&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region V
Great Lakes
National Programs Office
536 South Clark Street
Chicago, Illinois 60605
EPA-905/3-79-003
April 1979
c.. 3L
Utilization of Natural
Ecosystems
for Wastewater
Renovation
Do not WEED. This document
should be retained in the EPA
Region 5 Library Collection.
\
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EPA-905/3-79-003
April, 1979
UTILIZATION OF NATURAL
ECOSYSTEMS FOR
WASTEWATER RENOVATION
by
Thomas M. Burton
Darrell L. King
Robert C. Ball
and
Thomas G. Bahr
Institute of Water Research
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan 43324
Comprehensive
Grant No. Y005065
Project Officer
Mr. Stephen Poloncsik
Region V
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Chicago, Illinois 60604
On behalf of
City of East Lansing
East Lansing, Michigan 48823
for
REGION V
GREAT LAKES NATIONAL PROGRAM OFFICE
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
536 SOUTH CLARK STREET, ROOM 932
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . *
Region 5, Library (Pt-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard, 12th Floor
Chicago, »L 66604-3590
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Region V Office, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval does not signify
that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial
products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
Environmental Protection Agency
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FOREWORD
This was a Comprehensive Grant involving coordinated support of a USEPA
Construction Grant, a Research Grant, and a Section 108a Great Lakes
Demonstration Program Grant. This report describes a biological lakes
system that optimizes wastewater treatment and provides good quality
water for spray irrigation and ground water recharge. Data in this
report covers a period from 1972 to 1975.
Dr. Edith J. Tebo
Director
Great Lakes National Program Office
111
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ABSTRACT
Michigan State University in cooperation with the City of East Lansing,
Michigan, constructed a permanent facility for the experimental treatment,
recycle and reuse of municipal sewage plant effluents on a 200 ha (500 acre)
site on the main campus. The facility provides for the diversion of up to
7570 m-Vday (2 MGD) of secondary effluent from the East Lansing activated
sludge treatment plant. However, storage capacity limits year round treatment
to 2270 m^/day (0.6 MGD). This waste flow is directed away from the receiving
stream to an intensely managed aquatic and terrestrial nutrient recycling
system. The facility consists of a portion of the East Lansing Wastewater
Treatment Plant, a transmission line, four experimental lakes and a spray
irrigation site. A primary objective is to strip nutrients from the waste
flow as it proceeds through the system by incorporating nutrients into har-
vestable biomass.
The system has been in operation with tertiary effluent for about 18
months. It is scheduled to go "on-line" with secondary effluent in 1976.
Biological activity in the aquatic system has a major impact on water quality
as evidenced by significantly reduced water concentrations of phosphorus,
nitrogen and inorganic carbon. Much of the nutrient flow is shunted into
harvestable plant material, both in the aquatic and terrestrial portions of
the system.
This report represents a synthesis of preliminary research results from
a multidisciplinary program involving approximately 25 university faculty
scientists. This report is submitted in fulfillment of Grant No. Y005065 by
the Institute of Water Research for the City of East Lansing, Michigan, under
the partial support of the Environmental Protection Agency. This was a
Comprehensive Grant involving coordinated support of the USEPA Construction
Grant, Research and Great Lakes Demonstration Programs. Work was completed
as of January, 1975.
IV
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CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Abstract iv
Figures vi
Tables x
Acknowledgment xii
1. Introduction 1
2. Conclusions 3
3. Recommendations 6
4. Research Overview 9
5. Description of Facility 19
6. Operation Since Construction 40
7. Results of Lake Studies 45
8. Land Application Studies 84
References 154
v
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Principal rivers in the state of Michigan and location
of the Red Cedar River watershed, site of the Michigan
State University Water Quality Management Project 20
2 Location of the WQMP on the MSU campus 21
3 Flow schematic of the WQMP 22
4 Flow diagram for lake system showing main flow and
alternate by-pass system 25
5 Photograph, looking east, of the lake system with
arrows indicating flow 27
6 Flow schematic for pump station 28
7 Photograph of lakes and a portion of the irrigation site ... 30
8 Physical features of the WQMP irrigation site 31
9 Location of monitoring wells 32
10 Location and station designation of water quality monitoring
points 35
11 Rate of wastewater delivery from the East Lansing waste-
water treatment facility to the WQMP from April to October,
1975 43
12 Causes of plant nutrient imbalances in wastewater 46
13 Phytoplankton abundance within the four WQMP lakes during
the summer of 1975 50
14 Relative abundance of macrophytes and filamentous algae
in the four WQMP lakes during 1975 51
15 Nutrient pathways within an enriched aquatic ecosystem .... 50
16 Nutrient levels in the four WQMP lakes during August, 1975 . . 60
vi
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Number Page
17 Gain in dissolved oxygen as a function of light and carbon
dioxide availability in the four WQMP lakes during August,
1975 .............................. 62
18 Gain in dissolved oxygen as a function of the cross-product
of available light and carbon dioxide ............. 63
19 Calculated relationship between photosynthetic oxygen
production and light and carbon dioxide availability
within the WQMP lakes in late August, 1975 ........... 64
20 Variation in sunlight availability to the WQMP lakes
during August, 1975 ...................... 66
21 Standing crop biomass and specific growth rate of
Elodea canadensis in WQMP Lake 4 during 1975 .......... 68
22 Dissolved oxygen and total inorganic carbon concentrations
in WQMP Lake 4 during 1975 ................... 68
23 Relationship between specific growth rate of Elodea
canadensis and the free carbon dioxide content of Lake 4
during 1975 .......................... 69
24 Total inorganic nitrogen content of a single water mass
moving through the WQMP lakes during the summer of 1975 .... 71
25 Variation of alkalinity as a function of chloride to
correct for evaporation within the four WQMP lakes during
1975 .............................. 72
26 Variation in alkalinity and pH within a single water mass
moving through the WQMP lakes during 1975 ........... 74
27 Relative variation in the more common cations and anions
through the WQMP lakes during 1975 ............... 75
28 pH determined solubility of carbonate ion within the
WQMP lakes given with calcium determined values for
Lake 1 and Lake 4 ....................... 76
29 Variation in water chemistry associated with a respiratory
event in WQMP Lake 3 in 1975 .................. 77
30 Decline in total phosphorus as wastewater passed through
the WQMP lakes in 1975 ..................... 79
31 Boron concentration of wastewater as it passed through
the WQMP lakes ......................... 80
VII
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Number
32 Variation of bacteria commonly used as indicators of the
pathogenic quality of water within the WQMP lakes ........ 83
33 Photograph of the spray irrigation area ............. 86
34 Medium intensity soil map of the spray irrigation site
and buffer zone areas ...................... 88
35 High intensity soil map of the spray irrigation area ...... 92
36 General vegetation map of the spray irrigation site ....... 95
37 Hydraulic limitations for the spray irrigation site ....... 98
38 Phosphorus adsorption capacity of soils of the spray
irrigation site ......................... 99
39 Mean total biomass and specific growth rate of plants
on the old fields ........................ 109
40 Changes in soil moisture in the old fields during irrigation . . HO
41 Mean living biomass production for the major species on the
old fields ........................... Ill
42 Mean stem production on wastewater irrigated and non-
irrigated old fields
43 Mean litter disappearance rate in wastewater irrigated and
non-irrigated old field areas
44 Design of inf iltrometers (upper) and precipitation
collectors used in the winter spray study ............ 142
45 Design of winter spray study showing inf iltrometer and
precipitation collector locations ................ 143
46 Depth of frost penetration, frost layer thickness, mean
daily air temperature and spray application for Sites 1
and 2 during winter irrigation ..... ............ 145
47 Representative cross section of the subsurface geology
of the WQMP ........................... I47
48 Predicted piezometric surfaces in the vicinity of the WQMP
after six years of simulated pumping of major producing
wells in the area ........................ 148
49 Predicted flow vectors after six years of simulated pumping
from producing wells in the vicinity of the WQMP ........ 149
viii
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Number Page
50 Simulated growth of a groundwater mound due to recharge
at the surface
IX
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Average Concentrations (ppm) and Ranges of Selected Chemical
Parameters in Wastewater from the East Lansing Sewage
Treatment Plant 24
2 Dimensional Data for the Water Quality Management Facility ... -^
3 Construction Cost Breakdown for the MSU Water Quality
Management Facility 36
4 Core Chemical Parameter List for the Monitoring Program 37
5 Comparison of the NPDES Effluent Standards at Selected
Points in the Treatment Scheme during September, 1975 ^
6 Mean Number of Chironomid Larvae Collected at Each of
Four Depths from the Four Lakes during August and
September, 1975 52
7 Length and Weight of Largemouth Bass from the WQMP (Lake 4) ... 53
8 Concentrations of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides
and PCB in Biota 55
9 Concentrations of Heavy Metals in Fish 56
10 Summary of Spray Irrigation for Terrestrial Site for 1975 .... 87
11 General Soil Description - Medium Intensity Map 91
12 General Soil Description - High Intensity Map 93
13 Length of Exposure by Soil Series in Trenches 94
14 Hydrologic Limitation and Phosphorus Adsorption Capacity
of Soil of the Irrigation Site
100
15 Mean Populations of. Nitrifying and Denitrifying Microorganisms
Found in the Baseline Watershed Prior to Effluent Irrigation
x
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Number Page
16 Summary of Chemical Analyses of Soils Taken from the Baseline
Old Field Watershed on the WQMP ................. 107
17 Wastewater Irrigation and Nutrient Loading Rates for the
Small Plot Study, 1972 and 1973 .................
18 Estimation of Total Nitrogen and Total Phosphorus Budget
for the Small Plot Studies, 1972 and 1973 ............ 119
19 Varieties of Crops Grown on the WQMP .............. 123
20 Yields of Perennials and Annuals in 1974 and 1975 ........ 124
21 Application of Nitrogen and Phosphorus in Wastewater and
Fertilizer and Removal of Nitrogen and Phosphorus by Harvesting
in 1975 ............................. 125
22 Collembola Collected on the Terrestrial Site July to October,
1973 .............................. 128
23 Taxa, Frequency of Occurrence, and Population Density of
Stylet-Bearing Nematodes Inhabiting Soil of the WQMP ......
24 Range of Landing Counts per Two Hour Period for Female
Mosquitoes in the Forest on the WQMP Terrestrial Site ...... 133
25 Birds Seen in Census Area from May 2 to September 16,
1975 .............................. 134
26 Birds Seen in Census Area in 1974 but not in 1975
27 Breeding Bird Species in Forests ................ 136
28 Breeding Bird Species in Old Fields ............... 137
29 Survival of Red -Winged Blackbird Eggs and Nestlings
on Sprayed and Control Plots .................. 138
30 Animal Population Density Estimates for Forested Study Areas .
31 Animal Population Density Estimates for Old Field Study
Areas
140
XI
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report was prepared by the Institute of Water Research, Michigan
State University, to fulfill the obligations of EPA Grant No. Y005065 awarded
to the City of East Lansing, Michigan, in 1972. It represents a status
report on the performance and operation of the Water Quality Management
Facility since its routine start-up in the summer of 1974. It also repre-
sents a synthesis of all aspects of research being performed in conjunction
with the facility, regardless of funding source. The bulk of these research
results cover the period from 1974 to December, 1975, although a few pilot
level studies date back to 1969. It should be clearly recognized that many
findings are preliminary in nature in view of the relatively short operational
history of the facility, and the fact that it has only been operated with
tertiary effluent to date due to construction delays associated with the new
East Lansing sewage treatment plant.
In a multidisciplinary program as broad in scope as this one, it is
indeed difficult to give equivalent credit in relation to the contribution
by the many members of the project.
The report is based upon the cooperation and input from the individual
research project leaders. This group includes Drs. Domy C. Adriano, Donald
L. Beaver, James W. Butcher, Richard A. Cole, Walter Conley, Frank M. D'ltri,
P. David Fisher, James Hook, Howard E. Johnson, Walter N. Mack, Richard W.
Merritt, Clarence D. McNabb, Harold D. Newson, Frank Reed, Gene R. Safir,
Gerhardt Schneider, Steven N. Stephenson, Milo B. Tesar, James Tiedje, Ted S.
Vinson, Donald P. White, Eugene P. Whiteside, and David C. Wiggert, plus many
of their graduate students. Departmental affiliations and areas of responsi-
bility for these project leaders is listed in Section 4 of this report. No
attempt will be made to associate unpublished data and research results with
a particular individual. To do so would be extremely cumbersome and would fail
to give appropriate recognition to results arising from the shared efforts of
many.
Dr. Robert C. Ball and Dr. Howard A. Tanner originally envisioned this
project and spent several years making it a reality. We owe them special
thanks. Dr. Marvin E. Stephenson contributed to the initial planning and
decision for this project.
Financial support for both construction and research for this project
has come from several sources. These include the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, the State of Michigan, and the Rockefeller, Ford and Kresge
Foundations. In addition, we are indebted to the City of East Lansing and
Mr. Jack Patriarche, City Manager, for support and cooperation, particularly
in negotiating the federal and state grants which were awarded directly to
xn
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the City. Michigan State University has committed the land as well as human
and material resources. Throughout the entire course of the project, we have
been guided by the efforts of Dr. Milton Muelder, then Vice President for
Research Development, who served as the voice of the University in all offi-
cial matters, on and off campus and by Dr. John Cantlon, the present Vice
President for Research and Development. We would also like to acknowledge
the support of the U.S. Department of the Interior's Office of Water Research
and Technology and the MSU Agricultural Experiment Station for support of
individual projects and personnel. We would also like to thank Mr. Stephen
Poloncik and Mr. Ralph G. Christensen of the Chicago Office of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency for their guidance and support.
Xlll
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Conventional treatment of municipal wastewater in its present form was
first developed in the late 1800's and early 1900's as a means of insuring
public health with little regard for environmental degradation. It relied
heavily on the "self purifying" properties of streams. The first concerns
for the receiving water environment were related to maintenance of oxygen in
lakes and streams at levels that would insure fish production. Thus, the
tests of the effectiveness of treatment through the 1950's relied heavily on
BOD and coliform bacteria standards. Concern for eutrophication of receiving
waters in the 1960's has led to more and more emphasis on removing nutrients,
especially phosphorus and nitrogen, to protect the surface waters of the
U.S. The additional technology required for nutrient removal requires
large economic costs for both construction and operation. This "add-on"
conventional technology has also proven to be energy inefficient, has resulted
in a major secondary problem of what to do with the large quantities of
sludge that result, and represents a failure to recycle the valuable
nutrients into useful products. Thus, alternative means of treatment that
are energy efficient and result in recycling of increasingly scarce nutrients
at least possible cost to the environment are needed.
One such technology that has been in use for hundreds of years is land
treatment. Even though this technique has been practiced for hundreds of
years, very little hard scientific data on its potential and the environmental
trade-offs involved in its adoption were available prior to 1960. The Water
Quality Management Project (WQMP) at Michigan State University was conceived
as a combination lake (lagoon)-land treatment research and demonstration
facility in the mid-60's by Dr. Robert C. Ball and Dr. Howard Tanner at
Michigan State University. Its purpose was to provide a highly flexible
system of lakes and land treatment areas that would allow innovative research
on the ability of lakes or land or a combination of the two to treat
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wastewater with maximum recycle potential. The ultimate goal of this project
is to provide design and operating criteria for such facilities.
Funding for the project was finally put together from several sources
(see Acknowledgments) and construction began in 1972. This report represents
a summary of system design, operation, and research performed on the project
through December, 1975.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
The Michigan State University Water Quality Management Project (WQMP) is
a research, demonstration, and management facility that was designed and built
to thoroughly explore the concept that aquatic, marsh, and terrestrial eco-
systems can serve as adjuncts or replacements for conventional wastewater
treatment systems under selected conditions, and that these systems can be
effective in wastewater treatment, resource reuse, and energy conservation.
Construction of the WQMP is now complete and all field facilities are
now in operation testing its capacity to (1) renovate wastewater, (2) to
recover and reutilize nutrients, and (3) recharge the groundwater aquifer.
Although the full facility is only now officially complete, many parts
of it have been operational for varying lengths of time through the expedient
of temporary pumps, and other equipment, and through use of poor quality,
tertiary effluent from the old East Lansing sewage treatment plant. Thus,
conclusions at this time are tentative and are based upon those segments of
the facility that have been in operation long enough to permit a first
approximation of the data base. The following conclusions must be regarded
as having been derived from less than full integration of the complete
facility. Conclusions to date are as follows:
(1) The four lakes (total area of 16 ha) on the WQMP significantly
decreased phosphorus concentrations during 1975, the first year of operation.
3
The lakes received poor quality tertiary effluent at a rate of 1893 m /d
(0.5 MGD). This rate resulted in a detention time of about 30 days per
lake. The significant decrease of phosphorus resulted from sorption on the
native clays used to seal the bottom of the lakes and to a lesser extent from
uptake and removal by harvest of aquatic macrophytes and by aquatic plant
mediated physical-chemical precipitation of phosphates. Subsequent data
taken after the clays were saturated indicate that the four lakes can remove
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only about 1 mg P/£ or less of incoming phosphorus from secondary effluent
through the latter two mechanisms.
(2) The four lakes are highly efficient at stripping nitrogen from
wastewater primarily through out-gassing as a result of the aquatic plant
mediated high pH values above the pK of ammonia gas formation and to a lesser
extent through denitrification during periods of high respiration associated
with aquatic plant decay.
(3) During the first year of operation, passage of wastewater through
the four lakes results in significant decreases in alkalinity and in signifi-
cant softening of water.
(4) Efficient management of the four lakes for most efficient waste-
water treatment is a function of detention time and plant harvest to maintain
selective plant populations. Thus, understanding the biology of the aquatic
plants is essential and is an area of active research on the WQMP.
(5) The lakes do reduce coliform bacteria to levels below discharge
standards.
(6) Major efforts on the land treatment site to date have emphasized
obtaining pre-irrigation baseline data. Data on soil chemistry, soil mapping,
vegetation, nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria, plant parasitic nematode
populations, insect vectors of various pathogens, small mammal populations,
and avian populations have been collected. Very limited data to date indicate
no significant impact of irrigation on mammal and bird populations.
(7) Preliminary studies on the effects of 20 varieties of forage crops
indicate that they are highly efficient at uptake of nitrogen and phosphorus
from wastewater and have the potential of renovating up to 7.5 cm/week of
wastewater.
(8) Older forests are not efficient at removal of nitrogen from waste-
water according to preliminary data. They do efficiently remove phosphorus.
(9) Old field vegetation does respond to wastewater irrigation by
increased biomass production but not by increased production of new stems.
This increased biomass production has the potential for removal of most of
the applied nitrogen if the fields were harvested. The litter disappearance
rate was also increased by irrigation.
(10) Tree plantations were established with 10 species of trees. These
trees do respond to wastewater irrigation with increased growth. Much of the
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phosphorus (95%), 65% of total nitrogen, and many of the cations are removed
by spray irrigation on this plantation.
(11) Winter spray irrigation is possible in Michigan. However, removal
of nutrients from this wastewater was low. Data are very preliminary and
more studies will be conducted.
(12) Calculation of the hydraulic capacity of the site suggests that an
average infiltration of about 5 cm/week can be expected. At this infiltration
rate and without winter irrigation, the storage capacity of the four lakes
3
limits year-round operation to 2270 m /d (0.6 MGD).
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SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
The ultimate goal of the WQMP is to establish design and operating
criteria for combined lake-land irrigation wastewater treatment facilities.
Not enough data have been collected to date to allow establishment of such
criteria. The following tentative criteria are suggested:
(1) If the goal is to minimize phosphorus discharge, all water should
be spray irrigated on the land. No discharge directly from the
lake system should be allowed.
(2) The lakes should be managed to strip nitrogen from the incoming
wastewater. This wastewater could then be irrigated on areas with
low nitrogen removal potential, such as forests, without contamina-
tion of groundwater.
(3) Efficient management of the lakes will entail adjustment of deten-
tion time and/or selective aquatic plant harvest. The effects of
such management on plant populations and nutrient dynamics needs to
be studied in more detail.
(4) Spray irrigation on old fields, forage crops, or newly established
tree plantations during the growing season appears to effectively
renovate wastewater. High nitrogen wastewater should not be
irrigated in older forests since removal efficiency is low.
(5) In order to better understand the underlying ecological mechanisms
and to establish design and operating criteria for such systems,
the following research is needed:
(a) Continue ongoing mass balances through the WQMP lakes to assess
the nutrient removal potential over time.
(b) Continue studies on the rate and extent of material compart-
mentalization between the water, sediments, and biota within
the lake system so that the actual and potential removal
mechanisms are known.
6
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(c) Expand efforts aimed at evaluating the interacting variables
such as light, carbon, phosphorus, and temperature controlling
aquatic plant growth kinetics and interspecific competition so
that the lakes can be managed to encourage the most efficient
plant populations.
(d) Further examine the rate, extent and mechanisms of nutrient
concentration by various plant assemblages, including both
biological factors and biologically induced physical-chemical
factors so that equations can be developed for predicting
plant mediated nutrient removal.
(e) Develop better methods to harvest plant biomass prior to bac-
terial recycle of nutrients so that reuse can be maximized and
respiratory, low oxygen events in the lakes can be minimized.
(g) Continue studies on how to maximize fish production within
wastewater lakes relative to the wastewater treatment objec-
tives.
(h) Further explore the use of harvested plant biomass for live-
stock, poultry, and fish food as a means of recycling nutrients
from the wastewater.
(i) Continue ongoing research aimed at completion of input-output
mass balances on the terrestrial site for water and nutrients
so that nutrient removal and recycle potential can be evaluated.
(j) Continue to monitor the rate and extent of material and water
transfer within the terrestrial ecosystem so that underlying
mechanisms are better understood and management potential is
better clarified.
(k) Continue to evaluate the potential of wastewater irrigation
during the winter so that the potential for year round opera-
tion can be evaluated.
(1) Evaluate the effect of management techniques on mammal, bird,
and invertebrate populations as a means of predicting environ-
mental impact.
(m) Develop quantitative information on the public health aspects
of this and similar systems with the goal of obtaining relative
risk comparisons of alternative wastewater treatment schemes.
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(n) Compare relative economics and energetics of this and similar
recycling projects to conventional systems.
After all the above studies are completed, design and operating criteria
for the best combination of lake-land irrigation systems need to be developed.
This is the ultimate goal of research on the WQMP.
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SECTION 4
RESEARCH OVERVIEW
A MULTIDISCIPLINARY CHALLENGE
The Water Quality Management Project is a large systems level study
embracing elements of both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Central to
the goal of developing design and management criteria that can be used by
others, is achieving a high level of predictability on how similar systems
will perform in other localities. However, the ability to interpret and
predict structure, function, and response of entire ecological systems to
perturbations is only in its embryonic stages. Ecosystems are dynamic and
involve highly variable biological material that is changing and adapting
through time in response to changing environmental conditions. Faced with
the immediate need to understand and categorize the essential components of
the specific water and land ecosystems that make up the operational base of
the Water Quality Management Project, it was essential that a number of
decisions concerning research be made early in the project.
The decisions faced included: (1) where would the decision making
authority reside and who would give direction and purpose to the research and
other efforts, and provide the base dollar support, (2) what would be the
basis for a system of priorities of research, (3) how would the broad spectrum
of expertise of a university campus be encouraged to become involved in the
solution of the needed research, and (4) how would the findings be translated
into a management operation, and from that into design specifications for
public use.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
The research and demonstration nature of this project places special
importance on the management of the facility. To maximize research yield
from the WQMP, it is necessary that project management include encouragement
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to research scientists on the MSU campus, coordination of research effort,
and maintenance of operational and management conditions which allow attain-
ment of research objectives. In addition, management responsibilities
include meshing the various research objectives with demonstration aspects
of the facility. Management of the facility became one of the prime func-
tions of the Institute of Water Research (IWR).
Included in the responsibilities of the. IWR are writing and reviewing of
research proposals, developing research priorities, development of a record-
keeping system, constant overview of all research on the site, personnel
management, and monitoring water quality and other indices of system perfor-
mance. This last task calls for maintenance of complete laboratory facili-
ties and personnel to analyze large numbers of water samples in addition to
evaluating chemical and biological quality of.other samples collected for
specific research projects.
Since the WQMP is located on the Michigan State University campus, con-
tinuous interface with the public is important. A great many people visit
the project each year, both as individuals and in organized groups. Education
of the public in the various environmental trade-offs associated with such
wastewater renovation projects is an important adjunct of the project, and
every effort is made to encourage the public to visit the facility.
In short, the role of the IWR with respect to the research aspects of
the project are twofold: (1) to function as a .service group to researchers
in obtaining and distributing routine monitoring data, and (2) to function as
a synthesizer, integrator and disseminator of information in those cases
where normally it would not be done.
The Approach
Initially, high priority was placed on obtaining baseline data on the
physical and chemical parameters of the area that the project would occupy.
These baseline data included soil mapping and classification, chemical analy-
sis of the wastewater that would reach the project, design of data handling
procedures, and classification of plants and animals of the area. These are
referred to further in this section. Many of these are to be discontinued
when the data base is complete.
10
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A second order of priority included those investigation areas started
earlier that required continuity into the actual operation of the facility,
such as water chemical data, and the inception of a broad array of research
projects that could only be undertaken after wastewater became available on
a routine basis. These included:
Lake Studies—
1. Mass balance studies to characterize the rate, extent, and mechanisms
of nutrient concentration by primary producers. Included is also an
assessment of biologically induced physical-chemical precipitation
of nutrient compounds.
2. Studies to assess the natural attenuation of human pathogens.
3. Development of management strategies to selectively promote the
growth of macrophytes, phytoplankton or filamentous algae. Variables
include wastewater quality and detention time, time and extent of
harvest, water level control,and basin morphometry.
4. Management of fish populations within the lakes in a manner consis-
tent with achieving wastewater treatment objectives.
5. The utilization of harvested plants, zooplankton,and invertebrates
for use as diet supplements for livestock, poultry, and cultured fish.
6. Economic and energy evaluation of alternative management strategies
for this system and comparison with other technologies.
Terrestrial Studies—
1. Management of the soil-vegetative complex in post-agricultural old
fields with emphasis on nitrogen cycling.
2. Forested ecosystem studies to parallel old field studies.
3. Row crop studies designed to assess ability of selected plants to
tolerate heavy hydraulic loadings and to extract nutrients from
wastewater.
4. Winter irrigation studies to assess the suitability of winter soils
to extract nutrients.
5. Surface and ground water hydrologic studies.
6. Fate of waterborne pathogens in terrestrial systems.
The research and demonstration nature of this project negates establish-
ment of a fixed set of standard operating procedures, and a prime challenge
11
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is to mesh facility operation to ongoing research and demonstration projects.
Evaluation and planning for future facility needs are conducted by the IWR,
but much of the future development of the site will depend upon results of
current and future research. Thus, long-range planning must be updated fre-
quently as research results become available. Specific research and monitor-
ing projects that have been conducted to date are summarized below.
Individual Projects and Investigators
In addition to investigators in the IWR there are over 20 other faculty
from the campus that have been or are now actively engaged in research on the
project. Most have graduate students who are developing their investigations
into theses. Others have completed detailed write-ups in report form and
have submitted them to the IWR where they are kept on file. A listing of
these includes the following.
