United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Great U
National
539 SOL
Chicago,
EPA-905/9-86-001*/
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EPA-905/9-86-001
July 1986
OVERVIEW AND EVALUATION OF SECTION 108-A
GREAT LAKES DEMONSTRATION PROGRAMS
BY
Avis D. Newell
Len C. Stanley
Michael D. Smolen
Richard P. Maas
North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina 27650
R005863-01
Frank J. Humenik
Project Director
Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department
North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service
Raleigh, North Carolina 27650
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region V, Library
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
Ralph G. Christensen
Project Officer
GLNPO Report # 86-04
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Great Lakes National Program Office
Chicago, Illinois 60605
March, 1986
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Disclaimer
This report has been reviewed by the Great Lakes National Program Office,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the U.S. Environmental Portection Agency nor does mention of trade names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
- Environmental Protection
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors want to express sincere thanks to Ralph Christensen, the
project officer, who was consistently helpful beyond anything we asked. He
always took time to look up information, send materials, compile records, and
thoroughly address our questions and concerns.
We also appreciate Thomas Davenport and John Lowrey, of EPA Region V, for
taking their time to review thoroughly and comment on early drafts of this
report. The assistance of Steve Berkowitz and Fred Madison, who shared first-
hand experiences from their participation in the Washington County project,
was also helpful.
Finally, the authors want to acknowledge with much appreciation the
skillful word processing and editing work of Khalida Haseeb and Terri Hocutt.
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OVERVIEW AND EVALUATION OF SECTION 108-A
GREAT LAKES DEMONSTRATION PROGRAMS
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Overview and Summary of 108-a Programs 7
Recommendations for Further Study 13
Multi-dimensional Projects 15
Black Creek Project 16
Red Clay Project 22
Washington County Project 27
Accelerated Conservation Tillage Projects 34
Land Application of Sewage 39
Combined Sewer Overflow Projects 45
Septic System Alternatives 56
A/0 Treatment Plant Digester 59
Background Cleveland Water Quality 60
References 61
Appendix 62
List of Tables and Figures
Table
1. 108a Demonstration Projects 3
2. Sociological Model Variables (Black Creek) .... 20
3. Red Clay Project Watershed Study Area
Land Use 23
4. Paw Paw, Michigan Water Quality Data 43
Figure
1. Distribution of 108a Projects Among Great
Lakes States 4
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INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
Section 108a of the 1972 amendment to the Clean Water Act (PL 92-500)
directed the EPA Administrator, in cooperation with other Federal departments
and agencies, to enter into agreements with state or local agencies to under-
take projects which demonstrate new methods and techniques for the elimination
or control of pollution in the Great Lakes Basin. Congress authorized $20
million to carry out this directive, and required the state or local coopera-
tors to provide 25% of the actual project costs. Projects funded by this act
were to demonstrate the engineering, economic feasibility, and practicality
of pollutant removal and prevention. Projects with goals to reduce, prevent
or eliminate any pollutant material entering the Great Lakes were to be consi-
dered for funding.
The Act made funding available to demonstrate new and innovative pollu-
tion control technologies in both urban and rural settings. Demonstration
projects brought to public view technologies to prevent overflows from sewers,
to improve malfunctioning septic systems, to improve phosphorus removal in
wastewater treatment facilities, and to evaluate several agricultural best
management practices (BMP), primarily through methods of conservation tillage.
Some of the demonstration projects have also included experimental education
programs to stimulate general public interest in water pollution abatement.
An analysis of the achievements of the 108a program must consider these
efforts within the overall context of point and nonpoint source (NFS) control
activities through the 1970's and 1980's. The 108a demonstration projects
have spanned 13 years during which the water pollution control community has
learned a tremendous amount about the processes, dynamics, and consequences of
water resource contamination. We have experimented with a myriad of point
source control strategies both technological and institutional with varying
degrees of success; we have learned that the NFS problem is more pervasive
yet less amenable to treatment than anyone could have suspected. Water quali-
ty questions, issues and regulatory approaches have become increasingly re-
fined and focused during the same period in acknowledgement of the complex
interactions between human activities and the transport, cycling and degrada-
tion processes of natural aquatic systems.
Water pollution control projects can be classified as either: (1) Demon-
stration projects - designed to demonstrate the effectiveness of a given
control technology with the purpose of encouraging its adoption; (2) Experi-
mental projects - intended to determine experimentally the water quality,
economic or institutional effectiveness of a given control technology; or, (3)
Remedial projects - designed to use available technology to restore or protect
a given water resource.
Ideally, experimental projects would first acquire the necessary techni-
cal and institutional information, followed by demonstration projects to gain
enhanced acceptance of the technology. These efforts would logically culmi-
nate in widespread remedial projects which could address point and nonpoint
source water resource problems in an efficient manner. In reality all three
types of project activities generally overlap. In the water pollution control
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field there will always be knowledge gaps, and thus, it is appropriate that
demonstration and remedial efforts proceed based on the best available experi-
mental information while maintaining the flexibility to respond to new disco-
veries and societal priorities.
It is within this technical, sociological and historical context that the
present report attempts to portray the demonstration (and to some extent, ex-
perimental) activities of the 108a program. The purpose is to describe the
types of projects funded, the activities which occurred under each category of
demonstration project, and to relate these activities into an overview of
their contributions to the present state of water resource protection, parti-
cularly in the area of nonpoint source control. A brief description of the
categories of demonstration projects undertaken through the program is given
below.
108a PROJECTS
Through FY1985, 31 108a demonstration projects were awarded grants by the
Great Lakes Program. The 28 projects discussed in this report are listed in
Table 1 with a breakdown of their budgets showing 108a funds and the contribu-
tions from local sources. Projects were grouped arbitrarily for this report
based on the similarity of the technologies which they demonstrated. The re-
maining projects are listed but are omitted from the review here because no
reports were available for review.
Multi-dimensional Projects
Three large "multi-dimensional" projects were selected: the Black Creek
project located in Allen County, IN, the Washington County Project in Wash-
ington County, WI, and the Red Clay Project in MN and WI. These multi-
dimensional projects differed from the other projects mainly in the extent
of their objectives. Whereas most 108a projects addressed a single goal
or demonstrated a specific technology or practice, the multi-dimensional
projects demonstrated a variety of practices, they included educational
programs and sociological studies, and included water quality monitoring.
The major goals of these multi-dimensional projects included agricultural
pollution control through implementation of Best Management Practices (BMPs),
public education on water quality issues, and documentation of water quality
results through monitoring. The Washington County project also addressed
pollution problems arising from urbanizing construction activities, and inves-
tigated the need for erosion control ordinances in both urban and rural set-
tings. The Red Clay Project addressed stream bank erosion problems and ini-
tiated research projects to assess and develop management practices for this
widespread problem. The Black Creek Project's pollution abatement goals were
aimed solely at agricultural problems, and the project also investigated
sociological factors which affected farmer participation in the program.
Funding for these three projects was on the order of $2-3 million each over a
three to four year period.
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TABLE 1. 108a Demonstration Projects
Grant Number Location
108a Funds Total Cost
Dates
Multi-dimensional Projects
G005103
G005335
G005139
S005429
G005140
Black Creek, IN
Black Creek, IN
Washington Co, WI
Washington Co, WI
Red Clay Project ,WI ,MN
$2,142,386 $2,978,179
$1,017,810 $1,358,723
$2,249,226 $3,090,928
$ 409,002 $ 548,697
$2,953,340 $3,937,787
1972 -
1977 -
1974 -
1979 -
1974 -
1977
1980
1978
1981
1978
Accelerated Conservation Tillage Projects
S005552
S005553
S005692
S005698
S005700
S005721
S005513
S005722
S005723
Y005141
G005334
S005370
S005602
S005359
Y005065
G005104
S005501
S005551
S005559
Allen Co, OH
Defiance Co, OH
Lake Erie Basin, OH
Six Counties in IN
Bean Creek, MI
Otter Creek, MI
Tuscola Co, MI
Oswego Co, NY
Wayne Co, NY
Combined Sewer
Rochester, NY
Rochester, NY, BMPs
Cleveland, dH
N.E. Cleveland, OH
Saginaw, MI
Land Application
East Lansing, MI
Muskegon, MI
Muskegon, MI
Montmorency Co., MI
Paw Paw, MI
$ 496,884 $ 672,880
$ 646,054 $ 861.405
$1,020,000 $1,360,000
$ 180,000 $ 240,000
$ 125,000 $ 166,667
$ 32,000 $ 54,625
$ 52,830 $ 70,440
$ 80,000 $ 121,400
$ 80,000 $ 133,400
Overflow Projects
$ 686,730 $ 990,141
$1,020,592 $1,360,795
$ 475,567 $ 634,090
$ 67,500 $ 119,510
$ 762,000 $1,016,000
of Sewage Projects
$ 570,000 $1,617,084
$ 516,525 $ 688,698
$ 163,102 $ 217,469
$ 823,912 $1,098,549
$ 252,313 $ 336,417
1980 -
1980 -
1981 -
1981 -
1981 -
1982 -
1980 -
1982 -
1982 -
1974 -
1977 -
1979 -
1980 -
1979 -
1972 -
1972 -
1980 -
1980 -
1980 -
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1986
1983
1985
1985
1977
1982
1983
1985
1984
1975
1975
1981
1985
1986
Septic System Alternatives Projects
S005575
*
Great Lakes Basin, IN
Allen Co, OH
$ 102,073 $ 136,098
$ 130,000 $
1980 -
1980 -
1984
1985
S005748
G005107
G005108
V-2-71
G005292
S005512
A/0 Treatment Plant Digester Project
PontilicTMI $ 100,000 $~ 134,000
Background Water Quality Assessment Projects
Cleveland, OH $328,192$437,589
1983 - 1985
1971 - 1974
Projects with No Reports Available for this Review
S.E. Michigan$227,000$ 303,400 1971
Erie, PA $ 275,000 $ 367,000 1971
Muskegon, MI $ 134,000 $ 181,509 1976
Cleveland, OH $ 153,250 $ 204,350 1980
$130,000 was allotted to the Health Department from the $496,000 awarded
Allen County,OH S005552. Cost of septic system portion not available.
to
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GREAT LAKES BASIN DRAINAGE BOUNDARIES
FIGURE 1. DISTRIBUTION OF 108(A) PROJECTS AMONG GREAT LAKES STATES,
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Accelerated Conservation Tillage Projects:
Conservation tillage projects were located in 22 counties of Ohio, six
counties in Indiana, four counties in Michigan, and two counties in New York.
For the most part, project funds were used to purchase no-till and conserva-
tion tillage equipment for use by area farmers without charge or for nominal
rental rates to cover maintenance costs. Technical assistance was provided to
farmers who participated in the program, to insure proper application of the
new tillage methods. Funding awarded to these projects ranged from $32,000 for
one county to $1,020,000 for 20 counties. Most of these projects will have
completed their final year in 1985, covering an average four-year timeframe.
Combined Sewer Overflow Abatement Projects:
Another attempt to control wastewater pollution was by preventing over-
flows from combined stormflow and sanitary sewers. This problem occurs in
cities where domestic sewage, industrial wastes, and urban runoff are all
routed through a combined sewer system. When the capacity of these systems is
exceeded, untreated overflow water may be discharged directly into adjacent
lakes and rivers. The goals of combined sewer overflow abatement projects
were to increase in-system storage capacity of sewer the system or to divert
runoff or sewage in order to eliminate or decrease the frequency of overflow
to adjacent surface waters. The alternative of complete renovation and
construction of parallel sewer systems is generally considered too expensive.
The 108a funds were used to examine existing systems in Rochester, NY, Cleve-
land, OH, and Saginaw, MI for alternative renovations. Although renovation
plans varied from city to city, the main strategy was to increase stormwater
storage capacity and control flows within the system to utilize existing in-
system storage to full advantage. Vortex control valves with associated
storage were demonstrated as means to control flows in most of the projects.
Land treatment BMPs to control runoff volumes and technological changes in
sewage treatment were also demonstrated.
Land Application of Sewage Proj ects and the A/0 Treatment Plant Dlgestor
Proj ect:
Demonstration projects for land application included the Michigan State
University research ponds, an overland flow project in the Village of Paw Paw,
Michigan, a crop irrigation project in Muskegon County, Michigan and a sludge
application project to forest land in Montmorency County. Most of these
systems had some wastewater pretreatment prior to land application, either in
the form of holding ponds or biological treatment. The use of the holding
ponds as alternative sewage treatments was also studied. One project was
devoted specifically to demonstrating the A/0 Process, a secondary treatment
process for phosphorus removal. Each project measured water quality changes
throughout the treatment process, and monitored the effect of sludge appli-
cation on vegetation.
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Septic Tank Alternatives:
These projects included funding for appropriate alternatives to conven-
tional septic systems which function inadequately in areas of poor soil drain-
age. Septic system monitoring and improvements were conducted in rural areas
of Steuben County, Indiana, and Allen County, Ohio.
Background Water Quality Proj ect:
Funds were allocated through the 108a program to a consortium of the city
of Cleveland and three area universities, John Carroll, Case Western Reserve,
and Cleveland State, to perform a water quality baseline assessment of the
Cleveland area. Originally planned as a three-phase project spanning pollu-
tion control efforts and water quality monitoring, this phase I was to provide
baseline data with which to compare future data.
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OVERVIEW AND SUMMARY OF 108-A PROGRAMS
The 108a program of the 1972 Clean Water Act funded thirty-one demonstra-
tion projects in the Great Lakes Basin. Each of the Great Lakes had a demon-
stration project located in the state and in the watershed which drained into
it. The demonstration projects were directed primarily toward reducing phos-
phorus pollution from point and nonpoint sources in both rural and urban set-
tings.
During the course of the 108a program many other point and nonpoint
source (NFS) research and control activities were occurring nationwide. Bil-
lions of dollars were spent in upgrading municipal and industrial waste treat-
ment facilities with much of this work being directed towards phosphorus
control. Extensive limnological research work led to advances in understan-
ding the dynamics of phosphorus, its transport processes, biological availa-
bility, and the levels which would accelerate eutrophication. Phosphate
detergent bans were initiated in much of the Great Lakes watersheds. The
increasing concern about urban and agricultural NPS pollution spawned the
National Urban Runoff Program (NURP) (1977), The Model Implementation Program
(MIP) (1978), and the Rural Clean Water Program (RCWP) (1980) as intensive
experimental programs designed to prove the water quality effectiveness of
BMPs at a watershed level. It is difficult to assess the extent to which the
108a program influenced these control activities or incorporated their
advances into its own activities; however, a number of observations can be
made:
1. The overall emphasis of the program shifted significantly towards demon-
stration of NPS control technology as opposed to point sources over the
program timeframe.
2. The concept of treating "critical areas" which contribute most to pollu-
tion in a watershed emerged during the Black Creek project. In particu-
lar, the development of a computer simulation model to identify critical
areas and to predict treatment effectiveness, preceded an increased
critical area emphasis in subsequent land treatment and water quality
programs.
3. Of all available agricultural BMPs for phosphorus control, the program
selected conservation tillage and fertilizer management for extensive
demonstration. The overwhelming volume of plot, field and watershed
study throughout the 1970s and early 1980s supports these choices as the
most cost-effective management alternatives.
4. Research on the transport of phosphorus during the early and mid-1970s
strongly suggested that 1 and application of sewage could be highly effec-
tive for reducing municipal industrial phosphorus aquatic inputs.
5. Low-cost alternatives to reducing the impact of overflows from combined
storm and sanitary sewers are possible through combinations of structural
and management practices.
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MULTI-DIMENSIONAL PROJECTS
Agricultural nonpoint sources of phosphorus and sediment were addressed
in three multi-dimensional projects; Black Creek, IN, Washington County, WI,
and the Red Clay Project in MN and WI.
