EPA-905/9-81-004
June 1981
SUMMARY OF THE BLACK CREEK PROJECT
(Progress Report)
Report through 1980 Project Year
Based on Seminars
in
'Washington, D. C., February 1980
Chicago, Illinois, March 1980
by
Allen County Soil and Water Conservation District
Purdue University
University of Illinois
Grant No. S005335
Ralph G. Christensen Carl D. Wilson
Section 108a Program Project Officer
Prepared for
Great Lakes National Program Office
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
536 South Clark Street, Room 932
Chicago, Illinois 60605
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CONTENTS
OVERVIEW OF THE BLACK CREEK PROJECT 1
MONITORING OF CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF WATER QUALITY IN BLACK CREEK 4
IMPACT OF CROP SEQUENCE AND TILLAGE ON SOIL LOSS 13
ANSWERS 20
PRACTICAL USES OF THE ANSWERS MODEL IN BMP PLANNING ' 25
BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON WATER QUALITY GOALS 30
BLACK CREEK IMPLICATIONS: PRESENT AND FUTURE 57
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OVERVIEW OF THE BEACK CREEK PROJECT
Sy James. B. Morrison 1
The Black Creek Watershed is located in the Maumee River Basin, a highly
productive agricultural area, geologically dominated by the former floor of
glacial laKa Maumee. The Maumee basin drains into the western end of Lake
Erie through the gently flowing Maunee River.
Black Creek, located in north central Allen County, Indiana, is a tribu-
tary of the Maumee. The 12,000-acre Black Creek watershed was cnosen to
represent the Maumee Basin in a water quality study, because its physical and
economic character so closely mirror that of the basin.-
Like the Maumee Basin, Black Creek is largely an agricultural area. If
you define the town of Harlan as "urban" then the watershed has about the same
proportion of rural and urban areas as does the basin. It probably under
represents the lake plain, and overrepresents upland areas, but in general,
the watershed provides a satisfactory model for the basin which has been iden-
tified as the largest single contributor of silt to Lake Erie.
If you fly over the Black Creek watershed, you will be surprised to hear
that it has an erosion problem. The basin appears to be flat. There are not
obvious areas vvhere soil loss would be expected to be great, but at the begin-
ning of the Black Creek project, close inspection revealed many areas of
potential water quality problems. Water had damaged roadsides, cattle had
damaged ditch banks, the erosion from many small rills and gullies in fields
produced tons of soil to be carried away toward the lake.
In 1972, a conference on the Maunee River was held by Rep. J. Edward
Roush' in Fort Wayne. The Maumee was at that time being considered for inclu-
sion in the Wild and Scenic Rivers system. During the conference, speaker
after speaker spoke to the question of pollution of the Maunee. Tney were in
agreement that although problans of industrial and municipal pollution of the
river remained, these were at least capable of solution by known and tested
methods. The problem of agriculture, pollution from what would soon be Known
as nonpoint sources, was another question. Soil erosion, resulting from agri-
culture, may turn out to be the number one killer of rivers like the Maunee,
the speakers concluded.
Those remarks, which kindled the interest of the Allen County Soil and
Vfeter Conservation District, were the conception of the Black Creek project.
There seemed little doubt that soil erosion and the related fertilizers and
pesticides which might be carried away with soil particles, could represent a
water quality problem. There was, at the same time, a rather extensive body
of experience and knowledge about controlling soil erosion. There was little
understanding about how erosion control related to water quality.
Primarily, the stated purpose of the project was to determine if the
traditional and well known techniques of soil erosion control could have a
1. Information Specialist, Purdue University
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significant impact on water quality. Recklessly, we said we would apply those
practices, find out how water quality improved, find out how much money was
spent in getting the improvement, and finally predict how mucn loadings to
Lake Erie could be reduced for certain expenditures in the Maumee Basin.
Much of the history of the Black Creek project has involved more realist-
ically defining the goals.
Other authors in this report will speak in detail about the monitoring
and modeling efforts, biological studies, application of technology, and til-
lage trials. This overview will concentrate on some of the changes in think-
ing that have accompanied nearly 10 years of work on Black Creek.
LAND TREATMENT PLANNING — Initial plans for conservation treatment of
land in the Black Creek project were detailed. They involved many alterna-
tives, many practices, and considerable effort. Unfortunately, often project
administrators, and even new planners could not understand what was being
planned and what kind of commitments had been made by the project and by the
landowner. They were difficult to use in a voluntary program, they would have
been impossible as a basis for determining compliance in a mandatory program.
As the project continued the planning process was simplified, and an agreement
form was developed that made it readily apparent what kind of work was to be
accomplished each year, what the responsibility of the landowner was and what
the responsibility of the project was.
LAND TREATMENT GOALS — The initial concept of the Black Creek project
was "wall to wall" conservation. Apply as many different kinds of treatment
as possible to every acre of land. Although this was not accomplished, the
project and the landowners of the watershed managed to spend more than
$750,000 on land treatment. At the end of the treatment phase, it was deter-
mined that the same water quality benefits could have been achieved by spend-
ing less than half of that amount —$325,000, concentrating the expenditure on
critical areas, and limiting those practices involved to those wnich, in this
particular area, had an obvious water quality impact — field borders, holding
tanks, sediment basins, critical area planting, grassed waterways, livestocx
exclusion, pasture renovation, and terraces.
IMPORTANCE OF DITCH BANKS —At the beginning of the project, no one was
certain how much of the erosion problem was represented by tne condition of
the ditch banks. However, everyone was certain that work nad to be done there
because the erosion problem was most visible there. Much money was spent on
channel reconstruction, seeding, shaping, etc. This despite objections from
the biological group that some of the work was doing more harm than good.
Finally, it was done in the face of findings that less than 7 percent of the
erosion could be attributed to ditch banks. Project personnel now say we
would have spent less on the ditches if the work were to be done over. How-
ever, teams starting new projects continue to want to put initial effort on
ditches for the same reasons outlined in Black Creek. Ditch bank erosion is
visible, even if it is not too important.
COLLECTING AND ANALYZING DATA — As investigators sought to analyze the
results of the Black Creek land treatment efforts, some significant changes in
the thinking of most of them about data analysis occurred. Initially, most
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were convinced that an adequate picture of the impact of land treatment on
water quality could be obtained by periodically collecting grab samples from
the stream and its major tributaries. As the nature of the storm runoff
events became more clear, the need for the collection of samples on a continu-
ous basis during a storm and the value of automated samples became apparent.
At the same time, the need for detailed analysis and predicting, such as could
be provided only by a computerized model, became apparent. Other speakers
will elaborate on these points.
Although this document concentrates on biological and physical aspects of
the Black Creek project, it is important to recognize that there were colla-
teral studies which provided useful information. Rather detailed studies of
the sociology and economics of the Black Creek area led to some interesting
conclusions. An interesting economic point was that it costs fanners much
more to apply conservation practices when farm prices are good than it does
when farm prices are less satisfactory.
As a part of the project, a computer network was established, controlling
the collection of water samples and recording weather data on a 24-hour per
day basis throughout the year.
Studies of the Black Creek ecology evolved from simple studies of the
kinds and number of fish present to detailed investigations of the interrela-
tionships within the stream-land-river system.
Details of these and other supporting studies are available in a series
of reports on the project published by USEPA Region V.
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MONITORING OF CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF WATER QUALITY IN BLACK CREEK
By Darrell Nelson
Figure 1. is a graphical representation of the 5000 hectare BlacK CreeK.
study area.
•AUTOMATED SAMPLER
& STAGE RECORDER
• RAINGAGE
MAUMEE RIVER
Figure 1. BlacK Creeic Watershed
Table 1. provides information on soils and land use in the watershed. The
drainage pattern in the area consists of one natural stream (Blac:< Creex) ,
running from east to west and discharging into the Maumee River, and a number
1. 1. Agronomy Department, Purdue University
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of drainage ditches used as outlets for surface and tile drains. Grab sam-
pling stations were established at numerous sites within the watershed to pro-
vide water quality data from the various soils and land uses on drains above
the station. Automated samplers were installed at three locations (Stations
2,6, and 12) in the watershed (Figure 1) to provide data on loadings being
discharged during storm events. Snail subwatersheds were established and
equipped with automated samplers to allow careful monitoring of the influence
of selected best management practices on sediments and nutrients in drainage
water. Samples were collected from each of the tile outlets in the watershed
to provide information on the quality of subsurface drainage water and a tile
system draining a 23 hectare field was continuously monitored by use of an
automatic sampling system.
Table 1. Characteristics of the Black Creek Watershed and two intensively
studied drainage areas within the watershed.
Black Creek Smith-Fry Driesbach
Characteristics Watershed Drain (Site 2) Drain (Site 6)
Drainage area, ha 4950 942 - 714
Soils:
Lake plain & beach ridge 64% 71% 26&
Glacial till 36% 29% 74%
Land use:
Row crops 58% 63% 40%
Small grain & pasture 31% 26% 44%
Woods 6% 8% 4%
Urban, roads, etc. 5% 3% 12%
Number of homes; 28 143
Flow was continuously monitored at all stations and water samples taken
by grab or automatic methods, were analyzed for suspended solids, nutrients
and other water quality parameters. Pesticides alkaline earth cations, and
selected heavy metals were occasionally monitored in water samples to deter-
mine if unusual conditions existed in the watershed. All tile drainage sam-
ples were analyzed for suspended solids and nutrients. Whereas samples col-
lected by the automatic sampler from the defined tile system were analyzed for
pesticides and flow was continously monitored.
Meteorological conditions in the watershed were continously monitored. A
complete hydrometerological station with automatic data acquisition and remote
transmission capability was established at site 6 (Figure 1). The amount of
rainfall was measured at seven other locations in the watershed and rainwater
samples were collected for chemical analysis at two locations.
After collection, samples were transported to Purdue University where
analyses were conducted. Data processing was also accomplished at Purdue to
obtain loadings through multiplying measured flows by concentrations of solids
or nutrients. Remotely collected meteorological data was stored in computer
format until it was needed for correlation with measured flow data.
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Results of Water Quality Analyses
Reconnaissance sampling early in the project revealed that no significant
amounts of hexane — soluble pesticides where present in water, sediment, or
fish tissue collected from the watershed. Specific pesticides evaluated
included aldrin, dieldrin, DDT atrazine, trifluralin, and 2, 4, 5-T.
Table 2 provides information on the rainfall, runoff, and sediment lost
from the two major subwatersheds in the Black CreeK area form 1975 to 1978.
Table 2. Rainfall, runoff, and sediment and nutrient loss occurring in two
drainage areas of the BlacK CreeK watershed during the period 1975
to 1978.
Parameter
Rainfall, cm
Runoff, cm
Sediment loss, Kg/ha
Sediment P loss, Kg/ha
Sediment N loss, Kg/ha
Sol. inorg. P loss, Kg/ha
Sol. org. P loss, Kg/ha
NH J-N loss, kg/ha
NO I-N loss, kg/ha
Site
no
2 & 6
2
6
2
6
2
6
2
6
2
6
2
6
2
6
2
6
1975
108
29.1
26.0
2126
3735
5.24
4.51
31.25
28.98
0.14
0.34
0.11
0.13
1.51
1..82
19.01
11.63
, 1976
66
12.4
10.1
637
384
0.98
0.73
4.82
2.86
0.06
0.18
0.04
0.04
0.60
0.85
5.55
2.39
Year
1977
96
18.5
19.4
435
452 .
1.67
1.78
4.55
4.71
0.14
0.47
0.06
0.10
0.58
1.30
15.42
12.73
1978
77
18.5
21.3
380
544
0.65
0.79
6.10
6.91
0.21
0.68
0.08
0.35
0.75
3.06
8.27
5.96
Ave.
86.8
19.6
19.2
895
1279
2.14
1.95
11.68
10.87
0.14
0.42
0.07
0.16
0.86
1.76
12.06
8.18
Precipitation was above normal during 1975, below normal in 1976, and near
normal in 1977 and 1978. Runoff volumes increased with increasing rainfall,
however, the percentage of precipitation appearing as runoff varied over the
years (26% in 1975, 17% in 1976, and an average of 22% for the four year
period). Sediment discharges from the watershed averaged 895 and 1279 Kg/ha
for station 2 and 6, respectively. However sediment losses in 1975 were from
4 to 8 times higher than average of the other three years. Adoption of best
management practices in the watershed during 1975 and 1976 apparently resulted
in decreased sediment losses during 1977 and 1978 as shown by low sediment
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discharges during these years even though rainfall occurred in near normal
amounts.
Table 2 provides data on amounts of sediment - bound N and P discharged
from subwatersheds in the Black Creek area during 1975 through 1978. The
quantities of sediment - bound nutrients lost from the watershed decreased
markedly after 1975 generally in proportion to reductions in sediment losses.
Application of best management practices in the watershed was, at least in
part/ responsible for the reductions in amounts of sediment - bound nutrients
observed during the course of the study.
Table 3 provides data on the amounts of soluble inorganic P and soluble
organic P discharge from the two subwatersheds during a four-year period. The
amounts of soluble organic P discharged were generally low. however, the
amounts lost from the watershed did not decrease during the
Table 3. Proportions of total P and N leaving the Black Creek watershed
transported as various nutrient forms.
Form of nutrient Site no. Site no.
transported : ,
% of total P lost* % of total N lost*
Sol. inorg. P 6.0 16.6 — —
Sol. org. P 3.0 6.3 — —
Sediment P 91.1 77.1 — —
NHj-N — — 3.3 7.7
NO~-N — — 46.2 35.9
Sol. org. N — — 5.8 8.7
Sediment N — — 44.7 47.7
*Average for four years (1975-1978).
period of study. In fact, it appeared that soluble inorganic P discharge
increased during 1978. One explanation for this finding may be that untreated
household wastewater was discharged into the ditches near Harlan during the
time an interceptor sewer was being constructed. Study had previously shown
the septic tank effluents were a major source of the soluble P measured at
Station 6.
Table 3 provides information on amounts of NHt-N and NOv-N discharged
from two subwatersheds in the study are during 1975 tnrough 1978. The amounts
of N03-N in drainage water appeared to be related to amounts of rainfall in
the watershed, i.e. losses of NOZ-^J were highest in 1975 and 1977, the two
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years with highest rainfall. However, the weighted mean NOT-N. concentrations
in drainage water appeared to increase somewhat during the course of the pro-
ject. Losses of NCU-N were relatively high (average of 12 and 8 kg N/ha for
stations 2 and 6, respectively) and likely reflect the fact that much of the
watershed is tile drained and soils are maintained in high state of fertility
by applications of manure and inorganic N fertilizers. Losses of NH*-N were
low throughout the study except for station 6 during 1978. the relatively
high N loss obtained at station 6 likely resulted from septic tank effluents
originating in Harlan during construction of the interceptor sewer line. Cal-
culations suggested that 14% of the N added to soils by natural N fixation as
through manure or fertilizer applications appeared as NHt + NCC in drainage
water (Table 4). * j
Table 4. Calculated average losses and inputs of inorganic N for the Black
Creek watershed.
Ave. inorg. N*
loss or gain
Inorg. N losses: leg x 10"^
Measured total loss 58.8
From precipitation runoff 10.1
From septic discharge
From applied or fixed N 41.4**
Inorg. N inputs:
Applied and fixed N 286.8***
Infiltrated precipitation 34.9
Total inputs 321.7
% of total N inputs lost in drainage 17.5%
% of applied and fixed N lost in drainage 13.7%
*Average of four years (1975 - 1978)
**Calculated as the difference between total inorganic N loss and
that derived from precipitation runoff and septic discharge.