Dr. Domy C. Adriano, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences — Nutrient
dynamics in soils irrigated with wastewater.
Work began July 1, 1974, with emphasis on characterizing soil
nutrient profiles in a well defined "microwatershed" on the irri-
gation site. Dr. Adriano left the campus and the areas of research
he started have been incorporated into the overall research project
of Dr. Thomas Burton. The soil nutrient profile data are reported
in the Baseline Watershed Studies subsection of Section 8.
Cooperating investigators on this project included Dr. James
Tiedje, Department of Crop & Soil Sciences and Dr. Frank Reed
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology.
Dr. Donald L. Beaver, Department of Zoology — Avian-insect interactions
and the influence of wastewater irrigation.
Work began in June, 1974, to establish pre-irrigation baseline
information on bird populations on the entire irrigation area. A
second aspect focused on bird feeding habits in an area scheduled
for irrigation. This will be a graduate thesis topic. Pre-
operational studies have been completed and will later serve as
benchmark information needed for post-operational comparisons.
Initial findings are summarized in Section 8.
12
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Dr. Thomas Burton, Institute of Water Research and Department of
Zoology — Nutrient dynamics in forested and old field ecosystems
irrigated with wastewater.
Work began in 1975. Studies initiated earlier by Drs. Adriano and
Stephenson were incorporated in a greatly expanded research effort.
This research is currently active and is emphasizing nitrate move-
ment in the soil under different management strategies. See
detailed report in Section 8.
Dr. James W. Butcher, Department of Zoology — Influences of wastewater
irrigation on soil and litter invertebrates.
This project started in June, 1974, and is designed to assess the
role of soil and litter fauna in nutrient retention and soil
fertility as reflected in crop yield. Pre-irrigation studies were
completed and represent valuable baseline data. No follow up
studies are envisioned at this time since the investigators have
switched to other projects. Background data are summarized in
Section 8. Cooperating investigators include Drs. Delbert Mokma
and Lynn Robertson of the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences and
Ms. Renate Snider of the Department of Zoology.
Dr. Richard A. Cole, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife — Role of
amphibians in nutrient cycling in wastewater ponds.
This study was begun in January of 1975 to examine the role of
amphibians in nutrient export from the lake system and their impact
on primary productivity. It is currently an active study that will
result in a Ph.D. thesis by Ms. Diana Weigman. Dr. Richard
Wassersug of the University of Chicago has been a cooperating
investigator on the project. No results are available at this
time.
Dr. Walter Conley, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife — Ecology of
small mammals in the wastewater irrigation site.
Work began early in 1974 to characterize small mammal populations
prior to wastewater irrigation. This is a companion project to the
bird population studies and was primarily designed to develop base-
line data for later comparison. These data are summarized in
Section 8. In an earlier phase of the WQMP, Dr. Conley prepared a
document describing a conceptual ecosystem model which was
13
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formulated for developing research strategy on the terrestrial por-
tion of the project. This is available as IWR Technical Report No.
38, pp. 1-140.
Dr. Frank M. D'ltri, Institute of Water Research and Department of
Fisheries and Wildlife — Water chemistry and monitoring for the
WQMP.
This program began in 1971 to characterize wastewater quality at
the East Lansing Sewage Treatment Plant and later expanded to
include water sampling at key transfer points in the WQMP.
Included in this program is the operation, maintenance, and quality
control of the IWR Analytical Laboratory. These data are included
in this report.
Dr. P. David Fisher, Department of Systems and Electrial Engineering —
Data management and development of on-line monitoring systems for
ecosystem management.
This project began in 1974 to develop an efficient data management
system to input, store, retrieve, and manipulate the large amount of
numerical information generated from all cooperating projects. Two
reports are available from the IWR on this latter phase of the study:
(1) A computer-based data aquisition and control system for the MSU
Water Quality Management Project, pp. 1-14 and (2) dedicated Remote
Data Logger for IWR Spray Irrigation Site Meterological Tower,
pp. 1-56. After development, this program has faltered since most
researchers prefer to analyze their own data.
Dr. James Hook, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences — Management of
the soil-vegetation complex of old fields and forage row crops.
This is a continuation of an earlier study begun by Dr. Adriano and
has now expanded to study changes in soil water quality under cul-
tivated forage crops and managed old fields. Work began in 1975
and cooperating investigators include Dr. Thomas Burton and Dr.
Milo Tesar. Early data are included in Section 8.
Dr. Howard E. Johnson, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife — utiliza-
tion of wastewater for fish culture.
The project started in July, 1975, to examine the potential for
culturing fish in wastewater and for utilizing by-products of
wastewater ponds (macrophytes, algae, and invertebrates) as fish
14
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food. The project also includes management studies on fish
planted in Lake 4. The program is currently active and
results through 1975 are summarized in Section 7.
Dr. Darrell L. King, Institute of Water Research and Department of
Fisheries and Wildlife — Aquatic fertility in the wastewater
lakes of the WQMP.
This study began in 1974 and represents the primary synthesis and
integration of data generated in the lake monitoring program for
the WQMP. Results of this synthesis are included in Section 7.
Dr. Walter N. Mack, Institute of Water Research and Department of
Microbiology and Public Health — Public health related studies
on the WQMP.
Pilot studies on viral and bacterial pathogens in the East
Lansing Sewage Treatment Plant date back to about 1970. This has
been a continuing project to characterize the attenuation of human
pathogens in municipal wastewater as it flows through all elements
of the WQMP. Data are not available on the attenuation of viruses
in the system at this time. Data on bacteria are summarized in
Section 7.
Dr. Clarence D. McNabb, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife — Produc-
tivity of macrophytes and. algae in wastewater ponds.
This study began at a pilot level about 1970 and has continued to
the present time. The project is evaluating the potential of using
submersed macrophytes and algae for reclamation of wastewater with
emphasis on nutrient uptake. These data are incorporated in
Section 7.
Dr. Richard W. Merritt, Department of Entomology — Ecology of aquatic
insects in the WQMP lakes.
The study began in July, 1975, to determine the nature and extent
of aquatic insect productivity with emphasis on midge populations
and their potential as pests. Data collected through 1975 are
summarized in Section 7.
Dr. Harold D. Newson, Department of Entomology — Medical entomological
aspects of the wastewater irrigation site.
Research started in July, 1973, for baseline data on biting insects
as potential disease vectors and population levels of plant para-
sitic nematodes. Continuing research is now examining population
15
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changes associated with wastewater irrigation with emphasis on the
epidemiology of California encephalitis virus. Data are summarized
in Section 8. Cooperating investigators include Drs. James Butcher
and Richard Snider from the Department of Zoology and Drs. George
Bird, Charles Laughlin, and John Knierim from the Department of
Entomology.
Dr. Frank Reed, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology — Vegetation
responses to wastewater irrigation.
Dr. Reed began this study in 1973 cooperating with Dr. Stephen
Stephenson of the same department and Dr. Domy Adriano of the
Department of Crop and Soil Sciences. Primary emphasis was on the
"old field" system of the WQMP. Dr. Reed left the MSU faculty in
1975 but these studies are being continued with considerable
modification by Drs. Thomas Burton and James Hook. The data
through 1975 are summarized in Section 8.
Dr. Gene R. Safir, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology —
Mycorrhizal root systems and wastewater recycling efficiency.
This study began in 1975 to examine symbiotic root-fungus inter-
actions and their role in nutrient-water uptake by old field
vegetation irrigated by wastewater. No data are yet available.
This study is currently active as a graduate research thesis.
Dr. Stephen N. Stephenson, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology —
Vegetative studies on old field ecosystems.
Pilot studies began in about 1971 to examine productivity and
diversity changes in old fields on the WQMP subjected to fertili-
zation. Vegetative mapping for the terrestrial site was also con-
ducted to establish preoperational benchmarks on the abundance and
distribution of plant species. These data are included in Section
8. Cooperating investigators included Dr. Frank Reed from the
Department of Botany and Plant Pathology and more recently Dr.
Thomas Burton of the Institute of Water Research and Department
of Zoology.
Dr. Milo B. Tesar, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences — Production
of forage crops irrigated with wastewater.
This project began in 1974 to assess the ability of selected
forage crops to tolerate heavy application of wastewater. Studies
16
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of nutrient and heavy metal uptake are also part of the project.
Initial findings are incorporated in Section 8. Cooperating
investigators include Drs. Bernard Knezek and James Hook from
the same department. This study is currently active.
Dr. James Tiedje, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences — Studies on
microorganisms responsible for nitrogen transformations at the
WQMP site.
The project began in 1974 and was designed primarily to assess the
denitrification potential for the lake system and selected por-
tions of the irrigation site. Initial data are summarized in
Section 8. Cooperating investigators included Drs. Domy Adriano,
Bernard Knezek, and Frank Reed.
Dr. Ted S. Vinson, Department of Civil and Sanitary Engineering — Soil
infiltration of wastewater under freezing conditions.
This study began in 1974 to characterize the rate and extent of
wastewater percolation under wintertime irrigation. See report
MSU-CE-75-2, "A field study on the relationship of temperature
and ice to infiltration at a spray irrigation facility." Data are
summarized in Section 8. Cooperating investigators include Dr.
David Wiggert from the same department and Dr. Thomas Burton of
the Institute of Water Research and Department of Zoology.
Dr. Donald P. White and Dr. Gerhardt Schneider, Department of Forestry —
Nutrient cycling in forest ecosystems irrigated with wastewater.
Research began in 1971 on a small plot basis on the WQMP irrigation
site. Parallel studies were also conducted at a nearby wastewater
irrigation site. Current studies by these two investigators are
examining responses of a tree plantation being irrigated with
wastewater. Initial results of both studies are included in
Section 8.
Dr. Eugene P. Whiteside, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences — Sampling
classification, description, and mapping of soils on the Water
Quality Management Project site.
Dr. Whiteside was responsible for the overall soil mapping program
for the WQMP irrigation site. The study began in 1974 by T.
Zobick, a graduate student, and is now completed and included in
this report in Section 8.
17
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Dr. David C. Wiggert, Department of Civil and Sanitary Engineering —
Ground water hydrology.
This investigator began work on ground water hydrology for the
WQMP site in 1972 and these efforts are currently active. Dis-
persion modeling of the Saginaw aquifer and monitoring of both
surface and unsaturated subsurface flows make up the bulk of this
study. Some of these results are summarized in Section 8.
Cooperating investigators include Drs. Ted Vinson and David
Mclntosh of the same department.
18
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SECTION 5
DESCRIPTION OF FACILITY
LOCATION
The project is located in the Red Cedar River Watershed, a tributary of
the Grand River of the Great Lakes drainage (Figure 1) at an intercept of
42°43'50" north latitude and 84°28'58" west longitude. A more precise loca-
tion would be T4N, Rl, 2W, Sections 1, 6, 31, 36, Ingham County, Michigan.
It is entirely within the boundaries of the MSU campus forming most of its
southern boundary (Figure 2).
It lies above the Saginaw geological formation of sandstone and shale
which is approximately 12 m below the surface of the site. Overlying this
formation is a conglomerate of glacial debris of sand, clay, and gravel. The
surface soil pattern is complex and is described in detail later in this
report. The climate in the region of the project is influenced by the Great
Lakes, and has an annual precipitation of approximately 77.2 cm. Precipita-
tion from April through October averages 51.4 cm, with widely varying
extremes from year to year. Approximately 20% of the precipitation falls as
snow. About 65% of precipitation is lost by evaporation. The average grow-
ing season is about 154 days, and about 79% of the days of the year are cloudy.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
The physical facility for the Michigan State University wastewater
recycling project consists of four basic elements: (1) an activated sludge
sewage treatment plant designed for maximal operational flexibility so that
water ranging from primary to tertiary effluent can be transported to the
wastewater recycling facility; (2) a^transmission line; (3) a lake system;
and (4) a land irrigation system. This system is schematically shown in
Figure 3. The following is a more detailed discussion of the facility.
19
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lili
RED CEDAR
RIVER
WATERSHED
Figure 1. Principal rivers in the state of Michigan and location of the Red
Cedar River watershed, site of the Michigan State University Water
Quality Management Project.
20
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PRIMARY and SECONDARY
TREATMENT
CONTROL
STRUCTURE
LAKE SYSTEM
22 INDEPENDENT SPRAY
UNITS (REMOTELY
CONTROLLED AND
PROGRAMMABLE
GROUNDWATER
and EVAPO-
TRANSPIRATION
STREAM
TERRESTRIAL SYSTEM
Figure 3. Flow schematic of the WQMP.
bution network.)
(Arrows represent the water distri-
22
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Sewage Treatment Plant and Transmission Line
The East Lansing Sewage Treatment Plant services the City of East
Lansing, Michigan State University with its 50,000 students and employees,
and the adjoining community and represents the first element of our system.
It is a conventional extended aeration, activated sludge facility with
an original capacity of 30,300 m3/d (8 MGD). The effluent is typical of
many university communities in that it is somewhat "weak." The effluent
profile, giving concentrations of some key parameters, is shown in TABLE 1.
o
Modification and enlargement to capacity of 56,770 m /d (15 MGD) was com-
pleted in early 1976, after the period of research covered in this report.
As an integral part of this modification, the Michigan State University
program has developed a parallel treatment chain within this plant that has
o
a current capacity of 7570 m /d (2 MGD). The operation of this portion
differs from the main plant in that the effluent receives no pretreatment
for the partial chemical removal of phosphorus. The effluent (secondary or
primary) from this chain is directed to a pumping station with two variable
speed pumps. Flow is transmitted through the second element of the system,
a 53 cm concrete asbestos pipeline. It traverses 7.25 km to the southern
border of the MSU campus where it enters the 200 ha research site. Here it
discharges into the first of four man-made lakes.
Lake System
The influent wastewater from the pipeline is received by the first lake
and then flows by gravity through each of the other lakes (Figure 4) to a
control building and pump house servicing the adjacent spray irrigation site.
The lakes have a total surface area of 16 ha with the maximum depth of 2.4 m
at each outlet structure and a mean depth of 1.8 m. This depth was chosen
to maintain the entire bottom within the euphotic zone in order to encourage
the growth of aquatic plants. The bottom was also contoured in a uniform
manner to ease mechanical harvesting. Each lake has a collection basin at
the outlet so that water may be lowered to implement the collection of fish
or other aquatic fauna. This area is serviced by a ramp to allow access by
both boats and trucks. Control of discharge and lake level is afforded by
sliding gate valves and slash boards. The interlake transfer system and
connection to the irrigation site is so designed that effluent can be taken
23
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TABLE 1. AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS (ppm) AND RANGES (WITHIN PARENTHESES) OF
SELECTED CHEMICAL PARAMETERS IN WASTEWATER FROM THE EAST LANSING
SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT (VALUES WERE OBTAINED FROM DATA FROM THE
PERIOD OF OCTOBER, 1973, TO MARCH, 1975)
Chemical Parameter
Total Phosphorus
mg/£-P
Soluble Phosphorus
mg/£-P
Ammonia Nitrogen
mg/£-N
Nitrite Nitrogen
mg/£-N
Nitrate Nitrogen
mg/£-N
Kjeldahl Nitrogen
mg/£-N
Total Carbon
mg/£-C
Total Organic Carbon
mg/£-C
Boron
mg/Jl-B
Calcium
mg/£-Ca
Sodium
mg/£-Na
Magnesium
mg/£-Mg
Manganese
mg/£-Mn
Suspended
Solids
Total
Solids
Raw
7.0
(3.6-9.5)
3.0
(2.7-5.7)
9.3
(4.1-32)
0.005
(<0. 005-0. 03)
0.54
(0.16-3.1)
25.3
(4.4-38)
183.0
(67-202)
73.0
(43-105)
0.33
(0.19-0.49)
108.0
(95-125)
103.0
(58-295)
25.0
(20-29)
0.16
(0.10-0.39)
76.0
(16-232)
718.0
(378-1026)
East Lansing Wastewater
Primary
5.0
(2.6-10.5)
1.1
(2.1-3.8)
16.0
(8.6-25)
0.25
(<0. 005-0. 13)
0.2
(0.09-2.33)
26.3
(18.7-45)
171.0
(55-215)
50.0
(38-97)
0.31
(0.29-0.35)
110.0
(85-125)
110.0
(59-295)
26.0
(20-30)
65.0
(6-406)
704.0
(427-1072)
Secondary*
2.6
(0.5-9.1)
1.1
(0.3-7.9)
9.7
(5.2-22)
0.25
(0.07-0.90)
1.07
(0.16-7.0)
12.7
(8.5-28)
120.0
(60-227)
30.0
(12-111)
0.33
(0.21-0.42)
113.0
(90-129)
119.0
(63-300)
24.0
(20-28)
0.09
(0.03-0.18)
16.0
(4-305)
702.0
(358-928)
With Fe polymers added for phosphorus control.
24
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t-o
Ul
LAKE SYSTEM
Figure 4. Flow diagram for lake system showing main flow and alternate
by-pass system. Drawn to scale.
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directly from the pipeline,or water can be intercepted at the discharge of
any of the lakes in the system or mixed from any combination of lakes.
Furthermore, water from any of the lakes can be discharged from either the
surface, mid-depth, or near the bottom of the outlet structure. These
features afford researchers with a wide range of water qualities to be
applied and tested on the irrigation site.
Marsh System
Marsh systems with their high rates of internal nutrient cycling may
prove to be an efficient system for the uptake and conversion of wastewater
nutrients into usable products. To test the possibilities and feasibility
of this concept, three 0.4 ha marshes were constructed adjacent to Lake 3
(Figure 5) which are fed from the discharge of Lake 2 in the system. Return
water from the marshes enters Lake 3. The basins of the marshes were con-
structed in a terrace design that results in three zones of depths of 15,
60, and 90 cm. This design will allow development of plant and animal com-
munities in these basins quite comparable with natural marshes of this area.
In the construction of the lakes and marshes, particular attention was
given to the sealing of the basins to prevent loss of water through the
bottom soils. Native clay was used and percolation tests indicated a very
low permeability of 0.18 cm/d.
Pump Station
The manifold system of pipes that serve as collectors for each of the
four lakes and for the transmission line discharges into a meter pit and wet
well at a pump station (Figure 6). From this point, water can be sent to the
spray irrigation sites under 5.1 atm (75 psi) of pressure by two pumps, one
a 152 hp (metric) and the other a 76 hp (metric) pump.
The pump station serves as the nerve center for the entire project and
contains all of the control units necessary for the operation of the pumps
and the spray units at the land irrigation site. In the design of the pump
station, provision was made for monitoring the operation of the entire plant
including the programming of spray schedules. Time and duration of spray
application as well as the selection of water quality is directed from a
single control panel. The pump station site also serves as storage and work
26
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ho
--J
Figure 5. Photograph, looking east, of the lake system with arrows indicating flow.
Water can be discharged from Lake 2 directly into Lake 3 by route a, or into
the marshes (n^, m2> m ) by route b. Marshes appear large due to a wide
angle camera lens.
-------
CD
m
CO
J°
In
H-
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en
n
Cf
fD
g
to
rt-
H-
O
Hi
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i
03
rt
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TO IRRIGATION SITE
-------
area for housing equipment used on the project and for the necessary shop
work.
As indicated in Figure 3 and shown in Figure 7, water can be discharged
from any of the lakes, by gravity, directly to the surface stream. This was
accomplished by constructing an artificial channel from near Lake 4 east to
the confluence of Herron Creek, a tributary of the Red Cedar River. Chlori-
nation of irrigation water or water discharged directly to the surface stream
is accomplished at the pump station. Chlorination of effluent leaving the
WQMP portion of the East Lansing Sewage Treatment Plant is also possible, but
it has not been chlorinated to date.
Spray Irrigation Site
The irrigation site (Figures 7 and 8) is a 130 ha tract of land that
was once farmed but has been lying idle for approximately 15 years. The
contour of the land is gently rolling and is bisected by a drain (Felton
Drain) that was formerly a natural water course but has since been dredged.
This drain enters a stream (Sycamore Creek) that flows into the Red Cedar
River then on to Lake Michigan via the Grand River. The land is an admix-
ture of many soil types and is characterized by old field volunteer vegeta-
tion with the exception of a sugar maple-beech woodlot (Figure 7) comprising
about one-fifth of the total area. The tract is bordered on the north by
Interstate Highway 96 and on the east and south by county roads (Figure 9).
The west border adjoins Michigan State University farm property. The entire
area is fenced. The portion designed for spray irrigation constitutes 58 ha
lying approximately in the center of the tract with a 240 m buffer zone
adjoining the two county roads and the neighboring home sites (Figure 8).
Irrigation water from the pump station passes through an underground
53 cm pipeline to the center of the irrigation site and joins another running
laterally through the east and west axis of the property. The main east-west
supply pipe is about 1100 m in length. At approximately 100 m intervals, a
pair of electrically activated control valves are located. One set supplies
the area north of the pipeline and the other supplies the area south of the
pipeline. These valves are controlled and programmed from the pump station.
Attached to each of the valves are four surface distribution pipes which sub-
divide the irrigation area into 24 independent irrigation zones. A typical
29
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U)
o
Figure 7. Photograph of lakes and a portion of the irrigation site. Dashed line denotes
boundary of project site: (A) transmission line from East Lansing, (B) pump
station, (C) artificial channel to Herron Creek, (D) Felton Drain, (E) woodlot,
(F) forage crop plots, and (G) tree plantation.
-------
FELTON DRAIN
UNDERGROUND
PIPELINE
CONTROLLED
VALVES
Typical arrangemen
9f surface alumini m
irrigation laterals.
_RP_AD_
IRRIGATION
| BOUNDARY
BUFFER ZONE
100m
Figure 8. Physical features of the WQMP irrigation site.
-------
OJ
-nnlET UFLL MONITORS SCREENED
[II FIRST UAIFRBEARING SAND
OR GRAVEL LENS, WITHIN 1 5 m
OF WATtR SURFArE.
VIALIOU ROCr-WILL MONITORS
riNETRATINr, 7 ^ IT INTO POCK,
WHIiH MUM BE MAIMY SANDSTONE
CAS1D AND SFALFD THROUGH DRIFT
AD R
240 METERS
DW. 2I9/
x---.--<0
DSR 12
®OW 22 ®DW 23
DSR. 13
®DW25
SOW 26 DWR27§
SANDHILL, ROAD
Figure 9. Location of monitoring wells.
-------
zone is shown in Figure 8 extending north of control valve number 21. The
pipes in each zone are aluminum and extend about 240 m north or south from
the individual valves. Risers with sprayheads are staggered in alternate
lines at 27 m intervals. Sprayheads are conventional Buckner 8600 units
which at operating pressures of 5 atm create a spray radius of 18 m resulting
in an overlap of approximately 50%.
Dimensional data for the entire facility is summarized in TABLE 2.
Monitoring Wells
Within and surrounding both the lake and land sites, we have drilled
approximately 60 wells to monitor the level and quality of subsurface water.
Included are 41 drift wells, 14 shallow rock and four deep rock wells as
shown in Figure 9. All wells are 10 cm in diameter, with a 91 cm copper
screen point and sanitary seals to prevent bacteriological contamination.
The drift wells, the shallowest of the three, are positioned in the glacial
drift between 12 and 18 m. Samples are obtained by pressurizing the drift
wells and forcing the water through a plastic pipe which extends to the
bottom of the well. Both shallow and deep rock wells extend into the
aquifer which provides the water supply for the university. The shallow
rock wells are approximately 25 m deep on the average, and the deep rock
wells average about 55 m. All the shallow and deep rock wells are equipped
with submersible pumps for sampling.
Gauging Stations
Surface water flow for the entire watershed study is measured by means
of a network of recording gauging stations. Both V-notch weirs and Parshall
Flumes have been installed at key points to enable us to monitor surface
flows from identifiable subbasins in the irrigation area. The location of
these structures is shown in Figure 10.
CONSTRUCTION COSTS
Construction costs for this project are summarized in TABLE 3. These
costs do not include land acquisition costs for the 200 ha site, since the
land had=-been purchased by Michigan State University several years previously.
Funding came from a variety of sources including the Ford Foundation, the
33
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TABLE 2. DIMENSIONAL DATA FOR THE WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT FACILITY
Sewage Treatment Plant - East Lansing
MSU Subunit
MSU Potential
Transmission Line (Asbestos-Concrete)
Diameter
Length
Lakes (four)
No. 1 Surface Area
No. 1 Water Elevation
No. 2 Surface Area
No. 2 Water Elevation
No. 3 Surface Area
No. 3 Water Elevation
No. 4 Surface Area
No. 4 Water Elevation
Maximum Depth (all)
Mean Depth (all)
Marshes (three)
Surface Area (all)
Maximum Depth (all)
Mean Depth (all)
Irrigation Site
Total Land Area
Spray Zone Area
Buffer Zone Width (East and South)
Buffer Zone Width (West)
Buffer Zone Width (North)
56,775 m3/day (15 MGD)
7,570 m3/day (2 MGD)
22,710 m3/day (6 MGD)
53 cm (21 inches)
7.25 km (4.5 miles)
3.28 ha (8.1 acres)
271.9 m (892.0 feet)
3.32 ha (8.2 acres)
270.0 m (886.0 feet)
4.37 ha (10.8 acres)
269.1 m (883.0 feet)
4.98 ha (12.3 acres)
268.2 m (880.0 feet)
2.44 m
1.83 m
(8 feet)
(6 feet)
0.40 ha (1 acre)
0.91 m (3 feet)
0.61 m (2 feet)
127 ha (314 acres)
57.9 ha (143 acres)
244 m (800 feet)
0 (0)
61 m (200 feet)
Main Irrigation Valves (24)
Aluminum Surface Laterals (4 per valve)
Length (alternating) 231 : 244 m (760 : 800 feet)
Diameter 15 : 10 : 5 cm (6 : 4 : 2 inches)
Distance Apart 24.4 m (80 feet)
Sprinkler Heads (Buckner)
Spacing Along Pipe 27.4 m (90 feet)
Operating Pressure 5.1 atm (75 psi)
Spray Radius 18 m (60 feet)
Overlap 50% (50%)
34
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UNL = LAKES
UNA
UNFD =
ARTIFICIAL
STREAM
FELTON
DRAIN
Figure 10. Location and station designation of water quality monitoring points.
Sampling stations enclosed by a rectangle denote location of recording
stream gauging stations.
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TABLE 3. CONSTRUCTION COST BREAKDOWN FOR THE MSU WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
FACILITY
Item Cost
Modifications and Additions at the East Lansing
Sewage Treatment Plant *
Installation of the Transmission Line 378,335
Lake Development 1,178,146
Irrigation Development 187,886
Engineering Fees and Preliminary Expenses 262,694
TOTAL PROJECT COST $2,398,979
Kresge Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the State of Michigan as
well as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Comprehensive Grant
Y005065.
