United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Great Lakes
National Program Office
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
EPA-905/9-91-005B
GL-07B-91
r/EPA
Genesee River
Watershed Study
Volume II — Special Studies
New York State
Printed on Recycled Paper
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CENESEE RIVER WATERSHED STUDY
VOLUME 1: Summary
VOLUME 2: Special Studies - New York\State
REPORT I: Sedi meftt Nutrient and Met>
Heavy M^tal Character? zat i
REPORT II: Geo/fhemi st ry of Oxide Pre
and Water Column
n i n the Genesee Ri ver
ipitates in the
Gearesee Watershed
REPORT III: SArficial Geology of-Ahe Genesee Valley
VOLUME 3: Special Studies - Renssel^/er Polytechnic Institute
and Cornell Uni versi t
REPORT I : Itrvjentory of
Watershed
»rms of Nutrients Stored in a
REPORT II: Evaluation of theNEogardi T-3 Bedload Sampler
REPORT IN: Nitro^n and Phosphorus in Drainage Water
from Orga«pi c Soi ijs
VOLUME 4: Special Studies^- United States Geological Survey
PART 1 : Streamflow and Sediment Transport in the Genesee
Ri ver, New York
PART II: Hydrogeol ogi c Influences on Sediment-transport
Patterns in the Genesee River Basin
PART III: Sources and Movement of Sediment in the
Canaseraga Creek Basin near Dansville, New York
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EPA-905/9-91-005
February 1991
6ENESEE RIVER WATERSHED STUDY
SPECIAL STUDIES
NEW YORK STATE
VOLUME 2
for
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Chicago, Illinois
Grant Number R005144-01
Grants Officer
Ralph G. Christensen
Great Lakes National Program Office
This study, funded by a Great Lakes Program grant from the U.S. EPA,
was conducted as part of the TASK C-Pilot Watershed Program for the
International Joint Commission's Reference Group on Pollution from
Land Use Activities.
GREAT LAKES NATIONAL PROGRAM OFFICE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, REGION V
230 SOUTH DEARBORN STREET
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60604
*. T -D— *• <<•"• "- JT
tj 5, Unviroranentai *'••• • - ;*
'U* ' '
60604
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Great Lakes National
Program Office, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication. Approval does not signify that
the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
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REPORT I
SEDIMENT NUTRIENT AND METAL, AND WATER COLUMN HEAVY
METAL CHARACTERIZATION IN THE GENESEE RIVER
by
Michael M. Reddy
New York State Department of Health
Albany, New York 12237
This study was conducted
in cooperation with
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
Albany, New York
and the
International Joint Commission for the Great Lakes
Windsor, Ontario, Canada
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REPORT I
CONTENTS
Figures i
Tables 1 iii
1. Introduction 1
Sampling strategy 2
2 . Ma terials and Methods 3
Sample collection and pretreatment 3
Sample analysis 6
Quality control procedures 10
Seeded crystallization experiments 10
3. Results 12
Sediment composition and its variation at sites on the
Genesee River 12
Water column metal concentration and its variation 12
4. Discussion. 15
Data analysis 15
Local variations in sediment and water column
concentrations 25
Bottom sediment analytical results compared with other
published data for the Genesee River 28
Phosphorus in the Genesee Watershed 29
5. Conclusions 44
Genesee Ri>rer watershed sediment composition 44
References 47
Appendices 51
1. Analytical results for sediment samples from the
Genesee River 52
2. Analytical results for water column samples from the
Genesee River 57
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Genesee River sampling sites 5
2 A flow chart showing water column sample pretreatment procedures.. 8
3 Analysis scheme for determination of extractable metals and phos-
phorus in sediments 9
4 Frequency distribution plots of bottom sediment nutrient and metal
concentrations 16
5 Cumulative frequency distribution plots of bottom sediment nutrient
and metal concentrations on a probit scale.. 1?
6 Bottom sediment elemental concentration plotted as deviations
from basin means in terms of each elements standard deviation... 22
7 Total phosphorus instantaneous unit load, percent load as dis-
solved phosphorus, and discharge for six stations on the Genesee
River 33
8 Ion activity product of calcite plotted as a function of sampling
point distance from Lake Ontario. 34
9 Plots of solution total calcium concentration and pH as a function
of time for a typical calcite seeded crystallization experiment
in simulated natural water 36
10 Calcite crystallization rate function N"1- Ng"1 versus time for
data shown in Figure 9 37
11 Calcite crystal growth in the presence and absence of phosphate
ion, as expressed by the rate function N~^- NQ~* versus time.
The symbols and the numbers beside the curves indicate the
phosphate concentration multiplied by 10^. Adapted, by per-
mission, from the J. Crystal Growth 41. (1977) p. 294 39
12 Langmuir isotherm plot of kQ/(kQ- k) against the reciprocal of
the phosphate concentration, where kg is the calcite growth
rate constant in the absence of phosphate and k is the rate
I-i
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FIGURES (CONTINUED)
Number paqe
constant in the presence of phosphate: ( ) RQ = 0.824;
( ) k0 = 1.205; ( ) k0 = 0.790. Adapted, by permission,
from the J. Crystal Growth 41, (1977) p. 294 40
13 Phosphate concentration versus time for several calcite seeded
growth experiments in the presence of phosphate ion.. 41
I-ii
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TABLES
Number Page
1 Genesee River Sampling Sites.. 4
2 Sediment Sample Collection, Preservation and Pretreatment 7
3 Statistics for Elemental Concentre
Genesee River Watershed.
ions of Bottom Sediments in the
IS
4 Estimates of Mean Elemental Concentrations of Bottom Sediments in
the Genesee River Watershed.
20
5 Mean Metal Concentrations (^g/g) in Genesee River Watershed Sedi-
ment Compared with Other Published Analyses 23
6 Percentage of Total Metal Concentration Transported by Particu-
late Material 28
7 Statistics for Phosphorus Analyses for Sediments Collected in the
Genesee River Watershed, N.Y 31
8 Metal Concentrations in Sediments from the Genesee River Watershed
and Four Tributaries to Chesapeake Bay 46
I-ili
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i 4 t I
OH T I • * O
STUDY AREA
6ENESEE RIVER BASIN
(04- 00)
E.-.I Iranme t*. Co servatio ..
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
The objectives of this study were to provide information on sediment
composition as a basis for determining whether the metals and nutrients in
the watershed sediments were present in high concentration and whether they
were being transported in a reactive chemical form threatening to the water
quality of Lake Ontario.
Freshwater sediments have a significant role in the complex interaction
between pollutants and water in a river system and their analysis has been
used to detect and trace pollutant inputs and to anticipate the effects of
these pollutants on water quality (1-4).
In characterizing sediment transport of nutrients and trace metals in a
watershed it is necessary to differentiate among the several sediment compo-
nents including particulate matter, suspended sediment and bottom sediment.
Each of these components has different physical properties (e.g. particle-
size distribution, density and surface area), interacts in different ways
with nutrients and metals in the water column and will be transported at
different rates.
In addition Gibbs (5) has shown that the amount of trace metal carried
by suspended sediment in a river was strongly dependent on the chemical form
of the element. He used sequential chemical extractions, each corresponding
to a mineralogical phase within the sediment. Gibbs distinguishes an ab-
sorbed phase consisting of ions or complexes adsorbed to sediments; an in-
corporated metal or phosphate phase formed by physical, chemical or biological
incorporation of phosphorus or trace metals in a sediment organic matrix,
metal oxide or metal hydroxide matrix; and a crystalline phase consisting of
extractable phosphorus or trace metals which are part of the crystal lattice
of sediment minerals. These and many other differential dissolution methods
used for soil and sediment characterization, however, are largely empirical.
Schwertmann (6) emphasized that the results of such procedures are best
considered as a measure of the relative amount of a phase or, more generally,
a measure of an elements' reactivity in a sediment under carefully controlled
conditions. In the present study, these physical and chemical separation
techniques are used to identify and characterize the transport phase for
phosphorus and trace metals in the Genesee River Watershed.
Previous publications dealing with bottom sediment composition in the
Genesee River basin include Reddy's preliminary report (7). Bannerman et al.
(8) also reported on chemical analyses of bottom sediments and water column
samples and a water-quality survey of the lower river has been published (9).
1-1
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SAMPLING STRATEGY
Sediment and water column samples collected in this study were obtained
in synoptic surveys of the Genesee River watershed. A synoptic survey, as
defined by Heines et al. (10) is "a riverwide (or multireach) study invloving
coordinated intensive sampling over a short time period (several days)."
Velz (ll) and Kittrell (12) have discussed in detail the advantages of
synoptic surveys over other monitoring programs. Heines et al. have empha-
sized that results obtained during flow events are particularly relevant for
long-range planning. In addition, sampling prior to and immediately after
major basin flow events is necessary because the mobilization and deposition
(i.e. transport) of sediment-associated pollutants, rather than their absolute
concentrations, are often important. Therefore, attempts were made to co-
ordinate our synoptic survey program with basin runoff events in several
seasons.
Sediment samples were collected during the four seasons of the year.
Field work was performed by deploying two mobile field laboratories to 28
stations in the 2400 sq. mi. basin on three consecutive days.
1-2
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SECTION 2
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The 6,500 - km2 (2,400 sq.-mi) Genesee
Central New York State, tributary to Lake Ontario
charge of approximately 76 rn^/s (2,700 cfs)
River watershed is located in
, and has an average dis-
near Rochester, NY.
A wide variety of soil types and geochemical areas are found in the
Genesee basin, which consists of three terrjces separated by northward-facing
escarpments. Soils in the southernmost terrace are siltstone, shale and
sandstone mixed on glacial till with moderate drainage quality. The central
terrace has soils composed predominantly of limestone with shale and sandstone
mixed on glacial till with good drainage quality. A narrow lake plain within
the city of Rochester consists of soils composed of lacustrine silt and clay
deposits which are poorly drained. Sampling sites on the Genesee River used
in this study are shown in Figure 1 and Table 1. The sites were selected by
the U.S. Geological Survey for long-term flow and suspended sediment measure-
ments so that pollution from any nearby poiijvt source was avoided as much as
possible.
SAMPLE COLLECTION AND PRETREATMENT
Definition of Terms
Samples collected and analyzed in this investigation are defined and
referred to as follows:
1. Water Column Total Concentration: The concentration of a constituent
determined on an unfiltered sample.
2* Water Column Dissolved Concentration: The concentration of a con-
stituent which will pass through a 0.45 p. membrane filter.
3. Water Column Particulate Concentration: The concentration of a con-
stituent which is retained by a 0.45 p membrane filter. This water column
component is often termed suspended solids or suspended sediment.
4. Bottom Sediment Concentration: The concentration of a constituent of
sediment wet sieved on site through a 2 mm sieve, and subsequently dried,
crushed and sieved through a 100 mesh sieve before analysis.
5. Resuspended Bottom Sediment Concentration: The concentration of a
constituent of bottom sediment suspended during the wet sieving of a bottom
1-3
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TABLE 1. SAMPLING SITES ON THE GENESEE RIVER
Site
Location
Wellsville, N.Y.
Transit Br., N.Y.
Portageville, N.Y.
Mt. Morris, N.Y.
Avon, N.Y.
Rochester, N.Y.
Miles
from
Mouth of
Gene see
137
117
85
62
35
5
U.S.G.S.
Station
Number
04-2210-00
04-2214-23
04-2230-00
04-2275-00
04-2285-00
04-2320-00
Latitude
42°
42°
42°
42°
42°
43°
07'
19'
34'
44'
55'
10'
20"
46"
13"
00"
50"
50"
Longitide
77°
78°
78°
77°
77°
.77°
57'
04'
02'
50'
45'
37'
27"
36"
33"
21"
27"
40"
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0369
SCALE (mil**)
Figure 1. Genesee River sampling sites.
1-5
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sediment sample. Resuspended bottom sediment consisted only of that material
in suspension after standing 30 min. The resulting suspension was immediately
frozen and eventually freeze-dried prior to analysis.
Sediment Samples
Sediment samples were collected in midstream and wet-sieved immediately
through a 2-mm polyethylene sieve using river water. The wet sediment samples
were frozen on site and stored frozen in a mobile field laboratory. Sample
collection and pretreatment procedures were adapted from techniques employed
by the U.S. Geological Survey and are outlined in Table 2. A summary of the
analytical procedures used to characterize sediment and water column samples
has also been presented elsewhere (13).
Water Column Samples
Water and suspended sediment samples were obtained using a H 1 non-
metallic Van Dorn sampler at a depth of 1 m in the main channel (Fig. 2).
Unfiltered samples were acidified immediately after collection. A sep-
arate sample was filtered through a prewashed 0.45-nm Millipore filter, using
compressed argon gas and Plexiglas equipment. The filtered sample was
acidified immediately. The filter with particulates was dried with a brief
flow of argon gas, folded and stored in a plastic Petri dish until analysis.
SAMPLE ANALYSIS
Sediment Samples
Method of Total Analysis ~
Frozen bottom sediment samples were thawed for analysis, dried at 110°C,
crushed, and sieved through a 100-mesh nylon sieve. After digestion with
HNC^-HgCL at 100°C for 2 hours (14), metals were determined in the filtered
extracts oy atomic absorption spectroscopy. Silicate minerals are not solu-
bilized in this procedure; thus the metal results are an estimate of the
total extractable (environmentally available) metal content of the sediment.
Sediment total phosphorus was determined using the HN03-H202 digestion
and/or an acid-alkaline persulfate method (15). Both digestion methods gave
the same sediment phosphorus content for a series of 28 samples, one from
each station in the watershed.
Total carbon, organic carbon, and total nitrogen in sediment were det-
ermined with a high-temperature (l,100°C) combustion technique, employing a
Perkin-Elmer CHN analyzer (Model 240) modified to accept up to 1 g of
material.