The major goals of these multi-dimensional projects included agricultural
pollution control through implementation of Best Management Practices (BMPs),
public education on water quality issues, and documentation of water quality
results through monitoring.
Best Management Practices implemented in these projects represented a
wide range of control measures and a high degree of farmer/landowner
participation. In addition to conservation tillage, these projects promoted
terraces and grass buffer strips to reduce cropland erosion. Other phosphorus
sources were addressed by these projects including the promotion of animal
waste management and exclusion of livestock from streams and waterways.
Water quality monitoring was conducted in these projects, to assess
changes in water quality related to changes in management practices. During
the two year monitoring timeframe, no long term, watershed-wide water quality
changes were detected. However, plot and field studies in the Black Creek
Project, and event data from the Washington County Project did demonstrate
improved water quality due directly to the implementation of BMPs.
It is widely acknowledged that the Black Creek project, in particular,
became a landmark, pioneering effort for future watershed level agricultural
NPS control efforts, such as MIP, RCWP and the Agricultural Conservation
Program (ACP) special projects. The project provided important information
relating to streambank erosion, sediment basin effectiveness, and water qua-
lity monitoring requirements which greatly assisted subsequent programs.
Information and education components were important parts of all
three multi-dimensional projects. Washington County had the most extensive
education program, which included development of a grade school and high
school curriculum dealing with water quality and water pollution issues. The
community awareness programs were similar in all three projects. These pro-
grams not only made people aware of the project objectives, but helped provide
participants with technical information for successful use of BMPs. A closely
related facet of the multi-dimensional projects involved sociological assess-
ments of what it took to achieve changes in management practices. Both the
Washington County and Black Creek projects conducted surveys to assess . the
general public's attitudes toward agricultural pollution, and to assess how to
influence these attitudes.
These information/education efforts also provided important insights for
future NPS programs. In many cases it would appear that the success of more
recent programs such as MIP and RCWP is linked to the extent to which they
learned from these 108a projects.
In Washington County, for example, school teachers became involved in
developing watershed water quality curriculum materials. By integrating
awareness of pollution problems into school children's educational
experiences, future prevention is fostered - a much more cost-effective ap-
proach than clean-up. In addition, the involvement of influential community
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groups such as teachers promoted their commitment to water quality goals.
The Black Creek project, likewise, achieved an almost unparalleled degree
of public support and landowner participation, including high participation
from the historically more isolated Amish community. Their success came in
large part from putting as high a priority on public input and participation
as on technical solutions, and from actively involving local people from the
very beginning planning phase. Project personnel also involved respected
opinion leaders from target constituent groups and spent hundreds of hours in
personal contacts with them.
In addition to these overall project accomplishments, each of the three
multi-dimensional projects produced specific achievements, some of which are
summarized below:
Black Creek Final Project Results.
- The project concluded that: conservation practices utilized in the
project, if implemented across the entire Maumee Basin, would decrease
sediment loading to Lake Erie by 50%, and phosphorus by 25%. (From
plot study results)
- A computer model, ANSWERS (Areal Nonpoint Source Watershed Environment
Response Simulation) was developed to provide a method for estimating
BMP effectiveness.
- The ANSWERS model has been pivotal in formalizing an approach to iden-
tify and treat the most critical pollutant source areas in a watershed.
- Extensive personal contact and involvement of project personnel with
key opinion leaders among landowners created high participation in
implementing best management practices (BMPs).
- Amish farmers, representing almost 100% of the landowners in critical
pollutant areas, and comprising those who were most resistant to con-
servation practices, were convinced to install BMPs and to change some
traditional farming practices.
Washington County Final Project Results.
- Two model sediment control ordinances were extensively researched and
drafted, one controlling agricultural sources of pollution, the other
controlling construction sources of sediment. /-
I
- The county SWCD passed the standards and objectives of agricultural
ordinance as a resolution, indicating a changed attitude and a greater
commitment to soil conservation goals.
- The county passed the subdivision ordinance aimed at construction site
erosion control.
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- Following the adoption of several agricultural BMPs, two years' water
quality monitoring showed that total phosphorus and nitrogen and sedi-
ment yield had decreased.
- An extensive county-wide education program targeted for a variety of
audiences demonstrably increased public awareness of soil conservation
and water quality.
- A creative, comprehensive school curriculum for Local Watershed Problem
Studies was developed by groups of local teachers, one targeted for
elementary schools, the other for middle and high schools.
Red Clay Final Project Results.
- Shoreline stabilization structures were constructed which accomplished
short-term erosion control; the Army Corps of Engineers undertook
follow-up monitoring beyond the project period.
- Extensive research and surveys determined that the major cause of
streambank erosion were natural, and that the red clay sediment caused
little impairment of aquatic biota.
- The project developed and produced a low cost system for continuous
monitoring of precipitation, wind, air and soil parameters at remote,
unmanned sites.
- Five soil and Water Conservation Districts from two states jointly man-
aged a basin-wide research and demonstration project, despite multiple
problems with different state and county jurisdictions and predi-
lections of those involved. From their experience came cogent recom-
mendations for future co-operative management projects.
ACCELERATED CONSERVATION TILLAGE (ACT) PROJECTS
These demonstrations were supported by the 108a program funds in 34
counties, primarily located in the Lake Erie Basin, with an additional one
located in the Saginaw Valley of MI and two in New York state.
The objective of these projects was to promote the use of conservation
tillage practices, especially the use of no-till practices. Technical
assistance in crop management was available free of charge, and required
equipment was available at low rental rates to cover maintenance.
Participation in the ACT projects increased, approximately 25% each year
of the three year projects. Preliminary results show that conventional
tillage gives lower yields than conservation tillage. No-till was demonstrated
to be successful because net returns were comparable to conventional tillage.
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A substantial increase in reduced or no-till usage occurred in 15 of the
34 counties which had reported at the time of this review. Tillage plot
studies estimated their erosion reduction between 2-17 tons/acre-year. Con-
servation tillage also reduced rill, sheet, and gully erosion.
Water quality monitoring showed that dissolved phosphorus and nitrogen
loading concentration may increase due to conservation tillage, thus fertili-
zer management is an important adjunct practice. Overall, phosphorus loadings
decreased with conservation tillage.
COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW PROJECTS
Combined sewer overflows occur in cities where domestic, commercial and
urban runoff are routed through the same systems, overflowing during storm
events when the system capacity is exceeded. Five projects to demonstrate
overflow abatement in three cities, Rochester, NY, Saginaw, MI, and Cleveland,
OH, were funded by the 108a program.
Controlling sewer flow and increasing sewer storage capacity were the
major strategies demonstrated in all three cities. Changes in sewage treat-
ment were also demonstrated in Saginaw and Rochester, to handle the increased
burden on sewage treatment plants that result from reducing overflows. BMPs,
such as street cleaning to reduce pollutant loading and porous pavement to
reduce urban runoff, were demonstrated and evaluated in Rochester.
A very popular flow control device, the vortex flow regulator was demon-
strated in all three cities. This regulator was found to control flow through
the system reliably at very reasonable cost, with virtually no maintenance.
The pilot study in Rochester demonstrated several sewage treatment alter-
natives for high rate primary treatment of the increased sewage volumes, and
evaluated their efficacy and cost. Flocculation/sedimentation and swirl
concentrators were considered equally cost-effective alternatives.
Microscreening and dual media filtration were not as effective under all
conditions.
The Rochester BMP project demonstrated that labor intensive activities
such as street cleaning and field inspections of sewer systems could yield
short term results, but were expensive for long term use. Controlling sewer
flows and adapting sewage treatment plants to handle storm flows were done
effectively at relatively low cost.
The Rochester CSO project verified and used models extensively in develo-
ping and evaluating the abatement alternatives. The project was exemplary in
demonstrating the application of these models. The use of models allowed
evaluation of a variety of expensive alternatives without implementation.
LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE
Projects to demonstrate the applicability of sewage and sewage sludge to
land were demonstrated on four sites in Michigan. Successive holding ponds
for land irrigation were demonstrated in East Lansing, Muskegon County and the
11
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Village of Paw Paw. Irrigation effluents generally met or exceeded sewage
treatment effluent standards in all three projects, and water quality monito-
ring showed that diversion of sewage effluent to the land treatment facility
the quality of these lakes, sustaining high level reductions in phosphorus and
nitrogen concentrations. Moreover, land treatment of waste allowed the commu-
nity to recoup operating expenses through sale of forage from irrigation
plots.
In addition, a Montmorency County project was funded to document silvi-
cultural and ecological impacts of sludge application on forest lands. Results
were not yet complete at the time of this project review.
SEPTIC SYSTEM ALTERNATIVES
Two projects were funded to improve rural septic systems, one in Allen
County, OH, and the other in Steuben County, IN.
Septic systems in Allen County, OH were to be evaluated, and replaced, if
working improperly. The septic systems in Steuben County, IN were replaced.
Effluent from the thirteen new septic tanks in Steuben County were combined
and pumped 250 meters to a common leach field. Water conservation procedures
were encouraged, and water usage was monitored. No conclusions were reached
about the effect of water conservation on septic system performance, however.
A/0 TREATMENT PLANT DIGESTER
An innovative P-removal process was installed in the sewage treatment
plant in Pontiac, MI. The process utilizes sequential anaerobic and aerobic
incubation of sewage in place of conventional aerobic secondary treatment.
Increased P removals from sewage effluent were demonstrated by this treatment
process, as was increased nitrification of ammonium. BOD removals were simi-
lar in both A/0 and conventional methods.
CLEVELAND WATER QUALITY MONITORING
Funding was made available for a water quality monitoring project in the
city of Cleveland, OH. Water quality data and biological monitoring were per-
formed over a two-year period to provide background data for future pollution
abatement projects. A search of literature revealed the history of Cleveland
area water quality. Cleveland began to experience degraded water quality in
the 1850's, and suffered severe impairments at the turn of the century. Al-
though optimistic monitoring and planning efforts were proposed, the data
developed in this project were never utilized.
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SUMMARY
Overall, the 108a program demonstrated technologies to address several
sources of P pollution to the Great Lakes. The program provided funds to
demonstrate many useful technologies which decrease P pollution, and identi-
fied some techniques which, although previously believed to abate pollution,
were not shown to be efficacious.
Less easily definable, but perhaps in the long run a more important
result of the program, has been its influence on subsequent NPS control pro-
grams. Much of the institutional structure of the RCWP and NURP programs can
be traced from the experiences of the 108a projects, particularly the Black
Creek, Washington County and Rochester, N.Y. efforts.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
The 108a program brought about the development of a large and diverse
body of sometimes unrecorded information and practical experience. Ulti-
mately, the program will miss its deserved recognition if these contributions
slip beyond retrival. In some cases, significant data were gathered but never
analyzed, or creative educational materials were produced, but never repro-
duced for distribution. In some projects, water quality monitoring was insuf-
ficient to document changes within the time period it was conducted. In other
cases, water quality control structures have been implemented that would
provide much-needed water quality effectiveness information if continued post-
implementation monitoring could be conducted.
Much of the 108a program potential could be realized with moderate cost
and effort if further studies were initiated using previous studies as their
starting point. Some specific examples are included below:
1. The following 108a sites or project data should be considered for follow-
up studies.
Black Creek sociological and farmer participation studies should be
evaluated for further data analysis.
Washington County school curricula materials should be evaluated for
their impact and considered for wider distribution.
— MSU research ponds present an opportunity to investigate possible
groundwater contamination by organic chemicals, metals, or pathogens
from the land application of sludge sites.
— Cleveland Background Water Quality project has 2 years of baseline
biological and water quality monitoring data. They should consider
follow-up as planned originally, examining current water quality
results for impacts of pollution abatement efforts.
13
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2. The muliti-dimensional projects which conducted public opinion
assessments and extensive public education programs, should be evaluated
to develop guidelines and recommendations for gaining public acceptance
and improved participation in water quality control programs.
3. A 108-a follow-up study should interview key program and project person-
nel to document the overall impacts of 108a demonstrations. The follow-up
should address areas where written final reports do not include this kind
of assessment.*
4. Compare the management of water quality projects by Conservation
Districts with alternatives such as management by ASCS or state environ-
mental agencies.
5. The database from the Accelerated Conservation Tillage(ACT) project
should be analyzed to extract information about yield, cost, and water
quality effectiveness of conservation tillage practices. The analysis
should be performed by an independent research unit,not associated witb
the ACT projects and not biased with respect to conservation tillage.
This recommendation comes from conversations with 108a project personnel
we contacted for specific information and then learned about additional
project accomplishments which occurred after final reports were written.
Even more often, we found institutional changes which reflected the
impact of the 108a project had occurred, although not directly as a
project accomplishment. Examples include a Douglas County, WI shoreline
erosion control ordinance, a number of films produced about NFS control,
and the Wisconsin Soil and Water Conservation Districts' reorgan-
ization subsequent to Washington County's legal assessment project.
14
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MULTI-DIMENSIONAL PROJECTS
OVERALL OBJECTIVES
Three large multi-dimensional projects (near $3 million each) were funded
by the Great Lakes 108a program. These three projects had a number of dimen-
sions to their water quality improvement demonstrations, as opposed to the
single source problem approach of the other 108a projects. These projects had
extensive plans to implement nonpoint source pollution abatement practices, to
educate the public about the pollution problem, and in the case of two pro-
jects (Black Creek and Washington County), to complete a sociological study
on how to achieve changes in management practices to reduce pollution. The
three projects were intended to demonstrate the efficacy of BMPs and their
ease of implementation or adoption. These projects also acted as pilot pro-
jects to compare and determine which management practices are workable on a
large scale. Extensive research was conducted as part of these projects to
assess the efficacy of specific BMPs, to assess public understanding and
acceptance of pollution control efforts, and to determine whether widescale
implementation of BMPs would result in water quality changes.
The Black Creek Project, in Allen County, Indiana, primarily addressed
the agricultural problem of sediment pollution: implementing and testing
appropriate BMPs and concurrently studying factors affecting farmer's willing-
ness to change practices.
Its' stated objectives were 1) to demonstrate the effectiveness of soil
and water conservation techniques to improve water quality, and 2) to conduct
research to determine mechanisms whereby practices succeed or fail.
The Washington County Project had two field components, one addres-
sing agricultural pollution problems, the other addressing sediment from
"urbanizing" or construction activities.
The project addressed three objectives: 1) legal assessment of the need
for local ordinances, 2) land treatment and water quality monitoring in both
urban and agricultural areas, and 3) an extensive education program including
the development of public school curricula on NFS problems.
The Red Clay Project, located on the south shores of Lake Superior
and encompassing a two-state administration in Minnesota and Wisconsin, had
objectives to: 1) demonstrate economically feasible methods of erosion and
sedimentation control, 2) assess the capabilities of existing institutions to
cooperatively implement a pollution control program, and 3) analyze and eva-
luate program data to demonstrate viable techniques applicable to future
programs.
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THE BLACK CREEK PROJECT
Administration and Funding
The Black Creek Project was designed as a model project to promote the
implementation of the agricultural Best Management Practices (BMPs). Its'
stated objectives were 1) to demonstrate the effectiveness of soil and water
conservation techniques to the improve water quality, and 2) to conduct re-
search to determine mechanisms whereby practices succeed or fail.
The $3.1 million of grant money was administered by the Allen County Soil
and Water Conservation district (SWCD), $800,000 of which was spent on land
treatment costs.
Proj ect Approach
The Black Creek project promoted implementation of such on-farm practices
as livestock exclusion, conservation tillage practices, terraces, tile drain-
age, as well as farm pond construction and pasture and hayland management. In
addition, the project was responsible for installation of instream channeli-
zation and streambank erosion control structures.