MONITORING
As both a service and as a basic research effort, there is a need for
continuous monitoring of a large array of chemical and physical parameters
connected with both the operation of the wastewater treatment plant and with
the lake and land facets of the recycling system. As a service to all inves-
tigators working on the total project, data are collected on about 33 chemi-
cal parameters (TABLE 4) representing collections starting with the raw
sewage entering the sewage treatment plant, the attenuation and removal of
materials as they move through primary and secondary treatment and as they
enter the pipeline leading to the lake system. The chemical parameters of
interest are checked as they move through the lake system from one lake to
the next and into the pump station. Similar and further tests are made
through the stream outfall system and to the several areas of the spray
irrigation site. A similar series of analyses are made from the test well
system. These are to identify movement of chemical materials into the soil
mantle and down into the subsoil and groundwater aquifer if such movement
does take place. Location of the sampling stations for the monitoring pro-
gram, exclusive of the East Lansing Sewage Treatment Plant component were
36
-------
TABLE 4. THE MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROJECT
CORE CHEMICAL PARAMETER LIST FOR THE MONITORING PROGRAM.
Parameter
Analytical Method
1. Alkalinity
2. BOD
3. Calcium
4. Carbon-Total
5. Carbon-Total Dissolved
6. Carbon-Dissolved Organic
7. Carbon-Total Organic
8. Chloride
9. Cadmium
10. Chromium
11. Conductance
12. Copper
13. Dissolved Oxygen
14. Fecal Coliform
15. Fluoride
16. Hardness
17. Iron
18. Lead
19. Magnesium
20. Manganese
21. Nickel
22. Nitrogen-Ammonia
23. Nitrogen-Nitrate
24. Nitrogen-Nitrite
25. Nitrogen-Total Kjeldahl
26. pH
27. Phosphorus-Total
28. Phosphorus-Soluble
29. Potassium
30. Sodium
31. Sulfate
32. Suspended Solids
33. Zinc
Auto Analyzer - Buffered Indicator
Standard Methods
Atomic Absorption
Beckman Carbon Analyzer
Beckman Carbon Analyzer
Beckman Carbon Analyzer
Beckman Carbon Analyzer
Auto Analyzer - Mercuric Thiocyanate
Atomic Absorption
Atomic Absorption
Electrode Measurement
Atomic Absorption
Electrode Measurement
Standard Methods
Auto Analyzer - Lanthanum alizarin complex
Auto Analyzer - Mg EDTA indicator
Atomic Absorption
Atomic Absorption
Atomic Absorption
Atomic Absorption
Atomic Absorption
Auto Analyzer - Phenate method
Auto Analyzer - Cu-Cd reduction, Diazo coupling
Auto Analyzer - Diazo coupling
Auto Analyzer - Digestion then Phenate
Electrode Measurement
Auto Analyzer - Digestion, Molybdenum Blue
Auto Analyzer - Molybdenum Blue
Emission Spectroscopy
Emission Spectroscopy
Auto Analyzer - Turbidimetric
Gravimetric
Atomic Absorption
shown in Figures 9 and 10. Samples from the East Lansing Sewage Treatment
Plant and the lakes are 24 hour composites while all sampling of surface
water leaving the irrigation site is done on an event basis using automatic
samplers. When surface flow is encountered the sampling interval is every
one to six hours depending on rate of change of discharge. Our "Shallow
Rock" wells and "Drift" wells are sampled once per month and the "Deep Rock"
wells every three months.
37
-------
Most chemical parameters are analyzed by the Institute of Water
Research's chemical laboratory under the direction of an analytical chemist
and his staff using EPA approved automated techniques whenever possible
(TABLE 4). Quality control is checked through the splitting of samples with
outside laboratories, duplication of analyses within the laboratory, and
through use of EPA provided standard test solutions. This program is coop-
erating with and is a part of the quality control system of the Interna-
tional Joint Commission's Reference Group on Pollution from Land Use Activi-
ties.
Paralleling the chemical monitoring program, microbiological samples for
bacteria are taken at every major transfer point within the system. This
includes identification from the raw sewage through the treatment plant,
through the pipeline to the lake system, and to all aspects of the spray
irrigation site.
Even though the facility is designed as a research and demonstration
facility, it still must be operated under the "Discharge Permit" system.
The NPDES limitations for effluent from this system are shown in TABLE 5.
38
-------
TABLE 5. COMPARISON OF THE NPDES EFFLUENT STANDARDS AT SELECTED POINTS IN THE WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
PROJECT TREATMENT SCHEME DURING SEPTEMBER, 1975
Discharge Limitations Average Concentrations (mg/£ except where noted)
Effluent (mg/£ except where noted) in Effluents (ranges in parenthesis)
Characteristic Summer Winter ELSTP-20 Lake 1 Lake 2 Lake 3 Lake 4t
Biochemical Oxygen 10
Demand (BOD)
Suspended Solids 10
Ammonia-Nitrogen 2
(as N)
Dissolved Oxygen 5
Minimum
Fecal Coliform 200/100 ml
Bacteria (MF)
pH 6.5-9.0
Phosphorus *
15 13.0
(1.-100.)
10 2.3
0.39
(0.10-1.0)
5 7.53
(2.6-14.4)
200/100 ml 65
6.5-9.0 8.40
(6.70-9.00)
* 1.29
(0.64-2.4)
(2
(<
(0
(9
4.
.15-6
3.
1-13)
0.
.10-0
36
.60)
6
27
.70)
13.1
.45-18.8)
3731.36
(0-21,000)
(8
(0
9.
.80-9
0.
.58-1
20
.65)
94
.37)
(1
(<
(0
(9
2.43
.30-4.53)
2.9
1-19)
0.20
.10-0.40)
12.3
.10-16.0)
0
(0-0)
(8
(0
9.55
.90-9.90)
0.42
.23-0.67)
(3.
(<1
(0.
(3.
9.68
55-16.10)
9.5
0.53
17-1.20)
11.7
20-16.2)
1.45
(0-12)
(8.
(0.
8.90
15-10.1)
0.30
15-0.46)
(0
(<
(0.
1.44
.10-4.
2.4
20)
0.37
06-0.30)
11.7
(9.60-14
.6)
0.36
(0-4)
(8
(0
9.49
.40-10
0.05
.03-0.
.3)
10)
* The effluent shall contain a maximum of not more than 20% of the total phosphorus contained in the
sewage prior to treatment; and insofar as optimum operations of the facility will attain such a
level, shall contain not more than 1 mg/£ of total phosphorus.
t Lake 4 values are values representative of water at the outfall or discharge from the facility.
-------
SECTION 6
OPERATION SINCE CONSTRUCTION
THE OPERATIONAL CHALLENGE
In any wastewater treatment scheme the prime challenge is to concentrate
materials from a dilute solution. Raw domestic wastewater is at least 99%
water and treatment methods to concentrate dilute wastes are expensive in
terms of energy and materials. Total removal is, in most cases, not possible
and where possible usually not practicable. But, to date emphasis has been
placed on removal for disposal rather than on recycle.
While many examples of waste removal and associated tradeoffs exist,
wastewater borne phosphorus has received considerable attention and can be
used as an example of the problem of dilution. Raw domestic wastewater con-
tains about 10 mg phosphorus per liter which equates to a concentration of
0.001%. This is extremely dilute but considerably more concentrated than the
0.000001% phosphorus level which causes excess plant production in natural
waterways. Chemically induced phosphorus removal within mechanical waste-
water treatment facilities provides effluent with about one mg phosphorus per
liter or 0.0001% phosphorus. While 90% phosphorus removal represents a sig-
nificant degree of concentration, the effluent still exceeds by two orders of
magnitude the phosphorus content which leads to deleterious alterations in
natural surface waters.
Obviously, the significant expenditure of energy and material associated
with physical-chemical removal of phosphorus ameliorates the situation but
does not totally solve the problem and does not supply much return of a
useable product. Similar considerations apply to other nutrient materials as
well as to heavy metals and other contaminants found at extremely dilute con-
centrations in domestic wastewaters.
Evaluating the potential of natural ecosystems to concentrate materials
from dilute water-carried wastes while producing a product of value is the
40
-------
objective of the Water Quality Management Project. The operational challenge
for the WQMP is to develop methods of managing both aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems to maximize concentration of materials from an extremely dilute
solution in a potentially reusable form; thereby cleansing wastewater to
minimize impact on both groundwater and surface water resources.
WASTEWATER FLOW HISTORY
The lakes of the WQMP were first filled during the fall of 1973 with a
poor quality, tertiary effluent from the old, overloaded East Lansing waste-
water treatment facility (see TABLE 1 for water quality). Inflow was stopped
and this water remained in the lakes until the summer of 1974 because water
drawdowns were required to repair a variety of hydraulic conduits. These
corrections included a number of leaks in the 7.25 km pipeline between East
Lansing Sewage Treatment Plant and Lake 1, repairs to the slide gates on
Lake 2 and repairs to the wet well. All repairs and modifications were made
by the contractors under the terms of the contract. After repairs were
completed, pumping was resumed and the poor quality, tertiary effluent was
o
admitted at a rate of 1893 m /d (0.5 MGD) for a short period during the
autumn of 1974 to evaluate delivery capacity. Additional water was delivered
to the first lake in late 1974 and early 1975 to make up for that water taken
from the bottom of Lake 1 for winter spray irrigation.
Beginning in April, 1975, the WQMP began to routinely receive poor
quality tertiary effluent from the old East Lansing Sewage Treatment Plant at
3
a rate of 1893 m /d (0.5 MGD). This effluent was pumped to the WQMP and
flowed by gravity in a series fashion through the four lakes (Figure 4).
Additional water from East Lansing was pumped to the WQMP to meet terrestrial
irrigation needs as required. All water irrigated was directly from the
pipeline from East Lansing or from the bottom of Lake 1.
From April to mid-July effluent was withdrawn from the final clarifier
of the existing portion of the East Lansing wastewater treatment facility.
In mid-July the new wastewater treatment facility was placed in operation.
During the week required to move the WQMP pump intake from the old to the
new clarifier, no water was pumped to the WQMP. After the new intake was
operational, pumping of good quality tertiary effluent resumed and continued
41
-------
until October. No water was received after October, 1975, since the pumps
were being moved to allow completion of the special secondary wastewater
treatment facility associated with the WQMP. This special part of the East
Lansing Sewage Treatment Plant will supply the WQMP with secondary effluent
not subjected to phosphate removal starting in April, 1976.
All effluent admitted to the WQMP prior to December, 1975, was secondary
wastewater effluent to which iron salts and organic polymers had been added
to remove phosphorus. Thus, the data reported in this report reflect the
ability of the WQMP to process wastewater from which some of the phosphorus
had been removed by chemical means.
The WQMP received a total of 4.05 x 105 m3 (107.06 million gallons) of
wastewater from April to October, 1975 (Figure 11). Of this total, 24.6% or
4 3
9.99 x 10 m (26.4 million gallons) was spray-irrigated on the terrestrial
c o
portion of the WQMP. The remainder or 3.05 x 10 m (80.66 million gallons)
was allowed to flow by gravity through the four lakes and out the Herron
Creek diversion to the Red Cedar River.
Of the water irrigation, 16.4% was applied to row crops at rates varying
from 2.5 to 7.5 cm/week, 61.3% was applied to old fields at rates varying
from 3.5 to 7.1 cm/week, 19.9% was delivered to a tree plantation at the rate
of 5.2 cm/week, 1.9% was sprayed in a forest zone during October at rates of
5 cm/week, and 0.5% was sprayed on a flow diversion zone to irrigated trees
planted as a buffer around the terrestrial irrigation area. The period of
irrigation on the row crop area was from May 14 to September 8. The old
fields were sprayed from May 12 to October 23 and the forest spraying com-
menced on October 2. The diversion zone was sprayed when necessary to
equalize pressures during repairs to the various spray lines.
Irrigation water came either directly from the conduit from East Lansing
or from the bottom gate of Lake 1, depending on the needs of individual
investigators. All wastewater sprayed directly from the East Lansing conduit
was chlorinated at the pump house immediately prior to irrigation while that
from Lake 1 was not. The row crop area and the forest spray zone received
chlorinated effluent directly from the East Lansing conduit while the old
fields and the tree plantation received water from the bottom of Lake 1. The
diversion zone received water from both sources.
42
-------
MILLIONS OF GALLONS/WEEK
H-
OQ
e
rt Si pa
O CO [D
Co rt
O rt (D
O CD
rt Si O
O & Mi
^ <"*• -
fD fD SI
h{ h! ft!
•• CO
rt rt
vo ro sl
^i (B (a
ui rt rt
• g (D
fD i-(
0
rt pu
(D
Ml |->
(13 p.
O <
I-1- fD
• o
T3 00
l-i
-------
Since 81% of the irrigation water was withdrawn from the first lake, the
loading on the first lake exceeded that on the three downstream lakes. In
effect, in addition to operating as a lake, the first lake was also used as a
surge basin for irrigation water. This was particularly apparent during mid-
July when flow from East Lansing was stopped. During this period all irriga-
tion water was withdrawn from the bottom of Lake 1 and the lake level fell
considerably.
Including periods when flow was not possible, the average daily input to
3 3
the WQMP for the entire period from April to October was 2.23 x 10 m /d (0.59
MGD)(Figure 11). Of this, 5.68 x 102 m3/d (0.15 MGD) was sprayed on the
3 3
terrestrial site and 1.67 x 10 m /d (0.44 MGD) was processed through the
four lakes.
Although operation of the WQMP with secondary effluent not subjected to
phosphate removal was not possible prior to December, 1975, the opportunity
to operate this sytem with a "tertiary" effluent was of real value to the
long-term research conducted on this facility. Although the data collected
reflected the tertiary nature of the effluent (about 2.6 mg P/£), real
knowledge of the effects of ecological perturbations associated with such
effluent on lake-land systems was gained. In effect, one point on a curve
has been established for an effluent of "low" phosphorus concentration.
Starting in 1976, evaluation of the system with a secondary effluent not
subject to phosphorus reduction (about 5-7 mg P/&) will be possible.
44
-------
SECTION 7
RESULT OF LAKE STUDIES
IMBALANCE OF NUTRIENT RATIOS
Successful operation of the aquatic portion of the WQMP requires that
materials borne in the wastewater at dilute concentrations be removed as the
water flows by gravity through the four lakes. The efficiency of removal is
dependent upon uptake of these materials by aquatic biota and upon biologi-
cally accelerated physical-chemical removal mechanisms. The system is
powered by the sun through plant photosynthesis, and operational direction is
dictated by climatic conditions including the amount of solar input and by
the chemical quality of the inflowing water.
Since the primary step involves photosynthesis by algae and aquatic
vascular plants, the nutrient supply relative to photosynthetic demand is of
prime import to such systems. It is here that the nature of the wastewater
exerts a primary effect.
As shown in Figure 12, food enters a population with a Carbon'.Nitrogen:
Phosphorus ratio characteristic of living material. The use of the food and
the carbon loss prior to elimination of the wastes to a water carried system
initiates an imbalance in the Carbon:Nitrogen:Phosphorus ratio which is
exacerbated by phosphate detergents and further altered during conventional
biological wastewater treatment. The result is an effluent extremely rich
in phosphorus, rich in nitrogen,and impoverished in carbon relative to the
needs of plants which, through photosynthesis, initiate nutrient recycle.
This shortage of carbon is of little consequence to terrestrial plants
because of the abundance of carbon in the air. However, aquatic plants in
ponds and lakes do not have ready access to atmospheric carbon, and it is
this shortage of carbon which triggers the many biotic and abiotic altera-
tions in aquatic wastewater treatment systems.
45
-------
C02 loss to
the atmosphere
FOOD
C, Nand Pin balance
DETERGENT
,p
Nand P
excreted N.
respiratory
COg loss to
the atmosphere
loss to
the atmosphere
\
WASTEWATER
TREATMENT
BACTERIAL MASS
C, N and P similar to food
SLUDGE
EFFLUENT
severe carbon
shortage
COMBUSTION
TERRESTRIAL
PLANTS
CO 2 from
the atmosphere
AQUATIC
PLANTS
C02 from
the atmosphere
Figure 12. Causes of plant nutrient imbalances in
wastewater.
46
-------
The three sources of inorganic carbon available to photosynthetic
aquatic organisms are respiratory carbon dioxide from heterotrophic aquatic
organisms, atmospheric recarbonation, and the carbonate-bicarbonate alkalinity
system. Of these three sources, the only significant reserve of inorganic
carbon is contained within the alkalinity system.
2
Atmospheric recarbonation may supply as much as 40 mg C/m /hour (Schind-
2
ler, 1975), but 20 mg C/m /hour is a more probable value for the WQMP if
photosynthetic withdrawal has markedly depleted the free carbon dioxide con-
tent of the water. Even after a 24 hour day this would amount to less than
0.5 mg C/H in a system with an effective photic depth of just one meter.
Algal populations in sewage lagoons fix between 12 and 24 mg CO_/£/d during
summer months (King, 1972).
Respiratory carbon dioxide supply is dependent upon the amount of organic
matter available to the bacterial populations. Within the WQMP, such organic
substrate is limited because of the nature of the wastewater input and the
young age of the lakes. There were, however, periods of marked respiratory
activity in the WQMP lakes during the summer of 1975.
The alkalinity system then serves as a significant reserve source of
carbon dioxide for plant photosynthesis in the WQMP lakes. However, with-
drawal of carbon dioxide from the alkalinity system by plants causes a
variety of changes within the chemical system. Most of these changes tend to
favor physical-chemical removal of phosphorus, metals and, depending on the
form present, nitrogen.
The carbonate-bicarbonate equilibrium is fixed by the first and second
dissociations of carbonic acid given in Equations 1 and 2.
HOH + CO (1)
HCO~ v ** H+ + CO^ (2)
As plants withdraw the free carbon dioxide, these reactions both move to
the right yielding Equation 3.
2 HCOl v. N C0_ + CO" + HOH (3)
3 / J
47
-------
Since this action is accompanied by an increase in carbonate and a
decrease in bicarbonate, the hydrogen ion concentration decreases and the pH
rises as shown in Equation 4.
[H+] = K [HCO~]
_ (4)
[co-]
These changes in chemical equilibrium initiate a variety of physical-
chemical concentration and removal mechanisms.
Of particular import is the precipitation of calcium carbonate which can
be accelerated by photosynthetic uptake of carbon dioxide as shown in
Equation 5.
Ca4^" + 2HCO~ < N C02 + CaCO , , + HOH (5)
This process results in a decline in alkalinity and softening of the water
while simultaneously increasing direct precipitation as well as
co-precipitation of phosphorus and metals. The resulting elevation of pH
favors the loss of ammonia to the air by accelerating dissociation of the
ammonium ion to free ammonia gas as shown in Equation 6 for which the pK
value is about 9.2.
NH/ :==* NH3(g) + H+ (6)
Thus, in addition to direct uptake by the biota, the plant photosynthetic
activity does much to accelerate abiotic concentration and removal of waste
materials. As such, development of an understanding of the mechanisms con-
trolling these ecological perturbations offers significant promise for
optimizing waste removal and nutrient recycle in these solar powered aquatic
systems.
THE BIOTA
Plants
Shortly after the lakes were filled in the autumn of 1973, vascular
macrophytes were collected from nearby natural lakes and planted into Lakes
2, 3, and 4. Species introduced included Potamogeton foliosus, Elodea
canadensis, Najas flexilis, Elodea nuttallii, and Myriophyllum spicatum.
48
-------
Biomass of macrophytes were determined at intervals after planting using a
random quadrat technique.
During the summer of 1974 when there was little water movement through
the lakes and when water level was drawn down for structural repairs, only
Elodea candensis and Potamogeton foliosus became well established with the
latter showing mass increases of about 100 times the mass planted. Elodea
canadensis was present at about 10 times the plant mass.
The pattern of plant activity was significantly altered during the
•a
summer of 1975 when the WQMP was operated with throughput of 1893 m /d (0.5
MGD) of wastewater effluent. Phytoplankton densities were determined for
each lake by taking 35 water samples at randomly chosen sites, by pooling
these samples, and then analyzing the pooled sample using a standard 0.45 p
membrane filter technique. Phytoplankton densities were highly variable as
4
shown in Figure 13 but were generally in the neighborhood of 10 cells per
ml; a value considerably lower than that commonly found in wastewater systems.
Forty-seven different taxa of algae were encountered during the summer of 1975
with phytoplankton dominance largely being shared by green algae and diatoms
except for one period of bluegreen algal dominance in Lake 4.
The most obvious plant invader during 1975 was the periphytic algae
Cladophora fracta. As shown in Figure 14, this plant dominated Lake 2
throughout the 1975 season and became dominant in Lake 3x by mid-summer. Lake
1 supported little plant activity other than the phytoplankton until after
the period in July when the lake level was drawn down. At that point
Potamogeton foliosus, Ceratophyllum demersum, and Cladophora fracta all began
growth in Lake 1. Lake 4 was dominated by Elodea canadensis throughout the
spring and summer of 1975 with Cladophora fracta being present in the spring
and Potamogeton foliosus representing significant growth at times during the
summer.
Zooplankton
Zooplankton are common inhabitants of all four lakes with their numbers
in each lake varying widely from scarce to extreme abundance. When abundant,
these organisms concentrate in large amorphous groups to the point where tens
of kilograms can be collected in a short while with a dip-net. However, the
non-dispersed nature of these zooplankton populations make difficult accurate
49
-------
o
I-
Q. £1
O ©
£ £
2: c§ 2
Q_
/\
/ \
LAKE !-•
LAKE 2~-
LAKE 3—
LAKE 4—
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER
Figure 13. Phytoplankton abundance within the four WQMP lakes
during the summer of 1975.
50
-------
5 g/M[T]C/otfophoro fracto fj^Elodeo conoefensis f^ OTHER
\y •—J
APRIL II
MAY 8
JUNE 17
JUNE 30
JULY 23
AUGUST 14
LAKE I
LAKE 2
NO SAMPLE
TAKEN
LAKE 3
LAKE 4
Figure 14.
Relative abundance of macrophytes and filamentous
algae in the four WQMP lakes during 1975.
51
-------
estimate of total zooplankton numbers and activity. Qualitative data on
zooplankton were collected by making several plankton tows in each lake using
a Wisconsin plankton net. No quantitative data were available as of Decem-
ber, 1975.
To date seven different species of Cladocera, five Rotifera and one
Copepoda have been encountered in the lake system.
Aquatic Insects
Aquatic insect populations include large numbers of midges (Chironomidae)
and apparent significant populations of damselflies and dragonflies (Odonata),
a wide variety of true bugs (Hemiptera) and lesser populations of mayflies
(Ephemeroptera). An example of the magnitude of the insect populations in
the various lakes is given for the Chironomidae in TABLE 6. Emergent traps
were also used to estimate the populations of adult aquatic insects. Quanti-
tative data were not available on other species as of December, 1975.
TABLE 6. MEAN NUMBER OF CHIRONOMID LARVAE COLLECTED AT EACH OF FOUR DEPTHS
FROM THE FOUR WQMP LAKES DURING AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER, 1975
Depth
(cm)
50
100
180
240
Lake 1
1294
758
3156
2896
Lake 2
2
Number/m
3022
2210
1326
2639
Lake 3
1478
672
789
1399
Lake 4
4121
2400
1500
1052
Fish
Sticklebacks (Eucalia inconstans) were unavoidably introduced when the
aquatic macrophytes were planted into the lakes. By 1975 these small fish
had developed significant populations in Lakes 3 and 4.
52
-------
On June 17, 1975, approximately 750 largemouth bass fingerlings
(Micropterus salmoides) and 2000 fathead minnows (Plmephales promelas) were
stocked in Lake 4 to determine if water quality conditions in the lakes impose
limits on either fish production or fish quality. The fish populations were
sampled during July, August, and September with a 30 m beach seine and during
September and November with variable mesh experimental gill nets. Stickle-
backs were the only species taken with the seine and largemouth bass were
taken with the gill nets in September and November.
Sticklebacks were the predominant food item in the bass stomachs in
September but only insects and crustaceans were found in stomachs from the
November sample. Sticklebacks fed primarily on cladoceran and small insect
larvae.
The largemouth bass grew very rapidly during the period from June to
September (TABLE 7) reflecting the abundance of food for these fish. The
average increment of growth was 15.1 cm and 132.8 g for the three month
period. The 19.5 cm average length of these bass after one growth season is
greater than growth values reported for other northern regions of the United
States and is comparable to that reported for bass in southern states where
the growth season is approximately six months.
TABLE 7. LENGTH AND WEIGHT OF LARGEMOUTH BASS FROM WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
PROJECT (LAKE 4)
Sample Date
6-17-75
9-18-75
11-4-75
Total Length (cm) Weight (g)
No . Fish Average Range Average Range
22 4.4 4.0- 4.9 1.2 0.9-2.2
14 19.5 18.0-20.5 133 113-153
3 19.8 19.0-21.0 117 95-142
This rapid growth is indicative of excellent water quality, an abundant
food source, and a low population density. Although dissolved oxygen was
temporarily depressed in July, it was not reflected in the growth of the bass.
53
-------
Suitable oxygen conditions were probably found near the inflow from Lake 3
or in the shallow nearshore waters.
No survival studies or population density studies were made, so growth
cannot be converted to total biomass production. If survival were 100%,
largemouth bass production would equal 99.6 kg dry weight and would represent
a sink for about 4 kg of P (assuming 4% P) and about 10 kg of N. These esti-
mates represent maximum values since survival was certainly less than 100%
but do indicate that the fish population does not represent a major sink for
nutrients.
During 1976, additional bass fingerlings and hybrid sunfish will be
stocked in Lake 4. Undoubtedly the growth rates of bass and the other
species will be reduced as the population density increases but optimum
growth rates should be maintained with careful management of the population
density.
Fish, insects, and plants collected from the WQMP lakes were subjected
to analyses for chlorinated hydrocarbons and the fish were examined for
heavy metals. The chlorinated hydrocarbon results were presented in TABLE 8,
and TABLE 9 contains the results of the heavy metal analysis.
Chromatograms of all plant and animal samples revealed only low concen-
trations of chlorinated hydrocarbon residues and, while the identity of
specific residues has not been confirmed, traces of p,p'-DDT and methoxyclor
were indicated in samples of fish, insects, and plants. Some peaks corre-
sponding to Aroclor 1254 were evident, especially in the aquatic insects, but
in general concentrations were too low to clearly indicate PGB residues. In
most samples,residue concentrations were below the limits of detectability
(0.001 ppm); but residues tentatively identified as DDT and methoxyclor
occurred at concentrations up to 0.1 ppm. From these preliminary data, there
was no indication of concentrations accumulating In the higher trophic levels
or in specific lakes.
Concentrations in the water mass were below detectable levels, and since
all of the chlorinated hydrocarbons are lipophyllic and showed such low
levels (TABLE 8), it was not deemed worthwhile to analyze for their presence
in the bottom sediments. Thus, no such tests were carried out.