Method of Fractional Analysis —
The fractionation scheme employed in this investigation for the deter-
mination of several forms of extractable phosphorus and trace metals is shown
in Figure 3. The phosphorus extraction procedure employed NaOH (with NaCl)
1-6
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TABLE 2. SEDIMENT SAMPLE COLLECTION PRESERVATION AND PRETREATMENT
Collection
Preservation
Bottom sediment
Sediments were collected
in mid-stream where pos-
sible and were immediate-
ly wet-sieved on site
through a 2-mm polyethy-
lene sieve using river
water.
Wet sediments were
frozen immediately on
site and stored
frozen until the
start of analysis.
Pretreatment
Frozen samples were
thawed prior to analysis,
dried at 110 C, crushed
and sieved through a
100-mesh nylon sieve.
Fine-textured sediment
washed from bottom
sediment
Fine-textured sediment
was suspended during
wet-sieving. The re-
sulting suspension was
allowed to stand for 30
min., then the quiescent
supernaut was carefully
decanted into a 2-liter
plastic bottle.
Fine-textured sedi-
ment suspensions were
frozen immediately on
site and kept frozen
until the start of
analysis.
Frozen fine-textured
sediment samples were
thawed and centrifuged
(10,000 Brrpm) for 20
min.) to reduce sample
volume from 2 to 0.1
liters. The resulting
concentrated suspension
was freeze-dried.
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TRACE METAL FLOW CHART
4 liter sample
collected with all
plastic horizontal
Van Doren sampler
r
1
unfiltered
5 ml HN03
per liter
atomic
absorption
analysis
i
oo
sample volume
reduced to l/10th
initial by boiling
after the addition
of 3 ml of H202
sample filtered
through 0.45-jo.m
Millipore filter
atomic
absorption
analysis
particulates
on filter
digested with
10 ml of HN03
and
3 ml of
5 ml HN03
per liter
JL
atomic
absorption
analysis
anodic
stripping
voltammetry
atomic
absorption
analysis
Figure 9. A flow chart showing wat<^r column sample pr^treatment procedures.
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0. 5 g dry sediment
extracted wi th
25 ml of 0. IN NaOH
IN Nad for 17 hrs.
Samnle centrifuged
at 10,000 rpm for
20 ml n.
solid residue ex-
tracted with 25 ml
of IN HC1 for 4 hrs,
sample centrifuged
at 10,000 rpm for
20 mi n.
supernatant \
analyzed for \
orthophosohate by\
the phospho-
molybdate procedur
••
••-,,
supernatant analyzed
for orthophosnhate by
the phosohoniolybdate
procedure
0. 5 g dry sediment
extracted with
25 ml of 0.1N NH2OH
0.01N HN03 for 1 hr.
sample centrifuged at
10,000 rpm for 20 m1n.
\
NaOH" fraction
•«••
solid residue extracted
with 25 ml of 0.175 M
(NH4)2C204 0.1 M H2C204
for 4 hrs.
sample centrifuged at
10,000 rpm for 20 rain.
supernatant analyzed for
orthophosphate by the
phosphomolybdate pro-
cedure and for trace
metals by atomic ab-
sorption spectroscopy
supernatant analyzed for
orthophosphate by the
phosphomolybdate procedure
and for trace metals by
atomic absorption spectroscopy
"NHjOH" fraction
"HCV fraction
'(NH4)2 C204"
fraction
Figure 3. Analysis scheme for determination of several forms of extractable
phosphorus and trace metals in fluvial bottom sediments and
suspended bottom sediments.
1-9
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for the extraction of non-occluded phosphorus and HC1 for occluded phosphorus
(adopted from Williams et al., (16,17). Work performed in this laboratory
(18) and elsewhere (19) indicates that the NaOH extractable phosphorus is a
measure of biologically available phosphorus. Hydrochloric acid extractable
phosphorus reflects apatite phosphorus and phosphorus incorporated in iron
oxides.
Methods used to measure extractable metals were chosen so that some
information could be obtained on the association of phosphorus with hydrous
metal oxides.
A hydroxylamine extraction procedure (20) (see Figures) for extraction
of manganese under acidic, mildly reducing conditions was used to examine the
manganese-phosphorus relationship. Subsequent extraction with ammonium
oxalate-oxalic acid solution was used to remove amorphous iron oxides and
organic iron, and phosphorus associated with these constituents (6).
Water Column Samples
Water column analysis was performed as described by Krishnamurty and
Reddy (13, 21). Filters, with particulates, were digested employing a HN03-
H2°2 procedure prior to analysis.
QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURES
During each analysis replicates of actual sediments were run as quality-
control check samples. Precision and accuracy of the total sediment digestion
procedure for metal analyses were published (14). The coefficient of vari-
ation (CV) of metal analyses for each of these samples was 0.10 or less.
For phosphorus, in addition to the sediment quality-control samples, a
National Bureau of Standards standard reference material (No. 1571, Orchard
Leaves) was analyzed with each batch of samples. The total phosphorus con-
tent of this reference material by the acid-alkaline persulfate method was
2,038 H*9/g (certified value, 2,100 ± 100 ^tg/g) with a CV of 0.05 (n = 21).
The CV for total phosphorus analysis of three actual sediments used as
quality-control check samples were 0.12 (n = 12), 0.16 (n = 11), and 0.13
(n = 11), with means of 412, 487, and 758~~iig P/g respectively.
In a quality-control sediment sample analyzed for total carbon (mean
0.5#) and total nitrogen (mean 0.0620 the CV were 0.20 (n = 9) and 0.23 (n =
9) respectively.
Precision for replicate phosphorus fractional analysis on actual sediment
samples used for quality control checks shows a CV of about 0.10 for all ex-
traction procedures for samples containing more than 100 jig P/g extractable
phosphorus. Precision for metal extraction analysis is similar to that for
phosphorus.
SEEDED CRYSTALLIZATION EXPERIMENTS
A detailed description of the seeded growth technique has been published
I-10
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recently (22). The following summarizes the experimental procedure employed.
Reagent grade chemicals; distilled, deionized, filtered (0.22-um Millipore
filter) water; and grade A glassware were used in all experiments. Super-
saturated calcium carbonate solutions were prepared by drop-wise addition of
200 ml of 5 x 10"4 M calcium chloride solution to 200 ml of 8 x 10-3 M sodium
bicarbonate solution in a thermostated double-walled Pyrex glass reaction
vessel. Stability of the supersaturated solution was verified by the con-
stancy of pH for at least one hour before the start of each experiment.
Solution pH changes accompanying calcite growth after inoculation of the
stable supersaturated solution with seed crystal were monitored with a
Corning pH Meter and a strip chart recorder. Calcium concentration in
solution was followed during crystallization by analysis of solution fil-
trates. An EDTA titration procedure employing calcein indicator (23) with a
micrometer burette was used to determine calcium concentration in the fil-
tered solution. Total carbonate concentration was calculated from a
titrimetric analysis of the filtrate using 0.01 N sulfuric acid and methyl
purple indicator (pH range 4.8 - 5.4). A Quantachrome Monosorb surface area
analyzer was used to measure seed crystal surface area; a Phillips powder
diffraction apparatus with copper Ka radiation and a nickel filter was
employed for X-ray powder diffraction verification of seed crystal compo-
sition. Calcite seed crystals were prepared by rapidly adding 0.5 M CaCl2
solution to 0.5 M Na20C>3 solution at 5° C. The viscous suspension formed
was gradually warmed to 25° C, stirred overnight, then washed with distilled
water. Seed was aged in distilled, deionized water 6 months before use. The
seed consisted of uniform aggregates of flat crystals shown to be calcite by
X-ray diffraction, with a surface area of 1.71 m2/g. Seeded crystal growth
experiments were performed in solutions resembling natural waters. Ionic
species concentrations were calculated from measured solution pH and from
total calcium and carbonate concentrations, using the mass action and mass
balance equations (24). Calculations were performed using successive approx-
imations for ionic strength, I, (24) with a Wang 720 C programmable calcu-
lator. Ion activity coefficients were obtained from the modified Debye -
Huckel equation proposed by Davies (25). Bicarbonate ion was the predominant
carbonate species in the experimental solutions comprising more than 95$ of
the total carbonate concentration. Calcium carbonate and bicarbonate ion-
pair concentrations were considered in solubility calculations. The
influence of phosphate ion-pair formation on the crystallization reaction
was examined and found to be negligible (22) at the phosphate concentration
levels employed.
1-11
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SECTION 3
RESULTS
SEDIMENT COMPOSITION AND ITS VARIATION AT SITES ON THE GENESEE RIVER
Bottom Sediments
Total Analysis —
Bottom sediment nutrient and metal concentrations at six sites on the
main stem of the Genesee River are shown in Appendix 1 A. These samples were
collected after the spring snow-melt runoff, the major hydrological sediment-
mixing and transport event in the basin. The samples were obtained from
slightly different locations at each site to determine sediment homogeniety.
Fractional Analysis —
Fractional extractional analytical results for bottom sediments dis-
cussed in the previous section are shown in Appendix 1 B (for phosphorus
analysis) and 1 C (for metal analysis).
Resuspended Bottom Sediment. Total Analysis
Resuspended sediment samples collected from the Genesee River during
March and July 1976 were analyzed to determine the composition of fine sed-
iment in the river. These results are shown in Appendix 1 D and are dis-
cussed in Section 4.
WATER COLUMN METAL CONCENTRATION AND ITS VARIATION
Preliminary basin-wide surveys
Total Water Column Analysis —
A preliminary survey was conducted on April 14 and 15, 1975 to determine
the total concentration of several metals in surface waters of the Genesee
River basin. The metals analyzed for in several or all samples included
arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, mercury, potassium, sodium,
zinc, calcium, magnesium and nickel.
Samples from five sites were analyzed for arsenic and mercury. All
results were less than the minimum reportable concentration (0.02 mg/1 for
arsenic and 0.0004 mg/1 for mercury). Further work on these two elements
was not performed in this special study.
1-12
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Total water column cadmium concentrations were determined at 20 sampling
sites. All results from these analyses were less than the minimum reportable
concentration for cadmium (0.020 mg/l).
Copper, chromium, lead, nickel and zinc were also determined for
samples collected at each of twenty sites. All results were equal to, or
less than the minimum reportable metal concentration. Significant total
water column concentrations were observed for iron, potassium, sodium
magnesium, calcium and manganese.
Total Water Column Analysis (with evaporative preconcentration) —
Evaporative preconcentration was used to increase metal analysis
sensitivity for total water column concentrations. Results of evaporative
preconcentration for total water column analysis for representative samples
collected at 6 sites on the Genesee River December 14, 1975 are presented
in Appendix 2 A.
Dissolved Heavy Metal Analysis (by Differential Pulse Anodic Stripping
Voltammetry, DPASV}
In order to achieve analytical sensitivity compatible with low concen-
trations of dissolved cadmium, copper, lead and zinc the DPASV procedure was
used. Filtered samples from twenty stations in the Genesee River Watershed
were collected on December 12 to December 15, 1975 and analyzed for lead,
cadmium, copper and zinc using DPASV. On March 12 to March 15, 1976 filtered
water column samples were collected at each of twenty-eight stations in the
watershed and analyzed for lead and cadmium by DPASV. Results of these
analyses for six stations on the Genesee River are shown in Appendix 2 B.
These results show very low but measurable concentrations of dissolved
cadmium, lead, zinc and copper.
Total Water Column Metal Concentrations at Six Sites on March 13. 1976
Total metal analyses were done on water column samples collected at
six sites on the Genesee River during a peak flow period in March 1976 to
monitor the metal concentration along the Genesee River. Results for
analysis of total water column samples collected on this date are shown in
Appendix 2 C. Aluminum, copper, chromium, lead, nickel and zinc concen-
trations, determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy, were at or below the
minimum reportable concentration. Elements which showed significant con-
centrations in the samples, iron and manganese, demonstrated good repro-
ducibility between duplicates.
Dissolved Water Column Metal Concentrations at Six Sites on March 13. 1976
Dissolved metal concentrations are often the water column parameter with
greatest potential inpact on water quality. For this reason dissolved metal
concentrations and their variation were determined along the length of the
Genesee River during a peak flow period during March 1976. The results are
shown in Appendix 2 C. As found for the total water column concentrations
discussed in the preceding section, aluminum, copper, chromium, lead, nickel
1-13
-------
and zinc concentrations (determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy) were
at or below the minimum reportable concentration. As shown previously for
total concentrations, iron and manganese usually show measurable values at
each station.
Particulate Metal Water Column Concentrations at Six Sites on March 13. 1976
Analytical results for the determination of particulate metal concen-
trations in water column samples from six sites on the Genesee River,
March 13, 1976 are shown in Appendix 2 D. In contrast to the total and
dissolved analyses, the particulate determination shows measurable metal
concentrations for nearly all metals at each station.
1-14
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SECTION 4
DISCUSSION
DATA ANALYSIS
Bottom Sediment Composition
Statistics —
In order to discuss the chemical composition of basin sediments most
conveniently, statistical procedures are usually employed. The basis for
evaluating the pollutional impact of point and nonpoint sources of individual
nutrients and metals in a basin is the frequency histogram, the statistical
distribution of the concentrations. In natural materials the concentrations
sometimes follow a Gaussian (normal) distribution (26), while in other cases
the distribution may not be amenable to a simple description (27). As
Siegel (28) and Miesch (29) have emphasized, the distribution of chemical
elements in rocks, soils, sedimentss water, and a variety of other natural
materials most often approximates a logarithimically transformed Gsussian
(lognormal) distribution which exhibits a positive asymmetry.
Frequency distribution plots of the bottom sediment nutrient and metal
concentrations are shown in Figure 4. The bell-shaped, symmetrical plots for
Al, Fe, and P are typical of a normal distribution. Plots for Cu, Mn, Ni,
Pb, Zn, total and organic C, and total N show a positive asymmetry. The Cr
distribution is strongly influenced by the frequency of results at or near
the detection limit. No sediment constituent examined in this study had a
negatively asymmetric frequency distribution plot. Figure 5 shows the
corresponding cumulative frequency distributions.
