United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Great U
National
539 SOL
Chicago,
EPA-905/9-86-001*/

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                                                EPA-905/9-86-001
                                                July 1986
     OVERVIEW AND EVALUATION OF SECTION 108-A

        GREAT LAKES DEMONSTRATION PROGRAMS


                        BY
                  Avis D. Newell
                  Len C. Stanley
                Michael D. Smolen
                 Richard P. Maas
  North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service
         North Carolina State University
          Raleigh, North Carolina 27650
                    R005863-01
                 Frank J. Humenik
                 Project Director
Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department
  North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service
          Raleigh, North Carolina 27650
                               U.S. Environmental Protection  Agency
                               Region V, Library
                               230 South Dearborn Street
                               Chicago, Illinois  60604

               Ralph G. Christensen
                Project Officer
               GLNPO Report # 86-04
       U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
       Great Lakes National Program Office
             Chicago, Illinois 60605
                   March, 1986

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                                 Disclaimer


This report has been reviewed by the Great Lakes National Program Office,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication.  Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the U.S. Environmental Portection Agency nor does mention of trade names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
-  Environmental Protection

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                              ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
     The authors want to express  sincere thanks to Ralph Christensen,  the
project officer,  who was consistently helpful beyond anything we asked.   He
always took time  to  look up information,  send  materials, compile records,  and
thoroughly address  our questions and concerns.

     We also appreciate Thomas Davenport and John Lowrey, of EPA Region V,  for
taking their time to review  thoroughly and comment on early drafts of this
report.  The assistance  of  Steve Berkowitz and Fred Madison, who shared first-
hand experiences from their participation in the Washington County project,
was also helpful.

     Finally,  the  authors want to acknowledge with much appreciation  the
skillful word processing and editing work  of Khalida Haseeb and Terri Hocutt.

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            OVERVIEW AND EVALUATION OF SECTION 108-A
               GREAT LAKES DEMONSTRATION PROGRAMS
                        Table of Contents


Introduction 	     1

Overview and Summary of 108-a Programs 	     7

   Recommendations for Further Study 	   13

Multi-dimensional Projects 	   15

     Black Creek Project	   16
     Red Clay Project      	   22
     Washington County Project 	   27

Accelerated Conservation Tillage Projects  	   34

Land Application of Sewage	   39

Combined Sewer Overflow Projects 	   45

Septic System Alternatives 	   56

A/0 Treatment Plant Digester 	   59

Background Cleveland  Water Quality  	   60

References	   61

Appendix	   62



                  List of Tables and Figures

Table

  1.      108a Demonstration Projects  	    3

  2.      Sociological Model Variables (Black Creek) ....   20

  3.      Red Clay Project Watershed Study Area
          Land Use	   23

  4.      Paw Paw, Michigan Water Quality Data	   43

Figure

  1.      Distribution of 108a Projects Among Great
          Lakes States	    4

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                                 INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND

     Section   108a  of the 1972 amendment to the Clean Water Act (PL  92-500)
directed the EPA Administrator,  in cooperation with other Federal departments
and agencies,  to enter into agreements with state or local agencies to under-
take projects which demonstrate new methods and techniques for the elimination
or control of pollution in the Great Lakes Basin.   Congress  authorized   $20
million to carry out this directive,  and required the state or local coopera-
tors to provide 25% of the actual project costs.   Projects funded by this act
were to demonstrate the engineering,  economic  feasibility,  and practicality
of pollutant removal and prevention.   Projects with goals to reduce,  prevent
or eliminate any pollutant material entering the Great Lakes were to be consi-
dered for funding.

     The  Act made funding available to demonstrate new and innovative  pollu-
tion  control  technologies in both urban and  rural  settings.  Demonstration
projects brought to public view technologies to prevent overflows from sewers,
to  improve  malfunctioning septic systems,  to improve phosphorus removal  in
wastewater  treatment facilities,  and to evaluate several  agricultural  best
management practices (BMP), primarily through methods of conservation tillage.
Some  of the demonstration projects have also included experimental  education
programs to stimulate general public interest in water pollution abatement.

     An  analysis of the achievements of the 108a program must consider  these
efforts  within the overall context of point and nonpoint source (NFS) control
activities  through the 1970's and 1980's.   The 108a  demonstration  projects
have  spanned 13 years during which the water pollution control community  has
learned a tremendous amount about the processes, dynamics, and consequences of
water  resource  contamination.   We have experimented with a myriad of  point
source  control strategies both technological and institutional  with  varying
degrees  of success;   we have learned that the NFS problem is more  pervasive
yet less amenable to treatment than anyone could have suspected.   Water quali-
ty  questions,  issues and regulatory approaches have become increasingly  re-
fined  and  focused during the same period in acknowledgement of  the  complex
interactions between human activities and the transport,  cycling and degrada-
tion processes of natural aquatic systems.

     Water pollution control projects can be classified as either:   (1) Demon-
stration  projects  - designed  to demonstrate the effectiveness  of  a  given
control technology with the purpose of encouraging its adoption;    (2) Experi-
mental  projects  - intended  to determine experimentally the  water  quality,
economic or institutional effectiveness of a given control technology; or, (3)
Remedial projects - designed to use available technology to restore or protect
a given water resource.

     Ideally,  experimental projects would first acquire the necessary techni-
cal and institutional information,  followed by demonstration projects to gain
enhanced acceptance of the technology.    These efforts would logically  culmi-
nate  in  widespread remedial projects which could address point  and  nonpoint
source water resource problems in an efficient manner.    In reality all  three
types of project activities generally overlap.  In the water pollution control

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field there will always be knowledge  gaps,   and thus,   it is appropriate that
demonstration and remedial efforts proceed based on the best available experi-
mental  information while maintaining the flexibility to respond to new disco-
veries and societal priorities.

     It is within this technical, sociological and historical context that the
present report attempts to portray the demonstration (and to some extent,  ex-
perimental)  activities of the 108a program.    The purpose is to describe  the
types of projects funded, the activities which occurred under each category of
demonstration  project,  and  to relate these activities into an  overview  of
their contributions to the present state of water resource protection,  parti-
cularly  in the area of nonpoint source control.   A brief description of  the
categories  of demonstration projects undertaken through the program is  given
below.
108a PROJECTS

     Through FY1985, 31 108a demonstration projects were awarded grants by the
Great Lakes Program.   The 28 projects discussed in this report are listed  in
Table 1 with a breakdown of their budgets showing 108a funds and the contribu-
tions  from local sources.  Projects were grouped arbitrarily for this  report
based on the similarity of the technologies which they demonstrated.   The re-
maining  projects  are listed but are omitted from the review here because  no
reports were available for review.


Multi-dimensional Projects

     Three large "multi-dimensional" projects were selected:  the Black  Creek
project  located  in  Allen County,  IN,  the  Washington  County Project  in Wash-
ington County,  WI,  and  the  Red Clay  Project  in MN  and  WI.   These multi-
dimensional   projects   differed  from the other projects mainly  in the extent
of   their  objectives.    Whereas   most   108a projects addressed  a  single goal
or   demonstrated  a  specific technology or  practice,   the   multi-dimensional
projects demonstrated  a variety of practices,  they included educational
programs  and sociological studies, and included water  quality monitoring.

     The  major goals of these multi-dimensional projects included agricultural
pollution control through implementation of Best Management Practices  (BMPs),
public   education on water quality issues,  and documentation of water quality
results  through  monitoring.  The Washington County  project  also  addressed
pollution problems arising from urbanizing construction activities, and inves-
tigated  the need for erosion control ordinances in both urban and rural  set-
tings.   The  Red Clay Project addressed stream bank erosion problems and ini-
tiated research  projects  to assess and  develop management  practices  for this
widespread  problem.  The Black Creek Project's pollution abatement goals were
aimed  solely  at agricultural problems,  and the  project  also  investigated
sociological  factors  which  affected  farmer participation  in  the  program.
Funding  for  these three  projects was on the order of $2-3 million each over a
three  to four year period.

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                      TABLE 1. 108a Demonstration Projects
Grant Number Location
108a Funds Total Cost
Dates

Multi-dimensional Projects
G005103
G005335
G005139
S005429
G005140
Black Creek, IN
Black Creek, IN
Washington Co, WI
Washington Co, WI
Red Clay Project ,WI ,MN
$2,142,386 $2,978,179
$1,017,810 $1,358,723
$2,249,226 $3,090,928
$ 409,002 $ 548,697
$2,953,340 $3,937,787
1972 -
1977 -
1974 -
1979 -
1974 -
1977
1980
1978
1981
1978
Accelerated Conservation Tillage Projects
S005552
S005553
S005692
S005698
S005700
S005721
S005513
S005722
S005723

Y005141
G005334
S005370
S005602
S005359

Y005065
G005104
S005501
S005551
S005559
Allen Co, OH
Defiance Co, OH
Lake Erie Basin, OH
Six Counties in IN
Bean Creek, MI
Otter Creek, MI
Tuscola Co, MI
Oswego Co, NY
Wayne Co, NY
Combined Sewer
Rochester, NY
Rochester, NY, BMPs
Cleveland, dH
N.E. Cleveland, OH
Saginaw, MI
Land Application
East Lansing, MI
Muskegon, MI
Muskegon, MI
Montmorency Co., MI
Paw Paw, MI
$ 496,884 $ 672,880
$ 646,054 $ 861.405
$1,020,000 $1,360,000
$ 180,000 $ 240,000
$ 125,000 $ 166,667
$ 32,000 $ 54,625
$ 52,830 $ 70,440
$ 80,000 $ 121,400
$ 80,000 $ 133,400
Overflow Projects
$ 686,730 $ 990,141
$1,020,592 $1,360,795
$ 475,567 $ 634,090
$ 67,500 $ 119,510
$ 762,000 $1,016,000
of Sewage Projects
$ 570,000 $1,617,084
$ 516,525 $ 688,698
$ 163,102 $ 217,469
$ 823,912 $1,098,549
$ 252,313 $ 336,417
1980 -
1980 -
1981 -
1981 -
1981 -
1982 -
1980 -
1982 -
1982 -

1974 -
1977 -
1979 -
1980 -
1979 -

1972 -
1972 -
1980 -
1980 -
1980 -
1985
1985
1985
1985
1985
1986
1983
1985
1985

1977
1982
1983
1985
1984

1975
1975
1981
1985
1986
Septic System Alternatives Projects
S005575
*
Great Lakes Basin, IN
Allen Co, OH
$ 102,073 $ 136,098
$ 130,000 $
1980 -
1980 -
1984
1985
S005748
G005107
G005108
V-2-71
G005292
S005512
       A/0 Treatment Plant Digester  Project
  PontilicTMI               $  100,000     $~  134,000

   Background Water Quality Assessment  Projects
  Cleveland, OH            $328,192$437,589
1983 - 1985
1971  - 1974
Projects with No Reports Available  for this  Review
  S.E.  Michigan$227,000$   303,400   1971
  Erie, PA                  $   275,000    $   367,000   1971
  Muskegon, MI              $   134,000    $   181,509   1976
  Cleveland, OH             $   153,250    $   204,350   1980
 $130,000  was  allotted to the Health Department   from  the  $496,000  awarded
Allen County,OH S005552.   Cost of  septic system  portion not available.
                                                                 to

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               	GREAT LAKES BASIN DRAINAGE BOUNDARIES
FIGURE 1.  DISTRIBUTION  OF 108(A) PROJECTS AMONG GREAT LAKES  STATES,

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Accelerated Conservation Tillage Projects:

     Conservation  tillage projects were  located in 22 counties of  Ohio,   six
counties in Indiana,  four counties in Michigan, and two counties in New York.
For the most part,  project funds were used to purchase no-till and  conserva-
tion  tillage equipment for use by area farmers without charge or for  nominal
rental rates to cover maintenance costs.  Technical assistance was provided  to
farmers  who participated in the program,  to insure proper application of  the
new tillage methods. Funding awarded to these projects ranged from $32,000  for
one  county to $1,020,000 for 20 counties.   Most of these projects will  have
completed their final year in 1985, covering an average four-year timeframe.
Combined Sewer Overflow Abatement Projects:

     Another  attempt to control wastewater pollution was by preventing  over-
flows  from  combined stormflow and sanitary sewers.  This problem  occurs  in
cities  where domestic sewage,  industrial wastes,  and urban runoff  are  all
routed through a combined sewer system.  When the capacity of these systems is
exceeded,  untreated  overflow water may be discharged directly into  adjacent
lakes  and  rivers.   The goals of combined sewer overflow abatement  projects
were  to increase in-system storage capacity of sewer the system or to  divert
runoff  or sewage in order to eliminate or decrease the frequency of  overflow
to  adjacent  surface waters.     The alternative of complete  renovation  and
construction of parallel sewer systems is generally considered too  expensive.
The 108a funds were used to examine existing systems in Rochester,  NY, Cleve-
land,  OH,  and Saginaw,  MI for alternative renovations.  Although renovation
plans varied from city to city,  the main strategy was to  increase stormwater
storage  capacity and control flows within the system to utilize existing  in-
system  storage  to  full advantage.   Vortex control valves  with  associated
storage  were demonstrated as means to control flows in most of the  projects.
Land treatment BMPs to control runoff volumes and technological changes in
sewage treatment were also demonstrated.


Land Application of Sewage Proj ects and the A/0 Treatment Plant Dlgestor
Proj ect:

     Demonstration  projects for land application included the Michigan  State
University research ponds, an overland flow project in the Village of Paw Paw,
Michigan,  a crop irrigation project in Muskegon County, Michigan and a sludge
application  project  to forest land in  Montmorency  County.  Most  of  these
systems had some wastewater pretreatment prior to land application,  either in
the  form  of holding ponds or biological treatment.  The use of  the  holding
ponds  as  alternative sewage treatments was also studied.   One  project  was
devoted specifically to demonstrating the A/0 Process,   a secondary treatment
process  for phosphorus removal.   Each project measured water quality  changes
throughout the treatment process,  and monitored the effect  of  sludge appli-
cation on vegetation.

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Septic Tank Alternatives:

     These  projects included funding for appropriate alternatives to  conven-
tional septic systems which function inadequately in areas of poor soil drain-
age.   Septic system monitoring and improvements were conducted in rural areas
of Steuben County, Indiana, and Allen County, Ohio.


Background Water Quality Proj ect:

     Funds were allocated through the 108a program to a consortium of the city
of Cleveland and three area universities,  John Carroll, Case Western Reserve,
and  Cleveland  State,  to perform a water quality baseline assessment of  the
Cleveland area.   Originally planned as a three-phase project spanning  pollu-
tion control efforts and water quality monitoring, this phase I was to provide
baseline data with which to compare future data.

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                    OVERVIEW AND SUMMARY OF 108-A PROGRAMS
     The 108a program of the 1972 Clean Water Act funded thirty-one demonstra-
tion projects in the Great Lakes Basin.   Each of the Great Lakes had a demon-
stration  project located in the state and in the watershed which drained into
it.   The demonstration projects were directed primarily toward reducing phos-
phorus pollution from point and nonpoint sources in both rural and urban  set-
tings.

     During  the  course  of the 108a program many other  point  and  nonpoint
source (NFS) research and control activities were occurring nationwide.   Bil-
lions of dollars were spent in upgrading municipal and industrial waste treat-
ment  facilities  with  much of this work being  directed  towards  phosphorus
control.   Extensive  limnological research work led to advances in understan-
ding the dynamics of phosphorus,  its transport processes,  biological availa-
bility,  and  the  levels which would  accelerate  eutrophication.   Phosphate
detergent  bans  were initiated in much of the Great  Lakes  watersheds.   The
increasing  concern  about urban and agricultural NPS  pollution  spawned  the
National Urban Runoff Program (NURP) (1977),  The Model Implementation Program
(MIP)  (1978),  and  the Rural Clean Water Program (RCWP) (1980) as  intensive
experimental  programs  designed to prove the water quality  effectiveness  of
BMPs at a watershed level.   It is difficult to assess the extent to which the
108a  program  influenced  these  control  activities  or  incorporated  their
advances  into its own activities;  however,  a number of observations can  be
made:

1.   The  overall emphasis of the program shifted significantly towards demon-
     stration  of NPS control technology as opposed to point sources over  the
     program timeframe.

2.   The concept of treating "critical areas" which  contribute most to pollu-
     tion in a watershed emerged during the Black Creek project.  In  particu-
     lar,  the development of a computer simulation model to identify critical
     areas  and   to predict treatment effectiveness,  preceded  an  increased
     critical  area  emphasis in subsequent land treatment and  water  quality
     programs.

3.   Of  all available agricultural BMPs for phosphorus control,  the  program
     selected  conservation  tillage and fertilizer management  for  extensive
     demonstration.   The  overwhelming  volume of plot,  field and  watershed
     study throughout the 1970s and early 1980s supports these choices as  the
     most cost-effective management alternatives.

4.   Research  on  the transport of phosphorus during the early and  mid-1970s
     strongly suggested that 1 and application of sewage could be highly effec-
     tive for reducing municipal industrial phosphorus aquatic inputs.

5.   Low-cost  alternatives to reducing the impact of overflows from  combined
     storm and sanitary sewers are possible through combinations of structural
     and management practices.

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MULTI-DIMENSIONAL PROJECTS

     Agricultural  nonpoint sources of phosphorus and sediment were  addressed
in three multi-dimensional projects;  Black Creek,  IN, Washington County, WI,
and the Red Clay Project in MN and WI.

     The major goals of these multi-dimensional projects included agricultural
pollution control through implementation of Best Management Practices  (BMPs),
public  education on water quality issues,  and documentation of water quality
results through monitoring.

     Best Management Practices implemented in these projects represented a
wide  range  of  control  measures  and  a  high  degree  of  farmer/landowner
participation.   In addition to conservation tillage,  these projects promoted
terraces and grass buffer strips to reduce cropland erosion.  Other phosphorus
sources  were  addressed by these projects including the promotion  of  animal
waste management and exclusion of livestock from streams and waterways.

