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                              DISCLAIMER
     This report was prepared by the Tennessee Valley Authority and has
been reviewed by the Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, and-approved for publication.  Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the Tennessee Valley Authority or the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendatioii for use.
                                 ii

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                                          EPA-600/7-81-160
                                          TVA/ONR/WR-82/7
                                          January  1982
       PRODUCTION OF ARTHROPOD  PESTS  AND  VECTORS
               IN COAL STRIP MINE  PONDS
                          By

                    Eugene Pickard
              Office of Natural  Resources
              Division of Water  Resources
          Fisheries  & Aquatic Ecology Branch
              Tennessee Valley Authority
             Muscle  Shoals, Alabama   35660
     Interagency Agreement No.  EPA-IAG-D9-E721-DT
                  Project No.  81  BDT
              Program Element  No.  INE-831
                    Project Officer

                       Al Galli
          Office of Research and Development
         U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency
                Washington, D.C.  20460
                     Prepared for

OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSES AND EFFECTS RESEARCH
          OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
         U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                WASHINGTON, D.C.  20460

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                               ABSTRACT

     The objective of this study was to determine the species of aqua-
tic arthropod pests, mainly mosquitoes, that were breeding in abandoned
coal strip mine ponds, their population densities, and whether these
breeding sites would serve as foci for annoyance to surrounding human
populations.

     Nine study ponds were selected in Marion County, Alabama, on the
basis of age since formation,\with a total of three test ponds in each
of three age categories:  1 year old, 5 years old, and 10 years old.
These ponds were observed for five successive years; thus, data obtained
from surveys depict successional changes in aquatic insect and plant
species composition over a period of 14 "successive" years.

     Mosquito larvae of four genera including eight species were col-
lected from the strip ponds.  Mosquito production was not detected
until ponds were at least two years old, and ponds five years old and
older were the most productive for mosquitoes.  Anopheles punctipennis,
Anopheles quadrimaculatus, and Culex erraticus were the most prevalent
species. Ova of six species of floodwater mosquitoes, Aedes sollicitans,
Aedes sticticus, Aedes trivittatus, Aedes vexans, Psorophora columbiae,
and Psorophora cyanescens, were found in soil samples taken from transects
along pond margins.  The most abundant floodwater mosquito ova in the
ponds were those of Aedes vexans. The largest number of positive samples
for mosquito ova were from ponds 10 years of age or older.  No floodwater
mosquito ova were found in soil samples taken from ponds less than four
years old.

     Only two species of mosquitoes found in the strip mine ponds,
Culex territans and Uranotaenia sapphirina, have little or no economic
or medical importance.  Mosquito production in all ponds was sparse and
restricted to narrow vegetated areas along shallow marginal shelves,
and the level of mosquito activity detected during this 5-year survey
was not sufficient to cause severe annoyance to surrounding commun-
ities .

     The diversity and abundance of aquatic insects collected in benthic
and littoral zone samples showed a progressive increase as the ponds
increased in age.  The largest number of insect taxa were in the 9- and
14-year-old ponds with 97 and 92 insect taxa respectively.  The most
abundant group of insects both in species composition and numbers
collected in the ponds was the Chironomidae, or "nonbiting midges."
Odonata were found in large numbers and comprised a large segment of
                                 iii

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the aquatic fauna in ponds five years of age or older.  The water
beetle, Laccophilus maculosus was common in all age ponds (1 to 14
years).  The water strider, Trepobates was abundant in ponds three
years of age or older.  Larvae of the mayfly, Hexagenia munda elegans,
were found in 2-year-old ponds and were relatively abundant in ponds 10
years old or older.  There was a paucity of insects of medical impor-
tance found in benthic samples in the nine study ponds; only three
genera of public health importance were collected, which consisted of
Palpomyia, Chrysops, and Tabanus.  Based on the small numbers of
Palpomyia, Chrysops, and Tabanus collected from all pond age categories
no public health problem is anticipated.

     A total of 80 plant taxa were identified from the nine ponds and
surrounding disturbed sites during the study.  The number of vascular
species increased as the age of the ponds increased reflecting invasion
by early successional dominants.  Two submersed aquatic macrophytes,
Potamogeton diversifolius and Potamogeton pusillus, both of which
provide favorable mosquito habitat, became established in the 2-year-
old ponds.  The most commonly occurring plants found in or around the
ponds were Typha latifolia, P. diversifolius,. Scirpus cyperinus, Salix
nigra, Bidens frondosa, Eleocharis spp., and Panicum spp.

     Water chemistry of all ponds studied provided very favorable
conditions for supporting various fauna and flora.  Data obtained
during the 5-year study showed no significant change in the pH of the
water in the nine study ponds as they increased in age.  The dissolved
oxygen content of the water in the ponds varied widely with pond age
and seasonal changes, ranging from 9.1 to 14.1 ppm.  Water temperatures
did not vary significantly between the nine study ponds.  Water conduc-
tivity measurements were much lower in ponds 11 years old or older than
measurements in the other pond age categories.
                                   iv

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                               CONTENTS
Abstract	   iii
Figures	    vi
Tables   	   vii
Abbreviations and Symbols	viii
Acknowledgement  	    ix

     1.  Introduction  	     1
     2.  Conclusions 	     3
     3.  Recommendations 	     4
     4.  Experimental Procedures 	     5
               Description of the study area	     5
               Materials and methods 	     6
     5.  Results and Discussion  	     8
               Mosquito larval sampling  	     8
               Mosquito ova sampling 	    10
               Benthic and surface sampling for aquatic insects  .   .    11
               Adult Tabanidae collections 	    14
               Woody and herbaceous vegetation	    14
               Physical parameters 	    16
                    Water pH .	    17
                    Conductivity' and salinity	    17
                    Dissolved oxygen 	    17
                    Water temperature	    17
                    Water level	    17

References   	    19

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                                FIGURES

Number

   1      Aerial photograph of strip mine area showing
            locations of the nine study ponds	            20

   2      Population densities and species composition of
            mosquito larvae occurring in strip mine ponds
            April-October 1976-1980	          21

   3      Average number of organisms per sample unit using
            dipper, aquatic sweep net, and Ekman dredge
            sampling methods, April-October 1976-80	          22

   4      Total number of aquatic insect and plant taxa in
            strip mine ponds ranging in age from 1 to
            14 years old, April-October 1976-1980	          23

   5      Example of 1- to 4-year-old pond with spoil area
            reclaimed.  A. 1-year-old pond; B.  2-year-old
            pond; C. 4-year-old pond	          24

   6      Example of 5- to 9-year-old pond surrounded by
            unclaimed spoil area.  A. 5-year old; B.  6-year-
            old pond; C. 7-year old pond; D. 9-year-old pond  .          25

   7      Example of 10- to 14-year-old pond showing unclaimed
            spoil area.  A. 10-year-old pond; B.  11-year-old
            pond; C. 12-year-old pond; D. 14-year old pond .  .          26

   8      Eight-year-old pond showing dewatered marginal
            flat	          27

   9      Thirteen-year-old pond showing alluvial outwash.  .  .          27

  10      Number of plant taxa found in different age strip
            mine ponds	          28

  11      Seasonal averages of pH, dissolved oxygen,  and
            temperature in strip mine ponds, April-October,
            1976-1980	          29

  12      Seasonal averages of conductivity in coal strip
            mine ponds, April-October, 1976-1980 	          30

  13      Water level fluctuations in the nine coal strip
            mine study ponds for the 1979 growing season ...          31

                                 vi

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                                TABLES

Number

   1      Summary of Mosquito Production, Based on Average
            Number of Larvae Per Dip in,Coal Strip Mine
            Ponds in Marion County, Alabama, April-October,
            1976-1980	         32

   2      Species and Number of Floodwater Mosquito Ova
            Collected from Soil Samples Taken in Coal Strip
            Mine Ponds, Ranging in Age from One to
            Fourteen years, Marion County, Alabama.
            1976-1980	         33

   3      Insect Taxa Taken from Various Ages of Coal Strip
            Mine Ponds in Marion County, Alabama, April-
            October, 1976-1980	         34

   4      List of Vascular Plant Species and Macroscopic
            Algae Associated with Strip Mine Ponds of
            Various Ages in Marion County, Alabama 	         40

   5      Results of Monthly Monitoring in Five Consecutive
            Years of Four Physical Parameters of Nine Coal
            Strip Mine Ponds in Marion County, Alabama,
            April to October, 1976-1980	         43
                                 vii

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                        LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

ppm            —parts per million
Y.S.I.         --Yellow Springs Instrument
S-C-T          —Salinity-conductivity-temperature
km             —kilometers
[jmhos/cm       —measurement of electrical conductance when measured
                 between opposite faces of a 1-cm cube
 C             --degrees Celsius
I              --Infrequent
C              —Common
A              --Abundant
ha             —hectares
m              --meter
cm             —centimeters
                                  viii

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                           ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
     The cooperation of several people in TVA's Fisheries and Aquatic
Ecology Branch and Western Area Office, Division of Water Resources,
Office of Natural Resources, is gratefully acknowledged:  Bobby R.
McDuff, John W. Upton, Thomas L. Willis, William F. Beard, Harry G.
Porter, Thomas L. Hill, and Charles B. Beard, who assisted in collecting
the field data; John B. Moore, who prepared illustrations and compiled
and tabulated data for use in finalizing this report; and Roy Smith,
Jimmy G. Walden, and Larry K. Young who helped identify the aquatic
insects.  We also thank A. Leon Bates, Drs. David H. Webb and Michael
Dennis for their service in making the plant inventories and succession
analyses.  We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Kenneth J.
Tennessen for his work in identifying the aquatic insect specimens in
the benthic samples.  Thanks are extended to Dr. George W. Folkerts,
Auburn University for his determinations of several aquatic beetles.
We especially thank Dr. Joseph Cooney for his assistance in the initial
planning of the study, for guidance with the field studies, and for
critical review of the manuscript, and to Orris Hill for her help in
its preparation.
                                    IX

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                               SECTION 1

                             INTRODUCTION

     Surface mining for coal is carried out extensively in several coun-
ties in North Alabama, resulting in formation of numerous permanent to
semipermanent ponds.  The ponds included in this study are located near
the eastern border of Marion County in the vicinity of New River and in
the community of Gold Mine, Alabama.  An estimated 2428 to 2833 ha of
surface coal mines exist in Marion County alone.  Demand for coal has
been greatly accelerated by the recent energy crisis; this demand, coupled
with increases in the price of coal and the availability of larger and
more powerful earth-moving equipment, has resulted in the reopening and
reworking of many abandoned surface mines that could not be operated
economically a few years ago.  To support the demand for coal, efforts
have been increased to obtain property containing coal suitable for strip
mining; these efforts have resulted in the encroachment of mining opera-
tions upon many rural towns with moderate population densities.  Exten-
sive tracts of barren countryside, containing many small lakes and ponds,
often result from these strip mining operations.  These bodies of water
may vary in size from a few hundred square meters to several hectares.
Water depths may vary from 2 to 15 meters, depending on the depth of the
final cut.  The water level in the ponds may fluctuate several times in a
growing season, and depending upon precipitation, the amplitude in fluc-
tuation may be from one to two meters during certain dry seasons.

