USDA
EPA
United States
Department of
Agriculture
Science and Education
Administration
Cooperative Research
Washington DC 20250
CR 4
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory
Cincinnati OH 45268
EPA-600/7-80-071
April 1980
Research and Development
Vegetative
Rehabilitation of
Arid Land
Disturbed in the
Development of
Oil Shale and Coal
Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program
Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional'grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/7-80-071
April 1980
VEGETATIVE REHABILITATION OF ARID LAND DISTURBED IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF OIL SHALE AND COAL
by
C. M. McKell and Gordon Van Epps
Institute for Land Rehabilitation
Utah State University
Logan, Utah 84322
SEA/CR TAG no. D6-E762
Grant no. 684-15-10
Project Officer
Ronald D. Hill
Resource Extraction and Handling Division
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory-Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
This study was conducted in cooperation with the Science and Education
Administration, Cooperative Research, USDA, Washington, DC 20250.
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268 .
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region V, Library
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory-Cincinnati, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policies of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement
or recommendation for use.
The views and conclusions contained in this report are those of the
authors and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies
or recommendations of the Science and Education Administration-Cooperative
Research, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
11
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FOREWORD
When energy and material resources are extracted, processed, converted,
and used, the related pollutional impacts on our environment and even on our
health often require that new and increasingly more efficient pollution control
methods be used. The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory-Cincinnati
(lERL-Ci) assists in developing and demonstrating new and improved method-
ologies that will meet these needs both efficiently and economically.
Extensive deposits of coal and oil shale exist in the arid and semi arid
regions of the Western states that can be developed to meet the Nation's energy
requirements. However, many of these fossil fuel deposits occur in environ-
ments that have harsh conditions for plant growth. If the benefits to the
Nation are to be realized by the development of Western fossil fuels, adequate
steps must be taken to maintain environmental quality through vegetation
rehabilitation to stabilize the soil surface, reduce runoff pollution, re-
habilitate wildlife habitat and restore plant related site aesthetics. The
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory assists in developing new and
improved methodologies that will assist in effective rehabilitation of
disturbed lands.
The results reported here describe research supported cooperatively by
the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency at Utah State University Agricultural Experiment Station. These field
and greenhouse studies were under the management of the Institute for Land
Rehabilitation which had the objective of developing new technologies for
establishment of plants under arid conditions on disturbed sites following
oil shale and surface coal mining operations.
This report should be of value to those persons responsible for planning
and executing revegetation of coal and oil shale disturbed arid and semi arid
lands. For further information contact the authors or the Extraction
Technology Branch of the Resource Extraction and Handling Division.
David G. Stephan
Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati
iii
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ABSTRACT
Field experiment were established on sites disturbed by exploratory dril-
ling in the oil shale region of northeastern Utah and on disturbed sites on a
potential coal mine in south central Utah. These sites are representative of
arid locations in the West that could be developed for their energy resources.
Concurrently, greenhouse studies were carried out using soil samples and proces-
sed oil shale to simulate critical field conditions under which plant germina-
tion, establishment, and growth take place.
The objectives of the field studies were to test planting methods, surface
stabilizing agents and surface shaping practices and to observe their effects
on soil moisture relations under field conditions.
Greenhouse studies were designed to better understand the biology of
selected native plants with regard to vegetative propagation, seed germination,
seedling competition and growth responses when propagated in various kinds of
containers.
Field establishment of container-grown transplants was far more successful
than plantings of bare-root seedlings or direct seeding. Early spring planting
gave better results than fall planting but good survival was even obtained from
summer planting when the soil was moist. Soil surface shaping can be used to
collect water runoff and increase plant survival. Further improvement in water
harvesting can be obtained by application of surface stabilizing materials.
Plant species tolerant to adverse soil conditions such as sandy texture or
salinity had a higher survival percentage than other native species.
Propagation of native shrubs from stem cuttings provides a means of
multiplying desired biotypes for land rehabilitation. Higher rooting hormone
levels are required for some species than are normally used in propagating
cultivated species. Also, best rooting response was observed when cuttings of
big sagebrush were taken from dormant plants. Stem cuttings from individual
plants within a species varied tremendously in rooting ability while others,
such as fourwing saltbush responded best from current semi woody summer growth.
The most effective container size and shape for growing transplanting
materials is one with adequate volume and ribbed sides to prevent root spiral ing.
Young transplants originating from seeds survived better in the field than those
from rooted cuttings.
Seedling vigor is often critical in field establishment and survival of
various saltbush (Atriplex) species. Highest vigor is not always associated
with the largest seeds because they may have the thickest seed coat. Sizing
of seeds, removal of adhering old floral parts, scarification of seed coats
iv
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and discarding of light seeds improved the germination percentage and survival
of seedlings.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of grant project no. 684-15-10 by
Utah State University Agricultural Experiment Station under the sponsorship of
the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. This report covers the period from
October 1975 to June 1978. In one experiment, however, field survival of nine
shrubs was evaluated in September, 1978.
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CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Abstract . . . . iv
Figures v111
Tables ix
Acknowledgment x
1. Introduction 1
2. Conclusions 3
3. Recommendations 5
4. Procedures 8
Field Study Sites 8
Study Methods 9
5. Results and Discussion 17
Develop Propagation and Planting Techniques 17
Materials for Soil Surface Stabilization 25
Ecology of Selected Native Plants 28
Soil Moisture Patterns in Relation to Soil
Surface Treatments 33
Literature Cited 35
vii
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Oil shale site 8
2 Typical Henry Mountain site. 9
3 Container types • • H
4 Root growth observations chambers 11
5 The effects of utricle sizing on the present fruit fill for
four species of hammermi11ed saltbush fruits 30
6 The influence of utricle size and utricle wall thickness of
four species of hammermilled saltbush fruits 31
7 Daily germination percentages of excised seed by utricle size
class of four species of Atriplex 32
8 Soil moisture use in the first part of the second season of
growth for three species of transplanted shrubs propagated
as seedlings or cuttings and grown 20 weeks in various
container types prior to outplanting 35
viii
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Soil surface stabilizing materials tested in Utah oil
shale revegetation study site 14
2 Rooting performance of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp.
wyomingensis] cuttings in response to three chemical treat-
ment levels at four spring sampling dates 18
3 Mean shoot length, shoot biomass and root biomass of fourwing
saltbush plants harvested at 4-week intervals while growing
in the containers 19
4 Mean shoot length, shoot biomass and root biomass of spreading
rabbitbrush plants harvested at 4-week intervals while
growing in the containers 20
5 Mean shoot length, shoot biomass and root biomass of grease-
wood plants harvested at 4-week intervals while growing
in the containers 21
6 Field survival of nine shrub species after three years in
three planting sites 22
7 Percent survival of transplants on six field sites in the
Henry Mountains, Utah coal field 23
8 Evaluation of surface stabilizing materials applied on July
1 for strength and binding properties using a five-point
rating scale 24
9 Cubic centimeters of water collected in cans in the bottom
of .75 M diameter, 10 cm deep basins treated with a poly-
vinyl acetate stabilizing compound 26
10 Cubic centimeters of water harvested from a simulated rain-
fall of .5 cm (.20 inch) applied with a sprinkler can to
basins .75 m in diameter and 10 cm deep 27
11 Percentage of filled utricles as related to position of the
utricle on the stem 28
12 Mean seedling survival of two dates after outplanting in July
1 for three shrub species grown in four containers with two
propagation methods 33
ix
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work reported in this report covers a broad range of problems,
solution to which required the participating and cooperation of many people
and organizations. We gratefully acknowledge the cooperation of the White
River Shale Project I/ Vernal, Utah for providing additional research support
and field research sites; to Skyline Oil Co. for permitting us to develop and
use a 15-acre research site in the oil shale area of the Uinta Basin, Utah;
and to the Bureau of Land Management for permitting us to establish field
study sites in the Henry Mountains Coal Field.
We appreciate the services of Utah State University Soils Analysis
Laboratory, Ruel Lamborne, Director, for chemical analysis of soils and to the
University Computer Center, Martel Gee, Director, for statistical analysis of
data.
Data from three graduate student theses are included in this report
which we also wish to acknowledge: Eduardo Alvarez-Cordero (1977), "Stem
Propagation of Big Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt.)"; Kent A. Crofts
(1977), "The Importance of Utricle-related Factors in Germination and Seedling
Vigor of Four Species of Perennial Atriplex": and Jerry R. Barker (1978), "The
Influence of Containers and Propagation Methods on Shrub Growth Before and
After Field Planting".
Finally, we acknowledge the continuing interest expressed in the project
by Elmer Clark, Associate Director, Utah Agricultural Experiment Station and
to Eilif V. Miller who coordinated the study for the Science and Education
Administration USDA.
- White River Shale project is a joint venture sponsored by Sun Energy
Development Co., Phillips Petroleum Co., and Sohio Petroleum Co.
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Revegetation is one of the major mitigation practices required to
ameliorate environmental surface impacts that could be caused by development
of an oil shale extractive and retorting industry in Utah and Colorado and by
surface mining and its associated land manipulations in the western states.
Serious disturbance may be imposed on the land by test drilling, exploration,
and surface grading as well as by surface mining and disposition of processed
materials or spoil.
There has been an increasing emphasis on the use of native plants for
vegetative rehabilitation of disturbed lands. Many state regulations specify
either that native plants be used exclusively or wherever possible. Such
emphasis assumes that there is sufficient information about the ecological
tolerances and responses of native species to use them in rehabilitation pro-
grams under extreme site conditions and further, that propagation and planting
methodologies are known.