     Water  quality  monitoring was conducted in these projects,  to  assess
changes in water quality related to changes in management  practices.   During
the two year monitoring timeframe,  no long term, watershed-wide water quality
changes  were detected.   However,  plot and field studies in the Black  Creek
Project,  and  event  data from the Washington County Project did  demonstrate
improved water quality due directly to the implementation of BMPs.

     It  is widely acknowledged that the Black Creek project,  in  particular,
became a landmark,  pioneering effort for future watershed level  agricultural
NPS  control  efforts,  such as MIP,  RCWP and the  Agricultural  Conservation
Program  (ACP) special projects.   The project provided important  information
relating to streambank erosion,  sediment basin effectiveness,  and water qua-
lity monitoring requirements which greatly assisted subsequent programs.

       Information  and  education components were important parts of  all
three  multi-dimensional projects.   Washington County had the most  extensive
education  program,  which  included development of a grade  school  and  high
school curriculum dealing with water quality and water pollution issues.   The
community awareness programs were similar in all three  projects.   These pro-
grams not only made people aware of the project objectives, but helped provide
participants with technical information for successful use of BMPs.  A closely
related  facet of the multi-dimensional projects involved sociological assess-
ments  of what it took to achieve changes in management practices.    Both the
Washington  County  and Black Creek projects conducted surveys to  assess . the
general public's attitudes toward agricultural pollution, and to assess how  to
influence these attitudes.

     These information/education efforts also provided important insights  for
future  NPS programs.   In many cases it would appear that the success of more
recent  programs  such as MIP and RCWP is linked to the extent to  which  they
learned from  these  108a projects.

     In  Washington County,  for example,  school  teachers became involved   in
developing  watershed  water quality  curriculum   materials.   By  integrating
awareness   of   pollution   problems  into  school   children's   educational
experiences,   future   prevention is fostered - a much more cost-effective  ap-
proach  than clean-up.   In addition,  the involvement of influential community

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groups such as teachers promoted their commitment to water quality goals.

     The Black Creek project, likewise, achieved an almost unparalleled degree
of  public support and landowner participation,  including high  participation
from  the historically more isolated Amish community.   Their success came  in
large  part from putting as high a priority on public input and  participation
as on technical solutions,  and from actively involving local people from  the
very  beginning  planning phase.   Project personnel also  involved  respected
opinion leaders from target constituent  groups and spent hundreds of hours in
personal contacts with them.

     In  addition to these overall project accomplishments,  each of the three
multi-dimensional projects produced specific achievements,  some of which  are
summarized below:

Black Creek Final Project Results.

     - The  project  concluded that:   conservation practices utilized in  the
       project,  if implemented across the entire Maumee Basin, would decrease
       sediment  loading to Lake Erie by 50%,  and phosphorus by  25%.   (From
       plot study results)

     - A computer model,  ANSWERS (Areal Nonpoint Source Watershed Environment
       Response  Simulation) was developed to provide a method for  estimating
       BMP effectiveness.

     - The ANSWERS model has been pivotal  in formalizing an approach to iden-
       tify and treat the most critical pollutant source areas in a watershed.

     - Extensive  personal contact and involvement of project  personnel  with
       key  opinion  leaders  among landowners created high  participation  in
       implementing best management practices (BMPs).

     - Amish farmers, representing almost 100% of  the landowners in  critical
       pollutant areas,  and comprising  those who were most resistant to con-
       servation practices, were convinced to install BMPs and to change  some
       traditional farming practices.

Washington County Final Project Results.

     - Two  model sediment control ordinances were extensively researched  and
       drafted,  one controlling agricultural sources of pollution,  the other
       controlling construction sources of sediment.                       /-
                                                                           I
     - The  county  SWCD passed the standards and objectives  of  agricultural
       ordinance as a resolution,  indicating a changed attitude and a greater
       commitment to soil conservation goals.

     - The county passed the subdivision ordinance aimed at construction  site
       erosion control.

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     - Following  the adoption of several agricultural BMPs,   two years' water
       quality monitoring showed that total phosphorus and nitrogen and  sedi-
       ment yield had decreased.

     - An  extensive  county-wide education program targeted  for a variety  of
       audiences demonstrably increased public awareness of soil  conservation
       and water quality.

     - A creative, comprehensive school curriculum for Local  Watershed Problem
       Studies  was  developed by groups of local teachers,  one targeted  for
       elementary schools, the other for middle and high schools.

Red Clay Final Project Results.

     - Shoreline stabilization structures were constructed which  accomplished
       short-term  erosion  control;  the  Army Corps of  Engineers  undertook
       follow-up monitoring beyond the project period.

     - Extensive  research  and  surveys determined that the   major  cause  of
       streambank erosion were natural,  and that the red clay sediment caused
       little impairment of aquatic biota.

     - The  project  developed and produced a low cost system  for  continuous
       monitoring of precipitation,  wind,  air and soil parameters at remote,
       unmanned sites.

     - Five soil and Water Conservation Districts from two states jointly man-
       aged a basin-wide research and demonstration project,   despite multiple
       problems  with   different state  and county jurisdictions and   predi-
       lections of those involved.   From their experience came cogent  recom-
       mendations for future co-operative management projects.
ACCELERATED CONSERVATION TILLAGE (ACT) PROJECTS


     These  demonstrations  were  supported by the 108a program  funds  in  34
counties,  primarily  located in the Lake Erie Basin,  with an additional  one
located in the Saginaw Valley of MI and two in New York state.

     The  objective  of these projects was to promote the use of  conservation
tillage  practices,  especially  the  use  of  no-till  practices.   Technical
assistance  in  crop  management was available free of  charge,  and  required
equipment was available at low rental rates to cover maintenance.

     Participation  in the ACT projects increased, approximately 25% each  year
of  the  three  year projects.   Preliminary results  show  that  conventional
tillage gives lower yields than conservation tillage. No-till was demonstrated
to be successful because net returns were comparable to conventional tillage.
                               10

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     A substantial increase in reduced or no-till usage occurred in 15 of  the
34  counties  which  had reported at the time of this  review.   Tillage  plot
studies  estimated their erosion reduction between 2-17 tons/acre-year.   Con-
servation tillage also reduced rill, sheet, and gully erosion.

     Water quality monitoring showed that dissolved  phosphorus and   nitrogen
loading concentration may increase due to conservation tillage,  thus fertili-
zer management is an important adjunct practice.  Overall, phosphorus loadings
decreased with conservation tillage.

COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW PROJECTS
     Combined  sewer overflows occur in cities where domestic,  commercial and
urban  runoff are routed through the same systems,  overflowing  during  storm
events  when  the system capacity is exceeded.   Five projects to  demonstrate
overflow abatement in three cities, Rochester, NY, Saginaw, MI, and Cleveland,
OH, were funded by the 108a program.

     Controlling  sewer  flow and increasing sewer storage capacity  were  the
major strategies demonstrated in all three cities.   Changes in sewage  treat-
ment were also demonstrated in Saginaw and Rochester,  to handle the increased
burden on sewage treatment plants that result from reducing overflows.   BMPs,
such  as  street cleaning to reduce pollutant loading and porous  pavement  to
reduce urban  runoff, were demonstrated and evaluated in Rochester.

     A very popular flow control device,  the vortex flow regulator was demon-
strated in all three cities.  This regulator was found to control flow through
the system reliably at very reasonable cost,  with virtually no maintenance.

     The pilot study in Rochester demonstrated several sewage treatment alter-
natives for high rate primary treatment of the increased sewage  volumes,  and
evaluated  their  efficacy  and  cost.  Flocculation/sedimentation  and  swirl
concentrators    were   considered   equally   cost-effective    alternatives.
Microscreening  and  dual  media filtration were not as  effective  under  all
conditions.

     The  Rochester  BMP project demonstrated that labor intensive  activities
such  as  street cleaning and field inspections of sewer systems  could  yield
short term results,  but were expensive for long term use.   Controlling sewer
flows  and  adapting sewage treatment plants to handle storm flows  were  done
effectively at relatively low cost.

     The Rochester CSO project verified and used models extensively in develo-
ping and evaluating the abatement alternatives.   The project was exemplary in
demonstrating  the  application of these models.   The use of  models  allowed
evaluation of a variety of expensive alternatives without implementation.
LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE
     Projects to demonstrate the applicability of sewage and sewage sludge  to
land  were demonstrated on four sites in Michigan.   Successive holding  ponds
for land irrigation were demonstrated in East Lansing, Muskegon County and the


                                      11

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Village  of Paw Paw.   Irrigation effluents generally met or  exceeded  sewage
treatment effluent standards in all three projects,  and water quality monito-
ring  showed that diversion of sewage effluent to the land treatment  facility
the quality of these lakes, sustaining high level reductions in phosphorus and
nitrogen concentrations.  Moreover, land treatment of waste allowed the commu-
nity  to  recoup  operating expenses through sale of  forage  from  irrigation
plots.

     In  addition,  a Montmorency County project was funded to document silvi-
cultural and ecological impacts of sludge application  on forest lands. Results
were not yet complete at the time of this project review.
SEPTIC SYSTEM ALTERNATIVES
     Two  projects were funded to improve rural septic systems,  one in  Allen
County, OH, and the other in Steuben County, IN.

     Septic systems in Allen County, OH were to be evaluated, and replaced, if
working improperly.   The septic systems in Steuben County,  IN were replaced.
Effluent  from the thirteen new septic tanks in Steuben County  were  combined
and pumped 250 meters  to a common leach field.  Water conservation procedures
were encouraged,  and  water usage was monitored.  No conclusions were reached
about the effect of water conservation on septic system performance, however.
A/0 TREATMENT PLANT DIGESTER
     An  innovative  P-removal process was installed in the  sewage  treatment
plant in Pontiac,  MI.   The process utilizes sequential anaerobic and aerobic
incubation  of  sewage in place of conventional aerobic  secondary  treatment.
Increased P removals from sewage effluent were demonstrated by this  treatment
process,  as was increased nitrification of ammonium.  BOD removals were simi-
lar in both A/0 and conventional methods.
CLEVELAND WATER QUALITY MONITORING


     Funding  was made available for a water quality monitoring project in the
city of Cleveland, OH.  Water quality data and biological monitoring were per-
formed over a two-year period to provide background data for future  pollution
abatement projects.   A search of literature revealed the history of Cleveland
area  water quality.   Cleveland began to experience degraded water quality in
the 1850's,  and suffered severe impairments at the turn of the century.   Al-
though  optimistic  monitoring and planning efforts were  proposed,  the  data
developed in this project were never utilized.
                                      12

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SUMMARY
     Overall,  the  108a program demonstrated technologies to address  several
sources  of  P pollution to the Great Lakes.   The program provided  funds  to
demonstrate many useful technologies which decrease P pollution,  and  identi-
fied  some techniques which,  although previously believed to abate pollution,
were not shown to be efficacious.

     Less  easily  definable,  but perhaps in the long run  a  more  important
result  of the program,  has been its influence on subsequent NPS control pro-
grams.   Much of the institutional structure of the RCWP and NURP programs can
be  traced from the experiences of the 108a projects,  particularly the  Black
Creek, Washington County and Rochester, N.Y. efforts.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

     The  108a  program brought about the development of a large  and  diverse
body  of  sometimes unrecorded information and  practical  experience.   Ulti-
mately,  the program will miss its deserved recognition if these contributions
slip beyond retrival.  In some cases, significant data were gathered but never
analyzed,  or  creative educational materials were produced,  but never repro-
duced for distribution. In some projects,  water quality monitoring was insuf-
ficient to document changes within the time period it was conducted.  In other
cases,  water  quality  control  structures have been implemented  that  would
provide much-needed water quality effectiveness information if continued post-
implementation monitoring could be conducted.

     Much  of the 108a program potential could be realized with moderate  cost
and effort if further studies were initiated using previous studies as their
starting point. Some specific examples are included below:


1.   The following 108a sites or project data should be considered for follow-
     up studies.

         Black  Creek  sociological and farmer participation studies should be
         evaluated for further data analysis.

         Washington County school curricula materials should be evaluated  for
         their impact and considered for wider distribution.

     —  MSU  research  ponds present an opportunity to  investigate  possible
         groundwater contamination by organic chemicals, metals,  or pathogens
         from the land application of sludge sites.

     —  Cleveland  Background Water Quality project has 2 years  of  baseline
         biological  and water quality monitoring data.   They should consider
         follow-up as planned originally, examining current water quality
         results for impacts of pollution abatement efforts.
                                     13

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2.   The   muliti-dimensional   projects  which   conducted   public   opinion
     assessments and extensive public education programs,  should be evaluated
     to  develop guidelines and recommendations for gaining public  acceptance
     and improved participation in water quality control programs.

3.   A  108-a follow-up study should interview key program and project person-
     nel to document the overall impacts of 108a demonstrations.  The follow-up
     should address areas where written final reports do not include this kind
     of assessment.*

4.   Compare   the  management  of  water  quality  projects  by   Conservation
     Districts with alternatives such as management by ASCS or state  environ-
     mental agencies.

5.   The  database  from  the Accelerated  Conservation  Tillage(ACT)  project
     should be analyzed to extract information about yield,  cost,  and  water
     quality  effectiveness of conservation tillage practices.   The  analysis
     should  be performed by an independent research unit,not associated  witb
     the ACT projects and not biased with respect to conservation tillage.
     This recommendation comes from conversations with 108a project personnel
     we  contacted for specific information and then learned about additional
     project accomplishments which occurred after final reports were written.
     Even  more  often,  we found institutional changes  which reflected  the
     impact  of  the 108a project had occurred,  although not directly  as  a
     project accomplishment.  Examples include a Douglas County, WI shoreline
     erosion control ordinance, a number of films produced about NFS control,
     and  the  Wisconsin Soil and  Water  Conservation   Districts'  reorgan-
     ization subsequent to Washington County's legal assessment project.
                                      14

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                          MULTI-DIMENSIONAL PROJECTS
OVERALL OBJECTIVES
     Three large multi-dimensional projects (near $3 million each) were funded
by the Great Lakes 108a program.   These three projects had a number of dimen-
sions  to their water quality improvement demonstrations,  as opposed  to  the
single source problem approach of the other 108a projects.  These projects had
extensive plans to implement nonpoint source pollution abatement practices, to
educate  the public about the pollution problem,  and in the case of two  pro-
jects  (Black Creek  and Washington County),  to complete a sociological study
on  how to achieve changes in management practices to reduce  pollution.   The
three  projects  were intended to demonstrate the efficacy of BMPs  and  their
ease of implementation or adoption.   These projects also acted as pilot  pro-
jects  to  compare and determine which management practices are workable on  a
large  scale.   Extensive research was conducted as part of these projects  to
assess  the  efficacy of specific BMPs,  to assess  public  understanding  and
acceptance  of pollution control efforts,  and to determine whether  widescale
implementation of BMPs would result in water quality changes.

     The Black  Creek Project, in Allen County, Indiana, primarily  addressed
the  agricultural  problem of sediment pollution:  implementing  and   testing
appropriate BMPs and concurrently studying factors affecting farmer's willing-
ness to change practices.

     Its'  stated objectives were 1) to demonstrate the effectiveness of  soil
and water conservation techniques to improve water quality,  and 2) to conduct
research to determine mechanisms whereby practices succeed or fail.

     The  Washington County Project had two  field  components,  one addres-
sing  agricultural  pollution problems,  the other  addressing  sediment  from
"urbanizing" or construction activities.

     The  project addressed three objectives:   1) legal assessment of the need
for local ordinances,  2) land treatment and water quality monitoring in  both
urban and agricultural areas,  and 3) an extensive education program including
the development of public school curricula on NFS problems.

     The Red Clay Project,  located on  the   south  shores of  Lake  Superior
and  encompassing a two-state administration in Minnesota and  Wisconsin,  had
objectives  to:   1) demonstrate economically feasible methods of erosion  and
sedimentation control,  2) assess the capabilities of existing institutions to
cooperatively  implement a pollution control program,  and 3) analyze and eva-
luate  program  data  to demonstrate viable techniques  applicable  to  future
programs.
                                     15

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THE BLACK CREEK PROJECT
Administration and Funding

     The  Black  Creek Project was designed as a model project to promote  the
implementation  of the agricultural Best Management  Practices  (BMPs).   Its'
stated  objectives were 1) to demonstrate the effectiveness of soil and  water
conservation  techniques to the improve water quality,  and 2) to conduct  re-
search to determine mechanisms whereby practices succeed or fail.

     The $3.1 million of grant money was administered by the Allen County Soil
and  Water Conservation district (SWCD),  $800,000 of which was spent on  land
treatment costs.

Proj ect Approach

     The Black Creek project promoted implementation of such on-farm practices
as livestock exclusion,  conservation tillage practices, terraces, tile drain-
age, as well as farm pond construction and pasture and hayland management.  In
addition,  the  project was responsible for installation of instream channeli-
zation and streambank erosion control structures.

     The incentive used to encourage farmers to participate in the program was
to  offer  cost-sharing toward implementation of  desired  practices,  and  to
provide  technical  assistance  in executing practices  such  as  conservation
tillage.  Farmers signed contracts agreeing to participate in the project, and
agreeing to implement the entire plan.   Failure to complete the plan required
the farmer to return cost-share money already paid out,  creating an incentive
to complete the contract.

     A  noteworthy aspect of the Black Creek project was the large  population
of Amish farmers in the county.  Amish have unique cultural and belief systems
and they also continue many 19th century farming practices.   Thus, success of
the project depended on effective education for new practice adoption.   Soci-
ological  surveys were conducted early in the project to assess farmer's atti-
tudes toward conservation programs and to use the information for more effect-
ive program implementation.

     The project originally approached water quality control with acre-by-acre
land treatment,  but subsequently computer modeling identified priority treat-
ment areas.  An original model was developed for this project.