     For centuries man has fought insects as pests and vectors of disease.
Mosquitoes, probably the best-known group of insect pests, have adapted
themselves to various climates and are found in all the land areas of the
world, wherever pools of water are available for a few days or longer for
breeding to occur and where sufficient numbers of host organisms are
present.  Mosquitoes have probably had a greater influence on human
health and welfare throughout the world than any other group of insects.

     The objective of this study was to determine what species of medi-
cally important arthropods, particularly mosquitoes, were breeding in
coal strip mine ponds, to what extent, and whether these breeding sites
would serve as a focus of annoyance or a potential outbreak center of
arthropod-borne disease to surrounding communities.  The emphasis of this
study involved a comparison of pond age with physical and chemical charac-
teristics of the water and associated vegetation communities.  Field
surveys employed various sampling techniques to determine the composition
and density of the various life stages of the aquatic insect fauna.

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     Of numerous ponds that were field-inspected,  nine were selected by
age (time since formation) for study.   Three ponds in each of three age
categories (1 year, 5 years, and 10 years) were selected for study when
the project was initiated in 1976.   The six oldest ponds were observed
for five successive years and the three youngest ponds have been observed
for four successive years since the onset of observations.  These nine
study ponds are shown on an aerial photograph (Figure 1).  The study was
initially designed to progress for five consecutive years, so that the
data obtained would include 14 "consecutive" years of natural ecological
succession.  The project was designed to show temporal changes in species
composition and relative abundance of aquatic fauna and flora.

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                               SECTION 2

                              CONCLUSIONS

     Results from this study showed that mosquito production did occur in
coal strip mine ponds, becoming evident during the second season after
pond formation.  The degree of mosquito production and the diversity of
species composition increased as the ponds aged.   Although mosquito
production occurred in all but the 1-year-old ponds, production was
sparse and restricted to narrow vegetated areas along shallow, marginal
shelves.  The level of mosquito activity detected during this 5-year
survey was not sufficient to cause severe annoyance to surrounding
communities.  Mosquito larval dipping records in early March indicated
that strip mine ponds could provide many favorable sites where over-
wintering females of An. punctipennis and An. quadrimaculatus could
deposit eggs for the first spring brood.

     Data from benthic and littoral zone sampling reflected a wide variety
of aquatic insect taxa in ponds of all age categories.  However, the
9-year-old ponds contained the largest number with a total of 97 taxa.
There was a paucity of insects of medical importance found in the nine
study ponds; only three genera of public health importance were collected,
which consisted of Palpomyia, Chrysops, and Tabanus.  Based on the small
numbers of Palpomyia, Chrysops, and Tabanus collected from all pond age
categories no public health problem is anticipated.

     Surveys of the plants in each of the nine ponds yielded a total of
80 plant taxa (79 vascular plants and one macroscopic alga).  The number
of macrophyte taxa increased with the age of the ponds.  Two submersed
aquatic species (P. diversifolius and P. pusillus), both of which provide
favorable mosquito habitat, became established initially in the 2-year-
old ponds.

     Water chemistry of all ponds studied provided very favorable condi-
tions for supporting various aquatic fauna and flora.

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                               SECTION 3

                            RECOMMENDATIONS

1.   Data obtained in this study showed some mosquito production along
     shallow vegetated pond margins.   It is recommended,  therefore,
     that in reclamation grading of the spoil around ponds,  that plans
     include filling along the shoreline to produce an almost vertical
     pond bank, thereby elminating areas with water less  than one meter
     deep in order to minimize the amount of potential mosquito habitat.

2.   Ditches should be constructed to eliminate the possibility of
     ponding of shallow temporary pools which could become favorable
     oviposition sites for rainpool mosquito species.

3.   It is recommended that greater effort be made to establish more
     rapid permanent vegetative cover on the graded spoil slopes and
     wetland area around ponds to reduce erosion.

4.   Cursory observations suggested that a large number of the aban-
     doned coal strip mine ponds in north Alabama could and should be
     developed for wildlife and recreational purposes.

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                               SECTION 4

                        EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Description of the Study Area

     Area stripping was the method generally used for removing the over-
burden from the coal in the study area (Rainer 1972).  The procedure
consists of a trench cut to expose the coal and the spoil is piled along
the side of the cut.  As additional cuts are made parallel to the first,
the overburden is deposited in the previous cut where the coal had been
removed.  The mined site has an uneven appearance with large piles of
spoil located throughout the disturbed area.

     The slope of the spoil bank around two of the ponds that were one
year old at the beginning of the study was moderately steep and short.
The other 1-year-old pond was located along a final cut and was enclosed
by a 12- to 15-m abrupt spoil bank on one site and a high wall on the
other.  The maximum water depth in the ponds was about 5 m, and the
sampling stations were located along the shallow margins.  The water in
the ponds was replenished from rainfall runoff and subterranean seepage.
The slopes around the ponds were generally barren, except for sparse
pioneer colonies of herbaceous species such as pokeweed (Phytolacca
americana).  The margins around the ponds were abrupt, except for those
areas in which small alluvial deltas had been formed by siltation.

     All the ponds that were five years old (5-year-old ponds) at the
beginning of the study were located along the base of highwalls that
ranged in height from 9 to 12 m.  The spoil was deposited in undulating
ridges, which averaged about 5 m in height.  Except for access roads
extending into the pits, the slopes of the pond margins were very steep.
The average water depth in these ponds was about 3 m.  The water depth at
the sampling stations ranged from 30 to 90 cm.  Sericea (Lespedeza cuneata)
formed a dense colony on the spoil banks around two of the ponds, whereas
the other spoil area contained mixed colonies of L. cuneata and P. americana
with some bare soil.  The pond water collects from rainfall and subterranean
seepage.

     The original 10-year-old study ponds occurred in remote areas where
the coal had been covered by a shallow overburden.  The ponds were enclosed
by highwalls and spoil banks, ranging in height from about 6 to 9 m.  The
dominant herbaceous vegetation on the spoil banks consisted of four
genera:  Lespedeza, Rubus, Andropogon, and Phytolacca.  Saplings of
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), loblobby pine (Pinus taeda), black

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willow (Salix nigra),  and sumac (Rhus spp.) were present on the spoil
slopes.  The average water depth was about 3 m and  water depth at the
sampling stations ranged from 30 to 90 cm.  Except for the shallow areas
along abandoned access roads into the strip pits, the pond margins were
very abrupt.  Water levels in the ponds were maintained by subterranean
seepage and rainfall.

     The topography in the Gold Mine area of Marion County is predomi-
nantly hilly with steep slopes.  The soil is predominantly dark gray
sandy-loam, with soil pH ranging from slightly acid to moderately alkaline.
The fertility is moderate and the soil is low in organic content.  Perco-
lation is moderately rapid, and the available water storage capacity is
medium to low.  The plant root zone is very shallow due to the abundance
of consolidated sandstone outcrops in the strip-mined areas.  Erosion is
severe due to previous land use practices and especially severe where
strip mining operations have been conducted.

Materials and Methods

     In each of the nine study ponds three sampling stations were estab-
lished, either in the vicinity of emergent aquatic vegetation or in
shallow marginal areas where emergent or submersed vegetation was likely
to occur.   Monthly surveys were conducted from April to October to
determine the species composition and relative abundance of aquatic
arthropods in each pond.

     Mosquito larvae were sampled by using the standard dipper technique
(Russel 1946).  Fifteen dips were taken near each sampling station in the
study ponds.  The number of mosquito larvae collected per dip and the
stage of development of each were recorded, and a representative sample
was collected for species identification.  To determine the presence and
species composition of floodwater mosquito ova, soil samples (15- by 15-
by 2.5-cm) were collected from likely oviposition sites along established
transect lines in each study pond.  Transects were established to coincide
with probable habitat and flooded contours within each pond.  Each sample
was processed through a series of sieves, consisting of 40-, 60-, and
100-mesh sizes, and through a flotation process, which separated the ova
from the soil (Horsfall 1956).  The mosquito ova from each soil sample
were counted and identified to species.  All soil samples were collected
in the late fall.

     Bottom samples for benthic organisms were taken with an Ekman dredge.
About 900 cm  of substrate, consisting of four 15- by 15-cm samples, were
collected at each of the three stations in each pond.  The sample was
washed through a 40-mesh sieve, and the remaining benthic organisms were
recovered and preserved in Hood's solution.

     Water  surface  sampling for aquatic invertebrates was accomplished by
using a fine mesh aquatic dip net with a 30-cm opening.  A sample consisted

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of sweeping the net through about two linear meters of water surface.
Three samples were taken at each station.