Until recently, revegetation of disturbed areas and mine spoil disposal
sites in the arid west has not been required. Thus, a technology for rehabil-
itation was not developed for these difficult problem areas.
Some information is available from the field of range management and im-
provement (Valentine 1971). However, many workers advise avoiding difficult
sites and areas of low rainfall. The conclusion of Bleak et al, (1965) in
attempting to direct-seed exotic grasses in a region of drought and soil
salinity was to use native plants, possibly shrubs, and to seek better ways
to assure establishment. The work of Plummer et al. (1968) is especially
helpful in describing some potentially useful native species for land rehab-
ilitation. Species tried in oil shale revegetation studies by Baker and
Duffield (1973) gave varied responses as might be expected by their origins
as either native plants or cultivated species used in rehabilitation.
It may be possible to grow plants on disturbed arid sites if sufficient
attention is exercised in replacing topsoil, leaching, seedbed preparation,
fertilization, mulching, and irrigation (Block and Kilburn, 1973). However,
costs and the non-availability of water may preclude such practices in some
arid locations. Further, any long term commitment to supply scarce or expen-
sive inputs to a rehabilitation program may reduce its feasibility.
Thus, a viable approach is to use adapted native or naturalized plant
species that require minimal inputs and can survive under harsh site conditions.
To follow such an approach, considerable information must be developed about
1
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the biology and utilization of native species (McKell et al. 1972) and improve
on existing methods for propagation and establishment (Plummer et al.1968, Cook
et al. 1974).
The present work attempts to fill in some of the more serious information
gaps in previous work so that new approaches can be made to rehabilitate
disturbed arid lands. The major research objectives of these studies were to
develop basic information and methods for establishing native plants under
harsh environmental conditions. Specifically, we set out to: 1) develop
propagation and transplanting techniques for selected native species in a
number of harsh sites of varying soil properties. 2) investigate the suit-
ability of selected materials for soil surface stability that would also promote
water harvesting, 3) study the ecology of selected native species in relation
to germination, seedling vigor, and field survival, and 4) study soil moisture
patterns in relation to plant survival. Two or more studies were conducted
under each of these objectives.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
From the nine studies reported here a number of conclusions can be drawn.
Each of these conclusions takes on a greater significance for arid land re-
habilitation when considered with other conclusions developed in this project.
Experience gained in pursuing these studies has strengthened our belief that
plant establishment is possible under the often difficult environments and
soils of arid sites if extra concern is given to using adapted species,
employing proper planting practices in the appropriate time of the year and
understanding some of the ecological limits and characteristics of various
native shrubs and grasses.
Major conclusions reached in this series of studies are as follows:
1. Vegetative propagation of big sagebrush, an important native shrub,
is more successful when cuttings are taken during dormancy or shortly after.
Rooting hormone treatment at relatively high levels, 2.0 percent indolebutyric
acid in talc powder, is required to stimulate root initiation in big sagebrush.
2. The most favorable container size to use in propagating shrub seed-
lings or rooted cuttings appears to be one which provides an adequate rooting
volume. Small cylindric containers restrict root and top root biomass.
Plants propagated from seedlings have a slightly higher field survival rate
than those from rooted cuttings.
3. Shrubs, native to arid regions vary in their tolerance to stress
conditions characteristics of disturbed sites. Careful species selection
according to ecological conditions of a given site can result in increased
survival. Container-grown planting stock gives better survival than bare-
root planting stock. Direct seeding may fail on dry sites or in dry years.
Spring transplanting results in better survival than fall transplanting. Even
mid summer plantings may be undertaken if healthy container grown plants are
used and the soil is moist or limited supplemental irrigation is provided.
4. Soil surface stabilizing agents may reduce soil surface looseness
and promote runoff for possible use in plant establishment. Duration of
effectiveness may be limited depending on environmental conditions but in this
study it did no extend over 1 year.
5. Creating small basins may be a method for harvesting water. Treat-
ment of the side slopes with soil surface stabilizing materials may increase
runoff and decrease growth of competiting weedy annual plants the first year
after establishment.
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6. Seedling vigor of Atriplex, an important genus for arid land rehab-
ilitation is the result of many factors, among which are utricle size and
utricle wall thickness. Careful collection of only ripe utricles accompanied
by cleaning to remove unfilled utricles prior to sizing can increase germination
percentage. Separate scarification of individual size classes can also improve
germination and reduce the number of broken utricles. Thickest utricle walls
are associated with largest utricles. Medium to small well-filled utricles
may give the highest germination percentages and greatest seedling vigor.
7. Survival of seedling transplants is closely related to size, age, and
effectiveness of the root system produced prior to planting. A container allowing
adequate root growth without spiral ing is superior to containers which restrict
early growth.
8. Soil moisture depletion patterns can give good evidence of root
activity. Plants which are slow to withdraw moisture are possibly those with
a less adequate root system. Surface treatments to eliminate or reduce a
weedy plant cover may enhance the soil moisture supply for subsequent plant
establishment.
9. Soil properties are important as a guide to selection of plant species
tolerant to extreme soil characteristics. Taken together, these conclusions
can be helpful in developing a program for plant propagation and establishment
and growth in arid disturbed sites.
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SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
Forming recommendations from single studies or those that have been con-
ducted for only one or two years is especially hazardous when dealing with
establishment of native plant species on harsh arid sites with complex hetero-
geneous soil materials and variable climatic conditions. However, when results
and observations from longer studies conducted under similar environmental
conditions along with biotypes of the same or related species are considered
in relation to results from these studies, recommendations tend to take on
more reliability. It is under this context that these recommendations are
given. The areas where they are applicable are the oil shale region of Utah,
Wyoming and Colorado or the Four Corners of Utah, Arizona, New Mexico and
Colorado.
1. Vegetative propagation by stem cuttings may substitute for seed
propagation where seeds are unavailable or hard to germinate or where large
numbers of a specific genotype are desired. Big sagebrush may be vegetatively
propagated, provided certain criteria are used. Stem cuttings of current
growth should be taken with the growing tip remaining on the cutting. The
best time to collect is when plants are in a dormant physiological condition
or soon after. The cuttings need to be obtained from individual plants that
have the ability to root from cuttings. This information can be obtained
only from previous studies dealing with individual plants, as rooting ability
varies extensively among individual plants. A rooting hormone treatment of
about 2.0 percent indolebutyric acid is required. Care must be utilized while
the cuttings are in the propagation chamber that the temperature does not
exceed 29°D (85°F) and that leaves and terminal buds are not kept excessively
moist. Rooted cutting should be planted in propagation containers when roots
begin to branch. We have used mainly Jiffy peat pellets sizes 7 and 9 in our
studies.
2. An appropriate container size and shape should be selected for
native shrubs. In general, the larger the container the higher the percent
plant survival, providing the plants are of high quality and the roots have
utilized the total rooting volume. An over abundance of soil not enmeshed
by roots may be detrimental as it might break away during field handling and
planting causing root breakage and poor plant survival. Plants should have
good top growth and root biomass that utilizes the entire soil medium.
Container-grown plants to be used for early spring field planting can generally
be of a smaller volume than those used for summer or fall planting. However,
plants must be virorous and hardened to field conditions. Plants propagated
from seedlings generally seem to have a higher survival rate than those from
rooted cuttings, but this could be a factor of age and quality.
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3. Plants to be used in planting disturbed arid sites should be
indigenous or tested for adaptation to the specific soils and climatic con-
ditions of the area to be vegetated. A knowledge of the various soil materials
with their characteristics and selection of plants resistant to the salinity
and other stress conditions of each soil type are essential for successful
plant survival.
Plant species or ecotypes being used for revegetation must have the
potential to reproduce naturally on those soil materials in which they are
being established or they will be of limited value.
4. Choice of planting methods is critical for plant establishment on
arid sites. In general, direct seeding is not recommended due to the high
incidence of failure where precipitation is so variable and assurance of
success in revegetation is necessary. Transplanting of container-grown stock
will give higher survival success than planted bare-root stock. Successful
establishment can be obtained by early spring planting in moist soil, with
planting stock in a dormant condition. For best results with bare-root stock
planting should be done only in early spring using dormant material. Later
plantings should use only container-grown stock. Density of planting should
be determined from predevelopment or baseline studies and from needs related
to intended post development uses. Planting bare-root stock at a higher than
necessary planting rate to compensate for plant losses may be more economical
than using normal numbers of container-grown plants. A limited amount of
water may be necessary when transplanting containergrown stock in summer or
fall. Plantings in dry soil are not recommended.
5. Plants of the genus Atviplex are extremely variable in growth habit
and size and contain some of the more important species for planting in harsh,
saline, arid sites. Utricle (seed) size with its variations in wall thickness
has a definite effect on seed germination. We have observed that the larger
utricles generally enclose larger seeds but have thicker utricle walls. Small
to medium size utricles have the greatest seed fill and germinate quicker. A
seed fill of fifty percent or above is commercially acceptable for fourwing
saltbush and thirty-five to forth percent for shadscale. There may be twice
as many small utricles as large ones for each kilogram of seed which would
have the capability of producing twice the number of seedlings.
6. It is possible to establish plants in the diversity of soil types
that were studied provided certain guidelines or criteria are followed. In
some instances such as silty clay loam from the Mancos shale formation on
Wildcat Mesa or a crushed gray shale outcrop it would be best to mix these
with other soil materials to change some soil characteristics such as texture
and salinity. The soil must contain an accumulation of soil moisture and
plant species must be selected and planted in accordance with the various soil
materials. Higher plant survival is assured by planting early in the spring
using quality plant stock. Plantings made later than early spring should
always be from container-grown quality stock and given one or two liters of
water.