The incentive used to encourage farmers to participate in the program was
to offer cost-sharing toward implementation of desired practices, and to
provide technical assistance in executing practices such as conservation
tillage. Farmers signed contracts agreeing to participate in the project, and
agreeing to implement the entire plan. Failure to complete the plan required
the farmer to return cost-share money already paid out, creating an incentive
to complete the contract.
A noteworthy aspect of the Black Creek project was the large population
of Amish farmers in the county. Amish have unique cultural and belief systems
and they also continue many 19th century farming practices. Thus, success of
the project depended on effective education for new practice adoption. Soci-
ological surveys were conducted early in the project to assess farmer's atti-
tudes toward conservation programs and to use the information for more effect-
ive program implementation.
The project originally approached water quality control with acre-by-acre
land treatment, but subsequently computer modeling identified priority treat-
ment areas. An original model was developed for this project.
Results
Effectiveness of BMPs
At the end of the Black Creek Project in 1977, 80% of the land was con-
sidered adequately protected. However, no estimates of the tons of soil saved
or reduction of sediment pollution in waterways was reported. The project has
estimated that implementation of similar practices across the entire Maumee
Basin would decrease sediment loading to Lake Erie by 50%, and phosphorus by
25%. However, these conclusions are not well supported by data in the project
reports.
16
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Rainulator studies on small plots were used to estimate modeling param-
eters. Results showed: tillage practices which leave residues on the soil
surface act to decrease erosion, water leaching to tile drainage had improved
quality with the exception of higher nitrate levels, and sediment basins were
found to decrease sediment delivery.
Conservation tillage, specifically chisel plowing, was found to be effec-
tive in reducing erosion, and produced yields competitive with or better than
conventional moldboard plowing. No-till produced lower yields than either
conventional or chisel plow tillage. Reduced yields may have been partly due
to either poor or inadequate soil drainage. Tile drainage was an effective
means of improving runoff water quality, although soil cracking led to in-
creased sediment and pesticide concentrations in drain effluent.
Instream structures to control streambank erosion produced no measurable
improvement in water quality. The construction of these structures caused
sedimentation in downstream reaches, and changed the morphology, hydrology and
temperature regimes thus reducing fish populations. Final project estimates
attributed only 3-5% of Black Creek sediment to streambank erosion processes.
Computer Modeling
At the inception of the Black Creek Project, attempts at pollution abate-
ment were made under the policy of treating every acre of land in the project
which needed treatment. Project personnel subsequently looked for ways to
spend money more effectively by treating those areas which contributed most to
water quality problems.
To facilitate this, the ANSWERS computer model (Areal Nonpoint Source
Watershed Environment Response Simulation) was developed.
The model was designed to estimate the amount of pollution from a given
area, and then to evaluate the effects of implementing various BMPs on that
area. Simulations with ANSWERS could help to determine which areas required
treatment and how much relative change in water quality would occur as a
result.
The ANSWERS model provided a means of identifying critical areas of
treatment, and its' development has corresponded with an important change in
land treatment and water quality programs. The ANSWERS model helped to stan-
dardize this critical area approach, which also permitted more effective
treatment on those critical pollutant sources pinpointed by simulation anal-
ysis .
The average cost of the project was $75/acre treated, including cost-
share local contributions, landowner contributions, and technical assistance.
Based on this estimate, BMr implementation of the Maumee Basin could be very
expensive. More widespread use of cost-effective practices such as con-
servation tillage, and fertilizer management, however, might result in accept-
able water quality improvement at a lower cost.
17
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Sociological Studies
Socioeconomic and attitudinal studies were a significant portion of the
Black Creek Project, particularly to meet the project objective of assessing
mechanisms by which practices succeed or fail.
Amish Participation. Originally the data gathered were to compare Amish
Amish to non-Amish farmers on their attitudes and practices, but the authors
state that comparing Amish to non-Amish landowners has proven a problem be-
cause the two groups' cultural beliefs and practices are so different. There-
fore the data representing attitudes among leaders and non-leaders are only
from the non-Amish community, since the Amish objedted to ranking any farmer
as "most knowledgeable", related to their belief system which rejects
pridefulness.
Overall, the cooperation shown by Amish farmers reported in the first two
years, was encouraging. Although there are cultural and language difficult-
ies, project personnel feel they gained considerable insight into Amish social
structures and beliefs, which made for more effective communication.
Between the first and second years, the addition of a second staff plan-
ner resulted in a 200% increase in Amish BMP contracts signed and a 138%
increase in non-Amish contracts. Project staff note that in high priority,
more erosive watershed areas, where nearly 100% of the land is Amish owned,
motivating group application takes 3-4 fold more time than with non-Amish
farmers. But, project personnel felt that final accomplishments on those
targeted areas would result in much more meaningful patterns of land treatment.
Success in Amish participation is attributed to many personal "one-on-
one" contacts over time. Initial distrust was overcome after one four-month
period of repeated contacts and several group meetings, when the Amish agreed
as a group to support a large grassed waterway, and after that more readily
agreed to install other practices. It appears that once a respected Amish
farmer has tried a practice, others are more willing to install the same.
Since most of the more erosive area landowners were initially resentful of
changes the project required from their traditional practices even with
high cost-sharing incentives the high participation rates with these key
Amish farmers represent a significant accomplishment.
Results of Data Analysis. In initial interviews with landowners of
the Black Creek project,data were gathered for three general categories:
(I) information to better understand (A) how local farmers perceive pollution
control problems; and (B) their willingness to participate in abatement
programs. (II) Information on leadership structures, based on assumptions
about diffusion patterns in adoption of agricultural technology, and (III)
types of fertilizers used to (A) understand nutrients observed in future
runoff studies and (B) provide data for nitrogen levels applied to soil for
each of Black Creek's sub-watersheds.
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Utilizing Leadership Studies in
Conservation Program Participation
Much of the literature on adoption of agricultural tech-
nology suggests that opinion leaders play a key role in how
rapidly new information is disseminated. Thus, locating the
opinion leaders in a watershed treatment area can be instru-
mental to the overall success of the project. In addition, by
identifying those most influential in a community, a project
can operate less disruptively within existing social struc-
tures , and new ideas and new practices can be introduced to a
communities' own leaders first to speed up the overall partici-
pation process.
In Black Creek, the identification of opinion leaders was
through (non-Amish) farmers' responses when asked to name who
was "well respected for his agricultural practices" and who
they had actually turned to for agricultural advice.
Extrapolating from similar studies' findings, leaders were
expected to be more conscious of pollution control and more
interested in doing something about it. Leaders and nonleaders
were compared on four response categories: 1) Farmers' per-
ceptions of soil conservation as a problem, 2) use of pollution
control practices on their land, 3) role that farmers feel
government should play in pollution control, 4) farmers' atti-
tudes toward the Black Creek project. Comparisons on these in-
dices reveal that persons picked as leaders show more awareness
more awareness of pollution, are better informed about its
sources, and are more interested in controlling it.
Specific response results were as follows: 1) Almost half
of all farmers did not perceive soil conservation as a serious
problem in their area, indicating they were unaware of the
extent of the erosion problem in Black Creek. However, 75% of
the leaders identified silt as a primary pollution source,
whereas non-leaders ranked sewage, garbage, and other wastes as
most important pollutants. 2) On actual use of pollution con-
trol practices, the percentage of farmers using pollution con-
trol, whether leader or not, was low. On 16 specific
practices, only about 1/4 to 1/3 were actually utilized. The
majority felt the practices weren't applicable to their land.
Project personnel could assess these opinions and advise which
practices are most appropriate to a given individual's land.
3) Farmers in all categories appear evenly divided about
whether taxation should pay for pollution control. A clear
majority (63%) feel the federal government should play an
important role in soil conservation programs, but feelings are
mixed about public regulation of land use in their area.
Utilizing Leadership Studies (continued next page)
19
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(continued)
Utilizing Leadership Studies in
Conservation Program Participation
4) Over 50% of the farmers felt they stood to gain more than
they would lose by participation in the project, and over 75%
of non-Amish felt the project would benefit area residents.
Area farmers were asked, "which do you think is a better way to
get people to co-operate in helping to protect the water qual-
ty in Black Creek; by education, financial incentives or by
laws and controls"? Both the Amish and non- Amish selected
educational methods as the best way to involve people in
protecting water quality.
Although the original project plans were to compare data gathered at
the project's inception to farmers' attitudes and practices resurveyed two
years later, the data gathered were never analyzed this way.
The final results the project reported are presented here in Table 2, a
table of means and standard deviations for these variables. However, there is
no other information in the report to indicate what these numbers represent.
Table 2. Sociological Model Variables [Black Creek] *
XI
X2
X3
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
X9
X10
Xll
Variable
Education of the farmer
Socio-economic status
Perceived need for innovation
Off -farm employment
Leadership score
Amish or Non-Amish
Advice from leader
Agency contact
Knowledge of the project
Persuasion towards the project
Participation in the project
Mean
9.573
20275.281
27.225
77.494
2.528
1.640
1.337
6.006
2.989
14.584
8.325
Standard
Deviation
3.285
12411.972
5.011
104.067
6.455
.483
.475
7.969
.805
6.210
3.254
* Final Report on the Black Creek Project
EPA 905/9-77-007-C, 1977, p.165.
- Technical Report Project Summary
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Likewise, no cross-tabulation or analysis is presented in the final
project report which would give meaningful information. For example, it
would be useful to know how ' amount of agency contact' over two years affect-
ed ' persuasion toward the project' or ' participation in the project'.
Since this data is available, further research could focus on comparing
some of these indices. Such data analysis may yield information about farmer
participation which is useful for future projects.
Overall, the authors attribute the success of the project in securing
participation to both the explicit rewards of cost-sharing and to farmer
involvement in the decision-making process affecting the local community.
Farmers were more likely to continue practices on a long term basis when
structures such as sediment basins or grassed waterways were constructed than
when management practices such as conservation tillage were implemented
alone.
Summary of Black Creek
The major goals of the project, to implement and demonstrate BMPs and to
study their effectiveness, were met. Sociological studies gave insight on
how cultural differences affected information exchange among farmers, and
this information was used advantageously in approaching and recruiting
farmers about the project.
Water Quality changes in the watershed were not reported by the project,
and there was no summary of land treatment which would relate to water
quality improvements. Plot and field studies indicated that conservation
tillage could decrease erosion while maintaining financial competitiveness,
iand that tile drainage and sedimentation basins could improve water quality.
Instream channelization and streambank erosion control structures, however,
were not demonstrated to improve water quality. The sedimentation created by
these structures affected fishery habitat and existing fish populations.
Development of the ANSWERS model not only provided a method to estimate
pollution and BMP effectiveness, it was pivotal in formalizing an approach to
identify and treat critical areas effectively. This procedure could be used
by other projects in other areas with some modification.
Further suggestions for the Black Creek project are to document the
extent of BMP implementation, and determine whether implementation can be
related to water quality changes in part, if not all, of the Black Creek
Watershed. BMPs were promoted by this project as effective treatment for
water quality, yet no definitive data are presented.
Another useful pursuit would be the publication of a document describing
the sociological studies, the methodology and data analysis and the impact
of their results on educational and community outreach programs. Much was
learned by this project, particularly regarding Amish participation, which
could have application in other projects.
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RED CLAY PROJECT
The Red Clay project was located on the southern shore of Lake Superior.
The predominant impairment in the Red Clay Project was the suspended sedi-
ment, red in appearance, in area waterways. The "red clay" waters are
unappealing aesthetically, and the streambank erosion was seen as serious.
However, few biological impairments had been demonstrated. The damaging pol-
lutants are sediment, turbidity and color. The soils are predominately red
clay interspersed with sands and silt, which have little stability and which
often erode severely on steep slopes.
Administration and Funding
The Red Clay project received $2.9 million for research and demonstration
in five counties, one in Minnesota and four in Wisconsin. The counties parti-
cipated in the project through their local Soil and Water Conservation Dis-
tricts: Carlton Co. in Minnesota, and Ashland, Bayfield, Iron and Douglas
Counties in Wisconsin. Douglas Co. SCWD became the overall fiscal agent, but
each district retained the power to make their own decisions and operate their
own program and installations. An executive committee of representatives from
each of the five participating SWCDs administered the grant money. Joint
administration across two states and several counties was a unique aspect of
the Red Clay project, and one of the project objectives was to evaluate this
cooperative institutional arrangement.
Proj ect Approach
Six areas were selected for treatment to reduce the Red Clay erosion
problem. In three of the areas, both agricultural and instream erosion con-
trol structures and management practices were implemented. Most of the agri-
cultural erosion problems were thought to result from livestock access to
streams, so livestock exclusion BMPs such as fencing, trail and walkway struc-
tures and associated practices were installed. Drainage field ditches, tiles
and diversions were also installed. Instream structures included flood water
retention dams and streambank stabilization structures. (7 were planned, 5
were constructed)
Shoreline stabilization measures were undertaken in two of the project
areas, to prevent wave action of Lake Superior from causing severe erosion
shorelines. The structures consisted of longard tubes, 3' diameter vinyl
tubes filled with sand and positioned along the toe of a shoreline cliff.
A rubbletnound revetment was constructed along another shoreline to retard
shoreline erosion threatening an Indian burial site.
A sedimentation dam was designed for a small 3 square mile watershed.
However, local matching funds were unavailable, and the plans were never
implemented.
In addition to the project areas receiving treatment, project money was
allocated for technical assistance in these areas: monitoring and evaluation
of these programs, research, information and education, and administration of
the project.
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Results
Descriptions of the three larger watersheds treated by the project are
given in the table. Both agricultural and instream BMPs were applied in
these areas. Although some streambank erosion was caused by livestock and
human disturbance, most was a natural occurrence of bank erosion and slumping
which may have resulted from forestation changes since the turn of the
century. Streambank erosion was apparently the major source of red clay
pollution. Agricultural erosion was generally caused by livestock and was
considered to be a minor problem.
Table 3. Red Clay Project Study Area Watershed Land Use
Skunk Creek Basin,
Carlton Co., MN
Little Balsam Creek,
Douglas Co., WI
Pine Creek,
Bayfield Co., WI
Total
Area Cro{
(Acres)
6870 16
3450 5
10,048 3
Pasture &
Hayland Other Woodland
(percent)
7 4 73
5 2 88
33 5 59
Cost sharing up to 100% for various practices and technical assistance
was available to farmers for BMP implementation. Most activity was addressed
to fencing, diversions, and livestock watering facilities. In Douglas
County,WI., only four long term agreements were written and only one of those
was completed. Cost sharing was awarded to only one participant. In contrast,
Carlton County, MN. had a more successful participation rate. Five of seven
full time farmers had long term agreements prepared, and 90% of these prac-
tices were applied in the 1977-1978 construction season. Resident landowners
were more likely to participate in the program than were non-resident landow-
ners. Participation success was attributed to group planning approaches,
active encouragement by the SWCD, neighborhood encouragement, and a vigorous
promotion program.
Prior to implementation of roadside and streambank erosion control struc-
tures, the Red Clay Project completed a survey of erosion control and sediment
reduction projects conducted since 1955 by the Red Clay Interagency Committee.
Included in the project review was a list of recommended practices and related
management considerations. Recommendations included the types of seeding
found to be successful, seedl/ed preparation, fertilizer application, mulching,
maintenance, and strearubank toe stabilization by placement of gabions, rock
riprap and stream diversion.
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Institutional Cooperation and Management Implementation
Two of the three overall objectives of the 5-district Red Clay project
were to assess interagency capabilities to run a non point source pollution
control program, and to develop recommendations for use in future NFS prog-
rams .
Accordingly, Red Clay Project personnel summarized the more than 4 years
erosion and sediment control activities and water quality demonstrations into
(a) a set of prerequisite conditions necessary to optimize effective programs
and their management process, (b) a set of concluding recommendations from the
project, and (c) a 9-Step "Framework for Local Management Agency Implementa-
tion".