     Surveys were conducted in summer and early fall to inventory the
existing plant species and to document their relative density and fre-
quency in each study pond.  Vegetation was surveyed by visual inspection
and the plant taxa enumerated at the selected sampling stations.   Physical
and chemical parameters of each pond were measured with portable  instruments,
The pH of the water was determined with an Orion specific ion meter
(model 407A).  The dissolved oxygen readings in the water were taken with
a Y.S.I, model 54A oxygen meter.  The oxygen determinations were  made
between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m.  Water temperatures were recorded using a
pocket thermometer.  A Y.S.I, model 33 S-C-T meter was used to measure
salinity and conductivity.  Due to difficulties in obtaining an instru-
ment for determining conductivity and salinity of water in the ponds,
these measurements were not started until the second year of the  study
(June 1977).  All readings were taken at a depth of about 5 cm.

     A staff gauge was placed in each study pond to detect water  level
deviations from a baseline level.  The gauge was constructed of a 1.8-m
(2.5- by 10-cm) board divided into 3-cm increments from a zero point at
the center of the staff.  Water-level readings were made in conjunction
with each monthly insect survey.  A photographic reference point  was
established for each pond, and sequential photographs were made from
these points to provide a visual record of the physical changes occurring
during the course of the study.

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                               SECTION 5

                        RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Mosquito Larval Sampling

     Results obtained from larval sampling for mosquitoes during a five
year succession study (1976-1980) in nine study ponds are summarized in
Table 1.  The average number of larvae per dip listed for each age category
is a composite record for three study ponds in each age classification.
The most significant data relate to species composition and show that
eight species representing four genera of mosquitoes were collected
during the five growing seasons.  Six of the mosquito species collected
will bite man and all have a flight range of about 2 km.  However, one of
the species collected in this study,  Psorophora columbiae, has been
retrieved by light trap at a distance of 9.7 km (Horsfall 1942).  Culex
territans and Uranotaenia sapphirina, two of the eight species collected,
are of no known economic or medical importance in the Tennessee Valley.

     Figure 2 illustrates the mosquito population densities and species
composition in strip mine ponds ranging in age from 1 to 14 years old.
Species diversity increased as the ponds became older.  No mosquito
species were found in the 1-year-old ponds, compared with seven species
in the 5- and 7-year-old ponds.  As indicated in Figure 2, mosquito
production was not detected until ponds were two years old and ponds five
years old and older were the most productive for mosquitoes, both quanti-
tatively and qualitatively.  In general, Anopheles punctipennis and C.
erraticus were the dominant species present in all the ponds,  However,
only limited production of these two mosquito species was recorded in the
3- and 4-year-old ponds.  In addition, C. erraticus egg rafts also were
found attached to leaf margins of floating leaves of variable-leaf pond-
weed (Potamogeton diversifolus) in a 3-year-old pond.  Anopheles
quadrimaculatus, the malaria vector, was found in ponds that had been
established for five or more years and average larval counts ranged from
0.05 to 0.16 per dip.

     Only one species of the floodwater or rainpool group of mosquitoes
was collected from the nine study ponds.  One larval specimen of P.
columbiae was found in a 7-year-old pond.  However, extensive rains in
August and September 1977 flooded many semi-aquatic depressions, colonized
by Typha latifolia, throughout the strip mine study area and produced  a
brood of this floodwater mosquito.  Larval sampling yielded an  average of
three larvae per dip in the flooded depressions.  Psorophora columbiae
deposits its eggs on the damp soil in depressions that  are intermittently

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flooded.  Usually, large numbers of larvae are produced at a hatching,
and adults may appear as early as six days after flooding.  This species
causes serious annoyance to man 'and livestock and has also been implicated
in the transmission of equine encephalitis and dog heartworm disease.

     Heavy rainfall in February 1977 flooded vegetated marginal areas
of the study ponds.  Supplemental larval dipping records in early March
showed mosquito production of An. punctipennis, An. quadrimaculatus,
Culex restuans, and C. territans in areas colonized by T.  latifolia in
the 6- and 11-year-old ponds.  These data suggest that strip mine ponds
could serve as a major habitat for the first spring brood of permanent
pool species of mosquitoes.

     Figure 3 further shows that the seasonal average number of mosquito
larvae collected per dip increased as the ponds became older.  The
total mosquito population based on average larval counts ranged from a
low of 0.01 in the 2-year-old ponds to a high of 1.68 per dip in the
6-year-old ponds.  The highest mosquito production was in the 6- and
12-year-old ponds with seasonal averages of 1.68 and 1.50 larvae per
dip, respectively.

     The data in Figure 4 substantiate the increase of mosquito species
compositon as the ponds increased in age from time of formation.  No
mosquito breeding was detected in 1-year-old ponds, but mosquito taxa
counts varied from three in the 2-year-old ponds to six in the 14-year-
old ponds.  However, the 3-year-old ponds had only one taxa whereas the
5- and 7-year-old ponds had a species composition of seven each.  This
upward trend in the number of taxa is also illustrated in Figure 4 for
the other aquatic insects and plants.

     Mosquito larval occurrence in all the ponds was primarily associated
with areas colonized by aquatic macrophytes such as variable-leaf
pondweed (P. diversifolius), small pondweed (Potamogeton pusillus),
woolgrass (Scirpus cyperinus), and cat-tail (Typha latifolia).  The
heaviest mosquito production occurred during June through September.

     Although data in Table 1 show that significant mosquito production
occurred in coal strip mine ponds that had been formed for five or more
years, the mosquito habitat occurred only around the periphery of the
ponds and consisted of only a small percentage of the total water
surface area.  The mosquito habitat was located in narrow vegetated
areas along shallow, marginal shelves.  Because of the abrupt pond
margins and the small amount of vegetation in the ponds, the mosquito
breeding potential, especially for permanent pool species, was limited
in most of the ponds.  As a general rule, the intensity of mosquito
production of permanent pool species is directly related to the amount
of plants and flotage breaking the water surface (Bishop 1947).  However,
in those ponds where the water level recedes and extensive shoreline
areas are dewatered, floodwater species of mosquitoes could become a
problem.

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     Adult mosquitoes were sparse in the vicinity of the study ponds.  A
few specimens of the rainpool mosquito, P. columbiae were collected
biting in the general area of 7-year-old ponds.  In addition, three
pestiferous floodwater mosquito species that are well distributed through-
out the Tennessee Valley (Aedes canadensis, Aedes trivittatus, and Aedes
vexans) were collected in small numbers along shaded margins of 9-, 13-,
and 14-year-old ponds.  These species of mosquitoes generally deposit
their ova on damp soil in grassy depressions, in low shaded woodland
habitats, and along vegetated shorelines that are intermittently flooded.
No adult specimens of the permanent pool group of mosquitoes, anopheline
or culicine were observed during the field collections.

Mosquito Ova Sampling

     Table 2 summarizes data from soil samples collected to determine the
extent and successional changes of floodwater mosquito populations along
strip mine pond margins; oviposition data are used as an indicator.  Soil
samples were taken in November each year after oviposition had ceased and
the ova were dormant.  The total number of soil samples collected from
the different pond-age categories was governed by the size of the dewatered
pond margin, with the high water level serving as the upper limit.  The
data in Table 2 show that most of the floodwater mosquito ova collected
were from ponds that had been established for 10 or more years.  Of the
total number of floodwater mosquito ova collected, about 89 percent were
from the 10-, 11-, 12-, and 13-year-old ponds, and 11 percent of the ova
were from ponds ranging in age from 5 to 9 years old.  No floodwater
mosquito ova were found in soil samples collected from the 1-, 2-, 3-,
and 4-year-old ponds.  Floodwater mosquito species present in the nine
study ponds, as indicated by soil sampling data collected over a period
of five years, were Ae. sollicitans, Ae. sticticus, Ae. trivittatus, Ae.
vexans, P. columbiae, and Psorophora cyanescens.  Data from soil samples
showed Ae. vexans was the dominant floodwater mosquito species in the
study ponds.  Results from the soil sampling program showed only three
ova of Ae. sollicitans present, which were found in the 5- and 10-year-
old pond categories.  Soil sample data revealed Ae. sticticus and Ae.
trivittatus ova counts of three and one respectively from a 13-year-old
pond.  The ova were collected from a transect located along a forested
pond margin.  Ova of P. columbiae and P. cyanescens were found in small
numbers in the 9- and 12-year-old ponds.  No floodwater mosquito ova were
recovered in soil samples from the 7- and 14-year old ponds.  Due to high
water  level in the ponds at the time soil samples were collected from the
2-, 6-, and 11-year-old ponds, the number of samples collected and the
number of sampling transects evaluated were limited in several study
ponds, and this limitation may have influenced the collection of mosquito
ova.   Positive soil samples in all pond age categories were collected in
association with the following vegetation:  Typha latifolia, Salix nigra,
Scirpus cyperinus, Aster pilosus, and Andropogon virginicus.
                                    10

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     Adult females of Ae. sollicitans, Ae. sticticus, Ae. trivittatus,
Ae. vexans,  P. columbiae, and P. cyanescens all bite man, and all species
except Ae. trivittatus will migrate in large numbers from their breeding
sites into populated areas in search of a blood meal.  The females of Ae.
sticticus, Ae. trivittatus, Ae. vexans, P. columbiae, and P. cyanescens
generally deposit their ova on the damp soil in vegetated depressions
that are intermittently flooded.  These five floodwater mosquito species
are widely distributed throughout the Tennessee Valley and are five of
the most important pest species.  The females of Ae. sollicitans normally
deposit their ova on the soil in the tidewater salt marshes containing
brackish or saline water, which are subject to intermittent flooding.
Other oviposition sites may include pools of effluents from certain
factories, pools around oil wells, and coal mine ponds (Horsfall 1955).
In addition to being a serious pest, Ae. sollicitans is also the primary
vector of eastern equine encephalitis to man and horses.

     The paucity of floodwater mosquito production in most of the coal
strip mine study ponds is attributed in part to the frequent silting of
pond margins caused by extensive erosion from barren spoil areas after
heavy rains.  Mosquito ova are covered by layers of silt during the
winter, and mosquito larvae from the enclosed ova cannot emerge through
the soil when the habitat is inundated the following spring.  The lack of
floodwater mosquito production along pond margins may also be due to the
sparse vegetation, surface detritus cover, and excessively dry soil,
which make these areas unattractive to ovipositing females.