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7. Management practices that results in the accumulation and retention
of soil moisture will generally have a beneficial effect on plant establishment
and survival. Moisture is a major limiting factor in plant survival on arid
sites. Crushing and compaction of disturbed soil-spoils may increase water
holding capacity and reduce percolation. In some cases, mixing of soil materials
may be necessary, to achieve desirable soil characteristics. One season of
fallow for moisture accumulation in the area to be planted is often a beneficial
practice. Elimination of weedy plant competition for the first couple of years
to conserve soil moisture will increase survival of desired plants.
Other practices for increasing the supply of available moisture that are
recommended include water harvesting and soil surface grading. Soil surface
stabilizing materials such as polyvinyl acetate should be applied at rates
appropriate to local soil and weather conditions to promote optimum surface
runoff to planted areas. Creation of basins 75 cm in diameter or larger can
be useful for obtaining runoff to plants in the bottom of the basin. Treat-
ment of the basin slopes will improve water harvesting as well as create a
temporary reduction in weed competition. To obtain optimum water harvesting
basin slope should be continuous to the plant in the bottom of the basin and
not flattened out into a saucer condition.
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SECTION 4
PROCEDURES
FIELD STUDY SITES
Two field research sites were used in conducting the studies. One was in
the oil shale region of northeastern Utah. The other was in the Henry Mountains
coal field of south central Utah, an area typical of the Four Corners region of
the United States.
Oil shale study site—The main study area was at 1560 m elevation on 7 ha
of gently sloping hillside in the big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata)-shadscale
(Atriplex oonfertifolia) vegetation type (Figure 1). The climate of the area
is semi-arid with annual precipitation averaging 18 to 23 cm. Dry hot summers
and cold winters are characteristic of the site with the frost-free period
averaging 110 days. The soil, formed from sandy alluvium, is classified as a
sandy loam and has a depth greater than 150 cm. The rooting zone is moderately
calcareous and alkaline (pH 8.0 to 8.3). Other study sites were located on ex-
ploration areas scattered over the two 2000-ha oil shale prototype lease areas
designated Ua and Ub by the Department of Interior (Federal Register 1973).
FIGURE 1. OIL SHALE SITE
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Henry Mountains study site—Six field study sites of 150 m each were
fenced in the fall of 1976. Three were on predominant soils of the area
and three were on outcrops of major geologic overburden strata. Elevation
of the study sites ranged between 1680 and 1830 m and were located in a
vegetation type dominated by Atriplex eanescens, xant'hocep'halwn sarothrae,
Oryzops-is hymenoides and Hilaria jamesii (Figure 2). Average annual pre-
cipitation is 21 cm which occurs throughout the year with a slightly higher
amount in late summer. The frost-free period is about 151 days. Three sites
were on disturbed topsoil of sandy loam, loamy sand, and silty clay. The
other three sites were on degraded escarpment outcrop layers representing
potential overburden materials from sandstone, siltstone, and mixed clay-
sandstone geologic strata over the coal seam.
FIGURE 2. TYPICAL HENRY MOUNTAIN SITE. THE COAL SEAMS ARE BENEATH
THIS SURFACE.
STUDY METHODS
Ten related studies were undertaken to meet the four main objectives
set for the project. Procedures are described separately under the title
of each study.
Develop Propagation and Plant Techniques
Stem Cutting Propagation of Big Sagebrush--
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Big sagebrush is one of the most common shrubs of the Intermountain
western states. Previous efforts to vegetatively propagate this species for
use in growing plants for rehabilitation plantings have been variable or
unsuccessful. Some of the procedures used in the final study were developed
in preliminary tests. Three problems were identified as being critical:
1) the appropriate phenological stage for collection of cuttings, 2) the
appropriate level of root-stimulating hormone and 3) variability among
individual plants in ability to root from stem cuttings.
Twenty mature sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) plants of uniform size
were selected and permanently marked near the oil shale field research site.
Ninety stem tip cuttings from 8 to 12 cm in length were clipped from each
of 5 source plants per sampling date. Sampling dates were at 2 week intervals
from bud break: March 26, April 10, April 24, and May 8. Cuttings were kept
moist and returned to the greenhouse where five replications of 30 cuttings
each were given a root hormone treatment (0.3 or 2.0% Indolebutyric Acid in
a talc base) at each sampling date.
Cuttings were placed in sterile peat pellets and maintained in a moist
root chamber for 40 days. Percent rooting was calculated as well as rooting
vigor.
Container Volume as a Factor in Propagating Shrub Seedlings--
One of the unanswered questions in propagating native shrub seedlings
for transplanting to disturbed arid sites is what special requirements
exist, if any, to accommodate the different rooting habits but at the same
time avoid unnecessarily large container volumes. After a review of lit-
erature and discussions with native plant propagation specialists four
container types differing in size and shape were selected for study (Barker
1978): 1-quart milk carton (1176 cm^ volume), a handmade deep carton 5 cm
in diameter and 42.5 cm deep (668 cm3 volume), a five-unit "tubepak" with
ribbed side walls and individual units of 3.7 x 5.0 x 17.5 cm (315 cm3)m
and "R. L. Single Cell" cylindrical containers with a diameter of 2.5 cm
and a depth of 16 cm (120 cm3) (Figure 3). Three shrub species ]_/ with
different root growth habits were grown in the containers: fourwing saltbush
(Atriplex canesoens] with a branched moderately deep root system, greasewood
(Saroo'nc-bus vermiculatus] with a deep root system, and spreading rabbitbrush
(chrysothamnus Hnifolius) with a spreading root system.
Cuttings and seeds were obtained from the general area of the field study
site. Seeds were collected in late fall and cuttings in mid-winter. Seedlings
and rooted cuttings were planted in the various containers and grown under
controlled greenhouse conditions for 20 weeks.
Three plants per treatment (4 container types, 3 species, 2 propagation
methods - seeds and cuttings) were harvested at 4-week intervals for 20 weeks
— For convenience in referring to scientific plant names, the following
symbols are employed in tables: A. oanesoens (ATCA) S. vermieulatus
(SAVE) and S. linifolius (CHLI).
10
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FIGURE 3. CONTAINER TYPES.
to observe shoot length, shoot biomass, and root biomass.
360 plants were grown in the study.
Thus, a total of
An additional set of seedlings and rooted cuttings of each species were
grown in the four container types for 20 weeks and then transplanted to
glass-fronted soil filled root growth observations chambers (Figure 4). Root
growth was observed one month after transplanting to determine the carry
over effects if any, on root growth patterns.
FIGURE 4. ROOT GROWTH OBSERVATIONS CHAMBERS.
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Planting Techniques, Season and Type of Planting Stock--
A common question facing the rehabilitation technician is whether to
attempt revegetation under arid conditions by direct seeding or transplanting.
Also, of concern is whether to plant in the fall when there is a chance of
future moisture even though cold temperatures and frost heaving are possible
or to wait until spring when temperatures are favorable but the chances of
future precipitation are diminished. Two studies were carried out to answer
these questions plus evaluate performance of several native species.
A study involving spring and fall planting of seeds, bare root transplants
and container-grown plants in soil was established in the oil shale region on
three disturbed sites. Four replications of nine shrub species were planted/
seeded at each location in late October, 1975 and in April, 1976. Plant species
tested were cuneate saltbush (Atviplex ouneata), winterfat (Ceratoides lanata),
Green's rabbitbrush (chrysothamnus greenii), black sagebrush (Artemisia nova],
big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata), spreading rabbitbrush, greasewood, four-
wing saltbush, (Atriplex oanenoens] and shadscale (Atviplex con ferti folia].
Three planting treatments were also followed: (a) regular placement of
transplant in a shovel-hole and firming soil around transplant (control),
(b) planting in a shovel-hole plus 1 liter of water and (c) planting plus
1 liter of water and a 12 gm slow release pellet of 14-4-6 fertilizer in
each planting hole. Direct seeding was accomplished by furrow planting with
depth of seed covering dependent on seed size and species.
Data recorded for this study were survival, growth, and observations of
competition and animal utilization.
A second study was established at the Henry Mountains coal field in April,
1976 to test survival of container grown plants in a spring planting. The
season was one of the driest in recent history in the area and so tested the
possibility for transplant survival under unusually arid conditions. Fourwing
saltbush, cuneate saltbush, shadscale, Russian wildrye (Elymus juneens) and
Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides) were propagated in the greenhouse and
24 plants of each species were transplanted in six locations. At planting
time each transplant received 2 liters of water. Twelve of the plants also
received a liquid fertilizer of 20-20-20 (NPK each at 112 Kg/ha) in the
irrigation water. All plots were fenced with a 1-inch mesh wire netting.
To offset the lack of summer rainfall plants received 1 liter of water each
two weeks during July and August.
Percent survival and wildlife damage were recorded in late fall after
one growing season.
Evaluate Soil Surface Stabilizing Materials for Use in Water Harvesting
Field Evaluation of Materials Under Arid Conditions--
Loose particles of soil or disposal materials are an environmentally
undesirable result of disturbance of disposal. Surface stilization would
bring two major benefits. First, there would be less damage to seedlings
from the abrasive actions of wind-driven particles. Second, because small
particles enhance fertility and soil moisture holding capacity, holding
12
-------
them in place would improve changes for plant establishment and growth. An
additional hoped-for benefit would be that surface stabilizers would aid in
water harvesting when applied to moderate slopes. The purpose of this study
was to test six surface stabilizing materials for adaptation to local con-
ditions.