Results

     Effectiveness of BMPs

     At  the end of the Black Creek Project in  1977,  80% of the land was con-
sidered adequately protected.  However, no estimates of the tons of soil saved
or reduction of sediment pollution in waterways was reported.  The project has
estimated  that implementation of similar practices across the  entire  Maumee
Basin  would decrease sediment loading to Lake  Erie by  50%,  and phosphorus by
25%.  However,  these conclusions are not well supported by data in the project
reports.
                                      16

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     Rainulator studies  on  small plots were used to estimate modeling param-
eters.   Results  showed:   tillage practices which  leave residues  on  the soil
surface act to decrease erosion,  water leaching to  tile drainage had  improved
quality with the exception of higher nitrate levels,  and sediment  basins were
found to decrease sediment delivery.

     Conservation tillage, specifically chisel plowing, was found to be effec-
tive in reducing erosion,  and produced yields competitive with or  better than
conventional  moldboard  plowing.   No-till produced lower yields than  either
conventional or chisel plow tillage.   Reduced yields may have been partly due
to  either poor or inadequate soil drainage.   Tile  drainage was an  effective
means  of improving runoff water quality,  although  soil cracking led  to  in-
creased sediment and pesticide concentrations in drain effluent.

     Instream  structures to control streambank erosion produced no measurable
improvement  in water quality.   The construction of these  structures  caused
sedimentation in downstream reaches, and changed the morphology, hydrology and
temperature  regimes thus reducing fish populations.   Final project estimates
attributed only 3-5% of Black Creek sediment to streambank erosion processes.

     Computer Modeling

     At the inception of the Black Creek Project, attempts at pollution abate-
ment were made under the policy of treating every acre of land in the  project
which  needed  treatment.   Project personnel subsequently looked for ways  to
spend money more effectively by treating those areas which contributed most to
water quality problems.

     To  facilitate this,  the ANSWERS computer model (Areal  Nonpoint  Source
Watershed Environment Response Simulation) was developed.

     The  model was designed to estimate the amount of pollution from a  given
area,  and  then to evaluate the effects of implementing various BMPs on  that
area.   Simulations  with ANSWERS could help to determine which areas required
treatment  and  how  much relative change in water quality would  occur  as  a
result.

     The  ANSWERS  model  provided a means of identifying  critical  areas  of
treatment,  and its'  development has corresponded with an important change  in
land treatment and water quality programs.   The ANSWERS model helped to stan-
dardize  this  critical  area approach,  which also permitted  more  effective
treatment  on those critical pollutant sources pinpointed by simulation  anal-
ysis .

     The  average  cost of the project was $75/acre treated,  including  cost-
share local contributions,  landowner contributions,  and technical  assistance.
Based on this estimate,  BMr implementation of the Maumee Basin could be  very
expensive.    More  widespread  use  of cost-effective practices such  as  con-
servation tillage,  and fertilizer management,  however,  might result  in accept-
able water quality improvement at a lower  cost.
                                     17

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     Sociological Studies

     Socioeconomic  and attitudinal studies were a significant portion of  the
Black Creek Project,  particularly to meet the project objective of  assessing
mechanisms by which practices succeed or fail.

Amish  Participation.  Originally  the  data  gathered  were to  compare Amish
Amish to non-Amish farmers on their attitudes and practices,  but the  authors
state  that  comparing Amish to non-Amish landowners has proven a problem  be-
cause the two groups' cultural beliefs and practices are so different.  There-
fore   the data representing attitudes among leaders and non-leaders are  only
from the non-Amish community,  since the Amish objedted to ranking any  farmer
as  "most  knowledgeable",  related  to  their  belief  system  which  rejects
pridefulness.

     Overall, the cooperation shown by Amish farmers reported in the first two
years,  was encouraging.  Although  there are cultural and language difficult-
ies, project personnel feel they gained considerable insight into Amish social
structures and beliefs, which made for more effective communication.

     Between the first and second years,  the addition of a second staff plan-
ner  resulted  in  a 200% increase in Amish BMP contracts signed  and  a  138%
increase  in non-Amish contracts.   Project staff note that in high  priority,
more  erosive watershed areas,  where nearly 100% of the land is Amish  owned,
motivating  group  application  takes 3-4 fold more time than  with  non-Amish
farmers.   But,  project  personnel felt that final accomplishments  on  those
targeted areas would result in much more meaningful patterns of land treatment.

     Success  in  Amish participation is attributed to many personal  "one-on-
one" contacts over time.   Initial distrust was overcome after one  four-month
period of repeated contacts and several group meetings,  when the Amish agreed
as  a group to support a  large grassed waterway,  and after that more  readily
agreed  to install other  practices.  It appears that  once a respected   Amish
farmer  has  tried a practice,  others are more willing to install  the  same.
Since  most  of the more  erosive area landowners were initially  resentful  of
changes  the project required from their traditional practices  	 even  with
high  cost-sharing incentives 	 the high participation rates with these  key
Amish farmers represent a significant accomplishment.

     Results  of Data  Analysis.   In  initial  interviews  with landowners of
  the  Black  Creek project,data were gathered for three general  categories:
  (I) information to  better understand (A) how local farmers perceive pollution
  control  problems;  and  (B) their willingness to  participate  in  abatement
  programs.   (II)   Information on  leadership  structures,  based on assumptions
  about  diffusion patterns in adoption of agricultural technology,  and   (III)
  types  of   fertilizers used  to  (A) understand nutrients  observed  in  future
  runoff  studies and  (B)  provide data for nitrogen  levels applied to soil  for
  each of Black Creek's  sub-watersheds.

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                 Utilizing Leadership  Studies in
                Conservation Program Participation

       Much  of the  literature on adoption of agricultural tech-
  nology   suggests  that opinion leaders play a key role in  how
  rapidly  new information  is disseminated.   Thus, locating the
  opinion  leaders  in a watershed treatment area can be  instru-
  mental to the overall success of the project.   In addition, by
  identifying  those most influential in a community,  a  project
  can  operate  less  disruptively within existing  social struc-
  tures , and  new ideas and new practices can be introduced to  a
  communities' own leaders first to speed up the overall partici-
  pation process.

      In  Black Creek, the identification of opinion leaders  was
  through  (non-Amish) farmers' responses when asked to name  who
  was "well respected for his  agricultural practices"  and   who
  they had actually turned to for agricultural advice.

      Extrapolating  from similar studies' findings, leaders were
  expected to be more  conscious of   pollution  control and more
  interested in doing something about it.  Leaders and nonleaders
  were compared  on four response categories:   1)  Farmers' per-
  ceptions of soil conservation as a problem, 2) use of pollution
  control practices on their  land, 3)  role that   farmers  feel
  government should play in pollution control, 4) farmers'  atti-
  tudes toward the Black Creek project. Comparisons on these  in-
  dices reveal that persons picked as leaders show more awareness
  more awareness of pollution,  are  better  informed  about  its
  sources, and are more  interested  in  controlling  it.

      Specific  response results were as follows:  1) Almost half
  of all farmers did not perceive soil conservation as a  serious
  problem in  their  area,  indicating they were unaware  of  the
  extent of the erosion problem in Black Creek.  However,  75% of
  the leaders  identified  silt as a  primary  pollution  source,
  whereas non-leaders ranked sewage, garbage, and other wastes as
  most  important pollutants.  2) On actual use of pollution con-
  trol practices, the percentage of farmers using pollution  con-
  trol,   whether leader  or  not,   was  low.   On  16  specific
  practices, only  about 1/4 to 1/3 were actually  utilized.  The
  majority felt the practices weren't applicable to  their  land.
  Project  personnel could assess these opinions and advise which
  practices  are  most appropriate to a given  individual's land.
  3)  Farmers in  all  categories  appear  evenly  divided  about
  whether  taxation  should pay for  pollution  control.  A clear
  majority  (63%)  feel the  federal government  should  play  an
  important role in soil conservation programs,  but feelings are
  mixed  about public  regulation  of land  use  in  their  area.
Utilizing Leadership Studies (continued next page)
                                    19

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       (continued)
                             Utilizing Leadership Studies in
                           Conservation Program Participation
       4)   Over   50%  of  the  farmers felt  they  stood  to gain  more than
       they would  lose  by participation  in  the project,  and over  75%
       of non-Amish  felt the  project would  benefit   area  residents.
       Area farmers were asked,  "which do you  think  is a better way to
       get  people to  co-operate  in helping to  protect the water  qual-
       ty   in  Black Creek;   by education, financial incentives or  by
       laws and   controls"?  Both  the Amish and  non- Amish  selected
       educational  methods  as  the  best   way   to  involve people  in
       protecting water  quality.
     Although  the  original  project   plans were  to  compare   data  gathered   at
 the   project's inception  to  farmers' attitudes and  practices  resurveyed   two
 years  later,  the  data  gathered were never  analyzed  this way.

     The   final results the project reported are  presented here  in Table 2,   a
 table  of  means and  standard  deviations  for these variables.  However,  there  is
 no other  information in the  report to indicate what these numbers represent.
              Table  2.   Sociological  Model  Variables  [Black  Creek]  *


XI
X2
X3
X4
X5
X6
X7
X8
X9
X10
Xll

Variable
Education of the farmer
Socio-economic status
Perceived need for innovation
Off -farm employment
Leadership score
Amish or Non-Amish
Advice from leader
Agency contact
Knowledge of the project
Persuasion towards the project
Participation in the project

Mean
9.573
20275.281
27.225
77.494
2.528
1.640
1.337
6.006
2.989
14.584
8.325
Standard
Deviation
3.285
12411.972
5.011
104.067
6.455
.483
.475
7.969
.805
6.210
3.254
* Final Report on the Black Creek Project
  EPA 905/9-77-007-C, 1977, p.165.
- Technical Report Project Summary
                                     20

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     Likewise,  no  cross-tabulation  or analysis is presented  in  the  final
 project  report  which would give meaningful information.   For  example,  it
 would be useful to know how ' amount of agency contact' over two years affect-
 ed ' persuasion toward the project' or ' participation  in the project'.

     Since this data is available,  further research could focus on  comparing
 some of these indices.  Such data analysis may yield  information about farmer
 participation which is useful for future projects.

     Overall,  the  authors  attribute the success of  the project in  securing
 participation  to  both the explicit rewards of cost-sharing  and  to  farmer
 involvement in  the decision-making process affecting  the  local  community.
 Farmers  were  more  likely to continue practices on  a long term  basis  when
 structures such as sediment basins or grassed waterways were constructed than
 when  management  practices  such as conservation  tillage  were  implemented
 alone.
Summary of Black Creek

     The major goals of the project,  to implement and demonstrate BMPs and to
 study their effectiveness,  were met.   Sociological studies gave insight  on
 how  cultural  differences affected information exchange among  farmers,  and
 this  information  was  used advantageously  in  approaching  and  recruiting
 farmers about the project.

     Water  Quality changes in the watershed were not reported by the project,
 and  there  was  no summary of land treatment which  would  relate  to  water
 quality  improvements.   Plot  and field studies indicated that  conservation
 tillage  could decrease erosion while maintaining financial  competitiveness,
iand that tile drainage and sedimentation basins could improve water  quality.
 Instream  channelization and streambank erosion control structures,  however,
 were not demonstrated to improve water quality.  The sedimentation created by
 these structures affected fishery habitat and existing fish populations.

     Development  of the ANSWERS model not only provided a method to  estimate
 pollution and BMP effectiveness, it was pivotal in formalizing an approach to
 identify and treat critical areas effectively.   This procedure could be used
 by other projects in other areas with some modification.

     Further  suggestions  for  the Black Creek project are  to  document  the
 extent  of BMP implementation,  and determine whether implementation  can  be
 related  to  water quality changes in part,  if not all,   of the Black  Creek
 Watershed.   BMPs  were promoted by this project as effective  treatment  for
 water quality, yet no definitive data are presented.

     Another  useful pursuit would be the publication of a document describing
 the sociological studies,   the methodology and  data analysis and the  impact
 of  their results on educational and community outreach programs.    Much  was
 learned  by this project,   particularly regarding Amish participation,   which
 could have application in other projects.
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RED CLAY PROJECT
      The Red Clay project was located on the southern shore of Lake Superior.
 The  predominant  impairment in the Red Clay Project was the suspended  sedi-
 ment,   red  in appearance,  in area waterways.   The "red clay"  waters  are
 unappealing  aesthetically,  and the streambank erosion was seen as  serious.
 However, few biological impairments had been demonstrated.  The damaging pol-
 lutants are sediment,  turbidity and color.   The soils are predominately red
 clay interspersed with sands and silt,  which have little stability and which
 often erode severely on steep slopes.

Administration and Funding

     The Red Clay project received $2.9 million for research and demonstration
in five counties, one in Minnesota and four in Wisconsin.  The counties parti-
cipated  in  the project through their local Soil and Water Conservation  Dis-
tricts:   Carlton Co.  in Minnesota,  and Ashland,  Bayfield, Iron and Douglas
Counties in Wisconsin.   Douglas Co. SCWD became the overall fiscal agent, but
each district retained the power to make their own decisions and operate their
own program and installations.  An executive committee of representatives from
each  of  the five participating SWCDs administered  the  grant  money.  Joint
administration  across two states and several counties was a unique aspect  of
the  Red Clay project,  and one of the project objectives was to evaluate this
cooperative institutional arrangement.

Proj ect Approach

     Six  areas  were  selected for treatment to reduce the Red  Clay  erosion
problem.   In three of the areas,  both agricultural and instream erosion con-
trol structures and management practices were implemented.   Most of the agri-
cultural  erosion  problems  were thought to result from livestock  access  to
streams, so livestock exclusion BMPs such as fencing, trail and walkway struc-
tures and associated practices were installed.   Drainage field ditches, tiles
and diversions were also installed.   Instream structures included flood water
retention  dams and streambank stabilization structures.   (7 were  planned,   5
were constructed)

     Shoreline  stabilization measures were undertaken in two of  the  project
areas,   to  prevent  wave action of Lake Superior from causing severe  erosion
shorelines.   The  structures consisted of  longard tubes,  3'  diameter  vinyl
tubes   filled with sand and positioned along the toe of a shoreline cliff.


     A  rubbletnound revetment was constructed along another shoreline to retard
shoreline erosion threatening an Indian burial  site.

     A   sedimentation  dam was designed for a small 3 square  mile  watershed.
However,  local  matching   funds were unavailable,  and the plans  were  never
implemented.

      In addition to  the project areas  receiving  treatment,  project money  was
allocated for  technical assistance  in  these areas:   monitoring  and evaluation
of  these programs,   research, information and education, and  administration of
the project.


                                      22

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Results

     Descriptions  of  the three larger watersheds treated by the project  are
given  in  the table.   Both agricultural and  instream BMPs were  applied  in
these areas.    Although  some streambank erosion was caused by livestock  and
human disturbance,  most was a natural occurrence of bank erosion and slumping
which  may  have  resulted  from forestation changes since  the  turn  of  the
century.   Streambank  erosion  was  apparently the major source of  red  clay
pollution.  Agricultural  erosion  was generally caused by livestock  and  was
considered to be a minor problem.
        Table 3. Red Clay Project Study Area Watershed Land Use
     Skunk Creek Basin,
      Carlton Co., MN
     Little Balsam Creek,
      Douglas Co., WI
     Pine Creek,
      Bayfield Co., WI
  Total
  Area    Cro{
 (Acres)

  6870     16

  3450      5

10,048      3
Pasture &
Hayland  Other Woodland
   (percent)

   7      4      73

   5      2      88

  33      5      59
     Cost  sharing up to 100% for various practices and  technical  assistance
was available to farmers for BMP implementation.   Most activity was addressed
to  fencing,  diversions,  and  livestock  watering  facilities.   In  Douglas
County,WI.,  only four long term agreements were written and only one of those
was completed.  Cost sharing was awarded to only one participant. In contrast,
Carlton County,  MN.  had a more successful participation rate.  Five of seven
full  time farmers had long term agreements prepared,  and 90% of these  prac-
tices were applied in the 1977-1978 construction season.   Resident landowners
were  more likely to participate in the program than were non-resident landow-
ners.   Participation  success  was attributed to group  planning  approaches,
active encouragement by the SWCD,  neighborhood encouragement,  and a vigorous
promotion program.

     Prior to implementation of roadside and streambank erosion control struc-
tures, the Red Clay Project completed a survey of erosion control and sediment
reduction projects conducted since 1955 by the Red Clay Interagency Committee.
Included in the project review was a list of recommended practices and related
management  considerations.   Recommendations  included the types  of  seeding
found to be successful, seedl/ed preparation, fertilizer application, mulching,
maintenance,  and  strearubank toe stabilization by placement of gabions,  rock
riprap and stream diversion.
                                     23

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     Institutional Cooperation and Management  Implementation

     Two  of  the three overall objectives of  the 5-district Red  Clay  project
were  to assess interagency capabilities to run a non point   source   pollution
control  program,  and to develop recommendations for use in future  NFS  prog-
rams .

     Accordingly,  Red Clay Project personnel  summarized the more than 4  years
erosion  and sediment control activities and water quality demonstrations into
(a) a set of prerequisite conditions necessary to optimize effective  programs
and their management process, (b) a set of concluding recommendations from the
project,  and  (c) a 9-Step "Framework for Local Management  Agency Implementa-
tion".

     The latter,  a step-by-step implementation process designed  for soil  and
water  conservation districts,  is particularly valuable for future   projects.
The  framework  represents a generalized problem-solving  procedure   distilled
from  their  experience which,  when filled in with local details,  can  guide
implementation  of  any long range nonpoint source water  pollution   abatement
program.

     Each  of the nine steps delineates (1) purpose,  (2) actors  and (3)  acti-
vities.   The  ' Activities'  section is itself a point-by-point  checklist  of
tasks to accomplish that step of the management/implementation  process.    The
Steps  are  listed  in a box in this section and their purposes  very  briefly
summarized.

