less expensive for the protection they provide, than
the more conventional shore protection structures.
3 After one year of performance the Longard tubes have
translated toward the lake, rotated, subsided into the
beach, and been punctured. In particular the double-
tube seawall (one above the other) has proven to be
unstable. Nevertheless, the tubes are providing shore
protection for the site.
4. The hydrographic surveys confirm the visual observation
that a protective beach has formed as a result of the
installation of the Longard tubes. That segment of the
shoreline which is protected by the tubes has shown
relatively little toe recession since installation, in
contrast to the unprotected shoreline on either side of
the site.
5. During the first year after the tubes were installed
the general recession of the shoreline, downdrift of
the protected area, masked whatever beach starvation
may have occurred there.
6. The beach around the Longard tubes cannot as yet be con-
sidered stable. Based on one year of observation, the
smallest groin spacing (40 meters) seems to be conserva-
tive. The intermediate spacing (70 meters) has been
quite effective and the largest spacing (100 meters)
may well turn out to be most satisfactory, but there
has not been sufficient time to demonstrate this.
7. Bluff stabilization, e.g. regrading and vegetation, may
be an important factor in the successful performance of
Longard tubes. Based on the slope modification at this
site, an inclination of 2.5:1 appears to be stable.
8 Natural bluff recession on the order of 1.5 meters per
year (5 ft/yr) where bluffs are stable against deep
231
-------
slumps has been caused by face degradation (sheet wash,
solifluction, etc.). However, bluffs may become too
steep in time resulting in slumps involving 3 to 9
meters (10 to 30 ft) of bluff top recession in a single
event. ^
9. A wave hindcast and longshore sediment transport analy-
SiSMf?r a P°rtion of 1975 predicted a net sediment flux
at Madigan Beach toward the northwest. This trend is
supported physiographically by the presence of
Chequamegon Point, a sand spit 8 miles northwest of
Madigan Beach.
10. Madigan Beach is apparently a discharge point for
groundwater that originated in an artesian aquifer. In
as much as the seepage flow is released near the toe of
the bluffs it seems to be a contributing factor to
their degradation. However, the extent of this contri-
bution is not clear at present.
11. The rubble-mound revetment is providing positive shore
protection to the Indian cemetery on Madeline Island at
a cost of $673 per meter ($205 per foot) of protected
cVir\vc*"l-Jrix-\
shoreline.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Based on the observations to date it can be stated that
the Longard tubes should be regarded as a compara-
tively low-cost and effective option for shore protec-
tion. At this time, no recommendation can be made
regarding the long-term usefulness of Longard tubes on
this portion of Lake Superior due to limitations imposed
by the brief monitoring period.
2. The Madigan Beach and Madeline Island demonstration
sites should continue to be monitored. Wave climate and
weather patterns are variable in time, and more than one
year of post-installation monitoring is needed to estab-
lish the performance of these structures, as well as
their effects on adjacent, unprotected portions of the
beach. in particular possible beach starvation on the
downdrift side needs to be watched. A comprehensive
monitoring program should include, if the funds are
available, a complete meteorologic and hydrologic data
collection program at the site, including the installa-
tion of wave gages.
3. In areas where severe fall and winter storms predomi-
nate, it is important to install shore protection in
the late spring or early summer. This permits the
structure to establish a protective sediment base to
act as a wave buffer before heavy storms begin to erode
it away. The waves may also break offshore in the
newly created shoals before reaching the structure.
232
-------
4. Whenever shore protection is placed to protect a shore-
line bluff, consideration should be given to regrading
the bluff and establishing a vegetative cover.
5. An extensive nearshore hydrographic survey performed a
number of times per year might have more accurately
documented the building of a protective beach after the
installation of the groins. If future demonstration
projects are to be undertaken, it would also be advis-
able to conduct more frequent preliminary surveys. This
would enable one to distinguish more clearly those
geomorphic changes which occur naturally from those
responses due to the presence of shoreline structures.
6. Recession rate measurements should be continued using
aerial photographs of large scale (1:6000) on at least
an annual basis in spring or fall.
7. With reference to the observed deposition far offshore,
a program of verification and monitoring should be
undertaken to study this process and determine if this
is a long-term phenomenon.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Professor T. Green, III has provided valuable guidance
concerning the wave study and reviewed the report.
Professors M. Anderson and D. Stephenson made valuable
comments concerning the groundwater study.
Sincere thanks to State Climatologist, V. Mitchell,
for his suggestions and to J. Mayes and Professor W. Neill
for their aid during the construction of the temperature
probe.
Following students aided in the field study and labora-
tory analysis: R. Friedman, M. Gregory, B. Haas, J. Kouba,
J. Lehman, B. Miller, M. Oleinik, J. Schettle, R. Sterrett
and N. Tetrick.
The authors thank Mr. A. Wilhelm, P.E. and the members
of the Bad River Indian Tribe for their cooperation and
assistance.
This project was funded by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency through the Red Clay Project.
233
-------
REFERENCES
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Great Lakes: A Demonstration/Research Program", Proceedings
of the Fifteenth Coastal Engineering Conference,"pp. 2858-
288T:" ~ ~
Bagnold, R.A. 1963. "Mechanics of Marine Sedimentation",
The Sea, V. 3, (M.N. Hill, ed.), John Wiley and Sons,
New York, pp. 507-528.
Barnett, T.P. 1968. "On the Generation, Dissipation and
Prediction of Ocean Wind Waves", Journal of Geophysical
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Birch, F., Schairer, J.F., and Spicer, H.C. (eds.). 1942.
Handbook of Physical Constants, Geological Society of
America Special Paper No. 36, 325 pp.
Bishop, A.W. 1955. "The Use of the Slip Circle in the
Stability Analysis of Slopes", Geotechnique, V. 5. No. 1,
pp. 7-17. *
Bird, S.J.G. and Armstrong, J.L. 1970. "Scarborough Bluffs -
A Recessional Study", Proceedings of the 13th Conference on
Great Lakes Research, pp.187-197.~~
Brater, E.F. 1978. Observations on Low Cost Shore Protec-
tion in Michigan, presented at ASCE Convention and Exposi-
tion, Chicago, Illinois, October 16-20, 1978.
Bredehoeft, J.D. and Papadopulos, I.S. 1965. "Rates of
Vertical Groundwater Movement Estimated from the Earth's
Thermal Profile", Water Resources Research, V. 1, No. 2
pp. 325-328. ~
Carver, R.E. 1971. Procedures in Sedimentary Petrology.
Wiley-Interscience, New York, 653 pp.
Clarke, W.D. (ed.). 1972. Chester River Study - A Joint
Investigation by the State of Maryland Department of
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Dexter, P.E. 1974. "Tests on Some Programmed Numerical Wave
Forecast Models", Journal of Physical Oceanography, V. 4,
No. 4, pp. 635-644":
Dobson, R.S. 1967. Some Applications of a Digital Computer
to Hydraulic Engineering Problems, Stanford University,
Department of Civil Engineering Technical Report No. 80,
172 pp.
Edil, T.B. and Monkmeyer, P.L. 1978. "Demonstration of
Shore Protection on Lake Superior", Proceedings of the
Environmental Protection Agency Conference on Voluntary and
-------
Regulatory Approaches for Nonpoint Source Pollution Control,
EPA-905/9-78-001, Chicago, Illinois, May 22-23, 1978.
Edil, T.B. and Vallejo, L.E. 1977. "Shoreline Erosion and
Landslides in the Great Lakes", Proceedings of the Ninth
International Conference in Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, V. 2, pp. 51-57 (also University of Wisconsin
Sea Grant Advisory Report No. 15).
Edil, T.B. 1975. Sediment and Erosion Control in the Red
Clay'Area of the Western Lake Superior Basin, a Technical
Report submitted to the Red Clay Project, Phase I, Part 2,
Douglas County, Wisconsin.
Edil, T.B. Pezzetta, J.M., and Wolf, P.R. 1975. Sediment
and Erosion Control in the Red Clay Area of the Western
Lake Superior Basin, a Technical Report submitted to the
Red Clay Project, Phase I, Part 1, Douglas County,
Wisconsin.
Folk, R.L. and Ward, W.C. 1957. "Brazos River Bar - A Study
on the Significance of Grain-size Parameters", Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology, V. 27, pp. 3-27.
Hasselmann, K., et al. 1976. "A Parametric Wave Prediction
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The Sea, V. 3, (M.N. Hill, ed.), John Wiley and Sons,
New York, pp. 529-553.
Inoue, T. 1967. On the Growth of the Spectrum of a Wind-
generated Sea According to a Modified Miles-Phillips
Mechanism and its Application to Wave Forecasting, New York
University, Geophys. Sci. Lab., Report 67-5.
International Joint Commission. 1976. Further Regulation of
the Great Lakes.
Komar, P.O. 1976. Beach Processes and Sedimentation,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 429 pp.
Komar, P.O. and Inman, D.L. 1970. "Longshore Transport on
Beaches", Journal of Geophysical Research, V. 75, No. 30,
pp. 5914-5927.
Leshkevich, G.A. 1976. Great Lakes Ice Cover, Winter 1974-5,
NOAA Technical Report ERL 370-GLERL 11, U.S. Department of
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Environmental Research Laboratories.
Liang, H.D., Torbin, R.N., and Lee, V.M. 1978. "A Data
Acquisition and Analysis Technique for a Sediment Transport
Field Study Program", Coastal Zone '78, A.S.C.E., pp. 2362-
2380.
235
-------
Liu, P.C. 1971. "Normalized and Equilibrium Spectra of Wind
Waves in Lake Michigan", Journal of Physical Oceanography
V. 1, No. 4, pp. 249-257. " ~ tL^-'
Liu, P.C. 1976. "Applications of Empirical Fetch-Limited
Spectral Formulas to Great Lakes Waves", Proceedings of the
Fifteenth Coastal Engineering Conference,' pp. 113-128.
Longuet-Higgins, M.S. 1952. "On the Statistical Distribu-
tion of the Heights of Sea Waves", Journal of Marine
Research, V. 11, pp. 245-266. '
Martin, L. 1932. The Physical Geography of Wisconsin, the
University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 608 pp.
Neumann, G. 1953. On Ocean Wave Spectra and New Method of
Forecasting Wind-Generated Sea. U.S. A rim/ PO^ ^ ^ng-j _
neers Beach Erosion Board Technical Memorandum No. 43, 42 pp,
Paull, R.K. and Paull, R.A. 1977. Geology of Wisconsin and
Upper Michigan including parts of adjacent states. Kendall/
Hunt Publishing Co., Dubuque, Iowa, 232 pp.
Pezzetta, J.M. 1972. Falling-Drop Technique for Silt-Clay
Sediment Analysis, Sea Grant Technical Report WIS-SG-72-215
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison ,' Wisconsin, 42 pp.'
Phillips, O.M. 1958. "Wave Generation by Turbulent Wind
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Pierson, W.J., Jr. 1964. "The Interpretation of Wave Spec-
trums in Terms of the Wind Profile instead of the Wind
Measured at a Constant Height", Journal of Geophysical
Research, V. 69, No. 24, pp. 5191-5204.
Pierson, W.J., Jr. and Moskowitz, L. 1964. "A Proposed
Spectral Form for Fully Developed Wind Seas Based on the
Similarity Theory of S.A. Kitaigorodskii", Journal of
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Practical Methods for Observing and Forecasting Ocean Waves
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Resio, D.T. and Vincent, C.L. 1976. Estimation of Winds
Over the Great Lakes, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
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Shands, J.A. 1977. Storm Wave Analysis at a Lake Superior
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Wisconsin-Madison.
236
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Shore Protection Manual. 1975 (2nd Ed.), U.S. Army Coastal
Engineering Research Center, Ft. Belvoir, Virginia.
Sorey, M.L. 1971. "Measurement of Vertical Groundwater
Velocity from Temperature Profiles in Wells", Water
Resources Research, V. 7, No. 4, pp. 963-970
Stallman, R.W. 1960. "Notes on the Use of Temperature Data
for Computing Groundwater Velocity", 6th Assembly on
Hydraulics, Rapport 3 (question 1), Societe Hydrotechnique
de France, Nancy, France, pp. 1-7. (Also in "Methods of
Collecting and Interpreting Groundwater Data", compiled by
Ray Bentall, U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper,
1544 H, pp. 36-43, 1963.)
Stoll, C.A. 1976. Personal communication with Warzyn Engi-
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Theory of Relations for Forecasting, U.S. Navy Hydrographic
Office, Publication No. 601.
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Lake Superior, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History
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Wilhelm, A.A. 1977. Personal communication with Wilhelm
Engineering, Inc.
237
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APPENDIX 1
Temperature Probe
The principle piece of equipment used in the ground-
water temperature experiment was an all-purpose temperature
probe (thermister), Model 401X, purchased from Yellow
Springs Instrument Company. Encased in vinyl, its dimen-
sions are 5/16 inch by 3/16 inch, attached to 100 feet of
9/16 inch diameter cable.
Figure i shows the auxiliary circuitry constructed
at the University of Wisconsin. The entire unit is used to
detect temperature change. The basic principle is that as
the thermister detects temperature changes, the bridae
circuit is unbalanced. This imbalance in the bridqe^is
displayed on a. digital output device in volts.
Calibration: The probe was attached to a quartz ther-
mometer, Hewlett Packard Model DY-2801A, and calibrated in
a slowly changing temperature bath. The quartz thermometer
was checked against a Fisher ID-4280 mercury thermometer,
calibrated by the U.S. Bureau of Standards. In this way,
the quartz thermometer's accuracy was measured ±0.06-0.10°C
absolute, and from the manufacturer, ±0.02°C relative.
The probe and quartz thermometer were immersed in a
water-filled test tube. The test tube was in turn immersed
in a fiberglass insulated cold bath which was mixed by a
magnetic stirrer to prevent temperature stratification. On
the average, it took two hours for the temperature to rise
6 C. All calibration testing was performed evenings or
weekends since it was found that the probe was sensitive to
vibrations caused by nearby operating machinery.
Figure II shows the results of the probe calibration
from two separate runs, spaced one week apart, for one par-
ticular pot setting. The volt difference between these two
runs for the same temperature was approximately 50-70
millivolts. However, it was found that the change in volts
per 0.1°C change in a particular degree range remained
nearly constant. Since the Bredehoeft/Papadopulos function
requires only the change in temperature and not absolute
values, the calibration and its reproducibility was con-
sidered adequate. Figure III shows the polynomial fit of
degree 1 for the voltage change vs. temperature data—the
crosses are the data, the stars the fitted polynomial.
238
-------
ro
VM
vO
+ 4 VOLTS
TURN
POT
Notes:
* OP AMP 741
14 pin was used
* All Resistors are 1/4 Watt
* YSI Series Probe was used
General Purpose 401 Probe
Figure I. Circuitry used with Thermister
-------
ro
-£•
o
5.000
4.000
3.000-
2.000-
1.000-
0.000
* +
4.0
5.0
6.0
. l
. *
. *
7.0 8.0
TEMPERATURE
Figure II. Probe Calibration Curve
9.0
10.0
• 1 October
•*-25 September
i
11.0
-------
o
o
o
o
* »
4- » +
O
o
o
I
CM
r-t
O
»
+ »
*
* +
o
o
o
*
« 4
o 1
C> u
o 0.
^ "
C
O
o
+ *
« +
•i * +
Figure III.
Polynomial fit of degree 1
Voltage Change vs. Temperature
241
-------
APPENDIX 2
Sediment Sampling Program
Field Sampling: A sediment sampling program was con-
ducted during both the 1977 and 1978 hydrographic surveys.
The main objective of this program was to establish a sedi-
ment size distribution at the Madigan Beach and Madeline
Island sites. Figure iv indicates the location of the
sediment collection sites.
Sample Procedure; For those offshore sites in water
deeper than 5.5 feet, the sediment samples of 1977 and
1978 were^collected during the hydrographic survey from
the boat in the following manner. After the depth measure-
ment was taken, the signal person quickly hand-lowered a
small Ponar clam-type grab sampler over the side of the
boat to collect the sample. Although some boat drifting
occurred, it may be estimated that the amount of boat drift
was well within the accuracy of the boat location as deter-
mined by the transits.
For those sites with depth less than 5.5 feet, sedi-
ment was obtained without a sampler during 1977 and
1978. After the elevation reading was taken, the rodperson
hand-scooped bottom sediment into the sample bag. The bag
was held shut until surfaced, when all excess water in the
sample bag was released. Both these sampling procedures
were gross in as much as an unknown portion of the
fine fraction was lost during sampling. In spite of this,
as indicated by the sieving analysis which follows, the
fine (4 phi and pan-sized) fraction was still represented
indicating that not all of the silt-sized material was lost
during the collection process.
In addition, a number of samples were collected on the
beach during 1978 in order to see how the beach sediment
varied in size from the offshore sediment.
Sampling and Laboratory Procedure - 1974 and 1975
Samples: The bluff and beach zone samples were hand-
collected by Pezzetta in 1974 and 1975. These samples were
subsequently examined and analyzed to determine textural
characteristics. For further details on this procedure,
as well as the sampling program one is referred to Pezzetta
(1972). The results of the analysis are shown in
Table I.
Laboratory Procedure for 1977 and 1978 Samples: Upon
returning to the laboratory, the samples were dried for
approximately three days in a dry oven. After weighing
total, individual sample, grain size separations using
sieves at 1 phi intervals up to 4.0 phi were performed by
agitating for 15-20 minutes in a Cenco-Meizer Sieve Shaker.
The divided sediment fractions were again weighed to
242
-------
VM
.7-1
•7-2
.14-2
.14-3
•14-1
7-3
•10-1
.14-4
200ft
SCALE
Figure IV. Location of Sediment Samples
-------
provide frequency information. The most frequently occur
ring size fraction was then examined under a binocular
microscope, and a point count of 100 grains was made to
determine the composition of the mode.
A computer program was written to calculate standard
sediment statistical parameters — the mean, standard devia
tion, skewness, and kurtosis using the method of moments.
These parameters may be defined (Carver, 1971) as follows:
Mean:
n
where f = weight percent in each grainsize (sieve)
grade
m = midpoint of each grainsize grade in phi
values
n = 100, since f is measured in percent.
This phi mean is the center of gravity of the logarithmic
frequency curve of the sample. Translated into the milli-
meter equivalent, it becomes the geometric mean of the
distribution, which is the weighted average of the loga-
rithm of the midpoints for each grainsize.
$ = -Iog2d
where d = diameter in millimeters.
9 V2
Zf(m - x,r
Standard Deviation: ( r ®—) = a
100 (j)
This is a measure of the degree of scatter about the central
tendency, in this case, the phi mean.
3
Zf (m - x )
Skewness: =—* = SK
100 a": *
This is a measure of the degree of asymmetry of the
distribution.
4
Zf (m - x )
Kurtosis: ^ = K
100 a, *
*
This is a measure of the degree of peakedness of the
distribution.
The phi scale was chosen for a number of reasons.
First, when dealing with a population of highly variable
-------
size ranges, in this case, sediment which can easily range
from silt to cobbles, the usage of a logarithmic size scale
is natural. Second, the phi scale is easy to use in the
calculation of statistical parameters. Moreover, it may be
employed in the construction of a cumulative curve rather
than a histogram of the distribution. This is particularly
desirable, since histograms vary depending on the class
interval used, whereas the cumulative curve remains fairly
constant regardless of the class limits. The_inflection
point of the cumulative curve is associated with the most
abundant grains.
Results: The results of grainsize analysis of the
samples are shown in Table Al . The beach deposits,
Samples LSA-1, LSA-2, A, C, K, and LS-C consist of uniform
medium to occasionally coarse-grained sands, ranging in
diameter from 0.31 to 0.80 mm. By comparison, the bluff
slope Samples LSA-5, LSA-6, and LS-D are very fine sands
and coarse silts, ranging in diameter from 0.04 to 0.08 mm.
Sample LSA-3, which was collected from the bluff face, was
found to contain 83% silt (Edil, Pezzetta, and Wolf, 1975).
The farthest offshore bottom deposits, Samples 7-1, 14-1,
and 14-2 are fine sands, with grain diameters of 0.14 to
0.16 mm.
During 1976, three observation wells were bored on
top of the bluffs by Lakehead Testing Laboratory, Inc.
The geologic logs recorded during the boring procedure
indicate that the bluffs are composed of clay, silt, and
silty sand. Samples taken within the bluff face during
1974 consisted of very fine sand and silt. The nearshore
sediments tend to be larger in grainsize than the clay
bluffs.
Two explanations are offered for this apparent
anomaly. First, as the bluffs degrade and crumble, the
silts and clays which make up a large percentage of bluff
material are rapidly taken into suspension and washed away
and out into deeper water. The remaining fine sands are
not as easily suspended, and are therefore much more likely
to settle on the beach face, or in the shallow nearshore
zone.
Secondly, it is possible that some unknown portion of
the nearshore and beach sediment has been carried onto the
Madigan Beach site from elsewhere by longshore currents.
This material may be derived from parent material very dif-
ferent than the red clay bluffs. In this case, the grain-
size characteristics have no relationship to the nearby
bluffs.
It is not possible at this time to differentiate what
portion of the eroded bluff material remains in the immedi-
ate nearshore zone and how much is suspended and carried
further out into Lake Superior. A more extensive sediment
245
-------
study which would trace changes in sediment size distribu-
tions traversing away from Madigan Beach both alongshore
and away from the shore might begin to answer this question
246
-------
Table Al. Sedimentological Data for Lake_Superior_Shoreline_Samples^-^Madigan=Beach
Sample
Year No.
1974 LSA-1
LSA-2
LSA-3
LSA-4
LSA-5
LSA-6
1975 LS-A
LS-B
LS-C
LS-D
1977 7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
14-1
Mean Grainsize Standard
£hi mm Deviation*
1.
0
4
1
4
3
1
1
1
4
2
2
1
1
2
.69
.32
.65
.73
.53
.69
.68
.60
.51
.49
.67
.18
.55
.41
.86
0.
m.
0.
c .
0.
c.
0.
m.
0.
c.
0.
V.
0.
m.
0.
m.
0.
m.
0.
c.
0.
f .
0.
f.
0.
m.
0.
m.
310
sand
799
sand
040
silt
300
sand
043
silt
077
f . sand
312
sand
331
sand
351
sand
044
silt
157
sand
221
sand
342
sand
376
sand
0.138
0.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
1.
1.
1.
0.
0.
0.
1.
36
39
82
60
96
67
52
45
03
18
36
94
43
76
36
Skewness
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
0.
0.
0.
-0.
-0.
3.
3.
8.
1.
3.
82
44
91
31
45
60
17
22
48
18
07
00
43
00
.77
Kurtosis
8.
2.
6.
3.
3.
4.
3.
3.
2.
3.
15.
25.
145.
26.
17.
65
26
37
47
86
39
79
90
03
94
93
14
21
,49
,45
Percent Quartz
in Mode
78
77
83
83
84
f . sand
-------
. 1978
ro
-F?
r»
Notes
14-2
14-3
14-4
A
B
C
D
: 10-1
2.99
2.79
2.38
1.36
1.68
1.49
1.28
1.91
0.
f .
0.
f .
0.
f .
0.
m.
0.
m.
0.
m.
0.
m.
0.
m.
126
sand
145
sand
192
sand
390
sand
312
sand
356
sand
412
sand
266
sand
1.
1.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
70
73
21
58
78
41
82
62
2
2
3
0
5
1
-0
1
.68
.64
.77
.30
.27
.65
.97
.87
10
10
21
17
51
42
8
26
.35
.23
.38
.04
.37
.53
.81
.60
70
76
80
85
85
80
84
85
1. Grainsize parameters are based on the graphical techniques of Folk and Ward (1957) and
the method of moments, Carver (1971). '
*2. A measure of sorting.
<0.35 very well sorted 2.00 poorly sorted
0.50 well sorted 4.00 very poorly sorted
0.71 moderately well sorted >4.00 extremely poorly sorted
1.00 moderately sorted
3. Grade scale is based on Wentworth (1922).
-------
APPENDIX 3
The Computer Programs
The following computer programs have been designed so
that beginning with wind observations, wind events are con-
structed, then hindcast into waves, which are then refrac-
ted into shallow water and resultant sediment transport is
predicted. The programs are sequential so that the
results from one program provide the input to the next
program.
The order in which the programs are to be executed is
SORT, HINDCAST, ADJUST, REFRACTION, AVERAGE, READJUST, and
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT. It is necessary not to deviate from
this order because particular programs adjust the data to
specified coordinate systems used by later programs.
The card input has been kept to a minimum to limit
data dependency, and increase efficiency. In general, the
majority of the input is in the form of files created at
the end of the previous program. The result of each pro-
gram is printed out for visual inspection and manipulation,
in addition to being stored in a file.
Also included at the end is a sediment statistics pro-
gram, which calculates grainsize distribution parameters
for the sediment sampling program.
