United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region V
Water Division
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois
EPA-905/3-84-002
February, 1984
U.S. Department
Of the Interior
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Eastern Energy Land Use Team
Route 3, Box 44
Kearneysville, West Virginia 25430
c/EPA
The Ecological Impacts
Of Wastewater
On Wetlands
An Annotated Bibliography
Do not WEED. This document
should be retained in the EPA
Region 5 Library Collection.
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EPA-905/3-84-002
The Ecological Impacts of
Wastewater on Wetlands
an Annotated Bibliography
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region V
Chicago, Illinois 60604
and
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Eastern Energy and Land Use Team
Kearneysville, West Virginia 25430
February 1984
Portions of this document were prepared under EPA
Contracts No. 68-01-5989 and No. 68-04-5017
U S, Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, library
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Bibliographic work on wastewater and wetlands was begun by the Office
of Biological Services Eastern Energy and Land Use Team of the U. S.
Fish and Wildlife Service and by Region V of the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency. These efforts have been combined to produce this
annotated bibliography.
Special thanks go to Kathleen Brennan, Steven Bach and their associates
at WAPORA, Inc. and to Lauren Lyons of the Eastern Energy and Land Use
Team for their vigorous bibliographic research. ESEI, Inc. compiled
the final document. Jay Benforado and Catherine Grissom Garra served
as Fish and Wildlife Service and Environmental Protection Agency project
coordinators.
0
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.
II,
III,
Page
List of Tables .. ii
Introduction,,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,, ..,,,,,,,,,,.......,,,, iii
Study Guide., ix
Bibliographic Entries,, - ,,,,, ,.«,
A. Entries (numbers 1 - 1065)
B. Recent Additions (numbers 1066 - 1097) ,....
IV,
Index (following entry number 1097) ,,. I
The most recent additions to the bibliography
are located at the end of Section III, follow-
ing entry number 1065. New citations are sep-
arately alphabetized and numbered in sequence
with the previous entries, beginning with num-
ber 1066. For the reader's convenience, these
new entries have been inserted in proper al-
phabetical order into the main entries by
author and date.
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
1, Primary Sources of References for the
Wastewater/Wetland Bibliography....... . vi
2, Computer Database Search Descriptors
Used in Locating References ......................I.......... vii
3. Key to the Two-Letter Code to Abstract Sources. viii
ii
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I. INTRODUCTION
This annotated bibliography is a compilation of references on the ecological
impacts of wastewater addition to wetlands. It is organized j.nto four sec-
tions* The introduction develops the background of wastewater application to
wetlands, provides an overview of the ecological issues involved and gives a
summary of methods, materials and problems encountered with compiling the
references and abstracts for this publication. A study guide section pro-
vides an overview discussion of wetlands and wastewater, with key references
for those who are unfamiliar with these topics. The third and largest sec-
tion of the document is an alphabetical and numerical listing of entries and
abstracts. These are arranged by the author's last name. The final section
is an index to subjects, key words and geographical locations.
Background
The United States faces the critical task of improving the Nation's water
quality while containing the costs of water pollution control. Over the
years conventional wastewater treatment has been based largely on expensive
and complicated "high technology" practices. Typically, secondary treatment
standards are achieved by expensive and complicated processes such as acti-
vated sludge or trickling filters. This is followed by a settling step and
the discharge of treated effluent to surface waters. The solids produced by
wastewater treatment, called sludge, must be disposed of by incineration,
land application, landfill or ocean dumping. Such conventional treatment
systems are well understood and widely accepted by the sanitary engineering
community. However, such operations often are dependent on large amounts of
energy, sophisticated equipment, chemicals and capital investments, which
make them expensive to operate and maintain, particularly for smaller towns.
The wastewater treatment lagoons, frequently used by small communities, can
provide reasonably priced secondary treatment, but this treatment level is
not always sufficient to meet necessary effluent limitations. In areas of
low stream flow, lake discharge or other special demands for water quality
improvement, the need to implement more advanced treatment (such as removal
of nutrients, additional organics and suspended solids) compounds the
problems and costs of wastewater treatment. Recent attention has been given
to the economic difficulties of achieving adequate treatment in existing
conventional facilities, especially if advanced treatment levels are
required. Sophisticated conventional treatment methods may not succeed in
controlling water pollution if the facilities are too difficult or expensive
for the owner or community to maintain and operate at the treatment level for
which they were designed.
iii
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These economic pressures have intensified the search for creative, cost-
effective and environmentally sound ways to control water pollution. In this
context, more attention has been given to developing alternative approaches
to the treatment of wastewater. The Clean Water Act Amendments of 1977 and
1981 have encouraged innovative and alternative treatment technologies,
especially for small communities. One technical approach is to use managed,
natural and artificially constructed ecosystems as a functional part of
wastewater treatment. For example, land treatment of wastewater, which was
the only recognized technology before the advent of current sanitary engi-
neering solutions, is being reconsidered and further developed as an effec-
tive form of wastewater treatment and pollution control. Wastewater has been
successfully utilized as a water and nutrient resource in agriculture, sil-
viculture, aquaculture, golf course and green belt irrigation and other
areas. Sludge has been used in forest and agricultural crop production to
reclaim and restore strip-mined lands and other heavily disturbed areas. An
additional bonus to innovative and alternative technologies is the approach
to wastewater as a resource rather than a liability. Productive reuse and
recycling of the wastewater is realized from many of these technologies.
Using Wetlands
Although wetlands have traditionally been viewed as unproductive areas with-
out significant value, much information on the ecological functions and
natural values of these areas has been documented during the last few
decades. Wetlands serve as water reservoirs, as links between surface and
ground water, and as modulators and filters in the hydrologic cycle. They
are vital to fish and wildlife, and may serve as critical habitat for rare
and endangered species. Recreational, aesthetic and scientific values are
also contributed by wetlands. The role of wetlands in global biochemical
cycling and atmospheric stability may be substantial. A special Federal
interest in protecting and enhancing wetlands has been recognized in
Executive Order 11990, "Protection of Wetlands", May, 1977 and in policies
developed by various Federal agencies.
Currently, the water purification ability of wetlands is receiving special
notice. It is anticipated that this natural function can be harnessed for
use in the renovation of wastewater. The idea that wetlands could be useful
as a functional part of wastewater treatment has developed partly as an
extension of the basic land treatment concept and partly as an effort to
improve the existing unit process approach to wastewater treatment. Con-
structed units, termed "artificial" wetlands, have been created specifically
for wastewater treatment. In some cases wetland plant species have been
added to existing sewage lagoons while at other sites new wetlands have been
constructed. At still other locations, natural wetlands now function as an
iv
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integral part of the treatment facilities. These efforts have shown that
wetlands can achieve very high levels of treatment as well as provide other
values. Some small communities in areas with extensive wetland acreages and
few large streams for effluent discharge may be able to make use of. the
natural wetland resource to renovate their wastewater. In other regions
where much of the original wetlands have been destroyed or degraded, there is
an opportunity to use wastewater in wetland restoration. This planned use of
wetlands for wastewater treatment contrasts with the unplanned and frequently
underdesigned discharges of wastewater to wetlands found at some locations.
In several parts of the United States where inventories have been conducted,
these unplanned discharges are more prevalent than newer, well designed
systems - often something that "just happened" at a time when wetlands were
less well understood and appreciated.
Ecological Concerns
Although wetlands have been recognized by natural scientists as offering some
potential for treating wastewater, work on the engineering aspects has out-
paced an ecological understanding of the strengths, limitations and overall
aspects of wetland treatment. This situation is compounded when system
planners are tempted to take a "cookbook" approach to applying wastewater to
wetlands in the treatment process, not recognizing the variability among
different wetland types and site-specific biological and hydrological condi-
tions. Some wastewater treatment applications have led to severe ecological
disruptions, while others have had at least short term success, without
evidence of ecological problems. Little research on the ecological aspects
of wastewater addition to wetlands has been undertaken to date, especially on
long term effects. This ecological understanding is essential to developing
a decision process to determine when a wetland alternative is workable and
when it is unwise.
This imbalance between engineering knowledge and ecological understanding
has created opposition, by some, to the use of wetlands in the treatment of
wastewater. Potential negative ecological impacts resulting from the use of
wetlands must be fully considered. Beneficial effects of wastewater treat-
ment and the potential enhancement of wetlands and water bodies also merit
complete consideration. Attempts to assess ecological effects have been con-
fronted both by problems of understanding natural processes in wetlands and
by the difficulty of locating available ecological information on wetlands
and wastewater topics.
This annotated bibliography is an effort to help provide the information
necessary to develop appropriate wetland treatment techniques based on an
understanding of wetland ecology. General topics that are covered include:
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1) health concerns - human and wildlife, 2) effects of toxic substances, 3)
adverse community changes, 4) effects on other wetland functions and values,
5) long-term effects, 6) management potential, and 7) research needs.
Bibliographic Research Methods
Entries in the bibliography were obtained from a wide range of sources/ pri-
marily conference and symposia proceedings, government publications, research
reports, and scientific journals. The entry titles were collected from those
sources, prepared bibliographies, and computer data bases (Table 1). A stan-
dardized list of key words used for all the data base searches was developed
(Table 2). Approximately 55 percent of the entries have been annotated. The
original author abstract was used whenever possible; otherwise an abstract
was written from the report itself or an abstract from one of the data bases
was used. Each abstract is followed by two letters that identify its source.
A key to these letters is found at the beginning of the list of entries
(Table 3).
Table 1. Primary sources of references for the wastewater/wetland bibliography.
*DIALOG Information Retrieval Service
Environmental Bibliography
BIOSIS (Biological Abstracts)
Aqualine
Enviroline
NTIS (National Technical Information Service)
Pollution Abstracts
IRL Life Sciences Collection
*Numerous conference and symposia proceedings, including St. Paul, Minnesota
1981 and 1983 and Amberst, Massachusetts, 1982.
*U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983. The Effects of Wastewater Treatment
Facilities on Wetlands in the Midwest. Region V. EPA 905/3-83-002. Techni-
cal Report. Chicago.
*US Environmental Protection Agency, 1983. Environmental Impact Statement.
Phase I Report - Freshwater Wetlands for Wastewater Management. EPA 904/9-
83-107. Region IV, Atlanta.
*Water Resources Abstracts
*Wetland Values Bibliography - U.S. Fish S Wildlife Service, Western Energy &
Land Use Team.
vi
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Two problems were encountered in locating relevant references. The first was
difficulty in locating applied materials on wetlands. Much of the needed in-
formation is in a "gray area" of literature which is difficult to assess. No
single journal focuses on this topic so one must search for items in both
biological and engineering journals/ government reports, wetland symposia and
other similar sources. Such a diversity of literature does not always show up
in computerized data bases because it lies between standard ecological and
engineering disciplines. Computer data base searches also pose problems because
the terms used to describe wetlands are diverse and confusing. Frequently these
are regional names like pothole, pocosin, playa/lake, vernal pool, slough, and
bottomland hardwood, to name a few. Sometimes wetlands are included with an
aquatic system, like river, lake, or pond; at other times they are described as
littoral areas. Artificial (constructed) wetland terms also are plentiful -
lagoons, farm ponds, aquaculture, hydroponics, as well as others.
Table 2. Computer database search descriptors used in locating references.
wastewater wetland
sewage swamp
water treatment marsh
effluent bog
nutrient removal lagoon
aquaculture
estuaries
riverine
riparian
Each of the descriptors in the first column was paired with each descriptor in
the second column for one search of the entries in each data base.
The second problem, of equal difficulty, was limiting the scope of the bibliog-
raphy without sacrificing useful material. Pew publications describe solely
ecological impacts of wastewater on wetlands. Considerable information is
available on peripheral subjects that provide insights into wetland/wastewater
issues. These include a variety of research reports on aquaculture, an
overwhelming volume of material on pollution in aquatic ecosystems (eutrophica-
tion, heavy metals, etc.), and considerable information on land treatment of
wastewater and sludge, as well as research on conventional wastewater treatment
practices. This selected bibliography will focus on references that deal
directly with the use of wetlands, or with the use of aquatic plants and
animals, in the treatment of wastewater or the improvement of water quality.
Treatment of the foreign literature is extremely limited in this document, an
area which would be worthwhile to pursue in greater detail.
vii
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Table 3. Key to the two-letter code to abstract sources.
Code Letters Source
AA Author's abstract or adapted from author's abstract
AL Aqualine, DIALOG Information Retrieval Service
BA BIOSIS, Biological Abstracts, DIALOG Information Retrieval
Service
DM Monge, D. 1978. Bibliography of Wetland Values. School of
Forestry. State University of New York, Syracuse.
EB Environmental Bibliography, DIALOG Information Retrieval
Service
EL Enviroline
EP USEPA, 1983 (Region V).
NT National Technical Information Service, DIALOG Information
Retrieval Service
PA Pollution Abstracts, DIALOG Information Retrieval Service
WE Western Energy and Land Use Team, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service
WR Water Resources Abstracts
A SPECIAL NOTE:
As of this writing (Fall, 1983) EPA is drafting several generic Environmental
Impact Statements (EIS) on wastewater and wetlands. Call or write directly to
learn more about these EIS's and to be included on their mailing lists.
Region V - Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin
Catherine Grissom Garra
US EPA Region V
Water Division, Environmental Impact Section
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60604
312-886-0241
Region IV - Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Tennessee (freshwater or estuarine)
Ronald Mikulak
US EPA Region IV
NEPA Compliance Section
345 Courtland Street
Atlanta, GA 30365
404-881-3776
viii
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STUDY GUIDE FOR WETLANDS AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT
This section provides a guided entry into the subject matter of the Annotated
Bibliography. The guide also may be of value to those who wish to review
current knowledge. Key references introduced under each subheading serve as
starting points for further research and are not meant to be comprehensive.
The references at the end of the Study Guide that address general wetland in-
formation have been excluded from the Annotated Bibliography. All of the
references pertinent to the wetlands and wastewater treatment topic are
marked for the reader's convenience.
Wetland Ecosystems
Many types of wetland ecosystems exist throughout the United States and any
understanding of their functions must begin with a knowledge of how these
wetlands are classified, A variety of classification schemes has been devel-
oped since the 1950s, several of which are introduced here. Shaw and Fredine
(1956) in Circular 39 identified 13 wetland types based primarily on the
needs and requirements of waterfowl. Regional classification schemes have
been developed, such as for the Northeast (Golet and Larson, 1974) and the
Prairie Pothole Region of the Upper Midwest (Stewart and Kantrud, 1971),
More recently, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife (USFWS) Service developed a classi-
fication system, based upon ecological characteristics of a wetland, that was
used in the National Wetland Inventory (Cowardin et al,, 1979),
A primary concern in any wetland manipulation is the nature and extent of the
resultant system impacts. Wetlands serve an important role in the provision
of habitat, in nutrient cycling, and in the flow regimes of both surface and
groundwater. Increasing attention is being given to their value and
sensitivity. Several books address general and/or specific wetland ecosystem
impacts, Greeson et al, (1979) provides a comprehensive look at the diverse
aspects of wetlands - scientific, social political, and economic. Ecological
processes and management potential of freshwater wetlands are discussed by
Good et al, (1978) and Richardson (1981), Weller (1981) provides a perspec-
tive on the ecology and wildlife management potential in freshwater marshes,
Kusler (1983) gives an overview of wetland values and outlines protection
strategies.
Wetland Treatment Capability
The concept of utilizing biological and ecological processes found in the
natural environment to treat wastewater is not new. Applying wastewater and
sludge to the land has evolved from the routine agricultural practices of re-
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cycling manure and other agricultural residues, Tourbier and Pierson (1976)
provide a good overview of these concepts and practices as well as the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) in several process design manuals (US
EPA, 1981; USEPA, 1983b).
With regard to its regulatory responsibilities, the USEPA has been pursuing a
"technology based" approach to controlling water pollution and considers
natural treatment systems, such as wetlands, well suited to meet their goals.
The concept has been shown to be viable and qualifies under current USEPA
definitions as innovative or alternative technology. Bastian and Benforado
(1983) discuss the eligibility of this emerging technology for Federal grant
assistance.
The capability of wetlands to renovate wastewater and to tolerate effluent
discharges has been demonstrated in a variety of natural and artificial
(constructed) wetlands across the nation. Pull-scale aquatic treatment sys-
tems, as well as numerous research and development projects, are operating or
under construction in over a dozen states and in several foreign countries.
These include natural and constructed wetlands, treatment ponds, systems
using floating aquatic plants grown in ponds or ditches, and aquaculture
operations involving a variety of freshwater or marine organisms. The Uni-
versity of Michigan (northern peatlands and cattail marshes) and the Univer-
sity of Florida (cypress domes and strands) received funding during the 1970s
from the National Science Foundation (NSF) to conduct long term studies on
wetland treatment systems. Many other universities are involved in similar
research including, but not limited to, the Louisiana State University
(southern hardwood swamps), Humboldt State University, California (artificial
freshwater wetlands), Rider College and Rutgers University, New Jersey
(freshwater tidal marshes), the University of California - Davis (artificial
freshwater wetlands) the University of Wisconsin (northern peatlands and
cattail marshes), and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, Massachusetts,
(coastal brackish water wetlands). Several publications provide lists of
currently operating wetland treatment systems (Chan et al., 1982; Hammer et
al,, 1983; USEPA 1983d).
A number of types of natural wetlands have been used to investigate the
effectiveness and ecosystem impacts of wastewater application. Northern
wooded swamps, cattail marshes, southern cypress swamps, freshwater tidal
marshes, salt marshes, and others have been manipulated. Artificial or con-
structed wetlands have recently been used in the treatment of wastewater.
Listings for all of these types of wetlands can be found in the Index of this
document. The use of artificial systems shows great promise for more general
application across the country. They are more reliable and involve less risk
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of adverse environmental impact because of better process control. The use
of artificial water hyacinth systems was pioneered by Wolverton and others at
the NASA lab in Bay St, Louis, Mississippi (Wolverton et al., 1975). Con-
structed wetlands also include aquaculture systems that both treat wastes and
produce valuable aquatic plants or animals, and marine polyculture systems
which use wastewater and several organisms in a marine food chain
relationship (Bastian and Reed, 1979),
Bastian and Reed (1979; and Reed and Bastian, In Press) provide an engineer-
ing perspective on the capability of wetland systems to renovate wastewater.
Other engineering assessments have been written by Chan et al., (1982), Hyde
et al., (In Press), and Tchobanoglous and Gulp (1980), Under the right
conditions wetland systems can achieve high removal efficiencies for BOD,
suspended solids, trace organics and heavy metals. However, specific factors
responsible for such high treatment levels are not clearly understood. The
relationship between wastewater nitrogen and phosphorus application rates and
the efficiency of nitrogen and phosphorus removal by wetlands is described by
Nichols (1983). An extensive list of references on the capacity of natural
wetlands to remove nutrients from wastewater is included in this article.
Criteria for Design and Ecological Management
A major engineering limitation is that optimum, cost-effective design
criteria for such wetland treatment systems are not applicable across the
country. Progress is being made in this area of research. Published data
have been analyzed to identify general principles for the successful design
and operation of wetland facilities (Hammer and Kadlec, 1983; Hammer et al.,
1983; Heliotis, 1981), In both of the Hammer papers, variables in the
wetland treatment process are manipulated in models which may provide more
generally applicable design criteria. The Heliotis thesis includes a
detailed literature review,
Richardson and Nichols (In Press) present ecological management criteria that
should be addressed prior to the selection of a wetland treatment system.
These criteria include the value of the effluent as a resource, the capabil-
ities and limitations of wetlands to accomplish wastewater treatment, waste-
water management objectives, wastewater suitability for wetland discharge and
wetland values. Benforado (1981) and Reed and Kubiak (In Press) discuss
ecological considerations in the overall wetlands manipulation process.
Several general papers provide broad perspectives on a specific topic.
Tchobanoglous et al, (1979) has written an overview on the use of aquatic
plants and animals in wetland wastewater treatment systems, Kadlec and Til-
ton (1979) reviewed the use of freshwater wetlands as an alternative to ter-
tiary wastewater treatment.
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A number of symposia and/or conferences on wetlands and their role in waste-
water treatment have been held. Three of the more recent and important con-
ferences on this subject are: (1) The Midwest Conference on Wetland Values
and Management held June 17-19, 1981, in St, Paul, Minnesota; (2) The Fourth
Annual Meeting of the Society of Wetland Scientists held June 5-8, 1983 in
St. Paul, Minnesota; and (3) Ecological Considerations in Wetlands Treatment
of Municipal Wastewaters, a Workshop at the University of Massachusetts
held June 23-25, 1982, in Amberst, Massachusetts. Papers presented at these
meetings or published proceedings have provided major contributions to the
understanding of wetland treatment systems and their role in wastewater
management.
A number of Federal agencies are interested and have been involved to various
degrees in funding or coordinating research on the use of wetlands for waste-
water treatment. These agencies include, among others, the National Aero-
nautic and Space Administration (NASA), NSF, USEPA and USFWS. The latter two
agencies co-sponsored the 1982 Antherst Workshop. Some of the notable USEPA
funded research has come from the Municipal Environmental Research Lab (MERL)
in Cincinnati, Ohio and the Robert S. Kerr Research Lab in Ada, Oklahoma.
The Ada Research Lab has funded projects in Santee, California (San Diego
Regional Water Reclamation Agency), at the University of Wisconsin, Milwau-
kee, and in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, as well as others. The work cited
earlier by Hammer and Kadlec (1983) was sponsored by the Robert S. Kerr Lab,
USEPA is currently conducting studies that address wetlands and wastewater on
a regional basis (Regions V and IV), A Region V interim document describes
the effects of wastewater treatment facilities on wetlands in the six mid-
western states (USEPA, 1983c). This work provides the background information
needed in preparation for a Generic Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) on
guidelines for wetland treatment systems. A Region IV EIS assesses the use
of freshwater wetlands for wastewater disposal in the southeastern states
(USEPA, 1983a). The second phase of the report, when published, will develop
a handbook to delineate methods of analysis as well as safeguards and guide-
lines for evaluating, selecting, permitting, and monitoring wetland disposal
systems. Both USEPA documents provide good overviews and have extensive
bibliographies,
Institutional Considerations
Institutional constraints can severely limit the ability of regulatory agen-
cies to implement otherwise sound concepts and technology. Critical institu-
tional considerations concerning the use of wetlands for wastewater treatment
include a) regulatory policies concerning conflicts between wetland protec-
tion and use, b) ownership and proprietary rights of private wetlands, and
xii
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c) various agency regulations and policies associated with permitting
processes. While no comprehensive studies have addressed this vital aspect
of wetlands and wastewater, insights may be obtained from Kusler (1980, 1983)
Rusincovitch (In Press) and publications of the National Wetland Newsletter,
Environmental Law Institute, Washington, D.C. Reed and Kubiak (In press)
present a formal ecological evaluation process to determine wetland suitabil-
ity for wastewater treatment and discharge. They further discuss how formal-
ized wetland criteria can be adopted into the institutional framework of the
facilities planning process. In addition, both USEPA regional studies will
explore this topic.
Kill
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REFERENCES
* 1. Bastian, R.K. and J. Benforado. 1983. Waste Treatment: Doing What
Comes Naturally. Technology Review 86(2):59-66. Feb. - Mar.
* 2. Bastian, R.K. and S.C. Reed. (ed). 1979. Aquaculture Systems for
Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and Engineering Assess-
ment. EPA 430/9-80-006. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Water Program Operations, Municipal Construction Divi-
sion. Washington, D.C. 485 p.
* 3. Benforado, J. 1981. Ecological Considerations in Wetland Treatment of
Muncipal Wastewater. In Selected Proceedings of the Midwest
Conference on Wetland Values and Management. June 17-19. St. Paul,
MN. pp. 307-323. Minnesota Water Planning Board; Water Resources
Research Center, University of Minnesota; Upper Mississippi River
Basin Commission and the Great Lakes Basin Commission.
* 4. Chan, E., T.A. Bursztynsky, N. Hantzsche and Y.J. Litwin, 1982. The
Use of Wetlands for Water Pollution Control. USEPA Office of
Research and Development, Municipal Environmental Research Lab.
Cincinnati. 600/S2-82-086. November.
5. Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRae. 1979. Classifi-
cation of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service. FWS/OBS-79/31.
6. Golet, F.C. and J.S. Larson. 1974. Classification of Freshwater Wet-
lands in the Glaciated Northeast. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Res. Pub. 116. 56 p.
* 7. Good, R.E., D.F. Whigham and R.L. Simpson (ed). 1978. Freshwater Wet-
lands: Ecological Processes and Management Potential. Academic
Press, Inc., New York.
0 8. Greeson, P.E., J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark (ed). 1979. Wetland Functions
and Values: The State of Our Understanding. Proceedings of the
National Symposium on Wetlands. Lake Buena Vista, Florida. Amer.
Water Resour. Tech. Pub. TPS 79-2. Minneapolis, MN.
* 9. Hammer, D.E. and R.H. Kadlec. 1983. Design Principles for Wetland Treat-
ment Systems. Project Summary. EPA-600/S2-83-026. Robert S. Kerr
Environmental Research Laboratory. Ada, OK. May. (See also Hammer,
D.E. et al., 1983 for complete version of this article.)
* 10. Hammer, D.E. et al. 1983. Design Principles for Wetland Treatment
Systems. University of Michigan - Ann Arbor. National Technical
Information Service No. PB 83-188722. April. (See also Hammer, D.E.
and R.H. Kadlec, 1983 for USEPA Project Summary version of this arti-
cle. )
* 11. Heliotis, F.D. 1981. Wetland Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Operating
Mechanisms and Implications for Design. University of Wisconsin -
Madison. Master's Thesis. 103 p.
xiv
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0 12. Hyde, H.C., R.S. Ross and F. Demgen. In press. Technical Assessment of
Wetlands for Municipal Wastewater Treatment. USEPA Office of
Research and Development, Municipal Environmental Research Lab.
Cincinnati.
* 13. Kadlec, R.H. and D.L. Tilton. 1979. The Use of Freshwater Wetlands as
a Tertiary Wastewater Treatment Alternative. CRC Critical Reviews
in Environmental Control 9(2}: 185-212.
0 14. Kusler, J.A. 1980. Regulating Sensitive Lands. Ballinger Pub. Co.
Cambridge, MA. 248 p.
0 15. Kusler, J.A. 1983. Our National Wetland Heritage. A Protection Guide-
book. Environmental Law Institute, Washington, D.C. 168 p.
* 16. Nichols, D.S. 1983. Capacity of Natural Wetlands to Remove Nutrients
from Wastewater. J. of Water Pollut. Cont. Fed. 55(5) .-495-505.
* 17. Reed, S.C. and R.K. Bastian. In press. Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment
An Engineering Perspective. In Ecological Considerations in Wet-
lands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings of a Workshop
June 23-25, 1982. University of Massachusetts. Amherst, MA. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
0 18. Reed, C.A.v and T. Kubiak. In press. An Ecological Evaluation Procedure
for Determining Wetland Suitability for Wastewater Treatment and Dis-
charges. In Ecological Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of
Municipal Wastewaters, Proceedings of a Workshop, June 23-25, 1982.
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA. US Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice and US Environmental Protection Agency.
0 19. Richardson, P. (ed). 1981. Selected Proceedings of the Midwest Con-
ference on Wetland Values and Management. June 17-19. St. Paul,
Minnesota. Minnesota Water Planning Board; Water Resources Research
Center, University of Minnesota; Upper Mississippi River Basin Com-
mission and Great Lakes Basin Commission.
20. Richardson, C.J. and D.S. Nichols. In press. Ecological Analysis of Waste-
water Management Criteria in Wetland Ecosystems. In Ecological
Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Pro-
ceedings of a Workshop June 23-25, 1982. University of Massachusetts.
Amherst, MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
21. Rusincovitch, F. In press. Use of Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment and
Effluent Disposal: Institutional Constraints. In Ecological Consid-
erations in Wetlands Treatment of Muncipal Wastewaters. Proceedings
of a Workshop June 23-25, 1982. University of Massachusetts.
Amherst, MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
22. Shaw, S.P. and C.G. Fredine. 1956. Wetlands of the United States. Cir-
cular 39. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
xv
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23. Stewart, R.E. and H.A. Kantrud. 1971. Classification of Natural Ponds
and Lakes in the Glaciated Prairie Region. U.S. Bureau of Sport Fish-
eries and Wildlife Resources. Pub. 92. 57p.
* 24. Tchobanoglous, G. and G.L. Gulp. 1980. Wetland Systems for Wastewater
Treatment: An Engineering Assessment. In Aquaculture Systems for
Wastewater Treatment: An Engineering Assessment. EPA 430/9-80-007.
June.
* 25. Tchobanoglous, G., R. Stowell, R. Ludwig, J. Colt, and A. Knight. 1979.
The Use of Aquatic Plants and Animals for the Treatment of Waste-
water: An Overview, pp. 35-55. In R.K. Bastian and S.C. Reed (ed).
Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and
Engineering Assessment. EPA 430/9-80-006. U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Office of Water Programs, Municipal Construction
Division. Washington, D.C.
* 26. Tourbier, J. and R.W. Pierson (ed.). 1976. Biological Control of Water
Pollution. Univ. of Pennsylvania Press. Philadelphia.
27. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1981. Process Design Manual for
Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewater. EPA 625/1-81-013.
* 28. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983a. Freshwater Wetlands for
Wastewater Management. Environmental Impact Statement. Phase I
Report. EPA 904/9-83-107. Region IV, Atlanta.
29. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983b. Process Design Manual for
Land Application of Municipal Sludge. EPA 625/1-83-016. October.
* 30. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983c. The Effects of Wastewater
Treatment Facilities on Wetlands in the Midwest. Technical Report.
Region V. EPA-905/3-83-072. September.
* 31. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983d. Wetlands Treatment: A Prac-
tical Approach. (Brochure) EPA Emerging Technology Series.
32. weller, M.W. 1981. Freshwater Marshes: Ecology and Wildlife Management.
University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN. 146 p.
* 33. Wolverton, B.C., R.M. Barlow and R.C. McDonald. 1975. Application of
Vascular Aquatic Plants for Pollution Removal, Energy and Food Pro-
duction in a Biological System. NASA. NSTL. Bay St. Louis, MS.
0 Key references on wetlands/wastewater found in Bibliography.
* Key references on wetlands/wastewater found in Bibliography
with annotation.
xvi
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1. Abel, P. D. 1974. Toxicity of Synthetic Detergents to Fish and Aquatic
Invertebrates. J. Fish. Biol. 6(3):279-298.
Synthetic detergents are reported to be acutely toxic to fish in con-
centrations between 0.4 and 40 mg/1. Factors affecting toxicity include
the molecular structure of the detergent, water hardness, temperature and
dissolved oxygen concentration; the age and species of the test fish, and
acclimation to low concentrations of detergent. Some of these factors
appear to be of only limited importance. Gill damage is the most obvious
acute toxic effect; the immediate cause of death may be asphyxiation, but
detergents may also be toxic internally. Lethal effects not related to
gill damage have not been investigated. Sublethal effects include
retardation of growth, alteration of feeding behaviour and inhibition of
chemoreceptor organs. Low levels of detergents may also increase the
uptake of other pollutants. Invertebrates, especially in their juvenile
stages, are extremely sensitive to detergents: concentrations below 0.1
mg/1 interfere with growth and development in some species. The inter-
actions between detergents and proteins, and their influence on membrane
permeability may be the basis of the biological action of detergents.
Detergents in natural waters are usually partially degraded, and a maximum
permissible concentration of 0.5 mg/1 would probably be harmless under
most conditions. (AA)
2. Abeliovich, A. 1980. Factors Limiting Algal Growth in High-rate Oxida-
tion Ponds. In; Proc. Int. Symp. Prod, and Use of Alga Biomass.
Shelef and Boeder (Eds.) Elsevier, Amsterdam.
3. Adriano, D. C., L. T. Novak, A. E. Erickson, A. R. Wolcott, and B. G.
Ellis. 1975. Effect of Long Term Land Disposal by Spray Irrigation
of Food Processing Wastes on Some Chemical Properties of the Soil and
Subsurface Waters. J. Environ. Qual. 4:244-248.
Food processing waste waters at two irrigated land disposal sites and
subsurface waters (perched and ground waters) were monitored at daily to
monthly intervals over one annual cycle of production. Soil profiles
were sampled to depths up to 6.6m in the early fall.
Yearly inputs were calculated at 487 kg/ha total N (Kjeldahl plus NO3-N)
and 101 kg/ha soluble PO4~P (orthophosphate) from cannery wastes at site
1. Estimates for milk wastes at site 2 were 562 kg/ha total N and 522
kg/ha PO4-P.
The range for NC^-N in subsurface waters was 7 to 16 ppm at site 1
(perched water at 1,5m) and 2 to 41 ppm at site 2 (ground water at 0.9 m).
Maximum concentrations, found in summer, were essentially the same as the
average for total N in the input wastes (16 ppm at site 1 and 38 ppm at
site 2). Nitrate was stable in the percolation stream below the root
zone. Annual additions to subsurface waters were estimated at 76% of in-
put N at site 1 and 65% at site 2.
The range of PO^-P in subsurface waters was 0.5 to 1.5 ppm at site 1
and 0.04 to 1.8 ppm at site 2; average waste water concentrations were 3
-------
and 35 ppm. The highest concentrations in subsurface water were found in
spring. Annual subsurface discharge was estimated at 27% of input P at
site 1 and 2% at site 2. The extensive removals of PC>4 and the similar
concentrations encountered in subsurface waters are of theoretical and
practical interest since P04~P had already accumulated in soil profiles
at both sites in quantities which exceed the Langmuir maxima for nonirri-
gated control soils.
During seasons of major irrigation input, HO^ appeared in subsurface
waters in concentrations exceeding public health standards; P04 concen-
trations exceeded environmental guidelines at all times except where irri-
gation was discontinued during the winter at site 2.
Soil systems appeared poised to discharge at the observed rates because
of the large quantities of organic N and fixed P which had accumulated in
the profiles over 20 years operation at site 1 and 10 years at site 2. The
rate of residual accumulation in soil could have been reduced by harvest
to extend system life materially. The harvest potential of three grass
clippings per season removed for silage was estimated experimentally at
31% of input N at both sites, 80% of input PC>4 at site 1 and 27% at site
2. (AA)
4. Akin, E. W., et al. 1971. Enteric Viruses in Ground and Surface Waters:
a Review of their Occurrence and Survival, pp. 59-74. In V. Snoeyink
and V. Griffin (eds.). Virus and Water Quality: Occurrence and Con-
trol. Univ. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
5. Alabaster, J. S. 1959. Effect of Sewage Effluent on Distribution of
Dissolved Oxygen and Pish in a Stream. J. Anim. Ecol., 28:283- .
6. Albrecht, S. C., and B. J. Barfield. 1981. Use of a Vegetative Filter
Zone to Control Fine-Grained Sediments from Surface Mines. EPA
600/57-81-117. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory. Cincinnati, OH.
The objective of this study was "to demonstrate the effectiveness of a
vegetative filter zone in trapping fine-grained sediments from surface
mining operations." The area selected for study was located in Whitley
County, Kentucky, directly below an active surface mining operation. The
outslope above the filter was the primary drainage area monitored during
this study.
Results of the monitoring efforts revealed that a dramatic reduction in
sediment load was achieved by vegetative filtration for particle sizes
larger than clay. Based on the results of this study, it was concluded
that vegetatative filters are an effective control for reducing the
quantity of sediment transported into surface streams and rivers from
disturbed mined lands.
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7. Alleman, J. E., and S. P. Lo. 1980. Investigation of Full-Scale Bio-
logical Batch Treatment of Intermittent Wastewater Flows. Tech. Rept.
No 63. Water Resources Research Center. Univ. pf Maryland, College
Park. 30 pp.
8. Allen/ G., 6. Conversano, and B. Colwell. 1972. A Pilot Fish-Pond
System for Utilization of Sewage Effluents/ Humboldt Bay, Northern
California. California State Univ., Humboldt, Arcata. Marine
Advisory Extension Service. 31 pp.
The paper documents all out-of-pocket and other real costs in the
construction of a pilot fish pond system for the utilization of sewage
effluents, Humboldt Bay, Northern California. Discussions deal with the
engineering and construction problems encountered. A description of the
project site and reasons for site selection are explained. (NT)
9. Allen, 6. H. 1969. A Preliminary Bibliography on the Utilization of
Sewage in Fish Culture. FAO Fisheries Circ. #308. Rome*
10. Allen, 6. H. 1972. The Constructive Use of Sewage, with Particular
Reference to Fish Culture. Marine Pollution and Sea Life. 506-513.
Giving a bibliography of 132 references, the author reviews methods
for using sewage in aquaculture, particularly in fish culture, as in
Germany, U.S.A., Israel, and India, and discusses the possibility of
future world-wide developments, including the desirability of inter-
national co-operation for research on the use of waste waters in inte-
grated agriculture aquaculture systems. (AS)
11. Allen, G. H. 1976. Rearing Pacific Salmon in Saltwater Ponds Fertilized
with Domestic Wastewater. Sept. 1974-Nov. 1975 Data Kept. HSU-SG-10,
Humboldt State Univ., Arcata, CA. 92 pp.
12. Allen, G. H., and R. A. Gearheart. 1978. Arcata Integrated Wastewater
Treatment, Reclamation, and Salmon Ranching Project. California State
Univ., Humboldt, Arcata. Marine Advisory Extension Service. NOAA,
Office of Sea Grant. 76 pp.
13. Allen, G. H., and B. Hepher. 1976. Recycling of Wastes Through Aqua-
culture and Constraints to Wider Application. FAO Tech. Conf. on
Aquaculture. Kyoto, Japan.
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Pacific salmon smolts have been reared in saline ponds fertilized with
domestic wastewaters. An artificial homestream is to be created from the
discharge of a marsh-lake system to be developed with reclaimed waste-
water. This proposed salmon ranching method has the potential for
producing food cheaply. (NT)
14. Allen, J. and S. S. Wilson. 1977. A Bibliography of References to Avian
Botulism. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Special Scientific Report -
Wildlife No. 24. Department of the Interior, Washington, DC. 6 pp.
15. Allen, M. B. 1955. General Features of Algal Growth in Sewage Oxidation
Ponds. Calif. State Water Poll. Control Bd. Publ. #13.
16. Allison, J., and J. L. Fox. 1976. Coliform Monitoring of Waters Associ-
ated with the Cypress Dome Project, pp. 279-290. In H. T. Odum, K. C.
Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for
Water Management, Recycling, and Conservation. Third Annual Report.
Center for Wetlands. Univ. of Florida. Gainesville.
17. Althaus, H. 1966. Biological Wastewater Treatment with Bulrushes.
G.W.F. 107(18):486-488.
18. American Water Works Association Research Foundation. 1979a. Proceed-
ings of the Water Reuse Symposium. Volume 1. Held 25-30 March in
Washington, DC. Co-sponsored with U.S. Department of the Interior,
Office of Water Research and Technology; U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency; National Science Foundation; and Water Pollution Control
Federation. Denver, CO. 782 pp.
19. American Water Works Association Research Foundation. 1979b. Proceed-
ings of the Water Reuse Symposium. Volume 2. Held 25-30 March in
Washington, DC. Co-sponsored with U.S. Department of the Interior,
Office of Water Research and Technology; U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency; National Science Foundation; and Water Pollution Control
Federation. Denver, CO. 332 pp.
20. American Water Works Association Research Foundation. 1979c. Proceed-
ings of the Water Reuse Symposium. Volume 3. Held 25-30 March in
Washington, DC. Co-sponsored with U.S. Department of the Interior,
Office of Water Research and Technology; U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency; National Science Foundation; and Water Pollution Control Fed-
eration. Denver, CO. 1626 pp.
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21. Anderson, R. K., and D. Kent. 1979. Progress Report: Drummond,
Wisconsin, Tertiary Treatment Demonstration Project Study. Report to
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. University of Wisconsin, Stevens
Point, WI. 22 pp.
The Drummond, Wisconsin wastewater treatment facility consists of a
primary and two secondary reservoirs. Secondary effluent is spread on
the surface of a nearby bog by means of a gated irrigation pipe. Theo-
retically, the receiving bog will provide tertiary treatment to the
effluent without deleterious effects to the ecosystem. The initial dis-
charge of effluent occurred on June 15, 1979.
The study area is a 25-acre sphagnum bog in sections 28 and 33,
T45N, R7W, Bayfield County, Wisconsin, which drains into a 4.1-acre
bog lake (Weso Lake) and thence to the Long Lake Branch of the White
River. The objective of this study is to determine the effects
of the secondary effluent on the fauna of the receiving bog.
22. Anon. 1970. Studies of Marine Estuarine Ecosystems Developing with
Treated Sewage Wastes. University of North Carolina, Institute of
Marine Sciences Annual Report for 1969-1970. NTIS No. PB-199 537.
May. 364 p.
This is the second annual report in a study of ecological systems
that develop when treated wastes from municipal sewage systems that
develop when treated wastes from municipal sewage systems flow into
estuarine waters. Studies by a team of faculty and students consid-
ered a small marsh-lined estuary, Calico Creek, which received wastes
following secondary treatment, and a set of three ponds in which est-
uarine water and treated sewage mixture flows. Three control ponds
received tapwater and estuarine water. In their second year, the ponds
were rich in productivity with successive algal blooms throughout the
year and a food chain culminating in blue crabs. Chapters are included
on the events in the salinity regime and input management. Photosyn-
thetic productivity and respiration, algal growth, phosphorous and nitro-
gen, bacteria, and animal populations. The presence of a substantial
ecological system suggests a viable intermediary system interface is
possible between man's municipal wastes and normal estuaries. These
systems have potential for aquiculture and waste amelioration.
23. Anon. 1972. Outdoor Mass Culture of Marine Phyto-plankton. Aquacul-
ture 1(2):181.
24. Anon. 1975a. Floating Aquatic Plants Remove Chemicals from Polluted
Waters. Water and Pollution Control, 113(6): 23-25.
NASA's National Space Technology Laboratories (NSTL) in Bay St. Louis,
Mississippi has been experimenting with water hyacinths to determine the
plant's ability to absorb and concentrate toxic metals, and metabolize
other chemical pollutants - phenols, creosols, insecticides, nitrates, and
-------
phosphates. In early 1975 large quantities of water hyacinths were
planted in a portion of the 60-acre lagoon that serves as the city's total
sewage disposal outlet. The planting begins a complex process that
results in the total recycling of enormous quantities of water hyacinths.
One month after initial stocking, plant harvesting begins; by this time
the plants will have reproduced enough to appreciably reduce pollution
levels. The harvested crop is subjected to procedures to determine im-
purity assimilation. Two methods under study by NSTL involve continual
processing of the water hyacinths. Anaerobic fermentation converts
shredded water hyacinths into bio-gas, similar to natural gas. The poten-
tial yield is expected to be 28,500 cubic meters of gas per acre of plants.
Pyrolytic decomposition produces a mixed hydrocarbon fuel similar to bio-
gas. Plants grown in domestic sewage effluent (low in toxic metal con-
tent) will be evaluated as an animal food source. Residues from these
processes will yield high grade fertilizer. The advantages of the inte-
grated aquatic plant disposal method are durability and low installation
and maintenance costs. An obvious drawback is that it is limited to
tropical and subtropical climate zones.
25. Anon. 1975b. Marshes and Wetlands May Provide Safe Community Tertiary
Sewage Treatment. Compost Science, 16(4):31.
The preliminary conclusion of a University of Michigan Research Project
now in its third year is that marshes, bogs, swamps and other wetlands are
able to provide high-quality tertiary sewage treatment. The project was
designed to find out whether the natural processes in a 1,000 acre marsh
near Houghton Lake in North Central Lower Michigan will be able to provide
tertiary balance. The research has included a survey of pertinent scien-
tific literature, the construction of a computer model of the marsh, and
small, carefully controlled, on-site experiments. The model portrays the
dynamic character of the marsh and accurately simulates the complex inter-
actions among soil, water, wildlife, and climate. The model predicts that
when millions of gallons of secondarily treated effluent are pumped into
the marsh, the four-foot layer of peatland covering the area will absorb
many of the dissolved nutrients in the water; only a small portion of the
total will be utilized by vegetation. Wetlands bordering lakes and
streams must not be used for treatment because of the risk that effluent
would reach adjacent waters before being sufficiently purified. Each
potential treatment site must be thoroughly studied to ensure that the
wetland will be able to remain in an aesthetic and viable state, and the
water quality will meet environmental standards.
26. Anon. 1977a. Concept, Research, Approval...An Effluent Irrigation Project
Houghton Lake :vwer Authority. Consulting Engineer. 48(5):77.
A marshland irrigation system was proposed for the disposal of treat-
ment plant effluents in Michigan. Two possible advantages were seen: an
estimated cost savings of $700,000 over the use of a conventional irriga-
gation system, and improved food supply and wildlife proliferation in the
marsh area. Because of the lack of data on wetlands irrigation in Michi-
gan, a test program was conducted before project approval. The test area
-------
was evaluated through plant, soil, and insect samples and through water
quality tests. The organic deposits proved excellent in nutrient removal
without overloading, and no adverse effects were detected in the test pro-
gram. The application of 12.5 million gallons of wastewater during 1975
and 1976 continued to produce favorable results without adverse effects.
The marsh ecosystem was not damaged, and plants grew larger and greener.
The irrigation project was accepted as financially and environmentally
feasible.
27. Anon. 1977b. Lab to Test Bulrushes as Filters for Sewage. Water and
Wastes Engineering 14(9):16. September 1977.
Environmental Quality Laboratory, Inc., a subsidiary of General Devel-
opment Corporation, is investigating the use of bulrushes to create a
low-cost, natural means of tertiary sewage treatment. In experiments at
Port Charlotte, Florida, 6 inch bulrush plants were planted in plastic-
lined troughs which were filled with water to create a half-acre artifi-
cial marsh. A 12-month testing program is being used to evaluate phos-
phorus and nitrogen removal from primary and secondary treated effluents
by bulrushes in the waste water flooded artificial marsh. Since ad-
vanced waste water treatment is required for the future, the marshland
filtration system may provide tertiary treatment at lower construction
and maintenance costs than conventional systems.
28. Anon. 1977c. Using Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment. Journal Water
Pollution Control Federation. 49(7):1581. July, 1977.
The possible use of wetlands in Michigan and Florida for final treat-
ment of municipal wastewater has been considered. At a trial site in
Florida, wastewater is pumped into cypress ponds where nutrients are
absorbed by vegetation. Costs for this method of treatment are approxi-
mately 50 percent less than for treatment by a conventional plant. At a
trial site in Michigan, wastewater is pumped into a peat marsh for the
removal of nutrients.
29. Anon. 1979. Treatment of Stormwater Runoff by a Marsh/Flood Basin.
Association of Bay Area Governments. Berkeley, CA.
The flood basin functions as a marsh/wetland. The first year's
results of the study show that pickleweed dominates the lower elevation
marsh areas that are subject to daily and seasonal inundation. Pickle-
weed also tends to concentrate heavy metals to a greater extent than the
mixed marsh or upland grass vegetation. The aerial plant parts of
pickleweed demonstrates the ability to concentrate heavy metals -
particularly Zn and Cd - at significant levels beyond soil and stormwater
concentrations.
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30. Anon. 1980. Solar Aquaculture Wastewater Treatment Plant. Public Works
(USA) 111(5):122.
The Solar Aquacell System of wastewater treatment which utilizes natur-
al ecological processes in an anaerobic pond lined and covered with a
rubber membrane, creating a sealed chamber. Here between 30-50 percent
of solids are settled and digested. Secondary treatment is in an aerated
pond from which waste water flows to an aerated lagoon covered with water
hyacinths and duckweeds which metabolize wastewater nutrients. These
ponds are enclosed in a solar-heated greenhouse. Effluent from the
lagoons is passed through a sand filter into an ozone contact chamber for
final disinfection.
31. Anthony, R. G., G. R. Bierei, and R. Kozlowski. 1978. Effects of
Municipal Wastewater Irrigation on Select Species of Mammals, pp.
281-287. In H. L. McKim (coor.), State of Knowledge in Land Treatment
of Wastewater. Vol. 2. Proceedings of an international symposium
held 20-25 August 1978 at Hanover, NH, sponsored by U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers.
32. Anthony, R. G., and G. W. Wood. 1979. Effects of Municipal Wastewater
Irrigation on Wildlife and Wildlife Habitat, pp. 213-223. In W. E.
Sopper and S. N. Kerr (eds.), Utilization of Municipal Sewage Effluent
and Sludge on Forest and Disturbed Land. The Pennsylvania State
University Press, University Park, PA.
The effects of wastewater renovation on wildlife and wildlife habitat
have been investigated in mixed oak and aspen/pine/shrub habitats. Influ-
ence of wastewater on vegetation and wildlife is dependent on the type of
habitat irrigated and the species of wildlife in question. Studies to
date indicate no major detrimental effect of irrigation and wildlife and
wildlife habitat; however, some influences are apparent. The establish-
ment of lush herbaceous undergrowth in mixed oak habitats decreases forage
production for white-tailed deer, results in higher populations of white-
footed mice during the fall, and appears to reduce stability and abundance
of songbird populations. The influences of wastewater irrigation in
aspen/pine/shurb habitats on wildlife and wildlife habitat appear to be
less negative. In these habitats the quantity and quality of forage pro-
duction for white-tailed deer and cottontail rabbits may be increased.
Songbirds avoided irrigated sites while irrigation was in progress, but
use of these areas was normal when irrigation was not in progress. Song-
birds also used irrigated mixed oak habitats less during early summer but
significantly more during late summer. Wastewater irrigation appeared to
favor species of songbirds at the expense of diversity.
Heavy metals were not accumulating in cottontail rabbits or white-
footed mice inhabiting irrigated sites. These studies should be con-
tinued over longer time periods and in areas where industrial wastes
create higher risks concerning this hazard.
Studies on the effect of wastewater renovation on wildlife and wildlife
habitat have been limited to only a few vegetative types and have been
hindered by small plot size and short duration of investigations. As lar-
ger irrigation systems become operable, opportunities to investigate the
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definitive relationship between habitat changes and wildlife responses
will arise. Integral to these studies are investigations on the enhance-
ment, prevalence, and pathogenicity of disease in wildlife which may pre-
sent a human health hazard. (AA)
33. Anthony, R.G. and R. Kozlowski. 1982. Heavy Metals in Tissues of Small
Mammals Inhabiting Waste Water Irrigated Habitats. Journal of Environ-
mental Qualities. 11:20-22.
Concentrations of heavy metals in liver and kidney of meadow voles
(Microtus pennsyIvanicus) and white-footed mice {Pejrmy sous leucopus) from
wastewater-irrigated and control areas were analyzed. Heavy metals were
not accumulating in meadow voles inhabiting a reed canarygrass (Phalaris
arundinacea) field irrigated with sewage effluent. In contrast, Pb and Cd
concentrations were significantly higher in tissues of white-footed mice
inhabiting an irrigated forested site as compared with a control forested
site. However, concentrations of Pb and Cd were not high enough to be
considered toxic. Cadmium/zinc ratios for kidneys of small mammals were
higher than those for soils and vegetation on irrigated areas, demonstrat-
ing potentially hazardous levels in herbivorous small mammals inhabiting
areas irrigated with sewage effluent at application rates ranging from 5.0
to 7.5 cm/week for 14 years. (AA)
34. Attwell, B.J. et al. 1980. The Uptake of Phosphate by Carex spp. from
Oligotrophic to Eutrophic Swamp Habitats. Physiologia Plantarum
44(4):
35. AveLallemant, S. P., and J. W. Held. 1980. Assessment of Sewage Lagoons
as Potential Fish Culture Sites in West Central Wisconsin. University
of Wisconsin-Madison. Water Resources Center. Office of Water
Research and Technology, Washington, DC. 92 pp.
The potential of wastewater treatment lagoons in Wisconsin for cul-
turing fathead minnows (Pimphales pronelas) was considered. The efficacy
of this treatment strategy in terms of improving effluent water quality
by reclaiming nutrients in the form of fish biomass and reducing treat-
ment costs by providing marketable bait fish was assessed.
Wastewater lagoon systems located in 19 counties in west-central Wis-
consin were assessed as potential fish culture sites during 1978 and 1979.
Decisions were based on field measurements of temperature and dissolved
oxygen (DO), number of lagoons, loading rates, and 24-hr, on-site cage
bioassays with fathead minnows. Water samples for chemical and phyto-
plankton analyses were collected every 2 weeks from May through September
at 10 of the facilities during 1979.
Successful fish culture in wastewater treatment lagoons appears to
depend on the loading rate and design capacity of the facilities consid-
ered. High levels of ammonia-nitrogen and low levels of DO were major
limitations to fish culture in sewage lagoons. Characteristics of lagoon
systems with a high probability of culture success include moderate load-
-------
ing rates, pretreatment of waste and aeration. Fish culture in waste-
water lagoons may provide a harvestable by-product which could help off-
set operating costs* (AA)
36. AveLallemant, S. P. (In preparation). Baitfish Culture in Wastewater
Treatment Lagoons in Wisconsin. Master's Thesis. Univ. of Wisconsin.
La Crosse.
37. Azharia Jahn, Samia. 1976. Sudanese Native Methods for the Purification
of Nile Water During the Flood Season, p. 95-106, In; Biological Con-
trol of Water Pollution. J. Tourbier and R.W. Pierson, Jr. (Editors).
University of Pennsylvania Press.
38. Badour, S. S., H. R. Godavari, A. Hussain, Y. C. Tai, and E. R. Waygood.
1980. Purification and Reclamation of Farm and Urban Wastes by
Euglena gracilis; Photosynthetic Capacity, Effect of pH, Temperature,
Acetate, and Whey. Environmental Pollution 23(3):179-215.
The purpose of this study was to provide an efficient, inexpensive
algal system for the purification of urban and farm wastes, and the
conversion of organic and inorganic nutrients into a mono-algal product
that could be standardized as a feedstuff or as a fertilizer, with the
remaining water fit for aquaculture or human consumption. The method and
results are described in detail. The system proposed could be useful for
purifying and reclaiming wastes by Euglena gracilis, especially for the
dairy and meat-packing industries, and in increasing the organic matter of
laterite soils, provided that wastes are readily accessible. (AL)
39. Bagnall, L. O. 1979. Resource Recovery from Wastewater Aquaculture,
pp. 421-439. In R. K. Bastian and R. C. Reed (Project Officers),
Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and
Engineering Assessment. EPA-430/9-80-006. U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations, Municipal Con-
struction Division, Washington, DC. 485 pp.
Removal and recycling of the nutrients and other components in the
wastewater aquaculture system are completed by harvesting, processing and
utilizing the aquatic organisms in which the nutrients are collected.
Aquatic species grown in wastewater have been experimentally used for
food, feed, fiber, fertilizer and energy. Some of the processes and pro-
ducts appear to be technologically and economically feasible on an opera-
tional scale.
40. Bagnell, L.O. et al. 1974. Feed and Fiber from Effluent-Grown Water
Hyacinth, pp. 116-141. In: Wastewater Use in the Production of Food
and Fiber-Proc. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ada, OK.
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41. Bajer, D.C. and W.B. Fryer. 1973. Undesirable Plant Response With Sewage
Irrigation. J. Irr. Drain. Div. Am. Soc. Civil Eng. 99:133-141.
42. Ball, R.C. 1977. The Michigan State University Management Project—A
Facility for Research in Recycling Treated Wastewater. p.205-256.
In; F.M. D'ltri (ed.) Wastewater Renovation and Reuse. Marcei Dekker,
Inc., New York
43. Baker, F.C. 1910. The Ecology of the Skokie Marsh Area, with Special
Reference to the Mollusca. Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory
of Natural History 8(4):441-499.
44. Banus, M.D., I. Valiela, and J.M. Teal. 1975. Lead, Zinc, and Cadmium
Budgets in Experimentally Enriched Salt Marsh Ecosystems. Estuarine
and Coastal Marine Science 3:421-430
The amounts of lead, zinc and cadmium were measured in various compo-
nents of a salt-marsh ecosystem experimentally treated at two levels with
a metals-containing fertilizer. Lead entering a salt marsh is largely re-
tained by the surface sediments but 6-8% is taken up by marsh grasses.
Lead in grass tops is exported as detritus to deeper waters but this loss
was only about 3-4% of the entering lead. About 2% of the zinc at both
levels of addition was exported in grass detritus while 16 and 45% were
lost by undetermined mechanisms. About 80% of 15 mg m~2 year"1 of
cadmium added was retained in the sediments but at a dosage of 43 mg m~2
year"^, 65% of the added cadmium left the plot, probably in dissolved
form. The nitrogen added in conjunction with the metals resulted in in-
creased movement of these metals into coastal waters due to increased pro-
duction of grasses and increased metals contents of the grass tops. (AA)
45. Bardach, J.E., J.H. Ryther, and W.O. McLarney. 1972. Aquaculture, the
Farming and Husbandry of Freshwater and Marine Organisms. John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York. 868 pp.
1066. Barton, J.M. 1983.
46. Barth, C.L., and J.H. Bond. 1975. Water Management in Livestock Waste
Handling Systems. Clemson Univ., SC. Water Resources Research Inst.
Office of Water Research and Technology, Washington, DC.
The potential for minimizing the use of water in several animal waste
treatment and storage procedures was evaluated. Laboratory units simu-
lated the operation of aerobic lagoons, anaerobic lagoons, and storage for
diluted swine feeding floor waste under conditions of controlled tempera-
ture, lighting, loading rate, and detention time. Anaerobic lagoon simu-
lators achieved volatile solids (VS) reduction rates of 75.8% at 24°C and
200 days detention time and as little as 22.1% at 10°C and 100 days deten-
-------
tion time. Degradation of VS was generally high in the loading rate range
of 50 to 400 g VS/day/cu m and sludge storage efficiency was also high in
that range. Liquefaction was a significant factor in the storage
simulators with reductions of total solids by as much as 69%. Survival of
the swine pathogens Sa_lmpnel_la cholerae-suis and Salmonella tyjahimurium in
laboratory simulators of swine manure lagoons was determined and compared
with the survival of the indicator organism Escherichia coli and fecal
coliforms. The heaviest populations of the pathogens died off in 33 days.
A cause of Salmonella, die-off was proposed. A mathematical model was
developed to describe the operation of the anaerobic animal waste lagoon
and compared with relevant data which characterized the lagoon simulators.
(NT)
47. Barret, G.W., G.M. Van Dyne, and E.P. Odum. 1976. Stress Ecology. Bio-
Sciences 26(3):192-194.
48. Bartlett, M. S. , L. C. Brown, N. B. Hanes, and N. H. Nickerson. 1979.
Denitrification in fresh water wetland soil. J. Environ. Qual. 8(4):
460-464.
The application of secondary treated wastewater to freshwater wetlands
received recent attention as a tertiary treatment method. The fate of
nitrate nitrogen in such applications is of concern because of the
potential for leaching into ground and surface water supplies. Nitrate
removal in wetland soilwater suspensions was studied using a Warburg
respirometer. All important pathways of nitrate reduction were accounted
for using a N mass balance. Of the nitrate, 90-95% added to wetland
soil-water suspensions is reduced to nitrogenous gases, with little or no
transfer of nitrate to ammonia or organic nitrogen fractions. (BA)
49. Bartsch, A. F. 1956. Biological and chemical aspects of organic waste
lagoons, pp. 61-86. In Land Disposal of Liquid Waste. Robert A. Taft
Sanitary Engineering Center, Cincinnati, OH.
Growing popularity of waste stabilization ponds has created new
interest in the pond mechanism and factors affecting it. Mode of action
and impact of these factors influence design and resulting pond accom-
plishment. Of importance are photosynthetic oxygenation; interrelation
of light penetration, algal density, and depth; the effect of temperature
upon BOD rate, DO saturation level, and photosynthesis; and the manner in
which seasonal forces are superimposed upon daily fluctuation in pond
characteristics. The relative influence of ice cover and loading pattern
and the responses that follow are pointed out. (AA)
50. Bastian, R.K. 1979. EPA Interest in the Potential for Wetland Treatment
of Wastewater. In; Sutherland and Kadlec (eds.), Wetland Utilization
for Management of Community Wastewater. Abstracts of a Conference held
July 10-12 at Higgins Lake, MI.
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Wetland treatment systems do appear to have a place as an alternative
to conventional technologies used in municipal wastewater treatment. This
is especially true for small communities faced with upgrading existing
facilities and increasing wastewater treatment requirements.
Natural wetlands have inadvertently served as natural waste treatment
systems for centuries. However/ in recent years marshes, swamps, bogs,
and other wetland areas have been successfully utilized as managed
"nutrient sinks" for polishing partially treated effluents under rela-
tively controlled conditions. Constructed wetlands have also been in-
vestigated and designed to meet specific project conditions while pro-
viding new wetland areas that also improve available wildlife habitats
and provide the other numerous benefits of wetland areas.
Caution should be taken, however, to avoid negative public, government-
al and/or scientist reactions that may be raised when proposing wetland
treatment systems. The potential for impacting biotic communities, espe-
cially when involving natural wetlands in wastewater management, must be
recognized and appropriate management practices and adequate monitoring
implemented to avoid potential ecological problems from developing. After
all, the overloading of our Nation's waterways with the wastes of civili-
zation has been the major environmental reason for constructing and oper-
ating publicly owned wastewater treatment works in the first place.
The recent research and project development work that has been under-
taken in Michigan, Florida, New York, California, and other areas on wet-
land treatment systems has helped draw more attention to the potential
utility of these low cost and low energy consuming approaches for waste-
water treatment. Such natural biological treatment systems should become
increasingly important to EPA and local communities in developing the best
practicable systems to meet future site specific wastewater treatment (and
water reclamation) requirements. The future of wetland systems as an
innovative/alternative technology for municipal wastewater treatment
should be a bright one, although it could be greatly influenced by public
opinion as well as concerns expressed by governmental officials and scien-
tists which has certainly been true in the past for the acceptance of
various "land treatment" technologies. (AA)
51. Bastian, R.K. 1981. EPA's Role and Interest in Using Wetlands for Waste-
water Treatment, pp. 325-336. In; B. Richardson (ed.). Selected Pro-
ceedings of the Midwest Conference on Wetland Values and Management.
Minnesota Water Planning Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
Wetland treatment systems involving natural or artificial wetlands
appear to be very promising as a low cost, energy efficient alternative to
certain conventional technologies used in municipal wastewater treatment.
This is especially true for small communities faced with upgrading or ex-
panding existing treatment facilties.
Both freshwater and saltwater wetlands have inadvertently served as
natural waste treatment systems for centuries. However, in recent years a
number of marshes, swamps, bogs, and other wetland areas in various parts
of the country have been effectively utilized as managed natural biologi-
cal systems to assist in wastewater treatment. Artificial wetlands also
have been created and managed to meet specific pollution control require-
ments in an environmentally acceptable, cost-effective and energy effi-
cient manner while effectively recycling the nutrients, organic matter and
-------
other wastewater constituents, improving available wildlife habitat, sta-
bilizing stream flows, recharging ground water, etc. Therefore, such man-
aged wetland wastewater treatment systems represent a logical extension of
the basic land treatment recycle/reuse concepts which have been strongly
encouraged by the Congress and EPA.
At the same time, the potential for wastewater treatment projects to
harm biotic communities in existing wetlands must be recognized. Past in-
cidents, where wetlands were used as a handy place to dispose of wastes
and resulted in serious environmental problems, have produced strong re-
sponses from environmental groups, government agencies, and members of the
scientific community. Their concerns and reactions have lead to a basic
desire to protect existing wetlands from all outside influences. The need
for wetland preservation should be addressed whenever wetlands wastewater
treatment systems are proposed. These concerns and the ecological charac-
teristics of wetlands suggest that appropriate management practices and
adequate monitoring, as well as proper regulation and control of projects
using wetlands for wastewater treatment, must be developed and implemented
to avoid potential ecological problems or serious project opposition from
developing.
1067. Bastian, R.K. and J. Benforado. 1983.
52. Bastian, R. K., and R. C. Reed (Project Officers). 1979. Aquaculture
Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and Engineering
Assessment. EPA-430/9-80-006. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Water Program Operations, Municipal Construction Division,
Washington, DC. 485 pp.
This publication contains an engineering assessment and the proceed-
ings of a seminar held at the University of California-Davis on 11-12
September 1979, on the use of aquatic systems for the treatment of
municipal wastewater. Case studies drawn from throughout the United
States are used to illustrate the engineering, design, operation, and
management of various wastewater aquaculture systems, including projects
involving wetlands processes, aquatic plant processes, and combined
aquatic processes. The potential recovery of energy and resources also
is considered. (AA)
53. Bayley, S. E., J. Zoltek, Jr., and F. L. Boyt. 1975. Removal of
Nutrients from Treated Municipal Wastewater by Wetland Vegetation.
Final report to the City of Wildwood, Florida. Project No. 245-N34.
Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, Univ. of Florida,
Gainesville, in cooperation with Michaels-Stiggins Incorporated,
Orland, FL. 51 pp. plus appendices.
54. Bayley, S.E. 1983. The Effect of Natural Hydroperiod Fluctuations on
Fresh Water Wetlands Receiving Added Nutrients. (Draft Manuscript).
In; Ecological Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal
Wastewaters, Proceedings of a Workshop, June 23-25, 1982, University
of Massachusetts, Amherst MA. US Fish and Wildlife Service and US
Environmental Protection Agency.
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55. Bedinger, M.S. 1978. Relation Between Forest Species and Flooding.
p. 427-435, In; Greeson, P.E., J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark (Editors),
Wetland Functions and Values: the State of Our Understanding. Ameri-
can Water Resources Association, Minneapolis, MN.
56. Beeftink, W.G. 1977. Salt Marshes, pp. 93-121. In; R.S.K. Barnes (ed.)
The Coastline. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
In temperate regions, salt marshes are found in and around river
mouths, bays, Wadden areas, lagoons, and on coastal plains protected by
sand- and shingle-spits. During marsh genesis, sedimentation of clay and
silt takes place especially in the basins while coarser particles are de-
posited on the creek banks. The roost common marsh use is grazing—usually
by sheep, cows, and horses. Although mostly limited to the higher marshes
and coastal dune-slacks, grazing may take up vast areas. Grazing includes
selective cutting and removal of plant parts, local manuring, and tramp-
ling of the vegetation. The latter also leads to compaction of the top-
soil, and, more intensified, to destruction of the turf-layer. Drainage
of marshes is also another form of land reclamation. It results in a low-
ering of the water table and thus in changes in habitat, flora, and fauna.
Transversing with ditches is harmful to the geomorphological development,
for the natural watercourses may lose their function. Embankment is one
of the most serious impacts on salt marshes. In industrial!1zed areas,
marshes are threatened by a complex array of man-made detritus, litter,
and chemical substances derived from agricultural wastes, fertilizer or
trash and urban sewage.
57. Beeston, M. D. 1971. Decapod Crustacean and Fish Populations in
Experimental Marine Ponds Receiving Treated Sewage Wastes. Univ. of
North Carolina, Inst. of Marine Sciences, Chapel Hill.
58. Bender, M. E., and D. L. Correll. 1974. The Use of Wetlands as Nutrient
Removal Systems, Chesapeake Research Consortium Pub. No. 29. Univ. of
Maryland, College Park.
Two different methodologies were used to investigate the effectiveness
of marshes as nutrient removal systems in Chesapeake Bay. The first
method employed fertilization or loading experiments in combination with
tracers, while the second measured natural flux at two undisturbed study
sites. Results showed that regularly flooded tidal marshes should not be
considered as sinks for nitrogen or phosphorus forms. Although incoming
particulate nitrogen was transformed in the marsh and exported to the
estuary as ammonia and dissolved organic nitrogen, there was little, if
any, net loss of available nitrogen and phosphorus in the marsh. The
highest exports of dissolved inorganic phosphorus and ammonia occurred
during the summer. High irregularly flooded salt meadow hay (Spartina
patens) marshes appear to have some capacity for phosphorus removal. How-
ever, it was estimated that a loading of 29,000 gallons of secondary sew-
age per day would saturate the capacity of an acre of high marsh in 45
-------
days, and once loaded to the capacity the acre could not be expected to be
reused for many years. It is concluded that utilization of marshes of any
type as nutrient removal systems is highly questionable.
59. Bender, M. E., and D. L. Correll. 1974. The Use of Wetlands as Tertiary
Treatment Systems. Report No. NSF-RA-E-74-033. National Technical
Information Service publication PB-241002.
60. Beneman, J. R. et al. 1977. Cultivation on Sewage of Microalgae Harvest-
able by Microstrainers. Sanitary Eng. Res. Lab., University of Cali-
fornia, Richmond, CA.
61. Beneman, J. R. et al. 1978. Large-scale Freshwater Microalgal Biomass
Production for Fuel and Fertilizer. Sanitary Eng. Res. Lab., Univer-
sity of California, Richmond, CA.
62. Benforado, J. 1981. Ecological Considerations in Wetland Treatment of
Municipal Wastewater, pop. 307-324. In; B. Richardson (ed.), Selected
Proceedings of the Midwest Conference on Wetland Values and Management.
Minnesota Water Planning Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
The use of natural and artificially created wetlands for wastewater
discharge or treatment offers potential to reduce costs, conserve energy,
and reclaim wastewater constituents, when compared with conventional
"high technology" sewage treatment. Benefits can include preservation of
open space, potential for wildlife enhancement, flow stabilization, and
more. However, ecological problems should be identified early in the
development of wetland/wastewater technology. Technical issues include:
health concerns for both humans and wildlife (e.g., viral, bacterial, and
other pathogenic organisms, ground and surface water contamination, nui-
sance insects); food chain effects of toxic substances (e.g. biomagnifica-
tion of heavy metals and synthetic organic chemicals, effect of surfact-
ants on invertebrate populations); adverse community changes (e.g. accel-
erated succession, eutrophication, species changes, etc.); effects on fish
and wildlife values (e.g., shellfish contamination, botulism in waterfowl,
effect of chlorine compounds on fish, beneficial effects such as habitat
enhancement); effects on other wetland functions and values (e.g., flood
control, aesthetics, recreation); and long-term changes (e.g. cumulative
effects).
Developing a sound policy on the use of wetland treatment systems is
vital. Management guidelines and water quality standards must be devel-
oped that will allow for treatment, yet protect wetland functions and
values. Four areas of study — engineering design constraints/impact
pathways/ecological effects/management potential — provide a framework
for developing such a policy. It seems prudent at this time to limit the
general application of wetland treatment technology to artificially con-
structed wetlands and (in appropriate circumstances) to highly degraded
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natural wetlands; in the latter case, the overall objective should be to
restore and enhance the wetland. Management of natural wetlands should
optimize a combination of wetland values, rather than maximize sewage
treatment capability.
1068. Benforado, J. 1983.
63. Bennett, C.L. 1979. The Concerns of a Public Servant When Secondary
Treated Effluent is Spread Across a Wetland. In; J.C. Sutherland and
R.H. Kadlec (eds.), Wetland Utilization for Management of Community
Wastewater, Abstracts of a Conference held July 10-12 at Higgins Lake,
MI.
As an ecologist concerned with lifestyles, environmental stability,
etc., I well realize the problem involved with disposal of human waste and
a system of recycling is the solution we feel most appropriate, but until
such a program is instituted it seems a likely prospect to put partially
treated effluent onto peat lands or other forms of bogs, marshes, and
possibly even some flood plains. These areas, by their nature, are
usually highly productive in all forms of wildlife and are used at differ-
ent times of the year and in varying degrees by both wildlife and people.
Our concerns are (1) public health, of course (2) changes in both flora
and fauna that may occur, (3) deleterious effects to either flora or
fauna, (4) to what extent the area can absorb the high level nutrients for
a given period of time, (5) the watersheds involved, (6) maintaining the
areas open to public use and not have them restricted because of material
coming through with the effluent, (7) assurances that products coming off
from the marsh remain usable, able to be handled, or edible, and (8)
assurances that after the areas are saturated and pumping has stopped on
those areas that they are still usable by the public, productive, and op-
erate in an ecosystem fashion. In other words, we're concerned about the
effect on plants, animals, substrate, and people. Disposal of municipal
waste and industrial waste is an immediate problem and needs to be
resolved, but industrial waste should not be put on a marsh even under
experimental conditions. For handling municipal wastewater, wetlands
appear to be a possible partial solution, but research efforts must be
maintained to assure us that we are not taking a shallow-sighted view and
end up with an even larger problem. I get scared every time we push our
environmental system another notch up the scale. The past track record
usually ends up with, "We did it wrong and now we must pay." (AA)
64. Bently, E.M. 1969. The Effect of Marshes on Water Quality. Ph.D. Diss.
University of Wisconsin, Madison.
65. Berg, G. 1966. Virus Transmission by the Water Vehicle. II. Virus
Removal by Sewage Treatment Procedures. Health Library Science 2:90.
66. Bevis, F.B. 1979. Ecological Considerations in the Management of Waste-
water-engendered Volunteer Wetlands. The Michigan Wetlands Conference,
July 10-12, Higgins Lake, MI. 19 pp.
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This is a collection of eighteen handouts used by Dr. Bevis in his
presentation at the Michigan Wetlands Conference at Higgins Lake,
Michigan. Data from the Vermontville, Paw Paw, and Kinross volunteer
wetland treatment sites were compiled and compared in the tables and
figures. (EPA)
The phenology, phytosociology, productivity, nutrient levels, and wild-
life values of the Vermontville, Michigan, wastewater-engendered volunteer
wetlands were measured for the period June 1978-June 1979. Results of
this work are reported here as:
1) Seasonal growth and development of the dominant wetland species,
Typha latifolia L. (Robust Cattail) and T. angustifolia L._ (Narrow-
Leaved Cattail),
2) Vegetation descriptions of eight (8) different volunteer community
types occurring in the wetlands,
3) Biomass accumulation, potential above-ground plant harvest, and decom-
position of the vegetation,
4) TKN and TP accumulation in the vegetation, potential removal of these
nutrients from the system via standing crop harvest,
5) Wildlife populations and utilization of the wetlands.
Observations on the above features from the PawPaw, Michigan, wastewater/
wetlands system support the results of the Vermontville project. (AA)
67. Bsvls, F. B., and R. H. Kadlec. 1979. Effect of Long-Term Discharge of
Wastewater on a Northern Michigan Wetland. In J. C. Sutherland and R.
H. Kadlec (eds.), Wetlands Utilization for Management of Community
Wastewater. Abstracts of a conference held 10-12 July 1979 at Higgins
Lake, MI.
Apparently the effluent discharge from Kincheloe/Kinross Air Force
Base, initiated in the late 1940's, has converted portions of a diverse
acid/peat system to A more specific monoculture cattail marsh system. The
degree of this ecological/habitat change in a sensitive peatland ecosystem
is being documented by observations on the composition of the vegetation;
plant community distribution patterns; successional changes in the vegeta-
tion; and flow paths of the wastewater traceable through the wetland by
following the cattail component community assemblages evident in the peat-
land.
Mapping and phytosociological descriptions of the vegetation have been
determined in the field. The extend (acreage) of the various plant commu-
nities and their pattern of occurrence in the peatland are being deter-
mined from 1939, 1952, 1964, 1969, 1974 and 1978 aerial photographs. The
study of the progress (rate) of community conversion(s) over the 25 years
from a diverse, species-rich natural peatland to the cattail monoculture
should help to establish appropriate guidelines for the effective utili-
zation of such wetlands in wastewater polishing. (AA)
68. Bierei, G. R., G. W. Wood, and R. G. Anthony. 1975. Population response
and Heavy Metals Concentrations in Cottontail Rabbits and Small
Mammals in Wastewater Irrigated Habitat, pp. 1-9. In G. W. Wood et
al. (eds.), Faunal Response to Spray Irrigation of Chlorinated Sewage
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Effluent. Institute for Research on Land and Water Resources Research
Publication 87. The Pennsylvania State University, University Park,
PA
69. Bingham, F. T., A. L. Page, R. J. Mahler, and T J. Ganje. 1975. Growth
and Cadmium Accumulation of Plants Grown on a Soil Treated with a
Cadmium-enriched Sewage Sludge. Toxicity. J. Environ. Qual.
4:207-211.
Corn, wheat, rice, field bean, soybean, spinach, lettuce, curlycress,
carrot, turnip, radish, tomato, and squash plants were grown to commer-
cial harvest stage using as the substrate, soil pretreated with a muni-
cipal sewage sludge (1%) containing variable amounts of CdSO4 up to 640
ug Cd/g soil. Observations included injury symptoms, yield decrement, Cd
level of diagnostic tissue, and Cd and Zn content of harvested produce.
Cadmium sensitive plants such as spinach, soybean, curlycress, and lettuce
were injured by soil Cd levels of 4-13 ug Cd/g soil; whereas, tomato and
cabbage tolerated soil levels of approximately 170 ug Cd/g soil without
exhibiting injury symptoms. Rice was tolerant at all levels tested. Leafy
plants such as lettuce, spinach, and turnip greens (tops) accumulated 175
to 354 ug Cd/g; whereas, fruit and seed tissue of plants under comparable
treatment, with the exception of soybean, accumulated no more than 10 to
15 ug Cd/g tissue. The concentrations for soybean extended up to 30 ug
Cd/g tissue. Paddy rice exhibited no ill effects for soil Cd treatments
up to 640 ug Cd/g soil. Grain of plants under the 640 ug Cd/g treatment
contained 2 ug Cd/g tissue. DPTA-extractable Cd correlated (r=0.99) with
the level of CdSO^ added to the substrate. (AA)
70. Bingham, F. T., A.L. Page, R.J. Mahler, and T.J. Ganje. 1976. Cadmium
Availability to Rice in Sludge-amended Soil Under "Flood" and "Non
Flood" Culture. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 40: 715-719.
Rice plants (Oryza sativa. var. 'Colusa') were grown to maturity in pots
containing a soil (Domino silt loam, pH 7.5, Xerpllilc calciprthi d) amend-
ed with 1% sewage sludge enriched with variable amounts of CdSO, ranging
up to 640 ug Cd/g. Two sets of soil cultures were used, one for rice
under continuous flood and the other under nonflood conditions. Grain
production for rice under flood management was relatively unaffected by
the Cd treatment; 25% yield decrement was associated with a treatment of
320 ug Cd/g. Under nonflood management, however, a comparable decrement
in grain production was observed with a treatment of only 17 ug Cd/g. The
Cd content of mature leaves at early flowering varied from approximately
0.3 ug Cd/g for the controls to 2.8 ug Cd/g for plants receiving the high-
est Cd treatments. Leaf Cd values were slightly higher under the nonflood
culture. The Cd content of the grain under nonflood management was
approximately 55% greater than than of grain under flood management. The
Cd content of mature leaves correlated with grain production (r=0.872***)
for rice produced under either flood or nonflood culture. Chemical analy-
sis of saturation extracts revealed greatly reduced Cd concentrations in
soil solutions under flood management which may account for the greater
tolerance of the cultivar to soil Cd under flood culture. This reduced
availability of Cd in flooded soils is attributed to precipitation of
CdS. (AA)
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71. Bisogni, J. J., Jr., and A. W. Lawrence. 1975. Kinetics of Mercury
Methylation in Aerobic and Anaerobic Aquatic Environments. Journal
Water Pollution Control Federation 47:135-152.
The microbial transformation of inorganic mercury to organic mercury
(monomethyl and dimethyl mercury) was studied under a variety of condi-
tions. A kinetic model was proposed and experimentally verified to des-
cribe the rate of microbial methylation as a function of the followoing
parameters: relative microbial activity; biochemical availability of in-
organic mercury; total inorganic mercury concentration; and redox poten-
tial. The model and the experimental results demonstrated that mercury
may be methylated under anaerobic and aerobic conditions and that the
predominant methylation product near neutral pH is monomethyl mercury. It
was also found that large amounts of inorganic mercury may be released
from an aquatic system as volatile elemental mercury. Application of the
kinetic model to natural aquatic benthic regions and biological wastewater
treatment processes is discussed in terms of possible control of the meth-
ylation phenomenon. (AA)
72. Bitton, G., G. E. Gifford, C. Monteith, and O. Pancorbo. 1977. Virus
Removal in Marine Aquaculture Systems. Revue Internationale
d'Oceanographic Medicale 48:47-52.
The possibility of removing polioviruses from sea water, secondary
sewage effluent and mixtures of the two was investigated using a magnetic
separation process. The object was to remove poliovirus without reducing
the nutrient content of the water-sewage mixture, and the growth of two
types of marine diatom in the filtered effluent was tested. It was con-
cluded that magnetic filtration could form an effective primary step for
removal of viruses in an aquaculture system without affecting the sub-
sequent growth of algae acting as primary producers in the aquatic
system. (AL)
73. Bitton, G., and N. Masterson. 1975. Virus: Effect of Dome Water on the
Movement of Poliovirus Type 1 and Bacteriophage T2 through a Sandy
Soil Sampled at Sewage Dome 1, pp. 383-384. In H. T. Odum, K. C.
Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for
Water Management, Recycling and Conservation. Second Annual Report.
Center for Wetlands. Univ. of Florida. Gainesville.
74. Bitton, G., P. R. Scheureman, G. E. Gifford, and A. R. Overman. 1976.
Movement of Viruses through a Cypress Dome: Evaluation of the
Virus-retention Capacity of the Dome Sediments and of a Loamy Sand
Layer, pp. 321-335. In H. T. Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M.
K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling
and Conservation, Third Annual Report. Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.
1069. Black, S.A., I. Wile, and G. Miller. 1981.
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75. Blunter, K. 1978. The Use of Wetlands for Treating Wastes - Wisdom in
Diversity, pp. 182-201. In M. A. Drew (ed.), Environmental Quality
Through Wetlands Utilization. Proceedings of a symposium held 28
February 2-March 1978, at Tallahassee, Florida. Sponsored by the
Coordinating Council on the Restoration of the Kissimmee River Valley
and Taylor Creek-Nubbin Slough Basin, Tallahassee, PL.
Two artificial wetland systems consisting of linear configurations of
a marsh-pond and a meadow-marsh-pond have been treating sewage in contin-
uous operation for four years. Data from the past two and one half years
suggest that the trapping of nutrients may be increased by increasing the
number of biotopes in the flow sequence.
For the entire system, the retention of phosphorus and nitrogen per
unit area of wetland appears greater when a variety of ecocomponents are
used in sequence than if only one type of system is used. By increasing
the physical and biological barriers to nutrient movement, an increase in
the number of habitats (and ecological niches) is achieved. This seems to
be especially important when hydrologic flow alternates between drought
and flood, and in a temperate climate with dramatic seasonal temperature
differences.
The implication for the Kissimmee watershed, beset with the problems of
high seasonal nutrient flushes, is that a management strategy which
includes the intermittent use of diverse wetland ecosystems can be
expected to achieve a greater degree of nutrient retention than a strategy
which attemps to optimize a single type of ecosystem, for example a marsh
alone. Practical applications may include such simple measures as provid-
ing ponds to alternate with marsh wetlands, or designing wetlands with is-
land meadows in appropriate sequences. (AA)
76. Bogaert, R. M. Nocturnal Dissolved Oxygen and Ammonia Cycles in the
Wastewater Fed Marshes of Mt. View Sanitary District. Presented at
the Water Reuse Symposium II. Washington, DC. Aug. 23-28, 1981.
Mt. View Sanitary District has had a system of marshlands fed entirely
by secondary treated wastewater since 1975. The creation, management,
and development of the marshlands was reported by Francesca Demgen in
1979.
In 1979-1980, a special monitoring program was conducted a-t the request
of the California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San Francisco Bay
Region (CRWQCB). This program monitored several water quality parameters.
These parameters were of concern because of their effects when the marsh
waters are released from the marsh environment.
Nocturnal dissolved oxygen cycles were studied during the winter,
summer, and early fall. There were five monitoring stations, one in each
pond, at which D. O. concentrations were recorded through the night.
Lowest levels averaged 4.0 mg/L in three ponds; these levels consistently
occurred at about 8 am. Lowest D. O. levels of about 1.0 mg/L occurred
in cattail choked pond and in the pond which first receives the waste-
water.
Un-ionized ammonia levels were monitored for four weeks during the dry
weather and for four weeks during the wet weather. Un-ionized ammonia
levels averaged 0.22 mg/L at all stations during the winter monitoring.
During the summer dry weather monitoring, un-ionized ammonia levels
-------
averaged 0.210 mg/L at one station, 0.026 mg/L at a second station, and
0.050 mg/L at a third. Transitory levels above the 0.4 mg/L maximum
limit allowed in receiving waters occurred once at one station. Other
stations occasionally reached 0.1 mg/L. The marshlands at present have
two fish species, carp, and mosquito fish. Carp develop gill lesions
when exposed to 0.1 mg/L un-ionized ammonia for periods exceeding 35
days.
Prime factor causing the high, transitory levels was algal photosyn-
thesis. This activity increases the pH of the water; since un-ionized
ammonia concentration increases with pH, concentration rose as the day
progressed.
77. Bollman, F. H. 1975. The Value of Estuarine Fisheries Habitats: Some
Basic Considerations in their Preservation. Proc. Conf. on Estuarine
Pollution Control and Assessment. Pensacola, FL. 11-13 Feb. 1975.
EPA report 7-77-007B/1-77-007A.
Two broad sources of degradation of fishery habitat are foreseen as
resulting from population growth and economic development. These are
direct pollution of nutrients and toxic materials, and secondly, physical
alteration. Three areas of intensified use will increase the difficulty
in maintaining fishery resources in the estuary. These include: 1)
increased municipal and industrial waste loads, 2) leakage of petroleum
and petroleum products into estuaries, 3) upstream activities affecting
freshwater inflows. There is an urgent need to improve EIS's so that the
full extent of the value is displayed for the decisionmakers. (WE)
78. Boto, K. G., and W. H. Patrick, Jr. 1979. Role of Wetlands in the
Removal of Suspended Sediments, pp. 479-489. In P. E. Greeson, J. R.
Clark, and J. E. Clark (eds.), Wetland Functions and Values: the State
of Our Understanding. American Water Resources Association, Min-
neapolis, MN.
One of the major functions of wetlands is the removal of suspended
sediment from water moving through the wetlands. Flow rate is decreased
as the water moves more by sheet flow than by channel flow, and the re-
sulting decrease in velocity and the presence of vegetation promote fall-
out of suspended particles. The effect of salt water in estuarine mixing
is to further enhance sediment removal by flocculation of clay particles.
Transfer of the suspended sediment and the associated dissolved materials
from the water column to the land surface has important consequences both
for the quality of the water and the properties and functions of the wet-
land. In areas where the land surface is subsiding, sediment removal from
water is essential for maintaining the marsh surface. With increase in
toxicant load of water reaching wetlands, they are serving more than in
the past as a sink for materials of known toxic effects on biota. The
long-term consequences of the effect are poorly understood and deserve
study. (AA)
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79. Bourg, A. C. M., I. Valiela, and J. M. Teal. 1979. Heavy metal budgets
in salt marsh ecosystems. Presented at the Commission of European
Communities et al. Heavy Metals in the Environment International
Conf./ London. Sept. 1979. 365 pp.
Research report: The consequences of enriching salt marshes with a
sludge that contains fertilizer were examined. Marsh capacity to retain
heavy metals present in the sludge was surveyed. The metal load of the
sediment increased with application of the sludge fertilizer. The con-
centrations of cadmium, chromium, copper, and nickel in marsh plants were
greater than those in control plants. Sediment cores showed a downward
migration of metals. No deleterious effects of the metals on plants were
observed. (EL)
80. Bourne, G. 1976. Water Quality Effects of Sewage Effluent on a Cypress
Dome System. Master's thesis, Department of Environmental Engineer-
ing, University of Florida, Gainesville.
81. Bower, H., and R.L. Chaney, 1974. Land Treatment of Wastewater. Adv.
Agron. 26:133-176
82. Boyd, C. E. 1970. Vascular Aquatic Plants for Mineral Nutrient Removal
from Polluted Waters. Econ. Hot. 241:95-103.
83. Boyd, C. E. 1971. A Bibliography of Interest in the Utilization of
Vascular Aquatic Plants. Econ. Bot. 25: 74-84.
84. Boyt, F. L. 1975. A mixed hardwood swamp as an alternative to tertiary
wastewater treatment, pp. 749-750. In H. T. Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W.
Ordway, and M. K. Johnston (eds.). Cypress Wetlands for Water Manage-
ment, Recycling, and Conservation. Second Annual Report. Center for
Wetlands. Univ. of Florida. Gainesville.
85. Boyt, F. L., S. E. Bayley, and J. Zoltek, Jr. 1977. Removal of nutri-
ents from treated municipal wastewater by wetland vegetation. J.
Water Pollut. Control Fed. 49(5):789-799.
A mixed hardwood swamp in central Florida, U.S.A., which has been
receiving secondarily treated domestic wastewater from Wildwood for 20
years, was examined to determine the effectiveness of the swamp in
removing nutrients from wastewater. After flowing through the experi-
mental swamp, the nutrient concentration of the water was less than the
concentration of nutrients found in the control swamp and in Lake
-------
Panasoffkee, the final receiving body. Water samples throughout the
experimental and control swamp were examined for pathogenic bacteria.
Wetlands may be used as an alternative to tertiary treatment especially
to increase nutrient removal. (BA)
86. Bozko, L. et al. 1967. Biological ponds as the third stage of sewage
treatment. Gas. Woda Sanit. 40:201-202.
87. Bradford, G. R., A. L. Page, L. J. Lund, and W. Olmstead. 1975. Trace
Element Concentrations of Sewage Treatment Plant Effluents and
Sludges: Their Interactions With Soils and Uptake by Plants. J.
Environ. Qual. 4:123-127.
Metropolitan sewage sludges and effluents were characterized in rela-
tion to their total and water extractable trace elements, their reactions
with soils, and their effects on plants. The total concentrations of
trace elements in sludges and effluents were highly variable depending on
the source and were often much higher than concentrations found in soils.
Concentrations of Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, and Cd were consistently greater in the
saturation extracts obtained from sludges than those obtained from a large
sampling of California soils. The effects of irrigating bean, barley, and
tomato plants in a greenhouse sand culture experiment with diluted satura-
tion extracts of sludges from different sources were all adverse but vari-
able depending on the sludge source. Leaf samples from treated plants
frequently contained toxic levels of B and excessive levels of one or more
of the following elements: Cu, Mo, Ni, Co, Pb, and Cd. (AA)
88. Breckenridge, R.P., L.S. Cahn, T.L. Thurow. 1981. Biological Treatments
and Uses of Geothermal Water as Alternatives to Injection, Idaho
National Engineering Laboratory. EE&G Idaho, Inc. Idaho Palls, ID.
Results of experiments demonstrate the ability of biological systems to
thrive on and accumulate elements from the geothermal effluent. Additional
benefits can also be realized from the reuse of this water for irrigation
or creation of fish or wildlife habitat. Future studies are aimed at fur-
ther quantifying the treatment capability and the biomass production
potential of biological systems using geothermal water. By providing an
environmentally sound alternative to injection or a way to improve fluid
quality prior to injection, the competitive economic position of geother-
mal commercialization may be enhanced.
1070. Brennan, K.M. 1981.
89. Brennan, K.M. and C.G. Garra. 1981. Wastewater Discharges to Wetlands in
Six Midwestern States, pp. 285-294. In. B. Richardson (ed.), Selected
Proceedings of the Midwest Conference on Wetland Values and Management.
Minnesota Water Planning Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
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An inventory was conducted of wastewater treatment facilities that dis-
charge to wetlands in the states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minne-
sota, Ohio, and Wisconsin. The following information was obtained for
each of the 96 facilities identified: location, type of facility, type of
wastewater treatment, operational date, number of years of discharge,
acreage of wetland, and general description of wetland. Each wetland ten-
tatively was classified according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
classification system of Cowardin, et al. (1979).
The greatest number of discharges are to Palustrine emergent wetlands
(principally cattail marshes). Fifteen of the discharges are to man-modi-
fied wetlands. Three wastewater treatment systems have been designed to
include the use of a nearby wetland as a tertiary treatment site. Three
volunteer wetlands (wetlands that formed as a consequence of a wastewater
discharge) also were identified. No artificial wetland treatmlent system
is in operation within the six-state area. (AA)
1071. Brennan, K.M., S.D. Bath and G.L. Seegert. In press.
90. Breteler, R.J., I. Valiela, and J.M. Teal, 1981. Bioavailability of Mer-
cury in Several Northeastern U.S. Spartina Ecosystems. Estuarine,
Coastal and Shelf Science 12(2): 155-166.
Although considerable research has been done on the release of mercury
from the sediments of salt marsh environments and on factors contributing
to the mercury concentration of organisms, little attention has been given
to the effect of the sediment itself on the availability of soil-bound
mercury to biota.
91. Brightman, R.S. 1976. Benthic Macroinvertebrate Response to Secondarily
Treated Sewage Effluent in North-Central Florida Cypress Domes. Mas-
ter's Thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville. 112 pp.
92. Brightman, R., and J.L. Fox. 1976. Response of Benthic Invertebrate
Populations to sewage Addition. In H.T. Odum, K.C. Ewel, J.W. Ordway,
and M.K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recy-
cling and Conservation. Third Annual Report. Center for Wetlands.
Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.
93. Brinson, M.M. 1977. Decomposition and Nutrient Exchange of Litter in an
Alluvial Swamp Forest. Ecology 58:601-609.
94. Brinson, M.M. 1983. Management Potential for Nutrient Removal in
Forested Wetlands. (Draft Manuscript). In; Ecological Considerations
in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings of a Work-
shop, June 23-25, 1982, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA. US
Fish and Wildlife Service and US Environmental Protection Agency.
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95. Brinson, M. M., H. D. Bradshaw, and E. S. Kane. 1981. Nitrogen Cycling
and Assimilative Capacity of Nitrogen and Phosphorus by Riverine
Wetland Forests. Rept. No. UNC-WRRI-81-76. North Carolina Resources
Research Inst. Raleigh.
Labeled (15N) nitrate and ammonium were added to swamp surface
water and their diffusion to the forest floor was followed. Of the
original nitrate added, 46% remained in the surface water of Tar Swamp
and 62% in Creeping Swamp after 2 days. Two days after ammonium
treatments, corresponding levels were 79% and 81%. As indicated by
the absence of recoverable 15N in sediments following nitrate treat-
ments, diffusion of labeled nitrate to the forest floor resulted in
its transformation to T*2° or N2 bY denitrification. Available
nitrogen reserves in the sediments were depleted through ammonifica-
tion and nitrification during annual drydown episodes, and the
capacity for additional nitrogen assimilation by the sediments was
renewed. An experiment was then conducted to determine the capacity
of sediments for sustained nutrient assimilation by adding nitrate,
ammonium, phosphate, and secondarily treated sewage effluent to sur-
face water in separate chambers at weekly intervals for 46 weeks.
(AA)
96. Brown, J. L., and R. S. Farnham. 1976. Use of Peat for Wastewater
Filtration - Principles and Methods. Submitted for publication.
Fifth Int. Peat Cong., Warsaw.
97. Brown, R. J. (ed.). 1978. Water Pollution in Estuaries and Coastal
Zones, Volume 2: A Bibliography with Abstracts. NTIS/PS-78/1176.
Springfield, VA. 252 pp.
98. Brown, S. 1978. A Comparison of Cypress Ecosystems and their Role in
the Landscape of Florida. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Florida,
Gainesville.
99. Brungs, W.A., R.W. Carlson, W.B. Horning II, J.H. McCormick, R.L. Spehar,
and J.D. Yount. 1978. Effects of Pollution on Freshwater Fish. J.
Water Pollut. Control Fed. 50(6):1582-1637.
100. Bryan, E.H., 1981. Recycling Projects Receive "Appropriate" NSF Support.
Biocycle 22(1):47.
The term appropriate technology describes approaches to solving prob-
lems that do not require large investments of capital resources, and the
National Science Foundation has been instructed by Congress to support
appropriate technology. The innovative concept of using wetlands for
waste water management is an example of an appropriate technology. The
foundation supported a basic study to mathematically model the wetland
-------
ecosystem near the community of Houghton Lake in Michigan. Field verifi-
cation of the ecosystem models followed. Then a pilot scale experiment
was conducted to verify the ecosystem model's predictions of the effects
that the placement of the secondary effluent from the area's waste water
treatment plant would have on the wetland. Now, full scale experimenta-
tion is in progress at Houghton Lake. The community's savings over a 20-
year period were estimated to be $1.2 million over land application, the
next least-cost alternative. Other current research includes alternative
methods and systems for curbside sorting of municipal solid wastes and a
project to use wastes to help revegetate the areas damaged by the eruption
of Mt. St. Helens.
101. Buck, D.H., J.B. Richard, and C.R. Rose. 1978. Utilization of Swine
Manure in a Polyculture of Asian and North American Fishes. Trans.
Amer. Fish. Soc. 107(1):216-222.
Chinese methods of fish culture were evaluated for potential use in
animal waste management, pollution control, and the production of pro-
tein. Two ponds were stock with grass carp (Ctenopharyngpdpn idella),
silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys moilotrix), bighead carp (Aristighthys
nobilis), carp (Cyprinus carpig), northern largemouth bass (Micropterus
salmpides salmoides), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), and the
hybrid of bigmouth buffalo female (Ictiobus cyprjnellus) and black
buffalo male (3^. niger). One pond (0.127 hectare) received the total
wastes from five growing pigs (about 39 pigs/hectare of water area), the
other pond (0.121 hectare) received the wastes from eight pigs (66
pigs/hectare). Two consecutive lots of pigs were fattened during the
study. Over a fish-growing period of about 170 days (May to October 1975)
the net increments in fish biomass were 2,971 kg/hectare in the 0.127-
hectare pond and 3,834 kg/hectare in the 0.121-hectare pond. A beneficial
influence by the fish on water quality was indicated by continuously ade-
quate levels of dissolved oxygen, and final biochemical oxygen demands in
the range of 8-12 mg/liter. (AA)
102. Buck, J. D. 1973. Ecological Evaluation of Multiuse Waters Receiving
Primary Treatment Effluent Prior to a Major Flow Increase. University
of Connecticut, Storrs. Inst. of Water Resources.
A chemical and biological study is described for a Connecticut estuary
receiving 0.25-0.50 MGD of treated sewage effluent prior to construction
of a secondary treatment plant with a projected flow of 5-6 MGD. An
adjacent, unpolluted cove was used as a control. Three stations in each
estuary were sampled bi-weekly from September 1970 to June 1972.
Analyses included temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, BOD, nitrate,
and phosphate. Counts were made of total bacteria, total and fecal
coliforms, fecal streptococci, phytoplankton, and benthic invertebrates.
(NT)
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103. Buckley, E. H. Mitigation of Habitat Losses in the Estuary of the Hudson
River: Suggested Goals for Long Term Management. Presented at the
American Fisheries Society/et al. Mitigation Symposium, Fort Collins,
July 16-20, 1979. 108 pp.
Survey report: A biological information base obtained during inves-
tigation of an estuarine ecosystem of the Hudson River, NY, is used to
determine mitigation requirements for long-term management of the
estuary. Habitat creation can be combined with recreational development
along the river to foster greater productivity and balance of species
among the higher trophic levels. (27 References). (EL)
104. Burk, J. P., P. Hosier, A. Lawry, A. Lenz, and A. Mesrobian. 1973.
Partial Recovery of Vegetation in a Pollution-damaged Marsh. Project
Completion Report. Water Resources Research Center, Univ. of
Massachusetts. Amherst.
105. Burke, W. 1975. Fertilizer and Other Chemical Losses in Drainage Water
from a Blanket Bog. Irish J. Agric. Res. 14:163-178.
106. Burnett, M. No Date. Cypress Growth Response in a Sewage-Enriched
Cypress Pond, pp. 774-782. In H. T. Odum, K. C« Ewel, J. W. Ordway,
and M. K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Management,
Recycling, and Conservation. Third Annual Report. Center for
Wetlands. Univ. of Florida. Gainesville.
107. Euros, O. K. 1976. Wastewater Reclamation Project, St. Croix, U. S.
Virgin Islands. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
108. Burton, T. M., D. L. King, R. C. Ball, and T. G. Bahr. 1979. Utiliza-
tion of Natural Ecosystems for Wastewater Renovation. Institute of
Water Research, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI. 153 pp.
Michigan State University constructed on 200 ha (500 acres) of the
main campus, a permanent facility for the experimental treatment,
recycle, and reuse of municipal sewage plant effluents. The facility
provides for the diversion of up to 7570 m^/d (2 MGD) of secondary
effluent from an activated sludge treatment plant. This waste flow is
directed away from the receiving stream to an intensely managed aquatic
and terrestrial nutrient recycling system. The facility consists of a
portion of the East Lansing Wastewater Treatment Plant, a transmission
line, four experimental lakes, and a spray irrigation site. A primary
objective is to filter nutrients from the waste flow as it proceeds
through the system by incorporating nutrients into harvestable biomass.
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The system has been in operation with tertiary effluent for about 18
months. It will go on line with secondary effluent in 1976. Biological
activity in the aquatic system has a major impact on water quality as
evidenced by significantly reduced water concentrations of phosphorus,
nitrogen, and inorganic carbon. Much of the nutrient flow is shunted
into harvestable plant material both in the aquatic and terrestrial
portions of the system. (AA)
109. Buikema, A. L., and E. F. Benfield. 1980. Effects of Pollution on
Freshwater Invertebrates. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 52(6):
1670-1686.
110. Buikema, A.L., E.F. Benfield and B.R. Niederlehner. 1981. Effects of
Pollution on Freshwater Invertebrates. J. of Water Pollut. Control
Federation 53(6):1007-1014
111. Burk, C.J., Lauermann, S.D. and A.L. Mesrobian, 1976. The Spread of Sev-
eral Introduced or Recently Invading Aquatic Plants in Western Massa-
chusetts. Rhodora 78(816):727-767.
Changes in the distributional status of several recently introduced or
invading vascular plant species have been observed during the present cen-
tury. Water clover, Marsilea guadrifolia L. has become established since
1945 along two miles of the Mill River in Northampton, Massachusetts, and
successfully invaded the Arcadia Wildlife Sanctuary marsh during a period
of disturbance. Water-meal, Wolffia colu^nbiana (Karst) unknown in the
area prior to 1933, is now abundant in highly eutrophic lakes and impound-
ments which receive sewage effluents. Water chestnut, Trapa natans 1^. has
reached pest densities in Upper and Lower Ponds on the Mount Holyoke
College campus in South Hadley and has escaped to form a colony downstream
in Stoney Brook. Cooter-grass, Cabpmba caroliniana (Gray), first detected
in Massachusetts in 1930, has spread to several other western Massachu-
setts sites and is the dominant submerged aquatic plant life in Lake
Rohunta in Franklin and Worcester Counties. Each of these species occurs
in sites affected by some form of habitat disruption; none is yet so wide-
spread as to be regularly encountered in freshwater systems.
112. Burns, L.A. 1978. Productivity, Bioraass, and Water Relations in a Flor-
ida Cypress Forest. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill.
113. Burton, T.M. 1981. The Effects of Riverine Marshes on Water Quality, pp.
139-152. In B. Richardson (ed.), Selected Proceedings of the Midwest
Conference on Wetland Values and Management. Minnesota Water Planning
Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
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Riverine marshes affect water quality in a number of ways. These
marshes usually receive water during floods as overflows from the river to
the marsh. They act as water retention basins and slowly release this
water back to the stream during periods of low flows* While the water is
retained in the marsh, part of the sediment load is deposited due to
reduced carrying capacity of the slow moving water and entrapment of sedi-
ments in marsh vegetation. Much of the phosphorus, heavy metals, and
toxic organic materials in stream water is transported by sorption on sus-
pended sediments, and these materials are deposited with the sediments*
The flooded anaerobic soils of the marsh also promote losses of certain
elements to the atmosphere due to such products of microbial metabolism as
nitrogen gas formed by denitrification, hydrogen sulfide, methane, etc.,
as well as products of aerobic decomposition at the thin oxidized micro-
layer at the surface of the sediment. Nutrient uptake and release pat-
terns by the plant communities play a very important role in determining
water quality outputs of the marsh. Riverine marshes appear to be traps
for most nutrients on an annual basis but can act as sources of nutrients
under certain conditions or during seasons where plant nutrient uptake is
low and decomposition is high. The processes affecting water quality in
riverine marshes will be discussed and quantified whenever possible using
literature values. Ongoing studies on the effects of a Michigan river-
mouth marsh on water quality will be described. (AA)
114. Burton, T.M. and J.E. Hook, 1982. Oldfield and Grass Management Studies
on the Water Quality Management Facility at Michigan State University,
p. 107-133. In Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewater: Vegetation
Selection and Management. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann
Arbor, Michigan.