     Costs

     Practices installed  to  prevent roadside  and  streambank erosion were found
to be expensive.   The debris basin planned in the  Spoon Creek watershed (Iron
Co.,WI),  and  roadside erosion prevention in the Borea area of Wisconsin's
Nemadji River Basin were not installed because the procedures were too  expen-
sive.    Although the Red  Clay Project would fund  75% of the  project costs,
the local district would have been  responsible  for  the remainder.

     However, there was little local support for the projects for a variety of
reasons.  The cost estimate  for the Spoon River debris basin,was $150,000; too
high for the local district  to support.  Similar structures  in other areas had
gone over budget  due to construction difficulties.   A roadside erosion demon-
stration project  was installed in Borea,WI.   The project was not  implemented
further  because  local officials did not accept the need to protect  roadside
ditches  from erosion.  In  addition, a whole gamut of practices was recommended
which increased  the cost considerably.   A  less ambitious plan of seeding  and
minor   shaping could have  addressed seventy-five percent of  the problem at 25%
of  the  proposed  cost, according  to  the final  project report.

     Two  percent of the  total  budget was  allocated to information  and  edu-
cation   activities.   Public meetings,  tours,  exhibits and newspaper reports
were  all part  of  the information  and education activities.
                                      24

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   Framework  for Local Management Agency  Implementation for  Non-
                    Point  Source Programs.

  Step  1,   Identification  of Problems  and Areas  of  Concern.
     Identify  the  types  and  severity  of  problems   using  monitoring,
research   and  public opinion data;  establish   co-operative   agreements
among  all concerned agencies.   Consortia across state  lines  should  be
avoided.

Step 2,  Definition of Purpose.
     Develop a system of goals,  objectives and  polices.   Especially
where  geographic areas transcend agency  jurisdiction,  one uniform set of
goals, objectives, and policies is necessary.

Step 3,  Inventory and Assessment.
     Considerable manpower and  time are  required to determine  and detail
the extent and severity of problems,   and to identify  and rank critical
areas  of  treatment need  and potential.   Time  goes into baseline  data
gathering  and assessments,  evaluations of public  cooperation and  the
process of negotiation.

  Step  4,   Securing Landownership Co-operation.
     Regulatory  action  or high cost-share rates do little  to  improve
attitudes  or lasting participation.  Ultimately,  cooperation  depends on
developing  a  good conservation ethic among landowners,and the  key  is
continuous concerted educational programs.

  Step  5,   Preparation of Conservation  Plans.
     Target  specific problems in critical areas with  the most effective
treatment  plans,with  landowners and  qualified  professionals.    Con-
siderations  must include treatment efficacy and  benefit,  installation
costs, and landowner attitudes.

  Step  6,   Installation of Conservation Practices.
     An important emphasis is developing specific techniques for indivi-
dual   site  needs with local innovations  for   non-structural  low-cost
practices.   Do  not rely on pre-established "best" management practices
or excessive cost-share rates.

  Step  7,   Maintenance of Practices
     Set  policies and guidelines for agencies responsible  for  inspec-
tions  and  monitoring,to guarantee maintenance and  continued  benefits
from land treatment and water quality improvements.

  Step 8,   Evaluation and Adjustment.
     There is nothing unalterable about goals,  objectives and policies.
A  continual  evaluation process is necessary to analyze changing  prob-
lems,  and needs.    Other natural resource conservation agencies can aid
this process.
                        (Continued)
                                   25

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    Step 9,   Implementing Regulatory Systems (optional).
        Regulatory   programs  are sensitive and should be used only  after
   all  other voluntary compliance and educational programs   have  failed.
   Local and state responsibilities must be carefully delineated; the state
   should set standards and handle enforcement, and local SCWD's can recom-
   mend and mediate.
     Critical  areas were not explicitly considered by the Red  Clay  project.
Previous  soil and water conservation efforts were identified,  and  practices
were implemented in those areas where erosion was obvious. There was, however,
no systematic attempt to treat those areas which were most likely to result in
a  water  quality change,  and project summaries indicated this should  be  an
important consideration for future watershed treatment projects.

   Water quality monitoring  was extensive,  although  erosion  and  pollutant
yield  reductions  were  not presented in the final  report.  Average  concen-
trations  of  major pollutants were reported and all were in  small  or  trace
concentrations.    Many  of  the agricultural BMPs installed had  been  demon-
strated  previously to be effective in other areas.   Although local  improve-
ments  may  have resulted from installation of these BMPs,  the major  contri-
bution  of sediment  from random streambank slumping,  was apparently not  af-
fected.  Some suspended sediment concentration  changes were noted just  down-
stream from construction sites and at the time of bank slumping events.

     The  large contribution of sediment from untreated streambanks apparently
precluded the observation of water quality changes from the agricultural BMPs.
Stabilization  of banks and sediment basins was not sufficiently extensive  to
evaluate  their  efficacy.   Lakeside structures,  such as Longard  tubes  and
riprap structures appeared to stabilize bank erosion, but had not been instal-
led long enough for definitive evaluation during the project.

     Research  results  on vegetative cover were enlightening.   It  had  been
theorized  that introduction of fast growing trees such as alder,  would  help
remove soil moisture,  and thus,  decrease bank slumping.  Significant effects
were seen only in dry years however, when the vegetation reduced soil moisture
and caused cracking,  In general, however, the cracking  increased erosion and
decreased  stability.   Woody plants were found to stabilize streambanks  more
effectively than herbaceous plants, although they took longer to establish.

     Most  practices  used  in the Red Clay project could  not  be  considered
highly  cost effective,  as most practices were either very expensive  or  not
effective.   Due to the extent of streambank erosion and expense of treatment,
it  would  be  very  difficult to implement treatment  extensively  enough  to
improve water quality.   The project found that Longard tubes installed  along
the beaches were less expensive than any of the other alternatives.   Although
they  appeared  to stabilize the beach,  it was felt that one season  was  too
short a time for complete evaluation.
                                      26

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Summary of Red Clay Project

     Agricultural  BMPs addressed a very small portion of the Red Clay erosion
problem.   The efficacy of the instream structures to prevent streambank  ero-
sion is not apparent.   Even if these structures were helpful, they would have
to  be  installed much more extensively to improve  water quality.    In  this
light, the demonstrated approach to erosion treatment was not considered cost-
effective.  Extensive research on the effects of vegetation on erosion report-
ed  useful  information about both successful and unsuccessful  practices  and
strategies.   Overall, the project demonstrated that the cause of the Red Clay
problem is so extensive that treatment is not feasible.

     In  terms  of  the project's objective to evaluate  the  capabilities  of
interagency management cooperation,  the project concluded that it is possible
to  overcome  difficult  institutional  obstacles  and  combine  resources  in
partnerships for enhanced water quality.   There were  clearly difficulties in
the process,  and the project's summary recommendations, management implement-
ation  framework,  and  concluding observations delineate some  pre-requisites
for effective program management.   They emphasize problem identification  and
critical  area designation,  treatment prioritization within common goals  and
objectives,  and  on-going  cost-effectiveness evaluation.   The  step-by-step
management framework developed by the project provides very useful  guidelines
for future NFS projects.

     Further  demonstration  or  research could be directed in  the  following
areas:  l)determine  whether  debris dams and/or sediment basins  can  improve
water  quality,  or whether the clay particles are too small to settle out  in
such basins,  2) identify other practical methods of erosion abatement such as
reintroducing woody vegetation to decrease erosion and slumping, and 3) demon-
strate  the use of riparian management of climax woody species  along  stream-
banks to discourage slumping and erosion.
WASHINGTON COUNTY PROJECT

Administration and Funding

     The Wisconsin Board of Conservation Districts administered the Washington
County  Project funds,  which were distributed to project  cooperators:   Uni-
versity of Wisconsin Extension,  the Water Resources Center of the  University
of Wisconsin,  the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, the Southeastern
(Wisconsin) Regional Planning Commission and the USGS»

Proj ect Approach

     The  project addressed three objectives:  1) legal assessment of the need
for local ordinances,  2) land treatment and water quality monitoring in  both
urban and agricultural areas, and 3) an  extensive education program including
the development of public school curricula on NFS problems.
                                     27

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     Legal and Institutional Assessment

     The  four  goals  of the institutional aspect of  the  Washington  County
Project  were:   1) to evaluate the legal,  economic,  political and  adminis-
trative  effects  of regulatory programs for sediment control;  2)  to  review
alternative programs with local officials;  3) to assist local officials in an
effort  to  enact  and administer effective and  acceptable  sediment  control
programs;  and 4) to analyze the impact of related state and federal programs.
Out  of this study two ordinances were written addressing nonpoint sources  of
pollution,  one  controlling agricultural sources of pollution,  and the other
controlling construction sources of sediment.

     Land Treatment and Water Quality

     The technical aspects of Washington County project had four basic  goals:
1) to  assess the sediment and associated pollutants and amount of water  from
agricultural  and urban areas,  2) to identify land use characteristics  which
contribute  to pollution,  3) to investigate the usefulness of erosion control
measures in an agricultural area using a before and after approach,  and 4) to
examine  methods for reducing soil erosion and sedimentation in a  residential
subdivision.   Two study areas were selected: an agricultural watershed and an
area  of intense urban development.   Water quality was monitored  before  and
after implementation of erosion control management practices in both areas.

     Information and Education

     The third aspect of the Washington County project was to provide informa-
tion  and educational services specifically about urban and agricultural  non-
point  source  pollution to a diverse group of target  audiences.   A  primary
approach included involvement of teachers in public school curricular develop-
ment.   Other targeted audiences included the general public, special interest
groups,  decision makers,  regional,  state,  and national (USEPA) and  inter-
national (IJC) agencies and committees.   The objectives were divided into two
categories,  informational  and interactional,  the latter possessing  two-way
information  flow between the project and audience,  the former only one  way,
project to audience.

     Incentive

     Cost  share  rates  for farmers participating in  the  Washington  County
project  were  set  at 100 percent for all practices.   This created  a  large
incentive for area farmers to participate in the project.

Results

     An  ordinance  controlling  agricultural   pollution   was  proposed  and
drafted.   Although  it was never  adopted,  the local SWCD chose to adopt  the
objectives of the proposed ordinance as a resolution.  Adoption of this  reso-
lution  reflected  a change in attitude of the SWCD,  which formerly  had  not
recognized agriculture as an important water pollution source.   These changed
attitudes  along  with  the education program may have influenced  farmers  to
adopt BMPs.
                                      28

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      However,   there were few long range county-wide incentives for changes in
 agricultural management practices.    A study of  the county government revealed
 that   the  SWCD  historically did not play an active role in  soil  and  water
 conservation.   When federal  policy changed to the support of voluntary control
 of   agricultural   pollution  rather than regulatory controls,  surveys  in  the
 county indicated  that without state and federal  influences,  there would not be
 sufficient   local support to adopt the ordinance.     However,  adoption of the
 resolution  may have reflected a changing role - as well  as  attitude - of  the
 county board.

      The  subdivision  erosion control ordinance  was passed.   It was  directed
  toward  erosion  control in  the unincorporated parts of the  city and  required
  subdividers   to  comply with sediment control practices in their  construction
  activities.

      Sediment   erosion  control practices in the urban watershed  were  imple-
 mented by the  project personnel so no cost was incurred by developers. County-
 wide   changes   in  construction practices were expected to  occur  over  time,
 decreasing   sediment pollution from this source.    There  was no provision  for
 control practices to be carried through when subdivided land was later sold to
 developers, however.


      Water   quality  effects in  the  agricultural  watershed  were monitored
 for  two years, so definitive results were observed by seasonal variability. In
 the   two  years of study however,   sediment loads and sediment delivery  ratios
 were   shown to have decreased on an event basis.    Total  phosphorus and  total
 nitrogen  yields   decreased  in parallel with sediment  yields.  The  dissolved
 portion  of the load,  however,  increased.    Continued reduction of N  and  P
 yields were noted in one subwatershed in the three years following implement-
ation.   Samples   from the other subwatersheds,   however,  suggested that  BMP
 usage had been discontinued.   No land use survey was presented to confirm this
 suggestion.

      Strip  cropping,  chisel  plowing and terraces  were considered efficacious,
 and   were promoted by the project.     Agricultural BMPs chosen for  Washington
 County were typically sediment-control practices.    No-till,  however, was not
 as effective because crop yields were apparently reduced  by  this practice.

      No  BMPs  were installed  early enough in the construction process to  test
 their  ability to control construction-caused erosion problems.    Soil  losses
 from  the  construction areas  were observed to decrease after  implementation  of
 the practices, but the experiment's results  were inconclusive.

      Erosion   control  practices  to be used  by developers included  scheduling
 activities  to  minimize disturbance during peak runoff periods,  care in place-
 ment  of excavated soil,    prompt  regrading of disturbed areas,  utilizing only
 one entrance route,   using protective cover  along  curbs,   and installing  roof
 downspout  extenders to aid  in rainwater dispersement.    The efficacy of these
 practices was  not reported on by  the project.
                                      29

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                                Students Make  Water  Testing   Equipment
                                                                                                                         Bottom Sampler
      In studying water  quality  It is  important  for  students  to gather
first-hand  information  about local  streams,  ponds or wetlands.
Collecting  of aquatic organisms  requires sturdy, manageable  equipment.
Nothing is  more frustrating to  both teacher  and students than to  have  a
well-planned  field  trip thwarted  because the  sampling  equipment didn't
work!

      Purchased equipment  is fine  but  often expensive.   Simple, useful
equipment can be constructed with ease.   Second-hand  stores,  auctions
and  garage  sales offer  materials  such  as - heavy broom handles, rakes,
enamel  pans,  jars,  buckets, etc.

NOTE:  If collected  organises are  not  to  be used in  the classroom,
observations  and tallys can be made in  the field and  organisms released
in their environment.   Respect  for all  life-forms should be  encouraged.
                                sometimes with a small  container at the
                                end.  [t is easily clogged with bottom
                                silt so bo careful.  By touching the
                                Inside of the net to a  small amount of
                                water In a flat tray, collected
                                organisms can be gently washed free.

                                Materials needed-
                                - handle,
                                - netal band («n embroidery hoop) and
                                  screw;
                                - toe of a nylon stocking, woman's
                                  slip, or a fine meshed cloth; and
                            Vegetation Sampler
                                By attaching a bur!dp or other heavy
                                cloth bau to a garden rake with rigid
                                tines, samples from the bottom of a
                                stream or pond can he obtained.
                                Procedun
                                     Lace wire around the opening
                                     of the bag and the Crossntece af
                                     the rake.
                                     Pull the excess up tightly until
                                     it forms a triangle with the rake
                                     Drill a small hole fn the
                                                       A sifting screen will allow siU and mud
                                                       particles through white retaining
                                                       organisms.

                                                       Materials needed
                                                       - wood frame, 35 x ?5 cm, and
                                                       - fiberglass screen.
                               Seech i Disk
                                To measure visibility In water lower
                                disk until the white area disappears
                                fron sight and record depth. Raise
                                until  white areas reappear and record
                                depth.  The average of these two
                                readings Is the depth of visibility and
                                can be compared with readings obtained
                                in other locations.

                                Materials-

                                - 20 en diameter sheet metal,
                                 plywood disk, or unbreakable plates,
                                 painted in black and white quarters,
                                - rope or chain narked at intervals, and
                                - oypbolt, nuts, washers.
                                                       Materials needed
                                                       - 110 can --  cut with u-
                                                       - broon handle; and
                                                       - nuts and bolts.
                                                                                                                       Collecting Nets
                                                    Use a kitchen sieve to gather small
                                                    aquatic pi ants and animals in weedy
                                                    areas.  Immediately transfer the
                                                    organisms to a sorting tray for
                                                    Identification and observation.

                                                        ng a broom handle to the handle
                                                    the sieve gives a longer reach.
                                                                                                                   dip net for swooping dqoatic  plants
                                                                                                                 and aninals from deep water can be made
                                                                                                                 using a strong 4-6 foot long handle, a
                                                                                                                 strong metdl run, nylon tricot netting.
                                                                                                                  nner tube, leather, etc.
                                                    Water Sampling Bottle


                                                        To collect watir sd,i(>lcs frot.i various
                                                        depths, lower the bottl" to a depth
                                                        narked on thj corJ and pull the stopper
                                                        out.
                        232-235 froa trie Washington  County,
      tudies,  Hidole and High  School Curricula",  1981.
HI,    local   Watershed
                                                                           30

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     The education program was extensive and directed at many audiences  using
a  variety of teaching techniques,  including presentations,  brochures,  pam-
phlets  and development of school curricula.   Public awareness was  found  to
increase  as a result of the education program,  and this was believed to help
in the promotion of BMPs and passage of the urbanizing sediment control  ordi-
nance.

     In the 7940 acre agricultural watershed, $85,800 was spent on land treat-
ment.  Project reports indicate that 352 acres were treated by the project. No
economic  analysis  or cost effectiveness of BMPs was presented in  the  final
report.

     Sociological  surveys  indicated that fewer than 20% of county  residents
felt  that agriculture was the major pollution source.  The project  estimated
that it contributed 65% of sediment and phosphorus in county waterways.   Only
2%  of the farmers interviewed perceived that  they had an above average  ero-
sion  rate  from their land,  although 15-20% of the land  had  erosion  rates
greater than the county average.   It is not clear however,  when these survey
results  were  obtained,  or  whether the education and  technical  assistance
elements  of  the project were able to  influence  these  attitudes.   Studies
concluded  that water quality improvements could be obtained if treatment  was
focused  on the critical areas having >6% sloping cropland or  livestock  area
phosphorus sources.