The latter, a step-by-step implementation process designed for soil and
water conservation districts, is particularly valuable for future projects.
The framework represents a generalized problem-solving procedure distilled
from their experience which, when filled in with local details, can guide
implementation of any long range nonpoint source water pollution abatement
program.
Each of the nine steps delineates (1) purpose, (2) actors and (3) acti-
vities. The ' Activities' section is itself a point-by-point checklist of
tasks to accomplish that step of the management/implementation process. The
Steps are listed in a box in this section and their purposes very briefly
summarized.
Costs
Practices installed to prevent roadside and streambank erosion were found
to be expensive. The debris basin planned in the Spoon Creek watershed (Iron
Co.,WI), and roadside erosion prevention in the Borea area of Wisconsin's
Nemadji River Basin were not installed because the procedures were too expen-
sive. Although the Red Clay Project would fund 75% of the project costs,
the local district would have been responsible for the remainder.
However, there was little local support for the projects for a variety of
reasons. The cost estimate for the Spoon River debris basin,was $150,000; too
high for the local district to support. Similar structures in other areas had
gone over budget due to construction difficulties. A roadside erosion demon-
stration project was installed in Borea,WI. The project was not implemented
further because local officials did not accept the need to protect roadside
ditches from erosion. In addition, a whole gamut of practices was recommended
which increased the cost considerably. A less ambitious plan of seeding and
minor shaping could have addressed seventy-five percent of the problem at 25%
of the proposed cost, according to the final project report.
Two percent of the total budget was allocated to information and edu-
cation activities. Public meetings, tours, exhibits and newspaper reports
were all part of the information and education activities.
24
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Framework for Local Management Agency Implementation for Non-
Point Source Programs.
Step 1, Identification of Problems and Areas of Concern.
Identify the types and severity of problems using monitoring,
research and public opinion data; establish co-operative agreements
among all concerned agencies. Consortia across state lines should be
avoided.
Step 2, Definition of Purpose.
Develop a system of goals, objectives and polices. Especially
where geographic areas transcend agency jurisdiction, one uniform set of
goals, objectives, and policies is necessary.
Step 3, Inventory and Assessment.
Considerable manpower and time are required to determine and detail
the extent and severity of problems, and to identify and rank critical
areas of treatment need and potential. Time goes into baseline data
gathering and assessments, evaluations of public cooperation and the
process of negotiation.
Step 4, Securing Landownership Co-operation.
Regulatory action or high cost-share rates do little to improve
attitudes or lasting participation. Ultimately, cooperation depends on
developing a good conservation ethic among landowners,and the key is
continuous concerted educational programs.
Step 5, Preparation of Conservation Plans.
Target specific problems in critical areas with the most effective
treatment plans,with landowners and qualified professionals. Con-
siderations must include treatment efficacy and benefit, installation
costs, and landowner attitudes.
Step 6, Installation of Conservation Practices.
An important emphasis is developing specific techniques for indivi-
dual site needs with local innovations for non-structural low-cost
practices. Do not rely on pre-established "best" management practices
or excessive cost-share rates.
Step 7, Maintenance of Practices
Set policies and guidelines for agencies responsible for inspec-
tions and monitoring,to guarantee maintenance and continued benefits
from land treatment and water quality improvements.
Step 8, Evaluation and Adjustment.
There is nothing unalterable about goals, objectives and policies.
A continual evaluation process is necessary to analyze changing prob-
lems, and needs. Other natural resource conservation agencies can aid
this process.
(Continued)
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Step 9, Implementing Regulatory Systems (optional).
Regulatory programs are sensitive and should be used only after
all other voluntary compliance and educational programs have failed.
Local and state responsibilities must be carefully delineated; the state
should set standards and handle enforcement, and local SCWD's can recom-
mend and mediate.
Critical areas were not explicitly considered by the Red Clay project.
Previous soil and water conservation efforts were identified, and practices
were implemented in those areas where erosion was obvious. There was, however,
no systematic attempt to treat those areas which were most likely to result in
a water quality change, and project summaries indicated this should be an
important consideration for future watershed treatment projects.
Water quality monitoring was extensive, although erosion and pollutant
yield reductions were not presented in the final report. Average concen-
trations of major pollutants were reported and all were in small or trace
concentrations. Many of the agricultural BMPs installed had been demon-
strated previously to be effective in other areas. Although local improve-
ments may have resulted from installation of these BMPs, the major contri-
bution of sediment from random streambank slumping, was apparently not af-
fected. Some suspended sediment concentration changes were noted just down-
stream from construction sites and at the time of bank slumping events.
The large contribution of sediment from untreated streambanks apparently
precluded the observation of water quality changes from the agricultural BMPs.
Stabilization of banks and sediment basins was not sufficiently extensive to
evaluate their efficacy. Lakeside structures, such as Longard tubes and
riprap structures appeared to stabilize bank erosion, but had not been instal-
led long enough for definitive evaluation during the project.
Research results on vegetative cover were enlightening. It had been
theorized that introduction of fast growing trees such as alder, would help
remove soil moisture, and thus, decrease bank slumping. Significant effects
were seen only in dry years however, when the vegetation reduced soil moisture
and caused cracking, In general, however, the cracking increased erosion and
decreased stability. Woody plants were found to stabilize streambanks more
effectively than herbaceous plants, although they took longer to establish.
Most practices used in the Red Clay project could not be considered
highly cost effective, as most practices were either very expensive or not
effective. Due to the extent of streambank erosion and expense of treatment,
it would be very difficult to implement treatment extensively enough to
improve water quality. The project found that Longard tubes installed along
the beaches were less expensive than any of the other alternatives. Although
they appeared to stabilize the beach, it was felt that one season was too
short a time for complete evaluation.
26
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Summary of Red Clay Project
Agricultural BMPs addressed a very small portion of the Red Clay erosion
problem. The efficacy of the instream structures to prevent streambank ero-
sion is not apparent. Even if these structures were helpful, they would have
to be installed much more extensively to improve water quality. In this
light, the demonstrated approach to erosion treatment was not considered cost-
effective. Extensive research on the effects of vegetation on erosion report-
ed useful information about both successful and unsuccessful practices and
strategies. Overall, the project demonstrated that the cause of the Red Clay
problem is so extensive that treatment is not feasible.
In terms of the project's objective to evaluate the capabilities of
interagency management cooperation, the project concluded that it is possible
to overcome difficult institutional obstacles and combine resources in
partnerships for enhanced water quality. There were clearly difficulties in
the process, and the project's summary recommendations, management implement-
ation framework, and concluding observations delineate some pre-requisites
for effective program management. They emphasize problem identification and
critical area designation, treatment prioritization within common goals and
objectives, and on-going cost-effectiveness evaluation. The step-by-step
management framework developed by the project provides very useful guidelines
for future NFS projects.
Further demonstration or research could be directed in the following
areas: l)determine whether debris dams and/or sediment basins can improve
water quality, or whether the clay particles are too small to settle out in
such basins, 2) identify other practical methods of erosion abatement such as
reintroducing woody vegetation to decrease erosion and slumping, and 3) demon-
strate the use of riparian management of climax woody species along stream-
banks to discourage slumping and erosion.
WASHINGTON COUNTY PROJECT
Administration and Funding
The Wisconsin Board of Conservation Districts administered the Washington
County Project funds, which were distributed to project cooperators: Uni-
versity of Wisconsin Extension, the Water Resources Center of the University
of Wisconsin, the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, the Southeastern
(Wisconsin) Regional Planning Commission and the USGS»
Proj ect Approach
The project addressed three objectives: 1) legal assessment of the need
for local ordinances, 2) land treatment and water quality monitoring in both
urban and agricultural areas, and 3) an extensive education program including
the development of public school curricula on NFS problems.
27
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Legal and Institutional Assessment
The four goals of the institutional aspect of the Washington County
Project were: 1) to evaluate the legal, economic, political and adminis-
trative effects of regulatory programs for sediment control; 2) to review
alternative programs with local officials; 3) to assist local officials in an
effort to enact and administer effective and acceptable sediment control
programs; and 4) to analyze the impact of related state and federal programs.
Out of this study two ordinances were written addressing nonpoint sources of
pollution, one controlling agricultural sources of pollution, and the other
controlling construction sources of sediment.
Land Treatment and Water Quality
The technical aspects of Washington County project had four basic goals:
1) to assess the sediment and associated pollutants and amount of water from
agricultural and urban areas, 2) to identify land use characteristics which
contribute to pollution, 3) to investigate the usefulness of erosion control
measures in an agricultural area using a before and after approach, and 4) to
examine methods for reducing soil erosion and sedimentation in a residential
subdivision. Two study areas were selected: an agricultural watershed and an
area of intense urban development. Water quality was monitored before and
after implementation of erosion control management practices in both areas.
Information and Education
The third aspect of the Washington County project was to provide informa-
tion and educational services specifically about urban and agricultural non-
point source pollution to a diverse group of target audiences. A primary
approach included involvement of teachers in public school curricular develop-
ment. Other targeted audiences included the general public, special interest
groups, decision makers, regional, state, and national (USEPA) and inter-
national (IJC) agencies and committees. The objectives were divided into two
categories, informational and interactional, the latter possessing two-way
information flow between the project and audience, the former only one way,
project to audience.
Incentive
Cost share rates for farmers participating in the Washington County
project were set at 100 percent for all practices. This created a large
incentive for area farmers to participate in the project.
Results
An ordinance controlling agricultural pollution was proposed and
drafted. Although it was never adopted, the local SWCD chose to adopt the
objectives of the proposed ordinance as a resolution. Adoption of this reso-
lution reflected a change in attitude of the SWCD, which formerly had not
recognized agriculture as an important water pollution source. These changed
attitudes along with the education program may have influenced farmers to
adopt BMPs.
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However, there were few long range county-wide incentives for changes in
agricultural management practices. A study of the county government revealed
that the SWCD historically did not play an active role in soil and water
conservation. When federal policy changed to the support of voluntary control
of agricultural pollution rather than regulatory controls, surveys in the
county indicated that without state and federal influences, there would not be
sufficient local support to adopt the ordinance. However, adoption of the
resolution may have reflected a changing role - as well as attitude - of the
county board.
The subdivision erosion control ordinance was passed. It was directed
toward erosion control in the unincorporated parts of the city and required
subdividers to comply with sediment control practices in their construction
activities.
Sediment erosion control practices in the urban watershed were imple-
mented by the project personnel so no cost was incurred by developers. County-
wide changes in construction practices were expected to occur over time,
decreasing sediment pollution from this source. There was no provision for
control practices to be carried through when subdivided land was later sold to
developers, however.
Water quality effects in the agricultural watershed were monitored
for two years, so definitive results were observed by seasonal variability. In
the two years of study however, sediment loads and sediment delivery ratios
were shown to have decreased on an event basis. Total phosphorus and total
nitrogen yields decreased in parallel with sediment yields. The dissolved
portion of the load, however, increased. Continued reduction of N and P
yields were noted in one subwatershed in the three years following implement-
ation. Samples from the other subwatersheds, however, suggested that BMP
usage had been discontinued. No land use survey was presented to confirm this
suggestion.
Strip cropping, chisel plowing and terraces were considered efficacious,
and were promoted by the project. Agricultural BMPs chosen for Washington
County were typically sediment-control practices. No-till, however, was not
as effective because crop yields were apparently reduced by this practice.
No BMPs were installed early enough in the construction process to test
their ability to control construction-caused erosion problems. Soil losses
from the construction areas were observed to decrease after implementation of
the practices, but the experiment's results were inconclusive.
Erosion control practices to be used by developers included scheduling
activities to minimize disturbance during peak runoff periods, care in place-
ment of excavated soil, prompt regrading of disturbed areas, utilizing only
one entrance route, using protective cover along curbs, and installing roof
downspout extenders to aid in rainwater dispersement. The efficacy of these
practices was not reported on by the project.
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Students Make Water Testing Equipment
Bottom Sampler
In studying water quality It is important for students to gather
first-hand information about local streams, ponds or wetlands.
Collecting of aquatic organisms requires sturdy, manageable equipment.
Nothing is more frustrating to both teacher and students than to have a
well-planned field trip thwarted because the sampling equipment didn't
work!
Purchased equipment is fine but often expensive. Simple, useful
equipment can be constructed with ease. Second-hand stores, auctions
and garage sales offer materials such as - heavy broom handles, rakes,
enamel pans, jars, buckets, etc.
NOTE: If collected organises are not to be used in the classroom,
observations and tallys can be made in the field and organisms released
in their environment. Respect for all life-forms should be encouraged.
sometimes with a small container at the
end. [t is easily clogged with bottom
silt so bo careful. By touching the
Inside of the net to a small amount of
water In a flat tray, collected
organisms can be gently washed free.
Materials needed-
- handle,
- netal band («n embroidery hoop) and
screw;
- toe of a nylon stocking, woman's
slip, or a fine meshed cloth; and
Vegetation Sampler
By attaching a bur!dp or other heavy
cloth bau to a garden rake with rigid
tines, samples from the bottom of a
stream or pond can he obtained.
Procedun
Lace wire around the opening
of the bag and the Crossntece af
the rake.
Pull the excess up tightly until
it forms a triangle with the rake
Drill a small hole fn the
A sifting screen will allow siU and mud
particles through white retaining
organisms.
Materials needed
- wood frame, 35 x ?5 cm, and
- fiberglass screen.
Seech i Disk
To measure visibility In water lower
disk until the white area disappears
fron sight and record depth. Raise
until white areas reappear and record
depth. The average of these two
readings Is the depth of visibility and
can be compared with readings obtained
in other locations.
Materials-
- 20 en diameter sheet metal,
plywood disk, or unbreakable plates,
painted in black and white quarters,
- rope or chain narked at intervals, and
- oypbolt, nuts, washers.
Materials needed
- 110 can -- cut with u-
- broon handle; and
- nuts and bolts.
Collecting Nets
Use a kitchen sieve to gather small
aquatic pi ants and animals in weedy
areas. Immediately transfer the
organisms to a sorting tray for
Identification and observation.
ng a broom handle to the handle
the sieve gives a longer reach.
dip net for swooping dqoatic plants
and aninals from deep water can be made
using a strong 4-6 foot long handle, a
strong metdl run, nylon tricot netting.
nner tube, leather, etc.
Water Sampling Bottle
To collect watir sd,i(>lcs frot.i various
depths, lower the bottl" to a depth
narked on thj corJ and pull the stopper
out.
232-235 froa trie Washington County,
tudies, Hidole and High School Curricula", 1981.
HI, local Watershed
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The education program was extensive and directed at many audiences using
a variety of teaching techniques, including presentations, brochures, pam-
phlets and development of school curricula. Public awareness was found to
increase as a result of the education program, and this was believed to help
in the promotion of BMPs and passage of the urbanizing sediment control ordi-
nance.
In the 7940 acre agricultural watershed, $85,800 was spent on land treat-
ment. Project reports indicate that 352 acres were treated by the project. No
economic analysis or cost effectiveness of BMPs was presented in the final
report.
Sociological surveys indicated that fewer than 20% of county residents
felt that agriculture was the major pollution source. The project estimated
that it contributed 65% of sediment and phosphorus in county waterways. Only
2% of the farmers interviewed perceived that they had an above average ero-
sion rate from their land, although 15-20% of the land had erosion rates
greater than the county average. It is not clear however, when these survey
results were obtained, or whether the education and technical assistance
elements of the project were able to influence these attitudes. Studies
concluded that water quality improvements could be obtained if treatment was
focused on the critical areas having >6% sloping cropland or livestock area
phosphorus sources.