Benthic and Surface Sampling for Aquatic Insects

     A composite listing and the degree of abundance of the insect taxa
from benthic and littoral fauna samples taken in nine strip mine ponds
during a 5-year-succession study are shown in Table 3.  Insects were
identified to genus and species when possible.  In the table, abundance
of taxa is represented by a symbol (I = 1 to 5; C = 6 to 19; A = 20 and
above) which could be misleading in calculating totals from the table
since the symbols vary in the representation of a range in number of
specimens.  The data positively show increased faunal diversity with
increasing pond age.

     Figure 3 shows the average number of insect specimens per Ekman
dredge (900 cm ) and aquatic dip net (sweep) samples for each pond age.
The number of specimens in the dip net were considerably lower when
compared to the Ekman dredge.  For example, the aquatic dip net samples
showed a range of 0.94 to 8.38 compared to 1.37 to 19.95 in the dredge.
Productivity increased as reflected by increased numbers of invertebrates
in both the dredge and net samples as the ponds increased in age.  Based
on aquatic dip net samples the 14-year-old ponds were the most productive,
whereas the 12-year-old ponds showed the greatest productivity based on
benthic counts.
                                    11

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     The data of Figure 4 show the number of insect taxa collected by the
dredge and net sampling methods in the different age ponds.   The dredge
and net samples yielded about the same number of insect taxa, but the
species composition and the number of specimens collected differed signi-
ficantly, especially in dredge samples for aquatic Diptera.   Except for
the relative low number of taxa in the 10-year-old ponds, data in Figure
4 show a progressive increase in the number of insect taxa as the ponds
increased in age.  In Figure 4, it is demonstrated that dredge samples
produced a range of insect taxa from 18 to 69 as compared to 16 to 77 in
the net.  The largest number of taxa for both dredge and net was in the
14-year-old ponds with counts of 69 and 77, respectively.

     The number of insect taxa in 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-year-old ponds detected
by dredge and net sampling methods was 24, 44, 54, and 45 taxa respectively.
The most significant increase, both in species composition and in the
number of specimens collected, was in the Chironomidae, or "nonbiting
midges."  By comparison, data from bottom samples yielded the following
Chironomidae counts; 1-year-old ponds--9 taxa, total of 21 specimens;
2-year-old ponds--14 taxa, total of 147 specimens; 3-year-old ponds--20
taxa, total of 433 specimens; and 4-year-old ponds—19 taxa, total of 446
specimens.  In general, as the ponds increased in age the number of taxa
detected increased and the number of specimens increased.  A high of 26
taxa occurred in the 9-year-old ponds and the largest number of specimens,
1130 occurred in 12-year-old ponds. However, sampling results from the
14-year-old ponds showed only 22 taxa and 672 Chironomidae specimens.

     Larvae of the mayfly, Hexagenia munda elegans, were found in the
2-year-old ponds, the youngest ponds in which they were detected.  This
species was also found to be relatively abundant in ponds that were 10
and 11 years old, but there was a significant decrease in the population
in the 13- and 14-year-old ponds.  This decrease in the number of mayfly
larvae was due to heavy siltation which destroyed or significantly reduced
much of the habitat.  Mayflies occupy an important place in the food
chain of aquatic communities because both larvae and adults are eaten by
fish.

     The most common benthic insect genera encountered in the 1- to
4-year-old ponds were Gomphus, Notonecta, Laccophilus, Dineutus, Ablabesmyia,
Polypedilum, and Procladius.  These same genera were also abundant in all
pond age categories (1 to 14 years old).

     Survey results revealed the presence of only two genera of medically
important insects in the 1- to 4-year-old pond age category.  Larvae of
Palpomyia (Ceratopogonidae), sometimes called biting midges or punkies,
were relatively abundant in 2-, 3-, and 4-year-old ponds.  Because of
their bloodsucking ability, the adults of Ceratopogonidae can be serious
pests along margins of streams and lakes.  However, based on the number
of larvae found in samples  from the different age strip mine ponds (1 to
14 years old) there appears to be no problem with this biting insect.
                                     12

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Two specimens of Chrysops (deer fly) were found in the 3-year-old ponds.
Chrysops, which are persistent biters of man and livestock, are potential
vectors of tularemia.

     Data in Table 3 show that diversity and productivity in the 5- to
9-year-old ponds significantly increased when compared to the younger
ponds.  Data from surveys of the 5-, 6-, 7-, 8-, and 9-year-old ponds
yielded 47, 54, 63, 68, and 68 insect taxa respectively.  Dragonflies,
often called "mosquito hawks" increased both qualitatively and quanti-
tatively, especially Enallagma basidens and Celithemis elisa.  Counts of
the water strider, Trepobates, continued to increase with increases in
the pond age and it was very abundant in the 9-year old ponds.  The major
increase in species composition and in number of specimens collected was
in the non-biting midge group, Chironomidae.  The dominant genera of
midges on the basis of frequency in collected samples, were Ablabesmyia,
Chironomus, Polypedilum, Procladius, and Stictochironomus.

     Three insect genera of public nuisance or health importance were
recovered in dredge samples from the 5- to 9-year old ponds.  Larval
specimens of the small biting gnat, Palpomyia, were fairly abundant in
the ponds, especially in samples from the 5- and 8-year-old ponds.  A
total of 14 larval specimens of the genus Chrysops was found in the 5-,
7-, 8-, and 9-year-old ponds.  No Chrysops larvae were detected in samples
from the 6-year-old-ponds.  Two larvae of Tabanus (horse fly) were found
in samples from the 6- and 8-year-old ponds.  Both deer flies and horse
flies are fierce biters of man and livestock and may cause transfer of
blood-inhabiting pathogenic organisms to man and animals (Jones 1964).

     Data from benthic and littoral zone faunal samples in the 10- to
14-year-old ponds showed this age group to have the greatest aquatic
insect taxa diversity of the ponds studied.  Sampling data from the 10-,
11-, 12-, 13-, and 14-year-old ponds showed 42, 58, 66, 77, and 92 insect
taxa respectively.

     Observations in the 10-year-old ponds showed heavy concentrations of
mayfly larvae, H. munda elegans.  However, counts of mayfly larvae in the
14-year-old ponds showed a decrease of about 94 percent when compared to
records from the 10-year-old ponds.  As previously discussed this reduction
of the mayfly population was likely due to alteration of habitat by
siltation.  Odonata were found in large numbers in the 10- to 14-year-old
ponds and the following species were very common:  Anax junius, Enallagma
aspersum, Ischnura posita, Gomphus exilis, Celithemis elisa, and Tramea
sp.  The dragonfly, Tramea sp., was not found in large number until the
ponds were 14 years old.  In general, Odonata were found in large numbers
and comprised a large segment of the aquatic fauna in ponds 5 years old
and older.

     The most abundant benthos in numbers and species composition in the
10- to 14-year-old ponds were the Chironomidae.  Diptera larvae were
                                     13

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common with the following genera being the most abundant:  Palpomyia,
Ablabesmyia, Chironomonus, Clinotanypus Polypedilum, and Procladius.
Diptera were the most numerous larvae in all ponds from 1 to 14 years old
and the abundance significantly increased as the ponds increased in age.
Other benthos which were abundant in the 10- to 14-year-old ponds con-
sisted of the following genera and species:  Sigara, Trepobates, Buenoa,
Notonecta, Coptotomus interrogatus, Laccophilus maculosus,  Dineutus, and
Sialis.

     The water beetle, L. maculosus was common in all age ponds (1- to
14-years), but sampling data showed a significant decline in the popula-
tion as ponds increased in age.  By comparison, a total of 532 specimens
of L. maculosus were collected in the 1- and 2-year-old ponds and 94
specimens were collected in the 13- and 14-year-old ponds indicating a 82
percent decline in the population.

     Data from the 10- to 14-year-old ponds showed a paucity of insects
of medical importance, both in species composition and abundance.  Larvae
of the biting midge Palpomyia were fairly common in the 11-, 13-, and
14-year-old ponds.  However, Palpomyia larvae were fairly abundant in the
2-year-old ponds and except for the 5- and 8-year-old ponds, larval
counts showed no significant increase as the ponds increased in age.
Deer fly larvae were sparse with only a total of 31 Chrysops specimens
collected from the 10- to 14-year-old pond age groups.

Adult Tabanidae Collections

     Several adult specimens of the family Tabanidae (horse flies and
deer flies) were collected from inside a parked sedan car located near
the strip mine study ponds.  These biting insects constitute one of the
most annoying groups of bloodsucking insects that attack livestock and
man.  The eggs are laid in masses on vegetation extending over the water
surface or in emergent vegetation, where the larvae can develop in water
or damp soil.  Most species of horse flies are strong fliers and have a
flight range of several kilometers from the larval habitat.  Very few
Tabanid larvae were detected in the benthic samples from the study ponds
because a concerted, specialized effort is required to collect them from
pond margins.  However, the strip mining occurs over an extensive area,
and many ponds and wet areas are found in surrounding areas which are
considered the most likely source for those that were collected.  Twenty-
three adult specimens of Tabanids, representing two genera, were collected
and included Hybomitra trispilus (1), Tabanus cheliopterus  (2), Tabanus
melanocerus (1), Tabanus nigripes  (2), Tabanus sparus milleri  (2), Tabanus
fulvulus pallidescens (1), and Tabanus fulvulus (14).

Woody and Herbaceous Vegetation

     A total of 80 plant taxa  (79 vascular plants and one macroscopic
alga) were identified from the nine ponds during the study  period.  These
                                    14

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are categoried in Table 4, according to their habitat zone, as submersed,
emergent, wetland, or terrestrial.  The submersed category consists of
those plants that are rooted in the substrate and entirely submersed with
the exception of emergent inflorescences.  The emergent species include
plants that are firmly rooted in the substrate and have vegetative struc-
tures that extend above the water surface.  Wetland species include
plants growing in the transition zone just above the waterline in soils
that are continually or seasonally saturated, while those plants growing
above the transition zone in unsaturated soils are classified as terrestrial.