115. Button, G», N. Morton and G.E. Gifford. 1976. Effect of a Secondary
Treatment Effluent on Movement of Viruses through a Cypress Dome Soil.
J. Env. Qual. 5(4):370-375.
116. Burton, T.M., and D.L. King. 1979. A Lake-land System for Recycling
Municipal Wastewater, pp.68-75. In Proceedings of the 1979 National
Conference on Environmental Engineering, sponsored by the American
Society of Civil Engineers, held 9-11 July 1979 at San Francisco, CA.
117. Byers, G.L. 1971. Influence of Wetlands on Quantity and Quality of
Stream Flow. Water Resources Center, Durham, NH.
118. Cairns, J., Jr. 1976. Estimating the Assimilative Capacity of Water Eco-
systems, pp. 173-189. In; Sharma, R.K., J.P. Buffington, and J.T.
McFadden (eds.)/ The Biological Significance of Environmental Impacts.
NR-CONF-002. US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, DC.
-------
119. Carlson, P. R., Jr. 1977. Nutrients, Hydrogen Sulfide and Dry Matter
Production of Spartina alterniflora in Three Salt Marshes. Associ-
ation of Southeastern Biologists Bulletin 24(2):41-42.
120. Carpenter, R. L., M. S. Coleman, and R. Jarman. 1975. Aguaculture as an
Alternative Wastewater Treatment System. Okla. State Dept. of Health,
Okla. City. In; Tourbier, J. and R.W. Pierson, Jr. (eds.). 1976. Bio-
logical Control of Water Pollution, Univ. of PA. Press, Philadelphia.
121. Carpenter, R. L., H. K. Malone, A. F. Roy, A. L. Mitchum, H. E.
Beauchamp, and M. S. Coleman. 1974. The Evaluation of Microbial
Pathogens in Sewage and Sewage Grown Fish, pp. 46-55. In; Wastewater
Use in the Production of Food and Fiber-proc. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency. Ada, OK.
122, Carriker, N.E. and P.L. Brezonik. 1975. Heavy Metals, p. 372. In;
H. T. Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K. Johnston (eds.),
Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling, and Conservation.
Third Annual Report. Center for Wetlands. Univ. of Florida. Gaines-
ville.
Treated wastewater from a trailer park near Gainesville, FL was intro-
duced into a small cypress dome. Water flow generally was downward, but
occasionally horizontal flow was observed. Elevated levels of heavy met-
als were found in the upper sediment layers- (EP)
123. Carriker, N. E. 1977. Heavy Metal Interactions with Natural Organics in
Aquatic Environments. Doctoral Dissertation, Department of Environ-
mental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville.
155 pp.
124. Carter, V., M.S. Sedinger, R.P. Novitzki, and W.O. Wien. 1978. Water
Resources and Wetlands, pp. 344-376, In; P.E., J.R. Clark, and J.E.
Clark (eds.), Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our Under
standing. American Water Resources Association, Minneapolis, MN.
125. Cederquist, N. 1977. Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse Pilot Demonstra-
tion Program for the Suisun Marsh. Progress Report, U.S. Department
of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Mid-Pacific Region, Water
Quality Branch, Sacramento, CA.
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126. Cederquist, N. 1979. Using Wastewater for Duck Club Management in the
Suisun Marsh of California. In J. C. Sutherland and R. H. Kadlec
(eds.), Wetland Utilization for Management of Community Wastewater.
Abstracts of a conference held 10-12 July 1979 at Higgins Lake, MI.
The Bureau of Reclamation in cooperation with the City of Fairfield,
the Solano Irrigation District, and federal and state agencies has been
investigating the use of wastewater for wetland management since 1973.
The goal of the study is to find any problems wastewater may cause and
develop management alternatives for successfully using wastewater to
assist in maintaining the brackish water characteristics of the Suisun
Marsh. The initial study involved the use of secondary treated effluent
from the City of Fairfield's Cordelia treatment plant on about 10 acres of
marsh and agriculture land from 1975 through the spring of 1978. In 1977,
a 5-year study was started, using nitrified, filtered wastewater from the
new 10.35 mgd Fairfield-Suisun subregional waste treatment facility. The
study involves extensive monitoring of three clubs, each with 100 to 120
acres of ponds and limited monitoring of one club with 350 acres of ponds.
During the first two years, one club used 100 percent wastewater, one
used a mix of waste and slough water, and the third used slough water only
as a control. The 350 acre club used varying amounts of slough and waste-
water. Operation is according to the schedule recommended by the Solano
County Mosquito Abatement District and the Soil Conservation service.
Under this schedule, the waterfowl ponds are flooded from October 1
through May 30, then drained and dried from June 1 to September 30. From
about January 20 to March 30, the ponds are drained and filled two to
three times to leach salts from the soil. The summer dry season is for
mosquito, cattail and tule control. (AA)
127. Cederquist, N. 1980. Suisun Marsh Management Study: Progress Report on
the Feasibility of Using Wastewater for Duck Club Management. U.S.
Department of the Interior, Water and Power Resources Service,
Sacramento, CA. 45 pp.
128. Cederquist, N. W., and R. W. Martin. Reclamation and Reuse of Wastewater
in the Suisan Marsh, California. Presented at the AWWA Research
Foundation/et al. Water Reuse Symposium, Washington, DC. March 25-30,
1979. 685 pp.
Technical Report: The waste water reclamation and reuse pilot demon-
stration program for the Suisan Marsh, Calif., was initiated in 1972 with
the objective of evaluating the feasibility of beneficial reuse and
treatment of municipal wastewater with marsh management. Existing tech-
niques of marsh management were employed to maintain a desirable water-
fowl habitat and agricultural irrigation in the marsh, utilizing waste-
water as a supply. It was found that algae ponds could be used most of
the year to provide water storage and treatment and treatment of waste-
waters for supply to the irrigation marsh ponds. No environmental
problems in the irrigated marsh ponds were encountered. Wastewater was
shown to be a satisfactory source of irrigation water for pasturelands.
(32 graphs, 3 maps). (EL)
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129. Chabreck, R. H. 1976. Management of Wetlands for Wildlife Habitat
Improvement, pp. 227-233. Iri M. Wiley (ed.)/ Estuarine processes.
Vol. 1. Uses/ Stresses, and Adaptation to the Estuary. Academic
Press, Inc., New York, NY.
130. Chalmers, A. G., E. B. Haines, and B. F. Sherr. 1976. Capacity of a
Spartina Salt Marsh to Assimilate Nitrogen from Secondarily Treated
Sewage. Environ. Resource Cent. Georgia Inst. Technology, Atlanta.
Tech. Rept. ERC-0776. 88 pp.
Air-dried, pulverized secondarily treated sewage sludge was applied to
duplicate 100 sq m plots in a short Spartina high marsh near Sapelo
Island, Georgia, at a rate of 200 g sludge, or 4 g nitrogen per square
meter every two weeks for 12 months. Monthly measurements were made of
nitrogen pools in the marsh plants and soils in the experimental plots and
in duplicate control plots in the high marsh and in a low marsh area.
Potential denitrification rates were also analyzed for marsh soils in the
study sites. (NT)
131. Chamie, J. P. M. 1976. The Effects of Simulated Sewage Effluent on
Decomposition, Nutrient Status, and Litterfall in a Central Michigan
Peatland. Ph.D. Diss. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
A wet peatland near Houghton Lake in central Michigan was chosen to
test the feasibility of using a natural wetland as a tertiary system for
handling secondary sewage effluent. Nutrient solutions simulating sec-
ondary sewage effluent were applied weekly from May to September during
1973 and 1974 on an area dominated by sedge-willow and leatherleaf-bog
birch cover types. Litter biomass in both types showed significant
and direct responses in retention of elemental concentrations of N, P, K,
Na, Ca, and Mg following weekly nutrient application. These values
decreased over winter to approximately spring levels. No significant
differences for any species due to water and/or nutrient treatment addi-
tions were detected for weight loss or nutrient concentrations of vegeta-
tion exposed to decomposition. Based on nutrient concentration and
conditions used in this study, no significant changes are likely to occur
in the amounts and rates of litter fall or decomposition of vegetation in
the area studied. (WE)
132. Chan, E., T. A. Bursztynsky, N. Hantzsche, and Y. J. Litwin. 1981. The
Use of Wetlands for Water Pollution Control. Municipal Environmental
Research Lab. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Cincinnati, OH.
Wetlands such as marshes, swamps, and artificial wetlands, have been
shown to remove selected pollutants from urban stormwater runoff and
treated municipal wastewaters. Wetlands have produced reduction in BOD,
pathogens, and some hydrocarbons, and excel in nitrogen removal. They
have been reported to act as sinks for trace metals, phosphorus, and sus-
pended solids. Physical pollutant removal mechanisms in wetlands include
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sedimentation, coagulation, chemical filtration, volatilization,
adsorption, and chelation. Vegetative mechanisms include absorption
through roots, stems and leaves, filtration and chemical transformations
in the plants• Chemical transformations of some water borne pollutants
also occur in sediment and the water column as a result of anaerobic or
aerobic conditions, the presence of catalysts and reactive substances, and
with the aid of microbial action. Although individual plant species have
been studied for their pollutant removal properties, the interaction of
numerous plant and animal species in pollutant removal in a wetland is not
well understood.
133. Chaney, R. L., and P. T. Hundemann. 1979. Use of Peat Columns to Remove
Cadmium from Wastewaters. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 51:17-21.
A method for reducing effluent Cd from industrial wastewaters to levels
equal or below those normally found in domestic wastewaters was examined.
A synthetic oxidized Cd plating solution (100 mg/1 Cd) was adjusted to
levels of pH and carbonate which would cause very low equilibrium dis-
solved Cd; 560 ug/1 Cd remained soluble because of slow precipitation.
The solution was added in 1 1 increments (14 times) to 60 cm columns (4.9
cm ID) of peat or peat plus CaCO3. Effluent Cd was measured for each 1
1 addition. Cd in the peat columns was analyzed at various depths at the
end of the leachings. Results showed that peat was both an excellent
physical filter of Cd precipitates and also an effective material for
dissolved Cd. Effluent averaged 2 ug/1 Cd for peat columns and 24 ug/1 Cd
for peak plus CaCC^. Column analysis showed that most of the CD was
present in the upper few centimeters of the column. Thus peat appears to
be an effective and inexpensive method for removing Cd from pH and carbon-
ate adjusted industrial wastewaters free of strong chelating agents. (AA)
134. Chapel Hill Inst. of Marine Science. Structure and Functioning of Estu-
arine Ecosystems Exposed to Treated Sewage Wastes. North Carolina
Univ. NTIS Com-71-00688, Springfield, VA.
135. Chatterjie, S. N., B. K. Arora, and D. R. Gupta. 1967. Some Observa-
tions on the Utilization of Sewage for Fish Culture in Oxidation
Ponds. Environ. Health 9:156-161.
136. Chen, K. Y., C. S. Young, T. K. Jan, and N. Rohatgi. 1974. Trace Metals
in Wastewater Effluents. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 46:2663-2675.
Because of the nature of its primary and secondary treatments and the
discharge of wastewater and sludge effluents, the Hyperion Treatment
Plant, Los Angeles, CA, was selected for an intensive study to character-
ize trace metals in the effluents of different treatment processes. The
chief concern of the study was the partition of trace metals into the dis-
solved and particulate phases and the size distribution of the particulate
-------
borne fractions in wastewater effluents and digested sludge. With the
exception of Ni, Mn, and Pb, secondary treatment was found to be moderate-
ly effective in removing trace metals in the particulate fraction. On a
dry weight basis, trace metals in the particulate fractions of wastewater
effluents and digested sludge were found to be within a narrow range. (AA)
137. Cheng, P. H. 1975. A Study on the Application of Biogrowth Sheets to
Improve Lagoon Effluent Quality. Univ. of Missouri, Rolla. Dept. of
Civil Engineering. Office of Water Research and Technology, Washing-
ton, DC.
Wastewater stabilization lagoons have been employed in small commun-
ities where available land and favorable climatic conditions allow for
utilization as an economical secondary treatment process. Because of
problems associated with the discharge of algae in the effluent, the
traditional lagoon may require either some process modifications or
additional effluent polishing processes in order to meet local water
quality standards. The purpose of this study was to investigate the
possibility of increasing attached algal growths on the surfaces of
experimental biogrowth sheets to decrease algal discharges and improve
the removal efficiency of organic materials as measured by Chemical
Oxygen Demand. (NT)
138. Chesapeake Research Consortium Inc., Baltimore, MD. 1976. Five Year
Program Assessment, 1970-1975. National Science Foundation, Wash-
ington, DC. 50 pp.
In 1970, the Office of Interdisciplinary Research Relevant to Problems
of Our Society (IRRPOS) of the National Science Foundation made grants to
the Johns Hopkins University, the University of Maryland, and the Vir-
ginia Institute of Marine Science for a research planning study of the
Chesapeake Bay. The report's principal recommendation was the esta-
blishment of the Chesapeake Research Consortium (CRC) consisting
initially of the three above-named institutions. Early in 1972, these
institutions were formally joined by the Smithsonian Institution, which
up to that time had been participating in the discussions on an obser-
vational basis. The CRC's research programs in the areas of wetlands,
water quality, and wastewater are reviewed in this publication. The
educational role of the CRC is discussed. (NT)
139. Chestnut, A. F. 1971. Structure and Functioning of Estuarine Ecosystems
Exposed to Treated Sewage Wastes. Univ. of North Carolina, Inst. of
Marine Sciences, Chapel Hill. 345 pp.
140. Chitty, N., and C. W. Davis (eds.). 1972. The Effects of the Discharge
of Secondarily Treated Sewage Effluent into the Everglades Ecosystem.
Sea Grant Spec. Bull. 6. Univ. of Miami, Miami, FL.
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141. Cody, T. E., V. J. Elia, C. S. Clark, and R. T. Christian. 1979.
Integrated Use of Bioassays and Chemical Analyses to Evaluate the
Quality of Reuse Water, pp. 2230-2238. In American Water Works
Association Research Foundation, Proceedings of the Water Reuse
Symposium. Held 25-30 March at Washington, DC. Denver, CO.
142. Coldrick, J. 1975. Sewage as a resource. New Scientist 68:276.
Technical Feature: Physicists at the Wessex Authority are working on
ways to minimize the economic reclamation of useful products from sewage.
They have been successful in recovering industrial water, sludge gas, and
soil conditioners. In the future they want to develop processes for
recovering proteins, fine chemicals, and animal feed supplements. A pro-
cess for using sludge gas for vehicle propulsion is described. In the
Middle East and Far East, domestic waste and sewage are used to increase
rural fish production. The nutrients in such wastes increase the produc-
tivity of fish ponds. The few attempts to use this technique in Europe
have succeeded in raising annual fish production rates. This shows how a
new cycle can be developed: the conversion of wastes into palatable
protein via fish rearing. (2 photos). (EL)
143. Cole, D. P. (ed.). 1979. Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Conference on
Wetlands Restoration and Creation. Hillsborough Community College,
Tampa, Florida. Sponsored by the Tampa Port Authority and the Envir-
onmental Studies Center at Cockroach Bay, FL. 357 pp.
144. Cole, H., W. Merrill, F.L. Lukezic, and J.R. Bloom. 1969. Effects on
Vegetation of Irrigation with Waste Treatment Effluents and Possible
Plant Pathogen-irrigation Interactions. Phytopathology 59:1181-1191.
145. Cooke, W.B. 1956. Potential Plant Pathogenic Fungi in Sewage and Pollu-
ted Water. Plant Dis. Rep. 40:681-687.
146. Cooke, W.B. 1976. Fungi in Sewage, p. 389-434. In: E.B.G. Jones (ed.)
Recent Advances in Aquatic Mycology. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
147. Coleman, M. S., J. P. Henderson, H. 6. Chichester, and R. L. Carpenter.
1974. Aquaculture as a Means to Achieve Effluent Standards,
pp. 199-215. In Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber
Proc. EPA 660/2-74-041.
This paper presents an advanced biological system based on herbivorus
or filter-feeding fish for the removal of algae. This system produces a
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useful product Ln the form of fish which may be used as bait, restocking,
or forage. The Quail Creek Sewage Lagoons in Oklahoma City, OK, were
used as a large scale test to fish viability.
148. Coler, R. A., and J. Pardo. 1977. A Test of the Effects of Domestic
Sewage on the Growth of the Common Blue Mussel, Etytilus gdul. is, in an
Aquaculture System. University of Massachusetts, Water Resources
Center Publication No. 87, 44 pp. (AL)
The effects of domestic sewage on the growth rate of the marine
bivalve mollusk, Myjbilus edujJLs was investigated by introduciig con-
trolled amounts of sewage inbo a raceway system and comparing the
response with that of organisms in a similar system fed with uncon-
taminated estuarine water. The results showed that the admixture of
domestic sewage with sea water retarded the growth of this organism, and
indicated that it would not be feasible to use populations of Mytilus to
reduce the BOD due to sewage sludge in receiving waters. (AL)
149. Collins, E. R., Jr., E. T. Kornegay, and 0. C. Martens. 1978. Swine
Lagoon Effluent on a Soil-Plant Environment: An Impact Assessment.
Virginia Water Resources Research Center Bulletin 110. Virginia
Polytechnic Inst. and State Univ., Blacksburg, VA. 44 pp.
Two biological treatment units foe a swine production unit were
evaluated. One unit was maintained as an anaerobic system, the other as
a mixed aerated unit by recirculation of effluent. Analysis of the
supernatant of both systems showed that, with time, accumulation of heavy
metals and other elements increased. Effluent from both treatment
systems was irrigated on fescue plots, and effects on soil, soil water,
and plant tissue were determined. While no visible deleterious effects
ware noted over a period of one and one half years, accumulation or high
uptake of Na, Cu, and Zn was recorded in both plant tissue and soils.
Nitrate leaching from plots was minimal. Other waste constituents
measured did not appear to be limiting factors in land disposal of swine
lagoon effiuent. (NT)
150. Colt, J., S. Mitchell, G. Tchobanoglous, and A. Knight. 1979. The Use
and Potential of Aquatic Species for Wastewater Treatment. Appendix
B: The Environmental Requirements of Fish. California State Water
Resources Control Board, Publication No. 65, Sacramento, CA, 240 pp.
151. Colt, J. et al. 1980a. The Use and Potential of Aquatic Species for
Wastewater Treatment. Appendix C: The Environmental Requirements of
Freshwater Crustaceans. California State Water Resources Control
Board, Publication No. 65, Sacramento, CA.
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152. Colt, J. et al. 1980b. The Use and Potential of Aquatic Species for
Wastewater Treatment. Appendix D: The Environmental Requirements of
Freshwater Bivalves. California State Water Resources Control Board,
Publication No. 65, Sacramento, CA.
153. Copeland, B. J., and H. L. Davis. 1972. Estuarine Ecosystems and High
Temperatures. North Carolina Water Resources Research Inst. Rept. No.
72-68. Raleigh, NC. 103 pp.
154. Copeland, B.J., H.T. Odum, and D.C. Cooper. 1972. Water Quality for Pre-
servation of Estuarine Ecology, pp. 107-126. In: Conflicts in Water
Resources Planning. Water Resource Symp. No. 5. Univ. of Texas,
Austin.
Responses of estuarine community structure, respiration and production
to added heat, sewage and their combination were investigated. Plastic
pools containing transplanted ecosystems from South Creek Estuary, NC,
were used. Temperature replication was achieved. Thermal treatment in-
creased nutrient regeneration rates, yielding slightly higher algal bio-
mass; although, seasonal differences were more significant. Sewage addi-
tion substantially increased ammonia levels, particularly during the win-
ter. Community metabolism responded positively to thermal treatment, but
not to sewage treatment. Temperature had very little effect on phyto-
plankton composition during the spring. A flow-through experiment was
conducted to test more realistic estuarine conditions. Results were sub-
stantially the same as obtained under quiescent conditions. (NT)
155. Cornwell, D.A., J. Zoltek, Jr., C.D. Patrinely, T. deS. Furman, and J. I.
Kim. 1977. Nutrient Removal by Water Hyacinths. J. Water Pollut.
Control Fed. 49:57-65.
Water hyacinths (Eichhornia crassipes) were grown in polishing ponds
containing secondary effluent from the University of Florida Campus Waste-
water Treatment Plant. It was found that water hyacinths had an aera-
doubling time of about 6 days when growing in secondary effluent compared
to a 12 day area-doubling time under natural conditions. Nutrient removal
was found to be less than 20 percent when the pond depth was 1.4m (4.5 ft)
and the detention time was 15 h. Ponds with 0.34 m (1.1 ft) depth and 48
h detention time had 80 percent total nitrogen removal and 47 percent
total phosphorus removal. A direct correlation was found to exist between
the percent nutrient removal and a loading parameter defined as surface
area per unit flow. (AA)
156. Costas, P. 1978. Potomac Estuary Tapped for Pilot Study. Water and Sew-
age Works 125(11):64.
Technical Feature: An experimental water treatment plant is being con-
structed to study the feasibility of using the Potomac Estuary as a water
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supply source. A water quality analysis program will assay raw, in
process, and finished waters to evaluate the operating efficiency of
various treatment processes and to determine the potability of the product
water. The site for the plant was selected for its proximity to poor
quality estuary water and wastewater treatment plant effluent. The
estuary receives effluents from several water pollution control plants.
During severe drought conditions, the percentage of treated wastewater in
the estuary can be very high. Consequently, use of the estuary as a
supplemental water supply source is still only a possibility. (EL)
157. Coupal, B., and J. Lalancette. 1976. The Treatment of Wastewaters with
Peat Moss. Water Research 10:1071-1076.
158. Crisp, D. T. 1966. Input and Output of Minerals for an Area of Pennine
Moorland: the Importance of Precipitation, Drainage, Peat erosion, and
animals. J. Appl. Ecol. 3:327-348.
159. Culley, D. D., Jr., and E. A. Epps. 1973. Use of Duckweed for Waste
Treatment and Animal Feed. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 45:337-347.
160. Czerwenka, W., and K. Seidel. 1976. The Combination of Biological and
Chemical Treatment at the Krefield Water Treatment Works, pp. 287-293
In; J. Tourbier and R.W. Pierson, Jr. (eds.) Biological Control of
Water Pollution. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
161. Damman, A.W.H. 1978. Distribution and Movement of Elements in Ombro-
trophic Peat Bogs. Oikos 30:480-495.
162. Dane, C.W. 1959. Succession of Aquatic Plants in Small Artificial Marsh-
es in New York State. New York Fish and Game Journal 6(10):57-76.
This report compares studies conducted in 1952, 1953, and 1956 in which
successional changes in vegetation were measured and evaluated on 22 small
marshes in the Southern Tier and Genesee-Niagara regions of New York. The
latter region was found to be more favorable for abundance of emergent
cover, abundance of subergent food, retainment of residual woody cover,
slope of the marsh basin, and marsh-basin depths than the former region.
Shallower flooding and a greater natural drawdown during the summer months
permitted the woody cover to remain alive in the marshes of the Genessee-
Niagara region, but the woody vegetation was largely flooded out in the
Southern Tier.
The water level during the growing season was found to be the single
most important factor in aquatic plant succession in marshes. Many of the
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marshes in the Southern Tier had slopes that dropped off sharply to 24
inches below the normal water level (the limit of regional emergents).
Overcrowding of emergents occurred frequently in the shallower marshes of
the Genessee-Niagara region during years with low water level. (EPA)
163. Darnell, R., W. E. Pequegrat, B. M. James, F. J. Benson, and R. A.
Defenbaugh. 1976. Impacts of Construction Activities in Wetlands of
the United States. EPA-600/3-76-045. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis, OR,
393 pp.
The primary types of construction activity which severely impact wet-
land environments of the United States include: floodplain surfacing and
drainage, mining, impoundment, canalization, dredging and channelization,
and bank and shoreline construction. Each type of construction activity
is attended by an identification suite of physical and chemical altera-
tions of the wetland environment which may extend for many miles from the
site of construction and may persist for many years. In turn, each type
of physical and chemical modification has been shown to induce a derived
set of biological effects, many of which are predictable, in general, if
not in specific detail. The most environmentally damaging effects of con-
struction activities in wetland areas, in order of importance, are: direct
habitat loss, addition of suspended solids, and modification of water
levels and flow regimen. Major construction-related impacts also derive
from altered water temperature, pH, nutrient levels, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and certain pollutants such as heavy metals,
radioactive isotopes, and pesticides. Over one third of the nation's wet-
lands have been lost through various forms of direct habitat destruction,
and well over half of the remainder have been severely modified. Many
aquatic species are known to have been lost or severely restricted, and a
number of species and habitats are currently in jeopardy, at least in part
as a result of construction activities. Deliberate and drastic action is
required to reverse the present trends, and recommendations are given for
specific steps which must be taken to insure the survival of the wetland
ecosystems of the nation. (AA)
164. Davis, A. C. 1980. Is This the Decade for Aquaculture? II. Compost
Science/Land Utilization 81(2):37-39.
Some papers presented at a seminar on aquatic systems for purifying
waste waters held at the University of California, Davis, are summarized.
The Arkansas Game and Fish Commission are using silver and bighead carp
for water quality improvement. These fin fish have especially adapted
gill rakers efficient at filtering particles down to microns. Benton
Wastewater Treatment Facility has a system of 6 sewage lagoons in series,
the last 4 containing fish; BOD and suspended solids have been lowered by
96 and 86 per cent, respectively, with fish production of 5000 Ib per
acre year. Work at Michigan State University on ecological limits to the
use of alternative systems of wastewater management is noted, as is a
study of energy from wastewater aquaculture systems. The Denver Research
-------
Institute is examining the legal, political, and social implications of
wastewater treatment through aquaculture. (AL)
165. Davis, C.B, J.L Baker, A.G. Van der Valk, and C.E. Beer. 1981. Prairie
Pothole Marshes as Traps for Nitrogen and Phosphorus in Agricultural
Runoff, pp. 153-164. In; B. Richardson (ed.), Selected Proceedings of
the Midwest Conference on Wetland Values and Management. Minnesota
Water Planning Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
Water quality of drainage influents and the lone effluent at Eagle Lake
marsh, Iowa, was studied for 4 years (1976-1979). Because of drought con-
ditions, there was no effluent from the marsh in 1976, 1977, or 1978. In
1979, the marsh was effective at removing inorganic N, especially NO^-N,
from runoff water passing through. It has little impact on levels of
inorganic-P, total-P, and Kjeldahl-N; it was a net exporter of soluble or-
ganic carbon. (AA)
166. Davis, G. J. , and M. M. Brinson. 1980. Responses of Submersed Vascular
Plant Communities to Environmental Change. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, FWS/OBS-79/33. 70 pp.
167. Davis, H. 1978a. Effects of the Treated Effluent on Mosquito Populations
and Arbovirus Activity, pp. 361-428. In H.T. Odum and K. C. Ewel
(eds.). Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling and Conser-
vation, Fourth Annual Report. University of Florida, Gainesville.
168. Davis, H. G. 1978b. Recycling Treated Sewage through Florida Cypress
Swamps: Its Effect on Mosquito Population and Arbo-virus Implica-
tions. Ph.D. Diss., Department of Entomology, University of Florida,
Gainesville. 163 pp.
169. Davis, S.M. , and L.A. Harris, 1978. Marsh Plant Production and Phosphor-
us Flux in Everglades Conservation Area 2. pp. 105-131, In; Drew, M.A.
(Editor), Environmental Quality Through Wetlands Utilization. A Sym-
posium on Freshwater Wetlands, 28 February-2 March 1978. The Coordi-
nating Council on the Restoration of the Kissimmee River Valley and
Taylor Creek-Nubbin Slough Basin, Tallahassee, FL.
170. Day, J.W., Jr., and G. Paul Kemp. 1983. Long-term Impacts of Agricultur-
al Runoff in a Louisiana Swamp Forest (draft manuscript). In; Ecologi-
cal Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Pro-
ceedings of a Workshop, 23-25 June 1982, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, MA. US Fish and Wildlife Service and US Environmental Protec-
tion Agency.
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171. Deghi, G.A., 1977. Effect of Sewage Effluent Application on Phosphorus
Cycling in Cypress Domes* Master's Thesis University of Florida,
Gainesville. 143 pp.
172. Deghi, G. S., K. C. Ewel, and W. Mitsch. 1980. Effects of Sewage
Effluent Application on Litter Fall and Litter Composition in Cypress
Swamps. J. of Applied Ecol. 17:397-408.
No increase in litter fall was observed after two years of addition of
sewage to a cypress dome in northern Florida. The rate of decay of
cypress needles in litter bags also was not observed to change in the
presence of the effluent. The authors concluded that even if litter fall
were to increase, litter accumulation probably would not increase. (EPA)
173. DeJong, J. 1976. The Purification of Wastewater with the Aid of Rush or
Reed Ponds, pp. 161-172. In J. Tourbier and R. W. Pierson, Jr.
(eds.). Biological Control of Water Pollution. University of Penn-
sylvania Press, Philadelphia, PA.
This research was performed in the Netherlands on artificial marshes
constructed for the treatment of primary sewage effluent. Experimental
treatment of the sewage of a camping site with a rush (Scirpus lacustris)
pond, one hectare (2.5 acres) in size, began in 1967. In 1969, a number
of experimental ditches for sewage treatment were dug that enabled a
comparison of rushes, reeds (Phragnvites australis), and polypropene
fibers in purifying sewage. The aquatic plants functioned mainly by
providing attachment sites for micro-organisms purifying the sewage and
also consumed part of the nitrogen and phosphorus supplied to the pond.
Research has been conducted at this site since 1967, and additional
studies have been performed at a larger scale facility (a treatment plant
of 40,000 population equivalents). (EPA)
174. DeJong, J. 1975. Bulrushes and Reed Ponds. Rijksdienst Voor de Ijssel-
meer-polders. Flevobricht. N.R. 104.
175. Demgen, F. C. 1979. Water Used One More Time: Treated Wastewater for
Wildlife. Outdoor California, pp. 28-29.
176. Demgen, F. C. 1979. Wetlands Creation for Habitat and Treatment - at
Mt. View Sanitary District, California, pp. 61-73. In R. K. Bastian
and S. K. Reed (eds.). Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment:
Seminar Proceedings and Engineering Assessment. EPA 430/9-80-006.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program Oper-
ations, Municipal Construction Division.
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177. Demgen, F. C., and B. J. Blubough. 1977. Mt. View Sanitary District
Marsh Enhancement Pilot Program. Progress report No. 3, Contra Costa
County, CA, 50 pp.
178. Demgen, F. C., and J. W. Nute. 1977. Marsh Enhancement Program: Con-
ceptual Plan for Mt. View Sanitary District, Contra Costa County, CA,
143 pp.
179. Demgen, F. C., and J. W. Nute. Wetlands Enhancement Using Secondary
Effluent. Presented at the National Conference on Environmental
Engineering, Research Development and Design. Kansas City, MO.
10-12 July 1978.
180. Demgen, F. C., and J. W. Nute. Wetlands Creation Using Secondary Treated
Wastewater. Presented at the AWWA Research Foundation Water Reuse
Symposium. Washington, DC. March 25-30, 1979.
Technical Feature: The concept of using treated sewage effluent as a
freshwater source for the creation and restoration of wetland ecosystems
of San Francisco Bay is investigated. The wetlands habitats, including
vegetation and wildlife, and wetlands restoration facilities are des-
cribed. Water quality characteristics of the effluent, such as DO, BOD,
suspended solids, and nutrients, are surveyed. The benefits of this
wetlands system include improved water quality, habitat creation or
enhancement, and recreational and educational opportunties. (EL)
181. deMichel, E., and R. M. Trip. 1975. Estimate of Treatment Plant Efflu-
ent Impact on Chloride Concentrations and Oyster Environment within
the Murderkill Estuary. Water Research 9(12):1107.
Technical Report: The effect of treatment plant effluent on chloride
concentrations and oyster environment within the Murderkill River
Estuary, DE, is investigated. Use of a one-dimensional steady state
model for a conservative substance shows that chloride values would be
reduced by up to 20% at low water slack periods for wastewater flows of
10 MGD-1. Chloride additions in the treatment plant effluent should be
implemented to maintain minimum summertime low water slack levels of 5.6
PPT, consistent with a proper environment for oyster development. (EL)
182. DePauw, N. et al. 1976. Research on the Tertiary Treatment of Swine
Waste by Mass Culturing of Algae. International Symposium on "Experi-
mental Use of Algal Cultures in Limnology", Sandefjord, Norway, Oct.
26-28, 1976.
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183. DePauw, N. and L. Deleenheer. 1977. Mass Culturing of Marine and Fresh-
water Algae on Aerated Swine Manure. Presented at the Conference:
"Cultivation of Fish Fry and its Live Food", Szymbark, Poland, Sept.,
23-28, 1977.
184. Dewitt, C.B. and E. Soloway (eds.), 1978. Wetlands: Ecology, Values, and
Impacts. Proceedings of the Waubesa Conference on Wetlands, June 2-5,
1977. Madison, WI. 388 pp.
The 27 papers presented in the proceedings of the Waubesa Conference on
Wetlands are grouped into eight categories: wetland soils, nutrition, and
productivity, environmental impacts, wetland protection and restoration,
wetlands for wastewater treatment, wetland system studies, wetland ani-
mals, wetland mapping, and patterns and dynamics of wetland communities.
The abstracts of seven papers not presented in this volume are presented
in Appendix 1. A majority of the papers deal with the wetlands of Wis-
consin. A list of films on wetlands and related topics, excerpts from the
conference program and an index are provided.
185. Dickson, K. L., J. Cairns, Jr., J. R. Clark, and J. H. Rodgers. 1978.
Evaluating Pollution Stress on Ecosystems, pp. 80-83. In K. C. Flynn,
and W. T. Mason (eds.). The Freshwater Potomac - Aquatic Communities
and Environmental Stresses. Proceedings of a symposium held in
January 1977 at College Park, MD. Interstate Commission on the
Potomac River Basin, Rockville, MD.
186. Dierberg, F. E., and P. L. Brezonik. 1976. Denitrification and Surface
Runoff in the Experimental Domes, pp. 353-374. In H. T. Odum, K. C.
Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for
Water Management, Recycling, and Conservation. Third Annual Report.
Center for Wetlands. Univ. of Florida. Gainesville.
187. Dierberg, F.E., and P.L. Brezonik. 1978. The Effects of Secondary Sewage
Effluent on the Surface Water and Groundwater Quality of Cypress Domes,
pp. 178-270. In; H.T. Odum and K.C. Ewel (eds.). Cypress Wetlands for
Water Management, Recycling, and Conservation. Fourth Annual Report to
the National Science Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation. Center
for Wetlands, University of Florida, Gainesville.
188. Dierberg, F.E., 1980. The Effects of Secondary Sewage Effluent on the
Water Quality, Nutrient Cycles and Mass Balances, and Accumulation of
Soil Organic Matter in Cypress Domes. Ph.D. Dissertation. University
of Florida, Gainesville. 3/24 pp.
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The capability of cypress domes to act as efficient nutrient traps has
been demonstrated for a natural and sewage-enriched cypress dome. Mass
balance models indicated that 87% of the nitrogen and 92% of the phosphor-
us loadings were retained within a cypress dome receiving secondary sewage
effluent, removal efficiencies that are among the highest reported for any
wetland ecosystem receiving treated sewage. Thus, cypress domes seem to
be effective natural tertiary treatment systems. Field data and labora-
tory investigations demonstrated that denitrification was a major nitro-
gen sink in both natural and sewage-enriched domes. Bulk precipitation
was the most important factor in supplying new minerals and nutrients
(except nitrogen) to the natural cypress dome. Analyses of standing
waters of natural and sewage-enriched cypress domes near Gainesville,
Florida, over a 4.5 year period showed that discharge of secondary sewage
effluent altered the soft, acid water found in natural domes to a neutral,
moderately hard condition. Furthermore, the absence of dissolved oxygen,
high levels of phosphorus, nitrogen, biochemical oxygen demand, and the
presence of hydrogen sulfide mean that treated sewage effluent has a sub-
stantial impact on water quality. Water samples from shallow wells, cer-
amic soil moisture tubes, and laboratory percolation columns indicated
that the underlying organic matter and sands were serving as an effective
barrier to the transport of sewage pollutants to the shallow aquifer imme-
diately below.
189. Dinges, R. 1973. Ecology of Daphnia. in Stabilization Ponds. Texas State
Department of Health Resources, Austin, TX., pp. 133-136.
The objectives of this report were: to locate Texas wastewater stabil-
ization ponds supporting Daphnia populations and identify those environ-
mental factors which are favorable, or inimical to Daphnia, and to use in-
formation acquired in field studies of "Daphnia. Ponds" to establish a
pilot pond for maintenance of a mass paphnia culture to use in clarifica-
tion of stabilization pond effluent. (NT)
190. Dinges, R. 1974. The Availability of Daphnia for Water Quality Improve-
ment and as Animal Food Source, pp. 142-161. In Wastewater Use in the
Production of Food and Fiber-Proc. U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Ada, OK.
191. Dinges, R. 1976a. A Proposed Integrated Biological Wastewater Treatment
System, pp. 225-230. In J. Tourbier and R. W. Pierson, Jr. (ed,).
Biological Control of Water Pollution. University of Pennsylvania
Press, Philadelphia, PA.
Construction of an experimental facility at an area wastewater treatment
plant is underway to evaluate potential employment of various animals and
plants in an integrated, sequenced system for improvement of water quality.
The wastewater treatment plant consists of an aeration basin, clarifier, and
three stabilization ponds operated in series. Input to the experimental
unit will be a portion of the effluent from the terminal stabilization pond.
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Stabilization pond effluent in which original organic material has been re-
duced by bacterial action and converted into algae cells would be of high
quality except for algae present and high bacteria and nutrient levels. The
study scheduled to commence in the near future will incorporate information
gained from past studies and include several new concepts. It is intended
to correct the deficiency of stabilization pond effluent quality.
192. Dinges, R. 1976b. Water Hyacinth Culture for Wastewater Treatment. Texas
Department of Health, Division of Wastewater Technology and Surveil-
lance, Austin, TX. 143 pp.
193. Dinges, R. 1976c. Who Says Sewage Plants have to be Ugly? Water and
Wastes Engineering 13(4):20-23.
194. Dinges. R. 1978. Upgrading Stabilization Pond Effluent by Water Hyacinth
Culture. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 50(5):833-845.
Water hyacinths (Eichhprnia crassipes) were grown in a series of four
earthen basins provided with stabilization pond effluent to determine the
effect of their cultilvation on water quality. System effluent contained
less than 10 ing/1 of suspended solids of 5-day biochemical oxygen demand.
Significant reductions in fecal bacteria and nitrogen were recorded. Most
of the improvement in quality obtained may be attributed to the unique
habitat afforded by a dense stand of hyacinths. Mineral nutrients and
heavy metals were accumulated by the plants during active growth. Basic
culture basin design considerations and the potential applications of hya-
cinth treatment are discussed. (AA)
195. Dinges, R. 1979. Development of Hyacinth Wastewater Treatment Systems
in Texas, pp. 193-226. In R. K. Bastian and S. C. Reed (eds.).
Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and
Engineering Assessment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office
of Water Program Operations, Municipal Construction Division. EPA
430/9-80-006.
There is sufficient information available for designing hyacinth treat-
ment facilities to be employed in warm climates. The optimal design of
culture basins is necessary to minimize areal requirements and greenhouse
costs in temperate climates. Hydraulic loading is the most critical con-
sideration in culture basin design. The primary pollutant removal mechan-
ism of hyacinth treatment is the reduction of suspended particulate
content. The harvesting of hyacinths disrupts treatment. Provision of
multiple culture basins to allow alternate operation is desirable. Each
culture basin should be drained and the accumulated sludge and plant
debris removed on an annual basis. Hyacinth culture may be employed as a
complete treatment process. Nitrogen management is a key factor in util-
izing hyacinths for wastewater treatment, or for biomass production. Sta-
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bilization ponds can be designed for effective nitrogen reduction. Hya-
cinth culture will remove most remaining nitrogen in pond effluent, espe-
cially that which is in the organic form. Stabilization ponds followed by
hyacinth culture constitutes a highly effective wastewater treatment
system. A hyacinth treatment system is capable of producing effluent
having a mean content of <10mg/l 8005 and TSS. (AA)
196. D'ltri, F.M. (ed.). 1977. Wastewater Renovation and Reuse. Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York.
197. D'ltri, F.M. (ed.). 1981. Vegetation Management for Land Treatment of
Municipal Wastewater. Great Lakes National Program Office U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Chicago, IL. 163 pp.
A conference/workshop was held at Michigan State University on Febru-
ary 23-25, 1981, to review, discuss, and recommend vegetation management
strategies and cultivars which can be used most effectively in slow rate
and overland flow municipal land treatment systems in the north central
region of the United States. Eleven research papers were presented on
various aspects of vegetation selection and management such as (a) irri-
gation system design, (b) wastewater crop management, (c) vegetation
selection and management for overland flow systems, (d) tree and old field
responses to wastewater irrigation, and (e) plant diseases associated with
municipal wastewater irrigation. The participants and audience for the
conference consisted of scientists, wastewater treatment plant operators,
and state and local governmental officials.
The workshop phase was limited to the speakers and Environmental Pro-
tection Agency representatives. They evaluated more fully the information
presented during the conference to summarize the current state of the art
and identify future research needs.
198. Dixon, K. R., and J. A. Kadlec. 1975. A Model for Predicting the
Effects of Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosystems. Wetlands Ecosystem
Research Group. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
This report examines a mathematical model of the organic matter com-
ponents of a wetland ecosystem—its objective, its development, and its
analysis. The objective of the model is to be able to forecast the
effects of sewage wastewater disposal on the ecosystem; this requires
that the variables of water and nutrients be included in the models of
the several processes which may be affected by the wastewater disposal.
The model consists of a set of ordinary first-order, nonlinear differ-
ential equations representing the mass balance of the biomass components
of the system. Its analysis indicates the model's credibility as a
first-time model that can be used as an aid in making decisions about the
feasibility of using a wetland ecosystem for wastewater disposal. (NT)
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199. Dodge, D. E. 1972. Avian Botulism: Factors Affecting its Occurrence on
Domestic Sewage Lagoons. Master's Thesis, Utah State University,
Logan. 101 pp.
The sewage lagoons for the city of Logan, Utah, were investigated for
factors which are conducive to the death of ducks and other water birds
by botulism. Observations on waterfowl populations in relation to
botulism were conducted during the summer and fall of 1970 and 1971.
Ecological features of the lagoons were also studied to determine if
outbreaks were related to ecological phenomena.
During 1970 approximately 140 birds died from botulism between August
14 and September 30. In 1971 35 birds died between August 11 and
September 15. Data for 1969 showed that approximately 2000 birds died
between July and September of that year. Botulism losses all 3 years
correlatd with peaks in the invertebrate populations, especially chirono-
mid larvae, in some of the ponds and with large blooms of the blue-green
algal Microcystis aeruginpsa. The decreasing severity of the botulism
outbreaks from 1969 to 1971 was probably the result of several factors.
The abundance of chironomids in the sediment of lagoons appeared to
decline from 1969 to 1971, the toxigenicity of the botulinum bacteria in
the lagoons may have been reduced from 1969 to 1971 , and the number of
decaying bird carcasses left on the lagoon ponds was less in 1970 and 1971
than in 1969. (AA)
200. Dolan, T. 1978. Effect of Sewage Effluent on the Phosphorus Budget of a
Marsh. Master's Thesis. Department of Environmental Engineering
Sciences. University of Florida, Gainesville. 77 pp.
201. Dolan, T.J., S.E. Bayley, J. Zoltek, Jr., and A. Hermann. 1978. The
Clermont Project: Renovation of Treated Effluent by a Freshwater
Marsh, pp. 132-152. In M. A. Drew (ed.), Environmental Quality
through Wetlands Utilization. Proceedings of a symposium held 28
February-2 March 1978, at Tallahassee, FL. sponsored by the Coor-
dinating Council on the Restoraton of the Kissimmee River Valley and
Taylor Creek-Nubbin Slough Basin. Tallahassee, FL.
202. Dolan, T.J., S.E. Bayley, J. Zoltek, Jr., and A.J. Hermann. 1981. Phos-
phorus Dynamics of a Florida Freshwater Marsh Receiving Treated Waste-
water. Journal of App. Ecol. 18(1):205-219.
Phosphorus in secondary effluent, applied weekly for a year to a test
plot, was over 97% assimilated. Soil (peat, clay, and sand) was the major
sink, with secondary sinks in the below-ground biomass and litter. Three
2000 sq. meter plots received effluent at the rates of 1.3, 3.8, and 10.2
cm per week, with a control plot receiving 3.8 cm per week of freshwater.
Vegetation present included Sag^ttaria landfolia, Pontederia cordata,
Panicum spjo. and Hibiscus sp_. The plot with the highest rate of effluent
loading showed increases in net production of plant shoots, litter, root
and rhizomes, and in P concentration in living and dead plant tissue,
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compared with the control plot. There was 38.03 g P per sq meter applied
to the high effluent plot during the course of the study; 26.31, 8.81, and
1.97 g P per sq meter were stored in soil, roots and rhizomes, and litter,
respectively. Outflow from the plot was 0.94 g P per sq meter. The
freshwater control plot received a total of 0.38 g P per sq meter, stored
0.21 g P per sq meter in the litter, and lost 0.17 g P per sq meter in the
outflow. There was no evidence of a spring flush of P from any plot.
203. Dollar, S. J. 1979. Ecological Response to Relaxation of Sewage Stress
Off Sand Island, Oahu, HI. Kept. No. 124. Univ. of Hawaii, Oahu.
204. Donaszy, E. 1974. Principles of Sewage Treatment through Utilization in
Fish Ponds, pp. 546-547. In Wastewater Use in the Production of Food
and Fiber-Proc. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ada, OK.
205. Dovovan, J.F. and J.E. Bates, 1980. Guidelines for Water Reuse. EPA
Report No. EPA-600/8-80-036. August. 115 p.
In order to increase interest in and assist implementation of waste-
water reuse for nonpotable purposes, guidelines have been developed to
make water managers and resource planners aware of proven reuse possi-
bilities. Perceived benefits in water reuse include: conservation of
water; recycling of nutrients; practical cost and energy savings; reduc-
tion in the discharge of pollutants; realization of other public priori-
ties such as preservation of open space for aesthetic and recreation
value; and encouragement of industrial recycling. Following a step-by-
step approach provided in the guidelines, the water manager and resource
planner can address the principle areas of concern in water reuse pro-
grams , including technology, economics, legal issues, institutional
arrangements, markets, and public information. Case histories provide in-
sight into actual reuse experience. Potential markets for reclaimed water
include: groundwater recharge; recreation; environmental enhancement.
206. Dorris, T. C., S. L. Burks, and G. R. Waller. 1974. Effects of Residual
Toxins in Oil Refinery Effluents on Aquatic Organisms. Technical
Completion Report, Oklahoma Water Resources Research Inst. , Still-
water, OK. 81 pp.
Laboratory evaluations of partial evaporation of oil refinery waste-
waters were performed to determine removal of toxic substances by partial
evaporation, suitability of discharge to a receiving stream of the bottom
partially concentrated waters from an evaporator, and acceptability of
overhead evaporator product water for reuse as boiler make-up or other
uses. The wastewaters from biological treatment—lagoon and activated
sludge units-and from primary treatment facilities—API separator and air
flotation—were partially evaporated in rotating thin-film or columnar
falling film evaporators. Conclusions were that partial evaporation of
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biological treated oil refinery wastewater, removes toxic substances from
biologically treated oil refinery wastewaters, produces an overhead
product water which has low inorganic salt concentration and should be
reusable for boiler make-up or other uses where high-quality water is
desirable, and produces a partially concentrated bottom product water
generally less toxic. (NT)
207. Dressier, R. L., and G. W. Wood. 1976. Deer Habitat Response to Irriga-
tion with Municipal Wastewater. J. Wildl. Manage. 40(4):639-644.
The influence of wastewater irrigation on the quantity and quality of
forage production and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus yIrffinianus) feeding
response was studied in central Pennsylvania. Little difference was found
in the amounts of available forage during the early spring months. During
the growing season the production of palatable forage on the irrigated
site was considerably less than on the non-irrigated site. Concentrations
of crude protein, P, K, and Mg in forage generally were increased by irri-
gation as was present digestible dry matter. Observations of semi-free
ranging lead deer did not indicate any deterrence from use of the site due
to wastewater irrigation. (AA)
208. Drew, M. L. 1975. Decomposition of Cypress Dome Litterfall by Fungal
Populations. Master's Thesis, Department of Environmental Engineering
Sciences, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville. 75 pp.
209. Drew, J. A. (ed.). 1978. Environmental Quality through Wetland
Utilization. Proceedings of a symposium held 8 February-2 March 1978,
at Tallahassee, FL. Sponsored by the Coordinating Council on the
Restoration of the Kissimmee River Valley and Taylor Creek-Nubbin
Slough Basin. Tallahassee, FL. 743 pp.
210. Drifmeyer, J.E. , and W. Odum. 1975. Lead, Zinc, and Manganese in
Dredge-Spoil Pond Ecosystems in Virginia. Environ. Conserv. 2:1-7.
211. Duever, M.J. , J.E. Carlson, L.A. Riopelle, and L.C. Duever. 1977. Eco-
system Analysis at Corkscrew Swamp. Pages 534-570. In; H.T. Odum and
K.C. Ewel (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling and
Conservation. 4th Annual Report to the National Science Foundation and
the Rockefeller Foundation, Center for Wetlands, University of Florida,
Gainesville.
212. Duffer, W. R., and C. C. Harlin. 1979. Potential of Aquaculture for
Reclamation of Municipal Wastewater, pp. 740-747. In AWWA Research
Foundation, Proceedings of the Water Reuse Symposium, Vol. I.
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Survey Report: Wastewater aquaculture is surveyed. Federal R & D
programs concerning wastewater reuse in aquaculture facilities are sum-
marized. Production aquaculture is differentiated from treatment process
aquaculture. The latter emphasizes the culture of organisms for waste-
water treatment and management, and the former emphasizes production.
Research needs concern aquatic macrophytes, wetlands, food chain pro-
cesses, economic evaluations, finfish, and invertebrates.
213. Duffer, W. R., and J. E. Hoyer. 1978. Municipal Wastewater Aquaculture.
EPA-600/2-78-110. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Wastewater
Management Branch, Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory,
Ada, OK. 47 pp.
The developmental status of the aquacultural alternative for treatment
and reuse of municipal wastewater was reviewed. Major emphasis was given
to the reduction or fate of pollutants in such areas as organics, solids,
nutrients, heavy metals, residual hydrocarbons, and potentially path-
ogenic organisms. Economic assessments of treatment and production rates
for organisms were included for several types of aquacultural processes.
wetlands, macrophytes, invertebrates, fish and integrated or food chain
units. Based on the literature examined, the information available at
this time is not adequate for the design of operational aquaculture
systems to treat or utilize inputs of municipal wastewater. Sufficient
exploratory studies have been conducted, however, to demonstrate a
definite potential for development of wastewater aquaculture systems.
Areas having high potential for further research and development were
identified. This report covers recent research progress in municipal
wastewater aquaculture as of June 1977. (AA)
214. Dunigan, E. P., R. A. Phelan, and Z. H. Shamsuddin. 1975. Use of Water
Hyacinths to Remove Nitrogen and Phosphorus from Eutrophic Waters.
Hyacinth Control J. 13:59-61.
215. Dunstan, W.M., and K.R. Tenore. 1972. Intensive Outdoor Culture of
Marine Phytoplankton Enriched with Treated Sewage Effluent. Aquacul-
ture 1: 181-192.
The authors describe studies on the development of a combined tertiary
sewage treatment and aquaculture system in which the effluent from sec-
ondary sewage treatment is used as a growth medium for unicellular marine
algae, and the algae, in turn, are used as food for bivalve molluscs.
Under outdoor conditions, the sewage enrichment of sea water stimulated
the growth of a variety of micro-algae which were usually dominant in the
water before enrichment. Several sources and samples of sewage effluent
were successfully used for enrichment. (AL)
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216. Dunstan, W.M. and K.R. Tenore, 1974. Control of Species Composition in
Enriched Mass Cultures of Natural Phytoplankton Populations. J. Appl.
Ecol. 11(2):529-536.
The changes in species composition of intensively harvested outdoor
cultures of enriched natural populations of micro-algae were studied using
a variety of nutrient additions and dilution rates. The control of
species in such semi-continuous outdoor cultures is not only important for
aquaculture systems but is also helpful in identifying the effects of
eutrophication on coastal phytoplankton populations. In a series of 3
experiments in which cells were counted and identified during the 6th-10th
day of the'daily 50% harvest, N, P and SI definitely favored the growth of
diatoms. The addition of just N and P or N, P and trace metals stimulated
a green microalgae population. Addition of treated sewage effluent
resulted in a 70-80% diatom culture. In another series of experiments the
rate of daily dilution was varied and in 2 experiments in June a clear
control of species composition resulted. In 10% daily dilution green
micro-algae dominated while at 75% dilution diatoms dominated particularly
Skeletqnema costatum (now Stephanopyxis costata). The results from exper-
iments in July and August were not as definitive as those in June and the
ubiquitous diatom Cylindrptheca clqsterium prevailed at all dilution
rates.
217. Dunstan, W. M., and H. L. Windom. 1975. The Influence of Environmental
Changes in Heavy Metal Concentrations of S^artina. alternifIgra,
pp. 393-404. In L. E. Cronin (ed.), Estuarine Research, Vol. II,
Geology and Engineering. Academic Press, NY.
218. Dworkin, J. M. 1978. Wastewater Management and Decision-Making: The
Role of Community Acceptance in the Adoption of Land Treatment. Ph.D.
Diss., Dept. of Geography, Clark University, Worchester, MA. 246 pp.
219. Dykyjova', D. and J. Kvet (ed.). Pond Littoral Ecosystems: Structure and
Functioning. Springer-Verlag, New York. 1978.
The book is the result of the Czechoslovak IBP wetlands project which
focused on intense quantitative ecological investigations of shallow
littoral ecosystems of typical Central European fishponds. The book is
divided into several sections: (i) General ecology and inventorization of
biotic communities, (ii) Environmental factors in fish pond littoral,
(iii) Primary production and production processes in littoral communities,
(iv) Structure and functioning of algal communities in fish ponds, (v) De-
composition processes in the fish pond littoral, (vi) Structure and role
of animal populations in fish pond littoral, (vii) Effect of fish pond
management on the littoral communities, and (viii) Conservation of plant
communities and waterfowl in wetlands of Czechoslovakia. The largest sec-
tion was section 3 on primary production. Generally, the book is a com-
pilation of data generated by the various studies with little transition
from one section to another and, although one section will refer to
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another, the editors made very little effort to tie the material together.
As stated by the editors "the volume does not present a final synthesis in
the form of overall ecosystems budgets and models/ but the editors have
attempted to give as much as possible for condensed quantitative data as
is needed for syntheses and ecosystem modeling." This book would probably
be a good reference work for a library, but individual researchers should
examine a copy before ordering one for their personal reference.
220. EEC Company. 1979. The Marsh-Forest System: A Pleasant and Positive
Answer for Water Reclamation.
221. Ecology Consultants. 1977. Reclamation for Wildlife Habitat. In; Pro-
ceedings of the Reclamation Workshop, Ft. Colllins, CO.
222. Eckenfelder, W. W., and M. P. Wanielista. 1978. Advances in Water and
Wastewater Treatment. Biological Nutrient Removal. Ann Arbor Science
Publishers, Inc. Ann Arbor, MI. 286 pp.
The present status of biological nutrient removal systems is reviewed.
Kinetics of relevant biochemical reactions and the design and operation
of a number of different practical treatment systems and equipment are
discussed. The roles of water hyacinths and of cypress swamps in de-
creasing or eliminating the nutrient load are considered. A separate
chapter is devoted to the operation of biological fluidized beds for
nitrogen control. (AL)
223. Edeline, F., and G. Lambert. 1974. A Simple Simulation Method for River
Self-purification Studies. Water Res. 8(5):297-306.
224. Edds, G.T. and J.M. Davidson. 1981. Sewage Sludge Viral and Pathogenic
Agents in Soil-Plant-Animal Systems. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Pub. No. EPA-600/51-81-026. Health Effects Research Lab.
Cincinnati, OH.
In this study, a multi-disciplinary approach was used to determine the
ultimate fate of various toxic elements or pathogens associated with Flor-
ida and Chicago municipal sludges when applied to soil-plant-water systems
as an alternative method for the utilization of recycled digested munici-
pal sludge. Determination was made of the physiologic, pathologic,
growth, and reproductive responses of cattle, swine, and poultry that were
fed sludges, grains or forages from soils pretreated with urban liquid di-
gested sludges, as well as health effects in mice receiving liver or kid-
ney tissues from steers and swine exposed to such feeds or contaminants.
There were minimal differences in growth performance or egg production
in cattle, swine, or poultry fed forage or grain from soils pretreated
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with a variety of urban sewage sludges. Cattle and swine tissues, when
fed to mice, resulted in alterations of the normal mineral balance as well
as reproductive performance. Tissues from animals intended for human con-
sumption exposed to sarcocyst contaminated sewage sludges may serve as
health hazards for animals and humans.
Application of urban sludges at 19.8 ton/hectare produced equivalent
plant growth stimulation for corn, barley, wheat, and sorghum as commer-
cial fertilizers. Certain bacteria, commonly associated with sludges,
disappear in a few days after soil or plant application. However, certain
viruses and parasites were shown to persist. New and improved methods
were developed to monitor persistence as well as assay for the presence of
drugs or other hazardous materials.
225. Eisenberg, D. M., J. Benemann, and J. Weissman. Recent Advances in the
Utilization of High Rate Photosynthetic Wastewater Treatment Systems:
Potential for Reclamation of Municipal and Agricultural Tastewater.
Presented at the Water Reuse Symposium II. Washington, DC. Aug.
23-29, 1981.
Wastewater stabilization ponds have long been recognized as a low-cost
alternative for the treatment of many types of wastewater. The uncon-
trolled environment within ponds of conventional design, however, has
often resulted in unreliable performance. This and the difficulty of
removal of algal suspended solids from the pond effluents have caused
engineers to no longer design this type of system, and many existing
systems have been abandoned in favor of conventional wastewater treatment
plants which are most costly and more energy intensive.
With the recent development, at the University of California Sanitary
Engineering Research Laboratory, of the paddlewheel mixed high rate
stabilization pond, an intermediate alternative has become available.
These ponds provide a degree of control which cannot be achieved in
conventional ponds with only a small increase in cost and energy con-
sumption. They make use of intensive photosynthetic oxygenation and high
algal productivity to produce high quality reclaimed water and algal-bac-
terial floes which are of relatively large size and thus can be readily
removed.
In this paper the principals of operation will be described as well as
the details of contruction of the experimental ponds at University of
California. Data on wastewater treatment and algal productivity will be
presented from two years of continuous pond operation. The implications
of this data will be discussed with emphasis on the effectiveness of
treating water for reclamation purposes*
Two possible applications outside of the municipal wastewater treat-
ment field will be discussed. These are the reclamation of agricultural
drainage water from California's Imperial Valley and the on-site recla-
mation of wastewater generated in daily, poultry, and livestock oper-
ations. In addition to water reclamation both of these applications have
enormous potential for generation of valuable by-products ranging from
methane gas or electricity to expensive aquaculture products for human
consumption. (AA)
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226. Engler, R.M., D.A. Antie and W.H. Patrick, Jr. 1976. Effect of Dissolved
Oxygen and Redox Potential and Nitrate Removal in Flooded Swamp and
Marsh Soils. J. Environ. Qual. 5(3):230-235.
Flooded and marsh soils in the interior swamp and coastal areas of
Louisiana have a high capacity for removing 1*03. Nitrate added either
to the shallow floodwater or mixed in the soil rapidly disappeared under
laboratory conditions. Nitrate loss does not take place in the flood-
water, but is dependent on the NOj moving downward into the anaerobic
soil layer. The N(>3 removal capacity is much greater than is required
to handle any amount of N©3 -N that is likely to be present in these
areas, either from oxidation or ammonium, that has been released from
organic matter or from NC>3 derived from local runoff from adjacent
agricultural areas. Nitrate loss does not appear to be inhibited by the
presence of a small amount of molecular 02 in flooded soils.
227. Engler, R. M., and W. H. Patrick, Jr. 1974. Nitrate Removal from
Floodwater Overlying Flooded Soils and Sediments. J. Environ. Qual.
34:409-415.
The floodwater nitrate removal rate of intermittently flooded fresh
swamp soils and continuously flooded saline marine soils in southern
Louisiana is quantitatively characterized. Of the two areas studied, the
marsh area is the more effective sink for nitrate contaminated waters.
228. Enns, W. R. 1967. Insects Associated with Midwestern Oxidation Lagoons.
Terminal Progress Report. Univ. of Missouri, Columbia. 21 pp.
The aim of this project was to study the entomological fauna of sewage
lagoons. Fauna studied included insects, Crustacea, mites, spiders, and
sowbugs. Studies were conducted in different types of lagoons from the
newest, rawest ones to old ones; these were both primary and secondary
lagoons. Other areas of investigation included; predator prey species in
the lagoons and determination of predators most effective in supressing
midges and mosquitoes; presence of insect pathogens and whether they could
be manipulated artificially; and the possibility of manipulating insect
populations to maintain a balanced lagoon.
229. Epstein, L., K. Ditz, and G.R. Safir. 1982. Plant Disease in an Old Field
Ecosystem Irrigated with Municipal Waste Water. J. of Environ. Qual.
11:65-68.
During 1978 and 1979, plant disease on foliage was assessed in an old
field dominated by goldenrod (Solidago canjidensis and S_. gramini folia) and
quackgrass (Agrogyron repens) and irrigated with waste water. Plant path-
ogens abundant in waste-water-irrigated areas included, Coleosporium
asterum, Erysiphe cichoracearum, PhyJLlachora gramini s, and Helminthospor-
ium sp.; such fungi reportedly alternate their life cycles or reproduce on
economically important plant species. The increased foliar disease in the
irrigated areas was probably due to increased moisture. Frequencies of
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plant pathogens in the waste water were apparently low since wounded seed-
lings of numerous crop varieties immersed in waste water remained healthy.
Alternaria alternata and Stemphylium sarcinaeforine survived equally well
after 24 days in filter-sterilized waste water or tapwater; however, Er-
winia hjerbicola and E. atrqsepjtica, survived longer than 24 hours in buf-
fered tapwater. (AA)
230. Epstein, L. and G.R. Safir. 1981. Plant Diseases Associated with Muni-
cipal Wastewater Irrigation, pp. 157-161. Paper presented at the Con-
ference on Vegetation Management for Municipal Wastewater Land Applica-
tion Systems: Great Lakes Region of the United States, held at Michi-
gan State University, East Lansing, MI, 23-24 February 1981, prelimin-
ary draft of the proceedings. Kellogg Center for Continuing Education,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 15 p.
Over a 24 day period, 0.1 ml aliquots of wastewater or tap water were
plated onto potato dextrose agar in order to monitor populations. No dif-
ferences in the survival of the spores in tap and wastewater were noted.
It is believed plant parasites and saprophytes compete for nutrients in
exudates found on plant surfaces. To examine this interaction, we moni-
tored the short term survival of a phytopathogenic bacterium, Erwinia
herbicqla, in wastewater and tap water. A sterile dilute phosphate buffer
was added to filter-sterilized wastewater or tap water with or without 0.1
percent yeast extract (to simulate plant exudate). After inoculation with
a uniform bacterial suspension containing approximately 105 cells/ml,
the flasks were shaken for 24 hr. Populations at 0 and 24 hr after inocu-
lation were determined with a dilution series of the liquid on yeast ex-
tract agar. Both the pathogenic and the saprophytic Erwinia species sur-
vived better in the wastewater than in the tap water, but grew more rapid-
ly in the simulated leaf exudate in tap water than in simulated leaf
exudate in wastewater.
231. Erlich, S. 1966. Two Experiments in Biological Clarification of Stabili-
zation Pond Effluents. Hydrobiologia 27:70-80.
232. Estrada, M., I. Valiela, and J. M. Teal. 1974. Concentration and Dis-
tribution of Chlorophyll in Fertilized Plots in a Massachusetts Salt
Marsh. Sea Grant Kept. No. 74-03. Center for Wetland Resources,
Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge. 30 pp.
233. Evans, D. W., and J. P. Giesy. 1978. Trace Metal Concentrations in a
Stream-Swamp System Receiving Coal Asn Effluent, pp. 782-791. In Pro-
ceedings of the Intl. Congress for Energy and Ecosystem Ecol. and Coal
Resource Devel. Conf. Vol. 2. Grand Forks.
Water, suspended solids, and emergent plants were analyzed for trace
metal concentrations in a stream-swamp ecosystem receiving effluents from
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a coal ash disposal basin in South Carolina. Samples were analyzed for
cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel,
lead, and zinc. Results from the polluted stream are compared with those
from a stream not receiving ash effluents. The effluent-receiving stream
showed small elevations in metal levels in biotic and abiotic components
compared with the control stream. (EL)
234. Everest, J.W. and D.E. Davis. 1979. Studies of Phosphorus Movement Using
Salt Marsh Microecosystems. J. Environ. Qual. 8(4):465.
Microecosystems of a salt marsh community were designed, constructed,
and used to follow phosphorus flux through the physical and biological
components of that community. The biological components in these micro-
ecosystems were smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora Loisel), diatoms,
mud fiddler crabs (Upa pugnax Smith), periwinkle snails (Littorina irro-
rata Say), and ribbed mussels (Geukensia demissa Oiliwyn; formerly Mpdio-
IUJB demissus Dillwyn). The physical components were the marsh soil and
the seawater. Phosphorus (P) placed 17.5 cm below the soil surface was
abundantly present in the smooth cordgrass leaves and on the soil surface
4 days later. No P was secreted by the leaves of smooth cordgrass during
the experiment. The rapid transfer of phosphorus to the soil surface was
found to be the result of the burrowing activity of the fiddler crab. (AA)
235. Ewel, K.C., 1976a. Changes in Understory Vegetation in Cypress Domes
Brought About By Fire and Addition of Sewage, pp. 171-189. In; Third
Annual Report on Cypress Wetlands, University of Florida, Center for
Wetlands, Gainesville.
The effects of application of groundwater and sewage on ecological
relationships in burned and unburned cypress domes was monitored over a
two-year period since the initial treatments. There were rapid changes in
dominance and invader species of understory vegetation for the burned,
sewage dome than in any of the others. The duckweed layer is also thicker.
The presence of sewage does not seem to have had an overriding influence
in determining vegetation; however, the two sewage domes are less similar
to one another in species composition than are the two burned domes. The
similarity index for the species composition shortly after sewage intro-
duction and one year later was 78 (possible maximum of 86) for the
unburned dome, but only 62 for the burned dome, suggesting greater con-
stancy for the flora in the second sewage dome in response to the stress
of sewage. This suggests that the presence of nutrient vegetation at the
time of sewage introduction has damped the kinds of changes in the unburn-
ed dome.
236. Ewel, K. C. 1976b. Effects of Sewage Effluent on Ecosystem Dynamics in
Cypress Domes, pp. 169-196. Iia D. C. Tilton, R. H. Kadlec, and C. J.
Richardson (eds.), Proceedings of A National Symposium on Freshwater
Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
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Studies of experimental treatment of cypress domes in Florida with
wastewater are summarized. A dramatic seasonal increase was noted for
three species of floating plants that were responsible for rapid uptake
of heavy metals and nutrients. Large amounts of the nutrients subse-
quently were transferred to cypress roots after decay of the floating
plants. Other changes in species composition also were noted. Tree
growth and seedling growth were slightly faster in treated domes as
compared with control domes. Litterfall was greater in the treated dome,
but no differences in the decomposition rates of cypress needles were
noted. (EPA)
237. Ewel, K. 1976c. Seasonal Changes in Distribution of Water Fern and
Duckweed in Cypress Domes Receiving Sewage, pp. 164-170. In H. T.
Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress
Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling and Conservation, Third Annual
Report. Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.
During the spring, summer, and fall, the non-rooted, floating plant
cover in two cypress domes which had been receiving secondarily treated
sewage consisted almost entirely of two duckweed species, Lemna perpusilla
and Spirgdela a 1 i go rh j. za. Small patches of Azqlla carp 1 iniana, a small
floating water fern, was also found, usually associated with a patch of
emergent vegetation. There were no floating plants on the surface of the
central area of a cypress dome which has had groundwater pumped into it
weekly, although both Lemna and Azolla are common around the edge. Only
Lemna and Spirodela are found on the undisturbed dome. During the winter,
Azolla. increased its percentage in coverage in both domes significantly.
This change may be due primarily to a change in light intensity. Consid-
ering both the nitrogen-fixing ability of Azolla and the dependence of
Lemana on a nitrate source, the shift in species composition may clearly
have important consequences on the nutrient cycling role played by the
plants.
238. Ewel, K.C. 1979. Effects of Sewage Recycling on Structure and Function
of Cypress Ecosystems. In; J.C. Sutherland and R.H. Kadlec (eds.),
Freshwater Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater Disposal. Abstracts of a
conference held 10-12 July 1979 at Higgins Lake, MI.
Cypress-dominated ecosystems are common in Florida and the Southeast in
sites where standing water during part of the year reduces competition
from other tree species, and occasional drawdowns permit germination.
Cypress domes, or ponds, have been found to be able to absorb nutrients
from secondarily treated sewage applied at the rate of 2.5 cm/wk. This
loading rate converts the oligotrophic cypress pond into a duckweed-cover-
ed, virtually anaerobic body of water. However, gross and net primary
productivity rates are increased and decomposition rates are not affected.
Under-story vegetation composition is not affected. Most of the phosphor-
us discharged into the cypress pond is apparently retained in the organic
sediments and underlying clay layers.
Cypress strands, which are slowly flowing bodies of water dominated by
cypress trees, area also being investigated for their potential in treat-
-------
ing sewage because of the greater land area they cover. Examination of
sites where sewage enrichment has occurred for forty years indicates that
increased tree growth rates can be sustained. Investigations are underway
to determine area needed for uptake of nutrients, heavy metals, and bac-
teria. (AA)
239. Ewel, K. C. , and S. E. Bayley. 1976. Waldo, A Strand Receiving Sewage,
pp. 759-767. In H. T. Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K.
Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling, and
Conservation. Third Annual Report. Center for Wetlands. Univ. of
Florida. Gainesville.
240. Ewel, K. C., and H. T. Odum. 1978. Cypress Swamps for Nutrient Removal
and Wastewater Recycling, pp. 181-198. In M. P. Wanielista and W. W.
Eckenfelder, Jr. (eds.), Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment:
Biological Nutrient Removal. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann
Arbor, HI.
This paper is an overview of research conducted on the effect of
addition of sewage to cypress dome wetlands in Florida. This appears to
be an ecologically and economically suitable method for tertiary treat-
ment. Growth of cypress trees was increased greatly, but subcanopy
vegetation was not altered to a similar degree. No increases in nitrogen
or phosphorus in groundwater were observed. Also, no higher rate of
export of encephalitis would be expected from a treated wetland, as
opposed to a natural cypress swamp. The treatment method is considered
to be economical because the "ratio of solar energy to dollar costs" is
high.
241. Ewel, K. C., and H. T. Odum. 1979. Cypress Domes: Nature's Tertiary
Treatment Filter, pp. 103-114. In W. E. Sopper and S. N. Kerr (eds.).
Utilization of Municipal Sewage Effluent and Sludge on Forest and
Disturbed Land. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University
Park.
This paper is a summary of 4 years of research concerning the effects
of additions of treated wastewater to cypress dome wetlands in northern
Florida. It was concluded that these systems are capable of effective
tertiary wastewater treatment. Domes are common in Florida, and the
vegetation already is adapted to high water levels. The ability to deal
with elevated nutrient loads is related to:
0 A continuous cover of duckweed causing rapid nutrient removal;
0 Uptake of nutrients deposited in sediments by duckweed and by cy-
press roots and incorporation in wood and leaves; trees may absorb
up to 10% of the nutrient load;
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0 Phosphorus seems to adsorb on clays beneath the dome; the domes also
appear to have an additional geological mechanism of precipitation
of phosphate pebbles*
Overall, the ability of a dome to treat sewage is best evaluated by
considering the "geologic framework within which the ecosystem
operates/" and "taking advantage of long-term adsorptive and concen-
trating properties." It is suggested that the use of domes for treatment
of wastewater may be a viable alternative for small communities whose tax
base is insufficient to support high-technology treatment systems.
242. Farnham, R.S. 1974. Use of Organic Soils for Wastewater Infiltration, pp.
111-118. In: A.R. Aandahl (ed.), Histosols: Their Characteristics, Use
and Classification. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Spec. Publ. No. 6.
243. Farnham, R.S., and D.H. Boelter. 1976. Minnesota's Peat Resources: Their
Characteristics and Use in Sewage Treatment, Agriculture, and Energy,
pp. 241-255. In; D.L. Tilton, R.H. Kadlec, C.J. Richardson (eds.),
Proceedings of a National Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage
Effluent Disposal. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Minnesota has 3 million ha (7.5 million acres) of peatlands, the most of
any state in the conterminous United States. The most extensive areas of
these peatlands are located in the large glacial lake plains in northern
Minnesota. A few of the largest areas are vast expanses of peat ranging up
to 200,000 ha in size and only a very small percent of them are presently
being utilized for agriculture or forestry.
One of the more important resources of peatlands is water and the head-
water areas for several major river basins are located in the northern for-
ested regions of Minnesota on these peat-covered wetlands. The hydrologic
role of peatlands may not be as significant as once thought. Rather than
being giant sponges soaking up snowmelt and early spring rains and gradually
releasing runoff through the summer, peatlands often play a less significant
role in the seasonal distribution of runoff with a large portion of the
annual flow occurring prior to June 15.
Drained and fertilized, these organic soils are productive for both field
and forest crops. They are particularly suited to the production of vegeta-
tive crops, seed crops, forage crops, wild rice and other specialty crops
although their present use for these crops is limited.
The unique physical properties of peat materials, especially Sphagnum
types, suggest several potential uses for harvested peat. Their high water
storage capacity and low density makes them very useful as a soil amendment
to improve the physical properties of mineral soils or as a horticultural
medium for plant growth. The relative high caloric values of peat have led
to their use as fuel in Europe and similar potentials exist in Minnesota.
Peat materials have been used successfully as filter systems for treat-
ment of campground sewage wastes in several national forests. Renovation of
wastewaters is quite good using a combinatin of the filtering and absorbing
action of the peat and the harvest of plants growing on the filter beds for
assimilation and removal of nutrients. (AA)
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244. Farnham, R.S., and J.L. Brown. 1972. Advanced Wastewater Treatment Using
Organic and Inorganic Materials/ Part I. Use of Peat and Peat-sand
Filtration Media, pp. 271-286. In; Fourth Int. Peat Congr. Proc.,
Ontaniemi, Finland.
245. Ferrara, R.A., and D.R.F. Harleman. 1978. A Dynamic Nutrient Cycle Model
for Waste Stabilization Ponds. Kept. No. 237 R78-43. Massachusetts In-
stitute of Tech., Cambridge. 351 pp.
Stabilization ponds provide a simple, economic, and effective method of
waste treatment. Due to their dynamic nature, there is a critical need for
a reliable, predictive method for the design and analysis of stabilization
ponds that goes beyond the classical BOD approach and considers biological
and nutrient dynamics. Existing hydraulic models are evaluated and improved
dispersion model characterized by an active flow zone and a return zone is
developed and verified. It is shown it is appropriate to assume fully mixed
conditions for most existing unbaffled ponds. A biogeochemical model con-
taining nine state variables describing the transformations of three ele-
ments - carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus - is developed. The model reflects
the cycling of elements between organic and inorganic forms and is capable
of predicting oxygen demand, fecal coliform, nitrogen, and phosphorus con-
centrations on a time-variable basis. Application of the model at existing
treatment sites has indicated the capability of the model structure to ade-
quately simulate the stabilization pond environment. (NT)
246. Fetter, C.W., and R.G. Holzmacher. 1974. Groundwater Recharge with Treated
Sewage. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 46(2):260-270.
247. Fetter, C.W., Jr., W.E. Sloey, and F.L. Spangler. 1976a. Potential Replace-
ment of Septic Tank Drain Fields by Artificial Marsh Wastewater Treatment
Systems. Groundwater 14(6)-.396-402.
Unchlorinated primary effluent was applied to an artificial marsh in an
experimental facility ay Seymour, Wisconsin (population 2,257), during the
period 21 August to 4 November 1975. The marsh consisted of shallow trench-
es lined with PVC plastic and filled with gravel and handplanted specimens
of bulrush (Scirpus validus). The vegetation and microbiota had been
established previously during two seasons of experiments with secondary
effluent. Effluent was applied at an average rate of 2.5 m /day,
which yielded a loading factor of 29 1/m^ and a retention time of
about 10 days. Reductions in BODs (77%), COD (71%), orthophosphate
(35%), total phosphorus (37%), nitrate (22%), and coliform bacteria
(99.9%) were reported. The researchers recommended the use of small-scale
waste treatment systems at summer cottages, camping areas, resorts, and
roadside rest areas where effluent would be applied only during the grow-
ing season. A proposed design for such a treatment system is included.
(EPA)
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248. Fetter, C. W., Jr., W. E. Sloey, and F. L. Spangler. 1976b. Wastewater
Treatment by Natural and Artificial Marshes. U.S. National Technical
Information Service. Pub. No. PB-259-992. Springfield, VA. 180 pp.
The feasibility of using marshland as a means of purifying sewage-works
effluent was investigated, using artificial marshes in plastic-lined
excavations, and a natural marsh in Wisconsin already receiving water
polluted from a sewage-works outfall. The level of improvement in water
quality suggests that the process may be acceptable for certain applica-
tions . Harvesting of vegetation, however, was not a practicable method of
phosphorus removal since the marsh was found to absorb phosphorus during
the growing season and to release it at other times. It is concluded that
marsh treatment may be a practical means of dealing with temporary over-
loads of existing sewage-treatment systems during the summer. (AL)
249. Fetter, C. W., Jr., W. E. Sloey, and F. L. Spangler. 1977. Biogeo-
chemical Studies of a Polluted Wisconsin Marsh, pp. 13-49. Pro-
ceedings of the First Annual Wisconsin Water Resources Conference,
held 11 February 1977 at Stevens Point, WI.
250. Fetter, C. W., Jr., W. E. Sloey, and F. L. Spangler. 1978a. Biogeo-
chemical Studies of a Polluted Wisconsin Marsh. J. Water Pollut.
Control Fed.
This study concerns the effect of a Typha dominated marsh in Wisconsin
on BOD, coliform bacteria, COD, nitrate, turbidity, suspended solids,
total phosphorus, and orthophosphate. (WE)
251. Fetter, C. W., Jr., W. E. Sloey, and F. L. Spangler. 1978b. Use of a
Natural Marsh for Wastewater Polishing. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed.
50(2): 290-307.
The water quality of a stream flowing through a Tygha marsh was studied
for a 15-month period. During low flow periods, as much as 50% of the
wastewater monthly streamflow was discharge from a wastewater treatment
plant. During passage through the marsh there were significant reductions
in concentrations of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (80.1%), coliform
bacteria (86.2%), nitrate (51.3%), chemical oxygen demand (43.7%), turbid-
ity (43.5%), suspended solids (SS) (29.1%), total P (13.4%), and ortho-
phosphate (6.4%). An estimated mass balance of P indicated the marsh
might retain one-third of the entering P over an annual cycle. One source
of P removal appears to be preciptation into the sediments. Because pass-
age through a marsh will reduce the BOD, P, N and SS, discharged effluents
may not necessarily need to meet strict water quality standards before
entering the system. (AA)
252. Findlay, C. R. 1973. Salmonella in Sewage Sludge. Part II. Multipli-
cation. Vet. Rec. 93:102-103.
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253. Finn/ J.T. and T.M. Leschine, 1980. Does
Shellfish Production. An Application
Management 4(3):193-203.
Salt Marsh Fertilization Enhance
of Flow Analysis. Environmental
Flow analysis was used to determine that adding nitrogen fertilizer to
Spartina salt marsh sediment was not an efficient way to enhace shellfish
growth. Nitrogen flow models for Barataria Bay salt marsh, Louisiana, and
Sippewissett Marsh, Cape Cod, indicated that in both locations only 3% of
added N reached the shellfish, despite the great physical differences and
despite the inclusion of considerably more milcrobial processing of N in
the Barataria Bay model. The most efficient K transfer would have to by-
pass Spartina growth, decomposition, and detijital feeding.
254. Fitzgerald, M. G. 1980. Anthropogenic Influence on the Sedimentary
Regime of an Urban Estuary-Boston Harbor. Ph.D. Diss. Dept. of
Geology and Geophysics, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods
Hole, MA. 300 pp. (Available as Woods Hole Oceanographic Inst. Rept.
No. 80-38.)
Boston Harbor (and its approaches) is a glacially carved, tidally
dominated estuary in western Massachusetts Bay. Characterized by low
river discharge and significant human impact, the harbor is typical of
many bays and estuaries along the New England coast. Modern organic-rich
sediments are accumlating in several depocenters at an estimated rate of
0.2-0.3 cm/yr. The high organic matter content of these modern sediments
is attributed in part to anthropogenic wastes. Wastes rich in trace
metals are discharged into the harbor from the sewage treatment facility
at Deer Island and from numerous point sources in the Inner Harbor.
Trace metal profiles in the bottom sediments reflect the increasing use
and discharge of these metals during the past 100 years. Large vari-
ations in several cores may be related to circulation changes. In the
water column, silt and clay sized mineral grains are suspended together
in organically bound agglomerates. The organic film binding these par-
ticles is a by-product of biological activity and aids in the deposition
of particulates and pollutants. (NT)
255. Fitzgerald, P.R. 1981. Helminth and Heavy Metals Transmission for Anaero-
bically Digested Sewage Sludge. Pub. No. EPA-600/S2-81-924. U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency. Cincinnati, OH.
This summary discusses the findings of a study designed to determine
the transmission to an animal host of the ova of the nematode worm Ascaris
sp. that have survived through a modern sewage treatment process and are
present in the sludge. Four large experiments and three smaller ones
involving 178 specific pathogen-free (SPF) pigs were used. Natural trans-
mission of Ascaris sp. from soil treated with liquid anaerobically
digested sewage sludge that had been stored for several years occurred in
a few pigs in each of four experiments. Also, natural transmission from
Nu-Earth, a dried, stored sewage sludge, also occurred in pigs that were
exposed to this material by contact in the pens. In general, ova in
anaerobically digested sludge or in Nu-Earth remained unembryonated until
-------
after they were exposed to the air. Within 6 weeks after exposure to air,
the ova began to embryonate, and thereafter, a small percentage of the ova
that embryonated became infective for pigs.
The occurrence of heavy metals in the tissues of swine held in pens
treated with anaerobically digested sludge or Nu-Earth, which originated
from a large municipality, was also studied. Chemical analyses of kid-
neys, livers, hearts, diaphragm muscles, and bones were conducted to
determine the quantities of the heavy metals cadmium, zinc, copper, iron
lead, chromium, and nickel that were present in the tissues following
exposure of the pigs to different amounts of the sewage products in or on
the soil. Only cadmium accumulated to a significant degree in some
tissues of swine exposed to sludge containing heavy metals. No physiolog-
ical or pathological changes associated with exposure to the sludge
material were detected. Examination of visceral fat from control and
experimental pigs indicated that there was no unusual accumulation of
organic compounds including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) and the
insecticides Heptachlor and Dieldrin.
256. Flemer, D.A. and D.R. Heinle. 1974. Effects of Wastewater on Estuarine
Ecosystems. Publication 33. Chesapeake Research Consortium, Inc.,
Baltimore, MD. 33 pp. (Also published as Maryland Univ. (Solomons)
Natural Resources Inst. Ref. No. 74-79.
Recent increases in algae, measured as concentration of chlorophyll a,
in the Patuxent River estuary appear to have occurred as a consequence of
increased loading by sewage in the upper watershed. The increases in
concentration of chlorophyll were observed downstream from the turbid
sediment-trap portion of the estuary, an impact distant from the points
of addition. Primary production, measured by the 14C method, increased
also as did zooplankton biomass. Samples of water from the Sandy Point
area of the upper Chesapeake Bay were enclosed in 750-liter (200 gallon)
polyethylene microcosms, enriched with treated sewage, and ensuing events
followed. While the predictions from the microcosms have been fully
validated, clear effects on several parameters were noted. Phosphate
appeared to be the major limiting nutrient in these experiments. En-
riched microcosms developed higher concentrations of zooplankton and
chlorophyll a and rates of primary production, permitting predictions of
effects of the sewage treatment plant under various loads. (NT)
257. Folsom, B. L., Jr., C. R. Lee, and D. J. Bates. 1980. Influence of
Disposal Environment on Availability and Plant Uptake of Heavy Metals
in Dredged Material. Tech. Rept. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
258. Fox, J. C., and P. R. Fitzgerald. 1979. The Presence of Giardia lamblia
Cysts in Sewage and Sewage Sludges from the Chicago Area. In W.
Jakubowski and J. C. Huff (eds.), Waterborne Transmission of
Giardiasis. EPA-600/9-79-001, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, OH.
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259. Fox, R. L., and E. J. Kamprath. 1971. Adsorption and Leaching of P in
Acid Organic Soils and High Organic Matter Sand. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.
Proc. 35:154-156.
260. Frederickson, L. 1978. Lowland Hardwood Wetlands: Current Status and
Habitat Values for Wildlife, pp. 296-306, In; P.E. Greeson, J.R.
Clark, and J.K. Clark (eds.), Wetland Function and Values - The State
of our Understanding. Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wet-
lands, Buena Vista, Florida. Amer. Water Resources Assoc. 7-10
November 1978.
261. Friend, Milton. In press. Wildlife Health Implications of Sewage Dis-
posal in Wetlands. In Ecological Considerations in Wetlands Treat-
ment of Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings of a workshop, June 23-25,
1982. University of Massachusetts, Amherst MA. US Fish and Wildlife
Service and US Environmental Protection Agency.
262. Fritz, W. R., and S. C. Helle. 1977. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewater
Using Cypress Wetlands. National Science Foundation. Updated Pre-
liminary Envir. Rept. 76-23276. 96 pp.
This report deals with the results of study using cypress domes for
tertiary treatment of secondary effluent. Conclusions include: 1) cost
comparisons with physical, chemical, spray irrigation and other wetland
treatment methods show cypress domes, to be cost effective if favorable
site specific conditions exist, 2) feasible loading rates and physical
size of domes restrict applicability to small wastewater systems, and 3)
analysis reveals that wetland treatment required substantially less
purchased energy and chemicals. No significant detrimental effects to
dome ecology have been discovered. (WE)
263. Fritz, W. R., and S. C. Helle. 1978a. Cypress Wetlands as a Natural
Tertiary Treatment Method for Secondary Effluents. Boyle Engineering
Corp., Orlando, FL. National Science Foundation Summary Rept. 14 pp.
The concept of using cypress wetlands as a natural tertiary treatment
mechanism for domestic wastewaters is examined. Previous studies have
shown that cypress domes supplied with sewage effluent effectively
treated the effluent well within acceptable tertiary treatment standards
with no significant adverse effect on the environment. As a result of
these findings, a three-phase approach was developed for an applied
engineering science suitable for implementation. This article addresses
Phases 1 and 2: development of conceptual techniques for using cypress
wetlands for tertiary treatment and determination of the feasibility of
utilizing the method. (NT)
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264. Fritz, W. R., and S. C. Helle. 1978b. Cypress Wetlands as a Natural
Treatment Method for Secondary Effluents, pp. 69-81. In M. A. Drew/
(ed.), Environmental Quality through Wetlands Utilization. Pro-
ceedings of a symposium held 28 February - 2 March 1978, at Tallahas-
see, FL. Sponsored by the Coordinating Council on the Restoration of
the Kissimmee River Valley and the Taylor Creek-Nubbin Slough Basin.
Tallahassee, FL.
Research by the Center for Wetlands, University of Florida demonstrates
that cypress wetlands can be a natural tertiary treatment mechanism for
domestic wastewaters. Their studies show that wetlands provide excellent
nutrient removal with no significant adverse environmental effects. Boyle
Engineering Corporation has been awarded a National Science Foundation
grant to study the research and convert it into an applied engineering
science. Boyle's approach has been to: 1) examine the various concepts of
using cypress wetlands for tertiary treatment, 2) explore the feasibility
of each concept, and 3) develop procedures and preliminary regulations for
implementation.
Thus far, the study has demonstrated that cypress wetlands offer a
viable tertiary treatment alternative for many potential users. The
research to date has concentrated on using isolated cypress "domes" in-
volving ponding and percolation of wastewaters. The treatment results,
reliability, energy conservation potential, and environmental outlook for
the method are quite favorable. Federal and state regulatory agencies
cautiously support wetland treatment systems, allowing demonstration pro-
jects, but are not yet ready to permit widespread implementation. Cost
analyses have shown cypress domes to be cost competitive if the wetlands
are favorably located. A survey of treatment plant locations with ade-
quate cypress wetlands is being conducted to determine the availability of
application throughout the State of Florida. (AA)
265. Fritz, W. R., and S. C. Helle. 1978c. Cypress Wetlands for Tertiary
Treatment. Boyle Engineering Corp., Orlando, FL. National Science
Foundation Final Report. 114 pp.
The report contains a summary of studies of impacts on vegetation in
cypress domes that receive wastewater. In general, cypress trees appear
to suffer little negative effects, and in fact may even grow more rapidly
(in one study they grew 2.6 times as fast). Other studies have shown
that needle tissue levels of N and P and seed production increased as a
result of wastewater application. Possible negative effects could in-
clude the requirement of cypress seedlings for periodic dry periods for
germination. Other impacts on vegetation include increased abundance of
duckweed, associated with nutrient and heavy metal uptake by those
plants. Cypress roots may absorb a large percentage of nutrients when
the duckweed dies off. Other impacts include creation of anaerobic
conditions during duckweed population declines and possible changes in
denitrification rates, but these have been determined not to cause
significant changes in the ecology of the domes. (EPA)
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266. Fritz, W. R., and S. C. Helle. 1978d. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewater
Using Cypress Wetlands. Boyle Engineering Corp., Orlando, FL.
National Science Foundation Final Report No. 0-N04-100-50. 114 pp.
Intense field investigation, testing, and research were conducted for
the purpose of providing tertiary treatment utilizing cypress domes.
Presented in four annual reports, the research has demonstrated high
quality treatment using cypress domes, while recycling water and helping
to protect the environment from periodic drought conditions. Treatment
concepts and results, cost-effectiveness, energy and environmental
considerations, reliability, regulatory agency aspects, availability, and
a proposed rule for application of domestic wastewater to cypress wetlands
are discussed. Also included are considerations for an engineering design
of a cypress wetland tertiary treatment system and the dissemination of
information through seminars and conferences, publications, workshop, and
reports. (NT)
267. Fritz, W. R., and S. C. Helle. 1979a. Cypress Wetlands for Tertiary
Treatment, pp. 75-81. In Bastian, R. K., and S. C. Reed (Project
officers). Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar
Proceedings and Engineering Assessment. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Water Program Operations, Municipal Construction
Division. Washington, D.C.
268. Fritz, W. R., and S. C. Helle. 1979b. Cypress Wetlands: A Natural
Tertiary Treatment Alternative. Water and Sewage Works 126(4):58-60.
269. Fritz, W. R., and S. C. Helle. 1979c. Natural Tertiary Treatment of
Secondary Effluents by Wetlands in Florida. In; J.C. Sutherland and
R.H. Kadlec (eds.), Wetland Utilization for Management of Community
Wastewater. Abstracts of a conference held 10-12 July 1979 at Higgins
Lake, MI.
In Florida, two forms of cypress wetlands are found to be suitable for
tertiary treatment. Cypress domes are relatively small (1-25 acres) wood-
ed ponds which collect runoff from surrounding higher grounds and allow it
to percolate slowly into underlying soils and groundwaters. A strand is a
diffuse freshwater stream flowing through a shallow cypress forested
depression on a gently sloping plain.
The Center for Wetlands1 research has demonstrated that cypress domes
offer a viable tertiary treatment alternative for many potential users. A
demonstration project using cypress domes attained 98% total nitrogen and
97% total phosphorus removal. The concentrations of the nutrients, coli-
forms, viruses, heavy metals and other monitored parameters in the ground-
waters remained virtually unchanged from background levels. However, an
investigation by Boyle Engineering Corporation also revealed that these
ponding and percolation wetland systems are limited by their physical size
and availability.
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A survey of nearly one-half the wastewater treatment facilities in
Florida showed that while only 3% of the state's wastewater effluent had
the potential of being treated with cypress domes, over 28% of the efflu-
ent had the potential of being treated with cypress strands and other
flow-through forested wetlands. Thus, it becomes apparent that flow-
through systems offer more promise for use and should be investigated
further.
Two and one-half years of research and testing (to quantify design
parameters) will be conducted in conjunction with the Center for Wetlands
at two wetland sites near Jasper and Waldo, Florida. In both instances,
municipal treatment plants discharge secondary effluents into wetlands.
A number of water quality and vegetation response parameters are being
monitored and analyzed at several locations within the study and control
areas. Among the water quality parameters being studied are nutrients,
heavy metals, and coliform bacteria. Vegetation analyses will include
determination of tree growth rates, litterfall rates and study of succes-
sional changes occurring in the vegetation. Very early results indicate
that phosphorus is not removed from the wastewater as rapidly as nitrogen
and thus may be the controlling factor. (AA)
270. Fritz, W. R., and S. C. Helle. 1980a. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewater
Using Flow-Through Wetland Systems, Status Report 3. Boyle Engineer-
ing Corp., Orlando, FL. 79 pp.
The monitoring operations and a water budget analysis of a
flow-through wetland system for wastewater treatment near Jasper, FL,
named Basin Swamp are evaluated. The purpose of the monitoring program
is to identify the effects of wastewater on the swamp as well as the
effects of the swamp on wastewater effluent. In addition, points where
the magnitude of these effects diminish to background levels are being
identified. An effort is being made to determine which effects are
acceptable to the wetland environment and public health. Monitoring of
surface and subsurface waters included studying water chemistry, nutri-
ents, heavy metals, vegetation, and coliform bacteria. Preliminary
results show: 1) a reduction of total nitrogen to near background levels?
2) a reduction of phosphorus levels; 3) that the application of effluent
to cypress strand may be harmful to trees; 4) that the total and fecal
coliform levels appear to be readily reduced; 5) that nutrients and
coliform bacteria penetrate shallow groundwater levels; and 6) that no
significant amounts of heavy metals are being applied to Basin Swamp. To
supplement various monitoring programs, a water budget analysis was
refined and updated to include data collected from weekly monitoring
operations. Results significantly improved the accuracy of the water
budget analysis. (NT)
271. Fritz, W. R., and S. C. Helle. 1980b. Tertiary Treatment of Wastewater
Using Flow Through Wetland Systems, Status Rept. 2. Boyle Engineering
Corp., Orlando, FL. 115 pp.
Recent research has demonstrated that certain types of wetlands can
provide tertiary treatment for effluents from secondary wastewater treat-
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ment facilities. To identify and quantify design parameters for imple-
menting such systems, a study is being conducted at a north Florida site
near Jasper. This report describes the development of the monitoring
system and its preliminary mapping. It presents a brief history of the
project, the study approach, the research plan, preliminary results, and
recommendations for monitoring future periods. Reports for each of five
monitoring programs are included in the appendices: water chemistry;
bacterial sampling; vegetation distribution in West Swamp; and an analy-
sis of cypress tree growth rate. The appendices also include research on
a water budget study, development of a water budget model, instructions
for a water monitoring program, and output from a water budget program.
Findings indicate that nitrogen appears to be removed to below AWT levels
with a loading rate of about 100 acres per mgd. Phosphorus is not
removed as readily. Applying raw and/or primary effluent to a cypress
stand appears to be harmful to the trees whereas applying secondary
effluent appears to be beneficial. (NT)
272. Frook, D. S. 1974. Clarification of Sewage Treatment Plant Effluent
with Daphnia pulex. Master's Thesis. Univ. of Toledo. OH.
273. Frykberg, W. R., C. J. Goodnight, and P. G. Meier. 1975. Limnological
Investigation of the Muskegon County, Michigan, Wastewater Storage
Lagoons. Phase 1. EPA/600/3-75-009. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Interim Rept.
The limnology of two 850 acre wastewater storage lagoons was inves-
tigated from September 1973, shortly after the initial filling, through
August 1974. Special emphasis was placed upon the biological aspects of
these lagoons. During the period of study, the East Lagoon received most
of the wastewater, while the West Lagoon received mostly land drainage
and seepage water. Due to these different waters in each lagoon, dif-
ferences in most of the parameters were apparent between the two lagoons.
Chironomid larvae comprised virtually all of a scant benthic population
in both lagoons, with different dominant genera in each body of water.
The dominant zooplankton in the East Lagoon were cyclopoid copepods, with
Cyclops yernalis the most common form, while calanoid copepods and
Daphnia were dominant in the West Lagoon. Chlorophyll a and primary
productivity were measured and numerous physical-chemical parameters were
also investigated. (NT)
274. Frykberg, W. R., C. Goodnight, and P. G. Meier. 1977. Muskegon,
Michigan Industrial-Municipal Wastewater Storage Lagoons: Biota and
Environment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Final Rept.
EPA/600/3-77-039. 89 pp.
A limnological investigation was carried out on two 344 hectare
(850 acre) industrial-municipal wastewater storage lagoons from August
1973 until August 1975. Besides monitoring physical and chemical par-
ameters during the period of the initial filling, the biological com-
-------
munity was critically examined for the purpose of documenting ecological
succession over this two year period. In general, the lagoons remained
aerobic, well mixed vertically, and slightly alkaline. The low trans-
parency within the lagoons was an important factor which limited the
phytoplankton population and excluded rooted aquatics and benthic algae.
Ample nutrients were present for algal demands. The lagoon's phyto-
plankton-protozoan assemblage was extremely variable with respect to
total abundance distribution. The zooplankton community was composed of
fourteen species of free living crustaceans and four species of rotifers<
The benthic fauna consisted of a small number of organisms representing
only a few taxonomic groups. (NT)
275. Fuller, R.J., and D.E. Glue. 1980. Sewage Works as Bird Habitats in
Britain. British Trust for Ornithology, United Kingdom. Biological
Conservation 17(3):165-182
This research report demonstrates that sewage treatment works are
essentially good bird habitats. Bird communities associated with dif-
ferent sewage disposal systems in the United Kingdom are described in
relation to the components of each system. Ornithological gains and
losses associated with recent developments in sewage treatment methods
are discussed. Modern sewage treatment works, which are smaller in area
than sewage farms, support smaller and less varied populations of wetland
species. However, modern sewage treatment works can be important bird
habitats, particularly as feeding sites for several passerine species.
Systems with percolating filters and tertiary treatment by surface irri-
gation will support the most varied bird communities. (EPA)
276. Fuller, R.J. and D.E. Glue, 1981. The Impact on Bird Communities of the
Modernization of Sewage Treatment Works. Effluent and Water Treatment
Journal 21(1):27-31.
The main ornithological characteristics of the obsolete sewage farms in
Great Britain are described, and the ornithological potential of modern
sewage works is discussed. Sewage treatment systems in Great Britain have
provided some of the most spectacular examples of birds utilizing human
artifacts.
277. Gallagher, J. L. 1978. Decomposition Processes: Summary and Recommen-
dations, pp. 145-151. In R. E. Good, D. F. Whigham, and R. L.
Simpson (eds.), Freshwater Wetlands: Ecological Processes and Manage-
ment Potential. Academic Press, Inc., New York, NY.
278. Gallagher, J. L., and H. U. Kibby. 1980. Marsh Plants as Vectors in
Trace Metal Transport in Oregon Tidal Marshes. Am. J. of Bot. 67(7):
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279. Gambrell, R.P. 1977. Transportation of Heavy Metals and Plant Nutrients
in Dredged Internal Sediments as Affected by Oxidation Reduction Poten-
tial pH; Volume II, Materials and Methods/Results and Discussion.
Contract Rept. D-77-4.
280. Gambrell, R. P., V. R. Collard, C. N. Reddy, and W. H. Patrick, Jr.
1977. Trace and Toxic Metal Uptake by Marsh Plants as Affected by Eh,
pH, and Salinity. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment
Station, Dredged Material Research Program Technical Rept. D-77-40.
A laboratory study was conducted to develop and refine methods for
growing marsh plants under conditions of controlled pH, redox potential
(oxidation-reduction conditions) and salinity as well as to determine the
effects of these physiochemical conditions in the rooting medium on trace
and toxic metal availability to plants. Reasonably successful methods
were developed for growing marsh plants in the experimental systems. The
successful methods as well as procedures which were not successful are
discussed as are techniques for overcoming many of the experimental
difficulties.
In laboratory studies using soil suspensions, Distichlis spicata (L.)
Greene, Spartina alternifIqra Loisel, and Spartina cynpsuroides (L. ) Roth
were grown in soil suspensions in which treatments included oxidized and
reduced conditions at two pH levels and two salinity levels. The effect
of these soil physiochemical conditions on plant content of mercury,
lead, cadmium, copper, iron, and manganese was studied. Lead and cadmium
uptake by Oryza sativa L. was also studied, but over a range of four soil
pH levels and six redox (oxidation-reduction) potential conditions.
Greenhouse studies were conducted using Distichlis spicata, Spartina.
alterniflora, and Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. in which oxidation-reduc-
tion conditions were controlled in unstirred soil material. The plant
content of the trace metals studied in the greenhouse generally supported
results of laboratory studies where soil suspensions were used as the
rooting medium.
In laboratory studies using labeled mercury, the content of this metal
in marsh plants tended to be enhanced by decreases in salinity and in-
creases in pH.
Although results with lead were inconclusive in laboratory studies,
lead uptake by lowland rice was enhanced as the soil became more acid.
In greenhouse studies, an increase in soil oxidation-reduction conditions
increased plant lead content, but this was attributed to a redox poten-
tial mediated effect on soil pH.
Plant cadmium content responded more to a change in the physiochemical
environment of the rooting medium than did other metals studied. The
cadmium content of above ground tissue was consistently and substantially
increased with an increase in oxidation conditions in all species in both
laboratory and greenhouse studies. Maximum cadmium content occurred
under acid, oxidizing conditions except for one species in which an
oxidized, weakly alkaline environment favored increased cadmium content.
The effects of physiochemical conditions on the zinc content of plants
grown in the greenhouse were studied where the zinc content was found to
increase with increasing oxidation conditions.
There was little effect of either pH or oxidation-reduction conditions
on the copper content of the species studied.
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Two extractants were used on the soil suspensions following harvest to
determine the linear relationships between chemical availability and plant
content of metals in laboratory studies. Of the metals studied, cadmium
generally gave the best linear association between measured uptake and
chemical availability, although there were important species differences.
Based on the results of this research, it was concluded that soil and
sediment physiochemical conditions do affect the plant availability of
trace and toxic metals, and it was recommended that these effects should
be considered in selecting environmentally sound disposal methods for
contaminated dredged sediments. (AA)
281. Garbisch, E. W., Jr. 1977. Recent and Planned Marsh Establishment Work
Throughout the Contiguous United States - A Survey and Basic Guide-
lines, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station,
Technical Kept. D-77-3. Vicksburg, MS.
282. Garbisch, E. W., Jr. 1978. Wetland Rehabilitation, pp. 217-219. In J.
H. Montanari, and J. A. Kusler (eds.), Proceedings of the National
Wetland Protection Symposium held 6-8 June 1977 at Reston, Virginia.