Additional sampling and analysis is necessary to determine positive
identification and distribution of residues in the lake system, but these
54
-------
TABLE 8. CONCENTRATIONS OF CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON INSECTICIDES AND PCB (AROCLOR 1254) IN BIOTA FROM
THE WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT SITE (PPM WET WEIGHT)*
Ul
Species-Date
Largemouth Bass -
9/18/75%
Stickleback - 7/1/75*
Stickleback - 7/1/75*
Stickleback - 7/1/75*
Insects - 7/10/75
Insects - 7/1/75
Insects - 7/1/75
Plants - 7/1/75
Plants - 7/1/75
Plants - 7/1/75
Plants - 7/1/75
Lake
4
2
3
4
1
2
4
1
2
3
4
p,p'-DDT
0.3
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
0.25
<0.01
0.39
0.19
0.82
<0.01
<0.01
p,p'-DDD
<0.01
0.27
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
p,p'-DDE
0.06
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
0.18
0.21
0.20
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
Meth-
oxychlor
0.66
0.64
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
0.24
0.35
<0.01
0.33
Other
Pesticidest
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
Aroclor
1254*
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.01
<0.5
<0.01
<0.01
* Residue identification is tentative and is regarded as preliminary data.
t Other pesticides - hexachlorobenzene, lindane, aldrin, kelthane, heptachlorepoxide, dieldrin, and
endrin.
t Aroclor 1254 quantification based on the average value of 4 peaks.
§ Muscle only.
# Entire fish.
-------
TABLE 9. CONCENTRATIONS OF HEAVY METALS IN FISH FROM WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROJECT LAKES (PPM WET
WEIGHT)
t-n
Largemouth Bass* Largemouth Bass* Sticklebackt Sticklebackt Sticklebackt Sticklebackt
9/18/75 11/4/75 9/19/75 9/19/75 10/30/75 10/30/75
Lake
No.
Mn -
Fe -
Zn -
Cu -
Cr -
Ni -
4
Fish 9
Ave 1 . 1
Range (0.9-1.5)
Ave 5
Range (1.0-16)
Ave 12
Range (8-16)
Ave <0 . 1
Range (<0.1-1.3)
Ave 0 . 1
Range (<0.1-0.5)
Ave 0.2
Range (<0.1-0.6)
4 3434
3 5 5 5.8
1.6 8.4 9.8 8.7 9.6
(1.4-1.9)
16 20 26 26 34
(8.0-17)
14 42 44 46 40
(11-17)
<0.1 1.9 1.6 2.0 1.6
(<0. 1-1.0)
<0 . 1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
<0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
* Largemouth bass were analyzed as muscle tissue only.
t Sticklebacks were analyzed as a composite of whole fish.
-------
preliminary data do indicate that the lake system has not received significant
contamination by either chlorinated hydrocarbons or polychlorinated biphenyls.
The concentrations of heavy metals in the bass samples taken in September
and November do not indicate a significant contamination problem (TABLE 9).
Slightly higher levels of heavy metals were found in sticklebacks than in
bass, but this may reflect the fact that the entire fish was analyzed for the
stickleback while only muscle tissue of the largemouth bass was analyzed.
There are plans to continue monitoring for heavy metals in the fish during
the next year to evaluate potential for accumulation within the lakes and
plans to extend the analysis to include lead, cadmium, and mercury.
In addition to evaluations of fish within the WQMP lakes, a study has
been initiated to evaluate the potential of using products harvested from
the lakes to prepare diets for the culture of fish in other waters. A diet
incorporating Daphnia sp. and Cladophora fracta was prepared using data gen-
erated from a least cost computer program designed to meet nutritional
requirements of salmonids. A feeding trial using 16 rainbow trout finger-
3
lings in each of the six 0.19 m (50 gallon) tanks was conducted to compare
growth rates of fish fed the experimental diet with control groups fed a
commercial trout diet. Preliminary data indicate that the fish on the test
diet grew at a slower rate than the control fish fed on a commercial diet.
Acceptance of food by hatchery fish is a function of pellet size and consis-
tency and diet composition, and it is believed that a change will result in
improved palatability. Feeding trials using rainbow trout fingerlings will
be conducted in the future to test changes aimed at improving palatability.
In addition, a diet is now being prepared that will utilize Elodea
canadensis ensilaged with poultry wastes as a non-protein nitrogen source.
This new diet will be fed to carp in laboratory feeding trials.
WATER CHEMISTRY AND ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS
Introduction
Most of the beneficial attributes of ponds or lakes in the improvement
of wastewater quality are linked to a three way interaction between the
aquatic plants, the bacteria, and the water chemistry. Removal of nutrients
and metals is closely tied to the photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants
57
-------
and the associated alterations in water chemistry due to plant withdrawal of
carbon dioxide from the alkalinity system. Bacterial utilization of both
allochthonous and autochthonous organics recharges the alkalinity and, if
dominant, tends to redissolve some of the chemical precipitates. As such,
attempts to optimize waste removal in such systems must include consideration
and manipulation of the factors which control these two major categories of
biotic activity. Figure 15, a schematic presentation of this process, shows
the need to export material to minimize bacterial recycle.
Factors of potential importance to plants in wastewater lakes include
solar energy input, water temperature, and the nutrient content of the waste-
water. Nutrients of prime importance to plants are nitrogen, phosphorus, and
carbon with the required trace nutrients usually being present in abundance in
wastewater. In most cases wastewater also contains nitrogen and phosphorus
at concentrations in excess of that required by plants.
As shown in Figure 16, the nutrient content decreases as the wastewater
flows through the WQMP lakes but the phosphorus concentration remains at a
level sufficient to support aquatic plants within all four lakes. Nitrogen
availability would appear to meet the need of aquatic plants in all lakes
except perhaps Lake 4.
The data in Figure 16 are average values for the indicated parameter
within each lake for the entire month of August, 1975, given with one standard
deviation either side of the mean. Obviously, the nutrient concentrations
decrease from lake to lake but the decreased variability in nutrient levels
within each lake in a downstream direction also indicates a marked degree of
stabilization by the aquatic ecosystem.
Data collected since the completion of this study indicate that the
apparent phosphorus removal was accomplished by sorption of P on bottom sedi-
ments. After this sorption capacity was exceeded in 1977, phosphorus concen-
trations in Lake 4 exceeded the State of Michigan discharge standards of 1
mg P/£. Thus, lakes are not efficient at phosphorus removal and water out of
the lakes should be sprayed on the land site instead of being discharged
directly to surface streams.
58
-------
ATMOSPHERE
alkalinity
bacteria
(inorganic) (organic)
EXPORT
Figure 15. Nutrient pathways within an enriched aquatic
ecosystem.
59
-------
.8
to A
ID -6
CC
O
I
Q_
CO .
o .4
Q.
fe .2
0
160
0120
o
o
o>
E
f 80
234
en
E
8
O
ro
0
-I
2 3
LAKE
1.4
1.0.
^E
•z.
\
.6
0
-.4
234
LAKE
Figure 16. Nutrient levels in the four WQMP lakes
during August, 1975. Values given are
means ± one standard deviation.
60
-------
LIGHT-CARBON INTERACTIONS
Since phosphorus and nitrogen were present throughout the lake system,
attention was focused on carbon and light as parameters controlling plant
activity. For this purpose, diurnal oxygen and pH data were obtained from
each of the lakes at weekly intervals during August and early September, 1975.
The maximum gain in dissolved oxygen (DO) extracted from these data was used
as a measure of photosynthetic activity. The minimum pH each day was used
with alkalinity determinations to calculate the maximum concentration of free
carbon dioxide in the water on that day. Measures of solar input were
obtained from a pyroheliometer located less than a mile from the lakes.
Total photosynthetic activity, represented by gain of DO over a single
day, is plotted as a function of light intensity and as a function of free
carbon dioxide concentration in Figure 17. In both cases, there is an
apparent relationship between these parameters and photosynthetic activity
but, in both cases, the correlation coefficient (r) does not suggest a tight
relationship. Inspection of these data suggested that light appeared to be a
more important factor in Lake 1 while carbon appeared to have a greater import
in Lake 4. Biotic activity in Lakes 2 and 3 appeared to be affected by both
light and carbon.
Based on this analysis, the gain of DO within the lakes was plotted as a
function of the log of the cross-product of existing light and carbon levels.
As shown in Figure 18, this relationship yielded a correlation coefficient of
0.8, a marked improvement over that obtained from consideration of either of
these parameters as single limits. As such, it appears that during this
period total photosynthesis within the four WQMP lakes was controlled to a
considerable extent by an interaction between light and free carbon dioxide
availability.
Application of the equation resulting from the linear regression of the
data presented in Figure 18 yields Figure 19. This latter figure suggests
that if carbon dioxide is abundant, light availability is the prime factor
controlling plant activity and that increases from 30 to 100 langleys is of
greater import than is an equal increase at higher light levels. At free
carbon dioxide concentrations at and below atmospheric equilibrium (about 16
ymoles/£), the availability of free carbon dioxide appears to be of
61
-------
A DISSOLVED OXYGEN
cw
BJ o
3 co
co n
P) H'
Oi h{ 3
C ^
I-! O P.
H- 0 H'
3 CO
09 fr, CO
H- O
> O M _
" K <
H- fD
N)
o O
C &. ta,
CO fD
(-> S3 OQ .
;B
H'
h-1
H* p
^ t~h
H-g
P O
rf
ft H-
P4 O
fD 3
Mi O
O Hi
3
O
5"
mg
o>
M
O
OI
Oi
(D
O
O
ro
o
5T O
3
OJ
o
o
01
O
o
A DISSOLVED OXYGEN
mg 02/£
ro .& o
a>
oo
O 00
o o
II
p
4^
(O
00
-------
8
01
E
X
o
Q
UJ
CO
CO
5
ID
1 2
x
Y=-0.6I + 1.41 log QUCCJ]
r = 0.80
O
log [(L)(C)]
(langley/day)(p moles
Figure 18. Gain in dissolved oxygen as a function of the cross-
product of available light and carbon dioxide.
63
-------
00
l-i
fD
P) n
3 ft)
O. H
n
o s
ft) H
i-i ft)
cr1 rt
O fD
H- fD
O M
X P3
H- rt
O- H-
fD O
3
Co W
< P4
ft) H-
H-T3 =T
Pl Cf
c/ ro
H- rt
H SI
H- fD
rt fD
Si -ti
H- 13*
rt O
P" rt
H- O
3 »
rt 0
P* rt
fD Sf
H-
o
M X
P3 "
en p
rt a,
Ui rt
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (mg 0,/fi )
-------
significant import in controlling aquatic plant photosynthesis. Thus,
increasing detention time to allow greater recarbonation would result in
increased productivity while decreased detention time would have the opposite
effect.
The average free carbon dioxide concentration during the month of August,
1975, decreased from 28 pmoles/£ in Lake 1 to 16 ymoles/£ in Lake 2 to 6
pmoles/£ in Lake 3 to 3 ymoles/£ in Lake 4. Comparison of these data with
Figure 19 indicates the increasing role of free carbon dioxide in controlling
plant activity as the wastewater moves through the WQMP lakes.
While the free carbon dioxide content of the lakes varied significantly
from day to day, light availability also varied significantly over the month
of August as is shown in Figure 20. However, to some extent the free carbon
dioxide content is also a function of solar powered biotic activity over both
time and space within the lake system. Solar insolation triggers photosyn-
thesis by the aquatic plants which withdraw carbon dioxide from the alkalinity
system resulting in lower free carbon dioxide concentrations. Continued
photosynthetic uptake of carbon dioxide results in lowered carbon dioxide
levels within a given lake as a function of time while also yielding a
spatial change in the free carbon dioxide level in the water as it moves
downstream through the lakes. Thus, it appears that plant activity in the
WQMP lakes during the summer months is directly related to solar intensity,
the alkalinity of the incoming wastewater, and to the rate of water movement
through the four lakes. The latter factor is the only factor that is readily
controlled. Thus, detention time is the major management procedure for con-
trolling plant activity in such lakes.
SEASONAL CHANGES
While the above considerations suggest the importance of light and carbon
in controlling photosynthetic activity of the entire aquatic plant community
during mid-summer, it says little about other seasons of the year. Examina-
tion of the growth pattern of the aquatic macrophyte Elodea canadensis within
Lake 4 during 1975 suggests a close relationship between the growth rate of
this plant and the free carbon dioxide content of the water over the entire
growing season as shown in the following discussion.
65
-------
600
500
400-
ui 300
CD
Z
200
100
10 20
AUGUST 1975
30
Figure 20. Variation in sunlight avail-
ability to the WQMP lakes
during Augus t, 1975.
66
-------
Standing crop biomass of macrophytes within the WQMP lakes was determined
six times during the spring and summer of 1975 at intervals ranging from 13
to 40 days. The resulting estimates of Elodea canadensis biomass within Lake
4 are presented in Figure 21 with the associated specific growth rates.
Specific growth rate was determined from the relationship shown in Equation 7
where M, and M~ refer to standing crop biomass at time T and T? , M is the
average standing crop biomass over the time interval, and specific growth
rate, y, carries the unit of time
(7)
M
Examination of Figure 21 suggests that growth rate of Elodea canadensis
was markedly accelerated in early July. Inspection of Figure 22 indicates
that during this period respiratory activity exceeded photosynthetic
reoxygenation and that the marked decline in DO was accompanied by signifi-
cant recarbonation of the water. In fact, this respiration was sufficient to
recarbonate the lake to the level found in early May. The resurgence of
growth of Elodea canadensis at the same time the lake was recarbonated sug-
gests some degree of interaction between these two phenomena.
The degree of interrelationship is illustrated in Figure 23, a plot of
the specific growth rate of Elodea canadensis against the average free carbon
dioxide concentration over the periods for which specific growth rates were
calculated. The equation given on Figure 23 for the line drawn through the
data is the familiar Monod application to entire organisms of the Michaelis-
Menten equation used for enzyme kinetics as shown in Equation 8.
U = ymax R S+ g (8)
s
where: y = the specific growth rate (Time )
ymax = the maximum specific growth rate (Time )
S = the substrate concentration (in this case ymoles free CO?/£)
K = the half saturating substrate level (in this case ymoles free
67
-------
200
150
2
^
0
o
o O
5 o
H 50
CO
\
SPECIFIC
GROWTH
.RATE
Vi
\
\
STANDING _
\
\
0.05
0.04S
0.03
0.020
o
u_
0.01 o
a.
APRIL MAY JUNE JULY
AUG.
Figure 21. Standing crop biomass and specific growth rate of Elodea
canadensis in WQMP Lake 4 during 1975.
o>
E
UJ
X
o
UJ
5
O
CO
CO
0
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
DISSOLVED
OXYGEN
-\.^
TOTAL
INORGANIC
CARBON
3.0 g
tr
2.5<
I 5
LD
tr e
0.5?
o
^ j-
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
Figure 22. Dissolved oxygen and total inorganic carbon concentrations
in WQMP Lake 4 during 1975.
68
-------
AVERAGE C02
jj moles /IMer
Figure 23. Relationship between specific growth rate of
Elodea canadens is and the free carbon dioxide
content of Lake 4 during 1975. The line drawn
through these data was calculated with the
indicated equation.
Despite the limited number of data points available, the data given in Figure
23 yield a good preliminary indication that the growth rate of Elodea
canadensis within the WQMP lakes is directly related to the availability of
free carbon dioxide. Light is of obvious importance to these plants also but
over the long and variable intervals between the times of macrophyte sampling,
light intensity averages to reasonably uniform values while the free carbon
dioxide level decreases throughout the growing season.
As was shown in Figure 14, the pattern of macrophyte dominance varied a
good deal within the four lakes. Lakes 2, 3, and 4 were stocked with a mix-
ture of several species of aquatic plants in 1973 including Potamogeton
foliosus, Elodea canadensis, Najas flexilis, Elodea nuttallii, and Myriophyl-
lum spicatum. Lake 1 was not stocked except for incidental introduction and
remained a phytoplankton dominated lake until after the drawdown in July after
which the new East Lansing wastewater treatment facility was placed in opera-
tion. At that point Potamogeton foliosus, Ceratophyllum demersum, and
Cladophora fracta began to grow. The factor limiting macrophyte activity in
this lake appears to have been the more limited light penetration due to the
turbidity generated by particulate carry-over from the old, overloaded East
69
-------
Lansing wastewater treatment facility. However, the lack of stocked plants
in Lake 1 may have had some effect.
Lake 2 was dominated by the periphytic alga Cladophora fracta throughout
the spring and summer of 1975 (Figure 14). This plant grows as a benthic mat
but as it ages it detaches, rises, and floats in amorphous masses at the
water surface. This growth form offers significant promise for the removal
of material from the lakes in that one ton dry weight of this alga was removed
from Lake 2 with reasonably modest effort on a trial basis.
Lake 3 supported a good growth of Elodea canadensis until late June when
it was overgrown by Cladophora fracta (Figure 14). With a nominal detention
3
time of one month per lake at a throughput of 1665 m /d (0.44 MGD), the
wastewater added to initiate the continuous throughput in mid-April should
begin to enter Lake 3 by mid-June. This suggests that some component in the
wastewater may have favored Cladophora over Elodea.
Lake 4 was dominated by Elodea canadensis throughout the growing season
of 1975 (Figure 14). Cladophora fracta, while present, never overgrew the
Elodea.
From the data collected to date, it appears that the availability of an
inorganic nitrogen source may be important as a factor determining the competi-
tive edge between Cladophora and Elodea. The inorganic nitrogen content of a
single mean water mass decreases significantly as it passes through the four
lakes as is shown in Figure 24. From this figure, it can be seen that for
this water mass the mean total inorganic nitrogen concentration fell from
7.58 to 2.70 mgN/£ through Lake 2 where Cladophora was abundant and from
2.70 to 0.30 mgN/£ in Lake 3 where it eventually out-competed Elodea. Little
inorganic nitrogen entered Lake 4, little was removed, and this last lake
maintained an Elodea dominance throughout the 1975 growing season.
The total content of Elodea canadensis harvested from the lake system was
about 2.1% on an organic weight basis while Cladophora fracta averaged 5.4%
nitrogen on an organic weight basis. The apparent greater demand for nitrogen
by Cladophora plus the generally low level of inorganic nitrogen in Lake 4 (as
low as 0.01 mg N/£) suggest that a nitrogen shortage may have limited the Cladophora
in this lake and that this nitrogen limitation was between 0.01 and 0.30 mg N/£.
Thus, total photosynthesis in the WQMP lakes during summer months is
apparently controlled by the availability of light and carbon dioxide, while
70
-------
UJ
O
O
o:
I-
o
CD
01
O
I-
o
LAKE I LAKE 2 LAKE 3 LAKE 4
Figure 24. Total inorganic nitrogen content of a single
water mass moving through the WQMP lakes during
the summer of 1975.
the makeup of the plant community is determined, at least in part, by other
interacting factors including nitrogen availability.
PLANT GENERATED NUTRIENT REMOVAL
Extraction of carbon dioxide from the alkalinity system by the plants as
the water flows through the four lakes results in marked alterations in the
water chemistry. Perhaps the best single indicator of change in the chemical
equilibrium of the wastewater as it flows through the WQMP lakes is seen in
the alteration of alkalinity shown in Figure 25. Plant uptake of carbon
dioxide from the alkalinity alters the equilibrium, resulting in increased
pH and increased carbonate ion concentration to the point where the solubility
is exceeded and carbonate precipitates as calcium carbonate. This activity
71
-------
M°NTH
>.
.<$
-------
accelerates the chemical formation and precipitation of a variety of metal
salts and phosphates, both directly and as co-precipitates with the carbonate.
As the wastewater moves through the four lakes, pH rises and alkalinity
decreases as is shown for a single nominal water mass (calculated by assuming
an average detention time of 30 days per lake, e.g. the mass of water in Lake
1 at day one would be in Lake 2 at day 31, etc.) in Figure 26. Relative
alterations in the more common cations and anions are given in Figure 27.
Generally, then, plant extraction of carbon from the alkalinity initiates a
variety of chemical interactions which markedly increase the waste concentra-
tion and removal potentials of a lake.
When the wastewater enters the WQMP lakes, it is supersaturated with
free carbon dioxide, reflecting the intense bacterial respiration which occurs
within the activated sludge process. This supersaturation of carbon dioxide
relative to atmospheric equilibrium allows the incoming wastewater to carry
amounts of total inorganic carbon exceeding the atmospheric equilibrium
determined solubility of calcium carbonate. However, given adequate sunlight,
plant photosynthesis is stimulated by the elevated nitrogen and phosphorus
content of wastewater and will rapidly reduce the free carbon dioxide far
below atmospheric equilibrium. As a result, the carbonate content increases
rapidly as the wastewater moves through the WQMP lakes as shown in Figure 28.
This figure represents the carbonate content of the wastewater in the
WQMP lakes during the summer of 1975 as calculated from measured pH and
alkalinity values plotted against the measured pH. Calcium determined
solubility of carbonate is given for the inlet water and for Lake 4.
Obviously the other cations are of importance but the high levels of carbonate
and the general dynamic nature of these lakes suggest a rapidly changing
system of fluctuating stability.
The rapidity of change within the lakes was illustrated by the signifi-
cant respiration induced recarbonation of Lake 4 during the short period in
July shown in Figure 22. The phosphorus level within this lake did not
increase much during this respiratory event, but this may reflect the very
low phosphorus level present within Lake 4 during the summer months. However,
a similar respiratory event within Lake 3 during late August and early
September resulted in significant phosphorus release as is shown in Figure 29.
The general decline in pH and DO and the concomitant increase in free carbon
73
-------
PH
10
8
i
LAKE I
MAY
LAKE 2
JUNE
LAKE3
JULY
LAKE 4
AUGUST
t 2
z
_J
<
3 i
0
1
J.
Figure 26. Variation in alkalinity and pH within a single water mass
moving through the WQMP lakes during 1975.
74
-------
Water Mass I
Water Mass 2
10
8
6
4
2
0
MAY JUNE ' JULY ' AUO '
Lake I Lake 2 Lake 3 Lake 4
JUNE 'JULY AUG. SEPT.
Lake I Lake 2 Lake 3 Lake 4
10
8
I- cr
o e
oj
POTASSIUM
•.V.V.SODJUM .v.sv
MAY 'JUNE ' JULY ' AUG. '
Lake I Lake 2 Lake3 Lake 4
10
8
6
4
2
POTASSIUM
MAGNESIUM
JUNE V JULY 'AUG. ' SEPT.
Lake I Lake 2 Lake 3 Lake 4
(O
1.0
.8
.6
2 .4
0 .2
0
MAY ' JUNE 'JULY AUG.
Lake I Lake 2 Lake 3 Lake 4
1.0
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT.
Lake I Lake 2 Lake 3 Lake 4
Figure 27. Relative variation in the more common cations and anions
through the WQMP lakes during 1975. Water mass 1 is mass
of water as it moves through each lake with a 30 day
detention time; e.g., mass in Lake 1 on day 1 is in Lake
2 on day 31, etc.
75
-------
10
or
UJ
UJ
_l
o
"0"> 10 5
CJ
10
-6
Lake 4
Co Icium
Equilibrium
Inlet
8
pH
10
II
Figure 28. pH determined solubility of carbonate ion within the WQMP lakes
given with calcium determined values for Lake 1 and Lake 4.
76
-------
-.10.0
15 20 25 30
2 Or AUGUST
UJ
*q15
3 tio
co
CO
o
3
5 2
E
»- I
o
0
5 10 15 20 25
SEPTEMBER
8.0
60
40
20 o«~
o
Figure 29. Variation in water chemistry associated with a
respiratory event in WQMP Lake 3 in 1975.
77
-------
dioxide indicate significant respiratory activity, suggesting that bacteria
mineralized the organic plant biomass previously manufactured within the lake.
This initial respiratory activity was not accompanied by release of phos-
phorus. Rather, the phosphorus release appears to have been initiated as the
alkalinity began to increase at about the time when the free carbon dioxide
concentration began to exceed the atmospheric equilibrium level. This
suggests that bacterial respiration of accumulated plant biomass recarbonated
the lake water to the point where the solubilities of phosphate precipitates
and phosphate-bearing carbonates were exceeded and that this material was in
fact redissolved. Thus, long term loss by physical-chemical precipitation
does not appear to represent a significant sink for phosphorus in these lakes.
The bloom of a coccoid green alga which followed this respiratory period
led to a rapid rise in both pH and DO, a sharp decrease in free carbon
dioxide, and a decline in alkalinity back to the level present prior to the
respiratory period. While the phosphorus concentration declined as the
alkalinity decreased, it did not decline with the alkalinity proportionate to
the gain noted during the period of respiratory induced resolubilization.
This gives some indication that coprecipitation and secondary substitution
may be important in the abiotic removal of phosphorus. However, such abiotic
removal represents a small amount,and the net effect is that such physical-
chemical precipitation of phosphorus cannot be counted on to remove enough
phosphorus to meet discharge standards.
The origin of the organic substrate which supported the respiratory
excess in Lake 4 is unknown, but available data suggest that some combination
of settled phytoplankton, early summer Cladophora growths, and Potamogeton,
which declined during this period, represented the energy source for the
bacteria. The significant growths of Elodea which were overgrown by
Cladophora, as well as the Cladophora, were the most probable bacterial food
substrates during the respiratory period within Lake 3.
Under the operating conditions to date, the efficiency of the WQMP lakes
in the removal of wastewater constituents depends directly on the type of
waste material. Nitrogen removal was excellent as was shown in Figure 24.
Phosphorus removal was impressive as shown in Figure 30, although data
collected in 1976 and 1977 indicate that this phosphorus loss was primarily
to sorption on bottom clays. This removal declined to low levels after
78
-------
CO
=5
o:
o
O
X
Q_
_J
o
1.6
1.4
1.2
-1.0
CL .8
.4
.2
0
INLET LAKE
I
LAKE LAKE LAKE
234
Figure 30. Decline in total phosphorus as wastewater
passed through the WQMP lakes in 1975.
Values given are means ± one standard
deviation.
saturation of bottom clays with phosphorus. There was little removal of
boron, chloride, and a variety of the more common cations. The pattern for
boron, shown in Figure 31, is reasonably typical for those materials not
removed by the lake ecosystem and for which the concentration in the lakes
reflects the concentration in the wastewater entering the lakes. Concentra-
tion of such materials in the influent appears to reflect stormwater dilution
and associated infiltration into domestic sewers as well as the variable
population load associated with academic vacations at Michigan State Univer-
sity.
Nitrogen was removed by biotic uptake and by out-gassing of ammonia
associated with biologically elevated pH values in the lakes at and above the
pK value for ammonium ion dissociation and by denitrification during respira-
tory events. Results from preliminary studies indicate insignificant nitro-
gen fixation in both the water and the sediment and low populations of
79
-------
400
300
xf 200
z
O
or
O
03
o*
a. 100
WATER MASS 2'
WATER MASS I
STP
LAKE
LAKE 2 LAKE 3
LAKE4
Figure 31. Boron concentration of wastewater as it passed through the WQMP
lakes.
nitrifying bacteria within the lakes. Lakes appear to operate as very
efficient strippers of nitrogen and offer great flexibility for design of
lake-land irrigation systems.
Decreases in phosphorus were associated with both biotic uptake and
biotic induced physical-chemical precipitation. Data collected since 1975
suggests that over 90% of phosphorus removal was a function of sorption on
the clay bottom and that this removal ceases once bottom clays are saturated.