     Potamogeton diversifolius was the dominant submersed species found
in ponds more than one year old.  Two other submersed species, Potamogeton
pusillus and the macroscopic alga Chara sp., occurred sporadically in a
few ponds (see Table 4).   Ten emergent species were recorded with Typha
latifolia, Scirpus cyperinus, Eleocharis obtusa, and Juncus acuminatus
being the most common.  Twenty-eight wetland taxa were found, the most
abundant being Polygonum spp., Panicum dichotomiflorum, Echinochloa
crusgalli, Aster pilosus, Bidens frondosa, Ludwigia alternifolia, Pluchea
camphorata, and Salix nigra.  Many of the 39 terrestrial species identified
during this study are common plants that invade disturbed sites.  Some
species such as Lespedeza cuneata and L. striata represent introductions
associated with reclamation efforts.  Since terrestrial species seldom
contribute to the mosquito breeding habitat, they will not be discussed
in further detail.

     Newly formed ponds (one year old) were sparsely colonized and the
macrophytes present were primarily common pioneer wetland and terrestrial
species.  No submersed species and only one emergent species (Typha
latifolia) were noted to colonize these ponds.  The most common wetland
species around the perimeter of the newly formed ponds were Polygonum
pensylvanicum and Salix nigra.  By the second year, two submsersed taxa
(Potamogeton diversifolius and P. pusillus) had become established.
Emergent taxa established by the third year include Scirpus cyperinus and
Eleocharis obtusa.  Several additional wetland species became established
during the second and third years with the most common being Cyperus
odoratus, Echinochloa crusgalli, Panicum dichotomiflorum, Polygonum
lapathifolium, and Populus deltoides.  In the older ponds (5 to 9 and 10
to 14 years) several additional taxa occurred as noted in Table 4.

     Scirpus cyperinus, Potamogeton diversifolius, and P. pusillus provide
a very favorable habitat for permanent pool mosquito species.  While
these species are undesirable from the standpoint of mosquito production,
the pondweeds (P. diversifolius and P. pusillus) have been documented as
a food source for waterfowl.

     The vegetational changes and the habitats available for plant coloni-
zation are shown in figures 5, 6, and 7.  Figure 5 shows one of the ponds
in the 1-to 4-year-old category.  The slopes around ponds of this age
group were graded and seeded as a part of reclamation activities.  The
                                    15

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emergent and wetland plant communities occurred primarily as a narrow
band around the pond margin and in general increased in width and density
as the pond aged.

     Figures 6 and 7 are ponds belonging to the 5- to 9- and 10- to
14-year-old categories.  The steep banks shown in Figure 6 are typical of
ponds where no reclamation activities were implemented.  Habitats avail-
able for plant colonization were primarily limited to the narrow land-water
interface around low spoil banks, marginal flats such as that shown in
Figure 8, and alluvial outwashes (Figure 9).  Cat-tail (Typha latifolia),
woolgrass (Scirpus cyperinus), and black willow (Salix nigra) were common
inhabitants of outwashes and marginal flats.

     While erosion and siltation created habitats for plant colonization,
they were also a major factor in the decline and reduction in size of
some plant communities.  This is illustrated in figures 7A, B, and C,
where siltation has substantially reduced the area colonized by cat-tail.

     Species diversity increased as the ponds became older (Figure 10).
Twenty species were found in the 1-year-old ponds, compared with 47
species in the 13-year-old ponds.  However, as shown in Table 4 only 22
plant species were found in the 14-year-old ponds.  This reduction in the
number of plant species when compared to the 13-year-old ponds was most
likely due to (1) the high water level in the ponds during the spring
(see figures 6D and 7D) which prevented or delayed the development of
marginal vegetation and (2) the extended drought during the summer of
1980. The plants in the wetland and terrestrial habitat zones of the
14-year-old ponds were heavily impacted showing a decrease in plant
species from 19 and 21 plant species in 13-year-old ponds to 6 and 8
plant species in 14-year-old ponds.  Since no discernible patterns of
species replacement have been observed, the increase in species diversity
represents the addition of species to previous vegetation.

Physical Parameters

     The seasonal average for pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, and
conductivity in the different age strip mine ponds is  shown in Figures  11
and  12.  The pH remained fairly constant (Figure 11) throughout the study
and  showed only a 0.9 unit variation between the 1- and 14-year-old
ponds.  In general, the dissolved oxygen recordings in the ponds showed
no significant difference as the ponds increased in age.  For example,
the  average dissolved oxygen recording in the 1-year-old ponds was 9.6
ppm  compared to 9.4 ppm in the 14-year-old ponds.  The temperature varia-
tion in Figure 10 shows no definite trend as the ponds increased in age.
Temperature recordings showed a range of 22°C to 27 C  which was mainly
due  to variation in climatic conditions.  Of all the physical parameters
recorded, conductivity showed the greatest diversity according to chrono-
logical age of the ponds.  Recordings in ponds  11 years old and older
showed extremely low conductivity  (59 to 73 |Jmhos/cm)  whereas recordings
in ponds 2 to 9 years  old were high  (267 to 534
                                    16

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     Water pH—The average monthly water surface pH readings for each
study pond group for the April 1976 to October 1980 growing seasons are
given in Table 5.  In general, the pH of the water in all the ponds is
within the tolerance ranges that can support a large number of species of
both plants and animals.  This high pH value (5.5-9.2 seasonal range) of
the water in the strip mine ponds is most likely due to the large content
of alkaline parent materials in the overburden.  The 11-year-old ponds
had a lower seasonal pH range than the other pond age groups.  The seasonal
pH range of the water in the 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-year-old ponds does not
appear to differ significantly from that in the older ponds.

     Conductivity and Salinity—The data in Table 5 show that the water
conductivity recordings in the 11-, 12-, 13-, and 14-year-old ponds were
significantly lower than those in the other pond-age categories.  Water
in the 6-year-old ponds had the highest conductivity recordings, with a
seasonal range of 195 to 1400 mmhos/cm.  The high conductivity reading in
the pond water probably resulted from the buildup of electrolytes dissolved
in water as a result of weathering of the adjacent spoil, which consists
mainly of exposed rock.  All the ponds showed an absence of salinity.

     Dissolved Oxygen—Table 5 also summarizes the results of the dissolved
oxygen determinations in each of the nine study ponds.  These determina-
tions indicate that no statistically significant differences in the
dissolved oxygen content occurred among the ponds.  Some of the elevated
dissolved oxygen readings in ponds five years old or older were likely
influenced by colonies of P. diversifolius, which could have increased
the midday dissolved oxygen content.  However, much of the dissolved
oxygen in the ponds, especially in the 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-year-old ponds,
is probably derived from the atmosphere by surface water agitation caused
by wind and wave action.

     Water Temperature—The average water temperature for each study pond
is shown in Table 5.  The variable temperature readings in the ponds were
attributed to the inflow of ground water.  Some differences occurred
between the monthly temperature readings recorded in the different pond
age categories, but these small variations could have resulted from
localized weather changes.

     Water Level—Seasonal water level deviations in the ponds for the
1979 season are graphically illustrated in Figure 13.  The water recession
in the study ponds for the 1979 season exhibited about the same pattern
as in 1976, 1977, 1978, and 1980.  However, drought conditions in 1977
and 1980 caused abrupt water level recession in all the study ponds.
This drop in water level was greatest in the 6- and 9-year-old ponds,
with a drawdown of about 2 m.  Heavy rainfall in the late summer of 1977
filled the 2-, 6-, and 11-year old ponds to above the normal level, which
inundated the terrestrial plant zone around the ponds.  These extreme
water level fluctuations could have influenced the quantity and diversity
of aquatic insect species collected in the sampling program, especially
                                    17

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mosquitoes, because most of the likely vegetated habitats were dewatered
early in the growing season.

     Management of water levels to control mosquito production in ponds
is a very effective naturalistic control measure.  The strip mine ponds
are usually filled during the wet period from late winter through spring,
but water levels recede at the beginning of the dry season.  This seasonal
water level recession (Figure 13), coincides with the active breeding
season for permanent pool mosquitoes, thus effectively controlling these
types of mosquitoes.  However, wide amplitudes of water level fluctuations
that periodically expose large areas of shoreline, as occur in the 6- and
9-year-old ponds, can be very conducive to the production of floodwater
mosquitoes.  The floodwater species of mosquitoes generally deposit their
eggs on the damp soil along vegetated shorelines that are intermittently
flooded.  A brood of floodwater mosquitoes can be produced if the water
level in the pond first recedes enough to allow deposition of eggs and
then is followed by sufficient rainfall to raise the water level again
and inundate the eggs, causing them to hatch.  However, results from soil
samples collected from these dewatered pond margins actually showed a
paucity of floodwater mosquito ova.
                                     18

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                              REFERENCES

Bishop, E. L.,  and M.  D. Hollis.   Malaria Control of Impounded Water.
     Federal Security Agency, U.  S.  Public Health Service and Tennessee
     Valley Authority, Health and Safety Department, 1947.   422 pp.

Horsfall, W. R.  A Method for Making a Survey of Floodwater Mosquitoes.
     Mosquito News, 16 (2):   66-71 pp., 1956.

Horsfall, W. R. Biology and Control of Mosquitoes in the Rice Area.
     Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bull. No. 427, 1942.
     46 pp.

Jones, C. M., and D. W. Anthony.   The Tabanidae (Diptera) of Florida.
     Agricultural Research Service,  United States Department of Agriculture,
     Tech. Bull. No. 1295, 1964.   85 pp.

Rainer, Rex K.   Strip Mining In Alabama and Its Effect Upon Navigable
     Waterways. Report to the Corps of Engineers.  Mobile,  Alabama,  1972.
     42 pp.