FWS/OBS-78/97. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
283. Gaudet, J.J. 1978. Effect of a Tropical Swamp on Water Quality. Verhand-
lungen Internationale Veremiging Fur Theoretische und Unvewandte
Limnologie, (20(4):2202-2206
A papyrus swamp may be effective in removal of organic nutrients from
sewage effluents directed into these swamps, but will have little effect
on the salt content of the effluent if the discharge is at a high rate.
Water samples collected from a floating papyrus swamp show a decrease
in major ions on the swamp bottom during the period August-December. Papy-
rus takes up and accumulates considerable amounts of the major ions.
284. Gearheart, R. A., and B. A. Finney. 1981. Use of Vascular Plants for
Treatment and Reclamation of Oxidation Pond Effluent and Non-Point
Source Pollution Loads. Presented at the Water Reuse Symposium II.
Washington, DC. August 23-28, 1981.
The City of Arcata is presently funding an alternative wastewater
pilot project by the State Water Resources Control Board, which will 1)
evaluate the feasibility of using secondarily treated wastewater to
enhance the productivity of a freshwater marsh, and 2) to test the
effectiveness of marshes to reliably treat stabilization pond effluent to
tertiary standards. Twelve 0.11 acre (22 feet by 200 feet) experimental
marshes have been operated with varying flow rates, types and density of
vegetation, and depth of flow. The experimental design requires testing
and evaluation of the optimum aquatic composition, water level control,
hydraulic toading rate, organic and nutrient loading rates, and manage-
ment practices for use as a wastewater reclamation process. Nutrients
such as ammonia nitrogen, Kjeldahl nitrogen, nitrates, nitrites, and
-------
phosphate forms as well as other water quality parameters such as BOD,
COD, total and fecal coiiform, and fecal streptococcus. A balance of the
bio-mass production and its associated nitrogen content will be made. A
thorough sampling program of the aquatic plants, including roots and
rhizomes, phytoplankton, zooplankton, heavy metals, pH, temperature, and
specific conductivity have been monitored on a regular basis.
The City of Arcata has also constructed three marshes, adjacent to the
existing wastewater treatment facility, totaling 35 acres, and a 17-acre
recreational lake all connected in series with hydraulic alternatives to
isolate any one of the three marshes from the total system. The water
source for this study area will be obtained from James Creek and from a
well on site for use during dry periods. One of the water quality
objectives of this project is to reduce the non-point source load to
Humboldt Bay by processing the runoff through wetland systems. This
project, referred to as the City of Arcata's Coastal Conservancy Marsh
Enhancement Project, involves the restoration and enhancement of 35 acres
of freshwater marsh and conversion of a sterile catch basin and a
closed-out sanitary landfill into a recreational lake would restore
approximately seventeen acres to a productive aquatic habitat and the
landfill conversion, once implemented, would add ten acres to the entire
project.
The marsh system and recreational lake are designed as a series of
units so that continuous and uninterrupted productivity of the aquatic
systems will be possible at all times. The input flow to the Marsh
Enhancement Project will be from James Creek watershed (combined agri-
cultural and urban non-point sources of pollution) during the wet months
of the year and from a well with relatively high water quality during the
dry months of the year where low flow augmentation precludes taking water
from James Creek. (AA)
285. Gee & Jenson Engineers, 1980. Water Hyacinth Wastewater Treatment
Design Manual. NASA/National Space Technology Laboratories. NSTL
Station, Mississippi.
This handbook on wastewater treatment with water hyacinths has been
prepared with two objectives in mind. The primary objective is tp present
practical procedures necessary to plan, design and construct a wastewater
treatment system utilizing water hyacinths. Laboratory and field-scale
investigations have repeatedly demonstrated that wastewater treatment with
water hyacinths can be a viable, cost-effective alternative to convention-
al treatment schemes. The state-of-the-art has reached a level where
existing data can be used to develop reliable design requirements and pro-
cedures, as presented in this manual.
A secondary objective is to provide a reference on water hyacinths that
can be used by engineers, designers, researchers, city officials, utility
personnel, public regulatory agencies and others involved in wastewater
treatment systems. A concise summary of past research is presented so
interested individuals can locate information pertaining to their needs.
(AA).
286. George, D.B. , 1981. Lagoons and Oxidation Ponds. J. Water Pollut. Cont.
Fed. (Literature Review Issue), 53(6):709-711.
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A literature review is presented of publications on lagoons and oxida-
tion ponds published in 1980. Articles fall into the general categories
of process performance and biology, upgrading of lagoons/ and process
models. Connecticut published standards on lagoon systems for the dis-
posal of septage. Several studies dealt with the Dan Region Project, which
is the largest and most advanced water reuse scheme in Israel which util-
izes oxidation ponds. A study on stabilization ponds in Peru examined the
use of treated wastewater for agricultural purposes. More stringent
wastewater treatment plant discharge standards resulted in several studies
on upgrading existing lagoons. An in situ method is alum addition,
another study investigated water hyacinth, and another evaluated the cul-
turing of fathead minnows. Process models included a biogeochemical model
developed to describe the dynamic responses of carbon, nitrogen, phosphor-
us, and pathogenic contaminants in facultative wastewater stabilization
ponds.
287. Giblin, A. E., A. Bourg, I. Valiela, and J. M. Teal. 1980. Uptake and
Losses of Heavy Metals in Sewage Sludge by a New England Salt Marsh.
Am. J. Bot. 67(7):1059-1068.
As part of an investigation on the potential of salt marshes to act as
natural waste treatment systems, the cycling of heavy metals in Great
Sippewissett Marsh, MA, was studied. For the last 7 yrs. , varying doses
of fertilizer containing sewage sludge were added to experimental plots.
Changes in metal levels in the sediment, grasses, and animals were
monitored. Marsh sediments retained 20-35% Cd, 20-50% Cr, 60-100% Cu,
55-100% Pb, 80-100% Fe, 55-60% Mn and 20-45% of the Zn added in the fer-
tilizer. When compared with low marsh, high marsh areas retained a
significantly greater fraction of all the added metals except Mn. In the
treated plots the dominant grasses, Spartina. alterniflora and IS. patens,
contained elevated levels of Cd, Cr, Cu and Zn. Recent Spartina litter
contained elevated levels of Fe, Cu, Cr, and Pb and reduced levels of Cd.
The mussell Modiqlus demissus exhibited significantly elevated levels of
Cd, Cr and Cu and reduced levels of Pb compared to control animals. The
fiddler crab Uca pugnax showed significantly higher levels of Cd, Cu, and
Mn. (BA)
288. Giesecke, F. E., and P. Zeller. 1939. Treatment of Settled Sewage in
Lakes. Bulletin 47, Agricultural and Mechanical College, Texas ASM
Univ. College Station.
289. Gloyna, E. F., J. F. Malina, Jr., and E. M. Davis. 1976. Ponds as a
Wastewater Treatment Alternative. Water Resources Symp. #9. Center
for Water Research, College of Engineering, Univ. of Texas, Austin.
447 pp.
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290. Goldman, J. C. 1979. Outdoor Algal Mass Cultures. I. Applications.
Water Research 13(1):1-19.
Giving a bibliography of 111 references, the author reviews work on
the mass culture of algae, with particular reference to the relative
merits of existing and new applications, including production of
single-cell protein, aquaculture, sewage treatment, and water renovation.
(AL)
291. Goldman, J. C. et al. 1974. Inorganic Nitrogen Removal in a Combined
Tertiary Treatment-marine Aquaculture System I. Removal Efficiencies.
Water Res. 8:45-54.
292. Goldman, J. C., and J. H. Ryther. 1975. Nutrient Transformations in
Mass Cultures of Marine Algae. J. Env. Eng. Div., ASCE 101:351-364.
Results from the continuous operation of 2 algal growth ponds con-
taining mixtures of secondary sewage effluent and sea water, over a
period of 24 weeks, demonstrated the feasibility of this method for
nutrient removal from wastewater and/or food production for aquaculture
of shellfish. Nitrogen removal was highly dependent on operating con-
ditions and graphs show the effects of dilution rate and nitrogen loading
on nitrogen removal and algal growth. Removal of nitrogen, through
evolution of ammonia at the high pH values attained in the ponds, was
enhanced by maintaining ammonium nitrogen as the dominant form in the
sewage effluent. Algal yields of 6 g of particulate carbon/m2/day we
obtained. A bibliography of 22 references is appended. (AL)
293. Goldman, J. C., and J. H. Ryther. 1976a. Development of a Waste Re-
cycling Marine Aquaculture System. In J. Tourbier and R. W. Pierson
(eds.), Biological Control of Water Pollution. The University Press,
Philadelphia, PA.
294. Goldman, J. C., and J. H. Ryther. 1976b. Waste Reclamation in an
Integrated Food Chain System, pp. 197-214. In J. Tourbier and R. W. re
Pierson (eds.), Biological Control of Water Pollution. Univ. of
Pennsylvania. Philadelphia.
295. Goldman, J. C., K. R. Tenore, J.H. Ryther, and N. Corwin. 1974. Inor-
ganic Nitrogen Removal in a Combined Tertiary Treatment Marine Aqua-
culture System. I. Removal Efficiencies. Water Resources 8:45-54.
The increasing awareness that nitrogen is often a key nutrient control-
ling algal growth in coastal maring waters has led to a concerted effort
to find ways to remove ammonia and nitrate from wastewaters. A novel
-------
approach to this problem involves the combining of algal and seaweed
nutrient stripping processes with a marine aquaculture. Not only is
nitrogen removed from wastewater, but important commercial shellfish and
seaweeds are produced.
A prototype process consisting of growth systems for marine algae, oys-
ters, and seaweed, joined in series was fed secondarily treated
wastewater, diluted 1:4 with seawater for 11 weeks during the Summer of
1972. During this time 95 percent of the influent inorganic nitrogen was
removed by algal assimilation. The oysters in turn removed 85 percent of
the algae, but regenerated as soluble ammonia 16-18 percent of the nitro-
gen originally bound in the algal cells. All of the regenerated nitrogen
was removed in the seaweed system so that the total inorganic nitrogen
removal efficiency of the system was 95 percent. Phosphorus removal on
the other hand, was not nearly as complete as only 45-60 percent was
removed.
The process has the capability of being expanded to include additional
trophic levels in an integrated and highly controlled food chain system to
serve the dual function of tertiary wastewater treatment and waste recycl-
ing through the production of shellfish and seaweeds. (AA)
296. Goldman, J. C., K. R. Tenore, and H. I. Stanley. 1974. Inorganic
Nitrogen Removal in a Combined Tertiary Treatment - Marine Aquaculture
System. II. Algal Bio-assays. Water Res. 8:55-59.
Algal bio-assays of samples from the mariculture sewage treatment sys-
tem showed that seawater dilutions of sewage effluent from which nitrogen
had been removed, supported no more algal growth than sea water alone.
Samples from the oyster culture tank contained regenerated nitrogen and
showed increased algal growth potential, but assays of the effluent from
the seaweed growth stage confirmed that this regenerated nitrogen had been
removed.
297. Golueke, C.G. 1979. Aquaculture in Resource Recovery. Compost Science/
Land Utilization, 20(3):16-23.
298. Golueke, C. G., and L. F. Diaz. 1981. Operating a Solar Aquaculture
Sewage Treatment Plant. Biocycle 22(1):38-39.
Hercules, CA, is a rapidly growing community with a rapidly growing
sewage treatment problem. In an experiment that could have important
implications for the future of sewage treatment in Hercules and other
growing communities, about 25-50% of the city's wastewater is currently
diverted to a solar aquaculture facility, where water hyacinths and other
biological agents stabilize the dissolved and suspended solids in waste-
water. Principle elements of the facility are a primary tank, an
aeration basin, and a water hyacinth lagoon. Problems that have
developed during five months of operation are discussed. (EL)
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299. Golueke, C. G., and W. J. Oswald. 1965. Harvesting and Processing Sew-
age-grown Planktonic Algae. J. of Water Pollu. Control Fed. 37:471-99.
The great unit savings which would result from the production and
separation of algae in large plants should encourage neighboring communi-
ties to merge their sewage flows and pump the material to areas of inex-
pensive level land. Here, large, skillfully managed systems could be used
for converting waste nutrients to algae at low unit costs.
The entire question resolves itself to a final one of whether or not
there is a durable and lucrative market for sewage-grown algae. Should
such a market exist, communities which are forced by rigid water pollu-
tion control requirements to undertake tertiary treatment could ill-
afford to overlook algae production as an early and ultimate step in their
waste disposal systems. (AA).
300. Good, R. E., D. F. Whigham, and R. L. Simpson (eds.). 1978. Freshwater
Wetlands: Ecological Processes and Management Potential. Academic
Press, New York, NY. 378 pp.
Proceedings of the symposium, "Freshwater Marshes: Present Status,
Future Needs," held in February 1977 at Rutgers University, New
Brunswick, NJ. Contains six articles on primary production processes,
five on decomposition processes, six on nutrient dynamics, and six on
management potential.
301. Gordon, M.S., and D.J. Chapman. 1979. Aquaculture Approaches to Waste-
water Nutrient Recycling. Technical Completion Report. Office of
Water Research and Technology, Washington, DC. 79 pp.
Five years of laboratory scale studies were conducted to assess the
potential of wastewater aquaculture as a means of 1) developing a basis
for a freshwater aquaculture industry in the U.S., 2) producing salable
foods or other commodities to improve waste treatment plant economics,
3) reducing agricultural energy costs by eliminating fertilization needs,
and 4) improving the quality of waste treatment plant discharges. Sequen-
tial monocultures of wastewater based food chains were investigated using
algae, crustaceans, and fishes. All wastewater used for the studies
was fully secondarily treated, chlorinated, and dechlorinated. Results
show that the use of artificial food chains for tertiary wastewater
treatment is feasible for the reduction of nutrient loading and for the
production of valuable protein sources. (NT)
1072. Gosselink, J.G. and L. Gosselink. In press.
302. Gosselink, J. G., E. P. Odum, and R. M. Pope. 1974. The Values of the
Tidal Marsh. Sea Grant Publ. LSU-SG-74-03. Center for Wetland Re-
sources, Louisiana State Univ., Baton Rouge. 30 pp.
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303. Goulden, C. E. 1976. Biological Species Interaction and Their Signi-
ficance in Waste Stabilization Lagoons. In Ponds as a Wastewater
Treatment Alternative. Water Resources Symp. #9. Center for Water
Research, College of Engineering, Univ. of Texas. Austin.
304. Goulder, R., A. S. Blanchard, P. L. Sanderson, and B. Wright. 1980.
Relationships Between Heterotrophic Bacteria and Pollution in an
Industrialized Estuary. Water Research 14(6):591-602.
The effects of industrial effluents and bacterial populations in the
estuary near Humber, England, were studied. In general, growth of
bacteria in the estuary corresponded to the amount of organic pollution
in the water; no widespread inhibition of growth due to industrial wastes
was found. At effluent discharge sites of a metal refinery, however,
heavy metal concentrations affected bacterial growth adversely. (EL)
305. Goyal, S. M., and C. P. Gerba. 1979. Comparative Adsorption of Human
Entero-viruses, Simian rotarirus, and Selected Bacteriophages to
Soils. Applied Environmental Microbiology 38:
Virus adsorption to soils is considered to be the most important factor
in removing viruses after land treatment of wastewater. Most of the stud-
ies on virus adsorption to soils have utilized poliovirus as the model
system. In the present study, comparative adsorption of a number of dif-
ferent types and strains of human enteroviruses and bacteriophages to nine
different soil types was studied. Under the experimental conditions of
this study, greater than 90% of all viruses adsorbed to a sandy loam soil
except echovirus types 1, 12, and 29 and a Simian rotavirus (SA-11), which
adsorbed to a considerably lower degree. A great deal of variability was
observed between adsorption of different strains of echovirus type 1,
indicating that viral adsorption of soils is highly strain dependent. Of
the five phages studied, f2 and 0X174 adsorbed the least. In addition to
being dependent on type and strain of virus, adsorption was found to be
influenced also by type of soil. Thus, soils having a saturated pH of
less than 5 were generally good adsorbers. From these results, it appears
that no one enterovirus or coliphage can be used as the sole model for
determining the adsorptive behavior of viruses to soils and that
no single soil can be used as the model for determining viral adsorptive
capacity of all soil types. (AA)
306. Graetz, D. 1976. Dynamics of Sediments in the Cypress Domes. In H. T.
Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress
Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling, and Conservation. Third
Annual Report. Center for Wetlands. Univ. of Florida. Gainesville.
307. Graetz, D. A. 1980. Denitrification in Wetlands as a Means of Water
Quality Improvement. Rept. No. 48. Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.
75 pp.
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308. Graetz, D. A.., P. A. Krottje, N. L. Erickson, J. G. A. Fiskell, and D. F.
Rothwell. 1980. Denitrification in Wetlands as a Means of Water
Quality Improvement. Publication 48. Water Resources Research
Center, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville. 86 pp.
The feasibility of using natural wetlands to remove nitrogen via
denitrification from secondarily treated municipal sewage effluent was
studied. Nitrification and denitrification rates were measured in simu-
lated marsh ecosystems, i.e., soilrwater columns containing approximate-
ly 30 cm of marsh soil and either 15 or 30 cm of overlying water (secon-
darily treated sewage effluent). Nitrification was apparently rate
limiting when nitrogen was supplied in the form of ammonium. Therefore,
efficiency of nitrogen removal would be increased by allowing the nitrogen
in wastewater to nitrify prior to entering the marsh. First-order denit-
rification was observed in soil:water columns. Average nitrate removal
rates, assuming a floodwater nitrate concentration of 10 mg N liter"^,
were 1.2 kg N ha~1 without plants and 2.0 kg N ha"1day"1 with plants.
Denitrification potentials of Florida wetland soils were determined
using 15 soils with a wide range of texture, organic matter content, and
soil reaction (pH). Denitrification followed apparent first-order
kinetics, with rate constants varying from 0.040 day"1 to 0.192 day"1.
Nitrate removal rates, assuming a 10 mg N liter"1 floodwater nitrate con-
centration, ranged from 0.6 to 2.9 kg N ha~1day~1. Denitrification rate
was significantly correlated with soil organic content and with soil pH.
Nitrous oxide accounted for from less than 0.2 to 6.5% of nitrate con-
sumed.
The experimental data obtained in this work indicate that many Florida
wetlands could function as efficient treatment systems for nitrate-bearing
wastewater and drainage water. Soils high in organic matter with a pH
range of 5 to 7 would provide the most rapid removal rates. (AA)
309. Graetz, D.A, and J. Struble. 1975. Rates of Sedimentation: Sediments as
a Nutrients Sink in Cypress Domes, pp. 561-563. In; H.T. Odum, K.C.
Ewel, J.W. Ordway, and M.K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Waste
Management, Recycling, and Conservation. Third Annual Report. Center
for Wetlands. Univ. of Florida. Gainesville.
310. Grant, R. R., Jr., and R. Patrick. 1970. Tinicum Marsh as a Water
Purifier, pp. 105-123. In J. McCormick, R. R. Grant, and R. Patrick
(eds.). Two Studies of Tinicum Marsh, Delaware and Philadelphia
Counties, Pennsylvania. The Conservation Foundation, Washington, DC.
The general health of a marsh receiving water from a creek polluted by
municipal sewage was studied in an attempt to assess the effectiveness of
marshes in improving water quality. Results indicated that marsh vegeta-
tion and algae help reoxygenate water, reduce nitrates and phosphates, and
generally enhance water quality.
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311. Grasso, S. V. 1979. An Analysis of the Factors Affecting the Distribu-
tion of Heavy Metals in a Tidal Estuary. Ph.D. Diss. Rutgers Univ.,
New Brunswick, NJ. 288 pp.
312. Greenwald, C. M. 1981. Prediction of Songbird Responses to Habitat
Alteration Resulting from Wastewater Irrigation. School of Forest
Resources. Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park. 81 pp.
In an effort to predict songbird responses to habitat changes result-
ing from year-round spray irrigation of chlorinated municipal wastewater,
relationships between habitat features and attributes of songbird popula-
tions and communities were studied on Penn State's Wastewater Renovation
Facility. Habitat types in the study area ranged from shrubby old fields
to mixed-oak forest. Songbirds were censused at 30 randomly chosen
points four times between June 1979 and May 1980. Principal components
analysis of the habitat measurements resulted in a reduction of the 34
original variables to nine habitat components. Multiple regression of
avian community parameters in each season on the habitat components
produced ten signficiant equations; fall and winter N could not be pre-
dicted.
313. Greer, D. E., and C. D. Ziebell. 1972. Biological Removal of Phosphates
from Water. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 44:2342-2348.
Various organisms were tested for their ability to remove the ortho-
phosphate ion from solution. A system incorporating natural algal succes-
sions and beds of the oriental clam Corbicula fluminea Muller was the most
effective of the systems tested. Experiments were conducted under con-
trolled conditions at concentrations of 5.0, 10.0, and 15.0 mg/1 PO3.
Results indicated that this system can remove the PO3 ion to below 0.10
mg/1 in 16 days or less and yield a clear effluent. (AA)
314. Greeson, P.E., J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark (eds.). 1979. Wetland Functions
and Values: The State of Our Understanding, Proceedings of the National
Symposium on Wetlands, Lake Buena Vista, Florida. Amer. Water Resour.
Tech. Publ. TPS 79-2. Minneapolis, MN. 674 pp.
315. Greij, E. D. 1976. The Effects of a Marsh on Water Quality. Project
Completion Report. Michigan Inst. of Water Res., Michigan State Uni.
Lansing.
1073. Grimes, D. In press.
316. Gross, F., and G. Ryvarden. 1981. Effluent Treatment Systems Requiring
No External Chemicals or Energy Supply for Use in Protected Groundwater
Zones in the Chalk Uplands. Model Studies. Gas, Wasster, Warme,
(Austria) 35(2):49-52.
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Problems of sewage disposal in mountain refuges in protected areas
used for groundwater supply are considered. Experiments are described in
which a rudimentary biological filter was connected in series with a
number of shallow containers forming a cascade system for aquaculture of
phytoplankton and higher forms of plant life. The containers were
arranged so that they experienced direct sunlight, and the system was fed
with effluent from a septic tank. Progressive elimination of dissolved
organic matter and ammonia occurred with a steady decrease of coliform
counts through the action of the algae and the sedge grass in the basins;
the possibility that antiobiotics are released by these grasses is con-
sidered to merit further study. By using a sufficient number of basins
in series, effluent approaching the quality of raw water sources for
potable supplies should be obtained. Methods of composting the sludge
from the septic tank in a mixture with straw and quicklime were also
tentatively investigated. (AL)
317. Guntenspergen, G., and F. Stearns. 1979. Ecology of an Ombrotrophic Bog in
Northern Wisconsin. Bull. Eco. Soc. of Americal 60:135.
This study was designed to provide background information on plant nutri-
ent content, primary productivity and biomass in an ombrotrophic bog. Such
basic knowledge is lacking for ombrotrophic peatlands in North America. Our
work concentrated on the herb and shurb layers and is part of a larger re-
search effort investigating the biological and physiochemical nature of this
community.
The study site is located in northeastern Wisconsin thirty miles south of
Lake Superior in Bayfield County. The area is physiographically complex
with calcareous maraines and wet depressions creating a diverse landscape.
Drummond bog is a 22 acre perched bog system isolated from the influence of
the regional ground water table. The mean pH is 4.5. Runoff from the up-
land is collected in the moat or lag zone around the bog.
318. Guntenspergen, G., W. Kappel, and F. Stearns. 1980. Response of a Bog to
Application of Lagoon Sewage: The Drummond Project - An Operational
Trial. Presented at the 6th International Peat Congress. Duluth, MN.
Aug. 17-23. 8 pp. plus attachments.
The town of Drummond, in northwestern Wisconsin, completed a three-
lagoon, secondary sewage treatment system in 1978. To avoid discharging
the effluent into a Class 1-A trout stream, the U.S. Forest Service sug-
gested a tertiary treatment alternative where the lagoon effluent passes
through a 10 ha. bog.
Pretreatment data on water quality of the bog outflow, and productivity
and nutrient content of the bog vegetation is typical for bogs of this
type. Wastewater from the lagoons was applied to the bog during the 1979
growing season. Preliminary water quality analysis indicates that the bog
is assimilating the nutrients in the effluent although the total loadings
were relatively small. Plant tissue nutrient concentrations changed less
than those in the surface horizons of the past.
Parameters other than nutrient immobilization require attention before
the widespread use of such systems becomes common. The long term response
of peatland ecosystems to sewage effluent disposal must be assessed. (AA)
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319. Guntenspergen, G., and F. Stearns. 1981. Ecological Limitations on Wet-
land Use for Wastewater Treatment, pp. 273-284. In; B. Richardson
(ed.), Selected Proceedings of the Midwest Conference on Wetland Values
and Management. Minnesota Water Planning Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
Wetland use for tertiary treatment of sewage effluent is gaining wide-
spread attention partly for economic reasons and partly because wetlands
are presumed to absorb nutrients and retain them. At one time, surface
waters were assumed to have an infinite capacity to absorb nutrients.
The ecological consequences of that assumption were streams and lakes rich
in phosphorus and nitrogen filled with blue green algae and nuisance
plants; a condition called cultural eutrophication. Conventional sewage
treatment is effective in removing organic material but not nutrients.
Advanced wastewater treatment removes nutrients, but its cost is often
prohibitive for small communities. These small communities need alterna-
tive techniques to treat their sewage and meet water quality standards.
What happens when nutrients are transferred from an effluent flow to a
wetland? The ultimate result is still difficult to predict; we have an
imprecise understanding of nutrient cycling at the ecosystem level.
Traditionally the environment is viewed as an enormous sink and the
usefulness of an ecosystem is measured by the amount of human waste it
can absorb. Freshwater wetlands have long been thought to improve the
quality of waters flowing through them. It was inevitable that these
systems would be perceived as being capable of treating wastewater.
Two lines of inquiry are needed to evaluate this wetland alternative
for waste disposal. First, we must determine the ability of wetland
ecosystems to accommodate nutrient inputs, i.e., the effectiveness of the
process. Second, we must examine the ecological consequences — i.e., the
wetland community response to large nutrient inputs.
1074. Guntenspergen, G.R. and F. Stearns. In press.
320. Gupta, G.C., 1980. Use of Water Hyacinths in Wastewater Treatment. Jour-
nal of Environmental Health. 43(2):80-82
A literature review is presented on the use of water hyacinths in
sewage and wastewater treatment. Water hyacinths have been effective in
removing algae, fecal coliforms, suspended particles, trace toxic metals,
organics, and many other dissolved impurities from wastewater. Water hya-
cinths are classified as an aquatic pest, but culturing hyacinths in a
sewage lagoon system can reduce 8005 up to 95%, total suspended solids
up to 90%,, and also reduce nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy metals, and pesti-
cides. Biological, chemical, and physical factors combine to remove con-
tamination. Five and one-tenth acres of water hyacinths are needed for 1
mgd throughout to remove 80% of the nitrogen and 44% of the phosphorus.
Hyacinths are effective and cheap where land is available and inexpensive.
321. Gupta, P.K. 1977. Dynamic Optimization Applied to Systems with Periodic
Disturbances. Ph.D. Dissertation Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
322. Haag, R.D., Jr. 1979. The Hydrogeology of the Houghton Wetland. Ph.D.
Dissertation University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
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323. Hagarty, E. P. 1978. Wastewater Disposal on Wetlands. North Carolina.
Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, Division of
Environmental Management. Raleigh, NC, 18 pp.
This report contains an overview of some of the wetland treatment
system projects in the United States and the advantages, disadvantages,
and uncertainties of such techniques as part of an analysis of the poten-
tial for the use of this type of treatment system in the coastal areas of
North Carolina. The author recommends establishing a pilot study in
North Carolina and identifies the general types of wetlands found there*
(EPA)
324. Haines, E.B., 1974. Growth Dynamics of Cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora
Loisel on Control and Sewage Sludge Fertilized Plots in a Georgia Salt
Marsh. Estuaries 2(1):50-53.
Seasonal plant growth dynamics were followed for a year in undisturbed
plots of tall and short form Spartina alterniflora and in plots of short
form S_. alterniflpra which were enriched with sewage sludge. Monthly de-
terminations of above ground live and dead biomass, density of live stems,
the ratio of number of young shoots to total number of shoots, and below
ground mass of macro-organic matter to a depth of 30 cm were made for each
area. Sludge fertilization increased the live biomass of the short form
S_. alterniflora by up to 150% of the control live biomass, but had little
effect on the dead biomass, stem density, or proportion of young shoots.
There was a trend of increased amount of below ground macroorganic matter
in fertilized compared to control plots during the last 6 months of the
study. In all areas, there was a marked decrease in the proportion of
young shoots from winter to early summer, followed by a rapid increase in
the percent of young shoots from late summer to fall. Sampling of plots
7 and 20 months after termination of sludge enrichment showed higher plant
biomass and % N content in surface soils, but no difference in N content
or live plant tissue, in fertilized compared to unfertilized marsh. After
20 months, about half of the sludge nitrogen remaining in the soils of the
fertilized plots had disappeared.
325. Haines, E. 1980. Salt Marsh Creation: Impact of Sewage. In: J.C. Lewis
and E.W. Bruce (eds.), Rehabilitation and Creation of Selected Coastal
Habitats: Proceedings of a workshop. (Rept. No. 80/27). Office of Bio-
logical Services. U.S. Pish and Wildlife Service.
A study of the capacity of a Spartina salt marsh to assimilate nitrogen
from sewage was carried out in Georgia. Focus has been on the basic
nitrogen cycle as well as the impact of applying sewage sludge to the
marsh; specifically what happens to the nitrogen in the sludge.
Coastal urban areas have found disposing of raw sewage in coastal wet-
lands inexpensive and convenient. The increasing BOD has already resulted
in deterioration of water quality in some northern estuaries. The pro-
cesses in the estuaries tend to keep materials that come into estuaries
within the estuary. Major components of sewage are plant nutrients, heavy
metals, chemicals, pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons, and pathogenic
-------
microorganisms. Evaluation of sewage impact is based on 1) accumulation
of substances, 2) stimulation of biological processes, and 3) inhibition
of microbial processes.
Salt marshes are not effective for secondary sewage treatment. However,
estuaries may be efficient at tertiary treatment.
326. Hall, F., R. Rutherford, and G. Byers. 1972. The Influence of a New Eng-
land Wetland on Water Quantity and Quality. Research Report No. 4.
Water Resources Research Center. Univ. of New Hampshire, Durham, H.H.
327. Hallock, R.J., and C.D. Ziegell. 1970. Feasibility of a Sport Fishery in
Tertiary Treated Wastewater. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 42:1656-1665.
The objective of this study was to test the feasibility of developing a
sport fishery in tertiary treated domestic wastewater. Fish tested were
channel cat fish, Ictalurus punctatus, rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri, and
Malacea Tilapia hybrids. Less than 1 percent survival occurred in five
trout experiments and in one catfish experiment. An important cause of
death was low oxygen sunrise tensions. This seemed to be a result of
respiration by dense phytoplankton blooms, which were stimulated in part
by high (14 mg/1) average inflow orthophosphate concentrations, and oxy-
gen reduction through bacterial respiration. When fish survived, produc-
tion was high. The highest combined yield of locally acceptable channel
catfish and Tilapia from one pond was 697 Ib/acre (779 kg/ha), a yield
much greater than that from natural waters. Chironomus larvae, the
predominant food organism, comprised 90 percent of the estimated annual
benthic production of 12.680 Ib/yr/acre (14,180 kg/yr/ha). Phytoplankton
productivity averaged 10.2 g O2/day/cu m. These tertiary treated
waters, although highly productive, need more stable oxygen conditions to
establish dependable fishery. (AA).
328. Hamdy, M. K. 1977. Biochemical Transformation and Detoxification of
Mercury in Aquatic Environments. Rept. No. B-069-GA. Environmental
Research Center. Georgia Institute of Technology. Atlanta. 85 pp.
329. Hammer, D. E., and R. H. Kadlec. [No date.] Wetland Utilization for
Management of Community Wastewater - Concepts and Operations in
Michigan. Industrial Development Division, Institute of Science and
Technology, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 28 pp.
This booklet contains a summary of the results of the operation of
four wetland irrigation systems in Michigan (Bellaire, Houghton Lake,
Kinross, and Vermontvi1le). Basic concepts of the processes that use
wetlands for advanced wastewater treatment are explained in easily under-
standable terms and diagrams. Implementation factors such as economics,
site selection, design criteria, and monitoring procedures are discussed.
(EPA)
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330. Hammer, D. E., and R. H. Kadlec. 1980. Orthophosphate Adsorption on
Peat Presented at the 6th International Peat Congress. Duluth, MN,
Aug. 17-23, 1980. 19 pp.
331. Hammer, D.E., and R.H. Kadlec. 1982. (Preliminary Draft). Design Princi-
ples for Wetland Treatment Systems. Work conducted under cooperative
agreement between U.S. EPA, Robert S. Kerr Laboratory, Office of Re-
search and Development, Ada OK, and the University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, MI.
1075. Hammer, D.E. and R.H. Kadlec. 1983.
1076. Hammer, D.E. et al. 1983.
332. Handley, L. L. Effluent Irrigation of a Tropical Wetland Forage Grass in
Hawaii. Presented at the Water Reuse Symposium II. Washington, DC.
August 23-28, 1981.
California grass (Brachiaria mutica Forsk.) Stapf (Panicum purpuras
cens Raddi) irrigated with domestic sewage effluent shows
excellent results as a means for water use, nitrogen removal and high
productivity of medium grade fodder. This grass tolerates prolonged
flooding and has a high transpiration rate. It has a broad geographic
potential for use, as its range includes a large portion of the tropics
and sub-tropics. In Hawaii it is used both as a pasturage for cattle and
horses and for fodder for dairy cattle. The grass is allelopathic and
forms a dense, easily maintained monoculture which is tolerant to C1~ and
Na+.
California grass in eight percolate-style lysimeters was irrigated
with sewage effluent, varying the volume and concentration of effluent.
Irrigation water, soil percolate, and plant tissues were analyzed for
nitrate/nitrite-nitrogen and ammonia plus organic nitrogen. Soil was
analyzed for ammonia and mineralizable nitrogen. A water budget was kept
and a mass balance for nitrogen and water was calculated.
At the highest irrigation levels (89 mm/week) percolate NO~3-nitro-
gen did not exceed 10 ppm, nor did nitrate-nitrogen accumulate to toxic
levels in the grass.
Plant productivity was up to 156 mT/ha/year, dry weight. Irrigation of
more than 76 mm/week decreased productivity slightly. Growth was also
slightly depressed during lower winter temperatures.
Water use, as evapotranspiration, was about half of that of an adjacent
Class A pan. Heavy irrigation and large water use are advantages in
Hawaii where human population is dense and land is expensive and scarce.
(AA)
333. Hanes, N. B., L. C. Brown, M. S. Bartlett, and N. H. Nickerson. 1979.
Denitrification in Freshwater Wetland Soil. J. Env. Qual. 8(4):
460-464.
The application of secondary-treated wastewater to freshwater wetlands
as a method of tertiary treatment has been studied. Nitrate removal in
wetland soil-water suspensions was studied using a Warburg respirometer.
All important pathways of nitrate reduction were accounted for using a
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nitrogen mass balance. Results show that 90 to 95% of the nitrate added
to wetland soil-water suspensions is reduced to nitrogenous gasses, with
little or no transfer of nitrate to ammonia nitrogen or organic nitrogen
fractions. (AL)
334. Hansen, R. J., and J. W. DeWitt. 1967. A Study of Some Physical and
Chemical Environmental Features of a Large Sewage Oxidation Pond.
Part I. Final Report Humboldt State College, Arcata, CA. 133 pp.
The specific objective of this study was to gain background informa-
tion concerning certain chemical and physical features of the Arcata, CA,
sewage oxidation pond in order to assess waste treatment performance of
the pond relative to future operational changes. Secondary objectives of
the study were to evaluate present waste treatment performance of the
Arcata pond and to determine its ability to support fish life. (NT)
335. Hanseter, R. 1975. Recovery, Productivity and Phosphorus Content of
Selected Marsh Plants After Repeated Cuttings. Master's Thesis, Univ.
Wisconsin, Oshkosh. 81 pp.
336. Hanson, R.B. 1977. Nitrogen Fixation (Acetylene Reduction) in a Salt Marsh
Amended with Sewage Sludge and Organic Carbon and Nitrogen Compounds.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology 33(4):846-852.
Results of a 12-month study on nitrogen fixation in a sewage sludge-
amended Spartina alterniflpra salt marsh were reported. Four 100-meter
plots were used, two of these treated with sludge to the equivalent of 4
grams of nitrogen per square meter. The effects of nutrient amendment
were also studied on similar plots, divided into 10 treatment areas. Half
of these areas were clipped of S. alterniflpra and enclosed in lawn
edging to prevent lateral root movement. Clipped and undipped plots were
injected with glucose, ammonium nitrate, a combination of the two, rho-
damine WD, and distilled water as a control. The acetylene reduction
method was used to measure nitrogen fixation. No significant difference
was found between the sludge-amended plots and the controls. Apparently
sludge enhanced rhizosphere nitrogen fixation in the soil through stimula-
tion of Spartina production. Other processes, however, such as denitrifi-
cation, may be inhibited by sludge treatment. In the clipped and undipped
plots, nitrogen fixation was significantly lower in the clipped plots due
to the lack of carbon input via the roots. Nitrogen fixation in the
ammonium nitrate-enriched undipped plot was increased, indicating that
increased Spartina production from nitrogen addition out-weighed the
inhibitory effect of inorganic nitrogen on nitrogen fixation. Glucose
addition inhibited nitrogen fixation in the soil, perhaps due to its stim-
ulation of microbial activity.
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337. Hantzche, N.N. 1983. Wetland Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Engineer-
ing Applications (draft manuscript). In; Ecological Considerations in
Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings of a Workshop
23-25 June 1982, University of Massachusetts, Amherst MA. US Fish and
Wildlife Service and US Environmental Protection Agency.
338. Harding, J.P.C., and B.A. Whitton. 1978. Zinc, Cadmium, and Lead in
Water, Sediments, and Submerged Plants of the Derwent Reservoir,
Northern England. Wat. Res. 12:307-316.
A partial budget is presented of the zinc, cadmium and lead entering
the Derwent Reservoir. The mean levels in the water column upstream of
the site of inflow are Zn. 0.216 mg/1; Cd. 0.003 mg/1; Pb. 0.065 mg/1;
levels after passage through the 4.1 km^ reservoir fall by: Zn. 70.3%;
Cd. 98.3%; Pb. 89.2%. Most of these metals are deposited in sediments,
the mean values for which are; Zn. 1035 micrograms/gram; Cd. 13 micro-
grams/gram; Pb. 827 micrograms/gram. Lead, a higher percentage of which
occurs as particulate material, is deposited more rapidly than zinc; this
effect is especially obvious when streaming of cold water along the bottom
of the reservoir takes place at the time of floods. Macroscopic plants
are only occasional in this reservoir, due perhaps in part to heavy metal
toxicity. Of the two most common submerged species, Nitella flexilis
probably accumulates almost all of its metal content directly from the
water, but the data suggests that sediments are a source of some of the
heavy metals accumulated by Glyceria fluitans. (AA).
339. Harlin, M.M., 1981. Nitrate Uptake by Enteromqrgha spp. (Chlorophyceae):
Applications to Aquaculture Systems. Aquaculture. 15(4):373-376.
Enteromorpha linza. and E. intestinalis removed nitrates from a sea
water test medium at rates considerably higher than those measured for
other seaweeds. At 15 C these algae showed a V-max of 129 micro mol/h/g
dry weight and a Ks of 17 micro M. At similar temperature and irradiance,
Vmax and Ks for nitrates in Enteromprpha species are twice that of Codium
fragile. In aguaculture systems where the objective is to strip nitrates
from sea water, nitrate-rich water may be pulsed through tanks of Entero-
mprpha species during the day. Night feeding of Chondrus crispus culture
tanks would capitalize upon the difference in nitrate uptake strategies
between these two algae minimizing uptake by the Enteromprpha. This paper
investigates three parameters that regulate nitrate uptake for Enteromgr-
pjhia linza and E. intestinalis; temperature, lights, and substrate concen-
trations. At five C nitrate uptake was 19% of that measured at 15 C and
at 0 C nitrate uptake was not detected. In darkness, nitrate uptake was
reduced 35% in the first hour, 10% in the second hour. After standing in
nitrate-depleted sea water, algae scavenged nitrate at concentrations 0.5
micro M and no nitrate leaked from the tissue into nitrate-free water.
Nitrate uptake increased with increasing substrate concentrations.
340. Harmston, F.C., and L.J. Ogden. 1976. Mosquito Problems Associated with
Man-made Impoundments in Western and Mid-western United States.
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341. Harris, S.W. , and W.H. Marshall. 1963. Ecology of Water-level Manipula-
tions on a Northern Marsh. Ecology 44(2):331-343.
A study of vegetarian changes associated with marsh drawdowns at
Agassiz National Wildlife Refuge, Minnesota, revealed that the development
of five types of vegetation on mud flats during the first year was influ-
enced by seed availability, soil type and moisture, season and duration of
drawdown, and the amount of stranded algal debris. The more an area com-
bined early season drawdown, rich soil types, slow rates of mud flat
drainage, and small amounts of stranded algae, the greater was the devel-
opment of emergent aquatics.
In the second year of drawdowns, most areas developed greater amounts
of upland and shoreline weeds and fewer emergents. Areas originally
exposed before August of the first year lost emergent cover during the
second year, while the reverse was true of areas exposed later in the
first year. Specific changes were influenced by density and comosition of
residual vegetation, soil types, and soil moisture. During longer draw-
downs the soil dried more completely, and over a 5-year period nearly
solid stands of willow developed.
Upon reflooding, mud flat and shoreline annuals were eliminated and
marshes of cattails, soft-stem bulrush, sedges, spike-rush, willows, and
aquatic annuals developed in the first year. Specific development in sub-
sequent years was determined by the nature of the residual vegetarian and
the depth of the restored water. (AA).
342. Barter, R.D. 1966. The Effect of Water Levels on Soil Chemistry and Plant
Growth of the Magee Marsh Wildlife Area. Ohio Game Mono. No. 2. Ohio
Div. of Wildlife, Columbus. 36 pp.
343. Hartland-Rowe, R. C. B., and P. B. Wright. 1974a. Effects of Sewage
Effluent on a Swampland Stream, pp. 1575-1584. In V. Sladecek (ed.),
Proceedings of the International Association of Theoretical and
Applied Limnology (Verb. Int. Ver. Limnol).
Wastewater was introduced into a riverine wetland near Hay River,
Northwest Territories, Canada. A variety of water quality parameters
were studied. Dramatic improvements were shown observed for many par-
ameters, including total phosphorus and suspended solids. (EP)
344. Hartland-Rowe, R. C. B., and P. B. Wright. 1974b. Swamplands for Sewage
Effluents. Final Report. Prepared for the Environmental-Social
Program, Northern Pipelines, of the Task Force on Northern Oil Devel-
opment. Information Canada. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 137 pp.
This is the final report of the two-year study described in Hart-
land-Rowe and Wright (1974a). The creek flows intermittently into Great
Slave Lake and broadens in a number of locations into pools bordered with
Carex. Some standing crop measurements and phosphate analyses of
sediment cores and root masses were made in addition to the primary
research on water quality. (EP)
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345. Harvey, R. M., and J. L. Fox. 1973. Nutrient Removal Using Lemna minor.
J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 45(9):1927-1938.
Wastewater nutrient removal capabilities and economic resource poten-
tial of Lemna minor are investigated and discussed. L. minor was selected
over Wqffia Columbiana and Salvinia rotundifIpra as the priincipal subject
of the investigation because it was the only one of the three species
screened that was both easy to harvest and has a high forage potential.
Lemna removed substantial quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus from sec-
ondary effluent under batch laboratory conditions. Dried Lemna plants
contained 4.59% nitrogen and 0.80% phosphorus. Lemna was found to double
its area every 4 days and is as good or better than common pasture grass
as a cattle feed based on digestability testing. Furthermore, harvesting
costs are low because of its small size and free floating nature. (AA)
346. Haughey, A. W. V. 1968. The Planktonic Algae of Auckland Sewage Treat-
ment Ponds. New Zealand J. of Marine and Fresh Water Resources 2:
721-766.
347. Haughey, A. W. V. 1969. Further Planktonic Algae of Auckland Sewage
Treatment Ponds. New Zealand J. of Marine and Freshwater Resources
3:245-261.
348. Haung, C. P., H. A. Elliott, and R. Ashmead. 1977. Interfacial Re-
actions and the Fate of Heavy Metals in Soil-water System. J. Water
Pollut. Control Fed. 49:745-756.
The fate of heavy metals in soil-water systems is primarily controlled
by the congruent-incongruent solubility of the carbonates, oxides, sul-
fates, and sulfides of metals and by the adsorptions of free and complexed
metals at solids-solution interface. The presence of organic substances
modifies the overall interfacial reactions. Adsorption of copper, zinc,
lead, and cadmium increased abruptly at a give pH when the free metal ion-
ic species dominates the system. At low pH, lead and cadmium were nega-
tively adsorbed, which results in an excess of lead and cadmium ions in
the bulk solution phase. Copper and zinc were always adsorbed by all four
solids (SiO2, AL2C>3, Evesboro, and Metapeak) investigated. In a
neutral to acidic environment, the adsorption reaction appears to be the
most important process in controlling the chemical makeup of the soil
water system. (AA)
349. Have, M. R. 1973. Effects of Migratory Waterfowl on Water Quality at
the Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge, Senec County, New York. J.
Research 1(6).
Studies were conducted in response to shellfish industry's concern
that bacteria effluent from northeastern wildlife refuges were adversely
-------
affecting shellfish. Results showed that the net effect of the refuge is
to improve the quality of the water which flows through it.
350. Heimburg, K.F. 1976a. Hydrology of Some North-Central Florida Cypress
Domes. Master's Thesis, Department of Environmental Engineering
Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville. 115 pp.
351. Heimburg, K.F. 1976b. Hydrology and Water Budgets of Cypress Domes,
pp. 56-67. In H. T. Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K. Johnson
(eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling and Conser-
vation. Third Annual Report. Center for Wetlands, Univ. of Florida,
Gainesville.
Intensive hydrological measurements in two cypress domes near Gaines-
ville, FL, were conducted between 30 May 1975 and 30 April 1976. This
report is a summation of findings detailed in Heimburg (1976a).
352. Heimburg, K. 1977. Use of Florida Cypress Domes as Tertiary Treatment
Facilities, pp. 165-177. In C. B. DeWitt and E. Soloway (eds.),
Wetlands Ecology, Values, and Impacts. Proceedings of the Waubesa
Conference on Wetlands held at Madison, Wisconsin, 2-5 June 1977.
Institute for Environmental Studies, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison.
Cypress domes can function as tertiary treatment facilities. Long
range questions about the accumulation of nutrients in the sediments and
the importance of any virus that may escape to the water table aquifer do
remain, however.
Because the wastewater load is limited by wet seasons to something
under an inch per week it seems that this treatment alternative would be
most attractive in small scale applications, such as the trailer park
that produces the effluent used in the experiment. In addition, small
developments like this are least likely to be able to afford tertiary
treatment. Ordway (1976) has made cost estimates for this disposal tech-
nique that show it to be competitive, even considering land and piping
costs, factors not usually considered in treatment cost estimates. Boyle
Engineering, Inc., of Orlando is currently involved in a study comparing
the cypress dome treatment method with others with which they have exten-
sive experience.
Although the final word will not be in for some time, tertiary treat-
ment via cypress swamps does look like a technically and economically
feasible way to meet 1983 water quality standards while helping to
recharge deeper aquifers. (AA).
353. Heimbuch, D. G., S. Perretta, and J. G. Nickum. 1978. Cultured Daphnids
as a Biological Wastewater Treatment System for Oxidation Pond Effluent
Clarification. Tech. Completion Rept. Office of Water Research and
Technology, Washington, D.C. 68 pp.
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The technical feasibility of culturing Daphnia magna in flowing water
and their function as biological filters for removing algae from the
effluent of simulated oxidation ponds was demonstrated. Greatest daily
increases in daphnid population biomass in 5.5 liter culture vessels were
observed in populations receiving flows of low algal concentration
(3 mg/1) and high flow rate (240 ml/min). The maximum four day average
increase for three replicate populations of that treatment was 136 mg
(dry weight)/liter/day. Water leaving the culturing vessels of the
3 mg/1 x 240 ml/min treatment had significantly lower concentrations of
total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and volatile suspended solids than
water entering the vessels; however, control vessels with no daphnid
populations achieved similar reductions in total nitrogen and total
phosphorus. Concentrations of volatile suspended solids were reduced
significantly in vessels containing daphnids in comparison to control
vessels. Concentrations of ammonia nitrogen and ortho-phosphate in-
creased significantly in passing through culture vessels containing
daphnid populations. (NT)
354. Heinz, G. 1979. MethyImercury: Reprbductive and Behavioral Effects on
Three Generations of Mallard Ducks. Journal of Wildlife Management
43:394-401.
355. Hejkal, T.W. 1978. The Importance of Viruses Associated with Solids in
Water. Ph.D. Thesis Florida State University.
1077. Heliotis, F.D. 1981.
356. Heliotis, F.D. 1982. Wetland Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Operating
Mechanisms and Implications for Design. Instructional Program,
Institute for Environmental Studies; University of Wisconsin-Madison.
IBS Report No. 117. 68 pp.
1078. Heliotis, F.D. and C.B. Dewitt. 1983.
357. Helz, G. R., J. M. Hill, and R. J. Huggett. 1975. Behavior of Mn, Fe,
Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb Discharged From a Wastewater Treatment Plant into
an Estuarine Environment. Water Research 9(7):631-636.
Studies have been carried out on the Back River, MD, a small estuary
tributary to the Chesapeake Bay which receives effluent from the prin-
cipal sewage works of Baltimore, to obtain information on the fate of
trace metals discharged to the estuarine environment. Except possibly
for Mn and Fe, the decrease in metal concentration within 2-3 km of the
outfall is much greater than can be ascribed to simple dilution, and the
metals must be removed to the sediments. However, after the initial
decrease, concentrations of Mn and Cd in the water begin to increase
again, suggesting remobilization from the sediment. Of the metals
studied, Cd poses the greatest risk because its input from sewage probably
exceeds fluvial input, it appears to be readily remobilized from
sediments, and it is known to be toxic to many organisms. (AL)
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358. Hemond, H., and W. Nuttle. 1983. Significance of Hydrology to Wetland
Nutrient Processing (draft document). In; Ecological Considerations in
Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings of a Work-
shop, 23-25 June 1982, University of Massachusetts, Amherst MA. U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
359. Henderson, C., Q. H. Pickering, and J. M. Cohen. 1959. The Toxicity of
Synthetic Detergents and Soaps to Fish. Sewage and Industrial Wastes
31:295-306.
360. Henderson, S. 1977. An Evaluation of Filter-feeding Fishes for Water
Quality Improvement. Arkansas Game and Fish Comm., Little Rock, AR
361. Henderson, S. 1979. Utilization of Silver and Bighead Carp for Water
Quality Improvement, pp. 309-317. In R. K. Bastian and S. C. Reed
(eds.), Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Pro-
ceedings and Engineering Assessment. U.S. Enviromental Protection
Agency, Office of Water Program Operations, Municipal Construction
Division. Washington, DC. EPA 430/9-80-006.
Filter feeding fishes, the silver carp, Hypopthalmichthyes mplitrix and
bighead carp, Aristichthyes mobilis, were stocked in an existing lagoon
treatment system in 1975-76 for a preliminary evaluation of the effect of
the fish on water quality and the potential of this nutrient source for
fish production. Positive results have led to an ongoing Environmental
Protection Agency funded study of the efficacy of finfish as a treatment
method in a full scale, six cell (24 acre) treatment facility at Benton,
Arkansas.
Information concerning water quality improvement, fish production,
product utilization and some design considerations are presented. The
promising results, design adaptability, and pay back possibilities make
this an attractive, innovative alternative. (AA).
362. Henderson, U. B., and F. S. Wert. 1978. Feed Fish Effluent and Reel in
Savings. Water and Wastes Engineering 15(6):38-39 and 43-44.
The cost-effectiveness of aquaculture is compared with that of more
conventional sewage-treatment methods. Fifteen technically feasible
strategies appropriate for an influent flow of 200,000 gal per day, and
consisting of various combinations of activates-sludge process, bio-
logical filters, and waste-stabilization lagoons with aquaculture race-
ways and aquaculture fish lagoons were selected for comparison. The
results are tabulated and indicate that aquaculture wastewater treatments
are viable systems, though further scientific documentation of removal
efficiencies is needed. (AL)
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363. Henderson, U. B., and F. S. Wert. 1976. Economic Assessment of Waste-
water Aquaculture Treatment Systems. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Research and Development. EPA 600/2-76-293.
120 pp.
This study attempted to ascertain the economic viability of aquaculture
as an alternative to conventional wastewater treatment systems for small
municipalities in the Southwestern region of the United States. A
multiple water quality objective level cost-effectiveness model was
employed. A total of fifteen wastewater treatment strategies, eleven with
aquaculture systems and four without aquaculture, were examined.
Estimates were made of the technical effectiveness and the present value
of costs for all strategies. Estimates of the current value of revenues
derived from sale of products produced in the aquaculture systems were
made, and the impact of such revenues on total costs was analyzed. In
all cases, when aquaculture was deemed capable of c.chieving a given water
quality objective, the aquaculture system compared to a conventional
system was cost-effective. The cost differentials between aquaculture and
conventional strategies were highly significant ranging from a low 3.8% to
a high of 94%. While certain data limitations exist, especially in the
area of water quality estimates, aquaculture systems appear to be low cost
alternatives to conventional wastewater treatment systems. (AA)
364. Hendricks, D. W., W. D. Pote, and J. G. Andrew. 1970. A Thermodynamic
Analysis of a Primary Waste Stabilization Pond. Utah Water Research
Lab. Logan, UT. 72 pp.
A 97.5 acre oxidation pond with an average depth of 1 1/2 to 1 2/3
meters, in operation since 1967, was sampled in September 1969 and in
June 1970. The primary objective was to quantitate the actual energy
trade-off, in terms of algae produced vs. amount of waste degraded, for
oxidation ponds. The results defined respectively: the calculated
absolute lower limit of daily algal synthesis necessary for production of
the stoichiometric oxygen to satisfy the daily influent BOD requirement/-
measured daily synthesis rate of algae to compare with the daily influent
TOC, under conditions of maximum sunshine in the annual cycle; and the
calculated absolute upper limit of daily algal synthesis, through the
annual cycle, if all usable solar energy were utilized. (NT)
365. Henley, D.A. 1978. An Investigation of Proposed Effluent Discharge into
a Tropical Mangrove Estuary, pp. 43-64. In; Water Pollution Control
in Developing Counties. Proceedings of the International Conference,
Bangkok, Thailand. February, 1978.
Described are environmental studies carried out to determine the likely
effects of effluent discharge into a mangrove-fringed estuary at Darwin in
northern Australia. The oceanographic studies are described together with
the statistical method used to calculate likely buildup of pollutants
within the estuary. Studies of the nutrient status of the mangrove, in-
cluding their sediments, are also described. They were used to assist in
determining likely effects on the mangroves of an increase in nutrient. It
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was concluded that effluent from a primary-secondary lagoon system could
safely be discharged within the mangrove areas with no detrimental effect.
366. Hermann, A.J. 1980. Nitrogen Cycling in a Freshwater Marsh Receiving Sec-
ondary Sewage Effluent. Master's Thesis. Department of Environmental
Engineering Sciences. Univ. of Florida, Gainesville. 301 pp.
367. Hermann, A., J. Zoltek, S. E. Bayley, and T. Dolan. 1979. Nutrient
Budget in a Fluctuating Freshwater Marsh System in Florida. In J. C.
Sutherland and R. H. Kadlec (eds.), Wetland Utilization for Management
of Community Wastewater. Abstracts of a conference held 10-12 July
1979 at Higgins Lake, MI.
The effect of secondarily treated municipal sewage effluent on the
nitrogen and phosphorus budgets of a central Flordia freshwater marsh was
evaluated. Four 2000 m2 experimental plots were constructed in the
marsh. Three of the plots received effluent at controlled rates of 1.3,
3.8, and 10.2 cm/wk, respectively. A fourth control plot received muni-
cipal freshwater at a controlled rate of 3.8 cm/wk.
Effluent and freshwater were applied to the respective plots over a
24-hour period once each week. Fiberglass walls were placed around the
perimeter of each plot to a depth of 0.5 m in the peat substrate to retain
applied water. Screened wells were installed to the bottom (1.5 m) of the
peat substrate in the northwest corner of each plot for water quality
sampling.
Effluent and all well samples were analyzed for nitrate nitrogen,
nittrate nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, total Kjehldahl nitrogen, orthophos-
phorus, and total phosphorus. Aboveground vegetation, root, and peat
samples were analyzed for total nitrogen and total phosphorus content.
368. Hess, A.D., F.C. Harmston, and R.O. Hayes. 1970. Mosquito and Arbivorus
Disease Problems of Irrigated Areas in North America, pp. 443-459. In;
Critical Reviews in Environmental Controls (November).
369. Hickey, L.S. and P.C. Reist. 1975a. Health Significance of Airborne
Microorganisms From Wastewater Treatment Processes. Part I. Summary
of Investigations. J. Water Pollut. Cont. Fed. 47(12):2741-2757, 1975.
Published field measurements and related investigations of viable bac-
terial aerosols generated from wastewater are summarized in detail. Bac-
terial aerosols of up to 1,170 viable particles/cu ft (41,785.71/cu m) of
ambient air have been recovered near aerated wastewater sources. These
aerosols persist in much lower concentrations [about 5 viable particles/
cu ft (178.57 cu m)] several hundred yards downwind. Interference from
other aerosol sources generally is not controlled in samples taken at
great downwind distances from the presumed source. Pathogenic genera and
species of bacteria are identified frequently from recovered particles in
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the human respirable size range. Limited data indicate virulence reten-
tion by some organisms. Investigators generally infer a respiratory
disease hazard from experimental results. Viable aerosols from land
application of wastewater have not been examined adequately in the field.
However, health hazards attributed to aerosols from this source have also
been postulated. Aerated wastewater also generates protein-bearing par-
ticulate aerosols with suggested allergenic significance. No evidence of
health effects in exposed groups attributable to viable aerosols has been
reported, the single applicable health survey being inconclusive.
370. Hickey, L.S. and P.C. Reist. 1975b. Health Significance of Airborne
Microorganisms From Wastewater Treatment Processes. Part II. Health
Significance and Alternatives for Actin. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed.
47(12):2758-2773, 1975.
The air transport route for viable bacterial aerosols from aerated
wastewater to residential areas has been demonstrated by field studies.
Land application of wastewater by spraying is postulated to have a much
higher potential for production of viable aerosols than conventional aera-
tion. Various field sampling protocols yield similar results, but samp-
lers capable of providing particle size characteristics and volumetric
concentrations of viable aerosols are preferred in field studies. Viable
particles recovered range in diameter from 2 to 10 microns and are predom-
inantly in the human respirable size range. Wind speed and die-off from
evaporative stress influence viable aerosol dispersion and survival.
Selective aerosolization and survival of particular bacterial species
reflect the need to develop a valid index agent for monitoring viable
aerosols. Some evidence supports the existence of a health hazard from
viable wastewater aerosols. However, lack of evidence of actual disease
transmission by these aerosols divides professional opinion on the
question. Examination of susceptible exposed groups is indicated. (AA).
371. Hickok, E.A. 1979. Wetlands and Organic Soils for the Control of Urban
Stormwater. In; Lake Restoration, EPA Report No. 440/5-79-001.
A seven-acre wetland in the Minnehaha Creek Watershed District,
Minnesota, was studied during 1974 through 1975 to determine its effect on
stormwater runs. Influent and effluent water sources and amounts were
monitored to develop water and nutrient balances. Instrumentation used
includes 5 parshall flumes, 13 polyvinyl chloride observation wells, and
a complete weather observation station. Physical entrapment, microbial
utilization, plant uptake, and adsorption were all found to be active
mechanisms in the wetland system. The phosphorus adsorptive capacity of
the area indicated that the organic soils of the watershed contain between
5 and 17 times the amount of phosphorus expected. Application of study
results led to the development of five projects: (1) extensive environ-
mental planning and construction was done for the building of a new shop-
ping center in the study area; (2) a biologically activated soil filtra-
tion unit was constructed to filter phosphorus from the hypolimnion water
of Wirth Lake in Minneapolis; (3) an oil retention basin, a six-acre
wetland treatment area, and a filter dyke for drawdown were developed for
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a watershed at the Minneapolis St. Paul airport; (4) a marsh is being
utilized by Annandale, Minnesota, to treat combined urban runoff and
treated wastewater; and (5) organic soils and wetlands are being used for
the Long Lake Restoration Project.
372. Hickok, E.A., Hannaman, M.C. and N.C. Wenck, 1977. Urban Runoff Treatment
Methods. Vol. I. Non-Structural Wetland Treatment. Hickok (Eugene A.)
and Associates, Wayzata, MN. NTIS No. PB-278 172. EPA Rpt. No. 600/2-
77-217. 131 p.
The detrimental effects of stormwater runoff in the Minnehaha Creek
Watershed District in Minnesota, leading to reduced water quality in Lake
Minnetonka, may be alleviated by utilization to adjacent wetlands. The
non-structural use of wetlands for the retention of phosphorus and sus-
pended solids from urban runoff has been demonstrated as a feasible means
of controlling runoff and water quality; the renovation of the stormwater
runoff in the wetland occurred by a combination of physical entrapment,
microbial transformation, and biological utilization. The wetlands stud-
ied has a phosphorus retention capacity about 5.5 times that of soil and
retained 77% of all phosphorus and 94% of the total suspended solids
entering the site. The physical entrapment of contaminants was attributed
to the fine texture of the wetland soil, which is also responsible for re-
ducing the velocity of the groundwater movement. The non-structural use
of the wetland for controlling urban runoff had no apparent impacts on the
wildlife or vegetation in the area.
373. Higman, D., 1973. Emergent Vascular Plants of Chesapeake Bay Wetlands
pp. C72-C80. In; Army Corps of Engineers, Chesapeake Bay Existing Con-
ditions Report. Appendix C., Vol. 2
Two annotated checklists have recently been compiled for vascular
plants of the Chesapeake Bay and areas potentially subject to flooding by
it (Krauus et al. 1971; Wass. 1972). The Maryland list of 421 species
covers all land areas within the high tide limits of the Bay and its trib-
utaries both in Maryland and Virginia. The Virginia Institute of Marine
Sciences (VIMS) list of 435 species is restricted to Virginia (including
the Barrier Islands of the Atlantic seashore) and the Patuxent River estu-
ary in Maryland. Both lists include the flora of salt and brackish
marshes, beaches, and freshwater swamps. The VIMS also covers ponds and
floodplains on tidal creeks and shores subject to storm wave inundation.
Each list contains many species not found in the other, so together they
probably comprise a fairly complete flora of Chesapeake Bay wetlands.
Since the distribution of many salt marsh species depends to some degree
upon salinity, engineering projects which alter the salinity of portions
of the Bay likewise alter the floristic composition of salt marshes in the
affected areas. Pollution by sewage raises the level of nutrients in salt
marshes. Wass and Wright (1969) noted that Spartina spp. grows taller and
has a darker green color than normal when sewage is present. During the
growing season, salt marshes are able to absorb some of the excess
nutrients which otherwise would create algal blooms in the estuaries.
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374. Hillman, W.S., and D.D. Culley, Jr. 1978. The Uses of Duckweed. Amer.
Scientist 66:442-451.
Duckweed is capable of removing organic and inorganic materials from
wastewater. It is particularly effective for reducing nitrogen and phos-
phorus concentrations and less effective with toxic chemicals or heavy
metals. Duckweed will tolerate micronutrients such as Cu, Zn, and B. It
will grow in the presence of high concentrations of sodium and will sur-
vive in high concentrations of potassium, phenols, or other organic sub-
stances .
The principles and observations we have presented are not new in any
fundamental sense, though they may be unfamiliar in combination. The cen-
tral concept is that of using a new crop, or group of crops, not primarily
in monoculture but in polyculture systems having several integrated func-
tions. Because it is a concept not fully at ease with more traditional
views of agriculture, aquaculture, or waste management, a good deal more
research and development is needed to apply it successfully. While the
Lemnaceae, specifically, are by no means the only plants with promise for
systems such as the dairy farm model described, their unique growth char-
acteristics and worldwide distribution offer important advantages. Current
concern with problems of the environment and limited resources should
direct attention to this and other novel approaches to managing them. (AA)
375. Hinde Engineering Co. 1979. Little Fish, Big Help in Sewage Treatment,
Farm Pond Harvest 13(1):8.
For the first time, Muskelunge, an American game fish, were raised in
a sewage treatment lagoon. The village of Dorchester, WI donated its
lagoons for the project that was supervised by the Wisconsin Department
of Natural Resources. Raising the fingerling muskies in the lagoon
produced both high quality fish and high quality effluent from the
lagoon. Minnows feed directly on natural foods in the treatment lagoons
and muskies feed on the minnows. A substantial portion of the phosphates
were removed; 5.5 mg/1 in the influent to 2.4 mg/1 in the effluent after
treatment in the fish lagoons.
376. Hodson, R. E. 1980. Microbial Degradation of Industrial Wastes Applied
to Freshwater Swamps and Marshes. Kept. No. A-082-GA. Georgia In-
stitute of Technology. Atlanta.
Methodology has been developed for assessment of the effects of or-
ganic industrial wastes on the natural geochemical activities of aquatic
microbial populations in marshes and swamps in the coastal plain of
Georgia. Wetlands are receiving increasing pollutional burdens due to
the rapid industrialization of this region. Several schemes have been
proposed for the utilization of wetland environments as natural "tertiary
treatment facilities" to detoxify the industrial effluents prior to their
introduction into larger streams and estuarine ecosystems.
1079. Hodson, E. et al. In press.
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377. Hoeppel, R. E. 1974. Nitrogen Transformations in Wetland Soils. Misc.
Paper Y-74-4. U.S. Array Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, MS. 21 pp.
Nitrogen transformation pathways are often complex in soils that are
periodically subjected to submergence. Both biochemical and chemical
mechanisms can be implicated in these transformations. Nitrate accumula-
tion in the environment has caused much conern recently due to its build-
up in animals that lack the ability to reduce it. Young infants and many
ruminant animals lack nitrate-reducing enzymes, and eventually this may
lead to respiration difficulties. However, nitrate, or intermediates
leading to its formation, must first be present in order to remove con-
siderable excesses of combined nitrogen from the soil. The report dis-
cusses these processes in wetlands. (NT)
378. Holley, E. R., Jr., and D. R. F. Harleman. 1965. Dispersion of Pol-
lutants in Estuary Type Flows. Report No. 74, T65-02. Massachusetts
Inst. of Technology. Cambridge, MA. 202 pp.
A review is given of the procedures which have been used for modeling
dispersion in estuaries. The results of this investigation may be used
to estimate the time averaged dispersion coefficient in the equation for
constant density portions of tidal estuaries. (NT)
379. Hook, J.E. and T.M. Burton. 1979. Nitrate Leaching From Sewage-irri-
Perennials as Affected by Cutting Management. J. Environ. Qual.
8:496-502.
380. Hopkins, H.P., Jr. 1981. In-situ Evaluation of the Filtering Function of
a Piedmont Creek Swamp During High and Low Flows. Rept. No. A-071-GA.
Georgia Institute of Technology. Atlanta.
381. Horsefield, D.R. 1968. Master Wastewater Collection and Treatment Plan
for Bogota, Columbia. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 40:1443-1458.
382. Hortenstine, C.C. 1976. Chemical Changes in the Soil Solution From a
Spodosol Irrigated with Secondary Treated Sewage Effluent. J. Environ.
Qual. 5:335-338.
383. Howard-Williams, C., and W. Howard-Williams. 1978. Nutrient Leaching
from the Swamp Vegetation of Lake Chilwa a Shallow African Lake.
Aquatic Botany 4(3):257-268.
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The decomposition of Typha dpmingensis Pers. was investigated in Lake
Chilwa, a shallow endorheic tropical lake. The decomposition curve
showed a typical rapid initial weight loss/ followed by a slowing down of
this process. The amounts of various elements released by the physical
leaching process during the 1st rapid weight loss period were investi-
gated experimentally. A significant proportion of the ions were released
from the dead Typha shoots on the 1st day of contact with water. During
this short period, loss by leaching amounted to: Na, 26%; K, 7.5%; Ca,
9.2%; Mg, 11.5%; P, 1.5%; and N, 0.3%. The significance of this rapid
leaching process is discussed in relation to the field conditions pre-
vailing in the Lake Chilwa swamps, and to the general applicability of
using swamps to remove nutrients from polluted waters. (BA)
384. Hruder, S.E., 1981. Water Reclamation and Reuse. J. Water Pollut.
Control Fed. (Literature Review Issue), 53(6):751-767.
A literature review is presented of publications on water reclamation
and reuse published during 1980. Several reviews of current and recent
water reclamation and reuse practices in the U.S., Japan, the Netherlands,
and South Africa became available. Papers on water reuse planning and
allocation considerations included an evaluation of a series of computer
models for water reuse planning. On the topic of agriculture and irriga-
tion, several NTIS bibliographies were published, and studies dealt with
such topics as salinity problems associated with municipal and industrial
effluent reuse. Several publications reported investigations of the long-
term effects of land irrigation with municipal wastewater. Aquaculture
and wetland systems received attention in publications including an
engineering assessment of aquaculture wastewater systems. Water reuse for
groundwater recharge was the topic of a California symposium and other
papers. The reuse of industrial water was explored for the pulp and paper
industry, the textile industry, and organic chemicals processing; petro-
leum, coal, and synthetic fuels processing; inorganic chemicals process-
ing, steel mills, metal processing and finishing, recirculating cooling
systems and power generation, and other miscellaneous processes. Domestic
reuse remained controversial, and health aspects of reclamation and reuse
were considered in papers dealing primarily with bacteria and viral patho-
gens.
385. Huggins, T. G. 1969. Production of Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)
in Tertiary Treatment Ponds. Master's Thesis. Iowa State Univ., Ames.
120 pp.
386. Huggins, T.G. 1970. Fish Production in Tertiary Ponds. Southwest Water
Works Journal 51(12):20-22.
387. Huguenin, J. E., and J. T. Kildow. 1974. Social, Political, Regulatory,
and Marketing Problems in Marine Saste-food Recycling Systems,
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pp. 344-357. In Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ada, OK.
388. Huguenin, J. E. , and J. H. Ryther. 1974. Experiences with a Marine
Aquaculture Tertiary Sewage Treatment Complex, pp. 377-386. In
Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber-Proceedings.
EPA-660/2-74-041 Environmental Technology Series. Washington, D.C.
Treated secondary sewage effluent has been shown to be a good complete
fertilizer for the growth of microscopic marine plants (phytoplankton),
which form the base of the marine food chain. From this fact emerged the
concept for a combined aquaculture-tertiary sewage treatment system.
While the optimal operating points for the two objectives of nutrient
removal and maximizing aquacultural output are not coincident, they are
close enough to make a combined system feasible. The paper outlines
briefly and discusses design problems and features of such a system. The
essence of the concept is a treated sewage-marine phytoplankton-bivalve
mollusk food chain. Data and experience notes from the Woods Hole Ocean-
ographic Institution, where such a system is presently in operation, are
included in the report. (NT)
389. Hunt, P.G. and C.R. Lee. 1976. Land Treatment of Wastewater by Overland
Flow for Improved Water Quality, pp. 151- . In; J. Tourbier and R.W.
Pierson, Jr. (eds.), Biological Control of Water Pollution. Univ. of
Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
This paper presents an overview of land treatment of wastewater, a
somewhat detailed development of the overland flow system of treatment,
which is probably the least understood mode of land treatment of waste-
water; and possible modifications of current concepts of overland flow
treatment for improved water quality.
390. Hunter, J. V., and T. A. Kotalik. 1973. Chemical and Biological Quality
of Treated Sewage Effluents, pp. 6-25. In W. E. Sopper and L. T.
Kardos (eds.), Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater and Sludge
through Forest and Cropland. Pennsyvlania State Univ. Press, Uni-
versity Park, PA.
391. Hurtubise, F.G., 1974. Problems of the Canadian North, pp. 75-84. In;
International Symposium on Wastewater Treatment in Cold Climates.
Environment Canada Economic and Technical Review Report. EPA 3-WP-74-3.
The role of the Canadian Environmental Protection Service is examined.
Projects in the Northwest Territories are outlined. These include: a
study on the use of swampland lakes for sewage treatment; the use of
vacuum and recirculating toilet units for sewage collection with subse-
quent incineration disposal; feasibility of land disposal of sewage efflu-
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ent or use as fertilizer in permafrost areas; the practicability of the
use of physical-chemical and rotating bio-disc treatment plants; the use
of lagoon systems to serve isolated institutions; and the use of plasti-
cized paperbags to replace garbage cans.
. Hyde, B.C. et al. In press.
392. Hynes, H.B.N., 1969. The Enrichment of Streams, pp. 188-196. In:
Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Corrections. Printing and
Publishing Office, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.
The term eutrophic, with its connotations of aging and evolution, can-
not be properly applied to running water. Streams change along their
length, increasing in discharge, width, depth, temperature, and transport
of suspended matter and dissolved solids. Running water tends to be more
fertile than standing water, but primary production is patchy due to tur-
bulence and washout conditions. Community respiration is greater than
photosynthesis is all but the most highly enriched streams. Input of sew-
age effluent enriches streams by increasing allochthonous organic matter
near the effluent source and by increasing the concentrations of nutrient
salts farther downstream. Additional nutrient inputs occur through
leaching of agricultural soils (Wisconsin Data—12 Ib. nitrate nitrogen
and 0.6 Ib. phosphate/square mile per day). Land clearing, channeliza-
tion and swamp drainage have converted streams into better producers.
Stream floras tend to be opportunistic species (Myriophyllum, Potamogeton,
Cladophora, Oscillatoria) which will invade newly-enriched substrates.
Production of large rivers is dominated by planktonic diatoms and roti-
fers: turbidity appears to be major limiting factor. High temperatures,
low discharges and low turbidities as found in impoundments are favorable
for the development of chlorophycean and myxophycean flora and resultant
increase of primary production.
393. Incropera, F. P., and J. F. Thomas. 1977. A Model for Oxygen and Bio-
mass Production in a Mass Algal Culture. Office of Water Research and
Technology. Purdue University, Lafayette, IN. Washington, DC.
87 pp.
The primary purpose was to develop a reliable model for predic*ving the
yield of a mass culture of unicellular algae in wastewater treatment
ponds. Such algal cultures are capable of producing a high protein food
supplement. The model developed determines both oxygen and algal biomass
production and is based upon the use of available insolation data. It
accounts for spectral effects in the photosynthetically active region, as
well as directional effects through delineation of the diffuse and
collimated components of the radiation. The effects of the air-water
interface are treated, and predictions of the radiation field within the
water are used with a representative photosynthesis model to predict the
hourly yield. Calculations have been performed for the Indianapolis, IN,
region, and comparisons with field data for similar latitudes reveal that
the model is well suited for predicting the maximum yield of mass cul-
tures. (NT)
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394. Institute of Water Pollution Control. 1977. Environmental Pollution and
Agriculture. Water Pollution Control 76(4):505-510.
Examples of pollution caused by agricultural activities and of the
effects of pollution on agriculture are presented; water-quality criteria
for spray irrigation and for livestock are given in tables. The need for
national guidelines on the use of sewage sludge in agriculture, and the
polluting effects of aquaculture (fish farming and watercress growing)
are highlighted. (AL)
395. Isirimah, N.O. and D.R. Keeney. 1973. Contribution of Developed and
Natural Marshland to Surface and Subsurface Water Quality. Tech. Rep.
73-09. Wise. Water Resources Center, Madison, WI.
396. Jacobs, S. A., and W. B. Kerfoot. 1976. Cadmium Accrual in Combined
Wastewater Treatment-Aquaculture System. Environ. Sci. Technol. 10(7):
662-667.
Trace amounts of cadmium were added to isolated links of a sewage/sea-
water-plankton-mollusc food chain in an experimental tertiary treat-
ment-aquae ulture system. Cd accumulation was studied in two types of
phytoplankton (a green platymonad and a mixture of diatoms), and in two
species of mollusc (American oyster and hard clam). Cd concentrations in
algae increased rapidly until equilibrium was reached while molluscs
showed a continuous accumulation when exposed to sea water and algae
mixtures contaminated with Cd. Investigation of the pathways of accumula-
tion in the food chain showed that although oysters and clams can absorb
Cd direct from sea water, the principal source of accumulation is the
algae. Human uptake of Cd through eating shellfish, and the rate
of accumulation by age are discussed. Recommended levels of Cd in
municipal effluent and diluent sea water used for aquaculture are cal-
culated. (AL)
397. Janota, T., and O. L. Loucks. 1975. An Analysis of the Value of Wet-
lands for Holding Inorganic Phosphorus. Univ. of Wisconsin, Center
for Biotic Systems. Madison, WI.
398. Jarman, R. 1976. Aquaculture as an Alternative Wastewater Treatment
System, pp. 215-224. In J. Tourbier and R. W. Pierson, Jr. (eds.),
Biological Control of Water Pollution. Univ. of Pennsylvania Press,
Philadelphia, PA.
399. Jenkins, S. H. 1973. Advances in Water Pollution Research. Proceedings
of the Sixth International Conference held in Jerusalem, June 18-23,
1972. Perg. Press Ltd. 895 pp.
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This book contains seventy-one of the papers presented at the 6th
conference organized by the international Association on Water Pollution
Research, together with the subsequent discussions and replies. Sections
are included on thermal pollution and oxygen transfer; trace metals in
waters; microbiology and virology of wastewater; pollution of ground
water; eutrophication and ecosystems; mathematical modelling; sewers and
stormwater; sewage treatment; industrial effluents; advanced treatment
and re-use of wastewaters; water management and water quality; and
estuarine and marine problems. Author and subject indexes are provided.
(AL)
400. Jenne, E. A., and S. N. Luoma. 1977. Forms of Trace Elements in Soils,
Sediments, and Associated Waters: An Overview of Their Determination
and Biological Availability, pp. 110-143. In H. Drucker and R. E.
Wildung (eds.), Biological Implications of Metals in the Environment.
Energy Research and Development Administration Symposium Series No. 42,
Washington, DC.
401. Jetter, W. 1974. Animal Populations at Two Cypress Domes, pp. 537-588.
In H. T. Odum, K. Ewel, and J. Ordway (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for
Water Management, Recycling, and Conservation. First Annual Report to
the National Science Foundation. Center for Wetlands, Univ. of
Florida, Gainesville.
402. Jetter, W. 1975. Effects of Treated Sewage on the Structure and Func-
tion of Cypress Dome Consumer Communities, pp. 588-610. In; H.T. Odum,
K. Ewel, and J. Ordway, and M.K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for
Water Management, Recycling and Conservation. Second Annual Report.
Center for Wetlands, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.
403. Jetter, W., and L.D. Harris. 1976. The effects of perturbation on
cypress dome animal communities, pp. 577-653. In H.T. Odum, K.C.
Ewel, J.W. Ordway, and M.K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for
Water Management, Recycling, and Conservation. Third Annual Report
to the National Science Foundation. Center for Wetlands, Univ. of
Florida, Gainesville.
Wildlife studies were conducted at three cypress domes located 8 km
northwest of Gainesville, Alachua County, FL, during 1973-1976. Arthro-
pods, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals were sampled to determine
their response to sewage treatment of the cypress domes. A chronology of
events affecting the consumer communities; the methodologies employed,
with types of sampling devices and techniques illustrated; and the results
of the study are included. Food web structures were developed for a nat-
ural dome, a dome that received secondary treated effluent, and a dome
that received effluent with a heavy organic load to show the major shifts
in the energy flow pathways. (EP)
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404. Jewell, W. J. , R. M. Kabrick, J. J. Madras, and J. R. Bouzoun. 1981.
Reclamation of Wastewater with Plants in Nutrient Films. Presented at
the Water Reuse Symposium II. Washington, DC. August 23-28, 1981.
The present directions in wastewater treatment should emphasize maxi-
mum pollution control and the recovery of nutrients with minimum capital
and energy investments. This is the first comprehensive report on a
unique plant production system, which could lead to a new solarpowered
pollution control/resource recovery system. It could serve as a major
tool in achieving high water quality and resource recovery for the
future.
The nutrient film technique (NFT) is a unique modification of a hydro-
ponic plant growth system which utilizes plants growing on an impermeable
surface. A thin film of water flowing through the extensive root system
provides plant nutrients. Exceptionally high annual plant yields, 90 tons/
ha-yr (40 tons/acre per year), and root mass up to 30 cm thick or more
have been obtained. It was hypothesized that this self-generating plant
system could be modified for use as a filter to immobilize and use the
gross and trace organics in wastewater. The goal of this study is to
determine the economic, technical, and practical feasibility of using
plants grown in the NFT system as pollution control systems.
This feasibility study has been divided into two phases-a preliminary
study to establish the potential of the system, and an additional 9-month
test phase to be completed in June 1981 , to enable additional variables
to be evaluated in longer term plant growth tests. Three parallel
testing programs were used: pure substrate definition of candidate
species culturing practices and nutrient responses, synthetic polluted
wastewater, and primary settled domestic sewage. These three substrates
allow measurements of gross pollutant removal, as well as nutrient and
trace organic removal kinetics. The three initial test systems, using a
total of nine test units, were operated at daily application rates of 2.5
to 40 cm per day, and flow rates of more than 4000 liters per day.
The successful cultural experiments have produced, from seed or
cuttings, viable stands of Reed Canary Grass, Coastal Bermuda Grass,
Watercress, Napier Grass, and Cattails in a maximum of six weeks. The
propagation of NFT Reed Canary Grass and its use in solar greenhouses
that require little, if any, energy input anywhere in the U.S. has been
successful.
At daily loading rates of 10 cm per day the effluent quality with
primary settled sewage was often less than 10 mg/1 for SS and 8005. The
influent sewage temperature was 9°C. Estimated area needs of an NFT
system designed for BOD and SS removal appear to be approximately 2
hectares per thousand cubic meters (20 acres per million gallons) of
flow, whereas up to 10 times this amount may be needed to provide ter-
tiary quality effluent. The latter portions of this study will include:
additional plant yield information, valuable by-product recovery poten-
tial (food, fiber, energy and distilled water), and full scale system
design and start-up requirements. (AA)
405. Johnson, R. R., and J. F. McCormick (eds.). 1978. Strategies for
Protection and Management of Floodplain Wetlands and Other Riparian
Ecosystems. Proceedings of the Symposium, December 11-13, Callaway
Gardens, Georgia. General Tech. Rept. WO-12. U.S. Forest Service,
Washington, DC. 410 pp.
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406. Jones, R.C. 1979. Design and Construction Aspects of the Houghton Irri-
gation Project. In; J.C. Sutherland and R.H. Kadlec (eds.), Wetland
Utilization for Management of Community Wastewater. Abstracts of a
Conference held 10-12 July 1979.
The unique feature about the Roscommon Township Treatment Facility,
which is one of several in the Houghton Lake area, is that secondary
effluent can be disposed of at that site by flood irrigation to seepage
beds, irrigation fields, or a natural wetland of 600 acres which provides
tertiary treatment.
Initial construction of wastewater facilities was begun in 1972 and all
of the above facilities except for the marshland irrigation project were
completed by 1974, however, it was anticipated previously that by 1978,
additional irrigation areas would be required. Projections made in early
1970 indicated an additional 98 million gallons of irrigation capacity per
year would be needed by 1988, and an additional 181 million gallons by
1998.
The most attractive alternative for additional irrigation areas was
using a nearby State owned swamp for tertiary treatment. The cost for
this method of providing additional irrigation area was much more attrac-
tive due to the considerable cost savings involved for purchasing of addi-
tional land and construction of the required facility.
The wetland was left in its natural state. It was decided to disperse
the effluent through gated irrigation pipe. (AA)
407. Jones, R.A. and G.F. Lee. 1978. An Approach for the Evaluation of the
Efficacy of Wetlands-Based Phosphorus Control Programs on Downstream
Water Quality, pp. 217-243. In! M.A. Drew (ed.), Environmental Quality
Through Wetlands Utilization. Coordinating Council on the Restoration
of the Kissimmee River Valley and Taylor Creek-Nubbin Slough Basin.
Tallahassee, FL. 243 pp.
The Kissimmee River Valley and Taylor Creek-Nubbin Slough Basin Restor-
ation Project has as one of its objectives a reduction of phosphorus
transport from agricultural lands to nearby water-courses. Any project of
this type with this objective should include an evaluation of the
potential impact of the nutrient control program on downstream water qual-
ity. In the past several years, significant advances have been made in
the ability to predict with a fair degree of reliability, the impact on a
water body's water quality, of the control of phosphorus input to the
waterbody by a certain amount. These predictions are based on the Vollen-
weider OECD eutrophication study modeling results where it has been found
for a wide variety of water bodies located in Western Europe, North Ameri-
ca, and Japan, that the phosphorus load to a water body normalized by its
mean depth and hydraulic residence time, can be used to predict the
average and maximum growing season chlorophyll concentrations, water clar-
ity based on Secchi depth, and hypolimnetic oxygen depletion rates.
A discussion will be presented of the use of the OECD eutrophication
study results to estimate the improvement in water quality which would be
expected to result from the construction of wetlands in the project area.
Particular attention will be given to the types of modifications of the
OECD eutrophication modeling approach that may have to be made in order to
apply this approach to the water bodies downstream from the project area.
(AA)
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408. Jones, R.D. and M.A. Hood, 1980. Effects of Temperature, pH, Salinity,
and Inorganic Nitrogen on the Rate of Ammonium Oxidation by Nitrifiers
Isolated from Wetland Environments. Microbial Ecology 6(4):339-347.
The transformation of nitrogen and its recycling are extremely import-
ant to the productivity of aquatic ecosystems. Although factors affecting
ammonium oxidation in agricultural soils and sewage have been investigated,
information on factors affecting nitrification in wetland environments is
lacking.
Ammonium-oxidizing bacteria were examined in a freshwater marsh and in
an estuarine bay over a 2-year period. Two predominant species of Nitro-
somonas were consistently isolated, one from each environment. A closed
culture, high cell density assay was used to determine the effects of
temperature, pH, salinity, sodium, potassium, nitrite, nitrate, and ammon-
ium concentrations on nitrification. Maximum oxidation of ammonium by the
freshwater isolate occurred at 35 degrees C, pH 8.5, salinities of 0.3 to
0.5 percent sodium and potassium, and ammonium concentrations exceeding
0.5 grams per liter. The estuarine isolate exhibited maximum activity at
40 degrees C, pH 8.0, salinities of 0.5 to 1.0 percent sodium and potass-
ium, and 0.2 grams of ammonium per liter. The sodium requirement of the
estuarine isolate could be partially substituted by potassium, suggesting
that the organism is a true estuarine bacterium. Salinities below 0.5
percent may severely reduce oxidation of ammonium by the bacterium in the
estuarine environment. While nitrate had no significant effect on either
isolate, certain combinations of ammonium nitrite were inhibitory, espe-
cially to the estuarine species. The data indicate that oxidation of
ammonium by isolates from wetlands is influenced by pH and temperature and
that estuarine nitrifiers may be more sensitive to and more extensively
affected by salinity, ammonium concentrations, and nitrite than are
isolates from fresh waters.
409. Jorek, N. 1977. Habitat Management Concepts Worked Out at the Sewage Farm
Project at Muenster. Agnew Ornithology 5(2):57-108.
410. Joseph, J. 1978. Hyacinths for Wastewater Treatment. Reeves Journal.
56(2):34-36.
Secondary treatment of wastewater with water hyacinths produced signif-
icant reductions in impurities, coliforms, and heavy metals in pilot plant
tests conducted by the National Space Technology Laboratory at Orange
Grove, Mississippi. Biologically treated wastewater from a population of
5,000 was introduced into an 0.7-acre hyacinth lagoon which was four to
five times smaller than the primary aerated lagoon. Retention times of
14-21 days in the lagoon reduced suspended solids by an average of 72%,
total nitrogen by 60%, total phosphorus by 26%, BOD to below standard
levels, and coliforms from 121,000 to 40,000/100 ml. In the absence of
toxins or metals, the harvested hyacinths yielded up to 25% crude protein
for supplemental animal feed. An acre of hyacinths, producing from 8-16
tons wet bio-mass/day, generated 3,200-6,450 cu ft of methane gas/day with
0.5 ton fertilizer as a by-product. The water hyacinths were effective in
removing lead, mercury, cadmium, cobalt, nickel, silver, and phenols. Re-
-------
search is being conducted to expand the hyacinth belt north of 33 degrees
latitude.
411. Jurdi, M. S., A. Acrea, and M. Soufi. 1981. Wastewater Reclamation by
Hydroponic Plant Growth. Presented at the Water Reuse Symposium II.
Washington, DC. August 23-28, 1981.
The feasibility of growing plants hydroponically in raw untreated
wastewater for reclamation and reuse was investigated. A variety of
plants (cucumbers, tomatoes, peppers, and lettuce) were successfully
grown in the medium but required the addition of iron.
The yield of vegetative growth in the medium was about double that in
half-strength Hoaglands nutrient solution. Monitoring macro-elements
(e.g., nitrate, sodium, potassium, phosphate, calcium), and trace ele-
ments (e.g., zinc, copper, manganese) showed a substantial reduction in
their concentrations in the medium. Reduction of the mineral content
correlated exponentially with time to a specific conductivity level of
(300/umohos/cm, 25°C) equivalent to that of tap water. Transplanting
into the medium of seedlings at more advanced stages of growth substan-
tially lessened the period required for reduction in the mineral content
of wastewater. This reduction correlated significantly with the final
dry weight of the plants at the 0.05 level (r=0.979). (This work is
supported by grants from The National Council for Scientific Research,
Beirut, Lebanon). (AA)
412. Jurriens, M., and G. J. Kaassen. 1980. I. Evaluation of the Possibili-
ties and the Effects of Bypassing Water Along Marshy Areas, and II*
Sediment Intake to Reduce Degradation in an Offtake Canal. Rept. No.
226. Delft Hydraulics Laboratory. The Netherlands.
413. Kadlec, J.A. 1962. Effects of a Drawdown on a Waterfowl Impoundment.
Ecology 43:167281.
414. Kadlec, J. A. 1976. Dissolved Nutrients in a Peatland Near Houghton
Lake, Michigan, pp. 25-50. In D. L. Tilton, R. H. Kadlec, and C. J.
Richardson (eds.), Proceedings of a Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands
and Sewage Effluent Disposal. Held 10-11 May 1976 at the Univ. of
Michigan, Ann Arbor.
The use of peatlands and other wetlands as tertiary sewage treatment
systems depends in part on a knowledge of the nutrient dynamics. The
studies of dissolved nutrients reported in this paper were designed to
contribute to that knowledge. The objectives were threefold:
To establish the levels and variability of the principle dissolved
nutrients as background for other studies;
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To learn something of the causal mechanisms involved;
To estimate the impact of controlled fertilization on the concentrations
of dissolved nutrients.
415. Kadlec, J. A. 1979. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Dynamics in Inland Fresh-
water Wetlands, pp. 17-41. Iii T. A. Bookhout (ed. ), Waterfowl and
Wetlands - An Integrated Review. Proceedings of a Symposium held at
the 39th Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference at Madison, WI, 5
December 1977. La Crosse Printing Company, La Crosse, WI.
1080. Kadlec, J.A. In press.
416. Kadlec, J. A., R. H. Kadlec, P. E. Parker, and K. R. Dixon. 1973. The
Effects of Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosystems. Progress Rept. to
the National Science Foundation for 1 July 1972 to 1 April 1973.
Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
417. Kadlec, J. A., R. H. Kadlec, and C. J. Richardson. 1974. The Effects of
Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosystems. Semi-Annual Rept. No. 1 to the
National Science Foundation. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
418. Kadlec, J. A., R. H. Kadlec, and C. J. Richardson. 1974. The Effects of
Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosystems. Progress Rept. to the National
Science Foundation 1 April 1973 to 1 March 1974. Univ. of Michigan,
Ann Arbor.
419. Kadlec, R. H. 1975. Pilot Scale Irrigation Experiment - 1975; Prelim-
inary and Partial Results. In R. H. Kadlec, C. J. Richardson, and J.
A. Kadlec (eds.), The Effects of Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosys-
tems. Semi-annual Rept. No. 4. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
420. Kadlec, R. H. 1976. Surface Hydrology of Peatlands, pp. 5-24. In
D. L. Tilton, R. H. Kadlec, and C. J. Richardson (eds.), Proceedings
of a Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal.
Held 10-11 May 1976 at the Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Annual precipitation exceeds evaporation and drainage is relatively
poor in peatlands. Throughflow is slow enough to permit peat deposition
and permit growth of moisture-tolerant plants. Water depth, nutrient
availability and climatic conditions combine with successional processes
to determine the type of vegetation in a given wetland situation.
Any process which affects the water content of such an area will, in
the long term, affect the character of the wetland. Large-scale addition
of wastewater will tend to increase water depths, and at some scale, will
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produce an environment conducive to deep-water species such as cattail.
It is necessary to understand and quantify the water budget of a given
wetland in order that wastewater addition can be intelligently planned.
In July, August and September 1975, wastewater was added to a small
site in the peatland. The pilot (10-acre) site is in a shallow depres-
sion, with a mean ground of 10.5 feet with respect to the datum point of
10.00 feet located at station Z-4. A "ridge" of elevation 10.75 feet
along the 68-line effectively "dams" a 200-acre area enclosing the pilot
area.
Wastewater addition amounted to 8 inches on 10 acres in 8 weeks. No
level effects were observed in the test area during irrigation. Levels
increased and decreased in accord with the rest of the peatland. There is
a possible small increase in the water depth for the entire 200-acre
locale, but the topography negates the possibility of cross-country dis-
persal. No increases in peatland outflow were observed. Based on the
data, it appears that a major portion of the added water evaporated from
the test locale.
Larger-scale additions of water will increase depths and throughputs.
However, the flow of water added at up-gradient points will be uniform,
and at the same linear velocity as that in the natural peatland. Thus, the
added water will be in contact with the surface litter for a period of
approximately 100 days. The amount of added evaporation, if any, will
depend upon changes in the plant cover type and density, and in water
level. (AA)
421. Kadlec, R. H., 1977a. Natural and Irrigation Hydrology of the Porter Ranch
Peatland, pop. 198-229. In; C.B. DeWitt and E. Soloway (eds.), Wet-
lands Ecology,, Values, and Impacts. Proceedings of the Waubesa Con-
ference on Wetlands held in Madison, WI, 2-5 June 1977. Institute for
Environmental Studies, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison.
422. Kadlec, R.H. 1977b. Pilot Scale Irrigation Hydrology, pp. 30-52. In;
R.H. Kadlec, D.L. Tilton, and J.A. Kadlec (eds.). Feasibility of
Utilization of Wetland Ecosystems for Nutrient Removal from Secondary
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluent. Semi-Annual Rept. No.
5. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Over 10 million gallons of secondarily treated wastewater were pumped
to a northern Michigan peatland and distributed via a 200 meter gated
irrigation pipe during the period May-September 1976. The added water
spread in an irregular concentric pattern, creating a very shallow mound
of surface water. The area of the mound ranged upward from 40,000 m^ at
an average depth of about 3 cm, depending upon precipitation and evapo-
transpiration. The prevailing drought conditions created a dry soil
condition surrounding the pumped water mound. A concentric elliptical
ring compartment budget was developed to summarize details of water
movement and storage. (AA)
423. Kadlec, R.H. 1979a. Monitoring Report on the Bellaire Wastewater Treatment
Facility. Utilization Rept. No. 3. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
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424. Kadlec, R. H. 1979b. Monitoring Report on the Bellaire Wastewater Treat-
ment Facility. Utilization Rept. No. 4. Univ. of Michigan, Ann
Arbor. 48 pp.
Wastewater from stabilization lagoons is gravity-discharged during
stammer and autumn to a partially forested peatland at Bellaire, MI. The
results of studies conducted over a five year period show good phosphorus
and nitrogen removal. Some damage has occurred to trees.
425. Kadlec, R.H. (ed.). 1979c. Wetland Utilization for Management of Com-
munity Wastewater - 1978 Operations Summary. Report to the National
Science Foundation. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 107 pp.
426. Kadlec, R. H. 1979d. Wetlands for Tertiary Treatment. In P. K. Greeson,
J. R. Clark, and J. E. Clark (eds.), Wetland Functions and Values: The
State of Our Understanding. Proceedings of the National Symposium on
Wetlands, Lake Buena Vista, FL. Am. Water Resour. Assoc., Tech. Publ.
TPS79-2. Minneapolis, MN.
Current information on the performance of fresh water wetlands in
tertiary wastewater treatment is reviewed. A significant potential for
water quality improvement has been demonstrated at many sites. Different
choices of wetland partitioning are examined and illustrated, including
the entire ecosystem, transects, and plots. Various derived measures of
performance are illustrated, and all have some merit. Time effects are
explored on several scales. Diurnal, daily, annual, and geological
variations are all important. Data are lacking in many categories, but
further studies are clearly warranted. Digital computation is necessary
to organize the available data and extrapolate to different times, sites,
and management strategies. Design criteria are not yet available, but
economics appear favorable. (AA)
427. Kadlec, R. H. 1979e. Performance of the Bellaire, Michigan, Wetland
Treatment Facility. In J. C. Sutherland and R. H. Kadlec (eds.),
Wetland Utilization for Management of Community Wastewater. Abstracts
of a conference held 10-12 July at Higgins Lake, MI.
The village of Bellaire (pop. 1,000) is located in the northwestern
portion of Michigan's lower peninsula, on the Intermediate River, which
flows into Lake Bellaire. To protect the lake from unnecessary nutrient
loading, secondary and tertiary stage treatment of wastewater is achieved
at a considerable saving to the village, by surface discharge onto a con-
iferous forest wetland. The design and method of discharge at Bellaire
was intended to be as similar to Houghton Lake as possible. Despite a
vegetational dissimilarity, nutrient removals from wastewater at Bellaire
have been as efficient as at Houghton Lake.
Wastewater was pumped to the wetland during the summers of 1976 and
part of 1977, and a gravity system was used thereafter. Data were
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acquired on water flows, water chemistry, and environmental factors during
all three summers. Summer averages of total dissolved P ranged from 2.11
to 3.48 mg/1; while the wetland outfall ranged from 0.06 to 0.16 mg/1.
This is a concentration reduction of 94-97%. Summer averages of dissolved
N ranged from 1.94 to 10.84 mg/1; while the wetland outfall ranged from
0.04 to 0.61 mg/1. This is a concentration reduction of 91-98%. About
one-third of these reductions are due to dilution. Water samples taken
during late winter and early spring 1977 indicated a release of P equal to
1.02% of the total P added over the period March-November. (AA)
428. Kadlec, R. H. 1979f. Performance of the Houghton Lake, Michigan, Wetland
Treatment Facility. In J. C. Sutherland and R. H. Kadlec (eds.),
Wetland Utilization for Management of Community Wastewater. Abstracts
of a conference held 10-12 July at Higgins Lake, MI.
The Houghton Lake Wetland Treatment System was built and placed in
operation during the first six months of 1978. An operation and mainte-
nance plan has been developed, and the system operated successfully in the
treatment of 65 million gallons of secondary wastewater in summer 1978.
Water depths in the irrigation area were approximately 10-20 cm, with
patches of deeper water in isolated depressions. Nitrogen and phosphorus
removal was typically 90% complete within 100 meters of the discharge.
Chloride was mostly unaffected by passage through the wetland. Altered
water chemistry persisted further downgradient in the deeper water areas.
The water in the discharge area has recovered completely by mid-October.
No dramatic changes in vegetation species composition occurred in this
first year, but plant growth and chlorophyll content were increased with-
in 30 m of the discharge. No large changes occurred in vertebrate use,
but there were alterations in vertebrate species composition and abundance
within 30 m of the discharge.
The Houghton Lake wetland is well suited for use as a tertiary treat-
ment facility due to several natural features and functions: deep organic
soils, low nutrient levels in the background water, high plant productiv-
ity, and slow water movement. (AA)
429. Kadlec, R. H. 1979g. Wetland Tertiary Treatment at Houghton Lake,
. Michigan, pp. 101-139. In R. K. Bastian and S. C. Reed (eds.),
Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and
Engineering Assessment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Water Program Operations, Municipal Construction Division. Wash-
ington, DC. EPA 430/9-80-006.
The effects of secondary treated wastewater applied to a peatland in
central Michigan for five consecutive summers are documented in this
report. The Houghton Lake wetland treatment system was built and placed
in operation during the first six months of 1978 and has proved to be an
effective means of nutrient removal. Numerous figures and tables are
included in the report that explain the effects of the study on wetland
hydrology, water quality, vegetation, soils, algae, vertebrate and inver-
tebrate populations, and pathogenic organisms. (EP)
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430. Kadlec, R. H. 1981a. Monitoring Report on the Bellaire Wastewater Treat-
ment Facility. Utilization Rept. No. 5. Univ. of Michigan, Ann
Arbor.
431. Kadlec, R. H. 1981b. Monitoring Report on the Bellaire Wastewater Treat-
ment Facility. 1980. Wetlands Ecosystem Research Group, Univ. of
Michigan, Ann Arbor. 56 pp.
Approximately 30 million gallons of effluent were discharged to a
wetland treatment site at Bellaire, Michigan, during the period 4 June to
5 November 1980. Data on water flows, water chemistry and other environ-
mental parameters were collected and analyzed. Concentration reductions
of 90% total dissolved phosphorus and 91% dissolved nitrogen were
achieved in passage of the water through the wetland.
A five year summary of data for the performance of the wetland is
included. Gross removal of dissolved nitrogen remained stable at ap-
proximately 78%. Gross removal of phosphorus remained at 65%. As a
consequence, the amount of phosphorus discharged to Lake Bellaire has
remained at five times the background level in the natural wetland. (EP)
432. Kadlec, R.H. 1981c. How Natural Wetlands Treat Wastewater, pp. 241-254.
In; B. Richardson (ed.), Selected Proceedings of the Midwest Conference
on Wetland Values and Management. Minnesota Water Planning Board. St.
Paul. 660 pp.
The advanced treatment of wastewater consists of removing the last
traces of dissolved and suspended materials, pathogens and perhaps other
biota. A wetland provides a blend of the aquatic and terrestrial eco-
system functions which have been proven to remove these undesirable mater-
ials. The incoming waters, typically slow to creeping flow, provide set-
tling time for suspended material. Physical filtration through litter
material also can occur. The wetland produces detritus and algal debris,
which partly contribute to the pool of suspended and suspendable solids.
Dissolved nutrients can be sorbed on soil surfaces in shallow waters if
given sufficient time to reach that surface. Bacterial action, such as
denitrification, can occur at these surfaces as well. Typically, phos-
phorus compounds sorb and precipitate but nitrogen compounds do not.
Nutrients are also used by algae and vascular plants in formation of new
tissues on a seasonal basis. Subsequent death and litter fall of all or
some algae and plant parts (leaves) occurs. The litter then decomposes,
releasing the stored nutrients. However, a small portion becomes a
permanent component of the wetland soil. Algal decomposition is rapid
(weeks), and the detritus is finely divided. Plant litter decomposition
is slow (years), and the detritus is coarse.
Addition of nutrients builds a larger vegetative pool, and hence a
larger litter pool. Significant amounts of material are required.
Other dissolved materials may be stored in the vegetative/litter pool,
or sorbed, as well. Elements such as boron and sulfur display this behav-
ior. Other elements, such as sodium and chloride, are passed through with
little effect-.