SORT Program
Input Variables:
IDATE - Date of wind observation in month, day, and
year; 16
IHR - Hour of wind observation, from 0000 to 2400; 14
DRN - Direction of wind observation in degrees, from
0-359; 13
ISPEED - Speed of wind observation in knots; 12
Program Variables:
DOLD - Wind direction of 1st observation in an event,
from 1-16, where 1 = North, 2 = North-Northeast, etc.);
13
J - Counter for the number of events
AVSPD - Average speed for the total event, in knots;
F10.2
CONST - A constant used in converting wind direction
from 0°-359° to 1-16 directions
24-9
-------
N - Counter in current event in process
K - A flag equal to either 1 or 2, signifying if an
event is being formed
M - A counter used in forming an average speed for an
event
CARD - Dummy variable used for scanning the observa-
tion for calm winds
NN - Counter for indexing column on card during scan
for calm winds
CHAR - Special character variable to detect calm wind
conditions
I - Counter used in converting wind directions from
degrees to integer directions
JJ - Temporary variable used in comparison when con-
verting wind directions from degrees to integer
DD - Temporary variable for wind direction used when
testing wind observations to see if they belong to an
event
TOTTIM - Total duration of an event, in hours * 100;
CUMDUR - Temporary accumulation variable for duration
of an event in hours * 100
TOTSPD - Temporary accumulation variable for speeds of
the event in knots
DATE - Date at which the event began, in month, day
and year, a temporary variable '
IDUR - Function which computes the length of time
between observations
DDATE - Date at which the event began, in month, day
and year; 16 '
LL - Same as J
KK - Counter for the number of events; 16
250
-------
SORT Program - Structure
1. Set AVSPDDOLDfJ = -1 {DOLD = 1,16 J = 1,1200)
2. Read {CARDi i = 1,80}
If end of file, go to step 24
NN = 0
3. NN = NN+1
If NN>23, go to step 5
If CARDNCARDNN+]CARDNN+2 * CAL , go to step 3
4. Reread IDATEN/ IHR (N) , and print out
Go to step 2
5. Reread IDATEN/ IHR^DR^ , ISPEEDN
Initialize I
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Calculate
If I>16,
If DRNN ±
DRNN = I
If N = 1,
If K t 2,
If DRN ,
JJ = I*CONST
go to step 23
0 and DRN >JJ, I = 1+1, go to step 6
DD = DRN , and go to step 20
go to step 12
? DRNM, DD = DRN
DOLD = DD
Initialize AVSPD,TOTTIM,CUMDUR,TOTSPD
11. If N = 2, then TOTSPDDQLD = ISPEED^
Set DATEDQLD = IDATEN_1
12. If DD = 16 and DRNN = 1, DRN = 17
If DD = 1 and DRNN =16, DD = 17
13. if IDD-DRN |>i, go to step 21
14. If DRNN = 17, then set DRNN = 1
If DD = 17, then set DD = 1
15. If M ^ 1, go to step 18
16. DOLD = DD
TOTSPDDOLD = ISPEEVl
Initialize CUMDUR,TOTTIM,AVSPD
DATEDOLD = IDATEN-1
Go to step 18
251
-------
17. TOTSPDDOLD
Initialize CUMDUR,TOTTIM,AVSPD
DATEDOLD = IDATEN-1
18. K = 1
IDUR = IHR(N)-IHR(N-1)
If IDUR>0.0, go to step 19
IHR(N-l) = IHR(N-1)-2400
IDUR = IHR(N)-(IHR(N-1) )
19. CUMDURDOLD = CUMDUR+IDUR
T°TSPDDOLD =
M = M+l
20. N = N+l
Go to step 2
21. K = 2
If DD = 17, DD = 1
If DRNN = 17, DRNN = 1
J = J+l
AVSPDDOLD,J
TOTTIMDOLD,J
DDATEDOLD,J - DATSDOLD
DD = DRN ,
N-l
DOLD = DD
M = 1
22. If DD-DRNN|<_1, go to step 17
DD = DRN(N)
N = N+l
Go to step 2
23. Print "DIRECTION EXCEEDS 360 DEGREES"
24. N = N-l
J = J+l
AVSPDDOLD,J = TOTSPDDOLD/M
TOTTIMDOLD,J = CUMDURDOLD
DDATEDOLD,J = DATEDOLD
Initialize K
DDOLD,J>0' g° to steP 26 {DOLD = 1/16, J= 1, Jr
Otherwise, increment
26. Print DOLD,DDATE,AVSPD,TOTTIM
KK =
27. Print KK
-------
3ASG,CP SOST1972.
SASG,AX *r;01972. SORT
SUSE l«.,/.Ii'!01°7?.
o>USE 16.,bOtm«72.
3FOR,I MAIN PHOGPAV. ,J3ES AN ALGORITHM TO SOrtT^IKD EVE'lFS
C ACCQBUI^ TO OI«ECT10M AN'J O'JKATIQ'19 ThE DATA APE ME A?U*tO F*O.
C CUAST nuarfO STATION Orj DEvlLS ISLANy, «NO REPRESENTS CALE40tR
C
M
N lH«(37t2),OK^(37t2),ISPi:EO(37r?),IOATc(3712),CU^U^U7),
.TOT3PO(l7),AV3Pa(l7,1200),TOTTI,.!(l7,1200),CAQL,(80),JATE(17),CHAK(3
I)
COMMON/riIl»/i;OATc(l7, 1200)
° 1,-MTEGdR CU"OUK,rOTSPD,TOTTIM,ORK, DO, DOLD, CHAR, CAPO, DATE, ODATE
DATA CHA3/lnC,lnA, IML/
DATA NCnAn/3/
00 5 DOLD=1,16
DO 5 J=1,1200
5 AVSPDCDOLu, J)=-l
C
CONST=21.b
N=l
J = l
K = 2
M=l
C READ BASIC DATA-TIME OF OBSERVATION, «I.Nf) SPEED AND DIRECTION
C
810 ?SJ!.ATU51-!'CALM EVENTSV2X,' .......... ' /3X , • DATE • , 4X , ' T I *E • )
L = 0
1 L=Ltl
R£AO(l«,900,E^D=2u) (CARD(I), 1=1,80)
900 FORMAT(dOAl)
NN=0
2 NN=NN+1
IF(wN.PT.23) GO TU 3
IF(CAKD(Mfi).NE.CHAR(l)) GO TO 2
IF(CAKD(M(:-H).M£.CHAR(?)) GO TO 2
IF(CARD(Ni^2).^£.CHAR(3)) GO TO 2
C
c SPECIAL CHARACTER DETECTED
READ(0,9tO) IOATE(^),IHR(iO
WRITECb^^O) IDATE(.O,IHR(N)
L=L-1
GO TO 1
3 READ(0,100)
910 FORMAT(If»'l
920 FORMATf2X,I6,3X,I<4)
100 FORMAT (16, IX, I 'l, ax, I 3, IX, 12)
IF(URNd>n.FQ.-99) HO TO 1
IF(ISPEEP(r-) .EO.-9) GO TO 1
).EQ.-l) GO TO 20
1 = 0
11 1=1+1
JJ = lNT(FLOAT(I)*CO»iST)
253
-------
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-------
f,u TO 1
180 FGR-'AT^X, 'OIKECTIOM EXCEEDS 3*0
C
24 MsM-1
ivsJocDuLo, J)=FLOAT(TUTSPi,(onLon/FLOAT (•<)
25 LL=J
KK = 0
fSJiEAHix!"l«CTIOM.fi,X,.OATL',5x,.Av SP£FD ' , 5* , ' OUP AT 10, •
'KNOTS'r^x,'HUUnS' )
DO 40 1 = 1, 16
DOLD=I
;F(A!sio1(UOLD,J).GT.O.O.A,D.TuTTIM(DOLO,J).,E.O) GO TO 200
200 SSl™C6%10) uOLO, DOATE(DOLD,J),AVSPU(UOLO,J),TOTTIM(OOLD,J)
™K12^
KK=KKtl
30 COKTH.UE
40 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,300) KK
300 FORMATC2X,'KK = '»I6)
STOP
EiMD
3MAP
IN TPF$.
IN BIG
3XQT
3FIN
,,
255
-------
HINDCAST Program
Input Variables:
KK - The number of wind events to be hindcast; 16
BOLD - The wind direction of the event, ranging from
1-16, where 1 = North, 2 = North-Northeast, etl. ; ?3
DDATE - The date of the beginning of the wind event, in
month, day, and year; 16
AVSPD - Average speed during the wind event in knots;
r XU . 2.
TOTTIM - Duration of the wind event, in hours * 100; 15
Program Variables;
PI - TT
G - Acceleration due to gravity in feet and seconds
J - A counter of events processed
HT - Significant wave height produced in hindcasting
each event, in feet; Ell. 3
PEAK - Temporary variable used in storing the oresent
peak spectral value
SS - Accumulation variable for storing individual wave
spectral energies, ft^-S; Ell. 3
LIMDUR - Function which computes the minimum time
needed for wind of specified velocity to blow to
exceed duration-limiting conditions
FETCH - Open overwater distance in feet over which the
wind blows before reaching the shore of interest
T - Wave period in seconds
OMEGA - Wave frequency in seconds"1
U - A portion of the function USTAR - broken down for
computation ease
USTAR - Friction velocity in feet per second
FZERO - Dimensionless fetch variable
S - Wave energy density spectral component
256
-------
TT - Wave period corresponding to the wave energy
density spectrum peak, in seconds; 12
DIF - Function which computes the difference between
the present spectral component, and the current
largest spectral component
257
-------
HINDCAST Program - Structure
1. Set HTDOLD^ = -1 {DOLD = 1,16, J = 1,KK>
Set J = 1
2. Read DOLD,DDATE DQLDfJ ^VSPD^^ , TOTTIM
If end of file, go to step 12
3. If 6 (TOTTIMDQLD j/100), go to step 9
6. Calculate AVSPD DQLD^ = AVSPD^ ^ ^ . 1 . 689
7. Calculate {S(T) ,
(-5.5 x 103) T = 1,15}
where
oj = 2-rr/T
9 0.3334
(AVSPD )2
f
DOLD,J
F = g*FETCH
PEAK = S(T=l)
If PEAK-S(T)<0, S(T) = PEAK {T = 1,15}
TT
DOLD,J=T
c c = Y c /T1 ^
DOLD,J T=l
8. Go to step 10
9. Calculate AVSPD nnr_ _ = AVSPD „„ „ , -1.689
Calculate
(-5.5 x 103) T = 1,15}
258
-------
where
to =
0.3334
(AVSPD !
/ DOLD,J s . AVSPD
U* = ( g. FETCH } AVbFUDOLD,J
q-FETCH
F = =5
0 u*2
and
g-T TOTTIMDOLD,J ,finn
FETCH = 2_ - __ '- • 3600
PEAK = S (T=l)
If PEAK-S(T)<0.0, S(T) = PEAK {T = 1,15}
mm _ T
DOLD,J
15
SS(DOLD,J)
10' HTDOLD,J-1
11. Go to step 2
12. If HT nrn -r>0.0 (DOLD = 1,16, J = 1,KK>
), J
Print out DOLD,DDATEDOLDjJ,HTDOLD/J,TOTTIMDOLDfJ,
'I"I'DOLD,J/SSDOLD,J
259
-------
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cn
-------
.0.3333*0* US TAk*G''£r, A) )**«)*( -5
IF(T.NE.l) GO TU to
PEAK=S(T)
6
IF(DIF.GE.O.O) UO TO 7
THOOLD, J)=T
7 SS(DOLO, J)=SS(r>OLD,J) + S(T)
10 CONTIrilit
J=J + 1
GO TO 70
C COMPUTATION OF SPECTRA USHG DURATION LIMTATIO.-J
C COMVFnSIO'vi FRO'"1 KfjOTS TO FE£T/StC
50 AVSPOCDOLU, J)=AVSHO(OJLJ»J)*1 .689
DO 55 T=l,15
FETCH=((G*FLOATCT)5/(a*PI))*(FLOAT(TOTTiM(DOLL),J)/100)*3600.)
U=AVSPO(OOLO»J)**2/(f5* FETCH)
USTAR=(U**0.3333«)*^VSPO(DOLO, J)
F2ERO=G*F£TCH/USTAP**2
OMEGA=(2-*PI)/FLUAT(T)
S(T)=((0.a*G**2)/(CFZERO**0.25)*(UM£GA**5}))*£XP(((G/((FZERu**
,0.3333a)*USTAH*D^tGA) )**")* (-5. 5E03) )
IF(T.NE.l) GO TO 52
TT(DOLD,J)=T
52 DIF=P£A,\-S(T)
IF(OIF.GE.O.O) GO TO 5U
P£AK=S(T)
TTCDOLD, J)=T
5a SSCUOLD, J)=SS(OOLD,J) + S(T)
55 CONTINUE
C COMPUTATION OF SIGNIFICANT .*AVE HEIGHT
70 HTCOOLO, J-1)=2.83*SGRT(SS(DGLC, J-l) )
GO TO 5
C '
80 WHITE(6,300)
300 FOPMAK2H , 'DIRECTIOir ,3x, 'DATE','4X, 'SIG WAVE ', 3X, ' DURATION ',
,3X, •PEPIOL)1,2X, 'EiMESGY',/20X, 'htlUHT CFT) ' ,5X, • i-iOURS* 1 00 ' )
DO 100 UOLD =1,16
00 90 Jsl,KK
IF(HT(DOLD,J).Gr.O.O) GO TO 85
GO TO <>0
85 WRITE(6,aOO) DOLO, OD ATE (DOLO , J ) , HT (OOLO , J ) , TOT T IM (OOLO , J ) ,
.TTCOOUr, J) ,SS(DULO,J)
400 FORl-lAT(aX,I2,7X,IorlX,E11.3,2X,I'5,10X,U, IX, £11. 3)
WRITE(18,400) DOLD, ODA TE ( OOLO , J ) , HI ( DOLD, J) , TOTT IN' (DOLD , J ) ,
.TTCOOLD, J),SS(OOLU,J)
90 CONTINUE
100 CONTINUE
STOP
END
SMAP
IN TPF*.
IN LARGE
3XOT
ill
3FIN
261
-------
ADJUST Program
Input Variables:
KK - The number of hindcast events slated for refrac-
tion; 16
DOLD - The direction of wave propagation of an event in
integers from 1 to 16, where 1 = North, 2 = Northeast,
etc.; 12
DDATE - The date of the event, month, day, and year; 16
HT - The hindcast significant wave height of the event
in feet; Ell.3
TOTTIM - The duration of the event in hours * 100; 15
TT - The wave period corresponding to the peak of the
wave energy spectrum produced by the event in seconds;
12
SS - The total energy produced, in square feet; Ell.3
Program Variables:
DNEW - Direction of propagation, oriented from the
shoreline counterclockwise, with the first 180° point-
ing towards land, in degrees; 13
J - A counter for the number of events
262
-------
ADJUST Program - Structure
1. Read KK
2. Read DOLD,DDATE,HT,TOTTIM,TT,SS
If end of file, stop
3. DNEW = INT(22.5- (DOLD-1))
4. If 304
-------
5>ASG,CP ADJUST.
5>ASG,AX HI\OCAST. ADJUST
SlUSE 16., HIMOCAST.
auSE 20., ADJUST.
3FOR,IS '-'AIN
C PROGPA" TO ADJUST AZIMUTHS SO AS TO ORIENTATE TriF^ FOR OOoSON'S
C WAVE KFFPACTIU.N PROGRAM
C
INTEGER OOLO, DDATE,O,ME/., TuTri,v,TT
READ(S,50) KK
50 FOPMAT(2X,I6)
C
WRITE(6,100)
100 FORMAT (2H ^'ONEl'^Xy 'DATE', bX, 'nAVE H T • , ?X , ' OuR AT ION ' , 5X , • PER IOD
• / )
DO 7 J=1,KK
5 R£AO(18,?00,EfiOsio) DOID, DOATE,HT, TOTTI'", TT , 53
200 FORMAT(aX,I2,7X,!o,lX,Ell.3,2X,I5,10X,I2,lX,E11.3)
ONE«=IMT(22.5*FLOAT(i)GLO-l) 3
IF(DN£w.LE.359.A'-ID.JNc4.Gt.30<4) DrjE A = 304t (360-Dr4Ew)
IF(DNEW.GE.O.ANO.UNii.v.LE.l2ii) Df.Ert = 180 + (
WRITE(fr,300) uME'.v, ODA.TE, HT , TOTT IM, TT,
300 FORMAT(2X,13,3X,16,IX,Ell.3,2X,15,1 OX,12)
WKITEC20/300) ONE.*, DOATE,HT, TOTTI^, TT
7 CONTINUE
C
10 STOP
END
3SAVE,S ADJUST.,081578
3XQT
266
SFIN
$tOJ
j s a 7 ', •"> 5 1 > i...«; * 7 -, ? „ i ^ <.., S 0 7,. c, t, ^ ^ x ,. •-, . 7 .')-,],.;•; i, T •, ~ • ) / 1 -• ^ «'
• * .:.••:.-.:.- ; . . 7 - . r • -.- i ••: - .... - . • . • • " - c
264
-------
REFRACTION Program
HnT.NT)IX n: A program to construct refraction diagrams and compute wave
s for waves moving into shoaling water.
The program consists of a main program, WAVES I, and seven
lobroutincs, RAYCON, REFRAC, CURVE, DEPTH, HEIGHT, ERROR, and WRITER,
vhoso names are descriptive of the functions thc;y perform. The details
•f each subroutine arc given separately, together with the variable names,
»fclch have been chosen to correspond as far as is possible with the nota-
tion of Section 2.
The program, for which a listing is given, is written in FOR-
TRAN IV and has been run successfully on the IBM 7090 machine at the
ftanford Computation Center and on the IBM 7094 machine at the Western
Data Center, Los Angeles; however, a modified version has also been written,
WAVES II, which f,ives output suitable for the Calcomp 570 plotter system.
Since this latter program is heavily machine dependent and so is only suit-
iblc for local use, no details have been included.
The procrnm seems to be quite efficient, and the timing ob-
tained from the results for refraction around the analytic islands may be
wed as a guide. The compilation takes approximately 40 seconds, and tho
program executes at the rate of 44 points per second on the IBM 7090 and
91 points per second on the IBM 7094. These execution times include
reading the data for the grid (80 x 80) and printing output every ten
points, but they arc the averages obtained from runs of approximately
36 rays and 12,500 points. If there are only a few rays to be considered
for a particularly large f,rid then the timing for the execution will be
increased somewhat.
The program structure is such that it may easily be converted
for use as a subroutine for another program in which the wave height is
an incidental parameter used in other calculations, for example, in a
simulation program for the coastal processes of erosion and deposition.
PROGRAM: WAVES I
Input Variables
MI , MJ .......... The maximum values of I and J which define
the grid. Note: I = X + 1 , J = Y + 1 .
265
-------
IGRCON Grid unit identifier; 1 = feet,
2 = nautical miles, 3 = meters.
LIHNPT Maximum number of points to be computed
for each ray.
NPRINT Frequency for printed output.
GRID Number of grid units per grid division.
DCON Conversion factor for depth units.
DELTAS Minimum length of increment along ray,
(grid units).
GRINC Length of increment for ray in deep water,
(grid units).
FMT FORMAT for depth data.
DEP (I,J) Depth data at grid points.
NOSETS Number of sets of rays with different
periods.
TITL Identifying title for each set. •
NORAYS Number of rays in each set.
T Wave period, (seconds).
110 Wave height in deep water.
x» Y Co-ordinates of the starting point for
each ray.
" Initial direction of wave ray, measured
anti-clockwise from positive X direction,
(degrees).
Output Variables (not previously defined)
The number of the points on the ray.
Deep water wave length, (feet).
C0 DeeP water wave speed, (feet per second).
Variables in Common (riot previously defined)
Depth at grid points used for surface
fitting computations, (depth units).
Coefficients for equation of surface of
best fit.
82 Values of Beta at points NPT and (NPT-1).
266
-------
Wave speed at a point on the ray, (feet
per second).
The differential coefficient of speed
with respect to depth, (dc/dh).
DRC Depth at which refraction commences,
(0.6 x ULO).
jyjQR xime interval between calculation points
on the ray.
IGO, JGO Branching identifiers.
PHX PHY Partial differential coefficients of depth
with respect to X and Y, (oh/Sx , dh/dy).
Ratio of actual wave speed to deep water
wave speed, (CXY/CO).
Maximum limit for X on a ray. Minimum
value is 1.5.
Refraction coefficient.
Angular frequency of wave, (a).
SK Shoaling coefficient.
TOP Maximum limit for Y on a ray. Minimum
value of 1.5.
VJL Wave length at a point on the ray, (feet).
This program reads the general data for the problem and then
reads the data for the depth at the grid points; it should be noted that
allowance has been made for a variable format for the depth data, which
is read from the second card of the data deck. A listing of a typical
data deck is given.
The program parameters arc printed and then the data for the
wave oets are read. The program calculates, the general wave parameters
before reading the starting data for the first ray and passing control to
the subroutine RAYCON.
SUBROUTINE: RAYCON (X,Y,A)
Variables in Labelled Common
XP, YP The local co-ordinates of the point on the
wave ray, with respect to the mesh square
in which the point falls.
26?
-------
Local Variables
ANG The ray angle with respect to the x-axis,
(degrees).
A The ray angle, (radians).
This subroutine controls each individual ray as it progresses
across the grid. Initially, it calculates the second point on the ray
assuming that the wave is still in deep water, and then calls subroutine
DEPTH to find the depth at this new point; if the depth is greater than
the refraction depth then the subroutine WRITER is called which prints
the wave details at the point. However, if the wave has reached ohoaling
water the subroutine CURVE is called to calculate the initial value of
the ray curvature; with this value the subroutine REFRAC is called to cal-
culate the next point on the wave ray. When the new position of the ray
has been computed the subroutine HEIGHT ic called, and then th,2 details
or the wave at this point may or may not b.2 printed, depending on the
relative values of NPT and NPRINT, by calling subroutine WRITER. The
ray may also be stopped by this subroutine for any one of a variety of
reasons: there is no convergence in the calculation of curvature, the
ray has reached the shore, the ray has reached one of the boundaries, the
maximum number of calculation points has been exceeded, or finally, the
wave is moving so slowly that the incremental distance between steps is
less than the minimum specified.
SUBROUTINE: REFRAC (X, Y, A, FK)
Local Variables
FK Curvature at the point NPT.
FKK Curvature at the point (NPT+1).
XX> YY Co-ordinates of the point (NPT-fl).
M Angle of ray at the point (NPT+1).
DS Incremental distance along ray, (grid points).
RESMAX Limiting difference between successive
approximations for the new curvature.
NCUR Identifier, controlling the stability of
the solution.
268
-------
The subroutine solves the refraction equations [Eq. (2-32)
to Eq. (2-37)] iterativcly to find the next point on the ray. Experience
vtth the program has shown that, in general, the solution will be found
to converge very rapidly to the required tolerance, 0.0001 radians per
|rid unit; however, two conditions of instability can arise. One is the
ease where process is hunting between two solutions. In this situation
the value of the curvature is averaged and a message printed to this ef-
fect. The other possibility in that the process is not converging at all,
cr only very slowly, in which case the ray is stopped.
SUBROUTINE: CURVE (X, Y, A, FK)
Local Variables
CI Intermediate value of wave speed used for
the solution of Eq. (2-1).
FK The curvature at the point X,Y.
This subroutine tests to discover whether the wave is in shal-
low water or at an intermediate depth, and then computes the local speed
using the appropriate equation. Having calculated the speed, it then com-
putes the local differential coefficients and finds the curvature of the
ray at the point by use of Eq. (2-61).
SUBROUTINE: DEPTH (X,Y)
Local Variables
SXY The special unit matrix for use with a square
grid.
I> j The grid co-ordinates of the local origin for
the point on the ray.
The subroutine determines the local origin for the point on
the ray, and then calculates the local co-ordinates. Before computing the
coefficients of the equation for the surface of best fit, it tests to de-
termine whether the point lies within the satr.e mesh square as the previous
point. In the case that it does, the subroutine calculates the new depth
using the new local cc-ordinates, with the coefficients computed when the
269
-------
ray first entered the square. Otherwise, it calculates the coefficients
for the surface equation and then finds the depth.
SUBROUTINE: HEIGHT (XP, YP, A, H)
Local Variables
H The wave height at a point on the ray.
CG The group speed of the wave.
P» Q Variables used for the calculation of Beta,
evaluated by use of Eqs. (2-64) and (2-65).
The subroutine calculates the shoaling coefficient, and then
computes the refraction coefficient using the value of Beta calculated at
the previous point; these two coefficients are then used to determine the
local height of the wave.
Once these computations have been completed, th2 finite differ-
ence form of the equation of wave intensity, Eq. (2-41), is solved to give
th3 value of Beta at the next point.
SUBROUTINE: ERROR (FIT, DIFMAX)
Local Variables
DP The computed depth at the four grid points
surrounding the point X,Y.
DIFMAX The maximum difference between the actual
depth at a grid point and the computed depth.
FIX The standard deviation of the least squares
surface.
This subroutine is used to estimate a measure of the error
involved by using a least squares surface to calculate the depth at the
point X,Y. It finds thi= maximum difference between the depths at the grid
points calculated using the surface polynomial and the actual data depths,
and then computes the standard deviation of these differences. The max-
imum difference is expressed as a percentage of the depth at the point X,Y.
2?0
-------
SUBROUTINE: WRITER (x, Y, ANG, H, NWRITE)
Local Variable
1WRITE Branching identifier to control output.
This subroutine controls the printed output for the program.
If NWRITE is greater than three, (NWRITE > 3), then one of the conditions
for which the ray should be stopped has occurred. A message is printed
Civing the reason and the position at which the ray has been stopped, and
then control is returned to the main program via RAYCON.
DATA:
A listing of a typical data deck, in this case the one for
Noyo Cove, is given as an example of the form that this should take.
The first card contains the values of the grid and program
control parameters, the second card gives the FORMAT of the grid data
and this is followed by the depth data itself. It may be remarked that
Rome of the depths have negative values; these are the parts of the grid
which cover the land, and, while it is not essential to give an accurate
representation of the land contours, the performance of the surface fit-
ting routine is vasMy improved if the general slope of the sea bottom
near the shore is continued above the water line for at least three grid
divisions, if possible.
Following the depth data comes the data for the waves and
sets of rays. The first card gives the numbc-r of sets, in this instance
four, and is followed by the title card for the first set, then a card
' giving the nunber of rays in the set, the period and the height, and
finally the data for each invididual ray.
OUTFIT:
The output from two of the rays in the data given above is
also reproduced as an example.
FLOW CHARTS:
Flow char:s for the main program and each subroutine arc
given in Figs. D.I - B.8.
-------
C Start*\
_. V.'AVES J
Compute
Grid
constants
,
Compute
Wave
constants
,
Initialise
Ray
variables
SCall
SUBROUTINE
RAYCON
Figure B.I -- Flow Chart for Wave Refraction Program
272
-------
(Start)
RAYCON J
Compute
next point
deep water
-------
(StartA
KEFRAC J
Assign
values As
NCUR, IGO
Call
SUBROUTINE
CURVE •
Figure B.3a -- Flow Chart for Subroutine REFRAC
-------
Compute
(*,y,a,/0
for KPT+1
Chose
type of
Return
{ Return J
Figure B.3b -- Flow Chart for Subroutine REFRAC, continued
275
-------
Call
( SUBROUTINE
\ DEPTH
Figv.re B.4 -- Flov; Chart for Subroutine CURVE
276
-------
Start
DEPTH
Assign
values
[SXY]
Find Grid
square
Assign
values
[H]
Compute
h
Return
Figure B.5 -- Flow Chart for Subrcutine DEPTH
277
-------
(
Start
HEIGHT
Compute
Compute
Compute
U
Compute
P(t),q(t)
Compute
( Return ]
Figure B.6 -- Flow Chart for Subroutine 1CEIGHT
278
-------
c
Start
WRITER
[ Return V
c
Return
(R
St
Return
Stop Ray
Return
Stop Ray
C
Return
Stop Ray
C
Return
Stop Ray
C
Return
Stop Ray
:Call
SUBROUTINE
ERROR
Curvature
averaged
Curvature
not
converging
Reached
Shore
Reached
Boundary
Too
many
points
As
too
small
Figure B.7 -- Flow Chart for Subroutine WRITER
279
-------
(Start )
ERROR J
Same x^ yes
Square
no
Initialise
DIFMAY=0
SUM=0
DIFMAY=
max(hi-ht)
FIT
DIFMAX =
DIFMAY*100
( Return J
Figure B.O -- Flow Chart for Subroutine ERROR
280
-------
REFRACTION
3ASG,CP REFRACTION.