***Based on farmer information on fertilizer and manure applied
and average values for N fixation by legumes.
This finding suggests that improvements may be made in managing N additions to
soil to minimize the amounts which are present in drainage water.
Analyses of water samples suggests that adoption of best management prac-
tices by farmers has not led to a reduction in the discharge of soluble forms
of N and P from the watershed. In fact, there is a suggestion that losses of
soluble N and P increased slightly as the conservation practices were imple-
mented. In future projects some attention should be given to adaption of best
management practices which minimize the transport of soluble nutrients from
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soil to water.
Table 5 presents the average proportions of total rainfall, runoff, and
sediment transport which occurred in calendar quarters during the 1975-1978
measurement period. Rainfall was nearly equally distributed throughout the
quarters which
Table 5. Average proportions of rainfall, runoff, and sediment and nutrient
losses in the BlacK CreeK watershed during calendar quarters.
Parameter
Site Calendar quarter*
no. ,_,
123
4
% of yearly total**
Rainfall
2 & 6
20.8
33.6
26.8
18.7
Runoff
Sediment loss
Sediment N loss
Sediment P loss
Sol. inorg. P loss
NHj-N loss
NOj-N loss
2
6
2
6
2
6
2
6
2
6
2
6
2
6
46.9
47.6
34.2
25.4
22.7
• 23.4
32.1
28.4
52.9
59.3
50.6
67.1
44.2
42.7
34.1
30.8
54.1
65.7
67.2
• 64.3
60.3
46.0
25.4
16.4
35.6
15.9
36.6
31.6
3.8
4.1
2.6
2.2
1.6
2.9
2.8
4.6
3.6
5.0
2.3
1.7
2.6
2.9
15.2
17.5
9.2
6.7
8.5
9.4
4.8
21.1
18.1
19.3
11.5
15.4
16.7
22.7
*1, Jan.-Mar.; 2, Apr.-June; 3, July-Sept.; 4, Oct.-Dec.
**Average of four years (1975-1978)
the 2nd quarter (April - June) having the highest proportion and the 4th quar-
ter the lowest proportion. Most of the runoff in the watershed occurred dur-
ing the first two quarters with the 1st quarter contributing during the second
quarter (SS-65% of total) and very low during the last two quarters of the
year.
A high proportion of soluble inorganic P was transported during the 1st
quarter of the year likely due to snowmelt runoff carrying soluble P leached
from plant material on the soil surface. A substantial proportion of the sed-
iment bound P lost from the watershed was transported during the 2nd quater in
relation to the proportion of sediment which was transported during the 2nd
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quater. A significant percentage of sediment-bound P was transported during
low flow conditions. This suggests that nigh P solids originating from septic
tanxs are a source of sediment - bound P during low flow conditions in
ditches.
More than 50% of NH+-N lost from the watershed was transported during the
1st quarter_ indicating that snow melt may be a*major contributor of NHt-N.
Losses of NO^-N were concentrated during the first two quarters of .the year
vtoen runoff and percolation of water were high. Nitrate in streams originates
largely from N applied as fertilizers and manure the previous year or mineral-
ized from organic matter after crop harvest in the fall. There were low N
loses measured during the two quarters following fertilization during a par-
ticular calendar year. Losses of sediment - bound N were concentrated during
the 2nd quarter as was found for sediment and sediment - bound P loses.
At station 2 (draining largely agricultural land) more that 90% of the
total P lost from the subwatershed was transported as sediment - bound P
(Table 6). However, at station 6 (receiving some septic effluent) a surpris-
ing proportion (23%) of total P was transported as soluble forms of P. These
findings suggest that for agricultural land the reduction in sediment
discharge can have a marked effect upon minimizing total P loadings coming
from a watershed.
Table 6. Proportions of total P and N leaving the BlacK CreeK watershed
transported as various nutrient forms.
Form of nutrient Site no. Site no.
transported
% of total P lost* % of total N lost*
Sol. inorg. P 6.0 16.6 — —
Sol. org. P 3.0 6.3 — —
Sediment P 91.1 77.1 — —
NH+-N — — 3.3 7.7
NO~-N — — 46.2 35.9
Sol. org. N — — 5.8 8.7
Sediment N — — 44.7 47.7
*Average for four years (1975-1978).
For urban areas or farmland impacted by septic tanK. effluents attention should
also be directed toward reducing the amounts of soluble P lost from the area.
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About one - half of tne total N discharged from the Black Creek watershed
is as sediment - bound N and one - half is as NO^ (Table 6). This finding
suggests that in any land areas best management practices must be directed at
minimizing runoff and leaching of NOZ as well as reducing sediment losses.
Furthermore, modeling N discharge from agricultural watersheds will be diffi-
cult because of the requirement to describe:(i) sediment - bound N transport,
(ii) leaching of NCC-N to tile drains, and (iii) movement of NO" in surface
runoff water.
Flow in ditches in the Black Creetc watershed originates primarily from
rain storms (event related), however, base flow and snow melt significantly
contribute to total annual flow at certain times during the year. Sediment
originates primarily from one to three large rainstorms (producing 2.5 cm of
runoff) which occur each year. A relatively low proportion of transported
sediment originates for the numerous small storms which occur during the year.
However, many of the small storms occur when the soil surface is covered by
vegetation and the erosion potential is low.
Sediment - bound P transported to drainage ditches in the watershed ori-
ginates primarily from large rainfall events (Table 7) as was found for sedi-
ment. Rainfall events of all sizes as well as snow melt are major contribu-
tors to the soluble inorganic P leaving the watershed. This finding likely
originates from the equilibrium wnich is established between P sorbed on soil
particles and inorganic P in solution whenever rainfall or snow melt comes
into contact with soil. This equilibrium is largely independent of sediment:
waters rates and the soluble inorganic P loads are a function of volume of
water originating in the various flow producing events. However, snow melt
runoff is apparently enriched in inorganic P leached from plant residues on
the surface of the soil.
Sediment - bound N in drainage water originates primarily from the large
rainfall events responsible for most of the sediment transport. Various sized
rainfall events and snow runoff transport NCU-N in about the proportion in
which they contribute to the total flow. This finding suggests that NOZ-N
concentration in water present in ditches as a result of different events is
similar and the amount transported is largely a foundation of the volume of
water originating form the various flow producing events.
Water flowing from the watershed originates largely form surface runoff,
however, subsurface and tile discharges into the ditches are responsible for
about 30% of total flow. Almost all of the sediment transported in the
watershed originates from soil erosion and transport of soil particles in
runoff water. Tile drainage water contained low concentrations of suspended
soils.
Sediment - bound P originated primarily from surface runoff at both sam-
pling stations, however, at station 6 a surprising proportion, 20% of sediment
- bound P, was drained from septic tank effluents.. Septic tanKs effluents
were the source of a significant proportion (>30%) of soluble inorganic P
leaving the watershed, but surface runoff accounted for greater than 55% of
soluble inorganic P in runoff. Surface runoff was the primary source for
soluble organic P in drainage water although septic tank effluent contributed
a significant proportion in samples taken at station 6.
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.Table 7. Proportions of water flow, and sediment and nutrient losses from
the Black CreeK watershed associated with different flow producing
situations.
Parameter
•
Water flow (Runoff)
Sediment loss
Sol. inorg. P loss
NO~-N loss
Sediment N loss
Site
no.
2
6
2
4
2
6
2
6
2
6
BF
20
16
4
9
10
14
13
9
4
2
Type
SE
% of total
25
24
13
81
30
27
30
22
14
13
of flow*
LE
transported**
44
47
79
6
40
34
44
54
78
76
SM
11
13
4
20
25
13
15
4
9
*BF, base flow; SE, small rainfall events resulting in less than 2.5
on of runoff; LE, large rainfall events resulting in more than 2.5 cm
of runoff SM, snow melt runoff.
**Average of four years (1975-1978).
Ammonium N in drainage water originated largely in surface runoff, how-
ever, both septic effluent and tile drainage water was a source for some NHt-
N. Subsurface flow from tile drainage and surface runoff were equal as
sources for NO^-Njsransported out of the watershed. Best management practices
for minimizing NCL-N additions to surface water must be designed to control
both runoff and leaching losses of NO~-W. Sediment - bound N originated pri-
marily in surface runoff. Solids present in septic tames effluents were rela-
tively low in total N and the septic tank contributions were masked by the
large amounts of sediment - bound N present in surface runoff from cropland.
Algae bioassay studies conducted to evaluate the availability of P in
suspended stream sediments of the Black Creek watershed established that about
20% of the total P and 30% of the inorganic P present would ultimately become
available. Therefore, sediment P is the major source of algae available P
leaving the watershed (see Table 6) and best management practices should be
directed at reducing sediment loss from the watershed if downstream effects
are to be minimized.
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IMPACT OF CROP SEQUENCE AND TILLAGE ON SOIL LOSS
By Jerry V. Mannering and Don Griffith^
My purpose is to review some of our results from the Black Creek study
regarding conservation tillage. Conservation tillage is certainly recognized
as an effective BMP in the Black Creek Project. I will review with you some of
the findings regarding conservation tillage from the Black Creek study and
also include other information not only from other studies in Indiana, but
surrounding states as well regarding the impact of conservation tillage, pri-
marily on erosion control.
One thing that you need to realize when you discuss conservation tillage
is that soils are different and different soils respond differently to various
forms of conservation tillage. The north part of the watershed represents the
more sloping area where runoff and erosion is more of a problem. The central
section area is a transition area of the old beach ridges that has higher sand
content in the surface soils, but also suffers from inadequate drainage. The
south section is representative of the high clay, poorly drained soils within
the watershed. There are good reasons why farmers have not flocked to a til-
lage system that leaves a large amount of residue on the surface in this par-
ticular watershed and the reason is primarily because in much of the watershed
people have been fighting excessive water all their lives, and a system that
leaves a heavy mulch on the surface on poorly drained land aggrevates the wet-
ness problem.
What we tried to do in the Black Creek study was to look at conservation
tillage on a range of soils that would well represent the makeup of the
watershed. For example, we had a study located on a Haskins loam soil, a
nearly level soil that was influenced by sand cover from the old ridge. We
tested conservation tillage on a Nappanee clay loam, an almost level soil and
a Hoytville silty clay, another almost level soil with less than 1% slope. A
fourth test was located on a more sloping rolling area of Morley clay loam on
a 4-4.1% representing the upper third of the watershed. Erosion under
equivalent rainfall would be 3, 4, or 5 times as much under the same condi-
tions on the rolling part of the watershed compared to the other 3 nearly
level areas. The more level areas as have been fighting excess water all of
their lives. The reason the Black Creek watershed contains several drainage
channels is that farmers needed them to get rid of excess water so that they
could make this an economic farming operation. They cannot compete on this
kind of land without an effective subsurface drainage system and they need
adequate outlets. We need to understand some of the drainage needs of this
area when we look at the overall impact of agriculture on water quality.
In the Black Creek tillage tests discussed in this report wa were compar-
ing the influence of fall tillage on the erosion that occurs that subsequent
spring. We compared 4 treatments? 1). we did nothing to the plots after har-
vesting (no-till), 2). we had a light fall discing, 3). a fall chiseling
around 8-9 inches deep, and 4). a fall moldboard plowing approximately 8-9
inches deep. With the moldboard plowing you invert most of the residues,
trfiich has an influence on soil erosion, and on water quality. The chisel plow
1. Agronomists, Purdue University
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- 14 -
on the other hand, depending on the amount of residues from which you start
does leave appreciable amounts of trash on the surface. It also leaves the
surface in a quite roughened condition. In some cases on some soils raoldboard
plowing also leaves the surface rough. But with chisel tillage you have the
additional effects of the residue as well. The light disking treatment, as we
used it, only slightly reduced the amount of residue cover on the surface.
Most conservationists agree that if we can Keep a sufficient amount of residue
on the surface we can do a tremendous job in reducing soil erosion.
In this particular study we looKed in turn at the effect of tillage on
soil erosion, the effect of crop sequence effects on soil erosion because we
tested the tillage treatments following both corn and soybeans and the
interaction effects between the type of crop and the method of tillage. Tests
were made using simulated rainfall because we wanted to control the amount and
energy of rainfall that was occurring so we could get a relative comparison
between treatments. The storm applied was an intense storm, about 2 1/2
inches per hour one day followed 24 hours later by another 2 1/2-inch storm.
We measured the amount of runoff that occurred with a water stage recorder.
Aliquot samples of runoff were taken every 5 minutes for determination of sed-
iment load. Again, the period that we were testing, was the end of
Wischmeier's crop stage 3 (rough fallow for the plow, disk, and chisel) and 4
(residue period for the no-till) . Visual observations show that prior crop
can have a significant effect on surface roughness, thus susceptibility to
erosion. For example fall plowing high clay corn land leaves it much more
rough and cloddy compared to fall plowed soybean land. Fall chiseled corn
land is also rougher than fall plowed soybean land. Another important point
to remember when evaluating the effect of tillage system on soil erosion is
row direction. Any system that leaves marks or ridges such as chiseling will
be much more effective across than up and down slope. A visual comparison of
light disking following corn verses light discing following soybeans show the
former to be cloddier and more resistant to erosion. By the time the simu-
lated rain tests are made, the light disk treatment had weathered 4 or 5
months and the easily transported soil particles had been removed by natural
runoff events. Therefore when tests were made in the spring percent cover
following corn was as high on the disk treatment as the no-till treatment.
The surface roughness was similar on no-till plots following both corn and
beans, however, corn residues were much more plentiful than bean residues. We
measured percent surface covered and the results are shown in table 1. for the
Hoytville soil.
Table 1. Surface Cover - Hoytville Silty Clay
%
No-till
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Soybeans
24
12
9
. 1
Corn
78
77
57
4
Soybeans/ corn
0.31
0.16
0.16
0.25
On the Hoytville silty clay loam following both soybeans and corn we are set-
ting increased residue protection from conservation tillage compared to fall
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- 15 -
moldboard plowing. Total amounts of residue cover are much higher fallowing
corn than beans on all conservation tillage systems. I don't believe that's
news to any of you, but it does indicate why at least one of the major reasons
why land following soybeans is more erosive than land following corn. Note
that only 31%, and 16%, respectively, as much cover occurs after beans than
after corn on the no-till, disk, and chisel treatments.
Effects of tillage on surface cover on the Morley clay loam is given
table 2.
in
Table 2. Surface Cover - Morley Clay Loam
%
No-till
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Soybeans
26
17
12
1
Corn
69
70
25
4
Soybeans/ corn
0.38
0.24
0.48
0.25
More residues are present following corn than following soybeans as expected.
Residue cover following beans were 38%, 24% and 48% of the cover following
corn for the no-till, disk and chisel treatments.
Soil losses on the Hoytville site are given in table 3.