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Bacteria of many kinds thrive in the wetland environment, including
coliforms. This serves to confuse many health-related issues. Viruses
appear to deactivate at variable rates, ranging from hours to weeks. More
research is needed in these areas. (AA)
1081. Kadlec, R.H. 1983.
1082. Kadlec, R.H. In press.
433. Kadlec, R. H., and D. E. Hammer. 1980. Wetland Utilization for Manage-
ment of Community Wastewater - 1979 Operations Summary, Houghton Lake
Wetlands Treatment Project. Report to the National Science Foun-
dation. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 83 pp.
The Houghton Lake Wetland Treatment System operated successfully in
the treatment of 65 million gallons of secondary wastewater in the summer
of 1978, and 101 million gallons in 1979. Treated wastewater from a
holding pond is pumped through a 12 inch diameter underground force line
to the edge of the Porter Ranch peatland. The water is distributed even-
ly across the width of the peatland through small gated openings in the
discharge pipe. Each of the 199 gates discharged approximately 16 gal-
lons per minute, under typical conditions, and the water spreads slowly
over the peatland. Results are presented under the following topic areas:
system operation, hydrology, surface water chemistry, litter and soil,
vegetation status and response, and algal productivity. (NT)
434. Kadlec, R. H., and D. E. Hammer. 1981. Wetland Utilization for Manage-
ment of Community Wastewater - 1980 Operations Summary, Houghton Lake
Wetlands Treatment Project. Report to the National Science Foun-
dation. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 76 pp.
435. Kadlec, R. H., D. E. Hammer, I. S. Nam, and J. O. Wilkes. Overland Flow
in Wetlands. Presented at the 88th National Meeting, American Insti-
tute of Chemical Engineers, 1980.
436. Kadlec, R. H., D. E. Hammer, and D. L. Tilton. 1978. Wetland Utiliza-
tion for Management of Community Wastewater. Status Rept. to the
National Science Foundation. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 59 pp.
(Available as NTIS Report PB80-108228).
Studies resulting in high water quality of the Houghton Lake Wetland
Treatment system are reported. This system successfully treated 65
million gallons of secondary wastewater in the summer of 1978 for use in
irrigating the Porter Ranch wetland in Michigan. Field research at the
wetland focused on: (1) Collection of data to establish a current picture
of the ecosystem in the discharge area; (2) continuous monitoring of the
response of the irrigation area to wastewater flow; and (3) continuation
of fundamental field studies to better understand response mechanisms and
wetland system limits. Specific aspects described include water chem-
istry, soil elevation sampling, vegetation analysis, algae studies,
-------
nutrient sorption, bacteria and virus assays, and census of vertebrates
and invertebrates. Laboratory studies were conducted to measure the
rates and extent of physiochemical sorption of ammonia, nitrate, and
phosphate. (NT)
1083. Kadlec, R.H. and D.E. Hammer. 1982.
1084. Kadlec, R.H. and D.E. Hammer. 1983.
437. Kadlec, R. H., D. E. Hammer, D. L. Tilton, L. Rosman, and B. Yardley.
1978. Boughton Lake Wetland Treatment Project. First Annual Oper-
ations Report. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 87 pp.
438. Kadlec, R. H., and J. A. Kadlec. 1979. Wetlands and Water Quality
(Theme Paper), pp. 436-456. In P. E. Greeson, J. R. Clark, and J. E.
Clark (eds.), Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our Under-
standing. Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetlands, Lake
Buena Vista, FL, Am. Water Resour. Assoc., Tech. Publ. TPS 79-2.
Minneapolis, MN.
Wetland waters interact strongly with the other biotic and abiotic
components of the ecosystem. Every water quality parameter is altered by
passage through a wetland ecosystem. Nutrients and other dissolved
constituents, heavy metals, suspended solids, and bacteria move into and
out of the wetland with entering and leaving waters. Their concentra-
tions can be altered by uptake, cycling, and dilution. Studies have been
made of the gross inputs, outputs, and storages within wetlands; as well
as more detailed studies of the water, sediment, and floral compartments.
To interpret the performance of a wetland in altering any water quality
parameter, a knowledge of the hydrology of the wetland is required, along
with data on concentrations, mass flow and storage of the constituent of
interest. Wetland ecosystems are dynamic, with both stochastic and time
varying effects being of great importance. Diurnal, seasonal, and
historic time patterns are necessary for complete understanding. Nitro-
gen and phosphorus cycle from the water to the plants to the sediments in
the wetland ecosystem, with net storage or release depending upon the
site. Dissolved constituents, such as chloride, often pass through the
system without much alteration. Heavy metals appear to be immobilized in
many situations, as are pesticides and other refractory chemicals.
Suspended solids play an important role in wetland functions, both by
themselves and as transporters of other components. Although wetlands
are microbially active, they appear to be intolerant of human enteric
microorganisms. These ecosystems appear to function as dynamic buffers
against external upsets. In many cases, they are capable of serving as
disposal sites for treated wastewaters. In almost all areas, there is a
need to expand the data base in order to gain a better understanding of
wetland processes which affect water quality. (AA)
439. Kadlec, R.H. and J.A. Kadlec, 1974. The Effects of Sewage Effluent on
Wetland Ecosystems. NSF-RANN Semi-Annual Report. Univ. of Mich. Ann
Arbor, MI.
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440. Kadlec, R. H,, J. A. Kadlec, C. J. Richardson, and D. L. Tilton. 1975.
The Effects of Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosystems. Semi-Annual
Rept. No. 4. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 197 pp.
The report is part of an ongoing study of the nutrient status of the
surface and interstitial waters of peatlands in Michigan. The contact of
influent water with mineral soil and the length of travel through peat
after such contact are key factors in determining retention. The balance
between influent ground water and rain water as sources of nutrients for
plant growth are considered to determine the plant communities. This
study has been directed at an examination of the major ecosystem com-
ponents with a view to predicting and monitoring these changes. This
report considers the dissolved nutrients of the peatland, their variation
in time and space, and the impact of small scale nutrient additions. (NT)
441. Kadlec, R. H., C. J. Richardson, and J. A. Kadlec. 1974. The Effects of
Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosystems. Semi-Annual Rept. No. 2 to the
National Science Foundation. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
442. Kadlec, R. H., C. J. Richardson, and J. A. Kadlec. 1975a. The Effects of
Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosystems. Semi-Annual Rept. No. 3 to the
National Science Foundation. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
443. Kadlec, R. H., C. J. Richardson, and J. A. Kadlec. 1975b. The Effects of
Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosystems. Semi-Annual Rept. No. 4 to the
National Science Foundation. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Ongoing studies of the effects of sewage effluents in wetland eco-
systems are reported, with particular emphasis on the nutrient status of
the surface and interstitial waters of peatlands in Michigan. Specific
topics covered include: the effects of simulated sewage effluent on the
decomposition, nutrient status, and litterfall in a central Michigan peat-
land, the effects of simulated sewage effluents on the growth and produc-
tivity of peatland plants, pilot scale irrigation experiments, a statisti-
cal analysis of seasonal changes in biomass (standing crop new growth) of
selected wetland species as influenced by nutrient additions, and studies
of dissolved nutrients in Michigan peatland.
444. Kadlec, R. H., and D. L. Tilton. 1977. Monitoring Report on the
Bellaire Wastewater Treatment Facility. Utilization Rept. No. 1.
Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. (Two versions: complete and abridged).
445. Kadlec, R. H., and D. L. Tilton. 1978a. Monitoring Report on the Bell-
aire Wastewater Treatment Facility. Utilization Rept. No. 2. Univ.
of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
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This report concerns a secondary and tertiary stage treatment of
wastewater by the village of Bellaire, MI, by surface discharge of ef-
fluent onto a forested wetland. Water flows, water chemistry, and en-
vironmental data were collected for an 8 month period. Total dissolved
phosphorus and nitrogen in the wastewater averaged 3.48 mg per liter and
4.95 mg N/liter during the discharge period. Concentrations of P and N
in water leaving the wetland were 0.11 mg/1 and 0.46 mg/1 respectively.
This represents concentration reductions of 97% TNP and 91% DN. (WE)
446. Kadlec, R.H., and D.L. Tilton. 1978b. Wastewater Treatment Via Wetland
Irrigation: Nutrient Dynamics, pp. 153-170. In M. A. Drew (ed.),
Environmental Quality through Wetlands Utilization. Proceedings of a
Symposium held 28 February - 2 March 1978, at Tallahassee, FL.
Sponsored by the Coordinating Council on the Restoration of the
Kissimme River Valley and Taylor Creek-Nubbin Slough Basin. Talla-
hassee, FL.
The impact of discharging approximately 10 million gallons of sec-
ondary effluent into a 10 acre section of the Houghton Lake wetland is
described. Element budgets showed that 99%, 95%, and 71% of the total
input of nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, total dissolved phosphorus (TDP),
and ammonia nitrogen, respectively, were immobilized within 30 meters of
the discharge location. Element immobilization occurred by a combination
of biological and physical processes.
The Bellaire wetland was monitored from 15 March through 21 November
1977 to determine water flows, water chemistry, and environmental data.
TDP and TDN in the wastewater averaged 3.48 mg/1 and 4.95 mg/1 during the
discharged period (27 May through 3 November). Concentrations in the
water leaving the wetland were 0.11 mg-P/1 and 0.46 mg-N/1. These re-
present concentration reductions of 97% TDP and 91% TDN. Water samples
taken during late winter and early spring indicate a release of phos-
phorus equal to 1.02% of the total phosphorus added during the period
March to November. (EP)
447. Kadlec, R. H., and D. L. Tilton. 1979. The Use of Freshwater Wetlands
as a Tertiary Wastewater Treatment Alternative. CRC Critical Reviews
in Environmental Control 9(2):185-212.
The use of wetlands for tertiary wastewater treatment is a feasible
alternative in the proper circumstances. The constraints which apply have
not been totally determined, but are likely to be very site-specific.
Small communities with large adjacent wetlands might consider this alter-
native.
Wetlands appear to be strongly buffered against the stress of treated
wastewater additions. Dissolved nutrients are effectively removed in many
cases, and suspended solids are exchanged. The added water and nutrients
have an impact on the ecosystem which varies from site to site. The plant
and animal communities undergo changes which range from barely undetect-
able to dramatic.
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448. Kadlec, R. H., D. L. Tilton, and J. A. Kadlec. 1977. Feasibility of
Utilization of Wetland Ecosystems for Nutrient Removal from Secondary
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluent. Semi-Annual Rept. No.
5 to the National Science Foundation. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
This study details the effect of discharging approximately 10 million
gallons of secondary effluent onto a 10 acre section of wetland. Total
dissolved phosphorus (TOP), ammonia nitrogen, nitrate plus nitrite nitro-
gen, Cl, Na, Ca, Mg, K, Ni, Zn, Cu, Pb, COD, pH, alkalinity, hardness,
and specific conductivity were measured in the effluent and in surface
waters at various distances (30-225 m) from the discharge location. TOP,
nitrate plus nitrite nitrogen, and pH in surface waters had returned to
background concentrations within 30 m of the discharge. Alkalinity and
hardness had decreased to background concentrations 50 m from the dis-
charge point, while Cl, Ca, Mg, Na, and to a lesser extent, K, tended not
to decrease with the distance as much as the more biologically active
ions. COD was lower in the effluent than in the wetland's surface water.
Element budgets showed that 99%, 95%, 71% of the total input of nitrate
plus nitrite nitrogen, TOP, and ammonia nitrogen, respectively, were
immobilized within 30 m of the discharge site. Equivalent immobiliza-
tions of the total input for K, Mg, Na, Ca, and Cl, were 69%, 42%, 39%,
32%, and 30% respectively. Element immobilization occurred through a
combination of physical and biological factors. (WE)
449. Kadlec, R. H., D. L. Tilton, and B. R. Schwegler. 1979. Wetlands for
Tertiary Treatment: A Three-Year Summary of Pilot Scale Operations at
Houghton Lake. Report to the National Science Foundation. Univ. of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, 101 pp. (NTIS No. PB 295 965)
The process of wetland tertiary treatment of sewage treatment plant
effluent was studied. The site was a peatland located at Houghton Lake,
MI. The goal was to discharge 100,000 gallons/day treated wastewater onto
a test plot measuring 40,000 square meters. This area was a scale up of
1000 over the earlier test plots. Monitoring and research activity
focused primarily on hydrology and water quality, with secondary emphasis
on plant, soils, animals, algae, bacteria, and viruses. Criteria for
stopping effluent discharge were developed. This report covers the field
results related to the discharge of wastewater. The results indicate
that this method is an effective means of nutrient removal. All nitrogen
and phosphorus were stored or removed within a five acre area, at a
discharge rate of 100,000 gallons per day. The maximum increase in water
depth was 15 cm at the center of a single point discharge. Coliform
bacteria were present in both the discharge and in the natural wetland in
comparable numbers. No virus was transported to the wetland. The animal
populations exhibited little response to the discharge. (NT)
450. Kaila, A. 1959. Retention of Phosphate by Peat Samples. J. Sci. Agri.
Soc. Finland 31:215-225.
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451. Kaminski, R. M., and H. H. Prince. 1981. Dabbling Duck and Aquatic
Macroinvertebrate Responses to Manipulated Wetland Habitat. J. Wildl.
Manage. 45(1):1-15.
Responses of breeding dabbling ducks (Anatini) and aquatic raacroinverte-
brates to experimental modifications of cover; water ratio and basin sur-
face were investigated in 1977 and 1978 within an impounded whitetop river-
grass (Scplochloa festucacea) meadow on the Delta Marsh, south-central Man-
itoba. Three areal percentage ratios of emergent hydrophytes to open water
(30:70, 50:50, or 70:30) and 2 basin treatments (mowing of existing emer-
gents or scarification by rototilling) were tested. Between years, pair
numbers of mallards (Anas platyrhynchqs) and blue-winged teal (A. dijcors)
declined, whereas pair numbers of northern shovelers (A. clypeata),
gadwalls (A. strepera), and pintails (A. acuta) were comparable. The
greatest density and species diversity of dabbling duck pairs occurred on
50:50 plot in both years. Only blue-winged teal and pintail pair densities
in 1978 were greater on mowed than on rototilled areas. Within years,
species diversity of dabbling ducks was unaffected by mowing or rototill-
ing. More pursuit flights arose from 50:50 plots and mowed areas compared
to alternative treatments. Composition and resource levels (abundance,
biomass, and number of families) of aquatic macroinvertebrate communities
varied within and between years in response to basin treatments. These
results imply prescriptions for wetland habitat management. (AA)
452. Kamppi, Armas. 1971. Studies of Wastewater Disposal on Peatland Forest
Basin Infiltration Systems Which were in Effect in Finland in 1970.
National Board of Waters, Finland: Report A4. 120 pp.
453. Kappel, W. 1979a. The Drummond Project. In; J.C. Sutherland and R.H.
Kadlec (eds.), Wetland Utilization for Management of Community Waste-
water. Abstracts of a conference held 10-12 July 1979 at Higgins Lake,
MI.
The Town of Drummond (pop. 270), in northwestern Wisconsin, recently
built a sewage treatment facility to handle the community's septic wastes.
Plans were initially developed for a three lagoon, secondary treatment sys-
tem, with effluent discharge twice a year to the Long Lake Branch of the
White River, a Class 1-A trout stream. The lagoon system was to be built
on U.S. Forest Service land, and in reviewing the project's environmental
assessment, the Forest Service suggested a tertiary treatment alternative
in which a 27-acre peat bog would be used to remove inorganic nutrients
before final discharge to this important trout stream.
This tertiary treatment system uses gated irrigation pipe to disperse
the secondary sewage effluent across and through the upper layers of this
black spruce/tamarack peat bog. Effluent is discharged to the bog in
100,000 gallon slugs based on climatic and bog hydrologic conditions dur-
ing the ice-free period of the year.
Research on this system is based in four critical areas. Primarily,
water quality changes are studied as the effluent moves from the secondary
treatment lagoons, through the bog, and downstream to the Long Lake Branch.
A second study of the productivity and mineral content of bog plants is
-------
being made to determine how the bog species react to the application of the
sewage effluent. A companion study uses aerial and ground level stereo
photography to study bog vegetation compositional changes due to effluent
application. A third study will compare the density and diversity of popu-
lation of reptiles, amphibians, birds, small mammals, and terrestrial
invertebrates between the project area and a nearby control area. Finally,
a water/nutrient budget will be developed combining bog hydrologic data and
the above mentioned nutrient studies to determine how the bog reacts to
these discharges.
454. Kappel, W.M. 1979b. The Drummond Project: Applying Sewage Lagoon Effluent
to a Bog: an Operational Trial, pp. 83-89. In; R.K. Bastian and S.C.
Reed (eds.), Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Pro-
ceedings and Engineering Assessment. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Water Program Operations, Municipal Construction
Division Washington, DC. EPA 430/9-80-006.
Sewage effluent was introduced into this 10 ha spruce-sphagnum bog in
northwestern Wisconsin in May 1979. Effluent was applied to the wetland
surface twice each year (spring and autumn) using a gated irrigation pipe
system. This report contains a description of the overall operation of
the system and the studies being conducted at the site on water quality,
vegetation, and animal populations. A water and nutrient budget study
also has been initiated. (EP)
455. Kardos, L. T., and J. E. Hook. 1976. Phosphorus Balance in Sewage
Effluent Treated Soils. J. Environ. Qual. 5:87-90.
Four field sites which have been irrigated with various levels of sec-
ondary treated sewage effluent for 9 to 11 years have been examined for
phosphorus content in soil water extracted with suction lysimeters. The
cornfield site on Hublersburg clay loam irrigated with effluent had an
average P concentration of 0.329, 0.070, and 0.046 mg/liter in soil water
at 15, 60, and 120 cm respectively compared to 0.043, 0.046, and 0.037
mg/liter, respectively, under an adjacent fertilized, but unirrigated con-
trol. Year round application of effluent including 2 years of effluent
plus sludge to reed canarygrass (Phalaris arjandinacea L.) on Hublersburg
clay loam resulted in average soil water concentrations of 0.170, 0.100,
and 0.052 mg/P/liter at 15, 60, and 120 cm, respectively.
In an abandoned field on Hublersburg clay loam where no P was removed
by crops, P concentrations were 0.140, 0.103, and 0.0765 mg P/liter for
the treated plot and 0.038, 0.047 and 0.042 mg P/liter for the control at
15, 60, and 120 cm, respectivley. Only the 15-cm depth had significantly
higher P concentrations in the treated plot. A hardwood forest located on
a Morrison sandy loam soil was irrigated year round. Phosphorus concentra-
tions in soil water were 0.349, 0.080, and 0.087 mg/liter for the treated
vs. 0.059, 0.039, and 0.039 for the control at 15, 60, and 120 cm, respec-
tively. Leaching losses were calculated from concentration of P in soil
water at 120 cm and from leaching volume which was rainfall plus irrigation
minus potential evapotranspiration. Over all years of treatment no site
had leaching losses of >3% of the total applied. (AA)
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456. Kardos, L.T., W.E. Sopper, E.A. Myers,, R.R. Parizek, and J.B. Nesbitt.
1974. Ord. U.S. EPA
A 500,000 gallon per day supply of chlorinated, secondary treated
wastewater was applied through sprinkler irrigation systems to a combined
acreage of approximately 70 acres of cropland and forestland in variously
located experimental plots on Hublersburg silt loam or clay loam soils or
on Morrison sandy loam soil. The hydraulic loads tested ranged from one
to six inches at weekly intervals. The effects of application of the
wastewater to the land on crop yields and crop chemical composition were
generally favorable for the two hydraulic loads tested, 1 and 2 inches at
weekly intervals during the growing season, only, or year-round. Harvested
crops removed important amounts of the two key eutropic nutrients, phos-
phorus and nitrogen. On the forested sites tree growth respons was bene-
ficial except with red pine on the Hublersburg soil when 2 inches of
wastewater was applied at weekly intervals during the growing season. N
and P content of the harvested crops and forest foliage was generally in-
creased by wastewater irrigation.
Nitrate nitrogen levels in water recharging through the soil at the
four foot depth were less than 10 mg/1 except in the growing-season-2-inch
red pine on Hublersburg soil and the year-round-2-inch hardwood area on
Morrison sandy loam soil when NO3~N values were 2 to 4 times the
U.S.P.H.S. limit.
Phosphorus concentration in the suction lysimeter water samples at a
depth of four feet was no greater on wastewater treated areas than on un-
treated control areas even on the sandy loam soil. Passage through four
feet of soil decreased P concentration 98 to 99% through the combined
effects of soil and vegetation in the "living filter" system. Deep well
samples adjacent to the Hublersburg soil area showed no changes in water
quality from normal background values. One deep well completely surround-
ed by wastewater treated sandy loam soil showed higher N03 and CL~
concentrations in the fifth year of treatment but sill met U.S.P.H.S.
drinking water standards.
Recharge benefit to two nearby University water supply wells was esti-
mated to result in water table build-up equivalent to 2 to 6 feet after a
2 year period of recharge of 6.5 x 10' gallons per year on 43.5 acres.
Annual costs of a spray irrigation system to recycle wastewater through
the land was estimated to range from $13 per year per E.D.U. for 1 MGD to
$81 per year per E.D.U. for 10 MGD.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Project No. 16080 DYJ under
the partial sponsorship of the Water Quality Office, Environmental
Protection Agency.
457. Katzenelson, E., and S. Kedmi, 1979. Unsuitability of Polio Viruses as
Indicators of Virological Quality of Water. Applied Environmental
Microbiology 37.
458. Keating, K.I. 1976. Interference by Blue-green Algae with Nutrient
Recovery in Water-quality Control Schema: Management Implications, pp.
241-245. In; J. Tourbier and R.W. Pierson (eds.), Biological Control
of Water Pollution. Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
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Nutrient-rich natural waters are usually dominated by blue-green algae.
From the viewpoint of a food chain culminating in harvestable fish the
blue-greens are among the least desirable primary producers in that most,
or all, are considered unsatisfactory food sources for zooplankton. They
become even less suitable for intentional cultivation when certain of
their other characteristics are considered-e.g. many produce unpleasant
odors and tastes in waters; some act as allergens, or toxins-for animals
ranging from invertebrates to humans; some have recently been implicated
as possible vectors for viruses, although the capacity to harbor viruses
may provide a means to control blue-green algae. It is therefore essen-
tial develop the management information and techniques necessary either to
control, or to eliminate, the blue-green algae.
However, there is strong evidence that the competitive advantage of the
blue-green algae is based at least in part on an allelopathic capacity.
(AA)
459. Keenan, C. 1979. Effect of a Desert Marsh System on the Fertility of
Secondarily Treated Sewage Effluent Discharged into Lake Mead.
Journal of the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science, Vol. 14. 1979
Proceedings Supplement. Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ.
460. Keeney, D. R. 1973. The Nitrogen Cycle in Sediment-water Systems. J.
Environ. Qual. 2:15-29.
The available literature on the fate of nitrogen in waters and sedi-
ments is reviewed. Emphasis is placed on the importance of N to aquatic
productivity, the pathways leading to N gains or losses in aquatic eco-
systems, and the availability of N in sediments to the overlying waters.
Important biological reactions include N mineralization and immobiliza-
tion, nitrification and denitrification, and N fixation. The effect of
sediment properties, lake morphology and environmental factors (pH,
temperature, dissolved oxygen, oxidation-reduction potential) on the
pathways and rates of N turnover are considered. The mixing process in
sediments appear to be the most important in releasing sediment-N to
waters. Several facets of the N cycle in waters and sediments require
further elucidation. Research needs are outlined.
461. Keeney, D. R., and R. E. Wildung. 1977. Chemical Properties of Soils
in: Soils for Management of Organic Wastes and Wastewater. Soil
Science Society of America. Madison, WI.
462. Kelley, R., and M.A. Harwell. 1983. Comparisons of Processions of
Elements by Ecosystems: Nutrients (Draft Manuscript) In; Ecological
Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Pro-
ceedings of a Workshop, 23-25 June 1982, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
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463. Kemp, M. C., D. S. Filip, and D. B. George. 1978. Evaluation and Com-
parison of Overland Flow and Slow Rate Systems to Upgrade Secondary
Wastewater Lagoon Effluent. Rept. No. Q-78-02. Utah Water Research
Lab. Logan, UT. 70 pp.
To evaluate the effectiveness of overland flow treatment in upgrading
secondary wastewater lagoon effluent, three 15 x 36 m plots on a 2.5
percent slope were constructed and sown for a high density vegetative
cover using Reed Canary grass. Wastewater was applied to the upper end
of each plot at rates of 7.5, 15, and 22.5 cm/week. Results from the
overland flow system investigation were compared with similar data ob-
tained the preceding year from an existing slow rate land application
system on an adjacent site. Secondary effluent from the same lagoon
system as applied to the slow rate system study water quality character-
istics from both systems, site specific efficiencies were detailed. (NT)
464. Kerfoot, W. B., and S. A. Jacobs. 1974. Permissible Levels of Heavy
Metals in Secondary Effluent for Use in a Combined Sewage Treat-
ment-Marine Aquaculture System I. Monitoring During Pilot Operation,
pp. 65-78. In Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber
Proc. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ada, OK.
465. Kerfoot, W. B., and 6. A. Redmann. 1974. Permissible Levels of Heavy
Metals in Secondary Effluent for Use in a Combined Sewage Treat-
ment-Marine Aquaculture System II. Development of Guidelines by
Method of Additions, pp. 79-101. In Wastewater Use in the Production
of Food and Fiber-Proc. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ada,
OK.
466. Khalid, R. A., R. P. Gambrell, M. G. Verloo, and W. H. Patrick, Jr. 1977.
Transformation of Heavy Metals and Plant Nutrients in Dredged Sedi-
ments as Affected by Oxidation Reduction Potential and pH. Vol. I:
Literature Review. Contract Report D-77-4. U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
The occurrence and chemistry of selected trace metals and plant nutri-
ents in sediment-water systems were studied. The toxic and nutrient
elements included in the study were Pb, Cd, Hg, As, Se, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, N,
P, and S. Effects of pH and oxidation-reduction conditions on metal and
nutrient chemistry were stressed. (AA)
467. Khalid, R. A., W. H. Patrick, Jr., and R. D. Delaune. 1977. Phosphorus
Sorption Characteristics of Flooded Soils. Soil Science Society of
Amer. Journal 41:305-310.
Surface soils representing Alfisols and Inceptisols were collected from
various parts of Louisiana under rice (pryza sativa L.) cultivation and
incubated under oxidized (aerobic) and reduced (anaerobic)) conditions for
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2 weeks in a soil to 0.01M CaCl2 solution ratio of 1:5. The release of
native soil P and the sorption of added inorganic P was investigated under
these conditions. The soils selected for study were characterized for
clay content, total carbon, extractable P, pH, and oxalate-extractable Fe,
soil properties associated with P sorption. The results show that
generally more soil P was released under reduced than oxidized conditions,
and this increase in soluble P under reduced conditions was significantly
related to Bray No. 2 extractable P, clay content, and oxalate Fe. At
high levels of added P, more P was sorbed under reduced conditions than
under oxidized conditions in 14 out of 20 soils under study. However, in
Midland fine sandy loam essentially all of added P was recovered in the
equilibrium solution under both oxidized and reduced conditions, suggest-
ing this soil had no capacity to sorb P. The relationship between P
sorbed at 500 ug/g added P and oxalate-extractable Fe was described by
fitting two linear curves with different slopes. In the reduced soil
samples the slope of Region I (3,000 ug Fe/g) suggests that 5.4 Fe sorbed
1P and that this ratio did not change until all of the added P was sorbed.
In the oxidized samples this ratio was about 16 Fe/lP for Region 1( 4,500
ug Fe/g). The slopes for Region II of the linear curves for both reduced
and oxidized samples were essentially zero. A closer relationship between
P sorbed and oxalate extractable Fe under reduced conditions indicates
that poorly crystalline and amorphous oxides and hydroxides of Fe play a
primary role in P retention by flooded soils and sediments. A probable
greater surface area generated by the transformation of oxyferric
hydroxide to more reactive ferrous compounds may be responsible for
greater P sorption under reduced conditions. (AA)
468. Kidlow, J., and J. E. Huguenin. 1974. Problems and Potentials of
Recycling Wastes for Aquaculture. Mass. Inst. of Technology, Sea
Grant Program, 74-27. Cambridge, MA.
The potentialities and problems of using thermal effluents and/or
secondary sewage as inputs to marine aquaculture systems are discussed.
Although marine aquaculture technology is relatively undeveloped, and the
use of waste in such a system is even less developed, potential for such
systems appears enormous. In the future, the growing demand on coastal
zones for both waste disposal and food production can be met only by a
sophisticated, well-managed system. Feed cost for raising fish and farm
animals will probably continue to rise, making the use of recycled wastes
for feed in an aquaculture process an economically attractive concept.
Research on the safety of marine waste-food recycling may have to be
government sponsored. Also, the economic viability of these systems has
not been demonstrated. (EL)
469. Kiemerle, R. A., and W. R. Enns. 1968. Aquatic Insects Associated with
Mid-western Waste Stabilization Lagoons. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed.
40:R31-R41.
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470. King, D. L. 1978. The Role of Ponds in Land Treatment of Wastewater,
pp. 191-198. In State of Knowledge in Land Treatment of Wastewater.
Vol. 2. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Cold Region Res. Eng. Lab.
Hanover, NH.
Ponds used for storage or pretreatment of wastewater prior to terres-
trial application significantly alter wastewater quality. Data from the
Michigan State University Water Quality Management Facility (WQMF) indi-
cate that significant permanent phosphorus reduction decreases markedly
once benthic sediments are saturated with phosphorus but that excellent
nitrogen removal continues.
Phosphorus concentrations within such ponds vary seasonally but signif-
icant permanent phosphorus removal should not be anticipated beyond the
first two or three years of operation. Harvest of aquatic plants yields
only about 10% removal of both phosphorus and nitrogen.
In wastewater ponds, aquatic plant growth leads to accelerated denitri-
fication and increases pH to 10 or more causing large ammonia losses to
the air during those periods of the year when algae and aquatic macro-
phytes are active. While this nitrogen loss to the atmosphere will be
controlled by site-specific conditions of light availability and tempera-
ture and alkalinity of the wastewater, nitrogen concentration decreases in
a logistic fashion as a function of detention time within the WQMF ponds
yielding a 95% nitrogen reduction in 120 days. The rate of nitrogen
removal, as gN/M2/day, from these ponds is a linear function of nitrogen
concentration.
In addition to marked nitrogen losses associated with aquatic plant
growth, the ability of these plants to elevate the pH also leads to pre-
cipitation of a variety of heavy metals. Such alterations in wastewater
should be included in design criteria whenever ponds are incorporated in
land treatment of wastewater. (AA)
471. King, D. L. 1979. Some Ecological Limits to the Use of Alternative
Systems for Wastewater Management, pp. 299-307. In R. K. Bastian and
S. C. Reed (eds.), Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment:
Seminar Proceedings and Engineering Assessment. EPA 430/9-80-006.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program Oper-
ations, Municipal Construction Division, Washington, DC.
A great variety of biological, chemical, and physical factors interact
and feedback to set limits on the ability of natural ecosystems to process
wastewater. An understanding of these ecological limits allows better de-
sign of alternative wastewater management systems which can be tailored to
fit local environmental and wastewater conditions relative to local waste-
water standards. Ecological interactions responsible for oxygen supply
for BOD satisfaction, plant production, and nutrient removal and recycle
by alternative wastewater systems are considered for aquatic ecosystems
and combinations of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. (AA)
472. King, D. L., and T. M. Burton. 1979. A Combination of Aquatic and Ter-
restrial Ecosystems for Maximal Reuse of Domestic Wastewater, pp.
714-726. In American Water Works Association Research Foundation,
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Proceedings of the Symposium Vol. 1 held 25 - 30 March 1979 in Wash-
ington, DC.
In the design of pond-land wastewater processing systems the best
features of the ponds should be meshed with the best features of the land
to yield a system which meets specific needs for wastewater management and
reuse relative to soil type, terrestrial vegetative cover and climate of
the individual region.
While the nitrogen stripping capacity of ponds allows wastewater appli-
cation to land on which the vegetative cover is inefficient at nitrogen
removal', it can limit both attempts to reuse wastewater nutrients and
attempts to maintain harvestable fish populations in the ponds. Where the
goal is to maximize wastewater nitrogen recycle through terrestrial crops,
ponding of wastewater should be minimized, particularly during the summer
months, to prevent nitrogen loss prior to land application. When waste-
water is stored over the winter and applied to the land during the summer,
considerable nitrogen loss will occur as a function of detention time in
ponds, particularly during the warmer months of the year. Nitrogen
limitation of aquatic plants to types which cannot be harvested allows
accumulation of significant BOD which, when exerted, is detrimental to any
fish in the pond. (AA)
473. Kitchens, W.M., Jr., J.M. Dean, L.H. Stevenson, and J.H. Cooper, 1975. The
Santee Swamp as a Nutrient Sink, pp. 349-366. In; J.B. Gentry, and
M.H. Smith (eds.), Mineral Cycling in Southeastern Ecosystems. ERDA
Symposium Series Conference - 740513.
The Upper Santee Swamp, South Carolina, extending from the confluence
of the Congaree and Wateree Rivers, was studied for its role in the reduc-
tion of nutrient loads and fecal coliforms. The two rivers are heavily
polluted from sewage discharges and agricultural runoff but Lake Marion,
an impoundment five miles downstream of the Rivers' confluence has not
shown eutrophication symptoms typical of shallow impoundments receiving
comparable nutrient loads. The general trend observed, for both total and
reactive phosphates, a 50% reduction in concentrations as the water passed
from the rivers to the lower swamp provinces, depending on flow. Nitrate
concentrations, consistently high in both rivers, was essentially unalter-
ed in passage through the swamp. The flow through the swamp during the
study period was usually a mass sheet over the floodplain floor, with no
additional stream runoff inputs. Therefore concentration changes are
definitely not due to dilution. The nutrient sink is considered primarily
biological, with possible total phosphates adsorbed to suspended silts and
clays. There was also a significant reduction in bacterial counts,
including fecal coliforms, with little or no oxygen depletion as the
waters coursed over the swamp.
474. Klafter, R.D., and W.E. Mattis. Optimal Waste Discharge in Estuaries and
Bays. Presented at the IFAC Congress. Paris. June 12-17, 1972.
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475. Klein, R.L., Jr. 1976. The Fate of Heavy Metals in Sewage Effluent
Applied to Cypress Wetlands. Master's Thesis, Department of Environ-
mental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville.
151 pp.
476. Klemetson, S. L., and G. L. Rodgers. 1981a. Evaluation of Biofilter Water
Reuse Systems for Macrobrachium rosenbergii Prawn Aquaculture Ponds.
Presented at the Water Reuse Symposium II. Washington, DC.
August 23-28.
The yield of food protein from domestic aquaculture and its relative
importance as a food source of human nutrition is rapidly rising. The
interest in the commercial culture of Malaysian prawns, Macrobrachium
rosenbergii, is steadily moving in the direction of intensification and
the use of industrial methods. Additionally, since the prawn is a warm
weather animal which requires a temperature of approximately 87°F (30°C),
efforts are being made to protect the pond surface and maintain the proper
temperature profile.
Water quality maintenance is the primary technical factor limiting the
intensification of closed system aquaculture. Good water quality can
theoretically be maintained by pass through biological filters where
bacterial polycultures oxidize the toxic wastes, rendering it fit for
reuse. The nitrogenous wastes are the most important task of the
biofilters. The biofliters must operate in conditions that vary zero to
12 ppt of salinity, and with temperatures near 87°F (30°c).
The research on the treatment of fresh and saline wastewaters with a
rotating biofilter has been completed, and the systems have produced good
removal efficiencies using synthetic wastewaters for aquaculture pond
wastewaters. Current studies involve live juvenile and adult prawn
connected to the biofilter system. Concurrently, nitrogen compound
toxicity studies are being conducted. The adult toxic limit is approx-
imately 26 mg/1 total available nitrogen, however, the biofilter systems
can achieve effluent levels for biofilter reuse system at approximately
1 mg/1.
Current research is being conducted in the area of packed biological
towers for both nitrification and denitrification of the heated, fresh
and saline wastewaters produced by the live prawn aquaculture systems.
The paper will compare the cost and efficiency of several types of
biological filter systems for direct aquaculture water reuse. (AA)
477. Klemetson, S.L. and G.L. Rodgers. 1981b. Biological Filters. J. Water
Pollut. Control Fed. 53(6):687-699.
478. Klock, J. W. 1971. Survival of Coliform Bacteria in Wastewater Treatment
Lagoons. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 43:2071-2083.
The survival of coliform organisms in domestic wastewater was studied
under field conditions using a specially constructed channeled lagoon
4,000 ft. (1,218 m) long. The lagoon was continuously fed with partially
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settled raw wastewater, and the sequence of physical, chemical, and bio-
logical events comprising the transformation of raw waste to a treated
wastewater was studied in conjunction with the measurement of coliform
survival. Coliform die-away was observed to be of simple exponential
form, N-^NolO^, where N is the number of organisms at times 0 and
t and k is a rate constant. The influence on k of temperature (T),
oxidation-reduction potential (Eh), and pH was evaluated. (AA)
479. Klopatek, J. M. 1974. Production of Emergent Macrophytes and their Role
in Mineral Cycling within a Freshwater Harsh. Master's Thesis.
Department of Botany, Univ. of Wisconsin. Milwaukee. 278 pp.
480. Klopatek, J. M. 1975. The Role of Emergent Macrophytes in Mineral
Cycling in a Freshwater Marsh, pp. 367-393. In F. G. Howell, J. B.
Gentry and M. H. Smith (eds.), Mineral Cycling in Southeastern Eco-
systems. U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration Sym-
posium Series (CONF-740513).
Thersa Marsh, Wisconsin, was investigated by examining both the onto-
geny of the species and their patterns of nutrient uptake and release.
Three variable linear regression equations were employed to compare the
changes in the amount of nutrients (G/SQ M) in the belowground and the
aboveground standing crops and the level of soil nutrients in monotypic
stands of tyjpha latifolia, scirpus fluviatilis, and carex lacustris. The
highly significant correlation values between both scirpus and carex (and
to a lesser extent typha) and total soil nitrogen was somewhat surprising
since, in continually waterlogged soils, ammonia is regarded as the sole
plant-available nitrogen. The magnitude of correlations with phosphorus
indicated that the emergent macrophytes are perhaps the factor controlling
the flux of phosphorus in the soil during the growing season. Total nitro-
gen and available phosphorus in the marsh soil appear to be adequate; the
macrophytes are acquiring their nutrients from the soil, and control the
nutrients within the soil during the growing season. Denitrification
reactions appeared to occur throughout the year, especially during summer.
Potassium, calcium, and magnesium concentratins throughout the year
appeared dependent on the macrophyte uptake and leaching losses, total
respiration in the marsh, and the physical and chemical characteristics of
the water.
481. Klopatek, J. 1978. Nutrient Dynamics of a Freshwater Riyerine Marsh and
the Role of Emergent Macrophytes, pp. 195-216. In; R.E. Good, D.F.
Whigham and R.L. Simpson (eds.), Freshwater Wetlands: Ecological Pro-
cesses and Management Potential. Academic Press, New York.
The open characteristic of freshwater riverine marshes results in a
combined subsidy and withdrawal of nutrients, with the specific patterns
in a given wetland being dependent on seasonal hydrological fluctuations
and biological activity. A key feature of the marsh separating it from
terrestrial ecosystems is its inundated and anaerobic soils which show
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statistically significant (P<.01) seasonal variations in available P and K
and exchangeable Ca and Mg. Based primarily on investigations in Wiscon-
sin, the role of emergent macrophytes within the marsh nutrient cycle is
described. Concentrations of N,P,K,Ca, and Mg are shown to follow predict-
able trends over the macrophyte growing season. Regression analyses
revealed nutrient update by the macrophytes was significantly correlated
(r2 = .98,P<.01) with total soil N and available P. For the most part,
significant correlations were not present for the other elements. This is
explained by their mobility and the possibility of luxury uptake. Models
of the flow of nutrients in a Scirpus fluyiatilis stand are depicted. The
effects of a marsh drawdown on the nutrient cycle and nutrient dynamics of
Salix interior, a typical riverine marsh shurb, are also discussed. (AA)
482. Knighton, M.D., and D.E. Streblow. 1979. Study Plan: Changes in a Bog
Community Following Application of a Secondary Lagoon Effluent. Unpub-
lished report. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North
Central Forest Experiment Station, Grand Rapids, MI. 11 pp.
The research planned at this site includes measurements of species
composition changes that may occur as a result of wastewater applications.
Field methods such as low and high level photography of permanent quad-
rats, ground truthing, vegetation mapping, and other techniques are des-
cribed.
483. Kok, T. 1974. The Purification of Sewage from a Camping Site with the
Aid of a Bulrush Pond. H20 7(24):536-544.
484. Konefes, J.L., and R.W. Bachman. 1970. Growth of the Fathead Minnow
(Pimepha1es promelas) in Tertiary Treatment Ponds. Iowa Acad. Sci.,
77:104-111.
485. Kothandarman, V., and R.L. Evans. 1972. Removal of Algae from Waste Sta-
bilization Pond Effluents. State of the ARt. 111. Water Surv. Circ.,
108 pp.
486. Kowal, N.E., and H.R. Pahren. 1981. Health Effects Associated with Waste-
water Treatment and Disposal. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 52(6):
1312-1325.
487. Kramer, J.R., S.E. Herbes, and H.E. Allen. 1972. Phosphorus Analysis of
Water, Biomass and Sediment, pp. 51-100. Ii» H.E. Allen and J.R. Kramer
(eds.), Nutrients in Natural Waters. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
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488. Krapu, G. L., D. R. Parsons, and M. W. Waller. 1970. Waterfowl in
Relation to Land Use and Water Levels on the Spring Run Area. Iowa
State Journal of Science 44:437-452.
489. Krauss, A. P. 1979. Design Involvement Leads to Public Acceptance.
Water and Wastes Engineering 16( 11):50-52.
The design and construction of the new advanced wastewater treatment
plant at Greenville, Maine, is described with tables and diagrams. The
facility uses the Marsh Farm land application system for wastewater
treatment and disposal, and comprises aerobic/facultative treatment of
wastewater to a secondary level, followed by storage in a lagoon system
ready for spray irrigation from May to November. (AL)
490. Krebs, C. T., and I. Valiela. 1978. Effects of Experimentally Applied
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons on the Biomass of the Fiddler Crab, Uca.
pugnax. Estuar. Coast. Mar. Sci. 6:375-386.
491. Krebs, C. T., I. Valiela, G. Harvey, and J. M. Teal. 1974. Reduction of
Field Populations of Fiddler Crabs by Uptake of Chlorinated Hydro-
carbons. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 5:140-142.
492. Krishnamoorthi, K. P., and M. K. Abdulappa. Domestic Wastewater Utiliza-
tion Through Aquaculture Studies at Nagpur, India. Presented at IAWPR
Developments in Land Methods of Wastewater Treatment and Utilization
Intl. Conf. Melbourne, Australia. Oct. 23-27, 1978.
In Nagpur City, India, domestic sewage is being treated in stabiliza-
tion ponds. A four year study was conducted to examine algal ecology,
productivity, and operational and biological parameters in the system.
Results indicated that the system achieved a very large reduction in
pathogenic load, recycled domestic wastewaters efficiently, and yielded
many useful by-products. The relative low cost of stabilization ponds
makes them a viable economic proposition. (EL)
493. Krull, J.N. 1970. Aquatic Plant Macroinvertebrate Associations and Water-
fowl. Journal of Wildlife Management 34(4):707-718.
494. Krupauer, V. 1971. The Use of Herbivorous Fishes for Ameliorative
Purposes in Central and Eastern Europe, pp. 95-103. In Proc. Eur.
Weed Res. Counc. 3rd Int. Symp. Aquat. Weeds.
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495. Kruse, H. 1962. Some Present-day Sewage-treatment Methods in Use for
Small Communities in the Federal Republic of Germany. Bull, of the
World Health Organization 26:542-549.
496. Kruzic, A. P. 1979. Water Hyacinth Wastewater Treatment System at
Disney World, pp. 257-272. In R. K. Bastian and S. C. Reed (eds.),
Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and
Engineering Assessment. EPA 430/9-80-006. U. S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations, Municipal Con-
struction Division. Washington, DC.
In general all of the components of the project are operating as
planned but there have been problems. For example, when the ponds were
first seeded the hyacinths were hand picked and placed into the channels.
This was too slow, so a backhoe was used to finish the seeding. This was
a mistake because a great deal of dollarweed and grass was brought in with
the hyacinths. Some of the unwanted species were removed but total segre-
gation was not possible. The unwanted plant species were harvested out of
the system only after much effort.
The only major concern at this time is whether or not the system can
effectively handle primary effluent. The dissolved oxygen concentrations
are very low, floating sludge in the open areas has appeared and there are
many fly larvae where the ponds once flourished with thousands of mosquito
fish. Fortunately mosquitoes have not been a problem so far.
In summary, the hyacinth project at WALT DISNEY WORLD is still in the
process of start up. The scope of the project is quite large and there
are many details to be worked out. The system is unique in its attempt
to provide all the data needed by engineers to design a water hyacinth
wastewater treatment system. (AA)
497. Kuenzler, E. J. 1971. Aspects of Phosphorus Cycling in Brackish Waters.
Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. 50 pp. (NTIS ORO-3549-7)
In this study the consequences of subjecting small brackish water eco-
systems to domestic sewage was investigated. Six ponds, three receiving
municipal sewage wastes, were regulated with seawater, freshwater and
sewage to control salinities and retention time. The ponds were seeded
with larvae and microscopic plants, fish, and invertebrates. Measure-
ments of temperature, salinity, insolation, plant nutrients, standing
crop, and metabolic rate were taken for a two year period. The ponds
acted as tertiary treatment or oxidation ponds and prevented the deteri-
oration of the quality of receiving water. The study indicates that
reasonable amounts of sewage waste may not prove harmful to functioning
brackish ecosystems. (WE)
498. Kuenzler, E. J., and A. F. Chestnut. 1971. Structure and Functioning of
Estuarine Ecosystems Exposed to Treated Sewage Wastes. Institute of
Marine Sciences, Univ. of North Carolina, Morehead City, NC. 346 pp.
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This is the third annual report from an investigation of the eco-
logical systems which develop when estuarine waters are enriched with
sewage wastes* Faculty and students from the University of North
Carolina have studied various phases of community structure and
metabolism of six experimental brackish water ponds, three of which
receive treated sewage wastes, and of a small tidal creek and its salt
marshes. In this report are chapters on productivity, carbon metabolism,
the phosphorus budget, nitrogen, and bacterial heterotrophy; on the
standing crops of phytoplankton, decapod crustaceans, fishes , meiofauna,
foraminifera, insects, molluscs, and birds; on calcium analysis; and on
growth and reproduction of algae* The waste ponds have developed into
productive, well-integrated, but slightly unstable systems. They perform
some of the functions of tertiary treatment and hold promise for pro-
duction of harvestable seafood protein. (NT)
499. Kuenzler, E. J., W. Laughinghouse, J. A. Marsh, M. S. May, and H. N.
McKellar. 1971. Structure and Functioning of Estuarine Ecosystems
Exposed to Treated Sewage Wastes. II. Inst. of Marine Sciences.
Univ. of North Carolina. Morehead City, NC. 53 pp.
Contents: Insolation, pH, and turbidity; notes on hydrography and
phytoplankton of Calico Creek; direct bacterial counts; micro-organism
diversity study of the two sets of ponds at Morehead City, North Carol-
ina; excretion of dissolved organic phosphorus by plankton. (NT)
500. Kuenzler, E.J., A.F. Chestnut, and C.M. Weiss. 1973. Structure and Func-
tioning of Estuarine Ecosystems Exposed to Treated Sewage Wastes, III.
1971-1972. Sea Grant Rept. No. 73-10. Univ. of North Carolina. Chapel
Hill, NC. 228 pp.
This is the fifth report of investigations of the ecological systems
which develop in small brackish-water ponds enriched with secondarily
treated domestic sewage. Six ponds were built, three of which received
sewage wastes from the town of Morehead City, North Carolina. In essence,
the waste ponds were tertiary treatment or oxidation ponds. Brackish oxi-
dation ponds have seldom been studied and consequently there was a need to
examine, insofar as possible, the entire system, the physical factors, the
water chemistry (especially plant nutrient), the plant and animal popula-
tions which developed, the metabolic processes of the pond systems, the
effects of the pond system on water quality, and the aquaculture poten-
tials. (NT)
501. Kuenzler, E.J., P.J. Mulholland, L.A. Ruley, R.P. Sniffen. 1977. Water
Quality in North Carolina Coastal Plain Streams and Effects of Channel-
ization. North Carolina Water Resources Research Institute, Raleigh,
NC. UNC-WRRI Rpt. No. 127. NTIS No. PB-278 273. October. 160 p.
The physical and chemical characteristics of seven small Coastal Plain
streams of eastern North Carolina were studied. Three natural streams
which flow through relatively undisturbed bottomland hardwood forests were
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compared to four streams which had been channelized for the purpose of
reducing agricultural losses caused by flooding. Two or three sampling
stations were established on each stream. Some stations on natural
streams were essentially pristine but others received point-source inputs
of livestock farm wastes. The natural streams had broad floodplains and
low stream velocities even during flood stages. Spates occurred in all
seasons, but high discharge, and concomitant flooding of natural swamps,
were usually greatest during winter and spring. The waters of channelized
streams, however, were restricted: they attained higher velocities,
carried greater particulate loads, and were more turbid than natural
streams. Some channelized streams were enriched by sewage, by livestock
wastes, or by agricultural fertilizer. Weighted mean concentrations of
the nutrient element N and P were much lower in waters in unpolluted nat-
ural streams than in rainwater, and there was a net input of these
nutrients to the watershed. Concentrations and fluxes of elements such as
Ca, Mg, Na, K, and Cl, however, were higher in all streams than in precip-
itation and the net fluxes of these elements were directed out of the
watershed.
502. Kuo, S. and D.S. Mikkelsen. 1979. Distribution of Iron and Phosphorus in
Flooded and Unflooded Soil Profiles and their Relation to Phosphorus
Absorption. Soil Science 127:18-25.
Phosphorus adsorption was investigated in two, paired soil profiles-
flooded rice and irrigated pasture-to elucidate changes of phosphorus as a
consequence of long term seasonal soil flooding. In the two concentrations
studied, 10 and 50 ppm P, the adsorption of phosphorus was considerably
higher in the flooded rice topsoils, 0 to 30 cm in depth, than in the up-
land topsoils. The difference in phosphorus adsorption gradually
decreased as soil depth increased. High phosphorus adsorption in the rice
topsoils was attributed to the higher content of amorphous iron resulting
from reduction caused by seasonal soil submergence.
Fractionation of phosphorus in the soil profiles revealed that prolong-
ed seasonal flooding tends to increase the 0.1 N NaOH-extractable phos-
phorus and, concomitantly, to decrease the reductant soluble and calcium
phosphate contents. The lower pH and reductive conditions prevailing in
the flooded rice soils appear to be responsible for the transformations of
calcium and crystalline iron phosphates to amorphous types of phosphate
precipitates.
No significant eluviation, of iron or phosphorus was observed in the
flooded rice, as compared with adjacent pasture soils. The high clay con-
tent of these soils, coupled with a virtual lack of water movement through
the profiles, may restrict the movement of these two elements. (AA)
_. Kusler, J.A. 1980.
. Kusler, J.A. 1983.
503. Kutty, M.N., 1980. Aquaculture in Southeast Asia: Some Points of Empha-
sis. Aquaculture. 20(3):159-168.
Some aspects of aquiculture in Asia are reviewed, with emphasis on the
need for increased production of cheaper animal protein. The Eastern cul-
tures have generally been more advanced in the commercial growing of
aquatic speciss. Aquiculture is practiced in developing countries mainly
-------
to provide organisms to serve as food and to recycle organic wastes. The
priorities of current aquiculture programs, which are supported by many
international organizations, are discussed. The use of sewage as a nutri-
ent source in fish culture systems has been practiced in several Asian
countries. Controlled eutrophication has given high production rates with
caged fish in Indonesian streams, and the polyculture of carp has been
tested in sewage-fed ponds in India. Fish raised on sewage must be
examined thoroughly for pathogens before they are deemed fit for human
consumption. Semi-cultural conditions of fish growing using oceans and
man-made reservoirs may also be profitable. The abiotic factors affecting
fish reproduction and growth must be carefully controlled. Behaviorial
patterns of fish should also be studied to optimize fish growth and pre-
vent wasting of energy derived from food. Other areas of aquiculture that
require further research are the genetic improvement "of species used for
breeding and fish food sources.
504. Lackey, J.B. 1967. Nutrient and Pollutant Response of Estuarine Biotas.
In; Proc. Natl. Symp. Estuarine Pollution. Aug. 23-25, 1967.
The behavior of microbiota, algae and protozoa, as affected by commer-
cial, recreational, and metropolitan uses of estuarine waters are out-
lined. Some of the findings include: 1) estuaries and bays are of great
economic and recreational value as nurseries, fishing grounds, shellfish-
eries, and boating and bathing areas, 2) human activities often modify the
preferred ecology by adding nutrients or pollutants, 3) the suspended
microscopic plants and animals (plankton), and those of the interface
(benthos) are most easily studied qualitatively and quantitatively, 4)
some pollutants, such as silt, sharply reduce the microscopic populations,
and 5) the role of the engineer in estuarine studies is seeing that ade-
quate biological studies are made so adequate treatment facilities will
prevent overenrichment or pollution. (WE)
505. Lakshman, G. 1979. An Ecosystem Approach to the Treatment of Waste
Waters. J. Environ. Qual. 8(3):353.
Aquatic plants such as bulrush (Scirpus sjgp_) and cattail (Typjha spp)
were used to purify untreated municipal sewage in experimental tanks in a
growth chamber measuring 5.5 by 3.7 by 3.7 m high. Initial concentrations
of total phosphorus (TP) and total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) before treat-
ment ranged from 3.9 to 29.0 ppm for TP and from 10.3 to 44.0 ppm for TKN.
Rates of removal of phosphorus and Kjeldahl nitrogen by the plants were
monitored and compared with a control without plants. Generally, the
concentrations of TP and TKN decreased exponentially in the treatment
trays during the individual experimental runs. High rates of purification,
up to 98%, were achieved in <20 days. During the 20 experimental runs
lasting >500 days the plants showed unabated ability to remove nutrients
while the control achieved a saturated condition.
Rates of nutrient uptake by the experimental plants increased with the
ambient concentration and were much faster than the rates predicted by
Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Above-water biomass obtained by periodic har-
vesting showed that the plants contained high levels of digestible organic
-------
matter (DOM) and crude protein comparable to the values obtainable from
alfalfa. Experimental data have been used in develop equations for large-
scale in situ applications. Data presented here show that aquatic plants
have considerable potential in the purification of municipal waste waters
within reasonably short periods.
506. Lakshman, G. 1980. A Demonstration Project at Humboldt to Provide Ter-
tiary Treatment to the Municipal Effluent Using Aquatic Plants. 1979
Progress Report. Saskatchewan Research Council. Saskatoon, Saskatche-
wan, Canada, 67 pp.
507. Lalancette, J.M. , and B. Coupal. 1972. Recovery of Mercury from Polluted
Water through Peat Treatment, pp. 213-217. in; Fourth Int. Peat Cong.
Proc. Ontaniemi, Finland.
508. Lance, W.R. 1971. Use of Tertiary Treated Water for Waterfowl Habitat
Fish Rearing Facilities. Master's Thesis. Colorado State University.
509. Larsen, J.E., G.F. Warren, and R. Langston. 1959. Effect of Iron, Alumi-
num, and Humic Acid on Phosphorus Fixation by Organic Soils. Soil Sci,
Soc. Amer. Proc. 23:438-440.
510. Larson-Albers, C.E. 1981. The Effects of Wetland and Drainage Ditch Out-
puts on the Water Quality of a Stream in South Central Minnesota, pp.
181-198. In; B. Richardson (ed.), Selected Proceedings of the Midwest
Conference on Wetland Values and Management. Minnesota Water Planning
Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
To form a baseline study of a proposed county ditch, nutrient levels
(PO4-P, TKN and N03~N) were monitored during 1980 at eight sites along
the stream proposed to be channelized. Tributaries from three partially
drained wetlands and four drainage ditches were also sampled to compare
wetland and ditch outputs and to assess their impact on the stream's water
quality. The 4554-acre watershed of the stream was dissected into the
tributary subsheds and percentage of different land use categories, num-
bers of animal units, and tiling histories were compiled and examined for
relationships to water chemistry differences.
From the significant differences found in nutrient concentrations among
sites, it was possible to form a wetland-to-ditch continuum bounded at
either end by the most distinct wetland (P04-P, TKN, and NO3~N means
of .919, 3.42, and 0.24 ppm) and the most distinct ditch (PO4~P, TKN,
and NO3~N means of .112, 1.32, and 8.75 ppm). In the spring, one wet-
land of the three studied and two in the summer were significantly differ-
ent from drainage ditches with higher levels of PO4~P and TKN and lower
levels of NO3~N. Differences among the other sites were based primarily
-------
on nitrate levels in which the wetlands as a group could be separated by
their lower concentrations from the ditches. Land use possibly
contributes to these differences, as a lower row crop-to-wetland ratio in
the watershed of a tributary corresponds to more wetland-like chemistry in
the outlet.
511. Lazio, T. 1972. Reeds Control Eutrophication of Balaton Lake. Water
Research 6:1533-1539.
The effects of sewage from a water treatment plant on Lake Balaton,
Austria, was studied. A comparison was made of the effect of effluent
that flowed through reeds versus the effluent that flowed directly into
the lake. The effluent passing through the reeds had hardly detectable
amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus. (WE)
512. Lee, C.R., et. al., 1976. Feasibility of the Functional Use of Vegetation
to Filter, Dewater, and Remove Contaminants from Dredged Material. U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers Environmental Laboratory, Tech. Rept. D-76-4
NTIS No. AD A028336.
513. Lee, C.R., B.L. Folsom, Jr., and R.M. Engler. 1980. Availability and
Plant Uptake of Heavy Metals from Contaminated Dredged Material Placed
in Flooded and Upland Disposal Environments. U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
A solid-phase plant bioassay was used in an attempt to verify previous
dredged material results and to develop a procedure that could indicate
phytotoxicity and bioaccumulation of heavy metals in contaminated dredged
material. Sediments known to be highly contaminated with one or more con-
taminants were collected from five freshwater locations in the Great Lakes
and five saltwater locations in the U.S. The plant species used as indi-
cators were Cyperus esjpu^enjbjas in the freshwater sediment tests and Spar-
tina alterniflpra and Di^Jbichlj.^ spicata in the saltwater sediment tests.
The bioassays indicated that greater uptake of Cd and Zn occurred from
dredged freshwater sediments in the upland disposal environment than from
the flooded environment. The reverse was true for As, with an increase in
bioaccumulation and phytotoxicity observed in the flooded environment.
Factors influencing the availability and plant uptake of the heavy metals
include sediment redox potential, organic matter content, total sulfur
content, and pH. (WR)
514. Lee, C., R. Hoeppel, G. Hunt, and C. Carlson. 1967. Feasibility of the
Functional Use of Vegetation to Filter, Dewater and Remove Contamin-
ants from Dredged Material. Tech. Rept. D-76-4. U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
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515. Lee, C.R., R.M. Smart, T.C. Sturgis, R.N. Gordon, Sr., and M.C. Landin.
1978. Prediction of Heavy Metal Uptake by Marsh Plants Based on Chemi-
cal Extraction of Heavy Metals from Dredged Material. Tech. Rept.
D-78-6. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station.
Vicksburg, MS. 107 pp.
Marsh plant species studied included Spartina a^terniflora, Spartina
patens, and Distichlis spticata. Results indicated that most marsh plants
colonizing dredged material disposal sites sampled in this study contained
relatively low concentrations of Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb, Cr, Ni, and Hg. These
concentrations were very similar to those reported for natural coastal
marshes. There were a few locations, however, in which the concentrations
of Zn, Cu, Cd, and Pb in the marsh plants were an order of magnitude
greater than the concentrations measured in the majority of marsh plants.
The occurrence of these elevated concentrations of heavy metals emphasizes
the need for a method to predict heavy metal availability from dredged
material to plants. (AA)
516. Lee, C.R., T.C. Sturgis, and M.C. Landin. 1976. A Hydroponic Study of
Heavy Metal Uptake by Selected Marsh Plant Species. Tech. Rept.
D-76-5. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.
Eight species of marsh plants were grown in chemically controlled
hydroponic solutions containing three concentrations of heavy metals to
evaluate the ability of each plant species to take up and accumulate heavy
metals. The marsh plants were Cyperus esculentus, Scirpus validus, Spar-
tina patens, Scirpus robust us, pistichlis spicata , Tric[lochin mar i t ima,
Sjpjirtina a 11 er ni f lor a, and Spartina foliosa. The heavy metals studied
were Zn, Cd, Ni, Pb, and Cr, at concentrations of 0.0, 0.5, and 1.0 ppm.
Marsh plants were exposed to heavy metals for six weeks and harvested.
Plants were separated into tops, lower stems, rhizomes, tubers, and roots
and analyzed for heavy metals to locate plant parts where heavy metals
may accumulate.
Exposure to heavy metals adversely affected the growth of jS. validus,
£• patens, D. spi cat a, and S_. alterniflora more than the other plant
species evaluated. The species that appeared to have more potential in
taking up Zn, Cd, and Ni were C. e sculentus, jS. patens, D. spipata> and to
some extent IS. alternif 1 or a. Pb and Cr accumulated in the roots of all
species with very little translocation into plant tops. Phosphorus and
iron content in the roots apopeared to be a major factor in determining
the ability of a marsh plant to translocate heavy metals from the roots
into other plant parts. (AA)
517. Lee, G.F., E. Bentley, and R. Admundson. 1969. Effect of Marshes on Water
Quality. Water Chemistry Laboratory, Madison, WI. 25 pp.
518. Lee, G.F. , E. Bentley, and R. Admundson. 1975. Effects of Marshes on
Water Quality, pp. 105-127. In; A.D. Hasler (ed.), Coupling of Land
-------
and Water Systems. Ecological Studies, Vol. 10. Springer-Verlag, New
York, NY.
Four marsh areas located near Madison, Wisconsin, were studied for
several years to determine the effects of these wetlands on water quality.
Productivity, chemical composition, and nutrient transport from the marsh-
es are described based on data from the sites. It was determined that
marshes have both beneficial and detrimental effects on water quality, and
that the beneficial effects outweigh the detrimental effects. (EP)
519. Lee, G.F., and R.A. Jones. 1980. An Approach for the'Evaluation of Effi-
cacy of Wetlands-based Phosphorus Control Programmes for Eutrophication
Related Water Quality Improvement in Downstream Water Bodies. Water,
Air, and Soil Pollution 14:359-378.
It has been suggested that re-creation of the marshes that used to
exist in the Okeechobee Lake, Florida, watershed is the key to the preven-
tion of further eutrophication of this lake. The need for information on
the factors controlling algae and other aquatic growth is stated, and in-
formation available on the subject is reviewed. The cycling of the con-
trolling element(s) through restored wetlands must also be considered, and
whether a Florida wetland is a significant nutrient trap. The possibility
of developing a sufficient acreage of wetlands to maintain and, where
possible, improve water quality in Lake Okeechobee is discussed. It is
concluded that the proposed wetlands may have limited impact on eutrophi-
cation-related water quality of the lake. (AL)
520. Lee, K.W., R.J. Natuk, R.L. Simpson, and D.F. Whigham. 1977. Effects pf
Sewage on Soil Algae of a Freshwater Tidal Marsh. J. of Phycology Vol.
13 (supplement). 39 pp.
521. Leendertse, J.J. 1970. Environmental Simulation as a Tool in a Marine
Waste Disposal Study of Jamaica Bay. Rept. No. P-4163. Rand Corp.
Santa Monica, CA. 11 pp.
The study of technical solutions to the problem of managing fluid waste
discharges in an estuary involves complicated relationships, such as those
between the waste load, the location of discharges, the degree of treat-
ment, the geometry of the estuary, the flow in the estuary, and the temp-
erature. Models can be built to predict the probable consequences of each
of the alternative solutions chosen. Using the predictions obtained from
these models and whatever other information or insight is relevant, alter-
natives can be compared and conclusions drawn concerning the most desir-
able course of action. Such a model for well-mixed estuaries and coastal
seas is presented and described. (NT)
522. Lefor, M.W., W.C. Kennard, and T.B. Helfgott (eds.). 1976. Proceedings:
Third Wetlands Conference. The University of Connecticut Institute of
Water Resources* Report No. 26. August 1976.
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The work upon which this publication is based was supported in part by
funds provided by the United States Department of the Interior, as author-
ized under the Water Resources Research Act of 1964, Public Law 88-379.
523. LeFurgey, A., and J.St. Jean, Jr. 1976. Foraminifera in Brackish-Water
Ponds Designed for Waste Control and Aquaculture Studies in North
Carolina. Journal of Foraminiferal Research. 6(4):274-294.
Effluent may not itself be lethal to foraminifera or deleterious to
sedimentary environments but effluent in experimental ponds does not favor
foraminifera success. This study determines how sewage effluent affects
foraminifera species composition and diversity, standing crops, and sea-
sonal and aeral distribution in six artificial ponds on Calico Creek and
Bogue Sound, North Carolina. Each 0.1 acre pond with maximum depth less
than one m, was constructed and began operation in late 1968; monthly sam-
pling was initiated in fall 1970. Bogue Sound ponds simulate conditions
of a well-flushed shallow marine lagoon typical of U.S. mid-Atlantic
coast. Calico Creek ponds simulate a shallow marine marsh estuary pol-
luted by secondary effluent discharged from a sewage treatment plant.
Elphidium clayatum is the most common species in both effluent and control
ponds. Species diversity is 20% higher and average living-foraminifera
numbers are five times greater than effluent ponds. Standing crops in
effluent ponds average 4.5 living specimens cc, in control ponds 23.7
living specimens cc. Estimated productivity is trebled in control ponds.
Microenvironmental differences in oxygen, pH, and food supply make fora-
miniferal distribution erratic. Moderate summer phytoplankton blooms
occur in control ponds. In effluent ponds, dense winter phytoplankton
blooms and concurrently low light levels, devastate original foraminifera
populations, creating fluctuating foraminifera ecological significance.
524. Leonard, R.A., Bailey, and Swank, R.R., Jr. 1976. Transport, Detoxifica-
tion, Fate and Effects of Pesticides in Soil and Water Environments,
pp. 48-78. In; Land Application of Waste Materials, Soil Conservation
Society of America, Ankeny, IA.
525. Lewis, B.C., P.C. Chee, R.M. Goldstein, F.C. Kornegay, D.L. Mabes, L.F.
Soholt, and W.S. Vinikour. 1978. A Biologist's Manual for the Evalua-
tion of Impacts of Coal-Fired Power Plants on Fish, Wildlife, and Their
Habitats. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. FWS/OBS-78/75. 206 pp.
526. Lewis, J.C., and E.W. Bunce (eds.). 1980. Rehabilitation and Creation of
Selected Coastal Habitats: Proceedings of a Workshop, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service. FWS/OBS-80/27. 162 pp.
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527. Lewis, S.J. 1977. Avian Communities and Habitats on Natural and Waste-
water Irrigated Vegetation. Master's Thesis. Pennsylvania State
University, University Park.
528. Lewis, W.M., and M. Bender. 1961. Effect of a Cover of Duckweeds and the
Alga Pijthophora Upon Dissolved Oxygen and Free Carbon Dioxide of Small
Ponds. Ecology 42:602-603.
The investigation of ponds which had a cover of duckweeds revealed that
oxygen was very low and carbon dioxide abnormally high. The observations
given indicate that a covering of duckweeds and to a lesser extent a cov-
ering of Pithophora can reduce the dissolved oxygen of water to a critical
level for fishes. There is also an increase in free carbon dioxide. A
comparison between ponds with some cover and a pond without cover demon-
strates a marked difference in these two variables.
Although actual fish mortality was observed only once, (Pond 1, 1959)
repopulation of Pond 1 by flooding occurred in the fall of 1959 and at the
time of the August 1960 observations, the fishes were gasping at the
surface.
529. Lin, S.Y. 1974. The Dialectics of a Proposal on Biological Control of
Eutrophication in Sewage Lagoons. In; Proc. Conf. on Wastewater Use in
the Production of Food and Fiber. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Ada, OK.
530. Linde, A.F. 1969. Techniques for Wetland Management. Wisconsin Depart-
ment of Natural Resources Research Rept. 45. Madison, WI. 155 pp.
531. Linde, A.F., T. Janisch, and D. Smith. 1976. Cattail - The Significance
of Its Growth, Phenology, and Carbohydrate Storage to Its Control and
Management. Tech. Bull. No. 94. Wisconsin Department of Natural Re-
sources. Madison, WI. 27 pp.
532. Lindsley, D., T. Schuck, and F,. Stearns. 1976. Productivity and Nutrient
Content of Emergent Macrophytes in Two Wisconsin Marshes, pp. 53-76.
In; D.L. Tilton, R.H. Kadlec, and C.J. Richardson (eds.), Proceedings
of a Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal,
Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
This study took place at McNaughton Marsh, a relatively infertile marsh
on the Wisconsin River in north-central Wisconsin. The purpose was to
determine if aquatic emergent macrophytes influenced the level of avail-
able soil nutrients and consequently water quality. Data from this infer-
tile marsh is compared to data from Theresa Marsh, a fertile marsh. Con-
clusions are that levels of nutrients in the sandy substrate appear to be
-------
controlled to a great extent by vegetation. McNaughton marsh appears to
function in a similar manner to Theresa marsh with the major difference
being the quantity of nutrients involved. Authors suggest that sandy
marshes, such as McNaughton, whose soils do not bind nutrients appreciably
offer high promise for wastewater treatment. (WE)
533. Lindsley, D., T. Schuck, and F. Stearns. 1977. Primary Productivity and
Mineral Regimes in a Northern Wisconsin Marsh, pp. 38-52. In; C.B.
DeWitt and E. Soloway (eds.), Wetlands Ecology, Values, and Impacts.
Proceedings of the Waubesa Conference on Wetlands held 2-5 June 1977.
Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
McNaughton Marsh, located on the Wisconsin River in north central Wis-
consin, is underlain by sands of the Vilas/Crivitz series. During the
1974 growing season primary production of five species of emergent aquat-
ics was determined monthly. Net primary production was found to approxi-
mate values reported from much more eutrophic sites elsewhere in North
America. Daily productivity above-ground, from the beginning of growth to
the time of peak biomass, was as follows: Sagittaria latifolia 4.39g/m^,
Eleocharis palustris 4.32 g/m^, Juncus effusus 10.3 g/m2, Spar cranium
eurycarpum 8.8 g/m2 and Scirpus validus 6.3 g/m2. Mineral nutrient
concentrations in McNaughton Marsh plants are comparable to those reported
elsewhere, despite the low levels of available minerals in these sandy
soils. The nature of the substrate is important in nutrient uptake.
Plants growing in McNaughton Marsh appear to "skim off" nutrients from the
substrate as rapidly as they are received from river flow and runoff. The
degree to which the river nutrient load can be increased without altering
the functioning of the marsh system must be resolved by further research.
(AA)
534. Lion, L.W. 1980. Cadmium, Copper, and Lead in Estuarine Salt Marsh Micro-
layers: Accumulation, Speciation, and Transport. Ph.D. Diss. Stanford,
Univ., CA. 386 pp.
535. Lisiecki, J.B. , and C.D. McNabb. 1975. Dynamics of Hazardous Elements in
Wastewater Ponds. Project Completion Report. Office of Water Research
and Technology. Washington, DC. 101 pp. (NTIS PB-248 404/GST)
A detailed record was developed of temperature, light, dissolved oxy-
gen, Eh, pH, and sediment characteristics for a municipal waste stabiliza-
tion pond in Michigan in which the dynamics of Cu and Cd were studied over
the growing season. The submersed vascular plants, Ceratpphyllum
demersum, and Potomogetqn foliosus, and the epineustic Lemma minor formed
the principal plant population in the pond. Their degree of participation
in the budgets of the metals is described. Budgets for total Cu and total
Cd were developed for the pond at two or three week intervals from May
through September. For the period of study, the plants had a net loss
equivalent to 2% of the Cu influent to the pond. There was a net removal
of Cd by the pond for intervals from the start of the study to mid-August.
-------
The aquatic plant community showed a net gain in Cd until mid-August, and
a net loss with senescence thereafter. The zooplankton and benthic macro-
invertebrates of the pond showed net gains and losses that were a very
small fraction of the total budgets of the elements. (NT)
536. Lohman, L.C. 1979. An Overview of the Legal, Political, and Social
Implications of Wastewater, pp. 459-474. In; R.K. Bastian and S.C.
Reed (eds.), Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Pro-
ceedings and Engineering Assessment. EPA-430/9-80-006. U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations, Construc-
tion Grants Program. Washington, DC.
One of the ways to deal with the legal and political conflicts which
could face a wastewater aquaculture proposal would be the establishment of
a lead agency to coordinate planning, public information, and legal
requirements. Such an agency could address the specific concerns of in-
volved federal and state agencies from a single information source.
Although the national water policy represents a call for innovative
methods of water use and treatment, the only real incentive, at present,
is the lower construction and operating costs of a wastewater aquaculture
facility. These savings could be offset by discharge restrictions, extra
testing requirements, or limitations on by-product use. Until the
incentive to innovate is clear, outweighing extra demands for educational
and environmental safeguards, wastewater aquaculture will not receive wide
consideration.
Many of the social and political implications of such a project can be
addressed through a properly designed citizen participation program. The
public is sometimes ahead of the professionals in willingness to innovate.
Only one rule is unchangeable-all official presentations must be complete-
ly honest. (AA)
537. Loucks, O., R. Prentki, U. Watson, B. Reynolds, P. Weiler, S. Bartell, and
A.B. D'Allessio. 1977. Studies of the Lake Wingra Watershed: An
Interim Report. Rept. 78. Center for Biotic Systems, Institute for
Environmental Studies, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison.
538. Lowry, D., and D. Yonika. 1979. Feasibility of Wetland Disposal of
Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluent in Massachusetts. In; J.C. Suther-
land and R.H. Kadlec (eds.), Wetland Utilization for Management of Com-
munity Wastewater. Abstracts of a conference held 10-12 July 1979 at
Higgins Lake, MI.
Investigations were carried out to consider the feasibility of utiliz-
ing wetland ecosystems for the "polishing" of secondary wastewater treat-
ment plant effluent in Massachusetts. The study involved several distinct
but complementary tasks. Task 1 was designed to identify inland and coas-
tal wetlands within Massachusetts which offered potential as sites for
acceptance of secondary treated wastewater effluent. Task 2 involved a
further focusing of potential study areas down to two wetland areas, one
-------
inland and one coastal. Task 3 was designed to complement the evaluation
process embodied in Tasks 1 and 2, by monitoring of an actual field situa-
tion involving wetland disposal of secondarily treated wastewater efflu-
ent. The existing situation at Concord, Massachusetts was selected for
this task. At this site secondary treated wastewater effluent is dis-
charged into the "Upper Pool" marsh of the U.S. Pish and Wildlife Service
Wildlife Refuge. Water quality improvements through the marsh were noted
by annual reductions in BOD (67%), ammonia-N (59%), ortho-P (49%), total P
(47%) and nitrate-N (21%). Distinct seasonal variations in marsh reno-
vating capacities were also noted, generally marked by highest removal
rates during the spring to mid-growing season, and lowest removal rates
(or increase) during the winter.
A recommendation is made to monitor in detail all existing situations
in the State where treatment plant effluent is discharged into vegetated
wetlands. Multi-variate analysis relating wetland component conditions to
water quality results might then provide further elucidation into the
feasibility of the concept at specific locations. (AA)
539. Ludwig, R. et al. 1980. The Use and Potential of Aquatic Species for
Wastewater Treatment. Appendix E. The Use of Aquatic Systems for
Wastewater Treatment: An Assessment. Publication No. 65. California
State Water Resources Control Board, Sacramento, CA.
540. Lunz, J.D. 1978a. The Uptake of Toxic Substances by Wetland Soils and
Plants. Paper presented at the National Symposium on Wetlands, Lake
Buena Vista, FL. November 7-10, 1978.
541. Lunz, J.D. 1978b. Habitat Development Field Investigations, Windmill Point
Marsh Development Site, James River, Virginia; Appendix E; Environment-
al Impact of Marsh Development with Dredged Material: Metals and Chlor-
inated Hydrocarbon Compounds in Marsh Soils and Vascular Plant Tissues.
Technical Report D-77-23. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Ex-
periment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
542. Lyles, E., M. McCollum, J. Chirieleison, R. Finley, R. Engel-Wilson, and
S. Anderson. 1979. A Computerized Ecological Impact Evaluation Method
(CEIEM), pp. 365-368. In; G.A. Swanson (ed.), The Mitigation Symposium:
A National Workshop on Mitigating Losses of Fish and Wildlife Habitats.
General Technical Rept. RM-65. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experi-
m;lent Station, U.S. Forest Service. Fort Collins, CO.
543. Lynch, J.J. et al. 1947. Effects of Aquatic Weed Infestations on the
Fish and Wildlife of the Gulf States, USDI Fish and Wildlife Special
Scientific Report, 39, 1947, pp. 1-71.
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Lynch evaluated the nature and extent of damage to wildlife and fisher-
ies caused by water hyacinth and alligatorweed, the amount of economic
damage caused, and the effect of weed control programs on fisheries and
wildlife. Water hyacinth and alligatorweed provide a serious threat
because once the species colonize an area they alter the habitat, diminish
the value of wildlife/ and restrict access of recreationalists. In Louisi-
ana alone the fish and wildlife resource affected annually by the
encroachment of these species is estimated to be worth $368,000,000. In
all cases, water under mats of hyacinth plants exhibited an oxygen deficit
and was unsuitable for fish life. Hyacinth mats also interfere with the
normal interchange of gases between the water surface and atmosphere pre-
venting the release of CC>2 and H2S. It was concluded that a concen-
trated effort needs to be developed to control the further spread of
exotic weed species in the south. (AA)
544. MacGregor, K.A., M.S. Klein, J.S. Bazzolo, and M.E. Delaney. 1980. Muni-
cipal Solid Waste Disposal in Estuaries and Coastal Marshlands. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Municipal Environmental Research Lab.
Cincinnati, OH 183 pp.
This study was accomplished through: questionnaire survey on disposal
practices of the coastal states and Puerto Rico that identified the extent
of monitoring data available; site visits to state agencies possessing
significant monitoring data; and a survey/analysis of State and Federal
regulations. In addition, an extensive search of both the formal scien-
tific literature and the "gray" technical report literature was conducted.
Recommendations for improvements in regulations, for the mitigation of ad-
verse environmental effects of MSW disposal in the coastal zone and an
extensive bibliography are also provided. This study reached the follow-
ing conclusions:
0 MSW disposal sites should be located to prevent leachate migration/-
operated to minimize leachate production; and monitored and regu-
lated to control the detrimental effects to the environment.
0 The impact of municipal solid waste disposal on coastal ecosystems
has not been analyzed in depth by eilther the scientific or the
regulatory community.
0 The only well-documented impact is habitat depletion. There is a
high probability that this is also the most serious impact result-
ing from MSW disposal.
0 There are circumstances in which coastal MSW disposal can be used
for beneficial purposes, e.g., to provide a substrate for habitat
creation. (AA)
545. Maguire, L.A. 1974. A Model of Beaver Population and Feeding Dynamics in
a Peatland at Houghton Lake, Michigan. Master's Thesis. Univ. of
Michigan, Ann Arbor.
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546. Majori, L., and P. Petronio. 1973. Marine Pollution by Metals and Their
Accumulation by Biological Indicators (accumulation factor). Rev.
Intern. Oceanorg. Med. Tomes XXXI-XXXII.
Mention is first made of the present day toxicological interest taken
in the growing environmental pollution by potentially toxic materials.
Especially in the marine environment, these dissolved pollutants set
serious hygienic problems when the close contact and their affinity, as
regards marine organisms, are considered.
The experimental study of the effects of metal pollution simulated in
the laboratory, on sensitive biological subjects such as mussels, is
useful not only in estimating the negative hygienic consequences on a
wider scale, but also for example for purposes of pollution diagnosis by
using the mussel as pollution indicator. This investigation can be aided
by working out a suitable mathematical model of correlation between pollu-
tion and accumulation, for descriptive and predictive purposes.
As regards the experimental procedure, the description of the analyti-
cal methods used in our institute for the measurement of the metals in
marine water and in biological tissue are described, as well as the
methods of maintenance and simulated pollution of the mussels by heavy
metals, added as soluble ions.
The results, obtained by using Cd++, CU"*"1", Pb++ as soluble pollu-
tants, confirm their accumulation by the mussel and specify the hygienic
dangers for the mussel and man, as well as the characteristics of the
mussel as indicator of marine pollution. The simplified model of corre-
lation between pollution and accumulation which we use, is very useful to
quantify these important aspects. (AA)
547. Mann, R., and R.E. Taylor, Jr. 1981. Growth of the Bay Scallop, Argq-
pecten irradians, in a Waste Recycling Aquaculture System. Aquaculture
24(1/2):45-52.
This report presents results of studies of the growth of Argppecten
irradians both in a pilot scale waste recycling aquaculture system, and in
laboratory systems at four temperatures when fed on phytoplankton cultured
in sewage-seawater mixtures. Juvenile A. irradians were grown success-
fully on a diet of phytoplankton cultured in sewage-seawater mixtures. A.
irradians increased from initial live and dry meat weights of 1.15 g and
0.043 g respectively, to terminal values of 9.08 g and 0.599 g, respec-
tively. This corresponds to instantaneous growth rates for live weight
and dry meat weight of 0.009 and 0.013, respectively. High mortalities
were evident towards the end of the experiment.
548. Mann, R., J.M. Vaughn, E.F. Landry, and R.E. Taylor, Jr. 1979. Uptake of
Heavy Metals, Organic Trace Contaminants and Viruses by the Japanese
Oyster, Crassostrea gi gas, Grown in a Waste Recycling Aquaculture Sys-
tem. Tech. Rept. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Wood Holes, MA.
A 24 week study was carried out in which oysters (C. gigas) were grown
in four regimes: on phytoplankton cultured in a mixture of secondary
treated sewage effluent and seawater for a period of 12 weeks followed by
-------
a second 12 week period of feeding on phytoplankton cultured in a "clean,"
organically enriched regime; as above except that the secondary effluent
was sand-filtered prior to use; as above except that the effluent was
charcoal-filtered prior to use; and using "clean," inorganically enriched
phytoplankton food for the 24 week period. At 2 week intervals, oyster
populations were removed for assay for trace metals (e.g., Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg,
Ni, Pb, and Zn) and organic contaminants (e.g., hydrocarbons and PCBs). No
significant accumulation or depuration of any metal or organic contaminant
was evident in any of the regimes. In terms of these contaminants all
oysters were within acceptable edible standards as set by FDA. A series
of experiments carried out to examine the public health implications of
enterovirus survival in a mollusk culture system fertilized with secondary
treated sewage effluent used MS-2 bacteriophage and vaccine strain polio-
virus; apparently depuration could be effected in 20-25 days in C. gigas
at 15 degrees C. However, this does not mean that such a time span would
be adequate for other enteroviruses. (PA)
549. Mann, R., and J.H. Ryther. 1977. Growth of Six Species of Bivalve
Molluscs in a Waste Recycling-Aquaculture System. Aquaculture 11(3):
231-246.
Growth of six species of bivalve mollusk (Grassestrea giges, Tapes
japgnica, Mercenaria mercenaria, C. virginica, mytilus edulis, and ostrea
edulis) was compared in a waste recycling-aquaculture system. Tests were
conducted at temperatures of 15 and 20 degrees C from November 1975 - May
1976. The animals were fed algae, mostly Phaeodactylum tricornutum, en-
riched with secondary treated sewage effluent. C. gigas, T. japonica, and
2* Edulis grew well, but M. mercenaria, C. virginica, and M. edulis exhib-
ited poor growth. The growth of C. gigas, T. j aponica, and 0. edulis in-
dicates the biological feasibility of producing animal protein through a
combined tertiary sewage-treatment-aquaculture system. Although the
growth rates presented were not exceptional when compared with those
recorded in natural situations, the potential for culture at high densi-
ties appears reasonable. (EL)
550. Mariani, G.M. 1979. Development of a Bioassay for the Evaluation of Open
Water Disposal of Dredged Material. Ph.D. Univ. of Texas, Dallas. 511
pp.
551. Markarian, R.K., J.E. Balon, and A.C. Robinson. 1977. A Review of
Current Interest and Research in Water Hyacinth-Based Wastewater Treat-
ment. Battelle Columbus Labs, Ohio. NTIS No. N77-33683. February, 53 p.
A survey of researchers, literature, and potential users indicates that
water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) for wastewater treatment can provide
a lower-cost method for small cities and towns to meet increasingly strin-
gent effluent requirements. While there have been a few demonstrations of
hyacinth systems during the past two years, little design data has been
made available. Several full-scale projects are planned for 1977-78. At
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present there is no source from which to purchase a treatment system or
design which has been approved by appropriate regulatory agencies or for
which there are demonstrated performance capabilities or cost information.
Such a product may be available in three or four years, however, as sever-
al suppliers of conventional systems are testing hyacinth designs. Con-
trolled experiments under realistic nutrient loading conditions are needed
to develop a satisfactory system. Required data include: (1) optimal
physical design (lagoon depth, area, holding time, and harvesting method-
ology); (2) construction and operating costs; (3) plant-escape prevention
techniques; and (4) system performance under various loading conditions
and temperature cycles. The best institutional arrangement for such test-
ing would involve a joint effort of an engineering firm, wastewater treat-
ment authority, regulatory agencies and a funding source such as EPA. The
use, if any, of harvested plants is not of general concern.
552. Marshall, D.E. 1970. Characteristics of Spartina Marsh Receiving Treated
Municipal Sewage Wastes. In; H.T. Odum and A.F. Chestnut (eds.),
Studies in Marine Estuarine Ecosystems Developing with Treated Sewage
Wastes. Inst. Marine Sci., University of North Carolina. Annual
Report 1969-1970.
This study compared an effluent-fertilized and a natural salt marsh
through an annual cycle. On the basis of general appearance, the waste
receiving marsh in Calico Creek produced a higher biomass of Spartina
alternifplia than the natural marsh, thus indicating a beneficial effect
of fertilization. The augmented growth of Spartina and its rapid decay
were paralleled by a high population of snails, particularly Ljttorina
irrorata. The increased activity of bacteria and rate of decomposition of
organic tissues is attributed to the release of nutrients by dead Spartina
grass and melampus snails. No significant difference was detected in the
subsurface salinity of the two marshes.
553. Marshall, P.E., and N. Pattullo, 1981. Mycorrhizal Occurrence in Willows
in a Northern Freshwater Wetland. Plant and Soil 59(3):465-471.
The intensity of mycorrhizal infection in wetland willows growing in
central Michigan was not affected by added phosphorus. Two sites were
compared, one water-saturated and one drier. P was added at two levels,
20 or 200 kg P per ha, to simulate potential inputs from the disposal of
secondary municipal wastewater effluent. Scoring was based on a 0 to 4
scale, 2 and 3 designating the presence of a definite faunal mantle ob-
served by electron microscopy, with 3 having considerable intercellular
hyphae and slight epidermal cell elongation. In the wet site, mycorrhizal
infection was rated between 1.86 and 3.30, reaching a minimum in August, a
a dry month, and a maximum in September. No statistical differences were
seen between control, high P, and low P, except in August when the infec-
tion was greater than control in the sites receiving P. In the drier
site, infection was rated between 1.25 and 3.30, reaching a minimum in
August at all sites and a maximum in September at the control site, and a
maximum in July in the low and high sites. Low and high P sites had more
infection than the controls in July and August, and less in September.
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554. Maryland Water Resources Research Center. 1974. Program Activities.
Water Resources Research Center. Univ. of Maryland. (NTIS Rept. No. PB-
239686).
Research and other program activities under way at the Maryland Water
Resources Research Center during FY74 are described, and current and anti-
cipated water problems are identified. The Center's largest project per-
tains to the potential impact on soils, crops, and other vegetation of
emissions of a large, natural draft cooling tower that used brackish
water. Other problems being studied include treatment and disposal of
farm wastes, urban storm runoff, chlorinated sewage effluents, heavy
metals and minerals in Chesapeake Bay sediments, water pollution effects
on aquatic life, and contributions of tidal marshlands to food chains in
estuaries. (EL)
555. Massachusetts Inst. of Tech. 1977. Electron Irradiation, Sewage Sludge,
and Aquaculture. MIT/Marine Industry Collegium Opportunity Brief No.
6. Sea Grant Rept. No. 77-14. Massachusetts Inst. of Tech. Cambridge,
MA. 31 pp.
The current state of electron irradiation as a sludge sterilization
method is reviewed. The costs with existing methods are compared and some
economic projections about the production and sale of sludge as fertilizer
are made. Given that the irradiation treatment of sewage sludge produces
a nutrient-rich, sterile medium for the culture of microorganisms, a con-
trolled ecosystem could be designed using this nutrient energy base upon
which to structure a food web capable of supporting the commercial pro-
duction of marketable human or animal foods. Such a contrived ecosystem
might be managed intensively to achieve high efficiency of production of
desired high-value aquatic species. Alternatively, extensive culture
systems based on irradiated sludge might be managed to produce large quan-
tities of animal feed composed essentially of algal or fungal single-cell
proteins. (NT)
556. Mattson, C.P, et al. 1975. Nitrogen Import and Uptake Measured on
Marshes of the Hackensack River in New Jersey. Paper Presented at 38th
Ann. Meeting Amer. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr., Halifax, Nova Scotia. 1975.
557. Mayes, R.A., Mclntosh, and V.L. Anderson. 1977. Uptake of Cadmium and
Lead by a Rooted Aquatic Macrophyte (Elodea canadensis). Ecol. 58:
1176-1180.
The role of roots in the uptake of nonessential trace metals by aquatic
macrophytes was investigated using Elodea canadensis. Plants were grown
in 2 lakes in which metal concentrations in the water differed. Specimens
in each lake were anchored in either control sediment or in sediment con-
taminated with Cd and Pb.
Plants grown in the same water but in sediment from different sources
had significantly different concentrations of the 2 metals. Elodea sam-
-------
pies rooted in sediments from the same source but grown in water with
different levels of metals also accumulated significantly different
amounts of Cd and Pb. Thus the importance of both sediment and the sur-
rounding water as sources of metals for aquatic plants was demonstrated.
Samples grown in water and sediment containing low levels of metals had
minimal concentrations of 0.32 microgram Cd/g and 5.2 microgram Pb/g,
while plants grown in metal-contaminated water and sediment accumulated up
to 32.33 ug Cd/g and 1609 microgram Pb/g. (AA)
558. Maystrenko, Yu. G., A.I. Densiova, V.M. Bagnyuk, and Zh. M. Aryamova.
1969. The Role of Higher Aquatic Plants in the Accumulation of Organ-
ic and Biogenic Substances in Water Bodies. Hydrobiological Journal
5(6):10-31.
559. McCaffrey, R.J. 1977. A Record of the Accumulation of Sediment and Trace
Metals in a Connecticut Salt Marsh. New Haven Ct. Yale University,
Ph.D. Dissertation, 156 p.
560. McCalley, D.V., M. Cooke, and G. Nickless. 1980. Coprostanol in Severn
Estuary Sediments. B. Env. Contam. and Tox. 25(3):374-382.
Occurrence of the fecal pollutant coprostanol in the Severn, U.K.,
estuary was measured. The Severn estuary, which receives sewage outfalls,
is used as a public bathing area. Degradation rates of coprostanol in
estuarine environments is unknown. However, coprostanol concentrations in
Severn water averaged only 0.1-0.3 ppb. (EL)
561. McCool, M.M. 1921. Peat and Muck Soils, Fixation of Fertilizers. Mich.
Quart. Bull. 3:126-127.
562. McCormick, J. 1970. The Natural Features of Tinicum Marsh, with Particu-
lar Emphasis on the Vegetation, pp. 1-104. In: J. McCormick, R.R.
Grant, Jr., R. Patric. Two studies of Tinicum Marsh, Delaware and
Philadelphia Counties, PA. The Conservation Foundation, Washington.
123 pp.
563. McCormick, J., R.R. Grant, and R. Patrick (eds.). 1970. Two Studies of
Tinicum Marsh, Delaware and Philadelphia Counties, PA. The Conserva-
tion Foundation. Washington, DC.
Extensive study on the natural features and purification capability of
Tinicum Marsh in Pennsylvania, illustrated that "marshlands play an im-
portant role in reducing the nutrient load in water and in increasing the
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oxygen content." This marsh, however, had "been severely injured by the
organic pollution."
564. McDonald M.G., and W.B. Fleck. 1978. Model Analysis of the Impact on
Ground-Water Conditions of the Muskegon County Wastewater Disposal Sys-
tem, Michigan, U.S. Department of the Interior, Geographical Survey.
565. McDonald, R.C. and B.C. Wolverton. 1979. Comparative Study of Wastewater
Lagoon with and without Water Hyacinth. Econ. Bot. 34(2):101-110.
A three year study was conducted on an existing, one cell, facultative
sewage lagoon having a total surface area of 3.6 hectares and receiving a
BOD5 loading rate of 44 kg/ha/da (40 Ibs/ac/da). The comparative exper-
imental periods ran from July through November for three consecutive
years. During the first period, water hyacinths completely covered the
lagoon. The water hyacinth coverage was reduced to 33% of the total sur-
face area the second year. The lagoon, free of all vascular aquatic
plants the third year, was•monitored for comparative purposes. The most
significant improvement overall in the effluent quality occurred when
water hyacinths covered the entire lagoon. During this period the efflu-
ent 8005 and TSS were 23 and 6 mg/1, respectively. Without water hya-
cinths, the effluent BOD5 and TSS were 52 and 77 mg/1, respectively.
The effluent total organic carbon concentration with water hyacinths
averaged 40 mg/1 and without water hyacinths, 72 mg/1. A complete dis-
cussion of the results from this three year study is presented in this
paper along with any associated problems that were observed when water
hyacinths were introduced into the lagoon and altered its behavior from
that of a normal facultative lagoon. (AA)
566. McGarry et al. 1974. Wastewater Reclamation Under Tropical Conditions.
Process. Biochem. 9(7).
Under tropical conditions, nitrogen can be removed from wastewater by
growing algae. Processes pertaining to wastewater pretreatment, algal
harvest by flotation, chlorination of the final effluent, and removal of
low-level organics by semi-rapid filtration are described and compared to
adsorption by activated carbon produced from locally available waste
products.
567. McGarry, M.G. 1977. Domestic Wastes as an Economic Resource: Biogas and
Fish Culture, pp. 347-365. In; Water, Wastes, and Health in Hot Cli-
mates. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Methane produced through fermentation of farm and human wastes is
assessed as an alternative to increasingly expensive petroleum-based
fuels. This fermentation takes place in a "biogas" unit, which accepts
waste materials that digest without access to oxygen. The biogas, largely
-------
a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide, bubbles out of the liquid, is
trapped, and may be used as fuel for household lighting or cooking. The
digested mixture or slurry can be used on the land as a soil conditioner
and fertilizer. Various biogas plant designs are described, and the ad-
vantages of each are assessed. Fish farming, also, is considered as a
means of handling waste materials. The wastes are introduced into fish
ponds, where they provide the main source of nutrients for bacterial
growth. The byproducts from the wastes' bacterial decomposition, such as
ammonia and CC>2/ are primary nutrients for the algae, which, in turn,
are the basic form of food for many of the fish used in pond culture. (EL)
568. McGarry, M.G. 1979. The jjnportance of Waste Re-use, pp. 91-116. In; Pro-
ceedings of the ASCE Appropriate Technology in Resource Conservation
and Recovery Symposium. Held Oct. 22-26 in Atlanta, GA.
Human wastes are regarded as a valuable resource in China. Their fer-
tilizer components are valued in agriculture and fish farming operations.
Current practices employed in China for the reuse of sewage are surveyed.
Composting systems include granular composting, thermophilic composting,
and composting toilets. Other uses for this waste, such as direct algal
harvesting or gas generation, are being researched in developing nations.
(EL)
569. McHarg, I.L. 1976. Biological Alternatives to Water Pollution, pp. 7-13.
In; j. Tourbier and R.W. Pierson (eds.), Biological Control of Water
Pollution. Univ. of Penn. Press.
570. Mclntosh, A.W., E.K. Sheppard, R.A. Mayes, G.J. Atchison, and D.W. Kelson.
1978. Some Aspects of Sediment Distribution and Macrophyte Cycling of
Heavy Metals in a Contaminated Lake. J. Environ. Qual. 7:301-305.
Distribution and forms of the metals cadmium (Cd) and zinc (Zn) in
sediment and the possible significance of a die-off of the aquatic macro-
phyte Pptamggetpn crispus in Cd cycling in a metal-contaminated lake were
studied. Metal levels in the upper 5 cm of lake sediment ranged from 2.54
ppm Cd and 115 ppm Zn in an uncontaminated area of the lake to 805 ppm Cd
and 6,120 ppm Zn near the entrance of a metal-bearing ditch to the lake.
Evidence of metal contamination existed at a depth of 30 cm in sediments
in contaminated areas of the system. Dominant forms present in the sedi-
ment were the carbonate for Cd and carbonate and organic for Zn. Analysis
indicated Cd levels as high as 89.6 ppm in P. crispus in the lake with a
maximum burden of 1.5 kg Cd held by the lake's P. crispus population.
Release of the total amount could raise water concentrations by a maxi-
mum of 1 microgram/liter. (AA)
571. McKim, H.L. (Sym. Coor.) 1978. State of Knowledge in Land Treatment of
Wastewater. Vol. 1 and Vol. 2. International Symposium 20-25. August
-------
1978. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Lab. Hanover, NH.
The objectives of this Symposium are to summarize the state of
knowledge of the physical aspects of the treatment of wastewater by land
application and to identify the suitable approaches for the design of such
land treatment systems. The topics to be included are: site selection
considerations, case studies of national and international concern, health
effects of land treatment systems, pretreatment considerations, uses of
wastewaters in agricultural and forest systems, monitoring, modeling and
design criteria.
The Symposium Proceedings are published in two volumes. Volume 1 con-
tains the invited papers presented and discussed at the conference. Volume
2 contains shorter papers about on-going research that were selected from
the responses received following a call for abstracts.
572. McKinney, R.E. 1976. Functional Characteristics Unique to Ponds. In;
E.F. Gloyna, J.F. Malina, Jr., and E.H. Davis (eds.), Ponds as a Waste-
water Treatment Alternative. Water Resources Symp. #9. Center for
Water Research, College of Engineering, Univ. of Texas, Austin.
573. McLarney, W., and M. Sherman. 1974. Midge Culture at New Alchemy East.
Aquaculture and the Pish Farmer 1:10-13.
574. McLeod, K.W., and C. Sherrod, Jr. 1980. Revegetation of Thermally
Altered Swamp Forest. Association of Southeastern Biologists Bull.
27(2):49-50.
For 15 years, thermal effluents were introduced into Stell Creek,
located on the Savannah River Plant (Georgia). Drastic alteration of the
forest occurred during this period with complete loss of the canopy trees.
Succession following cessation of thermal effluents in this totally open
habitat has been slow and developed more similar to an isolated semiaquat-
ic habitat, rather than a continuous swamp forest. It is important to
determine if the establishment requirements for the formerly dominant
species are met by the "new" Steel Creek habitat. Studies investigating
the germination and seedling growth of Nyssa aquatica, Salix nigra, and
Taxodium distichum are discussed. Apparently dispersal mechanisms are
responsible for creating a biotic environment which has restricted the
establishment of the formerly dominant species, water tupelo and bald
cypress. (PA)
575. McMahan, E.A. 1972. Relative Abundance of Three Marsh Floor Organisms in
a Sewage Affected Marsh and in a Sewage-free Marsh. J. Elisha Mitchell
Sci. Soc. 88(2):61-65
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Three marsh-floor dwellers were considered as possible biological indi-
cators of pollution in marine habitats after sampling a spartina marsh
exposed to treated sewage wastes and a similar but nonpolluted marsh. Sys-
tematic sampling of the marsh surface and the upper 2 cm of substrate was
carried out in both marshes to compare population densities of the
amphipod, Talorjshestia Ignjgricornis, the collembolan Sminthurides rubron-
jLveus var. leyanderi and the tubificid Monopylephgrus rubroniveus. The
amphipods and collembolans were sampled with a shop vacuum cleaner with an
extension tube plugged into a portable generator. Worm samples were taken
by pusing a plastic jar, open and down, into the mud to about 2 cm depth.
A small plastic spade was used to undercut the jar, trapping the substrate
inside. Significantly more collembolans were captured in the sewage-free
marsh, and significantly more amphipods and tubificids were captured in
the polluted marsh. Presence of amphipods, tubificids, and collembolans
in both polluted and sewage-free marshes complicates their use as
biological indicators. More studies, involving relative densities of all
substrate inhabitants seem indicated. Some other factor of factors—such
as sediment size, Spartj.na density, current patterns, or predator
pressure—are also considered.
576. McMahan, E.A., and L. Davis. 1978. Density and Diversity of Microarthro-
pods in Wastewater Treated and Untreated Cypress Domes, pp. 429-462.
In; H.T. Odum and K.C. Ewel (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Manage-
ment, Recycling and Conservation. Fourth Annual Report. Univ. of Flor-
ida, Gainesville.
577. McMahan, E.A., R.L. Knight, and A.R. Camp. 1972. A Comparison of Micro-
arthropod Populations in Sewage-exposed and Sewage-free Spartina Salt
Marshes. Environmental Entomology 1:244-252.
An investigation of effects of sewage effluents on populations of
microarthropods living in Spartina. marshes was carried out in the spring
and summer of 1970. Using primarily a. vacuum collecting technique, com-
parisons of dominant forms, population densities, and species diversities
were made between populations inhabiting marsh grass exposed to flooding
by treated sewage wastes and those in nonpolluted areas. Only in the case
of spiders and amphipods were significant differences found, with density
in both cases being greater in the polluted marsh. Species diversity wasd
relatively high, especially for populations from Sjpartina growing within
margins of artificial ponds, some of which were also exposed to treated
sewage wastes.
578. McNabb, C.D. 1976. The potential of Submersed Vascular Plants for Recla-
mation of Wastewater in Temperate Zone Ponds. In; J. Tourbier and R.W.
Pearson (eds.), Biological Control of Water Pollution. The University
Press, Philadelphia, PA.
The productivity of submersed vascular plants in a series of wastewater
treatment ponds was assessed. In the temperate climate of Michigan,
-------
submersed plants demonstrated a doubling time of 11 days during the summer
(>10°C) until light became a limiting factor due to dense algal blooms.
The submersed vascular species flourished best in an environment where
Daphnia magna and D. pulex decreased algal densities through grazing and
thus increased light penetration and clarity. Nutrients were accumulated
primarily from the water through foliage rather than from the sediments
through the roots. Strategies for harvesting submersed aquatic macro-
phytes for maximum yield are discussed. (AA)
579. McNabb, C.D., Jr., and D.P. Tierney, 1972. Growth and Mineral
Accumulation of Submersed Vascular Hydrophytes in Pleioeutrophic
Environs, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State
University, Technical Report No. 26.
Submersed vascular hydrophytes invade ponds designed for stabilizing
municipal waste. The adaptability of several species for vegetative
growth in pleioeutrophic environments was compared by measuring growth
rates. Coontail has a range of tolerance that includes the extremes in
water quality that are observed in wastewater ponds. The tissue concen-
tration of phosphorus in submersed plants tended to increase linearly with
concentrations of soluble phosphorus in the ambient water. A similar re-
lationship regarding nitrogen was not found. Heavy metals were not dis-
cussed or studied. (AA)
580. McNabb, C.D. Jr., D.P. Tierney, and S.R. Kosek, 1972. The Uptake of Phos-
phorus by Ceratophyllum demersum Growing in Wastewater. Michigan State
Univ., Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, East Lansing. Institute of
Water Research Technical Rpt. No. 24. 23p.