An essential statistical tool for measuring background, local, and
regional pollutant inputs and for identifying possible and probable sites of
point and nonpoint source pollution is the standard deviation (SD) of a
series of basin bottom sediment concentrations. In a geochemical analysis
sites having a concentration 2 SD greater than the basin mean are considered
anomalous.
A statistical summary of the bottom sediment concentrations for the
entire basin is presented in Table 3. This includes the arithmetic mean,
SD, and coefficient of variation (CV) (statistics of a normally distributed
population) and the log-transformed, or geometric, mean and SD (statistics
for a log-normally distributed population). The choice of whether to use
a normal or a log-normal statistical analysis depends on the actual
distribution of the sample population.
1-15
-------
1C
12
8
4
Al
N
0
60
>40
Ul
•3 20
Mn
0
•IOO 1 1 1
r
i
_J LJ
If
2,000
J|
26
20
12
I2POO
N* 100
1-,
^mf
T—l
•
i i
500 1,000
4
Cu
r"
0
60
40
20
Ni
N>
0
10
98
20
Lr-^ '
60
40
20
Cr
N*78
20 30 40 50 0
h
80
40
40 6O 80 0
en • — • — •- . .
40
20
Total
_T~
C N«99
1
L
^-L
-i
_c
— L—
40
20.
Orgi
i
CONCENTRATION
mic C
N«95
1
L
— 1
ou
40
20
N
10
_n
20 30
Pb
N«99
— »
200
400 600
24
16
8
Fe , — 1 I
N'WO
i_ :
40 0 10,000 30,000
40
20
Zn_N*99
LI :
0 IOO 200
U/g/g)
N«93
1
40
20
P
N«99
I i
^h
. . H . U-rn
0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
2.0 4.0 6.0 0 2.0 4.0 6.0
CONCENTRATION (%)
0 0.02 004 0.06 008 0.10
Injure 4. Frequency distribution plots of bottom sediment nutrient and metal concentrations.
-------
90
60
30
1000
5000
99
90
5 60
I ' I I "
ZOO 4OO 1000
99
90
60
30
'I ' I
•f-
H—H-
20 40 80 200 400
CONCENTRATION
10,000 4 6 810 20 40
6 KD 20 40 80
CONCENTRATION (//g/g)
Ibtol C
N-99
h
0 WDOO 30,000
20 50 100
500
0.2
1.0 2 10 X»
CONCENTRATION (X)
Ql
0.4
Figure 5. Cumulative frequency distribution plots of bottom sediment
nutrient and metal concentrations on a probit scale.
1-17
-------
TABLE 3, STATISTICS FOR THE CONCENTRATIONS OF NUTRIENTS AND METALS AND
THEIR LOGARITHMIC TRANSFORMATIONS FOR BOTTOM SEDIMENTS OF THE GENESEE RIVER
WATERSHED
Element
Al
Cr
Cu
Fe
Mn
Pb
Ni
Zn
Total C
Organic C
Total N
P
Concentration3.
Mean
6,660
14
18
15,060
424
40
23
69
2.06
1.37
0.105
0.0560
SD
2,620
9
7
7,312
212
67
13
37
1.68
1.28
0.098
0.014
Loq-Transformed
CV
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
.39
.66
.40
.49
.50
.69
.57
.54
.82
.94
.93
.25
Concentration3 n
Mean
3
1
1
4
2
1
1
1
0
-0
-1
-1
.787
.101
.231
.111
.585
.404
.299
.780
.185
.0553
.154
.264
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
SD
185
173
170
266
187
346
210
235
344
441
410
101
100
78
82
100
100
99
98
99
99
95
93
99
apor metals, ng/g; for nutrients, %; both on a dry-weight basis.
Several graphic and algebraic techniques are available for establishing
the statistical distribution of a sample population. For example, if the
relative frequency of a population showing a positive asymmetry (i.e. not
normally distributed) is plotted against the concentration on a logarithmic
scale, the resulting curve often describes a Gaussian distribution about
the geometric mean (i.e. the sample population is log-normally distributed).
A convenient method of determining whether a geochemical distribution
is normal or log-normal, is to plot the cumulative frequency data on a
probability scale. When the concentrations are plotted on an arithmetic
scale, a best-fit linear relation indicates a normal distribution. When
the concentrations are plotted on a logarithmic scale, it indicates a log-
normal distribution. Thus the plots for Al and Fe in Genesee River
1-18
-------
watershed bottom sediments (Figure 5) show a normal distribution. The plot
for sediment Fe suggests two normal populations, corresponding to the two
linear segments of the regression.
Plots for Cu, Mn, and Zn, on the other hand, show a simple log-normal
distribution. These three metals are often transported as or by hydrous
oxides in fluvial sediments. Sediment Ni and total C concentrations are
also log-normal, but each plot has two linear segments, suggesting that each
element may be distributed among two log-normal populations. Sediment N
concentrations are also log-normal, but the linear portion of the curve
covers a much narrower range of frequencies (30% to 80%) than is found for
the other sediment constitutents examined. This may indicate additional
variance arising from nonconservative biological processes (nitrification
and denitrification), which in large measure influence sediment N concen-
trations.
Bottom sediment Pb concentrations show the most pronounced positive
asymmetry of any sediment component examined in this study (Figures 4 and 5),
indicating that Pb is neither normally nor log-normally distributed. From
the frequency distribution plots (Figure 4) we can determine the statistical
distribution of sediment concentrations and, with this information the basin
mean concentrations and SD. For the normally distributed components
(Al, Cr, Fe, and P) these are calculated in the usual way. For the log-
normally distributed components they are calculated from the logarithmic
transformation of the sediment concentrations. The mean and values for -1
SD and +1 SD are given in Table 4. For log-normal populations the levels
+1 SD are shown as antilogs to facilitate comparison with the normally
distributed populations.
Comparisons of statistics in Tables 3 and 4 illustrates the change in
the mean and the range ( + 1 SD) when a log-normal analysis is applied.
Copper, Mn, Ni, and Zn are log-normally distributed, and use of the
appropriate statistical analysis gives a slightly lower basin mean and + 1 SD
range than do calculations intended for a normally distributed population.
As shown by Koch and Link (30), the small CV associated with these parameters
(Table 3) is consistent with the close agreement between the normal and
log-normal statistical analyses.
Sediment nutrient concentrations, organic C and N, and sediment total C,
on the other hand, show a much greater change in the mean and + 1 SD range
after a logarithmic transformation of the data. Although neither normally
nor log-normally distributed, Pb also exhibits a marked change in mean and
+ 1 SD range in a log-normal analysis.
For bottom sediments collected in the Genesee River watershed, and
possibly in other basins tributary to the North American Great Lakes, either
a normal or log-normal statistical analysis is appropriate for estimating
the basin mean concentration and range of several sediment heavy metal
components. In the case of Pb, total and organic C and N a log-normal
statistical analysis is preferred. This may also be required for toxic
substances, such as high-molecular-weight chlorinated hydrocarbons, which
1-19
-------
TABLE 4. ESTIMATES OF MEAN CONCENTRATIONS OF NUTRIENTS AND METALS AND THE RANGE OF CONCENTRATIONS
ENCOMPASSING ± 1 SD FOR BOTTOM SEDIMENT SAMPLES COLLECTED IN THE GENESEE RIVER WATERSHED
Concentration3
M
1
N5
O
Element
Al
Cr
Cu
Fe
Mn
Pb
Ni
Zn
Total C
Organic C
Total N
P
Statistical
Distribution
Normal
Normal
Log-normal
Normal
Log-normal
Log-normal
Log-normal
Log -normal
Log-normal
Log-normal
Log-normal
Normal
Arithmetic
Mean
6,660
14
*
15,060
#
*
*
*
*
*
*
0.0560
Geometric
Mean
*
*
17
*
385
25
20
60
1.530
0.880
0.070
*
Mean
-1 SD
4,040
5
12
7,750
250
12
12
35
0.692
0.319
0.027
0.0420
Mean
+1 SD
9,280
23
25
22,400
590
56
32
102
3.380
2.431
0.180
0.0700
n
100
78
82
100
100
99
98
99
99
95
93
99
aFor metals, ng/g; for nutrients, %•> both on a dry-weight basis.
*Statistic not determined.
-------
are often associated with sediment organic materials. In the case of
organic C, for example, the arithmetic mean is 40% greater than the geometric
mean. Sediment Pb concentrations show an even more striking difference
between the arithmetic and geometric means.
It is interesting to compare the estimates of the mean basin sediment
concentrations shown in Table 4 with the bottom sediment analyses for
samples collected at the Wellsville station on March 13, 1976 (Appendix A 1)
Sample 53, which probably reflects freshly deposited uncontaminated sediment
from the southernmost area of the basin, has concentrations of heavy metals
(Cu, Ni, and Zn) and major nutrients 1 SD below the basin means. Sample 52,
which appears to be contaminated by waste effluents, has concentrations of
heavy metals (Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) and major nutrients 1 SD above the
basin means.
While the basin means and + 1 SD ranges for groups of components can be
used to identify background and contaminated sediments, the occurrence of a
single component concentration beyond this range is not statistically un-
likely. As seen in the Wellsville samples, background and contaminated
sediments typically have concentrations of several heavy metals and nutrients
above + 1 SD. The likelihood of this occurring on a random basis is small.
Taken together, the sediment concentrations and their statistical
distribution do not provide evidence of major pollution of this watershed by
heavy metals.
The relationships among sediment constituents at each station are
illustrated in Figure 6 with sediment elemental concentrations plotted as
deviations from basin means in terms of each element's standard deviation
(data from Tables 3 and 4). Arithmetic data were used to plot normally
distributed components; log-transformed data were employed for log-normally
distributed components. In the uncontaminated sample from the Wellsville
station (#53) concentrations are at or below basin means. In particular,
the nutrients (organic C, N, and P) are 1 SD below the basin mean. The same
pattern (each metal at the basin mean and each nutrient approximately 1 SD
below it) is apparent for other sampling points on the Genesee River.
However, the contaminated sediment at Wellsville (#52) shows an entirely
different pattern, with nutrient and heavy metal concentraions well above
the basin means.
Interpretation —
Variations in nutrient and metal concentrations of fluvial sediment
are due to basin geology, surface erosion, riverbank erosion, industrial or
other cultural contamination, the presence of minerals rich in trace elements
(e.g. chromite), sediment ion-exchange capacity, sediment organic content,
and the presence of metallic oxides.
The mean sediment metal concentrations of the Genesee watershed are
compared in Table 5 with an average shale composition (31) and with a
typical lacustrine sediment containing carbonates (32). Differences between
the shale and lake sediment are due to a dilution effect from carbonate
1-21
-------
3cr
2
-------
minerals which have a lower heavy metal content than shale. This dilution
is greatest for iron and somewhat less for nickel, chromium zinc, and
manganese (Forstner, 1977). Approximately this sequence is seen in the
Genesee watershed sediments. In the Genesee Basin sediment metal concentra-
tion may be diluted by non-reactive rock components such as silica.
TABLE 5. MEAN METAL CONCENTRATIONS (jig/g) IN GENESEE RIVER WATERSHED
SEDIMENT, AVERAGE SHALE COMPOSITION, AND TYPICAL LAKE SEDIMENTS RICH IN
Ca-Mg CARBONATES
Genesee RiverLake Sediment rich in
Metal watershed sediment Shale£ Ca-Mg carbonates^
Iron
Manganese
Zinc
Chromium
Nickel
Copper
Lead
15,060
424
69
14
23
18
40
46,700
850
95
90
68
45
20
16,900
475
63
42
46
34
21
2. 31
Elemental Ratios for Sediment
The atomic ratios of major and minor nutrients (C, N, P) in natural
waters and sediments indicate the source and nature of nutrient inputs and
the suitability of a sediment for biological transformation as a source of
nutrients for primary productivity (33).
In the sediments of the Genesee River and two of its major tributaries,
Oatka and Canasarega Creeks, the atomic ratios for organic carbon, total
phosphorus and for minor nutrients (total extractable iron, manganese and
zinc) were determined for two moderate flow periods. The sampling periods
precede and follow the snowmelt runoff during 1976. The atomic ratios for
organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus are 54:5:1 and 54:3:1 for bottom
sediments (15 Dec. 75, 15 Mar. 76, averages of 6 and 19 replicate analyses
respectively) 79:9:1 and 53:5:1 for suspended sediment for the same dates
(N=5 and N=10 respectively). For iron, manganese and zinc the ratios are
278:9:1 and 511:9:1 for bottom sediment (15 Dec. 75, N=10; and 15 Mar 76,
1-23
-------
N=28 respectively) 333:8:1 and 388:9:1 for suspended sediments (same dates,
N=4 or N=13 respectively).
The ratios are in agreement for the two sampling periods. This
suggests that the ratios which were here determined for the river and
largest streams in the basin, reflect long term trends in basin develop-
ment and utilization. The Genesee River and Oatka Creek sediments contain
an excess of phosphorus compared to a balanced nutrient input (33). However,
apparent excess phosphorus may not be available for biological uptake because
of its chemical form.
Organic Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio in Sediments
Wetzel (34) has suggested, for dissolved constituents in lakes, that a
high ratio of organic carbon and total nitrogen indicates allochthonous input
of low nitrogen carbonaceous material into a watershed.
Genesee River sediments collected on March 15, 1976 showed a C/N ratio
related to the organic carbon content by the expression
C/N = aC + b (1)
where C/N is the organic carbon to nitrogen atomic ratio, C the sediment
organic carbon content in mg/g and a and b are constants. The expression is
based on seven samples from five sampling sites on a 100 mile section of the
river between Wellsville and Avon, N.Y. An eighth sample collected at
Wellsville, N.Y. at the same time did not follow this relationahip and may
have been contaminated by a nearby sewage treatment plant outfall. In the
equation a = 1.51 with a standard error of 4.68 and the correlation co-
efficient for the least squares line was r = 0.59.