Summary of Washington County Proj ect

     Several goals were achieved by the Washington County Project.   Two local
sediment  control ordinances were drafted,  one governing agricultural activi-
ties, and one governing urban construction activities.  The urban construction
ordinance was adopted by the county, the agricultural ordinance was adopted as
a resolution.   The adoption of this resolution may have inspired the SWCD  to
take  a  more  active role in encouraging better management practices  on  the
county's farms.
      Implementation of both agricultural and "urbanizing" BMPs was  achieved,
along  with  water quality monitoring.   Implementation of  agricultural  BMPs
resulted  in water quality changes.   Construction related BMPs,  however were
installed too late to demonstrate their effectiveness.   A strong  educational
program was developed by the project and targeted at varied audiences.  Public
awareness of NFS problems increased as a result of the education component. In
addition  curricula  for elementary and secondary schools were  developed  and
published for local use.

     Suggestions  for further work are to identify the extent of  agricultural
management changes during and since the project inception, and to find ways to
increase  land  treatment.   Another further investigation should concern  the
urban  BMP  component,  to determine whether the recommended  BMPs  have  been
adopted for use as a result of the ordinance,  and  if so,  whether they  were
efficacious.  Perhaps  a survey could indicate which BMPs are in use to comply
with  the  ordinance,   whether they are sufficient,  and answer  whether  the
ordinance properly addresses the urban erosion/sediment issue.

     It  would  also be interesting and potentially beneficial  for  the  edu-
cational component of future projects,  to assess the usefulness of the public
school  curricula  materials,  to determine the curricula's  applicability  in
other  school systems.   The curriculum manuals were developed with the energy


                                     31

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and talent of over 50 teachers and school personnel from Washington county and
appear to contain thorough, creative and age-appropriate learning activities.
Multi-dimensional Projects Summary

     Each  of the three large projects was administered by the local Soil  and
Water  Conservation Districts.   The Red Clay Project developed a  unique  ap-
proach to administration by creating an executive board composed of represent-
atives  from each of five soil and water conservation districts,  encompassing
two states.

     Each of the three projects had very large budgets,  operating in the mil-
lions of dollars,  with Black Creek receiving $2.1 million in 108a funds  ini-
tially, the Red Clay Project $2.9 million, and Washington County $2.2 million.

     Black  Creek  implemented agricultural BMPs resulting in 80% of the  land
adequately treated at the termination of the first phase in 1977.  However, no
watershed-wide water quality changes were documented.

     Washington  County  agricultural land treatment showed  some  short  term
water  quality  results,  however the use of BMPs was apparently  discontinued
after the project terminated.  Urban BMPs were not implemented early enough in
the construction phase to demonstrate their efficacy,   although a county ordi-
nance was passed to control erosion from subdivision construction.  Although  a
similar ordinance was drafted for agricultural erosion,  it was not adopted by
the  county  as an ordinance.   It did  inspire the SWCD to pass  a  resolution
adopting  the objectives of the draft ordinance,  which reflected a change  in
attitude and direction for the SWCD.  The Washington County Project also had  a
very strong educational component,  reaching widespread audiences, and  prepar-
ing two volumes of elementary and secondary school curricula.

     The Red Clay Project also implemented agricultural BMPs, more extensively
in some counties of the project than others.   Agricultural BMPs however,  did
not address the major cause of red clay pollution,  which was streambank  ero-
sion.   Some  streambank erosion control structures were installed,  but  they
were very  expensive,  thus restricting  further installation.  It was not clear
whether  the  installed structures would affect  stream  water  quality,  or  if
extensive  implementation would have improved water quality.

     Streambank  erosion control efforts in two  of the  projects  present inter-
esting   comparisons.   The  Black Creek project  spent  30 percent of  its  land
treatment   budget  on  instream structures to control   streambank  erosion,  but
later  determined that only three to five percent of  the sediment in  the stream
was  attributable to  this source.    In  the  Red  Clay Project, however, the majo-
rity   of the  instream sediment was  caused  by erosion  and streambank  slumping,
and   treatment  of  agricultural  land was not  likely to  result  in  water   quality
changes.   Instream structures were  so  costly that  it  was not  feasible  to  treat
 sufficiently  large  areas for  water  quality improvement.
                                      32

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     All three large projects were administered through the local SWCD,  which
worked cooperatively with many agencies to accomplish their stated goals.  All
found  that  it took a lot of work to coordinate a project of such  magnitude,
although  attaining the level of inter-institutional cooperation  necessary to
implement and evaluate these programs was an achievement itself.

     Each  of  the three projects was concerned with erosion and related prob-
lems,  although  the sources varied from project to  project.   Critical  area
designation  was highlighted by the development of the ANSWERS computer  model
in the Black Creek project.

     Varying  degrees  of success were achieved by the projects,  although  no
long term water quality changes were documented by any of them.   Sociological
and educational studies and co-operative management assessments have  provided
information  which  would  enable future projects to implement  programs  more
easily and effectively.
                                     33

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                  ACCELERATED CONSERVATION TILLAGE PROJECTS
Introduction

     Sediment  and phosphorus enter waterways via surface runoff and transport
of  eroded soil.  Cropland is the major source of sediment in the Great  Lakes
Basin.   Agricultural tillage activities disrupt and uncover the soil  leaving
it  vulnerable to erosion processes.   There has been a great deal of interest
in controlling farmland erosion by substituting conservation tillage for  more
erosive  conventional tillage.   Reducing soil loss in this way benefits  farm
productivity and water quality.

     No-till  and  reduced till have been experimentally demonstrated to  give
financial  returns comparable to crops grown with conventional  tillage  prac-
tices.  However, reduced tillage and no-till require more rugged equipment and
more  sophisticated management practices.   Farmers are reluctant to invest in
new equipment or to change their management practices unless they have experi-
ence with the new methods.   The conservation tillage projects were funded  to
provide farmers with low cost access to reduced tillage and no-till equipment,
and  to give technical assistance to those interested.   Data collected by the
conservation  tillage  projects will demonstrate the effects  of  conservation
tillage practices on crop yields and net returns to the farmer.


     Soil erosion can be difficult to measure,  and water quality effects  are
expensive to monitor and document.   Most of the conservation tillage projects
have,  therefore,  documented their impact by estimating soil savings with the
Universal Soil Loss Equation model.

Administration and Funding

     Money was awarded to the following projects for promotion of conservation
tillage practices:

            Grant Number       Location                           Date

               S005513      Tuscola Co., MI                    1979 - 1983
               S005552      Allen Co. OH                       1980 - 1985
               S005553      Defiance Co, OH                    1980 - 1985
               S005692      Lake Erie Basin,20 counties        1980 - 1985
               S005698      6 counties in IN                   1980 - 1985
               S005700      BeanCreek, MI, 2 counties          1981 - 1985
               S005721      Otter Creek, MI                    1982 - 1986
               S005722      Oswego Co., NY                     1983 - 1985
               S005723      Wayne Co., NY                      1983 - 1985

     There  were  nine grants funding conservation tillage demonstration  pro-
jects in 34 counties, each county having been allocated funds, either directly
or  through the appropriate state agency,  to be administered by its Soil  and
Water Conservation District.
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     The Districts were responsible for handling funds,  purchasing equipment,
providing  technical assistance,  and organizing educational  activities.  Co-
operative  Extension has provided educational assistance and  coordinated  the
past scouting programs.   SCS has also provided technical assistance, and ASCS
has made cost sharing funds available to participating farmers.

     The  goals of the project were to promote conservation tillage and reduce
the risks involved in its adoption,  to reduce soil erosion and improve  water
quality,  and to educate farmers about relationships between water quality and
farming practices.
                           CONSERVATION TILLAGE

             Conservation  tillage  is  an all  encompassing term for
     tillage  practices which retain crop residue  on the  soil  sur-
     face.    The   standard definition  for conservation tillage  says
     that   it  may include any practice for which  30 percent  of  the
     surface remains  covered by crop residue.    This may be compared
     with   conventional  tillage which retains  essentially no  crop
     residue.

          The purpose of tillage is to disrupt the  growth of  weeds
     and   prepare a seedbed.  Both conservation  tillage  and  con-
     ventional tillage generally  rely on herbicides to control the
     growth of weeds.    Conventional tillage  generally involves mold
     board plowing,   disking,  and  smoothing  operations with   imple-
     ments like spring  tooth harrows  or drag harrows, and secondary
     tillage cultivation  for  weeding of the growing crop. ,  Many of
     these steps  are  omitted in conservation  tillage.   Conservation
     tillage  practices  demonstrated  under  108a  included no-till,
     reduced till, and ridge-till practices.

            No-till   refers to a practice where crops are  planted
     without primary  or secondary tillage. Stubble and residue  from
     the previous crop are left on  the field. The  new crop is plant-
     ed  in a slot cut through the  stubble.   Herbicides are  used to
     kill  previous cover crop and weeds.

            Ridge-till  is a variation of no-till  where crops  are
     planted right on top of the previous year's ridged-rows.    Cul-
     tivation  of the ridges is performed once  or  t|?ice  during  the
     season  to maintain the ridges.    A special cultivator is  used
     which  throws soil toward the  row,  without disking or plowing.
     Ridge  till   is  advantageous in colder climates  with heavier,
     poorly drained soils,  as the  ridges are drier  and warmer  than
     the surrounding  soil.

            Reduced-til1 refers to  any tillage  and planting system
     that  meets the 30 percent residue requirement.
                               35

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Proj ect Approach

    The  project  approach was to demonstrate conservation tillage in  experi-
mental plots, provide low-cost access to conservation  tillage equipment,  and
technical assistance to participants.  Policies varied from county to county,
with most counties offering no-till planters and seeders,  chisel  plows,  and
other  equipment  for reduced tillage at low cost or free.   Equipment  rental
rates  were  set to cover maintenance costs.   Participants were  included  in
post-scouting  programs  and received technical assistance  at  no  cost.   In
return  they  were asked to keep careful agronomic records,  and to allow  the
SWCD  to use the data in annual reports and to allow the plots to be  included
in promotional tours.

     In  addition, each county SWCD and cooperating agencies were  responsible
for  educational and promotional activities in that  county.  Such  activities
included promotional meetings for area farmers,  tours for local conservation-
tillage plots,  and numerous newspaper,  radio,  and TV spots to advertise the
program.

Results

     Results  from these projects fall into several categories from  technical
results concerning crop yields, to overall assessments of the project partici-
pation  and success measured in numbers of participants or acres in  conserva-
tion till.

     Crop  Yields    Three crops were grown in comparison plots throughout the
34 county area:  corn,soybeans,  and in some counties,  wheat,  hay,  or other
crops.   One advantage of no-till is that production costs are generally lower
than those for other reduced or conventional tillage because fewer passes  are
made over the field in no-till.   Therefore, lower no-till yields should still
result in higher net returns to the farmer.

          Yield  data  were available for this review from 15 of the 34  coun-
ties,  indicating  that conventional tillage methods often  resulted in  lower
yields than no-till or reduced-till yields.  Results varied however, with crop
and  soil type.   Instances did occur when a no-till plot yield was  lower than
the conventionally tilled comparison.   Often though,  differences were  slight
and the farmers' net returns were not reduced,  since no-till' had a  lower cost
outlay.

     Conservation tillage was superior to no-till in areas with poorly drained
soils,  which  are  common in the Lake Erie Basin.   Because  reduced  tillage
requires  lower financial outlay than conventional tillage,  there is  an  in-
centive for widespread adoption of reduced tillage.   No-till resulted in more
variable yields, but the  average return over several seasons was not different
from that of conventional tillage,   even though no-till had very low yields  in
several instances.

Increased  Conservation   Tillage   Data from the   15 county  reports  reviewed
indicate  a  23% increase  in no-till  from 1982 to  1983 and  a 27% increase from
1983  to  1984.  The significance of this estimate  is, however, in doubt because
the increase  is small  and the amount of no-till  in  1982  is uncertain.  Most  of
the  counties  reported that use of  no-till was  already  increasing before  the


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 start  of  the program.    The projects may,  therefore,  have reached many farmers
 who wanted to try conservation tillage but  had no low risk  opportunity  pre-
 viously.

     The   conservation tillage programs have also generated a number of  small
 plot   studies of  conservation tillage use.    Although these plots were neither
 strictly  controlled nor replicated samples,   they do  represent field trials of
 practical  use of  the tillage methods,  and as such may point  to  areas  of
 required  research.

    The number of tons of  soil saved due  to the use  of  no-till   and  various
 conservation  tillage   practices  were calculated by  the Universal  Soil  Loss
 Equation.   The  estimates   depended on the  type of conservation   tillage  em-
 ployed.   No-till  provided  the most protection against soil loss,   followed  by
 various other reduced  tillage techniques,  with conventional tillage affording
 the least  protection.   The amount of soil lost to  erosion depends  on  many
 factors in addition to the  type of tillage including: soil type,   slope length
 and steepness, cover  conditions,   rainfall  energy, and conservation practice.
 In the conservation tillage projects the  amount of soil saved by changing  to
 no-till ranged from one to  two tons/acre-year to 17 tons/acre-year with a mean
 savings   of 4-5 tons/acre-year.   No-till  practices reduced soil  erosion  well
 below  T,   a calculated "acceptable" soil loss level based on maintaining long-
 term crop productivity.

     Qualitative   changes   in  soil structure were observed  in   conservation
 tilled fields in Tuscola  County,   Michigan.   Soil compaction was less  of  a
 problem,   and  organic  matter,  infiltration,   and soil moisture appeared  to
 improve.    A more dramatic  observation was the reduction of rill,  sheet,  and
 gully  erosion.   Rill  erosion could be seen  on the conventionally tilled  half
•>of a comparison plot while  no erosion was  observed on the chisel  plowed half.

     Sediment  and  Phosphorus  Loadings  Phosphorus is  an  important  agri-
 cultural  pollutant,  which  attaches to soil  particles,   but can be released to
 increase   dissolved phosphorus concentrations in surface waters.   Decreases in
 the yield of phosphorus to streams and lakes should  correlate with  decreased
 erosion rates.   Trends observed in quality  of  runoff from conservation tilled
 areas  suggest that dissolved (algal available)  phosphorus concentrations  in-
 crease,   despite  decreases  in total phosphorus  (Baker,  1985).  Thus,  it appears
 that fertilizer management  can be  an important  aspect of both pollution abate-
 ment and  crop management.

     In the Bean  Creek project of  Michigan and  in the Defiance County,  Ohio,
 project,   farmers  were encouraged to apply less phosphorus to  their  soils,
 because   soil tests had shown that high levels  of soil  phosphorus were already
 prevalent.   Water quality monitoring in Tuscola  County,  Michigan, demonstrated
 reductions  in sediment and total phosphorus  loading  to area streams  as  a
 result of conservation tillage.  Large decreases in TKN and suspended sediment
 were   noted,   while an increase in nitrate and  only a small decrease in  total
 phosphorus were seen.
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     One other result of the Conservation Till projects should be noted. Amish
farmers  in Allen County,  Indiana,  hold social and religious  beliefs  which
preclude the use of tractors and many of the practices promoted by the conser-
vation  tillage projects.   The Allen County Soil and Water Conservation  Dis-
trict  has  worked with these farmers since the inception of the  Black  Creek
Project in 1972,  and developed lines of communication with them.  The rapport
the  SWCD  achieved gave them insight into ways the Amish community could  ad-
dress agricultural'nonpoint source problems.   The Allen County SWCD was  able
to purchase a no-till seeder developed by Amish farmers in Pennsylvania.   Its
inventor was invited to demonstrate its use to these Allen County farmers,  an
experience which further encouraged Amish farmers to use it.


Summary of Conservation Till Projects

     The  use of cons.ervation tillage significantly  increased in the  thirty-
four  108a  project counties in the Lake Erie Basin.  In projects  with  yield
data, crop  yields with no-till and conservation tillage practices are compar-
able,  and  time savings and dollar returns with no-till are  attractive.   In
areas  where no-till has proven to be less than optimal due to poor  drainage,
ridge-till is an efficacious alternative.   Dissolved phosphorus and  nitrogen
runoff  concentrations may increase as a result of conservation tillage  prac-
tices,  but  careful fertilizer management should help offset this  detriment.
Participating  farmers may learn more about fine tuning farm  management,  and
may  better manage fertilizers and pesticides in the future regardless of  the
tillage practices they choose.
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                          LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE


     Four  areas of Michigan received funding to demonstrate alternate methods
of wastewater treatment involving land application of wastes.   The goals were
to  reduce nutrients in treatment plant effluent,  and to recycle nutrients to
crops  or  forest to increase productivity.   The decrease  of  nutrients  and
organic  material  from  treatment effluent was intended to help  prevent  eu-
trophication of receiving streams and lakes.

          The grants awarded for this type of project were:

   Grant Number         Location                         Date

      Y005065       Michigan State University       1972 - 1975
      G005104       Muskegon, MI                    1968 - 1975
      S005501       Muskegon, MI, effects on        1980 - 1981
                                  water quality
      S005551       Montmorency Co., MI             1980 - 1985
      S005559       Paw Paw, MI                     1982 - 1986


MSU RESEARCH PONDS
Administration and Funding

     The  East  Lansing  Department of Public Works contracted  with  Michigan
 State  University  (MSU)  to construct and  evaluate  alternative  wastewater
 treatment  processes based on land application of wastes.    The goal of  the
 project was to demonstrate a land application-based treatment system to  meet
 pollution  control requirements.   They sought to obtain a partial return  of
 operating costs by harvesting crops from the waste disposal area.

Project Approach

     Secondary effluent from the East Lansing activated sludge treatment plant
was  diverted to four sequential holding ponds on the  MSU  campus.   Effluent
from the holding ponds was used to irrigate plots of trees,  alfalfa, trefoil,
grasses,  corn, and sorghum.  The project location afforded the opportunity to
conduct  tours  of  the  facility and to  educate  the  public  on  trade-offs
associated with different sewage treatment technologies.