Four replications of six materials at 3 rates plus two check plots were
applied to 1.4 meter square plots on July 1. Table 1 describes the materials
and rates used. Rates used were the manufacturers recommended rate,, 1/2 that
rate and double that rate. Two replications were on a 1:5 north facing slope
and two were on a 1:10 east-facing slope. One replication on each slope was
top-dressed with a 2.5 cm layer of processed oil shale that had passed through
a 8 mm mesh screen.
A 7.5 cm deep furrow was formed at the base of each plot to catch runoff.
Later a container-grown 4-wing saltbush plant was planted in the bottom of
each furrow.
Surface strength and binding properties were rated on a 1-5 scale after
2 weeks and after 7 weeks as well as in the following spring. A runoff
evaluation was obtained by observing the portion of one liter of water applied
to the upper margin of the plot that arrived to the bottom furrow. Runoff
observations after a summer thundershower were also recorded. Plant survival
was rated 1 year after planting.
Water Harvesting Basins Treated with Soil Surface Stabilizers--
Many plants become established in small depressions where temperature
and soil moisture are more favorable than in exposed sites. This study was
carried out to measure the amount of runoff, if any, that could be collected
from surface stabilizer - treated slopes of artificial basins and whether
subsequent plant survival would be increased by surface treatments to shallow
basin slopes.
Twenty small basins, 75 cm in diameter by 10 cm deep and 20 larger basins
150 cm in diameter by 20 cm deep were prepared in the field study site. A
3.8 liter (gallon) can was installed in the bottom of each basin flush with
the soil surface. A 20 cm square patch of 6 mil sheet plastic with a small
hole in the middle was laid over the top of the can to prevent water running
down the side of the can. A light cover of soil was placed over the plastic
prior to application of the soil stabilizer, a formulation of polyvinyl
acetate.
To the 20 small basins, four replications of the concentrate of Union
Oil Co. produce 3011 were applied on July 14, 1976 with a pressure hand sprayer
at the following rates: Check, 1900 1/ha (200 gal/ac) of concentrate, 3800
1/ha concentrate, 950 1/ha concentrate + 940 1/ha reapplied, and 1900 1/ha
concentrate + 1900 1/ha reapplied. To the 20 large basins four replications
of the following rates of the concentrate Aerospray 70 were applied: check,
475 1/ha (50 gal/ha) 950 1/ha, 237 1/ha + 237 1 reapplied and'475 1/ha +
475 reapplied. All concentrates were applied in a 1:6 dillution in water using
a hand pump pressure sprayer. All treatments cured rapidly with no difficulties
observed.
13
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TABLE 1. SOIL SURFACE STABILIZING MATERIALS TESTED IN UTAH OIL SHALE REVEGETATION STUDY SITE
Name
Check
Plastic
Coherex
Soil seal
Aerospray - 70
Trastan
Paracol 1461
TerraTack II
Nature of Material , Source
Clear Plastic
Asphalt emulsion
Big Bear Oil Co.
Copolymer of Methacrylates and
Acrilites Soil Seal Corp.
Polyvinyl acetate
American Cyan i mid
Ammonium lignosulfonate
Arthur Trask Co.
Lignosulfonate + resins and wax
Hercules Inc.
Powdered extract of seaweed
Grass Growers, Inc.
Concentration
Rates Used in H20
1 1 ayer - 9 mi 1 .
600 1200 2400 gal /acre
(liquid emulsion)
1090 2180 4360 gal /acre
(liquid emulsion)
25 50 100 gal/acre
(liquid emulsion)
1000 2000 4000 Ibs/acre
(water soluble powder)
250 500 1000 gals/acre
(liquid emulsion)
45 90 180 Ibs/acre
(water miscible powder)
-
-
1:5
1:10
1:10
1:10
1:5
1:10
* The medium rate was generally the rate recommended by the manufacturer, U. S. Bureau of Mines
Stabilization Consultant.
-------
Harvest of water from a rainfall event of .17 inches which occurred 2.5
months after the basins were established, was measured on September 23. Water
collected in the cans was withdrawn with a small suction pump. Subsequently
a simulated rain of .15 cm was applied to the basins and measured.
In April of the following year cans were removed and container-grown
fourwing saltbush plants were planted in the basins. An additional set of
control plants were planted on the flat areas between the basins.
Ecology of Selected Native Plants
Germination and Seedling Vigor of Four Atriplex Species--
Obtaining vigorous seedling growth is a very important factor in success-
ful plant establishment under arid and generally saline conditions. Reports
in the literature (McKell 1972) that seedlings from larger seeds produce more
vigorous seedlings give reason to search for ways to identify and collect or
produce larger seeds of species than would be used for rehabilitation plantings.
Seed fill of Atriplex was reported to be low many years previously (Collins
1901) but ways to deal with this problem are still needed. Eratic results have
characterized much of previous work with Atriplex seeds. To identify some of
the reasons for variability in germination and low seedling vigor in four
saltbush species, time to seed maturity, seed size, seed fill, wall thickness,
and germination responses were studied.
To determine if any differences in utricle — fill or size occurs over
time and in relation to position on the stem, utricles of fourwing saltbush
(Atriplex aanesaens], shadscale (A. confertifolia), Gardner saltbush (A.
gavdneri] and cuneate saltbush (A. ouneata] were collected from three stem
locations of marked plants as soon as they were mature in late summer starting
with cuneate saltbush until March when all had fallen from the plants.
Utricles were weighed and cleaned by using a conventional hammer mill
equipped with a 48 cm screen. Utricles were then separated into four size
classes (Crofts 1977) within the size range of each species.
Utricle fill was determined by clipping and X-ray exposure of utricles
from individual plants and from various locations on plants. Thickness of
the utricle wall was measured on 50 cut seeds of each size for each species
under a microscope equipped with an ocular micrometer.
Germination and seedling vigor were observed on seedlings planted along
the front of glass-sided root observation chambers (Figure 4). Three repli-
cations of 50 utricles each of four size classes for each species were planted
in moist sand in the chambers and allowed to grow for 14 days.
Field Survival of Container Grown Plants--
An additional 10 replications of the 3 shrub species grown from seeds or
rooted cuttings in the various containers as described in study Ib were
-Seeds of Atriplex species are enclosed in an outer shell termed a utricle
which in some species may be an impediment to germination.
15
-------
prepared in the greenhouse in the winter of 1975. After 4 months of growth
in the greenhouse a total of 240 seedlings were outplanted on July 1, 1976 at
1-meter spacings in the field test site in the oil shale region. Percent
seedlings survival of species in general and in relation to the influence of
the propagation containers was observed during the first and second growing
seasons.
Observe Moisture Patterns in Relation to Soil Surface Treatments
Soil Moisture Under Surfaces Treated with Stabilizing Materials--
Effective use of soil moisture is, with little doubt, the most critical
factor in the establishment of plants in disturbed arid lands. To determine
if favorable soil moisture conditions could be developed by treatment with
soil surface stabilizing materials, soil moisture psychrometers as described
by Van Havern and Brown (1972) were placed 15 cm under the surface of treat-
ments applied in experiment 2a. Soil moisture readings were made one and
two months after installation.
Soil Moisture in Relation to Root Growth of Outplanted Shrubs--
Root growth habits are important adaptations to soil texture and patterns
of soil moisture penetration. Deep root growth, such as is found in Saraobatus
veimiculatus, may best be adapted to soils with high permeability and deep
percolation while a plant like Chrysotharmus linifolius with shallow roots
may best be adapted to soils with shallow percolation. Soil surface treatments
such as weed control or application of stabilizing materials for water
harvesting may alter the normal pattern of moisture distribution. A better
understanding of soil moisture availability and plant use would assist in
planning rehabilitation methods.
To determine how root growth of transplanted seedlings influences the
pattern of moisture extraction where the surface has been cleared of competing
vegetation, soil psychrometers were located at 30 cm depth in four of the ten
replications of shrub transplants described in experiment 3b above. Moisture
readings were made each 2 weeks from July 3 until October 20 and again in the
spring from March to July. Because of severe but uneven rodent damage in the
fall, each transplant was protected with a wire cage in the spring. Only the
spring period of soil moisture readings are reported because of the uneven
influence of rodent damage on plant growth the first few months after trans-
planting. Moisture readings obtained under dead plants served as control
data.
16
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SECTION 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results from the four areas of research conducted provide useful data
for improving the establishment of plants under arid conditions.
DEVELOP PROPAGATION AND PLANTING TECHNIQUES
Stem Cutting Propagation of Big Sagebrush
Root formation on cuttings was most effective when cuttings were taken
just after buds emerged from dormancy in the early spring (Table 2). The
percent of cuttings that rooted decreased progressively through the spring
months until essentially no cuttings rooted at all. Rooting hormone treat-
ments appeared to be essential to stimulate root formation. Cuttings did
not root if they were not given a hormone treatment. However, the 2.0%
IBA treatment was over 3 times more effective than the .3% level. Differences
among plants to produce roots on cuttings were also noted.
The decrease in rooting response during the early spring months coincides
with changes in other physiological processed (DePuitt and Caldwell 1973) and
in available carbohydrate mobilization (Coyne and Cook 1970). Previous attempts
to root sagebrush cuttings at less favorable times of the growing season can
be better understood in light of these results. Guidelines for propagation
of other native plants were developed following the results obtained with
sagebrush (Institute for Land Rehabilitation 1979).