Equation one indicates that the relation between C:N ratio and organic
carbon content of dissolved constituents in lakes may also apply to river
and stream sediments. Scatter associated with the data may be due to inputs
of high nitrogen organic material from municipal and agricultural wastes and
to nitrogen losses from sediments by denitrification (35, 36). For
comparison we analyzed sediment-like substances with high and low nitrogen
contents, commercial peat (low nitrogen) and Milorganite, a high organic
nitrogen fertilizer manufactured from Milwaukee sewage sludge, With waste
pickling liquid added to precipitate phosphates. The peat had C = 216.98 mg
C/gm and C/N = 108 while the Milorganite had C = 375.91 mg C/gm and C/N = 6.2.
While these limiting cases do not follow the relationship obtained for the
Genesee River sediments, they do illustrate the range of C/N values which
might be encountered in areas of point or non-point source pollution. The
carbon-nitrogen ratios for these limiting cases are also well outside the
range cited by Wetzel (1975): allochthonous organic matter C:N = 50:1;
autochthonous organic matter C:N = 12.1.
Organic Carbon to Phosphorus Ratio in Sediments
The sediments from the Genesee River which showed a linear relationship
1-24
-------
between C/N ratio and the organic carbon content of the sediment also show
a linear relationship between sediment organic carbon content and the carbon
to phosphorus atomic ratio.
C/P = aC + b (2)
where C/P is the carbon to phosphorus atomic ratio, C is the organic carbon
content of the sediment in mg/g and a and b are constants. The values for
the constants obtained by a least squares best fit procedure for the seven
data points were: a = 4.72 with a standard error of 0.39; b = 2.0 with a
standard error of 1.72 and the correlation coefficient, r = 0.98. As for
the C:N ratio, an eighth sediment sample appeared to be contaminated by
sewage and did not follow equation 2.
LOCAL VARIATIONS IN SEDIMENT AND WATER COLUMN CONCENTRATIONS
The major sources of fluvial sediment In North American streams and
rivers are: agricultural runoff, stream bank erosion and urban runoff. The
annual suspended load of the Maumee River, Ohio, U.S.A. has been reported to
be largely surficial in origin. Stall (37) reported that most fluvial
sediment in the U.S.A. originated from agricultural land.
Superimposed upon the sediment constitutents derived from erosion are
nutrients and metals from point source input.
To identify point source inputs to river sediments it is useful to
have an estimate of sediment homogeniety at each sampling site. For this
purpose, replicate samples were collected at each site. Replicate samples
collected at different locations at each site were generally in good
agreement for all parameters. Agreement between replicates was excellent at
Transit Bridge, at Whiskey Bridge, and at Jones Bridge. Replicate results
for metal concentrations were in satisfactory agreement at Rochester and,
to a greater extent, at Avon. Nutrient concentrations at each of these two
sites fluctuated, however, suggesting that wastewater inputs to the lower
reach of the river do not distribute uniformly within the sediments.
A pronounced example of the input of wastewater effluents on fluvial
sediment composition is seen at Wellsville, where sediments show large
fluctuations in all metals and nutrients (Figure 6). Evidently two types of
sediments are present in the channel but are not mixing to form a uniform
material having some intermediate or average composition. One sediment
type (samples 49, 51, 53) is characteristic of uncontaminated basin mineral
sediments, while the other appear to be relatively contaminated by organic
material from domestic wastewater discharges.
Sediment sample 53 was collected 200 m upstream of the Wellsville
Bridge sampling site on a shoal recently formed in the main channel of the
river. The composition of this sample reflects uncontaminated river sedi-
ments deposited during the spring runoff. Samples 50 and 52, obtained at
the bridge in the eastern half of the channel, have the high organic carbon
concentrations characteristic of sediments contaminated by sewage effluents.
The remaining samples, collected in the western section of the channel
1-25
-------
(in the vicinity of the bridge) or upstream show little evidence of con-
tamination.
The uncontaminated sediments are characterized by high concentrations
of extractable Al and low concentrations of heavy metals and nutrients, while
the contaminated ones are low in Al and high in Fe, heavy metals, and nu-
trients.
In general, as shown for total analysis (Appendix A l) there is little
evidence of pronounced contamination of river-bed materials.
As shown in the total analysis, specific sampling sites such as Wei1s-
ville, N.Y. appear to have some contaminated sediments in the channel. Two
samples collected at Wellsville on 13 March 1976 (Appendix A 3) which show
elevated total nutrient and metal concentrations are the only samples showing
significant amounts of hydroxylamine hydrochloride extractable lead and
copper. The accumulation of these extractable metals in the sediments may
arise in an area of active precipitation of manganese from the water column.
This may occur near a sewage outfall. Elevated sediment manganese values
indicate that sediment oxidation-reduction potentials were not sufficiently
lowered by the presence of organic matter to solubilize the precipitated
hydrous manganese oxides in the sediments.
Extraction of amorphous iron oxides by ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid
reagent also shows two samples collected at Wellsville on March 13 have
elevated levels of Cu and Zn. Indeed the extractable concentration of Cu
and Zn from the iron oxides is nearly equal to that obtained by hydroxylamine.
This result suggests that both iron and manganese hydrous oxides are involved
in heavy metal accumulation by sediments. With the exception of sediment
samples apparently contaminated by wastewater discharges at Wellsville, New
York, transportedsediments do not exhibit elevated levels of total or ex-
tractable metals. The phosphorus fractional analysis in large measure
supports this conclusion (see Appendix 1 B). The apparently contam-
inated sediments at Wellsville have the highest concentrations of NaOH ex-
tractable phosphorus and elevated phosphorus extracted from hydrous oxides.
Thus sediment hydrous oxides are apparently involved in immobilization of
sewage phosphorus inputs.
A comparison of sediment extractable major metals (aluminum, iron, and
manganese) and extractable phosphorus shows that each of the metal oxides
may be involved in phosphorus fixation. The exact chemical composition of
the phosphorus-hydrous oxide compound formed under these circumstances is
unknown.
Analyses of resuspended sediment samples do not exhibit the local var-
iations seen in bottom sediment analyses. These samples uniformly exhibit
higher levels of metals and nutrients than seen in bottom sediment samples.
This is consistent with the higher specific surface exhibited by these
samples. Resuspended sediment elemental concentrations show less variation
over the length of the river than the bottom sediment samples. This obser-
vation is true at the Wellsville station as well, where as noted in the
previous section, bottom sediments showed dramatic fluctuations.
1-26
-------
Total phosphorus content of resuspended bottom sediment is 2 to 3
times greater than that of bottom materials at the same station. Metal con-
tents are also higher by a similar factor.
Local variations are also seen in some water column concentrations,
for example, elevated metal concentrations at Mount Morris, the mid-basin
station (Appendix 2,C and D). High particulate metal level reflects the
high suspended solids concentration at this site. In addition the data show
a decrease in the downstream particulate metal concentrations suggesting
that the elevated metal levels seen at Mount Morris do not lead to increased
loadings to Lake Ontario.
Particulate iron concentrations are significantly higher than the
measured total water column iron concentration for samples collected at the
same station at the same time (Appendix 2,C and D). This difference arises
because of a better release of particulate iron through a hot, concentrated
acid digestion, rather than a mild pH adjustment. The improved analysis
of particulate metals brought about by digestion may also hold true for
water column phosphorus which may be associated with iron during transport.
For all metals, the total water concentration was calculated as the
sum of the dissolved and particulate concentrations. Cadmium concentrations
were also examined in this study and the dissolved, particulate and total
concentrations were at or less than the analytical detection limit. Results
of the calculation of percent metal carried by the particulate phase in the
Genesee River are in Table 6 .
Fluctuations in the percent metal carried by the particulate phase reflect
variations in the water column particulate concentration. Indeed, the
highest percent metal carried by suspended sediment and the highest total
water column metal concentrations do not occur at the river mouth (where
flow is the highest) but at a station 60 miles downstream from Lake Ontario
(Mt. Morris). This station is located below a large impoundment and increased
suspended sediment loads may result from river bed erosion. The next
sampling station, 30 miles closer to Lake Ontario (Avon), has the same flow
as the Jones Br. station on the sampling date; however, the water column
total concentrations and thus the total loads for both zinc and manganese
decrease substantially between the two stations.
The data shown in Table 6 indicate that, for the period examined here,
the predominant mode of metal transport in the Genesee River is via the
particulate phase. It appears that the particulate load carried by a river,
and its associated metal content, are influenced by factors other than flow.
In the Genesee Basin for example, sediment downstream from the mouth of the
river temporarily increases water column total concentrations and loads.
However, the results indicate that this increased suspended sediment load
is not stable in the river, settling out of the water column well before
Rochester. Mid-basin elevated total metal concentrations thus do not
contribute directly or indirectly to Lake Ontario loading.
1-27
-------
TABLE 6 . PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL METAL CONCENTRATION TRANSPORTED BY PARTICIPATE
MATERIAL IN GENESEE RIVER WATER AT SIX SAMPLING STATIONS, DECEMBER 14, 1975
Station Al Cu Fe Mn Pb Zn
Wellsville
Transit Br.
Portageville
Mount Morris
Avon
Rochester
—
79
96
96
—
100
93
66
80
84
69
40
77
98
97
99
75
95
40
58
73
79
44
52
—
94
82
82
78
77
30
60
61
66
53
40
BOTTOM SEDIMENT ANALYTICAL RESULTS COMPARED WITH OTHER PUBLISHED DATA FOR
THE GENESEE RIVER
Total Analysis
Total .sediment content for a number of elements has been determined
for samples obtained from 25 stations throughout the watershed over the
seasons of the year. The ranges were: aluminum, 2,8000 - 11,000
chromium, 10 - 79 t^g/g; copper, 11-41 ng/g; iron, 2,350-26,000
manganese, 180-1,035 p>g/g; nickel, 10-87 Hg/g; lead, 10-320 ng/g; zinc,
35-210 iJ-g/g; total carbon, 0.31-8.26%; organic carbon, 0.09-5.69%, total
nitrogen, 0.011-0.63% and total phosphorus, 0.033-0.096%. Total sediment
concentration ranges can be compared with data obtained by the U.S.E.P.A.
for analysis of sediments collected in Lake Ontario at the mouth of the
Genesee River (12 sampling stations) from June 1972 to May 1973 (38). The
ranges for selected results from this investigation were: copper, 6-50
manganese, 25-800 H-g/g; nickel, 10-450 ng/g; lead, 5-80 Hg/g; zinc, 25-350;
organic carbon, 0.10-3%, total; nitrogen, 0.025-0.26%; total phosphorus,
0.01-0.1%. The agreement between the watershed and lake sediments is
generally satisfactory. Lower values in lake sediments for manganese may
result from solubilization under reducing conditions. High values for zinc
and nickel in the lake sediments reflect point source inputs adjacent to the
lake. Larger ranges for lead, organic carbon and total nitrogen in the
watershed sediments probably reflect local point and non-point input sources
of these elements. Total phosphorus analytical ranges are quite similar for
the fluvial and lacustrine sediments. Total sediment phosphorus content
from a sample collected in the Genesee River on October 9, 1973 (8 ) of 825
Hg P/g is consistent with phosphorus result range found in this study.
1-28
-------
Fractional Analyses
The sediment contents extracted by selective reagents have been deter-
mined for bottom sediment samples from 25 stations within the watershed
Ranges for phosphorus fractional analysis were: sodium hydroxide extractable
phosphorus, 11-410 p.g P/g> hydrochloric acid (following sodium hydroxide) ex-
tractable phosphorus, 187-731 p.g P/g; hydroxylamine extractable phosphorus,
6-313 n-g P/g; and ammonium oxalate (following hydroxylamine) extractable
phosphorus, 71-405 p-g P/g. Values reported for extractable phosphorus from
sediments collected in the Genesee River on October 9, 1973 ( 8) are in
agreement with the results of this study (sodium hydroxide extractable phos-
phorus 100 p.g P/g and hydrochloric acid extractable (following sodium hydro-
xide and citrate-dithionite-bicarbonate extraction) phosphorus 328 )J.g P/g).
Fractional analysis of sediments from the Rochester Basin of Lake
Ontario show significantly higher minimum extractable phosphorus fractions
than bottom sediments from the Genesee River Watershed. The minimum NaOH
extractable phosphorus content from sediments collected in the watershed was
11 p.g P/g (N=30) while the minimum value for sediments collected in the
Rochester Basin of Lake Ontario was 129 Jig P/g (N=9). This difference be-
tween lake and river sediments reflects the general increase found in total
phosphorus content of lake sediments with increasing water depth (39) and
results from transport and deposition of fine-textured materials in low-
energy areas of lakes. Suspended sediment in the Genesee River Watershed
has a higher phosphorus content than bottom sediments indicating that
phosphorus accumulates in the smaller size fraction components of basin
sediments. Recent research has indicated the importance of phosphorus trans-
port by suspended sediment (40, 41).
Bottom sediment iron and manganese fractional extraction analysis ranges
were: hydroxylamine extractable iron, 33-150 ng/g; hydroxylamine extractable
manganese, 41-385 ng/g; ammonium oxalate (following hydroxylamine) extract-
able iron, 800-5, 700 p-g/g and ammonium oxalate (following hydroxylamine)
extractable manganese 15-133 M-g/g. These results can be compared with the
range of values fox 10 lake sediment samples from the central and western
U.S.A. (extractable iron, 3,700-11,800 p-g/g; extractable manganese, 120-660
P-g/g (42). For these lake sediments both oxides of iron and manganese were
dissolved with a strong reducing agent, sodium dithionite, and the ranges
were slightly higher than the results for the Genesee River Watershed sedi-
ments. Higher lake sediment extractable metal values than those for Genesee
River Watershed sediments are due to differences in sample types and analy-
tical procedure. A comparison of manganese extraction from stream sediments
using two different methods, a dithionite procedure and a hydroxylamine pro-
cedure, showed that the dithionite extracts 10% to 20% more of the total
manganese present in a sediment (43).