3ASG,AX ADJUST.
auSE 20., ADJUST.
3USE 22., REFRACTION.
3FOR,I MA ID
STANFORD rtAVE REFRACT ION P90G
DEVELOPED BY K. S. QOoSJN
UNIVERSITY UF i'ilSlOiSI'l
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
- :iARK I
INPUT
MI
MJ
IGPCO;M
LIMNPT
NPRINT
GRID
DCON
DELTAS
GRINC
DEP
WOGRID
NOSETS
TITL
T
NORAYS
H
X,Y
A
PARAMETERS UN FREE FJfMAI UNLESS OTHER. .I3F INDICATE'))
= MAX. VALUE PJR I SUBSCRIPT, uOT TO "EXCEED 30.
= MAX. VALUE FuR J SUBSCRIPT, nOI TO ExCttu 30.
GRID UuIT IDENTIFIER. 1 = FEET. 2 = MLES. 3 = METERS.
MAX. NUMBER UF PAY COMPUTATION POINTS.
FREQUENCY OF PRINTED OUTPUT FOR EACH PAY.
NUMBER Of G»IO UNITS Pt« GRID DIVISION.
MULTIPLIER TO CONVERT UEPTrt UNITS TO FEET.
MINIMUM STEP LE^GTn ALONG KAY IN SHALLOW WATER IN GRID UNITS,
STEP LENGTH ALO'JG RAY IN DEEP t.ATER IN GRID UNITS.
OEPTh AT GRli) POINTS.
GRIO PRINT OUT npTIDiN VArilMRLE, TRUE STMT PRINTS GnlD. (LI)
NUMBER OF SETS OF RAfS. ( I b ) .
IDENTIFYING TITLE FOR £fiCH SET. (?<»A3).
PtRIOO, ScCOfJOS.
NO. RAYS I'J EACH SET. (13)
DEEP ••JATER '.vAVE hEIGHT. (P
STARTING COORDINATES, (f'/.
INITIAL DIRECTION uF RiY !.
DIMENSION TITL(2a)
INTEGER ODATE, TT, TOTTIM,n,jE»< •
COMMON DU2),fc.(fa),WAR,3l,b2,Cu,C*f ,
.T,F,GR!NC,HO,IGO,JGO,Llf1MrT,M-Pi'.T
. SK , T , UW , UF , V , r,L , "JLO , W AD , Gk I D , L.FK (
LOGICAL fDGRID
DATA IFEET,rnLtS,I,^TRE/'Ff.', '•:
FORMA I (5 II rUF 10. S)
FORMAT (a A 3)
FORMAT(IS)
(F7.2J
O <, JtuT AS , DRC , D I G^ , J < V , c.
PK , .-•• I , v J , S IG ,
) , TLP ,
«C T I 0 i
ST
'^ 1 ' , / 1 ^0 , 9X ,
FORD UNIVERSITY
51
52
56
57
58 FORMAT(I3,F8.2,Fo.2)
59 FORMAU3F7.2)
60 FORMAT(1H1,9X, ' STAFFORD
.' DEVELOPED AT CIVIL t^GlN
./fA',9X,' HY R. S. UObSJN.1,
./•0',9X,' UNIVERSITY OF ^ISCO^SIV VEPSIO •!
61 FOPMAK8H SET NO . , I 3 , 1 Orl , PERIOD =,F/.2,?H
,NO.,I3rl3H, TI'-'E STEP s^a.M^eH SECS.//1H
.Y,6X,5HttfMGL£,5X,5riO£Pr4,UX,7Hiv'AX OIF , aX , 3HF I T , SX , 6HLFNG TH , ax , 5HSPE
.EO,5X,6HH£IGHT,5X,P,-iKR,dX,2HKS,//lH , I 7 , 3F9 . 2 , ?9X , 3F 1 0 . 2 )
62 FORMAT (3
-------
V 70 FORVAT(2X,T6,2y,7<>)
* 72 FQPviflT(2X,I3,3X,Io,lx,Ell.3,?X,I5,10X,l2)
WRITE16,60)
C Pt AD BASIC OATA
= MI«MJ
IF(MlMj.r,T.900) GO TO 10
READ, (L>Fp(K),K = i,--iiyj)
RHS = !*i
RMS s PriS-l.5
TOP = MJ
TOP = Tjo-t.5
UMT = G^ID
GO TO (16,17,13), I5RCCH
16 IGRCO,^ = IFEET
GO TO 19
17 GRID = (JRIP*6080.27
IGRCON = I^lLtS
GO TO 19
18 GRID = GRID*3.?31
19 CONTINUE
WRITE (6, 63) >J!I,Mj,NPRINT,UNIT,lGRCOi'-,G('riC,DCO'"
REAOC5,501) ."/OGrflD
501 FORMAT(Ll)
IF(rtDGRID) CALL OiiRIO
* J=l
C READ HAVE DATA
•"*" REAQ(5,57) TITL
*" WRITE(6,75) (TITL(I),I=l,2a)
* REAO(5,70) NOSETS, JORAYS
^ DO 111 ;JOSFT=1,NOSF.TS
-K 200 R£AD(20,72) 0.\F.rt, OOATE, «T, TOTTI^', TT
* T = TT
^ HO=HT
* AzDNErt
ET = 0
F = 0.0
SIG=fe.283l«531/T
CO = 5.120a062*T
WLO = CO*T
ORC = k'LO*0.6
OTGH = GRINC/CO
UNIT = DTGP*G»IO
•^ X = 5.0
X Y=ia.o
00 110 .NORAY s l,NCrtAYS
NPT = 1
CXY = CO
FW=F/6060.?7
WL = «LO .
81 = 1.
B2 = 1.
SK s l.
^ X=5.0*(2.0*(NORAY-U)
CALL RAYCON(X,Y,A>TGTTI>I)
282
-------
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•
-------
11 CALL OFPTh(X,Y)
IF (OXY*200. .GI. v.L) G'J TO 10
IF (r>XY .LE. 0.) ^cl"K>>
JGO = 2
ARG = 32.i725*DXY
CXY = S'JRKASGI
DCOH = lfe.l6fe2S/CXY
GO TO la
10 CI = CXY
JGO = 1
00 120 1=1,50
ARC = CDXY*SIG)/C1
CXY = CU*T ^\H(AKG)
RESIH = CXY-CI
IF (A8SC*ESID) .LT. O.OOODGO TC 13
120 CI = (CXY+CI)*0.5
13 PCCO = CXY/CG
SCMC = (l.-KCCO*t?CCO)*SIG
V = SCv1C*DXYtKCCT*CXY
OCDH = CXY*SC*C/V
ia PHX = E('4)*£.*XP + E(5)*YP + £(2)
PHY = E(6)*2.*YP+t(51*X?+E(3)
FK = (SIN(A)*PHX-COSCA)*PnY)*OCOM*OCON/CXY
END
3FOR,I HFIGHT
SUPROUTINE hEIGHT(X,Y,A,H)
COWMON 0(l?),
WL s WLO*RCCO
GN = 12.56637061«a*OXY/.-.L
CG = (1 .+GN/SIflH(GM))*CXY
IF (CG .LT. 0.1
SK =SGPT(CO/CG)
RK SABSC1./62)
RK =SQRT(HK]
H = HO*SK*RK
GO TO (Ilrl2)r
11 U = -2.*SIG*"CCO*CXY/(V*V)
GO TO 10
12 U = -0.5/OXY
10 LI ± U*DCON
OCDH = OCDH*OCOrt
COSA = COS(A)
SINA = SI'^(A)
P = -(COSA*PHX + S:.
Q = ((E(«)*2.-HI*PHX*PHXO*SI:>iA*.SI\'A-(E(S)fU*PHX*PHY)*?.*SINA*COSA
t(
*83 = ((
81 = d2
285
-------
82 = 63
END
5>FOtf,I REF^AC
SJBROUT1\E KFFRACCX, Y, A,FK, J)
,SK,T,U'.«,UF,
NCUW = 1
GO TO (11,12,10), IGO
11 F*w = FK
IGO = ?
12 OS = CXY*u>TG"
IF (ns .LT. nELTfiS) J=6
IF (DS'.LT. OELfAS)
RESMAX = 0.00005/os
13 DO 110 1=1,20
DELA = FK."*US
AA = A+DELA
AM = DELA*0.5tA
XX =
YY =
CALL CURVECXX,YY,AA,FKK)
IF (DXY .LE. 0.) J=«
IF (DXY .LF. 0.) KETHKN
GO TO (111,16), \CUR
111 FKM = (FK+FKK)*0.5
IF (I .EQ. 1) GO TO 110
IF (PES.VAX .GT. AdS(FKP-FKV)) GO TO 16
IF (I . E fl. 1") FK13 = FiJ
10 J=l
RETURN
EttD
3FOR,I .-»q
.
COMMON 0(l?),t(G),^AR,Pl,a?,CO,CXY,JCDH,OCON,uELTAS,DRC,nTGS,DXY,E
. SK , T , UW , UF , V , .\L , "LO , " AO , GK I 0 , OEP ( 9 0 0 ) , TOO , .?HS
INTEGER TOTTLM
CALL E»ROR(FIT,OIF«AX)
«rf I T E ( 6 , 6 1) \'P T , Y , Y , A ,r, , 0 x Y , 0 I P,v A X , f '1 T , i-.tl , CX Y , H , »K , SK
FQRMATdH ,I7,?F<5.2,F!l.?,FlO.?,P«.^,3F10.2,2F10.a,2X,T6)
GO TO(ll,20,21,2^,?3,2a?
286
-------
20 W«ITEC>,<5d)
6? FORMATC23H CJxVrtTURE AVE«?AG£0 AT POI»T, la)
GO TO 11
63 FO&iATnH3!u?HPAY STOPPEO, MO COMVErfG£*CE FOP CURVATURE.)
GO TP 12
FOAmHAY STOP'S", XPACHF, SHORE. X =,F7.?,6H, Y=,F7.2)
GO TO 12
65 F^ATU^iSNPAY SrOP°cD, HFAChFO fiOU^AKY. X =,F7.2,6H, Y =,
.F7.2)
GO TO 12
£o, .UMBER OF POINTS EXCEEDS «AXI,UM. LI«I
.T =,IU,13H POINTS. X =,F7.2,6H, Y =,F7.2)
"GO TO 12
" ?^AHl'7!s?H';YSS?OPPED, I.CRE^Mf DISTANCE ALONB RAY LESS THAK,
.F6.3/17rt G»IO UNITS. X =,F7.2/t>H, Y =,F7.2)
68 FORMAT (Iri ,' RAY STOPPED, *AvE HAS BROKEN. X = ',F7.2,' Y = ',F7
..2)
i2 WRITE (22, el) NPT , X , Y , ANG, DX Y , OIF"AX , FIT, *L,CX Y , h, RK , SK , TO I T I*,
*
11 RETUR'i
END
287
-------
3FOR,I
SUBROUTINE t^^np. (KTT,OIF'-'AX)
CUVMO:. 0(1? ),E(ol,/6f?,R l,h2,Cu,CXY, OCi,H,OCON, DELTAS, DHC , OTGH
.T,F,GkIf,C,^o,lGU,jnij,LI"^PT,f!PKI^T,,\P.T
.SK, T,Ui", ''F, V,..L, .^LO, .'JAP,Gn!lD,L;EP(900) ,
>< DATA EP/-999°9Q9Q99999.96/
IF (hPT .LT.3) G" TO 11
IF (EP .FJ. F(S)) r,j TO 12
11 DP(l) = ECU
DP(2) = F_m+
DP(3) = Etn+
DP(a) = PU )*
DIFMAt = 0.
SUM =0.
00 no 1 = 1, a
OIF = A6S(D(n-DPcn)
DIFMAY = A"AX1CDIF,UIFMAY)
110 SUM = DIF*OlFtSuM
DIFMAY = DIFVAY*OCON
SUM = Suw*n.25
FIT = SiTCSUM)
EP = E(5)
12 DIFMAX = DIF'""AY/OXY*100.
RETURN
END
3FOR,I DGKIO
SUBROUTINE DGP.ID
,.,,
. 5K , T , U1/.' , UF , V , ,'.L , -'.'tO , X AO, Gk 10, OEP ( 90 u ) , TOP , PHS
505 FOPMAT(1HA,9X, 'DEPTH SOU\D I NOS ' // )
DO 520 J=1,'-'J
JJ = MJ+l-J
KK = MI*(JJ-l)+l
WRITE (6, 5 1") (L)FP (K) , K = KK,
510 FOPMAT(lHO,9X,lbF5.1/)
520 CONTINUE
RETURN
END
asAvE,s REFRACTION. ,081578
SXQT
16 16 1
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6. 6. 6
6. 6. 6
13. 12.
15. 15.
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23. 23.
24. 24.
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29. 29.
950
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18. 18.
20. 20.
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23. 23.
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288
-------
30. 30. 31. 31. M. 32. 32. ^1 32. 32. 32. 32. 32. 32. 32. 32,
WAVE KFF°ACriLi*' Af fiADIGAN L^ACh OUKUG 1975
266 5
3FIN
289
-------
AVERAGE Program
Input Variables:
KK - Number of input data; 16
NPT - Number of points on the ray; 17
y
Y> - Coordinates of the starting point for each ray
2F9.2 y'
ANG - The ray angle with respect to the x-axis,
degrees; F9. 2
DXY ,- Depth (feet); Fll.2
DIFMAX - Maximum difference between actual depth at a
grid point and the computed depth; F10.2
FIT - Standard deviation of the least squares surface-
F8.2
WL - Wave length at a point on the ray (feet); F10.2
CXY - Wave speed at a point on the ray (feet per
second); F10.2
H - Wave height (feet); F10.2
RK - Refraction coefficient; F10.4
SK - Shoaling coefficient; F10.4
TOTTIM - Duration of event in hours * 100; 16
NWRITE - Branching identifier; II
Program Variables;
M - Counter for the number of rays for which a wave
has broken
NMPT - Accumulation register for NPT
XX - Accumulation register for X
YY - Accumulation register for Y
AANG - Accumulation register for ANG
DDXY - Accumulation register for DXY
DIFMAC - Accumulation register for DIFMAX
FFIT - Accumulation register for FIT
WWL - Accumulation register for WL
CCXY - Accumulation register for CXY
290
-------
HH - Accumulation register for H
RRK _ Accumulation register for RK
SSK - Accumulation register for SK
TTIME - Accumulation register for TOTTIM
NORAYS - Number of rays refracted per event
291
-------
AVERAGE Program - Structure
1. Read KK
4. If NWRITE jt 8, go to step 3
N
5. Set NNPT = Z NPT(i)
N
XX = Z X(i)
i=l
N
YY = z Y(i)
i=l
N
AANG = E ANG(i)
i=l
N
DDXY = Z DXY(i)
i=l
N
DIFMAC = Z DIFMAX(i)
i=l
N
FFIT = Z FIT(i)
i=l
N
WWL = Z WL(i)
i=l
N
CCXY = Z CXY(i)
i=l
N
HH = Z H(i)
N
= z RK(i)
N
SSK = Z SK(i)
292
-------
N
TTIME = E TOTTIM(i)
1=1
M = M+l
6. Go to step 3
7. If M = 0, go to step 2
8. Set NPT = NNPT/M
X = XX/M
Y = YY/M
ANG = AANG/M
DXY = DDXY/M
DIFMAX = DIFMAC/M
FIT = FFIT/M
WL = WWL/M
CXY = CCXY/M
H = HH/M
RK = RRK/M
SK = SSK/M
TOTTIM = TTIME/M
9. Write NPT,X,Y,ANG,DXY,DIFMAX,FIT,WL,CXY,H,RK,SK,TOTTIM
10. Go to step 2
293
-------
»A56,CP AVFKA.F. AVSRAGS
3ASG/AX PEFWACTIO.,.
»USE 22., PEFHACTIOU.
n'USt 2'!., AvF.h-StjF..
S'FOR,IS ^Al,%
"*''' AVE
-------
NIJC
992
10X2
ON 3
dOiS
SnMlNOD 0?
(00?' t>Z) 31IHM
iT' HlJJW^dOd 008
roo«:'v)jiiH,v,
/ 3/-T i J - •'• 1
-------
READJUST Program
Input Variables;
KK - Number of data points; 16
NPT - The number of points on the ray; 17
V
y) - Coordinates of the starting point for each ray-
2F9.2
ANG - The ray angle with respect to the x-axis
degrees; F9 . 2
DXY - Depth (feet); F11.2
DIFMAX - Maximum difference between actual depth at a
grid point and the computed depth; F10.2
o-T Standard deviation of the least squares surface;
F8 . 2
WL - Wave length at a point on the ray (feet); F10.2
CXY - Wave speed at a point on the ray (feet per
second) ; F10. 2
H - Wave height (feet); F10 . 2
RK - Refraction coefficient; F10 . 4
SK - Shoaling coefficient; F10.4
TOTTIM - Duration of the event in hours * 100; 15
Program Variables;
I - Counter of data points
296
-------
READJUST Program - Structure
1. Read KK
2. Read NPT,X,Y,ANG,DXY,DIFMAX,FIT,WL,LXY,H,RK,SK,TOTTIM
If end of loop, stop
3. Set ANG = ANG-180
4. Write NPT,X,Y,ANG,DXY,DIFMAX,FIT,WL,CXY,H,RK,SK,TOTTIM
5. Go to step 2
297
-------
SASG,CP READJUST.
SASG,AX AVFKAIJF.
i?USE 2«., AVERAGE..
SUSE 26. , WFADJUST.
?FOk,lS f-'AI,\
C
iNTEGtf
100
DO 10 T=1,KK
STOP
END
CSAVE,S READJUST. ,081578
iao
READJUST
T0 CALCULATE
JtfU
C?3T
298
-------
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT Program
Input Variables:
NPT - Number of points on the ray; 17
X) - Coordinates of the starting point for each ray;
Y 2F9.2
ANG - The ray angle with respect to the x-axis,
degrees; F9 .2
DXY - Depth (feet); Fll.2
DIFMAX - Maximum difference between actual depth of a
grid point and the computed depth; F10.2
FIT - Standard deviation of the least squares surface;
F8.2
WL - Wave length at a point on the ray (feet); F10.2
CXY - Wave speed at a point on the ray (feet per
second); F10.2
H - Wave height (feet); F10.2
RK - Refraction coefficient; F10.4
SK - Shoaling coefficient; F10.4
TOTTIM - Duration of the event, in hours * 100; 15
Program Variables:
ALPHA - Propagation angle, adjusted, in degrees, and
radians
N - Proportionality between the wave celerity and group
velocity
IL - Volume transport rate, in cubic feet per second
QR - Volume transported to the right, looking towards
the shoreline, in cubic feet
TOTQR - Total volume transported right, in cubic feet;
Fll.l
QL - Volume transported to the left, looking towards
the shoreline, in cubic feet
TOTQL - Total volume transported left, in cubic feet;
Fll.l
HT - Wave height, in feet
299
-------
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT Program - Structure
1. Read NPT,X,Y,ANG,DXY,DIFMAX,FIT,WL,CXY,H,RK,SK,TOTTIM
If end of file, go to step 5
2. If ANG<90, go to step 3
If ANG>90, go to step 4
If ANG=90, go to step 1
3. Let ALPHA = 90-ANG
ALPHA = ALPHA / 57.2957795131
N = 0 5 + 2^/coL-DXY
sinh(2 (27T/toL) -DXY)
IL = 0.0955 HT2.CXY-N-COS(ALPHA)-SIN(ALPHA)
OD ,T TOTTIM ,--„
= "Too— °°
N
TOTQR = Z QR.
1=1 1
Go to step 1
4. Let ALPHA = 90-ANG
ALPHA = ALPHA /57.2957795131
N = 0 5 + 2TT/(JoL-DXY
sinh(2 (27T/coL)DXY)
IL = 0.0955 HT2-CXY-N.COS(ALPHA)-SIN(ALPHA)
N
TOTQL = £ QL.
1=1 X
Go to step 1
5. Write TOTQL,TOTQR
300
-------
26., ADJUST.
£'"T TRANSPORT
INTEGER TuTTI;-.
REAL i«,Il
PI=3.1"159
TuTuL =0.0
TOTuR=0.n
SBDIMSNT TRANSPORT
USING K.OMAR
300
100"FOP.MAT(1H
HT=H
VOX, 'LEFT-, «,v,'RIbHT',/2X,' (CUBIC FEET)
NPT, X , Y , A.vG, nxY,DIF,-- AX ,FI T , ,,L,CXY,H, BK, SK ,
!F(INT(ANG1.LT.90) GO TU 20
IFCIMT(ANG).GT.SO) GO TO aO
) .EQ.90) GO TO 5
20
IU = 0. 0«55 * f ri T**2 ) *C X Y *N *COS C ALPh A )*SI:M( ALPHA)
QR=IL*FLOAT(TUTTIM/100)*3600
GO TO 5
40 ALPHA=AMG-9Q.
ALPHA = ALPHA /57.2Q577<"51 31
N = 0.5t(((2*PI/1'L)*r)XY)/ST.--,H(2*(2*PI/!'iL)*OXY))
JL=IL*FLOAT(TOTTlM/100)*3oOO
GO TO 5
50 WRITE(6,2GP)
200 FOR»AT(1X,F11.1,1X,F11.1)
STOP
END
3XQT
3FIN
5tOj
1171
301
-------
POWER PROGRAM
Input Variables;
NPT - Number of points on the ray; 17
y
Y} ~ Coordinates of the starting point for each ray;
& .c y • £
ANG - The ray angle with respect to the x-axis
degrees; F9.2 '
DXY - Depth (feet); Fll.2
DIFMAX - Maximum difference between actual depth of a arid
poxnt and the computed depth; F10.2
FIT - standard deviation of the least squares surface;
r o . Z
WL - Wavelength at a point on the ray (feet); F10.2
F10 2 ^^ SPeSd at a P°lnt °n the ray (feet per second);
H - Wave height (feet); F10.2
RK - Refraction coefficient; F10.4
SK - Shoaling coefficient; F10.4
TOTTIM - Duration of the event, in hours * 100; 15
Program Variables
ALPHA - Propagation angle, adjusted, in degrees, and
radians '
N - Proportionality between wave celerity and group
velocity ^
HT - Wave height, in feet.
Q
EGG - The product (Ht ) (wave celerity) (N) (cos2 (ALPHA))
PWR - The product of ECN and TOTTIM in feet, seconds
TOTP - Total PWR accumulated, in cubic feet
302
-------
Power Structure
1. Read NPT,X,Y,ANG,DXY,DIFMAX,FIT,WL,CXY,H,RK,SK,TOTTIM
If end of data, go to step 4
2. Compute ALPHA = 90 - ANG
Sr ' DXY
WL ^^
N = °*5 + sinh2(2TT/WL)DXy
ECG = (HT2)(CXY)(N)(cos (ALPHA))
PWR = ECG • TOTTIM • 36
TOTP = EPWR
3. Go to step 1
4. Write TOTP
5. STOP
303
-------
POWER
INTEGER TOT1IM
RF.AL N,IL
PI=3.1'41S9
TOTP=0.0
5 ^AD(26,100,EMD = SO) NPT , X , Y , AMG, DX Y , D I FM AX , F I T , rtL , C X Y , H , RK , SK ,
. I U I I J M
100 FOPMATdH ,17,3F9.2,F11.2,Fl0.2,F6.2,3F10.2,2F10.a,2X,I5)
n 1 — H
c
c
20 ALPIIA = 90.-ANG
ALPHA=ALPHA/57.29577PS131
N = 0.5t(Cf2*PI/WL)*DXY)/SIf-JH(2*(2*PI/WL)*DXY))
E.CG=(HT**2)*CXY*r,'*((COS(ALPHA) )**2)
TOTP=TOTP+PWR
GU TO 5
50 lVKlTf;(6,200) TOTP
200 FORMAT(2X,E10.2)
STOP
END
304
-------
SEDIMENT STATISTICS Program
Input Variables:
IDNO - Station identification number; 12A1
FEEVAL - Phi value of sieve pan size; F4.1
FREQVL - Frequency of total sediment trapped; F5.2
Output Variables:
MEAN - Mean phi value of the sample
STANDV - Standard deviation of the sample
SKEW - Skewness of the sample
KURT - Kurtosis of the sample
305
-------
SEDIMENT STATISTICS Program - Structure
1. Read IDNOK,i = average phi value
pi = frequency of the phi value
7 ? 1/2
_£ pi(4>i-XRr
4. Calculate STANDV = (i=1 >
K 100 ;
^ pi(4)i-XK)3
5. Calculate SKEW = i^-i
100(STANDV)3
_Z pi(cj)i-XK)4
Calculate KURT = i^
100(STANDV)4
K = K+l
6. Go to step 1
7. Print (IDNO ,STANDV ,SKEW KURT^ K = l,n)
•T\. J\ J\ J\
where n is the number of data stations
306
-------
SEDIMENT STATISTICS
C THIS HPu&KAi-: CALCULATES ThF. GcO.vFlRiC «cAN, SFAi-DAPQ UE V I AT I 0,^
C R»\F""LSb >V 0 KHxTuSISOF Tt'-1 StOI^'l SA-.PLFS COLLECTED UFFSrtOrtF
C AT MADIGA.-i bF^CH .-jFA" ASHLAND WIS(.0. PnlviUd)
1 = 1 + 1
IF (I .LT.a) GO TO 5
MEAf^(K) = TOT/100.