The cultivation and harvest of aquatic plants at wastewater treatment
sites has long been suggested as a first step in recycling minerals. Po-
tential of an aquatic angiosperm for sequestering harvestable phosphorus
during growth in a system of sewage oxidation ponds is evaluated. Experi-
mental plants of geratojphyllum demersum, a cosmopolitan aquatic angio-
sperm, were selected from a naturally occurring clone in a .pond on the
Michigan State University campus. Actively growing tips, 30 cm in length,
were transplanted to pots placed on the bottom of the third lagoon in a
series receiving raw waste from a city. The plant population approached
its stationary phase of growth in 57 days. Its dry weight and growth rate
compared favorably with maximum rates reported for other aquatic
macrophytes. Following transplant, phosphorus concentration in the
tissues doubled. Reflecting environmental differences in the amount of
the element available to the plants, the terminal phosphorus concentration
in tissue in 1.3% of dry weight is twice the maximum value ordinarily ob-
served in field studies. Results suggest that continued attention be
given to development of managed crops of aquatic macrophytes as one compo-
nent is mineral recycling schemes using wastewater.
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581. McNaughton, C.D. 1974. Heavy Metal Tolerance of Typha Ij^tifolia without
Evolution of Tolerant Races. Ecology 55:1163-1165.
Clones of the broad-leaved cattail (Tyjpha latifplia L.) and soil sam-
ples were obtained from near a zinc smelter and from a control location.
In the smelter location/ soil zinc concentration was 385 times higher,
cadmium content 37 times higher, and lead content 16 times higher. No
evidence for the evolution of heavy metal tolerance could be detected in 2
X 2 experiments in which genotypes from both locations were grown on both
soils. Growth of genotypes from both locations was inhibited on the heavy
metal soil, but not to the extent that would be expected from previous
studies of heavy metal effects. This is the first case described in which
a species has been able to colonize heavy metal soils in the absence of
the evolution of tolerant races. (AA)
582. McVea, C., and C.E. Boyd. 1975. Effects of Water Hyacinth Cover on Water
Chemistry, Phytoplankton, and Fish in Ponds. J. of Environ. Qual.
4(3):375-378.
Water hyacinth [Eichhgrnia crassipes (Mort.) Solms] cover of 0, 5, 10,
or 25% surface was established in fertilized ponds stocked with the fish,
Tilapia aurea (steindachner), at Auburn, Alabama. Measurements of water
chemistry, phytoplankton density, and fish production were made during the
1973 growing season.
Phytoplankton production was less in ponds with 10 and 25% cover by
water hyacinth than in ponds with 0 and 5% cover. Competition of water
hyacinth with phytoplankton involved shading and removal of phosphorus
from the water.
Concentrations of dissolved oxygen were lowest in ponds with 25% cover
but oxygen tensions in all ponds were adequate for survival and fish
growth. (AA)
583. Meany, R.A. , I. Valiela, and J.M. Teal. 1976. Growth, Abundance, and
Distribution of Larval Tabanids in Experimentally Fertilized Plots on
a Massachusetts Salt Marsh. J. Appl. Ecol. 13(2):323-332.
On the Great Sippewissett Marsh (Tabanus nigrovittatus and Chryspps
fuliginosus) comprised approximately 90% of the total larvel tabanid pop-
ulation and were both predominantly found in areas where the short form of
Spartina alternifIpra was the dominant plant. The other two species are
T. lineola and C. atlanticus. The average larval densities for T. nigrp-
yittatus and C. fuliginosus found in the control plots of 1972-3 and the
1974 plots are comparable to the maximum values for T. nigrpyittatus ob-
tained elsewhere on the east coast of North America. Larval tabanid pop-
ulations were drasticallyl reduced in plots treated with a sewage sludge
fertilizer but were unaffected by treatments with a phosphate and a urea
fertilizer. Analysis of monthly larval size classes for the 1972-3 sampl-
ing period indicates that the larval life of T. nigrovittatus probably
lasts 2 yrs. The summer growth rate is about 4mm/mo. T. nigrovittatus
feeds on most soft-bodied insect larvae found on the marsh and also on the
amphipod Orchestia grillus. Larval densities were reduced in laboratory
-------
experiments from 80-240/m2 to 40-120/m2 through cannibalism, the lower
figure approximating the densities of larval tabanids found in the field.
(BA)
584. Mechenich, D.J. 1980. Tertiary Wastewater Treatment Using a Natural Peat
Bog. Master's Thesis, College of Natural Resources, Univ. of Wisconsin
Stevens Point. 136 pp.
Significant reductions in effluent concentrations of chloride (60%),
alkalinity (100%), hardness (83%), phosphorus (80%), and total suspended
solids (95%), were noted based on differences between the effluent and bog
outflow water quality during the effluent discharge period. Effluent pH
and conductivity were also significantly reduced, while COD increased 204%.
Chloride tracing revealed that the effluent water primarily moved
through the bog in the upper 0.5 meter. Other than chloride and conductiv-
ity increases, the most significant water quality changes within the bog
appeared to be a drop in COD, BOD, phosphorus, and nitrogen below the es-
tablished background levels at several well sites, and a reduction in
background COD in the bog discharge.
Leaching studies using Drummond peat cores were used to estimate the
long-term potential of the bog to remove nutrients by physical-chemical
processes. Under the specific experimental conditions, net phosphorus
removals up to 0.19 mg P/gram oven dry weight peat were found, which was
equivalent to approximately 40 kg P/acre-foot of surface peat soil.
Nitrogen and calcium removals of 0.45 and 4.5 mg/gram oven dry weight peat
respectively were also found. (AA)
585. Meeks, R.L. 1969. The Effect of Drawdown Date on Wetland Plant Succes-
sion. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(4):817-821.
A 7-year study was begun on the Winous Point Shooting club in 1956 to
determine the effect of drawdown date on plant succession. An 80-acre
marsh was diked into four units, one of which was drained yearly in mid-
March, one in mid-April, one in mid-May, and one in mid-June. All the
units were reflooded during September. Plant succession followed the same
general trend on all units, going from semi-aquatic species to predomi-
nantly annual weeds. Fewer years were required within early drawdown for
annual weeds to replace semi-aquatic species. The May drawdown unit had
the best plant associations for wildlife after 7 seasons. Draining dur-
ing mid-to-late May should allow muskrats (Ondatra zibethiga) to raise two
litters without interruption, and not interfere with duck nesting. (AA)
586. Mees, Q.M., and J.R. Hensley. 1974. Survival of Pathogens in Sewage Sta-
bilization Ponds. Final Rept. Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of
Arizona, Tucson. 114 pp.
In semi-arid areas where water supplies are being depleted at alarming
rates, re-use of water is of paramount importance. The investigation was
initiated in an attempt to determine the survivability of amoebic cysts,
-------
intestinal flagellates, and ova of helminths at various phases of the sta-
bilization process. Only those organisms pathogenic to man were to be
investigated. (NT)
587. Meo, M., J.W. Day, Jr., and T.B. Ford. 1979. Land Treatment of Fish
Processing Wastes on Dredge Spoil Sites: Comparative Cost Evaluations.
Coastal Zone Management Journal 3(3):307-318.
588. Merezhko, A.I. 1973. Role of Higher Aquatic Plants in the Self-purifica-
tion of Lakes and Streams. Hydrobiol. J. 9:103-109.
589. Merritt, R.W. 1978. Insect Pest Problems Associated with Wastewater Oxi-
dation Lakes in Michigan. Project Completion Rept. to Office of Water
Research and Technology. Dept. of Entomology. Michigan State Univ.
East Lansing, MI. 47 pp.
The distribution and abundance of larval Chironomidae were investigated
in the first and last lakes of a 4 lake sewage oxidation system. Chiromid
species composition and adult seasonal occurrence were examined and the
potential of species to become pests of man was evaluated. A stratified
random sampling program was employed to quantitatively sample larvae in
Lakes 1 and 4. Each lake was stratified by depth, distance from the
influent site, and wind. Samples were taken during the summer and early
fall of 1976 and during late spring and early summer 1977. Chironomidae
was the dominant subfamily in both lakes initially; the grthocladiinae
gradually becoming dominant in Lake 4 by early summer 1977. The patterns
of larval distribution and abundance in Lakes 1 and 4 indicate that the
Chironidae actively responded to differences in oxygen and nutrient avail-
ability in the sediments by migrating to areas offering favorable condi-
tions. Oxygen appeared to be the limiting factor in Lake 1, nitrogen and
phosphorus in Lake 4. (NT)
590. Merrell, J.C., Jr., W.F. Jopling, R.F. Bott, A. Katko, and H.E. Pintler.
1967. Santee Recreation Project, Santee, California. Final Rept. to
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Cincinnati, OH. 174 pp.
The report presents the results of a study of the Santee, California
recreational lakes, which were deliberately planned to utilize the commu-
nity 's reclaimed sewage effluent. By the summer of 1965, a special basin
adjacent to one of the lakes was supplied with reclaimed water and used
for swimming. This was found possible after progressive use of the lakes
for boating and then for fishing. No health hazards have been demonstrated
by the viral or other findings. (NT)
591. Metcalf, T.G. 1975. Human Enteric Viruses in a Waste Recycling Aquacul-
ture System. NTIS No. PB 245 909 Final Report. Nat. Sci. Found. 32 pp.
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Potential public health hazards from the use of the aquaculture waste re-
cycling system were evaluated. The treatment system consisted of algal
ponds in which secondary non-chlorinated sewage was mixed with seawater,
and raceways stocked with shellfish. Test viruses were Poliovirus II,
Echovirus 5, Coxackievirus B-3, Reovirus 1, and type 5 Adenovirus. Results
of the two-year study indicated that the system is unacceptable, if a
virus-free effluent is desired, without a second virus inactivating pro-
ceses. If virus-free shellfish were to be the parameter of public health
acceptance, the full-grown shellfish could be depurated to remove viruses
or the sewage effluent could be treated to remove viruses. The system was
judged unsafe for use as a means of providing a growth medium for commer-
cially valuable marine life. Further research was recommended.
592. Mhatre, G.N., S.B. Chaphekar, I.V. Ramani Rao, M.R. Patil, and B.C.
Haldar. 1980. Effect of Industrial Pollution on the Kalu River Eco-
system. Environmental Pollution; Series A: Ecological and Biological
23(1):67-78.
Vegetation stands above and below industrial discharge points in the
Kalu River (India) were studied for relative frequency, relative density,
and relative dominance of the component species. Samples of water, sedi-
ment, vegetation, and industrial effluents were examined for Cu, Cd, Pb,
and Hg by AAS. Aquatic life was severely affected at Ambivali due to
toxic discharges from local mills. Although the water quality was not
satisfactory at either Ambivali or Titwala, it was much worse at Ambivali.
Sediments along the intertidal banks of the river at both locations showed
high concentrations of metals. The diversity of plants in the intertidal
region at Ambivali was low compared to that at Titwali; 10 species were
found at Ambivali, while 20 were present at Titwali. The plant community
along the riverbank at Ambivali was dominated by only two species, Cynodon
da.ctyj.qn and Pycreus macrostachyos, which showed high Importance Value
Indexes. However, they showed no similar dominance values at Titwali with
higher floristic diversity. Replacement of a diverse vegetation by a few
tolerant species with a tendency to accumulate toxic metals opens up an
interesting field of dynamics of plant populations facing severe pollution
stress. (PA)
593. Mickle, A.M., and R.G. Wetzel. 1979. Effectiveness of Submersed Angio-
sperm-epiphyte Complexes on Exchange of Nutrients and Organic Carbon in
Littoral Systems. III. Refractory Organic Carbon. Aquatic Botany
6(4):339-355.
594. Middlebrooks, E.J. 1980. Aquatic Plant Processes Assessment, pp. 43-62.
In; S.C. Reed and R.K. Bastian (eds.), Aquaculture Systems for Waste-
water Treatment: An Engineering Assessment. EPA-430/9-80-007. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations,
Municipal Construction Division. Washington, D.C.
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The most common water hyacinth wastewater treatment system incorporates
a stabilization pond followed by series-type water hyacinth culturing
tanks. The design characteristics of hyacinth systems are discussed in
this report, and this paper's conclusions are that:
0 Treatment process appears to be applicable in warm temperate and
tropical climates, and adequate data appears to be available to
assist in the design of a system capable of producing an advanced
secondary effluent.
0 Water hyacinths thrive in municipal wastewaters and appear to do
well in mixtures of municipal and industrial wastewaters.
0 A hydraulic loading rate of 2,000 m4/ha/day to a hyacinth system
appears reasonable when treating secondary wastewater treatment plant
effluent if nutrient control is not an objective.
595. Mihursky, J.A. , 1969. On Using Industrial and Domestic Wastes in Aqua-
culture. Agricultural Engineering. 50( 11):667-689.
Three waste materials have the greatest potential for recycling through
aquatic systems into useful nutrients—petroleum wastes, sewage wastes,
and waste heat. Protein developed and sold in France is produced by
microorganisms growing on waste low-grade petroleum. Large-scale use of
ndcrobiologically derived proteins seems possible. Sewage converted to in-
organic materials may provide fertilizer for algal production. Waste heat
may assist in providing optimal environmental conditions for biological
growth at all trophic levels. In various world situations sewage or sew-
age products are used to stimulate fishery production. Algae grown in
mass aided by water from treated sewage and concentrated by evapodrying
technique produces food for chickens. Waste heat from steam electric
stations is used to raise carp in latitudes farther north than usual and
to extend the growing season in some localities. A waste flue gas was
used to supply carbon dioxide gas to mass-culture an algal food supply.
Wild or natural water is preferable to pond culture. Running water
systems permit dense stocking, waste removal and continued dissolved oxy-
gen renewal. Costs of producing fish protein concentrate through aqua-
culture plus waste utilization will be subsidized by society's need to
recycle its waste materials into useful foodstuffs.
596. Miller, H.E. 1973. Production of Fathead Minnows and Muskellunge (North-
ern and Tiger) in Municipal Wastewater Stabilization Systems. Michigan
DNR. Fisheries Div. Grand Rapids, MI.
597. Miner, J.R., J.W. Wooten, and J.D. Dodd. 1971. Water Hyacinths to Further
Treat Anaerobic Lagoon Effluent, pp. 170-173. In; Livestock Waste Man-
agement and Pollution Abatement. American Society of Agricultural En-
gineers. St. Joseph, MI.
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Effluent from an anaerobic lagoon treating liquid swine manure was
pumped through a series of four pools, each ten feet in diameter. Water
hyacinths were grown on these pools in an effort to provide further treat-
ment. The plants flourished, necessitating weekly harvesting of one-
fourth of the growth. During the month of July 1970, nine pounds of ammo-
nia were added to the system in the influent and less than one-fourth pound
discharged in the effluent. During this same period, 28 pounds of COD
were added and 2.6 pounds discharged. Extrapolating the system to a per
acre basis indicates ammonium nitrogen removal to be in excess of 35
pounds per acre per day, COD removal to exceed 100 pounds per acre per day
and phosphate removal to exceed 15 pounds per acre per day. Nitrate re-
lease was less than 0.3 pounds per acre per day. In one sample weekly
harvest (Aug. 14-Aug. 21), 450 plants with a total wet weight of 90 Ibs.
were removed from two of the ponds having a combined area of approximately
160 sq.ft. This corresponds to an increase of over 17,000 new plants per
acre per day and an increase in wet weight of over 2500 pounds per acre
per day. At a 4% dry weight conversion factor, this equals 100 pounds of
dry weight per acre per day. The system has performed satisfactorily
showing potential as a means of removing nutrients from partially treated
animal wastes which are not removed by currently used processes.
598. Mitsch, W.J. 1975a. Observation on Utilization of Wetlands Ecosystems for
Sewage Treatment, pp. 90-113. In; H.T. Odum, K.C. Ewel, J.W. Ordway,
and M.K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recy-
cling, and Conservation. Third Annual Report. Center for Wetlands.
Univ. of Florida. Gainesville.
599. Mitsch, W.J. 1975b. Systems Analysis of Nutrient Disposal in Cypress Wet-
lands and Lake Ecosystems in Florida. Ph.D. Diss., Univ. of Florida,
Gainesville. 421 pp.
Models, field measurements, and computer simulations were used to eval-
uate alternative systems of man's nutrient cycling using a freshwater lake
and cypress swamps in Florida. Ecological characteristics, nutrient bud-
gets, organic productivity, energy relations, and interfaces with man's
economy were compared between the two systems. The two systems responded
similarly to the addition of nutrients through the introduction of plants
with low quality structure, intermediate in biomass between phytoplankton
of the lake and trees of the dome. Preliminary evaluation of cypress
dome, lake and technologically based nutrient disposal alternatives sug-
gest that the cypress system may realize a higher work service per pur-
chased energy invested. (AA)
600. Mitsch, W.J. 1976a. Ecological Engineering Through the Disposal of Waste-
water into Cypress Wetlands in Florida. In; Proceedings of the Nation-
al Conference on Environmental Engineering Research, Development and
Design. Univ. of Washington, Seattle.
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601. Mitsch, W.J. 1976b. Ecosystem Modelling of Water Hyacinth Management in
Lake Alice, Florida. Ecol. Modelling, 1:68-69.
602. Mitsch, W.J. 1977. Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) Nutrient Uptake
and Metabolism in a North Central Florida Marsh. Archiv. fur Hydrobio-
logie. 81(2):188-210.
Effects of high nutrient loading from secondary sewage effluent on the
marshy eastern part of Lake Alice, Gainesville, Florida were studied, with
special attention to the disposition of nitrogen and phosphorus/ and to
the metabolism of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) which dominates
the marsh. Construction of an earthen dam in 1948 and addition of the
sewage effluent and heated once-through condenser water from a heating
plant in 1964 increased the lake's size from four to thirty-three ha.
High nutrient levels and water temperatures in the 29-31 range have
resulted in gross primary productivity among the highest ever reported—
19.3 g C/sq m/day for large hyacinths and 15.6 g C/sq m/day for dwarf
hyacinths. Net production efficiencies were about 1.6% of solar insola-
tion for both plants. Uptake of total nitrogen averaged 49% across the
marsh. Nitrate showed a seasonal pattern of greater uptake from winter to
summer; phosphorus uptake averaged 11% with signs of a net phosphorus
export in winter. Rapid nutrient turnover and high water hyacinth metab-
olism apparently accounts for the low percentage of nitrogen and phosphor-
us uptake. Seasonal changes in nitrate levels leaving the marsh suggest
denitrification is a significant nitrogen sink, and sediments continue to
act as an additional nitrogen source to overlying waters. Use of a hya-
cinth marsh as a natural tertiary treatment system would require much
lower nutrient loading rates to be effective.
603. Mitsch, W.J., C.L. Dorge, and J.R. Wiemhoff. 1977. Forested Wetlands for
Water Resources Management in Southern Illinois. Research Rept. 132.
Water Resources Center, Univ. of Illinois. 275 p.
604. Mitsch, W.J., C.L. Dorge, and J.R. Wiemhoff. 1979. Ecosystem Dynamics and
a Phosphorus Budget of an Alluvial Cypress Swamp in Southern Illinois.
Ecology 60(6):1116-1124.
Annual patterns in hydrology, phosphorus circulation, and sediment
dynamics were studied in a southern Illinois, USA floodplain swamp domi-
nated by bald cypress (Taxpdium distichum) and swamp tupelo (Nyssa aguati-
ca). The study emphasized the swamp's interactions with the adjacent
river. For the year, major inputs of water to the swamp were throughfall
(74.3 cm) and runoff (69.4 cm) with monir contributions due to groundwater
(21.6 cm). Outflows were by evapotranspiration (72.3 cm), surface outflow
(56.5 cm), and groundwater (21.0 cm), with the latter two draining primar-
ily to the river. A flood occurred during the study period, passing 1.6 x
10^ m^ of river water over the swamp and depositing 0.06 cm of sedi-
ments.
An annual phosphorus budget was developed for the swamp from field
measurements. The greatest input of phosphorus to the swamp was 3.6 g P
-------
m2 yr^ due to deposition of high-phosphorus sediments during the
flood. This was 10 times greater than the outflow of phosphorus to the
river. 0.34 g P m2 yr , and 26 times greater than the throughfall
input of 0.14 g P m2 yr1. Total tree uptake from sediments was estimated
to be 0.87 g P m2 yr1 of which 0.77 g P m2 yr1 returns as litterfall
to the swamp sediments. Duckweed productivity was estimated to take 3.3 g
P m2 yr1 from the water column and deposit this in the sediments during
die-off.
For the period 1937-1967, cypress growth, based on tree ring analyses,
was closely correlated with several measures of flooding frequency and
magnitude, all obtained from past river data. Tree ring data prior to
1937 showed poor correlation with flooding, probably because of logging
activity. Cypress growth has decreased dramatically in recent years,
corresponding to the rise in water level caused by beaver activity. (AA)
605. Mitsch, W.J., M.D. Hutchison, and G.A. Paulson. 1979. The Momence Wet-
lands of Kankakee River in Illinois - An Assessment of Their Value. A
Descriptive and Economic Approach to the Appraisal of Natural Ecosystem
Function. State of Illinois, Institute of Natural Resources, Chicago,
IL, 55 pp.
606. Mitsch, W.J., and K.C. Ewel. 1979. Comparative Biomass and Growth of
Cypress in Florida Wetlands. The Amer. Midi. Nat. 101(2):417-426.
Tree biomass and increase in biomass were determined for cypress (Tax-
odium distichum) in different systems in Florida, USA. Ten trees were
harvested to determine biomass regressions. Lowest biomass and tree
growth rates were found in cypress-pine associations indicative of low
water, in monospecific stands of cypress which are indicative of high
water levels, and in a poorly drained cypress dome. Increases in indi-
vidual tree growth rates were found in cypress-tupelo systems and cypress-
hardwood systems. The latter are less dominated by cypress, so individual
tree growth is greater (7.7 kg/yr vs. 4.0 kg/yr). Cypress-hardwood asso-
ciations are generally better drained than cypress-tupelo sysems. Two ex-
perimental cypress domes currently receiving treated sewage effluent and
groundwater showed high individual tree growth (5.0 and 4.2 kg/yr,
respectively), but little difference was noted between the two domes. Tree
diameter increase showed normal cypress tree growth to be 1.0-2.0 mm/yr
with higher values of 2.8-3.3 in cypress-hardwood associations and the
experimental cypress dome. Cypress in the poorly drained dome increased
by only 2.0 mm/yr. (BA)
607. Mitsch, W.J., H.T. Odum, and K.C. Ewel. 1976. Ecological Engineering
Through the Disposal of Wastewater into Cypress Wetlands in Florida.
National Conference on Environmental Engineering Research, Development
and Design. Univ. of Washington, Seattle.
1085. Monge, D. 1978.
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608. Montroni, R. 1980. The Importance of Riparian Zones to Terrestrial Wild-
life; An Annotated Bibliography. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Sac-
ramento, CA. 83 pp.
609. Mood, E.W. 1976. Epidemilogic and Public Health Implications of Wet-
lands, pp. 116-120. In; M.W. Lefor, W.C. Kennard, and T.B. Helfgott
(eds.), Proceedings: Third Wetlands Conference. Rept. No. 26. Insti-
tute of Water Resources, Univ. of Connecticut, Storrs.
This paper addresses two major concerns of medical and public health
authorities about wetlands: (1) the use of subsurface absorption systems
in or immediately adjacent to wetlands as a means of wastewater disposal;
and (2) that wetlands provide breeding habitats for mosquitoes which are
direct or indirect vectors of human disease (e.g., eastern equine enceph-
alitis). (DM)
610. Moore, J.W. 1979. Diversity and Indicator Species as Measures of Water
Pollution in a Subarctic Lake. Hydrobiologia 66:73.
611. Moraine, R. et al. 1979. Algal Single Cell Protein from Wastewater Treat-
ment and Renovation Process. Biotech, and Bioeng., XXI:1191-1207.
612. Moreau, G.D. 1976. Effects of Fertilizers on Aquatic Vegetation. Master's
Thesis. Dept. of Wildlife Science, Utah State University, Logan. 40 pp.
613. Morel, F.M.M., and S.L. Schiff. 1980. Geochemistry of Municipal Waste in
Coastal Waters. Rept. No. 259. Mass. Inst. of Tech. Cambridge. 205 pp.
614. Mosey, F.E. 1976. Assessment of the Maximum Concentration of Heavy Metals
in Crude Sewage Which Will Not Inhibit the Anaerobic Digestion of
Sludge. Water Pollultion Control 75:10-20.
615. Motts, W.S. 1972. Environmental Impact of Alternative Waste Disposal Meth-
ods. Cooperative Extension Service. Univ. of Mass., Amherst, Mass.
616. Moulton, D.W, W.I. Jensen, and J.B. Low. 1976. Avian Botulism Epizootiol-
ogy on Sewage Oxidation Ponds in Utah. J. Wildl. Management
40(4):735-742.
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In the microenvironment concept of avian botulism epizootiology, it is
hypothesized that invertebrate carcasses may serve both as a substrate for
toxin production by Clpstridium bptulinum type C and as a vehicle for
toxin transmission to water birds. We field-tested that hypothesis by
attempting to induce botulism in wing-clipped mallard ducks (Anas platy-
rhynchps) on sewage oxidation ponds in Utah. The experimental ponds were
inoculated with C. bptju^immi spores in June 1974. Aquatic insect popula-
tions were monitored throughout the summer. Rotenone was used in August
to kill insects in two ponds (one served as control), thereby providing
potential substrate for clostridial growth and toxin production. Botulism
was not detected among the birds even though they routinely ingested in-
vertebrate carcasses. Samples of dead invertebrates contained no botu-
linum toxin. We concluded that the microenvironment concept, as it now
stands, cannot always be a sufficient explanation of how type C botulism
epizootics are initated in nature. Other microbes may inhibit the growth
of clostridial cells or destroy botulinum toxin. (AA)
617. Mudroch, A. and J.A. Capobianco. 1978. A Preliminary Study on a Natural
Marsh Receiving Sewage Treatment Plant Effluent. Canada Centre for In-
land Waters, Geology Section, Process Research Division. Burlington,
Ontario, Canada. 45 pp.
Long-term effects of poor quality wastewater treatment plant effluent
on a natural marsh on the western shore of Lake Ontario, Canada, were
studied. The major contributor of N and P to the marsh area was the
treatment plant discharge. The effect of the effluent on plant communi-
ties, and the availability and cycling of nutrients and heavy metals in
the marsh are discussed. Metal concentrations in the water were generally
low. Increased concentrations of Pb, Cr, Zn, N, P, and organic C were
found in the sediment vertical profile obtained from the marsh area. The
submersed aquatic plants collected from the marsh area accumulated larger
quantities of Pb, Zn, Cd, and Cr than the same species collected at the
station in the pond outside the marsh area. The shoot standing crop of
the dominant plant species (Glyceria grandis) was associated with amounts
of P, N, and organic C in the sediments. (BA)
618. Mudroch, A., and J.A. Capobianco. 1979. Effects of Treated Effluent on a
Natural Marsh. J. Water Poll. Control. Fed. 51(9):2243-2256.
Changes in biomass tissue nutrient levels, and tissues metal levels in
emergent marsh vegetation as a function of increasing distance from a sew-
age discharge were studied at a site in Ontario. All three parameters de-
creased with increasing distance.
Sediments were indicated as the possible source of heavy metals. Float-
ing and submerged aquatic vascular plants adsorbed greater levels of heavy
methods than did emergent plants. (EP)
619. Murnyak, M.O. and D.F. Murnyak. 1981. Aquaculture in Minnesota's Wetlands.
pp. 51-58. In; B. Richardson (ed.), Selected Proceedings of the Midwest
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Conference on Wetland Values and Management. Minnesota Water Planning
Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
The feasibility of raising fish as a source of food in Minnesota farm
ponds is the focus of an ongoing research and extension project centered
in Wright County, Minnesota. Studies over the past three years have shown
the farm ponds larger than 0.1 ac in size, averaging 4' or more in depth,
can be used for food fish production on a seasonal or year-round basis.
Ideally, areas to be used for fish production should have a reliable
source of good quality water, a controllable water level, and allow com-
plete drainage. Lowland areas such as marshes and swamps that have abun-
dant vegetation or are subject to flooding or greatly fluctuating water
levels are not recommended for fish farming. The choice of production
method and species to culture is determined by the water quality condi-
tions and the suitability of the site for intensive management. Cold
water ponds can be used for trout (Salmo spp.) production, where year-
round growth is possible if flowing water is available. Warm water ponds
can be used for seasonal production of channel catfish (Ictalurus puncta-
tus), bluegill sunfish (Lepgmis macrochirus), black crappies (Pomixis
nigromaculatus), yellow bullheads (Ictalurus natalis) and largemouth bass
(Micropterus salmoides). Standing ponds averaging less than 15' deep are
subject to winterkill, and must be completely harvested each year unless
aeration is provided. At this time it appears that using farm ponds for
fish production in Minnesota is economical for home-use, but not for
commercial operations. (AA)
620. Murphy, C.B. 1981. Bioaccumulation and Toxicity of Heavy Metals and
Related Trace Elements. J. of Wat. Pollut. Control Fed. 53(6):993-998.
621. Murray, C. 1976. Weeds Hold Promise for Pollution Cleanup. Chemical and
Engineering News. 54(12):23-24.
The water hyacinth is being tested as a means of sewage treatment for
small towns which cannot afford the capital investment necessary with con-
ventional treatment techniques. The water hyacinth is a vascular plant
containing a system of vessels that transport nutrients from the roots
through the leaves while absorbing large quantities of nutrients and
pollutants found in domestic sewage. The hyacinth also has the ability to
concentrate heavy metals and organic substances often present in indus-
trial wastes. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) offi-
cials have been conducting research at Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. In the
spring of 1975, three acres of a 40-acre municipal lagoon that receives
raw sewage from about 6000 households was planted with water hyacinths.
Although three acres was insufficient to clean up the^entire lagoon,
planting 12 acres of the lagoon with hyacinths in summer of 1976 is
expected to produce clean water in the lagoon. Uses for water hyacinths
produced are also being explored. In a study at the Mississippi State
University Agricultural Experiment Station, hyacinths grown in municipal
sewage were dried, ground into meal, and added to cattle feed. The hya-
cinth meal is high in minerals and protein and comparable to cottonseed
meal or soybean meal as a feed supplement. NASA is researching the con-
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version of water hyacinths into methane by anaerobic fermentation. Residue
produced by anaerobic digestion is an efficient fertilizer and soil condi-
tioner 4
622. Nathans, M.W. and T.J. Bechtel, 1977. Availability of Sediment-adsorbed
Pesticides to Benthic with Particular Emphasis on Deposit-Feeding in
Fauna. U.S. Army Corps Tech. Rpt. D-77-34.
623. National Academy of Sciences. 1976. Making Aquatic Weeds Useful: Some
Perspectives for Developing Countries. Washington, DC., 174 pp.
Aquatic weeds are becoming a menace at alarming rates in many parts of
the world. Several methods for controlling these aquatic macrophytes are
presented and discussed in semi-detail, i.e. utilization of herbivorous
animals, harvesting techniques, and other uses such as wastewater treat-
ment and aquatic plants for food. Each section includes a bibliography and
a listing of research contacts. (AA)
624. National Science Foundation. 1977. Putting Wetlands to Work. (Cypress
Domes and Peatlands Offer Ecologically Sound, Energy-Conserving Waste-
water Disposal). NSF Mosaic 8(3):25-29.
This article reprint reports on two research projects, conducted in
Florida and in Michigan, designed to ascertain the capability of wetlands
to absorb partially treated wastewater from municipal facilities. These
studies are part of an accumulating body of research that suggests that
wetlands are ecological systems that not only can absorb treated effluents
while treating them in a natural rather than energy-consuming, artificial
way, but can benefit from the fertilization secondarily treated effluents
are able to provide. The research suggests that as long as the effort is
based on understanding of the wetlands environment, it represents a way
that civilized man can return to a symbiotic relationship with an import-
ant part of his natural environment. There is substantial opportunity for
small communities which occupy a large part of our geography to take ad-
vantage of the results of these experiments. (NT)
625. National Science Foundation. 1980. Wetlands. Our Natural Partners in
Wastewater Management, 16mm Film in Sound and Color. Directorate for
Engineering and Applied Science. Washington, DC.
626. Natter, A.S., and D. Walrath. 1976. Aquaculture - New Broom Cleans Up
Wastewater. Water and Wastes Engineering 13(2):38-41.
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627. Neary, D.G., G. Schneider, and D.P. White. 1975. Boron Toxicity in Red
Pine Following Municipal Wastewater Irrigation. Soil Sci. Soc. of Am.
Proc. 39:981-982.
628. Neel, J. K., and G. J. Hopkins. 1956. Experimental Lagooning of Raw
Sewage. Sewage and Industrial Wastes 28(11):1326-1356.
The authors outline studies being carried out at several places in
U.S.A. on treatment of sewage by aquaculture systems, in which sewage is
treated in lagoons. The problems of harvesting phytoplankton are overcome
either by culturing filter-feeding shellfish to consume the phytoplank-
ton, or by growing higher aquatic plants such as water hyacinth. Flow
diagrams of two proposed systems are included, and factors to be taken
into account before such a scheme can be implemented are listed. (AL)
629. Neff, J. W., R. S. Foster, and J. F. Slowey. 1978. Availability of
Sediment-Adsorbed Heavy Metals to Benthos with Particular Emphasis on
Deposit-Feeding Infauna. Tech. Rept. D-78-42. U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Environmental Laboratory.
Vicksburg, MS. 311 pp.
Biological laboratory studies were conducted to evaluate the bioavail-
ability of sediment-adsorbed heavy metals to benthic invertebrates. For
these studies, five test organisms (Rangia cuneata, Palaemonetes
kadiakensi s, Neanthes arenaceodentata, and Tubifex sp.) were exposed to
metal-enriched natural sediments for periods up to six weeks at different
salinities. The test sediments came from Texas City and Corpus Christi,
Texas, ship channels and Ashtabula, Ohio, harbor. The accumulation of
eight heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) by all species
was measured.
Statistically significant accumulation of metals from sediment was
demonstrated only 36 times (26.5%) out of 136 metal-species-sediment test
combinations. Variations in bioaccumulation were observed between
species, metals, sediments, and salinity. In these studies, correlation
was not observed between accumulation and specific metal forms as deter-
mined by selective chemical extraction of test sediments. Bulk metal
analyses of the test sediments also did not correlate with metal bio-
availability. (AA)
630. Neil, J. H. 1976. The Harvest of Biological Production as a Means of
Improving Effluents From Sewage Lagoons. Canada-Ontario Agreement on
Great Lakes Water Quality Research Rept. tt38.
631. Nelson, S.G., B.D. Smith, and B.R. Best, 1981. Kinetics of Nitrate and
Ammonium Uptake by the Tropical Freshwater Macrophyte Pisjbia stratiotes
L. Aquaculture, 24 (1/2):11-19.
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The kinetics of nitrogen uptake were examined for a common freshwater
macrophyte Fistia stratiotes L. Nitrate-nitrogen and ammonium-nitrogen
uptake were examined over a wide range of substrate concentrations gather
information which would be useful in the design of aquaculture systems for
ammonium and nitrate removal. Nitrate uptake rates were higher after 24
hr. of exposure to the nitrate source than immediately after exposure. The
rate of uptake of nitrate-nitrogen was greater in the light than in the
dark. Nitrate uptake followed a pattern which could be adequately
described by the Michaelis-Menten expression. Ammonium nitrogen uptake
response to substrate concentration appeared to be linear. Rates of
ammonium-nitrogen uptake was similar in the dark and in the light. For
any given dissolved nitrogen concentration, the rate of ammonium-nitrogen
uptake was greater than the rate of nitrate-nitrogen uptake.
632. Nessel, J. 1978. Distribution and Dynamics of Organic Matter and Phos-
phorus in a Sewage Enriched Cypress Swamp. Master's Thesis. Depart-
ment of Environmental Engineering Sciences, Univ. of Florida, Gaines—
ville. 150 pp.
633. Nessel, J.K. , and S.E. Bailey. 1980. Distribution and Dynamics of Organic
Matter and Phosphorus in a Sewage-Enriched Cypress Swamp. In; H.E. Odum
and K.C. Ewel (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling
and Conservation. Fifth Annual Report to NSF and Rockefeller Founda-
tion, NSF Grant ttPFR-7706013, Rockefeller Foundation Grant #RF-76034.
634. Neuhold, J. M. 1971. The Study of the Physical, Chemical, and Bio-
logical Nature of Water Quality Under Utah Conditions. Completion
Rept. Utah State Univ., Logan, UT. 100 pp.
Addition of domestic sewage effluent into a high mountain valley
stream can produce a complexity of effects on receiving waters. Mountain
streams are cold waters which have envolved a diverse biological system
adapted to cold temperature, clear water and in which sewage effluents
can persist for relatively long periods of time. The lower Logan River
below the City of Logan is such a stream. It receives domestic effluent
from the City of Logan, which at the start of the study went directly,
untreated, into the Logan River, and during the course of the study was
diverted through an extensive primary-secondary-tertiary treatment lagoon
system returning treated water back to the receiving stream. The phys-
ical, chemical, and biological qualities of the Logan River were studied
before and after treatment. The development of a biological system and
its effect on the physical and chemical qualities in the lagoon system,
built essentially upon a primordial substrate, were also studied. An
annotated bibliography of 250 references on wastewater stabilization
ponds is included. Tertiary treatment ponds can be ecologically managed
to minimize organic build-up. Design criteria should also be established
to maximize retention time to fully utilize the ecosystem developed in
the pond. Free-form designs are suggested as a possible means to accom-
plish this with the added benefit of improving aesthetics of the problem.
(NT)
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635. Nichols, D. S. 1980a. Developing Environmentally Safe Procedures for
Sewage Waste Treatment Using Organic Soils and Peat Materials. Unpub-
lished report. U.S. Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment
Station, Grand Rapids, MN, 54 pp.
636. Nichols, D. S. 1980b. Nutrient Removal from Wastewater by Wetlands. Paper
presented at the 6th International Peat Congress, August 17-23, Duluth
MN. 23 pp.
Interest in wetland applications as a means of removing N and P from
wastewater is rapidly increasing. However, the capacity of wetlands to
function in this manner has not been well quantified. This paper briefly
reviews the literature on this topic. The retention of inflowing P by
wetlands under natural conditions seems to be limited to the relatively
small amount that is accumulated as peat is formed from partially decayed
vegetation. When P in excess of natural levels is added to a wetland,
some is adsorbed by the soil. The efficiency with which wastewater P is
removed is highest at low loading rates and decreases rapidly as loading
rates increase. Removal of P also declines with time; short-term studies
can give misleadingly high estimates of ultimate P removal capacities.
The removal of N in excess of the natural rate of accumulation in the peat
is apparently by denitrification. As with P, the efficiency of N removal
decreases rapidly as loading rates of wastewater N are increased. The
rate of denitrification may be limited by the rate of nitrification or
NH4~N, N03~N, or §2 diffusion. From the sparse data available in
the literature it is estimated that 1 ha of wetland would be required to
remove 75 percent of the P generated by 15 people and 75 percent of the N
from 20 people, or 54 percent of the N and P generated by 50 people. Wet-
land application is feasible only where wetlands are abundant and popula-
tion densities are low. (AA)
637. Nichols, D.S. [No Date] Capacity of Natural Wetlands to Remove Nutrients
from Sewage. U.S. Forest Service, Grand Rapids, MN 24 pp. plus refer-
ences and illustrations.
The mechanisms by which wetlands remove nutrients were reviewed. A
model of the relationships between rates of wastewater application and
efficiencies of removal of N and P was developed on the basis of data from
nine natural wetlands used for wastewater treatment: six located in the
U.S., two located in Canada, and one located in Ireland. It was concluded
that natural wetlands can remove nutrients from wastewater effectively,
but only if the population density is relatively low and wetlands are
relatively abundant. Approximately 1 hectare of wetland was estimated to
be required for 50% removal of nitrogen and phosphorus for every 60
people. An extensive (131 references) bibliography is included. (EP)
1086. Nichols, D.S. 1983.
638. Nichols, D.S. and D.H. Boelter. 1982. Treatment of Secondary Sewage
Effluent With a Peat-Sand Filter Bed. J. Environ. Qual. 11(1):86-
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A peat-sand filter bed was constructed to provide additional treatment
of the secondary sewage effluent from a campground located on the shore of
North Star Lake, within the Chippewa National Forest in north-central
Minnesota. This effluent contained an average of 30.9 mg/liter total
nitrogen, 8.63 mg/liter total phosphorus, and 122,000 fecal coliforms/
100 ml. An average of 6.8 cm/week was applied from late May through early
October for 8 years. The peat-sand filter bed accomplished almost com-
plete removal of fecal coliform bacteria and P. About 90% of the waste
water N was removed during the 2nd and 3rd years of operation, but this
declined to about 50% by the 5th year, due to oxidation of the peat and
release of N. The high Fe, Al, and ash content of the peat contributed to
the filter's highly efficient removal of P. Microbial immobilization in
the peat contributed to N and P removal during the first 2 or 3 years of
waste water application. Rough stalked bluegrass (Pqa triyialis L.)
planted on the peat surface of the filter was very important in overall N
and P removal. Nutrient uptake by the bluegrass increased each year and
accounted for 45% of the P and virtually all of the N removed from the
waste water in the 5th year of the study. (AA)
639. Niering, W. A. 1972. The Wetlands. Ecol. Today 2:32-36.
Four major roles of freshwater wetlands are discussed, including:
hydrologic, productivity, pollution filtration, and education/recreation.
Examples are cited from wetlands throughout the U.S. Includes a separate
article on saltwater wetlands. (DM)
640. Niering, W. A. 1973. The Ecological Role of Inland Wetlands, pp.
100-109 and 163-164. In T. H. Helfgott, M. W. Lefor, and W. C.
Kennard (eds.), Proceedings: First Wetlands Conference. Rept. No. 21.
Inst. Water Res., Univ. of Connecticut, Storrs.
Five wetland types — marsh, wooded swamp, bog, floodplain, and stream
belt ~ and their associated vegetation are discussed, followed by expla-
nations of the numerous roles of wetlands including: flood control,
siltation or sediment trapping, recharging the water table, pollution
filtration, oxygen production, productivity, aid in maintenance of a
balanced nitrogen cycle, education, and recreation. (DM)
641. Nixon, S. W., and C. A. Oviat. 1973. Analysis of Local Variation in the
Standing Crop of Spartirta alterniflora. Botanica Marina 16:103-109.
Measurements of standing crop biomass and height of the tall form of
Spartina. alterniflora on 12 Rhode Island salt marshes suggests that the
nutrients of municipal sewage inputs may increase cordgrass growth. Even
with enhanced growth from eutrophication, calculations show that treat-
ment of marsh areas with sewage effluents is not a realistic hope for the
recycling of wastes from coastal cities, or for providing low cost
tertiary treatment. (WE)
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642. Noble, R. 1975. Growing Fish in Sewage. New Scientist 67:259-261.
643. North Atlantic Treaty Organization. 1976. Harvesting Polluted Waters:
Waste Heat and Nutrient-Loaded Effluents in Aquaculture. Plenum
Press, New York. 335 pp.
This symposium was concerned with the scope for making use of the
thermal pollution produced by power stations, and the waste minerals
contained in domestic sewage, for the greater production of the primary
and intermediate components in the Food chain of fresh and salt water
fish. Topics discussed covered the selection of sites where thermal
"pollution" could be expected to produce beneficial results (e.g., fjords
and nearly-closed bays), the idea of constructing "marine greenhouses,"
the deliberate eutrophication of selected areas with attendant algal
proliferation, the development of existing shellfish beds and the intro-
duction of new species to heated areas, and the possibilities of im-
proving the rearing of fish fry for release and cultivation. There is
one paper drawing attention to the safeguards that would have to be
implemented when using domestic sewage for aquaculture. (AL)
644. Notermans, S., A. H. Havelaar, and J. Schellart. 1980. The Occurrence
of ClostridjLum botulinum in Raw-Water Storage Areas and Their Elim-
ination in Water Treatment Plants. Water Research 14(11):1631-1635.
Large scale outbreaks of waterfowl botulism in 1976 in the Netherlands
have raised questions about the effectiveness of Clostridium botulinum
removal by three water treatment plants. The Leiduin, Weesperkarspel and
Kralingen treatment plants each receive water from three storage areas
where C. botulinum was detected in bottom mud samples. The extent of
removal of the bacterium by routine treatment operations of the plants was
examined, and model experiments were conducted to evaluate the efficiency
of slow sand filters in removing Clostridium spores. Samples were taken
from coagulation sludge and the upper layers of filters in all three
plants and also from the bottom sediments of ozone treatment chambers from
the Weesperkarspel plant. The presence of C. botulinum was determined by
mouse antiserum bioassays. Results of the three year investigations
(1977-1979) indicated that slow sand filters were adequate for retaining
£•• sporogenes spores. In two of the plants, the Weesperkarspel and Kral-
ingen plants, C. botulinum was found only in the early purification
stages. At the Leiduin facility, C. bacteria were also detected on the
slow sand filters, the last step of purification. The bacterium was
detected in only the upper sand layers of this plant, and was never found
in the filter water of any of the three treatment facilities. (WR)
645. Nute, J. W. 1975. Mt. View Sanitary District Marsh Enhancement Pilot
Program. Progress Rept. No. 1. J. Warren Nute, Inc. San Rafael, CA.
9 pp.
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646. Nute, J. W. 1977. Mt. View Sanitary District Marsh Enhancement Pilot
Program. Progress Report No. 2. J. Warren Nute, Inc. Civil & San-
itary Engineers, San Rafael, CA.
The data from the pilot marsh operation for the period from January,
1975 to July, 1976 indicate that secondary effluent can be used to create
beneficial waterfowl habitat. The pilot marsh areas established by Mt.
View Sanitary District receive heavy use by waterflow and other birds.
Studies begun in November, 1976 will provide additional data on wildlife
use of the marsh and its productivity for downstream habitats.
Water quality analyses conducted thus far indicates that the marshes
provide additional treatment to the effluent but that it will be necessary
to control algae growth in order to consistently meet water quality objec-
tives. Control of algae blooms is particularly critical if receiving
water objectives for undissociated ammonia are to be met.
Both achievement of water quality objectives and better waterfowl habi-
tat can probably be achieved by modifying the layout of the marsh areas to
increase water management options. This can be most easily done at Mt.
View by expanding the pilot project to include Area C across the drainage
channel from the present areas. This area could be flooded and drained as
necessary for optimum plant growth and vector control.
In conclusion, the pilot project thus far has yielded considerable in-
formation necessary for the design and operation of a marsh for the bene-
fit of wildlife.
647. Nute, J. W., and F. C. Demgen. 1977. Marsh Enhancement Program - Con-
ceptual Plan. Mt. View Sanitary District. Contra Costa County, CA.
648. Nute, J. W., and F. Demgen. 1979. The Wetlands Wastewater Management
Alternative. In J. C. Sutherland and R. H. Kadlec (eds.), Wetland
Utilization for Management of Community Wastewater. Abstracts of a
conference held 10-12 July 1979 at Higgins Lake, MI. Mt. View, CA.
Mt. View Sanitary District, located east of Martinez, Contra Costa
County, California, within the San Francisco Bay metropolitan area, pro-
vides secondary treatment for wastewater from a population of approxi-
mately 14,000 using the two-stage biofiltration process. Since 1954 the
District has developed a valuable wildlife habitat by flooding nine acres
of man-made wetlands adjacent to the plant with the treated effluent. In
1978 the wetlands system was expanded by construction of three additional
plots on ten additional acres. This wastewater reuse project, providing
valuable environmental benefits, has been developed by the District as an
alternative to disposal through a costly deep water outfall to Suisun Bay.
Environmental benefits of the wetlands system include improved wildlife
habitat, utilization of aquatic life forms to improve water quality and
establishment of a valuable recreational and educational resource. The
wetlands system is managed with the objective of achieving a flourishing
wildlife habitat through use of nutrients in the wastewater to produce a
living ecosystem of vegetation and aquatic organisms to be utilized by
higher forms of life for food and shelter. Aquatic life forms also im-
prove water quality by utilizing algae, detritus and organic pollutants
-------
as food. Through management, a balance of emergent vegetation and open
water areas with adequate water circulation is reached. This is important
to attract migrating ducks who need vegetation for food, protection and
occasionally for nesting. The District's freshwater wetlands supports 86
species of birds, 20 species of animals, as well as 33 species of aquatic
invertebrates.
Flow through the wetland pond system is by gravity. Thus, no energy is
required for moving or pumping the water. Circulation and mixing, as well
as surface aeration, is provided by the prevailing winds. Solar energy
regulates the natural biologic processes developed within the wetlands
ecosystem. Artificial substrate, "Ecofloats" are installed in open water
areas to provide habitat for aquatic invertebrates near the surface of the
water where oxygen levels are highest.
Adequate water circulation and mosquito fish (Gambusia afinis) are the
major means for controlling mosquito populations. All ponds must be
stocked with mosquito fish in the spring and maintained in proportion to
the aquatic invertebrate population. (AA)
649. Nute, J.W., and W.E. Nute. 1979. Marsh/Forest Demonstration Project
Feasibility Assessment. J. Warren Nute, Inc. San Rafael, CA. 15 pp.
650. Oberts, G.L. 1981. Impact of Wetlands on Watershed Water Quality, pp.
213-226. In; B. Richardson (ed.), Selected Proceedings of the Midwest
Conference on Wetland Values and Management. Minnesota Water Planning
Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
A nonpoint source water quality sampling study was conducted on six
rural and 11 urban watersheds in the Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan
Area (2,968 square miles). Wetland occurrence was one principal watershed
selection criterion because wetlands were expected to play a major role in
determination of watershed water quality. Regionally, wetlands comprise
approximately 7.4 percent of the total seven-county area; wetland percent-
ages in the sampled watersheds vary from 4.8 to 16.3 in the rural basins
and from 0 to 14.5 in the urban basins. Results of the water quality mon-
itoring show that wetlands occurrence relates to the annual watershed
loads for several sampled constituents. Multiple regression statistical
modeling of the sampled watersheds yields significant relationships when
various combinations of wetland-related watershed factors are evaluated.
651. O'Brien, P., and J.W. Mitsch. 1980. Root Zone Nitrogen Simulation Model
for Land Application of Sewage Sludges. Ecological Modelling 8:233-257.
A root zone nitrogen simulation model was designed to evaluate long
term effects of various sewage sludge and ammonia N fertilizer applica-
tions upon soil root zone N effects. Specific effects studied were root
zone N build-up, crop N uptake (as a percentage of applied N), crop yield
and nitrate N leaching. Model results showed that nitrate N leaching had a
direct linear relationship to the simulated sludge application rates. For
each metric ton of sludge incorporated into the farm soils, the leaching
-------
rate increased 21 kg/ha/yr. The leaching rate increased 22 kg/ha/yr for
each metric ton of sludge incorporated into the stripraine soils. Leaching
rates 50% lower than incorporation amounts resulted from surface
application of sludge. The maximum uptake of N was determined from
Michaelis-Menten/Monod kinetics to be 135 kg/ha/yr for an incorporated
loading rate of 25 metric tons/ha/yr. Over a 50 year period organic N in
the root zone build-up due to sludge application rates of 25 metric
tons/ha/yr would range from 8,400 to 10,000 kg/ha, depending on the site.
Simulated application of 300 kg/ha/yr of ammonia N gave a 98 kg/ha/yr crop
N yield, representative of an average yield for the U.S. corn belt. Most
of the model findings were in agreement with literature values. (WR)
652. O'Brien, W. J. 1980. Engineering Assessment: Use of Aquatic Plant
Systems for Wastewater Treatment, pp. 63-80. In S. C. Reed and R. K.
Bastian (eds.), Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: An
Engineering Assessment. EPA-430/9-80-007. U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agncy, Office of Water Program Operations. Municipal Con-
struction Division. Washington, DC.
Aquaculture, the production of aquatic organisms under controlled
conditions, has been practiced for many centuries to produce food, fiber,
and fertilizer. This legacy is both a boon and a liability when the
feasibility for using aquatic plants in municipal wastewater treatment is
evaluated. In the first place, the terms "aquaculture" and "aquatic
plants" are much too broad to permit meaningful analysis of wastewater
treatment systems unless boundary conditions are established. The bound-
aries used in this assessment are: 1) The aquatic plants used in the
treatment processes are free floating macrophytes; 2) The primary object-
ive of the treatment system is wastewater renovation. Byproduct recovery
is a useful adjunct to this objective but it is of secondary importance,
and; 3) Aquatic plant treatment processes can be used to replace, or
upgrade existing conventional treatment processes but they must
successfully compete with these processes in terms of performance,
reliability, and total costs.
Another restriction imposed upon this assessment is limitation of the
plant species to water hyacinth, Eichhornia cra s sipe s, and duckweed, Lemma
sp.
653. O'Brien, W.J., 1981. Use of Aquatic Macrophytes for Wastewater Treatment.
J. of Environ. Eng. Div., Amer. Soc. of Civil Eng. 107(4):681-698.
654. O'Connor, D.J., R.V. Thomann, and D.M. DiToro, 1973. Dynamic Water
Quality Forecasting and Management. NTIS No. PB-225 048/8. Ecological
Research Series Rpt. No. EPA-660/3-73-009. August.
The formulation and initial verification of two modeling frameworks are
described. The first is directed toward an analysis of the impact of the
carbonaceous and nitrogenous components and wastewater on the dissolved
oxygen resources of a natural water system. The second modeling framework
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concentrates on the interactions between the discharge of nutrient, both
nitrogen and phosphorus, and the biomass of the phytoplankton and zoo-
plankton populations which result, as well as incorporating the overall
impact on dissolved oxygen. The models are formulated in terms of coupled
differential equations which incorporate both the effect of transport due
to tidal motion and turbulence, and the kinetics which describe the bio-
logical and chemical transformations that can occur. The modeling frame-
works are applied to the Delaware and Potomac estuaries in order to esti-
mate the ability of such models to describe the water quality effects of
carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus discharges. The agreement achieved be-
tween observation and calculation indicate that the major features of the
impact of wastewater components on eutrophication phenomena can be
successfully analyzed within the context of the models presented.
655. Odens, D. 1976. Suitability of Lagoon Effluents for Irrigation in South
Dakota. Completion Rept. 1 (1 July 1975-3 June 1976) to Office of
Water Research and Technology. Dept. of Civil Engineering, South
Dakota State Univ. Brookings, SD. 46 pp.
An evaluation and classification of lagoon effluents in South Dakota
was made with respect to their suitability for irrigation. An estimate
of the quantity of water available was also made. Lagoon waters from 20%
of the total number of lagoons were sampled and analyzed during July and
August. The water quality of the lagoon waters was compared to published
water supply quality data for the respective water supply. From these
comparisons, empirical relationships were developed permitting the pre-
diction of lagoon water quality on the basis of published water quality
data. Using these relationships, all lagoon waters were classified with
respect to their suitability for irrigation. Estimates of volume of
water available for irrigation were based on area of existing lagoons.
(NT)
656. Odum, E. P. 1978a. Value of Wetlands as Domestic Ecosystems, pp. 9-18.
In J. H. Montanari and J. A. Kusler (eds.), Proceedings of the
National Wetland Protection Symposium held 6-8 June 1977 at Reston,
VA. FWS/OBS-78/97. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.
657. Odum, E. P. 1978b. The Value of Wetlands: a Hierarchical Approach,
pp. 16-25. In P. E. Greeson, J. R. Clark, and J. E. Clark (eds.),
Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our Understanding. Pro-
The value of wetlands is being recognized in political and economic
circles; however, the means for quantifying values for decision purposes
are yet to be developed. The hierarchical approach to determining the
values involves a consideration of component levels (for example, popula-
tion), ecosystem levels, and global levels. In ecosystems, values are
implied for hydrologic considerations and productivity. Waste assimila-
tion and the role of wetlands in global cycling and atmospheric stability
form the highest level. Several approaches for summing the values that
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accrue to the various hierarchical levels are possible, including the
common denominator approach, the scaling and weighting approach, and the
replacemlent value approach. The latter seems to be more acceptable to
economists, because one can make an accurate estimate of the monitary
costs associated with the loss of a "free" service performed by a wetland
ecosystem. (AA)
658. Odum, H.T. 1978. Principals for Interfacing Wetlands with Development,
pp. 29-56. In; M. Drew (ed.), Environmental Quality Through Wetland
Utilization. Coordinating Council on Restoration of the Kissimmee
River Valley and Taylor Creek-Hubbin Slough Basin.
1087. Odum, H.T. In press.
659. Odum, H. T., and A. F. Chestnut. 1970. Studies of Marine Estuarine
Ecosystems Developing With Treated Sewage Wastes. Annual Report for
1969-1970. Accession No. PB 199537. 364 pp.
660. Odum, H. T., A. F. Chestnut, M. Beeston, J. Day, and C. R. Dillon. 1970.
Studies of Marine Estuarine Ecosystems Developing with Treated Sewage
Wastes. Annual Rept. 1969-1970. Institute of Marine Sciences.
Univ. of North Carolina, Morehead City, NC. 366 pp.
The report concerns developments in a study of ecologial systems that
develop when the treated wastes from municipal sewage systems flow into
estuarine waters. Studies by a team of faculty and students of the
University of North Carolina are considering a small marsh-lined estuary,
Calico Creek, which receives the wastes following secondary sewage treat-
ment and a set of three ponds in which estuarine water and treated sewage
mixture flows. Three control ponds receive tap water and estuarine
water. Now in their second year, the ponds are rich in productivity with
successive algal blooms throughout the year and a food chain culminating
in blue crabs. In this report there are chapters on the events in the
salinity regime and input management, photosynthetic productivity and
respiration, algal growth, P and N, bacteria, and animal populations.
The presence of a substantial ecological system suggests a viable inter-
mediary system interface is possible between man's municipal wastes and
normal estuaries. These systems have potential for aquaculture and waste
amelioration. (AA)
661. Odum, H. T., and S. Brown. 1976. Regional Implications of Sewage
Effluent Application on Cypress Domes, pp. 329-330. Tn D. L. Tilton,
R. H. Kadlec, and J. C. Richardson (eds.), Proceedings of a National
Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal. Univ.
of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
The regional balance of swamps and man are considered for wetlands
districts of Florida using models, simulations, energy evaluations,
energy quality, measurements of water, and the investment ratio prin-
-------
ciple. Five special examples given include a long range model of basin
formation and landscape maintenance; record of sewage in swamps at
Wildwood (FL); development density and water priority with energy in-
vestment ratio; contracting water and energy quality; regional model of
water, energy, land use, and nutrients in the green swamp district of
Florida. (AA)
662. Odum, H. T., K. Ewel, W. Mitsch, and J. Ordway. 1975. Recycling Treated
Sewage Through Cypress Wetlands in Florida. Occasional Publ. No. 1.
Center for Wetlands. Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.
663. Odum, H. T., and K. C. Ewel. 1978. Cypress Wetlands for Water Manage-
ment, Recycling and Conservation. Fourth annual report, Center for
Wetlands, University of Florida, Gainesville. 953 p.
Recycling of treated sewage wastewaters into two cypress domes in
Gainesville, Florida is in its fourth year with much accelerated growth
of cypress trees and recharge of groundwater after removal of most of the
nutrients and microbes by the natural filter mechanisms of the swamps.
The cypress swamps through the shielding effect of their thin leaf cover
and their leaf drop in dry season save water, as compared to open water
storage. Extension of studies to a cypress strand at Waldo receiving
sewage for 43 years showed the long-term stability of the ecosystem
receiving the nutrients. Drawdown of superficial groundwaters was found
to occur a half mile from canals in South Florida. Lowering the water
tables reduced the productivity and temporarily reduced transpiration.
Evaluations showed that cypress swamp substitution for technological
tertiary treatment was feasible. (NT)
664. Odum, H. T., and K. C. Ewel (eds.). 1980. Cypress Wetlands for Water
Management, Recycling and Conservation. Fifth and Final Report.
Center for Wetlands, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville. 291 pp.
This is the final report to National Science Foundation and the Rocke-
feller Foundation on results of research grant: "Cypress Wetlands for
Water Management, Recycling, and Conservation." Results given in the
first four project reports are not repeated, but new data obtained in
1977-1979 are included. Also included are summaries of the results and
implications for management. A book entitled Cypress Swamps reporting all
results is being prepared for publication for the Center and is forthcom-
ing from University Presses of Florida.
Recycling of treated wastewaters in cypress domes has now had 5 years
of testing and appears to be feasible. This method is preferable to tech-
nological treatment because it costs less; it is better than release on
uplands because better filtration exists and less ecosystem change is
required; and it is preferred to release in open waters because the swamp
ecosystem adapts better to high nutrients and low oxygen conditions. In
Florida, workshops and discussions with state authorities have led to con-
sidering this alternative for tertiary treatment and for storm runoff on a
case-by-case basis.
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A surprising discovery is the savings of water from evapotranspiration
by upland swamps as compared to open water. Comparative studies show that
wetlands1 photosynthetic productivity ranged from very low to very high
depending mainly on the amount of flowing water and the nutrients in the
trajectory. Energy evaluations show the swamps to be a major way to both
save energy and use solar energy for useful economic purpose, thereby sav-
ing waste treatment costs and maintaining a supply of high quality timber.
A series of smaller projects has been initiated with the National
Science Foundation and other agencies to prove long-term feasibility, to
determine the best loading for wastewater addition to flowing swamps, and
to test other kinds of wastewater, such as those containing sulfates and
those from phosphorus mining. The Center for Wetlands, which has started
with funds from this project, has recently received an increased level of
funding from the university. A variety of projects on mangroves, marshes,
and other swamps continues as significant research activities aimed at
increasing our understanding of the basic and applied aspects of wetlands
and their symbiosis with humanity. Other work considers regional aspects
of water and energy of wetlands.
The unburned cypress pond receiving treated sewage wastes continues to
show healthy tree growth, to maintain a layer of duckweed most of the
year, and to allow fast growth of planted seedlings where light is ade-
quate. In order to test for self-regeneration and long-range management
options, sewage flow to the burned pond was eliminated 2 years ago. Seed-
ling regeneration has not yet occurred. Seed supply is adequate but ex-
ceptionally high waters in what is usually the dry period of both years
prevented germination or drowned the seedlings.
The conditions necessary for substantial natural regeneration and their
frequency have yet to be established. Funds obtained from Environmental
Protection Agency allow continuation of the experiment for another year
beyond the NSF-Rockefeller projects, and other funds are being sought so
that the means to establish long-range sustenance of wetland ecosystems
can be determined. (AA)
665. Odum, H.T., K.C. Ewel, W.J. Mitsch and J.W. Ordway. 1977. Recycling
Treated Sewage Through Cypress Wetlands in Florida, pp. 35-67. In;
F.M. D'ltri (ed.), Wastewater Renovation and Reuse. Marcel Dekker, New
York.
666. Odum, H. T., K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K. Johnston. 1975. Cy-
press Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling and Conservation.
Second Annual Report. Center for Wetlands, Univ. of Florida, Gaines-
ville. 817 pp.
Studies of water, nutrients, geological process, chemical cycles,
microbes, vegetation, forestry, wildlife, economics, energetics, and
systems are being made in field tests and in comparisons with other swamp
sites. Treated sewage from a trailer court is flowing at 1 inch per week
into two cypress domes, one severely burned and one unburned. The burned
sewage dome, originally perforated with soil pits and water-jetted wells,
leaked some coliform bacteria and virus into the groundwater in the first
year. Now, in its second year, it is retaining nutrients, heavy metals
-------
and micro-organisms. Both sewage domes have anaerobic water and a heavy
cover of duckweed, but decomposition of organic matter in this semi-na-
tural anaerobic digester is as fast as in aerobic domes. So far, the
cypress swamps seem to be a feasible alternative for wastewater re-
cycling, using the semi-natural interface swamp ecosystems for improving
water quality and recharging groundwaters. (NT)
667. Odum, H. T., K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K. Johnston (eds.). 1976.
Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling, and Conservation,
Third Annual Report. Center for Wetlands, Univ. of Florida. Gaines-
ville. 879 pp.
This is the third annual report on the Cypress Wetlands project spon-
sored by the Rockefeller Foundation and the RANK Division of the National
Sciences Foundation. Studies of water budget and geology show how cy-
press domes store and save water compared to reservoirs. Experiments
with recycling treated sewage water show that the cypress basins (domes)
filter nutrients, microbes, heavy metals, and virus, improving the water
as the sewage water recharges groundwater. Measurements and systems
models show budgets of phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon, and the role of
trees, shrubs, sediments, duckweed, and sedimentation in processing
materials, productivity, total metabolism, and building ecological
patterns. Comparisons are made with strands and floodplains. Regional
studies consider the quantitative role of swamps in water and nutrient
budgets of four counties and the south Florida region. (NT)
668. Odum, H. T., K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, M. K. Johnston, and W. J. Mitsch.
1974. Cypress Wetlands for Water Management Recycling and Conserva-
tion. First Annual Report. Center for Wetlands, Univ. of Florida,
Gainesville. 947 pp.
669. Okorie, P. E. 1976. Effect of Sewage Effluent in Cypress Ponds on
Surrounding Soil Moisture and Nutrient Content and on Growth of Pine
Trees, pp. 438-472. In H. T. Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M.
K. Johnston (eds.). Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling,
and Conservation. Third Annual Report. Center for Wetlands. Univ.
of Florida. Gainesville.
670. Ordway, J. W. 1976a. General Costs for Cypress Wetland Recycling. In H.
T. Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress
Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling, and Conservation. Third
Annual Report. Center for Wetlands. Univ. of Florida. Gainesville.
671. Ordway, J. W. 1976b. General Site Selection, Design Criteria, and Costs
for Recycling Wastewaters through Cypress Wetlands. Master's Thesis.
Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, 54 pp.
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672. Ordway, J. W. 1976c. New phases: Waldo, a Strand Receiving Sewage,
pp. 803-811. In H. T. Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K.
Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling, and
Conservation, Third Annual Rept. Center for Wetlands. Univ. of
Florida, Gainesville.
673. Ordway, J.W. 1976d. The Projected Cost of Cypress Wetland Disposal for
Waldo, Florida, pp. 803-811. In; Third Annual Report on Cypress Wet-
lands, University of Florida, Center for Wetlands, Gainesville.
The general costs for using cypress wetlands as recycling sites for
secondarily treated sewage are considered for the city of Waldo, Florida.
Using one preliminary design, the total cost for this wetland treatment
site was 42.2 cents per 1000 gallons compared with 62 cents per 1000
gallons for spray irrigation and 106 cents per 1000 gallons for advanced
waste treatment.
674. Ornes, W.H., and D.L. Button. 1975. Removal of Phosphorus from Static
Sewage Effluent by Water Hyacinth. Hyacinth Control J. 13:56-58.
675. Ornes, W.H. and K.K. Steward, 1973. Effect of Phosphorus and Potassium on
Phytoplankton Populations in Field Enclosures. Agricultural Research
Service, Ft. Lauderdale, FL. NTIS No. PB-231 650. May 14 p.
Some of the parameters involved in the addition of nutrients to a marsh
environment are evaluated. The effect of weekly applications of phosphor-
us and potassium on algal populations in artificially isolated segments
of a natural marsh environment was monitored. Applications were made to
field enclosures for 22 weeks. The treatment rates were equivalent to the
quantities contained in 2.5 cm/ha of sewage effluent with a concentration
of 10 mg/liter P and 20 mg/liter K. The rates were arbitrarily chosen and
were similar to rates recommended for terrestrial application. Phytoplank-
ton blooms and dynamic shifts in dominant phytoplankton genera resulted.
Also, the aquatic macrophytes Chara and Utricularia disappeared after 22
weeks of treatment. Both polluted and clean water phytoplankton genera
appeared in the control and treated enclosures. The experiment results
indicated a disrupted environment. More study should be conducted before
utilizing the sawgrass marshes as living filters for wastewater.
676. Oron, G. et al. 1979. Algae/bacteria Ratio in High-rate Ponds Used for
Waste Treatment. Applied and Environ. Microbio., 38(4):570-576.
677. Oswald, W.J. 1973. Productivity of Algae in Sewage Disposal. Solar
Energy, 15: 107-117.
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678. Oswald, W.J. et al. 1953. Algal Symbiosis in Oxidation Ponds. II.
Growth Characteristics of Chlprella pyrenoidosa culture in sewage.
Sewage Ind. Wastes, 25: 26-37.
679. Oswald, W.J. and H.B. Gotaas. 1957. Photosynthesis in Sewage Treatment
Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. Eng., 122:73-105.
680. Ozimek, T. 1978. Effect of Municipal Sewage on the Submerged Macro-
phytes of a Lake Littoral. Ekologia Polska 26:3-39.
681. Palmer, H. V. R. 1971. Research Project Appears to Hold Special Promise
for Towns, Fishing. National Fisherman. Camden, ME. 52(5):20-24.
682. Palmer, M., and S. T. R. Espirito. 1980. Environmental Study of the
Tagus Estuary. Nature and Resources - UNESCO 16(3):14-21.
The Tagus Estuary of Portugal has been severely degraded by the
introduction of industrial and municipal wastes and nonpoint source
pollution contributions. A research project was organized to document
the extent of estuarine pollution, its impacts on the environment and
industry, and remedial measures. The estuary is an important regional
resource, as it is used for transport, aquaculture, urban and agricul-
tural water supply, and recreation. (EL)
683. Parizek, R. R. 1973. Site Selection Criteria for Wastewater Disposal -
Soils and Hydrogeologic Consideration, pp. 95-147. In W. E. Sopper
and L.T. Kardos (eds.), Recycling Treated Municipal Wastewater and
Sludge Through Forest and Cropland. Pennsylvania State University
Press.
684. Parker, C.D. and G.P. Skerry, 1968. Function of Solids in Anaerobic
Lagoon Treatment of Wastewater: J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 40(2):
192-204.
Field studies of anaerobic lagoons in Australia have shown that solids
farther from the inlet of a lagoon are more active in purification than
those deposited closer to the inlet, although in many cases they show
lower gas yields. Lagoon sludge purification index (Ibs BOD/acre/day/lb
vs) values ranged from 0.0053 during the winter at a typical pond inlet to
0.00902 during the summer at the pond outlet. The organic load to the
pond during this period was about 482 Ibs BOD/day/acre, and the sludge gas
yield varied from 1.2 to 7.7 ml/day/gvs. The presence of algae in pond
supernatant apparently does not reduce the sludge's BOD removal capacity.
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Where methane fermentation is inhibited, BOD can still be removed by sul-
fate reduction. Laboratory studies showed that a substantial increase
(almost 30%) in BOD removal can be achieved by mixing sludge with the
supernatant, and that algae proliferate readily in media with high organic
contents.
685. Parker, D. S. 1976. Performance of Alternative Algae Removal Systems.
In E. F. Gloyna (ed.), Ponds as a Wastewater Treatment Alternative.
Center for Research in Water Resources. Water Resources Symposium No.
9. Univ. of Texas Press, Austin.
686. Parker, P. E. 1974. A Dynamic Ecosystem Simulator. Ph.D. Diss. Univ.
of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
687. Parker, P. E., P. K. Gupta, K. R. Dixon, R. H. Kadlec, and D. E. Hammer.
1978. REBUS: A Computer Routine for Predictive Simulation of Wetland
Ecosystems. Report to the National Science Foundation. NSF
ENV 76-80708. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
688. Parker, P. E., and R. H. Kadlec. 1978. A Dynamic Ecosystem Simulator.
Paper presented at the American Institute of Chemical Engineers 78th
National Meeting, Salt Lake City, UT. August 1978.
689. Parrott, H. A., and D. H. Boelter. 1977. The Use of Peat Filter Beds
for Wastewater Renovation at Forest Recreation Areas. Presented at a
Symposium on Municipal Wastewater and Sludge Recycling on Forest Land
and Disturbed Land. Philadelphia, PA.
690. Patel, P. M., A. Wallace, W. L. Berry, and O. R. Lunt. 1978. Reclaimed
Sewage Water: A Hydroponic Growth Medium for Plants. Resource
Recovery and Conservation 3(2):191-199.
Crops of cucumber, tomato, lettuce and chrysanthemum have been grown
in flow culture with secondary sewage effluent as the nutrient source.
Energy was saved because fertilizers were not necessary. Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe,
Ni, and Pb were removed from the water by the plants so that it could be
used for other biologically-based processes where heavy metals might
cause problems. Variable amounts of nitrates and phosphates were
stripped from the water, and these amounts could be increased at the
expense of crop production. (AL)
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691. Patrick, R. 1976. The Role of Aquatic Plants in Aquatic Ecosystems, pp.
53-59. In; J. Tourbier and R.W. Pierson, Jr. (eds.), Biological
Control of Water Pollution. Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
Aquatic plants enrich aquatic and wetland ecosystems by fixing carbon
and giving off free oxygen during photosynthesis. They also provide shel-
ter for aquatic organisms. In the growth of aquatic plants various nutri-
ents are removed from the water. Nutrients may be accumulated in excess
of what is needed for growth. Significant amounts of heavy metals are
also accumulated. Nutrients and trace metals are stored in plant tissues
and are returned to the aquatic ecosystem as food or detritus. In the
case of emergent vegetation, they may be dispersed into the terrestrial
ecosystem. Wetlands are important for the production of various sub-
stances essential for the aquatic ecosystem. An example is the production
of vitamin B12 by fungi and bacteria in swamps.
692. Patrick, W.H., Jr., and R.D. Delaune. 1976. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Util-
ization by Spartina alterniflora in a Salt Marsh in Barataria Bay,
Louisiana. Estuarine and Coastal Marine Sci. 4:59-64.
693. Patrick, W.H., R.D. Deluane, D.A. Antie, and R.M. Engler. 1971. Nitrate
Removal from Water at the Water-Soil Interface in Swamps, Marshes, and
Flooded Soils. Annual Progress Report PFWOA, EPA (Project 1605 FJR,
LSU).
694. Patrick W.H., Jr., R.D. Deluane, R.M. Engle, and S. Gotoh. 1976. Nitrate
Removal from Water at the Watermud Interface in Wetlands. U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency. Ecological Research Series. Washington, DC
Flooded swamp and coastal marsh soils in Louisiana have a high capacity
for nitrate reduction, according to reserarch focused: (1) on learning how
rapidly, how completely and by what mechanism nitrate is removed by bio-
logical reduction from shallow surface water in swamps, marshes and
flooded soils, and (2) to determine the oxidation-reduction properties of
the water-mud interface that control or influence the reduction of nitrate
to nitrogen gas. Oxidized and reduced layers in flooded soil were differ-
entiated according to the vertical distribution of the oxidation-reduction
(redox) potential and concentrations of manganous manganese, ferrous iron,
sulfide, nitrate and ammonium. Redox potential was measured with a
special motor-driven assembly which pushed a platinum electrode through a
soil sample at a steady rate. From laboratory experiments, it was found
that nitrate added to shallow floodwater rapidly disappeared, oxygen loss
from sediments occurred rapidly and nitrate reduction was not inhibited by
up to 16 ppm oxygen dissolved in soil suspensions. The nitrate was not
reduced in the floodwater but filtered downward into the anaerobic soil
layer. Additions of organic matter to a mineral soil flood for rice
culture decreased the thickness of the aerobic-anaerobic zone at the soil-
water interface and increased the rate of nitrate reduction.
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695. Patterson, D. R. 1971. Impact of Effluent Spraying on the Small Mammal
Populations and Vegetation of the Disposal Area. Master's Thesis.
Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH.
To determine the effect of effluent spraying on the small mammal
populations and vegetation of the disposal area, two different systems
were selected for study, a woodland disposal system at Seabrook Farms,
Seabrook, New Jersey, and a grassland disposal system at the Campbell
Soup Company, Napolean, Ohio. Periodic systematic surveys of the vege-
tation and small mammals had been undertaken by other investigators at
Seabrook since the start of the effluent spraying system in 1950. The
present study deals with data previously collected by others as well as
1967 and 1969 data collected at Seabrook and 1968-69 data collected at
Napoleon by the author.
For the first two or three years of effluent spraying at Seabrook, the
mixed-oak woods exhibited an increased rate of growth over reference
areas, however, those trees sprayed more than three years began dying,
presumably by defoliation and debarking of the trees by the sprayers,
thus opening them up to fungal and insect infestation. A decrease in
Perpmyscus leucopus populations increased in marginally sprayed areas,
where the force of the spray was reduced by distance and a dense her-
baceous cover which provided cover and a variety and quantity of food.
The increase in Perpmyscus populations in the marginally sprayed areas
may be due to higher pregnancy rates, or invasion of mice into the more
favorable habitat. The data from the Campbell spray fields is somewhat
inconclusive with only two years of data. (AA)
696. Patterson, J.W., R.A. Minear, and T.K. Nedved. 1971. Septic Tanks in the
Environment. NTIS, Springfield, VA.
697. Pavoni, J. L., S. W. Kelber, and G. T. Bablitt. 1974. The Harvesting of
Algae as a Food Source From Wastewater Using Natural and Induced
Flocculation Techniques, pp. 435-497. In Wastewater Use in the Pro-
duction of Food and Fiber- Proc. U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Ada, OK.
698. Payonk, P.M. 1975. The Response of Three Species of Marsh Macrophytes to
Artificial Enrichment at Dulac, LA. Master's Thesis. Louisiana State
University. Baton Rouge. 122 pp.
This study details the response of three emergent species to treatment
with wastewater from a menhaden processing plant. The wastewater signi-
ficantly increased net above-ground productivity of all species, 38 -
51%. Percentage of applied nutrients actually incorporated into plant
tissue was measured. Values ranged from 3.6 - 41.1% for N, and
4.0 - 7.4% for P. Applied nutrients accounted for a 12 - 16% increase in
N and P in surface waters of the marsh. The remaining nutrients were
accounted for through incorporation into the marsh's soil system, as
through limited flushing action. (WE)
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699. Payonk, P.M., R.E. Turner and J.H. Stone. 1976. Production, Tissue Nutri-
ents and the Response to Enrichment of Three Marsh Macrophytes in
Louisiana, unpbl. manuscript.
700. Pecor, C. H., J. R. Novy, K. E. Childs, and R. A. Powers. 1973.
Houghton Lake Annual Nitrogen and Phosphorus Budgets. Tech. Bull. No.
73-6. Michigan Dept. Nat. Res., Lansing. 128 pp.
701. Perry, J.J., D.E. Armstrong, and D.D. Huff. 1981. Phosphorus Fluxes in an
Urban Marsh During Runoff, pp. 199-212. In; B. Richardson (ed.),
Selected Proceedings of the Midwest Conference on Wetlands Values and
Management. Minnesota Water Planning Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
Marshes have frequently been regarded as filters that remove nutrients
from water passing through them. A field-oriented study was done to show
the effects of an urban marsh on the transport of dissolved and particu-
late P during runoff events. The marsh was particularly amenable to eval-
uation because a water budget had been developed for the area and 90% of
the water enters the marsh as residential runoff from a gaged storm sewer.
The basic approach involved direct measurement of P input from runoff,
precipitation, and groundwater recharge. P output was obtained from P con-
centrations in surface and groundwater discharge. Laboratory and field
investigations were used to calculate the extent of P flux in the marsh
by the mechanisms of particulate sedimentation, soil sorption and leaching
from vegetation.
The annual dissolved P input was 224 Kg. Approximately 14% of the
dissolved P was retained in the marsh, primarily by the mechanisms of
sorption during filtration. Seasonal variability in dissolved P retention
(8-50%) reflects the capacity of the runoff water to infiltrate the marsh
soils. Annual particulate P input was 282 Kg of which 82% was retained by
particulate sedimentation. These values do not include release of partic-
ulate P originating from the erosion of marsh soils. Reservation should
be used in extrapolating the data to other wetlands owing to the unique
hydrology in Wingra marsh. (AA)
702. Pershe, E. R. 1980. Combined Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treat-
ment in Cold Climates, an Engineering Assessment, pp. 105-127. In S.
C. Reed and R. K. Bastian (eds.), Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater
Treatment: An Engineering Assessment. EPA-430/9-80-007. U.S. Envir-
onmental Protection Agency. Office of Water Program Operations,
Municipal Construction Division. Washington, DC.
The purpose of this assessment is to highlight some of the more impor-
tant aspects of combined aquaculture systems and to evaluate their merit
for use in cold climates. Much of the assessment is based on presenta-
tions that were made at a seminar held on the campus of the University of
California at Davis in September 1979.
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703. Peters, R.E. and C.R. Lee. 1978. The Potential of Overland Flow to Treat
Runoff Water in the Kissimmee River Valley and Taylor Creek-Nubbin
Slough Watersheds, pp. 202-216. In; M.A. Drew (eds.), Environmental
Quality Through Wetlands Utilization. Coordinating Council on the
Restoration of the Kissimmee River Valley and Taylor Creek-Nubbin
Slough Basin. Tallahassee, FL. 243 pp.
Overland flow has been used successfully to treat both industrial and
municipal wastewaters for a number of years. Wastewater renovation is
achieved through interaction of the physical, chemical, and biological
components of the grass/soil system. The most notable example of indus-
trial application in the United States is the use of overland flow to
treat cannery wastewater by the Campbell's Soup Company in Paris, Texas.
As part of the mandate in Public Law 92-500 the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers has conducted extensive research on land treatment of wastewater
to develop design and operational criteria for cost-effective wastewater
treatment systems. A field research facility to investigate overland flow
for treatment of municipal wastewater was established near Utica, Mississ-
ippi, in the fall of 1975. Results indicate that overland flow can reduce
applied nitrogen concentrations of 20 mg/1 to below 5 mg/1, representing a
mass nitrogen reduction of up to 90%. However, only moderate reduction of
phosphorus has been achieved. BOD and suspended solids have been reduced
to 10 and 15 mg/1, respectively.
Overland flow has potential for reducing pollutants from both point and
nonpoint sources in the Kissimmee River watershed. Three alternatives
appear to have the most potential:
a. Effluents from dairy stabilization ponds or lagoons may be spray or
flood irrigated onto adjacent pasture for overland flow treatment.
b. Storm-water runoff from improved pasture, citrus groves, or other
agriculturally oriented areas may be collected in detention ponds
and spray or flood irrigated onto adjacent lands at a lower, con-
trolled rate to enhance nutrient removal and water use by agricul-
tural crops.
c. In lieu of storm water detention, a third alternative is to build a
broad, base terrace at near zero channel grade to promote infiltra-
tion and evapotranspiration of storm water runoff where soil condi-
tions permit.
704. Peverly, J.H. 1982. Stream Transport of Nutrients Through a Wetland. J.
of Environ. Qual. 11:38-42.
The potential of managed wetlands to remove nutrients from agricultural
drainage water was investigated by hydrographic and nutrient analyses for
2 years in Oak Orchard Creek, NY, which drains in series cultivated Histo-
sols (upstream) and wetlands managed for waterfowl (downstream). Three
stations were established, two above and one below the wetland. Creek-
water pH averaged about 7.4. Dissolved concentrations (mg/liter) ranged
from 0 to 19 for N, 0.009 to 2 for P, 2 to 10 for K, 45 to 411 for Ca, and
10 to 102 for C, and were highest just below the cultivated areas. Eighty
to ninety percent of the creek load was carried from December through
March. The cultivated organic soils were a rich source of nutrients to
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the creek, and the managed wetlands acted as net nutrient sinks for N and
P during the second year only, when flow through the system was about half
that in the first year. However, on an areal basis, much less nutrient
material was lost from the wetlands than from other parts of the basin.
The creek system seems to be N-limited; P loads exceeded N loads during
late summer. It is suggested that nutrient retention by wetlands depends
on past nutrient history and current regulation of water movement through
the system. (AA)
705. Piecynska, E., V. Sikorska, and T. Ozimek. 1975. The Influence of
Domestic Sewage on the Littoral Zone of Lakes. Polish Archives of
Hydrobiology (Polskie Archiwum Hydrobiologii) 22:1141-1456.
706. Pilling, J. R., II. 1978. Design of a Marsh/Pond Sewage Treatment
System for a 10-unit Housing Development. Master's Thesis, Department
of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning, Univ. of Penn-
sylvania, Philadelphia. 74 pp.
This project was entered into under contract with a private developer
for a 10-unit housing development on a 250 acre site in Buckingham Town-
ship, PA. An investigation of three alternative biological sewage treat-
ment systems, a summary of legal requirements for such a system, a site
assessment and suitability analysis of the site to accomodate biological
treatment, and a draft design for a marsh/pond sewage treatment system
are included in the report. The marsh/pond system used is an adaptation
of the technology developed at Brookhaven National Laboratory. (EP)
707. Pirrung, D. F., 1978. Feasibility of Utilization of a Wetland for Nutri-
ent Removal from Secondary Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Efflu-
ent. Presented at American Water Res. Conf., Wisconsin Section,
February.
The objective of this study was to evaluate alternative methods for
cost effective and environmentally sound treatment of secondarily treated
effluent from the Waupun City, Wisconsin, wastewater plant. One of the
alternatives was to discharge the effluent to Horicon Marsh, a State and
National Wildlife Refuge, for tertiary treatment. This alternative,
based on 30/30 mg/liter effluent limits exhibited an estimated present
worth cost savings of 1.8 million dollars when compared to conventional
treatment. (WE)
708. Pirrung, D.F. 1979. Feasibility of Utilizing a Wetland for Tertiary
Treatment. In; J.C. Sutherland and R.H. Kadlec (eds.), Wetland Utili-
zation for Management of Community Wastewater. Abstracts of a Confer-
ence held 10-12 July 1979.
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The City of Waupun, located in east central Wisconsin, presently dis-
charges secondary effluent from its wastewater treatment plant to the
South Branch of the Rock River. The Wisconsin Department of Natural Re-
sources has established very strict effluent limits for the discharge of
the City of Waupun wastewater treatment plant to the Rock River. To meet
the effluent requirements for discharge to the Rock River, the City of
Waupun wastewater treatment plant would require upgrading of the primary
and secondary units plus tertiary treatment. The requirements for ter-
tiary treatment are quite stringent and would require very sophisticated,
energy intensive, unit processes.
The City of Waupun 201 Facilities Plan, prepared by Donohue & Associ-
ates, Inc., evaluated various alternate discharge points and unit process-
es in order to obtain the most cost-effective and environmentally sound
alternative. One of the alternatives was to discharge the secondary
effluent from the wastewater treatment plant to a wetland. The Hoticon
Marsh, a national wildlife refuge, is located approximately five miles
east of the City of Waupun.
The feasibility of utilizing a wetland for nutrient removal from
secondary municipal wastewater treatment plant effluent consisted of the
following tasks: a review of the literature, site visitations of similar
projects in Wisconsin and Michigan, evaluation of the wastewater charac-
teristics, and preliminary site investigations.
The purpose of the wetland alternative was to provide the City of
Waupun with a less costly simplified wastewater treatment system which is
environmentally sound. The marsh alternative considered upgrading of the
primary and secondary treatment units plus dechlorination, an effluent
pumping station and a transmission line to the wetland. Preliminary costs
for conventional tertiary treatment were compared to the cost of discharg-
ing the secondary effluent to the wetland. Similar projects throughout
the nation, the present state of art, governmental and public input
regarding the concept are discussed. (AA)
709. Polin, B. K. 1977. Re-use of Treated Wastewater: A Summary Statement.
Rept. No. 50. Water Research Foundation of Australia, Kingsford,
N.S.W. 60 pp.
The possible uses of treated or partially-treated sewage for agricul-
tural, aquacultural or domestic purposes are reviewed, with examples of
the current application of such systems in Australia. Recent experience
of these methods as a means of conservation of water supplies and re-
charging of groundwater sources is drawn upon in order to assess their
present and likely future potential in Australia. It is concluded that
direct re-use of treated effluent for supplementing drinking water sup-
plies is inadvisable in the present state of knowledge, and that scarce
supplies of first-class water should be reserved for drinking while water
of poorer quality could be made available for alternative uses. Some
published data regarding water consumption by typical households are
compared, and details of small-scale treatment facilities suitable for
installation in remote situations are outlined. (AL)
710. Polprasert, C. and P. Edwards. 1981. Low Cost Waste Recycling in the
Tropics. Biocycle 22(4):30-35.
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711. Pope, P.R. 1981. Wastewater Treatment by Rooted Aquatic Plants in Sand
and Gravel Trenches. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Municipal
Environmental Research Laboratory. Cincinnati, OH.
A patented process developed by the Max Planck Institute (MPI) of West
Germany to treat industrial wastes was evaluated as an energy-efficient
method to treat municipal wastewater. The major goal was to achieve
effluents meeting the U.S. Federal Effluent Standards using this novel
biological treatment process that requires a minimal amount of mechanical
equipment and manpower for normal operation.
The Moulton Niguel Water District (MNWD) of Laguna, California, con-
structed and operated an earthen trench system using rooted aquatic plants
for the treatment of wastewater. Two trenches in series were planted with
the reed Phragmites and the bulrush Scirpus, respectively.
A 2-month study using conventional secondary effluent as the trench in-
fluent showed the system was not effective for removing nitrogen and phos-
phorus components.
An 11-month study demonstrated that raw screened wastewater applied to
the trench system at a rate not exceeding 95 m-^/d (25,000 gpd) could be
treated to secondary effluent quality. Spatial requirements were about
the same as for a septic tank system.
712. Porath, D., G. Oron, J. Pollock, and A. Richmond. 1981. Ammonia Stripping From
Fish Influent by Duckweed in a Circulating System. Presented at the Water
Reuse Symposium II. Washington, DC. August 23-28, 1981.
Free floating duckweed (Lemma gibba) seems to be an excellent ammonia
stripper in the presence of nitrate, as well as other nutrients and
wastes found in fish aquaculture. In standard aseptic conditions, about
0.1% fresh duckweed biomass was able to strip ammonia (2.0 - 0.2 mg/1) in
the presence of a higher concentration of nitrate (500 mg/1). Slight
changes in pH and light did not significantly affect ammonia uptake.
About 200 1 water taken from a fish aquaculture which contained 02. mg/1
ammonia was circulated 5 times a day under the floating duckweed biomass
in order to improve contact of the plants with the nutrients. More than
80% of the ammonia content was stripped after 48 hours. Ammonia level
was not changed when the circulating system was activated without the
duckweed. (AA)
713. Powers, J. E. 1974. Critical Variables in Food-item Population Dynamics
in a Wastewater Aquaculture System, pp. 497-509. In Wastewater Use in
the Production of Food and Fiber-. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Ada, OK.
714. Pratt, D. C., V. Bonnewell, N. J. Andrews, and J. H. Kim. 1980. The
Potential of Cattail as an Energy Source. Report prepared for the
Minnesota Energy Agency, Minneapolis - St. Paul, MN. 147 pp.
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715. Prentki, R. I., T. D. Gustafson, and M. S. Adams. 1978. Nutrient Move-
ments in Lakeshore Marshes, pp. 169-194. In R. E. Good, D. F.
Whigham, and R. L. Simpson (eds.), Freshwater Wetlands, Ecological
Processes and Management Potential. Academic Press, Inc., New York.
Seasonal P allocation in Typha latifolia L. was investigated by analy-
sis of above and belowground parts in a lakeshore marsh at Lake Mendota,
Wisconsin. Maximum total P stocks of 4.3 and 2.2-2.5 g P/m^ were found
in summer and winter, respectively. A maximum upward translocation of 140
mg P/m^, 1/3 due to mobilization of belowground reserves, was observed
the first 2 weeks of June. Over an entire summer, 40% of the 3.2g P/m^
accumulated aboveground was reallocated from belowground plant parts.
However, only 23% of this amount returned to belowground in the fall; 2.5
g P/m^ was left on the marsh surface as litter plus leachate. Typha
roots continued to absorb P past aboveground senescence and into early
winter, resulting in post-shoot-death uptake of up to 9% of the next
season's P requirement.
Analysis of lakeshore marsh literature via a input-output model sug-
gests that macrophytic translocation of nutrients is an important source
of internal loading. In those marshes without major surface water inputs,
seasonal accumulation and abandonment of nutrients above the soild inter-
face is likely to be the dominant term in nutrient budgets. (AA)
716. Price, D. 1975a. The Fate of Fecal Coliforms in Cypress Domes. In H.T.
Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway and M. K. Johnson (eds.), Cypress
Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling and Conservation, Third
Annual Report. Center for Wetlands, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.
717. Price, D. 1975b. The Role of Duckweed in Recycling Sewage Effluent in a
Cypress Swamp, pp. 360-382. In H. T. Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway,
and M. K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Management,
Recycling, and Conservation. Third Annual Report. Center for
Wetlands. Univ. of Florida. Gainesville.
718. Price, D. E., and L. Fox. 1973. Pattern of Distribution of Coliform
Bacteria in and Around the Experimental Cypress Dome, pp. 285-308. In
H. T. Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K. Johnston (eds.),
Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling, and Conservation.
Third Annual Report. Center for Wetlands. Univ. of Florida. Gaines-
ville.
719. Pruder, G.D., J. Carberry and C. Wethe. 1981. Wastewater-molluscan Aqua-
culture for Lewes, Delaware. EPA report (in preparation).
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720. Public Health Service. 1961. Waste Stabilization Lagoons. Proceedings
of a Symposium at Kansas City, MO. Aug. 1-5, 1960. PHS, Division of
Water Supply and Pollution Control. Washington, DC. 172 pp.
Contents: History of raw sewage lagoons in the midwest; History of
oxidation ponds in the southwest; Lagoon research project of the public
health service at Fayette, Missouri; Research and installation exper-
iences in California; Virginia's experimental installation; Sewage
lagoons in Australia; Economics of waste stabilization lagoons in region
VI; Use of stabilization ponds in the United States; Missouri basin
criteria; Lagoon development and acceptance in Mississippi; Experiences
in Canada; Sewage lagoons and mosquito problems; Lagoon disposal of
livestock wastes; Operating experiences in the ten Missouri Basin states;
Arctic sewage lagoons. (NT)
721. Queen, W.H. 1977. Human Uses of Salt Marshes, pp. 363-368. In; Ecosys-
tems of the World I: Wet Coastal Ecosystems-Elsevier Scientific Pub-
lishing Co. , New York.
Present calculations of marsh value emphasize natural characteristics
and processes revealed by ecological studies over the past several
decades. These characteristics and processes may be grouped into four
categories: biological production, aquaculture, wastewater assimilation,
and other uses.
Biologically, estuaries bordered by marshes, and coastal waters in the
vicinity of extensive marsh-estuarine systems, are among the world's most
productive waters in terms of both commercial and sport fisheries. Both
estuarine shellfish and many coastal water finfish are doubly dependent on
coastal salt marshes. Of equal importance with the habitat role is the
function of marshes as producers of nutrient material, especially organic
material. Economic demand has stimulated interest in increasing fish and
shellfish production in estuarine waters by the use of aquaculture tech-
niques. Although these techniques represent commercial exploitation of
marshes, they are independent upon the production of organic nutrients by
marsh plants, a natural marsh process. Wastewater assimilation by marsh
plants has led to considerable speculation that marshes can be used to
partially purify domestic wastewater thereby reducing the need for ter-
tiary sewage treatment. Other marsh characteristics useful to man are
erosion control, prevention of damage resulting from tidal flooding, and
the cycling of nitrogen and sulphur.
722. Rabe, M. L. 1979. Impact of Wastewater Discharge upon a Northern
Michigan Wetland Wildlife Community. Report to the Houghton Lake
Sewer Authority, Houghton Lake, MI.
723. Rai, D.N. and J.D. Munski, 1979. The Influence of Thick Floating Vegeta-
tion (Water Hyacinth: Eichhornia crassipes) on the Physico-chemical
Environment of a Freshwater Wetland. Hydrobiologia 62(1):65-69.
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Physiochemical measurements December 1976-August 1977 of Bhathwa
Pokhar, a freshwater wetland at Darbhanga, India, showed that dissolved
carbon dioxide was higher and that oxygen, pH and temperature fluctuations
were lower under water hyacinth areas than in open water. The extent of
difference depends on the time of day and season. Due to extreme hyper-
carbic and hypoxic conditions most vertebrates living in hyacinth infested
areas are air breathers such as water snakes and turtles or supplemental
air breathers such as frogs and air-breathing fish. High carbon dioxide
and low oxygen concentrations are due to high anaerobic decomposing mat
leaves and detritus, increased respiratory activities of organisms, and
decreased photosynthetic rates caused by water hyacinth shadowing effects
over the water surface. Oxygen is very low under water hyacinth mats
(always less than 2 ppm) and during the summer oxygen levels are reduced
to zero in both infested and uninfested water areas. Dissolved oxygen
reaches its lowest value in late night hours (4 a.m.) and peaks in the
afternoon; the maximum-value is 7 ppm in clear areas during winter.
Bhathwa Pokhar is a shallow (1.5 m mean depth), small (1.5 ha), swampy
pond and 98% area is covered by water hyacinth. The source of pond water
is Darbhnage Medical College campus sewage.
724. Ramsay, A. 1976. Comparison of Fall Birds Present in a Natural Cypress
Dome, a Sewage Dome, and the Adjacent Pine Plantation, pp. 654-
In H. T. Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, and M. K. Johnston (eds.),
Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling, and Conservation.
Third Annual Report. Center for Wetlands. Univ. of Florida. Gaines-
ville.
725. Ramsay, A. 1978. The Effect of the Addition of Sewage Effluent on
Cypress Dome Bird Communities. Master's paper. School of Forest
Resources and Conservation, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville. 22 pp.
726. Randall, C. W., and L. D. Benefield. 1980. Biological Process Design
for Wastewater Treatment. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
540 pp.
This volume is a practical treatise on the design of biological ef-
fluent treatment plant which bases the calculations employed on an
understanding of the theoretical principles involved. The first two
chapters are concerned with the fundamentals of process kinetics and
microbiology (including growth kinetics) respectively, and are followed
by a section on wastewater characteristics and flows. Thereafter, a
series of chapters on specific treatment applications is presented, in-
cluding activated sludge and its various modifications, aeration system
design, treatment ponds and aerated lagoons; attached-growth biological
treatment methods, and sludge digestion. The problems and processes of
nitrification and denitrification are considered where appropriate, in
addition to the oxidation of organic matter. (AL)
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727. Raschke, R. L. 1968. Algal Periodicity, Primary Production and Waste
Reclamation in a Tertiary Sewage Stabilization Pond Ecosystem. Ph.D.
Diss. Iowa State Univ., Ames.
728. Reddy, C. N., and W. H. Patrick, Jr. 1977. Effect of Redox Potential
and pH on the Uptake of Cadmium and Lead by Rice; Plants. J. Environ.
Qual. 6: 259-262.
Redox potential and pH are two of the major factors influencing the
mobilization and immobilization of heavy metals in flooded soils and sedi-
ments, and their availability to plants. A system developed for growing
plants in soil suspensions where redox potential and pH can be controlled
was used to study the uptake of cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) by rice plants
(Oryza sativa L.). Uptake of Cd and Pb by root and shoot tissue, and their
translocation from root to shoot, was determined at six different redox
potentials (-200, -100, 0, +100, +200, and +400 mV) and four pH values
(5,6,7, and 8). The effects of redox potential and pH on the levels of
water-soluble Cd and Pb in the soil suspensions were also studied. Almost
all Cd entering the rice plants accumulated in the shoots. Total Cd
uptake and shoot uptake increased with an increase in suspension redox
potential and a decrease in pH. Water-soluble Cd in the soil suspension
was significantly correlated with total plant Cd and Cd uptake by shoot.
Total Pb uptake, including Pb associated with the roots, decreased with an
increase in pH. No definite redox potential effect was found on Pb uptake
by the shoot. Lead was less mobile than Cd in the rice plants and was
primarily associated with the roots. Water-soluble Pb decreased with an
increase in redox potential and pH, and was significantly correlated with
total plant Pb uptake and Pb uptake by shoot.
729. Reddy, K. R., and D. A. Graetz. 1980. Use of Shallow Reservoirs and
Flooded Soil Systems for Agricultural Drainage Water Treatment: In-
organic nitrogen removal. J. Environ. Qual. (in review).
730. Reed, C.A., and T. Kubiak. In press. An Ecological Evaluation Procedure
for Determining Wetlands Suitability for Wastewater Discharge/Treat-
ment. In; Ecological Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal
Wastewaters, Proceedings of a Workshop, 23-25 June 1982. University of
Massachusetts, Amherst MA. US Fish and Wildlife Service and US
Environmental Protection Agency.
731. Reed, S. C., and R. K. Bastian (eds.). 1980. Aquaculture Systems for
Wastewater Treatment: An Engineering Assessment. EPA-430/9-80-007.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program
Operations, Municipal Construction Division. Washington, DC. 127 pp.
This publication contains five additional engineering assessments not
included in Bastian and Reed (1979).
1088. Reed, S^C. and R.K. Bastian. In press.
-------
732. Reed, S. C., R. K. Bastian, and W. Jewell. 1979. Engineering Assessment
of Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: an Overview,
pp. 1-12. In R. K. Bastian and S. C. Reed (eds.), Aquaculture
Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and Engineering
Assessment. EPA 430/9-80-006. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Water Program Operations, Municipal Construction Division,
Washington, DC.
This overview contains a summary of the current status of aquaculture
technologies, including a section on wetland treatment processes. For
the purposes of this assessment, wetland processes were defined as those
treatment processes that take place on land where the water table is at
or above the surface for long enough each year to maintain saturated soil
conditions and the growth of related vegetation. A number of conclusions
and recommendations for further studies are listed for wetland processes
and for the other sections of this publication (e.g., aquatic plant
systems and combined systems). (EP)
733. Reid, G. W. 1976. Algae Removal by Fish Production. In E. F. Gloyna,
J. F. Malina, Jr., E. M. Davis (eds.J, Ponds as a Wastewater Treatment
Alternative. Water Resources Symp. #9, Center for Research in Water
Resources, College of Engineering, Univ. of Texas, Austin.
734. Reim, J. 1980. Sewage Treatment in a Sphagnum Peat Bog. Great Lakes
Focus on Water Quality 6(3):6-9.
735. Reimold, R.J., 1980. Marsh Creation: Impact of Pesticides on the Fauna,
Use of Infrared Photography, Ditching and Diking, pp. 132-135. In;
Rehabilitation and Creation of Selected Coastal Habitats: Proceedings
of a Workshop, Sapelo Island, Georgia, 16-20. May, 1976. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Biological Services Program, Washington, DC Report
FWS/OBS-80/27. November.
Species diversity is used as an indication of the effects of toxaphene
on the fauna of two estuarine systems. Brunswick Estuary in Georgia
receives toxaphene from a manufacturing plant and from agricultural run-
off. The Duplin Estuary is a pristine estuary, part of a National
Estuarine Sanctuary. The study covers the period 1968-1976. Except for
the early years of the study (1968-1971), no mesurable quantities of
toxaphene were found anywhere except very close to the manufacturing
plant. Since the study began, the levels of toxaphene in the manufactur-
ing plant effluent decreased from parts per hundred to parts per billion.
There was a dramtic change both in the number of species and in the num-
ber of individuals over the years. The diversity indices for Terry Creek,
the stream into which the toxaphene effluent was discharged, revealed that
in 1968 there were only three different kinds of organisms, as opposed to
nearly 25 species by 1976. Biomass also increased with time. After the
first three years, the number of species remain more constant in the
Brunswick Estuary than it did in the natural Duplin Estuary. Color infra-
-------
red aerial photography is useful for ecological delineation and for econ-
omic delineation including legal purposes. Ditching and diking for habi-
tat creation and mosquito control have a variety of effects on marshes.
Ditching reduces the water level, can cause invasion of upland species,
and reduces the area of vegetated wetland. Another problem with ditching
is the creation of cat clays. The various consequences of alteration of
the salt marsh ecosystem should be evaluated when ditching or diking is
being considered.
736. Reppert, R.T. W. Sigleo, E. Stakhiv, L. Messman, and C. Meyers. 1979.
Wetland Values: Concepts and Methods for Wetlands Evaluations. Research
Kept. 79-41. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Institute for Water
Resources, Fort Belvoir, VA. 109 pp.
Report presents concepts and methods for the evaluation of wetlands
pursuant to Section 404, PL 92-500 (as amended), President Carter's May
24, 1977 Executive Order on wetlands protection, and other statutory and
Administrative authorities. The evaluation of wetlands is based on the
analysis of their physical, biological and human use characteristics. The
report discusses these functional characteristics and identifies specific
criteria for determining the efficiency with which the respective func-
tions are performed.