Russell, Paul F., West, Luther S., and Reginald, Manwell D.  Practical
     Malariology.  W.  B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, 1946.  683  pp.
                                     19

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Figure 1.  Aerial photograph of strip mine area, showing locations
           of the mine study ponds.
                            20

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-------
0.01
                  EKMAN  DREDGE
                         NET
                  MOSQUITOES
10   II     12     13
                                                                                  14
                                     6789

                                     POND AGE  (YEARS)

Figure 3°  Average number of organisms per  sample unit using dipper, aquatic sweep  net,
          and Ekman dredge sampling methods, April-October 1980.
                                                                                                      CXI
                                                                                                      CM

-------
   80+
   70-
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                                                    i
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      Figure 4.
                      POND AGE (YEARS)
Total number of aquatic insect and plant  taxa in strip mine ponds ranging
in age from 1 to 14 years old, April-October 1976-1980.
                           23

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                                                                                         I8!
                                                                                          ^ff

                                                                                          "* i-i
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N3
Ul
                                                             PwiSfrC-  "-
                                                             n
    figure b.  Example of 5-  to 9-year-old pond surrounded by unclaimed spoil area.  A.  5-year-old pond;
              B.   6-year-old pond;  C.  7-year-old pond; D.  9-year-old pond.

-------
NJ

                                                   •JK*s-  V"*V:
     Figure 7.  Example of 10- to 14-year-old ponds showing unclaimed spoil area.  A.
              B.  11-year-old pond; C.  12-year-old pond; D.  14-year-old pond.
10-year-old pond;

-------
Figure 8.  Eight-year-old pond showing dewatered
           marginal flat.
Figure 9.  Thirteen-year-old pond showing alluvial
           ou twash.
                       27

-------
   50
  40
   30
x
  20
UJ
00
   10
    0
                2    345    67     8    9     10    II     12    13    14
                                    AGE OF  POND (YEARS)
                                                                                                 CO
                                                                                                 0-1
Figure 10.  Number of plant  taxa found in different age strip mine ponds.

-------
   30-
   20-
(A
<5
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I  15
8.
<0
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o>
    10-
    5-
                     Temp  (°C)
 D 0  (ppm)

»-
 PH
                                                               	X
                                                    678

                                                 POND  AGE  (YEARS)
                                                              10      II
12     13
14
      Figure 11.  Seasonal  averages of pH, dissolved oxygen, and temperature in strip mine ponds,  April-October
                  1976-1980.

-------
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                                                  POND  AGE   (YEARS)


             Figure 12.   Seasonal  averages of conductivity in coal strip mine ponds, April-October 1976-1980.

-------
    Figure 13.  Water level fluctuations in the nine coal strip mine study
                ponds for the 1979 growing season.
                                4-Year-Old Ponds
   +1
    -1
o   ~*
M
H   +1
W
p    0


W

W   _1



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    +1
           	 Pond  1
           	 Pond  2
           	 Pond  3
           	I	
                               J_
                                 8-Year-Old Ponds

                               T
                                           T
                                                                          .X"'
            	  Pond 4
            	 Pond 5
            	 Pond 6
            	L_
_L
                                     JL
                                13-Year-Old-Ponds
     -1
                                I
             —  Pond 7
             —  Pond 8
             -•- Pond 9
             	I
April
                   May
                              June
                                   31
           July
August    September    Octobe:

-------
                    TABLE 1.   SUMMARY  OF MOSQUITO PRODUCTION, BASED ON AVERAGE NUMBER OF LARVAE PER DIP  IN  COU. STRIP MINE PONDS IN MARION COUNTY  ALABAMA
                              APRIL -  OCTOBER  1976-1980                                                                                                  '
1976
Species
Anopheles crucians
Anopheles punctipennis
Anopjieles quadrimaculatus
Culex erraticus
Culex restuans
Culex territans
Uranotaenia sapphirina

Species
Anopheles crucians
Anopheles punctipennis
Anopheles quadrimaculatus
Culex erraticus
Culex territans

Species
Anopheles crucians
Anopheles punctipennis
Anopheles quadrimaculatus
Culex erraticus
Culex restuans
Culex territans
Psorophora columbiae

Species
Anopheles cjrucians
Anopheles punctipennis
Anopheles quadrimaculatus
Culex erraticus
Culex restuans
Culex territans

Species
Anopheles crucians
Anopheles punctipennis
Anopheles quadrimaculatus
Culex erraticus
Cnlex restuans
Culex territans

April
Pond age (yrs)
la 5a 10a
- 0.00 0.00
- 0.07 0.04
- 0.00 0.00
- 0.00 0.00
- 0.02 0.00
- 0.01 0.00
- 0.00 0.00
April
Pond age (yrs)
2a 6a lla
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.04 0.02
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
April
Pond age (yrs)
3a 7a 12a
0.00 0.00 0.01
0.00 0.00 0.10
0.00 0.00 O.OO
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
April
Pond age (yrs)
4a 8a lia
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.09 0.19 0.04
0.00 0.05 0.00
0.00 0.04 0.00
0.00 0.04 0.00
0.00 0.05 0.00
April
Pond age (yrs)
9a 14a
- 0.00 0.00
- 0.02 0.00
- 0.00 0.00
- 0.00 0.00
- 0.00 0.03
- 0.00 0.00

Pond
1
-

Pond
2
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

Pond
3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

Pond
4
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

Pond

-
May
age (yrs)
5 10
0.00 0.00
0.04 0.04
0.02 0.00
0.01 0.01
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
May
age (yrs)
6 11
0.00 0.00
0.37 0.01
0.03 0.00
0.06 0.01
0.00 0.31
May
age (yrs)
7 12
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.06
0.01 0.01
0.00 0.06
0.01 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.00
May
age (yrs)
8 13
0.00 0.00
0.26 0.54
0.13 0.13
0.00 0.01
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.23
May
age (yrs)
9 14
0.00 0.00
0.02 0.01
0.00 0.04
0.00 0.01
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.01

Pond
1
-

Pond
2
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

Pond
3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

Pond
4
0.00
0.02
0.00
0.17
0.00
0.00

Pond

-
June
age (yrs)
5 10
0.03 0.00
0.20 0.13
0.14 0.02
0.02 0.07
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.07
0.00 0.00
June
age (yrs)
6 11
0.00 0.00
0.07 0.22
0.07 0.28
2.04 0.97
0.00 0.00
June
age (yrs)
7 12
0.01 0.00
0.12 0.00
0.03 0.05
0.12 0.06
0.00 0.00
0.02 0.00
0.00 0.00
June
age (yrs)
8 13
0.01 0.00
0.16 0.27
0.10 0.12
1.17 0.06
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.18
June
age (yrs)
9 14
0.02 0.02
0.12 0.23
0.02 0.07
0.24 0.21
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.08
Jul^
Pond age (yrs)
1 5 10
- 0.17 0.00
- 0.81 0.43
- 0.48 0.30
- 1.43 1.92
- 0.00 0.00
- 1.94 0.00
- 0.02 0.00
1977
July
Pond age (yrs)
2 6 11
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.06 0.08
0.00 0.13 0.30
0.00 0.69 2.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
1978
July
Pond age (yrs)
3 7 12
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.18 0.30
0.00 0.23 0.56
0.00 1.61 0.30
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
1979
July
Pond age (yrs)
4 8 13
0.00 0.13 0.01
0.00 0.26 0.12
0.00 0.35 0.14
0.77 2.89 0.49
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.20 0.08
1980
July
Pond age (yrs)
9 14
- 0.02 0.00
- 0.08 0.13
- 0.02 0.04
- 0.90 0.66
- 0.00 0.00
- 0.00 0.00

Pond
1
-

Pond
2
0.00
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.00

Pond
3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.11
0.00
0.00
0.00

Pond
4
0.00
0.02
0.00
2.22
0.00
0.00

Pond

-
August
age (yrs)
5 10
0.00 0.00
0.04 0.00
0.04 0.00
0.08 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.24
0.00 0.00
August
age (yrs)
6 11
0.00 0.03
0.04 0.15
0.00 0.01
12.20 2.56
0.00 0.03
August
age (yrs)
7 12
0.00 0.00
0.14 0.26
0.04 0.33
1.99 1.38
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
August
age (yrs)
8 . 13
0.00 0.00
0.04 0.04
0.04 0.09
1.47 0.31
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
August
age (yrs)
9 14
0.00 0.00
0.05 0.05
0.05 0.05
1.09 0.77
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
September
Pond age (yrs)
1 5 10
- 0.00 0.00
0.01 0.17
0.09 0.02
- 0.92 0.66
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.01
- 0.00 0.00
September
Pond age (yrs)
2 6 11
0.00 0.11 0.00
0.00 0.20 0.42
0.00 0.40 0.11
0.02 1.77 0.56
0.02 0.00 0.21
September
Pond age (yrs)
3 7 12
0.00 0.00 0.03
0.00 0.07 0.23
0.00 0.09 0.14
0.04 5.96 7.57
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
September
Pond age (yrs)
4 8 13
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.15
0.00 0.00 0.03
2.25 1.68 1.50
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
September
Pond age (yrs)
9 14
0.00 0.01
0.06 0.66
- 0.03 0.11
2.25 3.58
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
October
Pond age (yrs)
1 5 10
- 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
- 0.00 0.00
- 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
October
Pond age (yrs)
2 6 11
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.39 0.59
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.01 0.06
0.00 0.00 0.00
October
Pond age (yrs)
3 7 12
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.40 0.65
0.00 0.20 0.02
0.00 0.10 0.61
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
October
Pond age (yrs)
4 8 13
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.02 0.56 0.83
0.00 0.08 0.07
0.02 0.00 0.25
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
October
Pond age (yrs)
9 14
0.00 0.01
0.10 0.52
- 0.00 0.01
0.00 0.02
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
Total
Pond age (yrs)
1 5 10
0.03 0.00
- 0.17 0.13
0.11 0.06
- 0.31 0.46
- 0.01 0.00
0.26 0.03
- 0.01 0.00
Total
Pond age (yrs)
2 6 11
0.00 0.01 0.01
0.01 0.20 0.21
0.00 0.06 0.08
0.01 1.45 0.71
0.01 0.00 0.08
Total
Pond age (yrs)
3 7 12
0.00 0.01 0.01
0.00 0.09 0.22
0.00 0.07 0.16
0.07 1.15 1.11
0.00 0.01 0.00
0.00 0.01 0.00
0.00 0.01 0.00
Total
Pond age (yrs)
4 8 13
0.00 0.06 0.01
0.02 0.21 0.29
0.00 0.13 0.08
0.81 1.29 0.47
0.00 0.11 0.00
0.00 0.05 0.28
Total
Pond age (yrs)
9 14
0.01 0.01
- 0.06 0.20
0.02 0.05
0.66 0.66
0.00 0.01
0.00 0.01
Average of three ponds.
                                                                              32