Summary of Washington County Proj ect
Several goals were achieved by the Washington County Project. Two local
sediment control ordinances were drafted, one governing agricultural activi-
ties, and one governing urban construction activities. The urban construction
ordinance was adopted by the county, the agricultural ordinance was adopted as
a resolution. The adoption of this resolution may have inspired the SWCD to
take a more active role in encouraging better management practices on the
county's farms.
Implementation of both agricultural and "urbanizing" BMPs was achieved,
along with water quality monitoring. Implementation of agricultural BMPs
resulted in water quality changes. Construction related BMPs, however were
installed too late to demonstrate their effectiveness. A strong educational
program was developed by the project and targeted at varied audiences. Public
awareness of NFS problems increased as a result of the education component. In
addition curricula for elementary and secondary schools were developed and
published for local use.
Suggestions for further work are to identify the extent of agricultural
management changes during and since the project inception, and to find ways to
increase land treatment. Another further investigation should concern the
urban BMP component, to determine whether the recommended BMPs have been
adopted for use as a result of the ordinance, and if so, whether they were
efficacious. Perhaps a survey could indicate which BMPs are in use to comply
with the ordinance, whether they are sufficient, and answer whether the
ordinance properly addresses the urban erosion/sediment issue.
It would also be interesting and potentially beneficial for the edu-
cational component of future projects, to assess the usefulness of the public
school curricula materials, to determine the curricula's applicability in
other school systems. The curriculum manuals were developed with the energy
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and talent of over 50 teachers and school personnel from Washington county and
appear to contain thorough, creative and age-appropriate learning activities.
Multi-dimensional Projects Summary
Each of the three large projects was administered by the local Soil and
Water Conservation Districts. The Red Clay Project developed a unique ap-
proach to administration by creating an executive board composed of represent-
atives from each of five soil and water conservation districts, encompassing
two states.
Each of the three projects had very large budgets, operating in the mil-
lions of dollars, with Black Creek receiving $2.1 million in 108a funds ini-
tially, the Red Clay Project $2.9 million, and Washington County $2.2 million.
Black Creek implemented agricultural BMPs resulting in 80% of the land
adequately treated at the termination of the first phase in 1977. However, no
watershed-wide water quality changes were documented.
Washington County agricultural land treatment showed some short term
water quality results, however the use of BMPs was apparently discontinued
after the project terminated. Urban BMPs were not implemented early enough in
the construction phase to demonstrate their efficacy, although a county ordi-
nance was passed to control erosion from subdivision construction. Although a
similar ordinance was drafted for agricultural erosion, it was not adopted by
the county as an ordinance. It did inspire the SWCD to pass a resolution
adopting the objectives of the draft ordinance, which reflected a change in
attitude and direction for the SWCD. The Washington County Project also had a
very strong educational component, reaching widespread audiences, and prepar-
ing two volumes of elementary and secondary school curricula.
The Red Clay Project also implemented agricultural BMPs, more extensively
in some counties of the project than others. Agricultural BMPs however, did
not address the major cause of red clay pollution, which was streambank ero-
sion. Some streambank erosion control structures were installed, but they
were very expensive, thus restricting further installation. It was not clear
whether the installed structures would affect stream water quality, or if
extensive implementation would have improved water quality.
Streambank erosion control efforts in two of the projects present inter-
esting comparisons. The Black Creek project spent 30 percent of its land
treatment budget on instream structures to control streambank erosion, but
later determined that only three to five percent of the sediment in the stream
was attributable to this source. In the Red Clay Project, however, the majo-
rity of the instream sediment was caused by erosion and streambank slumping,
and treatment of agricultural land was not likely to result in water quality
changes. Instream structures were so costly that it was not feasible to treat
sufficiently large areas for water quality improvement.
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All three large projects were administered through the local SWCD, which
worked cooperatively with many agencies to accomplish their stated goals. All
found that it took a lot of work to coordinate a project of such magnitude,
although attaining the level of inter-institutional cooperation necessary to
implement and evaluate these programs was an achievement itself.
Each of the three projects was concerned with erosion and related prob-
lems, although the sources varied from project to project. Critical area
designation was highlighted by the development of the ANSWERS computer model
in the Black Creek project.
Varying degrees of success were achieved by the projects, although no
long term water quality changes were documented by any of them. Sociological
and educational studies and co-operative management assessments have provided
information which would enable future projects to implement programs more
easily and effectively.
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ACCELERATED CONSERVATION TILLAGE PROJECTS
Introduction
Sediment and phosphorus enter waterways via surface runoff and transport
of eroded soil. Cropland is the major source of sediment in the Great Lakes
Basin. Agricultural tillage activities disrupt and uncover the soil leaving
it vulnerable to erosion processes. There has been a great deal of interest
in controlling farmland erosion by substituting conservation tillage for more
erosive conventional tillage. Reducing soil loss in this way benefits farm
productivity and water quality.
No-till and reduced till have been experimentally demonstrated to give
financial returns comparable to crops grown with conventional tillage prac-
tices. However, reduced tillage and no-till require more rugged equipment and
more sophisticated management practices. Farmers are reluctant to invest in
new equipment or to change their management practices unless they have experi-
ence with the new methods. The conservation tillage projects were funded to
provide farmers with low cost access to reduced tillage and no-till equipment,
and to give technical assistance to those interested. Data collected by the
conservation tillage projects will demonstrate the effects of conservation
tillage practices on crop yields and net returns to the farmer.
Soil erosion can be difficult to measure, and water quality effects are
expensive to monitor and document. Most of the conservation tillage projects
have, therefore, documented their impact by estimating soil savings with the
Universal Soil Loss Equation model.
Administration and Funding
Money was awarded to the following projects for promotion of conservation
tillage practices:
Grant Number Location Date
S005513 Tuscola Co., MI 1979 - 1983
S005552 Allen Co. OH 1980 - 1985
S005553 Defiance Co, OH 1980 - 1985
S005692 Lake Erie Basin,20 counties 1980 - 1985
S005698 6 counties in IN 1980 - 1985
S005700 BeanCreek, MI, 2 counties 1981 - 1985
S005721 Otter Creek, MI 1982 - 1986
S005722 Oswego Co., NY 1983 - 1985
S005723 Wayne Co., NY 1983 - 1985
There were nine grants funding conservation tillage demonstration pro-
jects in 34 counties, each county having been allocated funds, either directly
or through the appropriate state agency, to be administered by its Soil and
Water Conservation District.
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The Districts were responsible for handling funds, purchasing equipment,
providing technical assistance, and organizing educational activities. Co-
operative Extension has provided educational assistance and coordinated the
past scouting programs. SCS has also provided technical assistance, and ASCS
has made cost sharing funds available to participating farmers.
The goals of the project were to promote conservation tillage and reduce
the risks involved in its adoption, to reduce soil erosion and improve water
quality, and to educate farmers about relationships between water quality and
farming practices.
CONSERVATION TILLAGE
Conservation tillage is an all encompassing term for
tillage practices which retain crop residue on the soil sur-
face. The standard definition for conservation tillage says
that it may include any practice for which 30 percent of the
surface remains covered by crop residue. This may be compared
with conventional tillage which retains essentially no crop
residue.
The purpose of tillage is to disrupt the growth of weeds
and prepare a seedbed. Both conservation tillage and con-
ventional tillage generally rely on herbicides to control the
growth of weeds. Conventional tillage generally involves mold
board plowing, disking, and smoothing operations with imple-
ments like spring tooth harrows or drag harrows, and secondary
tillage cultivation for weeding of the growing crop. , Many of
these steps are omitted in conservation tillage. Conservation
tillage practices demonstrated under 108a included no-till,
reduced till, and ridge-till practices.
No-till refers to a practice where crops are planted
without primary or secondary tillage. Stubble and residue from
the previous crop are left on the field. The new crop is plant-
ed in a slot cut through the stubble. Herbicides are used to
kill previous cover crop and weeds.
Ridge-till is a variation of no-till where crops are
planted right on top of the previous year's ridged-rows. Cul-
tivation of the ridges is performed once or t|?ice during the
season to maintain the ridges. A special cultivator is used
which throws soil toward the row, without disking or plowing.
Ridge till is advantageous in colder climates with heavier,
poorly drained soils, as the ridges are drier and warmer than
the surrounding soil.
Reduced-til1 refers to any tillage and planting system
that meets the 30 percent residue requirement.
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Proj ect Approach
The project approach was to demonstrate conservation tillage in experi-
mental plots, provide low-cost access to conservation tillage equipment, and
technical assistance to participants. Policies varied from county to county,
with most counties offering no-till planters and seeders, chisel plows, and
other equipment for reduced tillage at low cost or free. Equipment rental
rates were set to cover maintenance costs. Participants were included in
post-scouting programs and received technical assistance at no cost. In
return they were asked to keep careful agronomic records, and to allow the
SWCD to use the data in annual reports and to allow the plots to be included
in promotional tours.
In addition, each county SWCD and cooperating agencies were responsible
for educational and promotional activities in that county. Such activities
included promotional meetings for area farmers, tours for local conservation-
tillage plots, and numerous newspaper, radio, and TV spots to advertise the
program.
Results
Results from these projects fall into several categories from technical
results concerning crop yields, to overall assessments of the project partici-
pation and success measured in numbers of participants or acres in conserva-
tion till.
Crop Yields Three crops were grown in comparison plots throughout the
34 county area: corn,soybeans, and in some counties, wheat, hay, or other
crops. One advantage of no-till is that production costs are generally lower
than those for other reduced or conventional tillage because fewer passes are
made over the field in no-till. Therefore, lower no-till yields should still
result in higher net returns to the farmer.
Yield data were available for this review from 15 of the 34 coun-
ties, indicating that conventional tillage methods often resulted in lower
yields than no-till or reduced-till yields. Results varied however, with crop
and soil type. Instances did occur when a no-till plot yield was lower than
the conventionally tilled comparison. Often though, differences were slight
and the farmers' net returns were not reduced, since no-till' had a lower cost
outlay.
Conservation tillage was superior to no-till in areas with poorly drained
soils, which are common in the Lake Erie Basin. Because reduced tillage
requires lower financial outlay than conventional tillage, there is an in-
centive for widespread adoption of reduced tillage. No-till resulted in more
variable yields, but the average return over several seasons was not different
from that of conventional tillage, even though no-till had very low yields in
several instances.
Increased Conservation Tillage Data from the 15 county reports reviewed
indicate a 23% increase in no-till from 1982 to 1983 and a 27% increase from
1983 to 1984. The significance of this estimate is, however, in doubt because
the increase is small and the amount of no-till in 1982 is uncertain. Most of
the counties reported that use of no-till was already increasing before the
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start of the program. The projects may, therefore, have reached many farmers
who wanted to try conservation tillage but had no low risk opportunity pre-
viously.
The conservation tillage programs have also generated a number of small
plot studies of conservation tillage use. Although these plots were neither
strictly controlled nor replicated samples, they do represent field trials of
practical use of the tillage methods, and as such may point to areas of
required research.
The number of tons of soil saved due to the use of no-till and various
conservation tillage practices were calculated by the Universal Soil Loss
Equation. The estimates depended on the type of conservation tillage em-
ployed. No-till provided the most protection against soil loss, followed by
various other reduced tillage techniques, with conventional tillage affording
the least protection. The amount of soil lost to erosion depends on many
factors in addition to the type of tillage including: soil type, slope length
and steepness, cover conditions, rainfall energy, and conservation practice.
In the conservation tillage projects the amount of soil saved by changing to
no-till ranged from one to two tons/acre-year to 17 tons/acre-year with a mean
savings of 4-5 tons/acre-year. No-till practices reduced soil erosion well
below T, a calculated "acceptable" soil loss level based on maintaining long-
term crop productivity.
Qualitative changes in soil structure were observed in conservation
tilled fields in Tuscola County, Michigan. Soil compaction was less of a
problem, and organic matter, infiltration, and soil moisture appeared to
improve. A more dramatic observation was the reduction of rill, sheet, and
gully erosion. Rill erosion could be seen on the conventionally tilled half
•>of a comparison plot while no erosion was observed on the chisel plowed half.
Sediment and Phosphorus Loadings Phosphorus is an important agri-
cultural pollutant, which attaches to soil particles, but can be released to
increase dissolved phosphorus concentrations in surface waters. Decreases in
the yield of phosphorus to streams and lakes should correlate with decreased
erosion rates. Trends observed in quality of runoff from conservation tilled
areas suggest that dissolved (algal available) phosphorus concentrations in-
crease, despite decreases in total phosphorus (Baker, 1985). Thus, it appears
that fertilizer management can be an important aspect of both pollution abate-
ment and crop management.
In the Bean Creek project of Michigan and in the Defiance County, Ohio,
project, farmers were encouraged to apply less phosphorus to their soils,
because soil tests had shown that high levels of soil phosphorus were already
prevalent. Water quality monitoring in Tuscola County, Michigan, demonstrated
reductions in sediment and total phosphorus loading to area streams as a
result of conservation tillage. Large decreases in TKN and suspended sediment
were noted, while an increase in nitrate and only a small decrease in total
phosphorus were seen.
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One other result of the Conservation Till projects should be noted. Amish
farmers in Allen County, Indiana, hold social and religious beliefs which
preclude the use of tractors and many of the practices promoted by the conser-
vation tillage projects. The Allen County Soil and Water Conservation Dis-
trict has worked with these farmers since the inception of the Black Creek
Project in 1972, and developed lines of communication with them. The rapport
the SWCD achieved gave them insight into ways the Amish community could ad-
dress agricultural'nonpoint source problems. The Allen County SWCD was able
to purchase a no-till seeder developed by Amish farmers in Pennsylvania. Its
inventor was invited to demonstrate its use to these Allen County farmers, an
experience which further encouraged Amish farmers to use it.
Summary of Conservation Till Projects
The use of cons.ervation tillage significantly increased in the thirty-
four 108a project counties in the Lake Erie Basin. In projects with yield
data, crop yields with no-till and conservation tillage practices are compar-
able, and time savings and dollar returns with no-till are attractive. In
areas where no-till has proven to be less than optimal due to poor drainage,
ridge-till is an efficacious alternative. Dissolved phosphorus and nitrogen
runoff concentrations may increase as a result of conservation tillage prac-
tices, but careful fertilizer management should help offset this detriment.
Participating farmers may learn more about fine tuning farm management, and
may better manage fertilizers and pesticides in the future regardless of the
tillage practices they choose.
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LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE
Four areas of Michigan received funding to demonstrate alternate methods
of wastewater treatment involving land application of wastes. The goals were
to reduce nutrients in treatment plant effluent, and to recycle nutrients to
crops or forest to increase productivity. The decrease of nutrients and
organic material from treatment effluent was intended to help prevent eu-
trophication of receiving streams and lakes.
The grants awarded for this type of project were:
Grant Number Location Date
Y005065 Michigan State University 1972 - 1975
G005104 Muskegon, MI 1968 - 1975
S005501 Muskegon, MI, effects on 1980 - 1981
water quality
S005551 Montmorency Co., MI 1980 - 1985
S005559 Paw Paw, MI 1982 - 1986
MSU RESEARCH PONDS
Administration and Funding
The East Lansing Department of Public Works contracted with Michigan
State University (MSU) to construct and evaluate alternative wastewater
treatment processes based on land application of wastes. The goal of the
project was to demonstrate a land application-based treatment system to meet
pollution control requirements. They sought to obtain a partial return of
operating costs by harvesting crops from the waste disposal area.
Project Approach
Secondary effluent from the East Lansing activated sludge treatment plant
was diverted to four sequential holding ponds on the MSU campus. Effluent
from the holding ponds was used to irrigate plots of trees, alfalfa, trefoil,
grasses, corn, and sorghum. The project location afforded the opportunity to
conduct tours of the facility and to educate the public on trade-offs
associated with different sewage treatment technologies.