I = 1
suv = o.o
10 X = (FEEVAL(T) - MEAN(K))**2
Y = FKECWL (I) * X
SUV = SO'-' +. Y
1 = 1 + 1
IF (I .LT. a) teO TO 10
STAi\lDV(K) = SQ»T (SU'VIOO.)
I = 1
SUW = 0.0
15 X = (FEtVAL(T) - -IFAN (K))**3
Y = X * FRFGVL(i)
1 = 1 + 1
SUM = SU^t + Y
IF (I.LT.B) GO TT 15
SKF.v(K) = SU-^/dOO. * (STANOV(^)*«3
I = 1
SUV =0.0
20 X = (FEEVALd) - ,*FAN(K))**U
Y = X * FRFQVLd)
SUM = S'J'-1 + Y
1 = 1 + 1
IF (I.LT.3) GO TO 20
KURT(K) = SU'-VCIOO. * (3TAfJDV(K)
K = K + 1
GO TO 1
50 WHITE C-,oOO)
600 FuRXAT (/1MO,SX, 'STATIC;;' , 4X,'r.iFAN', ax, ' STA^OASD ' , n X ,
2r«X, 'KUKTJSIS',/, 24 X, ' jF.VlATION1)
900 FORMAT (Fa.l,2X,C4.1,2X,F4.1,2X,F4.1,2X,F4.1,2X,Fy.l,2X,C-4.1)
800 FOPMAT(12A1)
L = K - 1
DO 60 K = 1,L
60 WRITE (-,700) (IONO(K,J), J = 1 , 1 2 ) , VEAi\, (K ) , ST AiMOV (K) , SrtF:% (K ) ,
IKURT(K)
7uO FOPMAT(5X,12Al,lX,?o.2,3X,Fo.e,6X,Fo.2,bX,Fo.2)
1000 FORMAT (7(F5.c,2XJ)
STOP
END
30?
-------
APPENDIX 4
The Hydrographic Survey
A hydrographic survey of Madigan Beach was conducted
June 13th and 14th, 1977 at Madigan Beach. A similar hydro-
graphic survey was conducted in June, 1976; details are in
Shands (1977). Figure V shows the resultant bathymetric
map from the 1976 survey.
The 1977 survey was divided into two parts — the near-
shore work and the offshore measurements. In the nearshore
zone, differential leveling profiles were run perpendicular
to the baseline using a transit, and wet-suited person
equipped with a Philadelphia rod and cloth tape. Eleva-
tions were recorded at the water's edge, and at 25,50,75,
and 100 foot intervals measured from the baseline. Subse-
quently, the depths at these locations were determined
after the elevation of the lake level was established
through the use of known benchmarks. These elevations and
depths are recorded in Table A-2.
The offshore measurements were conducted from a Zodiac
boat, a rubber, inflatable craft which may be propelled
either by oars or an outboard motor. The boat's location
at each measurement locale was determined through triangu-
lation of three transit readings from baseline stations;
each transit reading was read to the nearest 20 or 30
minutes. The true boat location was chosen to be the inter-
section of the angle bisectors of the error triangle formed
by the three transit readings. In this way no one reading
would be weighed more heavily than any other. Figure VT
shows these error triangles and boat locations.
The depth measurements offshore were measured using a
chart-recording Raytheon fathometer, model DE 719. Lead-
line readings were also taken to provide a calibration
check for the fathometer. On each transect made, four mea-
surements were taken. Table A-3 lists the depth measure-
ments. Figure VI shows the measurement locations.
Using both nearshore and offshore data, a contour map
of Madigan Beach hydrography for June 13 and 14, 1977 was
made. Figure VII shows both tha raw data and contour inter-
pretation. For refraction purposes, this contour map was
gridded on a square mesh, 400 foot interval grid.
All depths are referenced to the lake level during
June 13 and 14, 1977. On June 13, Lake Superior water
level at Madigan Beach was determined to be elevation
599.80 (International Great Lakes Datum).
The 1978 hydrographic survey, conducted on June 5 and
6, was performed in the same manner as the 1977 survey.
Boat locations and contour map are shown in Figures VIII and
IX.
308
-------
Tables A-5, A-6, and A-7 give 1978 data for nearshore
water depths, offshore water depths, and transit readings,
respectively.
309
-------
VM
M
O
\
0 INDICATES SOUNDINGS IN
STA 92.00 FEET
HAOICAN BEACH
Figure V. Bathymetry at Madigan Beach 1976
-------
v v
Figure VIII. Boat locations in determination of bathymetry 1978
-------
Figure IX. Bathymetry at Madigan Beach 1978.
Contour Interval 2 feet.
-------
Figure VII. Bathymetry at Madigan Beach 1977
Contour Interval 2 feet
-------
^ r
^K
X:
*
^
.¥.,*'
^f '^^
^ F£
^ ^
r
^ .*
^
Figure VI. Boat Locations in Determination of Bathymetry 1977
-------
Table A-2. Nearshore Elevations and Water Depths - 1977
Profile
Station
92 + 30
94+100
96+00
98 + 00
100+00
102+00
104+00
106+00
Distance from
Baseline
(feet)
15
25
50
50
100
15
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
25
50
75
100
25
50
75
100
0
25
50
75
100
10
25
50
75
100
10
25
50
75
100
Elevation
Reading
(feet)
5. 72
6.94
8.34
8.46
9.95
6.02
7.37
8.36
8.72
9.32
5.60
8.50
9.37
9.57
9.75
6.02
9.09
8.23
8.55
5.56
6.44
8.62
8.89
9.26
7.16
8.09
11.29
11.31
11.15
7.09
9.53
9.73
9.51
10.23
7.22
9.09
10.25
10.33
10.67
Water
Depth
(feet)
0.0
1.22
2.62
2.74
4.23
0.0
1.35
2.34
2.70
3.30
0.0
2.90
3.77
3.97
4.15
0.0
3.07
2.21
2.53
0.0
0.88
3.06
3.33
3.70
0 .0
0.93
4.13
4.15
3.99
0.0
2.44
2.64
2.42
3.14
0.0
1.87
3.03
3.11
3.45
315
-------
Profile
Station
108+00
110+00
112+00
114+00
116+00
Distance from
Baseline
(feet)
0
25
50
75
100
37
60
85
110
135
25
50
75
100
9
25
50
75
100
25
50
75
100
Elevation
Reading
(feet)
6.89
10.15
10.92
10.83
10.54
7.26
10.78
10.12
10.46
9.50
6.05
9.55
9.24
9.36
6.20
8.80
9.91
10.40
10.46
6.37
9.63
10.74
10.82
Water
Depth
(feet)
0.00
3.26
4.03
3.94
3.65
0.0
3.52
2.86
3.20
2.24
0.0
3.50
3.19
3.31
0.0
2.60
3.71
4.20
4.26
0.0
3.26
4.37
4.45
316
-------
Table A-3. Offshore Water Depths - 1977
Run-Reading
Number
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
2-1
2-2
2-3 .
2-4
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
Water
Depth
(feet)
22.5
17.0
13.0
3.5
25.0
17.0
12.5
5.5
24.0
20.0
12.5
5.5
29.5
23.5
12.5
7.5
28.5
23.0
12.5
7.0
26.5
21.5
13.0
5.0
23.0
14.0
4.5
2.5
Run-Reading
Number
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
12-1
12-2
12-3
12-4
13-1
13-2
13-3
13-4
14-1
14-2
14-3
14-4
Water
Depth
(feet)
29.5
25.5
22.5
6.5
30.0
22.5
13.5
6.0
29.5
24.0
13.0
5.5
27.0
22.5
13.0
7.5
29.0
23.0
13.5
7.0
29.0
23.0
15.0
7.0
29.5
20.5
14.0
10.0
317
-------
Table A-4 Transit Readings - Offshore Survey 1977
00
Transit Reference Run-Reading
Station Position Number
116+00 Counterclock- 1-1
wise from 1-2
Stn 110+00 1-3
(0-00) 1-4
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
92+30 Clockwise 8-1
from 8-2
Stn 100+00 8-3
(0-00) 8-4
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
Transit
Reading
(degrees ,
minutes )
57-20
44-20
29-00
13-40
66-00
50-40
37-20
19-00
74-40
70-40
60-00
33-00
86-00
84-00
75-40
48-00
66-00
62-00
50-30
17-00
69-30
61-30
44-30
18-30
72-00
68-00
50-30
24-30
Run-Reading
Number
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
12-1
12-2
12-3
12-4
13-1
13-2
13-3
13-4
14-1*
14-2*
14-3*
14-4*
Transit
Reading
(degrees,
minutes)
81-20
80-20
80-40
81-20
97-00
102-40
114-40
140-40
73-20
61-00
23-20
9-20
94-00
89-00
79-00
51-00
95-00
96-30
97-00
101-30
89-00
79-00
67-30
48-30
* Sediment Sample taken
-------
92 + 30
cont.
104+00
Counterclock-
wise from BM A
(0-00)
vD
110+00
Counterclock-
wise from
Stn 116+00
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
83-00
78-30
62-00
32-00
90-00
93-30
96-30
97-30
98-00
104-30
113-00
132-30
109-00
118-00
133-30
157-30
112-00
121-00
139-00
165-30
73-30
65-00
-
26-30
82-00
74-45
66-00
44-00
93-45
95-30
100-00
106-15
100-00
104-00
113-00
140-30
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
7-1*
7-2*
7-3*
7-4*
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
* S
109-30
118-30
142-00
167-00
123-30
136-30
155-30
171-00
109-00
122-00
158-00
174-00
96-30
101-00
118-30
153-00
112-00
123-00
142-00
164-15
91-45
92-00
86-00
73-30
Sediment Sample taken
-------
96+00
offset
Counterclock-
wise from
Stn 92+30
100+00
o
Counterclock-
wise from
Stn 96+00
offset(O-OO)
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-4
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
103-40
106-30
115-40
160-00
100-10
105-30
118-20
145-40
97-20
99-20
108-40
129-20
85-00
86-40
92-00
99-00
96-00
97-00
101-30
124-00
92-30
93-30
96-30
100-00
89-00
88-45
84-00
67-00
76-00
74-30
67-00
38-00
12-1
12-2
12-3
12-4
13-1
13-2
13-3
13-4
14-1
14-2
14-3
14-4
12-1
12-2
12-3
12-4
13-1
13-2
13-3
13-4
14-1
14-2
14-3
14-4
75-20
75-30
73-20
51-00
74-50
69-10
59-20
38-00
80-00
84-00
86-40
92-00
68-00
64-00
52-30
21-30
68-00
59-00
44-00
22-00
72-00
70-00
64-00
48-30
-------
Table A-5 Nearshore Elevations and Water Depths 1978
Station
90+00
92+00
94 + 00
96+00
98+00
100+00
102+00
104+50
106+00
108+00
Distance from
Baseline (feet)
29.5
50.0
75.0
100.0
11.0
25.0
50.0
75.0
100.0
26.0
50.0
75.0
100.0
25.5
50.0
75.0
100.0
25.0
50.0
75.0
100.0
29.0
50.0
75.0
100.0
3.5
25.0
50.0
75.0
100.0
28.5
50.0
75.0
29.0
50.0
63.0
30.0
50.0
75.0
93.0
Elevation
(feet)
6.91
7. 81
8.24
9. 70
6.39
7.31
8.09
9.54
9.61
7. 80
9.75
9.85
11. 72
7.71
9.80
10.11
11.19
6.26
8.39
9.50
9.58
10.91
-10.45
-10. 78
-11.90
-11.14
-11.53
-12.01
-13.3
-12.40
-13.7
-11.98
-12.60
-11.88
-11.65
-12.55
Water Depth
(feet)
0.00
0.90
1.33
2. 79
0.00
0.92
1. 70
3.15
3.22
0.00
1.95
2.05
3.92
0.00
2.09
2.40
3.48
0.00
2.13
3.24
3.32
4.65
0.00
1.23
1.56
2.68
0.00
1.92
2.31
2.79
4.08
0.00
2.84
4.14
0.00
3.17
3.79
0.00
3.07
2.84
3.74
321
-------
110+00 25.0 -8.81 0.00
50.0 -11.03 2.22
75.0 -11.18 2.37
100.0 -12.23 3.42
322
-------
Table A-6 Offshore Water Depths 1978
Number
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
2-1
2-2
2-3
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
10-1
Depth (feet)
30.5
25.5
20.0
10.0
20.0
19.0
13.0
25.0
22.0
13.0
4.5
27.5
23. 0
14.0
6. 0
28.5
25.0
17.0
6. 0
29.0
24.0
20.0
8.0
28.0
22.0
16.0
6.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0*
*Sediment Sample
Number :
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
11-5
12-1
12-2
12-3
12-4
12-5
13-1
13-2
13-3
13-4
13-5
14-1
14-2
14-3
14-4
14-5
15-1
15-2
15-3
15-4
15-5
16-1
16-2
16-3
16-4
16-5
17-1
17-2
17-3
17-4
17-5
18-1
18-2
18-3
18-4
18-5
Depth (feet)
26.0
19.0
10.0
4.0
4.0
32.0
26.0
18.0
10.0
5.0
27.0
20.0
11.0
9.0
5.0
29.0
26.0
22.0
12.5
8.5
27.5
23.0
14.0
8.0
3.0
31.5
25.5
18.0
9.5
4.5
22.0
17.0
14.0
8.0
3.0
2.0
3.0
3.5
3.5
3.0
-------
Table A-7 Transit Readings - Offshore Survey 1978
Transit
Station
90+00
Reference
Position
Counterclock-
wise from
Stn 92+00
V>J
ro
94+00
Counterclock-
wise from
Stn 98+00
Run-Reading
Number
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
3-1
3-2
3-3
Transit
Reading
(degrees ,
minutes)
96-15
95-30
92-30
95-00
-
-
-
-
83-45
83-00
78-00
54-30
78-00
77-45
67-30
38-00
74-15
71-45
65-00
26-45
101-40
102-55
105-20
125-00
90-30
93-20
97-55
-
93-10
94-20
97-55
Run-Reading
Number
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
10-1
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
7-1
7-2
7-3
Transit
Reading
(degrees,
minutes)
72-30
69-00
59-00
27-00
71-00
65-15
52-15
13-45
5-30
6-15
22-30
96-30
54-45
21-45
11-45
8-30
20-30
82-05
81-30
80-45
52-35
79-40
78-55
73-10
45-50
77-10
74-30
66-25
-------
98+00 Counterclock-
wise from
Stn 94+00
(180-00)
VM
IX)
vn
3-4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-4
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
4-1
4-2
4-3
4-4
5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4
114-35
86-00
88-25
88-00
82-10
107-40
110-43
117-08
143-05
101-31
106-54
119-04
-
102-00
105-16
115-49
148-59
94-01
99-15
108-23
135-19
89-57
91-40
98-08
110-54
7-4
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
10-1
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-4
7-1
7-2
7-3
7-4
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-4
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
10-1
22-05
19-20
16-50
130-00
153-35
152-35
88-50
25-25
14-15
55-10
87-02
89-21
88-55
94-50
84-46
86-07
85-49
56-50
79-40
164-25
166-04
165-40
167-45
158-11
124-00
44-09
144-50
-------
102+00
Counterclock-
wise from
Stn 104+50
en
106+00
Counterclock-
wise from
Stn 110+00
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
11-5
12-1
12-2
12-3
12-4
12-5
13-1
13-2
13-3
13-4
13-5
14-1
14-2
14-3
14-4
14-5
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
11-5
12-1
12-2
12-3
12-4
12-5
13-1
13-2
13-3
13-4
13-5
94-30
97-00
104-15
116-15
126-30
90-00
90-45
90-00
79-30
53-30
76-00
71-30
56-15
41-45
21-00
69-15
67-00
62-00
49-30
21-30
106-25
113-20
131-35
154-25
164-30
99-55
102-45
111-10
124-20
150-50
87-15
87-10
85-35
85-00
75-25
15-1
15-2
15-3
15-4
15-5
16-1
16-2
16-3
16-4
16-5
17-1
17-2
17-3
17-4
17-5
18-1
18-2
18-3
18-4
18-5
15-1
15-2
15-3
15-4
15-5
16-1
16-2
16-3
16-4
16-5
17-1
17-2
17-3
17-4
17-5
72-45
69-00
52-15
27-30
8-15
61-15
57-30
47-45
28-30
8-00
52-15
41-00
31-30
14-45
4-45
5-00
10-15
17-45
20-45
131-00
83-30
82-05
70-45
47-25
18-25
69-35
67-40
61-15
42-45
15-00
62-50
53-00
43-05
22-55
9-50
-------
110+00
Counterclock-
wise from
Stn 106+00
(180-00)
14-1
14-2
14-3
14-4
14-5
11-1
11-2
11-3
11-4
11-5
12-1
12-2
12-3
12-4
12-5
13-1
13-2
13-3
13-4
13-5
14-1
14-2
14-3
14-4
14-5
78-50
77-35
75-10
71-00
46-20
114-26
124-28
125-38
164-31
170-35
106-06
110-33
124-54
145-55
166-06
95-17
100-03
113-32
132-02
155-15
85-57
86-34
-
96-03
115-33
18-1
18-2
18-3
18-4
18-5
15-1
15-2
15-3
15-4
15-5
16-1
16-2
16-3
16-4
16-5
17-1
17-2
17-3
17-4
17-5
18-1
18-2
18-3
18-4
18-5
13-25
33-40
115-10
165-30
171-55
91-25
93-49
89-34
85-12
75-27
75-51
76-00
74-45
63-40
29-15
72-18
64-57
56-22
34-05
15-02
97-30
157-57
165-34
175-07
175-32
-------
EDITOR'S NOTE
WATER QUALITY MONITORING DATA
The water quality data are not presented here. The data may
be acquired through the Storet process. The following codes are
applicable for the Minnesota monitoring stations:
Elim Creek near Holyoke 04024-090
Skunk Creek near Holyoke 04024093
Deer Creek near Holyoke 04024098
328
-------
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OP THE INTERIOR
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
HYDROLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS OP ELIM, SKUNK,
AND DEER CREEKS,
UPPER NEMADJI RIVER BASIN, MINNESOTA
By E. G. Giacomini, R. J. Wolf, G. A. Payne,
and D. G. Adolphson
Open-Pile Report 80-47
Prepared in cooperation with
Douglas County, Wisconsin
Soil and Water Conservation District
St. Paul, Minnesota
1979
329
-------
GLOSSARY
Because many of the terms related to fluvial sediment are not completely
standardized, the following definitions are included as a guide to the termin-
ology used in this report:
Bed material. The shifting part of the granular material that forms the bed of
most streams.
Bedload or sediment discharged as bedload. Includes both the sediment that
moves in continuous contact with the streambed and the material that bounces
along the bed in short skips or leaps.
Drainage area of a stream at a specified location. That area, enclosed by a
topographic divide from which direct surface runoff from precipitation nor-
mally drains by gravity into the stream above the specified point. Figures
of drainage area given herein include all closed basins, or noncontributing
areas, within the area.
Particle size. The diameter, in millimeters (mm), of suspended sediment or bed
material determined by either sieve or sedimentation methods.
Particle-size classification. Agrees with recommendations made by the American
Geophysical Union Subcommittee on Sediment Terminology. The classification
is as follows:
Classification Size (mm)
Clay 0.00024 - 0.004
Silt 0.004 - 0.062
Sand 0.062 - 2.0
Gravel 2.0 - 64.0
Sediment. Solid material that originates mostly from disintegrated rocks and
is transported by, suspended in, or deposited from water; it includes chemical
and biochemical precipitates and decomposed organic material such as humus.
Sediment-transport curve. Usually the relation between water discharge and
suspended-sediment discharge, but it can be between water discharge and bed-
load discharge or between water discharge and total sediment discharge (sum
of sediment discharge in suspension and bedload).
Suspended sediment. The sediment that at any given time is maintained in sus-
pension by the upward components of turbulent currents or that exists in
suspension as a colloid.
330
-------
GLOSSARY
Suspended-sediment concentration. The velocity-weighted concentration of sedi-
ment in the sampled zone [from the water surface to a point approximately
0.1 m (0.3 ft) above the bed] expressed as milligrams of dry sediment per
liter of water-sediment mixture (mg/L).
Suspended-sediment discharge. The rate at which sediment passes a section of
a stream, or the quantity of sediment that is discharged in unit time. When
expressed in tons per day, it is computed by multiplying water discharge in
cubic feet per second (ft3/s) times the suspended-sediment concentration in
milligrams per liter (mg/L) times the factor 0.0027.
Total sediment discharge. The sum of the suspended-sediment discharge and the
bedload discharge.
Water discharge or discharge. The amount of water and sediment flowing in a
channel cross section expressed as volume per unit time. The water contains
both dissolved solids and suspended sediment.
CONVERSION FACTORS
Multiply
inch-pound unit
inch (in)
foot (ft)
mile (mi)
acre-foot (acre-ft)
square mile (mi2)
cubic foot per second (ft3/s)
ton (short)
ton per square mile
(tons/mi2)
pound per cubic foot
(lb/ft3)
By_ To obtain SI unit
25.40 millimeter (mm)
0.3048 meter (m)
1.609 kilometer (km)
0.001233 cubic hectometer (hm3)
2.590 square kilometer (km2)
0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)
0.9072 megagram (Mg)
0.3503 megagram per square kilometer
(Mg/km2)
16.02 kilogram per cubic meter
(kg/m3)
331
-------
HYDROLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS OP ELIM, SKUNK,
AND DEER CREEKS,
UPPER NEMADJI RIVER BASIN, MINNESOTA
E. G. Giacomini, R. J. Wolf, G. A. Payne,
and D. G. Adolphson
Job Number 44270046
ABSTRACT
Sediment and water-quality characteristics of three tributaries of the
Nemadji River in the Red Clay area of northeastern Minnesota were determined to
aid in evaluating methods for reduction of sediment and related pollutants from
streams in western Lake Superior basin. The relationship of ground-water move-
ment to slumping of the land surface in the Red Clay area was investigated.
Streamflow during the study from 1976-78 was generally 70 percent of nor-
mal. Daily mean suspended-sediment concentrations as high as 3,600 milligrams
per liter were measured, and the annual sediment yields of Elim, Skunk, and
Deer Creeks ranged from 42.6 to 640 tons per square mile (14.9 to 224 megagrams
per square kilometer). During storm runoff, the suspended sediment averaged 70
percent clay, 27 percent silt, and 3 percent fine sand.
Significant increases in concentrations of phosphorus, nitrogen, and bacter-
ia in Skunk and Deer Creeks occur during runoff from spring snowmelt and summer
storms. Very small increases in discharge above base-flow conditions were con-
current with large increases in concentration of some constituents, particularly
nitrogen and phosphorus. In contrast, dissolved solids were reduced by more than
50 percent during snowmelt runoff to concentrations of about 100 milligrams per
liter. Although both creeks are in the Red Clay area and have similar drainage
areas, bicarbonate concentrations during low-flow conditions in Deer Creek typic-
ally were 25 percent higher than in Skunk Creek. The pesticide 2,4,5-T was de-
tected at a concentration of 0.01 milligram per liter in one water sample from
Skunk Creek. Concentrations of lead and mercury in some of the samples exceeded
limits recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for the protection
of freshwater aquatic life.
332
-------
Recharge from rainfall or snowmelt reaches depths of 18 feet (5.5 m) in the
red clay, increasing pore pressure in clay and causing hillside slumping. Verti-
cal-pressure differences in Skunk Creek valley indicate a downward and lateral
movement of ground water in upland areas and upward movement in the area of the
valley bottom and valley sides. In the areas where slumping occurs, ground water
commonly moves upward along fractures and joints, which also increases pore pres-
sure in the overlying clays, thus increasing the possibility of slump. Direction
of ground-water flow may reverse seasonally in response to recharge.
INTRODUCTION
Purpose and Scope
The Red Clay area, along the south shore of Lake Superior in Minnesota and
Wisconsin, is subject to land slides and to channel and gully erosion. High sedi-
ment yields from the area degrade the water quality and clarity of Lake Superior.
The Douglas County, Wis., Soil and Water Conservation District, serving as coord-
inator for the several conservation districts in the area, began a comprehensive
study with the U.S. Geological Survey and other State and Federal agencies in
August 1975. The purpose of the interagency study was to evaluate methods for
reduction of sediment and related pollutants from streams in the western Take
Superior basin.
This report presents the findings of the U.S. Geological Survey's 3-year
monitoring at selected gaging stations and piezometer nests in the Skunk, KLim,
and Deer Creek demonstration subwatersheds of the Upper Nemadji River basin.
The objectives were to (1) define the sediment characteristics and yields of each
subwatershed, (2) determine flow characteristics of ELim, Skunk, and Deer Creeks,
(3) define the water-quality characteristics of Skunk and Deer Creeks, and (4)
investigate the relationship of ground-water seepage and water-table fluctuations
to the stability of red clay.
333
-------
Previous Studies
Quarterly and annual reports have been completed by the agencies Involved in
the Red Clay Project (1972). The reports describe intense land treatment methods
to reduce erosion in selected demonstration watersheds. No previous detailed in-
vestigation of the geohydrology has been made in the Nemadji River basin, but the
area has been included in regional studies. Thiel (1947) describes the geology
and ground-water resources of northeastern Minnesota. The Quaternary history and
stratigraphy of the area is described by Wright (1972). Olcott and others (1978)
made a general study of the geology and water resources of the Lake Superior water-
shed. Collier (1974) indicated the range of expected annual sediment yields for
the Nemadji River basin in a report on watersheds in Minnesota.
GENERAL FEATURES OF THE STUDY AREA
The Red Clay area included in this study is about 20 miles southwest of
Duluth and is comprised of the Elim, Skunk, and Deer Creek subwatersheds of the
Nemadji River basin, Carlton County, Minn. (fig. 1). The area is in the Glacial
Lake Duluth and Barnum clay-till physiographic subdivision (Wright, 1972, p. 564).
The deeply dissected creeks flow from west to east through a nearly level plain,
which represents the abandoned floor of Glacial Lake Duluth. Land-surface alti-
tudes range from 786 feet (240 meters) to 1,100 feet (335 meters). About 80 per-
cent of the land is forested; the rest is mostly cropland and pasture (U.S. Soil
Conservation Service, 1975, p. 6).
Bedrock in the Nemadji River basin is a complex of Precambrian volcanic and
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. Sandstone overlies the Precambrian rocks in
part of the watershed. The overlying glacial drift, as much as 400 feet thick,
is primarily red clayey lake sediments; the remainder is outwash and ice-contact
deposits (Olcott and others, 1978).