Results

     Retention time in each of the successive waste holding ponds was approxi-
mately  one month.   Within the holding  period,  phosphorus,  nitrogen,   and
coliform  bacterial  concentrations were observed to  decrease  in  successive
ponds.   Coliform reduction through successive holding ponds was sufficient to
meet  existing  discharge  standards.   Much of the phosphorus  reduction  was
attributed to sorption on clay particles.  After the first year the removal of
phosphorus  in the ponds was reduced to about 1 mg P/l as the sediment in  the
ponds became saturated with phosphorus.
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     The  project demonstrated that irrigation scheduling could  be  optimized
for  wastewater  treatment  objectives.   Forage crops were shown  capable  of
renovating  as  much as 7.5 cm of wastewater per week.   Soil  nitrate  levels
increased significantly,  however,  during irrigation.   Winter irrigation was
shown to be feasible but not as effective for nutrient removal.  The infiltra-
tion rate of the irrigated land limited use of the facility to an average of 5
cm/week.

Summary for MSU Research Ponds

     An alternate treatment plant consisting of a series of four holding ponds
and a spray irrigation system was found to reduce nutrient concentrations  and
fecal  coliform  levels in wastewater.   Results indicate that  renovation  of
wastewater  occurred  in  the holding ponds and further  renovations  occurred
through irrigation on crop or forest lands.
LAND TREATMENT IN MUSKEGON. MICHIGAN


Administration and Funding

     The  University  of  Michigan's Great Lakes Resource  Management  Program
(GLRMP),  received funding from the USEPA 108a program to continue work  begun
under  EPA  grant 802457.   GLRMP designed and constructed a land spray  irri-
gation and disposal wastewater treatment plant for residential and  industrial
sewage.   The  802457 grant funded the design and construction aspects of  the
project.  Section 108a funding was used to conduct follow up investigations to
evaluate  the environmental impacts from diversion of the point  sources  and
land disposal.

Proj ect Approach

     The diversion of wastewater and subsequent spray irrigation was  intended
to  restore  the recreational capacity of three eutrophic lakes:  White  Lake,
Muskegon Lake,  and Lake Mona.   Performance of the spray irrigation treatment
facility and its impact on the quality of these lakes was investigated  during
the period:  April 1,  1972 to December 31, 1975, by Michigan State University
under  108a  Project Number G005104.   A followup study to  evaluate  longterm
changes  in water quality of the three lakes was conducted in 1980 and 1981 by
Limno-Tech,  Inc.  under  contract  to  the  Michigan  Department  of  Natural
Resources. The followup study was funded by 108a Project Number S005501.

Results

     The  plant  was installed at reasonable cost with federal  aid,  but  the
project  lost money due to poor management.  That trend was reversed when  the
county  took over the management of the operation.   Under county  management,
the  construction  deficit was then offset by crop sales.   In the final  ana-
lysis,  the  cost  of sewage treatment was reduced to $28 per  thousand  cubic
feet.

     The effects of land irrigation detected during  1972-1975 investigation of
the  performance  of  the spray-irrigation treatment  process  indicated  that
efficiency  of the process was dependent in part on  soil type.   The  nitrogen


                                      40

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 content  of  sandy soils was  low,  and  irrigation was not able  to  supply all  the
 nitrogen needed by crops during the  growing season.   However,  N  excess   oc-
 curred in these soils the remainder of the year so that leaching was  observed.
 These  soils  were low in organic content and were,  therefore,  effective   in
 eliminating BOD.  Soils with high organic content may not be  suitable for land
 application unless they are well drained.  The project noted  that uneven waste
 distribution  could be a problem because some areas become saturated  with   P,
 and  therefore less effective.   With use, soil pH changed toward that of   the
 wastewater.

     The quality of treatment plant  effluent from drainage lines below  spray
 irrigation  fields was shown to exceed the standards set by the  National  Pol-
 lution Discharge Elimination System.   In general,  the quality  also  exceeded
 the expectation from system design, although considerably more variability was
 encountered than is typical of conventional wastewater treatment systems.

     The first monitoring project documented that diversion  of  municipal  and
 industrial  wastewater  discharges had an immediate beneficial effect  on  the
 quality  of two of the three lakes.   Although minimal effect was detected   in
 the  nutrient budget of White Lake,   significant improvements were  detected  in
 Muskegon Lake and Lake Mona.   Twenty to 25% reduction in total  phosphorus and
 total nitrogen loads to Muskegon Lake were observed. The spray irrigation site
 accounted for a maximum of 1.5% of the total phosphorus and 11%  of  the  nitro-
 gen  reaching Muskegon Lake.   The short term effects of effluent diversion  on
 Lake Mona were even more dramatic,  reducing the load of phosphorus by 65% and
 the nitrogen load by 45 to 65%.

     Data from 1980-1981 monitoring,  indicated that after five  years of oper-
 ating the new treatment plant, the loadings of nitrogen and phosphorus to  the
 three lakes were still reduced, and fishing in the lakes had improved.

     The  1980-1981  monitoring program showed further that after five  years,
 60-90% reduction of phosphorus loading had achieved 75-80% reduction in  phos-
 phorus   concentration  within  the lake,  and 60% reduction in N  loading  had
 caused a 55-65% reduction in nitrogen concentrations.   Chlorophyll  a, however,
 appeared to increase over time,  although changes in chlorophyll a  and  trans-
 parency  were  obscured  by algicide application  to  the  lakes.   Beneficial
 changes  were noted in nitrogen to phosphorus ratio, hypolimnetic quality,  and
 improvement in the fish and benthos communities.

 Summary  of Muskegon Project

     This  project  was successful in constructing a facility for land  appli-
 cation of sewage,   and in making it work for the community.    Treatment  costs
were  controlled  and   significantly improved water quality was  observed  in
 previously  afffected lakes.   Further research should include monitoring  for
 public health hazards such as synthetic organic chemicals,  heavy metal accumu-
 lation, and viruses in groundwater and in the crops and fields.
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FOREST APPLICATION OF WASTES IN MONTMORENCY COUNTY
Administration and Funding

     The Forestry Department of Michigan State University was funded to  eval-
uate the ecological effects on trees, soils and wildlife from applying  sewage
wastes to the forest for treatment purposes.  The goal of the project was two-
fold:  (1) to demonstrate "state-of-the-art" land application technology,  and
(2)  to  document silvicultural and ecological impacts of sludge  application.
Project period is 1981 through 1985.   Final reports were not available at the
time of this review.

Proj ect Approach

     Sludge  was  imported from northern Michigan cities,  Alpena  and  Rogers
City,  and applied to four forest types: aspen, oak, mixed hardwoods, and pine
in a randomized block experiment.    Studies were intended to evaluate changes
in organic matter,  nutrient cycling,  and ecological dynamics of animal popu-
lations.   Specific  attention  was addressed to analysis for heavy metals  in
animal tissue.  In addition, a survey was conducted to evaluate public opinion
concerning the sludge application,  and to determine how education may  influ-
ence that opinion.

Results

     The  effect of sludge application on plant productivity was difficult  to
assess during the short time period of study.   Macronutrients in the  treated
aspen  plots were increased by sludge addition.   Aspen  mortality  increased,
however,  because  deer  and elk grazing in combination with the nutrient  ad-
dition left aspen susceptible  to lethal fungal infections.  Sunscorching from
trail construction was also found to contribute to the mortality.   The  dura-
tion  of the study was too short to evaluate changes in yield of hardwoods  or
reduction in rotation period.

     An increase of small mammal populations noted in the sludge treated areas
was  attributed  more to increased ease of trapping animals under the  flooded
condition  than  to any increase in population.   This was  supported  by  the
observations  that  sampling dates were too close together to reflect  a  true
population increase.

     Increased  nitrate  concentration was observed in soil water and  ground-
water beneath sludge-application plots.  No other water quality monitoring was
conducted.

     Public  opinion held that incineration of sludge was cheaper than  forest
application.   No further comments or analysis were made on this topic,  so it
is unclear if this was true.   Evidence that interest in this method of sludge
disposal was generated came from reports that the project was advising the Air
Force  and the National Forest Service on setting up similar  sludge  disposal
facilities.
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Summary of Montmorency Project

     Although  the  project was not complete at the time this review  was  de-
veloped,  the project appears to be making progress toward it's goals of eval-
uating ecological effects.  Little water quality monitoring was done, however.
Although  evaluating  water quality effects was not a stated goal of the  pro-
ject,  the  sludge application program may have significant water quality  im-
pacts.
VILLAGE OF PAW PAW
Administration and Funding

     The Village of Paw Paw, Michigan was awarded $336,418 for construction of
a  demonstration project of overland flow wastewater treatment.   The  project
period  is August 1982 through March 1986.   No final report was available  at
the time of this review.

Proj ect Approach

     The  project  installed an overland flow wastewater treatment  plant  de-
signed to treat local flow,  by means of three sequential holding ponds and an
overland flow irrigation system.

Results

     Water  quality  measurements before and after  treatment  indicated  that
treatment removed from 95-99% of suspended solids,  volatile solids,  and BOD,
and reduced total phosphorus to less than 1 mg/1.   A data summary is shown in
the table below.

     Total  phosphorus  effluent concentrations were not always as low as  de-
sired,  and  treatment with alum was occasionally  required.   Fecal  coliform
counts  often increased in the overland flow treatment system,  presumably due
to wildlife input.
Table 4.  Paw Paw, Michigan Water Quality Data
Parameter              Before Treatment           After Treatment
Suspended Solids             300-500 mg/1            10-20 mg/1
Volatile Suspended       approx. 200 mg/1             <10 mg/1
   Solids
BOD                          300-600 mg/1             < 5 mg/1
Total P                          7-8 mg/1             
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Summary of Paw Paw Proj ect

     The project was initiated in 1982, and has not been completed at the time
of this report.  Construction of the facility has been completed, and prelimi-
nary  results of treatment monitoring suggest efficient removals of  suspended
solids,  BOD  and P.   The available data indicate that acceptable  levels  of
wastewater quality have been attained. Cost effectiveness, technical problems,
and  sociological  impact and acceptance were not addressed in the  report  at
hand.
SUMMARY OF LAND APPLICATION OF SEWAGE PROJECT
     Three of the four land application of sewage projects reported successful
sewage treatment with innovative techniques.   Demonstrations at the  Michigan
State University Ponds,  the Village of Paw Paw,  MI, and the Muskegon County,
MI, projects were able to document water quality improvements in area lakes as
a  result of the new treatment methods.   The fourth project,  in  Montmorency
County,  did not attempt to assess water quality effects.  However, ecological
effects on the forest system are anticipated at the conclusion of the project.

     Results  from  these projects suggest treatment of sewage by land  appli-
cation is more cost-effective than other common treatment  methods.   Effluent
quality was shown to be very high, and lake water quality improved as a result
of  this treatment.   Questions remaining for these studies concern  potential
health effects from pathogens,  metals,  viruses,  or synthetic chemicals. Ni-
trate  contamination  of  groundwater,  too,  may  be an area  that  could  be
addressed from further examination of these studies.

     These  projects have demonstrated feasible approaches to reducing  waste-
water pollutant  loadings to surface waters.  These practices appear to be more
economical than  conventional treatment methods,  particularly when recovery of
some costs through the sale of  forage crops is considered.

     Further  research  and  demonstration using the facilities  developed  in
these  demonstration projects could provide essential  information  concerning
important health questions, such as: what is the potential for heavy metal and
pathogen  contamination in crops;  or are  there persistent organic  chemicals
that may contaminate land application sites, or be transported to groundwater?
The  existence   of these demonstration sites and their previous research  his-
tories make them ideal locations for further research of these questions.
                                      44

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                       COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW PROJECTS
     In many cities, domestic and industrial wastes and urban storm runoff are
routed through a combined sewer system.  During storm events, urban runoff may
fill the sewer system to capacity,  and if excess water were not released, the
wastewater treatment plant would be overloaded.   In the past, overflow valves
and  pipes  were installed to discharge the excess water and untreated  sewage
directly into neighboring water bodies.  These combined sewer overflows (CSOs)
contribute to the pollution of receiving streams and lakes.  The approaches to
reducing these problems generally involve reducing runoff volume,  storing and
rerouting  excess water through high rate treatment facilities before  release
into the water.

     Grants awarded for demonstration of CSO abatement include:
       Grant Number:

         Y005141
         G005334
         S005370
         S005602
         G005107
         S005359
 Location;

Rochester, NY
Rochester, NY, BMPs
Cleveland, OH
N. E. OH
Cleveland, OH, background
Saginaw, MI
  Date

1974 - 1977
1978 - 1980
1980 - 1981
1978 - 1983
1971 - 1974
1979 - 1980
ROCHESTER CSO
Administration and Funding

     Funds  were awarded to the Rochester Pure Waters District for the period,
May  1974  to September 1977.  The engineering firm of O'Brien  and  Gere  was
retained to evaluate the Rochester combined sewer overflow (CSO) problem,  and
develop alternative plans to reduce the overflow problem.

Project Approach

     The purpose of the project was:   1) to develop an abatement and  manage-
ment  program to achieve a cost-effective solution to the CSO induced  impair-
ment  of the Genesee River,  Irondequoit Bay,  and Lake Ontario;  2) to demon-
strate  the  usefulness  of  mathematical  models  for  simulating  the  urban
rainfall-runoff  process  and the subsequent stormwater flows within  a  large
combined sewer system;  and 3) to contribute to the general experience  needed
to characterize and treat CSO-related pollution problems.
                                     45

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     The project developed a detailed methodology consisting of the  following
steps:

     1.    Define program objectives.
     2.    Define the existing conveyance and treatment systems.
     3.    Define the drainage area.
     4.    Review existing meteorological records.
     5.    Select  a  detailed network model to utilize  for  hy-
          draulic  analysis of the existing system and the  pro-
          posed alternatives.
     6.    Initiate a monitoring program to augment the  existing
          overflow and meteorological data bases.
     7.    Establish relevant abatement alternatives.
     8.    Use  a  preliminary  screening model to  evaluate  the
          existing  systems  performance  characteristics  under
          long-term simulation.
     9.    Conduct initial evaluation of storage/treatment  capi-
          tal   intensive  alternatives  using  the  preliminary
          screening model.
    10.    Apply  the detailed network model to  the  preliminary
          evaluation of structural alternatives.
    11.    Calibrate and verify the detailed network model.
    12.    Select  and  verify a wet-weather water  quality  pre-
          dictive model.
    13.    Conduct  pilot plant evaluations of applicable  treat-
          ment processes.
    14.    Conduct detailed analysis of the prime alternatives.
    15.    Develop the CSO abatement master plan.

     The  preliminary  screening  model demonstrated in this project  was  the
Simplified Stormwater Model  (SSM),  developed by Metcalf  & Eddy,   Inc.   (Lager
et.  al.,  1976).  This model, as its name implies, uses  simple approximations
to assess the  sewer system's response to sequences of rainfall.

     The project used  a second model, the Stormwater Management Model  (SWMM),
developed by joint effort involving Water Resources Engineers, Inc., Metcalf  &
Eddy,   Inc.,   and  the University of Florida  (Huber et.al.,  1975).   The  SWMM
model is a more  complex simulation model that represents  the sewer system  as  a
network.   The model  also includes a submodel that  simulates the water  quality
impact  of CSO  on the  designated receiving water.

     The master  plan  developed by O'Brien  and Gere  included  three   alternative
approaches:   1)  changes in  surface management practices to  decrease runoff and
increase  pervious areas,   2)  structural changes  to the sewer  system,   and  3)
combinations   of  structural and  management  changes.   Modeling studies  were
conducted  to  evaluate  several of the  recommended  management  and  structural
treatment alternatives,   such as  installation of  flow regulators and increased
storage  or   land   use  policies to limit the  extent   of   impermeable surface,
street  cleaning,  and sewer maintenance.   Pilot  studies were also  conducted  to
evaluate specific  treatment  plant  technologies,  and economic   models  were
employed to  evaluate  cost-effectiveness.
                                      46

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     Structural  changes  considered for the study included the use of  an  a-
bandoned treatment facility for filtration and chlorination of excess  surface
runoff  prior  to  discharge,  construction of an in-line storage  chamber  to
retain high flows in the sewer system, installation of in-line inflatable dams
to regulate flow and utilize existing in-line storage,  upgrading the existing
interceptors'capacity  to remove obstructions,  blocking the overflow  points,
and increasing the flow regulator capacities.  The pilot plant study evaluated
technologies  to  reduce the pollutant content of the  combined  sewers.  They
evaluated flocculation/sedimentation, swirl degritters and swirl primary sepa-
rators,  microscreening with sonic cleaning,  dual media high rate filtration,
activated carbon adsorption, sludge dewatering, and high rate disinfection.

Results

     The  SSM  was shown to be useful for preliminary screening  of  potential
abatement  alternatives involving the balance between storage  and  treatment.
Using this model, the project predicted that nonstructural and least expensive
structural treatment alternatives could reduce significantly the volume of CSO
and its annual contribution of BOD and TSS to the Genesee River.   The SSM was
observed  to underestimate potential flow reductions by as much as 40 percent.
Compensating errors of similar magnitude were also noted, however.

     The  project  showed that SWMM can be used to project urban storm  runoff
quantities and probable water quality impacts.  The model was used extensively
to evaluate the hydraulic performance of a wide variety of structural  modifi-
cations  throughout  the  Rochester sewer system and to identify  the  minimal
structural  alternatives.   SWMM analysis also suggested that street  sweeping
could reduce the total contaminant load reaching the sewer system.

     The  pilot  plant was constructed at an abandoned  chlorination  facility
that received sewerage from an area of 423 acres,  80% of which was in commer-
cial  use.   Demonstration studies covered 19 overflow events in  nine  months
from  September 1975 to June 1976.   During this time overflow duration ranged
from 2 to 14 hours,  with peak flow rates ranging from 7 to 50 million gallons
per day (MGD).