Generally, then, the nutrient removal which occurred was associated
directly with the photosynthetic activity of various aquatic plants or with
sorption on bottom clays. Release of phosphorus, both biotic and abiotic,
apparently associated with bacterial use of aquatic plants indicates the
need to harvest the plants prior to their serving as a bacterial energy
source. However, such plant harvest must be optimized to allow maintenance
of sufficient plant activity with the lakes to maintain the chemical
80
-------
equilibrium in a range favoring physical-chemical precipitation of phosphorus
and metals. It appeared in 1975 that maintenance of this balance would
become especially critical with the increased phosphorus load applied when
completion of construction in 1976 allowed introduction of secondary effluent
not subject to chemical additions for phosphorus removal. Data collected
since that time indicate that no mechanisms other than biotic uptake exist in
such wastewater lakes which will allow long term phosphorus removal. Bio-
tic uptake and harvest can only remove 10% or less of incoming phosphorus.
Since the maintenance of optimum nutrient removal capacity of these
dynamic lake systems appears to be related directly to a controlled harvest
of plants and to plant mediated pH changes, the growth rate and form of
growth of the plants are key considerations in the development of a success-
ful management scheme. To date the lakes have been dominated by the
periphytic alga, Cladophora fracta, the vascular macrophyte, Elodea canaden-
sis, and by relatively rare blooms of planktonic algae. The absence of
efficient low cost removal schemes for phytoplankton suggest that attempts
at efficient removal of plant biomass from the lakes must be focused upon the
periphyton and the macrophytes.
Of those plants which have grown well within the WQMP lakes, Cladophora
fracta appears to offer significant advantages. It grows as a periphyton
and then rises and floats at the surface where it is relatively easy to
harvest. The harvested biomass is roughly 50% organic and 50% inorganic on
a dry weight basis. This suggests that significant amounts of the inorganic
precipitates are captured by the benthic Cladophora mat and are then brought
to the surface where they can be removed. The exact growth rates and growth
kinetics of this plant are unknown,but visual observation during the initial
year of operation suggests that this plant grows quite rapidly.
Obviously, it would be desirable to maximize the growth of those plants
which allow the greatest biomass removal in the shortest time while minimizing
competing plant species. Considerations in meeting this goal include the
development of a good working understanding of the kinetic growth response
of the various plants to the changing multiparameter environmental equilibrium
as the wastewater flows through the lakes in addition to the ease of harvest
of the plants. From the data available to date, it appears that the primary
variables interacting to control plant activity in wastewater are light,
81
-------
carbon, and temperature. Since none of these parameters are particularly
amenable ;o direct manipulation on a field scale, it appears that the control
technique to optimize plant type will be to vary the detention time relative
to the chemical nature of the wastewater and ambient light and temperature
conditions. Selective plant harvest to encourage selected species offers a
second management possibility, but data are too sparse at this time to offer
any conclusions.
PUBLIC 1.EALTH CONSIDERATIONS
From the data collected to date, the WQMP lakes appear to be extremely
efficieit in removing those bacteria commonly used as indicators of the
pathogenic quality of water. As is shown in Figure 32, coliform bacteria
numbers were reduced several orders of magnitude as the wastewater moved
through the lakes. Fecal streptococci were reduced 42% with some indication
of increases in the downstream lakes, perhaps contributed by the ducks which
used these lakes.
Another indication of the improvement in water quality is seen in the
differe ice in the dominant populations of denitrifying bacteria. In excess
of 80% f the denitrifying bacteria in Lake 1 were Alcaligenes faecalis which,
though t iey may be found in nature, are common residents of the intestinal
tract of vertebrates. In Lake 4, 80% of the denitrifying bacteria were
Pseudomonas sp., the most common natural denitrifier found in lake sediments.
Examination of the experimental wells throughout the project for
bacterial contamination yielded the following results. Twenty-four of the 41
drift wells were dry while the 14 shallow rock and deep rock wells contained
water. One of the shallow rock wells contained 108 coliform bacteria per 100
ml. A companion well drilled close by contained bacteria but no coliforms.
A repeat sampling after chlorination and 45 minutes of pumping indicated no
coliform bacteria in either of these wells. Apparently, the well was not
properly chlorinated after it was drilled. No coliform bacteria were found
in any of the other wells.
Viral pathogens and other pathogenic bacteria represent other areas of
concern. No data are available from the WQMP on this subject at this time.
82
-------
O Total Coliform
A Fecal Coliform
n Fecal Streptococci
10 —I
LAKE I
INLET
LAKE X
OUTLET
LAKE
LAKEJE
LAKE IS
Figure 32. Variation of bacteria commonly used as indicators
of the pathogenic quality of water within the
WQMP lakes.
83
-------
SECTION 8
LAND APPLICATION STUDIES
INTRODUCTION
Numerous terrestrial sites in the United States and elsewhere are being
utilized for reclamation and recycle of treated and untreated municipal
wastewater. A variety of application techniques are used. These fall into
three major catagories including: (1) rapid infiltration, (2) overland
flow, and (3) spray irrigation. Emphasis on the WQMP has been on spray
irrigation as this technique seems to offer the most promise as a means of
application for large cropping systems.
While many spray irrigation systems are presently operating, the infor-
mation on which this technology is based is somewhat limited. Some data have
been collected at several sites with the most complete and best known data
being that collected at Pennsylvania State University (Sopper and Kardos,
1973) . Much additional data are needed before adoption of land application
on a large scale. Some of the major data needs include: (1) The sorption
capacity of soils in a given region for nutrients such as phosphorus, nitro-
gen, and cations and for toxins such as heavy metals and borate (i.e., what
is the life expectancy of such systems). (2) Data are needed on movement of
nutrients and toxins through the soil water to groundwater, and mass balances
need to be constructed on a regional basis for each major constituent of
wastewater. (3) Data are needed on environmental and economic trade-offs
involved in conversion from conventional sewage treatment facilities to land
treatment facilities. For example, data presently available indicate that
wastewater renovation in terms of phosphorus and heavy metals removal is
highly efficient on spray irrigation systems for many soil types. However,
most studies indicate that nitrate is readily leached from such systems.
Thus, is the increased removal of phosphorus and heavy metals (leading to an
expected improvement in surface water quality) worth the increased nitrate
84
-------
contamination of groundwater? (4) Data are needed on a mass balance basis
for movement of nutrients and heavy metals through a variety of vegetative
types operated under a variety of harvest regimes in order to ascertain what
system is best able to recycle nutrients in wastewater into usable by-
products. (5) Data are needed on the public health aspects of wastewater
application, particularly on possible viral contamination problems in both
spray-generated aerosols and in groundwater leachates.
Such a list of data needs could be expanded much further, but the above
list indicates the magnitude of the problem. The terrestrial studies of
the WQMP have as their goal the collection of data on land application ade-
quate to determine the feasibility of such application and, if feasible, to
establish design criteria for constructing and operating such a system. It
also has as its goal the identification of environmental trade-offs involved
in utilizing such systems.
In the initial stages of the WQMP, emphasis has been on collection of
baseline data for the terrestrial site. Some data have also been collected
on vegetational and animal responses to wastewater irrigation.
3
In 1975, a total of 100,000 m of wastewater were applied to the spray
irrigation site (Figure 33). As stated earlier, most of this water (82.4%)
was pumped from the bottom of Lake 1; the row crop area (A in Figure 33)
received effluent directly from the East Lansing Sewage Treatment Plant.
The sugar maple-beech forest (D in Figure 33) did not start receiving waste-
water until October, 1975. It was planned to irrigate this forest with
secondary effluent direct from the East Lansing conduit, but shutdown of the
pumping facility from East Lansing forced a temporary change over to the
bottom of Lake 1.
Most irrigation occurred during the growing season (May to October),
but one of the abandoned fields (K in Figure 33) received wastewater during
the winter, 1974-1975. TABLE 10 summarizes the irrigation schedule and a
general description of other areas in Figure 33. The general description of
the spray irrigation site was included in Section 5.
Specific baseline data and research findings are summarized in the
following sections.
85
-------
oo
Figure 33. Photograph of the spray irrigation area showing major research areas,
-------
TABLE 10. SUMMARY OF SPRAY IRRIGATION FOR TERRESTRIAL SITE FOR 1975
(THROUGH OCTOBER 22)
Land Use f"10?1?11, % of Source of Water Designation
Applied Total (pigure 33)
(nr3)
Row Crops 16
(20 grain and forage
crop varieties)
Micro Watershed - Baseline Study
Sugar Maple - Beech Forest
Sugar Maple - Beech Forest 1
Sugar Maple-Beech Forest
Forest Plantation 20
(10 species, 5600 trees)
Old field 24
Old field 12
Old field
Soil Microorganisms
Abandoned Fields 24
(Winter Spray Site)
Large Inf iltrometer
Diversion Zone
Soil Test Trench
TOTAL 100
,435 16.4 Secondary Effluent
o
0
,206 1.2 Secondary Effluent
697 0.7 Bottom of Lake 1
0
,053 20.0 Bottom of Lake 1
,664 24.6 Bottom of Lake 1
,335 12.3 Bottom of Lake 1
o
r\ __„ ___
,508 24.4 Bottom of Lake 1
0
492 0.5 As needed
o
,390 100.0
A
B
C
D
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
-
M
-
DESCRIPTIVE DATA
Soils
The soils of the WQMP were mapped intensively in 1974 and 1975 by
T. Zobeck, a graduate student under the supervision of Dr. E.P. Whiteside in
the Crop and Soil Sciences Department at Michigan State University. This
mapping has been completed and two intensity maps have been prepared. The
first (Figure 34), a medium intensity map, approximates maps prepared at the
county level by the Soil Conservation Service. County level maps are con-
structed on the basis of samples taken every 201 m (40 rods), and at least
87
-------
1-96
oo
oo
SANDHILL ROAD
N
t
0 100m
MEDIUM INTENSITY
IWR MAP, 1975
Figure 34. Medium intensity soil map of the spray irrigation site and buffer zone areas.
(Legend follows.)
-------
Series
2 Houghton
11 Boyer-Spinks
12 Boyer
17 Col wood complex
18 Capac
23 Gilford
25 Riddles-Hillsdale
29 Matherton
30 Metamora-Capac
A Slopes 0 - 2%
B Slopes 2 - 6%
Sand Spot
Clay Spot
or (jflVjO Intermittent Pond
Pond
Slopes <18%
Soil Boundaries
31 Metea
33 Marlette
35 Oshtemo
36 Owosso-Marlette
37 Sebewa
39 Sisson
41 Spinks
44 Lamson-Colwood
50 Teasdale
C Slopes 6-12%
D Slopes 12 - 18%
\i/ Wet Spot
\i// Organic Soil Area
Marsh
Slopes >18%
Drain
Figure 34 (continued). Legend of medium intensity soil map of the
spray irrigation site and buffer zone areas.
89
-------
81 ha of a soil must be present in the county before it will be recognized.
Studies on the WQMP indicate that on the average only 23% of the soils in a
named series (mapping unit) were actually composed of that soil on the medium
intensity map. General soil descriptions for this map are summarized in
TABLE 11.
The high degree of heterogeneity in soils of the WQMP made more inten-
sive sampling a necessity. Thus, a map was constructed on the basis of
samples taken 55 m apart. This high intensity map includes only the terres-
trial irrigation site (Figure 35). It does not include the buffer zone as
did the medium intensity map. Studies on the WQMP indicate that on the
average 49% of the soils in a series (mapping unit) are actually composed of
that soil (a more than two-fold increase in accuracy over the medium inten-
sity map). The medium intensity map includes 15 different mapping units,
while the high intensity map includes 19 such units. This new map enables
those scientists carrying out research on the land distribution area to
develop a more accurate model of their research plan and make use of the
specific soil types of concern to them.
The medium intensity map (Figure 34) uses the legend currently used by
the Soil Conservation Service and the Michigan Agricultural Experiment
Station. The high intensity map (Figure 35) makes use of different soil
mapping units. Thus, the two maps are not directly comparable.
General descriptions of the soil types from the high intensity map
(Figure 35) are given in TABLE 12. Nevertheless, at least 58 different soil
types have been collected one or more times on the WQMP, so the high inten-
sity map still omits some information. All soil mapping units that occupy
at least 0.5 ha are included on the high intensity map.
A further study of the heterogeneity of the soils on the WQMP was con-
ducted by excavating a 184 m T-shaped trench (an E-W 121 m trench and a N-S
63 m right angle trench) on an abandoned field site (area M, Figure 33). In
this T-shaped trench, 17 different units were identified (TABLE 13). Only
27% of the soils in the E-W trench were close to soils found in that name on
the high intensity map, while the N-S transect contained 62% of soils close
to that found in the same (average of 39% compared to 23 and 49% for the
medium and high intensity maps, respectively).
90
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TABLE 11. GENERAL SOIL DESCRIPTION -- MEDIUM INTENSITY MAP
General Soil Description
Map
Symbol
2
11
12
17
18
23
25
29
30
31
33
35
36
37
39
41
44
Soil Name
Houghton Muck
Boyer-Spinks
Loamy Sand
Boyer Sandy Loam
Colwood Complex
Capac Loam
Gilford
Riddles-Hillsdale
Sandy Loams
Matherton Sandy
Loam
Matamora-Capac
Sandy Loam
Me tea Loamy Sand
Miami-Marlette
Loams
Oshtemo Sandy Loam
Owosso-Marlette
Sandy Loam
Sebewa Loam
Sisson Loam
Spinks Loamy Sand
Lamson-Colwood
Complex
Surface Soil
Muck
Loamy sand
Loamy sand
Loam
Loam
Sandy loam to
loamy sand
Sandy loam
Loam
Sandy loam
to loam
Loamy sand
Loam
Loamy sand
Sandy loam to
loam
Loam to sandy
loam
Fine sandy
loam
Loamy sand
Loam to fine
sandy loam
Subsoil
Mucky peat
Loamy sand to
sandy loam
Sandy loam
Silt loam to silty
clay loam
Clay loam
Sandy loam
Sandy clay loam
to sandy loam
Gravelly loam to
sandy clay loam
Sandy loam to clay
loam
Loamy sand to sand
Clay loam
Sandy loam to
loamy sand
Sandy loam to
sandy clay loam
Gravelly sandy
clay loam to
clay loam
Silt loam to
silty clay loam
Loamy sand to
sandy loam
Fine sandy loam
to silty clay
loam
Underlying
Materials
Peat
Sand and
gravel
Sand and
gravel
Very fine sands
and silts
Loam
Sand and
gravel
Sandy loam to
loamy sand
Sand and
gravel
Loam to clay
loam
Loam to clay
loam
Loam to silt
loam
Sand and
gravel
Loam to clay
loam
Sand and
gravel
Very fine sand
and silts
Sand
Fine sand to
loamy very
fine sand
50 Teasdale Sandy
Loam
Sandy loam
Sandy clay loam
to sandy loam
and silts
Sandy loam to
loamy sand
91
-------
1-96
LEGEND
WQMP Irrigation Area Boundary
VO
ho
N
t
100m
'** Sand Spot
• * r
•;£• Clay Spot
V* Wet Spot
yr
Sandhill Road
Organic Soil Area
"O
03
O
KL
o
-a
to
01
to
High Intensity
IWR Map 1975
1 Brooks ton
2 Miami-Marlette
3 Conover
4 Fox
5 Granby
6 Barry
7 Corunna
8 Westland
9 Kalamazoo
10 Owosso
11 Metea
12 Spinks
13 Matherton
14 Hillsdale-Dryden
15 Lamson
16 Sisson
17 Kidder
18 Sebewa
19 Colwood
A Slopes 0-2%
B Slopes 2-6%
C Slopes 6-12%
D Slopes 12-18%
;;;• Slopes <18%
Slopes >I8%
•7"; or /^T/VT"/' Intermittent Pond
' *^ -• W to •» A ^
Soil Boundaries
Figure 35. High intensity soil map of the spray irrigation area.
-------
TABLE 12. GENERAL SOIL DESCRIPTION — HIGH INTENSITY MAP
General Soil Description
Map
Symbol
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Soil Name
Brookston
Miami and Marlette
Conover
Fox
Granby
Barry
Corunna
Westland
Kalamazoo
Owosso
Me tea
S pinks
Matherton
Hillsdale
Lams on
Sisson
Kidder
Sebewa
Colwood
Surface Soil
Loam
Loam
Loam
Loam
Loamy sand
Sandy loam
Sandy loam
Silty clay
loam
Loam
Sandy loam
Loamy sand
Loamy sand
Loam
Sandy loam
Fine sandy
loam
Fine sandy
loam
Clay loam
Loam to
sandy loam
Loam
Subsoil
Clay loam
Clay loam
Clay loam
Gravelly clay
loam to sandy
clay loam
Fine sand
Sandy clay loam
Sandy loam
Clay loam to
gravelly clay
loam
Gravelly clay loam
to sandy clay
loam
Sandy loam to
sandy clay loam
Loamy sand to
sand
Loamy sand to
sandy loam
Gravelly loam to
sandy clay loam
Sandy clay loam
to sandy loam
Fine sandy loam
to silt loam
Silt loam to
silty clay loam
Sandy clay loam
Gravelly sandy
clay loam to
clay loam
Silt loam to
silty clay loam
Underlying
Material
Loam to silt
loam
Loam to silt
loam
Loam to silt
loam
Sand and
gravel
Sand to fine
sand
Sandy loam
Loam to clay
loam
Gravel and
sand
Sand and
gravel
Loam to clay
loam
Loam to clay
loam
Sand
Sand and
gravel
Sandy loam to
loamy sand
Fine sand to
loamy very
fine sand
Very fine
sands and
silts
Gravelly
sandy loam
Sand and
gravel
Very fine
sands and
silts
93
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TABLE 13. LENGTH OF EXPOSURE BY SOIL SERIES IN TRENCHES (AREA M, FIGURE 33)
ON THE WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROJECT
Series
Capac
Metamora
Celina
Teasdale
Owosso
Owosso, Sandy Substrate
Miami-Marlette
Miami
Wawaka
S pinks
Oshtemo-Spinks
Oshtemo
Riddles
Riddles, Sandy Substrate
Riddles, Fine Variant
Hillsdale
Saylesville
TOTAL
Length of Series (m)
7.9
1.8
1.1
1.4
14.6
3.5
5.5
4.3
25.3
3.4
4.6
2.7
30.8
9.9
14.8
17.5
34.9
184.0
% of Excavation
4.31
1.00
0.58
0.75
7.96
1.82
2.99
2.32
13.76
1.82
2.49
1.49
16.75
5.39
8.04
9.54
18.99
100.00
The soil heterogeneity on the WQMP is typical of soils in glacial
areas. Such variation in soil composition makes land use and management
decisions difficult. Placement of lysimeters to adequately sample soil
water also becomes difficult, and large numbers of lysimeters are needed to
approximate an average value. Predictive modeling or measurement of water
flow through such complex soil systems becomes tenuous. Extrapolation to
large areas is risky. Therefore, construction of mass balances for these
systems will always have high built-in error terms. Thus, large numbers of
lysimeters were placed in each experimental area so that average leachate
values "typical" of the whole site could be determined.
Mapping at closer intervals than 55 m is much too time consuming and
expensive for the whole project. Thus, maps already prepared will be used
except for special areas where more comprehensive mapping is required.
Vegetation
The vegetation of the terrestrial site was mapped in the summer of 1974
(Figure 36). This general vegetation map will serve as a baseline
94
-------
Figure 36. General vegetation map of the spray irrigation site. (Legend follows.)
-------
Map Symbols
I. 0-, - 016
II. S-, - S7
in. P - P
iv. F! - F6
V. Ex-j - Ex6
General Description
Oldfields dominated by Agropyron repens
(quackgrass), Solidago sp. (goldenrod),
Bromus inermis (smooth bromegrass), and
Aster sp. over much of the area. Some
woody invasion occurs at some sites.
Second growth shrubland - tree growth-includes
mixtures of tall shrubs and small trees with
herbaceous understory. Shrubs include patches
of black locust (Robinia), willow (Salix),
dogwood (Cornus), hawthorns (Crataegus), elm
(Ulmus), sumac (Rhus), cherryTPrunus).
Plantations; P] = plantation of large Pinus
sylvestris and £_. nigra; P2 = new plantation
of 10 mixed species-see section on forests
for explanation.
Forest; F-j = sugar maple, beech, elm, red maple
and basswood; F2 = sugar maple, beech, white
ash, elm, and hickory; F3 = sugar maple, beech,
red maple, red oak, and black maple; F4 =
highly variable open forest along Felton Drain
with clones of quaking aspen; FS = disturbed
site with sumac and apple trees present;
F5 = open woodland similar in composition to
F-J. Shrubs and herbaceous layers indicate
that most areas have not been cultivated.
F-| - F3 was sampled with point-centered
quadrats (points centered on spray heads)
and importance values, density, and basal
area data are available in WQMP files.
Experimental areas. Ex-| = teasel population
study area; Ex2 - Ex5 = fertilization experi-
ments (experiments completed - areas no longer
in use).
Figure 36 (continued)
Legend of general vegetation map of the spray
irrigation site. Complete breakdown of map symbols
are available from the files of the Institute of
Water Research, MSU, WQMP, upon request.
96
-------
characterization of vegetation and will form the basis for planning research/
irrigation on the project. More detailed analyses (site specific) will be
required for each specific study and will be collected as subsequent studies
are undertaken.
Hydrologic Limitation of Soils
Regardless of the vegetation, the long term usefulness of the terres-
trial site demands that the soil resource not be degraded. The dynamic
nature of the soil must be recognized, including the myriad interactions
between physical, chemical, and biological factors. Any physical compaction
or swelling will affect water percolation while chemical alteration of the
ion exchange capacity of a soil can also change both the chemical and physi-
cal nature of a soil. Physical and chemical changes can alter the ability
of a soil to receive water and can also lead to alterations in soil aeration,
pH, and other chemical equilibria which in turn affect the large and diverse
soil biota. Changes in soil biota can affect both vegetative yield and the
number of types of plants which can be used. Thus, when wastewater is
applied to the land, the soil must be treated as an ecological system, and
alterations in all of the controlling equilibria should be considered.
The high intensity soil map (Figure 35) of the spray irrigation site
was used to calculate the hydraulic limits and phosphorus adsorption for the
site (Figures 37 and 38). Values for hydrologic limit and phosphorus adsorp-
tion capacity were taken from Schneider and Erickson (1972) and are summa-
rized in TABLE 14 along with corresponding areas of each soil type.
Combining soil types with similar hydrologic limits and phosphorus
adsorption capacities yield Figures 37 and 38. The weighted average hydro-
logic limit on the entire 58.3 ha spray site is 4.77 cm of water per ha per
week. The average minimum estimate for phosphorus adsorption capacity is
1586 kg/ha of phosphorus in the first 0.9 m of soil; maximum estimates are
1994 kg/ha phosphorus. These estimates are conservative since no considera-
tion was given to vegetative uptake of phosphorus followed by harvest and
removal of the vegetation. In addition, the estimates were based on short-
term column breakthrough studies which do not reflect long-term crystalliza-
tion and resultant release of some binding sites. Despite potential problems
associated with generalization and lumping of the diverse soils and slopes in
97
-------
VO
00
WQMP Irrigation Area Boundary
'•'•'•'•••'•'•'•-•'•'•'•••••'•
00 cm/week
HI 5 cm/week
H 10 cm/week
20 cm/week
t
N
0
100m
Dec. 1975
Figure 37. Hydraulic limitations for the spray irrigation site.
-------
WQMP Irrigation Area Boundary
H 1795 to 2240 kg/ha
U 1455 to 1795 kg/ha
H 1120 to 1455 kg/ha
0 Less than 1120 kg/ha
t
N
0 100 m
Dec. 1975
Figure 38. Phosphorus adsorption capacity of soils of the spray irrigation site.
-------
TABLE 14. HYDROLOGIC LIMITATION AND PHOSPHORUS ADSORPTION CAPACITY OF SOILS
OF THE IRRIGATION SITE
Map
Symbol*
2
14
6
10
1
19
3
4
9
18
12
11
13
15
17
8
5
16
7
Soil Name
Miami and Marietta
Hillsdale
Barry
Owosso
Brookston
Colwood
Conover
Fox
Kalamazoo
Sebewa
Spinks
Me tea
Matherton
Lamson
Kidder
Westland
Granby
Sisson
Corunna
Hydrologic
Limitation^
Severe
Moderate
Very Severe
Severe
Very Severe
Very Severe
Severe
Moderate
Moderate
Very Severe
Slight
Severe
Severe
Very Severe
Very Severe
Very Severe
Very Severe
Severe
Very Severe
Phosphorus
Adsorption
Capacity*
High
Medium
Low
Medium
High
High
High
Medium to Low
Medium to Low
Medium
Medium
Med ium
Medium to Low
Medium
High to Medium
Medium
Very Low
High
Med ium
Hectares in
Irrigation
Site
24.56
6.68
3.66
3.24
3.05
2.95
2.71
1.50
1.71
1.56
1.04
1.00
0.98
0.81
0.78
0.68
0.61
0.41
0.34
* See Figure 35 (High Intensity Soil Map).
"f" Hydrologic Limitation: Slight = 20 cm/week maximum application.
Moderate =
Severe =
Very Severe =
™ Phosphorus Adsorption Capacity:
10 cm/week maximum application.
5 cm/week maximum application.
0 cm/week maximum application.
Very High = >2240 (kg/ha in top 0.9 m)
High = 1795-2240 (kg/ha in top 0.9 m)
Medium = 1455-1795 (kg/ha in top 0.9 m)
Low = 1120-1455 (kg/ha in top 0.9
Very Low = <1120 (kg/ha in top 0.9 m)
m)
the irrigation area, these estimates represent first approximations for both
water application rate and phosphorus adsorption capacity.
The feasibility of spray irrigation in the winter in Michigan is
unknown at present (see subsequent portion of this section for preliminary
data). The following annual loading calculations are based on the assump-
tion that irrigation may not be possible for periods ranging from 0 to 16
weeks each year.
100
-------
The average hydrologic limitation of 4.77 cm of water per ha per week
3
over the 58.3 ha spray site would allow a weekly application of 27,810 m
of water (7.35 million gallons) per week or 3972 m" /d (1.05 MGD) if irriga-
tion were possible 52 weeks per year. However, if the annual irrigation
period was reduced by climatic constraints to 36 weeks, the hydraulic load
3
applied would total approximately 1,000,000 m (264.5 million gallons) per
3
year or an average of 2745 m /d (0.72 MGD). Similarly determined values for
3
a 40 week irrigation period would be 3048 m /d (0.81 MGD).
The length of time that the top 0.9 m of these soils could continue to
3
sorb phosphorus at a loading of 2745 m /d of wastewater (0.72 MGD) would be
18.5 years if the incoming wastewater had an average concentration of 5 mg
P/£ or 85.9 kg/ha/yr. Crops in the experimental plots in 1974 removed from
18 to 27 kg/ha/yr (see Crops portion of this section). Assuming a removal
of 25 kg/ha/yr in vegetation, the effective soil loading would be 60.9 kg/ha/
yr resulting in phosphorus saturation in about 26 years. If the next 0.9 m
of soil were also available for adsorption before reaching the water table
(as is likely), then the life expectancy of the soil system for P removal
would be well over 50 years at a spray irrigation schedule of 4.77 cm/ha/week
for 36 weeks per year (the hydraulic limit of the site).