Table 3. Soil Loss - Hoytville Silty Clay 0.8% Slope
t/ha
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Soybeans
7.8
6.9
9.3
5.3
Corn
1.1
.9
1.7
4.3
Soybeans/ co rn
7.1
7.3
5.6
1.2
Following soybeans soil loss from the no-till and the disk treatments are
essentially the same, but soil losses from chisel are a little higher. Plow-
ing has the lowest soil loss. On this level land the reason that soil loss
from the chisel treatment is higher than on the plowing treatment soybean land
is that the chisel created a furrow for water to flow from the plot. The
plowed treatment left the surface irregular and roughened and we had more sur-
face ponding. Following corn there was sufficient residue left on the surface
of the chisel plot to interrupt the furrow. Following soybeans we didn't get
a whole lot of control form conservation tillage. Following corn we did.
Soil losses were similar from no-till and disk, but remember they had amount
the same about of surface cover. Chisel although not as effective as the
other forms of conservation tillage still gave fairly good control compared to
plowing. The relationship of soil loss following soybeans to corn is quite
striking seven times as much on the no-till and disk and 5 1/2 times on the
chisel.
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- 16 -
Table 4 contains soil loss data from the sloping Mbrley soil
Table 4. Soil Loss - Morley Clay Loam 4.0% Slope
t/ha
No-till
Disk
Chisel
Plow
Soybeans
13.4
12.4
30.3
40.9
Corn
2.4
2.5
15.0
21.8
Soybeans/ corn
5.6
5.0
2.0
1.9
Results from our original base plot data would indicate erosion was at least 3
times more serious on the rolling (4%) land than it was on the nearly level
land in the watershed. Positive influence from our conservation tillage in
reducing soil loss following soybeans occurs on the Morley site. Soil losses
form the no-till and disk treatments were less than half these from the chisel
treatment where tillage furrows were up and down the slope. Still, soil loss
was 25% less from chisel than plow treatments.
much more erosion control occurred from conservation tillage after corn
where soil loss from no-till and disk were about 10-12% of those from plowing,
and chisel losses were about 25% less than plowing. Again rows were up and
down the slope. A ratio of soil loss following beans and following corn com-
paring the conservation tillage system shows over 5 times as much soil loss
under the no-till and disk treatments and 2 times as much for the chisel and
even on the plow treatment soil losses where he were almost 2 times as much
following soybeans than following corn. The point here being that as we
increase our soybean acreage we need to be much more careful about controlling
soil erosion following that year of soybeans. Remember, its not the year you
are growing soybeans, its the year after soybeans that is a problem. Although
conservation tillage is effective in reducing soil loss, it loses much of its
effect when you follow a crop like soybeans. In addition you need to be more
concerned with row direction with systems such as chisel tillage if you are to
do an effective job.
The Black Creek results are just one of many we have about the influence
of conservation tillage in reducing soil loss. For example, tests conducted
at Coshocton, Ohio under natural rainstorms show no-till to be especially
effective in reducing soil loss. The data is given in table 5. These results
were from a high intensity rainstorm. Even though the no-tilled corn land was
on a slope of 21%, only a token amount of soil loss occurred. This study also
demonstrated the value of contouring in reducing soil erosion. The results
demonstrate there is no question of the effectiveness of surface residues such
as you have in the no-till treatment in reducing soil erosion.
The conclusions from our and other tillage studies, are as follows: 1).
tillage systems have a major effect on residue cover 2). prior crops signifi-
cantly effect residue cover 3). there is an interaction between the tillage
system and crop sequence and the amount of cover produced 4). an indirect
relationship exists between surface cover and soil erosion 5). systems such as
no-till or light disking that leave appreciable surface residue greatly reduce
soil erosion-it is not only just a small percentage its a major reduction 6).
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- 17 -
Table 5. Runoff and Soil Loss on Sloping - and Contour-Row Fields
in Corn Watersheds (Coshacton, OH).*
Tillage system and
row direction
Plow/clean till
(sloping rows)
Plow/clean till
(contour rows)
No-till
(contour rows)
%
Slope
6.6
5.8
20.7
Runoff as
% of rain
80
42
49
Soil loss
t/A
22.6
3.2
.03
* About 5.3 inches of rain fall within a 7-hour period.
chisel tillage is only effective if residues are plentiful or surface remains
rough so its effect can vary from one soil type to another 7). row orientation
is very important on a system like chisel tillage on sloping lands 8). soybean
land is much more erosive than corn land primarily because of the residue but
also because that soil tends to be looser.
I want to say just a few things about the acceptance of conservation til-
lage systems by farmers and the adaptability of these systems to Indiana. Don
Griffith has provided leadership in this portion of the study. He has had
replicated trials out the last few years in which has first objective was to
determine which conservation tillage systems are adapted on the primary soil
types in the watershed and the second objective was to have a high percentage
of the fanners in the watershed using conservation tillage techniques. We
haven't really succeeded in objective number 2. Some of the reasons why are
discussed below. Most certainly there has been an effort to get more conser-
vation tillage on the land through demonstrations and though research. We've
had some successes and some failures. But, we have learned from these Kind of
studies and results.
Generally, we have found that on the better drained soils in the
watershed, even no-till systems will work providing pests (primarily weeds)
can be adequately controlled with chemicals. Table 6 contains yield results
from the Morley clay loam soil, which is one of the more erosive soils in the
watershed.
Table 6. Morley Clay
Tillage system
No-till
Chisel
Plow
Loam - 1976
Harvest population
20,281
18,812
17,609
Yield
Corn
91.1
89.5
88.2
(Du/ac)
Soybeans
23.2
21.7
24.3
Although yields are not particularly high, both conservation tillage systems
were competitive with plowing for both corn and soybeans. We can conclude
from these and other results that on these sloping, erosive lands conservation
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- 18 -
tillage is competitive with plowing. Additional results were obtained in 1979
and are given in table 7.
Table 7. BlacK Creek Tillage Trials - 1979 Morley - Blount Silt Loam
Previous Tillage Harvest Yield
crop system population bu/ac
Corn*
Soybeans
Plow
Chisel
No- till
Plow
Chisel
No-till
20,562
20,812
18,375**
21,812
22,062
20,562
114
112
100
134
136
134
* Lodging was severe in all continuous corn plates, approximately
due to corn root worms damage.
** Reduced stands in no-till continous corn resulted from poor seed
cover due to wet soils at planting.
Where we were following corn no-till was not competitive with plowing, prob-
ably because of reduced stands. When we were following soybeans, both no-till
and chisel were competitive with plowing. Chisling was also competitive with
plowing where corn followed corn. Cn the poorly drained soils we have not
been getting the yields from conservation tillage that compare with the con-
ventional systems.
Conclusions for these and other studies are as follows: 1). fall chisel
can replace moldboard for continuous corn or corn after beans without limiting
production where weeds can be controlled. 2). shallow tillage or no-till for
continuous corn or corn after beans should not limit production on well or
moderately well drained soils where perennial weeds are not a serious problem.
3). no-till sod planting should not limit production compared to moldboard
wfiere perennial weeds -are not a serious problem. 4). shallow or no-till
planting is liKely to be more successful on poorly drained soils when corn
follows soybeans or sod rather than corn. 5). perennial and herbicide resis-
tant weeds are more liKely to limit soybean than corn yields with no plow til-
lage. 6). shallow or no-till planting compared to deeper tillage is liKely to
lead to more serious disease problems such as phytophthora root rot for soybe-
ans on poorly drained soils. 7). fanners are not liKely to adopt conservation
tillage unless success can be demonstrated in their area. 8). some form of
conservation tillage that has been demonstrated to be adapted to soils in an
area should be a high priority BMP. 9). wnere pests are easily controlled
there should be little or no cost for the benefits gained in erosion control
and water quality. 10). where perennial and resistant weeds are a problem
added herbicide costs and/or reduced yields may reduce profit by $5-10/acre
for corn. Costs-in terms of reduced yield or added chemicals, conservation
tillage for soybeans conclusions are not yet fully developed.
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- 19 -
We have put what we Know about tillage in Indiana into an extension pub-
lication AY-210 "Adaptability of Various Tillage-Planting Systems to Indiana
Soils." Vfe've got a big job to do as far as selling conservation tillage in
areas where it is highly adapted. I'm not concerned trying to get conserva-
tion tillage on all the land in the state of Indiana because we have lots of
land where its a high risK situation. Poorly drained soils many times are not
well adapted to systems that leave lots of trash on the surface. We're con-
vinced that it certainly is tremendously effective in reducing soil erosion.
It can be used in combination with other conservation practices to make soil
erosion control more effective and even more complete, but we need to get more
farmers interested and more farmers convinced that it will worK on their
situation.
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- 20 -
ANSWERS
David B. Beasley
Most hydrologic models attempt to model a physical system in which there
is an input of rainfall or some other driving meteorological variable which
interacts with the soil surface/ crop cover, and subsurface soil layers to
produce runoff, erosion, chemical washoff, subsurface drainage, etc. This
concept is inherent to almost all watershed models that use a deterministic
process. The general hydrologic and erosional relationships that must be
addressed by a watershed model are presented in the Black CreeK Final Report
— Technical Volume (Lafce, 1977).
Basically, large scale watershed models fit into two separate classifica-
tion schemes. They are either long-term or event-oriented simulations. In
addition, they either use distributed parameter or lumped parameter concepts.
The time scale used in watershed models is somewhat dependent upon what the
modeler or planner intends to do with the output data. A long-term simulation
can give some insights into overall loadings, net surface effects, etc. An
event-oriented simulation uses a much shorter time increment and attempts to
describe, in detail, the storm-induced response of the hydrologic system and
any modifications that may have been made or planned. For non-point source
studies, the event-oriented simulations attempt to describe those situations
in which the watershed is most active.
The difference between lumped parameter and distributed parameter model-
ing methods and concepts is much harder to define. Cne reason for this prob-
lem is the extent to which a particular model is either lumped or distributed
can be quite variable. Some models exhibit both lumped and distributed pro-
perties. Essentially, a lumped parameter model attempts to describe the
overall system response using aggregated or lumped representations of physical
parameters. In most cases, the lumped parameter loses its physical signifi-
cance in the process. Another characteristic of lumping is the inability of
tne model to provide spatial output. Cnce the system has been described, the
output point is fixed. The distributed parameter model is, in effect, a sys-
tem of snail models (possibly lumped) which provide the ability to simulate
processes in a spatial and temporal sense. Although much more physical signi-
ficance can be maintained, an assumption of unifonnity must be made within any
of the small subdivisions. The distributed concept also allows .for accessing
output from any or all points within the modeled area. Two direct conse-
quences of distributed parameter modeling are increased computer requirements
and costs.
The ANSWERS (Areal Non-point Source Watershed Environment Response Simu-
lation) program has been in use for nearly four years. In that time many
improvements in the actual model, as well as the operational structure, have
been made. ANSWERS is an event-oriented, distributed parameter watershed
model. The original ANSWERS program (Beasley, 1977) was based on the
1. 1. Agricultural Engineering Department, Purdue University
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- 21 -
distributed parameter watershed hydrology model developed by Huggins and Monke
(1966). Channel flow, subsurface drainage, sediment detachment and transport
(i.e., erosion and deposition), and land use and management interactions were
also included.
Dr. Jack Burney, while a visiting professor at Purdue, rewrote ANSWERS
into the basic form used today. The changes were, for all intents and pur-
poses, transparent to the user and had very little effect on the output of the
model. However, the size of the simulation and the computer time required to
execute it were both reduced, resulting in a substantial savings in processing
costs. Dr. Burney also added the concept of "shadow" channel elements.
Essentially, this concept allowed for every element to be considered as an
overland flow element with certain of these elements contributing their out-
flow directly to a companion or "shadow" channel element (which then routed
the flow downstream).
The early versions of ANSWERS utilized the GASP-IV simulation language as
the basis of the modeling structure. GASP-IV had many good features, such as
the ability to simultaneously solve numerous differential equations in an
implicit manner and the ability to easily take care to the scheduling of
discrete occurrences within a continuous simulation. However, the processor
time and space required by the many subroutines of GASP-IV led to its abandon-
ment in favor of a smaller, somewhat faster system of explicit solution algo-
rithms. The newer, FORTRAN-based version of ANSWERS is much more exportable,
since all of the routines required to run the model are internal and written
in FORTRAN, which almost every computer facility is capable of running.
The primary component relationships, although essentially intact from the
original version of ANSWERS, have been modified to the extent needed to fit
the newer model structure. In addition, several new components have been or
are in the process of being added. These include: structural practices and
their effects on erosion, sediment movement and runoff water; lateral ground-
water movement (interflow); channel erosion; nitrogen and phosphorus yields;
and several new statistical analyses of the watershed data file. Specific
component relationships are described in detail in the BlacK Creek Final
Report — Technical Volume (Lake, 1977).
ANSWERS and the concepts behind it are receiving increasing national
attention. Presently, several organizations are either using or preparing to
use ANSWERS on their own planning projects. The most notable of these is the
Honey CreeK Watershed Project in Ohio where the U. S. Corps of Army Engineers,
in cooperation with both USDA and USEPA are modeling the Honey Creek area in
an effort to determine the possible benefits of concentrated application of
conservation tillage practices.
Use of ANSWSERS in Planning
ANSWERS was designed to simulate the hydrology, erosion response, chemi-
cal yield, etc. of ungaged agricultural watersheds. Due to the use of a
comprehensive descriptive data file and distributed parameters, the model has
the ability to predict the consequences or benefits of land use and/or manage-
ment changes. For these reasons, then, ANSWERS has applicability in either
the planning or evaluation areas.
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- 22 -
To date, the validation effort has been aimed at the use of ANSWERS as an
evaluation tool. The success of this effort on several watersheds with vary-
ing land use, management, topography, climatic conditions has led to the con-
clusion that ANSWERS should have an equally successful record as an _a priori
planning tool.
Several examples of planning and/or evaluation programs using the ANSWERS
program are available. Che program, a Special ACP project in Allen County,
Indiana, will be illustrated here to provide an insight into a methodology
developed around the ANSWERS model for planning and evaluating water quality
improvement programs.
Data gathered on soils, hydrologic and erosional response, nutrient
yields, etc. as part of the Black Creek study were available and directly
applicable. In addition, the personnel in the Allen County Soil Conservation
Service (USDA-SCS) and Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service
(USDA-ASCS) offices, along with the Allen County Soil and Water Conservation
District (SWCD) were familiar with and interested in using ANSWERS as a part
of the overall planning effort.
In order to best utilize very limited monetary and personnel resources, a
planning methodology was developed which would simplify watershed selection
and evaluation tasks. The planning methodology was divided into four phases:
1) Establishment of a "baseline condition",
2) Planning of structural, tillage, and management changes necessary
for treating "critical areas",
3) Determination of water quality impacts caused by "critical area"
treatment,
4) Apportioning cost sharing payments and credits on a cost effective,
priority basis.
Marie Delarme Watershed Example
The Marie Delarme watershed in southeastern Allen County, Indiana has
been identified as one of 14 watersheds in the county with potential water
quality and erosion problems. This predominately agricultural area is 1203
acres (487 ha.) in size. Of this area, 1043 acres (422 ha.) is in row crops.
The rest of the watershed is designated as pastureland, woodland, or
homesites. The average slope in the watershed is 1.9 percent with local
slopes ranging from 1 to 6 percent. Sixty percent of the watershed is mapped
as poorly drained silty clay loam soils (Blount, Crosby, and Hoytville). The
remainder of the soils are the moderately permeable silt loams (Raskins and
Rensselaer).