Two potential wetlands evaluation methods are described. One is a non-
quantitative method in which individual wetland areas are evaluated based
on the deductive analysis of their individual functional characteristics.
The other is a semi-quantitative method in which the relative values of
two or more site alternatives are established through the mathematical
rating and summation of their functional relationships.
The specific functions and values of wetlands which are covered in this
report are (1) natural biological functions, including good chain produc-
tivity and habitat, (2) their use as sanctuaries, refuges or scientific
study areas, (3) shoreline protection, (4) groundwater recharge, (5) stor-
age for flood and storm water, (6) water quality improvement, (7) hydro-
logic support, and (8) various cultural values.
737. Reynolds, B.J. 1976. An Example of Sewage Disposal by Spray Irrigation,
pp. 218-220. In; G. Berg, H.L. Bodily, E.H. Lennette, J.L. Melnick,
and T.G. Metcalf (eds.), Viruses in Water. American Public Health
Association, Inc., Washington, D.C.
738. Reynolds, J.H. 1981. Land Application of Municipal Wastewater. J. Water
Pollut. Control Fed. 53(6):767-769.
739. Rich, L.G. 1980. Low Maintenance Mechanically Simple Wastewater Treat-
ment Systems. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 219 pp.
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The basic principles and mechanisms for biological treatment of sewage
are summarized and a number of low maintenance, mechanically simple
systems, which can reliably treat sewage flows of 1 mgd or less, are
described. They comprise activated-sludge systems, lagoon systmes, solids
removal and stabilization systems, and fixed-film systems. In addition,
land disposal of both sewage and sewage sludge is discussed. The design
equations and criteria governing the performance of the varioun systems
are presented as a basis for practical operation and control of the
systems in question, with particular emphasis on the fate of the suspended
solids and the maintenance of acceptable suspended solids concentrations
in the final effluent. (AL)
. Richardson, B. 1981.
740. Richardson, C.J. 1976. Plant Growth, Nutrient Accumulation and Decompo-
sition in a Central Michigan Peatland Used for Effluent Treatment.
Proc. of Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal.
Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
1089. Richardson, C.J. and D.S. Nichols. In press.
741. Richardson, C. J., J. A. Kadlec, W. A. Wentz, J. P. M. Chamie, and R. H.
Kadlec. 1975. Background Ecology and the Effects of Nutrient
Additions on a Central Michigan Wetland. Publ. No. 4. Univ. of
Michigan, Ann Arbor. 64 pp.
In central Michigan, studies are currently underway to determine the
effects of nutrient additions on the structure and function of a wetland
(peatland) ecosystem. Field experiments were conducted to determine the
effects of nutrient additions on various components of wetland eco-
systems. A simulation model was utilized. The underlying purposes of
these studies were to test the feasibility of wetlands to remove
nutrients from secondarily treated sewage wastewater and to determine the
magnitude of any changes in the structure and function of the wetland
ecosystem. Parameters discussed in this paper are net primary produc-
tion, nutrient uptake and transfers, water quality, and decomposition
rates. (NT)
742. Richardson, C.J., D.L. Tilton, J.A. Kadlec, J.P. Chamie, and W.A. Wenz.
1978. Nutrient Dynamics in Northern Wetland Ecosystems, pp. 217-241.
In; R.E. Good, D.F. Whigham, and R.L. Simpson (eds.), Freshwater Wet-
lands: Ecological Processes and Management Potential. Academic Press,
Inc., New York.
Nutrient information was reviewed by compartment (i.e. soils, plants,
water) and at the ecosystem lever among 4 northern wetland types: fens,
bogs, swamps, and marshes. Total soil N, P, and Ca were lowest in bog
peats but the Mg content did not vary appreciably among wetland types.
Cation exchange capacity was >100 meq/100 g for all wetlands. Concentra-
tions of N, P, Ca and Mg were significantly lower in bog plants than fen
plants. Seasonal patterns of nutrient concentrations (N and P) in leaves
and steins decreased through the growing season in fen plants. Transloca-
tion of nutrients from plant parts prior to abscission did not occur in
-------
the plants studied. Minerotrophic fen water chemistry differed from that
of ombrotrophic bogs in that fen waters were dominated by Ca++ and HCO3~
ions and bog waters were dominated by H4 and SC>4++ ions (Moore and Bell-
amy, 1974). Seasonal variations in NH4-N, NC^-N and T?O^P were closely re-
lated to peatland hydrology, organism uptake and peat exchange character-
istics. A cycling study for a central Michigan fen revealed that >97% of
the N, P and Ca was in the peat compartment. The turnover time for N in
aboveground biomass was 2 years. An examination of plant uptake rates of
N and P in the Michigan fen revealed that low plant productivity may be
related to low N and P availability. Nutrient outputs for wetland ecosys-
tems, when compared to yields from terrestrial forest systems, indicate
that natural outputs for some wetland types are well within the range, or
in some cases exceed, outputs from upland terrestrial ecosystems. The
capacity of acid peatlands to store or assimilate additional P or K on a
long-term basis appears limited. Nutrient dynamics in wetlands at the
organism, community and ecoystem level are all poorly understood and are
deserving of further study. (AA)
743. Richardson, C. J., W. A. Wentz, J. P. M. Chamie, J. A. Kadlec, and D. L.
Tilton. 1976. Plant Growth, Nutrient Accumulation and Decomposition
in a Central Michigan Peatland Used for Effluent Treatment, pp.
77-118. In D. L. Tilton, R. H. Kadlec, and C. J. Richardson (eds.),
Proceedings of A National Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage
Effluent Disposal. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Studies were performed on the impacts of artificial nutrient loading
on peatland vegetation in Michigan. Experiment plots were treated with
two, four, and ten times the normal levels of nutrient salts. Short term
results indicate that nutrient addition results in the enhancement of
growth of some species, tissue concentrations are increased, and litter
and organic soils function as a nutrient sink. Specifically, sedge N and
P levels and sedge biomass increased over controls in the 4x and 10x
plots, but that growth of grass and aster decreased. No changes in
litter decomposition rate were noted in any treatment plots, although
nutrient levels of plant tissue were significantly higher in the plots
that received the lower-level applications (only P was significantly
higher in the 4x and 10x plots). Nutrient processing in this system was
accomplished by denitrification in soil, sorption by litter and peat
soil, and nutrient uptake by plants. The authors conclude that such
natural filtering systems offer a short-term solution for removing a
limited amount of nutrient input. (EP)
744. Rickards, W. L. 1973. The Feasibility of Penaeid Shrimp Culture in
Brackish Ponds Receiving Treated Sewage Effluent. Sea Grant Reprint
No. 58. North Carolina State Univ. Raleigh, NC. 10 pp.
The report focuses on a study conducted as an extension of a previous
project where penaeid shrimp had been stocked in control and treated sew-
age ponds — shrimp grew in control ponds but failed to survive in treated
sewage ponds. It has been concluded in the earlier project that low
levels of dissolved oxygen in the water at night and wide diurnal pH flue-
-------
tuations were responsible for shrimp failure. The subsequent project was
designed to modify oxygen and pH regimes in a sewage pond and subsequently
stock it with shrimp to determine whether or not factors in addition to
oxygen and/or pH has been responsible for the previous shrimp mortalities.
It was found that shrimp were able to survive and grow in the aerated
sewage pond. (NT)
745. Robbins, R., and D. Lagerroos (eds.). 1981. Materials on Floodplains
and Wetlands: Legal Restraints and Options. American Bar Association
Special Committee on Housing and Development Law. Prepared for a
workshop at Chicago, IL, 28-29 January 1981.
746. Roberts, M. H. 1980. Detoxification of Chlorinated Sewage Effluent by
Dechlorination in Estuarine Waters. Estuaries 3(3):184-191.
Secondary treated sewage was chlorinated to a residual level of 2-10
mg/1 in a continuous flow system in the laboratory and diluted to various
levels with estuarine water. A portion of the chlorinated sewage
effluent was dechlorinated with sodium thiosulfate and the dechlorinated
waste was diluted with estuarine water in the same proportions as the
chlorinated waste. Menidia menidia, Palaemonetes pugio and Crassostrea
virginica were exposed to chlorinated and dechlorinated treatments. High
concentrations of chlorinated effluent caused mortalities in M. menidia
and P. pugio. Similarly, the chlorinated wastes depressed the shell
deposition rate of C. virginica below 50% of controls at all doses. (PA)
747. Robinson, A. C. et al. 1976. An Analysis of the Market Potential of
Water Hyacinth-Based Systems for Municipal Wastewater Treatment.
Battelle Research Rept. BLC-OA-TFR-76-5, Battelle Columbus Lab.,
Columbus, OH.
748. Roche, W. M., 1973. Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse in the Suisun Marsh,
California, pp. 326-335. In; Water for the Human Environment, Vol.
Ill, Tech. Sessions, Proceedings of the First World Congress on Water
Resources. Chicago. September 24-28.
The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Solano Irrigation District, and .ity of
Fairfield are conducting a wastewater reclamation and reuse pilot jmon-
stration program in the Suisun Marsh, Solano County, California. he pro-
gram objective is to demonstrate the compatibility of beneficial i ;use and
treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater with marsh manage nent.
The program is designed to provide information to assist the loca area in
meeting its waste treatment and disposal obligations. To provide informa-
tion on the reuse of wastewater for agricultural purposes, and tc provide
the Bureau of Reclamation with information on a source of water for meet-
ing its responsibility for protection of the Suisun Marsh. The program
-------
evaluates several features which beneficially use wastewater and also
remove nitrogen. Field facilities include a detention reservoir, a
sprinkler-irrigated and tile-drained pasture, marsh ponds, and irrigated
marshland. The facilities are designed to remove 90% of the nitrogen from
the wastewater that eventually flows to the marsh channels.
749. Rodgers, E. W. 1976. Everything is Ducky at Vandenberg AFB. Water and
Wastes Engineering 13(10):43-44.
750. Roels, O. A., V. Harris, V. Lee, and B. Sharfstein. 1977. Effect of
Detergent Legislation on Phosphorus in Effluent and Receiving Waters.
J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 49(9):2017-2021.
A small effluent aquaculture system has been operated at the Tallman
Island sewage works of New York City since 1972, to remove dissolved
inorganic N and P from secondary sewage effluent before discharge to the
East river. Regular monitoring has shown a marked increase in the molar
N:P culture phytoplankton in this system, and studies have confirmed that
this is due to recent state legislation banning the use of P in deter-
gents. This has resulted in a reduction of more than 50% in the pro-
duction of protein in the aquaculture system. (AL)
751. Rogers, H. H., and D. E. Davis. 1972. Nutrient Removal by Water
Hyacinth. Weed Sci. 20:423-428.
752. Rohlich, G. A., and D. P. Uttermark. 1972. Wastewater Treatment and
Eutrophication, pp. 231-245. In G. E. Likens (ed.), Nutrients and
Eutrophication. Amer. Society of Limnol. Oceanogr., Special Symposia,
Vol. 1.
753. Rosman, L. 1978. Impact Assessment of a Northern Michigan Wetland
Invertebrate and Vertebrate Fauna Receiving Secondarily Treated Sewage
Effluent.
754. Rudolfs, W., L. L. Frank, and R. A. Ragotzkie. 1950. Literature Review
on the Occurrence and Survival of Enteric, Pathogenic, and Related
Organisms in Soil, Water, Sewage, and Sludges, and on Vegetation.
Sewage & Industrial Wastes 22:1261-1281.
1090. Rusincovitch, F. In press.
755. Russell, W.C. et al. 1981. Detergents and Waterfowl. J. of Zoo Animal
Sci. 12(1):10-12.
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756. Rybczynski, W., C. Polprasert, and M. McGarry. 1978. Low Cost Tech-
nology Options for Sanitation: A State of the Art Review and Annotated
Bibliography. International Development Research Center and World
Bank Report IDRC-102E.
Technologies available for primitive and advanced sewage treatment
systems are reviewed. Alternative approaches to collection, treatment,
reuse, and disposal of human wastes are presented as an aid to
policy-makers and technicians faced with instituting or improving sewage
programs. Options for waste disposal in hot climates also are discussed.
Included is an annotated bibliography of literature on sewage treatment
and handling. The bibliography contains sections on: deposition devices;
onsite collection and treatment-pit latrines, composting privy, septic
tank and aqua-privy; collection and offsite treatment-cartage, water-
borne, ponds, composting, aquatic weeds; reuse-irrigation, aquaculture,
algae, fertilization, biogas; greywater; and water conservation. (EL)
757. Ryther, J. H. 1973. The Use of Flowing Biological Systems in Aquacul-
ture, Sewage Treatment, Pollution Assay, and Food-Chain Studies.
Tech. Rept. 73-2. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole,
MA. 506 pp.
A combined tertiary sewage treatment-marine aquaculture system has
been designed and successfully tested on a small, experimental scale. In
this system, the effluent from secondary sewage treatment, diluted with
seawater, is used as a source of nutrients for the growth of unicellular
marine algae, and the algae, in turn, are fed to oysters or other shell-
fish. The algae remove the objectionable constituents from the secondary
sewage effluent (ammonia, nitrate, phosphate, etc.) and the algae are
removed by the oysters. The products are purified waste effluent, which
will not support further algal growth (undesirable "algae blooms") in
nature, and a commercially-valuable crop of seafood. Using a continuous
flow mode of operation, the process was capable of removing 95-100% of
the inorganic nitrogen content of the sewage effluent, the discharge from
the system being unable to support further algal growth and often con-
taining less nitrogen than the receiving seawater. (NT)
758. Ryther, J. H. 1974. The Use of Flowing Biological Systems in Aqua-
culture, Sewage Treatment, Pollution Assay, and Food Chain Studies.
Rept. to National Science Foundation. Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution. Woods Hole, MA. 371 pp.
The study is concerned with the growth and nutrient-uptake kinetics of
several species of marine phytoplankton. These were studied by means of
chemostat culture techniques in an attempt to determine the optimal com-
bination of sewage effluent and seawater in the medium, algal yield, and
nutrient utilization consistent with the concept of combined ter-
tiary-treatment aquaculture system. Output from the continuous algal
cultures was fed to juvenile oysters in an attempt to determine growth of
the molluscs as a function of algal food species. Other, separate
experiments were conducted to determine the effect of concentration of a
-------
single diatom species, Phaedactylum tricornutum, on the rate and effi-
ciency of food assimilation deposition (as feces and pseudofeces) and
growth of juvenile oysters. These and other aspects of the study are
fully detailed. (NT)
759. Ryther, J. H. 1975a. Investigative Research and Management of Effluent
from Secondary Wastewater Treatment Utilizing a Marine Aquaculture
System for Removal of Inorganic Nutrients. Final Report to National
Science Foundation. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole,
MA. 60 pp.
A combined waste recycling-marine aquaculture system capable of com-
plete N removal from treated domestic wastewater has been developed and
tested on a pilot-plant scale over a 1 year period. Effluent from
secondary sewage treatment, mixed with seawater, is used to grow unicell-
ular marine algae in large, continuous-flow, outdoor mass cultures.
Harvest from the algae cultures is fed to oysters and other filter-feed-
ing bivalve molluscs and to secondary crops of flounders or lobsters.
Dissolved wastes produced by the animals are assimilated by cultures of
commercially-valuable seaweeds. Successful cultures of unicellular
algae, mostly diatoms, and seaweeds have been sustained over long periods
of time (months) with only minor problems. Bivalve mollusc culture was
unsuccessful during the first year of operation. An alternative
N-removal system consisting only of seaweeds fed a continuous flow of
secondary sewage effluent mixed with seawater has also been evaluated.
Year-round operation would be possible in tropical to semi-tropical
climates. In temperate climates, operation of the system is possible
only on a seasonal basis. (NT)
760. Ryther, J. H. 1975b. Physical Models of Integrated Waste Recycling-marine
Polyculture Systems. Aquaculture 5:163-177.
761. Ryther, J. H. 1975c. Preliminary Results with a Pilot Plant Waste
Recycling Marine-Aquaculture System. Tech. Rept. No. 75-41. Woods
Hole Oceanograhic Institution. Woods Hole, MA. 61 pp.
A combined waste recycling-marine aquaculture system capable of com-
plete nitrogen removal from treated domestic wastewater has been
developed and tested on a pilot-plant scale over a one-year period.
Effluent from secondary sewage treatment, mixed with seawater, is used
to grow unicellular marine algae in large, continuous-flow, outdoor mass
cultures. Harvest from the algae cultures is fed to oysters and other
filter-feeding bivalve molluscs and to secondary crops of flounders or
lobsters. Dissolved wastes produced by the animals are assimilated by
cultures of commercially-valuable seaweeds. Successful cultures of uni-
cellular algae, mostly diatoms, and seaweeds have been sustained over long
periods of time (months) with only minor problems. Bivalve mollusc cul-
ture was unsuccessful during the first year of operation. An alternative
N-removal system consisting only of seaweeds fed a continuous flow of
secondary sewage effluent mixed with seawater has also been evaluated.
Year-round operation would be possible in tropical to semi-tropical
-------
climates. In temperate climates, operation of the system is possible
only on a seasonal basis. (NT)
762. Ryther, J. H. 1976a. Preliminary Results with a Pilot Plant Waste
Recycling Marine Aquaculture System. Report to the National Science
Foundation. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Woods Hole, MA.
46 pp.
A biological, tertiary sewage treatment-marine aguaculture system has
been developed, tested, and evaluated over one year on a "pilot-plant"
scale at the Environmental Systems Laboratory (ESL) of the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution. The effluent from secondary sewage treatment,
mixed with seawater, is used as a source of nutrients to grow sin-
gle-celled marine algae in mass, continuous flow-through cultures. Algal
cultures diluted with seawater are fed into cement raceways containing
stacked trays of shellfish. The trays were stocked with the American
oyster (Crassostrea. Virginia) and the hard clam (Mercenaria mercenaria)
as well as smaller numbers of other shellfish species. The phytoplankton
remove the nutrients from sewage effluent which has varied experimentally
from 10-50% of the effluent-seawater mixture. The shellfish remove the
phytoplankton from the water. Prior to its discharge, the effluent from
the shellfish cultures is passed through seaweeds grown in suspended
culture to remove nutrients not initially assimilated by phytoplankton
and excretion from the shellfish. (NT)
763. Ryther, J. H. 1976b. Marine Polyculture Based on Natural Food Chains and
Recycled Wastes. Tech. Rept. 76-92. Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti-
tution. Woods Hole, MA.
Research has continued during the past Sea Grant fiscal year on the
development, testing, and evaluation of a combined waste recycling-marine
polyculture system. The concept of the system is to grow unicellular
marine algae (phytoplankton) in mixtures of seawater and the effluent
from a secondary sewage treatment plant. The algae grown in continuous
flow-through cultures, are then fed to bivalve molluscs, such as oysters,
clams, scallops, or mussels. The algae remove the nutrients from the
wastewater and the molluscs remove the algae. Finfish (winter flounder)
and Crustacea (American Lobster) are stocked as post-larval or juvenile
animals together with the molluscs to feed upon the solid wastes (feces
and pseudo feces) produced by the shellfish and upon the small inverte-
brate fauna (polychaete worms, amphipods, etc.) that are supported by
these wastes. Seaweeds constitute a final polishing stage to the system,
receiving the effluent from the animal culture system and removing from
it nutrients regenerated through excretion and metabolism of the animals
as well as any nutrients from the wastewater not initially removed by the
phytoplankton. Twelve reports by various authors are compiled in this
volume* (NT)
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764. Ryther, J. H. 1979. Treated Sewage Effluent as a Nutrient Source for
Marine Polyculture, pp. 351-375. In R. K. Bastian and S. C. Reed
(eds.), Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Pro-
ceedings and Engineering Assessment. EPA 430 9-80-006. U.S. Envir-
onmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations,
Municipal Construction Division. Washington, DC.
A biological tertiary sewage treatment-marine aquaculture system was
developed, tested, and evaluated for two years on a "pilot-plant" scale at
the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's Environment Systems Laboratory.
The effluent from secondary sewage treatment, mixed with seawater, was
used as a source of nutrients to grow single-celled marine algae (phyto-
plankton) in mass (35,000 gallon), continuous flow-through cultures. Har-
vest from the algal cultures (experimentally varied from 25% to 75% of the
culture volume/day), diluted with seawater, was fed into 40' x 4' x 5'
(deep) cement raceways containing stacked trays of shellfish. The latter,
stocked at densities ranging from 75,000 to 150,000 animals/raceway (1,500
- 3,000 per tray) have consisted of different species of oysters and
clams, and smaller numbers of other shellfish.
The phytoplankton removed the nutrients from the sewage effluent, which
varied experimentally from 10 percent to 50 percent in the effluent-sea-
water mixture. The shellfish removed the phytoplankton from the water.
Effluent from the shellfish cultures (i.e., the pond harvest and diluting
seawater) prior to its discharge was passed through a culture of seaweeds,
grown in suspended culture in raceways adjacent to the shellfish cultures,
which serve as a final polishing step, removing nutrients not initially
assimilated by the phytoplankton and those regenerated by excretion of the
shellfish and decomposition of their solid wastes. After initial experi-
mentation with several seaweed species, research was concentrated on two
red algae of potential commercial value, Gracilaria tikyahiae and Neoag-
ardhiella baileyi. (which contain the polysaccharides, agar and carrageenan
respectively). (AA)
765. Ryther, J.H. et al. 1972. Controlled Eutrophication-increasing Food Pro-
duction from the Sea by Recycling Human Wastes. BioScience 22:144-152.
766. Ryther, J.H., T.A. DeBusk, M.D. Hanisak, and L.D. Williams. 1979. Fresh
Water Macrophytes for Energy and Wastewater Treatment, pp. 652-660. In;
P.E. Greeson, J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clard (eds.), Wetland Functions and
Values: The State of Our Understanding, Amer. Water Resou. Assoc.
Tech. Publ. TPS 79-2. Minneapolis, NM.
Fresh water weed crops are capable of simultaneously providing advanced
treatment (nutrient removal) of wastewater passed through them and produc-
biomass that may be converted to fuel by anaerobic digestion. Performance
of both functions depends upon the rate of primary organic production of
the plant species in question. Annual yields of the floating species,
Lemna minor (duckweed) and Eichhornia. crassipes (water hyacinth), and of
the submerged species, Hvdrilla vertic illata, were determined in central
Florida. Yields of duckweek and Hydrilla, 13.5 and 15.3 m tons/ha/year,
respectively, are comparable to many temperate terrestrial food and grass
-------
crops. The yield of water hyacinths, 88.3 m tons/ha/year, is among the
highest documented for any plant species on earth. A one thousand hectare
water hyacinth farm is capable of producing tO^BTU of energy per
year as methane gas and, at the same time, of removing the nutrients from
the wastewater of a population of 700,000 people. (AA)
767. Salmon, J. E. 1973. A Question as to the Possibility of Utilizing
Plants Capable of Assimilating Heavy Metals to Practical Ends. Biol.
J. Linn. Soc. Abstract. 5:357.
768. Sanders, J.G. and E.J. Kuenzler, 1979. Phytoplankton Population Dynamics
and Productivity in a Sewage-Enriched Tidal Creek in North Carolina.
Estuaries 2:87-96.
Calico Creek differs from neighboring estuaries in that it receives
sewage effluent, and its waters therefore contain ample nutrients. High
nutrient levels enable the phytoplankton population, which is probably
light-limited, to reach densities of a thousand billion cells/1 during -the
summer, 2 to 3 orders of magnitude higher than the surrounding, nutrient-
limited populations. At cell densities greater than 10 million cells/1
the number of dominant species is greatly reduced and the level of diver-
sity drops sharply. Calico Creek also differs by being very shallow; the
population can be drastically affected by high runoff. The productivity
of both the phytoplankton and the surrounding Spartina marsh is much high-
er than the neighboring unpolluted estuaries. Unlike the larger and more
stable estuaries nearby, the dependence of the population on the effluent
for nutrients, the possibility of toxic materials entering the creek with
the effluent, and its small size make Calico Creek subject to sudden
change.
769. Sanville, W. D. 1979. Productivity Response of an Alaskan USA, wetland
Plant Community to Nutrient Enrichment. Proceedings of the Alaska
Science Conference 30:137. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory. Corvallis, OR.
770. Sauze, F. 1975. Algae, a Resource for the Future? From Water Purifica-
tion...to Aquaculture and Energy Production. Tech. Sci. Munic.
(France) 70(12): 537-540.
The role of phytoplankton in solving problems of pollution, protein
shortage, and energy replacement is discussed with reference to research
throughout the world. Purification of sewage-works effluents by algae in
lagoons could produce quantities of plankton, small crustaceans, and
molluscs for use as food for higher animals, or as fertilizer. Marine
farming presents economic problems but a simpler type of aquaculture,
similar to purification lagoons, is visualized for production of carp,
eels, or trout. Rotation of crops, such as fodder, rice, and fish, is
-------
possible on drainable ponds. Energy production from cellulosic wastes,
from the sun via plankton, and by "biophotolysis" of water is also
reviewed. (EL)
771. Savannah River Ecology Lab, 1972. Distribution and Cycling of Radioactive
Isotopes Released into the Savannah River Swamp Forest: Environmental
Implications Progress Report. Nov. 1, 1971 to Aug. 1, 1972. Aiken,
South Carolina. NTIS No. SRO-708-1.
Reports progress of a study on the environmental implications of radio-
activity released to a Savannah River swamp forest. The specific objec-
tives were to - (1) completely review the literature pertinent to the pro-
posed studies and study areas. (2) Define and mark off the limits of the
study area and sampling areas within the overall plot. (3) Compile a list
of the most abundant or dominant species in the area and determine the
degree to which the various species differ in the concentrations of the
radioactive isotopes: CS137, CO60, ZN56. (4) Identify the potential prob-
lem species that, because of their migratory habits and value as human
food, carry isotopes off the Savannah River plant site. (5) Initiate food
chain studies involving the dominant and problem species. (6) Develop a
model of the swamp forest to serve as a guide for the design of future
studies and the identification of important components of the systems and
transfer coefficients between these compartments of the model.
772. Saville, T. 1966. Study of Estuarine Pollution Problems on a Small Un-
polluted Estuary and a Small Polluted Estuary in Florida. Univ.
Florida Engineer Progress 20(8):Bull. Ser. No. 125. 210 pp.
A three and one-half year study designed to evaluate the ability of an
estuary to assimilate waste under natural and controlled conditions.
(WE)
773. Schlesinger, W.H. 1978. Community Structure, Dynamics, and Nutrient Cycl-
ing in the Okefenokee Cypress Swamp Forest. Ecological Monographs.
48(4):43-65.
774. Schroeder, G. L. 1975. Some Effects of Stocking Fish in Wastewater
Treatment Ponds. Water Research 9:591-595.
Oxidation ponds or sewage lagoons often present characteristics of
natural water bodies in an extreme state of ecological imbalance. Excess
nutrients of the decaying waste give rise to plankton blooms which subse-
quently die. In such conditions dissolved oxygen concentrations (DO) in
the water are often low and the pH depressed. The addition of fish to
ponds which twice a week received, per ha, wastes with a 5 day BOD of up
to 800 kg (20 C) and 5600 kg solids, reduced plankton and benthic popu-
lations, increased the average DO, and raised the pH. All of these
-------
changes improve the effectiveness of a waste treatment pond for reducing
BOD and removing nutrients from the water. Bacteria concentrations were
as much as 15 times lower in treament ponds stocked with fish as compared
with unstocked ponds. Lower bacteria concentrations however reduced the
rate of loss of COO in the solids of the waste. (AA)
775. Schrouder, J. D. 1974. Forage Production in Municipal Wastewater Treat-
ment Lagoons. Michigan DNR, Fisheries Div., Grand Rapids.
776. Schulze, K.L. 1966. Biological Recovery of Wastewater. J. Water Pollut.
Control Fed. 38:1914.
777. Schurr, K., and J. M. Golonbeck. 1974. Calculated Yield of Sewage
Lagoon Biomass. A Plan for Production, and Some Problems Inherent in
Using Biomass or Lagoon Water for Production of Food and Fiber, pp.
102-110. In Wastewater Use in the Production of Food and Fiber. U.
S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ada, OK.
778. Schwartz, H. G. , Jr., and B. S. Shin. 1980. Combined Aquaculture Sys-
tems for Municipal Wastewater Treatment - an Engineering Assessment,
pp. 81-104. In S. C. Reed and R. K. Bastian (eds.), Aquaculture
Systems for Wastewater Treatment: An Engineering Assessment. EPA
430/9-80-007. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water
Program Operations. Washington, DC.
The purpose of this paper is to assess the current status of combined
aguaculture systems developed for municipal wastewater treatment and
determine if these concepts are ready for routine use and, if not, what
must be done to make them a reality. A combined aquaculture system, or
polyculture system, is defined for this paper as one in which major
wastewater treatment work is carried out by several different levels of
aquatic organisms. It includes wastewater treatment ponds with a com-
bination of components such as mechanical elements, aquatic plants,
invertebrates, and fish.
779. Schwegler, B.R., Jr. 1977. Effects of Secondary Effluent on the Plant
and Soil Components of a Northern Wetland Ecosystem, pp. 312. In;
R.H. Kadlec, D.L. Tilton, and J.A. Kadlec (eds.). Feasibility of Util-
ization of Wetland Ecosystems for Nutrient Removal from Secondary Mun-
icipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluent, Semi-Annual Report No. 5.
Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Continuous flow bioassay chambers were used to determine the effects of
sewage effluent on the growth rates and nutrient concentrations of fila-
mentous algae in a northern Michigan wetland. Bioassay growth rates were
-------
2656 mg dry wt. m~2 day ~1 at the site of effluent addition and 85 mg
dry wt. nT2 day~^ at the control site. Phosphorus concentrations were
significantly higher in algae grown at the pipeline site (0.47%) than in
algae grown at the control site (0.12%). These differences in growth
rates and phosphorus concentrations represent 0.96 g m~2 P in the algae
at the effluent addition site and 0.006 g m~2 P in the algae in the con-
trol site. Calculations for examining uptake rates are presented and dis-
cussed. Suspended sediments limited the photic zone to the upper 3-5 cm
of the water column. (AA)
780. Schwegler, B. R., Jr. 1978. Effects of Sewage Effluent on Algal
Dynamics of a Northern Michigan Wetland. Master's Thesis. Univ. of
Michigan, Ann Arbor.
781. Schwegler, B. R., and C. J. Richardson. 1977. Effects of Nutrient
Additions on Algae in a Central Michigan Wetland. Bulletin of the
Ecological Society of America. Houghton Lake, MI.
782. Sea Pines Public Service District. 1981. Wastewater Management Study:
Effluent Reuse and Disposal. Volume 1 Technical Report. Hilton Head
Island, SC.
Among other methods of effluent disposal, an experimental wetlands
application system will be constructed to evaluate the potential for this
method of effluent disposal. A 4' by 10' unlined ditch will be excavated
across the wetland. Effluent will be discharged to the ditch via small
diffuse pipes at 100' spacing.
783. Searsbrook, E., and D. W. Davis. 1971. Effect of Sewage Effluent on
Growth of Five Vascular Aquatic Species. Hyacinth Control J. 9:26.
784. Seidel, K. 1966. Purification of Water by Higher Plants. Natur-
wissen-Schaften (German) 12:289-297.
785. Seidel, K. 1971a. Wirkung Hoherer Pflanzen Auf Pathogene Keime in
Gewassern. Naturwissenschaften 58(4):150-151.
786. Seidel, K. 1971b. Macrophytes as Functional Elements in the Environment
of Man. Hydrobiologia 12:121-130.
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787. Seidel, K. 1976. Macrophytes and Water Purification, pp. 109-121. In
J. Tourbier and R. W. Pierson, Jr. (eds.), Biological Control of Water
Pollution. Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
788. Seidel, K., and R. Kickuth. 1967. Biological Treatment of Phenol-con-
taining Wastewater with Bulrush (Scirpus lacustris L.). Wassersirt-
schaft-Wassertechnik. 17(6):209-210.
789. Sell, M.G. 1977. Modeling the Response of Mangrove Ecosystems to Herbi-
cide Spraying, Hurricane, Nutrient Enrichment, and Economic Development
Ph.D. Dissertation Dept. of Env. Engr. Sci. University of Florida,
Gainesville. 389 pp.
790. Semkin, R. G., A. W. McLarty, and D. Craig. 1976. A Water Quality Study
of Cootes Paradise. Water Resources Assessment, Technical Support
Section, Ministry of the Environment, West Central Region. Toronto,
Ontario, Canada.
Studies were performed on a deep-water, channelized wetland in
Ontario, Canada, that received a wastewater discharge. Nitrogen removal
was good. Heavy metals were present in sediment samples collected down-
stream from the discharge. (EP)
791. Shannon, E. E. et al. 1976. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB's) in
Municipal Wastewaters. Research Rept. No. 49, Ministry of the Envir-
onment, Ontario, Canada.
792. Shedden, R.D. 1974. The Significance of Biological Denitrification of
Nitrate Polluted Ground Waters in the Anaerobic Sediments of Wetlands.
Ms. Thesis. Tufts Univ., Newton, Mass.
793. Sheffield, C.W. 1967. Water Hyacinth for Nutrient Removal. Hyacinth
Control J. 6:27-30.
794. Shelef, G. 1978. The Combination of Algal and Anaerobic Waste Treatment
in a Bioregenerative Farm System. United Nations Univ. Conference on
"The State of the Art of Bioconversion or Organic Residues for Rural
Communities", Guatemala City, Guatemala, 13-15 Nov. 1978.
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795. Shelef, G. et al. 1977. Economic Aspects of Microalgae Production on
Sewage. GSF Workshop on Microalgae for Food and Feed - A Status Analy-
sis, Munchen, Oct. 17-18, 1977.
796. Shelef, G. et al. 1980. Algal Mass Production as an Integrated Part of
Wastewater Treatment and Reclamation. In; Proc. Int. Symp. Prod, and
Use Algal Biom., Shelef and Boeder (eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam.
797. Shelef, G., R. Moraine, and E. Sandbank. 1977. Physico-chemical Treat-
ment of Pond Effluents for Unrestricted Agricultural Reuse with
Recovery of Algae as Protein Source: Pilot and Field Scale Exper-
iments. Technion-Israel Inst. of Tech., Haifa. Sherman Environmental
Engineering Research Center. 17 pp.
Alum flocculation coupled with flotation was found to upgrade stabil-
ization pond effluents to quality permitting reuse for unrestricted
irrigation. Removal of phosphate by the alum permits seasonal impound-
ment of the clarified effluent with minimal eutrophication. The by-
product algal sludge can serve as a high quality protein source for
poultry and fish, replacing over a quarter of the soymeal in broiler
ratios as well as over three-quarters of the fishmeal in carp rations.
The combined values of waste disposal, renovated water, and feed protein
make the system highly economical. (NT)
1091. Shiaris, M.P. In press.
798. Shih, S.F. 1981. Upland Marsh for Water Quality Control. Journal of the
Environmental Engineering Division, Proceedings of the ASCE, 107 (EE4):
861-864.
Although many studies have investigated the use of vascular plants to
improve the water quality of fresh water marshes, previous researchers
have not emphasized the application of models to determine plant nutrient
uptake in marshes. This study used time series analysis to analyze plant
nutrient uptake, used the F-test as the statistical criterion to determine
the possibility of any component existing in series, and demonstrated the
application of time series analysis to interpolate missing data. Since
plant nutrient uptake is a function of time, time series analysis can be
used to observe the trends, cyclical movement, and residual pattern of a
water quality system in marsh areas. Total phosphate data taken at 4 hour
intervals over a 5 day period in September was used to demonstrate the
application of time series analysis. The Fourier coefficients, amplitude,
phase angle, and percent of variance were determined for each harmonic at
three sampling sites. The Fourier analysis showed that three harmonics
explained over 83 percent of the variance. The amplitudes were much
smaller in the marsh than in the slough, confirming the reduction of total
phosphate after the water flowed through the marsh zone. Interpolation of
missing data based on time series function resulted in somewhat higher
values than estimates based on conventional linear function. The F-test
for the cyclic function component of the marsh site was significant at the
0.01 level, demonstrating the existence of the cyclic component in the
marsh zone system.
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799. Shih, S. F., A. C. Federico, J. F. Milleson, and M. Rose. 1979.
Sampling Programs for Evaluating Upland Marsh to Improve Water
Quality. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural
Engineers 22(4):828-833.
800. Shindala, A. 1972. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal from Waste Waters.
Part 1. Water & Sewage Works Journ. Jun:66-71.
801. Shore, F., W. Van Zandt, and W. Smith. 1977. Water Hyacinths for
Removal of Toxaphene from Water. J. Miss. Acad. Sci., 22(supp.):
17-22.
802. Siccama, T. G., and E. Porter. 1972. Lead in a Connecticut Salt Marsh.
Bio Science 22(4):
The author reports that a salt marsh removes and stores lead from
inflowing waters washed from urban pavements.
803. Sickels, F. A., R. L. Simpson, and D. F. Whigham. 1977. Decomposition
of Vascular Plants in a Delaware River, Freshwater Tidal Marsh exposed
to Sewage Spray Irrigation. Bulletin of the New Jersey Academy of
Science 22(2):41-42.
804. Silvo, O. E. J. 1972. Some Experiments on Purification of Wastewaters
from Slaughterhouses with Sphagnum Peat, pp. 311-318. In Fourth Int.
Peat Congr. Proc., Ontaniemi, Finland.
805. Simmers, J. W., B. L. Folsom, Jr., C. R. Lee, and D. J. Bates. 1981.
Field Survey of Heavy Metal Uptake by Naturally Occurring Saltwater
and Freshwater Marsh Plants. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station. Environmental Lab Vicksburg, MS. 161 pp.
A natural marsh heavy metal survey was conducted to establish a base-
line for comparison to plant concentration and uptake data from con-
taminated and perturbated sediments. Extensive field sampling of natural
marshes was conducted along the east and gulf coasts of the United
States, and along the shores of the Great Lakes. Spartina alterniflora.
was collected from the saltwater marshes and Cyperus species were col-
lected from the freshwater marsh areas.
-------
Results indicated that, in the saltwater marsh, Mn and Zn concen-
trations were slightly lower than those previously determined in green-
house and disposal site studies with contaminated sediments, while the
concentrations of the remainder of heavy metals were similar. Calcula-
tion of total uptake values indicated that only Cd may be of concern. Cd
levels in Cyperus species in naturally occurring marshes were similar to
those of a greenhouse flooded (reduced) environment. Fe and Mn were
generally present in lower concentration in the natural marsh than in the
greenhouse plants grown on contaminated sediment, while the remainder of
the heavy metals examined were present in higher concentrations.
This investigation forms the basis for the conclusion that marsh
plants grown on contaminated dredged material in a flooded environment do
not bioconcentrate excessive or even significantly higher levels of toxic
metals than those same plant species in naturally occurring marshes.
(AA)
806. Simpson, H. J. 1979. Dredge Spoils and Sewage Sludge in the Trace Metal
Budget of Estuarine and Coastal Waters. National Technical Informa-
tion Service Report PB-295-711. 224 pp.
Human-induced increases in heavy metal and PCB pollution in the Hudson
River estuary were monitored. Anthropogenic increases of 3-6 times
natural levels were detected for Zn, Cu, and Pb. Measurements indicate
that the predominant source of organic pollution in the estuary is
sewage. A new technique developed to trace the distribution of cellulose
in coastal sediments is described. Management alternatives that could
minimize adverse impacts of sewage disposal on the estuary are con-
sidered. (EL)
807. Simpson, R. L. T979. The Effects of Sewage Spray Irrigation in a
Freshwater Tidal Wetland. II. Decomposition Studies. Presented at
the Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Biological Sciences,
held 12-17 August 1979, at Stillwater, OK.
808. Simpson, R. L., and D. F. Whigham. 1978. The Impact of Treated Sewage
on Water Quality of a Delaware River Freshwater Tidal Wetland. Paper
presented at Annual Meeting American Society of Limnology and Ocean-
ography.
809. Simpson, R.L. and R.E. Good. Fluxes of Heavy Metals in Freshwater Wetlands
Rutgers Univ., NJ Manuscript.
The project objectives are to identify specific compartments of heavy
metal (especially Pb, Cd, Zn) accumulation in freshwater tidal wetlands,
monitor fluxes among these compartments, and determine the upper thresh-
olds of these compartments for heavy metal content. Phase one of the
study is to identify sites of heavy metal accumulation in the study area,
-------
determine seasonal changes in heavy metal concentrations in the plants,
sediments, and detritus, and the role of water in moving heavy metals to
and from the sediments. Phase two of the study will determine the fate of
heavy metals added to the wetland experimentally.
The results of this study should identify the way in which freshwater
tidal wetlands act as "sinks" for heavy metals and the role these wetlands
play in immobilizing these pollutants.
810. Simpson, R. L., D. F. Whigham, and R. Walker. 1978. Seasonal Patterns
of Nutrient Movement in a Freshwater Tidal Marsh, pp. 243-258. In R.
E. Good, D. F. Whigham, and R. L. Simpson (eds.), Freshwater Wetlands:
Ecological Processes and Management Potential. Academic Press, New
York.
The distribution and movement of dissolved 02, CO2, NO3~N, NK^-N and
PO4~P in the surface waters of a freshwater tidal marsh were studied.
Tidal action, particularly periodic inundation and flushing, resulted in
distinctly different patterns of nutrient distribution in the major wet-
land habitats. Inorganic N and PO4~P were accumulated in the marsh dur-
ing summer with emergent vegetation appearing to play an important role in
the uptake and retention of nutrients. Although evidence is accumulating
that some N and P may be translocated into belowground parts by several
perennial macrophytes, most is rapidly leached after death of vascular
plants with up to 80% of the total N and even more of the P lost within 1
month. In pond-like areas where filamentous algal blooms develop follow-
ing the fall dieback of vascular plants, inorganic N and PO4~P levels
remain depressed through the winter and spring. On the basis of presently
available evidence, it appears almost all habitats of freshwater tidal
marshes may be sinks for inorganic N and PO4~P during the vascular plant
growing season and that certain habitats may continually function as
sinks. (AA)
811. Simpson, R.L., D.F. Whigham, and F. Sickels. 1979. The Effect of Sewage
Spray Irrigation in a Freshwater Tidal Wetland II. Decomposition
Studies. Paper Presented at Annual Meeting Ecological Society of
America.
812. Sinclair, L.R. and R.B. Forbes, 1980. Nutrient Removal from Drainage
Waters with Systems Containing Aquatic Macrophytes. Transactions of
the ASAE. 23(5):1189-1194.
Water quality was measured at the inflow and outflow of three treat-
ment systems to determine their effectiveness in removing nutrients from
agricultural drainage water. The study was adjacent to Lake Apopka, Flor-
ida, which has undergone eutrophication during the past 50 years from
nutrients added by drainage water from muck farming. A natural swamp was
not very effective in improving water quality. Turbidity, sulfate, pH,
and nitrates were slightly reduced, and alkalinity, ammonia, phosphate,
tannin-lignin, carbon dioxide, and temperature increased slightly. Oxygen
-------
concentration decreased significantly. An anaerobic system, floating
water hyacinths planted in a 16.2 hectare reservoir, improved water qual-
ity slightly through the growing season. Nitrates, oxygen, phosphates,
and sulfate decreased; other changes were not statistically significant.
This method was most effective of the three in nitrate removal. After the
water hyacinths started to decay, water quality degenerated. A 0.4 hec-
tare recycle reservoir containing Na j us, submerged plants, removed nutri-
ents very effectively. In this aerobic process, alkalinity, ammonia,
carbon dioxide, phosphate, tannin-lignin, turbidity, and sulfate decreased
significantly, and oxygen and pH increased significantly. This system was
effective in winter. The author speculated that a combination of naiad
and hyacinth systems might produce improved results. The possibility of
using emergent plants such as cattails was also mentioned.
813. Sinha, S.N., and L.P. Sinha. 1969. Studies on Use of Water Hyacinth Cul-
ture in Oxidation Ponds Treating Digested Sugar Wastes and Effluent of
Septic Tank. Environmental Health 11:197-207.
814. Slaughter, R., and I. Wile. 1979. Natural and Artificial Marshes for
Sewage Treatment in Ontario. In; J.C. Sutherland, and R.H. Kadlec
(eds.), Wetlands Utilization for Management of Community Wastewater.
Abstracts of a Conference held 10-12 July 1979 at Higgins Lake, MI.
To determine potential of wetlands for year-round sewage treatment in
Ontario, an experimental study using both a natural and artificial wetland
will commence in 1979. The study will attempt to define the degree of
pretreatment of the waste required prior to discharge to the wetlands,
maximum loading rates and required retention periods to establish optimal
operational limits for the systems. Also operational costs and land
requirements for wetland treatment systems will be assessed.
The artificial marsh system will consist of four separate 980 m2 cells,
two of which will be channelled to permit harvesting of the cattails,
Typha spp. Two of the cells will receive raw aerated sewage and the
remaining two will be treated with sewage lagoon effluent. The operating
range will provide for retention periods between 2 and 10 days and areal
loading rates between 1 and 10 cm/day. An additional marsh/pond/channelled
marsh system will be operated in series and treated with lagoon effluent.
The marsh cell of this system will operate at depths of 5 to 30 cm and 1
to 4 day retention periods. The pond will be maintained at a 90 cm depth
with a retention time of 2 to 9 days and the channelled marsh at 5 to 30
cm depths with 0.5 to 2 day retention periods. A small 30 m2 cell with
an impermeable lining will be used for evapotranspiration studies. Con-
struction of the facility is scheduled to commence in July 1979, adjacent
to the town of Listowel sewage treatment lagoons.
In addition, a 1400 m2 plot, adjacent to the town of Bradford sewage
treatment plant has been fully instrumented to permit detailed measure-
ments of its water balance. The site is densely populated by both Typha
latifolia L. and Typha ancpastifolia L. Background nutrient budgets for
the plot will be monitored for two years prior to the addition of
partially treated wastes from the sewage treatment plant. (AA)
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815. Sloan, L. 1971. Sewage Oyster-Farm. Technology Review 73(6):72.
816. Sloey, W. E., F. L. Spangler, C. W. Fetter,Jr. 1976. Productivity and
Phosphorus Distribution in Natural and Artificial Marshes in Wis-
consin. Aquatic Ecology Newsletter 9:20-21.
817. Sloey, W. E., F. L. Spangler, and C. W. Fetter, Jr. 1978. Management of
Freshwater Wetlands for Nutrient Assimilation, pp. 321-340. In R. E.
Good, D. F. Whigham, and R. L. Simpson (eds.), Freshwater Wetlands:
Ecological Processes and Management Potential. Academic Press, New
York.
Nutrient transformation processes such as sorption, coprecipitation,
active uptake, nitrification and denitrification remove P and N from the
free-flowing water of a wetland and transfer them to the substrate and
biota for storage. Advantage is being taken of these processes by using
wetlands to treat sewage in Germany, Holland, Finland, and other European
countries. In the U.S.A., experimental application of cultural water
(wastewater) to peatlands in Michigan, tidal marshes in Louisiana and New
Jersey, cattail marshes in Wisconsin, cypress domes and sawgrass in
Florida and many more have shown promising results. Denitrification may
remove up to 3.5 kg N/ha/day and as much as 20 g P/m~ may be detained
a growing season. Natural release of nutrients between growing seasons,
however, either restricts application periods, or demands management of
the wetland systems to regulate such releases. The most obvious manage-
ment tool, plant harvesting, removes only a few grams of P per square
metre per year which is usually 20% of that detained. Most of the
remainder is in the substrate-microbial compartment and is subject to
between-season washout.
Other management techniques used and proposed, such as dikes, drains,
and intermittent application, relate to manipulating the hydraulics of
the system to optimize conditions for assimilative biogeochemical pro-
cesses and to prevent washout from reaching surface waters. Chemical
treatment to reduce the surplus of P has also been considered. Manage-
ment options for a specific wetland will depend to a large extent upon
that particular hydrologic regime. Riverine systems have different
hydraulic patterns than lacustrine or palustrine systems. Flow-through
systems cannot be managed like influent or seepage systems. Already,
changes in the biota of some experimentally treated wetlands indicate
undesirable disturbances of these valuable natural resources. Caution in
widespread use of natural wetlands to treat waste at this time is advised
and careful monitoring of all biotic communities in experimental programs
is essential. Artificial marshes and peat filters offer feasible alter-
natives to other treatment methods for small systems and do not endanger
natural wetlands. (AA)
818. Small, E. and J.D. Gaynor. 1975. Comparative Concentrations of Twelve
Elements in Substrates and Leaves of Scirpus yalidus and Other Aquatic
Plant Species in a Sewage Lagoon in Unpolluted Habitats. The Canadian
Field Naturalist, 88, 1975, pp. 44-45.
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Concentrations of 12 elements were examined in vegetation and associ-
ated soils and water of 12 rooted aquatic plant species growing in the
lagoon of a sewage treatment plant, and elsewhere in unpolluted habitats.
Near the point of discharge of effluent into the lagoon, the substrate
accumulated sludge, with very high concentrations of Cl, Zn, and Cu, and
also notably high concentrations of P, Fe, and Ca. The only rooted aquat-
ic plant species successfully colonizing this area was Scirpus valjldus
which accumulated significantly higher concentrations in the leaves of P,
Fe, Cl, N, Na, and Mg compared with the same species in nonsludge areas of
the lagoon, and in unpolluted habitats. Eleven additional aquatic plant
species were found in the lagoon, rooted in sandy sediment adjacent to the
sludge area. These species appeared excluded from the sludge area. Con-
centrations of the 12 elements examined in substrates and leaves of these
species growing just outside the sludge area did not differ notably in
comparison with concentrations in unpolluted habitats. (AA)
819. Small, M.M. 1967. Fresh Water from Sewage in Long Island. Brookhaven
National Lab, Upton, NY. NTIS No. BNL-21371. April, 1967. 16 p.
Sewage and cesspool contents were used to recharge groundwater in
studies at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, New York. The
wastewater purification system was a sloping grass meadow draining into a
planted marsh and eventually into a fish-stocked pond. The sewage was
applied to the meadow where it permeated the soil and plant roots. The
wastewater passed through the marsh soils, plant stalks, and root before
flowing into the pond. Overflow from the pond was usable as potable
water. The same degree of purification could be attained by a marsh/pond
system where meadowland is not available and there is a high population
density. Both systems were completely lined so the wastewater could not
percolate into the groundwater before purification. The system produced
no sludge or odor. The marsh/pond sewage treatment system costs an esti-
mated $1,440,000 compared to $640,000,000 for a municipal sewage treatment
plant.
820. Small, M.M. 1975a. Brookhaven1s Two Sewage Treatment Systems. Compost
Science 16(5):7-10.
Now operating at Brookhaven National Lab on Long Island, NY, are two
novel sewage treatment systems, each of which processes 10,000 gpd domes-
tic sewage and returns drinkable water to the groxindwater supply. Neither
system produces any sludge. The meadow-marsh-pond system and the marsh-
pond system, which are in competition to determine the least expensive to
build and operate, are described. (EL)
821. Small, M. M. 1975b. Meadow/Marsh Systems as Sewage Treatment Plants.
Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY. 39 pp. (NTIS Kept.
BNL-20757).
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All parameters of the marsh/pond and the meadow/marsh/pond systems
that have been measured to date indicate that both systems produce water
suitable for groundwater recharge or other reuse without a public health
hazard. This discharged water can be made to satisfy both effuent and
drinking water standards. Both systems can be recommended for use as
sewage treatment plants, water producers, and farms for sewage loads from
10,000-1,000,000 gpd. Land availability and its terrain will be prin-
cipal determinants in choosing between the systems for a particular
application. (EL)
822. Small, M. M. 1976a. Marsh/Pond System. Brookhaven National Laboratory,
Upton, NY. 28 pp.
Data from the first year of operation of the Marsh/Pond semi-works at
Brookhaven National Laboratory are reported. Sewage is first aerated,
then passed through a marsh, then through a pond, and finally, is spread
on a forest floor to recharge groundwater supplies. Since the system is
still under study, detailed conclusions would be premature; however, it
was observed that a Marsh/Pond system will convert weak sewage to water
suitable for recharge through a vegetated sandy loam.
823. Small, M. M. 1976b. Marsh/pond Sewage Treatment Plants, pp. 197-214. In
D. L. Tilton, R. H. Kadlec, and C. J. Richardson (eds.), Proceedings
of a National Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent
Disposal. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
At Brookhaven National Laboratory today there is operating a 10,000
gallon per day sewage treatment system that consists only of a marsh and
a pond. The influent to this system is raw sewage blended with septage
and sludge. The effluent is potable water. The system is odor, rodent,
fly, and mosquito free. It produces no sludge nor airblown particles.
It is a pleasant site to have next door, complete with fish, birds, and
wildlife. It produces a useful annual crop which is salable. This
project is the prototype of similar systems that are proposed for com-
munities of up to 10,000 people. They can be built at a cost of about
60t/gal day and operated at less than one man year expense. (AA)
824. Small, M. M. 1976c. Data Report, Marsh/Pond System. Preliminary Rept.
No. 50600 to the U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration.
Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY. 28 pp.
This report summarized data compiled after one year's operation of an
experimental marsh/pond system constructed at Brookhaven National Labor-
atory, Upton, New York, in 1973. This facility was one of a number of
facilities used as prototypes to develop natural systems for the reno-
vation of wastewater. Because the system was under study at the time
this report was written, no detailed conclusions were drawn except the
observation that a marsh/pond system will convert weak sewage into water
that is suitable for recharge through a vegetated sandy loam. (EP)
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825. Small, M. M. 1977. Natural Sewage Recycling Systems. Rept. to the U.S.
Energy Research and Development Administration. Brookhaven National
Laboratory, Upton, NY. 37 pp.
This paper reviews the work done at Brookhaven National Lab, in the
development of natural systems which produce potable water from sewage.
Experiments with two prototype systems, a marsh/pond and meadow/marsh/
pond system, are described, and performance data are presented in detail
for the marsh/pond system. Empirical interpretation of results achieved
to date are suggested for the use and design of marsh/ponds as natural
sewage recycling systems. (WE)
826. Small, M.M., 1978a. Artificial Wetlands as Non-point Source Wastewater
Treatment Systems. In; Drew, M.A. (ed.), Environmental Quality Through
Wetlands Utilization. Proceedings of a Symposium held 28 February - 2
March 1978 at Tallahassee, FL, p. 171-181.
A comparison of nutrient data from the Taylor Creek, Florida farm
wastewater drains with characteristics of effluent from the Brookhaven,
New York lowland system models shows about the same concentration on NC>3
-N and and PC^-P in the discharges from both systems. An analysis of
each system indicates that both operate at a higher input rate of phos-
phates than the natural biological communities are removing. In the case
of the Brookhaven models, the 2 ppm of PC^-P in the effluent is insig-
nificant; in the case of drains leaching to Lake Okeechobee, the 2 ppm is
excessive.
Over four years experimentation with the meadow/marsh/pond model indi-
cates that modifications of this design, with care in operation, will
remove both inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus to levels which no longer
constitute a threat to the Lake. If it is true that the annual dump of
PC>4 into the Lake is contributed principally by runoff from the farms,
that dump can be eliminated by detaining the runoff at each farm by a
marsh/pond.
For low-cost, low-energy detention systems for this purpose, it is
suggested that the Demonstration Project consider, at each farm, a marsh/
pond combination which is designed to remove some water by evaporation, a
lot of nitrogen by denitrification, and the major portion of available
phosphate by the harvest and removal from the basin of indigenous aquatic
weeds.
This paper develops a module for such a lowland nutrient removal
system. Construction costs depend on size but will be below $2800 per
acre of farm. Operating costs are under 18^/1000 gallons. (AA)
827. Small, M. M. 1978b. Wetlands Wastewater Treatment Systems, pp. 141-149.
In H. L. McKim (ed.), State of Knowledge in Land Treatment of
Wastewater. Volume 2. Proceedings of an International Symposium
Sponsored by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, held 20-25 August, 1978.
Two artificial wetlands sewage reclamation systems are examined from
an engineering viewpoint. The systems appear to be technically superior
to conventional secondary treatment plants and the efficiency of such
-------
systems can be compared to that of advanced wastewater treatment plants.
Estimated construction/ operation, and maintenance costs of artificial
wetlands are far less than equivalent costs are for either conventional or
advanced treatment plants in the 38-3800 m-^/day flow range. Energy
consumed in artificial wetlands construction is estimated to be a small
fraction of the total energy required to build a conventional or advanced
treatment plant. Design constraints that are necessary to gain the sewage
reclamation are presented. (EL)
828. Small, M.M. 1979. Marsh/pond Sewage Treatment Plants II. In; J.C. Suth-
erland and R.H. Kadlec (eds.), Wetland Utilization for Management of
Community Wastewater. Abstracts of a Conference held 10-12 July 1979
at Higgins Lake, MI.
A general description of artificial wetlands, built and operated at
Brookhaven National Laboratory for the treatment of sewage, was presented
at the Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal Conference, May
10-11, 1976 at the University of Michigan. In May, 1976 an artificial
Marsh/Pond and an artificial Meadow/Marsh/Pond had been operated as con-
tinuously on-line treatment systems for about 9 months and some prelimin-
ary observations were reported - some prescient - others dead wrong. This
is an update three years later.
The net conclusion is that artificial Marsh/Ponds work. They make an
attractive wetlands which can be constructed almost anywhere. They will
not dump raw sewage if overloaded, will generate no sludge for separate
disposal and do not produce objectionable odors, vermin or disease vec-
tors. Less than 20 acres of land is sufficient to treat 1 MGD of normal
domestic sewage in a Marsh/Pond which will cost about $1 million to build.
They are an energy bargain for today. (AA)
829. Small, M., and C. Wurm. 1977. Meadow/Marsh/Pond System. Data Report to
U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration. Brookhaven
National Laboratory, Upton, NY. 33 pp.
This report summarizes 13 months' operating data, August 1975-August
1976, from the Meadow/Marsh/Pond system, one of two natural sewage-treat-
ment systems constructed at Brookhaven National Laboratory. These sys-
tems are free of disease vectors, aerosols, and objectionable odors. The
Meadow/Marsh/Pond system appears superior to the Marsh/Pond system for
renovating blends of septage and weak sewage to groundwater recharge qual-
ity. The only conclusion offered at the present time is that the system
will produce potable water from raw sewage following recharge of pond
effluent through a vegetated sandy soil.
830. Smith, D.W. 1980. Water Reclamation and Reuse. J. Water Pollut. Control
Fed. (Literature Review Issue) 52(6):1242-1284.
A review of recent (1978-1979) literature on water reclamation and use
highlights the Water Reuse Symposium held March 25-30, 1979, in Washing-
-------
ton, D.C., which dealt with water reuse from the research, development,
and application viewpoints. In addition to a summary of general papers,
the article discusses recent developments in water resources planning
(models, options in wastewater reuse).
831. Smith, G. R. 1978. Botulism, Waterfowl and Mud. British Veterinary
Journal 134(5):407-411.
832. Smith, L. J., and J. E. Huguenin. 1975. The Economics of Wastewater
Aquaculture Systems, pp. 285-293. In I. E. E. E. Conf. Record of
Engr. in the Ocean Environment - Ocean '75. San Diego, CA.
833. Smith, R. C. 1975. Hydrogeology of the Experimental Cypress Swamps.
Master's Thesis. Department of Geology, Univ. of Florida, Gaines-
ville. 87 p.
834. Smith, W. G., and J. W. Day. 1973. Enrichment of Marsh Habitats with
Organic Wastes. Completion Report. Louisiana Water Resources Re-
search Institute. Baton Rouge, LA. 9 pp.
Municipal and industrial wastewater have created local problems,
including eutrophication, plant nutrient loss, discharge-induced die-off
of algal flora, and changes in chemical and biological character. Among
methods used to solve these problems is that of overland runoff, and the
project is an attempt to incorporate this method into an estuarine envir-
onment. A site in the subtropical coastal marsh at Dulac, Louisiana,
home port facility for a menhaden processor, was selected: an artifi-
cially enclosed freshwater marsh, totaling about two and one-half square
miles. (NT)
835. Smithsonian Science Information Exchange Inc. 1976. Utilization and
Removal of Nutrients from Fresh Water by Aquatic Vascular Plants.
Research Information Package BA14, Washington, DC.
A review of ongoing research supported by various government agencies
concerning aquatic ecosystems and the ability to remove nutrients from
fresh water.
Contains details of ongoing research projects (updated at least every
90 days). Available from SSIE, Room 300, 1730 M Street, N.W., Washington,
DC.
836. Snider, J. R., and G. W. Wood. 1975. The Effects of Wastewater Irriga-
tion on the Activities and Movements of Songbirds, pp. 20-49. In G.
-------
W. Wood, et al. (ed.), Faunal Response to Spray Irrigation of Chlor-
inated Sewage Effluents. Publication 87. Institute for Research on
Land and Water Resources Research, Pennsylvania State Univ., Phila-
delphia.
837. Sodd, A. N. 1981. Municipal Solid Waste Disposal in Estuaries and
Coastal Marshlands: Project Summary. U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Municipal Environmental Research Lab. Cincinnati, OH.
See MacGregor et al. (1980) for abstract of this project.
838. Sommers, L. E., C. F. Parker, and G. J. Meyer. 1981. Volatilization,
Plant Uptake and Mineralization of Nitrogen in Soils Treated With
Sewage Sludge. Tech. Kept. No. 133. Water Resources Research Center,
Purdue Univ., Lafayette, IN. (Available as NTIS Rept. PB81-173940).
Field and laboratory experiments were conducted to quantify the amount
of ammonia volatilization taking place after application of sewage sludge
to the soil surface, evaluate the movement of nitrogen and plant uptake
from soils treated with sewage sludge, and determine the potential N
mineralization in a wide range of sewage sludges. Volatilization of
NH3-N was found to be dependent upon the method of sludge application,
initial soil moisture content and sludge pH. Sorghum plants recovered 7
to 27% of the total sludge N while the recovery of the total N ranged
from 8 to 33% considering the N in the soil to a depth of 90 cm. Signi-
ficant losses of sludge inorganic N occurred within 3 days of applica-
tion. The amount of mineralizable N in 24 sewage sludges was found to be
proportional to the total organic N content. The results of the study
demonstrated the need to use a different N mineralization percentage for
the the various sludge types. Recognizing the limitation of the study,
the recommended N mineralization percentage to use in calculating the
appropriate sludge application rate for agronomic crops is 25% for raw
and primary sludges/ 40% for waste activated sludges, 15% for anaer-
obically digested sludges and 8% for composted sludges. (WR)
839. Sopper, W. E., and L. T. Kardos (eds.). 1973a. Recycling Treated
Municipal Wastewater and Sludge Through Forest and Cropland. Penn-
sylvania State University Press, University Park, PA.
840. Sopper, W. E., and L. T. Kardos. 1973b. Vegetation Responses to Irriga-
tion with Treated Municipal Wastewater, pp. 271-294. In Recycling
Treated Municipal Wastewater and Sludge Through Forest and Cropland.
University Park, Penn. State Univ. Press.
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841. Sopper, W.E. 1976. Renovation of Municipal Wastewater for Groundwater
Recharge by the Living Filter Method, pp. 269- . In; J. Tourbier, and
R.W. Pierson, Jr. (eds.), Biological Control of Water Pollution. Univ.
of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
The idea embodied in this concept is to apply wastewater for direct re-
charge to the groundwater reservoir. This can be accomplished by control-
ling application rates and by maintaining normal aerobic conditions within
the soil. Under these conditions organic and inorganic constituents in
the wastewater are removed and degraded by microorganisms, chemical
precipitation, ion exchange, biological transformation, and biological
absorption through the root systems of the vegetative cover. The utiliza-
tion of the vegetative cover as an integral part of the system to comple-
ment the microbiological and physiochemical systems in the soil is an
essential component of the living filter concept and provides for maximum
renovation capacity and durability of the system.
842. Sorber, C.A. and K.J. Guter. 1975. Health and Hygiene Aspects of Spray
Irrigation. Amer. J. Publ. Hlth. 65(1):47-51, 1975.
The following conclusions relative to the health and hygiene effects of
spray irrigation land disposal of wastewater can be drawn. 1) Many of the
detrimental health and hygiene aspects of land disposal should be signifi-
cantly reduced by proper wastewater pretreatment including secondary
treatment, filtration, and complete disinfection. 2) By choosing a land
disposal site that has from 5-10 feet of continuous fine soil, biological
contamination of groundwater can be avoided. 3) The probability of inhal-
ing pathogenic aerosols near a spray irrigation site may be significant.
4) If ponding results in spray irrigation areas mosquito breeding is en-
hanced. 5) In areas where land disposal is the first step in a water
recycle program, total dissolved solids, sodium, and nitrate buildup in
the ground water supply can be a problem.
843. Spangler, F.L., C.W. Fetter, Jr., and W.E. Sloey. 1977. Phosphorus
Accumulation-Discharge Cycles in Marshes. Water Resources Bulletin
Artificial and natural marshes were studied to determine changes in
quality of polluted water passing through them. Phosphorus removal
ranged from zero to 64%. Removals in the 35% range were common, however.
Much of the phosphorus went into sediments and unharvestable plant parts.
Harvesting vegetation removed 6% of the phosphorus put into the system.
Accumulation of phosphorus during the growing season was about 10 g nr ,
much of which was flushed out after the onset of freezing weather. The
amount of phosphorus flushed out can be prevented from entering a lake or
stream by handling the marsh discharge in one of three ways: irrigate on
land, lagoon to recycle later, treat conventionally if facilities are
available. (AA)
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844. Spangler, F. L., W. E. Sloey, and C. W. Fetter, Jr. 1976a. Artificial
and Natural Marshes as Wastewater Treatment Systems in Wisconsin, pp.
215-240. In D. L. Tilton, R. H. Kadlec, and C. J. Richardson (eds.),
Proceedings of a National Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage
Effluent Disposal. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Artificial marshes were constructed by lining excavations with 20 mil
PVC, placing gravel in them, then planting emergent vegetation, espe-
cially softstem bulrush (Scirpus yalidus). A control was used. Obser-
vations were made on the effect of the artificial marshes, first on
secondary, then on primary effluent. A study was also done on water
quality improvement by a polluted natural marsh.
It was found that phosphorus removals of 30 - 40% could be expected in
both natural and artificial marshes but ranged up to 64%. Removal during
the growing season may be negated by loss during winter and spring unless
a management technique is developed and applied. Harvesting of plants is
not a feasible P removal technique nor does it influence treatment
efficiency. In the artificial system most of the P (75%) taken out of
the wastewater went into the gravel and only about 5% went into harvest-
able tissue. Most of the purification processes (i.e., BOD removal and
nutrient retention) appear to be carried out in the substrate system
rather than by the vascular plants.
Highest BOD removals were 91% and 77% for secondary and primary
effluent respectively. Retention time did not seem to be critical to BOD
removal over the 5-hour to 10-day range for secondary effluent. Efflu-
ents with BODs of 5 - 15 mg/1 were produced by the artificial marshes in
spite of loss of up to 45% of the water by evapotranspiration.
Waste treatment employing emergent vegetation is probably not as
energy intensive as traditional methods. Winter application is not
thought to be possible in northern latitudes. (AA)
845. Spangler, P., W. Sloey, C.W. Fetter. 1976b. Experimental Use of Emergent
Vegetation for the Biological Treatment of Municipal Wastewater in
Wisconsin, pp. 161-171. In; J. Tourbier and R.W. Pierson (eds.), Bio-
logical Control of Water Pollution.
Native Wisconsin marsh plants were assessed for their ability to pro-
vide secondary or tertiary sewage treatment. A 258-ha natural cattail
marsh that receives both municipal and industrial waste was investigated;
a striking water quality improvement due to movement through the marsh was
recorded relative to BOD, COD, O-PO4, total-P, coliform bacteria, and
turbidity. The highest concentrations of nutrients were found to occur in
young plant tissue of emergent species; therefore the effects of
harvesting were investigated. Scirpus acutug (hardstem bullrush) and S_.
yalidus (softstem bullrush) recovered well post harvest while cattails
(Typha spp.) did not. Additionally most P was associated with the root
rhizomes, and little was harvested in the shoots. (AA)
846. Spangler, F.L., W.E. Sloey, and C.W. Fetter. 1976c. Wastewater Treatment
by Natural and Artificial Marshes. EPA Technology Series Rpt. No. EPA-
600/2-76-207. September. NTIS No. PB-259 992. 182 p.
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The uses of artificial and natural marshes as purifiers of municipal
treatment plant effluent was investigated at various sites in Wisconsin.
Harvesting plants was not a practical phosphorus removal technique as only
a small portion of the phosphorus retained by a marsh system is incorpor-
ated into harvestable plant tissue, and then only in summer. The level of
water quality improvement attained suggests that the process may be
acceptable for polishing effluent from ssptic tanks of single or small
clusters of buildings. Marshes remove phosphorus during the growing sea-
son but release it at other times, thus acting as buffers which may be
managed to advantage. The natural marsh was moderately effective in
removing phosphorus during the growing season but the annual phosphorus
output was about equal to the input. Average concentrations of orthophos-
phate, total phosphorus, conductivity, and total solids were reduced by
13% or less by passage through some 1900 m of Brillion Marsh. The phos-
phorus concentration in water draining from the marsh ranged from a low of
0.43 mg/1 in September to a high of 11.85 mg/1 in July, and did not follow
any discernable pattern related either to temperature, rainfall or season.
Reduction of most parameters did not vary when primary or secondary efflu-
ent was treated by a marsh.
847. Spehar, R.L. , A.E. Lemke, Q.H. Pickering, T.H. Roush, R.C. Russo, and J.O.
Yount. 1981. Effects of Pollution on Freshwater Fish. J. Water
Pollut. Control Fed. 53(6): 1028-1075.
848. Spoon, D. 1976. Survey, Ecology, and Systematics of the Upper Potomac
Estuary Biota: Aufwuchs Microfauna, Phase II. Rept. No. 8. Washing-
ton Technical Inst. TVater Resources Research Center, Washington, DC.
Two model rivers, representing Potomac River sites at Haines Point,
Blue Plains Sand Piscataway Creek connected to a common reservoir con-
taining upriver water, were studied. Each model consisted of four
24-gallon aquaria. In one model at aquarium 2, frozen sewage was added,
and in the other, dechlorinated tap water was added. Four attempts to
duplicate the May 1974 fishkill, which took place when river to sewage
flow ratio was 20:1, failed: negative results were obtained with aquaria
conditions representing river to sewage flow ratios of 20:1, 5:1, 1:1,
and 4:4. It was concluded that the fishkill was caused by a toxin in the
sewage and not a heat shock or the river model closely approximated those
at Potomac River sites at the same temperature. Other studies were done
on a 50 ,000-gallon pilot activated sludge plant before and after hydrogen
peroxide treatment of a bulking condition. A new method for counting and
studying the activated sludge community was devised using thin plastic
film (Handiwrap) coverslips with plastic slides. (NT)
849. Stahl, J. B., and D. S. May. 1967. Microstratification in Waste-treat-
ment Ponds. J. of Water Pollut. Control Fed., 39:72-88.
A study of stratification of temperature and dissolved oxygen content
in a small pond receiving wastes that had undergone primary treatment
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showed that sharp stratification of these properties almost always is
present. At a depth of less than two centimeters, only one percent of the
surface light remained. Only on heavily overcast, windy days was strati-
fication absent. On calm, clear days, temperature dropped as much as 20°C
in 50 cm and oxygen dropped from 300 percent saturation at the surface to
3 percent at 5 cm. These effects were more extreme than those reported
for other ponds, few of which, however, were waste treatment facilities.
(AA)
850. Stanley Consultants. 1977. New Orleans-Baton Rouge Metropolitan Area,
Louisiana, Water Resources Study. Wastewater Treatment by Marsh
Application Work Report. Submitted to U.S. Corps of Engineers, New
Orleans District. Atlanta, GA. 147 pp.
The potential for using study area marshes for disposal of secondarily
treated municipal effluent is discussed and an overview is given of
methodologies utilized at 18 sites in the United States. Brief descrip-
tions of the dominant vegetation, type of studies being conducted, and
results accumulated at each site are included. Three coastal marshlands
in the delta region of the Mississippi River are discussed in greater
detail. Specific characteristics such as climate, hydrology, water
quality, vegetation, sediments, and limitations to marsh availability are
described for the study sites. Mechanisms in natural marshes and the
limitations of wastewater application to marshes also are addressed.
Based on data gathered in experimental marsh treatment systems, loadings
and general criteria were established as guidelines to be used in treat-
ment of marshes. In cases where there was a lack of available data,
criteria were chosen arbitrarily. (EP)
851. Stanley, N.E.T.L. Thurow, B.F. Russell, and J.F. Sullivan. 1980. Geother-
mal Wetlands: An Annotatd Bibliography of Pertinent Literature. Idaho
National Engineering Laboratory. U.S. Dept. of Energy. Idaho Falls.
Literature providing information on natural and artificially created
wetlands were reviewed. The objective was to gather pertinent data that
could be extrapolated to geothermal wetlands. Applicable studies are pre-
sented in the form of an annotated bibliography. Emphasis was placed on 1)
the characterization of water quality requirements; 2) tolerance limits of
wetland flora and fauna; and 3) the potential effectiveness of aquatic
vegetation at bioaccumulating solutes inherent in most geothermal waters.
(AA)
852. Stanlick, H.T. 1976. Treatment of Secondary Effluent Using a Peat Bed,
pp. 257-268. In; D.L. Tilton, R.H. Kadlec, and C.J. Richardson (eds.),
Proceedings of a National Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage
Effluent Disposal. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
The use of a peat bed for systems that operate during the growing sea-
son should give an effluent that will meet most if not all discharge
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requirements. If properly designed and installed, the bed should produce
an effluent with no fecal coliform, and little total coliform, without any
special disinfection facilities; BOD5 and suspended solids of approximately
5 mg/1; and nitrogen of less than 10 mg/1. Design life is expected to be 5
to 10 years. With the test results we have, we expect the bed life to be
close to ten years. After three years, the treatment efficiency has not
deteriorated but in fact has increased.
This type of system can be used to disinfect an effluent and improve the
quality all year if you do not have stringent requirements on phosphorus
and nitrogen. It is ideal for camps and resorts due to the little
operation and maintenance needed.
853. Stearns, F. 1978. Management Potential Summary and Recommendations, pp.
357-363. In; R.E. Good, D.F. Whigham and R.L. Simpson (eds.), Fresh-
water Wetlands: Ecological Processes and Management Potential. Academic
Press, New York.
Wetland management goals fall in three areas: environmental protection,
recreation and aesthetics, and production of renewable resources. Most
wetland management, however, is oriented to several goals and most wetlands
serve multiple uses. Several general conclusions concerning wetland manage-
ment can be made at this time: management decisions should complement nat-
ural wetland functions whenever possible. Wastewater should not be applied
to natural wetlands, other than experimentally, until more is known about
long-term effects. The rate of wetland conversion should be slowed until
more is known about wetland functions. Management should hold to a minimum
those factors which degrade marsh structure and function. In creating wet-
lands, one should remember that plant species differ in their vulnerability
to stresses. In modifying wetlands, attempt to avoid disturbances. Natural
perturbations may occur and management techniques successful at one point
in the climatic cycle may not be applicable at other times.
854. Stephenson, M., G. Turner, P. Pope, A. Knight, and G. Tchobanoglous.
1980. The Use and Potential of Aquatic Species for Wastewater Treat-
ment. Appendix A. The Environmental Requirements of Aquatic Plants.
Publication No. 65. California State Water Resources Control Board.
Sacramento, CA. 380 pp.
855. Steward, K.K. 1970. Nutrient Removal Capacity of Various Aquatic Plants.
Hyacinth Control Journal 8:34-35.
856. Steward K.K., and W.H. Ornes. 1973. Assessing the Capability of the Ever-
glades Marsh Environment for Renovating Wastewater. Final Rept. Agri-
cultural Research Service, Fort Lauderdale, FL. 28 pp.
Everglades vegetation was enriched with simulated effluents in order to
determine the feasibility of recycling wastewater through the marshes.
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Weekly application of nutrients increased assimilation of nutrients by
the plants but did not increase growth. This indicated that growth was
not limited by lack of nutrients. Only 12% of the applied nutrients were
assimilated into the vegetation. Of the amount remaining, 3% was used to
produce algal blooms, 43% settled to the bottom, 5% remained dissolved in
the water and 37% was unaccounted for. The dense algal blooms, which
were maintained throughout the experiment, were believed to have been
responsible for the disappearance of several floral components of the
ecosystem. Because of the low capacity for nutrient assimilation, and
because of potential alterations in species composition, it appeared
unlikely that the marsh system could be used to renovate wastewater.
(NT)
857. Steward, K. K., and W. H. Ornes. 1975. Assessing a Marsh Environment
for Wastewater Renovation. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 47(7):
1880-1891.
The authors measured the response of vegetation in the Everglades to
enrichment with N and P. Increases in plant tissue nutrient levels, but
no changes in growth, were observed after a single application. A dense
algal bloom was produced 4-7 weeks after the start of continuous weekly
application, which eliminated natural periphyton and Utricularia com-
munities. Based on water, sediment, and tissue nutrient levels, the
researchers concluded that sawgrass had limited ability to remove
nutrients and that the assimilative capacity of the marsh was exceeded at
less than the application level of 2.5 kilograms of P per hectare. (EP)
858. Stewart, E. A., III. 1979. Utilization of Water Hyacinths for Control
of Nutrients in Domestic Wastewater - Lakeland, Florida/ pp. 273-293.
In R. K. Bastian and S. C. Reed (eds.), Aquaculture Systems for
Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and Engineering Assessment.
EPA 430/9-80-006. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Water Program Operations, Municipal Construction Division. Wash-
ington, DC.
The use of water hyacinths (Eichhornia crassipes) for removal of nutri-
ents and solids during a demonstration project in Lakeland, Florida indi-
cates that removals are as a result of more than hyacinth uptake. There-
fore, if design of a hyacinth system is based upon the uptake and growth
kinetics of the plants during cool weather periods, it appears that an
ample safety margin can be maintained. The hyacinth growth rates were
found to be similar to those found in other studies. A first order design
equation based upon the Monod concept using total nitrogen as the limiting
nutrient is presented. Other aspects of the hyacinth system such as har-
vesting, crop processing, and marketing have been investigated, but are
still in need of additional field work before maximum effectiveness is
realized. (AA)
859. Stewart, W. C., and S. A. Serfling. 1979. The Solar AquaCell System for
Primary, Secondary, or Advanced Treatment of Wastewaters, pp. 377-412.
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In R. K. Bastian and S. C. Reed (eds.), Aquaculture Systems for Waste-
water Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and Engineering Assessment.
EPA 430/9-80-006. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Water Program Operations, Municipal Construction Division. Wash-
ington, DC.
The Solar AquaCell process is an aquaculturally derived wastewater
treatment system which integrates proven wastewater treatment elements to
allow greater process control, higher quality effluent, and reduced land
area as compared to conventional wastewater lagoons. Three AquaCell pond
systems, anaerobic, faculative, and aerobic, all containing high surface
area bio-film devices, can be used in series to achieve primary, second-
ary, and/or advanced treatment, respectively. Three years of pilot scale
demonstrations have shown that conservative design practices can be used
while also achieving reduced construction, operation and maintenance
costs, minimal solids handling, low energy demand, and low operator skill
requirements. The use of a multiple series of controlled cells allows a
high degree of design and operational flexibility for meeting various
effluent quality objectives. The City of Hercules' Solar AquaCell Treat-
ment System (California) is also described. (AA)
860. Stora, G. 1976. Effects of a Freshwater Effluent on the Development of
Benthic Communities in a Marine Lagoon. Bull. Ecol. 7(3) -.275-282. In
French).
Since 1966, after installation of the Saint-Chamas hydroelectric plant,
the Etang de Berre, (France), has received freshwaters of the Durance
Channel. This important freshwater inflow representing approximately 4
times the volume of the lagoon during a year has considerably decreased
the water salinity. Studies were made in 1965, 1970 and 1972 to follow
the evolution of the benthic populations of the Etang de Berre. Charac-
terized by typical marine populations in 1964 (bivalves, polychaetes), the
studies in 1970 show a general degradation of the lagoon populations with-
out substitution of benthic marine population by a brackish population.
However, in 1972 the benthic populations were replaced on the littoral
coast by a characteristic brackish benthic population.
861. Stout, J. P., A. A. de la Cruz, and C. T. Hackney. 1980. Effects of
Harvesting in the Annual Net Above-ground Primary Productivity of
Selected Gulf Coast Marsh Plants, pp. 213-222. In V. S. Kennedy
(ed.), Estuarine Perspectives. Academic Press, Inc., New York.
862. Stowell, R., G. Tchobanoglous, J. Colt, and A. Knight. 1979. The Use of
Aquatic Plants and Animals for the Treatment of Wastewater. Unpub-
lished Paper. Dept. Civil Engineering, Univ. of Davis, CA. 24 pp.
863. Stowell, R., R. Ludwig, J. Colt, and G. Tchobanoglous. 1980. Toward the
Rational Design of Aquatic Treatment Systems. Presented at the
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American Society of Civil Engineers Spring Convention, Portland/ OR,
April 14-18, 1980. 59 pp.
The term "aquatic treatment" is defined as wastewater treatment in
either natural or man-made wetlands. A summary of the mechanisms in-
volved in the removal of wastewater contaminants (including BOD, solids,
N, P, heavy metals, refractory organic compounds, and bacteria and
viruses) is included in the paper. Effective use of charts and tables
make the concepts easy to follow. The following aquatic system design
concepts are presented in the paper:
0 Aquatic Processing Unit (APU): an assemblage of plants (and possibly
animals) grouped together to achieve specific wastewater treatment
objectives
0 Aquatic plants and animals for use in aquatic treatment systems
0 Climatic influences
0 Environmental factors
0 Wastewater characteristics
0 Process reliability, upsets and recovery
0 Resources recovery
The authors also present a guide and checklist for the design of
aquatic systems. They conclude that more information is needed to
establish fully rational design criteria for aquatic treatment systems.
A bibliography of recommended literature also is included. (EP)
864. Strange, J. R. 1976. Effects of High Levels of Inorganic Phosphate on
Aquatic Organisms in Phosphate-Rich Environments. P. B. No. 263-390.
Environmental Resources Center. Georgia Institute of Technology.
Atlanta, GA.
865. Straub, P., and D.M. Post. 1977. Rates of Growth and Nutrient Concentra-
tion of Trees in Cypress Domes. Pages 271-318. In; H.T. Odum and K.C.
Ewel (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling and Con-
servation. 45th Annual Report to the National Science Foundation.
866. Struble, J. E. 1977. Nitrification, Denitrification, and Sedimentatic
Rates in Cypress Ponds Receiving Secondary Treated Sewage Effluent.
Master's Thesis. Dept. of Soil Science, Univ. of Florida, Gaines-
ville- QT r*.
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867. Suffern, J. S., M. Adams, B. G. Blalock, C. C. Coutant, and C. A.
Guthrie. 1978. Growth of Monosex Hybrid Tilapia in the Laboratory and
Sewage Oxidation Ponds. Presented at meetings of the World Mariculture
Society, Atlanta, GA, 3 Jan. 1978. 18 pp.
Studies were conducted to evaluate the potential of monosex hybrid
Tilapia (female T. mossambica x male T. hornorum) in waste-heat polycul-
ture systems. The optimum growth temperature for this hybrid was found
to be 32°C in laboratory experiments. Experiments in sewage pond cage
culture in the temperature range of 23 to 33°C at stocking densities of
approximately 53 fish/m3 were also conducted. At fish sizes between 5
and 12 cm TL, estimated annual production is approximately 50,000
kg/ha/yr (50,000 lb/acre/ yr). Fish in the sewage oxidation ponds grew
signficantly faster than fish fed trout chow at optimum temperature in the
laboratory, even though temperatures in the sewage ponds averaged below
the optimum growth temperature. Techniques to accelerate growth rates are
being explored. Exposure to gamma radiation (500 rads), known to cause
significant increases in channel catfish growth rate, was found to have a
similar effect on Tilapia. After a 20-week growth period, exposed fish
weighted an average of 20% more than controls. (NT)
868. Suffern, J.S., C.M. Fitzgerald, and A.T. Szluha. 1981. Trace Metal Con-
centrations in Oxidation Ponds. J. Water Pollut. Cont. Fed. 53,1599
Heavy metal concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the waste-
water, sludge, and biotic components of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory
oxidation ponds were examined to determine whether metals accumulated in
Tilapia. Results indicated that metal levels in the wastewater and biotic
components are generally low and that the major metal reservoir is the
sludge. Metals did not accumulate beyond standards in the muscle or liver
°f Tilapia grown in the oxidation ponds. This result may be partially due
to the rapid growth rates of these fish (1-2 g fish~^ day~^), with new
tissue developing more rapidly than metals can accumulate. Another factor
may be that the high concentrations of organic complexes in the ponds
lower the availability of metals to the biota. (AA)
869. Sullivan, R., J. T. Tierney, and E. P. Larkin. 1976. Persistence of
Poliovirus 1 in Soil Irrigated with Inoculated Sewage Sludge and
Effluent, pp. 192-. In The Abstract of the Annual Meeting of the
American Society of Microbiologists.
870. Surakka, Seppo. 1971. Some Observations on the Possibilities to Infil-
trate Wastewater in Peatland According to Results Obtained at Kesaladen
Town, Finland. Vesitalous 3(5):26-31. (Finnish-English Summary).
871. Surakka, S., and A. Kamppi. 1971. Infiltration of Wastewater into Peat
Soils. SUO 22:51-57. (Finnish with English Summary)
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872. Sutherland, J. C. 1977. Investigation of the Feasibility of Tertiary
Treatment of Municipal Wastewater Stabilization Pond Effluent Using
River Wetlands in Michigan. Final Report to the National Science
Foundation, William and Works, Inc., Grand Rapids, MI. 171 pp. (NTIS
PB 275 283)
The engineering feasibility of using Michigan river wetlands for
tertiary treatment of municipal wastewater stabilization pond effluent
was examined in relation to the alternatives of upland spray irrigation
and chemical tertiary treatment. Seventy-five Southern Peninsula rural
municipalities with populations ranging from 360 to 2,800, served by
treatment ponds, and with proximal streams, were studied by means of
aerial reconnaissance. Of these, 35%-40% were estimated to have a viable
wetland alternative for tertiary treatment. The wetland method is
estimated to be the most cost-effective at pond-wetland distances less
than 4 miles. The anticipated low or zero land cost and minimum of
on-site hardware are favorable capital cost advantages. Operational
energy consumption would be minimized by low site pressure-head require-
ments and the generally low-lying position of river wetlands. The
average potential capital cost savings in use of wetlands would be
approximately $320,000 (1977 dollars) relative to upland irrigation, and
approximately $150,000 relative to chemical treatment. (AA)
873. Sutherland, J. C. 1979a. The Vermontville, Michigan, Wastewater-grown
Volunteer Seepage Wetlands: Water Quality and Engineering Implica-
tions. In J.C. Sutherland and R. H. Kadlec (eds.), Wetland Utiliza-
tion for Management of Community Wastewater. Abstracts of a confer-
ence held 10-12 July 1979 at Higgins Lake, MI.
The municipal wastewater treatment system at rural Vermontvilla, Michi-
gan (pop. 975), consists of two faculative stabilization ponds (10.9 ac
area), followed by four flood irrigation fields (11.5 ac area). The
fields are nearly overgrown with volunteer emergent aquatic vegetation,
mainly cattail (Typha spp.). Wastewater (0.068 MGD average inflow) is
released from the ponds into the fields between June and November. Low
field berms contain the water until it infiltrates and percolates to the
groundwater at 15—25 ft. depths. Minor surface overflow sometimes occurs.
No cutting or removal of vegetation has been done in the six-season his-
tory of the fields.
The wetland appears to add nitrogen species and phosphorus to the irri-
gated water. Anaerobic decomposition (thin organic soil mat) and release
of nutrients by the standing crop are likely causes of the increases in
these nutrients. Greater than 97% of the P released from the stabiliza-
tion ponds is removed in the soils beneath the fields before the perco-
lating effluent reaches the ground water body.
Operation and maintenance activities at Vermontville include only mow-
ing of grassed wetland berms, manual valve control (8 hr/wk during 5-month
irrigation season) and water quality monitoring. Wetland field maintenance
seems not to be needed. Capital costs for volunteer seepage wetland sys-
tems, compared to upland spray irrigation, would be rougly 92% (0.5 MGD),
75% (0.1 MGD), and less at still lower flows.
Any deliberate construction of volunteer seepage wetlands for waste-
water treatment in Michigan should be done with overflow prevention in
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mind because of strict P effluent limitations. Such construction could be
technically feasible on fine-grained but noncohesive soils (hydraulic con-
ductivity 10~3 - 10~4 cm/sec) which can be selectively compacted during
construction. (AA)
874. Sutherland, J.C. 1979b. A Wetland Wastewater Feasibility Determination
Procedure and Related Subjects for Discussion and Research. Presented
at the American Water Works Association Research Foundation, Water
Reuse Symposium held 25-30 March 1979 in Washington, DC. 9 pp. plus
supplement.
Determination of feasibility involves at least ten major categories of
consideration: 1) Wastewater treatment needs (wastewater quality, efflu-
ent limitations, required removals, and wastewater volume. 2) Wetland
distance. 3) Wetland ownership. 4) Wetlands protection legislation
(federal, state, and legislation with regard to particular wetlands). 5)
Wetland factors in wastewater treatment (modes of water exit from the wet-
land, residence time, vegetation uptake). 6) Special wetland characteris-
tics and relationships (world-reference values, regional and local values,
needs which wastewater application might satisfy). 7) Wetland adequacy for
wastewater treatment (with unaltered natural setting, with altered natural
setting, degree of certainty). 8) Environmental impact (upon the wetland,
after the wetland). 9) Preliminary design. 10) Cost-effectiveness.
The categories should be considered in the order given, but there should
be savings in time if categories 2-4, 5-6, and 7-10 are addressed concur-
rently. In preparing the above outline, the following questions occur:
1) Could wastewater grown wetlands be beneficially used as sanctuaries for
rare, sensitive, or endangered plant or animal species?
2) What are the ecological concerns vis-a-vis the winter application of
wastewater to seepage wetlands under temperate climate conditions?
3) How much wastewater (inches per week) should be added to a wetland?
4) Are there any classifications (e.g., USFWS-Cowardin, et al.) of wetland
that should be excluded a priori from wastewater application?
5) Are the transformation and removal of nitrogen in wetlands well enough
understood that a compilation or "systematics" on the subject from the
existing literature would serve in lieu of detailed field studies as a
basis of design for wastewater treatment/disposal?
6) Are the phosphorus removal/immobilization factors well enough under-
stood in flow-through wetlands that existing knowledge would suffice,
in place of detailed stuldies, as a basis of design?
7) How should new volunteer wetlands which exist solely because of waste-
water application be managed? (AA)
875. Sutherland, J.C. 1981. Economic Implications of Using Wetlands for
VJastewater Treatment, pp. 295-306. In; B. Richardson (ed.), Selected
Proceedings of the Midwest Conference on Wetland Values and Management.
Minnesota Water Planning Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
The cost of using Michigan riverine wetlands for (hypothetical) treat-
ment of pond-stabilization municipal wastewaters from small, mostly rural
populations (range of flows, 0.038 - 0.35 MGD) were approximated in 1976-
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1977, and are herein updated to Spring, 1981 (ENR construction cost
index). The capital costs (C, in $1,000's) depend strongly upon distance
from ponds to wetland (D, in miles), with C = 117D + 262. Forceline costs
dominate in this relationship. Wastewater application would be at hydrau-
lic loadings of less than 1 in/wk in all instances.
The Houghton Lake Sewer Authority (Michigan) recently added a natural
state-owned peatland tertiary treatment system to its stabilization pond-
seepage pond facilities which serve approximately 6,000 full-time and
14,000 seasonal population equivalents. Similar updating of actual capi-
tal costs (January, 1978 to Spring, 1981 ) yields the approximate figure of
$507,000, excluding engineering related costs, for the peatland system.
There are not costs for the use of land.
The 1980 wetland operation and maintenance costs borne by HLSA totaled
approximately $19,000, including labor plus overhead (16%), pumping-
electrical (16%), administration (8%), vehicle use (3%), repair-replace-
ment (0.5%), lab equipment (3.5%), and state-required wildlife and vegeta-
tion studies (53%).
Before the HLSA peatland system concept was approved and funding
obtained (Municipal Construction Grants Program), six years of scientific
investigation (University of Michigan Wetlands Ecosystem Research Group)
and hundreds of person-hours in coordination efforts (HLSA, Williams &
Works) were invested at costs of $1 million to $2 million. These costs,
compared to projected capital savings of $800,000 relative to the upland
irrigation alternative, were borne by Michigan and U.S. taxpayers. Al-
though experience with natural wetland treatment systems may lead to
reduction in documentation time and monetary costs in future situations,
significant documentation effort should, nonetheless, be anticipated
because of the perceived values and individuality of natural wetlands.
Operation and maintenance costs related to the volunteer wetland-
dominated soil seepage system that treats pond-stabilized wastewater from
the Village of Vermontville, Michigan (pop. 900) were $4,800 annually, of
which 43% are for environmental monitoring. (AA)
1092. Sutherland, J.C. In press.
876. Sutherland, J.C., and F. Bevis. 1979. Reuse of Municipal Wastewater by
Volunteer Freshwater Wetlands, pp. 762-782. In; American Water Re-
sources Association, Proceedings of the Water Reuse Symposium held
25-30 March 1979 at Washington, DC. Vol. 1. Denver, CO.
The volunteer wetland vegetation-organic mat complex at Vermontville
actually adds phosphorus to wastewater during the late spring and summer
irrigation season. Consequently, the wetland waters overflowing at the
final discharge contain phosphorus in slight excess of permitted levels,
absent a significant amount of diluting wastewater which has previously
been filtered through the inorganic soils. Phosphorus removal adequate
to satisfy strict effluent requirements is accomplished only by seepage
from the wetlands through the inorganic soil substrate.
No field maintenance has been required at Vermontville. There are no
bare soil (tilled) areas to be plugged through siltation caused by rain
splash, spray irrigation, or flood-suspension of inorganic soils. The
Vermontville wetlands have shown buildup of three or four inches (0.1 m)
of organic residues largely in the form of cattail straw after six irri-
gation seasons. Over the 20-year design period the net accumulation would
likely be less than 1 ft (0.3 m) due to progressive compaction and further
-------
decomposition of older plant residues. Tree control is not needed at Ver-
montville, although one of the fields may soon be overgrown with willow
whips. On fields which might depend upon a thin compacted soil zone or
other seepage restricting improvement, tree control might be needed to
maintain the integrity of the conditioned soil zone.
The uptake of phosphorus by the prevailing cattail standing crop is
approximately 20% of the phosphorus released into the wetlands. Cattail
harvesting would therefore be a means of reducing effluent phosphorus. But
harvesting is not needed for phosphorus removal in seepage wetland set-
tings where subsurface soil types and volumes are adequate to effect
streams.
Casual observation in 1978 reveals the wastewater-grown wetlands have
significantly added to the acreage of suitable, adequately isolated habi-
tat for waterfowl and other wildlife in the Vermontville area.
877. Sutherland, J. C., and R. H. Kadlec (eds.). 1979. Wetland Utilization
for Management of Community Wastewater. Abstracts of a conference.
Held 10-12 July 1979 at Higgins Lake, MI. 31 pp.
This document is a collection of 24 abstracts of presentations on
wetland treatment systems in the United States and Canada given at the
conference. Descriptions of a number of the wetland treatment sites are
given in Appendix B of this report. (EP)
878. Sutton, D. L., and R. D. Blackburn. 1971. Uptake of Copper by Water
Hyacinth. Hyacinth Control J. 9:18-20.
879. Sutton, D. L, and W. H. Ornes. 1975. Phosphorus Removal from Static
Sewage Effluent Using Duckweed. J. Environ. Qual. 4(3):367-370.
Two experiments were conducted in containers to evaluate the influence
of various concentrations of static sewage effluent on the growth of duck-
weed and to determine the rate of P removal and harvesting effects on
growth rates. Several replicates were provided to ensure data validity.
Maximum growth rates were achieved at 25% effluent plus 75% pond water.
Increased effluent concentration did not increase the growth rate but did
affect an increase in P uptake and protein content of plant tissues. There
is a positive correlation between P concentration in the water and duck-
weed uptake rate up to 2.1 microgram ml. With continued nutrient input,
half of the duckweed could be harvested every 4 days. (AA)
880. Sutton, D. L., and W. H. Ornes. 1977. Growth of Spirodela pqlyrhiza
Static Sewage Effluent. Aquatic Botany 3:231.
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881. Swett, D. 1979. A Water Hyacinth Advanced Wastewater Treatment System,
pp. 233-255. In; R.K. Bastian and S.C. Reed (eds.)/ Aquaculture Sys-
tems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and Engineering
Assessment. EPA 430/9-80-006. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Water Program Operations, Municipal Construction Division,
Washington, DC.
A one year field experiment, in Coral Springs, Florida, (pop. 30,000),
at the 378,530 Ipd (100,000 gpd) level has demonstrated that a system of
5,035 m2 (54,200 ft2) of water hyacinth (E ichhorni a cT;assiges) lagoons
can provide advanced treatment to effluent from an activated sludge plant
by achieving removal rates of 67% for total suspended solids, 98% for bio-
chemical oxygen demand, 97% for total N and 79% for total P. Biomass pro-
duced by the system offers a potential for energy, fertilizer or fodder
production. (AA)
882. Szczepanska, W., and A. Szczepanski. 1973. Emergent Macrophytes and
Their Role in Wetland Ecosystems. Polskie Archiwum Hydrobiologgi
20(1):41-50.
883. Tate, R. L. Ill, and R. E. Terry. 1980. Effect of Sewage Effluent on
Microbial Activities and Coliform Populations of Pahokee Muck. J.
Environ. Qual. 9(4):673-677.
The effect of sewage effluent was measured on microbial activity in
Pahokee muck. Test plots were amended at weekly intervals with sewage
effluent at a rate of 5 cm/wk. In general, the indigenous microbial
activity of the effluent-amended soil was greater than that of the soil
which was water-amended or untreated. An increase in indigenous activity
occurred with the addition of the sewage effluent to the soil, and then
declined steadily throughout the week between sewage additions. The
increase in activity immediately after amendment reflected the bio-
chemical oxygen demand of the effluent. Anaerobic bacterial populations
did not differ significantly between the sewage-effluent or water-amended
samples or unamended soil plots. However, significant variations were
noted for various sample dates, most likely resulting from soil moisture
changes. The augmented dehydrogenase activities and generally elevated
carbon metabolic rates in amended soils indicate that microbial activity
in the muck was stimulated. Coliform bacteria passed through the soil
profile, but the increased moisture, not the nutrients, of the sewage
effluent stimulated the oxidation of soil organic matter, thereby
stimulating soil subsidence. Therefore, a sewage disposal plan involving
cultivated organic soils must be viewed as a threat to the longevity of
the soils. (WR)
884. Tchobanoglous, G. 1979. Wetland Systems for Wastewater Treatment in
Cold Climates: An Engineering Assessment. Report to U.S. Army Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH. 43 pp.
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885. Tchobanoglous, G., J. Colt, and R. Crites. 1979. Energy and Resource
Consumption in Land and Aquatic Treatment Systems. Presented at the
Energy Optimization of Water and Wastewater Management for Municipal
and Industrial Applications Conference, Department of Energy, New
Orleans, LA, 10-13 December, 1979. 12 pp.
886. Tchobanoglous, G., and G. L. Gulp. 1980. Wetland systems for wastewater
treatment: an engineering assessment, pp. 13-42. In S. C. Reed, and
R. K. Bastian (eds.), Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: An
Engineering Assessment. EPA 430/9-80-007. U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations, Municipal Con-
struction Division, Washington, DC.
The use of natural and artificial wetlands for the treatment of
wastewater is examined in this engineering assessment. The primary
objective of the assessment was to answer the question of whether the
technology of using wetlands for the treatment of wastewater is ready for
routine use and, if not, what must be done to make it a reality. On the
basis of 1) treatment efficiency and reliability, 2) availability of
design criteria and procedures, 3) availability of proven managment
techniques, 4) energy and resource consumption, 5) costs, and 6) health
risks, it is concluded that the current status of wetlands technology is
not yet developed to the point where the use of wetland systems can be
considered routine. Data and information that must be developed before
the design of wetland systems can become a rational undertaking are
identified and discussed. (AA)
887. Tchobanoglous, G., R. Stowell, R. Ludwig, J. Colt, and A. Knight. 1979.
The Use of Aquatic Plants and Animals for the Treatment of Wastewater:
an Overview, pp. 35-55. In S. C. Reed, and R. K. Bastian (eds.),
Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: An Engineering Assess-
ment. EPA 430/9-80-006. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Water Program Operations, Municipal Construction Division,
Washington, DC.
Aquatic systems employing plants and animals have been proposed as
alternatives to conventional wastewater treatment systems. The fun-
damental difference between conventional and aquatic systems is that in
the former, wastewater is treated rapidly in highly managed environments,
whereas in the latter, treatment occurs at a comparatively slow rate in
essentially unmanaged natural environments. The consequences of this
difference are 1) conventional systems require more construction and
mechanization but less land than aquatic systems, and 2) conventional
processes are subject to greater operational control and less environ-
mental influence than aquatic processes. The major stimulus for further
research into the fundamentals, design, and management of aquatic systems
is the potential for reducing the construction, operation, and mainten-
ance costs for wastewater treatment. The general concepts involved in
the design and use of aquatic systems are presented and the implications
are discussed in this overview. (AA)
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888. Teal, J.M. and I. Valiela. 1973. The Salt Marsh as a Living Filter.
Mar. Tech. Soc. Jour., 7: 19-21.
889. Teal, J. M., and I. Valiela. 1975. Enrichment of Coastal Wetlands.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. Woods Hole, MA.
Nutrient enrichment of coastal wetlands enhances production of both
plant and animal components. Nitrogen accounts for most of the effect.
Pollutants tend to be bound on sediments but are also taken up by
organisms in proportion to their mobility.
890. Tenney, M. W., W. F. Echleberger, Jr., K. J. Guter, and J. B. Carberry.
1972. Nutrient Removal from Wastewater by Biological Treatment
Methods, pp. 391-421. In H. E. Allen and J. E. Krammer (eds.),
Nutrients in Natural Waters. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY.
891. Teskey, R. O., and T. M. Hinckley. 1977a. Impact of Water Level Changes
on Woody Riparian and Wetland Communities. Vol. I: Plant and Soil
Responses to Flooding. FWS/OBS-77/58. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice. 30 pp.
Volume I is a scientific literature review detailing the impact of
water level changes on growth and development of important riparian and
wetland trees and shrubs and describing physiological mechanisms. It is
applicable to all geographical areas in the contiguous 48 states.
892. Teskey, R. O., and T. M. Hinckley. 1977b. Impact of Water Level Changes
on Woody Riparian and Wetland Communities. Vol. II: The Southern
Forest Region. FWS/OBS-77/59. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
30 pp.
893. Teskey, R. O., and T. M. Hinckley. 1977c. Impact of Water Level Changes
on Woody Riparian and Wetland Communities. Vol. Ill: The Central
Forest Region. FWS/OBS-77/60. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
36 pp.
894. Teskey, R. O., and T. M. Hinckley. 1978a. Impact of Water Level Changes
on Woody Riparian and Wetland Communities. Vol. IV: Eastern Deciduous
Forest Region. FWS/OBS-78/87. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
36 pp.
This volume of the series covers the important woody plant species in
the Eastern Deciduous Forest Region, which encompasses the area from
southern Minnesota eastward to the Appalachians.
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895. Teskey, R. 0., and T. M. Hinckley. 1978b. Impact of Water Level Changes
on Woody Riparian and Wetland Communities. Vol. V: Northern Forest
Region. FWS/OBS-78/88. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 54 pp.