PHOSPHORUS IN THE GENESEE WATERSHED
Understanding the fate of phosphorus in a watershed is critical to the
development of strategies to cope effectively with eutophication (44). Sedi-
ment-bound phosphorus is contributed by sewage, eroded soil, plant material,
1-29
-------
and urban runoff. These solids are transported as suspended sediment and as
bedload. Transport of phosphorus associated with larger particle size sedi-
ment occurs only during periods of high river discharge. Soluble phosphorus
entering a watershed in runoff or wastewater, on the other hand, is
apparently sorbed on suspended particles and/or reacts with other water col-
umn constitutents to form insoluble substances which are transported by water
and eventually deposited in fine grained sediment. In lakes, soluble phos-
phorus is typically converted to biomass, recycled through the water column,
and eventually deposited in bottom sediments. Establishment of realistic and
successful strategies for controlling phosphorus inputs to the North American
Great Lakes requires that periods of intense hydrological activity in a basin
be carefully studied and characterized.
Chemical reactions influencing phosphate distribution in the
Genesee River were identified using three separate techniques:
(1) as discussed in previous sections, sediment samples collected
during synoptic surveys were analyzed using a variety of selective phoshorus
extraction procedures to differentiate the physical and chemical state of
sediment phosphorus; (2) water column chemical concentrations from samples
obtained concurrently with the sediment samples were used to calculate
equilibria for the determination of ion activity products of several mineral
phases which may remove phosphorus from the water column; and (3) a crystall-
ization procedure with seeding was used to monitor the distribution of in-
organic phosphate between solution and solid phases during calcite precipi-
tation in simulated natural water.
Phosphorus Distribution
The major sediment phosphorus fraction is that extracted by hydrochloric
acid. This extraction, which is preceded by a sodium hydroxide extraction,
yields occluded phosphorus incorporated in hydrous metal oxides, carbonate
and phosphate minerals. Phosphorus extracted from sediments by NaOH has been
related to surface-exchangeable or bioavailable phosphorus (19) (Table 7).
Ammonium oxalate-oxalic acid solution extracts somewhat less phosphorus
than hydrochloric acid, while sodium hydroxide as well as hydroxylamine re-
agents extract much less. Hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum are extracted
by the oxalate reagent. An extraction procedure which specifically removes
hydrous manganese oxides (hydroxylamine hydrochloride plus nitric acid) pre-
ceded the oxalate extraction. Total extractable sediment phosphorus in-^
eludes the organic sediment phosphorus in addition to the inorganic portions
determined by the selective extraction analyses.
The absolute amounts and classes are related to the sediment particle
size and surface area (M. Reddy, unpublished data). The variation in total
extractable sediment phosphorus concentration among the three sediment types
is shown in Table 7 is clear. A statistical analysis of these data shows that
both the suspended sediment and particulate total phosphorus concentrations
are greater than the bottom sediment value at the 99% confidence level.
Phosphorus content increases in the sequence; bottom sediment, suspended sed-
iment, and particulate material in correlation with the increase in the
surface area of the sediment (M. Reddy, unpublished results). Hieh surface
1-30
-------
TABLE 7. STATISTICS FOR PHOSPHORUS ANALYSES FOR SEVERAL SEDIMENT TYPES COLLECTED IN THE
GENESEE RIVER WATERSHED. NEW YORK, (uq/q)
i
to
Sample
Bottom Sediment
Total Analysis
NaOH Extractable
HC1 Extractable
NH OH Extractable
(NH4)2C204 Extractable
Suspended Sediment
Total Analysis
NaOH Extractable
HC1 Extractable
NHgOH Extractable
(NH.LC 0, Extractable
X
560
58
398
74
184
770
163
528
70
474
Range
330 -
5 -
177 -
6 -
49 -
390 -
19 -
258 -
3 -
119 -
980
410
731
313
453
2020
1000
664
385
1110
-------
area sediment components may adsorb phosphorus-containing substances from
the water column, increasing their phosphorus content; other possible ex-
planations include dilution of bottom sediment by inert material such as
sand.
Phosphorus Transport
Sediments are recognized as a major transport medium for phosphorus to
the North American Great Lakes. Phosphorus transport in watersheds such as
the Genesee occurs in large part during rainfall and snowmelt discharge
events. The transport of elements from a watershed can be expresses as unit
load. This quantity is defined as the amount of material carried by a river
at a given point divided by the area drained by the river above that point.
For the synoptic studies described here the unit loads are expressed as grams
of phosphorus per second per acre (Figure 7). The major component of the
phosphorus load transported by the Genesee River during the two sampling
periods discussed here (December 14, 1975 and March 13, 1976) is that
associated with the suspended sediment. Dissolved phosphorus in the water
column during these periods was typically less than half of the total water
column concentration.
Unit loads varied widely (Figure 7). A flood control impoundment,
located just upstream of the Mount Morris sampling station markedly in-
fluences the Genesee River discharge and suspended sediment concentrations
at the downstream stations. Three sampling stations upstream of the Mount
Morris impoundment (Wellsville, Transit Br., and Portageville) show a smooth
and systematic increase in the phosphorus unit load going downstream. In
contrast, unit loads at the mid-basin sites show much larger absolute values
and fluctuations than the other stations. These stations exhibit large var-
iations in discharge and therefore in suspended sediment concentrations.
Equilibrium Calculation of Mineral Saturation in the Genesee River
The importance of heterogeneous equilibria in regulating dissolved in-
organic phosphorus concentrations in the Genesee River was examined by cal-
culating the ion activity products of several mineral phases using the
WATEQF (45) chemical model and/or mass action and mass balance equations with
a small laboratory computer. During high discharge periods in December and
March there is extensive undersaturation in the water column with respect to
calcium carbonate and phosphate phases, while during August 1976, a relative-
ly lower flow period, the first four downstream sampling stations in the
Genesee showed saturation or supersaturation with respect to calcite (Figure
8). Thus during the summer it appears that in the lower reach of the Genesee
River, sediment surface calcium carbonate is stable.
Saturation levels for the stable calcium phosphate mineral, hydroxya-
patite are 1010 below the equilibrium values for the Genesee River stations
during the high flow sampling periods of December and March. Fertilizer
applied to calcareous soils produces minerals such as hydroxyapatite (46).
When such soils are eroded, and subsequently carried to the Genesee River,
this mineral phase will be in a markedly subsaturated solution and will tend
1-32
-------
60
o 50
x
CD
O
o> 40
a
3 30
C/)
ir 20
O
CL
10
T
December 14, 1975
March 13,1976
T l
i I
I I
l 1
1 1
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
MILES ABOVE MOUTH OF GENESEE RIVER
Figure 7. Total phosphorus instantaneous unit load, percent load as dis-
solved phosphorus, and discharge for six stations on the Genesee
River.
1-33
-------
10
8
ro
O
O
o
10
CL
8
II
10
9
8
August 1,1976
J—i—i—i—i—\—i—i
March 13,1976
i—i—i—i—i—i—i
December 14,1975
= 25°C)
= 2°C)
= 8.05
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
MILES ABOVE MOUTH OF GENESEE RIVER
Figure 8. Ion activity product of calcite plotted as a function of sampl
point distance from Lake Ontario.
1-34
-------
to dissolve releasing inorganic phosphate ion to the water column. Release
of phosphorus from agriculturally derived soils and sediments during high
discharge periods may be counteracted by runoff dilution. Data reported by
the U.S.G.S. for the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario basins, for the period
considered here shows phosphorus concentration in rainwater to be 0.010 mg
P/l (47). This concentration is much less than the soil water phosphorus
concentration. Base flow Genesee River dissolved inorganic phosphorus con-
centrations are 0.004 mg P/l, while peak flow values are approximately 0.011
mg P/l. Since recent evidence (48) indicates that less than 25% of rain
water phosphorus is dissolved inorganic phosphorus, these results support
the suggestion that some form of solid dissolution is involved in the regula-
tion of the water column phosphorus concentration. During summer low flow
periods calcium carbonate in sediments may serve as a sink for dissolved
phosphorus.
Dissolved metals other than calcium have a minor effect on the distri-
bution of phosphorus between the water column and sediment in this fluvial
system. The two principal metals of interest, iron and aluminum, are present
in Genesee River water almost entirely in the particulate phase (49). Dis-
solved concentrations are below the detection limits
(less than 50 ug/1). Iron and aluminum minimum detectable concentrations
were used to estimate thesaturation levels of the corresponding phosphate
minerals. Both iron and aluminum phosphate minerals are substantially below
saturation levels. The solid surfaces exhibited by iron and aluminum hydrous
oxides (as particulate material in the water column) undoubtedly serve as
sites for phosphorus adsorption and incorporation in the fluvial system.
Data presented for the oxalate extraction procedure in Table 7 demonstrate
the importance of phosphorus binding by hydrous metal oxides.
Nriagu (50) has proposed that basic metal phosphates are important sinks
for heavy metals in the environment. In most natural waters of New York
State dissolved basic metals including Pb, Cu, and Zn are at low concentra-
tions (below 10 ug/1), and therefore these metals would not be expected to
be a major factor governing phosphorus distribution.
Phosphate Distribution During Calcite Crystallization
The crystallization rate data illustrated in Figure 9 follow a rate
equation
dN / dt = -ksN2 (1)
where N is calcium carbonate (in mol/1) at time t to be precipitated from
solution before equilibrium is attained; k is the crystal growth rate con-
stant; and s is the seed crystal concentration, which is proportional to the
surface area available for growth. Examination of calcite growth rate data
is facilitated by presentation in the integrated form of Equation 1
N-l - No'1 = k-s-t (2)
where N0 is calcium carbonate to be precipitated from the supersaturated
solution at zero time. The linear plot of N-1 - N0 as a function of time
(Figure 10) confirms the validity of Eq. 2 for the interpretation of the
1-35
-------
X
a.
40 60
MINUTES
80
100
Figure 9. Plots of solution total calcium concentration and pH as a
function of time for a typical calcite seeded crystallization
experiment in simulated natural water.
1-36
-------
I2,000r
20
40 60
MINUTES
100
Figure 10. Caicite crystallization rate function
for data shown in Figure 9.
versus time
1-37
-------
experimental results. The inhibition of crystallization by phosphate is
marked (Figure 11) and appears to be due to simple adsorption of the ions at
growth sites on the crystal surface. This is demonstrated by plotting the
rate constants, in the presence and absence of phosphate, in a form corres-
ponding to a simple Langmuir-type adsorption (51)
k0 / (k0 - k) = 1 + k2 / k], • phosphate (3)
where k0 is the crystal growth rate constant in the absence of phosphate ion
and ki and k2 are the adsorption and desorption rate constants for these
ions, respectively. In Figure 12, ko / (k0 - k) is plotted against the
reciprocal of the phosphate concentration. The linear relation with an
intercept of unity indicates that the Langmuir isotherm satisfactorily
describes the marked inhibitory effect of phosphate in terms of a mono-
molecular blocking layer of these ions at the growth sites on the crystal
surface. There is not evidence for the formation of a second phase on the
surface of the calcite seed even though these solutions are supersaturated
with respect to the thermodynamically stable calcium phosphate phase,
hydroxyapatite. This can be clearly seen in Figure 13 which shows solution
phosphate concentration during a series of calcite crystallization experi-
ments. In experiments with low phosphate concentrations (less than 10 m),
extended reaction times (l day) yielded significant reductions in solution
phase phosphate concentration (10 to 20% removal). These long-term phos-
phate changes 'showed little systematic behavior and may be related to the
surface nucleation of solid calcium phosphate.
Conclusions Relative to Phosphate Distribution in Alkaline Natural Waters
Selective extractions, chemical equilibrium calculations, and
crystallization measurements presented here suggest that the hydrous iron
oxides, even in the carbonate-dominated Genesee River, play a major part
in inorganic phosphorus transport by sediments in the fluvial system.
Saturation levels of inorganic phosphate and calcium carbonate minerals
in the Genesee River indicate that phosphate mineral dissolution, and not
precipitation, may be the predominant heterogeneous reaction during periods
of high discharge. Elevated discharge and sediment transport occur
primarily in March through May. Phosphate mineral dissolution occurring.
during fluvial transport then has an immediate impact on Lake Ontario.
Dissolution of phosphorus-containing minerals transforms sediment phosphorus
from a biologically unavailable form to a form that is readily incorporated
by microorganisms in the lake. Evidence of the relationship between lake
water phosphorus contents.and algal productivity is the correlation of
spring phosphorus values with summer chlorophyll concentrations (52).
In the lower reaches of the Genesee River, the results of the
extractions suggest that substances other than hydrous oxides are phosphorus
sinks. This is evident where the amount of sediment phosphorus extracted
by hydrochloric acid steadily increases downriver, while the oxalate-
extractable phosphorus remains relatively constant. Schwertmann (6)
emphasized that the results of such procedures are best considered as a
measure of an element's reactivity in a sediment under carefully controlled
1-38
-------
ro
O
12
-C
10
~ 8
To
~ 4
2
0
Run
47 0.04
48 0.10
I I l l I I I I I I I
0 20 40 60 80 100
MINUTES
Figure 11. Calcite crystal growth in the presence and absence of phos-
phate ion, as expressed by the rate function N -NQ versus
time. The symbols and the numbers beside the curves indicate
phosphate concentration multiplied by 104. Adapted, by per-
mission, from the J. Crystal Growth 41_ (1977) p. 294.
1-39
-------
1.4
1.3
•o
r 1.2
I.I
1.0
_ D
0
4 8 12 16 20 24
I/([phosphate] xlO4)
Figure 12. Langmuir isotherm plot of kQ/(k0- k) against the reciprocal
of the phosphate concentration, where kg is the calcite
growth rate constant in the absence of phosphate and k is the
rate constant in the presence of phosphate: (O) kQ = 0.824;
(D) k0 = 1.205; (A) k0 = 0.790. Adapted, by permission,
from the J. Crystal Growth 41 (1977) p. 294.