33^
-------
HYDROLOGIC CONDITIONS
The study area has a continental-type climate, typical of temperate zones
at lat 47° N. Temperature ranges from an average 8.4°F (-13.2°C) in January to
66.2°F (19.2°C) in July. Average yearly temperature is 39.2°F (4.0°C).
According to Kuehnast (1972, p. 18), the mean annual precipitation is 28
inches (711 mm) in the northwestern part of the area and gradually increases to
30 inches (762 mm) in the southeastern part. Approximately two-thirds of the
annual precipitation occurs as rain during the growing season April through
September. Data are based on the period 1951-70.
The total annual precipitation, based on National Oceanographic and Atmos-
pheric Administration [(NOAA), 1977; 1978; 1979] records from Cloquet, was 20.01
inches (508 mm) in 1976, 37.10 inches (942 mm) in 1977, and 30.08 inches (764
mm) in 1978. Cumulative departure for 1976-78 from the 1941-70 average precip-
itation is plotted on figure 2.
METHODS OP SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS
Stream-gaging stations were constructed adjacent to ELim, Skunk, and Deer
Creeks (fig. 3). The location and drainage areas of the stations are given in
table 1. Equipment was installed in the stations to record stage and to collect
samples of streamflow. Ground-water piezometers were installed along a transect
of the Skunk Creek channel.
Continuous records of stage in the creeks were obtained and related to flow
on the basis of periodic current-meter measurements. Daily streamflows were cal-
culated for recorded stages. These values, along with the dally maximum values
for storm days, were tabulated.
The sampling stations were equipped with automatic pumping samplers (PS-
69). Samplers were set to sample once daily and at stage intervals of 0.34 foot
(0.10 m) during storms. The 72-bottle capacity samplers were serviced at 5-week
intervals and more frequently during storm periods.
335
-------
Table 1.—Location of stream-gaging stations
Station name
and number
Location
Drainage
area
Elim Creek near
Holyoke, Minn.
04024090
Lat 46°31'03", long 92°28'55", in NE1/4
NE1/4 sec.33, T.47 N., R. 17 W., Carlton
County, Hydrologic Unit 04010301, on
right bank, 250 ft (76.2 m) downstream
from Soo Line Railroad tracks, 1.2 mi
(1.9 km) above mouth at Skunk Creek, and
5.6 mi (9.0 km) northwest of Holyoke.
1.06 mi2
(2.75 km2)
Skunk Creek below
Elim Creek near
Holyoke, Minn.
04024093
Lat 46°30'56", long 92°27'45", in SW1/4
NW1/4 sec.35, T.47 N., R. 17 W., Carlton
County, Hydrologic Unit 04010301, on
right bank, 250 ft (76.2 m) downstream
from County Road No. 103, 1.2 mi (1.9 km)
above mouth at Nemadji River, and 4.4 mi
(7.1 km) northwest of Holyoke.
8.83 mi2
(22.9 km2)
Deer Creek near
Holyoke, Minn.
04024098
Lat 46°31'30', long 92°23'20", in NE1/4
SE1/4 sec.29. T.47 N., R. 16 W., Carlton
County, Hydrologic Unit 04010301, on left
bank 179 ft (54.6 m) west of State High-
way 23, 0.9 mi (1.4 km) upstream from
mouth at Nemadji River, and 4.0 mi (6.4
km) north of Holyoke.
7.77 mi2
(20.1 krr
336
-------
The automatic sampler collects a sample of the water-sediment mixture at a
fixed point. Generally this sample is not representative of the average concen-
trations in the channel cross section. Therefore, suspended-sediment measurements
were made periodically to determine coefficients to be applied to the sediment
concentrations of the pumped samples to adjust for variation of the distribution
of sediment in the channel cross section.
These measurements consist of collecting suspended-sediment samples at four
to five verticals in the channel cross section and relating their mean sediment
concentration to that of the pumped sample. The sediment samples for the meas-
urements were collected with depth-integrating samplers and by methods outlined
by Guy and Norman (1970).
Analysis of all the samples for suspended-sediment concentration was done
by decantation, filtration, drying, and weighing (Guy, 1969). The sediment
concentrations were reported in mg/L (milligrams per liter).
Particle size of suspended sediment and bed materials for selected samples
were determined by sieve analysis, visual-accumulation tube, and by pipet for
particles finer than 0.062 mm (millimeters).
Water samples were collected from Skunk and Deer Creeks for measurement or
analysis of physical properties and chemical constituents. Samples were collected
and analyzed by methods described by Brown and others (1970), and Goerlitz and
Brown (1972). Fecal coliform and fecal Streptococci bacteria were determined by
the membrane-filter technique described by Greeson and others (1977). Dissolved-
oxygen concentrations were determined by dissolved-oxygen meter. The percentage
of dissolved-oxygen saturation was calculated and adjusted for temperature and
altitude as described by American Public Health Association and others (1971,
p. 480).
Ground-water flow was studied by periodically measuring water levels in three
piezometer nests installed in a line across Skunk Creek valley. Hydrographs were
plotted from the measurements and analyzed to indicate vertical differences in
33
n
-------
head with depth and change in head with time at each piezometer site. Hydrologic
sections were then drawn to depict the direction of ground-water flow at particu-
lar times. In addition to periodic measurements at the Skunk Creek piezometer
nest, water levels were also monitored continuously by recorders installed in
shallow piezometers at the Elim Creek and Deer Creek stream-gaging stations (fig.
3). The Elim Creek station is 1.3 miles (2.1 km) west of the Skunk Creek piezom-
eter nests and the Deer Creek station 3.6 miles (5.8 km) east of the piezometer
nests.
STREAM CHARACTERISTICS
Streamflow
The stream-gaging stations on Elim and Skunk Creeks were operated from March
1976 through September 1978; the station on Deer Creek was operated from October
1976 through September 1978. Plows in the creeks are highest from March to July
and are low, or vary in response to rain storms or ice conditions, during the rest
of the year (fig. 4). During the summer and winter, streamflow is often less than
1 ft3/s, and during dry years there is no flow in Elim and Skunk Creeks during
early fall and winter months. The maximum discharge during storms ranged from 10
to 54 ft3/s (0.28 to 1.53 m3/s) in Elim Creek, 79 to 220 ft3/s (2.24 to 6.23 m3/s)
in Skunk Creek, and 100 to 378 ft3/s (2.83 to 10.7 m3/s) in Deer Creek. A summary
of streamflow data for Elim, Skunk, and Deer Creeks is given in table 2.
338
-------
Table 2.—Summary of streamflow data for El1m, Skunk, and Deer Creeks
Name
Range in dally
mean discharge
(ft3/s) (m5/s)
Average
discharge
(ft3/s) (m5/s)
Maximum
discharge
(ft3/s) (rrP/s)
Elim Creek near
Holyoke, Minn.
0-17
0-0.48
0.70 0.020
54 1.53
Skunk Creek below
Elim Creek near
Holyoke, Minn.
0-131
0-3.71
5.60 0.159
220 6.23
Deer Creek near
Holyoke, Minn.
0.35-142 .010-4.02 5.51 0.156
378 10.7
339
-------
Fluvial Sediment
Sediment discharge is generally related to water discharge, intensity of
rainfall, vegetal cover, soil condition, land use, and topography. Of these
factors, vegetal cover and land use tend to minimize the overland sediment
runoff in the Red Clay area, which is predominantly forest land. Most sediment
discharge is produced by intense rainfall that erodes the moderate to steep
clay banks of streams and road cuts.
During rainfall, sediment particles are dislodged by the impact of rain
drops and by overland runoff, mainly from exposed clay banks, and carried into
streams where high velocities and turbulence maintain the particles in suspen-
sion. Storms with intense rainfall, which result in highest sediment concen-
trations, generally occur during spring and early summer.
Method of computation
Daily mean suspended-sediment concentrations were used to compute sediment
discharge for days when the flow was uniform. But, for days when discharge var-
ied greatly, concentrations for subdivided intervals of those days were used to
compute sediment discharge. These concentrations were obtained from a continu-
ous-concentration graph, which was prepared by plotting sample concentrations on
the gage-height graph and developing a smooth concentration curve.
For uniform flow conditions, the suspended-sediment discharge (tons per
day) was computed from the daily mean concentration and water discharge as
follows:
Qs = 0.0027CQ
where: Qs = suspended-sediment discharge in tons per day,
C = daily mean concentration of sediment in milligrams per liter,
Q = daily mean water discharge in cubic feet per second,
0.0027 = conversion factor.
34-0
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For variable flow conditions, the mean concentration and the mean water
discharge for the time interval were used in the computation as follows:
Qs = 0.0001125tCtQt
where: Qs = suspended-sediment discharge in tons per day,
Ct = mean concentration of sediment for time interval in milligrams
per liter,
Qt = mean water discharge for time interval in cubic feet per second,
t = time interval, in hours,
0.0001125 = conversion factor.
The sediment discharge for the several segments of a day were then summed
to give the daily sediment discharge.
Suspended-sediment discharge was computed for each day of the year by one
of these methods and the daily values totaled to determine the monthly and
annual sediment discharge (fig. 5).
The annual sediment yield, expressed as tons per square mile, was computed
by dividing the annual sediment discharge by the drainage area (table 3). Sedi-
ment for part of the 1976 water year was estimated for the KLim and Skunk Creeks
stations to compute the annual yield.
Suspended sediment-water discharge relation
Suspended sediment-water discharge relations for the three streams are sim-
ilar in transport characteristics, but the annual sediment yield of the streams
varies considerably. The suspended sediment-water discharge relation for the
three streams in the study area is shown by the transport curves in figure 6.
The relations were determined by the method described by Colby (1956). The
sediment-transport curves generally have the same shape, with the transport rate
increasing rapidly beyond an inflection point. This sudden increase may be due
to the greatly increased streambank erosion during storms.
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Table 3.—Summary of annual suspended-sediment yields, 1976-78
Station name
El 1m Creek near Holyoke
Water year 1976
Water year 1977
Water year 1978
Skunk Creek below Elim
Creek near Holyoke
Water year 1976
Water year 1977
Water year 1978
Deer Creek near Holyoke
Water year 1977
Water year 1978
Annual
suspended-
Drainage sediment
area discharge
(mid) (tons)
1.06
al4l.l6
45.20
173.78
8.83
a686.83
546.09
2309.43
7.77
1681.44
4970.60
Annual
sediment
yield
(tons/mid)
133
42.6
164
77.8
61.8
262
216
640
^•Suspended-sediment discharge for October to March was estimated.
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The rapid increase in the rate of sediment transport above 3 ftVs for ELim
Creek is somewhat characteristic of small drainage areas, which respond to water
and sediment runoff in a relatively short time. This condition tends to produce
a high suspended-sediment discharge per unit of water discharge.
Suspended-sediment transport and yield
The relation between suspended-sediment concentration, sediment discharge,
and water discharge of Deer Creek on August 20-27, 1978, is shown in figure 7.
In general, the suspended-sediment concentration peak occurs several hours in
advance of the water-discharge peak. This runoff pattern is typical for streams
,with small drainage areas, such as those in the Upper Nemadji basin. This sedi-
ment-runoff characteristic was used to define the shape of the sediment-concen-
tration graph for storms that were not adequately defined by samples.
The daily suspended-sediment discharge ranged from 0 to 67 tons (0 to 61 Mg)
in Elim Creek, 0 to 538 tons (0 to 488 Mg) in Skunk Creek, and 0 to 1,670 tons (0
to 1,520 Mg) in Deer Creek. The suspended-sediment yield ranged from 42.6 to 640
tons per square mile (14.9 to 224 Mg/km2). The following table gives a summary
of suspended-sediment data.
Name
Range in daily
concent rat ion
(mg/L)
Range in daily
sediment load
(tons) (Mg)
Elim Creek near Holyoke,
Minn.
Skunk Creek below ELim
Creek near Holyoke,
Minn.
Deer Creek near Holyoke,
Minn.
0 to 1,520
0 to 2,400
1 to 3,600
0 to 67
0 to 538
(0 to 61)
(0 to 488)
0 to 1,670 (0 to 1,520)
Generally, these values are lower than the expected annual yield of greater
than 500 tons/mi2 (454 Mg/km2) reported by Collier (1974). This difference is
considered to be primarily due to below normal streamflow during the study.
3^3
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The sediment yield for ELlm and Skunk Creeks is considerably less than that
for Deer Creek. This difference is mainly due to more forest land and vegetal
cover in the ELlm Creek and Skunk Creek basins and a greater number of exposed
clay banks in the Deer Creek basin.
The sediment yields shown in table 3 are based on the suspended-sediment
discharge, which nearly equals the total-sediment discharge. It was reported by
W. G. Rose (U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 1979) that the bedload dis-
charge in the red clay area constitutes only 2 to 3 percent of the total; there-
fore, these values are considered representative of the total-sediment discharge.
Particle size of suspended sediment and bed material
Seven samples to determine the particle size of suspended sediment were ob-
tained during storms. The analyses of the samples (fig. 8) show that a high per-
centage of the sediment is clay, about 70 percent, which will remain in suspension
for long periods, even without turbulence. Of the remainder, 27 percent is silt
and 3 percent is sand.
Bed material in KLim and Deer Creeks is mainly fine sand (fig. 8). This may
be due to the pool-riffle characteristics of these streams in which the pools act
as retention ponds. The predominantly clay and silt bed material in Skunk Creek,
which has the same pool-riffle characteristic as the other streams, may be the
result of a peak-retarding dam a short distance above the gage which retards move-
ment of the coarser fraction when streamflow is in the low to medium range. The
pools, both natural and behind the peak-retarding dam, are small and probably do
not retain any appreciable amount of sediment during high flows. Under high-flow
conditions, nearly all sediment transported is suspended load. The bed-material
samples were collected during low-flow conditions and are not necessarily
representative of bed material during high flows.
Water Quality
The Skunk Creek and Deer Creek drainage basins are similar in size and are
in proximity within the Upper Nemadji River basin. Despite these similarities,
there are differences in the quality of water in the creeks.
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Under base-flow conditions, when the discharge was derived primarily from
ground-water seepage, Deer Creek typically had higher bicarbonate and dissolved-
solids concentrations. A graphical representation of bicarbonate concentrations
and discharge (fig. 9) shows that, for a given discharge, bicarbonate in Deer
Creek was higher than in Skunk Creek. Figure 9 also shows that as discharge
for both creeks approached 5 ft3/s (0.14 m3/s) the bicarbonate concentrations
decreased sharply. The dissolved-solids concentrations were also inversely re-
lated to discharge. This effect was most pronounced during spring snowmelt, when
dissolved-solids concentrations were about 40 percent lower than during base-flow
conditions (fig. 10).
An opposite effect takes place for chemical constituents that are trans-
ported in suspended rather than dissolved form. As discharge increased, owing to
surface runoff, the amount of suspended material increased (fig. 6). A similar
increase occurred for total phosphorus concentration. Separate determinations
for dissolved and suspended phosphorus were not made, but the data suggest that
much of the phosphorus was suspended because concentrations of phosphorus for
both creeks increased considerably with higher flow (fig. 11).
High concentrations of nitrogen also corresponded with periods of high flow.
Nitrate plus nitrite concentrations, for example, were 2 to 5 times higher during
periods of runoff than during periods of base flow.
Water quality tends to be stable during base-flow periods, but changes appre-
ciably with slight increases in discharge. The data showed that August through
February was a period of stable flow and water-quality conditions. These condi-
tions were characterized by low nutrient concentrations and high dissolved solids.
Spring runoff was characterized by high concentrations of nutrients and low
concentrations of dissolved solids. Spring runoff is the period of poorest water
quality with respect to nutrient concentrations and bacteria counts.
May through July can be characterized as a period of better water-quality
conditions than spring, but lacking the stability of the low-flow period of Aug-
ust through February. Nutrient concentrations tend to be slightly higher during
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summer than during fall and winter and are marked by increases associated with
rainstorms (fig. 12). Bacteria counts during summer are similar to those during
spring runoff, typically ranging from 50 to more than 1,000 colonies per 100
milliliters.
The seasonal pattern described is based on data from the period of study.
More frequent sampling, or a longer period of study, may have shown that water-
quality fluctuations resulting from rainstorms also occur during August through
November. For example, on September 24, 1977, the daily mean flows of Skunk
Creek and Deer Creek were 55 and 121 fg/s (1.6 and 3.4 m3/s), respectively. No
chemical samples were obtained, but the high suspended-sediment discharge for
that day (U.S. Geological Survey, 1978) suggests that the chemical quality
changed considerably.
Dissolved-oxygen concentrations were commonly more than 90 percent of satur-
ation, indicating good water quality with respect to the amount of oxygen avail-
able to support freshwater aquatic organisms. Only one measurement in Skunk Creek
indicated a significant reduction in dissolved-oxygen concentration. The concen-
tration on January 7, 1976, had declined to 7.1 mgA (50 percent of saturation)
but was still adequate to provide moderate to high protection of fish.
Whole-water and bottom-material samples were collected annually and analyzed
for 23 types of pesticides. A low concentration (0.01 ug/L) of the pesticide
2,4,5-T was detected in one sample from Skunk Creek. Pesticides were not detected
in the other samples.
Measurements of pH in Deer Creek ranged from 7.7 to 8.3, a relatively narrow
range within the limits of values recommended for protection of fish (National
Academy of Science and National Academy of Engineers, 1973). Skunk Creek had a
wider range of pH values (6.8 to 9.2) which could result in a lower level of
protection for fish.
The streams were sampled quarterly for analysis of 11 metals for which the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has established recommended maximum concen-
trations for various uses (National Academy of Science and National Academy of
-------
Engineers, 1973). The recommended concentrations for iron, manganese, lead, and
mercury were exceeded in some of the samples. In Skunk Creek, some of the samples
had concentrations of iron and manganese that exceeded limits for use in public
water supplies. Limits for iron and manganese are based on criteria relating to
their effect on taste, staining of fixtures, and accumulation of deposits in dis-
tribution systems, rather than toxicity. Limits for lead and mercury, however,
are based on toxicity to living organisms. The recommended limit for lead for
protection of freshwater aquatic life (30 ug/L) was exceeded in one sample each
from Deer Creek (42 ug/L) and Skunk Creek (100 ug/L). The mercury limit for pro-
tection of freshwater aquatic life (0.05 ug/L) was exceeded in four samples from
Skunk Creek (0.3 to 2.3 ug/L) and in two samples from Deer Creek (1.9 and 2.4
ug/L).
GROUND-WATER CHARACTERISTICS
Background
Slumping of hillsides in the Nemadji River basin is both a man-caused and a
natural phenomenon. Hillside slopes have been steepened beyond the critical angle
for the red clay deposits, and slumpage of hillsides has plagued man's construc-
tion works since settlement of the area began. Numerous deep flowing wells in
the area indicate that the Nemadji River basin is a discharge area for a ground-
water flow system. Ihe discharge area coincides with the red clay area of slump-
ing, and a cause-effect relationship may exist. The aim of the ground-water part
of this study was to determine the vertical distribution of head at a particular
site in the Nemadji River basin and relate ground^water movement to slumping of
the red clay.
Although the focus was mainly on vertical head differences across Skunk Creek
valley, water levels were also monitored continuously in shallow piezometers at
two other sites in the Nemadji River basin for comparison with those in Skunk
Creek and to record any fluctuations between the monthly measurements.
••
A site was selected in the Skunk Creek basin where the red clay slumps along
County Road 103 (Wl/2 NW1/4, sec.35, T.47 N., R.17 W.) in Carlton County, Minn.
(fig. 3). Three piezometer nests were placed so that a hydrologic section could
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be drawn normal to Skunk Creek and parallel to the gradient of the water table.
Ihe length of the section is about 1,500 feet (460 m); it trends from northwest
to southeast across Skunk Creek and a road-slump area. Two nests were installed
on upland areas on both sides of the creek, and one nest was placed in Skunk Creek
valley. Three to six piezometers completed at different depths make up each of
the three nests. Most of the piezometers consist of a 2-inch (51nmm) pipe and
attached 1V4 inch (32 mm) x 2 feet (0.6 m) x 10-slot screen. An inflatable
packer-reducer mechanism, similar to that used by Lissey (1967), was installed in
each pipe. This reduced the diameter to /4-inch (6.4 mm) and resulted in short-
ened time lag of water-level response to changes in head (Hvorslev, 1951).
Water-Level Changes
Interpretation of head differences shown by hydrographs for each piezometer
in the nest indicates the vertical distribution of head within the red clay at
that particular nest through time. All three hydrographs show gradual water-
level rises in the deeper piezometers following installation. These rises reflect
slow initial filling of the relatively large storage area in the pipe above the
screen as water levels attempt to reach equilibrium. These initial rises do not
reflect seasonal fluctuations, but do indicate that the piezometers are open to a
formation of low hydraulic conductivity.
At piezometer nest 1, in the northwestern upland area (fig. 13), ground-water
flow is downward in the upper 48 feet (15 m). Ground-water movement is mostly
lateral in the intermediate zone of 48 to 109 feet (15 to 33 m) below land sur-
face, but may be reversed seasonally as the head relationship changes. Ground
water moves upward most of the time from the deeper zone, 109 to 150 feet (33 to
46 m), into the intermediate zone.
At piezometer nest 3 in the southeastern upland area, head differences shown
on hydrographs (fig. 14) indicate downward movement of ground water in the upper
109 feet (33 m). It also moves upward from the deeper zone, 109 to 230 feet (33
to 70 m), into the intermediate zone, 46 to 109 feet (14 to 33 m). Although water
levels fluctuate seasonally no reversals of ground-water movement were noted at
this site.
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In the stream valley at piezometer nest 2, head differences shown on hydro-
graphs (fig. 15) indicate upward movement of ground water from the intermediate
zone of 26 to 53 feet (8 to 16 m). Water levels in the deepest piezometer, 53
feet (16 m), were near or above land surface at all times. A deeper piezometer
was not installed at this site because it would probably flow with considerable
head above land surface. The head differences also indicate that ground-water
flow in the upper 26 feet (8 m) changes seasonally from upward to downward
movement.
Hydrologic Sections
The head distribution in the red clay across Skunk Creek valley for August
9-11, 1977, and September 12-13, 1978, is shown in figures 16 and 17. In general,
ground-water flow, as displayed on the hydrologic sections by arrows, is chiefly
in a downward or lateral direction in both upland areas. Near the valley bottom,
however, ground-water is mainly upward toward the creek. The hydrologic sections
also indicate upward movement from the deeper deeper zone into the intermediate
zone across the entire area of the section.
Locally ground-water flow directions or gradients may change seasonally,
but the general flow pattern changes little. This is shown by equipotential
lines, which vary only slightly from one hydrologic section to the other. One
noticeable difference is that some shallow piezometers become saturated or go
dry as the water table fluctuates in response to recharge and discharge.
Ground-Water Movement
Saturated ground-water flow in the clay has two distinct modes (1) flow
through the interfissured pore space, and (2) flow through fissures, joints,
and slippage planes. The very low hydraulic conductivity of clay allows only
slow ground-water movement. Movement is more rapid, however, through secondary
openings such as desiccation fissures near land surface, joint sets in clay,
and slippage planes in slump areas. The two distinct modes of ground-water
flow in clay can be distinguished easily by differences in rate and magnitude
of water-level responses in piezometers completed in the clay.
349
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Ground-water movement through the red clay probably is similar to movement
of water through clayey till, which has hydraulic properties similar to the red
clay. Movement of water through clayey till has been described by Williams and
Farvolden (1967). They explained the difference between the response to head
changes indicated by piezometers installed in joints in till and those installed
in the till matrix. They demonstrated that during precipitation, water moves
preferentially into a joint, causing a higher fluid potential in the joint than
in the adjacent till matrix. Water then begins to move slowly from the joint
into pore spaces of the till matrix. This process requires a long period of
time. According to Williams and Parvolden (1967), the actual time for pressure
dissipation in a clay layer decreases with increasing hydraulic conductivity
and porosity and increases with increasing compressibility. Therefore, for low
hydraulic conductivity, low porosity, and high compressibility, a long time is
required for pressure dissipation in a compressed clay layer. Also the greater
the distance of any point within the compressible layer from its boundaries, the
longer the time required for pressure dissipation. Pore pressure caused by sud-
den increase of head in joints does not equalize until a long time after precip-
itation ceases. Differences in rate and magnitude of water-level responses in
pore spaces or joints, as described in this discussion, have been indicated by
the hydrographs for the ELim and Deer Creek piezometers. Discussion follows.
Water levels in the KLim and Deer Creek piezometers equipped with recorders
are plotted on figure 18 along with precipitation and temperature. Water levels
in the piezometer at Deer Creek were generalized by plotting the trend of the water
level and omitting small water-level fluctuations caused by barometric changes.
The two piezometers are 4.8 miles (7.7 km) apart and are finished in the red clay.
The KLim Creek piezometer is 18 feet (5.5 m) deep, and the Deer Creek piezometer
is 14 feet (4.3 m) deep. Analysis of the hydrographs, in view of the findings
of Williams and Parvolden (1967), indicates that the ELim Creek piezometer is
completed in a joint or slippage plane and the Deer Creek piezometer in the pore
matrix of the red clay, as shown by differences in the rate and magnitude of
water-level responses to precipitation. The ELim Creek piezometer shows an almost
immediate rise of water levels after significantly large rains followed by rapid
decline of water levels in the piezometer. In contrast, response of water levels
in the Deer Creek piezometer is slow and subdued. Water levels at Deer Creek lag
350
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behind rains by many days or weeks and have low rounded peaks and gradual declines
compared to the high sharp peaks and rapid declines indicated by the ELim Creek
piezometer. However, it is necessary to point out that the two hydrographs do
not indicate the pressure dissipation from joints to pore space because the two
piezometers are 5 mi (8 km) apart.
Slumping of the red clay was observed in May 1978 at both the KLim Creek and
Deer Creek piezometers. At both sites the recorder shelf in the gage house moved
downward 0.2 foot (61 mm) relative to the top of the piezometer pipe. The gage
house apparently moved downhill along with the entire slump block of red clay
above the slippage plane, while little or no movement of the piezometer took place
because the pipe was anchored below the slippage plane. The downhill movements
took place during spring recharge after daily low air temperatures had climbed
above freezing and while water levels had risen 2 to 3 feet (0.6l to 0.91 m) in
both piezometers.