Obviously if no water is irrigated during the 16 week period associated
with a 36 week irrigation period, sufficient water storage capacity must be
available to hold all inflowing wastewater during the 16 week period. Thus,
the storage capacity demand associated with a 36 week irrigation period would
3
be 307,440 m (81 million gallons). It is also apparent that the storage
reservoir would have to be empty at the end of the 36 week irrigation period
and would be full at the end of the 16 week storage period. Thus, to irri-
gate at a rate of 4.77 cm/week on 58.3 ha for a 36 week irrigation period,
3
a storage volume of 307,440 m (248.5 acre-feet) would be required and the
3
average daily input of wastewater would be limited to 2745 m /d (0.72 MGD)
if the facility was operated on a 365 day year basis.
The total storage capacity of the four WQMP lakes at normal operating
3
level is 259,000 m (210 acre-feet) of water. Thus, if these lakes were
drained by December 1 and allowed to fill during a 16 week storage period,
3
the daily input of wastewater on a 365 day basis would be limited to 2312 m
(0.61 MGD). This would yield a maximum irrigation of 2.8 cm of water per ha
101
-------
per week during the 36 week irrigation period and would mean that the lakes
would have to be drained each year. Obviously this would reduce the evalua-
tion of the potential that aquatic systems have for recycle of wastewaters.
The WQMP is a flexible system and the 4.77 cm/week during the 36 week
spray season can be irrigated on the land, and subsequently shunted through
the East Lansing Sewage Treatment Plant during the 16 week non-irrigation
period. However, design of a self-contained land treatment system would
require a larger storage capacity than was built into the WQMP. The irriga-
3
tion area of the WQMP can accept 47 m of wastewater per day per ha (0.0123
MGD/ha). Thus, 81 ha of land would be required for the application of
I
3
o
3785 m /d of wastewater (1 MGD) without winter spraying on similar soil
types in this area with a required winter storage capacity of 424,000 m~
(344 acre-feet).
BASELINE WATERSHED STUDIES
Surface runoff at this site will occur, in general, only under loading
rates in excess of 5 cm/week either from natural precipitation or wastewater
irrigation. Wastewater application is being controlled so that runoff
occurs only as a result of natural precipitation inputs. Therefore, infil-
tration and percolation of water through the soils become the dominant trans-
port mechanism for losses of materials from the site. Nevertheless, runoff
caused by natural precipitation can transport some of the nutrients and
possibly toxins added by wastewater irrigation and these losses have to be
quantified.
Runoff losses of nutrients and other materials are most easily quanti-
fied using a watershed input-output approach. Due to the lack of significant
slopes, there are few readily definable watersheds on the project. One small
7.3 ha old field watershed does exist (B in Figure 33), and it has been
reserved for baseline studies of nutrient cycling prior to wastewater irriga-
tion. Inputs and outputs are being monitored in order to construct mass
balances for the watershed. Intrasystem nutrient cycling will also be moni-
tored with particular emphasis on buildup or transformation of materials
within the soil. After these baseline data are collected, the watershed can
then be experimentally manipulated under various wastewater irrigation
regimes.
102
-------
Two major types of studies have presently been completed oil this water-
shed. These include baseline studies of nitrifying and denitrifying micro-
bial populations and studies of soil chemistry. Data from these two studies
are summarized below.
Population Analyses of Microorganisms Responsible for Nitrification and
Denitrification
Soil samples were taken in August and December, 1974, from a variety
of soil types on the baseline watershed. Population estimates were made
using the most probable number technique. Results are summarized in TABLE
15.
Soil Chemistry
Paired soil samples (3 m apart) were taken at 24 sampling sites in the
7.3 ha baseline watershed (B in Figure 33). Sampling sites were located
along a "star" shaped group of criss-crossing transects. A north-south
transect (9 sampling sites) was centrally located with an east-west transect
(7 sites) located at right angles to it. A northeast-southwest transect (4
sites) and a northwest-southeast transect (4 sites) complete the sampling
layout. Thus, the entire watershed has been systematically sampled; this
sampling scheme tends to bias the results towards the center of the water-
shed with fewer sampling sites located peripherally.
Analytical procedures followed standard methods for soil analyses. Pre-
analysis treatment of samples is summarized below.
Total Kjeldahl N—
Soils were ground to pass through a 10 mm sieve. Analyses were done on
both air dry and wet samples. Wet samples were stored in a freezer at 26°C
until analysis. Results are reported on a dry weight basis, but wet weight
determinations are available. Analyses followed semi-micro Kjeldahl tech-
niques.
N03-N and Cl—
Anions were extracted from wet soil (stored at 26°C until analysis) with
CaSO,. Results are reported as yg N or Cl/g dry soil (air dry basis).
Results are also available on a wet weight basis.
103
-------
TABLE 15. MEAN POPULATIONS OF NITRIFYING AND DENITRIFYING MICROORGANISMS
FOUND IN THE BASELINE WATERSHED PRIOR TO EFFLUENT IRRIGATION
Date
Sample Characteristics of Soil
Population
(MPN per g/dry wt of soil)
Denitrifiers Nitrifiers
December,
1974
August,
1974
4
5
1
2
3
well drained; fine sandy 5.1x10
loam
c
somewhat poorly drained; 1.4x10"
sandy loam
c
poorly drained-somewhat 1.0x10"
poorly drained; fine
sandy loam
c
poorly drained; loam 6.9x10"
c
moderately well drained; 2.0x10"
loam -> fine sandy loam
lowland 9.8x10
midland 2. 5x10"
upland 4.8x10
3.3x10-
6.3x10
2.8x10
2.0x10
7.3x10"
104
-------
Available PO.-P—
Phosphate was extracted from air dried soil using Bray's dilute acid-
dilute fluoride solution and analyzed for PO.-P content following standard
procedures. This phosphorus is readily available to plants.
Total P—
Total P was determined on an aliquot of digested soil using a nitric-
perchloric acid digestion followed by dissolution in hydrochloric acid.
Results are reported on a dry weight basis (yg P/g dry soil).
Moisture Content—
Moisture content was determined by dividing the weight of water at time
of field sampling by the dry weight of the soil.
Other Parameters—
Other parameters measured include extractable (in 1 N ammonium acetate)
Na, K, Ca, and Mg; total (digested as in Total P above) Na, K, Ca, Mg, Zn,
Mn, and Fe; pH (measured in a 1:1 soil:water paste after one hour of water
contact) and boron (hot water extract). Pb and Cu were below levels of
detection with presently available equipment (without a graphite furnace).
The parameters listed above are not included in the present summary as
initial research emphasis will be on P and N cycling utilizing Cl as a con-
servative "tracer" element for wastewater movement. However, all the above
analyses are complete and these baseline data are available as part of our
central data bank.
Results and Discussion
Data on N, P, Cl, and moisture content are summarized in TABLE 16.
Certain trends are apparent. Available P and NO«-N are very low in these
soils and decrease rapidly with depth in the soil column (TABLE 16). There-
fore, vegetation on these fields is likely to be limited by one or both of
these nutrients. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen reflects the nitrogen bound in
root biomass with levels being high in the surface soils but decreasing
exponentially with depth (from 1095 yg/g at the surface to 34 yg/g at 300 cm) .
Total P is more variable but is generally higher at the surface and decreases
with depth down to 125 cm. Beyond that, total P levels are relatively con-
stant . Chloride is also higher at the surface and decreases rapidly down to
105
-------
TABLE 16. SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOILS TAKEN FROM THE BASELINE OLD FIELD WATERSHED IN THE
WQMP (ALL VALUES ARE yg/g DRY SOIL ± ONE STANDARD DEVIATION)
o
Depth (cm)
0- 5
5- 10
10- 15
15- 31
31- 46
46- 61
61- 76
76- 91
91-107
107-122
122-137
137-152
152-183
183-213
213-244
244-274
274-305
% Water
13.76±9.64
11.21±5.66
9.51±4.11
9.47±10.69
7.30+5.47
7.77±5.28
8.43±6.00
9.75±5.42
10.57±4.99
11.76+7.86
11.69±5.20
11.30±3.86
11.12±3.07
10.61±4.57
9.80±3.40
9.61±1.66
11.17±3.26
Chloride
12.91±6.74
7.50±3.37
5.73±2.48
4.44±2.24
4.2113.54
3.83H.34
3. 95H. 56
4.2812.54
4.17±1.35
4. 08H. 53
4.03H.20
4.07H.57
4. 55H.85
3.90H.15
3.62+0.75
3.74+1.15
3.8410.75
NO -N
3.8414.24
3.9414.85
3.65+3.58
3.00+2.87
2.02+1.39
1.78H.14
1.77+1.04
1.8111.25
1.77+1.08
1.75+1.14
1.60H.OO
1. 6H1. 04
1.6410.99
1.25+0.81
1.1910.87
0.9410.87
0.5810.29
Kjeldahl N
10951382
10081329
7621320
5991297
3791249
247H17
2221121
1781116
134+91
102+75
81161
68158
59142
52137
42152
45120
34H2
Available P
6.4816.94
4.3614.29
3.1012.31
2.5012.16
2.9314.33
2.3915.42
2.6014.97
2.3413.29
2.61+3.43
2.1913.02
1.9112.92
1.3012.15
0. SOU. 41
0.92+1.86
0.6410.93
0.6510.80
0.68H.28
Total P
. 3421204
3411222
3241212
283H83
2541221
2451202
2521155
282H71
277+162
2831232
236H18
231±89
238179
250180
235182
230180
256191
-------
25 cm where it becomes relatively constant throughout the soil column (TABLE
16). Chloride is expected to be relatively constant with depth; high surface
values may reflect the extraction technique rather than real differences.
Anion exchange capacity would certainly be affected by the organic acids in
the surface soils and could affect the CaSO, extraction. These soil data
reflect the very low fertility of this abandoned field site. Addition of the
nutrients in wastewater to this field will likely result in increased vege-
tative growth and vigor. This will be tested in the future.
These soil data will form the basis for comparison with soils after
wastewater irrigation is initiated. Samples are stored for additional
analyses, should such analyses be needed. Soil Samples collected systemati-
cally over the entire irrigation site are also stored for analysis should
they be needed in future studies.
VEGETATIONAL RESPONSES OF ABANDONED FIELDS TO WASTEWATER IRRIGATION
Fields on marginal soils have been abandoned over much of the United
States. This land is relatively inexpensive and represents an under-
utilized resource. Use of such land for wastewater renovation is desirable
as it would return these fields to useful productivity and, at the same
time, would alleviate the wastewater disposal problem. Also, these fields
may be able to renovate wastewater with a minimum investment of effort by
operators of such systems, an attractive attribute for small communities
where manpower is limited. A study of vegetation responses on old fields to
wastewater irrigation was initiated in 1975.
Materials and Methods
Initial studies were begun in May, 1975, on vegetational responses of
an abandoned field (areas G, H, I, K in Figure 33) on the WQMP to application
of treated municipal effluent sprayed from the bottom of Lake 1.
Irrigation from the bottom of Lake 1 was initiated on May 21, 1975, and
continued through October,1975. Therefore, irrigation encompassed the entire
growing season. Application was at the rate of 7.1 cm/week on spray zone 21
(1.8 ha, G in Figure 33); 4.3 cm/week on spray zone 22 (this 2.5 ha zone had
received 19.4 cm of wastewater the previous winter — K in Figure 33);. and
107
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3.5 cm/week on spray zone 23 (1.8 ha, H in Figure 33). Wastewater was
applied in two applications per week.
Inputs of total P, NO.,-N, and total Kjeldahl N were monitored in samples
from spray zones 21 and 23. Ten glass collectors were randomly located in
each zone; two composite samples from each zone were analyzed for each spray
application.
Vegetation was sampled at two week intervals starting prior to spraying
2
in April, 1975. Initially, eight random 0.5 m quadrat clip samples (0.25 m )
were taken every two weeks in each of the three irrigated areas in two
nearby control areas (area I and adjacent to K in Figure 33). The number of
quadrats were increased to 12 after the first four sampling dates. Ten ran-
dom 10 cm soil cores were also taken for soil moisture determinations. Vege-
tation and litter samples were sorted to species, counted, dried, and weighed.
Dried samples were analyzed for N and P content.
Results and Discussion
Mean living biomass increases on each of the zones are illustrated in
Figure 39. Production of new biomass was accelerated in the area receiving
7.1 cm of wastewater over production in the unsprayed areas. There are
possible increases in the other irrigated areas as well, but they are not as
evident as in zone 21. Much of this increase in production may be related to
a more constant soil moisture regime (Figure 40), with all three of the irri-
gated areas remaining constantly moist. The unsprayed areas underwent rather
dry conditions on a periodic basis. Specific growth rates for the unsprayed
areas reflect the severity of these drought periods (Figure 39) with the dry
conditions between May 28 and June 11 having particularly devastating effects.
This dry period occurred at the time when goldenrod, Solidago sp_. , was
beginning its period of rapid biomass accumulation (Figure 41). Quackgrass,
Agropyron repens, had already achieved most of its biomass accumulation
(Figure 41). Thus, the early June dry period appears to have resulted in a
delayed onset of rapid biomass accumulation for Solidago sp. on the unsprayed
areas resulting in lower biomass accumulation on these areas in June compared
to the irrigated areas. Growth did resume as soil moisture increased on the
control areas; but total biomass accumulation never caught up with the sprayed
areas, particularly the area receiving 7.1 cm of wastewater.
108
-------
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DATE (I975)
Figure 40. Changes in soil moisture in the old fields during irrigation.
-------
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Data indicate that the plant biomass had taken up from 43 to 89 kg/ha
of N on the five areas (79 to 89 kg/ha on the irrigated areas, 43 kg/ha on
control zone 22c, and 74 kg/ha on control zone 23c) by June 25, 1975. Only
65 kg/ha of N had been applied on the plot receiving maximum wastewater input.
Thus, harvesting of the accumulated plant biomass would have removed more
total N than was applied in wastewater at the rate of 7.1 cm/week through
June 25, 1975.
For the entire growing season, vegetation uptake was not as effective.
By August 6, 1975, biomass accumulation had reached its maximum. At that
point, vegetation on the 7.1 cm/week site had taken up 140 kg N/ha, the
4.3 cm/week site had taken up 90 kg N/ha, and the 3.5 cm/week site had taken
up 112 kg N/ha. Little additional biomass increase or nitrogen uptake
occurred. Thus, harvest of plant biomass after this date would have removed
45% of applied N on the 7.1 cm/week site, 48% of applied N on the 4.3 cm/
week site, and 73% of applied N on the 3.5 cm/week site. If harvest had
occurred in June as discussed above, regrowth of vegetation should have
occurred resulting in substantially increased uptake and better renovation
than would have occurred with a mid-August only harvest. Thus, timing of
harvest for removal of nutrients is of critical importance. Harvesting
should be initiated immediately after the period when the specific growth
rate for the plant community begins to decrease exponentially and prior to
the time when biomass accumulation reaches a plateau. Plots of specific
growth rate versus biomass accumulation (Figure 39) indicate that harvesting
between May 28 and June 25 would have been most efficient in 1975. Further,
quackgrass, Agropyron repens, accounted for the majority of biomass accumu-
lation prior to May 28 on all plots; whereas goldenrod, Solidago sp., became
important on subsequent dates (Figure 41). Quackgrass is a much more desir-
able forage for livestock than is goldenrod. Thus, harvesting around June
10 would remove the majority of nutrients accumulated to that point in time
as a desirable, predominately grass forage. It is possible that quackgrass
would respond to cutting with a renewed period of rapid growth and biomass
accumulation resulting in substantial additional removal (in a second har-
vest) of nutrients. Therefore, harvesting around June 10 is recommended with
the exact date determined by sampling biomass accumulation and specific growth
rate on a routine basis. A second harvest should also be considered.
112
-------
The increased biomass accumulation discussed above was accomplished by
the functional response of more rapid growth of plants already present and
not by the numerical response of production of more stems per unit area
(Figure 42). There were no important shifts in diversity between irrigated
and non-irrigated areas. Diversity changes in these predominantly perennial
communities would be expected to occur in subsequent years rather than in
the initial year of irrigation. Monitoring of future shifts in diversity
should be interesting.
Litter decomposition rates were markedly enhanced by application of
wastewater in all three experimental areas compared to the two control areas
(Figure 43). Therefore, nutrients bound in dead vegetation were recycled
much more rapidly due to irrigation and were more available for production
of new biomass. These nutrients were also more available for leaching from
the system. Mass balance studies of nutrient movement in these systems will
be initiated during the next growing season.
Conclusions
Results to date are for the 1975 growing season only. Analyses are
continuing and the following conclusions should be viewed as preliminary.
Thus far, analyses indicate that:
(1) Production of new biomass in old field communities increases sub-
stantially as a result of wastewater irrigation.
(2) This increased production is a result of more rapid growth and
cannot be attributed to an increase in numbers of stems per unit
area.
(3) Wastewater irrigation has not resulted in diversity shifts during
the first season. However, the perennial plants may respond in
the following season resulting in delayed diversity changes.
(4) Rate of decomposition of litter has been increased substantially
by wastewater irrigation.
(5) Monitoring of biomass accumulation and specific growth rate for
the whole community is a valid way of determining the most
efficient harvest schedule; harvesting should have been conducted
about June 10, 1975, with a second harvest later in the year.
113
-------
cc
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4-16 5-1 5-14 5-28 6-11 6-25 7-9 7-23 8-6 8-20 4-16 5-1 5-14 5-28 6-11 6-25 7-9 7-23 8-6 8-20
DATE (1975)
Figure 42. Mean stem production on wastewater irrigated and non-irrigated old fields.
-------
7.1 cm/week; Zone 21
D 4.3 cm/week; Zone 22
A3.5cm/weekj Zone 23
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4-16 5-1 5-14 5-28 6'H 6-25 7-9 7-23 8-6 5-1 5-14 5-28 6-11 6-25 7-9 7-23 8-6
DATE (1975)
Figure 43. Mean litter disappearance rate in wastewater irrigated
and non-irrigated old field areas.
115
-------
(6) Biomass accumulation of nitrogen by the plant community is suffi-
cient for complete removal of all nitrogen applied in wastewater
at an application rate of 7.1 cm/week during the first six weeks
of growth. Harvesting leads to renewed growth of plants resulting
in even more nutrient removal. Without harvesting, biomass (and
nutrient) accumulation peaks in early August, and little nutrient
removal occurs later in the season. A single harvest in mid-
August would remove only 45 to 73% of applied N for the 3.5 to
7.1 cm/week application rates. Thus, two harvests per year are
recommended.
Future Research
Vegetational responses to wastewater application on these old field plots
(areas G, H, I in Figure 33) will be continued during the upcoming year.
Application rates will be at rates of 5 and 10 cm/week. The irrigated plots
will be subdivided into subplots. Some subplots will not be harvested,
some will be harvested once, and others will be harvested twice. Time of
harvest will be determined by monitoring specific growth rate and biomass
accumulation. Control (unsprayed) plots will also be monitored as will the
winter spray plot (it will receive 5 cm/week during the summer). All
studies conducted during 1975 will be continued in 1976. Lysimeter and
runoff studies will be initiated in 1976 allowing construction of mass
balances for nutrients.
RESPONSE OF FORESTED ECOSYSTEMS TO WASTEWATER IRRIGATION
Introduction
Research on wastewater application to forested ecosystems on the WQMP
falls into three categories. These include (1) a preliminary study on the
2
feasibility of wastewater irrigation using a series of small 4 m plots
irrigated by trickle-irrigation, (2) a study on spray irrigation using large
1.2 ha plots, and (3) a study of the impact of wastewater irrigation on a
newly established mixed hardwood-conifer plantation. The first study has
been completed while the other two studies are just getting underway. Each
study will be discussed separately below.
116
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Small Plot Study
A study on wastewater application to forests was conducted in 1972 and
1973 on the WQMP prior to complete installation of the spray irrigation
system. As a result, secondary sewage effluent from the city of East Lansing
2
was trucked to the site and applied to 4 m plots (sites labeled in Figure
33) using gravity-feed trickle-irrigation techniques. The experimental
design consisted of three replicated blocks of five random plots located
on Miami sandy loam soil along the western edge of a second-growth sugar
maple-beech forest (Figure 33). Each of the three blocks consisted of five
plots with the following treatments: a non-irrigated control plot, a
5 cm/week well-water irrigated control plot, and three plots which recieved
2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 cm of chlorinated secondary wastewater effluent per week.
Irrigation was at the rate of 2.5 to 5.0 cm per hour, one day per week from
August 1 to October 10, 1972, and from June 8 to October 19, 1973. Losses
of nutrients in soil water under each plot were monitored at depths of 30
and 60 cm with porous cup suction lysimeters.
Average nutrient concentrations and loading rates are presented in
TABLE 17. Two facts are worth noting. First, total P concentrations in
sewage were only 1.0 mg/Jl in 1972 and 0.7 mg/fl, in 1973. Thus, loadings
approximate tertiary effluent loadings. Second, nitrogen loading was about
equally divided between NH.-N and NO--N in 1972 while 81% (97.5 kg/ha) of
the nitrogen applied in 1973 was in the NH.-N form.
The dominant trend in the small forest plot data was the high flushing
rate of NO--N. Often NO,,-N concentrations in the 60 cm lysimeters were
higher than concentrations in application of wastewater due to flushing of
existing NO -N from the system and/or to conversion of organic and NH.-N to
NOo-N. Concentration of NO,,-N, at times, exceeded 20 mg/£. A perfect
example of the overall flushing process can be seen in the data of the 7.5cm/
week application rate of wastewater in 1973 at the 60 cm lysimeter depth.
About 120 kg/ha of nitrogen was applied by irrigation with 81% (97.5 kg/ha)
of this nitrogen being in the NH/-N form. However, 87% (77 kg/ha) of the
total N reaching the lysimeters was in the form of NO.,-N. Since total NO_-N
loading for that rate was only 12 kg/ha, 65 kg/ha had to come from NH.-N
and organic N transformation and/or from flushing of N from the system.
117
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TABLE 17. WASTEWATER IRRIGATION AND NUTRIENT LOADING RATES FOR THE SMALL
PLOT STUDY, 1972 AND 1973
(A) Average concentrations (mg/£) of sewage effluent and well water.
Year
NH -N NO«-N Organic N
Total N Total P
(A) Sewage Effluent
1972
1973
(B) Well
1972
1973
4.8 5.2 1.5
6.5 0.8 0.7
Water
0.04 0.04 0.02
0.04 0.04 0.02
11.5 1.0
8.0 0.7
0.10 <0.01
0.10 <0.01
(B) Average nutrient loading rate (kg/ha) with different levels (mm) of well
water (w) and wastewater irrigations(s).
1972 1973
Nutrient
25
s
50 s
75 s
50
w
25
s
50 s
75 s
50 w
NH ~™N
fi
NO ^N
Organic N
Total N
Total P
12
16
3
31
2
.0
.0
.8
.8
.5
24.0
32.0
7.6
63.6
5.0
36.0
48.0
11.4
95.4
7.5
0
0
0
0
<0
.2
.2
.1
.5
.!
32
4
3
40
3
.5
.0
.5
.0
.5
65.0
8.0
7.0
80.0
7.0
97.5
12.0
10.5
120.0
10.5
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.5
<0.1
118
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Calculation of groundwater recharge according to Thornthwaite's and
Mather's Water Budget Method (Thornthwaite and Mather, 1967) permitted calcu-
lation of mass balance nutrient budgets for the forest (TABLE 18). These
data indicate that phosphorus is about 98% retained in soils for all three
levels of irrigation while only 12 to 45% of nitrogen is retained. Irriga-
tion with well water resulted in flushing of 26.8 kg/ha of nitrogen from the
system. Most nitrogen losses were in the form of NCL-N. These relatively
TABLE 18. ESTIMATION OF TOTAL NITROGEN AND TOTAL PHOSPHORUS BUDGET FOR
THE SMALL PLOT STUDIES, 1972 AND 1973
Budget Item
Nitrogen:
Wastewater Loading
Loss to Water Table
Phosphorus :
Wastewater Loading
Loss to Water Table
Budget
Relationship
Input
Output
Input
Output
Irrigation Rate (mm/week)
Well Wastewater
Water
50 25 50 75
kg /ha
1.6 68.8 137.6 206.2
26.8 50.0 76.0 180.7
0.1 6.2 12.0 18.1
0.3 0.1 0.2 0.4
high NO -N losses could have resulted from the high hourly application (2.5
to 5.0 cm/hour). However, other studies including those at Pennsylvania
State University (Sopper and Kardos, 1973) have shown high NO--N losses as
well. Renovation of phosphorus in Wastewater was obtained at a "cost" of
groundwater NO.-.-N contamination. Therefore, irrigation of wastewater in
hardwood forests in Michigan is feasible only if the groundwater recharge
from uncontaminated areas is large enough to facilitate dilution of the
high NO--N levels or if low N wastewater is available from lagoons. If
groundwater dilution is counted on, the problem has simply been shifted from
surface water to the groundwater resources. However, phosphorus (and
probably heavy metals) are almost completely removed. This benefit may
outweigh the cost of NO~-N groundwater contamination, especially in areas
119
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where the groundwater dilution pool is large or where the groundwater is
already high in nitrates.
Large Plot Spray Irrigation Study
One spray irrigation zone (2.4 ha) in the northwest portion of the
sugar maple-beech forest on the WQMP was subdivided into two (1.2 ha) plots
(areas D and E in Figure 33) in order to see if the initial findings from
the small plot trickle-irrigation study were applicable to larger scale
spray irrigation of wastewater. Litter fall, litter decomposition, produc-
tion of new plant tissue, and herbaceous species diversity data have been
collected for one year as baseline data in areas C, D and E in Figure 33.
These data will also be collected during spray irrigation.
One of the two 1.2 ha plots on the spray irrigation zone (area D in
Figure 33) started receiving 5.0 cm (two 2.5 cm applications per week at a
rate of 0.5 cm/hour) of chlorinated secondary municipal effluent concomi-
tant with litter fall in early October, 1975. Spray irrigation continued
through November 20, 1975, when freezing conditions became common. Spray
irrigation will resume with the spring thaw. Twenty-six porous cup suction
lysimeters were placed at depths ranging from 15 to 150 cm under the spray
zone, six of which were placed under the unsprayed 1.2 ha control (area E,
Figure 33). As soon as lysimeters presently on order arrive, the lysimeter
monitoring network will be completed and will include 40 lysimeters on the
irrigated plot and 40 on the control plot. Mass balances of nutrients (inputs
from rain and wastewater irrigation and outputs to groundwater and runoff)
will be constructed for various forms of phosphorus and nitrogen and for Cl.
Preliminary data indicate that phosphorus is readily retained by the
soil while NO.-.-N is flushed out of the system; concentrations of NO...-N at
150 cm depths are often higher than input values by a factor of two indi-
cating both flushing of "old" NO«-N as well as high leaching rates for newly
applied NO«-N. Initial levels in excess of 30 mg/& have been recorded.
These initial data are very preliminary but indicate that results from the
small trickle-irrigated plots can generally be extrapolated to the whole
forest system.
The application of wastewater to the hardwoods forest ecosystem will be
continued over the next two years in order to quantify effects of such
120
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irrigation on nutrient budgets and groundwater contamination. Vegetational
dynamics will also be monitored.