Results
Retention time in each of the successive waste holding ponds was approxi-
mately one month. Within the holding period, phosphorus, nitrogen, and
coliform bacterial concentrations were observed to decrease in successive
ponds. Coliform reduction through successive holding ponds was sufficient to
meet existing discharge standards. Much of the phosphorus reduction was
attributed to sorption on clay particles. After the first year the removal of
phosphorus in the ponds was reduced to about 1 mg P/l as the sediment in the
ponds became saturated with phosphorus.
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The project demonstrated that irrigation scheduling could be optimized
for wastewater treatment objectives. Forage crops were shown capable of
renovating as much as 7.5 cm of wastewater per week. Soil nitrate levels
increased significantly, however, during irrigation. Winter irrigation was
shown to be feasible but not as effective for nutrient removal. The infiltra-
tion rate of the irrigated land limited use of the facility to an average of 5
cm/week.
Summary for MSU Research Ponds
An alternate treatment plant consisting of a series of four holding ponds
and a spray irrigation system was found to reduce nutrient concentrations and
fecal coliform levels in wastewater. Results indicate that renovation of
wastewater occurred in the holding ponds and further renovations occurred
through irrigation on crop or forest lands.
LAND TREATMENT IN MUSKEGON. MICHIGAN
Administration and Funding
The University of Michigan's Great Lakes Resource Management Program
(GLRMP), received funding from the USEPA 108a program to continue work begun
under EPA grant 802457. GLRMP designed and constructed a land spray irri-
gation and disposal wastewater treatment plant for residential and industrial
sewage. The 802457 grant funded the design and construction aspects of the
project. Section 108a funding was used to conduct follow up investigations to
evaluate the environmental impacts from diversion of the point sources and
land disposal.
Proj ect Approach
The diversion of wastewater and subsequent spray irrigation was intended
to restore the recreational capacity of three eutrophic lakes: White Lake,
Muskegon Lake, and Lake Mona. Performance of the spray irrigation treatment
facility and its impact on the quality of these lakes was investigated during
the period: April 1, 1972 to December 31, 1975, by Michigan State University
under 108a Project Number G005104. A followup study to evaluate longterm
changes in water quality of the three lakes was conducted in 1980 and 1981 by
Limno-Tech, Inc. under contract to the Michigan Department of Natural
Resources. The followup study was funded by 108a Project Number S005501.
Results
The plant was installed at reasonable cost with federal aid, but the
project lost money due to poor management. That trend was reversed when the
county took over the management of the operation. Under county management,
the construction deficit was then offset by crop sales. In the final ana-
lysis, the cost of sewage treatment was reduced to $28 per thousand cubic
feet.
The effects of land irrigation detected during 1972-1975 investigation of
the performance of the spray-irrigation treatment process indicated that
efficiency of the process was dependent in part on soil type. The nitrogen
40
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content of sandy soils was low, and irrigation was not able to supply all the
nitrogen needed by crops during the growing season. However, N excess oc-
curred in these soils the remainder of the year so that leaching was observed.
These soils were low in organic content and were, therefore, effective in
eliminating BOD. Soils with high organic content may not be suitable for land
application unless they are well drained. The project noted that uneven waste
distribution could be a problem because some areas become saturated with P,
and therefore less effective. With use, soil pH changed toward that of the
wastewater.
The quality of treatment plant effluent from drainage lines below spray
irrigation fields was shown to exceed the standards set by the National Pol-
lution Discharge Elimination System. In general, the quality also exceeded
the expectation from system design, although considerably more variability was
encountered than is typical of conventional wastewater treatment systems.
The first monitoring project documented that diversion of municipal and
industrial wastewater discharges had an immediate beneficial effect on the
quality of two of the three lakes. Although minimal effect was detected in
the nutrient budget of White Lake, significant improvements were detected in
Muskegon Lake and Lake Mona. Twenty to 25% reduction in total phosphorus and
total nitrogen loads to Muskegon Lake were observed. The spray irrigation site
accounted for a maximum of 1.5% of the total phosphorus and 11% of the nitro-
gen reaching Muskegon Lake. The short term effects of effluent diversion on
Lake Mona were even more dramatic, reducing the load of phosphorus by 65% and
the nitrogen load by 45 to 65%.
Data from 1980-1981 monitoring, indicated that after five years of oper-
ating the new treatment plant, the loadings of nitrogen and phosphorus to the
three lakes were still reduced, and fishing in the lakes had improved.
The 1980-1981 monitoring program showed further that after five years,
60-90% reduction of phosphorus loading had achieved 75-80% reduction in phos-
phorus concentration within the lake, and 60% reduction in N loading had
caused a 55-65% reduction in nitrogen concentrations. Chlorophyll a, however,
appeared to increase over time, although changes in chlorophyll a and trans-
parency were obscured by algicide application to the lakes. Beneficial
changes were noted in nitrogen to phosphorus ratio, hypolimnetic quality, and
improvement in the fish and benthos communities.
Summary of Muskegon Project
This project was successful in constructing a facility for land appli-
cation of sewage, and in making it work for the community. Treatment costs
were controlled and significantly improved water quality was observed in
previously afffected lakes. Further research should include monitoring for
public health hazards such as synthetic organic chemicals, heavy metal accumu-
lation, and viruses in groundwater and in the crops and fields.
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FOREST APPLICATION OF WASTES IN MONTMORENCY COUNTY
Administration and Funding
The Forestry Department of Michigan State University was funded to eval-
uate the ecological effects on trees, soils and wildlife from applying sewage
wastes to the forest for treatment purposes. The goal of the project was two-
fold: (1) to demonstrate "state-of-the-art" land application technology, and
(2) to document silvicultural and ecological impacts of sludge application.
Project period is 1981 through 1985. Final reports were not available at the
time of this review.
Proj ect Approach
Sludge was imported from northern Michigan cities, Alpena and Rogers
City, and applied to four forest types: aspen, oak, mixed hardwoods, and pine
in a randomized block experiment. Studies were intended to evaluate changes
in organic matter, nutrient cycling, and ecological dynamics of animal popu-
lations. Specific attention was addressed to analysis for heavy metals in
animal tissue. In addition, a survey was conducted to evaluate public opinion
concerning the sludge application, and to determine how education may influ-
ence that opinion.
Results
The effect of sludge application on plant productivity was difficult to
assess during the short time period of study. Macronutrients in the treated
aspen plots were increased by sludge addition. Aspen mortality increased,
however, because deer and elk grazing in combination with the nutrient ad-
dition left aspen susceptible to lethal fungal infections. Sunscorching from
trail construction was also found to contribute to the mortality. The dura-
tion of the study was too short to evaluate changes in yield of hardwoods or
reduction in rotation period.
An increase of small mammal populations noted in the sludge treated areas
was attributed more to increased ease of trapping animals under the flooded
condition than to any increase in population. This was supported by the
observations that sampling dates were too close together to reflect a true
population increase.
Increased nitrate concentration was observed in soil water and ground-
water beneath sludge-application plots. No other water quality monitoring was
conducted.
Public opinion held that incineration of sludge was cheaper than forest
application. No further comments or analysis were made on this topic, so it
is unclear if this was true. Evidence that interest in this method of sludge
disposal was generated came from reports that the project was advising the Air
Force and the National Forest Service on setting up similar sludge disposal
facilities.
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Summary of Montmorency Project
Although the project was not complete at the time this review was de-
veloped, the project appears to be making progress toward it's goals of eval-
uating ecological effects. Little water quality monitoring was done, however.
Although evaluating water quality effects was not a stated goal of the pro-
ject, the sludge application program may have significant water quality im-
pacts.
VILLAGE OF PAW PAW
Administration and Funding
The Village of Paw Paw, Michigan was awarded $336,418 for construction of
a demonstration project of overland flow wastewater treatment. The project
period is August 1982 through March 1986. No final report was available at
the time of this review.
Proj ect Approach
The project installed an overland flow wastewater treatment plant de-
signed to treat local flow, by means of three sequential holding ponds and an
overland flow irrigation system.
Results
Water quality measurements before and after treatment indicated that
treatment removed from 95-99% of suspended solids, volatile solids, and BOD,
and reduced total phosphorus to less than 1 mg/1. A data summary is shown in
the table below.
Total phosphorus effluent concentrations were not always as low as de-
sired, and treatment with alum was occasionally required. Fecal coliform
counts often increased in the overland flow treatment system, presumably due
to wildlife input.
Table 4. Paw Paw, Michigan Water Quality Data
Parameter Before Treatment After Treatment
Suspended Solids 300-500 mg/1 10-20 mg/1
Volatile Suspended approx. 200 mg/1 <10 mg/1
Solids
BOD 300-600 mg/1 < 5 mg/1
Total P 7-8 mg/1
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Summary of Paw Paw Proj ect
The project was initiated in 1982, and has not been completed at the time
of this report. Construction of the facility has been completed, and prelimi-
nary results of treatment monitoring suggest efficient removals of suspended
solids, BOD and P. The available data indicate that acceptable levels of
wastewater quality have been attained. Cost effectiveness, technical problems,
and sociological impact and acceptance were not addressed in the report at
hand.
SUMMARY OF LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE PROJECT
Three of the four land application of sewage projects reported successful
sewage treatment with innovative techniques. Demonstrations at the Michigan
State University Ponds, the Village of Paw Paw, MI, and the Muskegon County,
MI, projects were able to document water quality improvements in area lakes as
a result of the new treatment methods. The fourth project, in Montmorency
County, did not attempt to assess water quality effects. However, ecological
effects on the forest system are anticipated at the conclusion of the project.
Results from these projects suggest treatment of sewage by land appli-
cation is more cost-effective than other common treatment methods. Effluent
quality was shown to be very high, and lake water quality improved as a result
of this treatment. Questions remaining for these studies concern potential
health effects from pathogens, metals, viruses, or synthetic chemicals. Ni-
trate contamination of groundwater, too, may be an area that could be
addressed from further examination of these studies.
These projects have demonstrated feasible approaches to reducing waste-
water pollutant loadings to surface waters. These practices appear to be more
economical than conventional treatment methods, particularly when recovery of
some costs through the sale of forage crops is considered.
Further research and demonstration using the facilities developed in
these demonstration projects could provide essential information concerning
important health questions, such as: what is the potential for heavy metal and
pathogen contamination in crops; or are there persistent organic chemicals
that may contaminate land application sites, or be transported to groundwater?
The existence of these demonstration sites and their previous research his-
tories make them ideal locations for further research of these questions.
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COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW PROJECTS
In many cities, domestic and industrial wastes and urban storm runoff are
routed through a combined sewer system. During storm events, urban runoff may
fill the sewer system to capacity, and if excess water were not released, the
wastewater treatment plant would be overloaded. In the past, overflow valves
and pipes were installed to discharge the excess water and untreated sewage
directly into neighboring water bodies. These combined sewer overflows (CSOs)
contribute to the pollution of receiving streams and lakes. The approaches to
reducing these problems generally involve reducing runoff volume, storing and
rerouting excess water through high rate treatment facilities before release
into the water.
Grants awarded for demonstration of CSO abatement include:
Grant Number:
Y005141
G005334
S005370
S005602
G005107
S005359
Location;
Rochester, NY
Rochester, NY, BMPs
Cleveland, OH
N. E. OH
Cleveland, OH, background
Saginaw, MI
Date
1974 - 1977
1978 - 1980
1980 - 1981
1978 - 1983
1971 - 1974
1979 - 1980
ROCHESTER CSO
Administration and Funding
Funds were awarded to the Rochester Pure Waters District for the period,
May 1974 to September 1977. The engineering firm of O'Brien and Gere was
retained to evaluate the Rochester combined sewer overflow (CSO) problem, and
develop alternative plans to reduce the overflow problem.
Project Approach
The purpose of the project was: 1) to develop an abatement and manage-
ment program to achieve a cost-effective solution to the CSO induced impair-
ment of the Genesee River, Irondequoit Bay, and Lake Ontario; 2) to demon-
strate the usefulness of mathematical models for simulating the urban
rainfall-runoff process and the subsequent stormwater flows within a large
combined sewer system; and 3) to contribute to the general experience needed
to characterize and treat CSO-related pollution problems.
45
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The project developed a detailed methodology consisting of the following
steps:
1. Define program objectives.
2. Define the existing conveyance and treatment systems.
3. Define the drainage area.
4. Review existing meteorological records.
5. Select a detailed network model to utilize for hy-
draulic analysis of the existing system and the pro-
posed alternatives.
6. Initiate a monitoring program to augment the existing
overflow and meteorological data bases.
7. Establish relevant abatement alternatives.
8. Use a preliminary screening model to evaluate the
existing systems performance characteristics under
long-term simulation.
9. Conduct initial evaluation of storage/treatment capi-
tal intensive alternatives using the preliminary
screening model.
10. Apply the detailed network model to the preliminary
evaluation of structural alternatives.
11. Calibrate and verify the detailed network model.
12. Select and verify a wet-weather water quality pre-
dictive model.
13. Conduct pilot plant evaluations of applicable treat-
ment processes.
14. Conduct detailed analysis of the prime alternatives.
15. Develop the CSO abatement master plan.
The preliminary screening model demonstrated in this project was the
Simplified Stormwater Model (SSM), developed by Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. (Lager
et. al., 1976). This model, as its name implies, uses simple approximations
to assess the sewer system's response to sequences of rainfall.
The project used a second model, the Stormwater Management Model (SWMM),
developed by joint effort involving Water Resources Engineers, Inc., Metcalf &
Eddy, Inc., and the University of Florida (Huber et.al., 1975). The SWMM
model is a more complex simulation model that represents the sewer system as a
network. The model also includes a submodel that simulates the water quality
impact of CSO on the designated receiving water.
The master plan developed by O'Brien and Gere included three alternative
approaches: 1) changes in surface management practices to decrease runoff and
increase pervious areas, 2) structural changes to the sewer system, and 3)
combinations of structural and management changes. Modeling studies were
conducted to evaluate several of the recommended management and structural
treatment alternatives, such as installation of flow regulators and increased
storage or land use policies to limit the extent of impermeable surface,
street cleaning, and sewer maintenance. Pilot studies were also conducted to
evaluate specific treatment plant technologies, and economic models were
employed to evaluate cost-effectiveness.
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Structural changes considered for the study included the use of an a-
bandoned treatment facility for filtration and chlorination of excess surface
runoff prior to discharge, construction of an in-line storage chamber to
retain high flows in the sewer system, installation of in-line inflatable dams
to regulate flow and utilize existing in-line storage, upgrading the existing
interceptors'capacity to remove obstructions, blocking the overflow points,
and increasing the flow regulator capacities. The pilot plant study evaluated
technologies to reduce the pollutant content of the combined sewers. They
evaluated flocculation/sedimentation, swirl degritters and swirl primary sepa-
rators, microscreening with sonic cleaning, dual media high rate filtration,
activated carbon adsorption, sludge dewatering, and high rate disinfection.
Results
The SSM was shown to be useful for preliminary screening of potential
abatement alternatives involving the balance between storage and treatment.
Using this model, the project predicted that nonstructural and least expensive
structural treatment alternatives could reduce significantly the volume of CSO
and its annual contribution of BOD and TSS to the Genesee River. The SSM was
observed to underestimate potential flow reductions by as much as 40 percent.
Compensating errors of similar magnitude were also noted, however.
The project showed that SWMM can be used to project urban storm runoff
quantities and probable water quality impacts. The model was used extensively
to evaluate the hydraulic performance of a wide variety of structural modifi-
cations throughout the Rochester sewer system and to identify the minimal
structural alternatives. SWMM analysis also suggested that street sweeping
could reduce the total contaminant load reaching the sewer system.
The pilot plant was constructed at an abandoned chlorination facility
that received sewerage from an area of 423 acres, 80% of which was in commer-
cial use. Demonstration studies covered 19 overflow events in nine months
from September 1975 to June 1976. During this time overflow duration ranged
from 2 to 14 hours, with peak flow rates ranging from 7 to 50 million gallons
per day (MGD).