     The  purpose of the pilot plant treatability study was to evaluate treat-
ment alternatives to improve the quality of CSO discharge.  The stated object-
ives  were  to assure that all CSO discharge would have a minimum  of  primary
treatment (i.e.  degritting,  settling,  and disinfection), phosphate removal,
and  chlorination with absolutely no bypassing.   In this context,  the  pilot
plant evaluated high rate treatment alternatives including:   flocculation and
sedimentation  with and without chemical additives,  ificroscreening,  a  swirl
degritter and swirl primary separator, high rate filtering, carbon adsorption,
and high rate disinfection with chlorine and chlorine dioxide.

     A new technology demonstrated in this study is the swirl concentrator and
its  modifications as a swirl primary separator and a swirl  degritter.  Cost-
effectiveness  comparisons of flocculation and sedimentation practices  versus
swirl primary separators found the two methodologies to be competitive.  Floc-
culation sedimentation, however, offered significant removal enhancements with
minor increases in operating costs, and was, therefore, generally preferred.
                                     47

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     Microscreening was not found to be effective as the sonic cleaner was not
operating  properly.   The system worked less well under wet  conditions  than
under dry conditions, and often performed erratically.

     High  rate  filtration  through dual media was 78  percent  effective  at
removing  suspended  solids.    This  efficiency could be controlled  by  modi-
fication of back flush rate and addition of flocculation chemicals.
                             Swirl Concentrators

           The design of swirl degritters was based on  vortex over-
       flow regulators as a way to both regulate flow and  to  sepa-
       rate grit and solids from liquid, attaining  primary   solids
       removal.  Swirl concentrators are able to  remove solids  and
       grit  by combining  rotationally  induced   forces   causing
       inertial separation with vertical gravitational sedimentation.
       Liquid and solid effluents are  then  routed  separately  for
       treatment.  Variations in concentrator design  are  used  for
       removal of grit or organics.  Swirl degritters were  used  in
       the  Rochester CSO pilot study  at a newly  created  interme-
       diate pilot plant treatment facility.
     Dual  media  high rate filtration was cost-effective when used in  combi-
nation  with  prior chemical treatment.   Activated carbon was shown  to  give
the  desired treatment but obtained at high cost.   Disinfection with chlorine
was shown to be less expensive than chlorine dioxide.

ROCHESTER BMPs
Administration and Funding

     O'Brien and Gere were contracted by the Rochester Pure Waters District to
complete  a study of the efficacy of non-structural Best Management  Practices
to abate CSO problems.   The project duration was October 1978 to March  1983.
Management  practices were chosen as a quick and inexpensive approach to alle-
viate  CSO  problems before more extensive structural changes  were  designed,
funded,  and constructed.

Froj ect Approach

     The  goal of the Rochester BMP project was to implement and  monitor  the
effectiveness  of several Best Management Practices (BMPs) for source  control
and management of the collection system.   Surface BMPs included street clean-
ing,  porous  pavement in parking lots,  erosion control measures and  surface
detention  of runoff.   Collection system management included streamlining the
stormwater collection system by constructing an interceptor,  fine tuning  the
entire system to move water more efficiently through the system,  and increas-
ing  the storage capacity of the system.   Another effective  practice  demon-
strated was a split flow treatment at the pilot treatment plant.
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                         Splitflow Sewage Treatment
                       to Handle Combined Sewer Flows

           Conventional sewage treatment consists of two steps,  pri-
        mary settling to separate solids from liquids,  and secondary
        treatment to decrease nutrient,  BOD (biological  oxygen  de-
        mand) and total suspended solids.    Secondary  treatment  is
        generally achieved through biological  incubation  of  sewage
        sludge,   followed   by   settling  to  remove   flocculated
        materials.   Preventing overflows  from combined  sewers  in-
        creases the flows to sewage treatment plants.  The  resulting
        high flows may exceed treatment plant design capacity and can
        disrupt biological treatment processes  by  washing  out the
        biologically active sludge.  The splitflow  mode allows  pri-
        mary treatment of all wastewater and release of a portion  of
        primary effluent to avoid washing out the  plant's  secondary
        treatment system.   Splitting flows  in this way  during  wet
        weather flow has been found to improve effluent quality  com-
        pared with that released from overloaded secondary treatment.
 Results

      To assess the value of street cleaning, schedules were increased two  and
 three-fold.   Catchbasin runoff flows and water quality (BOD, TSS, TKN and Pb)
 parameters  were monitored.   Noticeable pollutant decreases were observed  in
iresponse to increasing street sweeping schedules beyond once every six working
 days  in the residential areas.   No decrease in pollutant transport was found
 by increasing the cleaning schedule of commercial areas,  which was originally
 daily.    Residential areas contributed an average of 0.64 Ib BOD/inch of rain,
 whereas the heavier traffic volume in commercial zones resulted in four  times
 as much BOD per curb-mile.  Street cleaning is a labor intensive and therefore
 an  expensive  activity,  so it was concluded that increased  street  sweeping
 schedules were not cost-effective.

      Porous  pavement applied to parking lot areas demonstrated an 83% reduct-
 ion in  runoff compared to a similar lot with conventional pavement.  Sediment-
 laden runoff passing over the permeable asphalt decreased the original  perme-
 ability  by  94%.   Heavy  traffic and freeze-thaw cycles did not  impair  the
 structural integrity of the porous pavement.

      Field  inspections  of interceptors and existing flow regulators  on  the
 western  side of the city revealed that interceptors were in good  shape  with
 little   debris to cause blocking,   and pinpointed regulators in need of repair
 or adjustment.  Repairs to regulators and increases in weir height resulted in
 increased flow control and storage capacity, which decreased overflow.
                                      49

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     Field inspections in the eastern half of the city revealed unflushed rock
tunnels where roof failure resulted in large debris piles.   Such blockage had
reduced  sewer system efficiency and storage capacity.   Renovations of  these
areas was not covered by the BMP funding.  The Simplified Stormwater Model was
used to predict the effect of renovating the impaired sections.

     A hydrobrake was installed to replace poorly functioning flow regulators.
Complete  analysis of the hydrobrake head/discharge relationship was not made,
however  the hydrobrake regulated flow to the sewer interceptor  as  designed.
Although  the hydrobrake appeared to be clogged,  it cleared itself of  debris
without maintenance.

     Improvements to the sewer interceptor would result in more water reaching
the treatment plant and reduction of overflow discharge.  However,  the waste-
water  treatment plant was not originally designed to treat high flow  surges.
The  split  flow treatment system was shown to be  very  effective,   allowing
effluent standards to be met more often,  and protecting the biological treat-
ment process at the plant.

     Stormwater  runoff was implicated as an important source of  heavy  metal
concentrations  in sediments downstream from sewer overflows.   The data  were
not extensive, and therefore, were inconclusive.

     In general, the project demonstrated that BMPs can be effective in reduc-
ing CSO-generated pollutant loads from frequent,  low-intensity storms.   BMPs
were not effective for high intensity storms.  The following series of manage-
ment concepts were considered to be the most effective:

     1.  Improving system flow regulation
     2   Elimination of conveyance system bottlenecks
     3.  Split-flow mode of operation at existing treatment facilities
     4.  Effective utilization of existing in-system storage
     5.  Installation  of porous pavement in parking lots where suitable  soil
         absorption conditions exit
     6.  Stormwater inlet control.

     This demonstration project showed that:   1)  BMP implementation requires
a commitment of  operating dollars and acceptance of some inconvenience to the
public due to flooding;  2) integral to successful performance is  centralized
monitoring  and performance evaluation;  and 3) adoption of collection  system
management  concepts  generally  result in increased hydraulic  and  pollutant
loadings  to  the treatment facility,  so that split-flow treatment  would  be
required even more as BMPs become more effective.
                                      50

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                           The Hydrobrake

   Vortex   flow  regulating  devices replace the weirs  and  float-
controlled flow  regulators  presently used in sewer systems.  It is
advantageous because it has no moving parts.    As shown in the  dia-
gram below, flow rate is regulated  by the  hydraulic head above the
unit. Low flows simply pass through the device without swirling.  As
flow  increases,  a vortex is produced which restricts flow  through
the unit.   These flow control devices have been found to work well,
and  to  require less maintenance than traditional gate or weir  de-
vices, which have moveable parts subject to malfunction or breakage.

   The installation of a hydrobrake requires that there be up stream
storage capability.  In some sewer systems existing storage has been
found in the sewer,  additional storage chambers have been construc-
ted,   or  surface  areas  have  been  used  for  runoff  detention.

   Due to the relatively low capital investment and low  maintenance
required,  this  type  of flow regulator is considered highly  cost-
effective.
          HOW THE HYDROBRAKE OPERATES
                                        Low flow
                                        (Dry weather
                                         flow)
                                                Controlled
                                                flow
  'It* Northwst Interceptor Demonstration Project, Self-Actuating (fcdrotirake',  p.
                                  51

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Summary of the Rochester CSO Projects

     The  problems of combined sewer overflow in Rochester were  addressed  by
the  development of several alternatives in two separate  grants,  from  minor
management  changes  to extensive structural changes.   Both the  pilot  study
treatment  plant  and the BMP program evaluated the cost effectiveness of  the
alternatives  demonstrated.   The  results  of the pilot  study  were  clearly
presented,  and  provided affordable alternatives for the city  of  Rochester.
Alternatives demonstrated by the BMP project provide good short term solutions
to  CSO  problems,  but these solutions tend to be labor intensive,  and  thus
expensive on a long term basis.

     This  project appears to have considered and adequately analyzed most  of
the possible alternatives for the city.   A possible public complaint  against
the use of surface detention storage to control and delay stormwater  overflow
may result from extensive implementation.  Structural alternatives which could
relieve  this occurrence are very expensive,  however,  as they would  require
redesigning and rebuilding the existing system.


SAGINAW, MICHIGAN CSO


Administration and Funding

     The  $1 million Saginaw,  Michigan Project was received by  Environmental
Design and Planning.   Of the $762,000 federal money,  $390,000 was spent  for
the  design and construction of BMPs.   The goal of the project was to  survey
the  current  sewer  system,  and to recommend modifications to  decrease  the
occurrence of untreated sewer overflows from the city into the Saginaw River.

Proj ect Approach

    For  analysis  of the existing city sewer system,  a simulation model  was
developed to describe the system and assess possible modifications.

     An  incentive  for  the city to participate in the project  included  the
availability  of federal funds for the city to help reduce overflow into  sur-
rounding water bodies.   Critical areas and priorities were considered because
the  original  extensive  plan was scaled back due to failure in  acquiring  a
construction grant.  Models were used to optimize the control plan and achieve
most  of  the  intended water quality control at a fraction  of  the  original
estimated cost.
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 Results

      A  plan to modify the existing system was developed.   Thirteen  existing
 regulation  chambers were modified by installing vortex valves and swirl  con-
 centrators  to  regulate and treat flow and to replace  malfunctioning  float-
 operated controls.    The modified system increased in-line storage by increas-
 ing  the height of  the  regulation chamber weirs,  and installing one of four-
 teen new storage chambers recommended by the plan.

      The system changes increased stortnwater flow to the wastewater  treatment
 plant by 15%,   and  reduced effluent suspended solids loadings by 16%,  reduced
 BOD  by  20%,   and   reduced total P by 8% to 13% with secondary  and  tertiary
 treatment.  The  report  suggests  that if the remaining 13  proposed  storage
 chambers  were  installed,  total wet weather flow treated by  the  wastewater
 treatment plant would be increased to 67%.

      Computer   modeling analysis indicated that the project reduced P  loading
 from CSO to the river by 10% for a cost of $400,000.  The proposed  treatments
 would probably reduce other pollutants even more than P.

      The  recommended  changes  in the sewer system route more  water  to  the
 treatment  plant and thus decrease overflow to the river.    The  project  de-
 termined that  the cost of these changes was reasonable,  at much less than  $1
 per cubic foot of added storage capacity.

 Summary of Saginaw  CSO

      The  changes  made increased in-line storage capacity and  therefore  de-
 creased  the overflow of untreated sewage into the Saginaw River.    This  flow
 change  resulted in  decreased loads of  BOD,  suspended  solids,  and  total
''phosphorus  to  the river as well.   Although all proposed structural  changes
 were not completed,  the project showed by modeling that significant  P-reduc-
 tions were obtained.
 CITY OF CLEVELAND CSO
 Administration and Funding

      The   Snell   Environmental   Group  was  contracted  by the Cleveland  DPU  to
 renovate   the   Cleveland  city sewer  system in an attempt  to  reduce  combined
 sewer overflows.

 Proj ect Approach

      Snell   proposed  to construct  three  in-line  storage areas  and  to install a
 hydrobrake  (vortex valve)  to  control flow  in the system.    The increased stor-
 age space  and  regulated flow  was intended  to reduce the frequency  of  overflow
 from  combined  sewers  to the area's rivers  and Lake Erie.

      Surveys of area  residents were  conducted in the  renovated area before and
 after construction changes,   to determine if the sewer changes affected base-
 ment  flooding  in  area homes.
                                      53

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Results

     Increasing  in-line storage space and controlling flow with a  hydrobrake
decreased  the frequency of basement flooding in the area served by the  reno-
vated  sewer.   Water  quality was evaluated downstream  from  the  hydrobrake
structures.  The  project found no evidence of the typical first flush of pol-
lutants (or sediment deposition) below the hydrobrake.  The impact on CSO  was
apparently small,  however,   because of the limited extent of implementation.
The  report also noted that the first hydrobrakes installed did not appear  to
be  controlling flows;  these were replaced by hydrobrakes with smaller  open-
ings, however and operation improved.

Summary 
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     Hydrobrakes  were  considered to be the least expensive way of  utilizing
the existing in-line storage.

Summary of Northeast Ohio CSO

     The  Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District designed and installed   seven
hydrobrakes  within a newly constructed sewer  (10 years old),  to reduce   peak
flows in the system and to decrease overflows  to the river.   The District was
able to do so at low cost,  $155,000,  in a short time period, over the winter
of  1983-1984.   Winter was chosen for the installation because it is the  time
period  when  sewer flows would be least likely to  occur.   Construction  was
completed on schedule.

     Continuation  suggestions  for the demonstration  would  include  quanti-
fication of the overflow diverted for treatment,  and estimation of changes in
pollutant  loads to the river.   Another area  for further study could  include
evaluation of the necessity for similar control throughout the city.

Summary of^All CSO Projects

     All three cities, Rochester, Saginaw, and Cleveland,installed vortex-type
flow controls.  Saginaw and Cleveland were able to find in-line storage in the
existing  sewer lines.   Rochester,  however,  made use of surface  areas  for
detention of excess runoff.  Reports on the hydrobrake were always positive in
terms of reliability and effectiveness.

     All  of  the  projects  were  able to control  sewer  flows  to  decrease
overflows  to some extent.   Most effects were too small to  cause  observable
water  quality impacts on the receiving waters.   The receiving waters in  all
cases  were  influenced  by other pollution sources as  well.   Water  quality
parameters  of  receiving  waters were not assessed by any  of  the  projects,
however,  in  all  three cities improvements in effluent  water  quality  were
documented.

     The  Rochester project also demonstrated improved treatment  technologies
such  as  swirl concentrators and high rate filtering at a  pilot  plant,  and
advanced water quality models such as SWMM were verified and demonstrated as a
means to optimize structural and management modification to the sewer systems.
                                     55

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                          SEPTIC SYSTEM ALTERNATIVES
OJECTIVES AND GRANTS AWARDED
     In  many regions of the Great Lakes Basin,  poorly drained soils restrict
the  efficacy  of conventional septic tank treatment  systems.   Drainage  and
leaching  from poorly functioning drain fields may be a significant source  of
pollution to water resources.

     Two grants were awarded through 108a funds to projects addressing  septic
system problems:

  Grant Number        Location                        ^Date
  S005575Great Lakes Basin, IN           1982
  S005552         Allen County, OH                1980 - 1985
  Still in progress
ALLEN COUNTY OHIO
Administration and Funding

     One hundred thirty thousand dollars of the $496,884  108a funds awarded to
Allen County Ohio,  were administered by the Allen County Health Department to
monitor, replace,or repair malfunctioning septic systems.

Project Approach

     The  Health Department conducted a monitoring survey of septic systems in
the  Allen County area.   Most  systems consist of a  tank  and  subsurface   tile
drainage,  which drains to the  town drainage ditch.   Owners of malfunctioning
septic  systems  were  to be encouraged to have their systems repaired   or  re-
placed at a 75% cost share rate.

     The  proposed water quality monitoring program  was slated for three years
ending  in 1985.   The monitoring was conducted in two programs in which   grab
samples were taken periodically and analyzed for BOD and  fecal  coliform,  and
in  three short  term intensive  studies each year.  During  the intensive  studies
several  daily  samples would be taken over a one week period to monitor nutri-
ent  concentrations and flow rates.   These data were to  be used  to  determine
the  relative contributions of  agricultural and domestic  sources  of  nutrients
in  the receiving  stream water.
 Results

      The  final  report  for this  project was not available at   the
 time of this report.
                                      56

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                             Septic System Design
       A typical septic system con-
  sists of two basic parts.   One is
  a   septic tank which stores waste
  and   acts as a settling  chamber.
  The  tank houses a microbial popu-
  lation   which slowly breaks  down
  organic   materials.    The  other
  major part of  a septic system  is
  a drain field  which slowly drains
  the     liquid    effluent    into
  surrounding  soil.   Proper  func-
  tioning  of the drain   field  re-
  quires that it be laid in  soil of
  sufficient permeability, to  allow
  drainage,  but  also  to  moderate
  the   leaching  rate   and   allow
  further microbial degradation  and
  "treatment" of  nutrients and  or-
  ganics in the soil.
     Variations   on  the  standard
septic   system   include   shallow
trench and mound systems, where the
leach bed is placed at or above the
soil surface,  in an area  designed
for      increased     percolation.
Leaching through these systems  may
be  assisted  by  pumping  effluent
from the tank into the leach bed at
moderate pressure.   In  some resi-
dential developments, where  houses
are close together,  and soils have
low permeability,  a cluster system
may be used.   In this system, each
residence has its own septic  tank,
but  the  effluent is pumped  to  a
communal  drain  field  at  a  more
suitable area nearby.
INDIANA SEPTIC SYSTEM
Administration and Funding

     The  Indiana  Department  of Public Health was awarded $102,073  of  108a
funds to demonstrate a new septic system,  and water use control devices,  and
to develop a computer model to simulate performance of these septic systems.