1-40
-------
<~>
PHOSPHATE (moles/J x l(
100
80
60
1
<
0
pH= 8.8 ; TC,, (o) = 2.5 x ICT4; TCo3(0) = 4 x IO'3
>y^o — n i -, "
i i i i I I'L L 1
1
(0) a
6-
A
2 ^
[•_ "
20 40 60 8O 100 0 20 40 60 80 IOC
MINUTES
Figure 13. Phosphate concentration versus time for several calcite seeded growth experiments in the
presence of phosphate ion.
-------
conditions. Laboratory experiments (Figure 13) show that phosphorus uptake
by calcium carbonate, under simulated natural conditions, proceeds slowly.
The large hydrochloric acid-extractable component observed at Rochester may
arise from slow uptake and subsequent mineralization of dissolved inorganic
phosphorus by carbonate minerals.
From the selective extraction analysis of sediment, chemical equili-
brium calculations, and seeded crystallization measurements, several con-
clusions can be reached concerning the behavior of phosphate in alkaline
surface waters.
(l) Inorganic phosphorus in bottom sediment appears to reside
primarily in association with surface hydrous oxide coatings of sediments.
Hydrous metal oxides, in particular those of iron, transported as suspended
sediment may scavenge phosphate from the water column in a fluvial system.
(2) Inorganic phosphorus incorporated with easily reducible hydrous
manganese oxides is typically less than that found for the hydrous oxides
of iron and aluminum.
(3) A fraction of the sediment-bound phosphorus exists in a form which
is not extracted with the hydrous metal oxides, but is removed by treatment
with dilute hydrochloric acid. This suggests the occurrence of phosphorus
in carbonate minerals and/or the occurrence of phosphate minerals.
(4) Phosphorus transport in the Genesee River, expressed as
instantaneous unit load of total water column phosphorus, shows moderate
agreement for the stations reported here, with the exception of two mid-
basin sites. These locations exhibit discharge dependent bottom sediment
remobilization which leads to inappropriately high unit loading.
(5) During high discharge, many areas of the Genesee basin are
subsaturated with respect to calcite, while during summer baseflow periods
calcite saturation or supersaturation is widespread. Under these conditions
calcite could mediate phosphorus mineral formation.
(6) A detailed examination of phosphate distribution between solution
and solid phase during calcite crystallization in a simulated natural water
shows that phosphorus adsorbs as a monolayer, causing slight changes in the
solution phosphorus concentration. It appears that under the conditions
examined in this study, calcite-mediated phosphorus mineralization has a
role in the movement of phosphorus from the water column to sediments,
although the extent and rates of the process in natural systems remain to
be determined.
Differences in river basin morphology, soil characteristics, pre-
cipitation, and land-use in a watershed influence phosphorus transport in a
fluvial system. However, the dominance of iron oxides as an inorganic
phosphate sink, and the discharge-dependent behavior of calcium carbonate-
phosphate minerals would be expected to exist in other calcareous agricul-
tural regions of New York State as well. Mountainous terrain and areas of
1-42
-------
sand and muck soil would probably not exhibit the same behavior. It would
seem that the results of this study could also apply to other agricultural
watersheds adjacent to the North American Great Lakes.
1-43
-------
SECTION 5
CONCLUSIONS
Metal and nutrient concentrations in the Genesee were typical for
a non-polluted environment except for a moderate enrichment of phosphorus
and a slight enrichment of lead. The phosphorus enrichment in the sediment
arises both from agricultural activities and agricultural and municipal
wastes. Lead enrichment, in the predominantly non-urban setting, may be due
to a diffuse atmospheric input.
GENESEE RIVER WATERSHED SEDIMENT COMPOSITION
Sediment Phosphorus
Enrichment of Genesee River watershed sediments with phosphorus is
attributable to man's activities in the basin. The major components of the
culturally derived phosphorus enriched sediment are: eroded fertilized
agricultural soils and, agricultural and domestic wastes. Wastes contain
both soluble and particulate phosphorus. Dissolved phosphorus in a stream
or river may adsorb reversibly to suspended sediment. Adsorbed sediment
phosphorus is highly bioavailable, but if it is not utilized it will event-
ually transform to a non-reactive, non-bioavailable phosphorus containing
mineral. A large percentage of the annual phosphorus load delivered to Lake
Ontario by the Genesee River is transported as eroded soil and river bank
material. Phosphorus is also apparently sorbed, either directly or through
biological processes, to suspended particles which are transported by water
and deposited eventually in areas of active sedimentation. Chemical equi-
librium calculations performed in this laboratory indicate that a significant
driving force exists for the formation of an epitaxial calcium phosphate
mineral (hydroxyapatite)on carbonate minerals transported in the Genesee
River watershed sediments during summer months.
Sediment Phosphorus - Organic Carbon Relationship
Sediments with high organic carbon content in the Genesee River
probably arise principally from inputs of low phosphorus allochthonous
carbonaceous material to the river. Excellent agreement between the data
points and the best fit line for the C/P vs C relation may result from the
conservative nature of phosphorus in natural waters and sediments (41).
Sediment Lead and Other Metals
The elevated lead concentrations in the Genesee Watershed sediments
1-44
-------
may be due to atmospheric inputs of lead transported from the highly
industrialized midwestern United States. Point-source inputs of lead in the
predominantly forested and agricultural basin are probably negligible.
Durum and co-workers (54) have shown that in -high-alkalinity surface waters,
lead solubility will be low, and most of the rainfall and dustfall lead will
be transferred to river sediments, where it will tend to accumulate. Water
in the Genesee River watershed typically has moderate to high alkalinity.
Until more results from concurrent studies in the Great Lakes Basin
become available, the magnitude of cultural metal input into the Genesee
watershed sediments can be evaluated by comparing them with sediments in
four tributaries of Chesapeake Bay: the Elizabeth, Delaware, Potomac, and
James rivers (55). The Elizabeth River supports a highly industrialized
port facility. The others are less intensively developed: The Delaware
is an industrial tidal system, the Potomac an estuary with mainly municipal
inputs, and the James a relatively light municipal and industrial input
system.
Mean sediment concentrations of three metals for the Genesee River
watershed are lower by at least a factor of 2 than the Chesapeake Bay
tributary sediments (Table 8). This and the comparably lower ranges suggest
that predominantly agricultural and forested watersheds, such as that of
the Genesee River, yield smaller concentrations of sediment metals than the
more industrialized basins of the eastern seacoast. Sediment lead concen-
tration, an exception to this general trend, may reflect a loading in the
Genesee watershed not present in the James and Potomac rivers. This
interpretation is consistent with the observation by Durum and Hem (56)
that lead was found most often in waters of the northeastern and south-
eastern United States. In addition, Lazarus and co-workers (57) re-
ported that the highest rates of lead fallout occurred in the same area.
Lower zinc concentrations in Genesee sediments may reflect fewer commercial
sources of this metal in the Genesee watershed than in basins adjacent to
Chesapeake Bay.
1-45
-------
TABLE 8. METAL CONCENTRATIONS IN SEDIMENTS FROM THE GENESEE RIVER WATERSHED AND FOUR TRIBUTARIES TO
CHESAPEAKE BAY
Chesapeake Bay tributary-
Metal
Copper
Lead
Zinc
Chromium
Gene see
River
Mean
18
40
69
14
Range
8-41
6-550
15-210
10-79
Elizabeth
River
Mean
65
91
379
44
Range
2-393
3-382
38-2,380
9-110
Delaware
River
Mean
73
145
137
58
Range
4-201
26-850
523-1,364
8-172
. Potomac
River
Mean Range
* 10-60
* 20-100
* 125-1,000
* 20-80
James
River
Mean Range
* *
27 4-55
131 10-708
* *
3 Reference 57
*Data not available
-------
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45. Plummer, L. N., Jones, B. F. and Truesdell, A. H. WATEQF A Fortran IV
version of WATEQ, a computer program for calculating chemical equilib-
rium of natural waters. U. S. Geol. Survey Water Resour. Invest. 76-13.
46. Mattingly, G. E. G., Soil Sci., 119:369, 1975.
47. Water Resources Data for New York Water Year 1976. Vol. 1. U. S. Geol.
Survey Water Data Report NY761.
48. Nicholls, K. H. and Cox, C. M. Water Resour. Research, 14:589, 1978.
49. Reddy, M. M., Particulate Metal Transport in the Genesee River, New
York, presented at the American Chemical Society National Meeting,
Los Angeles, Calif. March 1978.
1-49
-------
50. Nriagu, J. The Geochemical Consequences of Phosphate Interaction with
Heavy Metals, presented at the Geological Society of America Meeting,
Salt Lake City, Utah. October, 1975.
51. Reddy, M. M. and G. H. Nancollas, Desalination, 12:61, 1973.
52. Lorenzen, M., Ins Water Pollution Microbiology, Vol. 2, Mitchell, R., ed.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1978. pp. 31-50.
53. Johnson, A. H., D. R. Bouldin, E. A. Goyette and A. M. Hedges. J. Envir.
Qual., 5:3£6, 1976.
54. Durum, W. H., J. D. Hem, and S. G. Heidel. Reconnaissance of Selected
Minor Elements in Surface Waters of the United States, U. S. Geological
Survey Circular, 643, 1971.
55. Johnson, P. G., and 0. Villa, Jr. Distribution of Metals in Elizabeth
River Sediments. EPA Report EPA 903/9-76-023, U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, NTIS.
56. Durum, W. H., and J. D. Hem. In: Geochemical Environment in Relation
to Health and Disease, H. C. Hopps and H. L. Cannon, eds. Annals of the
New York Academy of Sciences, 199:26-36, 1972.
57. Lazarus, A. E., E. Lorange, and J. P. Lodge, Jr. Environ. Sci. Techno1.,
4:55, 1970.
1-50
-------
APPENDIXES
1. Analytical Results for Sediment Samples from the Genesee River.
2. Analytical Results for Water Column Samples from the Genesee River.
1-51
-------
Appendix 1. Analytical Results for Sediment Samples from the Genesee River
A. Concentrations of Metals (p.g/g) and Nutrients (%) in Bottom
Sediment from the Genesee River, 13 March 1976. Replicate
Samples.
B. Concentrations of Extractable Phosphorus (%) in Bottom
Sediment from the Genesee River, 13 March 1976. Replicate
Samples.
C. Concentrations of Extractable Metals (p.g/g) in Bottom
Sediment from the Genesee River, 13 March 1976.
D. Concentrations of Metals (ng/g«) and Nutrients ($) in Fine
Material Washed from Bottom Sediment in the Genesee River,
13 March and 14 July 1976.
1-52
-------
Appendix 1 A. CONCENTRATIONS OF METALS (jig/g) AND NUTRIENTS (%) IN BOTTOM SEDIMENTS FROM THE GENESEE
RIVER. 13 MARCH 1976. REPLICATE SAMPLES
Station
Wellsville
Wellsville
Wellsville
Wellsville
Wellsville
Transit Br.
Transit Br.
Portageville
Portageville
Portageville
Mount Morris
Mount Morris
Avon
Avon
Avon
Rochester
Rochester
Al
8,250
1,550
7,250
1,800
7,100
7,250
6,200
5,750
5,950
6,550
7,000
7,775
6,700
7,200
7,150
4,000
3,900
Cu
10
27
9
28
8
12
10
10
10
12
14
16
11
17
14
9
8
Cr
10
20
10
20
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
ILT 10
10
10
LT 10
LT 10
Metals
Fe
17,000
30,500
16,000
36,500
15,000
17,000
14,000
14,000
14,000
15,000
15,500
17,000
14,000
17,000
16,500
11,500
11,500
Nutrients
Mn
530
1,300
430
1,300
470
385
310
280
290
380
325
430
275
380
375
175
150
Ni Pb
16 20
30 60
14 25
32 60
13 20
13 15
10 15
10 10
14 10
15 10
17 10
19 10
13 10
17 2ND
17 20
9 45
10 30
Zn
41
94
34
100
33
40
30
32
29
33
34
41
31
ND
40
28
23
Total
0.49
1.62
0.39
2.33
0.41
0.44
0.49
0.43
0.46
0.67
0.60
0.64
0.63
1.32
0.84
0.35
0.35
C Organic C Total
0.49
1.48
0.31
2.20
0.29
0.35
0.28
0.15
0.16
0.34
0.34
0.44
0.42
0.81
0.54
0.11
0.14
0.035
0.132
0.017
0.170
0.028
0.033
0.022
0.012
0.014
0.028
0.024
0.037
0.019
0.054
0.297
<0.01
<0.01
N P
0.043
0.082
0.045
0.095
0.044
0.049
0.046
0.044
0.035
0.045
0.046
0.050
0.048
0.051
0.054
0.069
0.049
= less than
= not determined
-------
Appendix 1 B. CONCENTRATIONS OF EXTRACTABLE PHOSPHORUS (#) IN BOTTOM SEDIMENT FROM THE
GENESEE RIVER, 13 MARCH 1976. REPLICATE SAMPLES
I
Ui
Station
Wellsville
Wellsville
Wellsville
Wellsville
Wellsville
Transit Br.
Transit Br.
Portageville
Portageville
Portageville
'fount Morris
Mount Morris
Avon
Avon
Avon
Rochester
Rochester
Extraction Reaqent
NaOH
0.009
0.019
0.008
0.028
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.003
0.003
0.002
0.004
0.003
0.006
0.004
0.004
0.003
HC1
0.019
0.036
0.028
0.032
0.024
0.028
0.032
0.031
0.027
0.032
0.034
0.034
0.033
0.036
0.037
0.047
0.045
•NH20H
0.0067
0.0134
0.0048
0.0122
0.0055
0.0098
0.0072
0.0147
0.0066
0.0098
0.0149
0.0176
0.0151
0.0061
0.0145
0.0037
0.0050
(NH4)2C204
0.0217
0.0414
0.0173
0.0453
0.0154
0.0164
0.0122
0.0096
0.0094
0.0126
0.0139
0.0139
0.0107
0.0193
0.0149
0.0113
0.0099
Total Available
0.0427
0.0816
0.0450
0.0952
0.0442
0.0491
0.0460
0.0444
0.0354
0.0453
0.0463
0.0496
0.0479
0.0507
0.0539
0.0690
0.0493
-------
Appendix 1 C.