This volume of the series covers the important woody plant species in
the Northern Forest Region, which encompasses the Great Lakes region from
Minnesota eastward to the Atlantic Ocean.
896. Teskey, R. O., and T. M. Hinckley. 1978c. Impact of Water Level Changes
on Woody Riparian and Wetland Communities. Vol. VI: Plains Grassland
Region. FWS/OBS-78/89. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 54 pp.
This volume of the series covers the important woody plant species in
the Plains Grassland Region, which covers the middle west of the United
States from eastern Montana to western Minnesota and south to Texas.
897. Teskey, R. O., and T. M. Hinckley. 1980. Impact of Water Level Changes
on Woody Riparian and Wetland Communities. Vol. VII: Mediterranean
Region, Western Arid and Semi Arid Region. FWS/OBS-78/93. U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service. 54 pp.
898. Texas Dept. of Health. 1976. Water Hyacinth Culture for Wastewater
Treatment. Austin, TX.
899. Thomson, S.V. and R.M. Allen. 1974. Occurrence of Phytpphthora species
and Other Potential Plant Pathogens in Recycled Irrigation Water.
Plant Dis. Rep. 58:945-949.
900. Thorhaug, A. 1977. Ecological Study of the Effects of Power Plants on
Benthic Macroplant Microcosms in Subtropical and Tropical Estuaries.
Progress Report, 1976-77. Miami Univ., FL. 34 pp.
The effect of two fossil fuel and two nuclear plants on a near-shore
seagrass community was studied in South Biscayne Bay, Dade County,
Florida, over the past four years. The focus of the study was to
delineate the effects that a series of various pollutants have had on the
dominant system of seagrass Thalassia testudinum and its related com-
munity. Data are included from studies on the effects of heavy metals,
waste heat, and dredging activities, with emphasis on thermal pollution.
In order to separate the perturbation of the specific pollutant from the
natural fluctuations of the system, efforts were made to understand the
dynamic processes in adjacent untouched areas. (NT)
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901. Tietjen, W. L., and J. C. Carter. 1980. Phosphate Uptake by River Swamp
Ecosystems. Georgia Southwestern College. Americus, GA.
902. Tiffin, L. O. 1977. The Form and Distribution of Metals in Plants: an
Overview, pp. 315-334. In H. Drucker, and R. E. Wildung (eds.),
Biological Implications of Metals in the Environment. ERDA Symposium
Series No. 42. Energy Research and Development Administration, Wash-
ington, DC.
903. Tilton, D. L. 1976. Recovery of Nutrients from Peatlands used for
Tertiary Treatment, pp. 307-327. Iri D. L. Tilton, R. H. Kadlec, and
C. J. Richardson (eds.). Proceedings of a National Symposium on Fresh-
water Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal. Univ. of Michigan, Ann
Arbor.
The potential for wetlands to simultaneously act as tertiary treatment
systems and produce a harvestable crop is considered. Characteristics of
organic soils which are important to their use as tertiary treatment al-
ternatives and which influence crop production are discussed. In addition,
current and potential uses of wetlands are described, and the compatibil-
ity of each use with tertiary treatment is evaluated.
Analysis of the Porter Ranch Peatland project (Michigan project) indi-
cates that vegetable and/or field crop production is not feasible, but
silviculture of appropriate pulpwood species may be possible. Forestry
provides advantages in harvesting, nutrient storage, and low risk due to
heavy metals and viruses. However, forestry may not be feasible if water-
fowl production is a management goal for the area or if nutrient require-
ments of the trees are not met by nutrient additions in the effluent.
904. Tilton, D. L. 1977a. The Effects of Secondary Effluent on the Plant and
Soil Components of a Northern Wetland Ecosystem. In R. H. Kadlec, D.
L. Tilton, and J. A. Kadlec (eds.), Feasibility of Utilization of
Wetland Ecosystems for Nutrient Removal from Secondary Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluent. Semi-annual Rept. No. 5. Univ.
of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
This paper describes the effect of discharging 12 million gallons of
secondarily treated effluent on the growth of vascular plant species.
The nutrient content of certain ecosystem components is described. (WE)
905. Tilton, D. L. 1977b. Nitrogen Dynamics in Northern Freshwater Wetlands.
Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America.
906. Tilton, D.L. 1978. Wastewater Treatment via Wetland Irrigation: Nutrient
Dynamics, pp. 178-197. In; C.B. DeWitt and E. Soloway (eds.), Wetlands:
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Ecology, Values/ and Impacts. Proceedings of the Waubesa Conference on
Wetlands, 2-5 June, 1977. Madison, WI. Institute for Environmental
Studies, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison.
The effect of discharging approximately 10 million gallons of secondary
effluent onto a ten acre section of wetland is described. Total dissolved
P, NH4 - N, N(>3 + NO2 - N, and Cl were measured in the effluent and in
surface waters various distances (30-255 m) from the discharge location.
Total dissolved P and NO3 + NC>2 - N in surface waters had returned to
background concentrations within 30 m of the discharge, while Cl tended
not to decrease with distance as much as the more biologically active
ions. Element budgets showed the 99 percent, 95 percent and 71 percent of
the total input of nitrate+nitrite-N, total dissolved P, and NIfy - N,
respectively, were immobilized within 30 m of the discharge site. Element
immobilization occurred by a combination of physical and biological pro-
cesses.
907. Tilton, D.L. 1981. The Environmental Impacts Associated with Develop-
ments in Wetlands, pp. 357-362. In; B. Richardson (ed.), Selected Pro-
ceedings of the Midwest Conference on Wetland Values and Management.
Minnesota Water Planning Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
The environmental impacts associated with the utilization of wetland
ecosystems for stormwater management, wastewater treatment, or other pur-
poses is not widely understood. This paper suggests a conceptual frame-
work which is useful for the preparation of wetland environmental impact
assessments and presents several examples of impacts associated with
altering the energy budget, nutrient budget, or hydrologic budget of
various wetland ecosystems.
908. Tilton, D.L. and R.H. Kadlec. 1979. The Utilization of a Freshwater Wet-
land for Nutrient Removal from Secondarily Treated Wastewater Effluent.
J. Environ. Qual. 8(3):328-334.
To test the feasibility of utilizing a fresh-water wetland for tertiary
wastewater treatment, secondarily treated wastewater was applied to a wet-
land in the northern lower peninsula of Michigan. During the discharge of
38,840 m3 (10,260,000 gal) and 23,520 m3 (6,213,000 gal) of secondar-
ily treated wastewater in 1976 and 1977, respectively, surface water qual-
ity, plant productivity, and nutrient status of plants and soils were
measured. In 1976 the concentration of (nitrate + nitrite)-N averaged
0.36 mg/1 in the effluent and 0.01 mg/1 at stations 25 m from the dis-
charge pipeline. Total dissolved P (TDP) averaged 0.41 mg/1 in the
effluent and 0.11 mg/1 at sampling stations 25 m from the discharge. The
efficiency of P removal from the effluent was greater when surface water
depth were 6 cm compared to 30 cm. Ammonium - N concentrations were
rarely higher in the effluent compared to background concentrations in the
wetland surface waters. In 1977 a point source distribution system was
used. The effluent averaged 1.50 mg/1 nitrate - N and 1.57 mg/1 TDP.
Within 30 m, nitrate - N was 0.10 mg/1 in the surface water and within
80 m TDP was 0.07 mg/1. Biomass of live plants in 1976 was somewhat
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greater near the pipeline compared to control areas. Leaves of cattail
(Typha latifolia) were longer near the pipeline in 1976 compared to control
areas. Chemical analysis of sedge (Carex spja.) leaves and roots, standing
dead and litter sampled in 1976 showed no significant differences in N
concentrations among sampling locations, but P concentrations were higher
in leaves and roots 6 m from the pipeline compared to control areas. (BA)
909. Tilton, D. L., R. H. Kadlec, and J. Linde. 1977. Surface Water
Chemistry and Element Budgets of a Wetland Used for Wastewater Treat-
ment , pp. 53-126. In R. H. Kadlec, D. L. Tilton, and J. A. Kadlec
(eds.), Feasibility of Utilization of Wetland Ecosystems for Nutrient
Removal from Secondary Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluent.
Semi-Annual Report No. 5. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
The effect of discharging approximately 10 million gallons of secondary
effluent onto a ten acre section of a northern Michigan wetlands is des-
cribed. Total dissolved P, NH4-N, NO3+NO2-N, Cl, Na, Ca, Mg, K, Ni, Zn, Cu,
Pb, COD, pH, alkalinity, hardness, and specific conductivity were measured
in the effluent and in surface waters various distances (30 - 225 m) from
the discharge locations. Total dissolved P, N03+NO2-N, and pH in surface
waters had returned to background concentrations within 30 m of the dis-
charge. Alkalinity and hardness decreased to background concentrations 50
m from the discharge site, while Cl, Ca, Mg, Na, and to a lesser extent, K
tended not to decrease with distance as much as the more biologically ac-
tive ions. COD was lower in the effluent than surface waters in the wet-
land.
Element budgets showed that 99%, 95% and 71% of the total input of
nitrate+nitrite-N, total dissolved P, and NH4~N, respectively, were
immobilized within 30 m of the discharge site. Equivalent immobilizations
of the total input for K, Mg, Na, Ca, and Cl were 69%, 42%, 39%, 32%, and
30%, respectively. Element immobilization occurred by a combination of
physical and biological processes. (AA)
910. Tilton, D. L., R. H. Kadlec, and C. J. Richardson (eds.). 1976. Pro-
ceedings of a National Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage
Effluent Disposal. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 343 pp.
The symposium was held to discuss the feasibility of using freshwater
wetland ecosystems to remove certain chemicals from secondarily treated
wastewater before they enter lakes, streams, and groundwaters. The
following represents a general list of those areas of consideration: (1)
Hydrology: fate of water beyond the wetlands, loading rate, flow rate
within the wetland; (2) Nutrient Dynamics and Accumulation: efficiency of
treatment, mechanism of nutrient removal from wastewater, loading rate;
(3) Environmental Impacts: changes in species composition, habitat pro-
tection, health; (4) Legal Aspects: enabling policy and legislation; (5)
Economic Considerations: savings in construction cost, benefits associ-
ated with protection of environmental quality; (6) Land Use: compatible
with other traditional uses of wetlands, policies associated with state
and federal wetlands; and (7) Design Considerations: artificial or
natural wetlands, method of effluent discharge, schedule of pumping,
determination of discharge rate. (NT)
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911. Tilton, D.L., and B.R. Schwegler. 1978. The Values of Wetland Habitat in
the Great Lakes Basin, pp. 267-277, In; P.E. Greeson, J.R. Clark, and
J.E. Clark (eds.), Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our
Understanding. American Water Resources Association, Minneapolis, MN.
912. Tischer, R. G., and L. R. Brown. 1962. Mechanism of Algae-Bacteria
Complexes in Oxidation Ponds. Progress Rept. Mississippi State Univ.,
State College. 50 pp.
During the course of the investigation it was found that practically
all of the ponds tested contained some thermophilic micro-organisms.
Studies conducted with these thermophiles indicated that they held con-
siderable potential as a means of stabilizing domestic sewage. It seemed
desirable to include in the report only that material relating to sewage
stabilization by aerobic thermophiles. (NT)
913. Tortell, P. The Utilization of Waste Nutrients for Aquaculture. Pre-
sented at IAWPR Developments in Land Methods of Wastewater Treatment
and Utilization International Conference, held Oct. 23-27, 1978 in
Melbourne, Australia.
Fish pond fertilization with human and animal wastes has been prac-
ticed for centuries. Sewage effluent use for aquaculture is reviewed,
and integrated wastewater-aquaculture systems are analyzed. The need for
large areas of land and adequate public health safeguards, and logistics
of harvesting are problems that can be easily solved; consumer acceptance
is more difficult to achieve. Until this obstacle can be overcome, the
products of wastewater-aquaculture (unicellular algae, aquatic macro-
phytes, invertebrates, and finfish) can be put to other uses. There is a
consensus that aquaculture has great potential as an alternative to
conventional waste treatment and disposal systems. (EL)
914. Toth, L. 1972. Reeds Control Eutrophication of Balaton Lake. Journal
Internat. Assoc. Water Pollution Res. 6(12):1533-1539.
Wastewater was applied to the upland edge of a reed swamp on the
border of Lake Balaton in Hungary. Nutrients in the wastewater were
removed effectively by passage through the swamp. (EP)
915. Tortora, L. 1978. Analysis of Phosphorus Data from Wetlands Application
Site for Secondarily Treated Municipal Effluents. Master's Paper.
Dept. of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida,
Gainesville.
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916. Tourbier, J., and R. W. Pierson, Jr. (eds.). 1976. Biological Control
of Water Pollution. Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, Philadephia.
This publication contains a number of articles that are related to the
topic of wastewater renovation by natural and artificial wetlands, in-
cluding research performed in foreign countries. The section entitled
"Biological Treatment of Wastewater" contains a number of papers that
deal with specific vegetation types and their relationship to water
purification. (EP)
917. Trieff, N. M. et al. 1976. Sewage Treatment by Controlled Eutrophication
Using Algae and Artemia, pp. 231-239. In Biological Control of Water
Pollution. Univ. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
918. Trimberger, J. 1972. Production of Fathead Minnows (Pimephales prqmelas)
in a Municipal Wastewater Stabilization System. Michigan Department of
Natural Resources, Grand Rapids. 5 pp.
Sewage oxidation ponds may provide a valuable culture media for
rearing forage fish for piscivorous species—especially muskellunge. The
fish manager should consider using lagoons to rear forage fish for
restocking lakes following chemical treatment.
919. Tsai, C. 1975. Effects of Sewage Treatment Plant Effluents on Fish: a
Review of the Literature. Publication No. 36. Chesapeake Research
Consortium, Inc., Baltimore, MD.
920. Tsai, C. 1978. Impact of Wastewater Treatment Plant Discharges,
pp. 149-150. In K. C. Flynn and W. T. Mason (eds.), The Freshwater
Potomac - Aquatic Communities and Environmental Stresses. Proceedings
of a symposium held in January 1977 at College Park, MD. Interstate
Commission on the Potomac River Basin, Rockville, MD.
921. Turner, R. E., J. W. Day, Jr., M. Meo, P. M. Payonk, T. B. Ford, and W.
G. Smith. 1976. Aspects of Land-treated Waste Application in
Louisiana Wetlands, pp. 145-168. In D. L. Tilton, R. H. Kadlec, and
C. J. Richardson (eds.), Proceedings of a National Symposium on
Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal. Univ. of Michigan,
Ann Arbor.
This is a summary of a short-term feasibility study utilizing a com-
bination of overland flow and topical application of menhaden fisheries
waste in a Louisiana freshwater, coastal marsh. Significant amounts
(40-50%) of C, N, and P were lost to the soil-plant system when waste-
water followed an overland flow route. Live standing crops were
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significantly higher when wastes were applied directly. Both application
procedures increased net production of the three plant communities
between 32-50%. Less than 5% of total nutrient application was taken up
by plants. The soil-water interface is implicated as the major site of
sorption, deactivation, and denitrification for both application pro-
cedures. Authors suggest use of abundant spoil disposal sites for this
type of treatment system. (WE)
922. Tusack-Gilmour, D. 1980. Effluent Creates an Oasis in Nevada. Water
and Wastes Engineering 17(9):22-24, 56.
The Las Vegas Wash, fed by effluents from the Las Vegas and Clare
County (Nevada) wastewater treatment plants, is a lush, 4,000-acre bird
and animal retreat in the desert. More than 200 species of birds and
animals inhabit it, and marsh and riparian vegetation abounds. However,
excessive perennial flows and flooding during summer and winter have
caused extensive damage; erosion and headcutting must be remedied to
preserve the Wash. Besides its present status as a wildlife habitat,
several existing and proposed beneficial uses for the Wash include a
recreation-park area, education and research, hunting, a flood flow
conduit and urban stormwater treatment system, a wastewater effluent
conduit, a potential treatment system for the removal of P, N, and other
pollutants, a salinity control point for reducing TSS levels to the
Colorado River system, and a source of return flow credits for expanding
the water supply system. Recent progress by concerned conservation
groups and public agencies has strengthened the concept of maintaining
and improving this unique wetlands environment. Preservation of its
distinctive features depends upon development of an overall marsh-wet-
lands management plan and the support to implement it. (PA)
923. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. Tertiary Treatment with
a Controlled Ecological System. Pub. No. EPA-660/2-73-022. National
Water Quality Lab. Duluth, MN.
A two-stage pond system was constructed and operated as a process for
polishing secondary sewage effluent. In the shallow first pond a luxur-
iant growth of algae was maintained. In the second stage a population of
Daphnia jjujLex effectively removed the algae. Total volume of the system
was 1,135 cubic meters. A program of chemical and biological monitoring
was followed over a twelve-month period. Objectives were to demonstrate
feasibility of the process for producing recreational-grade water, acquire
operating data on a completely biological process, and determine its po-
tential for nutrient removal. The system was operated with about 10 days'
detention in each stage.
The Daphnia remained as the dominant zooplankton species in the second
stage pond throughout the observation period, and during periods when
their concentration was above 500 organisms/liter, were able to hold water
transparence at Secchi disk readings around 2 meters. At such times COD
reduction was above 40 percent across the system. Significant removal of
nutrients occurred only during the months of July and August when nitrogen
-------
and phosphate reductions were 48 percent and 63 percent, respectively.
Nutrient removal performance was hampered by occasional invasions of
Daphnia or rotifers in the first stage pond, which decimated the algae
population; such events were not successfully controlled and remain the
principal obstacle to further development of the process.
924. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1976a. Wastewater Treatment by
Natural and Artificial Marshes. EPA Technology Transfer Series
EPA-600/2-76-207.
925. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1976b. Economic Assessment of
Wastewater Aquaculture Treatment Systems. Cincinnati, OH. 118 pp.
A desk study of the economic viability of aquaculture as an alterna-
tive to conventional wastewater treatment systems was undertaken on
behalf of small townships in southwest U.S.A. A total of 15 alternative
treatment combinations was examined, in which aquaculture either in the
form of a raceway or lagoon was adopted in 11 instances, in conjunction
with various forms of preliminary biological treatment. The most
cost-effective strategy for meeting particular criteria, such as the
degree of removal of BOD or dissolved nutrients, or the fulfillment of
advanced water treatment standards, was selected. It was demonstrated
that in certain situations wastewater aquaculture presented a low-cost
alternative to conventional treatment technology, but that, on the basis
of current knowledge, it may not provide the most economic method of
meeting stricter effluent standards. (AL)
926. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980a. Mutagenic Activity and Chem-
ical Characterization for the Palo Alto Wastewater Reclamation and
Groundwater Injection Facility. Pub. No. EPA-600/S1-81-029. Washington,
DC.
At the Palo Alto Reclamation Plant 0.44 cu m/s (1 mgd) of secondary
effluent is reclaimed through a series of wastewater treatment processes.
Mutagenic activity was consistently found to be present in the secondary
treated municipal wastewater influent to the Reclamation Facility. This
activity was not reduced significantly by high time treatment, air strip-
ping, recarbonation, or ozonation, even though these processes did remove
a portion of the overall organic content of the wastewaters and many of
the volatile organic compounds. Activated-carbon adsorption was effective
in removing mutagenic activity to such a degree that mutagenic activity
could not be found in water used for injection or that taken from monitor-
ing wells. Chlorination resulted in an increase in mutagenic activity. A
laboratory study demonstrated that this increase in activity would not
result if chlorine dioxide rather than chlorine were used for disinfec-
tion. Chlorination resulted in the production of a significant concentra-
tion of non-purgeable, but otherwise unidentified, chlorinated organic
compounds, as well as trihalomethanes. Formation or removal of such
compounds did not seen to correlate with changes in mutagenic activity.
-------
Air stripping by the fountain-spray system was most effective in removing
volatile organic compounds, while activated carbon was responsible for
removals obtained for most other organic materials.
927. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980b. Treatment of Primary Efflu-
ent by Rapid Infiltration. Pub. No. EPA-600/S2-80-207. Washington, DC
928. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980c. Municipal Solid Waste
Disposal in Estuaries and Coastal Marshlands EPA-600/S2-80-212.
929. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1981a. Process Design Manual for
Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewater. EPA 625/1-81-013.
930. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1981b. Sewage Sludge Viral and
Pathogenic Agents in Soil-Plant Animal Systems. (EPA-600/S1-81-026),
Washington, DC.
931. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1981c. Cropping Systems for Treat-
ment and Utilization of Municipal Wastewater and Sludge. Pub. No. EPA-
600/S2-81-065. Washington, DC.
The efficiency of nitrogen stripping by intercropping forages with corn
is evaluated in a three-year study at Muskegon County Wastewater Treatment
Facility in Michigan. Corn is grown as the major cash crop at the Muske-
gon treatment facility, but experience has shown that corn is not effi-
cient in removing nitrogen from applied wastewater except during a few
short weeks during its growing season. Studies were designed to evaluate
the improved nitrogen removal for the entire irrigation season when corn
is no-till planted in a number of selected forage crops. In addition to
nitrogen stripping studies, sludge compatibility and metal contaminated
sludge studies were evaluated to determine the feasibility of applying
sludge to land which is being used in a wastewater treatment system.
932. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1981d. Evaluation of the Health
Risks Associated with the Treatment and Disposal of Municipal Waste-
water and Sludge. Pub. No. EPA-600/S1-81-030. Washington, DC.
933. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1981e. Health Effects of Sewage
Aerosols: Additional Serological Surveys and Search for Legionella
pneumophila in Sewage. Pub. No. EPA-600/S1-81-032. Washington, DC.
-------
Antibody levels to Legionella pneumophila, sero-group 1 and Hepatitis A
Virus (HAV) were determined for 433 persons living within a 1.6 km radius
of an activated sludge plant. Sera of children 6 to 13 years of age were
also tested for antibody to Norwalk Virus. The antibody prevalence rates
for L. pneumophila, HAV and Norwalk Virus were 23.2%, 31.55% and 7.1%,
respectively. The prevalence of L. pneumophila antibody was higher than
expected but not the others. Seroconversions were not observed except for
a 4-fold rise in HAV antibody in one pair of sera suggesting new infec-
tions did not occur in the 8-month study period by any of these agents.
Using an index of exposure for the number of viable organisms generated at
the plant to which participants were exposed, the average index for per-
sons with antibody to L. pneumophila or HAV, was not different from the
averages of those without antibody. In addition, there was no association
between how close people lived to the plant, or how long they lived in the
study area, and being seropositive. These findings augment but still did
not prove the previous findings that sewage aerosols emitted from this
plant had no overt health effects.
934. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1981f. Health Risks of Human Expo-
sure to Wastewater. Pub. No. EPA-600/S1-81-002. Washington, DC.
In this study started in 1977, clinical and serologic evaluations of
workers involved in composting of wastewater treatment plant sludge by the
aerated pile method was initiated to evaluate the potential health effects
of exposure to Aspergillus fumigatus and other viable and nonviable compo-
nents of sludge. A health study consisting of analysis of blood specimens
for liver and kidney function parameters, determination of serum and urine
bile acid concentrations, physical examinations, interviews, and air and
water monitoring was conducted of residents exposed to carbon tetrachlor-
ide and other toxic chemicals in drinking water as a result of contamina-
tion of domestic wells by a nearby hazardous waste dump. A study was
undertaken to determine if evidence of exposure to hexachlorocyclopenta-
diene, hexachlorabicycloheptadiene, heptachlorobicycloheptane, and chlor-
dene could be detected by urine analysis of workers exposed to chlorinated
insecticide substances discharged to the sewer by a pesticide formulator.
In order to assess the potential for health risks associated with the
spray irrigation of wastewater, a clinical and virus serologic evaluation
of workers and wastewater and air monitoring for viruses, pathogenic bac-
teria, and volatile organic chemicals was conducted. A field ecosystem
study was carried out to evaluate the effects of land application of heat
dried municipal wastewater treatment plant sludge (Milorganite) on vege-
tation, insects and medow voles. The potential health effects associated
with sludge incineration and pyrolysis are also presented.
935. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1981g. Helminth and Heavy Metals
Transmission from Anaerobically Digested Sewage Sludge. Pub. No. EPA-
600/S2-81-024. Washington, DC.
-------
936. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1981. Soil Temperature and Sewage
Sludge Effects on Plant and Soil Properties. Pub. No. EPA-600/S2-81-
069. Washington, DC.
A field experiment was conducted to determine the influence of soil
temperature and sewage sludge on growth and composition of corn (Zea mays
L.). Changes in soil organic matter, extractable metals, pH, bulb den-
sity, aggregation, fecal coliform, and fecal streptococcus were deter-
mined. Soil temperatures studied were 16, 27, 35, and 22C° (ambient).
Sludge was applied at rates of 0, 56, and 112 metric tons per hectare.
Corn yields and growth were reduced by 16C° soil temperature, and in-
creased by heating the soil to 35C° in 1976, but the warmer soil did not
significantly increase yields in 1975. The effects of soil temperature on
heavy metal concentrations in plants varied according to year, metal, and
plant part. Zinc concentrations generally increased with increased soil
temperature. Sludge increased concentrations of Zn, Cu, Ni, and Cd in
corn, radishes, legume and small grain tissues. Cd increased significant-
ly in corn seedlings with soil temperature increase, but not in stover.
The highest rate of fecal coliform and fecal streptococcus addition and
the longest survival times in soil were on plots receiving the highest
sludge application. Survival time varied directly with soil temperature.
937. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1981. Wastewater Treatment by
Rooted Aquatic Plants in Sand and Gravel Trenches. EPA-600/S2-81-091.
Washington, DC.
The objective of this project was to evaluate a patented process devel-
oped by the Max Planck Institute (MPI) of West Germany for the treatment
of industrial wastes, as an energy-efficient method for the treatment of
municipal wastewater. The major goal was to achieve effluents meeting the
United States Federal Effluent Standards by this novel biological treat-
ment process that uses a minimal amount of mechanical equipment and does
not require a great amount of manpower for normal operation. An eleven
month study demonstrated that raw screened wastewater applied to the
trench system at a rate not exceeding 95 m3/d (25,000 gpd) could be
treated to secondary effluent quality. Spatial requirements were about
the same as for a septic tank system.
938. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1981. Water Quality and Mangrove
Ecosystem Dynamics. Pub. No. EPA-600/S4-81-022. Washington, DC.
Field studies were made to determine the relationship between general
water quality parameters with emphasis on pesticides and metal pollutants,
and the functioning of the halophytic mangroves. It was concluded, from a
broad range of ecological sample analysers, that mangroves are relatively
insensitive to toxic materials in the parts per million range and lower.
Further, they do not significantly concentrate synthetic organics or
metals to levels which could be considered harmful to detritus feeders.
1093. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983a.
1094. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983b.
1095. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983c.
-------
939. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Refuge Manual 17. Disease Prevention
and Control (draft), pp. 729-757, In; Populations Management, 7RM17,
National Wildlife Refuge System. Department of the Interior, Washing-
ton , DC.
940. U.S. Forest Service. 1978. Strategies for Protection and Management of
of Floodplain Wetlands and Other Riparian Ecosystems. GTR-WO-12. Pro-
ceedings of the Symposium, 11-13 December 1978, Callaway Gardens, GA.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, 410 p.
941. Vadas, R.L., M. Keser, P.C. Rusanowski, and B.R. Larson. 1976. The
Effects of Thermal Loading on the Growth and Ecology of a Northern
Population of Spartina alterniflora, pp. 54-63. In G.W. Esch, and R.
W. McFarlane (eds.), Thermal Ecology II. Proceedings of a symposium
held at Augusta, Georgia, 2-5 April 1975. Technical Information
Center, Energy Research and Development Administration. (Available
from NTIS as CONF -750425).
Thermal effluents from the Maine Yankee Atomic Power Co. increased the
plant densities of Spartina alterniflora during the first year of opera-
tion (1973) but reduced the densities substantially the second year
(1974). Growth and flowering were initiated earlier near the heated
effluent. Subsequent growth was reduced in early summer but was more
normal during the late summer and fall of the first year. During the
second year of operation, growth was greatly reduced, and large plants
never developed. Biomass and net-production estimates at the control site
compare favorably with other marshes along the east coast of North
America. In the marsh affected by the thermal discharge, biomass de-
creased by the thermal discharge, biomass decreased by 48% in 1973 and 40%
in 1974. The rhizome system of affected plants collapsed in 1974-1975.
These plants, in contrast to southern forms, appear to have lost their
tolerance of high temperatures. (AA)
942. Valiela, I., M.D. Banus, and J.M. Teal. 1974. Response of Salt Marsh
Bivalves to Enrichment with Metal-containing Sewage Sludge and Reten-
tion of Lead, Zinc, and Cadmium by Marsh Sediments. Env. Pollution
7(2):149-157.
Growth in the bivalves Mercenaria mercenaria and gra_Bsos_trea, virginica
was not affected by experimental additions of metal-containing sewage
sludge and fertilizers to salt marsh plots. Nodiolus demissus, a mussel
inhabiting the marsh surface, did grow better under the same fertilizer
treatments. Input-output, budgets show that Pb was trapped in the sedi-
ments with virtually no loss to deeper waters. Zn and Cd also accumulated
in the sediments but there was some transport away from the salt marsh
surface. Increases in Zn and Cd, but not Pb, were detected in the creek
bottom detritus downstream. All three species of shellfish showed no
increases in Pb or Zn contents, but all showed increases in Cd.
-------
943. Valeila, I., and J. M. Teal. 1972. Nutrient and Sewage Sludge Enrich-
ment Experiments in a Salt Marsh Ecosystem. Intecol. Symp. on
Physiological Ecology of Plants and Animals in Extreme Environments.
Dubrovnik, Yugoslovia.
944. Valiela, I., and J. M. Teal. 1978a. Inputs, Outputs, and Interconver-
sions of Nitrogen in a Salt Marsh Ecosystem. In R. Jeffereies and A.
Davy (eds.), Ecological Processes in Coastal Environments. Brit.
Ecol. Soc. Symp. Blackwell.
945. Valiela, I., and J.M. Teal. 1978b. Nutrient Dynamics: Summary and Recom-
mendations, pp. 259-263, In; R.E. Good, D.F. Whigham, and R.L. Simpson
(eds.), Freshwater Wetlands: Ecological Processes and Management
Potential. Academic Press, Inc., New York, NY.
946. Valiela, I., J. M. Teal, and N. Y. Persson. 1976. Production and
Dynamics of Experimentally Enriched Salt Marsh Vegetation: Below
Ground Biomass. Limnol. Oceanogr. 21:245-252.
Root growth increased during the early growing season in Spartina
alterniflora salt marsh plots. While fertilization with nitrogenous fer-
tilizer did not affect initial growth, a marked decrease in root biomass
followed the spring peak particularly where nutrient doses were highest.
A sharp reduction in roots occurred in enriched areas covered by Spartina
patens, although as with S_. alterniflora., aboveground biomass increased.
Roots disappeared during autumn leaving rhizomes as the only part of the
plants to overwinter. The maximum standing crop for roots was 0.2 cm
deep, for rhizomes 2.5 cm. Net annual underground production was calcu-
lated from annual increments in dead matter belowground. Total production,
underground and aboveground, exceeds that of any marine-vegetation ranking
from 3,900 to 6,600 g m^ yr^ in £3. alterniflora areas and 3,200 to
6,200 g m^ yr^ in S>. patens areas. Fertilization increased production
particularly aboveground where dead plant parts are subject to export.
(AA)
947. Valiela, I., J. M. Teal, and W. Sass. 1973. Nutrient Retention in Salt
Marsh Plots Experimentally Fertilized with Sewage Sludge. Estuarine
Coastal Mar. Sci. 1(3):261-269.
Growing population on the NW Atlantic Coast has increased the contami-
nation of coastal wetlands with sewage wastes. Effects of sewage on salt
marsh ecosystems by experimentally treating salt marsh plots with sewage
sludge was studied. Plots 10 m in diameter were fertilized once every two
weeks with commercially available sewage sludge and nutrient losses mea-
sured in ebbing tidal water. The experimental plots were located in
basins drained by single small ditches to allow sampling of ebbing tidal
water from each plot. Concentration of ammonia nitrogen, nitrate+nitrite
-------
nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, phosphate phosphorus and total phosphorus,
respectively, in water leaving the treated plots was measured. Sea water
temperature negatively affected phosphate phosphorus losses. Principal
losses were in the form of ammonium and phosphate and were related to dos-
age applied and height of tide following application. Salt marsh systems
are sufficiently flexible to use as much nitrogen as is available regard-
less of the supply mechanisms. They may act as effective removers of
excess inorganic nitrogen. Results suggest that adequately managed salt
marshes may be considered as potential tertiary treatment systems for sew-
age effluent.
948. Valiela, I., J. M. Teal, and W. J. Sass. 1975. Production and Dynamics
of Salt Marsh Vegetation and the Effects of Experimental Treatment
with Sewage Sludge. J. Appl. Ecol. 12(3):973-981.
The response of salt marsh vegetation to sewage applications is deter-
mined. The seasonal pattern of growth and decay of organic matter is
studied, and changes in the botanical composition of vegetation are
measured. Fertilization with a 10-6-4 sewage sludge fertilizer increased
total peak standing crops of salt marsh vegetation despite the presence
of considerable amounts of heavy metals and chlorinated hydrocarbons in
the sludge. (EL)
949. Valiela, I., J. M. Teal, S. Volkmann, D. Shafer, and E. J. Carpenter.
1978. Nutrient and Particulate Fluxes in a Salt Marsh Ecosystem:
Tidal Exchanges and Inputs by Precipitation and Groundwater. Limnol.
and Oceanogr. 23: 798-812.
Waterborne nutrients enter Great Sippewissett Marsh through ground-
water, rain, and tidal flooding. The ebb of tidal water removes nutrients.
During summer, uptake by marsh biota leads to net import of nutrients. The
increased export of ammonium in August may be due to leaching from senes-
cent marsh plants. There is a net annual export of ammonium, nitrate,
nitrite, dissolved organic (DON) and particulate (PN) nitrogen, particu-
late carbon (PC), and phosphate. Ammonium, DON, and PN are the major
forms of nitrogen exported. Nutrient concentrations in coastal and marsh
water are correlated, and marsh exports could contribute substantially to
nutrient supplies of coastal waters.
Groundwater entering the marsh provides primarily N03~N and DON. Nutri-
ent inputs through precipitation consist primarily of DON, NO3~N and NH4~N.
Particulate materials in rain have a high C:N ratio, contributing little
to enrichment of the nitrogen-limited salt marsh. Groundwater carries
over 20 times the amount of nutrients brought in by rain. The nitrogen
provided by both sources is more than enough to support annual plant
growth. Inputs of nitrogen by groundwater are therefore important to the
nitrogen economy of a salt marsh.
About half the dissolved inorganic nitrogen brought into the marsh by
groundwater is converted to and exported as PN. The marsh thus transforms
the nitrogen that would have been used by primary producers into a form
suitable for consumers such as shellfish. Large amounts of apparently
refractory DON enter the marsh in groundwater and similar amounts are
-------
exported by tides. PC exported to coastal water is equivalent to 40% of
the net annual production of Sjpartina al ternif lor a, the dominant marsh
plant. (AA)
950. Valiela, I., and S. Vince. 1976. Assimilation of Sewage by Wetlands,
pp. 234-253. In M. Wiley (ed.), Estuarine Processes, Vol. 1. Uses,
Stresses and Adaptation to the Estuary. New York. 541 pp.
Wetlands have attracted attention as potential components of waste
treatment systems because of typically high primary productivity, high
decomposer activity, anaerobic condition and large adsorptive areas in the
sediments. These properties seem to provide wetlands with the ability to
degrade and eliminate contaminants in wastewaters, and have been studied
in a variety of wetland habitats throughout the world (salt and brackish
marshes, polders, cypress, papyrus and mangrove swamps, freshwater marshes
and bogs). Although each wetland type differs, current results from
marshes show that N and P compounds are removed from contaminated or waste
waters. Heavy metals from sludges are retained by marsh muds, but the
effectiveness varies considerably for different metals. Petroleum hydro-
carbons accumulate in marsh muds and may be actively decomposed, particu-
larly at low levels of contamination. Chlorinated hydrocarbons have high
affinities for marsh sediments and can be altered by microrganismal
activity. Preliminary evidence indicates that counts of coliform bacteria
may be reduced in tidal water that floods marshes. Little is known about
the thresholds of wetlands to tolerate the impacts of wastewater, but
studies in chronically contaminated sites show that marshlands function
well even in severely polluted areas. (WE)
951. van der Valk, A. G., C. B. Davis, J. L. Baker, and C. E. Beer. 1979.
Natural Freshwater Wetlands as Nitrogen and Phosphorus Traps for Land
Runoff, pp. 457-467. In P. E. Greeson, J. R. Clark, and J. E. Clark
(eds.), Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our Understanding.
Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetlands held in Lake Buena
Vista, FL, 7-10 Nov. 1979. Tech. Publ. No. TPS 79-2. Amer. Water
Resour. Assoc., Minneapolis, MN.
All types of natural wetlands behave as N and/or P traps at least
seasonally and, as a consequence, improve the quality of polluted water
passing through them. Annual efficiency of N and P removal by a wetland
is primarily a function of the wetland's hydrologic regime, litter fall
pattern, and rate of litter decay. Improving the efficiency of N and P
removal by proper management of a wetland is at least theoretically
possible in some cases. (AA)
952. Van Raalte, C.D. 1977. Nitrogen Fixation in Salt Marshes - A Built-in
Plant Fertilizer. Oceanus 20(2):58-63.
The structure of salt marsh ecosystems and the effect of pollutants on
them has attracted the interest of agricultural researchers looking for
-------
ways to maintain crop yields while reducing nitrogen requirements, the
present research, of nitrogen fixation in such an ecosystem, studied a
salt marsh cord grass, Spartina alterniflora. The grass roots fix nitro-
gen at high rates and the bacterial symbiont in the root is similar to
that of Digitaria (crab grass). These studies, in the Great Sippewissett
Marsh on Cape Cod in Massachusetts, found that in plots fertilized with
sewage sludge and in plots fertilized only with nitrogen, marsh grass grew
taller, looked greener, and was higher in nitrogen. There was no change
in plots fertilized only with phosphate. It was presumed that nitrogen
fixation must be important in salt marshes. In fact fixation rates were
very high. Several years of study have produced a better understanding of
nitrogen fixation in salt marshes, with major fixation sites identified
and seasonal rates and environmental factors determining those rates
determined.
953. Van Raalte, C. D., I. Valiela, and J. M. Teal. 1976. The Effect of Fer-
tilization on the Species Composition of Salt Marsh Diatoms* Water
Research 10(1):1-4.
The diversity of epibenthic diatoms in a salt marsh is reduced by
fertilization with either sewage sludge or urea. Counts of 500 indivi-
duals are sufficient to demonstrate a lower total number in the fer-
tilized areas as compared with that of controls. Nayicula salinarum
Grun., which formed 5-9% of the diatoms in the controls, become dominant
in fertilized plots, constituting 20-25% of the population. (EL)
954. Vaughn, J. M., and J. H. Ryther. 1974. Bacteriophage survival patterns
in a Tertiary Sewage Treatment-aquaculture Model System. Aquaculture
4(4): 399-407.
Virus survival is investigated under simulated conditions of a ter-
tiary sewage treatment-aquaculture system using a bacteriophage
indicator. Survival time extends in a pure culture growing algae despite
environmental conditions usually considered antiviral in nature. Sur-
vival is further enhanced by increasing the concentration of sewage
effluent in the sewage-sea-water mixtures. (EL)
955. Veber, K., J. Zahradnik, and I. Breyl. 1980. Efficiency and Rate of
Elimination of Polychlorinated Biphenyls from Wastewaters by Means of
Algae. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology
25(6):841-845.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) were eliminated from municipal waste
water and piggery waste water at efficiencies of up to 100% by algal
concentration and subsequent lyophilization. Seenedesmus acutjis was
cultivated outdoors in southern Bohemia for 2-week periods during
June-September 1978, at average daily temperatures of 19.8 C. Once a day
a volume of the suspension was withdrawn and replaced by the same volume
of wastewater. Dilution rates and corresponding elimination efficiencies
-------
were as follows: 0.1, 100%; 0.2, 67%; 0.3, 80%; and 0.5, 45%. Similar
studies done with Chlamydpmpnas geitleri at an average temperature of
17.8 C in May and June 1979 showed 0.1, 84%; 0.2, 73%; 0.3, 64%; and 0.5,
100%. Although there was a trend toward decreasing efficiency of PCB
absorption with increasing dilution rate, weather may also have been a
factor. The PCB contents of the dry algal biomass at the maximum
dilution rate were 213 mg per kg for £>. acutus and 157 mg per kg for C.
geitleri. (WR) ~ "~
956. Vennes, J. W. 1970. Microbiology of Sewage Lagoons - Role of Purple
Sulfur Bacteria in the Stabilization of Industrial Wastes. Tech.
Completion Kept. North Dakota Water Resources Research Inst. , Fargo,
ND. 21 pp.
Ecologic relationships among various lagoon organisms and chemical and
physical parameters of the lagoon were attempted. Pure cultures of the
purple sulfur bacteria, Chromatium yinosum and Thipcapsa floridana were
characterized with respect to optimum pH, temperature, and a variety of
organic substrates. Experimental and actual lagoon substrate deter-
minations suggest that the purple sulfur bacteria are predominantly
responsible for the utilization of volatile fatty acids from the lagoon.
Furthermore, the majority of the BOD in the lagoon may be attributed to
these volatile acids. A variety of microbial and chemical determinations
were made. (AA)
957. Vennes, J. W., H. W. Holm, M. W. Wentz, K. L. Hanson, and J. M. Granum.
1969. Microbiology of Sewage Lagoons - Effects of Industrial Wastes
on Lagoon Ecology. Tech. Completion Rept. Univ. of North Dakota.
Grand Forks, ND.
The report presents some of the ecological changes occurring in sewage
lagoons receiving domestic wastes plus potato processing wastes
(Grafton); cheese manufacturing wastes (Lakota); and domestic wastes
(Harvey). Since each lagoon presents unique operating conditions, the
results are summarized in topical form. (AA)
958. Verduin, J. 1969. Man's Influence on Lake Erie. The Ohio Journal of
Science. 69(2):65-69.
Conversion of northwestern Ohio's great Black Swamp to farm land during
the last half of the 19th century had a profound, but scantily documented
influence on Lake Erie. Silts, once largely filtered by swampland vegeta-
tion, were, with the destruction of that vegetation, carried into Lake
Erie, reducing light penetration and significantly altering the lake's
biota. More recently enhancement of plant nutrients, especially phosphor-
us, which has increased 5-fold since 1948, has supported nuisance levels
of plant growth creating severe oxygen depletion near the lake bottom and
responsible for additional major and undesirable changes in species compo-
sition of plant and animal communities. The solution to this problem is
-------
removal of plant nutrients from the waters before they enter Lake Erie.
The 'Living Filter' treatment, in which sewage plant effluents are filter-
ed through root zones of plant communities, seems most promising. This
treatment effectively removes nutrients, converting them to plant pro-
ducts. Another model, where effluent from sewage treatment plants is
passed through a series of artificial lakes, processes the effluents
effectively so that final-stage lakes are excellent recreational facili-
ties, and the released waters do not burden aquatic environments.
959. Verry, E. S. 1979. Plant Nutrient Retention in Natural Bogs and Impli-
cations for Sewage Application. In J. C. Sutherland and R. H. Kadlec
(eds.), Wetland Utilization for Management of Community Wastewater.
Abstracts of conference held 10-12 July 1979 at Higgins Lake, MI.
An undisturbed 9.72 ha watershed in north central Minnesota having
two-thirds upland till soils with mature aspen and one-third sphagnum
(3.24 ha) with mature black spruce was intensely instrumented to measure
water-borne nutrient flow. We wanted to find out how the peatland por-
tion retained natural inputs of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg resulting from direct
precipitation and flows from the surrounding upland. Seasonal effects
were measured during 3 years (1971-1973) using three natural periods for
input; 1) spring (mid Nov. - mid May), 2) summer (mid May - mid Sept.),
and 3) fall (mid Sept. - mid Nov.). Output periods were similar except
for "fall" when streamflow sometimes extended to mid-Jan. Natural
nutrient retention properties can help guide the timing of sewage efflu-
ent application.
The peatland received nutrients in direct proportion to the amount of
precipitation plus upland flow and passed on nutrients in direct propor-
tion to the amount of streamflow leaving it. In almost all situations
the peatland retained a portion of the nutrients that entered it.
However, retention was not related to water amounts, but rather to un-
known processes.
We thought that spring rain and snowmelt might result in greater
relative flushing rather than retention, but the opposite occurred. Gen-
erally the highest relative retention and the highest absolute retention
were in the spring. We also plotted the absolute nutrient amount retain-
ed during each season over the amount received and found that retention,
for all nutrients, increased as more was received. Thus, under natural
ranges, the peatland was never saturated with nutrients.
These data indicate that effluent application need not be delayed
until well after snowmelt because relative retention is highest during
snowmelt runoff. This phenomenon may be related to luxurious sphagnum
growth immediately after snowmelt and chemical adsorption. Also, natural
processes exist for retaining increased nutrient loads. Thus, effluent
research should define the range of loadings necessary to reach satura-
tion so that criteria matching land area or outflow water quality to
loading are possible. (AA)
960. Wagner, D.D. 1973. An Investigation of the Physical Impact of Sewage
Outflow on a River-Estuarine Environment. Trident Scholar Project
Rept. No. 50. U.S. Naval Academy. Annapolis, MD.
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The impact of the sewage outflow from the treatment plant in Anna-
polis, Eastport, Maryland, into the Severn River is explored. A buoyant
plume model of the behavior of the sewage upon introduction to the re-
ceiving water is presented which indicates dilution to a 3% sewage con-
centration by the time the waste reaches the surface. Bottom currents
are investigated and compared with surface flows to assess their effect
on dispersion of the contaminants. Finally, a tidal flushing model is
constructed that predicts a uniform sewage pollution excess over the
conditions of the Chesapeake Bay of approximately .05% throughout the
Severn River. The effects of various environmental changes on the system
are discussed as predicted by modification of the numerical model. Under
present circumstances, no detrimental physical impact on the environment
can be shown to exist. (AA)
961. Walker, M., and A. T. Ingham. 1980. Alternative Systems for Wastewater
Management. Compost Science/Land Utilization 21(6):31-33.
Three promising alternatives to the construction of conventional
gravity sewers are proposed for rural communities. These systems are
intended to reduce the cost of sewage collection in these locations. The
design and operation of the vacuum sewer, pressure sewer, and small
diameter gravity sewer are described. Options for the treatment and
disposal of collected sewage include sand filters, lagoons, aquaculture
marsh systems, overland flow, and other land treatment alternatives.
Management considerations for these systems are surveyed. (EL)
962. Walker, W. R., and W. E. Cox. 1974. Wastewater Irrigation: Its Legal
Impact. Water Spec\.rum 6(2): 15-22.
EPA is encouraged by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend-
ments of 1972 to develop revenue-producing waste treatment facilities:
specifically, recycling potential sewage pollutions in connection with
agriculture, silviculture, or aquaculture. The land use, groundwater,
and surface water rights connected with wastewater irrigation at the
state and municipal levels are explained. The ultimate test of feasi-
bility for a given wastewater irrigation installation may well depend on
legal constraints. (EL)
963. Walsh, G. E., L. H. Bahner, and W. B. Horning. 1980. Toxicity of Tex-
tile Mill Effluents to Freshwater and Estuarine Algae, Crustaceans,
and Fishes. Environmental Pollution; Series A: Ecological and Bio-
logical 21 (3):169-179.
The toxicity of secondary waste effluents from textile manufacturing
plants was determined with freshwater (algae-Selenastrum caprIcprnuturn,
crustacean-paphnia jgulex, minnow-pimephales promelus) and estuarine
(algae-Skeletonema costaturn, shrimp-Palaemonetes pugio, min-
nows-Cyprinodon variegatus) organisms. D. Pulex was generally the most
sensitive animal, but no animal responded to all wastes. Growth of the
-------
algae £!. capricprnutum and S_. cpstatum was affected by all wastes,
through either inhibition or stimulation. Some wastes were stimulatory
to §.• costatum at low concentrations (i.e., less than 1%) but inhibitory
at high concentrations (i.e., greater than 50%). The concentration of
waste that stimulated growth of IS. costatum by 20% compared with controls
(SC20) was calculated and used with EC50 values for the survival of D.
pulex to estimate the potential impact of the wastes in relation to
volume of discharge. (PA)
964. Walters, A.M., R.O. Teskey, and T.M. Hinckley. 1980. Impact of Water
Level Changes on Woody Riparian and Wetland Communities. Vol VII:
Mediterranean Region Western Arid and Semi-Aird Region. FWS/OBS-78/93.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
This volume covers the important woody plant species in the Mediterran-
ean, Western Arid and Semi-arid Regions. These regions cover Arizona, New
Mexico, California, Utah, Nevada, southern Idaho, eastern Washington and
Oregon. This discussion centers primarily on the lower elevations of
these states, while the mountainous areas of the western states will be
discussed in a subsequent volume.
This review attempts to synthesize existing information on the effect
of water level changes on woody plants found in riparian and wetland com-
munities. In addition, the effect of drought on woody plants of these
regions is described. Riparian vegetation is normally exposed to high
groundwater levels as well as to periods of excess water due to flooding.
The effect of excess water often causes stress to the plant resulting in
decreased growth or even death. A plant's response to flooded conditions
depends on many factors, including the species tolerance, water level,
duration of flooding and time of year. Available information for individ-
ual species of the region has been listed in a tabular format.
In this arid region of the United Sttes the majority of precipitation
falls in the dormant season, thus flooding effects are not as prominant as
in other sections of the United States. Drought and the plant's resist-
ance to drought are also important factors to consider. Therefore, a
table of species responses to drought for these regions has been included.
965. Wanielista, M P., and W. W. Eckenfelder, Jr. (eds.) 1978. Advances in
Water and Wastewater Treatment-Biological Nutrient Removal. Papers
presented in part at a conference on biological nutrient removal
alternatives held at Orlando, Florida, March 1978.
This book presents the state-of-the-art of biological nutrient removal
alternatives by incorporating the results of recent research with design
and operational details. The 13 papers discuss the fundamentals of
process selection, N control processes, the kinetics of N removal,
carousel activated sludge, 3 stage processing in nutrient removal, the
Bardenpho process, the Phostrip system for removing P from wastewater,
the use of water hyacinths in wastewater treatment, the use of cypress
swamps in nutrient removal and wastewater recycling, biological fluidized
beds, biological nutrient removal sludge processing, wastewater treatment
cost effect and rotating biological contractors. Tables, diagrams, photo-
-------
graphs, and a subject index complement the text. Individual papers are
indexed in bioresearch index. (BA)
966. Water Films. Affluent Effluent: New Choices in Wastewater Treatment.
Watertown, MA. A 40-minute film on wastewater treatment issues and
options. The film looks at the practical and creative wastewater
treatment systems of 17 communities across the country. Water Films
30 Bates Road, Watertown, MA.
967. Webster, B. 1975. Bulrushes Being Used in Artificial Marshes to Filter
Water. New York Times. March 9, 1975. p. 47.
Bulrushes are being used in artificial marshes to screen out bacteria
and chemicals that too often pollute much of the world's freshwater
supply. The marsh water filtration method and other systems involving
the use of aquatic plants and animals are being investigated as possible
alternative, relatively inexpensive, ways of reclaiming wastewater. More
than 1,000 such projects are being conducted in the U.S. alone, mostly by
small communities, summer camps, and recreation areas. (EL)
968. Webster, L. F. 1974. Forging the Missing Link. Wat. and Pollut. Con-
trol 112(3):42-45.
The author discusses the possibility of using a closed system where
the particular ecology would be self-supporting and -sustaining and
include man, to treat organic wastes. Work being done at the Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institute on a complex, multi-species food chain serving
the dual function of a tertiary sewage treatment process, removing N and
P before discharge into the ocean, and an aquaculture system producing a
primary crop of shellfish, is described and the system flow-charted. The
work carried out, and organisms used, to date are reviewed. It is cal-
culated that a population of 50,000 would require 50 ha for algal farms
and 1 ha for oyster production, compared to 40 ha, required by tradition-
al land-disposal sewage treatment facilities. (AL)
969. WED Enterprises. 1976. Sewage Filtration and Energy Production in Using
Water Hyacinths. EPCOT Tech. Meet. July 1, 1976. Walt Disney World,
Orlando, FL.
970. Welch, E. B., and T. Lindell. 1980. Ecological Effects of Wastewater.
Cambridge University Press, New York. 337 pp.
971. Weller, M. W. 1975. Studies of Cattail in Relation to Management for
Marsh Wildlife. Iowa State Journal of Research 49(4)-.383-412.
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972. Weller, M. W. 1978. Management of Freshwater Marshes for Wildlife,
pp. 267-284. In R. E. Good, D. F. Whigham, and R. L. Simpson (eds.),
Freshwater Wetlands: Ecological Process and Management Potential.
Academic Press, Inc., New York.
Although commonly practiced on wildlife management areas, marsh manage-
ment is poorly founded in theory and as a predictive science. Major
objectives have been to preserve marshes in a natural state and to main-
tain their productivity. System or community-oriented management techni-
ques are encouraged as most likely to meet diverse public needs, whereas
species-specific management is more difficult, costly and limited in
application.
The structure of a marsh is a product of basin shape, water regimes,
cover—water interspersion, and plant species diversity. Resultant vege-
tative patterns strongly influence species composition and size of bird
populations. Food resources influence mammals as well as birds. Species
richness (i.e. number of species) may be the most simple index to habitat
quality, although various diversity indices need further evaluation.
Marshes are in constant change, and wildlife species have evolved
adaptations of wide tolerance or mobility. Throughout the Midwest, water
levels and muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) induce most vegetative change,
and the pattern of vegetation, muskrat and avian responses are predictable
in a general way. This short-term successional pattern in marshes forms a
usable management strategy. Various ramifications are discussed that may
enhance or perpetuate the most beneficial stages.
Artificial management practices are discouraged as costly and of short-
term value whereas systems based on natural successional patterns produce
the most ecologically and economically sound results. Public pressures
for single-purpose management often increase as management potential
increases, but such problems often can be avoided by advance planning and
public relations.
Marsh management projects for wildlife have rarely been adequately
evaluated because of cost, manpower, and inadequate experimental study
areas. Some high priority, management-oriented research goals are
suggested. (AA)
973. Weller, M. W., and L. H. Fredrickson. 1973. Avian Ecology of a Managed
Glacial Marsh, pp. 269-291. Iii The Living Bird, Twelfth Annual, 1973,
Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, Ithica, NY.
974. Wellings, F. M. 1975. Interim Progress Report on Effect of Cypress
Domes on Viruses in Effluent. In H. T. Odum, K. C. Ewel, J. W.
Ordway, and M. K. Johnston (eds.), Cypress Wetlands for Water Manage-
ment, Recycling and Conservation, Second Annual Report. Univ. of
Florida, Gainesville.
975. Wellings, F.M. 1976. Viral Aspects of Wetland Disposal of Effluent, pp.
297-305. In; D.L. Tilton, R.H. Kadlec, and C.J. Richardson (eds.).
Proceedings of a National Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage
Effluent Disposal. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
-------
From a virological standpoint, the effluent from a cypress dome treat-
ment plant serving a small trailer court is relatively comparable with
that of urban treatment plant effluent. The quantities of virus entering
the plants are comparable, but the variety of virus types entering the
dome is limited. Since this dome represented a burned out dome, the effi-
cacy of sewage treatment by an undisturbed cypress dome has not been
tested.
976. Wellings, P.M. 1979. Technical Difficulties in Determining Virus Sur-
vival in Wetlands. In; J.C. Sutherland and R.H. Kadlec (eds.), Wet-
land Utilization for Management of Community Wastewater. Abstracts of
a Conference held 10-12 July 1979.
All viruses which are replicated in the alimentary tract of man are
discharged as an integral part of man's excrement. Over the past decade
studies have shown that many of these viruses which enter the treatment
plant are not inactivated but are discharged as infectious virus in the
effluent and sludge. Because the viruses are solids-associated they are
protected from many of the physiochemical, potentially virus inactivating
processes encountered during passage through the treatment plant.
Although terminal chlorination inactivates some of the surviving
virions, studies have demonstrated the presence of 100 to 750 plaque
forming units (PFU) of virus per liter of chlorinated effluents.
Determining the ultimate fate of these surviving virions in effluents
discharged into wetlands is beset with technical problems, including the
obtaining of a representative sample, elution and concentraion of the
virus present and, finally, assay of the virus per se.
Based on the above considerations, there is little doubt that the
presence of even one or two PFU of virus in any field sample must be con-
sidered significant since they would represent perhaps 1% to 10% of the
total virus present. (AA)
977. Wellings, F. M., A. L. Lewis, and C. W. Mountain. 1974. Virus Survival
Following Wastewater Spray Irrigation of Sandy Soils, pp. 253-260. In
J. F. Malina, Jr. and B. P. Sagik (eds.), Virus Survival in Water and
Wastewater Systems. Austin Center for Research in Water Resources.
978. Wellings, F. M. et al. 1975. Demonstration of Virus in Groundwater
after Discharge Onto Soil. Applied Microbiology 29(6):751-757.
The survival of virus present in secondary effluents discharged into a
cypress dome was studied. Isolations were made from concentrates of water
drawn from 10-foot (304.80 cm) deep wells. Data presented show vertical
and lateral virus movement as well as survival within the dome for 28 days
during a period of heavy rains when no effluent was being applied. Due to
the inefficiency of virus concentration procedures, it is proposed that
much of the virus present was probably not demonstrated. A rapid, rela-
tively inexpensive concentration technique for sewage influents and
effluents is discussed. (AA)
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979. Wenck, N.C. 1981. Wetlands and Organic Soils for the Control of Urban
Stormwater, pp. 227-240. In; B. Richardson (ed.), Selected Proceedings
of the Midwest Conference on Wetland Values and Management. Minnesota
Water Planning Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
This paper consists of two major areas of interest. The first area is
a review of a research project performed for the EPA to evaluate and
assess urban runoff treatment methods using non-structural wetland treat-
ment techniques. The second area will be to show examples of the appli-
cation of the technology gained from the research. Five projects which
are either constructed or in the design stage will be addressed. (AA)
980. Wentz, W. A. 1975. The Effects of Simulated Sewage Effluents on the
Growth and Productivity of Peatland Plants. Ph.D. Diss. Univ. of
Michigan, Ann Arbor. 112 pp.
This study was conducted on a north-central Michigan peatland to deter-
mine the effects of sewage effluents on the growth and productivity of
several common peatland plants. Emphasis throughout these experiments was
on practical application and the consequences of using the peatland as a
disposal site.
Plants were subjected to varying levels of simulated sewage effluents
in field and greenhouse experiments during both 1973 and 1974. Throughout
the experiments information was collected on changes in aboveground and
belowground standing crops, relative growth rates, net production rates,
changes in nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations, specific leaf areas,
leaf area index, and related parameters.
Although some changes in plant species composition and productivity
are possible, it is unlikely that rapid or extensive degradation of the
peatland will occur. It is possible that denitrification and phosphate
adsorption onto the peat will have significant effects on the availability
of plant nutrients. Assuming that sewage effluent will add nutrients at
a rate approximately the same as that tested, it appears that the efflu-
ents will have no direct detrimental effects on most of the plants now
present on the site.
981. Wentz, W. A., R. L. Smith, and J. A. Kadlec. 1974. A Selected Annotated
Bibliography on Aquatic and Marsh Plants and Their Management. Publ.
No. 2. Wetland Ecosystem Research Group, Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
982. Werblan, D., A. van der Valk, C. B. Davis, and R. J. Smith. 1979.
Artificial Marshes as a Means of Treating Wastes From a Confined Swine
Feeding Unit. In; J.C. Sutherland and R.H. Kadlec (eds.), Wetlands
Utilization for Management of Community Wastewater. Abstracts of a
conference held 10-12 July, 1979. University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.
Eighteen "artificial marshes" (1.2 x 2.4 m plywood boxes filled with
gravel) were constructed and planted with either cattail, burr reed, or
common reed and loaded with one of 3 rates of liquid and solid swine
-------
manure. One objective was to examine plant viability under these abnormal
nutrient loads; another objective was to evaluate these marshes as a
manure renovation system in contrast to an anaerobic lagoon.
In treatments using solid manure, surface filtration alone removed ap-
proximately 600 g/m2 wk of volatile solids, 200 g/m2 wk of COD, 6 g/m2 wk of
and 2 g/m2 wk of P. In all treatments, 50 g/m2 wk of volatile solids and
N, 100 g/m2 wk of COD were removed by anaerobic filtration. Also, 3 g/m2 wk
of P was precipitated, adsorved onto gravel particles and incorporated by
microorganisms; organic nitrogen was readily converted to NH4 and 6 g/m2 wk
of N was removed by volatilization, gravel adsorption and microorganisms.
Plant uptake of minerals and denitrification did not constitute major
removal pathways.
Although the marshes were operated only from May to November, results
indicate artificial marshes could be a desirable alternative to an
anaerobic lagoon. The removals of COD (80-90%), volatile solids (50-90%),
N (60%), and P (50%) in the artificial marshes were equivalent to removals
in an anaerobic lagoon. Offensive odors were not produced and the lush
vegetation (particularly that of cattail) attracted birds, amphibians, and
small mammals. Insect problems were virtually eliminated by maintaining
the water level at or below the gravel surface. Design modifications which
might allow winter operations will be discussed. (AA)
983. Wert, F.S. and V.B. Henderson. 1978. Feed Fish Effluent and Reel in the
Savings. Aguaculture Can be a Cost-Effective Wastewater Treatment
Alternative. Water and Wastes Engineering 15(6):38.
984. Whaling, P.J., R.T. Barber, and J.C. Paul. 1977. The Distribution of
Toxic Metals in Marine Ecosystems as a Result of Sewage Disposal and
Natural Processes. North Carolina Water Resources Research Institute,
Raleigh, NC. UNC-WRRI Rpt. No. 123. NTIS No. PB-272 644. March. 132 p.
Industrial discharge of wastes containing high concentrations of
mercury and other toxic metals has largely been abated by strong federal
and state regulation. The recovery of the polluted ecological systems is
taking longer. Sewage treatment is a necessary part of our way of life
and in addition, the natural accumulation of threatening levels of mercury
and cadmium in unpolluted marine food chains is an aspect of environmental
concern that must be understood to protect human health. The role of sew-
age disposal and natural food chain processes in the distribution of toxic
metals in marine ecosystems was examined in several small eastern North
Carolina estuaries receiving different inputs. On the basis of metal
distribution, estuaries receiving treated sewage effluent were clearly
distinguishable from those not receiving this discharge. The magnitude
and spatial extent of the elevated toxic metal distributions was very
limited in both sediments and organisms. While some organisms did not
have ele- vated metal concentrations, the economically important oysters
did not, nor did the marsh grass, Spartina alterniflora. The large and
consistent variation in the amount of mercury and other trace metals
discharged to the surrounding estuaries by various eastern North Carolina
towns was traced to variations between the plants. It was not possible to
account for the origin of the metal variations in wastewaters of these
small towns which have no known commercial activities using these metals.
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985. Wharton, C.H. 1970. The Southern River Swamp - A Multiple-Use Environ-
ment, Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Georgia State Univer-
sity, pp. 23-43.
The river-marsh ecosystem was studied to determine potential water
cleansing abilities. Water quality data indicate that the Flint and
Alcovy Rivers and their adjacent swamps apparently have the ability to
filter pollutants from water. Swamp streams appeared to eliminate human
waste and may have removed toxic pesticides. Swamps induced deposits of
silt which may become useful to the biotic community. The swamp and its
stream channel seemed intimately associated functionally, and appeared to
form a natural hydrogeobiological water treatment system. The value of the
cleansing action of 10 km of river and 251 ha of swamp was equivalent to
sewage treatment for a city of 50,000. Potentially, the Alcovy River has
three times this ability, worth $990,000/year. (AA)
986. Wharton, C. H., and H. P. Hopkins, Jr. 1980. In-Situ Evaluation of the
Filtering Function of a Piedmont Creek Swamp. Rept. No. 2-80. Envir-
onmental Resources Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta.
46 pp. (Available as NTIS Publ. No. PB 81-142234).
A small swamp in the northern piedmont region of Georgia was monitored
from September 1976 to September 1978 to determine if swamps act as sinks
for nutrients and trace metals. The total amounts of phosphorous, ni-
trates , ammonia, and several trace metals flowing into and out of the
Cornish Creek Swamp were monitored during the two year period. This
swamp was formed when a portion of the channelized Cornish Creek was
filled up with sand and debris, and since the entrance and exit for this
swamp is well-defined, we were able to establish the total amount of
water moving through the swamp. This information, combined with the
chemical analysis, allowed us to calculate the total amount of chemical
nutrients and metals going into and out of the swamp over the two year
period. The levels of phosphorous, nitrogen, and metals in the waters of
the swamp indicate that it is pristine. Phosphorous was monitored in the
form of orthophosphate and hydrolyzable phosphate; nitrogen was monitored
as the ammonia and nitrate species. The metals: iron, magnesium, man-
ganese, aluminum, sodium, and zinc were also monitored in the water. A
small reduction in the total phosphate was observed after the water
flowed through the swamp, but more nitrate left the swamp than entered it
during the majority of the months in the study. Large quantities of
ammonia were observed to leave the swamp during the spring months, but
the swamp retained a small fraction of the amounts entering the swamp at
other times. An abnormally high level of zinc reached the swamp during
the period of study from an unknown source, but the swamp was effective
in reducing the amount of zinc in the stream during this period. When
phosphates and nitrates were added upstream from the swamp during the
summer of 1978, the level of these in the water flowing through the swamp
increased greatly. During the two day period of these experiments
appreciable quantities of the nutrients remained in the swamp. (AA)
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987. Wharton, C. H., H. T. Odum, K. Ewel, M. Duever, and A. Lugo. 1977.
Forested Wetlands of Florida, Their Management and Use. Kept, to the
Division of State Planning, Tallahassee, FL. Center for Wetlands,
Univ. of Florida, Gainesville. 348 pp.
988. Whelan, T., J. T. Ishmael, and W. S. Bishop. 1976. Long-term Chemical
Effects of Petroleum in South Louisiana Wetlands, Organic Carbon in
Sediments and Waters. Marine Pollution Bulletin 7(8):
989. Whigham, D. F. 1979. Effects of Sewage Spray Irrigation on a Freshwater
Wetland. I. Primary Production and Nutrient Standing Stocks.
Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Biological
Sciences, held 12-17 August. Stillwater, OK.
1096. Whigham, D.F. In press.
990. Whigham, D. F., and S. Bayley. 1978. Nutrient Dynamics in Freshwater
Wetlands, pp. 468-478. In P. E. Greeson, J. R. Clark, and J. E. Clark
(eds.), Wetland Functions and Values: The State of Our Understanding,
Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetlands, Lake Buena Vista,
Florida. Tech. Publ. TPS 79-2. Amer. Water Resour. Assoc., Minne-
apolis, MN.
The purpose was to determine if definable trends appear when com-
parisons are made between the nutrient absorption capacities of various
types of fresh water wetlands. The review showed that there are few data
available for comparison, with the exception of N and P in above ground
vegetation. Data from mass balance studies are almost nonexistent, which
makes it impossible to determine the conditions necessary for specific
types of wetlands to annually lose, gain, or be in balance with regard to
nutrient fluxes. The only discernable trend was that wetlands with
predominantly organic substrates accumulated less N and P in the above
ground vegetation, yet the peat substrates seem to be capable of
long-term storage of N and P. Recommendations for future research on
nutrient dynamics in fresh water wetlands are discussed. (AA)
991. Whigham, D. F., J. McCormick, R. E. Good, and R. L. Simpson. 1978.
Biomass and Primary Production in Freshwater Tidal Wetlands of the
Middle Atlantic Coast, pp. 3-20. In R. E. Good, D. F. Whigham, and R.
Simpson (eds.), Freshwater Wetlands: Ecological Processes and Manage-
ment Potential. Academic Press, Inc., New York.
Although there are many measurements of peak standing crop and several
estimates of aboveground annual net production, there are few accurate
estimates of total net primary production for Middle Atlantic coastal
freshwater tidal wetlands. Estimates of biomass and production vary
widely and between vegetation types. The variability appears to be due to
samplilng techniques and/or the heterogeneous nature of freshwater tidal
wetland vegetation. Undoubtedly, all estimates of primary production are
-------
low because they do not include data on growing season mortality of plants
and plant parts, herbivore consumption, and belowground production. Most
estimates of primary production are also low because freshwater tidal wet-
land communities undergo a series of physiognomic changes during the grow-
ing season and the measurements of primary production do not account for
those seasonal patterns. Comparatively, freshwater macrophyte production
in tidal wetlands appears to be at least equal to that of brackish water
wetlands at the same geographic latitude. (AA)
992. Whigham, D. F., and R. L. Simpson. 1975. Ecological Studies of the
Hamilton Marshes Progress Report for the Period June 1974 - January
1975. Rider College, Lawrenceville, NJ.
993. Whigham, D. F., and R. L. Simpson. 1976a. Sewage Spray Irrigation in a
Delaware River Freshwater Tidal Marsh, pp. 119-144. In D. L. Tilton,
R. H. Kadlec, and C. J. Richardson (eds.), Proceedings of a National
Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal. Univ.
of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
High application rates of chlorinated effluent to a freshwater tidal
marsh in New Jersey, caused changes in the vascular plant species com-
position of the wetland. Perennials have not been affected by the
chlorine and clones at several species (sweet flag, cattial, rice, cut
grass, arrow arum) have increased in aerial extent. Some annuals will
decline in importance (touch-me-not, bur marigold) while others will
increase (hallbeard tearthumb). Annual species composition can be regu-
lated by controlling the spray regimes. Vascular plants acted as nutri-
ent sinks during the summer and nutrients were released during the fall
and winter with most of the nutrients being released within a month of
the end of the growing season. There was also a noticeable increase in
the amount and coverage of epibenthic algae.
994. Whigham, D. F. , and R. L. Simpson. 1976b. The Potential Use of Fresh-
water Tidal Marshes in the Management of Water Quality in the Delaware
River, pp. 173-186. In J. Tourbier and R. W. Pierson, Jr. (eds.).
Biological Control of Water Pollution. Univ. of Pennsylvania Press,
Philadelphia.
A summary of the studies concerning functional aspects of a freshwater
tidal marsh and its potential use in water quality management. Research
includes vegetation composition, primary production, soil algal distribu-
tion and biomass, soil nutrient and organic matter content, plant nutri-
ent content, nutrient movement through marsh by surface water analysis,
and movement of detritus in and out of marshes. The authors conclude
that "high marsh areas may be acting as a nutrient sink during summer
months and that perhaps the pond-like areas of the marsh may be playing a
similar role in the winter...", "...it would appear that freshwater tidal
marshes may also be capable of performing tertiary treatment." (WE)
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995. Whigham, D. F., and R. L. Simpson. 1977. Growth, Mortality, and Biomass
Partitioning in Freshwater Tidal Wetland Populations of Wild Rice
(Zizania aquatica var. aguatica). Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 104:
347-351.
996. Whigham, D. F., and R. L. Simpson. 1978. Nitrogen and Phosphorus Move-
ment in a Freshwater Tidal Wetland Receiving Sewage Effluent, pp.
2189-2203. In Coastal Zone '78, the Proceedings of the Symposium on
Technical, Environmental, Socioeconomic, and Regulatory Aspects of
Coastal Zone Management. Am. Soc. Civil Engineers, New York.
Recent work on nutrients in tidal wetlands has led to the suggestion
that they can be managed for treatment of sewage effluent. In this paper
we report some results of a three year study on the effects of spraying
chlorinated secondarily treated sewage effluent on a Delaware River
freshwater tidal wetland near Trenton, New Jersey. Biomass and standing
crops of N and P at the end of 1975 and 1976 growing seasons did not
differ between experimental areas and control sites. The only consistent
response of the aboveground vegetation was that plant material in areas
receiving effluent had significantly greater %N and %P concentrations.
Total N, %N, total P and %P of plant litter was significantly greater in
the experimental areas. There were no significant substrate responses
due to spray irrigation. Tide cycle studies showed that the irrigated
wetland was a sink for N and an exporter of P. (AA)
997. Whigham, D. F., and R. L. Simpson* 1979. Effects of Sewage Spray Ir-
rigation in a Freshwater Tidal Wetland. I. Primary production and
Nutrient Standing Stocks. Presented at Annual Meeting Ecol. Soc. of
America.
998. Whigham, D. F., R. L. Simpson, and K. Lee. 1980. The Effect of Sewage
Effluent on the Structure and Function of a Freshwater Tidal Marsh
Ecosystem. Tech. Completion Report to Office of Water Resources and
Technology. Rider College, Laurenceville, NJ. 160 pp.
The effects of spraying chlorinated secondarily treated sewage on a
Delaware River freshwater tidal wetland for three years was studied.
Macrophyte net primary production was significantly lower in the ex-
perimental sites receiving sewage than in the no treatment controls in
1975 but not in 1976 or 1977. Diversity of annuals was reduced in the
experimental sites largely due to the elimination of annuals. Although
percent N and P were generally high in the vegetation of experimental
sites, there was little difference in total N and total P between treat-
ments and controls. Macrophyte decomposition rates were little affected
by sewage application. Substrate N and P were not significantly dif-
ferent between sites, but surface litter of the experimental sites ac-
cumulated N and P. Epibenthic algae may contribute to this accumulation.
Water quality studies showed the high marsh to be metabolically active.
Tide cycle flux studies indicated that up to 40% of the N added to the
-------
wetland has assimilated during the late spring-early summer period.
Conversely, there was a net loss of P from the wetland. These results
are compared with those of similar studies in other wetlands. It is
concluded that the strongly pulsed tidal regimes of the wetland, the low
organic content substrate, and the eutrophic nature of the Delaware River
waters contribute to the inability of the wetland to efficiently
assimilate nutrients from sewage. (AA)
1097. wile, I. et al. In press.
999. White, D. H., and M. T. Finley. 1978. Uptake and Retention of Dietary
Cadmium in Mallard Ducks. Environmental Research 17:53-59.
Adult mallard ducks fed 0, 2, 20, or 200 ppm of cadmium chloride in the
diet were sacrificed at 30-day intervals and tissues were analyzed for
cadmium. No birds died during the study and body weights did not change.
The liver and kidneys accumulated the highest levels of cadmium. Tissue
residues were significantly correlated in all treatment groups and
residues increased with treatment level. Hematocrits and hemoglobin
concentrations were normal in all groups throughout the study. Little
cadmium accumulated in eggs of laying hens, but egg production was sup-
pressed in the group fed 200 ppm.
1000. White, D. H., M. T. Finley, and J. F. Ferrell. 1978. Histopathologic
Effects of Dietary Cadmium on Kidneys and Testes of Mallard Ducks.
Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 4:551-558.
Mallard ducks fed 2, 20, or 200 ppm cadmium chloride were sacrificed at
30, 60, and 90 d. No mortality occurred during the study and body weights
remained unchanged. Kidney weights of the 200-ppm group were sigfnifi-
cantly greater after 60 and 90 d than those of controls; also, testis
weights were significantly lower after 90 d. Kidneys of ducks fed 2 and
20 ppm cadmium were relatively unaffected; however, slight to severe kid-
ney lesions were found in the 200-ppm group after 60 d of treatment. No
significant lesions were found in mallard testes after feeding 2 ppm cad-
mium in the diet, and only a few birds in the 20-ppm group showed slight
to moderate gonad alterations. After 90 d of treatment, however, testes
of males fed 200 ppm had atrophied and the spermatogenic process had
ceased. This study should provide important information for the inter-
pretation of cadmium levels found in kidneys and testes of wild ducks.
(AA)
1001. Whitton, B.A. 1971. Toxicity of Heavy Metals to Freshwater Algae: A
Review, Phykos, 9, 1971, pp. 116-125.
This text provides a literature review on toxicity of heavy metals to
freshwater algae. Emphasis was put on effects of exposure to heavy metals
over long periods and adaptation potential of algae to heavy metals.
-------
1002. Wikum, D., and M. Ondrus. 1980. The Drvunmond Bog Project-Growth of
Selected Plant Species as a Function of Foliar and Peat Substrate
Nutrient Concentrations. Report to the U.S. Forest Service. Univ. of
Wisconsin, Stout. 38 pp.
The following results were reported on this wastewater treatment site
in Wisconsin: 1) measurable increases in nutrient content of sediment
over a one year period; 2) reduction in levels of ash and calcium in
black spruce, labrador tea, and leatherleaf foliage; 3) no measurable
damage to plant community during the study period; 4) measurable changes
in peat and foliar levels of phosphorus, calcium, and ash content. The
authors suggested that these parameters be measured during future re-
search at the site. (EP)
1003. Wilcox, W. H. 1979. The Effect of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Enrichment on
Salt Marsh Community Structure. Ph.D. Oiss. Univ. of Tennessee.
Nashville.
1004. Wile, I. 1980. An Experimental Approach to Wastewater Treatment Using
Natural and Artificial Wetlands. Progress report, 27 October 1980.
Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Ontario, Canada. 4 pp. plus
attachment.
A natural marsh site located near the town of Bradford, Ontario, and a
multicelled artificial marsh system near the town of Listowel, Ontario,
are being assessed for their potential for year-round sewage treatment.
The diked natural marsh has been monitored for background nutrient
budgets for the last two years. The addition of partially treated wastes
from the sewage treatment plant were scheduled to commence in 1981. The
artificial marsh operations began in August 1980. The preliminary
results obtained during the first 2 months of the latter operation and
information on the design of the facility are included in this report.
(EP)
1005. Wile, I., G. Palmateer, and G. Miller. 1981. Use of Artificial Wetlands
for Wastewater Treatment, pp. 255-272. In; B. Richardson (ed.),
Selected Proceedings of the Midwest Conference on Wetland Values and
Management. Minnesota Water Planning Board. St. Paul. 660 pp.
In Ontario, sewage lagoons are a common method for wastewater treatment
in rural communtiies or small urban centers. However, receiving waters
are frequently limited in their capacity to provide adequate dilution for
the effluents, leading to proliferation of aquatic plants and fluctuating
oxygen levels. The alternative approach of storing the wastes during
periods of low flow is land consumptive, and mechanical systems are gener-
ally beyond the financial capabilities of small municipalities.
Since wetlands may provide a viable treatment alternative, an experi-
mental study using an artificially constructed wetland was initiated in
1979. This study will attempt to define the degree of pretreatment
-------
required prior to waste discharge to the wetlands, loading rates,
retention times and water depths for optimal operation of these types of
systems.
The experimental facility consists of five separate systems and a small
control marsh for monitoring rates of evapotranspiration. Construction of
the marshes was completed in July 1980. Following planting with cattails,
Typha spp., sewage additions were started in August 1980. Good nutrient
removal rates were observed during the ice-free period, with total phos-
phorus concentrations of <0.2 mg 1~^ in the marsh effluents. Similar-
ly, BOD and suspended solid loadings were reduced by more than 95% during
passage through both marshes receiving raw aerated sewage or partially
treated wastes from the existent east lagoon. During the winter period,
the efficiency of the marsh sewage tretment systems declined substantial-
ly. Prior to the onset of winter, loadings of sewage influents to the
marsh systems were more than doubled to avoid freezing in the pipes and
outflow chambers. Concurrent with the increased flows, volumes within the
marsh cells were reduced by ice formation, with resultant changes in
retention times from approximately 8 days in the summer months to less
than 3 days. These factors contributed to the reduced performance of the
experimental marshes during the winter months. (AA)
1006. Williams, B., and M. B. Murdoch. 1969. The Potential Importance of
Spartina alterniflora in Conveying Zinc, Manganese, and Iron into
Estuarine Food Chains, pp. 431-439. In D. J. Nelson and J. C. Evans
(eds.), Proc. 2nd Nat. Symp. Radioecology. NBS. Springfield, VA.
1007. Williams, T. C. 1976. The Feasibility, Planning, and Construction of
Peatland Tertiary Treatment Systems, pp. 331-343. In D. L. Tilton, R.
H. Kadlec, and C. J. Richardson (eds.). Proceedings of a National
Symposium Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal. Univ. of
Michigan, Ann Arbor.
The "feasibility" of adopting wetlands irrigation as an integral part
of tertiary wastewater treatment involves finding satisfactory answers to
the concerns of the local project Authority, the service area population,
regulatory agencies, and scientific investigators. The concerns are for
economy, effectiveness, environmental compatabi]ity, and aesthetics.
Communication and publicity efforts have helped forge feelings of common
interest and working together among the separate township governments in
the Houghton Lake Area sewer Authority. The Houghton Lake Wetlands Study
is a landmark in tertiary treatment, and in the future may rival upland
irrigation in feasibility for rural and resort communities. (AA)
1008. Williams, T. C. 1979. The History and Development of the Houghton Lake
Wetland Wastewater Treatment Project. In J. C. Sutherland, and R. H.
Kadlec (eds.), Wetland Utilization for Management of Community Waste-
water. Abstracts of a conference held 10-12 July 1979 at Higgins
Lake, MI.
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The Tri-Township wastewater treatment system serving the Houghton Lake,
Michigan recreation area population of 15,000, consists of aeration-stab-
ilization and storage ponds, and tertiary treatment provided by a natural
peat wetland of 600 acres size. Completion of the wetland treatment
facilities in early Summer 1978 was the final step in a 15-year effort.
The wetland alternative for tertiary treatment represents savings in land
and construction costs, relative to upland irrigation, of approximately
$1,000,000. (AA)
1009. Williams, T. C. 1980. Wetland Irrigation Aids Nature and Man. Water
and Wastes Engineering 17(11):28-31.
Two wetlands in Michigan (1 natural and 1 artificial) provide inexpen-
sive tertiary treatment and benefit from the nutrients. The facility at
Houghton Lake, Michigan, discharges to a natural 500 acre peat marsh.
The wetlands irrigation system consists of gated, 12 in Al irrigation
pipe, supported by a wooden, elevated walkway suspended on 2 in piling.
The walk permits easy access for operation and maintenance. The system
has been in full-scale operation for 2 irrigation seasons, each 4-6 mo
long. During the summers of 1978 and 1979, an average of 85 million gal
of effluent were applied to the 500 acre marsh. The wastewater contains
4 mg/1 P, 0.6 mg/1 NH3-N, and 5.4 mg/1 NO3-N. A high level of treatment
is achieved with minimal impact on the marsh. The system at Vermont-
ville, Michigan, has developed an artificial wetland. Treatment
facilities were completed in 1972 and have a capacity of 0.30 mgd. The
system consists of 2 facultative ponds and 4 food irrigation fields
located on the hill next to a small tributary to the Thornapple River.
The Vermontville system presents excellent opportunities for the pre-
servation of plant and wildlife. (PA)
1010. Williams, T. C., and J. C. Sutherland. 1979. Engineering, energy, and
Effectiveness Features of Michigan Wetland Tertiary Wastewater Treat-
ment Systems, pp. 141-173. In R. K. Bastian, and S. C. Reed (eds.),
Aguaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and
Engineering Assessment. EPA 430/9-80-006. U.S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Office of Water Program Operations, Municipal Con-
struction Division. Washington, DC.
The results of two studies done on different wetlands in Michigan that
receive secondary treated, non-chlorinated wastewater are summarized in
this report. Both operations, one located at Vermontville and the other
at Houghton Lake, have resulted in the effective removal of 98% to 100%
of phosphorus through contact with reactive soils. The operation and
maintenance, design, and capital and land costs are compared for these
systems. The Vermontville site (11.5 acres) has flood irrigation fields
that have overgrown with volunteer wetland vegetation (mainly cattails).
The Houghton Lake site is a natural peat wetland approximately 600 acres
in size. (EP)
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1011. Williams, T. C., and J. C. Sutherland. Technical Aspects of the
Tri-township (Houghton Lake, Michigan) Peat Wetland Tertiary Treatment
System. Presented at the Water Pollution Control Federation Confer-
ence (Session 44), 11 October 1979, Houston, TX. 15 pp.
1012. Williams and Works, Inc. 1978. Operation and Maintenance Manual.
Houghton Lake Sewer Authority, Houghton Lake, MI.
1013. William and Works, Inc. 1979. Reuse of Municipal Wastewater by Volun-
teer Freshwater Wetlands. Interim Report. William and Works, Inc.
Grand Rapids, MI. 121 pp.
1014. Windom, H.L. 1977. Ability of Salt Marshes to Remove Nutrients and Heavy
Metals from Dredged Material Disposal Area Effluents. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi. Tech. Rpt.
D-77-37. December. 100 p.
Experimental raceways were constructed in a salt marsh adjacent to a
dredged material confinement area to evaluate use of this environment as
an overland flow advanced treatment system for effluent resultilng from
dredged material disposal. The program was designed to determine the
ability of salt marsh systems to remove nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, man-
ganese, cadmium, copper, nickel and zinc from effluent. Application rates
varied between 0.06 and 3.7 acre inches per day and concentrations of the
contaminants were determined in the effluent from the disposal area and
dishcarge from the explerimental system. All contaminants were found to
decrease in the effluent as it passed through the experimental raceways.
Removal efficiencies for nitrogen and phosphorus varied up to 50 and 70
percent, respectively. Mean metal removal efficiencies ranged between 15
and 32 percent. Efficiency of removal appeared unrelated to application
rate but did appear to increase with concentration. Contaminants accumu-
lated to sediments with only minor increases in salt marsh vegetation.
Although results indicate nutrients and heavy metal concentrations in
effluents from dredged material disposal areas can be reduced during pass-
age through a salt marsh, conclusions about efficiency or removal may be
influenced by the size of the experimental system used.
1015. Witter, J. A., and S. Croson. 1976. Insects and Wetlands, pp. 271-295.
In D. L. Tilton, R. H. Kadlec, and C. J. Richardson (eds.), Pro-
ceedings of a National Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage
Effluent Disposal. Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
An exploratory study of insect fauna in Houghton Lake Marsh, Michigan,
conducted in 1973 is summarized in this report. Other contents include a
short literature review of other faunistic studies in wetlands, a review
of the objectives of various insect sampling programs, a comparison of
relative and absolute sampling techniques, and a discussion of criteria
-------
to be used when selecting insects as indicator species. Critical areas
and principles in insect-wetland interactions are addressed. It is
recommended that further long-term studies be conducted. (EP)
1016. Wolverton, B. C. 1975a. Aquatic Plants for Removal of Mevinphos from the
Aquatic Environment. NTIS Report N75-16206.
Fragrant waterlily, joint-grass, and rush were used to assess the
effectiveness of vascular aquatic plants in removing the insecticide
Mevinphos from contaminated waters. The emersed aquatic plants waterlily
and joint-grass succeeded in removing 87 and 93 ppm of mevinphos from
water test systems in less than two weeks without apparent damage to the
plants. Rush, a submerged plant, removed less—it still contained toxic
levels of this insecticide after 35 days. (DM)
1017. Wolverton, B. C. 1975b. Water Hyacinths for Removal of Cadmium and
Nickel from Polluted Waters. National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration. Tech. Memorandum X-72721. National Space Tech. Laboratory,
Bay St. Louis, MS.
1018. Wolverton, B. C. 1979. Engineering Design Data for Small Vascular
Aquatic Plant Wastewater Treatment Systems, pp. 179-192. In R. K.
Bastian, and S. C. Reed (eds.), Aquaeulture Systems for Wastewater
Treatment: Seminar Proceedings and Engineering Assessment. EPA
430/9-80-006. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water
Program Operations, Municipal Construction Division. Washington, DC.
1019. Wolverton, B. C. 1981. Hybrid Wastewater Treatment System Using Anaero-
bic microorganisms and reed (Phragmites communis). National Aeronau-
tics and Space Administration. Tech. Memorandum TM-X-72739.
A small hybrid wastewater treatment system consisting of a settling
tank in series with an anaerobic filter-reed (Phragmites communis)
treatment cell was evaluated and compared with a similar plant-free
system. Data demonstrated that by combining anaerobic filters, also
referred to as attached film filters, and vascular aquatic plants a
synergistic effect is produced which increases the treatment efficiency
of each individual system. The plant-free system reduced the 8005 from
114 to 31 mg/1 in 6 hours as compared to a reduction of 110 to 9 mg/1 in
the anaerobic filter-reed system in the same length of time. The 8005
and TSS after 24 hours in each component of the plant-free system was
reduced from 114 to 14 -tig/1 and 51 to 15 mg/1, respectively. Under the
same conditions, the hybrid system reduced the 8005 from 110 to 3 mg/1
and the TSS from 68 to 6 mg/1. The hybrid system also reduced the total
kjeldahl. nitrogen (TKN) from 16.1 to 2.9 mg/1, total phosphorous (TP)
from 4.4 to 2.0 mg/1, and the ammonia (NH3~N) from 12.4 to 0.6 mg/1 after
24 hours of exposure while the plant-free system demonstrated insigni-
ficant reduction of these components. (AA)
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1020. Wolverton, B.C., R.M. Barlow and R.C. McDonald. 1975. Application of
Vascular Aquatic Plants for Pollution Removal, Energy, and Food Produc-
tion in a Biological System. NASA. NSTL. Bay St. Louis, MS.
Vascular aquatic plants such as water hyacinths (Eichhorni a crassipes)
(Mart.) Solms and alligator weeds (Al^ernanthera philoxeroides) (Mart.)
Griesb., when utilized in a controlled biological system (including a
regular program of harvesting to achieve maximum growth and pollution
removal efficiency) may represent a remarkably efficient and inexpensive
filtration and disposal system for toxic materials and sewage released
into waters near urban and industrial areas. The harvested and processed
plant materials are sources of energy, fertilizer, animal feed, and human
food. Such a system has industrial, municipal, and agricultural applica-
tions . (AA)
1021. Wolverton, B. C., R. M. Barlow, and R. C. McDonald. 1976. Application
of Vascular Aquatic Plants for Pollution Removal, Energy, and Food
Production in a Biological System, pp. 141-149. In J. Tourbier and R.
W. Pierson, Jr. (eds.), Biological Control of Water Pollution. Univ.
of Pennsylvania Press, Philadephia.
This article describes the potential applications for wetlands as
wastewater treatment systems. A one acre water hyacinth wetland can
remove N and P from sewage effluent, then be harvested to yield bio-gas
and fertilizer. Removal of pollutants such as phenol and heavy metals is
possible also. The water hyacinth has potential as a food source for
cattle, and even for man. (WE)
1022. Wolverton, B. C., and D. D. Harrison. 1974. Aquatic Plants for Removal
of Mevinphos From the Aquatic Environment. J. Miss. Acad. Sci.,
19:84-88.
1023. Wolverton, B. C., and R. C. McDonald. 1975a. Water Hyacinths and Alliga-
tor Weeds for Removal of Lead and Mercury from Polluted Waters.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Tech. Memorandum
X-72723, National Space Tech. Laboratory, Bay St. Louis, MS.
1024. Wolverton, B. C., and R. C. McDonald. 1975b. Water Hyacinths and Alli-
gator Weeds for Removal of Silver, Cobalt, and Strontium from Polluted
Waters. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Tech. Memor-
andum X-72727, National Space Tech. Laboratory, Bay St. Louis, MS.
1025. Wolverton, B. C., and R. C. McDonald. 1975c. Water Hyacinths for Upgrad-
ing Sewage Lagoons to Meet Advanced Wastewater Treatment Standards:
Part I. Tech. Memo. TM-X-72729. National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration, National Space Technology Laboratories, Bay St. Louis, MS.
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Water hyacinths were studied as a means of accomplishing final filtra-
tion to remove nutrients, heavy metals/ and other chemicals from domestic
wastewaters. Biweekly grab samples from before and after saturating a
secondary domestic sewage lagoon were compared with samples from a control
lagoon free of water hyacinths. The water hyacinth-covered lagoon had a
surface area of 0.70 acre with a total capacity of 1.5 million gallons/
receiving an inflow of 115,000 gallons per day from a 3.8 acre aerated
primary sewage lagoon. Retention times varied between 14 and 21 days
depending on the water hyacinth evapotranspiration rates. The water hya-
cinths functioned as an efficient and inexpensive final filtration system
in a secondary domestic sewage lagoon during a three month test period.
They reduced the suspended solids/ biochemical oxygen demanding sub-
stances / and other chemical parameters to levels below the state stand-
ards. While absorbing organics/ nutrients, and other chemical elements
from sewage waste, they produced large quantities of plant material. When
grown in enriched sewage waste free of heavy metals, this biomass can be
harvested and possibly processed into valuable feed products, organic fer-
tilizer and soil conditioner, or methane gas and inorganic fertilizer.
The volume of water hyacinths required depends onthe amount of sewage to
be processes and the desired purity of the final wastewater.
1026. Wolverton, B. C., and R. C. McDonald. 1976a. Don't Waste Waterweeds.
New Scientist 67:318-320.
Experiments conducted by the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion indicate that water hyacinths (Eichhornia crassipes) have the ability
to absorb organics, heavy metals, nutrients, and other chemical elements
from wastewater under tropical and subtropical conditions while producing
a large quantity of plant material. This water hyacinth biomass/ when
grown in sewage free of toxic metals, is a potential source of protein
fertilizer, methane gas, and other valuable products. Currently, a water
hyacinth chemical waste filtration system consisting of a zig-zag canal
330 meters long, 6.4 meters wide, and 0.8 meters deep is treating 95/000
liters/day of chemical and photo lab waste. On the basis of an analysis of
raw sewage from small communities in South Mississippi/ a half hectare
lagoon covered with water hyacinths with a minimum sewage retention time
of 2 weeks is estimated to be capable of purifying the daily wastes of
1000 people. An experimental water hyacinth lagoon has already reduced
pollutant levels by 75-80%.
1027. Wolverton, B. C., and R. C. McDonald. 1976b. Water Hyacinths for Upgrad-
ing Sewage Lagoons to Meet Advanced Wastewater Treatment Standards:
Part II. Tech. Memo. TM-X-72730. National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration, National Space Technology Laboratories, Bay St. Louis, MS.
Field tests using water hyacinths as biological filtration agents were
conducted in the Missisippi Gulf Coast Region. The plants were installed
in one single cell and one multiple cell sewage lagoon systems. Water
hyacinths demonstrated the ability to maintain BODs and total suspended
solid (TSS) levels within the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) pre-
scribed limits of 30 mg/1 BOD5 and 30 mg/1 TSS.
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A multiple cell sewage lagoon system consisting of two aerated and one
water hyacinth covered cells connected in series demonstrated the ability
to maintain 8005 and TSS levels below 30 mg/1 year-round. A water hya-
cinth covered lagoon with a surface area of 0.28 hectare containing a
total volume of 6.8 million liters demonstrated the capacity to treat
437,000 to 1,893,000 liters of sewage influent from 2.65 hectares of
aerated lagoons daily and produce an effluent that met or exceeded stand-
ards year-round. (AA)
1028. Wolverton, B. C., and R. C. McDonald. 1976c. Water Hyacinths, Eichhornia
crassipes (Mart.) solms, a Renewable Source of Energy. In; Capturing
the Sun Through Bioconversion. Center for Metropolitan Studies.
Washington, DC.
1029. Wolverton, B.C., and R.C. McDonald. 1976d. Water Hyacinths (Eichhornia
cra s s ipe s) for Removing Chemical and Photographic Pollutants from Lab-
oratory Wastewaters. Tech. Memo. TM-X-72731, National Aeronautics
Space Administration, Bay St. Louis, MS. 10 pp.
1030. Wolverton, B.C., and R.C. McDonald. 1977a. Wastewater Treatment Utiliz-
ing Water Hyacinths Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) solms, pp. 205-208.
In; Proceedings of the 1977 National Conference on Treatment and Dis-
posal of Industrial Wastewaters and Residues, Houston, TX.
1031. Wolverton, B. C., and R. McDonald. 1977b. Compiled Data on the Vascular
Plant Program, 1975-1977. Rept. No. TM-79511. National Aeronautics
and Space Administration. Bay St. Louis, MS. 149 pp.
The performance of a single cell, facultative sewage lagoon was signi-
ficantly improved with the introduction of vascular aquatic plants.
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) was the dominant plant from April
to November; duckweed (Lemna spp.) and (Spirodela spp.) flourished from
December to March. This 2 ha lagoon received approximately 475 cu m/day
of untreated sewage and has a variable COD, loading rate of 22-30
kg/ha/day. During the first 14 months of operation with aquatic plants,
the average influent BOD, was reduced by 95% from 110 mg/1 to an average
of 5 mg/1 in the effluent. The average influent suspended solids were
reduced by 90% from 97 mg/1 to 10 mg/1 in the effluent. Significant
reductions in nitrogen and phosphorus were affected. The monthly kjeldahl
nitrogen for influent and effluent averaged 12.0 and 3.4 mg/1, respective-
ly, a reduction of 72%. The total phosphorus was reduced on an average of
56% from 3.7 mg/1 influent to 1.6 mg/1 effluent. (NT)
1032. Wolverton, B. C., and R. C. McDonald. 1978a. Bioaccumulation and Detec-
tion of Trace Levels of Cadmium in Aquatic Systems by Eichhornia
crassipes. Environmental Health Perspectives 27:161-164.
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The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) may be used as a sensitive
biological indicator for continuously trace quantities of toxic heavy
metals in aquatic systems. A river water system polluted with Cd was
simulated while other factors of temperature, day-night cycle, water
quality, and light intensity remained constant. When the water hyacinth
is maintained in river water containing 0.001 mg/1 of cadmium chloride,
the plant's root system will concentrate this element at an average rate
of 0.9, 1.4, and 3.0 g Cd/g root dry weight after 24, 48, and 72 hr
exposure periods, respectively. At a higher Cd concentration of
0.01 mg/1, Cd was concentrated in the roots much faster to levels of 6.8,
13.6, and 39.1 g/g root after 4, 8, and 24 hr exposure periods, re-
spectively. At initial concentrations of 0.05 mg/1. Cd, the roots con-
tained 29.5, 48.8, and 156 g/g root following 4,8, and 24 hr exposure
periods, respectively. During these same time intervals, the water
hyacinth sorbed 56.7, 153, and 281 g/g root when the initial Cd concen-
tration was increased to 0.10 mg/1.
The water hyacinth tops can also assist in the monitoring process when
Cd contamination levels are 0.10 mg/1 and greater. At this initial Cd
concentration, Cd is translocated into the tops. After 8 hr, the tops
averaged 1.1 g/g top. After 24 hr, this concentration was increased to
6.1 g/g top. (AA)
1033. Wolverton, B.C. and R.C. McDonald. 1978b. Nutritional Composition of
Water Hyacinths Grown on Domestic Sewage. In; Compiled Data on the
Vascular Aquatic Plant Program: 1975-1977. NASA. NSTL Station. MS
A nutrient analysis of water hyacinths grown in sewage wastewaters was
conducted. Crude protein averaged 32.9% dry weight in the leaves, where
it was most concentrated. The amino acid content of water hyacinth leaves
was found to compare favorably with that of soybean and cottonseed meal.
The vitamin and mineral content of dried water hyacinths met or exceeded
the FAO recommended daily allowance, in many cases. It is concluded that
in favorable climate zones, water hyacinths grown in enriched mediums,
such as sewage lagoons, could potentially serve as a substantial dietary
supplement or nutrient source. (AA)
1034. Wolverton, B.C. and R.C. McDonald. 1978c. Water Hyacinth Sorption Rates
of Lead, Mercury, and Cadmium. NASA. NSTL. Bay St. Louis, MS.
Experiments were performed to test the ability of the water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes) to remove lead, cadmium and mercury from solution
both individually and in combination. The plants were exposed to 10 ppm
lead and one ppm each of cadmium and mercury for a period of 96 hours. The
sorption of the heavy metals was monitored by periodic water sampling and
plant tissue analysis at the termination of the experiment. Results indi-
cated no significant interactive effect among the three metals tested.
Within one hour, water hyacinths removed approximately 65 percent of the
lead, 50 percent of the cadmium and 65 percent of the mercury, whether the
plants were exposed to these metals individually or in combination.
Almost all of the heavy metals were concentrated in the root tissue of the
plants, although there was some translocation, particularly of cadmium,
into the upper plant parts.
-------
These results are discussed in the light of previous investigations. It
is concluded that the water hyacinth could be useful both as an agent for
reducing heavy metal pollution and as an indicator or monitor of chronic
metal contamination of aquatic systems. (AA)
1035. Wolverton, B.C. and R.C. McDonald. 1978d. Upgrading Faculative Waste
Stabilization Ponds with Vascular Aquatic Plants. In; Compiled Data on
the Vascular Plant Program: 1975-1977. NASA. NSTL Station, MS.
The performance of a single cell, faculative sewage lagoon at NASA's
National Space Technology Laboratories has been significantly improved
with the introduction of vascular aquatic plants. Water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crasslpes) was the dominant plant from April to November;
duckweed (Lemna spp.) and (Spi rodela spp.) flourished from December to
March. This 2 ha lagoon receives approximately 175 m^/day of untreated
sewage and has a variable BOD5 loading rate of 22-30 kg/ha/day.
During the first 14 months of operation with aquatic plants, the
average influent 6005 was reduced by 95% from 110 mg/1 to an average of
5 mg/1 in the effluent. The average influent suspended solids were re-
duced by 90% from 97 mg/1 to 10 mg/1 in the effluent.
Although this lagoon was not harvested at a rate necessary to achieve
maximum nitrogen and phosphorus removal, significant reductions in both of
these nutrients were effected. The monthly kjeldahl nitrogen for influent
and effluent averaged 12.0 and 3.4 mg/1, respectively, a reduction of 72%.
The total phosphorus was reduced on an average of 56% from 3.7 mg/1 influ-
ent to 1.6 mg/1 effluent. (AA)
1036. Wolverton, B. C., and R. C. McDonald. 1979a. Upgrading Facultative
Wastewater Lagoons with Vascular Aquatic Plants. 3. Water Pollut.
Control Fed. 51(2):305-313.
The performance of a single-cell, faculative wastewater lagoon has been
significantly improved with the introduction of vascular aquatic plants.
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) was the dominant plant from April to
November; duckweed (Lemna and Splrodela spp.) flourished from December to
March. This 2-ha lagoon received approximately 475 m-^/d of untreated
wastewater and had a 5-day biochemical oxygen demand loading rate of 22 to
30 kg/ha d. During the first 14 months of operation with aquatic plants,
the average influent 5-day biochemical oxygen demand was reduced by 95%
from 110 mg/1 to an average of 5 mg/1 in the effluent. The average influ-
ent suspended solids were reduced by 90% from 97 mg/1 to 10 mg/1 in the
influent. (AA)
1037. Wolverton, B.C., and R.C. McDonald. 1979b. The Water Hyacinth: From Pro-
lific Pest to Potential Provider. Ambio 8(1):2-9.
The hardness and high productivity of the water hyacinth can be put to
use in a controlled, freshwater environment to remove chemical pollutants
from wastewater. In the process of absorbing minerals and nutrients from
-------
the water, the water hyacinth produces tremendous quantities of plant
biomass which can be useful for feed, fertilizer or biogas. Great quanti-
ties of pure, fresh water can also be recovered from water hyacinth sys-
tems by covering them with greenhouses fitted with collection devices for
capturing the water vapor that is normally lost through evapotranspira-
tion.
At present, water hyacinth systems are limited to freshwater systems in
warm climates. Floating greenhouses would be necessary to cover these
systems if they were to be used in northern climates. Another possibility
of harnessing nature to clean up polluted waters in northern climates would
be to survey the freshwater aquatic plants native to these regions which
possess many of the characteristics which make the water hyacinth a good
biological agent for pollution removal. (AA)
1038. Wolverton, B.C. and R.C. McDonald. 1979c. Energy From Aquatic Plant
Wastewater Systems. NASA. NSTL. Bay St. Louis, MS.