Container Volume as a Factor in Propagating Shrub Seedlings
Shrub seedling growth was favorably influenced by increasing container
size. Larger containers were associated with taller plants, greater shoot
biomass and greater root biomass (Tables 3, 4, 5). The smallest container
restricted shoot and root biomass of each species during the entire 20-
week growth period. In contrast, the two largest containers allowed growth
to increase significantly every 2-4 weeks. Root biomass of spreading
rabbitbrush, a plant expected to be inhibited by the constraints of a vertical
container as contrasted with the other two species, did not appear to be
considerably different. When roots were observed at each harvest period,
root growth appeared spiraled in some of the containers. Spiral ing was
greatest in the milk carton. This was in contrast with results of Hiatt
and Tinus (1974) who found spiral root growth to be generally greatest in
cylindrical containers. Roots in the tubepak container showed no spiral
growth.
17
-------
TABLE 2. ROOTING PERFORMANCE OF BIG SAGEBRUSH (ARTEMISIA TRIDENTATA ssp.
WYOMINGENSIS) CUTTINGS IN RESPONSE TO THREE CHEMICAL TREATMENT
LEVELS AT FOUR SPRING SAMPLING DATES
Sampling Percentage rooting Sampling date
date (avg.of five 30-cutting reps.) mean rooting
percentage*
March
Apri 1
Apri 1
May
26
10
24
8
Control
0.0%
IBA
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Low
0.3%
IBA
4.7
12.0
6.7
0.7
Hi
2.
gh
0%
IBA
36.
21.
25.
1.
0
3
3
3
13.
11.
10.
0.
6
1
7
7
a
a
a
b
Mean rooting
Percentage 0.0 6.0 b 21.0 c
* *
* Means significantly different at 5 percent level. Values not followed
by the same letter are significantly different at 5 percent level of
Duncan's Test.
** Means significantly different at 1 percent level. Values not followed by
the same letter are significantly different at 5 percent level of Duncan's
Test.
There were no significant interactions at 5 percent level.
Fourwing saltbush and greasewood plants propagated from seedlings had
greater root length, shoot biomass and root biomass than did plants pro-
pagated from rooted cuttings at the end of 20 weeks. The main differences in
root morphology from propagation method was a multiple tap root appearance of
stem cutting transplants as contrasted with the more common branched single
tap root of seedling transplants.
Observations of root growth following transplanting indicated that root
systems expanded rapidly and were not inhibited in any one direction by prior
configuration of the propagation container. Deepest roots were those from
plants grown in the deep container and the shallowest roots were from plants
grown in the short, single-cell container. Fourwing saltbush transplants
had a greater root system spread than did greasewood or spreading rabbitbrush.
18
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TABLE 3. MEAN SHOOT LENGTH, SHOOT BIOMASS AND ROOT BIOMASS OF FOUR-
WING SALTBUSH PLANTS HARVESTED AT 4-WEEK INTERVALS WHILE
GROWING IN THE CONTAINERS. MEANS WITH THE SAME LETTER
ARE NOT SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT AT THE 5 PERCENT
LEVEL
Weeks
Container
Treatment
4 8 12
16 20
Milk
Deep
Tubepak
Single Cell
Milk
Deep
Tubepak
Single Cell
Shoot Length, cm
10.0 abc
3.9 a
8.9 abc
4.6 a
17.8 fg
12.4 cdef
11.5 bcdef
6.4 abc
34.5 hi
21.4 g
17.6 efg
5.9 abc
50.0 j
35.8 k
16.7 defg
8.2 abc
66.7 k
50.0 j
29.6 hi
7.8 abc
Shoot Biomass, g
0.08 1
0.05 1
0.08 1
0.03 1
1.40 o
0.59 mn
0.78 mn
0.36 1m
2.40 p
1.10 no
1.10 no
0.21 1m
4.90 q
2.30 p
1.20 no
0.35 1m
9.80 s
5.60 r
2.50 p
0.41 1m
Root Biomass, g
Milk
Deep
Tubepak
Single Cell
0.02 t
0.01 t
0.03 t
0.01 t
0.18 tu
0.11 tu
0.13 tu
0.04 t
0.72 wx
0.46 uvw
0.34 tuv
0.13 tu
1.80 z
0.87 x
0.67 vwx
0.28 tu
4.30 b
2.20 a
1.30 y
0.34 tuv
Planting Techniques, Season and Kind of Planting Stock
Transplanting container grown plants resulted in significantly greater
survival than planting bare root seedlings (Table 6). Both methods of
transplanting are far superior to direct seeding which essentially failed.
Seed germination was erratic and only weak seedlings developed from the seeds
planted directly in the soil. By the end of 2 seasons after planting only an
occasional plant can be found in the seeded rows.
In general, over 50 percent of the transplants survived although the
rate of survival was considerably different for the various species. Best
survival was recorded for greasewood at 68.1 percent, followed by big sagebrush
at 66.6 percent, fourwing saltbush 61.8 percent, winterfat 59.7 percent, black
sagebrush 58.3 percent, shadscale 50 percent, green's rabbitbrush 49.3 percent,
cuneate saltbush 46.5 percent, and spreading rabbitbrush 29.2 percent.
Container-grown plants were 11.2 percent better in survival than bare
root transplants. This might be expected in as much as the roots of the
19
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TABLE 4. MEAN SHOOT LENGTH, SHOOT BIOMASS AND ROOT BIOMASS
OF SPREADING RABBITBRUSH PLANTS HARVESTED AT 4-WEEK
INTERVALS WHILE GROWING IN THE CONTAINERS. MEANS
WITH THE SAME LETTER ARE NOT SIGNIFICANTLY
DIFFERENT AT THE FIVE PERCENT LEVEL
Milk
Deep
Tubepak
Single Cell
Milk
Deep
Tubepak
Single cell
Weeks
Container
treatment
4
8
12
16
20
Shoot length cm
13.8 be
11.5 b
14.0 be
4.3 a
23.7 de
16.0 be
19.2 cd
12.3 be
55.0 g
30.3 f
26.8 ef
12.0 b
52.3 g
30.2 ef
27.8 ef
12.3 be
64.5 h
30.0 ef
24.5 def
13.7 be
Shoot biomass g
0.08 i
0.06 i
0.08 i
0.01 i
0.46 ij
0.12 i
0.35 ij
0.08 i
3.60 n
0.82 jk
0.89 jk
0.15 i
4.20 n
1.60 1m
1.40 kl
0.28 ij
6.90 o
2.10 m
1.90 1m
0.31 ij
Root biomass g
Milk
Deep
Tubepak
Single cell
0.02 p
0.02 p
0.04 p
0.01 p
0.18 pq
0.04 p
0.19 pqr
0.06 p
1.90 s
0.57 qr
0.63 4
0.18 pq
3.50 t
1.20 s
1.20 s
0.35 pqr
4.00 t
1.20 s
1.40 s
0.31 pqr
Planting Techniques, Season and Kind of Planting Stock
Transplanting container grown plants resulted in significantly greater
survival than planting bare root seedlings (Table 6). Both methods of
transplanting are far superior to direct seeding which essentially failed.
Seed germination was erratic and only weak seedlings developed from the seeds
planted directly in the soil. By the end of 2 seasons after planting only an
occasional plant can be found in the seeded rows.
In general, over 50 percent of the transplants survived although the rate
of survival was considerably different for the various species. Best survival
was recorded for greasewood at 68.1 percent, followed by big sagebrush at
66.6 percent, fourwing saltbush 61.8 percent, winterfat 59.7 percent, black
sagebrush 58.3 percent, shadscale 50 percent, green's rabbitbrush 49.3 percent,
cuneate saltbush 46.5 percent, and spreading rabbitbrush 29.2 percent.
20
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TABLE 5. MEAN SHOOT LENGTH, SHOOT BIOMASS AND ROOT BIOMASS OF GREASE-
WOOD PLANTS HARVESTED AT 4-WEEK INTERVALS WHILE GROWING IN THE
CONTAINERS. MEANS WITH THE SAME LETTER ARE NOT SIGNIFICANTLY
DIFFERENT AT THE 5 PERCENT LEVEL.
Weeks
Container
treatment
Milk
Deep
Tubepak
Single cell
Milk
Deep
Tubepak
Single cell
8
12
16
Shoot length cm
Shoot biomass g
Root biomass g
20
4.3 abc
5.2 abed
3.5 ab
3.3 a
9.6 ef
5.9 abcde
4.6 abc
5.3 abed
21.7 h
14.5 q
7.7 bcde
7.8 cde
37.8 j
22.2 h
13.7 fg
13.5 fg
44.9 k
29.3 i
13.1 fg
8.9 de
0.03 1
0.03 1
0.02 1
0.02 1
0.67 opq
0.13 1m
0.43 mno
0.07 1m
1.40 st
0.39 Imno
0.52 nop
0.15 Imn
4.30 v
1.10 rs
0.82 pqr
0.27 Imn
3.50 u
2.10 t
0.90 qr
0.20 Imn
Milk
Deep
Tubepak
Single cell
0.01 w
0.02 w
0.01 w
0.06 wy
0.10 w
0.04 w
0.13 wy
0.05 wy
0.92 z
0.27 wy
0.44 wyz
0.14 wy
2.70 b
0.61 yz
0.61 yz
0.24 wy
2.10 a
1.70 a
1.70 a
0.21 wy
Container-grown plants were 11.2 percent better in survival than bare root
transplants. This might be expected in as much as the roots of the container
grown transplants are already in contact with a mass of soil and experience
much less disturbance when planted than do bare root seedlings.
Fall planting gave 13 percent lower survival than spring planting. Some
species such as fourwing saltbush had good survival when planted in fall or
spring if container grown plants were used. Planting container grown stock
generally increased plant survival by 10 to 15 percent for fall plantings.