Recharge to the red clay is mainly from infiltration and percolation of pre-
cipitation, which is shown by comparison of precipitation and water-level records.
Comparison of figure 2 with the hydrographs (figs. 13, 14, and 15) shows that
fluctuations in ground-water levels reflect patterns of cumulative precipitation.
An exact match does not occur because infiltration is affected by factors such as
temperature and soil moisture. Water levels in shallow piezometers are in closest
agreement with precipitation data, whereas water levels in deep piezometers show
the least agreement. This agrees with the finding of Williams and Parvolden (1967)
that the greater the distance of any point within a compressible layer from its
boundaries the longer the time required for pore pressure reaching equilibrium.
As the red clay is recharged from precipitation, the rate and magnitude of the
water-level responses decrease with increasing depth.
Relationship of Ground-Water Flow to Slumping of Red Clay
If the shear stress exceeds the shear strength of the red clay, then rupture
of the clay located beneath an established slope takes place. After the rupture
the overlying clay mass may move by gravity if the weight component of the clay
351
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overcomes the shear resistance of the clay, and the clay mass slides down. This
sliding is termed slumping. Water is the principal factor in promoting slumping,
because water adds weight to the unit weight of clay and decreases the magnitude
of cohesion in clay, thus decreasing its shear strength.
Slumping usually occurs during spring recharge when pore pressure in clay is
high. On the other hand, the upper movement of ground water through fractures and
joints may also increase pore pressure in the overlying clay, thus also increasing
the slumping possibility.
During the study one interesting phenomenon has been observed, that numer-
ous small water-level fluctuations (fig. 19) have been recorded in the Deer Creek
piezometer during fall 1976. A more detailed record (fig. 20) indicates a slow
buildup of stress followed by a sudden release at intervals of one to several
hours. In as much as this phenomenon was observed during the winter season,
frost action in the clay and its pore-pressure systems may be involved. There
is no positive explanation to this phenomenon, because only partial records are
available. Further observation of this phenomenon is required to establish the
cause-effect relationship.
SUMMARY
Flows in ELim, skunk, and Deer Creeks are high from March to July and are
low, or vary in response to rainstorms or ice conditions, during the rest of the
year. Generally, during dry years there is no flow during early fall and winter
months. The maximum discharge during storms ranged from 10 to 378 ft3/s (0.28 to
10.7 mVs). The daily mean discharge ranged from 0 to 17 ft3/s (0 to 0.48 m3/s)
for Elim Creek, 0 to 131 ft3/s (0 to 3-71 m3/s) for Skunk Creek, and 0.35 to 142
ft3/s (0.010 to 4.02 m3/s) for Deer Creek.
The suspended-sediment transported by streams averaged about 70 percent clay,
27 percent silt, and 3 percent sand. Bed material taken from Elim and Deer Creeks
collected during low-flow conditions consisted mainly of fine sand, whereas, bed
material from Skunk Creek consisted mainly of clay and silt. The daily suspended-
sediment load ranged from 0 to 1,670 tons (0 to 1,520 Mg). The suspended-sediment
yield ranged from 42.6 to 640 tons/mi2 (15 to 224 Mg/km2).
352
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Streamflow and sediment data for the three streams are published in the an-
nual data report by the U.S. Geological Survey (1977; 1978; JL979). Water-quality
data for Skunk Creek and Deer Creek were also published in the annual data report.
Water quality in Skunk and Deer Creeks followed seasonal trends and varied
with flow. Dissolved solids in Deer Creek were higher than in Skunk Creek at low
flow, but the dissolved-solids concentrations of both streams decreased during
high flows. In contrast, concentrations of suspended solids, total nitrogen,
total phosphorus, and bacteria increased with higher flows. As a result, spring
runoff periods were poorest in quality of water with respect to the aformentioned
constituents. Water quality was stable during periods of low flow with the ex-
ception of some high bacteria counts during summer low-flow periods. Dissolved-
oxygen concentrations for both creeks were generally excellent for the support of
aquatic life. The range of pH in Deer Creek was within acceptable U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency limits, but pH values for Skunk Creek fluctuated over a
wider range giving a lower level of protection for fish.
Whole water and bottom-material samples were collected annually and analyzed
for 23 types of pesticides. Pesticides were not detected except for 0.01 ug/L of
2,4,5-T in a sample collected in Skunk Creek.
Concentrations of iron, manganese, lead, and mercury in some of the samples
exceeded limits recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (National
Academy of Science and National Academy of Engineers, 1973). The iron and manga-
nese exceeded the limits for use in public water supplies. The lead and mercury
concentrations exceeded limits for protection of freshwater aquatic life and
wildlife, and use in public water supplies.
Hydrologic sections and hydrographs of piezometer nests across the Skunk
Creek valley show the differences of head with respect to location, depth, and
time in the red clay. Ground water generally moves downward or laterally in the
shallow or intermediate depth zones in the upland areas, but seasonal reversals
in response to recharge may occur. Near the valley bottom, ground-water flow is
mainly upward to the creeks. Across the entire hydrologic section, ground-water
353
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flow is upward from the deeper zone into the intermediate zone. Although the
local ground-water flow direction or gradient varies with time and hydrologic
conditions,, the overall flow pattern across the valley changes little.
Small water-level fluctuations were numerous in the Deer Creek piezometer
in the winter of 1976-77. Movements of the red clay occurred along slippage
planes. larger movements of the red clay occurred at both piezometer sites when
a relative displacement of about 0.2 foot (61 mm) between the recorder shelf in
the gage house and the top of the piezometer was observed in May 1978.
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1979, Water resources data for Minnesota, water year 1978: U.S. Geological
Survey Water-Data Report MN-78-1, 300 p.
U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1975, Western Lake Superior basin erosion -
sediment control program, Wisconsin and Minnesota: Red Clay project draft
for phase I, Douglas County Courthouse, Superior, Wise., 196 p.
Williams, R. E., and Farvolden, R. N., 1967, Tne influence of joints on the
movement of ground water through glacial till: Journal of Hydrology, v. 5,
no. 2, p. 163-70.
Wright, H. E., Jr., 1972, Physiography of Minnesota, in Geology of Minnesota:
A centennial volume: [eds.] Sims, P. K., and Morey, G. B., Minnesota
Geological Survey, p. 561-577.
356
-------
MINNESOTA
Study area
0123 MILES
I '. V ' i
01234 KILOMETERS
Figure 1.—Location of the Upper Nemadji River Basin
-------
DEPARTURE, IN INCHES
-------
EXPLANATION
Stream-gaging stations
• Nest of piezometers
o Single piezometer
Line of hydrologic section
A' 46°32'30^
92e27'30"
92°30'00"
92»25'00"
46° 30'00"—
2 MILES
3 KILOMETERS
92°22'30'
Figure 3.--Surface-water gaging stations, piezometer nests, and line
of hydrologic section
-------
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND
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DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND
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.1 1 10 1C
DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND
Figure 9.—Bicarbonate concentrations and discharges for
Skunk Creek and Deer Creek
-------
DISSOLVED SOLIDS, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER
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DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND
Figure 11.--Total phosphorus concentrations and discharge
for Skunk Creek and Deer Creek
-------
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JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC.
DATA FOR 1975-78 PLOTTED BY MONTH
Figure 12,--Total phosphorus concentrations showing seasonal
trends for Skunk Creek and Deer Creek
-------
-------
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894
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886
882
878
874
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— 16 meters (53 feet)
Land surface 270 meters (886 feet)
Piezometer B
3 meters
-(11 feet)
Dry
Piezometer C
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V
• Water- level
measurements
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1977
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1978
Figure 14.--Monthly water-level measurements in
nest site 2 piezometers
-------
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I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Piezometer A
1.2 meters (4 feet)
.Water-level
measurements
Dry
Piezometer B
5 meters (16 feet)
Piezometer F 70 meters (230 feet) _
Piezometer C
14 meters (46 feet)
Piezometer D
23 meters (77 feet)
Piezometer
33 meters (109 feet)
,
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UJ
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1976
1977
1978
Figure 15.--Monthly water-level measurements in nest site 3
piezometers
-------
EXPLANATION
Water table
• Piezometer bottom and water level
285.38 in meters
Equipotential line. Interval variable,
in meters
FEET
1000^
—• Direction of ground-water movement
, FEET
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VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 175
NATIONAL GEODETIC VERTICAL DATUM OF 1929
METERS
-300
-290
280 UJ
ill
-270
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0
260
250
240 ^
230
220
Figure 16.--Hydrologic section across Skunk Creek valley on
August 9-11, 1977, showing altitude of water table,
head, and direction of ground-water flow in the red clay
-------
285.29
EXPLANATION
Water table
Piezometer bottom and water level
in meters
_ Equipotential line. Interval variable,
in meters
— Direction of ground-water movement
-1000
^_ . :-950
FEET
METERS
-300
- 290
- 280
-900
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UJ
- 850
-800
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250 uj
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-240 i=
700
- 750
700
230
220
100200300 METERS
VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 175
NATIONAL GEODETIC VERTICAL DATUM OF 1929
Figure 17.--Hydrologic section across Skunk Creek valley on
September 12-13, 1978, showing altitude of water
table, head, and direction of ground-water flow in
the red clay
-------
CO
Elim Creek
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TTR
60 Z £
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40 < uj
20 I 5
1976
1977
1978
Figure 18.--Precipitation and temperature at Cloquet, Minnesota
and water levels at Elim Creek and Deer Creek piezometers
-------
WATER LEVEL, IN FEET BELOW MEASURING POINT
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WATER LEVEL, IN METERS BELOW MEASURING POINT
-------
WATER LEVEL, IN FEET
Figure 20. —Detailed hydrograph showing Deer Creek piezometer,
fall 1976 and spring 1977
BELOW MEASURING POINT
? ? £ £
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MARCH 1977
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WATER LEVEL IN MFTFRS BELOW MEASURING POINT
BELOW MEASURING POINT
-------
EDITOR'S NOTE
WATER QUALITY MONITORING DATA
The water quality data are not presented here. The data may
be acquired through the Storet process. The following codes are
applicable for the Wisconsin monitoring stations:
Nemadji River near Boylston
Nemadji River near' South Superior
Nemadji River near Dewey
Nemadji River near Borea
Little Balsam Creek at Patzau
Little Balsam Creek near Patzau
Little Balsam Creek Tributary near Patzau
Little Balsam Creek near Foxboro
Pine Creek at Moquah
Pine Creek Tributary at Moquah
Pine Creek near Moquah
Lake Superior at LaPointe
Lake Superior at Madigan Beach
Madigan Beach Bluff
04024330
04024430
04024290
04024300
04024314
04024315
04024318
04024320
0402634-7
04026348
04026349
464644090472301
46353^090341601
463533090341701
377
-------
BEDLOAD IN NORTHWESTERN WISCONSIN'S NEMADJI RIVER
by
W. J. Rose
Total sediment load consists of bedload plus suspended
load. Most sediment-monitoring stations, including the one
on the Nemadji River near South Superior, Wis., monitor only
the suspended part of the total sediment load. Bedload, the
part of the total sediment load that moves by rolling,
sliding, and bouncing along the riverbed, is not monitored.
To determine the total sediment load, bedload must be
estimated, calculated, or measured.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether or
not bedload is a significant part of the total sediment load
in the Nemadji River. Bedload discharge was estimated by
the modified Einstein procedure and by measurements with a
bedload sampler at four sites on the Nemadji River (fig. 1).
Bedload discharge was estimated twice by each method at each
site at medium to high river flows.
MODIFIED EINSTEIN PROCEDURE
The modified Einstein procedure computes total sediment
discharge and is applicable to alluvial channels having sand
or gravel beds finer than 16 mm (2). Bedload discharge is
estimated or computed by subtracting suspended-sediment
discharge from total sediment discharge.
_Data needed for the modified Einstein procedure were
obtained by direct measurement and from analyses of samples
collected at each site. These data are as follows:
water discharge
average water depth
top width of channel
water temperature
particle size of suspended sediment
particle size of bed material
suspended-sediment concentration
A computer program by Stevens (3), which computes total
sediment discharge by the modified Einstein procedure was
used for this study
378
-------
92° 15'
92° 00'
R. 15W
R. 14W
R. 13W
T.
50
N
46° 45' —
T.
49
N
T.
48
N
T.
47
N
Nemadji River
near South Superior
Nemadji River
near Borea „
Nemadji River
near Dewey
Nemadji River
near Boylston
Base from U. S. Geological Survey
Duluth and Ashland quadrangles, 1953
SCALE 1:250000
> 0 SMILES
I
5
t 1
1 1 1
0
ill
5 10 KILOMETERS
i I
Figure 1. Location of study sites.
-------
HELLEY-SMITH BEDLOAD SAMPLER
The Helley-Smith sampler used for this study is a
cable-suspended model that rests on the riverbed and traps
part of the bedload (fig. 2). Ideally, the 0.0762-m-wide
orifice of the sampler captures all of, but no more than,
the bedload that would pass the 0.0762-m-wide part of the
channel if the sampler were not there. Bedload material
collects in a mesh bag attached to the rear of the orifice
section of the sampler.
Bedload discharge is measured by placing the sampler on
the riverbed at several equally spaced sampling points
across the river. The same sampling time (usually
30 seconds) is used at each sampling point. Bedload dis-
charge is computed as follows:
river width (m) X total weight of sample
bedload discharge = 0.0762 X number of sampling points X
sampling time
The performance and accuracy of the Helley-Smith
sampler have not been tested under a wide range of condi-
tions. Optimum conditions for use of the sampler are
probably where the median diameter of the bed material is
between 2 and 8 mm, and the range of bed material sizes is
small. Use of the sampler is not recommended by the U.S.
Geological Survey where the median diameter of bed material
is less than 0.5 mm. Median diameter of bed material at
the study sites ranged from 0.34 to 1.8 mm.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Bedload-discharge values computed by the modified
Einstein procedure were, on the average, smaller than
corresponding values determined by the Helley-Smith method
(table 1). Bedload discharge, as a percentage of total
sediment discharge, by the modified Einstein procedure
averaged 2 percent and ranged from 1 to 5 percent; that by
the Helley-Smith method averaged 3 percent and ranged from 1
to 7 percent.
Results of this study indicate that bedload constitutes
only 2 or 3 percent of the total sediment load in the
Nemadji River. The bedload discharge values given in
table 1 are considered to be reasonable estimates of the
bedload in the Nemadji.
380
-------
bag-to-tail
00
0.2mm mesh (ASTM)
polyester monofilament
orifice
Figure 2. The Helly-Smith bedload sampler.
-------
Nemadj i River
near South
Superior
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-------
GLOSSARY
The following are definitions of key terms used in this
report (1).
Bedload discharge is sediment that moves by rolling,
sliding, and bouncing along the streambed.
Suspended-sediment discharge is sediment that is
supported by upward components of turbulent currents.
Total sediment discharge is all sediment moving down-
stream, bedload discharge plus suspended-sediment discharge.
Bed material is the material that constitutes the
streambed.
Bed-material discharge is the part of the total sediment
discharge having particle sizes in the same range as the bed
material. In an alluvial stream, bed-material discharge is
related to the hydraulic properties of the flow.
Wash-load discharge is the part of the total sediment
load that is comprised of particle sizes finer than those in
L.he bed material. Unlike bed-material discharge, there is
not a functional relationship between wash-load discharge
and the hydraulic properties of the flow. Wash load is
normally delivered to the stream by bank sloughing or over-
land flow and is transported at the rate that it is made
available to the stream.
383
-------
REFERENCES
1. Simons, D. B., and Senturk, Fuat, 1977, Sediment
transport technology: Fort Collins, Colorado, Water
Resources Publications, 807 p.
2. Colby, B. R., and Hembree, C. H., 1955, Computations of
total sediment discharge, Niobrara River near Cody,
Nebr.: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1357,
187 p.
3. Stevens, H. H., 1978, Computer program for the compu-
tation of total-sediment discharge by the modified
Einstein procedure: U.S. Geological Survey Computer
Contribution, 24 p.
384
-------
METEOROLOGICAL MONITOEING
IN THE WATERSHEDS OF THE
RED CLAY PROJECT
by
Donald E. Olson*
This is the final report on meteorological monitoring for
the Red Clay Project. The task of performing the proposed
measurements, often at remote sites, proved to be a considerable
challenge and led to the development of new methods of measuring
and data logging.
The improved model rain gauge is presented here in terms of
circuit design and operation in sufficient detail for reproduction
by an electronics laboratory. The solid-state memory may also
have other applications where it is necessary to record other
parameters at remote sites over extended periods from weeks to
months, when only battery power is practical.
The rainfall data for 1976-1978, that is, the months in each
of those years when the equipment was in operation, has been
compiled in tabular form. A comparison between the creek water-
sheds is noteworthy, as well as between the Duluth Airport (NOAA),
the 29-year averages for the Airport (1941-1970) and the UMD
Field Study Center, Jean Duluth Road.
The average monthly wind speed with a wind rose has been
plotted for the months in 1977 and 1978 in which the equipment
was still in operation.
Wind and Temperature Data
The wind speed has been plotted as the average monthly values
and the wind direction has been averaged in a simpler manner, as
a wind rose, for the final months of data. These will be found
in the Appendix. Also included there are four examples of plots
showing the hourly averages of the four parameters, wind speed,
wind direction, temperature and rainfall on a single page. However,
a portion of the data on these plots had to be laboriously hand-
reduced, since there was not sufficient time to write the program
for the microcomputer to plot all the data simultaneously. We have
not yet succeeded in making this semi-automatic part of the task
of data reduction completely mechanical.
Rainfall Data
The instrument density in the watersheds, about one rain
gauge per square mile, gave a reasonably accurate measurement
*Professor, Department of Physics, University of Minnesota, Duluth.
385
-------
(- 10%) of the rainfall. The wind speed, direction and air
temperature were monitored at one site in each watershed. An
attempt was made to simultaneously measure soil temperature at
three depths, soil moisture at two depths and soil movement on
a slope in the Little Balsam Creek Valley. This proved to
involve more basic research on appropriate sensors than had been
anticipated. It was not possible, in the available tine, to
complete this aspect of the task. The usefulness of solid-state
CMOS memory for data collection was established in this endeavor.
Total rainfall and total volumes of rainfall for Skunk and
Little Balsam Creek Watersheds from 1976 through 1978 are shown
in Tables 1 through 4. The rainfall at other sites, provided for
comparison, is given in Tables 5 through 7. The total rainfall
for the 1976-78 seasons for Skunk Creek and Little Balsam Creek
Watersheds can be compared with the Dulut'n Airport (NOAA) record
and also with the Airport long-term averages. Again, data for
the Pine Creek Watershed has been enclosed for comparative purposes.
Some variations between watersheds and the airport are apparent.
Considerable variation in the rainfall was observed between watersheds
and also from year to year. The data presented in this study
indicates the variability of rainfall over a relatively small
region and a few seasons.
Instrumentation
The instruments developed or improved for use in the Red Clay
Micrometeorology Project are presented in detail in the Appendix.
The rate of rainfall gauge is an example of a practical application
of some of the new types of integrated circuits (ICs) that have
revolutionized electronics over the past few years.
The complementary metal oxide silicon transistor (CMOS)
integrated circuits are remarkably suited for use in data logging
at remote sites, where available electric power is a serious
limitation. In general, systems designed with CMOS ICs, when on
standby or in full operation, consume only microwatts of power.
Often, the battery to power the system must be replaced only when
its shelf life has been exceeded.
It is most attractive to use CMOS when the quantity to be
measured on a continuous basis can be converted into electrical
pulses and stored as a binary number in a CMOS RAM (random access
memory). Some type of temperature stable, drift free voltage to
frequency converter is required, but has not been readily available
at low cost up to the present time. The use of binary numbers
permits much more efficient use of space in the RAM and simplifies
circuit design and transfer of the data into another form of
storage for transportation. This is applied in the rate of rainfall
gauge. Changes in the rate of rainfall alter the rate of dumping
of a rain collector proportionately. An electric pulse is generated
for each dump and a set of pulses will be collected over a specific
interval to give the rate of rainfall. This number (set of pulses)
386
-------
can be readily placed in a RAM where it may be extracted weeks
or months later.
The measurement of temperature, soil moisture, soil movement,
insolation, wind speed and direction, for example, are all
considerably more difficult because a change in any of_these
parameters cannot be detected and converted into a digit with a
linear response, with the same ease as with rainfall rate. However,
recent CMOS ADGs (analog to digital converters) may provide a
solution. The analog voltage output from a sensor may then be
converted into a digit for storage in a CMOS RAM at microwatts of
power consumption. This method of recording data on a continuous
basis offers several advantages over the conventional chart_recorder,
such as: much greater dynamic range and accuracy, lower initial _
and operating costs and convenience and economy in data presentation
in digital form.
In the outline of rain gauge operation to be found, in the
Appendix, operation of the unit is presented in diagrams, Figures
A and B. An illustration of the rainfall record is shown in
Figure D; a record that is very time consuming in reducing to a
form where it becomes information, as in the example provided,
Figure E.
The volume of \vater in one dump of the rain collector is
adjustable over a range of about 6-9 cm per hour as shown in
Figure C. A time interval of 5 or 10 minutes has been selected
as 'the time interval for incrementing the time counter. One of
the other important features of the improved model rain gauge is
the longer recording time capability. Transfer of data from the
RAM to magnetic cassette tape is now required only once every six
months or less; more exactly, after about four inches of rain has
accumulated over a given time. At some increase in cost, the
capacity of the RAM"may be still increased to cover even longer
periods, if standard carbon-zinc 6V lantern batteries are used as
a source of power. Alkaline batteries would be needed to operate
the unit for over one year.
Esterline-Angus Model AW, 0-1 mA sensitivity recorders, with
electric motor or spring motor chart drives were also employed
extensively in the project. These recorders are very reliable
and operate over one-week periods with little attention. However,
the chart recordings are very difficult to analyze and often unpleas-
antly time consuming as well. The use of CMOS memory which may be
placed on magnetic tape in a cassette recorder is the most practical
and more reliable method of handling large volumes of meteorological
data at remote and semi-remote sites. It is also superior to many
chart recording systems in use at many sites where A.C. power is
available. The record on the tape may be read directly into a
computer for analysis and plotting.
This very favorable technique is not without some limitations
and associated frustrations. The time required to develop skill
38?
-------
in writing computer programs in machine language is not readily
anticipated, but is well worth the effort. A number of test
programs which would represent the operating conditions of an
instrument in the field must be used to thoroughly check out an
instrument such as the rain gauge with CKOS memory before it
is placed in the field. This has proven to be the most favorable
diagnostic technique in general maintenance and to establish
assurance that things are working properly. The CMOS memory
system developed in this project"can also be used to monitor
the other meteorologic or geophysical parameters.
A number of factors enter into the design of a recording
instrument for use at a remote site. If proper design and
construction has been employed, one may exnect one year of
operation with a single 6V stand type lantern battery. The
instrument would record rainfall rates of up to 4 inches (9.16 cm)
per hour for a period of one year, where the annual rainfall
average is 50 inches (127.0 cm) per year. The design may be
modified to record a more intense and a greater total rainfall
per year, but of course with some increase in instrument cost.
Consideration must also be given to total cost of site visits
to_collect data. A site visit to collect data and see that
things are in order once a month seems reasonable. However, it
is, fortunately, a flexible requirement and may vary with the
work schedule.
Considerable variation in the rainfall was observed betxveen
watersheds and from year to year. The data presented in this
study indicates the variability of rainfall over a relatively
small region and a few seasons.
Conclusion
The distribution of instruments over the region of the water-
sheds was not sufficient to determine the influence of orographic
features of the land on a characteristic pattern of rainfall,
wind direction and intensity. This information may prove to be
useful in future control efforts in dealing with the red clay
erosion problem. The kinetic energy of the raindrops is related
to the wind speed and the wind also influences the direction of
impact on barren clay banks. In this study, it would have been
desirable to have had instruments in the regions between and
around the watersheds to obtain a more complete picture of how
these factors are interrelated and influence red clay movement.
A more thorough investigation of the simultaneous measurement
of rate of rainfall, soil moisture, soil temperature and soil
movement may prove to be of high value in future studies of red
clay erosion. The interest expressed in this matter by scientists
in other nations, improvement in sensors and new technical develop-
ments may permit considerable improvement in measurements at sites
where 110V electric power is not available.
388
-------
The siphoning rain gauge developed for use in this project
functions well and is in a sense, tunable, to accommodate dillerent
intensities of rainfall, the sensitivity of the instrument to
ve^y light rainfalls and utilization of the CMOS memory for
storage "of the maximum amount of data. This will establish within
rather wide limits the periods within which the instrument must_
be visited to place the data on magnetic tape. During some periods
of the year, such as early spring, pollen and fuzz of various
types get into the rain gauge and appear to be more of a problem
than in the tipping bucket type of gauge. A new low-cost gauge
of this latter type by Rainwise, Inc., Pitman, New Jersey, has
been tested with our electronic package and functions very well.
It may be connected directly with a very minor modification and
is highly recommended for studies at remote sites.
389
-------
APPENDIX
1. Rainfall Tables for Watershed Sites (1-4)
Rainfall Tables for Conparison Sites (5-7)
2. Plots of Average Wind Speed and Direction
3. Hourly Values of Four Parameters
4. Operation of Rain Gauge Reader Circuit
t>. Rain Gauge Electronics Package
6. Appendix A, B and C: Circuit Diagrams for Rain Gauge Reader
Cosrnac Assembly Language Computer Program
7. Outline of Rain Gauge Operation with Figures A,B and C
y. Example Chart of Wind Direction and Rainfall, Figure D
9. Example of Computer Plotted Rate of Rainfall, Figure E
390
-------
Table 1.
Summary of Watershed Rainfall in 1976
vD
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
JDct.
i
Skunk Creek
Rainfall
26.7 TITO
1.05 in
149.9 mm
5.9 in
78.9 nm
3.11 in
16.1 mm
.63 in
25.6 mm
.99 in
9.14 mm
^36 in
Watershed
Total Volume
Per Watershed
690,000 m 3
24,400,000 ft
3,900,000 m 3
137,000,000 ft
2,000,000 m~3
72,200,000 ft
414,000 m 3
14,600,000 ft
651,000 m 3
23,000,000 ft
3
237,000 m 3
Tittle Balsa
Rainfall
5.3 nm
.21 in
8^.0 mm
3.47 in
69.6 mm
2.74 in
41.0 m
1.6 in
27.4 mm
1.08 in
10.9 mm
m Creek Watershed j
1
Tot^l Volume j
^er Watershed !