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), duckweed (Spirodela sp. and
Lemna sp.), water pennywort (Hydrocptyle ranunculoides), and kudzu (Puer-
aria lobata) were anaerobically fermented using an anaerobic filter tech-
nique that reduced the total digestion time from 90 days to an average of
23 days and produced 0.14-0.28 m3 CH4/kg (dry weight) (2.3-4.5 ft3/lb)
from mature filters. The anaerobic filter provided a large surface area
for the anaerobic bacteria to establish and maintain an optimum balance of
faculative, acid-forming, and methane-producing bacteria. Consequantly
the efficiency of the process was greatly improved over prior batch fer-
mentations. (AA)
1039. Wolverton, B. C., and R. C. McDonald. 1980. Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes) Productivity and Harvesting Studies. Economic Botany 34(1).
Water hyacinth growth rates were monitored from May through October in
two sewage lagoons with different nutrient loading rates. The lagoon
receiving the heaviest load sustained the highest average growth rates
throughout the summer. The lightly loaded lagoon averaged a 29% increase
in weight per week over the six month period with the highest growth rate
occurring during June with an average weekly weight gain of 71%. The
heavily loaded lagoon sustained an average growth rate of 46% per week for
the same six month period with the highest measured growth rate of 73%
increase in weight per week also occurring in June. In addition, the per-
formance of three harvesters was evaluated. One harvester, consisting of
a chopper and conveyor, was capable of picking up and chopping approxi-
mately 2.3 t of plants per hour and delivering them to a waiting truck.
The second harvester was a single 1.52 m (5 ft) wide conveyor, and the
third one was a modified clamshell bucket attached to a dragline. The
average harvesting rate of each of these harvesters was approximately 9.3
t of water hyacinths per hour. (AA)
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1040. Wolverton, B. C., and R. C. McDonald. 1981. Natural Processes for
Treatment of Organic Chemical Waste. In Toxic and Hazardous Sub-
stances, a special publication of the Environmental Professional.
Anaerobic filters and combination anaerobic filter/vascular aquatic
plant systems were used to remove and biologically degrade phenol and
m-cresol from contaminated river water. The common reed (Phragniites
communis) and cattail (Typha latifolia.) were grown on top of two separate
anaerobic filters. Starting with approximately 100 mg/1 phenol
solutions, the P. communis, T. latifglia, and plant-free anaerobic filter
systems removed 93%, 83%, and 60%, respectively, of the phenol during the
first 24 hours of exposure. The P. communis and plant-free anaerobic
filters removed 69% and 58% of m-cresol from 100 mg/1 solutions after 24
hours. The results indicated that the phenol and m-cresol were rapidly
adsorbed on the filter surfaces and then assimilated and/or metabolized.
Accurate determinations of the organics were made using gas chroma-
tography. The corresponding TOC, 6005, and COD of each sample were also
reported. (AA)
1041. Wolverton, B.C. and M.M. McKown. 1976. Water Hyacinths for Removal of
Phenols from Polluted Waters. Aquatic Botany, 2(1):191-201.
A quantity of 2.75g dry weight of water hyacinth demonstrated the abil-
ity to absorb 100 mg. of phenol/72 hr from distilled water, river water,
and bayou water. One ha of water hyacinth is potentially capable of
removing 395 kg of phenol/72 hr from water polluted with this chemical.
(AA)
1042. Wolverton, B.C., R.C. McDonald and J. Gordon. 1975a. Bio-Conversion of
Water Hyacinths into Methane Gas: Part I. National Aeronautics and
Space Adminstration Tech. Memorandum X-72725, Natl. Space Tech.
Laboratory, Bay St. Louis, MS.
1043. Wolverton, B. C., R. C. McDonald, and J. Gordon. 1975b. Water Hyacinths
and Alligator Weeds for Final Filtration of Sewage. Tech. Memo.
TM-X-72724. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, National
Space Technology Laboratories, Bay St. Louis, MS.
1044. Wondrausch, J. 1969. Phosphorus Sorption in Mucky-peat Soils. Polish
J. Soil Sci. 11:997-106.
1045. Wood, D.K., and G. Tchobanoglous. 1976. Trace Elements in Biological
Waste Treatment. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 74:1933-1945.
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The importance of trace elements for microbial growth and metabolism is
well recognized. However, their importance in the operation of biological
waste treatment processes is not usually considered or understood fully.
It is often assumed that the concentration of trace elements present in a
wastewater will be sufficient for good treatment. This assumption may not
be valid, because the types and concentrations of trace elements in a
wastewater vary with location and time. Trace elements may also be
removed from the wastewater by various means, including adsorption and
hydrogen sulfide precipitation. For these reasons, trace element defi-
ciencies may occur, and treatment problems, including the occurrence of
filamentous organisms, may result. An argument supporting this thesis,
along with an analysis of the role of trace elements in the activated
sludge process, is presented. Recommendations and alternatives for over-
coming problems that may be caused by trace element deficiencies are
offered. (AA)
1046. Wood, J. M. 1974. Biological Cycles for Toxic Elements in the Envir-
onment. Science. 183:1049-1052.
In this article, the author describes some of the chemical and bio-
chemical transformations of toxic elements in the environment, placing
special emphasis on the role played by microorganisms. He also shows that
our present knowledge of the biological cycles of toxic elements enables
us to predict the behavior of other toxic elements in the environment.
(AA)
1047. Woodwell, G., J. Ballard, J. Clinton, and E. Pecan. 1976. Nutrients,
Toxins and Water in Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems Treated with
Sewage Plant Effluents. Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY.
The objective was to appraise the capacity of terrestrial and aquatic
plant communities for absorbing and retaining nutrients and organic matter
in sewage and for releasing 'clean* water. The results showed the follow-
ing: (1) Under normal circumstances, without the addition of water or
nutrients in sewage, the flux of nutrients into the groundwater was great-
est under the agricultural communities and least under the late succes-
sional forest communities; (2) The highest concentrations of nutrients in
the percolate of the untreated communities commonly occurred in the earli-
est stages of succession; (3) Treatment with sewage reduced the differ-
ences in concentration in the percolate between the communities of the
sere; (4) Calculation of the budgets of the various ecosystems showed that
the forested stages accumulated the largest fractions of the inputs; (5)
Appreciable changes occurred in the quality of percolate under the con-
trolled communities over the period of the experiment; and (6) Present
indications are that if sewage-treatment systems using natural communi-
ties are to be devised, they will require combinations of aquatic and
terrestrial systems.
1048. Woodwell, G. M. 1977. Recycling Sewage Through Plant Communities.
Amer. Sci. 65:556-562.
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Recent research indicates that aquatic systems, especially marshes and
ponds used in combination with terrestrial systems that benefit from
irrigation, can be used to manage sewage effectively and inexpensively.
An area of 50 acres containing a marsh associated with a shallow pond
approximately the same size could effectively handle sewage for 10,000
people. In light of the economic and health repercussions that result
from the current uncontrolled use of large water bodies for waste dis-
posal-the New York Bight, Puget Sound, the Charles River, etc. - the
transition toward closed, controlled systems, despite the large areas and
careful design required, appears necessary and economical. (EL)
1049. World Health Organization. 1973. Reuse of Effluents: Methods of
Wastewater Treatment and Health Safeguards. Tech. Rept. Series No.
517. Geneva, Switzerland.
1050. Wynn, S. L. 1979. A Comparison of Data Collection and Methods Used to
Monitor Impacts on Severely Disturbed Wetlands. Ph.D. Diss. Univ. of
Wisconsin. Madison. 417 pp.
1051. Yip, S. W., and M. H. Wong. 1977. The Effects of Sewage Sludge on the
Growth Rate of Carp, Cyjgyinus carpip L. Environ. Pollution 14(2):
127-132.
The optimal quantity of sludge for rearing fish was investigated in
the laboratory, Cvprinus carpio L. was chosen because it is one of the
principal species reared locally in Hong Kong, and because it is a
detritus feeder. Carp reared in tap water to which sludge is added to
give a concentration of 0.2%, or in sewage effluent, have higher growth
rates than carp reared in tap water alone have. (EL)
1052. Yonika, D. A. 1979. Effectiveness of a Wetland in Eastern Massachusetts
in Improvement of Municipal Wastewater, pp. 91-100. In R« K. Bastian,
and S. C. Reed (eds.), Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment:
Seminar Proceedings and Engineering Assessment. EPA 439/9-80-006.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Program
Operations, Municipal Construction Division. Washington, DC.
The quality of water entering and leaving part of Great Meadows
National Wildlife Refuge near Concord, Massachusetts, was studied. The
refuge receives chlorinated secondary effluent. Nutrient removal effi-
ciencies were measured over different seasons for each of the two wetland
types present. Low removal rates of about 0.5 pounds per acre per day of
N and P were measured. Removal rates were greatest during early spring,
which corresponded to the period of most rapid vegetation growth. (EP)
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1053. Yonika, D. A., and D. Lowry. 1978. Bi-monthly summary reports: Novem-
ber-December 1977; March-April 1978; May-June 1978; September-October
1978. IEP, Inc., Wayland, MA.
1054. Yonika, D., and D. Lowry. 1979. Feasibility Study of Wetland Disposal
of Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluent. Final report to the Massachu-
setts Water Resources Commission, Division of Water Pollution Control.
IEP, Inc., Wayland, MA. 134 pp. (plus operations manual and biblio-
graphy ).
1055. Yonika, D., and D. Lowry. 1980. Wetland Disposal of Wastewater Treatment
Plant Effluent. IEP, Inc., Wayland, Mass. October 24, 1977 to October
24, 1978.
1056. Yount, J.L. and R.A. Grossman, Jr. 1970. Eutrophication Control by Plant
Harvesting. J. Water Poll. Contr. Fed. 41: 173-183.
1057. Zahradnik, J. W., L. S. Turner, H. L. Levine, and C. Tucker. 1976.
Evaluation of Proposed Man-Made Ponds for Food Production to Recover
Values in Waste Heat and Solid Organic Sludges. Publ. No. 65. Water
Resources Research Center, Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst. 64 pp.
An analysis was conducted to determine: (1) the potential value of
using, simultaneously, thermal effluents and sewage sludges in aquatic
cultures; (2) the technical and economic feasibility of utilizing multi-
level aquatic cultures in the recovery of these wastes; and (3) data
voids and uncertainties which are of importance in implementation of the
system designed. System inputs, potential system outputs, and potential
subsystem characteristics were characterized and documented through a
literature survey. (NT)
1058. Zaim, M. and H.D. Newson, 1980. Effects of Wastewater Spray Irrigation
on Indigenous Mosquito Populations. Environmental Entomology 9(5):
563-566.
1059. Zapatka, T.F., and R.W. Hann, Jr. 1976. Evaluation of Safety Factors with
Respect to Ocean Disposal of Waste Materials. Sea Grant Publ. 77-202.
Texas ASM University. College Station, TX. 105 pp.
Assessment of the risk and consequent environmental harm to the oceans
is essential if ocean dumping is to be continued. The available litera-
ture, bioassay studies, and pertinent research concerning chronic effects
and the risk they impose on the marine ecosystem was studied. The corre-
-------
lation between acute and chronic toxicities for known hazardous materials
were investigated and defined. The variables defined to be of most
importance are: stage of development, concentration of toxicant, time of
exposure, specific or non-specific reactions, lifetime of the compound,
reactions with other chemicals, and bioaccumulation. The ranges of ratios
for different conditions and situations or at least the ratios of acute to
chronic toxicities for various classes of materials were determined. (NT)
1060. Zeiders, K.E., 1975. Stagonospora foliicola, a Pathogen of Reed Canary
Grass Spray-Irrigated with Municipal Sewage Effluent. Plant Dis. Rep.
59:779-783.
1061. Zeiders, K.E. and R.T. Sherwood. 1977. Effect of Irrigation with Sewage
Wastewater, Cutting Management, and Genotype on Tawny Blotch of Reed
Canary Grass. Crop Sci. 17:594-596.
1062. Zoltek, J., S. E. Bayley, F. L. Boyt. 1977. Removal of Nutrients from
Treated Municipal Wastewater by Wetland Vegetation. J. Water Pollut.
Control Fed. 49(5 ):789-799.
Secondary sewage effluent from Wildwood, Florida, is discharged to a
mixed hardwood swamp, and studies have been carried out to assess the
effectiveness of this method of disposal. The results, summarized in
tables and graphs, indicate that this is a satisfactory alternative to
tertiary treatment as regards removal of nutrients and bacteria, and the
sewage effluent is, therefore, not a major contributor of pollution to
Panasoffkee Lake, which is bordered by the swamp. The economic value of
the swamp is estimated. (AL)
1063. Zoltek, J., Jr., S. E. Bayley, T. J. Dolan, A. J. Herman, D. A. Graetz,
and N. L. Erickson. 1978. Removal of Nutrient from Treated Municipal
Wastewater by Freshwater Marshes. Progress Report to the City of
Clermont, FL. Center for Wetlands, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.
297 pp.
1064. Zoltek, J., Jr., S. E. Bayley, A. J. Herman, L Tortora, and T. J. Dolan.
1979. Removal of Nutrients from Treated Municipal Wastewater by
Freshwater Marshes. Final Rept. to the City of Clermont, FL. Center
for Wetlands, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville. 325 pp.
1065. Zunarellilvandini, R. and A.M. Cognettivarriale. 1981. Effects of Waste-
water Effluents on a Polychaete Community in Littoral Sandy Bottoms.
Cahiers de Biologic Marine 22(2):123-131.
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The most recent additions to the
bibliography are located on the
next pages. All new citations
are alphabetized separately and
numbered in sequence with the
previous entries, beginning with
number 1066. For the reader's
convenience, these new entries
have been inserted in proper al-
phabetical order into the main
entries by author and date.
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1066. Barten, J.M. 1983. Nutrient Removal from Urban Stormwater by Wetland Fil-
tration: The Clear Lake Restoration Project. Presented at the Fourth
Annual Meeting of the Society of Wetland Scientists. June 5-8, 1983.
St. Paul/ Minnesota.
Clear Lake is a 257 ha body of water located in southcentral Minnesota.
It is a heavily utilized recreational lake which has become severely
eutrophic due to the inflow of nutrient rich urban runoff from the adjacent
City of Waseca, Minnesota. In 1981, 50% of the hydraulic load and 55% of
the phosphorus load to the lake was diverted into a 21.4 ha peat marsh on
the northwest corner of Clear Lake. A series of ditches and dikes were
constructed in the marsh to retain stormwater until the phosphorus could be
removed by percolation through the peat. The filtered water was then pumped
into Clear Lake. The filtration system was designed to allow for harvest-
ing of vegetation in the marsh to prevent saturation of the phosphorus ad-
sorption sites in the peat. In 1981, 73.3 x 104m^ of water were filtered
through the system and 258.6 kg of phosphorus removed. In 1982, 89.6 x 104
m^ of water were filtered and 526.7 kg of phosphorus removed. The primary
phosphorus removal mechanisms were physical entrapment and plant uptake.
The total quantity of phosphorus removed in 1982 amounts to 40% of the
average annual load to Clear Lake. Mean orthophosphorus, total phosphorus
and chlorophyll a concentrations in Clear Lake decreased significantly
following diversion of stormwater to the marsh. (AA)
1067. Bastian, R.K. and J. Benforado. 1983. Waste Treatment: Doing What Comes
Naturally. Technology Review 86(2):59-66. Feb. - March.
Wastewater and sludge are steadily growing in quantity and water pollu-
tion remains a serious national concern. These problems can be alleviated
by viewing municipal wastewater and sludge as valuable resources. Many
communities can handle their sewage more economically through reuse by
adopting "natural" treatment systems.
The challenge is to learn how to manage natural ecosystems so that they
can safely and effectively assimilate and recycle sewage wastes. Better
understanding of natural ecosystem functions will lead to development of
"artificial" natural systems that capitalize on the capabilities of these
same processes.
A brief informational introduction is presented on the various methods
of applying wastewater and sludge to land. Current examples of operating
systems are presented as well as a short discussion of the advantages/dis-
advantages of each method.
Aquatic treatment systems are also discussed in the same format of back-
ground information, current examples in operation, and the relative attrac-
tiveness of this wastewater treatment method.
Federal policies regarding alternative and innovative technologies are
discussed along with data on the Federal money available for such grants
and the results of the past few years of alternative and innovative tech-
nology projects.
Wide spread acceptance of natural treatment systems can be achieved with
more public education. Also needed for success are good project design and
management, more research on long term impacts of contaminants in a natural
system, and appropriate regulations and guidelines. Properly managed nat-
ural ecosystems, while no panaceas, do offer an ecologically acceptable way
to deal with pressing water pollution problems at reasonable cost.
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1068. Benforado, J. 1983. Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment. EPA Journal
9(2): 14-15.
1069. Black, S.A, I. Wile and G. Miller. 1981. Sewage Effluent Treatment in an
Artificial Marshland. Presented at the 1981 Conference of the Water
Pollution Control Federation. Detroit, Michigan. Oct. 4-9, 1981.
Sewage lagoons are a common means of wastewater treatment for smaller
Ontario communities. Frequently, the capacity of receiving waters to
accept effluent from such facilities is limited by inadequate dilution dur-
ing summer low flow periods leading to nuisance proliferation of plants and
algae, with attendant widely fluctuating oxygen levels. Storage of efflu-
ent during periods of low flow requires large areas of land, and replace-
ment of lagoons with mechanical treatment systems is very costly for small
municipalities. Natural or artificial marshlands may provide a viable
treatment alternative.
To determine the potential of wetlands for year-round sewage treatment
in Ontario, an experimental study using an artificial marsh was established
in 1979. The study is designed to define the degree of pretreatment
required prior to waste discharge to wetlands, maximum loading rates,
required retention periods and depths of liquid to establish optimal oper-
ational limits for these types of systems.
The artificial marsh has been constructed at the site of the Listowel
sewage lagoon which consists of an aeration cell and two lagoons operated
in series. The channelized and open marshes are planted with cattails,
Typha spp.
Each system is capable of operating at flow rates of 0.5 to 2 times
average design and at various depths and retention times. Flows are con-
trolled and measured by V-notch and rectangular weirs and water level
recorders. Routine parameters (i.e. nutrients, 8005, etc.) are monitored
on a weekly basis in all influent and effluent streams.
This paper presents data on the first full year's operation of the arti-
ficial marsh, including loadings, removal efficiencies and effluent quali-
ties of the various systems.
Preliminary data suggest that artificial marshes have the capacity to
improve the quality of partially treated wastewaters; the degree of
improvement being dependent upon many factors including hydraulic loading,
retention time, season and system configuration. (AA)
1070. Brennan, K.M. (ed.). 1981. The Effects of Wastewater Treatment Facilities
on Wetlands in the Midwest. (Draft Technical Report). Prepared under
contract to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region V, by
WAPORA, Inc. (See also USEPA, 1983b, for final document.)
1071. Brennan, K.M., S.D. Bach and G.L. Seegert. In press. Effects of Wastewater
on Wetland Animal Communities. In Ecological Considerations in Wet-
lands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings of a Workshop
June 23-25, 1982. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA. U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
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Little is known of the effects of the discharge of treated munici-ies
pal wastewater on the animal communities of freshwater wetland eco-
systems. The addition of nutrients, suspended and dissolved solids,
chlorine, heavy metals, and disease organisms and the alterations of
flow periodicity and rate, water level, pH, and alkalinity constitute
changes in environmental conditions that could result in a wide range of
changes in communities of invertebrates/ fish, and other wildlife (am-
phibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals). Because of the potential
impact and the lack of direct knowledge of impacts, wetland use for
wastewater treatment must be carefully considered. Most of the studies
performed at wetland treatment sites have focused on changes in water
quality, vegetation, and litter; the only studies of wildlife at natural
wetlands have been performed in Florida, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Pre-
liminary studies on wildlife have also been done at two volunteer wet-
lands in Michigan. Because so few studies have been done on the pri-
marily terrestrial animals inhabiting wetland ecosystems which receive
wastewater, the potential effects of wastewater application must be
identified by inference from wildlife use of such treatment facilities
as effluent lagoons, stabilization ponds, and old field or forest land
irrigated with wastewater. On the positive side, the availability of
nutrient-bearing water from a treatment facility constitutes a potential
resource that could be used to restore or maintain a disturbed wetland,
create an artificial wetland to provide additional habitat, or maintain
a volunteer wetland (developed as a consequence of the growth of wetland
plants in a flood irrigation field or in a terrestrial plant community
through which a wetland discharge passes), and consequently, to increase
the diversity of wildlife habitat. The known and anticipated effects of
the discharge of treated municipal wastewater on the animal communities
of freshwater wetland ecosystems are presented in this paper according
to three groups of animals present in wetland ecosystems:
* Invertebrates
* Fish
* Wildlife (amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals).
Information in the literature about the effects of wastewater on each of
these groups is summarized and the major types of impacts identified or
postulated are presented in the form of impact factor trains. In these
diagrams, changes in the physical and biological environment are indi-
cated as potential causes of subsequent changes in the animal communi-
ties. Effects on animal health, including potential transmission of
disease to humans, are mentioned briefly. The use of wastewater for en-
hancement of wildlife habitat is also discussed in the following paper.
(AA)
1072. Gosselink, J.G., and L. Gosselink. In press. The Mississippi River
Delta - A Natural Wastewater Treatment System. In Ecological
Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters.
Proceedings of a Workshop June 23-25, 1982. University of Massachu-
setts, Amherst, MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency.
Wetlands have been shown to have considerable potential for waste-
water treatment, but in only a few cases has it been possible to monitor
the long-term effect of high nutrient loading rates on wetland ecosys-
tems (Kadlec and Kadlec 1979).
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River deltas have evolved over millennia as the downstream receivers
of runoff into rivers. Large rivers, especially, have high loading
rates for sediments and sediment-related nutrients. The Mississippi
River delta is the largest wastewater treatment system in the United
States; it receives runoff from more than one-half of the U.S. land
area. Historically, as urban and industrial growth has occurred, the
Mississippi River has become the conduit for elimination of wastes from
a million households and thousands of industrial plants.
The present day Mississippi River delta region is about 10,000 years
old. Its sediments contain a record of nutrient deposition that goes
back to the end of the last glaciation. The hydrogen bomb fallout
product Celsium-137(^'Cs) has labelled the sediments and allows us
to examine the last 30 years in detail. What can we learn from this
record? Is the delta a useful analog for a municipal overland flow
system? If it is, what are the long-term characteristics of the delta,
and what conditions make its activity effective? To answer these
questions, we examined the nutrient concentrations and loading rates of
river water flowing into the delta, and the nutrient retention ability
of several different kinds of delta environments. (AA)
1073. Grimes, D. In press. Microbiological Studies of Municipal Waste Release
to Aquatic Environments. In Ecological Considerations in Wetlands
Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings of a workshop, June
23-25, 1982. University of Massachusetts, Amherst MA. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
1074. Guntenspergen, G.R., and F. Stearns. In press. Ecological Perspectives
on Wetland Systems. In Ecological Considerations in Wetlands
Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings of a Workshop June
23-25, 1982. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA. U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Wetlands have long been used as sites for domestic sewage discharge,
but the studies needed for an ecosystem-based evaluation are few and
recent (e.g., Boyt et.al. 1977); Ewel and Odum 1979; Tilton and Kadlec
1979; Valiela, this volume; Guntenspergen et.al. 1980; Mudroch and
Capobianco 1979; Deghi et.al. 1980; Dolan et.al. 1981). To date, most
wetland studies have emphasized water quality effects to the exclusion
of other impacts. The major concern has been the ability of the
wetlands to significantly improve the quality of the effluent being
discharged. We believe that examination of the ecological impacts of
wastewater application is essential and is long overdue. It is unrea-
listic to assume that there will be no ecological changes. In an
earlier review (Guntenspergen and Stearns 1981), we concluded that
biological changes are associated with nutrient addition to wetlands
and that these changes are manifested at the ecosystem level. A number
of studies have indicated that nutrient addition through effluent
discharge enhanced biomass production and, at the same time, certain
species were eliminated by alterations in the physical environment or
by competition. (AA)
1075. Hammer, D.E. and R.H. Kadlec. 1983. Design Principles for Wetlands
Treatment Systems. Project Summary. EPA-600/S2-83-026. Robert S.
Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory. Ada, Oklahoma. May. (See
also Hammer, D.E. et al., 1983 for complete version of this article.)
-------
Published data pertaining to the treatment of wastewater by wetland
irrigation have been assembled and analyzed to begin identifying general
principles for the successful design of wetland facilities. Sources of
operating data have been tabulated. Performance is roughly correlated
with overall systems features, but cannot be predicted on the current
basis. Existing compartmental models require more detailed information
than does or will exist; thus a simplified compartment model is pre-
sented.
Water quality is controlled by rapid processes related to water move-
ment, mass transport to other commpartments, and consumption kinetics.
Thus, wetland hydrology is fundamental to the analysis of water quality
improvement. The ultimate fate of nutrients and contaminants is deter-
mined by sedimentation, biomass production and harvest, soil and micro-
bial processes. Required wetland area depends on effluent quality, eco-
system type and age, and hydraulic regime. These questions can be ad-
dressed in terms of a mass transport model for the zone of rapid removal
and a "saturation" model for the expansion of a zone of stabilized
activity about the discharge point. Material balances, considering only
long-term consumption mechanisms for nutrients and other pollutants,
determine the useful life and ultimate performance of a wetland system.
Operational techniques and the use of constructed wetlands are also
considered. The economics of wetland treatment are discussed. (AA)
1076. Hammer, D.E. et.al. 1983. Design Principles for Wetland Treatment Sys-
tems. University of Michigan - Ann Arbor. National Technical Infor-
mation Service No. PB83-188722. April. (See also Hammer, D.E. and
R.H. Kadlec, 1983, for EPA Project Summary version of this article.)
Published data pertaining to the treatment of wastewater by wetland
irrigation have been assembled and analyzed to begin to identify general
principles for successful design of wetland facilities. Sources of
operating data have been tabulated. Performance is roughly correlated
with overall system features, but cannot be predicted on the current
basis. Existing compartmental models require more detailed information
than does or will exist; thus a simplified compartment model is pre-
sented.
Water quality is controlled by rapid processes related to water move-
ment, mass transport to other compartments, and consumption kinetics.
Thus, wetland hydrology is fundamental to the analysis of water quality
improvement. The ultimate fate of nutrients and contaminants is deter-
mined by sedimentation, biomass production and harvest, and soil and
microbial processes. Required wetland area depends on effluent quality,
ecosystem type and age, and hydraulic regime. These questions can be
addressed in terms of a mass transport model for the zone of rapid re-
moval, and a "saturation" model for the expansion of a zone of stabil-
ized activity about the discharge point. Material balances, considering
only long-term consumption mechanisms for nutrients and other pollutants
determine the useful life and ultimate performance of a wetland system.
The selection of natural sites and the physical facilities associated
with wetland treatment are discussed. A possible protocol for site re-
view is presented. An appendix of existing wetland sites used for
wastewater treatment is included. Operational techniques and the use of
constructed wetlands are also considered. Finally, wastewater impacts
on wetlands and the economics of wetland treatment are discussed. (AA)
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1077. Heliotis, F.D. 1981. Wetland Systems for Wastewater Treatment: Opera-
ting Mechanisms and Implications for Design. University of Wisconsin
-Madison. Master's Thesis. 103 p.
The goal of this study is to provide a working knowledge of the
mechanisms related to the interactions of secondarily treated wastewater
with natural wetlands and to suggest an approach to the rational design
of wetland treatment systems.
A systematic review of nutrient cycling studies in wetlands resulted
in the construction of a conceptual model of nutrient dynamics. The
following needs were identified: 1) Quantification of hydrological re-
lationships emphasizing the contribution of different water sources to
the nutrient budget of the wetland; 2) Mass-balance studies of wetland
processes especially decomposition, adsorption phenomena, and peat
accumulation; 3) Studies on the role of periphyton in nutrient uptake;
and 4) Studies on the nutritional ecology of wetland macrophytes.
The response of different wetland types to wastewater addition was
reviewed with emphasis on mechanisms for the removal of nutrients. It
was concluded that the major long-term mechanism for the removal of
phosphorus is incorporation to peat whereas, denitrification is respon-
sible for most of nitrogen removal. The best nutrient removals were
observed in wetlands with thick peat soils and in nutrient limited
swamps. Wetlands receiving energy subsidy from tides or waves do not
seem to effectively treat wastewater. Environmental alterations due to
the addition of wastewater include decreasing diversity and stability
with a shift of the trophic relationships towards simpler food chains.
It is recommended that an evaluation of the initial wetland quality
should be performed in order to avoid using high value wetlands.
The following steps were suggested for an approach to the rational
design: 1) Identification of objectives; 2) Identification of time-
frame; 3) Assessment of sensitivity to environmental perturbation; 4)
Identification of operating mechanisms; and 5) Identification of manage-
ment options. A discussion of the time element revealed the need for
calculation of turnover times of various system components.
The lack of information on many aspects of wetland ecology especially
as related to long-term impact of wastewater is considered as a suffi-
cient reason for avoiding their use. If, however, the options are
limited, it is recommended that only degraded wetlands should be used
and the purpose of management should be to integrate the practice to the
overall functions of the landscape. (AA)
1078. Heliotis, F.D. and C.B. DeWitt. 1983. A Conceptual Model of Nutrient
Cycling in Wetlands Used for Wastewater Treatment: A Literature
Analysis. Presented at the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Society of
Wetland Scientists. June 5-8, 1983. St. Paul, Minnesota.
A conceptual model of nutrient dynamics in wetlands use for waste-
water treatment provided the basis for reviewing the literature on the
subject. Papers were selected in order to describe the storages and
transfers of the conceptual model. This approach serves to develop an
understanding of wetland systems behavior and allows easy identifica-
tion of gaps in the literature and of research needs. The response of
different wetland types to wastewater addition was evaluated with empha-
sis on the mechanisms of nutrient removal. The concensus of the liter-
ature is that incorporation into peat is the major long-term mechanism
-------
for phosphorus removal; that ecological changes reflect the response of
the system to nutrient enrichment; and that wetland quality should be
evaluated before the application of wastewater. It is recommended that
an approach to the design of wetland wastewater treatment systems should
include identification of objectives, time frame, operating mechanisms,
management options, and assessment of sensitivity to environmental per-
turbation. (AA)
1079. Hodson, E., A.E. Maccubbin, R. Benner, and R.E. Murray. In press. Micro-
bial Transformation of Detrital Carbon in Wetland Ecosystems: Effects
of Environmental Stress. In Ecological Considerations of Wetlands
Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings of a Workshop June
23-25, 1982. University of Massachusetts, Amherst MA. U.S. Pish and
Wildlife Service and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Hyde, H.C., R.S. Ross and F. Demgen. In press. Technical Assessment of
Wetlands for Municipal Wastewater Treatment. USEPA Office of
Research and Development, Municipal Environmental Research Lab.
Cincinnati.
1080. Kadlec, J.A. In press. Wetlands, Wastewater, and Wildlife. In Ecolog-
ical Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters.
Proceedings of a Workshop June 23-25, 1982. University of Massachu-
setts, Amherst MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency.
Wetlands are noted for the diversity and abundance of wildlife that
Inhabits them. Indeed, it was their importance to wildlife, notably
duck and geese, that led to the first (and, for a long time, only) ef-
forts to preserve wetlands and marshes. More recently, other values of
wetlands have received increased attention. Of particular concern to us
here is the potential use of wetlands for wastewater treatment, wildlife
interests view this possibility with mixed motions — having battled so
long for wetlands preservation, they welcome any help they can get in
"selling" the need for wetlands, but they are concerned that this use not
destroy the very values they seek to preserve.
Data on the effects on wildlife of wastewater inputs to wetlands are
distressingly scarce. As a consequence, the approach adopted herein is
to examine the documented and predicted effects of wastewater on wet-
lands, and then to interpret those effects in terms of their potential
impact on wildlife. For convenience, I will categorize wastewater
effects on wetland ecosystems in five major categories: 1) primary
production, 2) plant community structure, 3) water regime, 4) pathogens,
and 5) toxic chemicals. These are not mutually exclusive and there are
important interactions among categories, but each category serves to
focus attention on a particular set of concerns.
Before commencing a consideration of each of the major effects, a
comment about the ubiquity of change in wetlands is in order. Natural,
pristine wetlands are dynamic and undergo change at various rates, yet
many are essentially permanent features of the landscape. For example,
prairie potholes seem to change in a cyclic fashion with patterns of
drought, with a time scale on the order of 5-10 years (van der Valk and
-------
Davis 1978), yet they have persisted over a vast area of the northern
prairies since the last glaciation, approximately 10,000 years ago.
Against that background of natural change, our knowledge of wetland
ecosystems strongly indicates that the discharge of wastewater into a
wetland ecosystem will produce changes, perhaps dramatic, perhaps subtle,
in that system. It might very well change one kind of wetland into a
different kind. Both kinds may well be "natural" in the sense that
equivalents are found elsewhere as essentially undisturbed systems. A
part of this change quite probably will be a change in wildlife. Some
species will increase, others decrease. In and of itself, such change is
neither bad nor good, but becomes so only in the context of human values
and the relative commoness or rarity of these ecosystems in the land-
scape/ usually at the regional, state, or national level. (AA)
1081. Kadlec, R.H. 1983. The Bellaire Wetland: Wastewater Alteration and Re-
covery. Presented at the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Society of Wet-
land Scientist. June 5-8, 1983. St. Paul, Minnesota.
The village of Bellaire, MI has discharged wastewater from their sta-
bilization lagoons to a 18 hectare wetland for ten years at about 30 mil-
lion gallons per year. For the last seven of those years, studies of
hydrology, water quality, vegetation and soils have been conducted. Dis-
charges terminated in 1981, with a resultant recovery of the ecosystem.
During irrigation, wastewater parameters were dramatically improved by
waste treatment standards/ but not by receiving ecosystem standards.
Mass balances for water and chloride agreed reasonably well. All sur-
face inflows and outflows and precipitation were measured; and evapo-
transportation was calculated from climatic data. With well-defined
hydrology, mass balances were possible for nutrients. Nitrogen, phos-
phorus, and suspended solids were retained or removed in large measure.
After irrigation, no significant release occurred. Vegetation suffered
major damage in the immediate vicinity of the discharge; trees were up-
rooted and new species invaded. Heavy growths of fungi and bacteria
were noted in the immediate area of wastewater application.
1082. Kadlec, R.H. In press. Aging Phenomena in Wastewater Wetlands. In
Ecological Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Waste-
waters. Proceedings of a Workshop June 23-25, 1982. University of
Massachusetts, Amherst, MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
1083. Kadlec, R.H. and D.E. Hammer. 1982. Wetland Utilization for Management
of Community Wastewater - 1981 Operations Summary. Houghton Lake Wet-
lands Treatment Project. Report to the National Science Foundation,
Grant ENV-23868. Wetlands Ecosystem Research Group, College of Engi-
neering, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor MI, 69 p.
1084. Kadlec, R.H. and D.E. Hammer. 1983. Wetlands Utilization for Management
of Community Wastewater - 1982 Operations Summary. Houghton Lake Wet-
lands Treatment Project. Report to the National Science Foundation.
Wetlands Ecosystem Research Group, College of Engineering, The Univer-
sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor MI, 67 p.
-------
Kusler, J.A. 1980. Regulating Sensitive Lands. Ballinger Pub. Co.
Cambridge, MA. 248 p.
Kusler, J.A. 1983. Our National Wetland Heritage A Protection
Guidebook. Environmental Law Institute. Washington, D.C. 168 p.
1085. Monge, D. 1978. Bibliography of Wetland Values. School of Forestry.
State University of New York, Syracuse.
1086. Nichols, D.S. 1983. Capacity of Natural Wetlands to Remove Nutrients
from Wastewater. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation. 55(5):
495-505.
Wastewater, even after secondary treatment, is a major source of
nutrients that can cause eutrophication of lakes and streams and deter-
ioration of water quality. Conventional advanced wastewater treatment
typically requires large capital investments and consumes large amounts
of energy. Therefore, interest is increasing in the use of natural wet-
lands as a simple and energy-efficient means of removing nutrients from
wastewater. Wastewater effluent has been applied to many types of nat-
ural wetlands from Florida to Canada's Northwest Territories. In all of
these studies, some nitrogen and phosphorus was removed from the waste-
water as it flowed through the wetland. However, a more quantitative
assessment is needed of the capacities and limitations of wetlands to
removal nutrients. The purpose of this paper is to review the mechanisms
by which wetlands remove wastewater nutrients and to synthesize from data
in the literature a model of the relations between wastewater nitrogen
(N) and phosphorus (P) application rates and efficiency of N and P
removal by wetlands. (AA)
1087. Odum, H.T., In press. Water Conservation and Wetland Values. In
Ecological Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal
Wastewaters. Proceedings of a Workshop June 23-25, 1982. University
of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
It might be said that the hydrological cycle is the ATP of the bio-
sphere, because of its role in organizing and driving ecosystems. Wet-
lands are one manifestation of landscape organization by water. Whereas
photosynthetic productivity is sometimes used as a basis for evaluating
ecosystems, other kinds of work involving the hydrologic cycle may be
more important in wetlands. What do wetlands do with water, and how is
this related to energy and to regional value? The answers to these ques-
tions may affect the way we manage wetlands, preserve them, or generate
new ones in making a better mosaic of humanity and nature. (AA)
1088. Reed, S.C. and R.K. Bastian. In press. Wetlands for Wastewater Treat-
ment — An Engineering Perspective. In Ecological Considerations
in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings of a
Workshop June 23-25, 1982. University of Massachusetts, Amherst,
MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency.
-------
The capability of wetlands to renovate wastewater, as well as tolerate
effluent discharges, has been demonstrated in a variety of natural wet-
land types across the country, as well as in "artificial" or constructed
wetlands. This has been well documented elsewhere in a number of state-
of-the-art conference and workshop proceedings (Stowell et al., Hantzsche,
this volume) and special project reports, such as: a 1978 review by
Duffer and Moyer, the proceedings of a multi-agency-sponsored seminar
held at the University of California-Davis in September of 1979 (Bastian
and Reed 1980), and a literature review of the vegetative and hydraulic
processes responsible for wetlands removal of selected pollutants from
storm water runoff and treated municipal wastewater by Chan et al.
(1981).
Under the right conditions, wetland systems can achieve high removal
efficiencies for BOD, suspended solids, trace organics and heavy metals.
They have considerable potential as a low-cost, low-energy technique for
upgrading wastewater effluents (especially for smaller communities loca-
ted in areas where natural wetlands abound or ample opportunity for the
construction of new wetlands exists). The concept has been shown to be
viable and qualifies under current EPA definitions as an innovative tech-
nology. Projects which incorporate such technologies are eligible for
more federal construction grants assistance than those projects which re-
ly solely on conventional technologies. However, the specific factors
responsible for such high treatment levels are not clearly understood at
present. Optimum cost-effective criteria applicable throughout the U.S.
are not now available for routine design of wastewater treatment systems
involving wetlands as a viable part of the treatment facility.
The use of constructed wetlands shows great promise for more general
application because, potentially, they are more reliable and involve less
risk of adverse environmental impact because of better process control.
The potential for a more widespread and routine use of wetland systems
(particularly the constructed type) seems high — if and when reliable,
cost-effective, engineering criteria are made available. While consider-
able information about these systems is already available, the scientific
uncertainties over the long-term impacts (beneficial as well as detrimen-
tal) of applying municipal wastewater to managed wetland systems can only
be clarified through more experience with operational systems. A closely
coordinated, multidisciplinary approach involvling the cooperative
efforts of experienced engineers, ecologists, biologists, hydrologists,
etc. will be required to adequately address the full range of ecological
and related issues that must be addressed when designing wetland treat-
ment systems.
The engineering design of a wastewater treatment system is based on a
predictable or an assumed set of conditions. The successful performance
of that system is then based upon the maintenance of those conditions
throughout the useful life of the system — for most municipal wastewater
treatment facilities, this is 20 years• When the conditions cannot be
guaranteed, the engineer incorporates a safety factor and overdesigns the
system to compensate for the uncertainty. Most of these aspects are more
or less under control during the design and operation of a constructed or
"artificial" wetland, so the safety factors for this concept can be rela-
tively low. These systems can then reliably treat a relatively large
volume of wastewater in a confined space, and the design criteria used
can be extrapolated for use in the design of similar systems in the same
climatic zone. In natural wetlands, the hydrologic regime is difficult
to predict and often impossible to maintain. So a very large safety fac-
tor must be incorporated to insure reliable treatment under all condi-
-------
tions. As a result, the wastewater loading will tend to be relatively
low and the required wetland area relatively large. Since the hydrologic
regime of the natural setting is also subjected to local influences, the
extrapolation of design criteria for one natural wetland system to
another setting will be difficult. (AA)
Richardson, B. (ed). 1981. Selected Proceedings of the Midwest Con-
ference on Wetland Values and Management. June 17-19. St. Paul,
Minnesota. Minnesota Water Planning Board; Water Resources Research
Center, University of Minnesota; Upper Mississippi River Basin
Commission; and Great Lakes Basin Commission.
1089. Richardson, C.J. and D.S. Nichols. In press. Ecological Analysis of
Wastewater Management Criteria in Wetland Ecosystems. In Ecological
Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters.
Proceedings of a Workshop June 23-25, 1982. University of Massachu-
setts, Amherst, MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Considerable interest has been focused on the use of wetlands to treat
secondary municipal sewage effluent further (Valiela et.al. 1975; Tilton
et.al. 1976; Tilton and Kadlec 1979; Odum and Ewel 1980; Lyons and Ben-
forado 1981). Reports on the effectiveness of wetlands in removing
nitrogen and phosphorus from effluent have been encouraging (Richardson
et.al. 1976; Tourbier and Pierson 1976; Kadlec 1979b; Kadlec and Tilton
1979; Whigham and Bayley 1979), but questions persist about sorption
capacity, uptake rates (Richardson et.al. 1978), and long-term capacities
of wetland ecosystems to remove nutrients (Richardson 1981; Nichols
1983). This paper presents a series of ecological management criteria
that should be addressed prior to the decision to use any wetland eco-
systems for treatment of secondary municipal effluent. These criteria
include the value of the effluent as a resource, the capacities and
limitations of wetlands to accomplish wastewater treatment, wastewater
management objectives, wastewater suitability for wetland discharge, and
wetland values. Also presented are discussions of wetland hydrology,
productivity, cycling of nutrients and heavy metals, and estimates of
efficiencies of wastewater nutrient removal by wetlands and the wetland
area needed for specific levels of nutrient removal. (AA)
1090. Rusincovitch, F. In press. Use of Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment and
Effluent Disposal: Institutional Constraints. In Ecological Consid-
erations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings
of a Workshop June 23-25, 1982. University of Massachusetts, Amherst,
MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.
The Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Federal Activities
(Policy and Procedure Branch and 404 Branch) and the Office of Water Pro-
grams, in conjunction with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, are con-
sidering the use of wetlands to treat municipal wastewater. The impetus
for such use is that many small communities have found that "high tech-
nology" conventional municipal sewage treatment systems are not well
suited to their limited needs.
-------
The primary reason that such conventional municipal treatment systems
are often not appropriate for small communities is that they use sophisti-
cated biological and chemical processes to remove biochemical oxygen de-
mand (BOD), suspended solids, and nutrients. Such systems are relatively
expensive to operate, especially on a scale suited to small communities
and, for the most part, require at least one full time, highly trained
operator to work properly. The advantage for larger communities is that
higher technology treatment plants can remove pollutants from municipal
waste more rapidly and require much less land area than the less techni-
cal, less expensive, more "natural" systems, such as stabilization ponds.
(AA)
1091. Shiaris, M.P. In press. Public Health Implications of Sewage Applications
on Wetlands: Microbiological Aspects. In Ecological Considerations
in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings of a
Workshop June 23-25, 1982. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service an* U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.
With an ever expanding population, demand for water for urban agricul-
tural, and industrial use is growing. At the same time, the volume of
biological and chemical wastes which enter our waters is also increasing.
The impending dilemma requires a switch to increased and more efficient
water recycling. The potential use of wetlands as wastewater treatment
sites is a promising approach (U.S. EPA 1979, Kadlec and Tilton 1979);
hence, the subject of this workshop.
Any future application of sewage to wetlands must be free of unreason-
able risks to public health. As a rule, untreated municipal wastewater
contains many components which pose a threat to the well-being of wild-
life and humans. Pathogens from human and animal feces, organic toxins,
industrial waste, heavy metal, and pesticides are present in varying
amounts in all municipal sewage. A variety of specific treatments to
attain a satisfactory water effluent are available. The projected use of
the recycled wastewater and the potential for human contact will dictate
which treatment and the degree of treatment necessary to reduce the
health risk (Shuval 1982).
Microorganisms are of paramount importance in any public health con-
sideration of wastewater. Clearly, the direct hazards of microorgan-
isms as agents of disease in wastewater are well recognized if not fully
understood. The role of microorganisms as agents of biotransformations,
however, is not as well recognized and certainly not as well understood
relative to public health. In a wetlands treatment site, the microbial
component may actively detoxify hazardous chemicals and, conversely, may
transform or "activate" some relatively nontoxic chemicals to more toxic
forms.
The present purpose is to highlight briefly the potential health risks
of microorganisms and microbial activities in sewage wastewater. Rela-
tively little information is available on the public health hazards that
may be encountered by applying wastewater to wetlands. On the other
hand, there is considerable information on land application health
aspects which have been reviewed elsewhere (Lance and Gerba 1978; Kowal,
in press; Pahren et.al. 1979). Regulatory authorities postulate that the
health risks for wetland systems will not be greater than the hazards
encountered in conventional wastewater treatment, assuming that materials
will not be harvested for human consumption (U.S. EPA 1979). Therefore,
-------
while most of the work discussed herein was not conducted in wetland
systems, it will be assumed that the health risks discussed are
applicable to wetlands as well. (AA)
1092. Sutherland, J.C. In press. Wetland-Wastewater Economics. In Ecological
Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Pro-
ceedings of a Workshop June 23-25, 1982. University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
In the mid-1970's, there was a great need in Michigan for economical,
post-secondary wastewater treatment, including phosphorus removal.
Wetland application for removal of phosphorus from this community's
stabilization pond effluent seemed an affordable alternative. By early
1976, four years of research under the direction of Dr. Robert Kadlec of
the University of Michigan at the Porter Ranch peatland near Houghton
Lake, Michigan indicated excellent renovation of wastewater and nitrogen
species by wetland application (Kadlec et.al. 1976).
If it had not been for Natural Science Foundation (NSF) support, a
full-scale wetland treatment project at Houghton Lake might never have
been developed. Nothing like it had been done before in Michigan. The
U.S. EPA had never funded design and construction of a wetland treatment
project through the Municipal Construction Grants program, and state and
federal review agencies had understandable concerns for the integrity of
this pristine natural wetland. The factors that brought success to the
project were excellent P-removal potential, prospects for net positive
environmental responses, an informed local populace, and great projected
savings in wastewater treatment costs. The construction cost for the
wetland at Houghton Lake was projected, in 1976, to be $600,000. The
construction of the upland irrigation alternative was projected at $1.1
million or 83% higher. The construction of the wetland wastewater
facilities, in fact, cost approximately $400,000 (1978 dollars).
By early 1976, the NSF project officer, Dr. Edward Bryan, thought it
time to develop the general economic feasibility picture. Williams and
Works, Inc. was selected to begin such a study, limited to Michigan
(Sutherland 1977). At that time, we have more questions than informa-
tion. One of the questions was what kind of pretreatment assumption
should be made. It seemed reasonable to think of secondary treatment as
the minimum pretreatment requirement for natural wetlands. Natural wet-
lands, in general, were perceived to be highly sensitive to cultural use.
Also, there was great need in Michigan for economical, post-secondary
treatment, including phosphorus removal. The use of either wetlands or
upland irrigation for phosphorus removal would be achieved primarily by
small rural and resort communities in Michigan. There are only a few
large communities located near the extensive tracts of undeveloped upland
or wetlands needed, but there are many small communities with wastewater
flows of less than 0.5 million gallons per day (MGD) that are so located.
And a great number of these were already committed to secondary treatment
by stabilization ponds.
We found that wetlands of significant size located within 10 miles
of secondary treatment facilities were all bordered by streams and riv-
ers. The size of wetlands we had in mind would be such that all of a
community's wastewater could be applied at less than one inch per week
during a 6-month season. Stabilization ponds would store the wastewater
during the 6-month off-season. Ten communities were selected to evalu-
-------
ate in detail. The ten had wastewater flows in the range of about 40,000
gallons per day (GPD) to 350,000 GPD. All were located near wetlands
large enough to apply wastewater at the rate of less than 1 inch/week. It
was assumed that state-owned wetlands would be free, that privately-owned
wetlands would be $550/acre (updated to 1982), and that a gated irriga-
tion pipe would be used for applying wastewater to the wetland based on
the developing design for Hougton Lake. It was also assumed that chlor-
ination and dechlorination facilities would be needed and, of course,
transmission forceline from ponds to wetland would be like any other
conventional wastewater forceline. Very few small Michigan communities
are served with biomechanical secondary treatment systems; however, the
economic projections should apply to wetland treatment of secondary
effluent in general. (AA)
1093. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983a. Freshwater Wetlands for
Wastewater Management. Environmental Impact Statement. Phase I
Report - EPA 904/9-83-107. Region IV, Atlanta.
The understanding of wetlands values and functions has increased sig-
nificantly during the past decade. During that period more attention has
also been given to the use of wetlands for wastewater management. With
increased pressure placed on wetland systems in recent years, regulatory
and ecological issues have been raised. This EIS is designed to develop
tools that can assist local, state and federal agencies in making waste-
water management decisions affecting wetlands.
1094. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983b. The Effects of Wastewater
Treatment Facilities on Wetlands in the Midwest. Technical Report.
Region V 905/3-83-002. Chicago, Illinois.
The purpose of this report is to provide background information for
use in the preparation of a Generic Environmental Impact Statement on
wastewater management alternatives. Both natural and constructed (arti-
ficial) wetlands are considered for this alternative wastewater treat-
ment technology. The report describes issues of wastewater and wetlands
in the Midwest States (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and
Wisconsin), summarizes the existing literature on wastewater impacts to
wetlands (includes a bibliography), inventories the 98 existing wetland
discharges in EPA Region V, and identifies potential sites and topics for
additional study. Key topics for future study include: constructed
wetlands, hydrologic impacts, long-term ecological effects, legal and
administrative constraints, mitigation of impacts, management of receiv-
ing wetlands, and disease and health considerations.
1095. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983c. Wetlands Treatment: A
Practical Approach. EPA Emerging Technology Series.
This EPA brochure briefly introduces the practical possibilities of
wetlands treatment of wastewater. Use of natural versus constructed
wetlands is differentiated. Treatment systems design features are sum-
marized. A list of currently operating wetland system is presented.
Potential limitations of wetland use for wastewater treatment are noted.
Costs, both capital and O&M are briefly presented.
-------
1096. Whigham, D.F. In press. Vegetation in Wetlands Receiving Sewage
Effluent: The Importance of the Seed Bank. In Ecological
Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters.
Proceedings of a Workshop June 23-25, 1982. University of Massa-
chusetts/ Amherst, MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Van der Valk (1981, 1982) has proposed a model for studying changes in
wetland vegetation that is based on three life history attributes: (1)
life span, (2) propagule longevity, and (3) propagule establishment
requirements. The model assumes that knowledge of these attributes for
species in a wetland would enable one to predict vegetation composition
under various hydrologic (and other environmental) conditions. Although
the model needs to be modified or expanded to permit quantification of
population properties (e.g., biomass, aerial coverage, etc.), it provides
a suitable framework to evaluate the types of changes that might occur
when wetlands are used for wastewater management.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the effects that wastewater
application might have on wetland vegetation. Because two of the three
attributes used in Van der Valk's model relate to the seed bank, the
paper will focus primarily on the effects that altered hydrologic and
nutrient patterns have on recruitment from the seed bank. (AA)
1097. Wile, I., G. Miller and S. Black. In press. Design and Use of Artificial
Wetlands. In Ecological Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of
Municipal Wastewaters. Proceedings of a Workshop June 23-25, 1982.
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
In recent years, the use of wetlands for wastewater treatment has
received increasing attention in North America. To date, attention has
largely focused on the use of natural wetlands for tertiary treatment.
Artificial wetlands, however, offer greater scope for general use and
are not restricted by many of the environmental concerns and user
conflicts associated with natural wetlands. Unlike natural wetlands,
which are confined by availability and proximity to the sewage source
(Sutherland 1981), engineered marshes can be built anywhere, including
lands with limited alternative uses. They also offer greater scope for
design and management options and thus may provide superior performance
and reliability.
Use of artificial wetlands for year-round treatment of sewage has been
under study in Ontario since 1979. An experimental facility in Listowel,
Ontario consists of five separate marsh systems (Figure 1) and provides
flexibility in pretreatment (conventional lagoon; complete mix aerated
cell), system configuration, hydraulic loading rates, liquid depths and
detention times (Wile, Palmateer and Miller 1981; Black, Wile and Miller
1981). Data from this facility has been used to develop preliminary
design and management guidelines. (AA)
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INDEX
Absorption, 132, 502, 990
Active uptake (nutrients), 817
Adsorption, 132, 241, 259, 330, 950
Aeration, 726, 744
Aerobic, 46, 71, 132, 149, 274, 488, 666, 912
Aerosols, 369, 370, 933
Aesthetics, 1007
Africa, 383
Agricultural wastes, 225, 720, 729, 982
Agriculture, 128, 170, 243, 301, 308, 394, 568, 682, 709, 797, 962
Alaska, 769
Algae, 38, 60, 61, 128, 137, 147, 194, 199, 215, 234, 274, 292, 299, 301, 316,
339, 353, 364, 393, 429, 433, 436, 449, 458, 485, 498, 504, 519, 520, 528,
549, 555, 566, 676-678, 685, 697, 733, 756, 757, 759, 761, 762, 763, 770,
780, 781, 794-797, 834, 912, 913, 917, 954, 955, 963, 968, 993, 994, 1001
Algal growth (bloom), 2, 15, 49, 76, 154, 290, 292, 295, 296, 492, 643, 660,
727, 757, 856, 857
Alkalinity, 448, 584
Alligator weed, 543, 1023, 1024, 1043
Alluvial, 604
Alum (flocculation), 797
Aluminum, 509, 986
Ammonia, 48, 76, 154, 284, 292, 295, 316, 332, 436, 446, 448, 451, 567, 623,
651, 712, 757, 838, 908, 986, 1009, 1019
Ammonium, 95, 408, 631
Amoeba, 586
Amphibians, 403, 1071
Amphipods, 575, 763
Anaerobic processes, 46, 71, 132, 149, 265, 597, 614, 666, 766, 792, 794, 838,
883, 950, 1019, 1040
Animal Populations, communities, 449, 454, 504, 539, 575, 660, 851, 1071
Animals, 158, 401, 403, 862, 887, 889, 922, 930, 1009, 1071, 1080
Annuals (plants), 993, 998
Anthropogenic, 234, 806
Antibiotics, 316
Aquaculture, 10, 13, 30, 39, 45, 52, 72, 101, 120, 147, 164, 212, 213, 290,
291, 292, 293, 295, 296, 297, 298, 301, 316, 339, 362, 363, 388, 394, 396,
398, 464, 465, 468, 471, 476, 491, 500, 503, 548, 555, 567, 573, 591, 594,
626, 642, 643, 652, 660, 682, 702, 709, 712, 713, 719, 731, 732, 750, 756,
757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 770, 778, 832, 859, 886, 887, 913, 925, 954,
961, 962, 968, 983, 1018, 1052, 1057
Aquatic animals (see also animals), 854, 1080
Aquatic communities, 920
Aquatic plants (see also vegetation), 82, 162, 493, 506, 570, 612, 623, 652,
691, 756, 778, 783, 818, 835, 854, 855, 862, 887, 913, 937, 981, 1016,
1018, 1020-1022, 1031, 1036, 1040, 1080, 1096
Aquatic weeds, 543, 756, 826, 1096
T-1
-------
Arbovirus, 167, 168, 368
Arcata, CA, 334
Arctic, 610, 720
Arid, 897
Arizona, 459
Arrow arum, 993
Arrow grass, 516
Arsenic, 194
Arthropods, 403, 576
Artificial Wetlands, 132, 162, 173, 180, 213, 247, 248, 280, 284, 814, 816,
817, 826, 827-829, 834, 843, 846, 851, 873, 916, 924, 967, 982, 1004, 1005,
1009, 1013, 1057, 1067, 1069, 1088, 1095, 1097
1002
Aster(s), 743
Atlantic, 942, 991
Austria, 316, 511
Australia, 709, 720
Avian (see also birds), 14, 199, 409, 527, 616, 973
Bacteria, 85, 102, 271, 304, 436, 438, 449, 476, 478, 498, 499, 567, 644, 660,
676, 718, 863, 883, 912, 956, 967, 1061
Bacteriophage, 73, 305, 548, 954
Baitfish, 35, 36, 147
Balaton Lake, 914
Bald cypress (see also cypress), 574
Basin shape, 846
Bass, largemouth, 101, 619
Bays, saltwater, 474, 504
Beaver, 545
Bellaire, MI, 329, 423, 424, 427, 430, 431, 444, 445, 446, 1086
Benthic, benthos, 91, 92, 102, 273, 274, 504, 535, 629, 860, 900
Bermuda grass, 404, 592
Bibliography, 9, 10, 14, 97, 290, 544, 634, 756, 851, 863, 919, 981, 1015, 1057
Bioaccumulation, 513, 629, 851, 1032, 1059
Bioassay, 141, 513, 550, 644, 1059
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 49, 102, 132, 148, 164, 180, 194, 247, 250,
251, 284, 364, 404, 584, 843, 863, 925, 956, 1019, 1031, 1036, 1040
Bioconversion, 1028, 1042
Biofilter, 476, 477
Biogas, 567, 756, 1021, 1037
Biogeochemical, 245, 249, 250, 817
Biogenic, 558
Biological clarification, 7, 160, 191, 222, 231, 316, 569, 776, 890, 916, 965,
967
Biomass, 112, 393, 487, 490, 599, 606, 618, 712, 743, 766, 777, 876, 946, 955,
991, 994, 995, 996, 1037
Biomagnification (bioconcentrate), 805
Biophotolysis, 770
1-2
-------
Birds (see also avian, waterfowl, ducks), 275, 276, 312, 403, 498, 724, 725,
823, 836, 922, 1071
Bivalves, 152, 215, 388, 549, 759, 761, 942
Black willow (see also willows), 574
Bladderwort, 857
Bluegill sunfish, 619
Bluegrass, rough stalked, 638
Bog (see also peat, Sphagnum spp.), 108, 161, 317, 318, 454, 482, 584, 640,
734, 950, 959, 1002
Bog willow, 131
Boston, MA, 234
Botulism, 14, 199, 616, 644, 831
Brackish waters, 497, 498, 499, 500, 554, 744, 950
Britain, 275, 304, 338, 560
Brookhaven National Laboratory, 706, 820, 829
Buffalo, bigmouth, 101
Buffalo, black, 101
Bullheads, yellow, 619
Bulrushes, 17, 27, 173, 174, 247, 483, 516, 788, 843, 846, 967
Bur marigold, 993
Burned, 666
Ca (see calcium)
Cabomba caroliniana (Gray) (see cooter-grass)
Cadmium, 29, 44, 69, 70, 79, 133, 280, 287, 338, 357, 396, 515, 516, 534, 535,
546, 557, 589, 629, 728, 805, 942, 999, 1000, 1017, 1032
Calcium, 131, 383, 411, 448, 481, 498, 501, 584, 1002
Calico Creek, 22, 768
California, 76, 125, 126, 176, 177, 178, 225, 284, 298, 334, 645, 646, 647,
648, 649, 720, 748
California grass, 332, 539, 590
Camps, camping areas, 173, 247, 483, 967
Canada, 343, 506, 630, 1004
Canals, 412
Canary grass, 404, 455, 463
Carbohydrate(s), 531
Carbon (total), 921, 1083
Carbon dioxide, 528, 567
Carbon, inorganic, 115, 498, 667, 1079
Carbon, organic, 364, 593, 617, 623, 988, 1036, 1040, 1079
Carex spp. (see sedges)
Carp, 1, 76, 101, 770, 797, 1051
Carp, bighead, 101, 164, 361
Carp, grass, 101
Carp, silver, 101, 164, 361
Case studies, 323, 329
Catfish, channel, 101, 385, 619, 867
Cattail, 66, 67, 76, 89, 250, 251, 383, 404, 531, 578, 581, 817, 829, 876, 908,
971, 993, 1010, 1040, 1069
1-3
-------
Cd (see cadmium)
Ceratophyllum demersum (see coontail)
Ceratophyllum spp. (see hornwort)
Chamaedaphne calyculata (see leatherleaf)
Channelization, 501
Chelation, 132
Chemical oxygen demand (COD), 137, 194, 247, 250, 251, 284, 448, 584, 1031,
1040
Chemistry, chemical(s), 49, 132, 390, 431, 433, 436, 445, 461, 515, 582, 634,
666, 797, 834, 967, 988, 1029, 1037
Chemical treatment, 872
Chesapeake Bay, 58, 138, 256, 357, 373, 554, 919, 960
Chicago, IL, 258
Chinese, China, 101
Chironomid, 199, 273, 589
Chlorella (see algae)
Chloride, chlorine, 181, 194, 438, 447, 501, 584
Chlorinated (hydrocarbons), 541, 554, 948, 950
Chlorination (see also unchlorinated, dechlorinated), 301, 312, 490, 491, 566,
746, 836, 993, 996, 998, 1010, 1052
Chlorophyll, 232, 256, 273
Chromium, 79, 194, 287, 515, 516, 617, 629
Chromatum vinosum (see bacteria), 956
Chrysanthemum, 690
Cl (see chlorine)
Clam(s), 396, 762, 763
Clay, 241
Climate, 850, 863
Closed system, 968
Clostridium botulinum (see botulism)
Coagulation, 132
Coal (wastes, ash), 233, 525
Coastal, 97, 468, 515, 521, 526, 544, 613, 641, 805, 806, 837, 850, 889, 921,
928, 942, 944, 947, 991, 996
Cobalt, 1024
Cold temperatures, 634, 702, 843, 884
Collembolan, 575
Colorado River, 922
Coliform, 16, 102, 247, 250, 251, 270, 284, 316, 449, 478, 666, 718, 883, 950
Columbia, Bogota, 381
Commercial, 504
Community wastewater (see also domestic), 329, 425, 426, 433, 434, 436, 453,
495, 538, 590, 706, 814, 877, 967, 982, 1007, 1036
Community structure (see also plant and animal community), 154, 773, 1003, 1080
Compost, 568
Conductivity, 284, 448, 584
Conferences (see also symposia), 179, 330, 399, 877, 965, 982, 1011, 1030
Connecticut, 75, 802
1-4
-------
Conservation, 663, 664, 666, 667, 668, 756, 1087
Construction, 163, 1007
Consumer (communities), 402, 403
Contaminants (see also pollutants), 514, 950, 960
Cooling tower, 554
Coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum), 579, 580
Cooter-grass (Caboiuba caroliniana Gray), 111
Copepods, 273
Copper, 79, 149, 194, 280, 287, 357, 411, 448, 515, 534, 535, 546, 592, 629,
690, 806, 878
Coprostanol, 560
Cord grass, 90, 119, 130, 234, 253, 280, 287, 324, 325, 336, 513, 515, 516,
552, 575, 577, 583, 641, 692, 805, 941, 1006
Corkscrew Swamp, Florida, 211
Costs, capitol, 670, 671, 756, 872, 886, 910, 983, 1010, 1095
Cr (see chromium)
Crabs, 490, 491, 660
Crappies, black, 619
Crops, 554, 651, 690, 766, 770, 823, 838, 839, 931
Crustaceans, 57, 151, 227, 274, 307, 498, 757-766, 770, 963
Cu (see copper)
Cucumber, 411, 690
Cut grass, 993
Cynadon spp. (see Bermuda grass)
Cyperus spp., 606
Cypress dome, 16, 73, 74, 80, 91, 186, 188, 208, 235, 236, 237, 241, 262, 263,
266, 306, 309, 350, 351, 352, 401, 402, 403, 576, 606, 624, 661, 716, 718,
724, 725, 817, 865, 974
Cypress pond, 28, 109, 669, 866
Cypress strand, 239, 270, 672
Cypress swamp, 168, 171, 211, 222, 238, 240, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268,
475, 598, 599, 600, 604, 607, 632, 633, 662-673, 717, 773, 833, 950, 965,
Czechoslovakia, 219
Daphnia, 189, 190, 272, 273, 353, 578
Data collection (methods), 1050, 1075, 1076
Deactivation, 921
Dechlorination, 746, 848
Decomposition, 93, 131, 171, 208, 277, 300, 740, 741, 743, 803, 807, 811, 948,
950. 951, 998
Deep water, 790
Deer, 207
Dehydrogenase, 883
Delaware, 181, 993, 998
Delaware River, 803, 808, 993, 994, 996
Denitrification (see also nitrogen), 48, 130, 186, 265, 307, 308, 333, 476,
726, 743, 792, 817, 826, 866, 921
1-5
-------
Desert, marsh system, 459, 922
Design, 671, 706, 726, 739, 826, 827, 863, 886, 887, 910, 929, 961, 1004, 1007,
1010, 1018, 1057, 1075, 1076, 1088, 1095, 1097
Detergents (soaps), 1, 359, 750, 755
Detoxification, 328, 524, 746
Detrital, 76, 1079
Detritus, 994, 1051, 1079
Developing countries, 623
Development, 658
Diatoms, 72, 396, 758, 759, 761, 953
Discharges, treatment plant (see also effluent), 920
Disney World, 496
Dissolved organic matter, 316
Dissolved oxygen (DO), 5, 49, 76, 102, 180, 528, 535, 744
Distichlis spicata (see spike grass)
Disturbed land, 1050
Diurnal, 426, 438, 656, 1032
Domestic waste, 472, 492, 567, 568, 634, 643, 705, 706, 759, 760, 761, 817,
858, 912, 957
Drainage, 158
Dredge, dredged material, 210, 257, 466, 513-515, 541, 550, 587, 805, 806, 900,
1014
Drinking Water, 709, 820, 821, 823, 825
Drummona, WI, 21, 318, 453, 454, 1002
Ducks (see also waterfowl), 126, 199, 354, 451, 453, 749, 999, 1000
Duckweed, 159, 237, 241, 265, 345, 374, 528, 535, 666, 712, 717, 766, 1031
East River, New York City, 750
Ecology, ecological effects of wastewater (general), 62, 184, 319, 970, 992
1074, 1080, 1089, 1093
Economics, 142, 240, 262, 363, 605, 664, 666, 832, 875, 925, 1007, 1036, 1048,
1057, 1061, 1075, 1076, 1092
Ecosystem (functioning, dynamics), 115, 139, 229, 238, 416-420, 439-443, 472,
499, 500, 604, 656, 659, 660, 686-688, 727, 846, 882, 998, 1047, 1074, 1082
Ecosystem diversity, 75, 236
Education, 180. 639, 640, 922
Eels, 770
Effluent (see also tertiary and secondary effluent), 416-420, 439-443, 455,
Effl538, 617, 618, 623, 674, 695, 750, 764, 783, 797, 813, 846, 922, 966, 974,
975, 980, 983, 996, 998, 1047, 1052-1055, 1061
Eh 280, 535
Elements (budgets), 809, 818, 909
Elodea canadensis, 557
Elemgent vegetation (see also macrophytes, plants, vegetation), 162, 373, 479-
481, 532, 618, 698, 843, 845, 846, 882
Encephalitis, 240
Energetics, 666
1-6
-------
Energy, 624, 661, 714, 766, 770, 827, 843, 885, 886, 969, 1010, 1021, 1028
Engineering, 52, 337, 652, 731, 732, 778, 827, 872, 873, 884, 886, 1010, 1018
1088
England (See Britain)
Enteric pathogens (see also human enteroviruses), 759
Enteromorpha spp. (see algae)
Environmental impact statement, 77, 615, 1093
Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.), 50, 51, 924, 925, 928, 929, 930, 1070,
1094
Epibenthic algae (see also algae), 993, 998
Epidemiology, 609
Epiphytes, 593
Escherichia coli, 46
Estuary, estuarine, 77, 97, 102, 103, 129, 134, 148, 153, 154, 156, 181, 234,
256, 304, 311, 357, 376, 378, 399, 473, 498-500, 504, 521, 534, 544, 554,
560, 659, 660, 682, 746, 772, 806, 834, 837, 848, 900, 928, 947, 950, 960,
963, 1006
Euglena gracilis (see algae)
Europe, 79, 494, 817
Eutrophic, 34, 392, 399, 511, 519, 529, 641, 643, 752, 765, 797, 834, 914, 917,
1056, 1082
Evaporation, 826
Evapotranspiration, 420, 664, 843, 1037
Everglades marsh, 140, 169, 856, 857
Facultative (ponds), 1009, 1031, 1036
Farm, farming, 489, 554, 567, 597
Fatty acids, 956
Fe (see iron)
Feasibility (study), 874, 909, 910, 921, 1007, 1054
Fecal coliform (see also coliform), 46, 102, 194, 245, 284, 716
Fecal pollutant, 560
Fecal streptococcus (see also streptococcus), 102, 284
Feed (see also food), 40, 159, 983
Fertilizer, 108, 232, 287, 561, 612, 756, 770, 913, 948, 953, 1021, 1037
Fescue (see also grass), 149
Fiber, 40, 404, 777
Fiddler crab (see also crab), 234, 287
Films (system), 625, 739, 1019, 1040
Filter, soil, 242, 638, 841, 927
Filter, vegetative, 6, 514, 888, 958
Filtration, 96, 132, 986, 1066
Finland, 452, 507, 804, 817, 871
Fish, 1, 5, 8, 57, 77, 99, 121, 147, 150, 212, 213, 301, 327, 334, 359-362,
375, 386, 394, 494, 497, 498, 525, 542, 543, 582, 642, 643, 681, 712, 733,
770, 774, 778, 797, 823, 847, 848, 867, 913, 918, 919, 963, 983
Fish culture, farming, 9, 10, 35, 135, 142, 164, 204, 468, 567, 568, 573, 642,
681
Flagellates (intestinal), 586
Floating aquatic vascular plants, 618
1-7
-------
Flocculation, 697
Flood, 55, 70, 227, 467, 502, 513, 891, 922
Flood basin, 29
Flood conditions, 640, 729, 805, 891
Flood plain, 405, 640, 667, 745
Flora (see plants, vegetation)
Florida, 53, 75, 84, 85, 143, 168, 171, 186, 201, 208, 209, 236, 239-241, 264,
269-271, 306, 307, 309, 350, 351, 367, 403, 475, 519, 576, 598-601,
606-608, 632, 661-672, 717, 724, 725, 772, 817, 826, 833, 858, 866, 900,
969, 987, 1061, 1063, 1064
Flounder(s), 759, 761, 763
Flow (wastewater, stream), 270, 284, 431, 438, 445, 521, 726, 757, 758
Flushing, 698
Flies, 823
Fodder, 770
Foliage, 1002
Food (see also feed), 190, 387, 404, 713, 765, 777, 1021, 1037, 1057
Food chain (or web), 212, 294, 301, 396, 549, 554, 555, 643, 713, 757-760,
762-764, 778, 863, 867, 930, 968, 1006
Forage, 147, 775
Foraminifera, 498, 523
Forests, forestry, 95, 220, 243, 445, 452, 574, 603, 640, 649, 666, 689, 695,
839, 892, 894, 895, 987
Freshwater, 45, 300, 367, 376, 415, 426, 447, 479-481, 497, 520, 766, 803, 805,
807, 808, 810, 811, 817, 834, 906, 908, 910, 921, 950, 951, 963, 972, 989,
990, 993-998, 1013, 1037, 1063, 1064
Fungus, fungal, 145, 146, 208, 555, 697
Gambusia affinis (see mosquitofish)
Gamma radiation, 867
Gasoline (see petroleum)
Geology, geologic, 241, 666, 667
Georgia, 130, 376, 574, 864, 901, 986
Geochemistry (see also chemistry), 613
Geothermal, 88, 851
Germany, 495, 817
Giardia lamblia (Giardiasis), 258
Glacial, 973
Glyceria grandis (see reed-meadow grass or manna grass)
Grass (grassland), 149, 287, 638, 695, 743, 876
Great Lakes, 513, 617, 805
Great Sippewissett Marsh, MA, 287, 583
Greywater, 756
Greenhouse(s), 280, 1037
Groundwater, 186, 245, 564, 792, 820, 821, 824, 841, 910, 926, 949, 962, 978
Growth (animal), 867, 1051
Growth (plant), 69, 109, 531, 865, 948, 980, 995
Gulf coast, 861
1-8
-------
Habitat, 32, 68, 75, 77, 103, 128, 129, 176, 180, 221, 275, 312, 409, 525, 527
541, 542, 834, 876, 911, 922, 950, 1071
Hallbeard tearthumb, 993
Hardwood swamp, 84, 606, 1061
Harvest, 248, 299, 502, 630, 643, 697, 817, 826, 843, 846, 861, 876, 913, 1056
Hawaii, 203, 332
Hazardous wastes (see also toxins, pathogens), 1040, 1059
Health, 486, 609, 821, 886, 913, 932-934, 1048, 1049, 1071, 1091
Heat (see also thermal pollution), 154, 643, 842, 900, 1057
Heavy metals (see also trace elements), 29, 68, 79, 122, 123, 149, 213, 217,
236, 255, 257, 265, 270, 279, 284, 287, 304, 311, 348, 374, 438, 464, 465,
466, 475, 513, 515, 516, 541, 546, 548, 554, 570, 579, 581, 614, 617, 618,
620, 629, 666, 667, 690, 767, 790, 805, 806, 809, 863, 900, 935, 942, 948,
950, 984, 1001, 1014, 1021, 1032, 1089
Helminths, 255, 586, 935
Herbivory, herbivorous, 494
Heterothrophy, 304
Hg (see mercury)
Histopathologic, 1000
Histosols, 246
Holland (see Netherlands)
Hornwort, 535
Hot climates, 756
Houghton Lake, MI, 26, 100, 329, 406, 414, 428, 429, 433, 434, 436, 437, 446,
449, 545, 700, 722, 875, 980, 1007, 1008, 1009, 1010, 1015, 1083, 1084
Hudson River, 103, 806
Human enteroviruses (see also viruses),* 305, 438, 548, 591
Humic acid, 509
Hungary, 914
Hunting, 922
Hydrilla spp., 766
Hydrocarbons, 152, 213, 490, 491
Hydrogen peroxide, 848
Hydrogen sulfide (K^S), 119
Hydrogeology, 322, 683, 833
Hydrology (hydraulics), 245, 284, 341, 350, 351, 420-422, 429, 433, 438, 449,
499, 639, 817, 850, 910, 951, 1080, 1087, 1089
Hydroperiod, 54
Hydroponic, 404, 411, 516, 690
Ice (cover), 49
Ictalurus natalis (see bullhead, yellow)
Ictalurus punctatus (see catfish, channel)
Illinois, 603-605
India, 492, 592
Indiana, 393
Indicator species, 610
Industrial wastes, 77, 142, 274, 304, 376, 399, 592, 595, 682, 834, 956, 957,
1030
1-9
-------
Inorganic carbon (see carbon, inorganic)
Inorganic nitrogen, 729
Insecticide (see also mevinphos), 1016
Insects, 227, 469, 498, 589, 695, 1015
In-situ, 986
Invertebrates, 92, 102, 104, 109, 110, 199, 212, 213, 429, 436, 451, 497, 616,
629, 753, 763, 778, 913, 1071
Iowa, 484, 971
Iron, 194, 287, 357, 411, 502, 509, 516, 629, 690, 805, 986, 1006
Irradiation, 555
Irrigation, 3, 31, 32, 41, 68, 115, 128, 312, 329, 332, 368, 394, 419, 421,
422, 436, 446, 655, 737, 756, 797, 803, 807, 811, 836, 840, 869, 899, 905,
962, 977, 989, 993, 997,^ 1007, 1009, 1048, 1058, 1060, 1061
Israel, 797
Joint grass, 1016
K (see potassium)
Kidneys, 1000
Kincheloe/Kinross Air Force Base, 67, 309
Kinetics, 726, 758
Kissimee River Valley, 75, 407, 703
Labrador tea, 1002
Lacustrine, 817
Lagoons, 35, 46, 49, 137, 199, 227, 273, 274, 286, 303, 318, 375, 424, 463,
469, 478, 489, 529, 565, 597, 626, 628, 630, 634, 655, 720, 726, 739, 770,
775, 777, 925, 956, 957, 961, 1025, 1031, 1036
Lake Meade, 459
Lake Okeechobee, 826
Lakes, 114, 115, 288, 511, 537, 570, 588, 599, 601, 680, 705, 715, 910, 914
Land, 114
Land application, 470, 738, 885, 921, 929, 961
Land disposal, 3
Landscape, 661, 664
Land treatment, 81
Land use, 910, 962
Larvae, 497, 583
Leaching, 383, 651
Lead, 44, 194, 210, 280, 287, 338, 357, 448, 515, 516, 534, 546, 557, 589, 617,
629, 690, 728, 802, 806, 942, 1023
Leatherleaf, 131
Leaves (coniferous, deciduous), 241
Legal, 536, 706, 745, 910, 962, 1090
Legislation, 750
Lemna spp. (see duckweed)
Lepomis macrochirus (see bluegill sunfish)
Lettuce, 411, 690
Light (see also solar), 535, 712, 1032
Lime (see also quicklime), 316
1-10
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Limnology, 273, 274
Literature review, 759
Litter, litterfall, 131, 171, 208, 236, 433, 663, 743, 951, 996, 998
Littoral, 219, 593, 680, 705, 715
Livestock waste, 46
Lobsters, 759, 761, 763
Long-term effects, 67, 1072
Louisiana, 227, 302, 692, 698, 817, 834, 850, 921, 988
McNaughton Marsh, WI, 533
Macroinvertebrates (see also invertebrates), 91, 451, 493, 535
Macrophytes (see also plants, vegetation), 570, 588, 631, 653, 697, 699, 723,
766, 786, 787, 791, 812, 818, 869
Magnesium, 131, 194, 383, 448, 481, 501, 986
Maine, 489
Maintenance, 1012, 1095
Mammals, 31, 68, 403, 695, 1071
Management, 300, 529, 531, 603, 625, 648, 663, 664, 666-668, 759, 782, 806,
814, 817, 853, 877, 886, 887, 940, 961, 971-973, 981, 987, 994, 1083,
1084, 1089, 1090, 1093, 1097
Manganese, 194, 210, 287, 357, 411, 629, 690, 805, 986, 1006
Mangrove, 365, 789, 938, 950
Market, 747
Marine, 22, 23, 45, 57, 72, 215, 227, 291-293, 295, 296, 387, 388, 399, 464,
465, 468, 521, 546, 643, 659, 764, 765, 757-763, 770, 860, 1059
Marsh(es) (natural), 29, 64, 76, 79, 106, 132, 201, 220, 227, 248-251, 281,
284, 315, 341, 367, 376, 412, 479-481, 489, 515-518, 532, 541, 544, 556,
562, 563, 575, 617, 618, 640, 645-649, 660, 698, 706, 715, 798, 805, 814,
820-825, 826, 828, 834, 837, 843, 846, 850, 856, 861, 922, 950, 961, 971,
972, 981, 994, 1048, 1063, 1064, 1068
Marsilea quadrifolia (see water clover)
Maryland, 58, 357, 554, 919, 960
Massachusetts, 106, 232, 234, 245, 287, 538, 555, 583, 1052, 1053, 1054, 1055,
1057
Mathematical models, 198
Meadow(s), 820, 821, 825, 826, 829
M-cresol, 1040
Meiofauna, 498
Mercury, 71, 194, 280, 328, 354, 507, 515, 592, 1023
Mass balance, 990
Metabolism, 667
Metals (see also heavy metals, trace elements), 541, 546, 618, 902, 942
Methane, 567, 1042
Mevinphos, 1016, 1022
Mg (see magnesium)
Michigan, 66, 67, 115, 131, 230, 273, 274, 315, 322, 414, 416-425, 427-430,
433, 434, 436, 437, 440-446, 449, 545, 564, 589, 596, 624, 700, 722, 741,
743, 753, 779-781, 817, 872, 873, 904, 906, 908, 918, 959, 980-982, 1007,
1009, 1010, 1015, 1092
1-11
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Michigan State University, 42
Microbes, 663, 666, 667, 1073, 1079, 1091
Microbiology, 726, 1073, 1079, 1091
Microbial action, 132, 376, 399, 817, 883, 956, 957, 1073, 1079, 1091
Microceptis aeruginosa (see algae)
Micro-organism, 173, 666, 912, 950, 1073, 1079, 1091
Micropterus salmoides (see bass, largemouth)
Middle East, 142
Midges, 227, 573
Midwest, 227, 469, 1070, 1094
Migratory birds (see also birds, waterfowl), 349
Mineral, 479, 480, 533, 554, 1037
Mines (mine drainage), 6
Minnesota, 243, 318, 635-637, 714, 852, 1066
Minnows, 35, 375, 484, 596, 918, 963
Mississippi, 850, 1017-1019, 1021-1032, 1036, 1037, 1040-1043, 1072
Missouri, 720
Mites, 227
Mn (see manganese)
Models (see also mathematical models), 198, 223, 245, 271, 378, 399, 521, 542,
546, 564, 599, 601, 651, 661, 667, 686-688, 715, 741, 760, 789, 826, 848,
954, 960, 1075, 1076, 1077, 1078, 1086, 1096
Molluscs (see also clams, oysters), 215, 388, 396, 498, 548, 719, 758, 759,
761-763, 770
Mortality, 995
Moss (see Sphagnum spp., peat)
Mosquito, 167, 227, 340, 368, 609, 720, 823, 1058
Mosquitofish, 76, 168, 648
Mouse, white-footed, 695
Muck, 561, 883, 1044
Multiple use, 102
Municipal wastewater (sewage), 77, 201, 207, 212, 213, 225, 230, 274, 390, 448,
506, 535, 544, 552, 594, 596, 613, 624, 641, 660, 680-682, 707, 747, 775,
778, 791, 834, 837, 839, 840, 845, 872, 876, 904, 918, 928, 929, 955, 962,
1013, 1052, 1053, 1061, 1063, 1064, 1068, 1073
Muskellunge (muskies), 375, 596, 918
Muskrat, 585
Mussels, 148, 234, 287, 546, 549, 763
Mycorrhizae, 553
N (see nitrogen)
Na (see sodium)
Napier grass, 404
National Science Foundation, 100
National wildlife refuge(s), 341, 707, 1052
Natural waters (wetlands) (see also swamps, marshes, bogs, peat, salt
marshes), 213, 890, 1004, 1076, 1086, 1095
1-12
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Navicula salinarum (see diatoms)
Needles (cypress, pine), 171, 236, 265
Nematode, 255
Netherlands, 173, 412, 644, 817
Nevada, 922
New England, 287
New Jersey, 311, 556, 695, 817, 992, 993, 996, 998
New Orleans, LA, 850
New York, 103, 162, 349, 750
New Zealand, 346, 347
Ni (see nickel)
Nickel, 79, 194, 448, 515, 516, 629, 690, 1017
Nitrate, 48, 95, 102, 149, 226, 227, 247, 250, 284, 295, 332, 339, 377, 411,
436, 446, 448, 502, 510, 631, 651, 690, 693, 694, 712, 757, 908, 986, 1009
Nitrification, 336, 408, 726, 817, 866
Nitrite, 284, 332, 444, 448, 908
Nitrogen, 3, 48, 75, 95, 115, 130-132, 173, 194, 214, 222, 240, 245, 265, 270,
271, 284, 291, 292, 295, 296, 308, 332, 353, 367, 377, 383, 415, 431, 438,
445, 446, 456, 470, 476, 498, 501, 510, 511, 556, 566, 584, 589, 617, 637,
651, 660, 667, 692, 698, 700, 729, 743, 750, 759, 760, 761, 790, 800, 817,
838, 857, 863, 889, 906, 908, 921, 922, 931, 944, 950-952, 965, 968, 986,
990, 996, 998, 1002, 1009, 1019, 1021, 1031, 1052, 1077, 1078, 1086
Nitrogen cycle, 95, 460, 640
Nitrogenous gases, 48
N2 (see nitrogen)
NO2 (see nitrite)
NO3 (nitrate)
Nocturnal, 76
Nonflood conditions (see also flood), 70
Nonpoint source pollution (see also pollutants), 284, 682, 826
North Carolina, 153, 154, 323, 498-500, 660
North Dakota, 956, 957
Northwest Territories, Canada, 343, 391
Nutrient film technique, 404
Nutrients, 53, 77, 119, 131, 180, 213, 236, 270, 292, 300, 301, 309, 367, 383,
404, 414, 436, 438, 440, 446, 458, 466, 497, 499, 504, 532, 563, 593, 599,
618, 643, 663, 664, 666, 667, 669, 690, 698, 741, 742, 743, 758-764, 766,
769, 781, 817, 826, 834, 843, 857, 858, 865, 876, 889, 903, 905, 910, 913,
921, 925, 943, 946, 947, 949, 959, 980, 989, 990, 993, 994, 996, 997, 1002,
1009, 1036, 1037, 1047, 1072
Nutrient(s) cycling, 115, 188, 245, 301, 460, 479, 480, 481, 518, 519, 773,
843, 1077, 1078, 1089
Nutrient(s) movement, 93, 704, 715, 810, 843, 906, 949, 959, 990, 994, 1077,
1078
Nutrient(s) removal, 53, 58, 82, 84, 85, 94, 155, 222, 240, 241, 345, 429, 448,
636, 637, 751, 766, 793, 812, 835, 855, 890, 908, 910, 965, 1014, 1052,
1053, 1061, 1063, 1064, 1066, 1086, 1089
Nutrient(s) sink, 473, 743, 986, 993, 994
1-13
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02 (see oxygen)
Ocean disposal, 1059
Odor, 823
Ohio, 629, 695
Oil refinery effluent (see also petroleum, hydrocarbons), 206
Oligotrophic, 34
Okefenokee Cypress Swamp Forest, 773
Oklahoma, 147, 206
Ombrotrophy, 317
Ondatra zibethica (see muskrat)
Ontario, Canada, 344, 617, 618, 630, 790, 791, 814, 1004, 1069, 1097
Oregon, 278
Organic(s), 213, 548, 558, 563, 566, 623, 863
Organic carbon (see carbon)
Organic chemical waste (see also toxins), 926, 1040
Organic matter, 632, 633, 726, 994, 1057
Organic soil (see also histosol), 242, 244, 259, 509, 635, 990, 979
Oryza sativa (see rice)
Overland flow (see also flow), 435, 463
Oxidation, 227, 284, 334, 353, 364, 466, 497, 500, 589, 616, 720, 726, 813,
867, 883, 912, 918
Oxidation ponds, 286, 678, 868
Oxygen, 226, 393, 399, 563, 589, 640
Oxygen demand (see also BOD), 245
Oysters, 181, 295, 296, 396, 548, 549, 746, 757, 759, 761-763, 815, 968
P (see phosphorus)
Palustrine, 817
Panicum purpurascans (see California grass)
Papyrus, 283, 950
Particulates, 949
Pathogens (see also bacteria, viruses), 85, 132, 144, 213, 224, 227, 429, 492,
586, 759, 899, 930, 1000, 1060, 1080, 1091
Patuxent River Estuary (see also Chesapeake Bay), 256
Peat (land, moss, resources) (see also moss, Sphagnum spp.), 96, 133, 157, 161,
243, 244, 330, 414, 420, 421, 429, 433, 436, 440, 449, 452, 507, 545, 561,
584, 624, 635-637, 689, 734, 740-743, 804, 817, 852, 870, 871, 903, 959,
980, 990, 1002, 1007, 1009, 1010, 1011, 1041, 1066
Pennine moorland (see also bog), 158
Pennsylvania, 310, 312, 562, 563, 706
Peppers, 411
Perennials, 993
Periphyton, 857
Peromyscus leucopus (see mouse, white-footed)
Pesticides, 438, 524, 622
Petroleum (see also gasoline, hydrocarbons, oil), 77, 595, 725, 950, 988
pH, 76, 280, 284, 448, 466, 499, 513, 535, 584, 712, 728, 743, 838
Phalaris spp. (see canary grass)
1-14
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Phenol, 788, 1040
Phosphates (ortho), 34, 102, 247, 250, 256, 284, 313, 330, 344, 375, 411, 436,
510, 583, 623, 690, 757, 797, 864, 901, 986
Phosphorus, 3 75, 95, 115, 131, 132, 169, 171, 173, 194, 200, 202, 214, 234,
240, 241, 245, 247, 248, 250, 251, 259, 265, 270, 271, 295, 335, 343, 353,
367, 383, 396, 397, 407, 415, 431, 438, 440, 445, 446, 448, 455, 456, 460,
470, 481, 487, 497-499, 501, 502, 509, 511, 516, 519, 579, 580, 584, 589,
604, 617, 632, 633, 637, 660, 667, 674, 675, 692, 698, 700, 701, 743, 750,
800, 816, 8x7, 826, 843, 846, 857, 863, 876, 879, 908, 915, 921, 922, 950,
951, 965, 968, 986, 990, 996, 998, 1003, 1010, 1019, 1021, 1031, 1044, 1052
1066, 1077, 1078, 1086
Photographic pollutants, 1029
Photosynthesis, photosynthetic, 49, 76, 225, 660, 679
Phragmites conununis (see reed, common)
Physical alteration (see also construction), 77, 634, 960
Phytoplankton, 102, 154, 215, 216, 274, 284, 295, 316, 388, 498, 499, 548, 582,
599, 628, 675, 750, 758, 762, 764, 768, 770
Phytotoxicity (see also toxins), 513
Pickerelweed, 29
Piedmont Swamp, 380, 986
Pimephales promelas (see also minnows, fathead), 35
Pine(s), 606, 669, 724
Plant(s) (see also vegetation), 69, 79, 87, 149, 166, 236, 278, 280, 284, 338,
404, 440, 449, 466, 479-481, 497, 504, 506, 513, 515, 516, 532, 539-541,
557, 558, 570, 575, 588, 592-594, 743, 767, 779, 784, 803, 838, 1080
Plant disease(s), 230
Plant tissue, 149
Plankton (planktonic algae) (see also phytoplankton, zooplankton), 299, 346,
347, 396, 504
Poa trivialis L. (see bluegrass)
Poland, 705, 882, 1044
Polio virus, 72, 73, 457, 548, 869
Political, 536
Pollution, pollutants, 132, 284, 504, 623, 639, 640, 643, 757, 758, 770, 772,
843, 846. 889, 916, 922, 1021, 1037, 1041
Polychaete worms, 763, 1065
Polyculture (see also food chain), 757-764, 766, 778, 867
Pomixis nigromaculatus (see crappie, black)
Ponds, 8, 49, 86, 174, 189, 225, 231, 284, 289, 303, 334, 353, 364, 470, 500,
528, 535, 572, 589, 616, 634, 660, 685, 706, 733, 744, 797, 820-826, 828,
829, 849, 867, 912, 918, 994, 1009, 1048, 1057
Pondweed, 535
Population(s) (dynamics) (see also fish, animal, plant, algae, etc), 68, 713,
1007
Portugal, 682
Potassium, 131, 194, 383, 411, 448, 481, 501, 675
Potomac River, 156, 185, 848, 920
1-15
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Potomogeton spp. (see pondweed)
Power plant effluent, 295
Power plant emissions, 900
Prawns (Malaysian), 476
Precipitation, atmospheric, 158, 420, 949
Precipitation, chemical, 817
Predator-prey, 227
Primary effluent (see also sewage, raw), 843, 846, 1036
Primary production, 256, 273, 284, 300, 533, 727, 741, 766, 861, 950, 989, 991,
994, 997, 998, 1080
Primary treatment, 102, 271, 364, 859
Productivity, 112, 253, 532, 533, 639, 640, 667, 677, 698, 740, 768, 769, 816,
908, 921, 946, 948, 980, 1080, 1089
Protein, 750, 770, 797
Protozoa, 274, 504
Puerto Rico, 544
Purification, 784, 785, 787, 804, 846, 916
Quality, water, 64, 307
Quicklime, 316
Rabbit(s), 68
Raceway, 148, 925
Radioactive isotopes, 771
Recharging (water table) (see also groundwater, recharge), 640, 663, 666, 667,
709
Reclamation, 111, 125, 128, 212, 220, 221, 225, 284, 294, 411, 566, 578, 591,
610, 830, 1081
Recreation, recreational, 103, 180, 284, 504, 590, 639, 640, 682, 689, 922, 967
Recycling (see also nutrient cycling), 114, 168, 238, 240, 266, 293, 468, 663,
664, 666-668, 670, 671, 710, 765, 757-764, 766, 794, 962, 1048, 1067
Redox potential, 226, 280, 466, 513, 728
Reed, common, 173, 174, 217, 511, 914, 1019, 1040
Reed-meadow grass, 617
Refuges (see National Wildlife Refuge)
Regulation(s), 1007, 1093
Rehabilitation, wetland, 282
Reptiles, 403, 1073
Research (projects), 835, 922
Reservoirs, 667, 729
Resource(s), 885, 886, 1067
Respiration, 48, 154, 660
Restocking, 147
Restoration, 143, 180, 1081
Reuse (water), 756, 830, 876
Rhizome(s), 284, 516
Rhode Island, 641
1-16
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Rice, wild, 70, 280, 728, 770, 995
Riparian (see also riverine), 405, 608, 640 891-897, 922, 940, 964
River, 223, 592, 901, 960, 985, 1032, 1072
Riverine, 95, 343, 481, 817, 848, 872, 985
Rodent, 823
Rooted aquatic macrophyte (see also plants, emergent vegetation, submerged
vegetation), 557, 711, 818, 845, 937
Roots, 236, 241, 265, 284, 344, 516, 651, 908, 1032
Rotenone, 616
Rotifers, 274
Runoff, 186, 372, 701, 703, 951
Rural communities, 961, 1007
Rush, 1016
Safety factors, 1059
Salinity, 102, 280, 476, 629, 922
Salmo spp. (see trout)
Salmon, 11-13
Salmonella, 46, 252
Salt marsh(es), 44, 56, 79, 119, 130, 232, 253, 287, 325, 498, 534, 583, 641,
690, 721, 802, 888, 942-944, 946-950, 953, 1003, 1014
Saltwater (sea), 11, 96, 548, 639, 643, 660, 757-763, 805, 954
Sand, sandy soil, 73, 74, 937
San Francisco Bay, 76, 180
Sanitation, 756
Sawgrass, 817, 857
Scallops, 547, 763
Sea grasses, 900
Season(s), seasonal, 49, 76, 236, 237, 438, 810, 829, 843, 846, 948, 951, 1009,
1052
Seawater (see saltwater)
Seaweed, 295, 759, 761-763
Secondary effluent, 179, 180, 186, 263, 264, 269, 271, 333, 433, 448, 459,
463-465, 468, 482, 500, 548, 660, 690, 707, 741, 750, 753, 757, 759-763,
779, 843, 846, 850, 852, 866, 904, 908, 966, 996, 998, 1010, 1052
Secondary treatment, 48, 115, 271, 284, 301, 429, 445, 459, 859
Sedge(s), 34, 131, 316, 344, 513, 516, 743, 805, 908
Sediment, 132, 287, 306, 309, 338, 344, 357, 400, 412, 460, 466, 487, 513, 535,
554, 570, 592, 617, 618, 629, 640, 667, 694, 790, 805, 806, 850, 856, 857,
866, 889, 942, 950, 988, 1002
Sedimentation, 866
Scenedesmus acutus (see algae)
Semi-arid, 586
Septic tank systems, 247, 696
1-17
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Sewage, raw, 203, 271, 529, 628, 720, 829, 838, 848
Shellfish, 253, 349, 628, 643, 757-763, 968
Shrimp, 744, 963
Shrub (growth), 667
Siltation, 640
Silver, 1024
Silviculture, 962
Simian rotarirus, 305
Simulated sewage effluent, 980
Site (selection), 671, 683, 706
Skokie Marsh Area, 43
Sludge (digestion, disposal), 555, 614, 651, 726, 739, 759, 806, 820, 838, 839,
869, 929, 936, 942, 943, 947, 948, 950, 953, 1051, 1057, 1067
Small-scale facilities, 709
Sminthurides rubronivius (see collembolan), 575
Snails, 234, 552
Soap(s) (see also detergents), 359
Social, 536
Socioeconomic, 75
Sodium, 131, 149, 383, 411, 448, 501, 986
Sodium thiosulfate, 746
Soil, 3, 87, 149, 305, 348, 377, 400, 429, 433, 436, 449, 461, 520, 540, 541,
554, 561, 651, 669, 683, 698, 743, 759, 779, 838, 876, 891, 904, 908, 921,
930, 977, 980, 994
Soil profiles, 502
Solar energy, 298, 404, 497, 499, 859, 1028
Soiids, 544, 739, 863
Sorghum, 838
Sorption, 817, 921
South Dakota, 655
Southeast USA, 473
South Carolina, 782
Southwest USA, 363, 386, 720, 925
Sowbugs, 227
Spartina spp. (see cord grass)
Species composition, 953, 993
Sphagnum spp. (see also peat), 454, 734, 804
Spiders, 227
Spike grass, 280, 513, 515, 516
Spirodela polyrhiza (see water-flaxseed)
Spray irrigation, 842, 989
Spruce, 454
Spruce, black, 1002
St. Croix, Virgin Islands, 111
Stabilization ponds (see also ponds), 189, 194, 231, 245, 284, 364, 424, 469,
485, 492, 535, 586, 594, 596, 634, 720, 727, 739, 797, 872, 918
Standing crop, 344, 497, 498, 921, 948, 996
Storm water, 29, 132, 371, 399, 922, 979, 1066
Strands, 667
1-18
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Stratification, 849
Stream(s), 5 117, 233, 343, 392, 519, 588, 634, 640, 910
Stress, 185, 203, 920, 950, 1079
Strontium, 1024
Submerged vascular plants, 535, 570, 578, 593, 617, 680
Subsurface, 3
Succession, 585, 593
Suisun Marsh, Sacramento CA, 125-128
Sulfur, 513
Surface water, 186, 433, 445, 452, 908, 909, 962, 994
Suspended particulates, 78, 132, 164, 180, 194, 213, 250, 343, 353, 404, 438,
584, 601, 922, 1019, 1036
Swamp(s), 34, 132, 233, 343, 344, 376, 383, 985
Sweet flag, 993
Swine, 101, 149, 182, 183, 982
Switzerland, 1049
Symposia, 18-20, 52, 128, 404, 910, 920, 921, 990, 1015
Tabanid, 583
Talorchestia longicornis (see amphipod), 575
Taxodium distichum (see bald cypress)
Taylor Creek - Nubbin Slough Basin, 407, 703
Temperate climates, 759, 761
Temperature, 49, 102, 153, 154, 284, 497, 521, 535, 936, 1032
Terrestrial (see also uplands), 1047, 1048
Tertiary treatment, 21, 25, 59, 84, 86, 115, 131, 215, 240, 241, 262, 263, 265-
271, 275, 291, 295, 296, 319, 327, 352, 385, 386, 388, 414, 426, 429, 445,
447, 449, 484, 497, 498, 506, 549, 584, 634, 641, 663, 664, 666-668, 708,
727, 757, 758, 764, 859, 872, 903, 908, 923, 954, 968, 994, 1007, 1009-
1011, 1061
Testes, 1000
Texas, 189, 195, 288, 629, 685, 898
Textile waste, 963
Thalassia testudinum (see sea grass)
Thermal pollution, 399, 468, 574, 643, 848, 851, 867, 900, 941
Thermodynamic, 364
Thiocapsa floridana (see also bacteria), 956
Tidal marsh (see also salt marsh), 278, 302, 311, 381, 520, 554, 768, 803, 807,
808, 810, 811, 817, 942, 949, 950, 960, 991, 993-998
Tilapia spp., 582, 867
Tinicum Marsh, PA, 310, 562, 563
Tissue, plant, 743, 857
Tomatoes, 411, 690
Touch-me-not, 993
Toxaphene, 801
Toxicology, 1, 77, 78, 206, 280, 546, 963, 1001
Toxins, 357, 359, 476, 535, 540, 592, 848, 963, 984, 1015, 1032, 1040, 1046,
1047, 1059, 1080, 1091
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Trace metals (elements), 87, 132, 136, 233, 234, 278, 280, 357, 399, 400, 548,
559, 806, 868, 986, 1032, 1045
Transpiration, 663
Transport, 682, 704
Tree(s) (growth, seedlings), 236, 240, 241, 265, 270, 271, 424, 599, 606, 663,
667, 669
Triglochin spp., 516
Trophic levels (see also food chain), 295
Tropical, 332, 383, 566, 594, 759, 761, 834, 900
Trout, 619, 770
Tubers, 516
Tupelo, 574, 606
Turbidity, 250, 499
Typha spp. (see cattail)
Uca pugnax (see fiddler crab, crab)
Unchlorinated effluent (see also chlorination), 247
United Kingdom (see Britain)
United Nations (UNESCO), 682
Upland(s), 513, 872, 1007
Upland swamps, 664, 799
Urea, 583, 942, 953
Urban, 38, 234, 554, 682, 802, 922, 1066
Utah, 199, 616, 634
Utricularia spp. (see bladderwort)
Values, 314, 397, 605, 656, 657, 736, 905, 951, 1085, 1087
Vascular plants (see also plants, macrophytes), 83, 993, 1020, 1096
Vegetation, 53, 85, 106, 180, 197, 265, 270, 271, 429, 433, 436, 454, 463, 479-
481, 512, 514, 527, 535, 554, 562, 563, 592, 666, 695, 759, 840, 850, 851,
856, 857, 876, 891, 894, 916, 922, 946, 948, 990, 993, 994, 996, 1052,
1061, 1096
Vermontville, 329, 873, 876
Vertebrates, 429, 436, 753
Virginia, 149, 210, 541, 720
Virus(es), 4, 65, 72-74, 305, 355, 399, 436, 449, 548, 666, 667, 863, 930, 953,
974, 975, 977, 978
Volatization, 132, 838
Volunteer wetlands (see also artifical wetlands), 66, 873, 876
Waldo, CA, 673
Walt Disney World, 969
Water budget, 667, 1080, 1087
Water clover (Marsilea quadrifolia), 111
Waterfern, 237
Water-flax seed, 880
Waterfowl (see also ducks), 128, 199, 349, 413, 488, 508, 616, 755, 831, 876
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Water hyacinth, 24, 40, 155, 192, 194, 195, 214, 222, 285, 298, 320, 410, 496,
543, 551, 565, 582, 594, 597, 601, 621, 628, 674, 723, 747, 751, 766, 793,
801, 813, 858, 878, 881, 898, 965, 969, 1017, 1021, 1023-1039, 1041-1043
Water lily, 1016
Water-meal (Wolffia columbiana Karst), 111
Water pollution (see pollution, pollutants)
Water quality, 64, 79, 113, 154, 180, 190, 283, 307, 308, 310, 315, 360, 429,
438, 449, 454, 458, 501, 517, 518, 651, 798, 808, 843, 850, 873, 994, 1032
Water reuses (see also reuse), 18, 19, 20, 125, 128, 141, 175, 196, 205, 830,
874
Water table, 162, 241, 284, 341, 488, 585, 663, 741, 891-897
Water weeds, 1026, 1096
Weeds, aquatic, 766
Wetland evaluation, 730, 736
Wildlife, 32, 129, 175, 180, 221, 403, 525, 543, 608, 666, 722, 823, 922, 971,
972, 1009, 1071, 1080
Willow, 131
Wisconsin, 35, 36, 247-250, 268, 317, 334, 375, 453, 454, 518, 531-533, 537,
574, 816, 817, 843, 845, 1002, 1050
Woodland (see also trees, forests), 695, 891-897, 964
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, 388, 757-762, 889, 968
World Health Organization, 495, 1049
Wolffia columbiana (Karst) (see water-meal)
Yugoslovia, 943
Zinc, 29, 44, 149, 194, 210, 280, 287, 338, 357, 411, 448, 515, 516, 617, 629,
690, 805, 806, 942, 986, 1006
Zizania aquatica (see rice, wild)
Zn (see zinc)
Zooplankton, 256, 273, 274, 284, 535
4 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1984-756-531/321
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