Of the three sites used in this study, the amount of plant competition
and site severity differed. One site had a 69.4 percent overall survival,
while the others had 57.2 and 36.5 percent. There appeared to be a proportion-
ately higher survival rate at the high competition sites for plants that were
container grown as compared with bare root transplants. Damage by rodents and
21
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TABLE 6. FIELD SURVIVAL OF NINE SHRUB SPECIES AFTER THREE YEARS IN
THREE PLANTING SITES. PLANTS HERE PROPAGATED AS BARE ROOT
OR CONTAINER GROWN PLANTING STOCK AND WERE PLANTED IN THE
FALL OF 1975 AND SPRING OF 1976. SURVIVAL RECORDED IN
SEPTEMBER, 1977 I/
Plant Species
Saroobatus vermioulatus
Atriplex oanesoens
Atriplex oonfertifolia
Atriplex ouneata
Cerato-id.es lanata
Chrysot'hamnus greenii
Artemisia nova
Artemisia tridentata
Chrysot'hamnus linifolius
Season of Planting
Fall
Spring
Propagation Method
BR
CO
Treatments
Control
Irrigation
Irrigation + fertilizer
Site
Field
G-17
64.6 cd
64.6 cd
60.4 cd
70.8 be
62.5 cd
77.1 abc
89.6 a
85.4 ab
50.0 d
60.6 a
78.2 b
60.2 a
78.7 b
68.1 a
73.6 a
66.7 a
69.4 a.
Sites
Sect. 6
47.9 b
54.2 b
81.3 a
68.8 a
47.9 b
0.0 d
2.1 c
27.1 c
0.0 d
30.6 a
42.6 b
34.3 a
38.9 a
29.9 b
38.9 a
41.0 a
36.5 d
G-3
91.7 a
66.7 c
8.3 c
0.0 c
68.8 c
70.8 be
83.3 ab
87.5 a
37.5 c
52.7 a
61.6 b
51.9 a
62.5 b
52.8 g
61.8 a
56.9 ab
57.2 a
Average
Survival
68.1
61.8
50.0
46.5
59.7
49.3
58.3
66.6
29.2
47.8
60.8
48.8 a
60.0 b
50.3
58.1
54.8
- Means are not significantly different if followed by the same letter.
other wildlife also contributed to reduced survival at all sites but these
losses appeared to be greatest in the first year after planting.
Addition of water or water plus fertilizer at planting time did not
prove to be statistically significant from the regular planting. The soil
was moist at planting time which probably negated the need for irrigation.
Under more xeric planting conditions in other studies we have found a
beneficial effect by irrigation to settle the soil around the root/soil mass,
The amount of fertilizer added did not aid in seedling growth or survival
22
-------
but may have actually stimulated the growth of competing annual grasses
according to field observations.
Plant survival in the xeric Henry Mountains coal field in south central
Utah ranged from a low of 29.5 percent for fourwing saltbush to a high of 55.7
percent for cuneate saltbush (Table 7). On individual sites some species had
excellent survival, reflecting ecological adaptation to inhospitable soil
conditions. Two notable examples were the high survival of all species on the
crushed saline sandstone outcrop and the high success rate of indian ricegrass
on the loamy fine sandy soil. In contrast, two species had a complete failure
on the silty clay soil.
TABLE 7. PERCENT SURVIVAL OF TRANSPLANTS ON SIX FIELD SITES IN THE
HENRY MOUNTAINS, UTAH COAL FIELD. PLANTED APRIL, 1977.
DATA ARE THE MEANS OF 24 PLANTS
Fourwing Shadscale Cuneate Indian Russian Site
Site Saltbush Saltbush Saltbush Ricegrass Wildrye Averages
A. Cobbly sandy 0 33 88 38 4 32.6
Loam, Pete Steele
Bench
B. Crushed sand- 67 63 69 29 67 59.0
stone outcrop
C. Crushed gray 13 67 26 21 21 29.6
shale outcrop
D. Crushed saline 84 100 100 88 100 94.4
sandstone out-
crop
E. Loamy fine sandy 0 25 44 92 100 52.2
soil, Wildcat
Mesa
F. Silty clay soil, 13 34 70 8 12.4
Species
Averages 29.5 53.7 55.7 44.7 47.8
23
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TABLE 8. EVALUATION OF SURFACE STABILIZING MATERIALS APPLIED ON JULY 1
FOR STRENGTH AMD BINDING PROPERTIES USING A FIVE-POINT RATING
SCALE V
(values are the mean of four replications)
Mean Rating
Material /Rate July 15
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Check
Plastic
Coherex/Low
Coherex/Med
Coherex/High
Soil Seal /Low
Soil Seal/Med
Soil Seal /High
Aerospray 70/Low
Aerospray 70/Med
Aerospray 70/High
Trastan/Low
Trastan/Med
Tras tan/High
Paracol 1461 /Low
Paracol 1461/Med
Paracol 1461/High
TerraTack I I/Low
TerraTack II/Med
TerraTack I I/High
1
5
1
1.5
1.5
2.5
2.7
4.0
4.0
4.1
4.0
1.5
2.0
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.2
1.8
1.0
1.0
Mean Rating
Sept 3
1
5
1
1
1
2
2
3
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
Runoff Test &
Aug 22
2/10
10/10
9/10
8/10
9/10
9/10
6/10
7/10
4/10
3/10
5/10
1/10
1/20
2/10
6/10
9/10
9/10
3/10
1/10
1/10
— 1 = no resistance to pressure, water soaks in, no particle adhesion
2 = slight pressure resistance, water slowly soaks, slight particle
adhesion
3 = moderately firm - resistant, water is repelled, many particles
loose
4 = firm, pressure resistance, water beads and runs and few particles
loose
5 = hard, resists pressure, water runs off, all particles bonded together
2i
— Portions of one liter or water running into furrow at bottom of plot
Slope 1:10.
24
-------
Without the application of irrigation water all of the plants would have
perished because of the extreme aridity and lack of the occasional summer storm
during the study period. Results of the study show that with container grown
plants and some irrigation water during the first few months of establishment,
plant survival approaching 50 percent can be realized even when soil is dry at
planting and no rainfall subsequently occurs. Results also point out the need
for careful selection of species adapted to environmental extremes such as very
fine or very coarse soil texture and salinity.
MATERIALS FOR SOIL SURFACE STABILIZATION
Field Evaluation of Soil Surface Stabiling Agents
Only one of the materials tested under conditions of the field study site
proved to be effective (Table 8). Polyvinyl acetate received an initial rating
of four on a five-point scale two weeks after application. This favorable
rating was maintained for an additional 7 weeks as noted on September 3. Other
materials generally lost their effectiveness for surface stabilization, according
to the criteria of evaluation, soon after application, possibly due to the high
temperatures and summer rainshowers which occurred on the test site. We cannot
rule out the possibility that the rates or methods of application were inappro-
priate for the other materials. Thus, under other circumstances other materials
or formulations might be effective.
A visual runoff test 7 weeks after application of surface stabilizing
materials showed that some materials were more effective in shedding water
than their surface strength rating suggested. Those materials which promoted
the highest water runoff included the asphalt emulsion, the co-polymer of
methacrylates and acrilites, the polyvinyl acetate, and the lignosulfonate
resins and wax. Some of the water harvesting character of these materials
appeared to be as a result of a water repellency imparted to the soil surface
rather than reduced permeability.
A subsequent evaluation of the surface treated plots one year later in-
dicated that all had lost any surface film character that had existed earlier.
Small broken pieces of the polyvinyl acetate still existed on the surface but
no water harvesting effectiveness remained and only a minimal surface binding
action was considered possible.
Results of this test suggest that a short term advantage in soil or spoil
stabilization would be obtained by application of a surface stabilizing agent -
possibly for 1 year. During that time, water harvesting from short slopes may
be possible to aid in plant establishment.
Water Harvesting Basins Treated with Soil Surface Stabilizing Materials
The amount of water harvested in basins of two different sizes was not
proportional to basin size -- primarily because of basin geometry. The bottom
of the 1.5 m (5 ft) diameter basins did not slope into the can in the bottom
but tended to flatten out and as a result, some of the runoff water from the
sides percolated through the surface sealant before getting to the center of
25
-------
of the basin. This faulty design accounts for the erratic results obtained
in the amount of accumulated runoff measured on September 23, 1976. For this
reason, data from the large basins are not included in this report.
The .75 cm (2.5 ft) diameter basins appeared to be correctly shaped for
optimum water harvesting and directed any runoff into the can in the center of
the basin. One week following a .42 cm (.17 inch) rain, the collection cans in
the bottom of the basins treated with split application of the surface stabilizing
material (treatments 3 and 5) more than doubled the amount of runoff from the
control (treatment 1) (Table 9). Low rates of surface stabilizing material
were no better than the untreated control.
TABLE 9. CUBIC CENTIMETERS OF HATER COLLECTED IN CANS IN THE BOTTOM OF
.75 M DIAMETER, 10 CM DEEP BASINS TREATED WITH A POLYVINYL
ACETATE STABILIZING COMPOUND. MEASUREMENTS WERE MADE ON
SEPTEMBER 23, 1976, ONE WEEK AFTER A .42 CM RAINFALL.
Treatment —
Replication
I
II
III
IV
Total 2/
Average -
1150
120
1510
140
2920
730 c
0
1610
1580
140
3330
832 be
1340
2060
1930
2420
7750
1937 ab
420
50
150
2300
2920
730 c
2320
2600
1320
2320
8560
2140 a
— Treatments
1 check
2 1900 liters of concentrate per ha.
3 3800 liters of concentrate per ha.
4 950 1/ha + 950 1/ha reapplied.
5 1900 1/ha + 1900 1/ha reapplied.
- Means not significantly different (PS .05) if have same letter in that
signif. column.