The first phase in the planning methodology involved the setting of a
"baseline condition". In order to eliminate year to year variations in
predicted benefits, the initial or "baseline" conditions were simulated assum-
ing that all of the tillable land (1043 acres) was planted to conventionally
tilled corn. Antecedent soil moisture was assumed at field capacity and the
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- 23 -
storm used corresponded to a 1.5 hour event with a return interval of slightly
more than 8 years. These conditions, when applied during an assumed crop
growth stage of one month after planting, produce sediment yields at the
outlet of the watershed which approximate the long-term average annual sedi-
ment and particulate phosphorus yields for this land use pattern.
Once the "baseline" had been simulated, a contour map which plotted local
sediment yield or deposition was produced. This map depicted the "critical
areas" or those areas where delivered sediment yield exceeded one ton per
acre. With the map in hand, planners could determine which areas had the
greatest problems. In addition, the map could be used for gross siting of
proposed BMPs (Best Management Practices). The location and size of the
"critical" areas can, in many instances, determine the particular BMPs which
the planners suggest for bettering the runoff water quality.
After the planners had several alternative control strategies in mind,
they simulated each combination of BMPs using the same storm as the "baseline
condition". Although there is usually only one best solution, there may be
several control strategies which reduce sediment or nutrients in the stream to
acceptable levels.
The final phase of the planning methodology involves the actual selection
of the most cost effective alternatives. Also, the setting of variable cost
share rates, determined by comparing individual or systems of BMPs to overall
watershed response can be performed. Cost effectiveness, as defined here, is
a function of BMP cost divided by sediment yield reduction. Once the various
BMPs have been evaluated for cost effectiveness, they can be ranxed against
each other and the watershed as a whole. Those practices which are more
effective than the average could be encouraged with higher than average cost
shares, while the less effective measures could still be encouraged, but to a
lesser extent.
• Some of the alternatives looxed at in this particular example included:
1) Parallel Tiled Cutlet (PTO) terraces were installed where local sed-
iment yields generally exceeded one ton per acre,
2) Chisel plowing was instituted in all row cropped areas with local
sediment yields in excess of one half ton per acre,
3) Various combinations of PTO terraces and chisel plowing.
Although there are many more structural and tillage-based BMPs than the two
demonstrated, the comparisons were still quite valid. The most cost effective
practices were, quite logically, the tillage-based BMPs. However, they did
not reduce the sediment yield from the watershed to the extent that structural
BMPs did. The most effective strategy used a mix of the two BMPs with struc-
tures in the areas with the highest yields. See Table 1 for sample results.
The evaluation criteria, whether cost effectiveness, percentage reduc-
tion, or actual reduction, is greatly influenced by the assumptions used in
determining the "baseline condition". Also, rather small changes in the
assumed input conditions (e.g., storm intensity or volume, soil moisture, sur-
face conditions) can produce much larger changes in the output. Although the
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- 24 -
storm used in these simulations produced the average annual sediment yield in
northeastern Indiana, it might not be applicable in other parts of the coun-
try.
The preceeding example described one methodology in which ANSWERS was
used in both the planning and evaluation roles. The use of the sediment and
nutrient yield information produced along with estimated costs for various
treatment strategies can give the planner a very effective tool in vvorKing for
cost effective solutions to nonpoint source pollution problems.
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- 25 -
PRACTICAL USES OF THE ANSWERS MODEL IN BMP PLANNING:
AN ALLEN COUNTY EXPERIENCE
.by
Daniel McCain*
Other papers in this proceedings discuss the details of the worK done in
water quality management and ongoing research of planning at the national,
regional or state level. The focus of my presentation will be practical local
use of the ANSWERS computer model that is now setting priorities for conserva-
tion worK as related to water quality in Allen County. At this time, we are
past the 5 year EPA funded BlacK CreeK (1972-1977) demonstrational project and
well into our second year of applying ASCS Special ACP Water Quality money.
To be successful and get conservation on the land to improve water qual-
ity, we've had to involve people—not just agency personnel, but the people
that do the farming. Ultimately, it is the farmers wno carry out national
objectives for conservation. To gain their cooperation, field people have to
bring them together on some mutual basis. In the humid midwest (corn belt),
that mutual interest centers on drainage basins.
In 1969, when I was assigned to worK in Allen County, the emphasis of
conservation worn in the county—by both the Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
and the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS)—was on
drainage. More than a decade later, this emphasis has shifted dramatically.
SCS and other agencies of the U.S. Department of Agriculture have undergone
considerable change in how their appropriations are used, and their programs
have also changed. In Allen County the difference has not been due entirely
to the earlier BlacK CreeK experience, but I'm certain that many local changes
occurred as a result of national trends interacting with our staff, the soil
and water conservation district supervisors, and farmers during the 1970's.
We have found ourselves on the "cutting edge" with our local adaption of
nationally conceived "non-point source" concerns.
After the worK in BlacK CreeK was complete, a search was made for other
problem areas in the" county. On a critical area map, targeted rural
watersheds were located that had the worst water quality problems. The
results was a list of 13 small watersheds (1,000 to 3,000 acres) we call the
"Dirty BaKer's Dozen." Using the ANSWERS model and ranKing these watersheds
according to gross soil loss per acre, the most important critical areas were
pinpointed. In 1979 special funds were applied for and received through the
Agriculture Conservation Program (ACP) for a water quality project. Most of
the $75,000 in ACP funds received in 1979 has gone into one of the 13 target
watersheds, a 1,645-acre area called the Brunson project. In 1980, two more
critical watersheds were evaluated and the "Dirty BaKer's Dozen" was reranKed.
This year $100,000 is spread into six (6) of the thirteen (13) watersheds.
A primary reason for this special ACP funding was an innovative approach
to determine where planning is needed, when a group of people come to us for
what they believe is simple-to-define technical assistance with drainage, they
* District Conservationist, Soil Conservation Service, Ft. Wayne, IN.
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- 26 -
don't realize that we're going to try our best to develop their appreciation
for water quality improvement, as well as solve their drainage problems. We
are doubly fortunate in that the relationships that began emerging with Black
Creek in 1972 and that exist among other locations decisionmaKing groups
reflects a strong commitment to attack problems head-on.
Groups we are now working with in the Special AGP Project approach are
receptive. The ANSWERS model is a big reason why. Planning with ANSWERS
involves the use of computer drawn maps such as the "erosion contours" map.
This tool points out "hot-spots" or critical erosion areas identified by loca-
tion within the watershed. A trained conservationist might wonder why these
areas cannot be located through field work instead of using printouts from a
computer model. We can, but that's not the point. A computer-drawn map of
erosion contours in the watershed gives a focus for meetings with groups of
fanners. Talking with them about the map helps them become more receptive to
learning where and when erosion occurs because of slope and concentrated
runoff.
In meetings with the group, we emphasized the proximity of erodible lands
to the drainage outlets. When a conservation planner presents the group with
a few conclusions from this fact, farmers can readily visualize where erosion
is causing water quality problems. The total sediment yields computer by the
model represent a net loss of topsoil through the "mouth" of the watershed.
A 20- by 40-inch blowup of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)
sliderule calculator has been used before several groups. The calculator has
not intimidated the groups: by using such visual aids, highly technical
matters are comprehensible to fanners. Our partnership with the groups has to
be educational-on both sides—to be effective. Taking the group on a field
trip to see opportunities and to recognize potential benefits also help.
In conservation planning sessions with the groups-we have tried not to
put all our eggs in one basket, for example, with conservation tillage. Suc-
cess with conservation tillage depends on many variables. It was not possible
to persuade many farmers to convert to conservation tillage during the Black
Creek era simply because of these variables. For example, climatic variabil-
ity over a 4-year rotation might bring a wet spring, a dry spring, an early
spring, and a late spring. Climate and other variables require the farmer to
make daily decisions that can complicate his tillage plan.
Not that I'm negative about conservation tillage—in fact it's the one
practice that can touch every acre—but I've seen what can happen when a
farmer tries it without fully understanding it. It may require him to adapt
his equipment and make other changes. Every spring day the farmer can face a
different set of weather conditions, crop prices, operating expenses, and
other things which he has no control but on which he must form decisions.
Therefore, it is important to offer the farmer conservation alternatives that
won't add to his burden of daily decisionmaking. Seen positively, however,
conservation tillage is not a burden at all but an investment in wise manage-
ment that pays off in savings in fuel, labor, time, water, and soil.
Even so, practices such as terraces serve as permanent "reminders" of
conservation on the landscape. These practices can be very compatible with
-------
- 27 -
conservation tillage; most important, however, they signal a "commitment to
conservation" and become symbols of the group's progress in understanding and
dealing with erosion and sedimentation. And if nature provides a disastrous
spring for tillage, at least part of the conservation system will function.
Permanent conservation practices require the farmer to make fewer deci-
sions, although they won't necessarily be any easier to make than decisions
about tillage. For example, if a farmer wants to construct terraces and
waterways and needs financial help, he requests cost-sharing assistance from
the ASCS office. SCS provides an engineering plan and gives him a cost esti-
mate, and his thoughts come down to a one time "yes or no" decision. If he
decides to go ahead with the practices, a contractor builds them and they
become a permanent facility. The only questions remaining is whether the
farmer will permanently maintain the practices.
In all, then, there are three ways we can tackle cropland erosion prob-
lems related to water quality. First, we encourage changes in TILLAGE and
planting techniques. Second, we encourage CROP ROTATIONS that are compatible
with the farmer's present tillage system. Or third, we suggest permanent land
treatment practices such as TERRACES, which reduce slope length and increase
temporary storage capacity for runoff. If the farmer selects any one of these
changes—or some combination of them—improved water quality should be the
result.
When we targeted critical areas in the Krunson project we had to go after
the job from the top of the hill down. We didn't want to repeat an earlier
experience in BlacK Creek; that is, overselling the group on what they were
already prepared to request—outlet development. Also, in Black Creek more
streambank protection than necessary may have been installed because of the
farmers' concern about highly visible streambank erosion. Black Creek find-
ings showed that only about 7 percent of the sediment load entering the Maumee
River was caused by streambank erosion. However, the fanners noticed stream-
bank erosion more than they noticed sheet and rill erosion on sloping crop-
land.
In planning with the groups and in orienting them to the kinds of prac-
tices needed, ASCS and SCS can provide farmers with cost sharing and technical
help as far down the outlet as necessary to make a properly functioning pro-
ject. In the Brunson project, individual terrace outlets were safely taken
down the watershed through tile beside group grass waterways, and into a pro-
tected mutual open outlet. All these practices helped as part of a protective
scheme for the critical areas.
It may also be necessary to study the channel far enough through the
critical areas to find the unstable segments. In Black Creek, we were most
successful with a practice we call "training," that is, putting rock riprap
low on the channel banks in unstable soils and installing a 1 1/2- to 2-foot
drop structure to lessen channel grade.
From the top of the watershed down, an opportunity and an obligation
exists to explain technical alternatives to the farmers. The ANSWERS model is
useful for these explanations because it graphically depicts the eroding
areas. An overlay of the erosion contours map with an ownership map lets the
-------
- 28 -
fanner see whether he has an erosion problem that requires attention. But
don't tell him, "LOOK, you dirty farmer, you're causing all these water qual-
ity problems and you're going to have to do something to clean them up."
Instead, approach the group in a positive way by showing them the beneficial
things that they can do—both as a group and as individuals—to improve water
quality and reduce the sedimentation on their neighbors' lands downstream.
In some cases, the approach to land treatment in the Brunson project was
turned 180 degrees from the previous approach in Black Creek, where outlets
were usually developed first. In the Brunson project, we started at the top
of the watershed by securing commitments from fanners for cropland treatment.
Of the $75,000 allocated for the Dirty Baker's Dozen in 1979, ASCS approved
$60,000 for cost sharing of group parallel tile outlet (PTO) basin terraces in
the Brunson watershed. To make the terraces work, waterways were constructed
and outlets developed to handle the metered tile flow from the terraces. Most
of the job was completed in 1979. A second smaller group—SOUTHWEST BRUNSON-
-with some of the same farmers, completed additional terraces and a mutual
waterway in the summer of 1980.
The ANSWERS model could prove even more valuable when used with the
analysis of BMP's on farms and as a group. The hypothetical watershed (figure
1) and reduction estimates (table 1) illustrate a means of using the ANSWERS
model in planning. Perhaps the time will come when the public will buy water
quality improvement with "dollars spent for tons saved."
Table 1. Effect of BMPs in reducing sediment
Primary
BMP
Level (Ave/Farm)
Group
A
Individuals
All Plus
Samuels
Cells
100
20
Application
Outlet
Livestock
exclus .
Initially
1350
1500
with BMP's
675
700
Reduction
50%
53%
Sub
Group Smith
B Fry
Sub
Group Sharp
C Jones
Green
Gray
Johnson
17
13
6
14
8
10
12
None
None
Waterway
Terraces
Tillage
Terraces
None
2000
0
700
1000
1200
900
1200
2000
1000
500
400
600
400
1200
0%
0%
28%
60%
50%
55%
0%
Sub
Group Jones
D Green
Sub
Group Gray
E Johnson
14
8
10
12
Terraces
Tillage
Terraces
None
1000
1200
900
1200
400
600
400
1200
60%
50%
55%
0%
-------
- 29 -
SMITH
FRY
V
JONES
GREEN
\
SAMUALS
GRAY
JOHNSON
Figure 1. »/P°thetical Watershed
-------
- 30 - •-
BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON WATER QUALITY GOALS
By James R. Karr and Daniel R. Dudley ^
Increased societal concern for tne state of tne environment is clearly
manifest in tne proliferation of environmental legislation in tne past decade.
Early efforts directed towards pollution control focused on point sources of
pollution because of tne ease witn which tney could be controlled and regu-
lated. As tne magnitude of tne point source problem reduced, tne relative
contribution of nonpoint sources expanded.
Concern for tne degradation of water resource quality from nonpoint
sources has been a matter of special concern since passage of tne Water Qual-
ity Act Amendments of 1972 which called for the restoration and maintenance of
"the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters." In
the following pages, we evaluate the progress made in attainment of that
objective as a result of studies in tne BlacK CreeK watershed.
BlacK CreeK: The Central Question
From its inception, the central question to be addressed by tne nonpoint
control program in tne BlacK CreeK watershed was: Are traditional erosion con-
trol programs sufficient to not only reduce erosion but also to improve the
quality of our water resources? That is, is it possible to implement a volun-
tary program of erosion control in an agricultural watershed and thus control
water resource problems resulting from nonpoint pollution from agricultural
lands? It is now clear that tne answer to that question is a distinct no!!
That is not to say tnat some incremental improvement cannot be obtained witn
tne traditional approach. Rather, attainment of tne objective of PL 92-500 is
not possible witn that conventional approach. In tne following pages, we out-
line the primary deficiencies of that approach as well as suggest an alterna-
tive conceptual model which will produce a more comprehensive solution to the
nonpoint problem.
ffowever, before we detail conclusions and results of the BlacK CreeK stu-
dies, several concepts should be clearly outlined.
Fishable and Swimmable
The concept of "fishable and swimmable", first introduced in Public Law
92-500, is a desirable, but ambiguous objective. Fishable in tnis context is
often defined as maKing the stream useful to fishermen in capturing sport or
commercial fish. However, since many small streams contain too little water
to be used for swimming or to support a sport or commercial fishery, cney are
often discounted as not having any significance to tne fishable and swimmable
objective. We feel that it is inappropriate to measure tne value of a stream
reach based on tnis particular component of fisna'ble and swimmable criteria.