The purpose of the pilot plant treatability study was to evaluate treat-
ment alternatives to improve the quality of CSO discharge. The stated object-
ives were to assure that all CSO discharge would have a minimum of primary
treatment (i.e. degritting, settling, and disinfection), phosphate removal,
and chlorination with absolutely no bypassing. In this context, the pilot
plant evaluated high rate treatment alternatives including: flocculation and
sedimentation with and without chemical additives, ificroscreening, a swirl
degritter and swirl primary separator, high rate filtering, carbon adsorption,
and high rate disinfection with chlorine and chlorine dioxide.
A new technology demonstrated in this study is the swirl concentrator and
its modifications as a swirl primary separator and a swirl degritter. Cost-
effectiveness comparisons of flocculation and sedimentation practices versus
swirl primary separators found the two methodologies to be competitive. Floc-
culation sedimentation, however, offered significant removal enhancements with
minor increases in operating costs, and was, therefore, generally preferred.
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Microscreening was not found to be effective as the sonic cleaner was not
operating properly. The system worked less well under wet conditions than
under dry conditions, and often performed erratically.
High rate filtration through dual media was 78 percent effective at
removing suspended solids. This efficiency could be controlled by modi-
fication of back flush rate and addition of flocculation chemicals.
Swirl Concentrators
The design of swirl degritters was based on vortex over-
flow regulators as a way to both regulate flow and to sepa-
rate grit and solids from liquid, attaining primary solids
removal. Swirl concentrators are able to remove solids and
grit by combining rotationally induced forces causing
inertial separation with vertical gravitational sedimentation.
Liquid and solid effluents are then routed separately for
treatment. Variations in concentrator design are used for
removal of grit or organics. Swirl degritters were used in
the Rochester CSO pilot study at a newly created interme-
diate pilot plant treatment facility.
Dual media high rate filtration was cost-effective when used in combi-
nation with prior chemical treatment. Activated carbon was shown to give
the desired treatment but obtained at high cost. Disinfection with chlorine
was shown to be less expensive than chlorine dioxide.
ROCHESTER BMPs
Administration and Funding
O'Brien and Gere were contracted by the Rochester Pure Waters District to
complete a study of the efficacy of non-structural Best Management Practices
to abate CSO problems. The project duration was October 1978 to March 1983.
Management practices were chosen as a quick and inexpensive approach to alle-
viate CSO problems before more extensive structural changes were designed,
funded, and constructed.
Froj ect Approach
The goal of the Rochester BMP project was to implement and monitor the
effectiveness of several Best Management Practices (BMPs) for source control
and management of the collection system. Surface BMPs included street clean-
ing, porous pavement in parking lots, erosion control measures and surface
detention of runoff. Collection system management included streamlining the
stormwater collection system by constructing an interceptor, fine tuning the
entire system to move water more efficiently through the system, and increas-
ing the storage capacity of the system. Another effective practice demon-
strated was a split flow treatment at the pilot treatment plant.
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Splitflow Sewage Treatment
to Handle Combined Sewer Flows
Conventional sewage treatment consists of two steps, pri-
mary settling to separate solids from liquids, and secondary
treatment to decrease nutrient, BOD (biological oxygen de-
mand) and total suspended solids. Secondary treatment is
generally achieved through biological incubation of sewage
sludge, followed by settling to remove flocculated
materials. Preventing overflows from combined sewers in-
creases the flows to sewage treatment plants. The resulting
high flows may exceed treatment plant design capacity and can
disrupt biological treatment processes by washing out the
biologically active sludge. The splitflow mode allows pri-
mary treatment of all wastewater and release of a portion of
primary effluent to avoid washing out the plant's secondary
treatment system. Splitting flows in this way during wet
weather flow has been found to improve effluent quality com-
pared with that released from overloaded secondary treatment.
Results
To assess the value of street cleaning, schedules were increased two and
three-fold. Catchbasin runoff flows and water quality (BOD, TSS, TKN and Pb)
parameters were monitored. Noticeable pollutant decreases were observed in
iresponse to increasing street sweeping schedules beyond once every six working
days in the residential areas. No decrease in pollutant transport was found
by increasing the cleaning schedule of commercial areas, which was originally
daily. Residential areas contributed an average of 0.64 Ib BOD/inch of rain,
whereas the heavier traffic volume in commercial zones resulted in four times
as much BOD per curb-mile. Street cleaning is a labor intensive and therefore
an expensive activity, so it was concluded that increased street sweeping
schedules were not cost-effective.
Porous pavement applied to parking lot areas demonstrated an 83% reduct-
ion in runoff compared to a similar lot with conventional pavement. Sediment-
laden runoff passing over the permeable asphalt decreased the original perme-
ability by 94%. Heavy traffic and freeze-thaw cycles did not impair the
structural integrity of the porous pavement.
Field inspections of interceptors and existing flow regulators on the
western side of the city revealed that interceptors were in good shape with
little debris to cause blocking, and pinpointed regulators in need of repair
or adjustment. Repairs to regulators and increases in weir height resulted in
increased flow control and storage capacity, which decreased overflow.
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Field inspections in the eastern half of the city revealed unflushed rock
tunnels where roof failure resulted in large debris piles. Such blockage had
reduced sewer system efficiency and storage capacity. Renovations of these
areas was not covered by the BMP funding. The Simplified Stormwater Model was
used to predict the effect of renovating the impaired sections.
A hydrobrake was installed to replace poorly functioning flow regulators.
Complete analysis of the hydrobrake head/discharge relationship was not made,
however the hydrobrake regulated flow to the sewer interceptor as designed.
Although the hydrobrake appeared to be clogged, it cleared itself of debris
without maintenance.
Improvements to the sewer interceptor would result in more water reaching
the treatment plant and reduction of overflow discharge. However, the waste-
water treatment plant was not originally designed to treat high flow surges.
The split flow treatment system was shown to be very effective, allowing
effluent standards to be met more often, and protecting the biological treat-
ment process at the plant.
Stormwater runoff was implicated as an important source of heavy metal
concentrations in sediments downstream from sewer overflows. The data were
not extensive, and therefore, were inconclusive.
In general, the project demonstrated that BMPs can be effective in reduc-
ing CSO-generated pollutant loads from frequent, low-intensity storms. BMPs
were not effective for high intensity storms. The following series of manage-
ment concepts were considered to be the most effective:
1. Improving system flow regulation
2 Elimination of conveyance system bottlenecks
3. Split-flow mode of operation at existing treatment facilities
4. Effective utilization of existing in-system storage
5. Installation of porous pavement in parking lots where suitable soil
absorption conditions exit
6. Stormwater inlet control.
This demonstration project showed that: 1) BMP implementation requires
a commitment of operating dollars and acceptance of some inconvenience to the
public due to flooding; 2) integral to successful performance is centralized
monitoring and performance evaluation; and 3) adoption of collection system
management concepts generally result in increased hydraulic and pollutant
loadings to the treatment facility, so that split-flow treatment would be
required even more as BMPs become more effective.
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The Hydrobrake
Vortex flow regulating devices replace the weirs and float-
controlled flow regulators presently used in sewer systems. It is
advantageous because it has no moving parts. As shown in the dia-
gram below, flow rate is regulated by the hydraulic head above the
unit. Low flows simply pass through the device without swirling. As
flow increases, a vortex is produced which restricts flow through
the unit. These flow control devices have been found to work well,
and to require less maintenance than traditional gate or weir de-
vices, which have moveable parts subject to malfunction or breakage.
The installation of a hydrobrake requires that there be up stream
storage capability. In some sewer systems existing storage has been
found in the sewer, additional storage chambers have been construc-
ted, or surface areas have been used for runoff detention.
Due to the relatively low capital investment and low maintenance
required, this type of flow regulator is considered highly cost-
effective.
HOW THE HYDROBRAKE OPERATES
Low flow
(Dry weather
flow)
Controlled
flow
'It* Northwst Interceptor Demonstration Project, Self-Actuating (fcdrotirake', p.
51
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Summary of the Rochester CSO Projects
The problems of combined sewer overflow in Rochester were addressed by
the development of several alternatives in two separate grants, from minor
management changes to extensive structural changes. Both the pilot study
treatment plant and the BMP program evaluated the cost effectiveness of the
alternatives demonstrated. The results of the pilot study were clearly
presented, and provided affordable alternatives for the city of Rochester.
Alternatives demonstrated by the BMP project provide good short term solutions
to CSO problems, but these solutions tend to be labor intensive, and thus
expensive on a long term basis.
This project appears to have considered and adequately analyzed most of
the possible alternatives for the city. A possible public complaint against
the use of surface detention storage to control and delay stormwater overflow
may result from extensive implementation. Structural alternatives which could
relieve this occurrence are very expensive, however, as they would require
redesigning and rebuilding the existing system.
SAGINAW, MICHIGAN CSO
Administration and Funding
The $1 million Saginaw, Michigan Project was received by Environmental
Design and Planning. Of the $762,000 federal money, $390,000 was spent for
the design and construction of BMPs. The goal of the project was to survey
the current sewer system, and to recommend modifications to decrease the
occurrence of untreated sewer overflows from the city into the Saginaw River.
Proj ect Approach
For analysis of the existing city sewer system, a simulation model was
developed to describe the system and assess possible modifications.
An incentive for the city to participate in the project included the
availability of federal funds for the city to help reduce overflow into sur-
rounding water bodies. Critical areas and priorities were considered because
the original extensive plan was scaled back due to failure in acquiring a
construction grant. Models were used to optimize the control plan and achieve
most of the intended water quality control at a fraction of the original
estimated cost.
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Results
A plan to modify the existing system was developed. Thirteen existing
regulation chambers were modified by installing vortex valves and swirl con-
centrators to regulate and treat flow and to replace malfunctioning float-
operated controls. The modified system increased in-line storage by increas-
ing the height of the regulation chamber weirs, and installing one of four-
teen new storage chambers recommended by the plan.
The system changes increased stortnwater flow to the wastewater treatment
plant by 15%, and reduced effluent suspended solids loadings by 16%, reduced
BOD by 20%, and reduced total P by 8% to 13% with secondary and tertiary
treatment. The report suggests that if the remaining 13 proposed storage
chambers were installed, total wet weather flow treated by the wastewater
treatment plant would be increased to 67%.
Computer modeling analysis indicated that the project reduced P loading
from CSO to the river by 10% for a cost of $400,000. The proposed treatments
would probably reduce other pollutants even more than P.
The recommended changes in the sewer system route more water to the
treatment plant and thus decrease overflow to the river. The project de-
termined that the cost of these changes was reasonable, at much less than $1
per cubic foot of added storage capacity.
Summary of Saginaw CSO
The changes made increased in-line storage capacity and therefore de-
creased the overflow of untreated sewage into the Saginaw River. This flow
change resulted in decreased loads of BOD, suspended solids, and total
''phosphorus to the river as well. Although all proposed structural changes
were not completed, the project showed by modeling that significant P-reduc-
tions were obtained.
CITY OF CLEVELAND CSO
Administration and Funding
The Snell Environmental Group was contracted by the Cleveland DPU to
renovate the Cleveland city sewer system in an attempt to reduce combined
sewer overflows.
Proj ect Approach
Snell proposed to construct three in-line storage areas and to install a
hydrobrake (vortex valve) to control flow in the system. The increased stor-
age space and regulated flow was intended to reduce the frequency of overflow
from combined sewers to the area's rivers and Lake Erie.
Surveys of area residents were conducted in the renovated area before and
after construction changes, to determine if the sewer changes affected base-
ment flooding in area homes.
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Results
Increasing in-line storage space and controlling flow with a hydrobrake
decreased the frequency of basement flooding in the area served by the reno-
vated sewer. Water quality was evaluated downstream from the hydrobrake
structures. The project found no evidence of the typical first flush of pol-
lutants (or sediment deposition) below the hydrobrake. The impact on CSO was
apparently small, however, because of the limited extent of implementation.
The report also noted that the first hydrobrakes installed did not appear to
be controlling flows; these were replaced by hydrobrakes with smaller open-
ings, however and operation improved.
Summary
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Hydrobrakes were considered to be the least expensive way of utilizing
the existing in-line storage.
Summary of Northeast Ohio CSO
The Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District designed and installed seven
hydrobrakes within a newly constructed sewer (10 years old), to reduce peak
flows in the system and to decrease overflows to the river. The District was
able to do so at low cost, $155,000, in a short time period, over the winter
of 1983-1984. Winter was chosen for the installation because it is the time
period when sewer flows would be least likely to occur. Construction was
completed on schedule.
Continuation suggestions for the demonstration would include quanti-
fication of the overflow diverted for treatment, and estimation of changes in
pollutant loads to the river. Another area for further study could include
evaluation of the necessity for similar control throughout the city.
Summary of^All CSO Projects
All three cities, Rochester, Saginaw, and Cleveland,installed vortex-type
flow controls. Saginaw and Cleveland were able to find in-line storage in the
existing sewer lines. Rochester, however, made use of surface areas for
detention of excess runoff. Reports on the hydrobrake were always positive in
terms of reliability and effectiveness.
All of the projects were able to control sewer flows to decrease
overflows to some extent. Most effects were too small to cause observable
water quality impacts on the receiving waters. The receiving waters in all
cases were influenced by other pollution sources as well. Water quality
parameters of receiving waters were not assessed by any of the projects,
however, in all three cities improvements in effluent water quality were
documented.
The Rochester project also demonstrated improved treatment technologies
such as swirl concentrators and high rate filtering at a pilot plant, and
advanced water quality models such as SWMM were verified and demonstrated as a
means to optimize structural and management modification to the sewer systems.
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SEPTIC SYSTEM ALTERNATIVES
OJECTIVES AND GRANTS AWARDED
In many regions of the Great Lakes Basin, poorly drained soils restrict
the efficacy of conventional septic tank treatment systems. Drainage and
leaching from poorly functioning drain fields may be a significant source of
pollution to water resources.
Two grants were awarded through 108a funds to projects addressing septic
system problems:
Grant Number Location ^Date
S005575Great Lakes Basin, IN 1982
S005552 Allen County, OH 1980 - 1985
Still in progress
ALLEN COUNTY OHIO
Administration and Funding
One hundred thirty thousand dollars of the $496,884 108a funds awarded to
Allen County Ohio, were administered by the Allen County Health Department to
monitor, replace,or repair malfunctioning septic systems.
Project Approach
The Health Department conducted a monitoring survey of septic systems in
the Allen County area. Most systems consist of a tank and subsurface tile
drainage, which drains to the town drainage ditch. Owners of malfunctioning
septic systems were to be encouraged to have their systems repaired or re-
placed at a 75% cost share rate.
The proposed water quality monitoring program was slated for three years
ending in 1985. The monitoring was conducted in two programs in which grab
samples were taken periodically and analyzed for BOD and fecal coliform, and
in three short term intensive studies each year. During the intensive studies
several daily samples would be taken over a one week period to monitor nutri-
ent concentrations and flow rates. These data were to be used to determine
the relative contributions of agricultural and domestic sources of nutrients
in the receiving stream water.
Results
The final report for this project was not available at the
time of this report.
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Septic System Design
A typical septic system con-
sists of two basic parts. One is
a septic tank which stores waste
and acts as a settling chamber.
The tank houses a microbial popu-
lation which slowly breaks down
organic materials. The other
major part of a septic system is
a drain field which slowly drains
the liquid effluent into
surrounding soil. Proper func-
tioning of the drain field re-
quires that it be laid in soil of
sufficient permeability, to allow
drainage, but also to moderate
the leaching rate and allow
further microbial degradation and
"treatment" of nutrients and or-
ganics in the soil.