CDNCENTRATIONS OF EXTRACT ABLE METALS (p-g/g) IN BOTTOM SEDIMENT FROM THE GENESEE RIVER,
13 March 1976. REPLICATE SAMPLES
Station
Wellsville
Wellsville
Wellsville
Wellsville
Wellsville
Transit Br.
Transit Br.
V Portageville
Ui
01 Portageville
Portageville
Mount Morris
Mount Morris
Avon
Avon
Avon
Rochester
Rochester
Hvdroxylamine
Al
350
820
135
1020
455
335
205
145
210
200
335
490
225
220
285
110
LT 50
Cu
ILT i
3
1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
Cr
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
Extraction
Fe
318
1225
218
1550
203
215
223
210
195
223
298
415
318
305
370
268
213
Mn
153
310
775
248
725
208
183
158
163
213
148
240
120
180
143
58
53
Pb
LT 10
16
LT 10
20
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
2ND
LT 10
17
8
Al
760
1200
630
1900
495
570
435
390
375
510
555
570
390
765
570
615
555
Oxalate Extraction
Cu
4
15
9
11
2
4
3
3
3
4
5
6
4
9
6
3
4
Cr
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
LT 1
3
LT 1
3
2
Fe
1850
3075
2100
3050
1275
3000
2075
1950
1575
1675
2150
2375
1600
2125
1675
4600
3675
Mn
125
188
83
193
85
68
53
40
40
63
65
73
50
65
80
48
40
Pb
LT 10
8
LT 10
14
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
58
LT 10
LT 10
LT 10
= less than
= not determined
-------
APPENDIX 1 D. CONCENTRATIONS OF METALS (ng/g) AND NUTRIENTS (#) IN FINE MATERIAL WASHED FROM BOTTOM
SEDIMENT IN THE GENESEE RIVER, 13 MARCH AND 14 JULY 1976
I
-------
Appendix 2. Analytical Results for Water Column Samples from the Genesee
River.
A. Total Metal Concentrations (mg/l) in the Genesee River,
14 December 1975. Samples Preconcentrated by Evaporation.
B. Dissolved Heavy Metal Concentrations (ng/l) in the Genesee
River, 14 December 1975 and 13 March 1976 (Duplicate
Analyses) Determined by Differential Pulse Anodic Stripping
Voltammetry.
C. Total and Dissolved Concentrations of Iron and Manganese
(mg/j) in the Genesee River, 13 March 1976. Duplicate
Analyses.
D. Particulate Metal Concentrations (mg/l) in the Genesee
River, 13 March 1976. Duplicate Analyses.
1-57
-------
APPENDIX 2 A. TOTAL METAL CONCENTRATIONS (mg/l) IN THE GENESEE RIVER, 14 DECEMBER 1975. SAMPLES
PRECONCENTRATED BY EVAPORATION
M
Ln
OO
Station
Wellsville
Transit Br.
Portageville
Mount Morris
Avon
Rochester
*T.T - lace than
Cr
*LT o.oi
LT 0.01
LT 0.01
LT 0.01
LT 0.01
LT 0.01
Cu
LT 0.005
0.005
0.007
0.009
0.006
0.006
Fe
0.36
3.3
3.2
6.1
3.3
1.9
Pb
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
Mn
0.098
0.08
0.07
0.17
0.07
0.06
Zn
0.001
0.011
0.02
0.27
0.015
0.015
Al
0.17
1.4
2.3
2.7
1.5
0.8
Ni
LT 0.005
0.005
0.01
0.013
0.01
0.01
-------
APPENDIX 2 B. DISSOLVED HEAVY METAL OONCENTRATIONS (ng/l) IN THE GENESEE RIVER,
14 DECEMBER 1975 AND 13 MARCH 1976 (DUPLICATE ANALYSES) DETERMINED
BY DIFFERENTIAL PULSE ANODIC STRIPPING VOLTAMMETRY
Station
December 14, 1975
Wellsville
Transit Br.
Port age ville
Mount Morris
Avon
Rochester
March 13, 1976
Wellsville
Wellsville
Transit Br.
Transit Br.
Portageville
Portageville
Mount Morris
Mount Morris
Avon
Avon
Rochester
Rochester
Pb
0.78
0.35
1.1
1.05
1.38
1.5
0. 0.3
10.2
0.3
LT 0.1
1.5
0.3
LT 0.1
LT 0.1
14.8
1.3
LT 0.1
0.7
Cd
0.49
XLT 0.1
0.26
0.3
0.37
0.36
LT 0.1
ND
ND
ND
LT 0.1
0.2
LT 0.1
LT 0.1
0.3
0.3
LT 0.1
LT 0.1
Cu
1.0
1.8
1.4
1.4
1.5
6.1
2ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Zn
10.5
8.5
10.8
11.9
9.7
16.4
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
*LT = less than
= not determined
-------
APPENDIX 2 C. TOTAL AND DISSOLVED CONCENTRATIONS (mg/l) OF IRON AND MANGANESE IN
THE GENESEE RIVER 13 MARCH 1976. DUPLICATE ANALYSES
Station
Wellsville
Wellsville
Transit Br.
Transit Br.
Portageville
V Portageville
o
Mount Morris
Mount Morris
Avon
Avon
Rochester
Rochester
Total
Fe
0.14
0.14
0.23
0.24
0.29
0.37
1.50
0.76
1.00
0.71
0.70
IND
'Mn
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.17
0.14
0.10
0.09
0.08
ND
Dissolved
Fe
0.09
0.08
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.05
0.12
0.08
0.06
0.10
Mn
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
2LT 0.02
LT 0.02
0.02
LT 0.02
LT 0.02
LT 0.02
= not determined
2LT = less than
-------
APPENDIX 2 D. PARTICULATE METAL OONCENTRATIONS (mg/l) IN THE GENESEE RIVER 13 MARCH 1976.
DUPLICATE ANALYSES
STATION
Wellsville
Wellsville
Transit Br.
Transit Br.
Portageville
Portageville
Mount Morris
Mount Morris
Avon
Avon
Rochester
Rochester
Al
0.13
0.11
0.58
0.70
0.73
1.03
5.75
5.75
3.00
3.00
2.25
2.75
Cu
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.007
0.008
0.003
0.005
0.004
0.005
Cr
LT 0.003
LT 0.003
LT 0.003
LT 0.003
0.003
0.003
0.008
0.010
0.005
0.005
0.008
0.005
Fe
0.17
0.15
1.10
1.23
1.65
1.68
11.00
11.50
4.50
5.50
4.50
4.53
Mn
0.005
0.004
0.20
0.21
0.025
0.028
0.185
0.195
0.075
0.073
0.070
0.068
Ni
ln o.ooi
LT 0.001
0.001
0.001
0.003
0.003
0.013
0.013
0.007
0.007
0.006
0.007
Pb
LT 0.003
LT 0.003
0.003
0.003
0.005
0.003
0.010
0.010
0.003
0.008
0.005
0.007
Zn
0.002
0.003
0.007
0.006
0.007
0.009
0.033
0.035
0.018
0.023
0.018
0.017
= less than
-------
REPORT II
GEOCHEMISTRY OF OXIDE PRECIPITATES
IN THE
GENESEE WATERSHED
by
Philip R. Whitney
Associate Scientist
Geological Survey
New York State Museum and Science Service
Albany, New York 12234
Prepared for
New York State
Department of Environmental Conservation
Albany, New York 12233
-------
REPORT II
CONTENTS
Abstract i
Tables ii
Figures iii
Acknowledgements iv
1. Introduction 1
2. Conclusions 3
3. Geology of the Genesee Watershed 4
4. Methods 9
Field Methods 9
Laboratory Methods 12
Compilation of Map Data 15
Statistical Treatment of Data 17
5. Analytical Results 18
Gravels 18
Sediments 29
Conductivity and pH Data 29
6. Interpretation of Results 37
Lognonnal Distribution of Data 37
Factor Analysis 37
Correlation 57
Regression • 64
Anomalous Results 70
Role of Oxides in Metal Transport 71
References • 73
-------
ABSTRACT
Manganese oxide coatings on gravels from 250 sites on tributary streams
in the Genesee River Watershed were analyzed for Mn, Fe, Zn, Cd, Co, Ni, Pb,
and Cu. The results were compared with data on bedrock geology, surficial
geology and land use in the tributary watersheds, using factor analysis and
stepwise multiple regression. All metals except Pb show strong positive
correlation with Mn. The association results from the tendency of Mn oxide
precipitates to adsorb and incorporate dissolved trace metals. Pb may be
present in a separate phase on the gravel surfaces; alternatively Pb abun-
dance may be so strongly controlled by environmental factors that the effect
of varying abundance of the carrier phase becomes relatively unimportant.
When the effects of varying Mn oxide abundance are removed, Pb and to a less-
er extent Zn and Cu abundances are seen to be related to commercial, residen-
tial and industrial land use. In addition to this pollution effect, all the
trace metals, Cd and Ni most strongly, tend to be more abundant in streams
of the forested uplands in the southern part of the area. This reflects
either increased geochemical mobility of the metals in the less alkaline
soils and groundwater of the southern region, or possibly greater concentra-
tion of these metals in the bedrock.
The same group of metals, plus calcium, were determined in bedload
stream sediments from 130 of the same sites. Metal concentrations in the
<62 micron fraction of the sediments are primarily controlled by the relative
amounts of silicate, carbonate, organic and oxide particles present in the
sample. Manganese and iron oxides are, at most, of relatively minor signifi-
cance in the heavy metal geochemistry of the sediments. Pb and Cu abundances
are higher in sediments from watersheds with substantial commercial, residen-
tial and industrial land use.
Il-i
-------
TABLES
Number Page
1 Geologic and Land Use Variables 6
2 Instrument Settings 14
3 Analytical Data - Gravels 19
4 Reproductibility of Gravel Analyses 26
5 Periodic Sampling 28
6 Analytical Data - Stream Sediments • 30
7 Replicate Analyses of Composite Sediment Sample* 33
8 Metals in Suspended Sediments 34
9 Summary of pH and Conductivity Data • 35
10 Results of Factor Analysis 56
11 Correlation Matrices • 58
12 Regression Equations 65
13 Mn Oxide-Bound Metals as Percent of Total
HN03-Leachable Metals 72
Il-ii
-------
FIGURES
Number
1 Bedrock geology of the Genesee Watershed 5
2 Sample location map 10
3A Manganese in gravels 38
3B Iron in gravels 39
3C Zinc in gravels 40
3D Cadmium in gravels 41
3E Cobalt in gravels 42
3F Nickel in gravels 43
3G Lead in gravels 44
3H Copper in gravels 45
31 Manganese in sediments 46
3J Iron in sediments 47
3K Zinc in sediments 48
3L Cadmium in sediments 49
3M Cobalt in sediments 50
3N Nickel in sediments 51
30 Lead in sediments 52
3P Copper in sediments 53
3Q Calcium in sediments 54
-------
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study discussed in this report is a part of the Genesee River
Pilot Watershed Study, under the general direction of the Environmental
Quality Research Group, New York State Department of Environmental Conserva-
tion. It was carried out as part of the efforts of the Pollution from
Land Use Activities Reference Group, an organization of the International
Joint Commission, established under the Canada-U.S. Great Lakes Water
Quality Agreement of 1972. Funding was provided through the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency.
The assistance of John Green, Douglas Brown, William Reeve, Estella
Waldman and Gardiner Cross in acquiring the data for this study is gratefully
acknowledged. John Wilkinson, Richard Park and Kathie Beinkafner provided
advice and assistance in data processings.
Il-iv
-------
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Deposition of manganese oxides in streams can be readily observed in
much of the northeastern United States, and is reported as well from numer-
ous other areas worldwide (Ljenggren, 1955; Boyle et al, 1966; Horsnail et al,
1969; Carpenter, 1975 among others). Deposition occurs where relatively
reducing Mn-enriched ground water enters the stream environment and encounters
conditions of higher Eh and pH. The optimum conditions for Mn oxide deposi-
tion occur in shallow, rapidly flowing, well aerated segments of the streams,
at or close to points of groundwater influx. Heavy deposition of oxides also
occurs in streams draining wetlands. Oxide coatings are sparse or absent where
streams flow for long distance over impermeable bedrock or glacial lake clays,
due to lack of ground water influx. Likewise, little or no oxide deposition
occurs in reaches where infiltration from the stream into groundwater is
occurring. One such situation is where streams leaving narrow upland valleys
flow into larger valleys floored with permeable alluvium or stratified glacial
deposits, losing water by infiltration. This situation has been described in
detail in the Susquehanna watershed by Randall (1978); it is common in the
Genesee Watershed as well.
The oxides typically precipitate as coatings on detrital material. The
experimental studies of Hem (1964), and the considerable body of work on
marine and lacustrine manganese modules (Crerar and Barnes, 1974; Burns and
Brown, 1972; Ehrlich, 1972 among others) indicate that given an appropriate
substrate, deposition of Mn oxides may occur even when the water is under-
saturated with Mn with respect to the oxides, due to catalysis by organisms
or by silicate, carbonate or ferric hydroxide surfaces. Once begun, Mn
oxide deposition is autocatalytic (Stumm and Morgan, 1970). Studies of the
distribution of manganese oxides in various size fractions of stream sediments
(Whitney, 1975) indicate the prevalence and thickness of oxide coatings on
detrital grains commonly increases with increasing particle size in the coarse
sand and gravel size ranges. A second concentration of Mn occurs in the minus
62 micron silt and clay fraction. This distribution results at least in part
from the dominance of coarse particles at the sediment-water interface at the
sites of most active deposition. Subsequent transport and abrasion of coated
sands and gravels contributes to the concentration of Mn and associated metals
observed in the silt and clay fraction.