72,000 m" 3
2,500*000 ft" i
1,200,000 m 3
42,300,000 ft :
946,000 m 3 •
33,400,000 ft ,
3 i
559,000 m 3 '
19, BOO, 000 ft ;
373,000 r 3
13,200,000 ft
3
148,000 m 3
-------
Table 2. Summary of Watershed Rainfall in 1977
VJJ
March
April
May
June
!
i July
Aug.
i
Sept.
Oct.
L
Rainfall
71.9 ram
2.83 in
66.8 mm
6.7 in
82.3 nm
3.2 in
156.2 mm
6.1 in
146.3 ram
5.7 in
124.7 mm
4.9 in
148.5 mm
5.8 in
104.1 mm
....,, . 4.1 In
Skunk Creek
Watershed
Total Volume of
Water Afatershed
1,900,000 m3
67,000,000 ft3
1,750,000 m3
62,000,000 ft3
2,150,000 m3
76,000,000 ftj
4,000,000 m3
143,000,000 ft3
3,800,000 m3
134,000,000 ftj
3,200,000 m3
114,000,000 ft3
3,800,000 m3
136,000,000 ftj
2,700,000 m3
Little Balsam
Watershec
Rainfall
100.6 mm
3.96 in
52.9 rrm
2.08 in
83.0 rrm
3.3 in
137.6 mm
5.4 in
134.3 rrm
3.3 in
154.7 nm
6.0 in
156.0 mm
6.1 in
75.4 mm
2._9_ in
Creek
a
Total Volume of
Water A'ratershed
1,420,000 m3
50,000,000 ft-1
736,000 n3
26,000,000 ftj
1,130,000 rA
40,000,000 ft
1,870,000 m3
66,000,000 ftj
1,830,000 m3
65,000,000 ft-1
2,100,000 m3
74,300,000 ftj
2,120,000 m3
74,900,000 ft1
1,000,000 m3
_3_6 ^200 ^000 ft3
Pine
Wate
Rainfall
6l.5 mm
2.4 in
126.5 mm
4.9 in
111.8 in
4.4 in
183.1 mm
7.2 in
Creek
;rshed
Total Volume of
Water A/atershed
15,800,000 m3
560,000,000 ft3
30,400,000 m3
1,100,000,000 fV
29,000,000 m3
1,000,000,000 ft3
;'7, 600, 000 m3
1,700,000,000 ft3
-------
1978
-
VM
VJN
Rainfall
['torch
April 17.78 ran
.70 in
May 80.01 mm
3.15 in
June 114.55 mm
4.51 in
July 152.90 ram
6.02 in
August 10.9 mm
(first wk.) .43 in
Skunk Creek
Watershed
Total Volume of
WaterA/atershed
447,140 m33
15,800,000 ft
2,009,600 m33
71,010,000 ft
2,872,000 m 3
101,475,000 ft
3
3,836,000 m 3
135,540,000 ft
275,080 m 3
9,720,000 ft
Little Balsan
TJatershed
Rainfall
5.08 mm
.2 in
22:. 86 mm
.9 in
27.94 mm
1.1 in
61.72 mm
2.43 in
140.0 mm
5.51 in
11.18 mm
.44 in
Creek
Total Volume of
Water Afatershed
3
66,859 n 3
2,362,500 ft
3
300,866 m 3
10,631,300 ft
3
368,000 m 3
12,994,000 *t
3
812,33^ m 3
28,704,380 ft
3
1,843,000 m 3
65,100,000 *t
3
147,104 m 3
5,198,000 ft
Pine Creek |
Watershed j
Rainfall Total Volume of \
WaterA'Jatershed j
1
i
i
:
3 i
72.90 nm 1,828,000 m 3 !
2.87 in 645,850,000 ft ;
3 i
56.39 mm 1,415,000 m ;
2.22 in 500,000,000 ft ;
3 !
64.0 mm 1,505,000 m 3 :
2.52 in 567,000,000 ft ;
J
-------
Table 4. Watershed Rainfall Totals, Volumes and Monthly Averages 1976-78
vD
1976
(6 mos. )
1977
(8 mos. )
1978
( 4 mos . )
Total Rainfall:
Monthly Avg. :
Total Volume:
Monthly Avg. :
Total Rainfall:
Monthly Avg. :
Total Volume:
Monthly Avg. :
Total Rainfall:
Monthly Avg. :
Total Volume:
Monthly Avg . :
Skunk Creek
306 rrm
12.04 in
51 mm
2.0 in
7.89 x 106m3
2.80 x 108ft3
1.34 x 106m3
4.70 x 107ft3
901 mm
39.3 in
113 mm
4.9 in
2.3 x 107m3
8.27 x 108ft3
2.90 x 106m3
1.03 x 108ft3
365 rrm
14.38 in
91 mm
3.6 in
9.17 x 10 m3
3.2 x 108ft3
2.3 x 10bri3
8.09 x 108ft3
==================
:=============================
Little Balsam Creek
238 mm
9.5 in
40 mm
1.5 in
3.3 x 106m3
1.16 x 108ft3
5.5 x 105m3
1.94 x 107ft3
895 mm
35 in
112 mm
4.4 in
1.20 x 107m3
4.32 x 108ft3
1.53 x 10 m3
5.4 x 107ft3
257.6 mm
10.14 in
51.52 mm
2.03 in
3.4 x 106m3
1.2 x 108ft3
6.8 x 106n3
2.4 x 107ft3
Pine Creek
i
!
!
482.9mm (4 mos.;
18.9 in
120.7 mm
4.7 in
.1.2 x 108m3
4.4 x 109ft3
3.1 x 107m3
1.09. x 109ft3
19? 9 mm C? -™\ri
-------
Table 5. Rainfall at Other Sites, 1976
VM
vn
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Total:
Monthly
Average :
Duluth Airport (NOAA
3.81 mm
.15 in
156.4 mm
6.2 in
66.1 mm
2.6 in
46.7 mm
1.8 in
46.7 rnm
1.8 in
12.2 inn
.48 in
331.91 mm
13.03 in
55-3 mm
2.17 in
Average Duluth Airport (NOAA)
(1941-1970)
86.7 nm
3.4 in
112.8 mm
4.4 in
94.7 rm
3.7 in
96.2 mm
3.8 in
77.7 mm
3.0 in
58.4 mm
2.3 in
526.5 mm
20.6 in
87.8 mm
3.4 in
i
UMD Field Study Center
(Jean Duluth Road)
49.5 mm i
1.9 in '
58.4 mm i
2.3 in i
32.0 mm
1.3
1 .7 mm
.38 in i
149.6 mm
5.8 in :
37.4 m i
1.4 in !
-------
Table 6. Rainfall at Other Sites, 1977
vD
Duluth Airport (NOAA)
March
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Total:
Monthly
Average :
112.5 mm
4.4 in
32.3 mm
1.3 in
88.9 mm
3-5 in
100.8 mm
3.9 in
99.3 mm
3.9 in
82.8 mm
3-3 in
151.6 mm
5.9 in *
81.2 mm
3.2 in
749.4 mm
29.4 in
93.7 mm
3-7 in
Average Duluth Airport (NOAA)
(1941-1970)
44.7 rm
1.8 in
64.8 mm
2.6 in
86.6 mm
3.4 in
112.8 mm
4.4 in
94.7 mm
3.7 in
96.2 mm
3.8 in
77.7 mm
3.0 in
58.4 mm
2.3 in
635.9 mm
25.0 in
79.5 mm
3.13 in
UMD Field Study Center
(Jean Duluth Road)
17.8 mm
.7 in
67.6 mm
2.7 in
52.1 mm
2.1 in
74.9 mm
2.9 in
102.4 mm
4.0 in
70.6 mm
2.8 in
385.4 mm
15.2 in
48.18 mm
1.9 in
-------
Table 7. Rainfall at Other Sites, 1978
vD
March
April
May
June
July
August
(1st wk.)
Total:
(Aug. not
included)
Monthly
Average :
Duluth Airport (NOAA)
11.94 rrm
.47 in
49.78 mm
1.96 in
88.65 mm
3.49 in
75.18 mm
2.96 in
194.82 mm
7.67 in
8.13 mm
.32 in
420.37 mm
16.5 in
84.07 mm
3.3 in
Average Duluth Airoort(NOM)
(1941-1970)
44.7nm
1.76 in
64.77 mm
2.55 in
i
86.61 mm
3.41 in
112.78 mm
4.44 in
94.74 mm
3.73 in
96.27 mm
3.79 in
i
403.6 mm
15.9 in
i
80.7 mm
3.2 in
-------
AVERAGE UIND SPEED AND DIRECTION
N
00
SITE: PI;NE CREEK
«=•?£: OCTOBER 197?
UIND ROSE U i i
20X
w -
U
I 30 -
N
D
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P
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D 10 -
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- nr-ri
•
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P«
^
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i 1 i I i 1 ( 1
600 1200 1800 S400
i E
TIME - CST
-------
AOERAGE UIND SPEED AND DIRECTION
N
SITE: PINE CREEK
£«VTE: NOVEMBER 197?
UIND ROSE U
«- i E
VM
vD
U
I 30
N
D
S 20
P
E
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D 10
+
600
1800
TIME - CST
1800
B400
-------
N
AVERAGE UIND SPEED AND DIRECTION
SITE: PINE CREEK
DATE: DECEMBER 197?
UIND ROSE U i i
20*
O
o
^0 -1
U
I 30 -
N
D
S 20 -
P
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E
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»
S
^
V
600 1800 1800 8400
TIME - CST
-------
N
AOERAGE UIND SPEED AND DIRECTION
SITE: L. BALSAH
DAT£: JANUARY 1978
UIND ROSE
40 -r
U
I 30 t
N
D
S SO
P
E
E
D
609
U i c
SOX
tiii
1800
TIME - CST
1800
8400
-------
O
ro
AVERAGE UIND SPEED AND DIRECTION
SITE: L. BALSAM
DATE: FEBRUARY 1978
40 -r MPH
U
I 30
N
D
S 20
P
E
E
D 10
600
UIND ROSE U i i
20*
1300
TIME - CST
1800
N
i i i E
8400
-------
AVERAGE UIND SPEED AND DIRECTION
N
o
SITE: L, BALSAM
DATE: flARCH 1978
40 -r MPH
U
! 30
N
D
S 20
P
E
E
D 10
600
+
•*•
1200
TIME - CST
+
1800
i i i i E
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2400
-------
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FCUR-PAR/VETER HOURLY VALUE? (d)
-------
OPERATION OP RAIN GAUGE READER CIRCUIT
The rain gauge reader is a microcomputer based unit that dumps the
rainfall data from the individual remote rain gauges onto magnetic tape for
storage and transportation to the lab. This report describes the operation
of the rain gauge reader circuitry and explains how the unit is to be used in
the field.
Rain Gauge Reader Circuitry
The rain gauge reader consists of the following five separate units:
Central Processor Unit (CPU) Board, Keyboard/Display Board, Power Supply,
Bandpass Filter (for tape interface) and Buffer Board. These units are
described individually below.
A. CPU Board; This wire-wrapped board is the heart of the rain gauge
reader. It consists 6f an 1802 CMOS 8-bit microprocessor chip, an Intel 2716
2k x 8 EPROM, 256 8-bit bytes of CMOS RAM, one 8-bit output port, eight
memory-mapped one-bit output ports, one eight-bit input port, one four-bit
input port (lowest 4 bits of an 8-bit port) and a circuit that converts serial
data to frequency shift keying (PSK). The system clock is derived from a
2.010 MHz crystal that gives a cycle time of 3.98 % 4.0 microseconds.
The processor is arranged with the 2k x 8 EPROM occupying the lowest
8 pages in the memory map. Power-up reset is provided by a RC network that
starts processor operation at location OOOOH. The EPRQM contains the soft-
ware that controls the entire rain gauge reader. The page following the
* Note to future programners: Leave 8 to 16 NOP instructions in the first
part of memory to allow the CPU to fully reset.
408
-------
EPRCM (0800H) is occupied by two 5101 CMOs RAMs (256 x 8) that are used for
data storage and stack storage.
The eight one-bit memory mapped ports are written to by trying to store
a byte in locations 0000-000? which are occupied by both EPRCM and output
ports. The least significant bit of the accumulator is written into the
addressed port when a store instruction is executed and one of the addresses
0000-000? are pointed to.
The eight-bit output port is written to by executing an OUT 4 instruction.
The four-bit and eight-bit input ports are read by executing an IMP 1 or
INP 2 instruction. IMP 1 transfers the data present on the four-bit input
port to the 4 least significant bits of the accumulator and the 4 least sig-
nificant bits of the memory location pointed to by the register pointed to
by X. INP Z works exactly as INP 1 except eight bits are transferred.
The FSK circuit consists of two pre-settable counters in series that
are clocked by timing pulses from the processor. The counters count down
and preset themselves with one of two values each tine they reach zero. The
value to be loaded is selected by the serial input line which is connected
to the Q output of the 1802. The resulting frequencies are divided in two
by a flip-flop to produce the desired 2025/2225 Hz frequencies (Modem
frequencies).
B. Keyboard /Display Board: This board contains a hex keypad
with shift key, a nine-digit multiplexed LED display and latches and drivers
to interface both with the CPU card. Two output ports enable the CPU to
select which segments and digit to light while another output port (port 1)
selects which key to check for a closure. The keyboard is scanned by out-
putting the desired hex value to port 1 and testing a line common to all keys
409
-------
for closure. If closure Is detected the key is debounced and the value
outputted to port 1 becomes the hex input value. The display is scanned by
outputting a byte to port 2 that selects which of the 7 segments and decimal
point should be bit (each bit represents a segment) and outputting a byte to
port 3 that determines which digit (0-8) is to be bit. Reader software handles
both of these functions. A shift key on the keyboard is connected to pin
EF3 on the 1802 for testing. The Keyboard/Display Board is connected to the
CPU card through a 16 conductor plug-in strip.
C. Power Supply: The power supply section consists of two 4-volt
2.6 AH rechargeable gel cell batteries that feed power through the Off-On
switch to a 1000 yffilter capacitor and a 7805 5-volt regulator. The
regulator is more than adequately heat sinked. A BNC connector on the rear
of the reader is connected directly to the gel cells for recharging. The
positive terminal is the cneter of the BNC and the negative terminal is a
chassis ground.
D- Bandpass Filter: This board is an op-amp active bandpass circuit
of the type listed in the National Semiconductor Linear Catalog under
"IM324 applications." The filter is centered at = 2100 Hz to provide
roughly equal attenuation to each FSK frequency. The filter minimizes all
components of the square wave from the FSK circuit and passes the first
harmonic sine wave. This board may or may not be necessary but it minimizes
interference on the tape recorder. This board also holds a relay and transis-
tor driver circuit that enables the CPU to turn the tape drive on or off.
Both the audio and relay outputs are brought out to jacks on the front panel
of the reader.
410
-------
E. Buffer Board: This board uses transistors to raise the 5V output
of the CMOS ports to the 6V operating voltage of the rain gauge. Again, this
may or may not have been necessary, but it improves the noise immunity of
the system by ,8V and was therefore employed. This board also has a current
source to drive the opto-isolator on the rain gauge.
READER SOFTWARE
The programmability of this rain gauge reader is its main asset. The
2716 2K EPROM holds a great deal of program and is easily changed by using
the COSMAC ASSEMBLER/EDITOR/PROM burner system used in the UMD Physics Depart-
ment. Less than IK of EPROM was used for the first version of the rain gauge
reader software so a lot of expansion is possible. The programmability of
the reader along with its extra input and output facilities and wire-wrapped
CPU card should prevent this device from becoming obsolete for quite some time,
In the future, redundancy codes, more elaborate rain gauge diagnostics, a
different tape interface or even a different rain gauge circuit could be
accommodated with minimal hardware modifications.
Description of Software: The reader software utilizes RCA's Standard
Call and Return Technique for subroutine linkage. This method involves a
software stack in RAM and uses Registers 2 through 6 as well as the 4-bit
X Register. Register assignments are as follows:
Reg 2 Stack Pointer
Reg 3 Program Counter
Reg 4 Location of Call Routine
Reg 5 Location of Return Routine
Reg 6 Address of Calling Routine (used for passage of
parameters to a subroutine)
4-11
-------
This software also sets Registers C and F aside for special use:
Reg C Display Buffer Pointer (0800H)
Reg F Used to Output Variables to Ports (08FFH)
Included in this package are: keyboard scan routine, display scan
routines, serial input-output routines, memory test routine and other
subroutines that simplify the main program.
A complete listing of the reader software is included in this report
in Appendix C.
Note to future programmer: The output buffers invert, so be sure to
account for that in software. Also, when using the Standard Call/Return
Convention do not change Registers 2,3,4 or 5 and do not assume that a SEX
command in a subroutine will be valid upon return to main program. The
Standard Call/Return routine uses the X Register to implement its stack.
FIELD USE OF RAIN GAUGE READER
The rain gauge reader uses the same program to accomplish two, somewhat
similar tasks: reading the rain gauge data and storing it onto tape and
initializing the rain gauge. A brief definition of each task and a chrono-
logical description of reading a rain gauge follows.
Reading involves plugging into the rain gauge with the reader, keying
in a heading, placing the read/setup switch in the read position, turning on
the cassette recorder and answering certain questions asked by the reader by
means of the YES and NO keys on the reader (to be described in detail, later).
The reader then directs the rain gauge data and heading onto an ordinary audio
cassette, performs a memory chack on the rain gauge and reinitializes the
rain gauge for another data gathering period.
Initializing the rain gauge follows the same steps as reading, except
that the read/setup switch is placed in the "setup" position and the tape
recorder need not be turned on.
-------
Reading a Rain Gauge: Turn the reader on and place the read/setup
switch In the "read" position. The display should now read, FLU5 ~p.
(PLUG?). This message indicates that the reader is not interfaced with the
rain gauge. Plug the reader's interface plug into the rain gauge. The dis-
play should now read,dEU. nn. (DEVICE NUMBER). Key-in the two digit device
number that is painted on the side of the rain gauge. If you make a mistake,
simply press the correct combination and the new numbers will write over the
old numbers. When you have the device number entered correctly, press the
shift key and then any character except H or L to move on to the next step.
The reader will then ask for LCI. nn, (LOCATION NUMBER), HDLJr ?.(HOUR? Zulu
Time),prr|L~c (SAMPLING PERIOD after the hour: Example: If you have a five-
minute sampling period and it is twenty-three minutes after the hour, enter
05), nurHn?. (MONTH?), dfl^ ?.(DAY?), ^ fRf H (YEAR 1900—fill in). Key-in
the correct value for each of these parameters and go on to the next by
pressing a shifted character.
After the heading is entered, the reader will display the question,
LrlHnbE(CHANGE?), to which you answer YES or NO. If you press YES, the
reader will repeat the heading input routine, displaying the current values
so you can check them and change them if the need arises. If you press NO,
the display will read,HRPE Inr(TAPE ON?). Check the tape recorder to make
sure it is in the record mode and properly connected to the reader. The
reader controls the tape motion in the same way a microphone switch does, so
don't be alarmed if the tape doesn't move when you put the recorder in the
record mode. Pressing any key except H or L starts the reading operation.
The reader displays the word,rL!nrHnKRUNNING) for a few seconds and
then the display blanks. The reader transfers all the valid data to tape in
the format shown in Appendix D.
-------
Upon completion of data transfer, the display reads, H£fljnP
(AGAIN?). Pressing YES repeats the data transfer for extra security.
Pressing NO starts the memory check routine. The reader checks all bits
of the rain gauge memory by writing test words to the memory and then
reading them back and comparing them. If an error is detected, the display
will read, Error (ERROR). If no errors are detected, the reader will erase
the memory, copy the heading data pertaining to starting time and date into
the rain gauge's memory, initialize the counters and display F Inf 5HEi_
(FINISHED). At this point, the reader can be disconnected from the rain
gauge and turned off.
-------
RAIN GAUGE ELECTRONICS PACKAGE
The Rain Gauge Electronics Package is a solid state unit that
contains all the circuitry needed for operation of the rain gauge. The
electronics package can be subdivided into four subsystems: (1) crystal
timebase, (2) low power memory, (3) control sequencer and (4) trigger unit.
The electronics package is connected to a dumping-type rainfall transducer
(tipping bucket, siphon, etc.). Data is extracted from the rain gauge
memory by a portable processor and tape recorder unit henceforth known as
the Rain Gauge Reader. The rain gauge reader interfaces with the rain gauge
through an 8-pin plug (the rain gauge reader is described elsewhere in this
report). The following is a brief description of the circuitry and operation
of each of the four rain gauge subsystems followed by a description of the
overall rain gauge operation.
I. Crystal Timebase
The crystal timebase consists of two 14 stage CMOS counters, a
32768 Hz wristwatch crystal, several logic gates and a DIP rocker switch
array. The crystal and a 4060 14-stage counter form a frequency generator.
The frequencies used by the rain gauge are 2048 Hz (which runs the sequencer)
and either 2 Hz, 4 Hz or 8 Hz, one of which is selected by one of three
rocker switches to clock a 4020 14-stage counter. Pour rocker switches
connect or disconnect four selected outputs of the 4020 to a logic gate
array that resets the entire counting chain at intervals determined by the
settings of the 7 rocker switches. Below is a table that lists the proper
settings of the rocker switches for several time intervals.
^=.==«=======
5 min.
Sw. 1
5-6
10 min.
Sw. 2
5-6
15 min.
Sw. 1
7^8
20 min.
Sw. 3
5j;6
30 min.
Sw. 2
7j£
60 min.
Sw. 3
7^8
4-15
-------
II. Low Power Memory
The memory unit consists of four 5101 CMOS RAMs in a 512 x 8 array,
an 8-bit 4404 synchronous counter (data counter), a 12-bit 4040B ripple
counter with buffered outputs, a 4021 8-bit parallel-load, serial out shift
register and several control gates and inverters.
The 8 outputs of the 4404 are connected to the 8 inputs of the memory
array. Nine of the 4o40B's outputs are used as address lines for the memory
array. The memory is operated as a 512 x 8 FIFO (First In First Out) buffer
with the timebase and control circuits entering data and the rain gauge
reader extracting it.
Seven bits of the memory are used for data and the eighth bit is used
as a control bit. When the rain gauge is initially set up, the reader loads
the first six locations with information pertaining to the starting time and
date of the data logging period. All other memory locations are occupied with
either data words, characterized by the most significant bit equal to zero,
or control words, characterized by the most significant bit equal to one.
The memory is "erased" when the reader writes all "ones" into every remaining
location and initializes the data and address counters. Each time the
timing pulse from the timebase goes low, the data counter is advanced one
count. The data counter counts the number of sampling periods that have
elapsed since the rain gauge was initialized. After 128 sampling periods
have elapsed, the eighth bit of the data counter goes high, signifying a
control word and triggering the sequencer. The sequencer then writes the
word 10000000 into memory and resets the data counter to zero. A diode in
the trigger unit allows the sequencer to write a data word immediately
after the control word is written. If the memory is used up before the
rain gauge is read, the entire rain gauge assumes a low power holding
state and rain gauge operation is suspended until reinitialized by the reader.
-------
Data from the 8 output lines of the memory are shifted out serially
by a parallel to serial converter consisting of the 4021 shift register,
which is controlled by the control sequencer circuit. The data is brought
out serially to miniinize mechanical contacts on the plug that interfaces
the reader and the rain gauge.
III. Control Sequencer
The control sequencer consists of a 74C193 synchronous up-down counter
with asynchronous parallel load, a 4028 BCD-decimal decoder, an opto-isolator
and several gates. The control sequencer, upon receiving a signal from the
trigger unit, enables the memory unit by setting the flip-flop. The memory
unit's counters already hold the correct data and address values. When the
4013 latch is set, the memory is enabled and the 2048 signal from the time-
base is gated into the 74C193 counter which causes the outputs of the 4028
decoder to sequentially activate. The table below gives the function of each
output of the sequencer.
Table 1-a. Functions of Sequencer Outputs
Output
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Function
Null State
Load Shift Register
Write RAM
Enable Reset of 4404 Control Word 100000002
Advance Address Counter
Reset Trigger Latch & Sequence Counter
Reset Data Counter
Reset Address Counter
Advance Data Counter
Advance Shift Register
Used By
Rain gauge
X
X
X
X
X
Reader
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-------
The sequencer writes the contents of the data counter into memory,
resets the data counter if 10000000 is its value, advances the address
counter and resets the trigger and sequence counter which puts the memory
in a low power state.
The rain gauge reader can override automatic rain gauge action by
supplying 5-10 ma current to the opto-isolator. Current present in the
opto-isolator pulls the parallel load line of the 7^0193 low (so the 4028
lines may be set by supplying the correct 4-bit code to the parallel inputs
of the 74C93), enables the memory and resets the timing chain.
IV. Trigger
The trigger unit consists of a high impedance « 22 nfl buffer and
pulse squarer, a RC network (low-pass) and a schmitt trigger. When pulses
enter the buffer they are amplified and fed into the low-pass network.
After a period of time determined by resistor and capacitor values, the
capacitor charges up to the schmitt trigger voltage and a trigger signal is
passed on to the sequencer. The trigger signal remains high until the
capacitor discharges to the lower schmitt voltage. An 0 gate on the
trigger latch input allows the sequencer to write the control word,
indicating data counter overflow.
OVERALL DESCRIPTION OF RAIN GAUGE OPERATION
Rain gauge operation can be described in three parts. Below is a
description of (1) initial setup, (2) data collection and (3) reading.
I. Initial Setup
Setup of the rain gauge involves checking the rain gauge battery,
placing the rain gauge in the desired area and initializing the rain gauge
with the rain gauge reader. The rain gauge is initialized by placing the
setup/read switch of the reader in the setup position and operating the
reader as if you were reading the rain gauge. (See reader operation.)
The reader then tests the memory, erases it and loads the starting time
418
-------
and date into the first five locations in memory. If the reader detects
an error in the memory, the message ERROR will appear on the display. If
no errors are detected, the message done, will appear.
II. Data Collection
The rain gauge increments its data counter every sampling period.