Variations on the standard
septic system include shallow
trench and mound systems, where the
leach bed is placed at or above the
soil surface, in an area designed
for increased percolation.
Leaching through these systems may
be assisted by pumping effluent
from the tank into the leach bed at
moderate pressure. In some resi-
dential developments, where houses
are close together, and soils have
low permeability, a cluster system
may be used. In this system, each
residence has its own septic tank,
but the effluent is pumped to a
communal drain field at a more
suitable area nearby.
INDIANA SEPTIC SYSTEM
Administration and Funding
The Indiana Department of Public Health was awarded $102,073 of 108a
funds to demonstrate a new septic system, and water use control devices, and
to develop a computer model to simulate performance of these septic systems.
Project Approach
Of the thirteen counties within the Great Lakes Basin of Indiana, thir-
teen homes in one subdivision in Steuben County, Indiana, were chosen to
demonstrate two approaches to alleviate septic system problems, clustered
drains and water controls. A cluster system was constructed at the Lagoona
Park subdivision, so that wastewater treated at each home in a new septic
tank, and then pumped 250 meters away to a low pressure distribution and soil
absorption system located on a nearby golf course. Secondly, water con-
servation equipment was added to at least four of the subdivision homes.
Changes in water usage and septic system effluent were monitored.
The project also intended to develop computer programs to identify suit-
able on-site disposal systems depending on surface and sub-soil character-
istics. An already existent soil map data base will be used by the program,
in conjunction with a relational data base system.
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Results
The concentrations of septic system effluent water quality parameters
increased after installation of the water conservation devices, and subse-
quently returned to the pre-device levels.
Water usage followed a similar pattern; usage increased during the first
year after installation of conservation devices but then decreased to a level
below that found before installation of conservation equipment.
The computer program integrates available information and uses it to
identify suitable on-site sewage disposal systems. This was not designed for
site by site planning, rather it was intended for use by regional planning
agencies and zoning boards in community planning activities.
Summary of the Indiana Septic System Project
The project renovated the septic systems in an entire subdivision. Moni-
toring of water usage and septic system efficiency indicated that the instal-
led changes improved waste treatment. Impacts on nearby water quality para-
meters were not monitored.
Summary of Septic System Projects
Two projects were funded to demonstrate the effectiveness of upgrading
rural septic systems on increased efficiency of the sytems and on area water
quality improvements.
An innovative system was installed in Steuben County Indiana, which
alleviated waste disposal problems in that area.
The impact of septic system renovation on area water quality was proposed
to be measured in Allen County, Ohio. The results of this project are not
presently available.
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A/0 TREATMENT PLANT DIGESTER
Administration and Funding
The 108a program provided the city of Pontiac, Michigan with $100,000
toward a $134,000 project to demonstrate the A/0 phosphorus removal process in
sewage treatment.
The grant for this project was:
Grant Number Location Date
S005748 Pontiac, MI 1983 - 1984
Project Approach
A/0 is a sewage treatment phosphorus removal process patented by Air
Products, Inc. The process improves P removal by modifying secondary sewage
treatment. The process involves a procedure to starve the sludge for phos-
phorus under anaerobic conditions, then converting to aerobic conditions, to
promote P removal through luxury uptake. The sludge is removed in the set-
tling process, leaving the effluent low in phosphorus content.
Results
The A/0 process promoted more nitrification than did conventional
activated sludge treatment and was far superior in reducing secondary effluent
total and dissolved phosphorus concentration.
Between August and October of 1984, routine sampling demonstrated an
industrial discharge related pH drop to 2 in influent waste. The low pH was
transitory, but did recur. Phosphorus removal through the A/0 process was
hindered by this occurrence. Nitrogen removal was also inhibited as a result
of the low pH, although to a lesser extent. Even under these conditions
performance was better than conventional activated sludge treatment.
Summary of the A/O Process
The A/0 process was demonstrated to be a workable process in a cold
climate such as Pontiac Michigan. Without harm to^ the sludge through low pH
influent, the process was shown to remove more P and to nitrify more N than
conventional processes, while maintaining BOD removal, and producing an easily
dewaterable sludge.
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BACKGROUND FOR CLEVELAND AREA WATER QUALITY
Administration and Funding
Funds were allotted through the 108a program to a consortium of the city
of Cleveland and three area universities, John Carroll, Case Western Reserve,
and Cleveland State, to perform a water quality baseline assessment.
The grant for this project was:
Grant Number Location
G005107
Project Approach
Cleveland, OH
Date
1971 - 1974
The goals of this project were divided into three phases. Phase I in-
cluded assessment of water quality, phase II was to be a detailed assessment
of Cleveland area water pollution abatement impact to measure the cost effect-
iveness of control programs, and phase III was to provide water quality moni-
toring as part of ongoing water resources and pollution control planning and
management. The stated goal of phase I was to document present and historical
water quality in the Cleveland area.
The report on phase I of the project provides details on the methods, and
presents data for many water quality parameters including dissolved oxygen,
nutrients, fecal coliform, BOD, suspended solids and pH. The route of water
flow from the river through the mouth of the lake is also described. Volume
II included detailed results from the fish surveys conducted in area rivers
and tributaries. These data were obtained over a two year period.
A literature review of historical water quality problems in the Cleve-
land area was included in the background of this study. Apparently fish
population declines, domestic and industrial pollutants were documented as
problems as early as the 1850's. One of the current goals in water pollution
abatement has been stated as "restoring water quality to that present in
1900". The historical review, however, indicates that water quality'problems
were prevalent at that time, so that the present goal may need revision.
Results
No water quality abatement programs or technologies were described by
this study. Instead, this study stands as a source of baseline data with
which to compare future data. The goals of phases II and III of this project,
to provide long term monitoring and assessment of pollution abatement activi-
ties were not presented.
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REFERENCES
Allen Co. SWCD "1981 Conservation Tillage Test Results, Allen
County, Ohio." EPA 905/9-82-004, 72pp., 1982.
Baker, D.B. "Regional Water Quality Impacts of Intensive Row-crop
Agriculture: A Lake Erie Basin Case Study". J. Soil and
Water Conservation, 40:125-131, 1985.
Gay, L. "The Inner Life of the Septic Tank," Country Journal,
12:74-82, 1985.
Huber, W.C., J.P. Heaney, M.A. Medina, W.A. Peltz, H. Sheikh, and
G.F. Smith. Storm Water Management Model User's
Manual, Version II. EPA-670/2-75-017, Cincinnati, Ohio
Lager, J.A., T. Didriksson, G.B. Otte. Development and
Application of a_ Simplified Stormwater Management Model.
EPA-600/2-76-218, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1976.
Lake, J. & J. Morrison. Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water
Quality, EPA 905/9-77-007-B, 279pp., 1977.
Madison, F.W., J.L. Arts, S.J. Berkowitz, E.E. Salmon, B.B.
Ragman. The Washington County Project Final Report, EPA
905/9-77-007-B, 279pp., 1977.
Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District. "Automatic Flow Control
with Self-Activating Hydro-brake" Draft Final Report of the
Northwest Interceptor Demonstration Project, USEPA Grant No.
S005602-01, 1985.
Rice, R.W. Fundamentals of No-till Farming, American Association
for Vocational Instructional Materials, 148pp., 1983.
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APPENDIX
This appendix contains the list of reports which were available for
preparation of this report.
The Black Creek Project
G005103
Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water Quality Operations
Manual EPA-905-74-002
Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water Quality 8pg. report, which
appears to have been written in 1974
Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water Quality EPA 905-9-75- 006
231pp. 1979.
Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water Quality
1) Final Report on the Black Creek Project - Summary EPA-905/9-77-007A
94pp., 1977
2) Final Report on the Black Creek Project - Technical Report EPA-
905/9-77-007-B 279pp., 1977
3) Final Report on the Black Creek Project - Technical Report Project
Summary EPA 905/9-77-007-C 273pp., 1977
j 4) Final Report on the Black Creek Project - Supplemental Comments EPA
905/9-77-007-D
Environmental Impacts of Land Use on Water Quality Executive Summary 12pp
G005335
Summary of the Black Creek Project, Report through 1980 Project, Year
Based on Seminars in Washington, B.C. February 1980, Chicago, 111.,
March 1980. EPA 905/9-80-009 1981 63pp.
Red Clay Project Reports
G005140
Impact of Nonpoint Pollution Control on Western Lake Superior, Red Clay
Project-Work Plan EPA 905/9-76-002 146pp.
Best Management Practices - A Pictorial Review of the Conservation Prac-
tices Installed by the Red Clay Project 8pp.
Impact of Nonpoint Pollution Control on Western Lake Superior:
1) Final Report on the Red Clay Project - Summary Report EPA-905/9-79-
002 32pp. 1979
2) Final Part II EPA 905/9-79-002 B 50Qpp. 1980
3) Final Part III EPA 905/9-79-002 C 442pp. 1980
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Washington County, WI, Project
GOQ5139
Washington County Project Work Plan EPA 905/9-77-001 72pp. 1979
Institutional and Legal Complexity of Nonpoint Source Pollution Control
- Summary Report EPA 905/9-81-005 24pp. 1981
Washington County Project Final Report EPA 905/0-80-003 1979
Pollard, R.W., B.M.H. Sharp, F.W. Madison, "Farmer's Experience with
Conservation Tillage: A Wisconsin Survey" J. Soil & Water Conserva-
tion 34:215-219, 1979
Konrad, J.G. "Washington County Project Water Quality Monitoring 1979-
1981. 4pp. 1981
Local Watershed Problem Studies, Middle and High School Curricula, Water
Resources Center, Madison,WI 327pp, 1981
Conservation Till Projects
S005552
1981 Conservation Tillage Test Results, Allen County, OH
1982 Conservation Tillage Test Results, Allen County, OH
1983 Conservation Tillage Test Results, Allen County, OH
1984 Conservation Tillage Test Results, Allen County, OH
Allen County Demonstration Project 1st Quarterly Progress Report Septem-
ber, 1980.
Maumee River Basin Water Quality Demonstration Proposal: Plan of Work
for Allen and Defiance Counties, OH
S005553
Defiance County Lost Creek Demonstration Project
1982 Demonstration Report
1983 Demonstration Report
S005692
Lake Erie Demonstration Projects Evaluating Impacts of Conserva tion
Tillage on Yield, Cost and Environment
Lake Erie Conservation Tillage Demonstrations Saving Time, Water, Soil,
Energy •
Accelerated Conservation Tillage Counties Oct - Dec, 1984 Quarterly
. Report
1984 Accelerated Conservation Tillage Crawford Co., OH
1984 Conservation Tillage Demonstration Plot Results, Fulton Co., OH.
Hancock Soil and Water Conservation Districts 1984 No- till Program
Results
1984 A.C.T. Demonstration Program Hardin Co., OH
1984 Putnam Co, OH Conventional Till vs. No-till Comparison Test Plots
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1984 Conservation Tillage Results Van Wett Co., OH
S005698
Northeast Indiana Conservation Tillage Demonstration Project
1984 Report
1983 Report
Quarterly Report No. 16, Jan - Mar, 1985, Northeast Indiana Conservation
Tillage Demonstration Project.
S005700
Bean Creek Watershed Conservation Tillage Demonstration Project, Final
Report 1982, 1983, 1984
S005721
Otter Creek Conservation Tillage Project 1984 Annual Report
S005513
Final Report, Saginaw Valley Agricultural Demonstration Project, (Inclu-
ding most quarterly reports).
S005722
Fourth Quarterly Report Oswego Co., NY Demonstration Project, July
through September 1984
SOQ5723
Northern Wayne County Conservation Tillage Demonstration Project 1983
Report.
CSO Projects:
Y005141
Combined Sewer Overflow Abatement Program Rochester, NY
Volume I. Abatement Analysis
Volumell. Pilot Plant Evaluations
G005334
Best Management Practices Implementation Rochester, NY Report, Additional
Evaluations March, 1983
Best Management Practices Implementation, Rochester, NY EPA-905/9-81-002
1981
S005370
Hydro Brake Stormwater Detention System Demonstration in Cleve land, OH
Dual Combined Sewer Overflow Pollution Control and Basement Flooding
Relief
S005602
The Northwest Interceptor Demonstration Project Automatic Flow Control
with Self-Actuating Hydrobrake
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S005359
Implementation and Evaluation of In-System Combined Sewer Storage
Controls for Reduction of Phosphorus Loadings to the Saginaw River
Final Report: Facility Plan for the Control and Treatment of Combined
Sewer Overflows to the Saginaw River
Project Summary: Implementation and Evaluation of In-system Combined
Sewer Storage Controls for Reduction of Phosphorus Loadings to the
River.
Sewage Treatment Projects
Y005065
Land Application:
Utilization of Natural Ecosystems for Wastewater Renovation EPA-905/3-
79-003 155pp., 1979
G005104
Applicability of Land Treatment of Wastewater in the Great Lakes Area
Basin
1) Impact of Wastewater Diversion, Spray Irrigation on Water Quality in
the Muskegon County, Michigan Lakes
2) Effectiveness of Sandy Soils at Muskegon County, Michigan for
Renovating Wastewater
Muskegon County Wastewater Management System Progress Report 1968
through 1975.
S005501
Mona, White and Muskegon Lakes in Muskegon County, Michigan. The
1950's to the 1980's 91pp., 1982
The Effect of Wastewater Land Treatment on Eutrophication in Muskegon
Lakes 95pp.
S005551
Quarterly Report "Fertilization of State Forestland with Municipal
Sludge April - June, 1984
Ecological Monitoring of Sludge Fertilization on State Forest Lands in
Northern Lower Michigan
Balancing Tree Growth Against Environmental Quality in Sludge Fertiliza-
tion of Forests.
Ecological Monitoring of Sludge Fertilization on State Forest Lands in
Northern Lower Michigan
Annual Report 1982
Annual Report 1983
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S005559
Village of Paw Paw Michigan EPA Demonstration Grant for Overland - Flow
Treatment of Municipal Wastewater
Quarterly Report No. 16 April - June 1984
Quarterly Report No. 18 and 1984 Summary
S005575
Water Conservation and Residential Wastewater Quality
Computer Evaluation of Soil for On-site Waste Disposal
S005552
Allen County Rural Sewage
S005748
Demonstration Plan of Work
City of Pontiac, Micigan A/0 Demonstration USEPA Grant No. S005748-01
Fourth Quarterly Progress Report
G005107
Water Quality Baseline Assessment for Cleveland Area Lake Erie
Volume I. Synthesis
Volume II. Fishes
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
i. REPORT NO.
EPA-905/9-86-001
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4 TITLE ANDSUBTITLE
Overview and Evaluation of Section 108-A Great Lakes
Demonstration Programs
5. REPORT DATE
July 1986
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
.5GL_
7. AUTHOR(S)
Avis D. Newell, Len C. Stanley, Michael D. Smolen and
Richard P. Maas
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service
North Carolina State University 7625
Raleigh, North Carolina 27650
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
Grant R005863-01
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Great Lakes National Program' Office
536 South Clark Street, Room 958
Chicago, Illinois 60605
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
108(A) Demo 1971-1985
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
Great Lakes National Program
Office,USEPA, Region Vv
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Ralph G. Christensen, Project Officer
16. ABSTRACT
The 28 multi-demonsional projects discussed in this report major goals included a
agricultural pollution control through implementation of Best Management Practices
(BMPs), public education on water quality issues, and documentation of water quality
results through monitoring. The 108a demonstration projects brought to public view
technologies to prevent overflows from sewers, to improve malfunctioning septic N
systems, to improve phosphorus removal in wastewater treatment facilities, and to
evaluate several agricultural BMPs, primarily through methods of conservation tillage.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
Phosphorus removal
Nonpoint source
Conservation tillage
Erosion
Water quality
Wastewater pretreatment
Septic system
Septic tank
Point source
Sediment
Aquatic biota
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Document is available to public through th
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