That quality must be more broadly defined than hoo< and line locally because
1. Department of Ecology, Ethology and Evolution, University of Illinois and
Division of Surveillance, Ohio Environmental Protection Agency
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- 31 -
the importance of headwater streams to downstream reaches (in terms of produc-
tion of fishable benefits downstream) is underemphasized in that context.
Although a headwater stream may never be fisnable, it is an integral component
of the watershed; its preservation is essential for downstream reaches to be
fishable and swimmable. The biological integrity mandate of Public Law 92-500
depends on an integrative view of the entire water resource system at the
watershed level rather than its consideration for local reaches of the stream.
Water Quality vs. The Quality of a Water Resource
Planners, scientists, politicians and the general public commonly use the
phrase "water quality". Almost invariably, the use of that phrase implies
physical and chemical conditions of the water. These include such items as
temperature, dissolved oxygen, nutrient levels, and concentration of suspended
solids, heavy metals, and toxic chemicals. The assumption is generally made
that improvement in "water quality" will result in optimization of the widest
range of water uses by society, (domestic, industrial, irrigation, agricul-
tural, recreation, aesthetics).
In addition, it is assumed that there is nothing else that society need
do (or can do) to improve the quality of water resources. As we will show
below, both of these assumptions are false; their continued acceptance will
result in progressive and continuing decay in water resources.
Loadings vs. Concentrations
Commonly, the sole point of focus of efforts to model nonpoint pollution
is loadings (commonly annual loading, the total sediment or nutrient per unit
area exiting a watershed) . It is clear that raa]or storm events play the pri-
mary role in determining annual sediment or nutrient loading. Tnese major
transitory events are especially important for consideration of effects on
downstream areas, particularly receiving waters downstream—natural laxes or
reservoirs. However, it is also important to note that the. average conditions
expressed in smaller runoff events, and even during base or low flow periods,
play a major role in governing the characteristics of stream communities and,
thus, the biological integrity of a water resource. More careful considera-
tion must be given in all monitoring and modelling efforts to the relative
merits of emphasizing concentration information throughout the year as opposed
to the loading information which is determined by a few transitory events.
Both loading and concentration data during all flow conditions must be
monitored and evaluated. The relative emphasis on the two will vary depending
on the nature of the water resource problem under consideration.
Selection of Monitoring Sites
The selection of monitoring locations plays a major role in determining
the reliability of water quality parameters arid water quality conditions meas-
ured for a watershed. The selection of sanple sites which are adjacent to
bridges is often convenient and can be defended in many cases on those grounds
alone. But, if there is some particular activity immediately upstream of that
site which significantly increases or decreases suspended solids loads, con-
clusions about sediment and nutrient dynamics may be very misleading. For
-------
- 32 -
example, we had one sample site with unusually high suspended solids concen-
trations. We found that a couple duc.
-------
- 33 -
PROTECTIVE
ENVIRONMENT
(natural areas)
PRODUCTIVE
ENVIRONMENT
(agriculture)
COMPROMISE
ENVIRONMENT
(classified
channel)
URBAN-
INDUSTRIAL
ENVIRONMENT
Figure 1. Compartment model of the basic Kinds of environment
required by mans partitioned according to ecosystem development
and lifecycle resource criteria. (Modified from Cdura 1969).
urban-industrial environments. As will be discussed below, the compartment
model is useful for addressing, in operational terms, strategies of innovative
soil and water conservation management.
Stream Ecosystems
An individual -stream or section of a stream is not an isolated system.
Streams and rivers are open ecosystans with dynamic imports and exports of
nutrients, energy, and water (Big. 2). Major changes in tne inputs to
upstream (headwater) areas are ultimately carried to and affect downstream
areas. Further, some aquatic life, especially fishes, may depend upon migra-
tion to upstream or downstream areas for tne completion of their life cycles.
The concept of the open ecosystem has two important management implications.
First, streams are subject to rapid and gross perturbations caused by land-use
cnanges (urbanization, intensive agriculture, etc.). Second, properly managed
-------
UPSTREAM
AND LAND
SURFACE
- 34.-
TYPiCAL
STREAM
SECTION
DOWNSTREA
I
"FR
-
— *s
"^
^
A >-"X 1 1 A T" 1 /*"*
IMPORTS
NUTRIENTS
ENERGY
BIOTA
EXPORTS
Figure 2. Generalized flow diagram for aquatic ecosystem.
land-use in watersheds can effectively and rapidly lessen perturbations in
stream systems.
A classification system developed by Horton (1945) and modified by Kuehne
(1962) is commonly used by aquatic bioligists to discuss the progressive
increase in stream size. According to this system, the smallest streams in a
watershed are first order. When two first-order streams join, they form a
second order stream, when two second-order streams join, they form a third
order stream; etc. Ecological discussions of streams typically consider three
size classes: the headwaters (1st and 3rd order), intermediate-sized rivers
(4th to 6th order), -and large rivers (7th and larger orders). While this
classification system is generally useful, note that stream order effects may
vary somewhat among watersheds. For exanple, differences in size of upstream
watershed or watershed topography may affect tne nature of the stream-order
pattern.
Man alters streams by dredging new channels in poorly drained areas or by
modifying existing natural channels. These man-engineered watercourses must
be considered streams even though they are clearly different from natural
streams in many respects (i.e., drainage and flow characteristics, chemical
and physical parameters, bottom type, etc.). Important as these differences
are, one basic ecological principle applies to both man-altered and natural
streams; water, nutrients, and energy are exported to downstream areas. Thus,
man's construction of drainage ditches is not separate form natural drainage
patterns; rather, it is only an addition to or a modification of the natural
stream network that profoundly effects water resources both locally and down-
stream.
-------
- 35 -
We have been able to identify what we feel are four major classes of
variables (Fig. 3) which, when modified by man's activities, play primary
roles
FLOW
REGIME
ENERGY
SOURCE
WATER
QUALITY
HABITAT
STRUCTURE
BIOLOGICAL
INTEGRITY OF
AQUATIC BIOTA
Figure 3. Primary veriables affecting the structural and
functional aspects of the biota of a headwater stream.
(Modified from Karr and Dudley 1978)
in determining the characteristics of the biota of running water (lotic)
ecosystems (Karr and Dudley 1978). These are water quality, flow regime,
habitat structure, and energy source.
Any project meant to address the mandates of PL 92-500 must address defi-
ciencies in all of these to insure the optimization of water resource quality.
Consideration of "water quality" characteristics alone, as has been the case
in Blacx Creek and many other NFS efforts, cannot be expected to produce the
water resource quality which seems to be the societal objective mandated by
recent water resource legislation.
Flow Regime
Fluctuating water levels are an itegral part of all stream ecosystems and
aquatic organisms have evolved to compensate for changing flow regimes. Even
areas decimated by catastrophic floods or droughts are often quicKly recolon-
ized. But modifications of the land surface with changing land use typically
results in flood peaKs and low-flow periods that are more severe as well as
more frequent. Late summer low-flow periods may be extended while hydrograph
peaKs following runoff events are often of shorter duration.
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- 36 -
High water periods are determined by the frequency, occurrence, and type
of rainfall event, the timing of those rainfall events, and such antecedent
conditions as soil moisture, time since tne last rain, and amount and type of
soil cover. Flood events in natural watersheds tend to have a dampened hydro-
graph, while those in modified watersheds tend to have a sharp and extreme
peaK. Low flows in natural watersheds tend .to be severe only in particularly
dry years, while low flow periods in modified watersheds are relatively more
severe, especially during late summer and early fall periods wnen rainfall is
at relatively lower levels in midwestern portions of the United States.
When such flow events prevent seasonal migrations of fish or interfere
with egg or fry development, irreversible catastrophic changes may result.
Under the extreme condition of dewatering, the biota may be lost entirely.
Recognition of the significance of this problem has precipitated tne formation
of a special group within tne Office of Biological Services of the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service. This group, the Cooperative Instream Flow Service
Group, is developing a detailed methodology for evaluating flow requirements
of aquatic organisms. Their primary objective is the development of criteria
to allow assessment of the impact of altered stream-flow on habitat charac-
teristics and the use of an area by aquatic organisms (StalnaKer and Arnett
1976). They seex to identify the hydraulic conditions necessary for a variety
of groups of organisms, including different age classes of the same species
when their requirements differ. For example, the probability distribution of
walleye with respect to stream velocity varies among the age classes and with
reproductive state of fish (Fig. 4).
JD
03
-Q
O
co
d
o
0
(VJ
0
]\ f
\ i
"IV '
i TFRY
r! /
\
\
\
\
\
1 /
ArSPAWNING \
/'
f /
f*«
v\ /
i
i
-.-[ •N^!liv!NlLES..'^.DU LTS
1 2 3
Velocity (ft/sec)
Figure 4. Probability of use curve for several age classes of
Walleye. (Adapted from unpublished material of the Cooperative
Instream Flow Service Group, with permission of C. StalnaKer.)
Fry are found in only the slowest water while juveniles, and especially
adults, utilize higher velocities. Finally, spawning fish require mucn higher
flow rates. Modifications in a stream wnich destroy areas with "spawning"
-------
- 37 -
velocities may nave a significant negative effect on walleye reproduction
although adult fish may not be directly affected. These efforts to examine
the flow regimes and hydraulics of streams and their effects on biological
integrity will maxe major contributions to the management of running water
resources.
Water Quality
In recent years most efforts to reverse the degradation in quality of
water resources have focussed on the physical and chemical properties of
water. Temperature, dissolved oxygen, concentrations of soluble and insoluble
organics and inorganics, heavy metals, and a wide variety of toxic substances
are components of special interest. They may affect biological integrity by
directly causing mortality or may shift'the balance among species as a result
of subtle effects such as reduced reproductive rates or changing competitive
ability.
The importance of these factors on stream biota is widely Known (Warren
1971, Hynes 1974). Water quality factors which are of special concern include
light, temperature, dissolved oxygen, suspended solids, dissolved ions, and
other materials. These play critical roles in determining an area's suitabil-
ity for aquatic organisms. In addition to the average condition, extremes and
their temporal pattern have important impacts on the biota.
Each of these are of concern individually. However, in many watersheds
liKe BlacK CreeK, human activities may precipi-tate problems of degradation of
biotic interity because of the synergistic effect of several variables (see
discussion of algal blooms below).
Habitat Structure
The physical structure of the environment also plays a major role in
determining the number and Kinds of fishes and other organisms that can sur-
vive in a stream. Channel geometry in natural watersheds typically includes a
meandering topography, with substrate diversities created by varying flow
regimes length-wise along the stream channel and across the channel. The
result is substrate sorting, the presence of pools and riffles, erosion and
deposition areas, and ultimately a dynamic equilibrium between the flowing
water and its substrate. Modified watersheds, on the other hand, tend to have
very much reduced diversity in channel geometry; they are often straightened.
Channel maintenance activities commonly create a uniform substrate and reduce
depth diversity in the absence of pool and riffle topography. In addition,
sedimentation increases due to a disequilibrium channel and/or because of ero-
sion from the land surface.
Straight open channels in the presence of abundant nutrients, sunlight,
and high temperatures creates ideal conditions for the choKing algal blooms
which are such an obvious component of BlacK CreeK in late summer. In years
of lower rainfall in late spring and early summer, these algal blooms develop
in late May and early June; in years with more substantial rainfall during the
early summer, the algal blooms are curbed by the flushing action of channel
flow.
-------
- 38 -
These and other complex interations with the physical habitat of streams
affect the biota of the stream. Bottom-dwelling invertebrates such as mol-
luscs (Harman 1972) and insects (Allan 1975) seem to be especially affected by
the diversity and sorting of boctom or substrate types in an area (sand,
gravel, rocKs, etc.). Substrate particle size determines the size of the
interstitial spaces which, in turn, affects the amount of water and oxygen
available to the bottom-dwelling community. Adequate interstital space is
also essential for the movement and feeding of aquatic invertebrates. Fishes,
vtfuch use environments in a more three dimensional fashion, seem to respond to
a complex of structural features including substrate type, depth, and current
velocity (Gorman and Karr 1978). Further, many fishes and some invertebrates
require places of concealment (cover) as feeding locales or as places to
escape predation. General cover types include undercut banks, timber and
brush snags, and aquatic vascular plants. Without essential habitat struc-
ture, many forms of aquatic life are eliminated from streams. However, as the
variety of habitat conditions increases with the development of pools, rif-
fles, meandering topography, and the sorting of substrate sizes, nabitat com-
plexity increases and supports a wider diversity of fishes (Fig. 5.).
CD
TJ
.C
iZ
2.5
2.0
1.5-
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Habitat diversity
Figure 5. Relationship between habitat diversity and fish species
diversity. (From Gorman and Karr 1978).
In addition to the general dependence of fish community structure on
habitat characteristics, there is a more subtle significance to habitat struc-
ture. Early in our BlacK Creex efforts, we noted major seasonal migration in
the watershed (Karr and Gorman 1975). In addition, we noted less easily
explained movements which seemed to vary in magnitude among habitats within
the watershed. This stimulated a study of the movements of fish in several
stream reaches. Fish were marxed with a procedure called cold branding.
Silver brands in shape of various letters were supercooled with liquid nitro-
gen and touched to the sides of fish duplicating the common hot branding used
to marK cattle and the livestock on open ranges. We branded fish in three
major habitat types. Three sampling stations were selected in the main chan-
nel of BlacK CreeK in areas that nad been subjected to major channel
-------
- 39 -
alterations (Stations 12, 26, and 29) early in the Black CreeK study. The
second major habitat was on tne Wann Drainage immediately east of tne BlacK
CreeK watershed (Station 13). Although there has been no recent channel
modification worK in this area, the stream reach had been modified perhaps ten
years earlier. The lacK of disturbance over the years created a stream which
had begun to meander in its channel base and in which dense vascular plant
populations provided cover. As reported earlier by Gorman and Karr (1978),
this section of stream contained a richer fauna tnan that found in similar
reaches of the BlacK CreeK watershed. Our final study area was a section of
the Wertz Drain where it traversed the woodlot called Wertz Woods (Karr and
Gorman 1975), This area has an especially rich fauna (Gorman and Karr 1978).
1);
Populations in higher quality habitat are relatively more secure (Table
Table 1. Recapture rates, habitat diversity and stream channel conditions
at several sites where fish were marxed by cold branding.
Channel and
Habitat
Conditions
Badly Disturbed
Disturbed, but
Recovering
Wertz Drain Relatively
in Wertz Woods Natural
Habitat
Diversity*
2.89
3.05
3.31
Number
of Fish
Marked
1,190
767
958
Percent of
Fish
Recaptured
15
37
*Data for June 1975 using the information-theoretic measure of diversity for the
composite of bottom, depth, and current velocity. See Gorman and Karr 1978 for
more detailed explanation of methods.
they are able to survive locally over longer periods. Clearly, total emphasis
on water quality in the physical-chemical sense will not overcome habitat
structure deficiencies. Further, we have provided evidence in earlier reports
that those areas with better quality habitat also have a beneficial effect on
water quality (Karr and Gorman 1975, Karr and Schlosser 1977, 1978, Schlosser
and Karr 1980).