Tree Plantation Study
The feasibility of utilizing secondary municipal effluent in production
of forest products is under investigation. The research area is located in
the southwest corner of the WQMP spray irrigation site (F in Figure 33). A
2.1 ha old field was planted with nine tree species on April 1, 1974. The
species were Norway spruce (Picea abies), white spruce (Picea glauca), Scotch
pine (Pinus sylvestris), black walnut (Juglans nigra), black cherry (Prunus
serotina), tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), white ash (Fraxinus
americana), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and eastern cottonwood
(Populus deltoides). American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) was added in
April, 1975.
The experimental design consists of 14 replications in a randomized
complete block design with each replication containing 40 trees of one species
per 61 m row in 10 rows. Spacing is 1.5 m in the row and 2.1 m between rows.
There are a total of 400 trees per replicate or 5600 trees.
Wastewater irrigation from the bottom of Lake 1 was at the rate of 0.4
cm/hr or 2.6 cm applied two days per week over the 3 month growing season in
1975; 26 cm were applied in 1974. Replication #1 received no irrigation and
served as a control. Wastewater samples were collected weekly from the spray
irrigation heads; soil water was sampled from 15 porous cup suction lysimeters
placed 61 cm into the soil. Analysis of vegetational response was by
harvesting the largest specimen of each species in each row of the first 10
replications. Soil samples were collected from four depths (0-15, 15-30,
45-60, 105-120 cm) in July, 1974, and May and September, 1975.
Nutrient removal for the whole site appeared to be reasonably effective.
Removal was 95% for P, 64% for total N, 68% for K, 46% for Ca, 54% for Mg,
and 71% for Na. Some of this apparent uptake was likely due not only to the
fast growing tree seedlings but also to the grasses which voluntarily grew
between tree rows.
Data on plant biomass and nutrient levels are still being analyzed.
Problems with installation and operation of the spray irrigation system in
1974 led to death of many trees. With consistent irrigation in 1975,
121
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seedling biomass and nutrient content samples indicated a. significant growth
increase as compared to 1974. Whether wastewater can effectively be used in
management of forest plantations or not remains an open question; this
research project is aimed at providing such information.
RESPONSE OF CROPS TO WASTEWATER IRRIGATION
The terrestrial spray site operation has a finite life expectancy based
on the ability of soils on the site to retain nutrients and toxins. Uptake
of nutrients by plants with subsequent removal of nutrients from the site in
plant biomass is an advantageous way of prolonging the life of the system,
especially if plant biomass removal is in the form of useful by-products.
Thus, agricultural production would be an ideal mechanism for nutrient
removal if it resulted in production of useful products uncontaminated with
high levels of heavy metals or other toxins.
A program to assess the response of various crops to wastewater irriga-
tion with secondary municipal effluent was initiated on the WQMP in 1974
(area A, Figure 33). Crops included 8 varieties of grasses, 6 varieties of
alfalfa, 2 varieties of birdsfoot trefoil, 2 varieties of corn, and 2
varieties of sorghum (TABLE 19). The experimental design consisted of a
split-plot block design with three replications. Annuals and perennials were
whole plots and species were subplots within effluent levels. Effluent levels
were not replicated. The three effluent levels used were 2.5 cm, 5.1 cm, and
7.6 cm. Plots were established on a 0.9 ha old field site on a uniform
Miami loam soil. There were a total of 180 plots (1.8 m wide and 9.1 m long
for perennials; 3.1 m wide and 9.1 m long for annuals with 4 rows per plot,
and 0.76 m spacing between rows).
Data on yields of crops, application of wastewater, nutrients applied,
and nutrient removal by crop harvest are presented in TABLES 20 and 21.
Data for the two years are not entirely comparable since irrigation did not
start until July 17 in 1974 and since heavy raccoon damage to the corn crop
in 1975 made estimates for this crop impossible. These data do demonstrate
that crops can potentially remove more N and P than was added in wastewater
at the 2.5 cm/week irrigation level. Almost all applied N was removed in
harvest for all crops at even the 7.6 cm/week level but phosphorus removal
122
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TABLE 19. VARIETIES OF CROPS GROWN ON THE WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROJECT
I. Grasses: Planted August, 1973; harvested in 1974.
1. Smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis Leyss) cultlvar Sac (southern)
2. Smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis Leyss) Canadian source (northern)
3. Orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) cultivar Nordstern
4. Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) cultivar Ky. 31
5. Timothy (Phleum pratense Leyss) cultivar Verdant
6. Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis Leyss) cultivar Park
7. Creeping foxtail (Alopecurus arundinaceus Poir) cultivar Garrison
8. Reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) commercial
II. Legumes: Planted August, 1973; harvested in 1974.
9. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) cultivar Saranac
10. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) cultivar Agate (Phytophthora resistant)
11. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) cultivar Vernal
12. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) cultivar 520
13. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) cultivar Iroquois
14. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) cultivar Ramsey
15. Birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.) cultivar Viking
16. Birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus L.) cultivar Carrol
III. Annuals: Planted and harvested in 1974.
17. Corn (Zea mays L.) cultivar Funk G-4444
18. Corn (Zea mays L.) cultivar Mich. 560-3X
19. Sorghum-sudangrass hydrid (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench x S_.
sudanense P. Stapf) cultivar Pioneer 908
20. Forage sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) cultivar Pioneer 931
efficiency dropped to less than 40% in most cases. Alfalfa appeared to be
the best plant for nutrient removal. It removed more nitrogen at all levels
of application than any of the other three. However, alfalfa is a nitrogen-
fixer and may have fixed much of the nitrogen removed in its biomass.
Orchardgrass was best of the non-nitrogen fixing plants for nitrogen removal
except at 2.5 cm/week application rates where corn removed more N. There is
little difference for removal among the 4 crops examined; all removed 18 to
36 kg/ha regardless of application rate (TABLE 21).
A significant unanswered question for this project is data on leaching
of nutrients in soil water and runoff. This information has not been
collected as yet. The experiment will be repeated in 1976 to obtain further
123
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TABLE 20. YIELDS (12% MOISTURE; rat/ha) OF PERENNIALS (CUT 3X) AND ANNUALS* (CUT ONCE) IN 1974 and 1975.
Effluent Per Week (Started July 17, 1974 and May 20, 1975
Species, Variety
Legumes
Alfalfa (6)
Birdsfoot Trefoil (2)
Grasses
Brome, Sac (Southern)
Brome , Canadian
Reed, Canary, Commercial
Tall Fescue, Ky. 31
Orchard, Nordstern
Ky. Bluegrass, Park
Timothy, Verdant
Reed Foxtail, Garrison
Average
Corn
Funk G-4444
(bu/acre)
Mich. 575-2X
(bu/acre)
Sorghum
Forage, Pioneer 931
Sudangrass, Pioneer 988
2.5 cm
1974
10.98
9.16
7.15
7.44
7.37
8.15
7.73
4.53
6.65
4.53
6.69
16.85
99
15.41
66
12.79
9.72
2.5 cm
1975
13.55
11.16
7.31
5.48
8.91
8.71
8.04
5.01
6.85
5.17
6.83
19.71
14.42
5.1 cm
1974
11.76
11.22
10.39
10.17
9.25
9.48
8.47
8.24
6.56
6.47
8.63
14.78
76
14.47
59
11.89
10.75
5.1 cm
1975
13.88
12.66
7.59
8.91
9.94
10.55
9.74
9.78
8.56
10.10
9.21
21.20
12.35
7.6 cm
1974
11.51
10.00
9.63
9.88
7.75
9.39
8.74
5.53
6.59
5.67
7.90
13.64
68
12.72
45
14.65
10.55
7. 6 cm
1975
13.04
12.34
9.03
9.74
12.81
13.04
10.86
10.55
10.59
10.06
10.84
19.19
12.36
Average
1974
11.42
10.13
9.06
9.16
8.12
9.01
8.31
6.10
6.60
5.56
7.74
15.09
81
14.20
57
13.11
10.34
Average
1975
13.50
12.05
7.70
7.75
10.57
10.77
9.56
8.24
8.66
8.31
8.98
20.05
13.05
*Corn was not harvested in 1975 because of severe damage from raccoons.
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TABLE 21. APPLICATION OF NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS IN WASTEWATER AND FERTILIZER AND REMOVAL OF NITROGEN
AND PHOSPHORUS BY HARVESTING IN 1974 AND 1975 (AMOUNT APPLIED IS BASED ON A 10-WEEK
IRRIGATION PERIOD IN 1974 AND AN 18-WEEK PERIOD IN 1975)
2.5 cm/wk
Nitrogen Phosphorus
Crop 1974 1975 1974 1975
Amount Applied in
Wastewater (kg/ha) 46 92 66
Amount Applied in
Fertilizer (kg/ha)* 30 45 39 58
Total 76 137 45 64
Alfalfa - Removal
(kg/ha) 248 430 18 23
Orchardgrass - Removal
(kg/ha) 165 192 23 23
Forage Sorghum - Removal
(kg/ha) 114 175 21 33
Corn, Mich - Removal
(kg/ha) 202 t 23 t
5.1 cm/wk 7.6 cm/wk
Nitrogen Phosphorus Nitrogen Phosphorus
1974 1975 1974 1975 1974 1975 1974
91 138 12 12 137 186 18
30 45 39 58 30 45 39
121 183 51 70 167 231 57
328 396 24 28 314 412 21
195 247 22 26 225 294 22
93 166 20 36 144 190- 26
150 t 20 t 137 t 27
1975
18
58
76
24
28
34
t
^Fertilizer added as starter fertilizer in spring.
*No estimate for corn for 1975 because of raccoon damage.
-------
data on crop yields and nutrient removal. Each plot will also be monitored
for soil losses of nutrients using porous cup suction lysimeters.
ANIMAL STUDIES
Introduction
The impact of wastewater irrigation on animal populations is an impor-
tant consideration in feasibility studies of wastewater irrigation. Many
soil and litter organisms clearly are greatly affected by changes in the
moisture regime. In turn, these organisms may be responsible for litter
decomposition either directly during microbial degradation or indirectly as
processors of large organic matter into small organic matter. Changes in
moisture content of litter and soil and enhanced turnover of litter and the
nutrients it contains also may affect larger invertebrate and vertebrate
populations by temporal changes in food supply brought about by increased
litter decomposition rates, and by changes in habitat brought about by
vegetational responses to increased moisture and nutrients in wastewater
inputs. Any investigation of wastewater usage for terrestrial irrigation
must consider these impacts. Only a few studies have been conducted else-
where on these problems, and more complete data are necessary for a complete
assessment of wastewater irrigation systems.
Data on response of animal populations to wastewater irrigation will be
collected as part of the ongoing studies on the terrestrial site at the WQMP.
The early efforts in this direction have dealt with establishing baseline
data on species presently on the site and with design and establishment of
experiments or monitoring networks designed to monitor responses of animal
populations to irrigation. Baseline data and future research plans are
summarized below for the soil and litter fauna, plant parasitic nematodes,
insect vectors for human pathogens, and for avian and mammalian populations.
Soil and Litter Fauna
A survey of soil and litter fauna on the project site was conducted in
1973. Twenty different sampling sites were established representing abandoned
field and forested ecosystems on three major soil types (sandy loam, loamy
sand, loam). Core samples (5.1 cm diameter, 15.2 cm deep) were taken at
126
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monthly intervals from July to October, 1973; soil fauna were heat-extracted
in Tullgren funnels. A series of pit traps containing ethylene glycol were
also sampled at 5 to 7 day intervals from July to November; pit traps were
located in four old field areas and in a forested area.
Soil type played only a minor role in distribution of species; cover
type and concurrent moisture and temperature levels were the key determinants
of species distribution. Since each of these latter parameters will be
changed by irrigation, significant changes in the soil, and litter fauna are
to be expected as a consequence of irrigation.
The soil-dwelling fauna was characterized by large numbers of nematodes,
collembola, and oribatid and predatory mites. Collembola were the only group
studied in detail (TABLE 22). They showed significant habitat differences
(TABLE 22). Pit trap data on Collembola distribution are also summarized in
TABLE 22. Smaller numbers of Hemiptera, Diplura, Thysanoptera, Pauropoda,
and Protura were collected. Millipedes were more common than centipedes but
both occurred in all soil and cover types. Surface fauna, as assessed with
pit trap collects, differed markedly from soil fauna and included large
numbers of Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Gastropoda, Arachnida,
and Isopoda. Predatory mites were more common than oribatids. Data on other
components of the soil and litter fauna are still being analyzed.
Studies of Disease Related Invertebrate Populations
The second major group of invertebrate studies presently underway on the
terrestrial site of the WQMP deal with pathogenic invertebrates or with
invertebrate vectors of human related diseases. These studies fall into two
major categories: (1) the plant pathogenic nematodes and (2) the insect
vectors of human diseases. Activities in these two categories have dealt
with establishing pre-irrigation baseline data. These data are summarized
below.
Plant Parasitic Nematodes—
During October and November, 1973, the spray irrigation portion of the
WQMP was divided into 116 plots. On December 4 and 5, 1973, the plots were
sampled by taking twenty-five 2.5 by 20 cm cores of soil from each plot. The
samples were immediately placed in plastic bags and stored at 12.5 C. In
January and February the soil-borne nematodes were extracted from 100 cc
127
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TABLE 22. COLLEMBOLA COLLECTED ON THE TERRESTRIAL SITE OF THE WQMP JULY TO OCTOBER, 1973.
KJ
00
I. Core Soil Samples
Species Common in All Samples
Mesaphorura granulata
M. krausbaueri
Protaphorua armatus
Onychiurus sp.
Isotoma notabilis
Folsomia fimetaria
Willemia intermedia
Hypogas trura armatus
H_. macgillivrayi
Proisotoma sepulcaralis
Xenylla welchi
Orchesella ainsliei
Tomocerus sp.
Lepidocyrtus paradoxus
L_. violaceous
L_. cyaneus
Pseudosinella violenta
P. rolfsT
Entomobrya sp.
Entomobryoides sp.
Architomocerura crassicauda
Species Found Only in Wooded Areas
Neanura muscorum
Paranura caeca
Lepidocyrtus unifasciatus
L_. pallidus
L_. lignorum
Pseudachorufes aureofasciatus
Rare Species
Isotomiella minor
Folsomides parvus
Isotomodes productus
—• ^-lostermani
Proisotoma americana
Hypogastrura montana
Pseudosinella alba
II. Pit Trap Collection
Species Common in All Samples
Tomocerus flavescens
Tomocerus sp.
Lepidocyrtus paradoxus
Species Found Only in Wood Areas
Ptenothrix marmorata
Isotomurus palustris balteatus
Entomobryoides purpurascens
(continued)
-------
TABLE 22 (continued).
Species Common in All Samples
Lepidocyrtus violaceous
_L. cyaneus
Orchesella albosa
Q.' villosa
—• ainsliei
Entomobrya griseoolivata
Entomobrya sp.
Entomobryoides guthriei
Isotoma notabilis
Pseudosinella violenta
P_. rolfsi
Paranura sp.
Hypogastrura brevispina
Sminthuridae
Species Found Only in Wooded Areas
Lepidocyrtus unifasciatus
_L. lanuginosus
_L. helenae
Orchesella hexfasciata
Neanura muscorum
Hypogastrura packardi dentatus
-------
aliquots of the sample from each plot, using a modified centrifugation-
flotation technique.
Stylet-bearing nematodes occurred on all plots. These nematodes were
identified and quantitative population estimates made (TABLE 23). A total
of 44,560 specimens of plant parasitic nematodes, belonging to 24 genera and
59 species, were isolated and identified. Dagger, ring, and spiral nematodes
(Xiphinema americanum, Criconemoides sp., and Helicotylenchus sp., respec-
tively) accounted for 59% of the entire population and were widely distributed
throughout the experimental site. Root-lesion, root-knot, and cyst nematodes
(Pratylenchus sp., Meloldogyne sp., and Heterodera sp., respectively)
accounted for only 3% of the total population.
Root-lesion, root-knot, and cyst nematodes are generally considered to
be the most economically significant phytopathogenic nematodes associated
with agricultural crops grown in Michigan (Bird, 1973). Specimens of these
three nematodes had relatively low population densities and frequencies of
occurrence on the irrigation site. It is highly probable that the use of
this site for the production of various agricultural crops grown under
sewage effluent irrigation will favor increases in the distribution and
population density of phytopathogenic nematode species with some subsequent
losses in production.
Insect Vector Studies—
Eight species of mosquitoes and one species of deer fly were collected
on the WQMP terrestrial site. Landing counts (from 10 forested stations
collected for three two-hour periods, 2 days per week) in 1973 and 1974
indicated that three species of mosquitoes were abundant enough (greater
than 40 per hour) to present possible public health problems but were not
common enough to warrant initiation of control measures (TABLE 24). Light
trap collections indicated that all three species migrate distances of 200
meters or more.
Serum samples from 162 mammals (182 samples) collected from the WQMP
irrigation site prior to wastewater irrigation revealed the presence of a
La Crosse subtype of California encephalitis (5 positive tests included 3 fox
squirrels, 1 red squirrel, and 1 chipmunk) and that an enzootic transmission
cycle of the California encephalitis virus was present on the project site
prior to wastewater irrigation. Studies elsewhere have shown that the
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TABLE 23. TAXA, FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE, AND POPULATION DENSITY OF
STYLET-BEARING NEMATODES INHABITING SOIL OF THE WATER
QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROJECT
CLASS ORDER SUBORDER SUPERFAMILV FAMILY SUBFAMILY GENUS SPECIES
SPECIMENS POPULATION
RECOVERED (MEAN & RANGE)
Nematoda 100— 44,560 384(3-2,71")
Dorylaimida — 93 8,561 79(10-180)
Dorylaimina 93 8,561 —79(10-180)
Dorylairooidea- 91 -8,036 76(10-180)
Long i dor idae - - 91 8,036 76(10-180)
Long idor inae 91 8,036 76(10-180)
1 . Xiphlnema 91 8,036 76(10-180)
1. X. americanum 91 8,036 76(10-180)
Diphtherophoroidea 15 525 29(10-60)
Diphtherophoridae 6 155 22(10-35)
Diphtherophorinae 6 155 22(10-35)
2. Diphtherophora- 6- —155 22(10-35)
2. 0. obesus— —6 155 22(10-35)
Trichodoridae 9 370 34(10-60)
Trichodorinae— 9 370 34(10-60)
3. Trichodorus— 9 370 34(10-60)
3. T. proximus 9 370 34(10-60)
Tylenchida — — - 91 35,945 339 (8-2,710)
Aphelenchina - 3 130 33(20-50)
Aphelenchoidea - 3 130 33(20-50)
Aphelenchoididae-- — 3 130 33(20-50)
Aphelenchoidinae 3 130 33(20-50)
4. Aphelenchoides 3 130 33(20-50)
4. A. parietinus— 1 50 -50(50)
5. A_. ritzema-bosi 1 20 20(20)
6. A. saprophilus- 2 60 30(20-40)
Tylenchina 91 35,815 337 (8-2,710)
Atylenchoidea 0 0 0(0)
Neotylenchoidea 10 740 95(30-150)
Neotylenchidae 10 740 95(30-150)
Neotylenchinae 10 740 9^(30-150)
5. Nothotvlenchus 1 30 10(30)
7. H. acris 1 30 30(30)
6. Boleodorus 9 710 65(30-150)
8. B.. thylactus 9 710 65(30-150)
Cr iconematoidea 81 19,010 231(9-2,710)
Criconematidae 52 14,858 248(9-2,710)
Criconematinae 52 14,858 248(9-2,710)
7. Criconema- 17 1 ,568— 78(10-500)
9. £. octanqulare 17 1,568 78(10-500)
8. Crossonema 16 1 ,094 58(10-450)
10. £. cofabi -3 40 10(40)
11. £. menzel i 13 1,054 70(10-450)
9. Criconemoides- 39 9,542 104(10-1 ,720)
12. C_. curvata 12 1,545 110(20-320)
13. C_. denoudeni 1 10 10(10)
14. C_. rustica 15 3,464 204(10-1,720)
15. C_. zenoplax 7 653 -82(20-198)
16. C_. permistuin 6 1,165 165(45-400)
17. £. petasum 2 50 25(10-40)
18. £. mutabile 1 10 10(10)
19. £. ornata 3 150 50(40-70)
20. C_. princeps 2 50 5C(50)
21. £, macrodora 3 220 73(20-100)
22. Criconemo. n. sp.--3l 1,835 51(9-250)
23. Criconemoides Spp. -9 390 35(10-100)
(continued)
131
-------
TABLE 23 (continued).
i 2 3
CLASS ORDER SUBORDER SUPERFAMILY FAMILY SUBFAMILY GENUS SPECIES RECOVERY SPECIMENS POPULATION
(%) RECOVERED (MEAN S, RANGE)
Hemicycl iophorinae 44 2,654 51 (3-180)
10. Hemlcvcliophora- 44 2,654 51 (3-180)
24. H. similis- 1 3 3(3)
25. H. uniformis- 36 2,338 56(10-180)
26. g. vidua 8 313 35(3-100)
Paratylenchidae 37 4,152 90(9-2,710)
Paratylenchinae 37 4,152 90(9-2,710)
II. Paratvlenchus 30 3,881 129(9-2,710)
27. p. projectus 4 2,954 591(20-2,710)
28. Paratvlenchus spp.-26 -929 31(9-150)
12. Gracilacus- 9 269 24(9-60)
29. G_. aciculus 1 40 40(40)
30. £. aculentus 3 79 26(9-60)
31. G_. audriellus —3 100 33(10-50)
32. Gracilacus spp. 3 50 13(10-20)
Tylenchoidea 83 10,828. 113(9-850)
Tylenchidae - - - 65- 3,784 31(9-180)
Tylenchinae 62 3,644 31(9-180)
13. Aqlenchus 43- 1 ,111 22(9-50)
33. A. costatus- 43 1,111 22(9-50)
14. Cephalenchus- II 330 25(10-70)
34. C. leptus II- 330 25(10-70)
15. Tylenchus 41 2,203 45(9-1 80)
35. T. davainei 5 249 42(9-80)
36. T. vesiculosus 1 10 10(10)
37. Tvlenchus spp. 35 1,944 47(9-180)
Psilenchinae 7 130 16(10-20}
0-20)
16. Psilenchus 7 130 16(10-
38. P_. hilarulus 4 -60 15(10-20)
39. Psilenchus spp. 3 70 18(10-20)
Ditylenchipae 1 18 10(10)
17. Ditylenchus 1 10 10(10)
40. Ditylenchus spp. 1 10 10(10)
Pratylenchidae 35 938 23(9-60)
Pratylenchinae 35- 938 23(9-60)
18. Pratylenchus 35 938 23(9-60)
41. P. crenatus 4 11?———23(9-58)
42. f_. neqlectus 3 80 27(10-60)
43. P.. penetrans 3 50 17(10-30)
44. Pratvlenchus spp.—28r 691 22(9-60)
Tylenchorhynchidae 25 1,985 44(10-200)
Tylenchorhynchinae 25 1 ,985 44(10-200)
19. Tylenchorhynchus 23 1 ,925 46(10-200)
45. T. maximus- 19- 1,110 50(10-200)
46. T. nudus 13 566— 38(10-170)
47. T. davainei 5 249 42(9-80)
20. Tetylenchus • 1 10 10(10)
48. T. ioctus 1 10- 10(10)
21. Merl inlus 2 50 25(10-40)
49. M. brevidens 2 50 25(10-40)
Hoplolaimidae 54 8,843 140(10-850)
Rotylenchinae 54 8,843 140(10-850)
22. Hel icotylenchus 54 8,843 140(10-850)
50. H. crenacauda 2 35 18(10-25)
51. H. digonicus 3- 420 105(10-320)
52. H.. lobus- 1 25 25(25)
53. H.. paxilli- 1- 50 50(50)
54. H_. platyurus- 38 —7,383 168(10-850)
55. H. pseudorobustus—2 139 70(9-130)
56. H. varicaudatus 1 15 15(15)
57. Hellcotylen.. spp-.-14 776 49(8-450)
Heteroderoidea 21 315 13(8-50)
Heteroderidae 21 315 13(8-50)
Heteroderinae 21 315 13(8-50)
23. Heterodera 2 20 10(10)
58. Heterodera »pp. 2 20 10(10)
24. Meloidoqyne 20 295 13(8-50)
59. Meloidoqyne spp.—20 295 13(8-50)
I
Percent of 116 soil samples (250 cc).
2
Total number of specimens recovered from the 116 soil samples (based on 250 cc of soil per sample).
Mean and range population densities of samples containing specific taxa (based on 250 cc of soil per sample).
132
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TABLE 24. RANGE OF LANDING COUNTS PER TWO HOUR PERIOD FOR FEMALE MOSQUITOES
IN THE FOREST ON THE WQMP TERRESTRIAL SITE
Aedes stimulans
May 29 -
June
July
July
July
15
2-
16
27
August
Time
- June 15
- June 28
- July 15
-July 26
- August 15
16 -August 30
1973
139-188
92-144
115-146
108-159
6- 87
0- 6
1974
54-197
40-
34-
20-
2-
0-
49
48
39
15
3
Aedes vexans
1973
47-134
10-228
3-
2-
3-
2-
13
69
37
52
1974
76-190
30- 46
4- 16
0
0
0
Aedes triserlatus
1973
16-48
17-25
12-24
11-26
1-12
1- 4
1974
18-28
9-16
2-
0
0
0
8
encephalitis cycle is maintained in nature by an Aedes triseriatus - small
mammal transmission cycle; this appears to be true on the WQMP. The other
two species of Aedes are also possible encephalitis vectors.
Wastewater irrigation may enhance the breeding potential of these three
species and perhaps may cause an increase in diversity and numbers of other
species; this will increase changes of human exposure to the encephalitis
virus. Mosquitoes are also potential, but unproven vectors, for dog heart-
worm. The incidence of dog heartworm has been continuously rising in Michigan
in recent years. If spraying leads to an overabundance of mosquitoes, control
measures may have to be implemented to reduce discomfort and chances of
disease transmission to the neighboring communities.
Avian Populations
Data on bird populations were taken by census techniques on the WQMP
terrestrial site in 1974 and 1975. Ninety species were observed in 1975
(TABLE 25) including 10 observed for the first time; 23 species observed in
1974 were not seen in 1975 (TABLE 26). These 23 species were mostly migrants
and no significance is attached to their absence.
Breeding bird populations were increased 164% in 1975 over 1974 popula-
tion estimates (TABLE 27 and 28). Most of this increase occurred in abandoned
fields (TABLE 28) but some increase also occurred in the woods (TABLE 27).
There were no significant differences between areas receiving wastewater irri-
gation and areas not receiving irrigation (TABLE 28).