Project Approach

     Of the thirteen counties within the Great Lakes Basin of  Indiana,  thir-
teen  homes  in one subdivision in Steuben County,  Indiana,  were  chosen  to
demonstrate  two  approaches to alleviate septic  system  problems,  clustered
drains  and water controls.   A cluster system was constructed at the  Lagoona
Park  subdivision,  so  that wastewater treated at each home in a  new  septic
tank,  and then pumped 250 meters away to a low pressure distribution and soil
absorption  system  located on a nearby golf  course.   Secondly,  water  con-
servation  equipment  was  added to at least four of  the  subdivision  homes.
Changes in water usage and septic system effluent were monitored.

     The  project also intended to develop computer programs to identify suit-
able  on-site  disposal systems depending on surface and  sub-soil  character-
istics.   An already existent soil map data base will be used by the  program,
in conjunction with a relational data base system.
                                     57

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Results

     The  concentrations  of septic system effluent water  quality  parameters
increased  after  installation of the water conservation devices,  and  subse-
quently returned to the pre-device levels.

     Water usage followed a similar pattern;  usage increased during the first
year after installation of conservation devices but then decreased to a  level
below that found before installation of conservation equipment.

     The  computer  program  integrates available information and uses  it  to
identify suitable on-site sewage disposal systems.   This was not designed for
site  by site planning,  rather it was intended for use by  regional  planning
agencies and zoning boards in community planning activities.

Summary of the Indiana Septic System Project

     The project renovated the septic systems in an entire subdivision.  Moni-
toring  of water usage and septic system  efficiency indicated that the instal-
led  changes improved waste treatment.  Impacts on nearby water quality  para-
meters were not monitored.

Summary of Septic System Projects

     Two  projects  were funded to demonstrate the effectiveness of  upgrading
rural  septic systems on increased efficiency of the sytems and on area  water
quality improvements.

     An  innovative  system was installed in  Steuben  County  Indiana,  which
alleviated waste disposal problems in that  area.

     The impact of septic system renovation on area water quality was proposed
to   be measured in Allen County,  Ohio.   The results  of this project are  not
presently available.
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                         A/0 TREATMENT PLANT DIGESTER
Administration and Funding

     The  108a  program provided the city of Pontiac,  Michigan with  $100,000
toward a $134,000 project to demonstrate the A/0 phosphorus removal process in
sewage treatment.

     The grant for this project was:

      Grant Number           Location                      Date
        S005748             Pontiac, MI               1983 - 1984

Project Approach

     A/0  is  a sewage treatment phosphorus removal process  patented  by  Air
Products,  Inc.   The process improves P removal by modifying secondary sewage
treatment.   The  process involves a procedure to starve the sludge for  phos-
phorus under anaerobic conditions,  then converting to aerobic conditions,  to
promote  P removal through luxury uptake.    The sludge is removed in the set-
tling process, leaving the effluent low in phosphorus content.

Results

     The  A/0  process  promoted  more  nitrification  than  did  conventional
activated sludge treatment and was far superior in reducing secondary effluent
total and dissolved phosphorus concentration.

     Between  August  and October of 1984,  routine sampling  demonstrated  an
industrial discharge related pH drop to 2 in influent waste.   The  low pH was
transitory,  but did recur.    Phosphorus removal through the A/0 process  was
hindered  by this occurrence.  Nitrogen removal was also inhibited as a result
of  the  low pH,  although to a lesser extent.   Even under  these  conditions
performance was better than conventional activated sludge treatment.


Summary of the A/O Process

     The  A/0  process  was demonstrated to be a workable process  in  a  cold
climate such as Pontiac Michigan.   Without harm to^ the sludge through low  pH
influent,  the  process was shown to remove more P and to nitrify more N  than
conventional processes, while maintaining BOD removal, and producing an easily
dewaterable sludge.
                                      59

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                  BACKGROUND FOR CLEVELAND AREA WATER QUALITY
Administration and Funding

     Funds  were allotted through the 108a program to a consortium of the city
of Cleveland and three area universities,  John Carroll, Case Western Reserve,
and Cleveland State, to perform a water quality baseline assessment.
     The grant for this project was:

     Grant Number           Location
       G005107

Project Approach
Cleveland, OH
    Date
1971 - 1974
     The  goals of this project were divided into three phases.   Phase I  in-
cluded assessment of water quality,  phase II was to be a detailed  assessment
of Cleveland area water pollution abatement impact to measure the cost effect-
iveness of control programs,  and phase III was to provide water quality moni-
toring  as part of ongoing water resources and pollution control planning  and
management.  The stated goal of phase I was to document present and historical
water quality in the Cleveland area.

     The report on phase I of the project provides details on the methods, and
presents  data  for many water quality parameters including dissolved  oxygen,
nutrients,  fecal coliform,  BOD, suspended solids and pH.  The route of water
flow from the river through the mouth of the lake is also  described.   Volume
II  included  detailed results from the fish surveys conducted in area  rivers
and tributaries.  These data were obtained over a two year period.

      A  literature review of historical water quality problems in the  Cleve-
land  area  was included in the background of  this  study.   Apparently  fish
population  declines,  domestic  and industrial pollutants were documented  as
problems as early as the 1850's.   One of the current goals in water pollution
abatement  has  been  stated as "restoring water quality to  that  present  in
1900".   The historical review, however, indicates that water quality'problems
were prevalent at that time, so  that the present goal may need revision.

Results

     No  water  quality abatement programs or technologies were  described  by
this  study.   Instead,  this study stands as a source of baseline  data  with
which to compare future data.  The goals of phases II and III of this project,
to  provide long term monitoring and assessment of pollution abatement activi-
ties were not presented.
                                      60

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                                  REFERENCES
Allen  Co.  SWCD "1981 Conservation Tillage Test  Results,  Allen
    County, Ohio."  EPA 905/9-82-004, 72pp., 1982.

Baker, D.B. "Regional Water Quality Impacts of Intensive Row-crop
     Agriculture:   A  Lake Erie Basin Case Study". J.  Soil  and
     Water Conservation, 40:125-131, 1985.

Gay,  L.  "The  Inner Life of the Septic Tank," Country  Journal,
     12:74-82, 1985.

Huber, W.C., J.P. Heaney, M.A. Medina, W.A. Peltz, H. Sheikh, and
     G.F.   Smith.    Storm   Water   Management   Model   User's
     Manual, Version II.  EPA-670/2-75-017, Cincinnati, Ohio

Lager,   J.A.,   T.   Didriksson,  G.B.  Otte.   Development  and
     Application  of  a_ Simplified Stormwater  Management  Model.
     EPA-600/2-76-218,   U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency,
     Cincinnati, Ohio, 1976.

Lake, J. & J. Morrison. Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water
     Quality,  EPA 905/9-77-007-B, 279pp., 1977.

Madison,  F.W.,  J.L.  Arts,  S.J.  Berkowitz,  E.E. Salmon, B.B.
     Ragman.  The  Washington  County Project Final  Report,  EPA
     905/9-77-007-B, 279pp., 1977.

Northeast Ohio Regional Sewer District.  "Automatic Flow  Control
     with Self-Activating Hydro-brake"  Draft Final Report of the
     Northwest Interceptor Demonstration Project, USEPA Grant No.
     S005602-01,  1985.

Rice, R.W.  Fundamentals of No-till Farming, American Association
     for Vocational Instructional Materials, 148pp., 1983.
                                     61

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                                   APPENDIX
     This  appendix  contains  the list of reports which  were  available  for
preparation of this report.

The Black Creek Project
G005103
     Environmental  Impact  of   Land   Use  on   Water   Quality   Operations
     Manual EPA-905-74-002

     Environmental  Impact of Land Use on Water Quality 8pg.  report,    which
     appears to have been written in 1974

     Environmental  Impact  of Land Use on Water  Quality  EPA  905-9-75-  006
     231pp.  1979.

     Environmental Impact of Land Use on Water Quality
       1) Final  Report on the Black Creek Project - Summary EPA-905/9-77-007A
          94pp., 1977

       2) Final  Report on the Black Creek Project  -  Technical  Report  EPA-
          905/9-77-007-B  279pp.,  1977

       3) Final Report on the Black Creek Project  -  Technical Report Project
          Summary  EPA 905/9-77-007-C  273pp.,  1977

    j  4) Final Report on the Black Creek Project - Supplemental Comments  EPA
          905/9-77-007-D

     Environmental Impacts of Land Use on Water Quality Executive Summary 12pp

G005335
     Summary of the Black Creek Project,  Report through 1980 Project,    Year
     Based on Seminars in Washington,  B.C.   February 1980,    Chicago, 111.,
     March 1980.  EPA 905/9-80-009  1981  63pp.

Red Clay Project Reports
G005140
     Impact  of Nonpoint Pollution Control on Western Lake Superior,  Red Clay
     Project-Work Plan  EPA 905/9-76-002  146pp.

     Best Management Practices - A Pictorial Review of the Conservation  Prac-
     tices Installed by the Red Clay Project  8pp.

     Impact of Nonpoint Pollution Control on Western Lake Superior:
       1) Final  Report on the Red Clay Project - Summary Report EPA-905/9-79-
          002  32pp.  1979

       2) Final Part II  EPA 905/9-79-002 B 50Qpp.  1980

       3) Final Part III EPA 905/9-79-002 C 442pp.  1980
                                     62

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Washington County, WI, Project
GOQ5139
     Washington County Project Work Plan   EPA 905/9-77-001  72pp.  1979

     Institutional and  Legal Complexity  of Nonpoint Source Pollution Control
     - Summary Report  EPA 905/9-81-005  24pp.  1981

     Washington  County Project  Final  Report  EPA 905/0-80-003  1979

     Pollard,  R.W.,  B.M.H.  Sharp, F.W. Madison, "Farmer's Experience   with
     Conservation Tillage:   A Wisconsin Survey"  J.  Soil &   Water Conserva-
     tion  34:215-219,  1979

     Konrad,  J.G.   "Washington County Project Water Quality Monitoring 1979-
     1981.  4pp.  1981

     Local Watershed Problem Studies,  Middle and High School Curricula, Water
     Resources Center, Madison,WI  327pp, 1981

Conservation Till Projects
S005552
     1981  Conservation Tillage Test Results, Allen County, OH
     1982  Conservation Tillage Test Results, Allen County, OH
     1983  Conservation Tillage Test Results, Allen County, OH
     1984  Conservation Tillage Test Results, Allen County, OH

     Allen  County Demonstration Project 1st Quarterly Progress Report Septem-
     ber, 1980.

     Maumee River Basin Water Quality Demonstration Proposal:   Plan of   Work
     for Allen and Defiance Counties, OH

S005553
     Defiance County Lost Creek Demonstration Project
       1982 Demonstration Report
       1983 Demonstration Report

S005692
     Lake  Erie  Demonstration Projects Evaluating Impacts  of  Conserva  tion
     Tillage on Yield, Cost and Environment

     Lake Erie Conservation Tillage Demonstrations Saving Time, Water,   Soil,
     Energy                                       •

     Accelerated Conservation Tillage Counties Oct -  Dec,  1984     Quarterly
   .  Report

     1984 Accelerated Conservation Tillage Crawford Co., OH

     1984 Conservation Tillage Demonstration Plot Results,  Fulton Co.,    OH.
     Hancock  Soil  and Water Conservation Districts  1984  No-  till  Program
     Results

     1984 A.C.T. Demonstration Program Hardin Co., OH
     1984 Putnam Co, OH  Conventional Till vs. No-till Comparison Test   Plots
                                     63

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     1984 Conservation Tillage Results Van Wett Co., OH
S005698
     Northeast  Indiana  Conservation  Tillage  Demonstration  Project
       1984 Report
       1983 Report

     Quarterly Report No.  16, Jan - Mar, 1985, Northeast Indiana Conservation
     Tillage Demonstration Project.

S005700
     Bean Creek Watershed Conservation Tillage Demonstration Project,    Final
     Report  1982, 1983, 1984

S005721
     Otter Creek Conservation Tillage Project  1984 Annual Report

S005513
     Final Report,  Saginaw Valley Agricultural Demonstration Project, (Inclu-
     ding most quarterly reports).

S005722
     Fourth  Quarterly Report Oswego Co.,  NY  Demonstration Project,     July
     through September 1984

SOQ5723
     Northern Wayne County Conservation Tillage Demonstration Project     1983
     Report.

CSO Projects:
Y005141
     Combined   Sewer   Overflow   Abatement   Program  Rochester,  NY
       Volume I.  Abatement Analysis
       Volumell.  Pilot Plant Evaluations

G005334
     Best Management Practices Implementation Rochester, NY Report, Additional
     Evaluations  March, 1983

     Best Management Practices Implementation,  Rochester, NY EPA-905/9-81-002
     1981

S005370
     Hydro Brake Stormwater Detention System Demonstration in Cleve  land,  OH
     Dual  Combined  Sewer Overflow Pollution Control and   Basement  Flooding
     Relief

S005602
     The Northwest Interceptor Demonstration Project Automatic Flow    Control
     with Self-Actuating Hydrobrake
                                     64

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S005359
     Implementation   and  Evaluation  of  In-System  Combined  Sewer  Storage
     Controls for Reduction of Phosphorus Loadings to the Saginaw   River

     Final Report:   Facility Plan for the Control and Treatment of   Combined
     Sewer Overflows to the Saginaw River

     Project Summary:   Implementation and Evaluation of In-system    Combined
     Sewer  Storage  Controls  for Reduction of Phosphorus   Loadings  to  the
     River.

Sewage Treatment Projects
Y005065
     Land Application:
       Utilization of Natural Ecosystems for Wastewater Renovation  EPA-905/3-
       79-003  155pp., 1979

G005104
     Applicability  of Land Treatment of Wastewater in the Great Lakes    Area
     Basin
       1) Impact of Wastewater Diversion, Spray Irrigation on Water Quality in
          the Muskegon County, Michigan Lakes
       2) Effectiveness  of  Sandy Soils at  Muskegon  County,   Michigan  for
          Renovating Wastewater

     Muskegon  County  Wastewater  Management  System  Progress  Report   1968
     through 1975.

S005501
     Mona,  White  and  Muskegon  Lakes in  Muskegon  County,  Michigan.    The
     1950's to the 1980's  91pp.,  1982

     The  Effect of Wastewater Land Treatment on Eutrophication in    Muskegon
     Lakes  95pp.

S005551
     Quarterly  Report  "Fertilization of State  Forestland  with    Municipal
     Sludge  April - June, 1984

     Ecological   Monitoring of Sludge Fertilization on State Forest   Lands in
     Northern Lower Michigan

     Balancing  Tree Growth Against Environmental Quality in Sludge Fertiliza-
     tion of Forests.

     Ecological  Monitoring of Sludge Fertilization on State Forest   Lands  in
     Northern Lower Michigan
       Annual Report  1982
       Annual Report  1983
                                     65

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S005559
     Village of Paw Paw Michigan EPA Demonstration Grant for Overland   - Flow
     Treatment of Municipal Wastewater
       Quarterly Report No. 16  April - June 1984
       Quarterly Report No. 18 and 1984 Summary

S005575
     Water   Conservation    and   Residential   Wastewater    Quality

     Computer   Evaluation   of   Soil  for  On-site  Waste   Disposal

S005552
     Allen   County  Rural  Sewage

S005748
Demonstration   Plan   of   Work
     City of Pontiac,  Micigan  A/0 Demonstration USEPA Grant No.   S005748-01
     Fourth Quarterly Progress Report
G005107
     Water  Quality Baseline Assessment for Cleveland Area Lake Erie
       Volume I.  Synthesis
       Volume II. Fishes
                                     66

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                                   TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                            (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
i. REPORT NO.
 EPA-905/9-86-001
                                                            3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4 TITLE ANDSUBTITLE
 Overview and  Evaluation of Section  108-A Great Lakes
 Demonstration Programs
                                5. REPORT DATE
                                  July 1986
                                6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE

                                 .5GL_
7. AUTHOR(S)
 Avis D. Newell,  Len C. Stanley, Michael  D.  Smolen and
 Richard P. Maas
                                                            8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
 North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service
 North Carolina State University   7625
 Raleigh, North Carolina 27650
                                                            10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
                                11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
                                   Grant   R005863-01
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
 Great Lakes National Program' Office
 536 South  Clark Street,  Room 958
 Chicago, Illinois   60605
                                13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
                                   108(A)  Demo  1971-1985	
                                14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
                                   Great Lakes National  Program
                                   Office,USEPA, Region  Vv
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
 Ralph G. Christensen,  Project Officer
16. ABSTRACT
 The 28 multi-demonsional projects discussed in this report major  goals included a
 agricultural  pollution control through  implementation of Best Management Practices
 (BMPs), public  education on water quality  issues, and documentation of water quality
 results through monitoring.  The 108a demonstration projects brought to public view
 technologies  to prevent overflows from  sewers, to improve malfunctioning septic      N
 systems, to improve phosphorus removal  in  wastewater treatment  facilities, and to
 evaluate several  agricultural BMPs, primarily through methods of  conservation tillage.
17.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
                   b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS  C. COSATI Field/Group
  Phosphorus removal
  Nonpoint source
  Conservation tillage
  Erosion
  Water quality
  Wastewater pretreatment
Septic system
Septic tank
Point source
Sediment
Aquatic biota
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
  Document is available  to  public through  th
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