In another study one of my (JRK) graduate students at the University of
Illinois (P. Angermeier, pers. commun.) has divided two sections of Jordon
CreeK in east-central Illinois with 1/4" mesh hardware cloth supported by
steel posts. Cn one side of each section all cover features (e.g., logs,
-------
- 40 -
limbs) were removed from in or near the water. On the other side, a continu-
ous series of similar objects was secured along the stream. In. July and Sep-
tember, samples of the biomass of fish was 4.8 to 9.4 times as high in the
areas with structurally complex habitats.
Further, the large fish, and especially the top predators tended to
select the structured habitat. In this case we Know water quality is constant
in the structure and unstructured sides of the stream, yet the numbers of the
fish are markedly different. These improved habitat conditions seem to pro-
vide two things: habitat for small fish including a diversity of substrates
for food organisms and hiding places (cover) from which large fish can prey on
smaller species. This again emphasizes the importance of habitat structure as
a determinant of biotic conditions in a stream.
Note that, to a great extent, the hydraulics of flow regimes determines
the physical structure of stream habitat, and, thus, the efforts of the
Instream Flow Group will clarify the problems of stream management for both
flow regime and habitat structure.
Energy Source
In stream ecosystems the form and source of the energy and nutrients are
especially important in determining ecosystem characteristics. The energy
contained in the chemical bonds of organic matter is the basic energy source
for animals, fungi, and many bacteria. The process of breaxing the chemical
bonds to release energy an simpler compounds is respiration. Production is
the reverse process in which energy in the form of solar radiation and simple
compounds are converted into complex organic compounds. Obviously, plants are
the ma}or producer organisms and high production rates are dependent upon
abundant sunlight and essential nutrients. The fundamental energy relation-
snip can be expressed by the production (P) to respiration (R) ratio: P/R>1
when production exceeds respiration (autotrophy), P/R<1 when repiration
exceeds production (heterotrophy). In streams, this basic energy flow charac-
teristic is sensitive to the organic loading from the terrestrial environment,
the anount of sunlight and nutrients, the form or availability of nutrients
(simple compounds vs. complex organic compounds), and a number of other fac-
tors such as turbidity.
Studies of the energetics of stream ecosystems (Cummins 1974) stress pro-
cess oriented attributes such as production, respiration, energy flow,
nutrient cycling, and trophic dynamics. It is a fundamental postulate tnat
many process oriented attributes of running water ecosystems change as streams
increase in size from headwaters to mouth.
The transition from small headwater areas to major rivers is referred to
as the stream continuum. Structural and functional attributes of natural
stream ecosystems change along this continuum (Table 2). These attributes
serve as reference points to assess the status of the stream ecosystan in any
location. If the ecosystem degradation resulting from these expectations, it
may be due to ecosystem degradation resulting from man's activities. At the
very least, it suggests that more detailed study is required. The theoretical
foundations for these "reference points" comes to a great extent from
forrested watersheds, as a result, it may be necessary to develop an
-------
Table 2. General characteristics of running water ecosystems according to size of stream. (Modified from cummins 1975).
size
Small
headwater
streams
(stream
order
1-3)
Medium
sized
streams
(4-6)
Large
rivers
(7-12)
Primary
source
Coarse particulate
organic matter
(CPOM) from the
terrestrial
environment
Little primary
production
Fine particulate
organic matter
(FPOM), mostly
Considerable
primary
production
FPOM from
upstream
Production
state 1
Heterotrophic
P/R <1
Autotrophic
P/R >1
HeterotropUic
P/R <1
Light and
regimes
Heavily
shaded
Stable
temperatures
Little
shading
Daily
temperature
variation high
Little shading
Stable
temperatures
Trophic status of dominant
Insects Fish
Shredders Invertivores
Collectors
Collectors Invertivores
Scrapers Piscivores
(grazers)
Planktonic Planktivores
collectors
I
.p-
1. A stream is autotrophic if instream photosynthesis exceeds the respiratory requirement of organisms living in
the area (i.e., P/R >1). It is heterotrophic if import of organic material from upstream areas or the land
surface is necessary, (i.e., P/R <1).
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- 42 -
alternate foundation for raarKedly different terrestrial environments in the
dry nonforested regions of western Nortn Anerican (Minsnall 1978).
Headwater streams in natural watersheds are usually neterotropnic. That
is, they have production to reaspiration ratios (P/R) of less than 1.0 and are
dependent on food produced outside tne stream (allocthonous material). Dense
tree canopies shade tne headwaters so that instreara production is minor, gen-
erally from small populations of moss or periphytic algae (algae attached to
rocKs or other substrates). One study in a New Hampshire watershed (deciduous
forest) snowed that 99% of the energy requirements for tne biota of a headwa-
ter stream was of allocthonous origin (Fisher and LiKens 1973). A very dif-
ferent watershed in Oregon (coniferous forest) demonstrated tne same general
pattern (Sedell et al. 1973). In this situation the persistence of the biotic
community depends on a regular input of food (organic matter) from external
sources. The terrestrial environment supplies much of -the energy input in the
form of leaf liter shed in predictable seasonal pattern (fall in temperate
deciduous forest; dry season in tropical forest).
The particle size of organic matter entering a stream is just as impor-
tant to stream ecosystem functioning as the amount, type, or timing of energy
input. In undisturbed headwater areas, the terrestrial environment produces
particulates of relatively large size (such as leaves, twigs, etc.) , referred
to as coarse paticulate organic matter (CPOM). Bacteria and fungi quicKly
colonize the CPOM and, as a result of their metabolic activity, speed the pro-
cess of fragmentation into small particles—fine particulate organic matter
(FPQyi) . (Any organic particle less than 1 millimeter in diameter is con-
sidered FPOM, regardless of its source.) The breaKdown process of CPOM is
accelerated by benthic invertebrates, primarily aquatic insects, which ingest
and further fragment (or shred) the CPOM. Organisms with this functional
capacity are called shredders. Shredders utilize some of the energy contained
in the CPOM along with the rich growths of attached bacteria and fungi. But
most of the CPOM is simply converted to FPOM and is available for use by
another functional group of aquatic organisms called collectors. Collectors
either filter FPOM from the water or gather it from the .sediments (Cummins
1973). Because of structural adaptations, most collector organisms utilize
FPOM only within a narrow size range (Cummins 1974), thus illustrating the
critical nature of particle size in stream ecosystems. The natural associa-
tion of shredder and collector organisms in headwater streams results in a
highly efficient utilization of energy (organic matter) input. Cummins (1975)
has estimated that the biota processes about 80% of the particulate organic
matter (POM) and 50% of the dissolved organic matter (DOM) in natural first to
third order streams.
Functional attributes are marKedly different in undisturbed intermedi-
atesized rivers. The stream becomes autotrophic (P/R>1) as the stream becomes
less shaded and algae and vascular plants increase in abundance. CPOM inputs
are reduced, resulting in decreased shredder abundance. Incoming allocthonous
material is primarily FPOM from headwater areas and a variety of collector
organisms are common. The autotrophic status of the stream account for the
presence of a third functional group of aquatic macroinvertebrates. These are
the scraper or grazer organisms that exploit periphytic algae and vascular
plants. A few scrapers can always be found in natural headwater streams but
their abundance is severely limited by the low rate of primary production.
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- 43 -
In large rivers (7tn and 12tn order) the stream again becomes hetero-
trophic due primarily to increased turbidities reducing light penetration and,
therefore, tne potential for photosynthesis. Tne primary 'production that does
occur is generated by pnytoplanxton (free-floating algae). Free-floating col-
lectors (zooplanKton) are also -present, utilizing tne phytoplanKton and
suspended FPOM as food. Collectors also predominate in tne sediments as FPOM
is tne major energy source. Few scrapers or shredders occur in a large river
environment.
The fisn fauna also reflects the energy sources available in a stream.
However, fish can be more directly related to the value in human terms of the
water resource (commercial and sport fish). Cummins (1975) categorized the
functional attributes of fish communities according to the food habits of the
dominate fish. Predominate food habits are somewhat different for the three
major ecological areas of an undisturbed river system. In headwater streams,
fishes that feed upon macroinverrtebrates (invetivores) are dominant. Inver-
tivores along with piscivores (fisn that consume other fish) dominate
intermediate-si zed rivers. Finally, in large rivers dominate members of the
fish community are planKtivores (fishes feeding upon both pnytoplanKton and
zooplanKton). Two additional categories are omnivores (consuming both plant
and animal matter in approximately equal portions) and herbivores (consuming
primarily plan materials). Qnnivores and herbivores are rarely dominant in
natural running water systems.
Our results in BlacK CreeK indicate major disturbances in these energy
source (functional) dynamics. Many of the modified channel areas seem to be
autotrophic rather than heterotrophic.(Table 3).because of the abundance of
sunlight and nutrients. The abundant algal blooms alter the organic load and
habitat characteristics of the stream. Research in needed to determine what
level of autotropny can be tolerated without a distruption in biological
integrity.
The trophic status of the aquatic invertebrate community has changed
(Karr and Dudley 1978) in response to a variety of factors. The organic
matter processing efficiency in the disturbed headwater system is modified
thus increasing organic loading to downstream areas.
The trophic status of the migrant fishes has shifted from priscivore to
omnivore because of declining water quality and stream habitat structure.
This has increased the populations of the less desirable fish species and
decreased the nunber of top predators that act as a natural population checK
on other species. (See Karr Dudley 1978 for more detailed documentation using
the Maumee River watershed).
In summary, then, we find that the onslaught of human effects on the
biotic integrity of the water resource system of BlacK CreeK is affected by a
diversity of factors and not just water quality in the physical-chemical
sense. Briefly, several Key points are reiterated here:
1. Allocthounous organic matter inputs: FPOM input from sewage and
stormwater runoff is substantial as evidenced by nigh bacterial contamination
(Dudley and Karr 1979). This change along with the modification in form and
content of CPOM discussed earlier results in major structural and functional
-------
- 44 -
Table 3. General characteristics (relative) of natural (Cummins 1974) and modified
(Karr and Dudley 1978) headwater streams in eastern United States.
WATER QUALITY
Natural
Light and temperature Heavily shaded
Stable temperatures
Dissolved Oxygen
Suspended Solids
Concentration
Dissolved ions
FLOW REGIME
Flood events
Low flows
Relatively stable
Low to very low
Generally low
Damped hydrograph
Modified
Open to sunlight
Very high summer temperature
Highly variable
Highly variable
High especially for P and N
Hydrograph peaks sharp and
severe
Moderately severe only Moderately severe each year
in dry years in late summer and early fall;
extremely severe in dry years.
HABITAT STRUCTURE
Pools and Riffles Channel topography and Reduced and/or destroyed
Meandering Topography substrate diversity by channel maintenance
in equilibrium with activities
stream hydraulics
Sedimentation
Minor except in a few
unstable bank areas
Major problem with sediment
source from land and from
unstable banks; sedimentation
decreases habitat diversity
and directly abrades organisms
-------
- 45 -
Table 3. (Continued)
ENERGETICS
Particulate organic
matter size and
source
Production (trophic)
state
Predominantly coarse Less coarse and more fine
particulate organic particulate organic matter -
matter - from forested from agricultural and domestic
terrestrial environ- sewage
ment
Little primary pro-
duction
Heterotrophic; P/R <1
Algal blooms common
Autotrophic; P/R <1
Trophic Status of Dominant
Insects Shredders, collectors
Fishes Invertivores
Migrant fishes
Top predators
Scrapers, collectors
Invertivores but forced to
select a broader range of
food types
Mostly filter feeders
and/or omnivores
-------
- 46 -
changes in the stream ecosystem.
2. Nutrient availablility: Concentrations of simple nutrient forms (P04;
NO-j, NH4) do not limit algal populations. In addition, inputs of complex
organic compounds associated with CPOM ars not effectively processed.
3. Sunlignt availability; All of unshaded stream channels results in
high solar energy input. Coupled with available nutrients (#2 above), this
results in buildup in algal populations (CPOM) wnich are either subject to
slow decay in the headwaters or are washed downstream in large quantities dur-
ing high flows. These algal blooms add to the organic load of the aquatic
system and change the physical characteristics of the stream environment
(reducing current velocities, covering natural substrates, etc.).
4. Temperature and dissolved oxygen imbalance: Seasonal and daily pat-
terns of temperature and dissolved oxygen are exaggerated and poorly buffered
from environmental influences (weather extremes, organic loading, etc.)
5. Stream habitat characteristics: The diversity and stability of high
quality stream habitat is low (Gorman and Karr 1978). The ditching and
drainage efforts prevalent in many agricultural watersheds prepetuates this
problem.
6. Seasonal low flows: The loss of natural vegetation and installation
of complex drainage networks results in rapid runoff instead of slow release
of excess water. As a result, extreme low flows during dry periods, espe-
cially in late summer and early fall,place, considerable stress on aquatic
ecosystems,
7. Changes ir\ Insect and fish communities; These and other shifts in the
4 primary variables (individually and in the aggregate) cause major snifts in
the benthic insect faunas as well as the fish communities. In addition,
because of the effect of these changes on the use of headwaters as spawning
and nursery areas, the fish of larger downstream areas are also affected (Karr
and Dudley 1978).
Clearly, more than just "water quality" conditions must be addressed if
the "Fishable and swimmable" objectives of PL 92-500 are to be attained.
BMP's vs. Best Management Systems
In early development of the BlacK Cree.K study the list of conservation
practices for improvement of water quality was limited to the erosion control
practices used by the Soil Conservation Service. Slowly, this list was
reduced to a subset thought to have some value in improving water quality.
The disadvantage of this approach is that a number of other potential activi-
ties which may result in improvements in the quality of water resource are not
considered. Further, the potential benefits of an integrated networK. of ero-
sion control practices to reduce erosion, coupled with practices which may
only benefit water quality, may be greater than the erosion, coupled, with
practices alone. That possibility has not been adequately explored in earlier
studies, including BlacK CreeK. The time is right for more effective examina-
tion of careful application of an expanded list of BMPs into
-------
- 47 -
Best Management Systems
The following questions must be routinely asked: What will be the effect
of juxtapositon of several practices? How will they affect the widest range
of water resource characteristics, not just now will they affect erosion con-
trol on the land or water quality? We must more regularly examine the impact
of nonpoint activities with and without varieties of management alternatives.
What are the impacts of these on biological integrity? It is important that
that assessment include both local and downstream areas, as well as upstream
areas. A further advantage of planning for integrated best management systems
is that they may allow society to capitalize on the benefits to water quality
which may accrue from the presence of integrated biotic communities. After
all this is the fundamental principle behind the effective action of primary
sewage-treatment facilities. With this philosophy, we expect that the dollar
cost to society may be lower per incremental improvement in the quality of our
water resources.
Innovative Management to Restore Biological Integrity
We now address the specific measures that would improve biological
integrity in streams and rivers of predominantly agricultural basins of the
eastern United States. Cur recommendations are designed specifically for the
BlacK CreeK watershed, but the applicability of these recommendations is
broader.