When the data counter overflows, the control word 100000002 is written into
the memory and the data counter is reset to 000000002. This means that
each time a 100000002 is seen in the memory, a period of 128 sampling
periods has elapsed since either the last overflow control word or initiali-
zation. Whenever the trigger is activated by the rainfall transducer, the
contents of the data counter are written Into the memory and the address
counter is incremented. The time of each dump is then recorded by the rain
gauge. A sample of rain gauge data is shown below.
Table 2-a. Sample Rain Gauge Data
RAM ADDRESS (HEX) CONTENTS DESCRIPTION
msb Isb
00 XXXXXXXX Hour of initialization (0-24)
Oi XXXXXXXX Period of initialization (# of sampling
periods past hour of initialization)
j 02 XXXXXXXX Day of month of initialization
03 XXXXXXXX Month of initialization
; 04 XXXXXXXX Year of initialization
i 05 00001011 A dump recorded 11 sampling periods
I after initialization
i 06 00001011 " " " ;; ;; ;;
07 00001011 " " " "
08 00001100 " " " 12
09 10000000 Data counter cycles (128 periods elapsed
since initialization)
U*UA AV** -*•* *•*• ^y •fc^HM* ••• »»*^» •• ^ ••• /
OA 00010000 A dump recorded 128 + 16 periods after init.|
OB 10000000 Data counter cycles_(128j-J.28 periods " ')
When the memory is filled, the rain gauge assumes an inactive low power
holding state and awaits reading and initialization.
III. Reading the Rain Gauge
This is described in detail in the report on the rain gauge reader
under the above title.
419
-------
(X)
o
r-4
H048
j -Q49
IT050
Appendix A: CPU Board
-------
IX)
FROM RAIN GAUGE
RELAY
5"1' TAPE CONROL
SETUP- TOCIT I
CENTER ADJUST
Smff^OOK ^270K
<6BOA 4-
II 9 10 8 7 6 5 4 18 1720 19 14 13 16 15
4515
22 12 13
Aroendlx B: Keyboard Display
-------
APPENDIX C
COSMAC LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LISTING
78/10/16. PAGE 1
SYMBOL TABLE
EXITA 0021
RETPG 0032
KEYS 0059
NOCRY 007C
GOCOP 0090
LOOPI OOB5
LOOPC OOCA
TLOP1 OODF
TLOP2 OOFO
TLOP5 010C
UNPAC 0153
LOOPO 01BO
DSPLP 01EB
MULOU 020F
CMPLO 0238
PLUG 027E
SETUP 0317
OBJECT/SOURCE
0000 C4
0001 C4
0002 C4
0003 C4
0004 C4
0005 C4
0006 C4
0007 C4
0008 F868
OOOA A3
OOOB F802
OOOD B3
OOOE F822
0010 A4
0011 F800
0013 B4
0014 F832
0016 AS
0017 F800
0019 B5
001A F8FD
001C A2
001D F808
001F B2
0020 03
0021 03
0022 E2
0023 96
CALL 0022
DSPLY 003E
HOLO 0066
NSHFT 0081
TABLE 009A
ROT OOB8
NOCNT OOD5
TLOP3 OOE4
NOPAR 0101
GET2 0112
OUTPT 0178
CSRET 01D7
TEST 01FE
RDBCK 0224
ERROR 024B
GOPLG 0288
HDMOV 0388
LISTING
NOP
NOP
NOP
NOP
NOP
NOP
NOP
NOP
LOI
PLO
LOI
PHI
LOI
PLO
LOI
PHI
LOI
PLO
LDI
PHI
LOI
PLO
LOI
PHI
SEP
EXITA SEP
CALL SEX
GHI
EXITS 0031
OUTLI 0052
LOQPK 006D
COPY9 0089
SERIN OOAA
CNTUP OOC5
OUTPR OOD6
NOBIT OOED
TLOP4 0104
ENDG2 0151
DMPBF 0191
DSPTM 01E3
LOOP 0207
LOP 022C
MAIN 0268
DUMP 0308
DONE 03B9
MAIN-
3
MAIN+
3
CALL-
4
CALL*
4
RETPG-
5
RETPG+
5
OFD
2
8
2
3
3
2
6
422
-------
APPENDIX C
COSMAC LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LISTING
78/10/16.
PAGE 2
0024
0025
0026
0027
0028
0029
002A
002B
002C
002D
002E
002F
0031
0032
0033
0034
0035
0036
0037
0038
0039
003A
003B
003C
003E
003F
0040
0042
0043
0044
0045
0046
0047
0048
0049
004B
004D
004E
004F
0051
0052
0053
0054
0055
0056
0057
0058
0059
005B
005C
73
86
73
93
B6
83
A6
46
B3
46
A3
3021
D3
96
B3
86
A3
E2
12
72
A6
FO
B6
3031
EF
2F
F800
5F
IF
8D
5F
8C
F5
5F
FB09
3A52
8C
AD
F800
5F
2F
62
63
2F
ED
62
D5
F8FF
AF
F808
STXD
GLO
STXD
GHI
PHI
GLO
PLO
LDA
PHI
LDA
PLO
BR
EXITS SEP
RETPG GHI
PHI
GLO
PLO
SEX
INC
LDXA
PLO
LDX
PHI
BR
DSPLY SEX
DEC
LDI
STR
INC
GLO
STR
GLO
SO
STR
XRI
BNZ
GLO
PLO
LDI
STR
OUTLI DEC
OUT
OUT
DEC
SEX
OUT
SEP
KEYS LDI
PLO
LDI
6
3
6
3
6
6
3
6
3
EXITA
3
6
3
6
3
2
2
&
6
EXITS
OF
OF
00
OF
OF
00
OF
OC
OF
9
OUTLI
OC
OD
00
OF
OF
2
3
OF
OD
2
5
OFF
OF
08
423
-------
APPENDIX C
COSMAC LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LISTING
78/10/16. PAGE 3
005E
005F
0060
0061
0062
0063
0065
0066
0067
0069
006B
006D
006E
0070
0071
0072
0073
0074
0075
0076
0078
0079
007B
007C
007E
0080
0081
0083
0085
0086
0087
0088
0089
008A
008C
008D
008F
0090
0091
0092
0093
0094
0096
0098
0099
009A
OBD.21
OOAA
OOAB
OOAD
BF
8C
AD
9C
BD
F800
BE
D4
3766
3766
D4
EF
IE
8E
5F
61
2F
3A7C
9E
FCFF
BE
3E81
F8FF
BE
3F6D
F8FF
5F
63
2F
D5
E6
F808
BC
F800
AC
72
5C
1C
8C
FB09
3A90
AC
D5
.OEC.OE5.71
E3
F808
AE
PHI
GLO
PLO
GHI
PHI
LDI
PHI
HOLD SEP
DB
B4
B4
LOOPK SEP
DB
SEX
INC
GLO
STR
OUT
DEC
BNZ
GHI
ADI
PHI
. NOCRY BN3
LDI-
PHI
NSHFT BN4
LDI
STR
OUT
DEC
SEP
COPY9 SEX
LDI
PHI
LDI
PLO
GOCOP LDXA
STR
INC
GLO
XRI
BNZ
PLO
SEP
TABLE DB
OF
OC
OD
OC
OD
0
OE
4
DSPLY+.DSPLY-
HOLD
HOLD
4
DSPLY+.DSPLY-
OF
OE
OE
OF
1
OF
NOCRY
OE
OFF
OE
NSHFT
OFF
OE
LOOPK
OFF
OF
3
OF
5
6
8
OC
00
OC
OC
OC
OC
09
GOCOP
OC
5
. OD5 . ODD . 025 . OFD . OF5 . 7D . OD9 . 9C . OE9 . ODC . 5C
SERIN SEX 3
LDI
PLO
08
OE
-------
APPENDIX C
COSMAC LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LISTING
78/10/16. PAGE 4
OOAE
OOBO
OOB1
OOB2
OOB3
LABLE
OOB4
OOB5
OOB6
OOB7
OOB8
OOB9
OOBA
OOBB
OOBC
OOBO
OOBE
OOBF
OOCO
OOC1
OOC2
OOC4
OOC5
OOC6
OOC7
OOC8
OOC9
OOCA
OOCB
OOCD
OOCE
OOCF
OODO
OOD1
OOD2
OOD5
OOD6
OOD8
0009
OODB
OODC
OODD
OODF
OOE1
OOE4
OOES
OOE6
OOE7
OOEA
OOEB
F800
AD
64
64
*FF* NOT
EF
69
F6
80
7E
AD
E3
64
64
2E
8E
3AB5
05
E3
64
64
8D
3205
64
64
20
COOOCA
05
F808
AE
F800
AO
7A
F8CD
FCFF
CAOODF
90
FE
BO
CBOOED
7B
10
LOI
PLO
OUT
DB
OUT
FOUND IN TABLE.
DB
LOOPI SEX
INP
SHR
ROT GLO
RSHL
PLO
SEX
OUT
OB
OUT
OB
DEC
GLO
BNZ
SEP
CNTUP SEX
OUT
DB
OUT
DB
LOOPC GLO
BZ
OUT
DB
OUT
DB
DEC
LBR
NOCNT SEP
OUTPR LDI
PLO
LOI
PLO
RECJ
LDI
TLOP1 ADI
LBNZ
TLOP3 GHI
SHL
PHI
LBNF
SEQ
INC
00
OD
4
OE
4
FF
OF
1
OD
00
03
4
06
4
OF
OE
OE
LOOPI
5
3
4
09
4
OF
OD
NOCNT
4
07
4
OF
OD
LOOPC
5
08
OE
00
OD
OCD
OFF
TLOP1
OD
00
NOBIT
00
425
-------
APPENDIX C
COSMAC LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LISTING
78/10/16.
PAGE 5
OOEC
OOED
OOEE
OOFO
OOF2
OOFS
OOF6
OOF7
OOFA
OOFB
OOFC
OOFF
0100
0101
0102
0104
0106
0109
010A
010C
010E
0111
0112
0113
0115
0116
0117
0118
011A
011B
one
011E
011F
0121
0122
0123
0124
0126
0127
0123
012A
012B
012E
012F
0130
0131
0132
0133
0134
0135
38
7A
F8CD
FCFF
CAOOFO
2E
8E
CAOOE4
8D
F6
CB0101
7A
38
7B
F8CD
FCFF
CA0104
7B
FBCD
FCFF
CA010C
D5
8C
FC07
AD
9C
C7
FC01
BD
D4
0153
8C
FC08
AB
9C
C7
FC01
BB
DA
0059
9E
CA0151
09
FE
FE
FE
FE
5F
8E
FAOF
SKP
NOB IT REQ
LDI
TLOP2 ADI
LBNZ
DEC
GLO
LBNZ
GLO
SHR
LBNF
REQ
SKP
NOPAR SEQ
LDI
TLOP4 ADI
LBNZ
SEQ
LDI
TLOP5 ADI
LBNZ
SEP
GET2 GLO
ADI
PLO
GHI
LSNF
ADI
PHI
SEP
DU
GLO
ADI
PLO
GHI
LSNF
ADI
PHI
SEP
DU
GHI
LBNZ
LDN
SHL
SHL
SHL
SHL
STR
GLO
ANI
OCD
OFF
TLOP2
OE
OE
TLOP3
OD
NOPAR
OCD
OFF
TLOP4
OCD
OFF
TLOP5
5
OC
07
OD
OC
01
OD
4
UNPAC
OC
08
OB
OC
01
OB
4
KEYS
OE
ENDG2
09
OF
OE
OF
4-26
-------
APPENDIX C
COSMAC LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LISTING
78/10/16.
PAGE 6
0137
0138
0139
013A
013B
013C
013D
013E
0140
0141
0143
0144
0145
0147
0148
014A
014B
014C
0140
014E
0151
0152
0153
0154
0155
0156
0157
0158
0159
015B
015C
015D
015E
0160
0161
0163
0164
0165
0166
0167
0169
016A
016C
016D
016E
0170
0171
0173
0174
0175
EF
Fl
59
OB
2B
5B
8E
FAOF
5F
F89A
F4
AD
F800
C7
FC01
BO
00
IB
SB
C00112
19
D5
09
F6
F6
F6
F6
5F
F89A
EF
F4
AB
F800
C7
FC01
BB
OB
50
09
FAOF
5F
F89A
F4
AB
F800
C7
FC01
BB
OB
10
SEX
OR
.STR
LDN
DEC
STR
GLO
AN I
STR
LDI
ADO
PLO
LDI
LSNF
ADI
PHI
LDN
INC
STR
LBR
ENDG2 INC
SEP
UNPAC LDN
SHR
SHR
SHR
SHR
STR
LDI
SEX
ADD
PLO
LDI
LSNF
ADI
PHI
LDN
STR
LDN
AN I
STR
LDI
ADD
PLO
LDI
LSNF
ADI
PHI
LDN
INC
OF
9
OB
OB
OB
OE
OF
OF
TABLE-
00
TABLE*
01
00
00
OB
OB
GET2
9
5
09
OF
TABLE-
OF
OB
TABLE+
01
OB
OB
00
09
OF
OF
TABLE-
OB
TABLE*
01
OB
OB
00
-------
APPENDIX C
COSHAC LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LISTING
78/10/16.
PAGE 7
0176
0177
0178
0179
017B
017C
017E
0181
0182
0183
0185
0188
0189
018A
018B
018C
018D
018E
0191
0192
0193
0195
0196
0198
0199
019A
019C
019E
019F
01AO
01A2
01A4
01A5
01A6
01A8
01A9
01AB
01AC
01AD
01AE
01BO
01B1
01B3
01B6
01B7
01B8
01B9
01BA
01BB
01BC
5D
D5
D4
OOAA
SB
FB30
C20191
3D
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D4
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8A
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BA
BD
D4
OOD6
OB
FBFF
C201D7
9A
5F
EF
OB
F4
BA
4B
SIR
SEP
OUTPT SEP
DU
GLO
XRI
LBZ
GLO
STR
XRI
LBZ
INC
SEX
OUT
DB
OUT
DB
LBR
DMPBF GLO
PLO
LDI
PLO
LDI
PHI
SEP
DU
LDI
PHI
SEP
DU
LDI
PHI
SEP
DU
GLO
ADI
PHI
PHI
SEP
DU
LOOPO LDN
XRI
LBZ
GHI
STR
SEX
LDN
ADD
PHI
LDA
OD
5
4
SERIN
OB
30
DMPBF
OD
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OFF
DMPBF
OB
03
4
OB
4
OF
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OB
OA
20
OB
OFF
OD
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OUTPR
OFF
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OUTPR
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OA
OEO
OA
OD
4
OUTPR
OB
OFF
CSRET
OA
OF
OF
OB
OA
OB
428
-------
APPENDIX C
COSMAC LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LISTING
78/10/16,
PAGE 8
01BD
01BE
01 BF
01C1
01C2
01C3
01C4
01CS
01C6
01C9
01CA
01CB
01CC
01CE
01DO
01D1
01D3
0104
01D7
01D8
0109
010A
01DC
01DE
01DF
01EO
01E2
01E3
01E4
01ES
01E6
01E7
01E8
01E9
01EA
01EB
01EC
01EE
01EF
01FO
01F3
01F4
01F7
01F9
01FA
ITHIS
01FB
01FC
01FD
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D4
0006
8A
5F
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CSRET GHI
PHI
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DU
LOI
PHI
SEP
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SEP
DSPTM LDA
PHI
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PLO
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GHI
PHI
DSPLP SEP
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STR
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BEEN INSERTED ************
OUT
DEC
SEP
TEST SEX
2
OF
5
03
429
-------
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-------
APPENDIX C
COSMAC LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LISTING
78/10/16.
PAGE 10
023A
023B
023E
023F
0240
0241
0242
0243
0244
0245
0247
024A
024B
024C
024E
0257
0259
025A
025B
025C
025D
025F
0260
0261
0263
0265
0268
026A
026B
026C
026E
026F
0271
0272
0273
0275
027E
0280
0281
0283
0285
0288
0289
028B
0294
0295
0297
0298
029A
02A3
F3
CA024B
E3
64
64
1A
9A
FB02
CA022C
D5
D4
0089
F800
BA
AA
1A
1A
F8FF
5A
D4
01E3
C0024B
F808
BF
B9
F8FF
AF
F810
A9
D4
0089
3C88
D4
01E3
C00268
D4
0089
D4
0112
D4
0089
04
XOR
LBNZ
SEX
OUT
DB
OUT
DB
INC
GHI
XRI
LBNZ
SEP
ERROR SEP
DU
DB
LDI
PHI
PLO
INC
INC
LDI
STR
SEP
DU
DB
LBR
MAIN LDI
PHI
PHI
LDI
PLO
LDI
PLO
SEP
DU
DB
PLUG BN1
SEP
DU
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GOPLG SEP
DU
DB
SEP
DU
SEP
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ERROR
3
4
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COPY9
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4
-------
APPENDIX C
COSMAC LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LISTING
78/10/16. PAGE 11
02A4
02A6
02A7
02A9
02B2
02B3
02B5
02B6
02B8
02C1
02C2
02C4
o?c«;
02C7
02DO
02D1
0203
02D4
02D6
02DF
02EO
02E2
02E3
02E5
02EE
02EF
02F1
02F2
02F4
02FD
02FE
0300
0301
0303
030S
0308
0309
030B
0314
0315
0317
0318
0319
031A
031B
031D
031E
031F
0321
0322
0112
04
• 0089
04
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DU GET2
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OB 79.OBD.OB9.48.00.6E.00.00.00
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DB OE9.70.OFl.6E.00.00.00.00.00
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SEX 03
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PHI OA
LDI OFF
STR OA
INC OA
432
-------
APPENDIX C
COSMAC LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LISTING
78/10/16,
PAGE 12
0323
0324
0325
0327
0330
0331
0333
0335
0337
0338
0339
033B
033C
033E
033F
0340
0341
0342
0343
0344
0345
0346
0348
0349
034B
0354
0355
0357
0358
035A
035C
035F
0361
0362
0363
0364
0366
0367
0369
036A
036B
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0378
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DU COPY9
OB 48.89.49.49.01.49.ODD.00.00
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SEP 4
DU TEST
LOI OAA
PHI OB
LDI 55
PLO OB
SEP 4
DU TEST
LDI OFF
PHI OB
PLO OB
-------
APPENDIX C
COSMAC LANGUAGE ASSEMBLY LISTING
78/10/16. PAGE 13
037A
037B
037D
037E
037F
0380
0381
0382
0384
0385
0387
0388
0389
038A
038B
038D
038E
038F
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0391
0392
0393
0394
0395
0396
0397
0399
039C
039D
039E
039F
03AO
03 A 1
03A2
03A3
03A5
03A6
03A7
03A8
03A9
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03B6
03B7
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03BC
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0100
DONE
-------
ST
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
SP
SP
APPENDIX D
OUTPUT FORMAT
Serial Output Format 1 = 2225 Hz 0 = 2025 Hz
1 Leader or Last Stop Bit MSB LSB
0 _i_
ST = Start bit always "0"
D = Data bit "0" or "1"
SP = Stop bit always 1 (allows for resynching of next char)
300 Bits Per Second
Field Output Format (Hex)
No. of
bytes in 0-16 (Checksum)
fjeld /Byte Field ^necKsum)
FF FF FC{XX}XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX {XX ->• 8-bit Sum of All Bytes from FC to
(sync chars)(16 Data Bytes) Checksum (non-inclusive)
F3 signals end of transmission.
Every transmission begins with:
Byte 0 = Device Number
1 = Location Number
2 = Hour
3 = Period
4 = Month
5 = Day
6 = Year
7 _ oo = Data as in Field Output Format
Sample: (Brackets separate bytes)
|FF|FF|FC|# ob bytes|Dev No|Loc No|Hour|Period|Month|Day|Year|D|D|D|D|D|D|D|D.|D|CS
|FF|FF|FC|# of bytes|D|D|D|D|D| -* CS
-------
APPENDIX E
RAINGAUGE READER—INTERFACE PLUG
PIN ASSIGNMENTS
PIN
1 1
FUNCTION
Input Port 1 LSB
Li U _ _ „ „_,
5 ' Input Port 2 LSB [
6 : • i
r i
18^
j 9 '
[10
! 11 : MSB
13 Output Port 4 LSB
14
!5 . \ Buffered (Inverted)
16
17 • /
18 • )
19 • I Unbuffered
20 J MSB )
21 ; Enable (Current source)
22 | W 2^ 'on 1802 (must be at +6V for Reader to operate)
23 J GND
£4 +6V frO^JRa^J^U^--.-^-j^^»JJ-^riUiu.»i^^-^^J^J^-itjurJl:
436
-------
OUTLINE OP RAIN GAUGE OPERATION
The following outline portrays the series of events In the rain
gauge circuit when sufficient rain has fallen to initiate a dump. The
leading numbers correspond directly to the numbers on the block diagram,
Figure A. The complete circuit diagram is shown in Figure B.
1. The rain gauge fills with water and dumps; the trigger is
enabled by a 5 volt pulse from the gauge.
2. The trigger latches and a pulse proceeds to the sequencer. The
sequencer sends three pulses in the proper order to the correct
points in the circuit.
3. The contents of the time counter are recorded in memory.
4. The address (where the time of a dump is stored) is incremented
to a new address.
5. The trigger is unlatched and the rain gauge is in a static state
once again. (The time counter continues to be incremented every
five minute or ten minute period, which is selectable by toggle
switch.) The sequencer and control logic handle the time counter
and memory overflow as well as rain gauge reader interfacing.
Memory space is saved in this current rain gauge model because during
dry weather (which is much of the time) the rain gauge need only write one
data word to memory every 128 sample periods. The old rain gauge required
one data word every sample period whether it rained or not during that period.
When recording rainfall, this rain gauge must write one word for each
dump. This means that memory is used up quickly during rainy weather.
Memory usage also depends on the sensitivity of the rain gauge, be it one-
tenth or one-hundreth of an Inch. Adequate memory is included for approxi-
mately 450 dumps during a one month period with five minutes per sample
period or 450 dumps during a two month period with ten minutes per sample
period. This is adequate for areas where the rainfall averages about 45
inches per year. The gauge is readily modified for situations where the
rainfall is considerably different in rate.
-------
IMPROVED RAIN GAUGE BLOCK DIAGRAM
Time Counter Overflow
00
r\
Time Counter
INPUT
Low Power
Memory
(CMOS!
OUTPUT
VSBits 7
Parallel to Serial
Shift Register
Time Interval
Pulses j=(
XL
9B
I
t
L. S _,
Nfl
Output to
Rain Gauge Reader
s
t
e
r
Crystal
Timebase Generator
Activating
Pulses -
if
A
A R
GD
Rest
Writ
Reset Time Counter
Write Enable Memory
Advance Address_
Reset Address
Load Shift Register
Advance Sh ift Regi'ster
RT
I'
?8
e
r
©
_V
Sequencer
&
Control Logic
Trigger
Figure A. Rain Gauge Block Diagram
Control Inputs from the
Rain Gauge Reader
-------
VM
vD
2048 Hz
TRIGGER
/ \ IN914
4020
18
8
10
2
12
15
6
4
1
11
-oV_
\
3
_i —
/
4081
•- — 7
-^4073 L
>• i
1
J40O1 >D—f )4001
T- LL.S H....•••
4001
Input
10-40pPT_ 10pf I
14073
14 7
4404
12 11 9 6 5 4 3 13 2]
19
CE(17)
1JJ
CE(17)
19
CE(17)
19
CE(17)
34013 2
4
7 6
'4073
••_
I
4081
LOW ORDER
20
R/W
4-5101 CMOS RAMS
512x8
HIGH ORDER
16 14 12 1O 16 14 12 10
P/S
_Lh
n
9
7
6 *.
5 o
3
O 16
CD
8
13
12
14
7 6 5 4 13 14 15 1 16
4021
) 3 8
o-
74C14
C
ENABLE
GEH11
L _
22K
D C B A
/C\74C1
*-]^15 1 10 9^,
5 74C193 a
3267
10 13 12 11
16 4028 8
142 15 1 674 9 5
74C14
Figure B. Rain Gauge Circuit Diagram
-------
Figure C, Rain Gauge
By loosening the nut "N" the tube "T"
can be moved up or down to collect a
greater or lesser amount of water per
dump. The details on its operation
are in the 1976 Annual Project Report.
-------
Figure D.
CHART OF. WIND DIRECTION AND' RAINFALL
~Lj:.\Jfa-,~iJL-^^tefc
i • 'I i •• t * •/-• f • *••••/•• .-/-»• V J.A .../../.*,»/. • j i -/..A. /-.. j .' i.»./ .0,4-y * -7., .y ., V .. /.../-.../ y _ .. /;.
M0fmjjijjj^
FTP
•• \ ' \_\A_\ A V_\ V ' •• \ ' \ \ \J \ \ > \ \ \ V •• \ \ V \^
mpfe^M^
;iA\AV.pA\\Vlv^^
Avvvvvr
on,e pulse from rain gau'ge
Each Pulse From the Rain Gauge Recorded
On the Chart Equals 0,1" or 0,25 cm of
Rainfall
-------
ro
.5-1
R
A
I
N
I
N
3-
g.a
H
S
.1-
87
11 13 15 17 19 31 83 35
PATZAU 4/9/78 - 5/9/78
Figure E. Conputer Plotted Rate of Rainfall
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-905/9-79-002 C
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Impact of Nonpoint Pollution Control on Western
Lake Superior Red Clay Project
Final Part III
S. REPORT DATE
February 1980
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Stephen C. Andrews - Project Director
8. PERFORMING-ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Douglas County Soil and Water Conservation District
Douglas County Courthouse
Superior, Wisconsin 54880
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
2BA645
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
S005UO
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Great Lakes National Program Office
Room 932, 536 South Clark Street
Chicago, Illinois 60605
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final - May 1974-Dec.l978
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Section 108(a) Program Coordinator-Ralph G. Christensen
U.S. EPA Project Officer- Carl D. Wilson
16. ABSTRACT
This project was in support of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act(PL 92-500).
The objectives are to demonstrate economically feasible methods of improving
water quality, to assess the capabilities of existing institutions to
cooperatively implement a pollution control program and to provide data
recommendations that could be used in future programs. The monitoring of
water quality and climatic conditions were carried out in all geographic areas
where research and field demonstration activities were performed. This
document is the final report of the Red Clay Project.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
Sediment
Erosion
Water Quality
Institutional
Socio-economic
Nutrients
Land treatment
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Document available from Performing Office
or NTIS, Springfield, Virginia 22151
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
21. NO. OF PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (8-73)
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1980—654-586
-------
|