-------
             TABLE 2.   SPECIES AND NUMBER OF FLOODWATER MOSQUITO OVA
           COLLECTED FROM SOIL SAMPLES TAKEN IN COAL STRIP MINE PONDS,
  RANGING IN AGE FROM ONE TO FOURTEEN YEARS, MARION COUNTY, ALABAMA — 1976-1980

From

Samples taken
Samples positive for
mosquito ova
Percent positive
samples
Aedes sollicitans ova
Aedes sticticus ova
Aedes trivittatus ova
Aedes vexans ova
Psorophora columbiae
ova
Psorophora cyanescens
ova
1
22

0

0.0
0
0
0
0

0

0
2
15

0

0.0
0
0
0
0

0

0
3
25

0

0.0
0
0
0
0

0

0
4
20

0

0.0
0
0
0
0

0

0
5
53

3

5.7
1
0
0
3

0

0
ponds aged years
6
39

3

7.7
0
0
0
13

0

0
7
32

0

0.0
0
0
0
0

0

0
8
29

2

6.9
0
0
0
2

0

0
9
38

1

2.6
0
0
0
0

1

0
10
42

14

33.3
2
0
0
98

0

0
11
40

10

25.00
0
0
0
39

0

0
12
46

5

10.9
0
0
0
6

2

1
13
32

5

15.6
0
1
3
2

0

0
14
37

0

0.0
0
0
0
0

0

0

a.  Average of 3 replicates
                                    33

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TABLE 3.  INSECT TAXA TAKEN FROM VARIOUS AGES OF COAL STRIP MINE PONDS IN
           MARION COUNTY, ALABAMA--APRIL - OCTOBER 1976, 198Q3
Age
of
Pond




(Years)
Species composition 1
EPHEMEROPTERA
Baetidae
Callibaetis I
Cloeon
Caenidae
Caenis
Ephemeridae
Hexagenia munda elegans
ODONATA
Aeshnidae
Anax j unius
Anax longipes
Basiaeschna Janata
Coenagrionidae
Anomalagrion hastatum
Argia apicalis
Argia fumipennis
Argia sedula
Argia sp.
Enallagma aspersum
Enallagma basidens
Enallagma civile
Enallagma divagans
Enallagma doubledayi
Enallagma signatum
Enallagma sp.
Ischnura posita
Corduliidae
Tetragoneuria cynosura
Gomphidae
Promo gomphus spinosus I
Gomphus exilis C
Lestidae
Archilestes grandis
Lestes congener
Lestes disjunctus
Libellulidae
Celithemis elisa
Erythemis simplicicollis
23456
C I I C C
I
I A
C C I A C
I C
I II
I
I
I II
I I
I
II C C
C I
I I
I
I
C C
C C
I
C II
C A C C C
I
I A
I
7
C
C
I
I
I
I
A
I
C
C
C
C
I
I
8
I
A
C
I
I
I
I
I
A
I
C
C
I
A
C
9
A
I
A
A
I
I
I
I
C
I
I
A
I
A
C
C
C
C
A
A
C
10
I
A
I
I
C
I
A
I
I
11
I
I
A
C
I
I
I
C
I
I
C
C
I
I
12
I
A
I
I
I
C
C
C
C
I
I
I
13
A
I
C
C
C
I
A
C
I
C
I
C
C
C
I
C
I
14
C
A
C
A
C
C
A
A
A
A
A
I
A
I
C
A
I
                                 34

-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)

Age of Ponds
(Years)
Species composition 1 2
Ladona deplanta
Libellula cyanea
Libellula sp.
Pachydiplax longipennis I
Pantala flavescens I C
Pantala hymenaea
Perithemis tenera
Plathemis lydia
Sympetrum vicinum
Tramea Carolina
Tramea sp .
Macromiidae
Didymops transversa C
ORTHOPTERA
Tridactylidae
Tridactylus
HEIMPTERA
Belostomatidae
Belostoma
Lethocerus
Corixidae
Hesperocorixa I
Sigara I
GALASTOCORIDAE
Gelastocoris
Gerridae
Gerris I
Limnoporus canaliculatus
Neogerris hesione
Rheumatobates
Trepobates
Hydrometridae
Hydrometra I
Mesoveliidae
Mesovelia
Naucoridae
Pelocoris
Nepidae
Ranatra I I
Notonectidae
Buenoa I A
Notonecta A A
Veliidae
Microvelia
3456
I
I I
I C
I
I 1C
I
I I
I
1C I
I
I I C I
C I
I I
I A I A
I I
C C I
I I
IIC
IIC
I C A I
I I
789
C
IIC
I
C I
I
I
I I
C I
C C I
III
A
I
I I
III
I
I I
A A A
I I
C
C C
I C I
I I
I
I
A I
10 11 12 13
I I
I
C C I
I
I
I I
I
I I
C I C
I
I I
I I A
I C C C
I
I I
I I
I
A A A A
III
I I I I
C I I
C C C
A A A C
C C C C
I
14
C
I
I
A
I
I
I
C
C
I
A
I
C
C
A
A
A
                                     35

-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)


Species composition 123
TRICHOPTERA
Leptoceridae
Oecetis
Triaenodes
Phryganeidae
Agrypnia
Polycentropodidae
Polycentropus I
COLEOPTERA
Chrysomelidae
Donacia
Dytiscidae
Agabus disintegratus I
Agabus (larvae)
Bidessus
Copelatus glyphicus
Coptotomus interrogatus C I
Cybister
Deronectes
Hydroporinae (genus
unidentified)
Hydroporus rufilabris
Hydroporus undulatus I I
Hydroporus sp.
Hygrotus I
Laccophilus maculosus A A C
Laccophilus proximus
Thermonectus I
Elmidae
Dubiraphia
Gyrinidae
Dineutus A A A
Gyrinus C I
Haliplidae
Peltodytes
Helodidae
Cyphon
Hydrophilidae
Berosus infuscatus I
Berosus nr. aculeatus I
Berosus (larvae)
Berosus (sp #3)
Cymbiodyta blanchardi
Enochrus
Helochares maculicollis
Age of Ponds
(Years)
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
I I
I
C C C A C
I II
I
I
I I
I C I 1C
I C I
A A I C I
I
I
CACIII C A
I
I
CCAACI A A
III
C C I I I I
C
C I
III
ICAICC C C
I
I
I
C
III


12 13 14
I
I
I I
I
I I
A A A
I C
I
I
I I
ICC
I
A A A
I C
C C
I
A A A
III
III
I
C
C C C
I I
I
                                     36

-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
Age of Ponds
Species composition
Helophorus
Hydrochus
Paracymus (subcupreus
group)
Tropisternus lateralis
Tropisternus (sp. #2)
Tropisternus (sp. #3)
Tropisternus sp.
Noteridae
Hydrocanthus
Suphisellus
MEGALOPTERA
Sialidae
Sialis
DIPTERA
Ceratopogonidae
Palpomyia
Chaoboridae
Chaoborus
Corethrella
Eucorethra
Chironomidae
Ablabesmyia annulata
Ablabesmyia sp.
Chironomus
Cladotanytarsus
Coelotanypus
Conchapelopia
Corynoneura
Clinotanypus
Cricotopus remus
Cricotopus sp.
Cryptochironomus
fulvus
Cryptochironomus sp.
Cryptocladopelma
Cryptotendipes sp.l
Crypto tendipes sp.2
Dicrotendipes
Einfeldia
Encochironomus
nigricans

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I I C C C C A

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II I
I
C C II

I C I I II
I C I II

I I
I I
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I C C C C C A
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12




C








A

I
C

I


C

A
A
C
A


C
I
I

I
I



C
I

C
13
I



C
I







C


A






A
A
I



C



I

C

I
C


A
14




A

I
I


I


A


A

I

I


A
A
I


I
A



I

A


I


C
                                     37

-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
                                                     Age of Ponds
                                                       (Years)
   Species composition	1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10  11  12  13  14

          Goeldichironomus
            holoprasinus             I
          Glyptotendipes                               I
          Harnischia                 I  I
          Kiefferulus dux                                                 I
          Labrundinia
            johannseni                                                        I
          Labrundinia
            neopilosella                               II               I
          Labrundinia virescens                           I                   I
          Larsia                                          C               1C
          Lauterborniella                                                     I
          Micropsectra                     C        C  C  I               I
          Microtendipes                          III                   I
          Nilothauma                                   I
          Pagastiella                I     IIIIII               1C
          Parachironomus                                  I
          Paralauterborniella                             I                   I
          Paratendipes                              II              III
          Polypedilum             IAAAIAAAA   I   A   A   A   A
          Procladius              IAAAAAAAA   A   A   A   A   A
          Psectrocladius                   I           1C               I
          Pseudochironomus                             II               I
          Rheotanytarsus                III                 I
          Smittia                          I
          Stictochironomus        IAAC        AIA           CCC
          Tanypus                                                 II       I
          Tanytarsus              IICCICACA           ACC
     Orthocladiinae (genus #1
       unidentified)              IIII        ICC           AIC
     Orthocladiinae (genus #2
       unidentified)                    I           I
     Orthocladiinae (genus #3
       unidentified)                    I
          Xenpchironomus                I
     Stratiomyidae
          Eulalia                                I     II
     Tabanidae
          Chrysops                      I     I     IIIIICIC
          Tabanus                                I     I
     Tipulidae
          Gonomyia                   I                 I
          Helius                                                              I
          Tipula                  I                           I
                                     38

-------
TABLE 3 (Continued)
                                                     Age of Ponds
                                                       (Years)
   Species composition	1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10  11  12  13  14

COLLEMBOLA
     Isotomidae                                           I
          Isotomurus                                                  I
     Sminthuridae
          Sminthurides                                    I