The foundation of innovative management is Cdum's compartmentalized model
of environments required by man (Fig. 1). Man clearly needs productive
environments (i.e., agriculture) and much of the Midwest needs to be devoted
to agricultural production. However, protective environments that preserve
biological integrity are also needed in all ecosystems to insure their contin-
ued functioning. If midwestern rivers, liKe the Maumee, are to be included in
the national mandate for biological integrity, then we believe it is necessary
to incorporate the sound management of type 3 environments within those river
ecosystems. The type 3 environment represents a compromise between productive
and protective uses. Traditional soil and water conservation programs stress
the productive environment as is demonstrated by the record of goals and
accomplishments of the BlacK CreeK project (Morrison 1977). Soil conservation
practices applied to the land have water quality benefits but they are only a
part of a system of practices required for the sound management of stream
ecosystems.
At least two systems of land management (Fig. 6) might be applied to the
BlacK CreeK watershed in an effort to optimize production (agriculture) and
protection (stream ecosystem integrity). The central feature of both alterna-
tives is the designation of selected areas as type 3 environments where pro-
tective land use receives priority over the most productive uses. Farming
need not be eliminated from these areas but alternative to the presently
intensive agriculture must be found. Possible alternatives include rotation
with limited row crops/conservation tillage systems, improved pasture manage-
ment with the elimination of woodlot grazing, and permanent vegetative cover
on erosive slopes. Under such managanent the average soil loss from cropland
would be below the maximum tolerable loss for preserving the soil resource.
-------
Table 4. A generalized management system to improve the biological integrity of Black Creek
and the anticipated impact on agricultural production within the watershed.
GOAL
Water Quality
reduction in sediment and
nutrients
Flow regime
less extreme fluctuations
in stream discharge
Habitat structure
improvements in stream
habitat for fish and
other aquatic life
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
Traditional practices, especially conservation
tillage, terraces, grass waterways, filter
strips along stream channels, animal waste
management plans, and soil fertility testing
and management plans
Augmenting low flows through storage and later
release of storm runoff and/or pumping ground
water during dry periods. Conserv.ition practices
listed under water quality help in reducing peak
stream discharge
Stream renovation (IS) practices instead of large
scale slreambank protection (channelization).
Preserve natural habitat features (pools, riffles
meandering, cover, substrate size sorting, etc.),
to the maximum extent possible
IMPACT ON
PRODUCTION
Production reduced slightly
by conservation tillage
on some soils and the loss of
cropland for filter strips.
Minimal impact on production
through augments ting low flows
The hydraulic improvements of
channelization are only slightly
greater than improvements under
renovation practices (18).
Agricultural production would
not be affected by appreciably
00
I
-------
Table 4. (Continued)
GOAL
Energy source
energy relationships
capable of maintaining
community structure
and function
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
The management of a forested riparian environ-
ment that insures inputs of (TOM and a reduction
in solar radiation. {Additional water quality
benefits such as improved temperature and
dissolved oxygen and the trapping of sediment
and nutrients are predicted under sum management
(ll)|. An initial 'stocking' of the stream wtl'.i '
CPOM and aquatic invertebrates may be considered.
IMPACT ON
PRODUCTION
greater flood damages. In
Black Creek impaired tile
drainage outlets are uncommon,
meaning stream renovation
would have little Impact through
the impairment of subsurface
drainage
Loss of some croplant
adjacent to streams
v£>
I
-------
I
Ul
o
I
(a)
Figure 6. Black Creek watershed divided into type 1 (unshaded) and type 3 shaded) environments.
Type 1 environments are productive and accomodate intensive agriculture, 'type 3 environments
represent a compromise between productive and protective qualities and function in preserve bio-
logical integrity. Conservation practices in type 1 environments address all four primary vari-
ables influencing biological integrity. See text and Table 4 for further explanation.
-------
- 51 -
Fig. 6a is probably tne best alternative for Black CreeK -because it will
likely nave less widespread effect on drainage than tne otner alternative
(Fig. 6b) . However, 6b mignt be tne best choice in otner watersneds.
Clearly, a wide diversity of intermediate alternatives could be developed to
satisfy local needs. An intensive researcn program is necessary before
informed decisions can be made on optimum management programs.
The important concepts nere is that the land and its associated biota
play a primary role in regulating water quality. In type 3 environments tne
management strategy is to effect improvements in tne four variables tnat
influence biological integrity of BlacK CreeK. Practices aimed at improving
water quality must be implanented in botn type 1 and type 3 environments. Tne
recommended practices for improving flow regime, habitat structure, and energy
source are limited in application to the areas designated as type 3 environ-
ments (Fig. 6). It is important to note that every watershed is unique and
that the practices and impacts can vary considerably among watersheds, as they
do when planners select practices for erosion reduction. We realize land
managed in this manner may not always be economically competitive in the
current agricultural system. Potential mechanisms to solve this problem are
now enumerated.
Implementation Mechanisms
The purpose of this paper is not to analyze incentive programs which
might speed implementation of the philosophy outlined above. However, we can
make some general comments on incentives in hopes of stimulating detailed
analysis of their costs and benefits.
The objective of these and other incentives is to maKe less intensive
farming on type 3 environments competitive with farming operations in type 1
environments while preserving some of the other environmental benefits of
these areas. This can be accomplished by subsidies underwritten by society,
the principal benefactor.
Classified Streams
The principle involved in setting aside areas for protection is well
established. Unique natural areas or historical sites have long been pro-
tected from further development to enhance their long-term value to society.
Periodically federal agencies iinplenent set-aside programs to ta«e land out of
production or to conserve soil resources. A system of classified streams
should be developed to reduce local erosion and its effect on downstream water
resources. Additional benefits form such programs might derive from increased
availability of local recreational resources (Karr and Scnlosser 1978). Since
headwaters play an especially important role in determining resource quality
throughout watersheds (Karr and Dudley 1978), efforts to benefit soil and
water resources might emphasize a classified headwater approach.
Green TicKet
Hie basic outline of the "green ticKet" program (Lake 1978) is to provide
economic incentives to the farmer (or other land user) through governmental
programs. These incentives must improve the profitability of a farm in
-------
- 52 -
exchange for installation and maintenance of needed conservation measures on
the land A sliding scale of incentives might exist to yield greater benefits
to a farmer on areas identified as more critical. For example, areas that
might be part of a larger classified headwater area might yield higher
economic gain to the landowner than a patchworK of areas yielding lower bene-
fit to society. We can even visualize groups of farmers exerting pressure on
neighbors to develop a classified headwater program on their marginal land in
the name of soil and water conservation benefit to society and economic bene-
fit to them as individuals. Such programs should be encouraged on areas iden-
tified as locations where treatment of the smallest possible are {or at lowest
economic cost) will yield the greatest benefit to society. Under these cir-
cumstances, land holders might be eligible to collect extra ASCS or ACP bene-
fits, to pay lower rates on crop insurance, or to lower interest rates in
federal loan programs.
Many other incentive programs could and should be sought. These must
protect tne economic stake of the agricultural community and also produce the
greatest benefit to society as a whole.
Institutional Approach to Implementation
Finally, our experience in the BlacK Creex project has yielded insight
into some of the strengths and weaxnesses of present institutional programs.
Traditional soil and water conservation programs fail to manage water
resources effectively because they have emphasized soil resources, drainage,
production and, to a lesser extent, water quality. They do not manage the
energy source, habitat characteristics, or flow regimes of streams with the
"biological integrity" mandate in mind. iMany have incorrectly assumed that if
water pollution declines, habitat quality in a broad sense will be optimized.
hhile traditional programs may have reduced pollution from cropland runoff,
they have sacrificed natural energy source characteristics, flow regimes, and
high quality steam habitat. How frequently, for example, nave SCS planners
asKed, with biological integrity in mind, "How will implementation of this
plan impact energy and nutrient supplies, flow regimes, and habitat quality in
local and downstream areas?" Clearly, the result cannot always be to preserve
the biota, but without consideration of the question, we will continue to
degrade components of our biological environment.
A case could be made for confining soil and water conservation districts
and the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) to their traditional roles of curbing
soil erosion and its associated water pollution. After closely observing the
activities of these agencies in the BlacK Creetc project and elsewhere, we
firmly believe that districts and the SCS should expand their roles. This
belief is based on a cooperative relationship with farmers. We seriously
doubt whether any other federal, state, or local agency could match the
already existing cooperative relationships among districts, SCS and fanners.
Thus, the districts and SCS appear to be the best equipped agents for
implanenting water resource improvenent plans in agricultural areas. However,
an increased role by these agencies carries increased responsibilities to
society. The only way to satisfactorily meet those responsibilities will be
to expand the training base of SCS employees, or to seeK more regular partici-
pation in development of plans by personnel familiar with the disciplines
-------
- 53 -
involved with the biological integrity of water resources. Planners and field
technicians need to be trained in tne ecological principles that are the basis
of understanding and recognizing sensitive aquatic resources. Otner existing
agencies, such as Cooperative Extension Service and the special short-course
facilities of many universities, could fill this educational gap.
Achieving clean water goals will depend on well-organized and well-
conceived plans for control of non-point sources. For success in agricultural
areas, district and SCS activities must be integrated with the stated goals
for resource utilization throughout an area (i.e., a river basin). Rational
decisions must be made with public input on such issues as the desired level
and type of urbanization, agricultural production and water-resource value.
Cnce these decisions are made and incorporated into the general framework of a
208 (or other) plan, district and SCS programs must center on implementing the
needed practices in areas where the greatest overall benefits will accrue.
Typically, district and SCS contact is with people who voluntarily apply
for soil and water conservation practices. Servicing this need has been and
will continue to be useful in several respects, but effective soil and water
resource management requires that action be taken quicKly in the critical
areas of a watershed. (Many would argue that this is an old policy. However,
we emphasize that the method of identifying critical areas will differ with
the expansion from soil resources to biological integrity.) Shifting district
and SCS emphasis to these critical areas will require innovation, especially
in educating the farming community and worKing cooperatively with landowners
in critical areas, regardless of whether or not they voluntarily apply for
assistance.
In conclusion, we believe a prerequisite for the effective management of
land use and water resources is a basic understanding of biological integrity
by those individuals and groups closely associated with the soil conservation
movement. The history of soil and water conservation in this country reveals
the strong emphasis on exclusively farm-oriented programs. The ~Black Creek
project exemplifies the traditional approach, and its shortcomings in improv-
ing and maintaining biological integrity are the same as or similar to those
of other traditional projects.
The soil conservation movement has always been dedicated to total
resource conservation, but the demand for food and fiber has led to the
emphasis on productive landscapes. However, man will successfully manage the
earth's resources only if he modifies the environment in ways compatible with
ecological principles. There is a clear need to conserve less productive
landscapes that function to protect the environment, its resources, and its
vital biological processes. Society, and especially the soil conservation
movement as stewards of the land, has an obligation to establish and maintain
such landscapes. The national goal of restoring "the physical, chemical and
biological integrity" of water resources rests on our ability to percieve this
basic ecological tenet and take innovative action in seeding solutions. take
innovative action in seeding solutions.
-------
- 54 -
Summary
The central assumption of the BlacK CreeK study is that traditional ero-
sion control programs are sufficient to insure nigh quality water resources in
agricultural areas. We have tried to outline the inadequacies of that assump-
tion, especially as they relate to the goal of attaining biotic integrity.
The declining biotic integrity of our water resources over the past two
decades is clearly not totally due to water quality (the effects of physical-
chemical factors) degradation. Improvement in many of the aspects of the
quality of our water resources in a much broader context than physical-
chemical characteristics. Other deficiencies in nonpoint pollution control
programs are discussed and a new approach to the problem is outlined.
Acknowledgements
Financial support for this study came, in part, from U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Grant #0005103 to the Allen County Soil and Water Conserva-
tion District. J. LaKe, D. McCain, J. Morrison, L. Page, I. Schlosser, D.
Sharp, P. W. Smith, L. Toth and R. Warner and several anonymous reviewers made
helpful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript.
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LaKe, J. 1978. Text of speech presented to Purdue Nbnpoint Source Pollu-
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December 1, 1978. Published by the National Association of Conservation Dis-
tricts. 5 pp.
Minshall, G. W. 1978. Autotrophy in stream ecosystems. BioScience. 28:
767-771.
Morrison, J. 1977. Environmental impact o£_ land use _on water quality:
final report _on the 31acK CreeK Prooject - technical report. EPA 905-9-77-
007B, p. 237-250.
Nunnally, N. R. 1978. Stream renovation: An alternative to channeliza-
tion. Environ. Manage. 2: 403-411.
Cdum, E. P. 1969. The strategy of ecosystem development. Science. 164:
262-270. Schlosser, I. J. and J. R. Karr 1980. Determinants of Water Quality
in Agricultural Watersheds. Water Resources Center, University of Illinois,
Urbana, IL. Water Resources Center Report No. 147, 75 pp.
Sedell, J. R., F. J. TrisKa, J. D. Hall, N. H. Anderson, and J. H. Lyford
1973. Sources and fates of organic inputs in coniferous forest streams.
Cont. 66, Coniferous Forest Biome, IBP, Oregon State Univ. 23 pp. Cited in
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Cummins 1974. BioScience.
StalnaKer, C. 3, and J. L. Arnett 1976. Metholologies for the determina-
tion _of stream resource flow requiremets: An Assessment. Utah State Univer-
sity, Logan.
Warren, C. E. 1971. Biology and Water Pollution Control. W. B. Saunders,
Philadelphia. 434 pp.
Westman, W. E. 1978. Measuring the inertia and resilience o£ ecosystems.
BioScience. 28: 705-710.
Woodwell, G. M. 1975. Biological Integrity - 1975. In R. K. Ballentine
and L. J. Guarraia (eds.) The Integrity of Water, U. S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. Washington. 230 pp.
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BlacK Creek Implications: Present and Future
by
L.F. Huggins-1-
Previous speaKers have presented findings of the Black Creek Project as
they relate to specific subject areas. I will attempt to distill from these
specific results some general project conclusions and to focus on their
national implications.
WHAT IS WATER QUALITY?
It has been recognized for some time that agriculture, because of the
large land mass involved, does contribute to problems associated with non-
point source pollution. However, when any effort is made to devise control
programs an immediate difficulty is encountered. We have never really come to
grips with the difficult issue of defining what water quality standards we are
trying to achieve, except as very broad goals delineated in PL 92-500.
Dr. James Karr's presentation emphasized the importance of considering
streams such as BlacK Creek as breeding waters for the Maumee basin. For such
streams, in addition to providing acceptable chemical concentrations, it is
vital that habitat and stream structure be preserved. On the other hand,
satisfactory lake conditions also require concern about total annual chemical
yields from contributing catchments. These examples emphasize the necessity
of viewing NPS pollution from a broad perspective rather than just localized
conditions.
Another factor which complicates establishment of NPS water pollution
standards is that, except for irrigated areas, the bulk of such pollution is
storm induced. Thus, the critical low-flow, high concentration standards
established for point source pollution are not relevant to NPS stream stan-
dards. While concentration levels cannot be ignored, habitat maintenance and
annual yields into receiving lakes are usually more critical factors. Furth-
ermore, the storm induced nature of this type pollution introduces a stochas-
tic element that.complicates issues.
It is also necessary to recognize that standards developed for different
goals than water quality may be complementary to improved water quality, but
should not be expected to suffice. Specifically, attainment of tolerable soil
loss levels, developed in conjunction with the Universal Soil Loss Equation as
a yardstick for preserving long-term productivity, does not assure that a
satisfactory level of water quality will be achieved.