133
-------
TABLE 25. LIST OF SPECIES OBSERVED ON THE CENSUS FROM MAY 2 TO SEPTEMBER
16, 1975 (52 MAN HOURS)
.*
Great Blue Heron
Green Heron
Mallard
Blue-Winged Teal
Wood Duck
Red-Tailed Hawk
American Kestrel
Bobwhite
Ring-Necked Pheasant
Killdeer
American Woodcock*
Solitary Sandpiper
Greater Yellowlegs'
Rock Dove
Mourning Dove
Yellow-Billed Cuckoo
Black-Billed Cuckoo
Great Horned Owl
Ruby-Throated Hummingbird
Common Flicker
Red-Bellied Woodpecker
Red-Headed Woodpecker
Hairy Woodpecker
Downy Woodpecker
Eastern Kingbird
Great Crested Flycatcher
Least Flycatcher
Eastern Wood Pewee
Horned Lark
Tree Swallow*
Rough Winged Swallow*
Barn Swallow
Blue Jay
Common Crow
Black-Capped Chickadee
Tufted Titmouse
White-Breasted Nuthatch
Red-Breasted Nuthatch
Short-Billed Marsh Wren
£i
Long-Billed Marsh Wren
House Wren
Grey Catbird
Brown Thrasher
American Robin
Wood Thrush
Swainson's Thrush
Veery
Ruby-Crowned Kinglet
Cedar Waxwing
Starling
Solitary Vireo
Red-Eyed Vireo
Philadelphia Vireo*
Warbling Vireo
Black & White Warbler
Golden-Winged Warbler
Blue-Winged Warbler
Tennessee Warbler
Nashville Warbler
Yellow Warbler
Magnolia Warbler
Black-Throated Warbler
Yellow-Rumped Warbler
Chestnut-Sided Warbler
Bay-Breasted Warbler
Blackpoll Warbler
Ovenbird
Northern Waterthrush"
Yellowthroat
American Redstart
Bobolink
Eastern Meadowlark
Red-Winged Blackbird
Northern Oriole
Common Crackle
Brown-Headed Cowbird
Scarlet Tanager
Cardinal
Rose-Breasted Grosbeak
Indigo Bunting
Purple Finch*
American Goldfinch
Rufous-Sided Towhee
Savannah Sparrow
Vesper Sparrow*
Field Sparrow
White-Crowned Sparrow*
White-Throated Sparrow
Song Sparrow
Henslow's Sp arrow
New Species
134
-------
TABLE 26. BIRDS SEEN IN CENSUS AREA IN 1974 BUT NOT IN 1975
Canada Goose
Sharp-Shinned Hawk
Rough Grouse
Herring Gull
Whippoorwill
Chimney Swift
Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker
Eastern Phoebe
Acadian Flycatcher
Willow Flycatcher
Olive-Sided Flycatcher
Purple Martin
Grey-Cheeked Thrush
Golden-Crowned Kinglet
Blackburnian Warbler
Pine Warbler
Palm Warbler
Wilson's Warbler
Canada Warbler
Grasshopper Sparrow
Tree Sparrow
Lincoln Sparrow
Swamp Sparrow
135
-------
TABLE 27. BREEDING BIRD SPECIES IN FORESTS ON THE WQMP AND THEIR NUMBERS FOR
10 ACRES (4 ha)
Species
Tufted Titmouse
Cardinal
Red-Eyed Vireo
Eastern Wood Pewee
Black-Capped Chickadee
Indigo Bunting
Blue Jay
Rose-Breasted Grosbeck
Downy Woodpecker
American Robin
Great-Crested Flycatcher
Northern Oriole
Common Flicker
Great Horned Owl
Wood Thrush
Ovenbird
White-Breasted Nuthatch
Acadian Flycatcher
No. in
1974
1
4
2
3
3
3
2
0
2
2
1
1
2
0
0
0
2
1
No./lO
Acres 1974
0.28
1.13
0.56
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.56
0.00
0.56
0.56
0.28
0.28
0.56
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.56
0.28
No. in
1975
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
0
0
No./lO
Acres 1975
1.41
1.13
1.13
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.00
0.00
Total 29 40
136
-------
TABLE 28. BREEDING BIRD SPECIES IN OLD FIELDS ON THE WQMP AND THEIR NUMBERS PER 10 ACRES (4 ha)
Species
Red-winged Blackbird
Song Sparrow
Field Sparrow
'Yellow Throat
Eastern Meadowlark
Bobolink
Common Flicker
Common Goldfinch
Cardinal
SavannahSparrow
Catbird
American Robin
Northern Oriole
Blue Jay
Brown Thrasher
House Wren
Black Capped Chickadee
Warbling Vireo
Mourning Dove
Hens low's Sparrow
Yellow Warbler
Black Billed Cuckoo
Willow Flycatcher
Untreated - No
No. '74 No./lOa
6
11
9
2
4
3
0
3
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
44
0.98
1.80
1.47
0.33
0.65
0.49
0.00
0.49
0.00
0.33
0.16
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.33
0.00
0.16
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Irrigation
No. '75
15
17
12
3
4
5
4
3
2
4
2
0
3
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
80
No./lOa
2,45
2.78
1.96
0.49
0.65
0.82
0.65
0.49
0.33
0.65
0.33
0.00
0.49
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.00
0.16
0.00
0.00
0.00
No,1
6
10
5
5
2
2
1
3
1
0
1
2
1
0
1
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
41
Treated - Wastewater
74 No./lOa No, '75
1.26
2.09
1.05
1.05
0.42
0.42
0.21
0.63
0.21
0.00
0.21
0.42
0.21
0.00
0.21
0.63
0.21
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.21
15
9
4
8
7
5
3
3
4
1
2
4
1
3
2
1
1
0
1
0
2
1
0
77
Irrigated
No./lOa
3.14
1.88
0.84
1.67
1.46
1.05
0.63
0.63
0.84
0.21
0.42
0.84
0.21
0.63
0.42
0.21
0.21
0.00
0.21
0.00
0.42
0.21
0.00
-------
Red-winged blackbirds were selected for intensive study as they are more
likely to increase in irrigated areas than any other species because of their
preference for wet habitats. Twenty-six nests were located on 4 (4 ha) plots
(2 receiving wastewater irrigation, 2 controls). Survival of eggs and
nestlings were followed in these plots (TABLE 29); there were no significant
differences in numbers of fledged offspring per nest between the treatment
and controls (TABLE 29). There was some indication of more abundant food on
the irrigated site (less time spent foraging off the territory by the female)
but data were not conclusive.
TABLE 29. SURVIVAL OF RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD EGGS AND NESTLINGS ON SPRAYED AND
CONTROL PLOTS
Item
No. nests
Total eggs laid
X clutch size
No. hatching
No. fledging
X fledged/nest
Spray
11(9)*
33
3.7
26
21
2.3t
% Control % % Diff .
15(12)*
38
3.2
79 24 63 16
64 18 47 17
1.5t
*Some nests were not followed because they appeared late in the season when
full time was being devoted to foraging studies. The number in parentheses
is the number of nests for which data were taken.
'f'These values are statistically the same (P<.3; t-test).
Evidence, to date, indicates that wastewater irrigation on the terres-
trial site of the WQMP has had no significant effect on bird populations.
Bird populations will be monitored in areas receiving wastewater irrigation
as irrigation increases.
Mammal Studies
Baseline data on small mammal populations in forested and old field
ecosystems have been collected for the WQMP wastewater irrigation site. Pre-
liminary data on effects of wastewater irrigation on small mammal populations
from old fields have also been collected.
138
-------
Two parallel trap lines 30 m apart and 152 m long were established in
each study area (lines 2, 3, 4 - Figure 33). Paired, parallel trap lines were
established in an irrigation area of the forest and in a non-irrigated area.
Neither had been irrigated at the time of this study, so these data were
pooled and represent baseline data for the forest. A pair of parallel trap
lines was established in a non-irrigated area of the old field ecosystem and
another pair was established in the old field ecosystem receiving 7.1 cm/week
of wastewater effluent (zone 21).
Each trap line consisted of 20 stations located at 8 m intervals. Two
Museum Special snap traps and one Victor rat trap were placed within a 1.5 m
radius at each station; all traps were baited with a rolled oats-peanut
butter mixture. All lines were run at 12 week intervals from September, 1974,
to July, 1975; each trapping period consisted of trapping of 3 successive
nights (Friday, Saturday, and Sunday). Old field trap lines (treated and
untreated areas) were run on the same weekend; trap lines in the forest were
run on the following weekend.
A total of 122 specimens representing 7 species of small mammals were
collected in the old field study area while 95 animals representing 4 species
were trapped in the forest. Density estimates (number of animals captured
per 100 trap-nights) for the forest (TABLE 30) and old field (TABLE 31) eco-
systems varied considerably between sampling dates. The white-footed mouse,
Peromyscus leucopus, dominated the catch in the forest; its density increased
during the study (TABLE 30). No apparent trend is evident between irrigated
and non-irrigated old field sites; overall, there was a general decline in
density in the old field ecosystems during the course of this study (TABLE 31).
Reproductive and morphological data on weight, length, lactation,
placental scars, corpora lutea, etc., were monitored in detail. Variability
in the data for these parameters obscured differences in irrigated versus
non-irrigated areas of the old field ecosystems. These data are available
in our central data file for future comparative studies.
Conclusions
Baseline data for soil and litter fauna, pathogenic nematodes, disease
carrying insects, birds, and mammals are available for the wastewater irriga-
tion site. Data on the effect of wastewater irrigation on animal populations
139
-------
TABLE 30. ANIMAL POPULATION DENSITY ESTIMATES (NUMBER OF ANIMALS PER 100
TRAP-NIGHTS) FOR FORESTED STUDY AREAS OF THE WQMP
Species
Sample Period
October, 1974
January, 1975
April, 1975
July, 1975
Peromyscus*
leucopus
1.67
1.95
0.83
4.87
Blarina*
brevicauda
0.14
1.25
0.00
0.00
Sorex*
cinereus
0.14
1.25
0.56
0.42
Tamias*
striatus
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.14
J^
Peromyscus leucopus, White-footed Mouse; Blarina brevicauda, Shorttail Shrew;
Sorex cinereus, Masked Shrew; Tamias striatus, Eastern Chipmunk.
TABLE 31. ANIMAL POPULATION DENSITY ESTIMATES (NUMBER OF ANIMALS PER 100
TRAP-NIGHTS) FOR OLD FIELD STUDY AREAS OF THE WQMP
Species*
Sample Period Treatmentt P.I. P.m. M.p. Z.h.
September, 1974 Treated 0.00 0.00 1.11 2.22
September, 1974 Untreated 0.00 0.00 3.89 0.00
December, 1974 Treated 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.00
December, 1974 Untreated 0.28 0.28 1.11 0.00
March, 1975 Treated 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.00
March, 1975 Untreated 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.00
June, 1975 Treated 0.00 0.56 1.11 0.56
June, 1975 Untreated 0.00 0.83 0.56 0.56
B.b.
1.39
3.89
0.83
1.67
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
S.c.
1.11
2.78
1.39
2.22
3.34
2.22
0.28
0.00
D.v.
0.00
0.28
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
*P.l. - Peromyscus leucopus (the White-Footed Mouse)
P.m. - Peromyscus maniculatus (the Deer Mouse)
M.p. - Microtus pennsylvanicus (the Meadow Vole)
Z.h. - Zapus hudsonius (the Meadow Jumping Mouse)
B.b. - Blarina brevicauda (the Shorttail Shrew)
S.c. - Sorex cinereus (the Masked Shrew)
D.v. - Didelphis virginianus (the Virginia Oposum)
tTreated = wastewater irrigation at 7.1 cm/week; untreated = non-irrigated
control areas.
140
-------
is being taken at present; these data are not yet available for invertebrate
populations. Limited amounts of wastewater irrigation on the site have not
significantly affected bird populations. Mammal population data are highly
variable,and mammals have had only limited exposure to irrigation. Based on
these limited data, no significant differences have been demonstrated for
irrigated versus non-irrigated old field areas. All data on animal popula-
tions are preliminary; data collection during more intensive years of waste-
water irrigation may yield different and more statistically significant
results.
WINTER SPRAY IRRIGATION
The possibility of winter spray irrigation with frozen ground conditions
was investigated on a 3 ha abandoned field site from January to March, 1975
(area K, Figure 33). A total of 6 spray applications was made ranging from
2.57 to 5.51 cm at ambient temperatures ranging from -6.1 C to +0.3 C. A
total of 24.6 cm was pumped to the site during this period with 19.4 cm being
received at the soil surface. Thus, about 21% of the wastewater pumped was
lost via evaporative processes to the atmosphere and wind transport of mist
from the site, or measurements of incoming wastewater were in error.
Precipitation and spray were monitored at 47 sites with open can precipi-
tation collectors (Figure 44). Infiltration and percolation were measured at
the same 47 sites using infiltrometers (Figures 44 and 45). Mean infiltra-
tion was 4 ± 5 cm for the sprayed area and 1±0.6 cm for the unsprayed area.
Thus, a mean infiltration of 3.0 cm of spray was measured or 16% of the total
amount sprayed on the site. Due to the high variability between samplers and
the limited number of irrigation events, these data are only approximate.
In addition to the wastewater inputs, precipitation added 12.3 cm of
input during the course of this study for a total input of 31.7 cm. Of this
32 cm, 12% (4 cm) evaporated, 32% (10 cm) ran off as overland flow, and 13%
(4 cm) infiltrated leaving 44% (14 cm) unaccounted for. The large amount of
unaccounted for water indicated significant error in field measurements of
runoff and infiltration and/or a large storage as ice with unmeasured losses
in Spring runoff. Some possible sources of error were: (1) unreliable
infiltrometer estimates (buried glass funnels which may not have been in
141
-------
_^^_^
2'-4' , ". •
triable ,' - ,,
r .
V ' , , **
* V
i w/Hi
' '
"• ' V
\
' " * J '
\/.
V
^ inert tubina
^Av/jw.M^
7 - V6g6tQI COV€
t . s
1 J
» ^ x
f •• backfillsd soil
'' * " " boring
A' : ; .'• ' - -*
backfill sand
metal funnel
collecting can
pipe stand
Figure 44. Design of infiltrometers (upper) and precipitation
collectors used in the winter spray study.
142
-------
Felton
Creek
V-notch weir
with stage
recorder
Service road
Earthen oiKe
-20
X..
' Excavated
channel
*
>
Watershed
boundary
•
*
•
.
•
.
"•"*•—. — •
^m Spray
irrigation
lines
"22
Small
infiltrometers
X
. /
Figure 45. Design of winter spray study showing infiltrometer and precipitation collector
locations.
-------
place long enough for the soil above them to set), (2) unmeasured runoff
losses (there were indications of seepage under the weir in the unlined
channel, Figure 45), and (3) non-uniform distribution of spray inputs as the
spray nozzles tended to freeze in position.
Incoming spray, precipitation, infiltrometer, and runoff samples were
analyzed for total P, NO -N, NH.-N, and B. All unaccounted for water was
assumed to have infiltrated and mass balances were constructed for each of
the above. Renovation efficiencies were then calculated based on apparent
retention within the watershed. These efficiencies were 45% for total-P, 20%
for N03-N, 70% for NH.-N, and 35% for boron. These efficiencies are based on
limited data and should be viewed only as preliminary estimates. If runoff
were underestimated as seems likely, these efficiencies would be even lower.
If infiltrated water only were considered, sprayed versus unsprayed sites
would differ significantly only in NH/-N concentrations with an apparent
renovation efficiency of 35%. Renovation appears to be significant, there-
fore, for infiltrated water for total P, NH.-N, and boron. Ammonia-nitrogen
may have been lost as NO_-N after warming of the soil to the point where
nitrification could occur; this would have been missed in this study as
infiltration studies were not continued into the summer.
Measurements of infiltration at the 47 infiltrometers permitted construc-
tion of infiltration contours. Large amounts of ponding at some sites
resulted in significantly greater infiltration and percolation.
Specific studies of frost penetration were conducted at an adjacent site
(area L, Figure 33) to the winter spray watershed. Results of these studies
are summarized in Figure 46.
Results of this study have led to the following tentative conclusions:
(1) It is physically possible to spray wastewater on the land during
the winter in Michigan, but the high NO»-N losses and lowered
renovation efficiencies for other constituents suggest that winter
spraying in cold climates be investigated further.
(2) A significant percentage (32%, range = 0 - 155%) of the winter
irrigated wastewater is likely to runoff as overland flow with
little renovation.
(3) Some infiltration does occur (average of 13%), but this is highly
variable. Infiltration is significantly increased by ponding.
144
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Ul
10
March
20
30
Figure 46. Depth of frost penetration, frost layer thickness, mean daily air temperature and spray
application for Sites 1 and 2 during winter irrigation.
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(4) Significant amounts (10-20%) of wastewater are lost by evaporative
and wind transport processes during winter spray operations.
(5) More precise measurements are needed to support these tentative
conclusions. Thus, research will be continued on this practice
for the next two winters.
GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY
One of the prime advantages of wastewater irrigation is recharge of the
local aquifer. Such recharge is especially critical in areas of rapidly
declining water tables as is true of the Lansing area. The WQMP spray irri-
gation program should lead to some recharge of the aquifer. The extent of
this recharge and the effect of percolating wastewater on groundwater quality
has to be assessed. Thus, data on subsurface geology and groundwater flow
prior to and during spray irrigation is essential.
Over 60 wells have been drilled in the vicinity of the WQMP for the
purpose of monitoring piezometric surfaces and groundwater quality. Boring
logs from these wells provide information on the local subsurface geology; a
representative cross-sectional schematic is shown in Figure 47. Water quality
analyses are routinely made, and baseline data for several years have been
accumulated. Changes in groundwater quality due to the WQMP have not been
detected. Analyses include nitrate, chloride, coliform bacteria, and several
other parameters; monitoring will continue.
Models have been developed to predict groundwater movement in the
region of the WQMP with emphasis on movement of the groundwater to nearby
deep wells which are the water supply for the University. One of these
models, a Galerkin-based finite elements regional aquifer model, was used to
predict the piezometric surface and flow field after six years of simulated
pumping from major producing wells in the vicinity of the site (Figure 48 and
49). The numbered nodes are wells, node A is the lakes, and the dashed line
outlines the spray site. The predicted drawdowns near some of the wells are
not very accurate (due to the approximate nature of the numerical solution
and to coarseness of the finite-element grid chosen for the regional area)
but indicate that most groundwater moving beneath the irrigation site will
migrate to the well at node 114 (Figure 48) provided pumping from the well
field continues in a manner similar to present practices.
146
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Spray Irrigation
60-80 ft
~ V
Glacial drift composed
of clay till with beds
of sand and gravel
Saginaw series sandstone
with lenses of shale and
limestone
Michigan series
limestone
Figure 47. Representative cross section of the subsurface
geology of the WQMP.
147
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830
840
850
10 Foot (3.05 m) Contour Intervals
Figure 48. Predicated piezometric surfaces in the vicinity of the WQMP
after six years of simulated pumping of major producing
wells (numbered nodes) in the area. A = lake area; dashed
line outlines spray irrigation site.
148
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ft ft < X V V V v v v
f ft » * v x
f f » V V vv
f * t v x ^
f / S i x »
x x x 59J_ v , ,
i* + *•
/
/ ' , /~$\ ' > -X93' ^
^ x • • ' /
x / / / /
' 'tt
t f
// /• ' n^ ~\ /r >^^ v
A
/ / j. \ \ \
v
t f f r r
f f f t t I / t ^ \ I N \ V
^ / / f jf t \ ^J \ \
, / / / i t—r" \ \ v
f ft ft ft \ \ \ \ V
f ft t f ft ^ 1 V \ X
f f f ft t \ \ \ \
t f f f 1 t * * ^ V
, f f ft t t < ^ ^ ^ •>
f !
Figure 49. Predicted flow vectors after six years of simulated
pumping from producing wells (numbered nodes) in the
vicinity of the WQMP. A = lake area; dashed line
outlines spray irrigation site.
149
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With the objective in mind of predicting the transient movement of
groundwater in localized regions beneath the spray irrigation site, a
Galerkin-based finite element model has been developed. Employing the pro-
perties of an isoparametric finite element, the movement of the free surface
is accomplished within the grid system without repositioning the nodal
coordinates of the elements. During each time interval, a new Dirichlet
boundary condition is assigned to nodal points above the free surface and
piezometric heads in the aquifer are calculated. In order to provide flow
continuity at nodes, the Galerkin formulation of the Darcy law is constructed,
and the velocity vectors are calculated simultaneously throughout the domain.
These velocities are subsequently used to shift the phreatic surface. The
validity of the technique is demonstrated in Figure 50 in which a ground-
water mound grows due to recharge at the surface. In the near future this
model will be coupled to one for convection-dispersion of a tracer and used
to simulate wastewater recharge flow conditions at the site.
With the solution of the flow equation established for either a regional
aquifer or a local one, the movement of a tracer introduced by the spray
irrigation process can be predicted by inserting the calculated velocity
vectors into the convection-dispersion equation, which is solved again by a
finite element technique. Here higher order approximations in the time
domain are used to solve the generated set of first order differential
equations. Initial results from the model indicate that reasonably accurate
estimates of actual tracer concentration in two-dimensional flow domains can
be obtained.
Future groundwater research will deal with unsteady, unsaturated flow
and three-dimensional transient groundwater flow using two different models
developed for this study; one based on the finite elements method and the
other based on the method of characteristics.
SURFACE RUNOFF STUDIES
The effects of wastewater irrigation on stream chemistry is being
assessed on the spray irrigation site. Much of the effort, to date, has been
concentrated on instrumenting the streams with weirs and hydrographs so that
reliable data on water movements can be documented. Automatic (ISCO) samplers
150
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Recharge =5.6 E-2 era/sec.
L3=36cm.
Initial Water-table
25 -
X, in cm.
100
O Movable node technique
Experimental ^ _ -. o Movaoie noae Tecnniqu
Analytical j [Marino, 1967 J A Fixed node technique
Figure 50. Simulated growth of a groundwater mound due to
recharge at the surface.
151
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have also been installed and modified to start sampling as water level rises
in the stream insuring collection of stormwater data over complete hydrographs.
The major stream on the spray irrigation site is Felton Drain (D in
Figure 7). This stream drains an area of farm land southeast of the lake
system of the WQMP and flows under the lake system via a tile which empties
into a surface channel just north of Interstate 96, the northern boundary of
the spray irrigation site. A poultry research facility is located on this
stream just north of the site. Some manure from this facility is spread on
the surrounding grass. Runoff from the poultry facility and upland farm
areas represents potential large sources of nutrients, bacteria, and viruses.
The highway (1-96) also represents a significant source of chloride from
winter salting operations and other nutrients as well. The sampling network
on the stream system of the WQMP includes an upstream sampling station for
measurement of incoming materials so that mass balances for just the spray
irrigation portion of the stream can be calculated.
There are now 8 weirs installed on the site. Initial installation was
completed in 1974, but most of the weirs suffered considerable damage from
Spring runoff floods in 1975 due to insufficient rip-rapping around the
concrete weir walls. This problem was corrected, and continuous hydrologic
data on both rainfall and stream discharge are available from early summer
1975 to present.
Automatic samplers were installed at 5 locations on the streams of the
WQMP in September, 1975. They have been winterized in insulated, heated
houses and are presently collecting data from each major runoff event. Some
runoff events have been sampled but analyses of these data are not yet
complete.
Prior to installation of automatic samplers, grab samples were collected
on a few dates in 1973 and 1974, and weekly samples were collected in 1975
(daily samples were collected during periods of high runoff). These data are
not very conclusive but do indicate considerable loading from the upstream
poultry facility with incoming NO -N as high as 20 mg/£ and chlorides as high
as 20 mg/& in the spring but dropping to low levels over the summer. Such
large and highly variable loading from upstream sources complicates studies
of movement from the spray irrigation site. Thus, emphasis will be placed
on runoff studies from discrete irrigated areas rather than on the whole
152
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stream system. The entire stream system will be monitored, however, and
mass balances for the stream and its tributaries will be calculated.
153
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REFERENCES
Bird, G.W. 1973. Estimated Crop Losses from Plant Parasitic Nematodes in
Michigan. Pesticide Field Evaluations Research. Department of Ento-
mology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, pp. 1-6.
King, D.L. 1972. Carbon Limitations in Sewage Lagoons. In: Special
Symposia: Vol. 1, Nutrients and Eutrophication, G.E. Likens, ed.
Am. Soc. Limnol. and Oceanogr., pp. 98-105.
Schindler, D.W. 1975. Factors Affecting Gas Exchange in Natural Waters.
Limnol. and Oceanogr. 20:1053-1055.
Schneider, I.F. and A.E. Erickson. 1972. Soil Limitations for Disposal
of Municipal Wastewaters. Michigan State University Agr. Expt. Sta.,
Farm Science Research Report 195. Michigan State University, East
Lansing, Michigan. 54 pp.
Sopper, W.E. and L.T. Kardos (eds.). 1973. Recycling Treated Municipal
Wastewater and Sludge Through Forest and Cropland. Pennsylvania State
University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania.
Thornthwaite, D.W. and J.R. Mather. 1967. Instructions and Tables for
Computing Potential Evapotranspiration and the Water Balance. Drexel
Inst. Tech. Publ. Climatology. 10:185-311.
154
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO. 2.
EPA-905/3-79-003
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
UTILIZATION OF NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS FOR WASTEWATER
RENOVATION
7, AUTHOR(S)
Burton, T.M. , King, D.L. , Ball, R.C. , and Bahr, T,G.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Institute of Water Research
Michigan State University
East Lansing-, MI 48824
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region V Office
Chicago, IL 60604
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
5. REPORT DATE
March, 1976
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT 1
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
2BA 645
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
YOO5065
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERl
Grant - 1 97 2 -197 5
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA-GLNP
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES , . . ,
This was a Comprehensive Grant involving both construction and research.
Published through the Great Lakes National Program Office
Michigan State University constructed on 200 ha (500 acres) of the main campus, <
permanent facility for the experimental treatment, recycle and reuse of municipal sew;
plant effluents. The facility provides for the diversion of up to 7570 m /d (2 MGD) o
secondary effluent from an activated sludge treatment plant. This waste flow is direc
ed away from the receiving stream to an intensely managed aquatic and terrestrial nutrJ
ent recycling system. The facility consists of a portion of the East Lansing Waste-
water Treatment Plant, a transmission line, four experimental lakes and a spray
irrigation site, A primary objective is to strip nutrients from the waste flow as it
proceeds through the system by incorporating nutrients into harvestable biomass.
The system has been in operation with tertiary effluent for about 18 months. It
will go on line with secondary effluent in 1976, Biological activity in the aquatic
system has a major impact on water quality as evidenced by significantly reduced water
concentrations of phosphorus, nitrogen and inorganic carbon. Much of the nutrient floi
is shunted into harvestable plant material both in the aquatic and terrestrial portion;
of the system.
This report represents a synthesis of preliminary research results from a multidis
ciplinary program involving approximately 25 university faculty scientists. This repoi
is submitted in fulfillment of Grant No. Y005065. Environmental Protection Aaencv.
17_ KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS
Sewage effluent, Land disposal, Lagoons,
Wastewater recycling, Phosphorus removal,
Euthrophication, Nutrient cycling, Ground-
water hydrology, Surface hydrology, Human
pathogens, Photosynthesis, Solar energy,
Water quality Management
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release Unlimited, Chicago, Region V, U.S.
EPA NTIS-Springf ield, Virginia 22161
b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
Algae, Aquatic plants,
Old field ecosystems,
Fish, Michigan State
University, Forage,
Forest ecosystems
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
c. COSATI Field/Group
21. NO. OF PAGES
154
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
-155-
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1979-652-3
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