Following an application of .5 cm (.20 inch) of simulated rainfall on
September 23, runoff harvested into the cans in the bottom of the .75 cm
diameter basins was over twice as great for basins treated with a split appli-
cation of material as for basins treated once (Table 10). Approximately the
26
-------
same amount of water was harvested from the non treated basins as from the ones
given the low treatment rate.
TABLE 10. CUBIC CENTIMETERS OF WATER HARVESTED FROM A SIMULATED RAINFALL
OF .5 CM (.20 INCH) APPLIED WITH A SPRINKLER CAN TO BASINS
.75 M IN DIAMETER AND 10 CM DEEP
Treatment —
Replication
I
II
III
IV
Total 2/
Average — '
245
430
200
800
1675
419
530
720
750
70
2070
518
1560
1100
1470
1290
5420
1355
1230
250
220
750
2450
612
1260
1010
1150
1580
5000
1250
— Treatments
1 check.
2 1900 liters of concentrate per ha.
3 3800 liters of concentrate per ha.
4 950 1/ha + 950 1/ha reapplied.
5 1900 1/ha + 1900 1/ha reapplied.
2/
— Means not signif.
column.
different (PS .05) if have same letter in that signif.
Most important is the evidence of water harvested in basins whether surface
treated or not. Compared with circumstances of no concentration, the basins
show a high potential for concentrating precipitation received at the soil
surface into control points where it could aid in plant establishment in arid
locations.
After the collecting cans were removed and containergrown fourwing salt-
bush transplants were planted in the basins, a dense stand of cheatgrass
(BTOW.US teotorwn] developed in the vicinity of the transplants. In the previous
year the surface treatment prevented the growth of this weed. In spite of
this competition, 100 percent survival of all transplants occurred during
the following season. Stem growth of transplants in basins was approximately
twice the length of stems on plants not in basins.
27
-------
These results suggest the feasibility of creating basins and treating
the side slopes with a soil stabilizing agent to harvest water and to control
early competition from weeds. The favorable micro site thus could increase the
survival of transplanted shrub seedlings in an arid environment.
ECOLOGY OF SELECTED NATIVE PLANTS
Germination and Seedling Vigor of Four Atviplex Species
Utricle size did not differ with the position on the indeterminately
flowering stem. Thus, maturity or date of ripening also did not appear to be
a factor in seed size because the utricles mature progressively from the bottom
to the top of stems. These results indicate there would be no advantage to
harvesting utricles from only a given portion of the stem or emphasizing a
certain time of collection in so far as seed size is concerned.
Utricle fill appeared to be related to phenological development (Table
11). At a given date utricles of Atriplex confetti folia, A. oanesoens and
A. ouneata differed in their fill depending on their spikelet location.
Utricles collected from A. confertifolia on 17 October were still relatively
immature. Yet, fill was highest in this species on the lowest portion of the
utricle-bearing stem and progressed upwards. Two months later maximum fill
was associated with the latest ripening utricles found near the tip of the
inflorescence. Thus whenever utricles are collected, a cutting test should be
made to verify whether utricles closest to the tips of the spikelets are at
full maturity and fill.
TABLE 11. PERCENTAGE OF FILLED UTRICLES AS RELATED TO POSITION OF THE
UTRICLE ON THE STEM I/
Percent Seed Fill
Species
Atriplex confevti folia
Atriplex ouneata
Atviplex oanescens
Atviplex gardneri
Collection Date
17 October *
12 December *
5 September
7 October
17 October
Top
59.5 b
37.0 a
25.5
62.5 a
53.0
Middle
62.5 ab
23.0 b
25.9
57.5
51.0
Bottom
70.0 a
17.5 b
30.0
40.0 b
59.0
-/Means in each row followed by the same letter are not sifniciantly different
(.05 level).
Seeds collected from same plant.
28
-------
Sizing of utricles from bulk collections revealed a relationship of utricle
size to fruit fill (Figure 5). In three of the four species tested, larger
utricles also had a higher percent fill. This relationship did not hold true
for A. ouneata. The highest percent fill of utricles collected during the
fall and winter from individual plants of A. oonfevtifolia and A. oanesoens
was associated with a mid-fall collection date. Thus, for optimum percent
utricle fill, mature seeds should be collected and very small seeds should be
separated out.
Thickness of the utricle wall was found to be associated with utricle
size (Figure 6). Wall thickness of less than .30 mm was measured in small
utricles. Large utricles had walls greater than .40 mm thick. A. oonfertifolia,
known for its hard utricles, had walls as thick was .60 mm, whereas A. oanesoens
had walls just over .40 mm in its largest utricles. Because of the variability
in wall thickness for each size class of a given Atviplex species, utricles
should be separated into size classes prior to scarification. Thus, the
mechanical effects of the scarification would have equal effect on a uniform
batch of utricles and not proportionately do higher damage to the smaller
utricles or inadequately scarify the larger ones. Seedling vigor was character-
ized in terms of germination rate and percentage, root growth, and mortality.
Germination percentages and rates varied in relation to size classes of
three of the four species tested (Figure 7). Significantly lower germination
was associated with the largest utricle size of A. ouneata and A. gardneri.
Conversely, significantly lower germination was associated with the inter-
mediate size class of A. aonfevtifolia. While not conclusive, a general trend
for lower and slower germination percentage appeared to be associated with
medium to large utricles. This trend has been noted by others (Nord and
Whitacre 1957) but is contrary to general seed germination response in which
large seeds are more active and produce more vigorous seedlings than small
seeds (McKell 1972).
Longest roots were associated with smallest utricles with the exception
of A. confertifolia which showed no relation between utricle size and root
length. Roots became progressively shorter as utricle size class increased.
The longest roots were observed on A. oanesoens seedlings and the shortest
on A. aonfevtifolia. Some root abberations were noted in the observation
chambers but these were associated with utricles that showed an abnormal
germination pattern such as radicle or top growth only.
Mortality of A. ouneata seedlings was significantly greater in those
from large than from small utricles. The same trend was evident, although
not significantly so, with the other Atviplex species. The results of this
study suggest that as long as utricles are filled, small to medium utricles
should be selected over large ones for planting. Such a recommendation is
consistent with other findings regarding germination and utricle wall thickness.
Field Survival of Container Grown Plants
Field survival results give further insights to the effect of container
size and shape on species of different tolerances. The highest survival rate ,
of the three species studied was shown by greasewood at 72 percent, fourwing
29
-------
60
= 40
LZ
0)
o
20
60
_ 40
ab
ab
OJ
o
u_
«-*
c
20
2 3
Size Class
A. confertifolia
2 3
Size Class
A. cuneata
ou •
£ 40 '
«rf
c
o
u
0)
o- 20 -
0
b
a
a
b
1234
Size Class
A. oardneri
60 •,
= 40 -
0>
u
w
03
a. 20
ab
2 3
Size Class
A. canescens
FIGURE 5. THE EFFECTS OF UTRICLE SIZING ON THE PRESENT FRUIT FILL FOR FOUR SPECIES OF HAMMERMILLED
SALTBUSH FRUITS. COLUMNS NOT HAVING THE SAME LETTER ARE SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT AT THE
0.05 LEVEL USING DUNCAN'S MULTIPLE RULE RANGE TEST. FOR EACH SPECIES, SIZE 1 INCLUDED
THE SMALLEST UTRICLES AND SIZE CLASS 4 THE LARGEST.
-------
.60
E
c .40 .
z>
c
"o
IE .20
i—
JU
k.
5
c
b
a
a
2 3
Size Class
A. cnnfprtifolia
.60
!.40
O)
C
CJ
! >2°
"u
.60
E
E
•S .40-
£ .20
2 3
Size Class
A. gardncri
2 3
Size Class
A. cuneata
E
c .40-
t/f
V)
O
o
jc .20.
H
"u
'C
4-t
b
c
d
a
2 3
Size Class
A. canescens
FIGURE 6. THE INFLUENCE OF UTRICLE SIZE AND UTRICLE WALL THICKNESS OF FOUR SPECIES OF
HAMMERMILLED SALTBUSH FRUITS. COLUMNS NOT HAVING THE SAME LETTER ARE
SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT AT THE 0.01 LEVEL USING DUNCAN'S MULTIPLE
RULE RANGE TEST. FOR EACH SPECIES SIZE CLASS 1 INCLUDED THE
SMALLEST UTRICLES RANGING TO THE LARGEST IN SIZE CLASS 4.
-------
co
ro
1
O»
c
'{j
c
&
-
1
3
60 •
56.
52.
48 .
44
40.
36 .
32.
28 .
24.
20.
16.
12.
8 .
4.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Number of Days
A. conlertifolia
FIGURE 7.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Number of Days
A. oardneri
60
56
52
A
40
36
32
28
24
20
16
12
*+*+-* \
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Number of Days
• • • •
++ • # *
Key
Size Symbol
1 »
2 •
3 •
2 4 A
1
2 3 4 5 6 1 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Number of Days
DAILY GERMINATION PERCENTAGES OF EXCISED SEED BY UTRICLE SIZE CLASS OF FOUR SPECIES
OF ATPIPLEX. SIZE CLASSES RANGED FROM 1 SMALL TO 4 LARGE.
-------
saltbush was intermediate at 66 percent, and the lowest was spreading rabbit-
brush at 53.8 percent. These survival rates are extremely favorable in view
of the arid environment of the research site.
At the end of the growing season following planting, a larger number of
seedlings grown in the milk cartons survived than those grown in the single
cell (Table 12). By the beginning of the second growing season, survival of
plants in the smaller containers decreased about 10 percent. Plants grown
in the milk cartons continued to show a very favorable 88 percent survival.