While the above discussion delineates some of the difficulties with
developing meaningful NPS water quality standards, the necessity of progress
in this area cannot be ignored. This discussion is meant to emphasize that it
is essential for these standards to give due consideration to many diverse
perspectives. Much of the valid criticism of current public assistance pro-
grams, whether they deal with water quality or other areas, results from
selection of singular objectives undertaken with too narrow a perspective of
1. Professor, Dept. of Agric. Engineering, Pardue University, W. Lafayette,
IN
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society's overall needs.
MANAGEMENT BMPs
NPS pollution is insidious and difficult to control because, by defini-
tion, it is that pollution which arises from dispersed and poorly identifiable
locations. Because agriculture is the dominate use of total land mass in most
arable regions of the country, its contributions of chemicals and sediment to
streams and laxes is often large, even when loadings per unit area may be low.
The importance of management-type BMPs, in contrast to more traditional
structural measures originally designed for erosion control, to attaining
improved water quality must be recognized. These measures, such a residue and
tillage management, have the distinct advantage of directly protecting large
areas. While it is certainly true that wide differences occur in the pollu-
tion contribution from individual areas, this ability to "treat" 100 percent
of a field's surface does contribute to overall effectiveness. Furthermore,
these BMPs can often be applied for very low capital costs.
The lack of increased utilization of management BMPs is a consequence of
several practical difficulties rather than any lacK of effectiveness. Diffi-
culties with management BMPs include: 1) a lacx of public visibility, 2) a
lacK of permanence (they can be abandoned quickly without any capital
expense), and 3) public cost-sharing is difficult to administer because effec-
tive performance is often dependent upon a time-critical application which can
only be verified for a brief interval. Despite these difficulties, the
overall cost effectiveness of management BMPs requires that we develop innova-
tive ways to overcome the problems and obtain more widespread application of
them.
. It is difficult to overemphasize the importance of maintaining a NPS con-
trol program that is built upon voluntary participation encouraged by publicly
supported incentives. The success of any program will critically depend upon
the positive cooperation of a large number of individuals. Furthermore, the
effectiveness of almost all BMPs is strongly influenced by a landowner's
management decisions* Maximum effectiveness will be achieved only if these
individuals understand the purpose of and actively support the program which
resulted in the BMP installation.
A voluntary NPS program, if properly conceived and administered, can be
particularly effective with the agricultural community. Historically, this
group has demonstrated a concern about their environment and a willingness to
cooperate with their neighbors to improve general conditions. These attitudes
and the publicly funded agencies established to provide technical and finan-
cial assistance to the agricultural community should be utilized to the max-
imum degree possible.
There are at least three general characteristics which are vital to the
success of a voluntary NPS control program. Briefly, they must be 1) effec-
tive locally, 2) flexible, and 3) applied on a priority basis. Each point
requires further elaboration.
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First, recommended NFS control measures must be adapted to local condi-
tions, i.e. they must be botn effective and economically viable. No one Knows
more intimately the unique soil and topographic conditions of a land parcel
than the person wno annually tills the soil and harvests its crop. The credi-
bility of the entire program is lost, and its shortcomings widely publicized,
when inappropriate measures are recommended. This requirement suggests the
need to provide field personnel with improved analytical tools that can be
used to accurately show the farmer what benefits will be obtained from alter-
native BMPs and which management decisions are critical to its successful
operation.
Secondly, any national program must recognize the need to preserve the
maximum level of local flexibility. Conditions vary greatly from farm to farm
as well as regionally. It is seldom true that one certain practice is greatly
superior in all respects to certain other practices. Furthermore, successful
farmers must base management decisions on numerous, non-related factors rather
than a single consideration such as water quality improvement. Letting an
individual choose between multiple BMPs of roughly equal effectiveness or with
correspondingly different cost sharing permits other, personally important,
factors to be considered and greatly improves the palitability of the entire
program.
Finally, and perhaps most difficult to achieve because of political con-
siderations and possible charges of favoritism, is the need to recognize that
a given BMP will not be equally effective at improving water quality when it
is applied to different locations. A cost-effective program requires the del-
ineation of priority areas and incentives that are at least partially depen-
dent upon water quality benefits expected from each individual situation. To
assure that such a program can be fairly administered will require innovative
new ideas from the public institutions and additional technical tools for
helping local agencies objectively assess water quality benefits on a site-
specific basis.
DETERMINING BMP EFFECTIVENESS
There is an abundance of evidence that national water quality goals will
be attained only if due consideration is given to controlling NPS as well as
point sources of pollution. Furthermore, after a mucn needed and rather mas-
sive effort at controlling point source discharges from waste water treatment
plants, we are in a period of diminishing impact per dollar invested. Despite
these considerations, only a toKen effort has been undertaken to control NPS
pollution.
The neglect of NPS pollution control results from a combination of fac-
tors, but two of the most important ones are: 1) the difficulty of quantifying
sources due to the complex nature of the diverse forms of such pollution and
2) the uncertain effectiveness of the general control approach, using BMPs,
currently proposed. Solid evidence is critically needed concerning overall
benefits that can reasonably be expected from a specific control program. To
date, only a few projects such as BlacK Creex, the seven Model Implementation
Projects and some thirteen "experimental" Rural Clean Water Projects have been
funded to demonstrate what might be attainable on a national basis.
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Monitoring = Truth?
One fundamental misconception concerning water quality held by tne vast
majority of persons, within both the scientific and informed lay communities,
is that true conditions and control effectiveness can be determined only by
field monitoring. The perception, though often not explicitly stated, is that
bottles of water should be collected and subjected to sophisticated laboratory
analyses to determine what is present so that quality conclusions can be
drawn.
The primary problem of monitoring is not associated with the laboratory
analysis of a collected sample, although there are still significant difficul-
ties with certain chemical constituents. Rather, it is with determining the
source of pollutants present in the sample, assessing the true significance of
individual component levels (the standards issue raised above) and determining
impacts of proposed treatments on pollutant yields. It must be concluded that
many unKnowns associated with NFS pollution cannot be effectively resolved by
monitoring. Unfortunately, the pervasive misconceptions about monitoring have
governed all publicly funded efforts to evaluate NFS control measures and have
significantly slowed real progress toward development of programs with proven
effectiveness.
> Monitoring—Strengths and WeaKnesses
No economically feasible monitoring program can be devised which is capa-
ble of establishing cause-effect relationships between NFS pollution and con-
trol measures on a watershed scale, even for a watershed as small as the 20
sq.mi. area of BlacK Create. Especially on a short-term basis. This situation
prevails because of the storm-induced nature of NFS pollution, seasonal varia-
tions in weather patterns and the uncontrolled nature of the many factors
which profoundly influence levels of such pollution.
In view of the situation just described, of what utility are field moni-
toring efforts related to NFS pollution? Tney can, especially when directed
toward biological community determinations and habitat evaluation, determine
overall water quality conditions of a watershed. Furthermore, when restricted
to field sized areas with a single land use, monitoring can quantify the bene-
fits of individual control measures. Such information is vital to the
development of the only viable alternative tool for assessing and controlling
NFS pollution, simulation models.
In summary, monitoring programs are expensive. They are slow to produce
meaningful results. They cannot establish cause-effect on a watershed scale.
Finally, comprehensive monitoring of small, single practice areas is critical
to the successful development of any methodology to assess NFS pollution and
design control programs. Furthermore, the supply of such information is woe-
fully short.
Simulation—Strengths and Weaknesses
There is certainly no shortage of models available wnich purport to simu-
late at least some phase of water pollution problems. The basic shortcomings
of all currently available models can be summarized by criticizing them as
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incomplete and inaccurate. Models are incomplete because they do not account
for all of tne many factors involved in something as complex as NFS pollution.
It is also a valid criticism that many models do not even accurately simulate
the limited number of processes which they claim to include. The "bottom
line" is that many of the currently "available" models are not very good.
All models are not created as equals! While this truth should be self-
evident, the poor performance demonstrated by some crude models has seriously
undermined the credibility of the entire simulation approach. It is certainly
true that all models include approximations of the real processes they are
trying to simulate. However, the adequacy of these approximations must be
judged on the basis of the requirements for each particular application.
Thus, a given model may be completely unsatisfactory for some applications,
but quite satisfactory for another. While this complicates the selection tasK
for the model user, it must be recognized that there is simply no such thing
as a single best model.
The credibility of a modeling approach suffers unfairly relative to moni-
toring because shortcomings of any model are so obvious. Relationships used
by a model are explicit and clearly documented in a manual or its computer
program implementation. Thus, the omission or crude approximation of one or
more component processes intuitively thought to be significant for a particu-
lar application raises doubt concerning the adequacy of that model. To vary-
ing degrees, such issues can be raised with all models.
In contrast, unwarrented faith is commonly granted numbers reported by
monitoring studies. Seldom are these results published with sufficient infor-
mation to permit a rigorous evaluation of the overall uncertainty in the
values. Issues such as the timeliness of sample collection during changing
flow conditions, physical conditions of the sampler intaKe, obstructions to
normal stream flow conditions, etc. are almost never published (in the
interest of brevity or a general lack of understanding concerning their impact
on the result??). Even laboratory analyses of water samples are subject to
serious discrepancies. For example, as,< two independent laboratories to
determine levels of sediment bound nutrients in identical samples. Better
yet, attempt to split a single sediment laden sample and send both subsamples
through the same laboratory. A comprehensive evaluation of the overall uncer-
tainty associated with NFS physical/chemical water quality samples would'show
that errors in excess of 50 percent are not uncommon.
The advantages of simulation studies are: 1) they are inexpensive, at
least in comparison with meaningful monitoring programs; 2) they produce
results much more quicKly than monitoring and 3) they can analyze hypothetical
situations that can be used in a planning effort. This latter advantage can
be especially significant to the success of a voluntary program as was illus-
trated earlier by Dan McCain. The opportunity to measure improvements rela-
tive to a common baseline rather than current conditions permits allowance for
previous responsible stewardship. This avoids giving the greatest public
reward to individuals that have been tne worst environmental offenders prior
to the announcement of the newest program to control such abuses. The inabil-
ity of past government programs to proceed in this manner has encouraged poor
citizenship and resulted in public disrespect for many programs.
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If one's purpose is to determine water quality impacts of a specific pat-
tern of applied BMPs, the advantage of simulating nypotnetical conditions is
also significant. By simulating storm patterns of particular or long-term
significance, confounding factors as construction activities concurrent witn a
monitoring program and unusual weather patterns during the period of record
can be eliminated.
CLASSES OF MODELS
The difficulty of selecting the most appropriate model for a given appli-
cation was alluded to above. While space does not permit the development of a
recommended procedure to follow in making such a selection, it is important to
recognize the existence of two major model classes.
The first class of models should be called basin or regional scale
models. These models are designed to analyze general or trend data over very
large geographic regions that encompass several states. In their most
comprehensive form, they will simulate macro-economic conditions as well as
water quality phenomena. These models are designed to assess overall or aver-
age conditions and predict trends. Such models can assist with establishment
of national water quality goals and program levels.
The second class of models might be called implementation scale models.
This is meant to infer that they are designed to be used to assist planners
and engineers with selection and locating of individual BMPs. Just as
Knowledge that the average depth of a stream might be two feet deep is of no
value to a non-swimmer deciding whether to wade across, results from basin
scale models are useless for implementation planning. Cnce an overall program
scope has been established, an entirely different Kind of model is required to
assist with implementing the program.
An implementation model must be able to assess impacts of the unique com-
bination of features present in the vicinity where individual BMPs might be
located. To obtain the voluntary participation of local landowners, control
measures that are effective and compatible with conditions on that parcel of
land must be offered.- Just because a given practice might result in a satis-
factory average level of pollution control from an entire basin does not mean
it will be effective everywhere in the region. Participation will be forth-
coming when the landowner understands how suggested controls will worK on
his/her land and is convinced that its installation will thereby contribute to
the overall societal goal of improving water quality. Thus an implementation
scale model must be very site specific.
It is possible, though not always the best approach, to use an implemen- '
tation scale model as a part of a basin-wide study. In order to be feasible,
this approach generally requires applying the more detailed model on a sta-
tistically representative number of subwatersheds within the basin.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Some of the BlacK CreeK experiences which have national policy implica-
tions for NPS control programs have been discussed. They can be summarized as
follows:
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- 63 -
The establishment of quantitative NFS pollution standards, while very
difficult, is urgently needed. Such standards must reflect a broad range of
considerations and should vary with different regions of the country.
While the effectiveness of individual BMPs will depend upon local condi-
tions, there has generally been inadequate utilization of management-oriented
practices in deference to structural measures. While management practices
suffer from lacK of public visibility and are difficult to administer, their
relatively low capital costs and the effectiveness generally attainable due to
the areal extent of treatment warrants mucn effort to overcome these problems
and increase their utilization.
The effectiveness of any NFS control program is intimately dependent upon
daily management decisions made by individual landowners. Therefore, a pro-
gram based upon voluntary participation is not only politically desirable, but
potentially much more effective than a regulatory approach. To be successful,
voluntary programs must be designed to permit the use of measures which are
locally adapted, offer the participant multiple alternatives and equitably
distribute public and private costs.
Obtaining solid evidence concerning the effectiveness of NFS control
measures is admittedly difficult. However, unwarranted reliance has been
placed on monitoring prograns. It is impossible to determine watershed scale
cause-effect relationships by monitoring, especially within a time frame of 3
to 5 years.
Despite the many shortcomings of current simulation models, they clearly
offer the best available technology for analyzing NFS pollution problems and
planning control programs. However, the selection of a particular model is
difficult because it must be dependent upon the types of pollution which are
of prime importance.
Two fundamentally different classes of models are required for national
program develop and for implementation planning. The ANSWERS model, discussed
by David Beasley, is .an example of an implementation scale simulation model.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing}
1. REPORT NO. 2.
EPA-905 79-81-004
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Summary of the Black Creek Project (Progress
Report through 1980 Project Year Based 01
in Washington, D. C. , Feb. 1980 Chicago, i:
3. RECIP
5. REPO
Report) Jui
i Seminars B.PERR
LI., Mar. 1980
7. AuTHORts) James B. Morrison, Darrell felson, Jerry V. s. PERF<
Mannering, Don Griffith, David B. Beasley, Daniel
McCain, James R. Karr, Daniel R. Dudley & L. F. Huggins
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PRO
Allen County Soil and Water Conservation Districts A42]
Executive Park, Suite 103
2010 Inwood Drive
Fort Wayne, Indiana 46805
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
536 South Clark Street
Chicago, Illinois 60605
11. CON
G-SOI
13. TYP
Progi
14. SPOI
USEPj
RT DATE
16 1981
DRMING ORGANIZATION CODE
3RM1NG ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
GRAM ELEMENT NO.
32A
TRACT/GRANT NO.
D5335
E OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
ress- Report Feb & Mar 198C
^SORING AGENCY CODE
*.
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Ralph G. Christensen, Section 108 (a) Program Coordinator
Carl D. Wilson, EPA Project Officer
16. ABSTRACT
This is a progress report of the Black Creek sediment control project. This report
discusses the details the work done in water quality management and ongoing
research fo planning at the national, regional or state level. The Black Creek
project exemplifies the traditional approach, and it shortcomings in improving
and maintaining biological integrity are the same as or similar to those of other
traditional projects.
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS
Water quality
Tillage
Leaching
Soil erosin
Non-point source
Agricultural watershed
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page} 22. PRICE
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