HIRUDINEA                                                                     I

LUMBRICULIDA
     Lumbriculidae                               I  I  C  A           I   C   I

TRICLADIDA
     Planariidae                                                              I
          Cura formanii

Number of Insect Taxa            25 44 54 45 47 54 63 68 97  42  58  66  77  92
a The presence and degree of abundance of the taxa in the ponds are indicated
  by the following scale:
    I = 1 to 5, infrequent
    C = 6 to 19, common
    A = 20 and above, abundant
                                     39

-------
            TABLE 4.  LIST OF VASCULAR PLANT SPECIES AND MACROSCOPIC
             ALGAE ASSOCIATED WITH STRIP MINE PONDS OF VARIOUS AGES
            	IN MARION COUNTY, ALABAMA3	
                                            Age category of ponds
Plant taxon and habitat zonation   123456789  10  11  12  13  14
          Submersed

Chara sp.
Potamogeton diversifolius
Potamogeton pusillus

          Emergent

Eleocharis acicularis
Eleocharis engelmannii
Eleocharis obtusa
Juncus acuminatus
Juncus debilis
Juncus diffusissimus
Juncus tenuis
Scjrpus cyperinus
Sparganium americanum
Typha latifolia

          Wetland
         1     1     14
   16555783
   1     1        245
      3122566   5
            12     117
                  1  1  1
                     1  1

      1333354   9
            1  1
776699975   7
        1
        3
    1
    1   1
    5   8
    8   6
        1
        3
        8
        7
        1
        4
        3
        8
        1
    9999

    7771
Acer rubrum
Aster pilosus
Bidens frondosa
Cyperus odoratus
Echinochloa crusgalli
Eclipta alba
Eupatorium coelestinum
Eupatorium perfoliatum
Fimbristylis autumnalis
Hypericum mutilum
Liquidambar styraciflua
Ludwigia alternifolia
Mikania scandens
Panicum agrostoides
Panicum dichotomiflorum
Panicum microcarpon
Panicum spretum
Panicum verrucosum
11164177
      2569996
      3  2
1186333
            222
                     1  2
             33344

                        3
236888971
2           21
4
6
1
5
9
1
2
8
4
4
9


1
1

3
3

3
1

1
2

1
1

3
3

3
3

1
1
1
1
1

4
3

5

1
1
1
2

2
1

3
1
3
5
3
1
                                     40

-------
TABLE 4 (continued)

Age category of ponds
Plant taxon and habitat zonation
Panicum sp.
Paspalum boscianum
Pluchea camphorata
Polygonum hydropiperoides
Polygonum lapthifolium
Polygonum pensylvanicum
Polygonum punctatum
Populus deltoides
Salix nigra
Spiranthes cernua
Terrestrial
Ambrosia artemisifolia
Andropogon virginicus
Aristida dichotoma
Aristida oligolantha
Cassia fasciculata
Cassia nicitans
Chenopodium album
Chenopodium ambrosioides
Desmodium perplexum
Digitaria ischaemum
Diodia teres
Diospyros virginiana
Erechtites hieracifolia
Erianthus alopecuroides
Eupatorium compos itifolium
Eupatorium hyssopifolium
Eupatorium serotinum
Eupatorium sessilifolium
Iva annua
Lespedeza cuneata
Lespedeza hirta
Lespedeza striata
Lobelia puberula
Lonicera japonica
Oxalis sp.
Panicum anceps
Panicum lanuginosum
Paspalum dilatatum
Phytolacca americana
Pinus taeda
Pinus virginiana
Plantago aristata
1
2
5
1
6
5
1
3
1
1
3
2
7
6
1
1
2 3
1
1
2 6
5 6
1 3
3 5
2
5 4
1
1
3 1
1 5
1
3
1
2 8
7 8
6 1
1
1
4 5
3
1
1
1 1
1
5
8 9
1 3
8 5
2
3
1
1
4 2
2 5
1
2
2 7
8
2 5
3 3
6
1
3
1
1
1
9
3
5
3
1
2
5
1
2
7
5
7
4
3
2
9
2
5
3
7
4
1
1
6
1
7
1
1
3
8
4
9
5
3
8
4
2
3
2
7
2
7
1
1
9
3
1
1
1
9
3
2
4
7
6
2
7
3
2
1
2
3
10
3
2
1
2
9
5
6
3
3
1
4
7
6
6
2
2
7
1
5
2
1
11
3
2
1
2
9
5
6
3
3
1
1
4
7
6
4
2
2
8
1
2
2
1
12
2
3
1
1
8
2
6
4
4
3
3
1
1
1
5
1
1
6
6
2
1
1
3
1
13
1
3
1
9
2
6
4
2
2
6
1
5
1
4
4
1
5
2
1
1
2
3
14
2
8
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
                                    41

-------
TABLE 4 (continued)
                                            Age category of ponds
Plant taxon and habitat zonation   1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10  11  12  13  14
Polypremum procumbens
Pyrrhopappus carolinianus
Rubus sp.
Setaria geniculata
Smilax rotundifolia
Solidago sp.
Xanthium strumarium
                             1111
          11                1
             1122               2
             11            11
                                         1
       12        16              13
       111            11
Number of Taxa
20 22 25 28 31 34 33 30 31  39  45  45  47  22
a.   Each number represents the number of sampling stations from which a species
     was present out of nine total stations.

b.   Each age category (e.g., 1-year-old ponds) contain three ponds, each of
     which contain three sampling stations.
                                     42

-------
TABLE 5.   Results of Monthly Monitoring in Five Consecutive Years
          Of Four Physical Parameters of Nine Coal Strip Mine Ponds
          in Marion County, Alabama.  April to October 1976-1980.
Pond age
(y) April May
June
July Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Seasonal Range
Average monthly pH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
7
7
6
7
7
7
6
7
7
6
7
6
6
6

9
10
10

10
10
9

10
9
9
9

10
.3
.7
.7
.6
.2
.2
.7
.0
.0
.8
.1
.6
.5
.8

.9
.5
.0
-
.3
.5
.6
-
.7
.6
.7
.1
-
.6
7.5
8.1
7.2
7.5
7.4
7.4
6.3
7.2
7.1
6.9
6.7
7.0
6.7
7.0

10.1
9.7
9.7
10.6
9.6
10.1
9.5
10.1
8.8
10.5
9.3
9.8
10.2
9.0
7.4
7.4
6.7
7.4
7.2
7.9
6.8
-
7.0
6.7
7.0
6.3
7.1
6.9
Average
9.5
8.7
9.3
9.1
10.1
10.3
8.6
8.3
10.0
9.1
8.7
8.9
10.2
9.2
8.1
7.3
6.8
8.0
7.4
7.3
6.7
7.2
7.2
6.7
7.0
7.1
7.5
7.8
8.1
7.6
8.3
8.2
6.6
7.1
7.4
7.6
7.2
7.1
6.2
7.2
7.8
6.9
7.5
7.4
8.0
7.7
7.6
7.1
8.0
6.5
7.5
6.3
6.2
8.0
7.4
7.8
7.4
7.6
7.8
7.5
7.6
7.6
8.0
7.1
6.5
6.6
7.3
7.3
7.2
5.9
6.4
6.2
6.0
7.0
5.7
5.7
5.8
5.3
5.8
5.9
5.0
5.3
5.6
5.5
_
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
8.7
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.9
8.9
9.0
9.0
8.0
8.2
8.3
8.6
9.2
9.2
monthly DO (ppm)
8.8
8.1
8.2
9.4
8.1
8.1
8.6
9.5
9.3
8.3
8.5
8.9
8.8
8.7
9.3
8.8
8.9
10.0
10.0
9.6
8.9
10.4
9.6
8.3
8.6
9.1
10.4
8.4
9.2
9.3
10.4
9.7
10.2
9.2
10.4
10.6
11.1
7.4
8.7
9.3
10.1
9.1
12.0
11.1
11.1
11.8
12.2
10.3
10.1
11.1
11.4
11.7
10.8
11.3
11.0
10.2
8.1
7.6
7.6
8.2
6.4
7.4
4.1
7.2
7.0
6.0
7.2
7.4
7.8
6.2
_
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
12.2
12.4
13.8
12.2
14.1
11.8
12.6
12.2
13.8
12.6
11.7
12.4
13.3
11.2
Average monthly temperature ( C)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
23
23
20
22
19
24
21
20
12
26
27
18
21
12














23
27
21
21
27
27
20
23
22
23
27
21
23
22
Average
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14


-
283
205
-
-
513
363
286
-
-
54
57
56



.8
.0


.8
.9
.6


.4
.8
.1


-
275.0
229.4
-
-
350.6
502.2
449.4
-
-
57.5
68.9
75.0

28
30
23
23
28
30
26
21
27
28
31
22
21
27
monthly

496.7
298.0
285.0
-
641.7
531.7
553.9
542.2
-
85.2
49.4
73.8
83.9

30
29
29
30
33
31
26
30
24
28
31
28
30
25
29
32
27
26
29
32
25
24
26
29
29
24
24
26
conductivity

553.9
349.4
313.1
-
602.2
550.0
556.7
387.8
-
78.9
67.2
82.2
62.2


593.3
367.8
309.6
-
580.0
546.7
566.7
500.6
-
76.1
62.2
74.8
81.1
43
26
25
26
26
26
27
26
26
28
26
28
26
26
28
(y mhos /cm

487.8
269.0
305.0
_
487.5
392.2
531.1
511.7
-
60.0
69.9
71.1
87.8

12
16
16
18
14
17
15
17
18
13
18
15
17
17
1 	 	

294.5
307.8
221.9
_
359.5
450.6
343.9
338.3
-
48.9
56.7
53.3
68.3

9
13
14
17
13
17
10
15
12
8
15
12
15
11


150
27
100

195
27
125
85

20
15
10
5


-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-


—
-
-

-
-
—
-

_
-
-
-

31
33
30
33
42
33
30
33
30
31
34
29
33
30


1000
700
700

1400
1150
1150
1150

160
170
200
205


-------