Seedlings appeared to be better able to withstand stress than rooted
cuttings as seen by a 10 percent difference in their field survival after
12 months (Table 12).
TABLE 12. MEAN SEEDLING SURVIVAL AT TWO DATES AFTER OUTPLANTING ON JULY
1 FOR THREE SHRUB SPECIES GROWN IN FOUR CONTAINERS WITH TWO
PROPAGATION METHODS. MEANS WITH THE SAME LETTER FOR EACH
DATE ARE NOT SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT.
Container 10/20/76 7/5/77
Milk 88.3 a1 88.3 a1
Deep 76.6 ab 65.0 b
Tubepak 73.3 ab 63.3 b
Single cell 65.0 b 40.0 c
Species
SAVE
ATCA
CHLI
87.5 m
75.0 m
65.0 n
72.5 m1
66.3 n
53.8 o
Propagation
Seedlings
Cuttings
78.0 x
73.0 x
69,0 x3
59.0 y
2 Significance at the 1 percent level
2 Significance at the 5 percent level
Significance at the 10 percent level
SOIL MOISTURE PATTERNS IN RELATION TO SOIL SURFACE TREATMENTS
Soil Moisture Under Surfaces Treated with Stabilizing Materials.
A fallow effect was created by the clearing of vegetation around and on
the plots treated with various soil stabilizing materials. Soil moisture
33
-------
at 15 cm depth appeared to be equal for all plots 3 weeks after application
and early in the following spring. Growth of shrub transplants in the furrow
at the bottom of each treated plot reflected the general favorability of
soil moisture on all plots. From an average initial growth of 15 cm, plants
grew to an average of 45 cm from July 9 to November 13.
Soil Moisture Use by Variously Propagated Shrub Transplants in an Area
Cleared of Competing Vegetation.
The main differences in soil moisture use among transplanted shrub occur-
red in June and early July of the second year after outplanting (Figure 8).
For this reason the first year trends are not shown. In the late winter and
early spring months all species, regardless of propagation method or type of
container used in greenhouse preparation showed similar moisture use. Early
spring rain increased the soil moisture considerably from the low levels that
prevailed during the winter and thus delayed the start of rapid moisture de-
pletion until May. On June 9 plants grown in tubepak containers and milk
cartons depleted the soil moisture to a greater degree than those grown in
the deep container or the small single cell. Later in the season all plants
depleted soil moisture to the same degree but significantly more than the
control which was the average of plots in which plants had died.
Species differences were evident by mid summer. On July 9, Saroobatus
vermieulatus and Atriplex canesaens had depleted soil moisture to approxi-
mately -18 bars while Chrysotharmus viscidifiorus had only depleted moisture
to -12 bars. Interpreted in terms of plant performance, a more negative soil
moisture reading indicates a more effective root system and possibly a higher
survival rate (see Table 12).
In the later part of June and early July seedlings depleted soil moisture
to a greater degree than cuttings. This result reflects the generally better
survival percentage and growth of seedlings over cuttings.
The moderate decline in soil moisture under the dead plants (used as a
control or reference) indicates how a general reduction in the number of
competing plants can help to conserve moisture in the soil. Even so, there
is a gradual loss of moisture due to capillary rise and unsaturated moisture
flow to the surface.
Results of this study show a close relationship between moisture use and
plant growth and survival. Plant species with effective root systems to
extract moisture from a larger volume and greater depth of soil also show
higher survival numbers. Containers which foster a larger root system also
appear to allow for greater survival.
34
-------
CD
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-------
SECTION 6
LITERATURE CITED
Alvarez-Cordero, Eduardo. 1977. Stem cutting propagation of big sagebrush
(Artemisia tridentata Nutt). M.S. Thesis Utah State University, Logan,
Ut. 122 p.
Baker, E. and W.J. Duffield. 1973. Annual revegetation report. jm_ Bloch,
M.B. and P.O. Kilburn (eds). Processed Shale Revegetation Studies 1965-
1973 Colony Development Operation, Atlantic Richfield Co. Denver,
Colorado.
Barker, Jerry R. 1978. The influence of containers and propagation methods
on shrub growth before and after field planting. M.S. Thesis. Utah
State University, Logan, Ut. 90 pp.
Bleak, A.T., M.C. Frischknecht, A.P. Plummer, and R.E. Eckert, Jr. 1965.
Problems in artificial and natural revegetation of the arid shadscale
zone of Utah and Nevada. J. Range Manage. 18:59-65.
Block, M.B. and P.J. Kilburn (eds) 1973. Processed shale revegetation
studies, 1965-1973. Denver: Colony development operation. Atlantic
Richfield Co.
Collins, C.M. 1901. Seeds of commercial saltbushes. USDA, Division of Botany.
Bulletin 27: 28 pp.
Cook, C.W., R.M. Hyde, and P.J. Simms. 1974. Guidelines for revegetation and
stabilization of surface-mined lands in the Western States. Range Sci.
Ser. No. 16. Colorado State Univ. Ft. Collins, Co.
Coyne, P.I. and C.W. Cook. 1970. Seasonal carbohydrate research cycles in
eight desert range species. J. of Range Manage. 23:438-444.
Crofts, Kent A. 1977. The importance of utricle-related factors in germination
and seedling vigor of four species of perennial Atriplex. M.S. Thesis.
Utah State University, Logan, Ut. 91 p.
DePuit, E.J. and M.M. Caldwell. 1973. Seasonal pattern of net photosynthesis
of Artemisia tridentata. Amer. J. Bot. 60:426-435.
Federal Register. 1973. 38:230 Part III. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government
Printing Office.
36
-------
Hiatt, H.A., and R.W. Tinus. 1974. Container shape controls root system
configuration of Ponderosa Pine. P. 194-196 UL R.W. Tinus, W.I. Stein
and W.E. Balmer, eds. Proc. of the North American containerized forest
tree seedling symposium. Great Plains Agric. Counc. Publ. No. 68.
Institute for Land Rehabilitation. 1979. Propagation and establishment of
native plants in disturbed arid lands. Bulletin. Utah State Univ. Agric
Exp. Stn. (in Press).
McKell, C.M. 1972. Seedling vigor and seedling establishment pp. 76-87. in
U.B. Youngher and C.M. McKell (eds). The Biology and Utilization of ~~
Grasses. Academic Press, New York and London 426 pp.
McKell, C.M., J.P. Blaisdell and J.R. Goodin (eds) 1972 Wildland Shrubs Their
Biology and Utilization. USDA, Forest Service Gen. Tech. Report. INT-1
494 pp.
Nord, E.E. and J.C. Whitacre 1957. Germination of fourwing saltbush seed
improved by scarification and grading. USDA Forest Service, California
Forest and Range Exp. Stn. Res. Note 125. 5 p.
Plummer, A.P., D.R. Christensen and S.B. Monsen. 1968. Restoring big game
ranges in Utah. Utah Department of Natural Resources, Div. of Fish and
Game. Publication 68-3. 85 pp.
Valentine, John. 1971. Range Development and Improvements. Brigham Young
Univ. Press, Provo, Utah. 516 pp.
Van Havern B.P. and R.W. Brown. 1972. The properties and behavior of water
in the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum. P. 1-28 jn^ R.W. Brown and B.P.
Van Havern, eds. Proc. of Psychrometry in water relations research.
Utah Agric. Exp. Stn. Utah State University. Logan, Ut.
37
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-80-071
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Vegetative Rehabilitation of Arid Land Disturbed in the
Development of Oil Shale and Coal
5. REPORT DATE
April 1980 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
AUTHOR(S)
Cyrus M. McKell and Gordon Van Epps
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Institute for Land Rehabilitation
Utah Agricultural Experiment Station
Utah State University
Logan, Utah 84322
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1NE623
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
SEA/CR 1 Ag. No. D6-E762
684-15-10
2. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
3' TFYfna°f
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/12
5. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES . , , , _ _ /
This project is part of the EPA-planned and coordinated Federal Interagency Energy/
Environment R&D Program.
6. ABSTRACT .,,, , ......
Field experiments were established on sites disturbed by exploratory drilling in
the oil shale region of northeastern Utah and on disturbed sites on a potential coal
mine in south central Utah. Concurrently, greenhouse studies were carried out using
soil samples from disturbed sites and processed oil shale. Establishment of container
grown transplants was far more successful than plantings of bare-root seedlings or
direct seeding. Early spring planting gave better results than fall planting. Good
survival was obtained from summer planting when the soil was moist. Soil surface
shaping and application of surface stabilizing materials can be used to collect water
runoff and increase plant survival. Propagation of native shrubs from stem cuttings
provides a means of multiplying desired biotypes for land rehabilitation. Higher
rooting hormone levels are required for some species than are normally used in propa-
gating cultivated species. The most effective container size and shape for growing
transplanting materials is one with adequate volume and ribbed sides to prevent root
spiraling. Highest seedling vigor is not always associated with the largest seeds
because they may have the thickest seed coat. Sizing of seeds, removal of adhering
old floral parts, scarification of seed coats and discarding of light seeds improved
the germination percentage and survival of seedlings.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Ecology
Environments
Soil
Coal
Oil Shale
Revegetation
Energy Extraction
Seedings
Native Shrubs
Utah
Greenhouse Studies
Transplants
6F, 13B
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to the Public
Unclassifiec
21. NO. OF PAGES
48
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22'. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77)
PREVIOUS EDITION IS OBSOLETE
4 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1980 -657-146/563Z
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region V, Library
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
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Environmental Protection
Agency
Information
Cincinnati OH 45268
hees
Environmental
Protection
Agency
EPA-335
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use, $300
Special Fourth-Class Rate
Book
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EPA-600/7-80-071
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