The effectiveness of hydrous manganese oxides as scavengers for heavy
metals in various natural environments is well attested, e.g. Goldberg (1954)
and Jenne (1968). This phenomenon has been the subject of considerable re-
cent experimental work (Loganathan and Burau, 1973; Murray, 1975 among others),
and discussions (e.g. Burns, 1976). Freshly precipitated manganese oxides
have a high specific surface area and a negative surface charge, leading to
extensive adsorption of dissolved metal cations on to the oxide surfaces.
II-l
-------
The mechanism involves both electrostatic attraction and replacement of
protons by metal ions at the oxide surface, as well as uptake of metals in
interlayer and octahedral sites in the oxide lattice (Murray, 1975; Burns,
1976). The process is pH dependent; in Murray's (1975) experiments, adsorp-
tion capacity for several metals increased continuously with increasing pH
from the ZPC (2.25) to slightly over 7.0.
As a result of the common occurrence of manganese oxides in streams,
and their effectiveness as heavy metal collectors, the behavior of a number
of trace metals in the stream environment may be substantially controlled
by the behavior of Mn and, to a lesser extent, Fe. It would be expected that
metals such as Zn, Cd, Co, and Ni, commonly present as cationic species,
would be preferentially concentrated by the manganese oxides; anions such as
molybdate and arsenate would be more readily taken up by the positively
charged surfaces of ferric hydroxides. Jenne (1968) has proposed that hydrous
manganese and iron oxides are the principal control on the behavior of Co,
Ni, Cu, and Zn in soils and fresh water sediments, with organic matter, clays
and carbonates having a subordinate role.
The purposes of the present study are threefold:
(a) to evaluate the relationship between the content of selected heavy
metals (Zn, Cd, Pb, Co, Ni, and Cu) in stream deposited manganese oxides,
and the geology and land use in small tributary watersheds in the Genesee
area. It is assumed, on the basis of the above discussion, that the levels
of the trace metals in the oxide coatings are a rough indicator of the rela-
tive amounts of the trace metals entering the stream in solution in ground-
water and/or runoff.
(b) to evaluate the relationship between the content of the same metals
in the silt and clay fraction (<62 microns) of stream sediments, and the
same geologic and land use parameters. Unlike the oxide coatings, which
adsorb metal ions from solution and hence indicate the relative amounts of
trace metals entering the stream in solute form, the sediments include both
metals absorbed from solution and metals entering the stream in particulate
form, e.g. fixed on eroded soil particles.
(c) to use the metals data for the stream sediments to determine the
relative importance of manganese oxides in the solid-phase transport of
heavy metals in the Genesee River and its tributaries.
II-2
-------
SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
Stream-deposited manganese oxides in the Genesee Watershed show consis-
tent variations in heavy metal content resulting from the interaction of
several land use and geologic factors. The most unequivocal land use effect
is the occurrence of greater amounts of lead in the oxides in tributary water-
sheds where substantial amounts of land are used for commercial, residential
or industrial purposes. The same effect is seen for zinc and copper, although
to a lesser degree. Zn, Cd, Co, Ni, and Cu all show increased abundances in
forested watersheds relative to those used for agricultural purposes, but this
is not necessarily a land use effect due to the fact that variations in land
use in the Genesee Watershed parallel variations in bedrock geology. The
amount of heavy-metal input from human sources in the watersheds studied is
generally small and no major instances of heavy-metal pollution were encoun-
tered. The clearest case of anomalously high metal content in manganese
oxides, the high zinc values in samples from streams draining areas underlain
by the Lockport Formation, is of primarily geologic origin.
The heavy metal content of silt/clay fraction of stream sediments in
small tributaries of the Genesee shows relatively little relationship to
land use. Lead and copper contents of the sediments show a small but definite
enhancement in areas of substantial commercial/residential/industrial land
use. The major factor controlling the metal content of the sediments appears,
however, to be the proportions of the several physical components of the
sediment (i.e. silicate, organic, oxide and carbonate particles). Rough
calculations indicate that the manganese oxides are not a major factor in the
transport of heavy metals in either bedload or suspended sediment in the
Genesee and its tributaries.
II-3
-------
SECTION 3
GEOLOGY OF THE GENESEE WATERSHED
BEDROCK GEOLOGY
In the Genesee Watershed, the bedrock geology is relatively simple,
consisting of flaty-lying sedimentary rocks striking generally east-west and
dipping very gently southward. A simplified geologic map of the area is
given in Figure 1; Table 1A explains the mapping units employed. The geologic
data are condensed from the Geologic Map of New York, 1971 edition (Fisher
et al, 1971).
SURFICIAL (PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT) GEOLOGY
The surficial geology of the Genesee Watershed area has been largely
shaped by continental glaciation during the Pleistocene epoch. Glacial tills,
morainal deposits, outwash and lake sediments overlie, in varying proportions,
the entire study area, with more recent alluvial deposits present locally in
stream valleys and floodplains.
Tills (ground moraine and end moraines) are the predominant glacial depo-
sits in the Genesee area. These are unsorted deposits of relatively low
permeability. In the northern part of the basin the tills are calcareous,
reflecting the calcareous nature of the bedrock. In the southern part, the
tills contain some carbonate, transported by the generally northeasts-southwest
ice movement, but are poorer in this component than the tills to the north.
This is both a result of the low carbonate content of the bedrock, and also
the fact that the tills in the southern area are older, representing earlier
stages of ice advance, and as a result are more deeply weathered with much
of the carbonate originally present removed by leaching.
Outwash deposits, generally well-sorted, water-laid sediments with high
permeability, occur sporadically throughout the area. Composition of these
deposits, as in the case of the tills, reflects that of the bedrock immediate-
ly underlying and to the north. Carbonate content of the outwash decreases,
and age and depth of weathering increase, southward.
Clay and silt deposits from glacially impounded lakes are commonly
present in the northern portion of the basin and in some of the deeper
valleys. These are generally fine grained, impermeable, and relatively
carbonate-rich.
The fourth major subdivision of the surficial geology is recent alluvium,
occupying the larger stream valleys. This is water-laid sediment, commonly
well sorted and relatively permeable, derived from erosion of bedrock and
glacial deposits and from reworking of older alluvial material.
II-4
-------
FIGURE 1.
lOCkOOrt
^**>
(After
Fisher ei'of, 1971)
II-5
-------
TABLE 1. GEOLOGIC AND LAND USE VARIABLES.
A. Bedrock Geology
Symbol
SMOQ
SCLS
DONH
DSWJ
DCAN
DCCO
Units
Queenston shale (uppermost Ordovician) and
Medina Group (Lower Silurian). Largely terri-
genous clastic sediments; red and green shales
and sandstones; low carbonate content.
Clinton, Lockport, and Salina Groups and Akron
Dolostone, all of Silurian age. Dominated by
dolostones with subordinate limestones, and by
soft green and gray marine shales, frequently
dolomitic, limy and/or gypsiferous. Average
carbonate content is high.
Onondaga Limestone and Hamilton Group (Middle
Devonian). Limestone overlain by black and gray
calcareous marine shales with minor limestones.
High average carbonate content.
Genesee, Sonyea, West Falls and Java Groups
(Upper Devonian). Gray and black marine shales
with minor lime stones, grading upward into gray
and brown shales, siltstones and sandstones with
occasional thin black shales. Average carbonate
content moderate to low.
Canadaway Group (Upper Devonian). Gray and
brown shales, siltstones and sandstones; occa-
sional limy, fossiliferous layers and lenses.
Average carbonate content low.
Conneaut and Conewango Groups (Uppermost
Devonian). Gray to brown, occasionally red,
shales, siltstones and sandstones; some con-
gome rates in upper portion. Average carbonate
content low.
(continued)
11-6
-------
TABLE 1 (continued).
B. Surficial Geology
Symbol
TILL
OUTW
LKSD
MUCK
BDRK
ALLY
Material
Unstratified till; ground and end moraine.
Stratified till; outwash gravel, kame terraces.
Lake sediments; silt and clay.
Mucklands; organic-rich bog deposits.
Bedrock; areas where bedrock outcrops at or very
near the surface.
Alluvium; river and stream valley deposits.
C. Land Use
Symbol
CRPL
(active agriculture)
PAST
(pasture)
FALL
(inactive agricultural)
FRST
(forest)
CIVN
(commercial, residential
and industrial)
LAKE
(open water)
SWMP
(wetlands)
LUNR Categories
Cropland (Ac) + High intensity cropland (At)
+ Horticulture (Ah) + Orchards (Ao) +
Vineyards (Av)
Pasture (Ap)
Inactive agricultural (Ai)
Forest lands (Fn) + Plantations (Fp) +
Forest Bushlands (Fc)
Commercial areas (Cu, Cc, Cr, Cs) + Industrial
(II, In) + Residential (Rh, Rm, Rl)
Natural lakes (Wn) + Artificial lakes (We) +
Streams and rivers (Ws)
Marshes and bogs (Wb) + Wooded wetlands (Ww)
II-7
-------
The Niagara Sheet of the Quaternary Geologic Map of New York (Muller,
1977) shows the distribution of surficial materials in the western two-thirds
of the Genesee Watershed.
EFFECTS OF GEOLOGICAL FACTORS ON HEAVY METALS IN STREAMS
It is clear that both the metal content of the bedrock and its suscepti-
bility to chemical weathering will directly affect the amounts of manganese
and trace metals entering a stream. In addition, the bedrock may also have
an indirect effect on the amounts of various metals entering the stream via
groundwater or runoff. For example, where the bedrock is limestone or
calcareous shale, and relatively near to the land surface, chemical weathering
of the calcium carbonate will tend to buffer the pH of both ground and surface
waters in the alkaline range and thereby severely restrict the geochemical
mobility of most of the metals (Levinson, 1974).
The unconsolidated surface materials, soils and subsoils, will affect
the behavior of manganese and other metals in streams in a variety of ways.
Chemical weathering and soil formation in the surface layers will release
metals from weathered silicates and carbonates. Some of these will be removed
in solution in groundwater; others will be fixed in the soil. Of the metals
removed in groundwater, a significant proportion may eventually reach the
drainage. Imreh (1972) has shown that, for an area in Quebed, the glacial
geology has a much greater influence on the metal content of alluvial sedi-
ments than the bedrock geology, even where the latter has anomalously high
metal content.
A more important effect of the surficial materials is the control on
groundwater flow arising from the permeability of the overburden. Coarse,
well sorted materials such as glacial outwash gravels will permit considerable
amounts of water to enter the drainage from groundwater; where the surficial
materials are essentially impermeable, e.g. lake clays, most precipitation
will reach the drainage via runoff. In general, runoff will tend toward
higher Eh and pH values than groundwater, resulting in a lower solubility for
most of the metals of interest. It is worthy of note that in the present
work, no substantial amounts of oxide coatings have been found in streams in
areas underlain by impermeable clays, indicating that local infiltration of
groundwater into the stream channel is necessary for the formation of the
oxide coatings.
The carbonate content of the surficial materials is also important. As
In the case of bedrock, large amounts of calcium carbonate in the surficial
deposits will buffer the pH of ground and surface waters in the alkaline range
leading to decreased mobility of the metals.
II-8
-------
SECTION 4
METHODS
FIELD METHODS
Selection of Samples Sites
Sample sites were selected using U.S.G.S. topographic maps, lh minute
series. The watershed chosen for use were in general small, first- or
second-order tributaries; a few larger (third- or fourth-order) streams were
included. Average area of the tributary watersheds was close to ten square
kilometers. Sample sites were numbered as follows:
1300 series: tributaries to Black Creek
1400 series: tributaries to Oatka Creek
1500 series: tributaries to Canaseraga Creek
1600 series: tributaries to Wiscoy Creek
1800 series: tributaries to Chenunda, Van Catnpen, Rush and Caneadea
Creeks and the Upper Genesee (above Portageville)
1900 series: tributaries to Salmon Creek
2000 series: tributaries to Honeoye Creek and the lower Genesee
(below Portageville)
With the exception of the seven samples of the 1900 series, all are
within the Genesee Watershed area. Figure 2 is a map showing the locations
of the individual sites. Sampling locations on these streams were chosen at
road crossings for convenience in collecting samples. A total of 257 sample
sites were utilized in the project; samples of oxide-coated gravels were
obtained from 250 of these sites and stream sediments were sampled at 130
sites.
Collection of Gravel Samples
Gravel samples were taken from shallow, fast-flowing sections of the
stream, wherever possible upstream from the road crossing. This precaution
was necessary in order to avoid effects from galvanized metal culverts,
and to minimize the effect of lead input from automobile exhaust where the
sample sites were located on major highways. Gravels were collected by hand
from midstream locations and sized with 8 and 16 mm stainless steel sieves;
pebbles with diameters in the 8-16 mm range were retained. The sampling was
purposely non-random; gravels with the maximum amount of visible manganese
oxide coatings being selected. The samples, generally *s-l kg total, were
drained; uncoated pebbles and pieces of extraneous materials removed by
hand and discarded. The remainder of the sample was placed in a plastic bag
for shipment to the laboratory.
II-9
-------
FIGURE 2 .
SAMPLE LOCATION MAP
\
II-10
-------
In the laboratory, samples were placed in cardboard trays and heated at
about 50° C in a drying oven until visibly dry. A 100 gram sample of the
most heavily coated pebbles was then selected by hand and set aside for
analysis.
Collection of Stream Sediment Samples
Sediment samples were taken, wherever possible, from mid-stream accumu-
lations of loose, active, fine-grained sediment. Such accumulations are most
commonly found on the downstream side of boulders, sand bars or artificial
barriers. Samples were scooped by hand into cloth sample bags, which allowed
the water to drain from the sample. The fabric of the bags quickly became
clogged with fine particles, allowing continued slow escape of water with
minimal loss of particulate matter.
At approximately half the sample sites used in the study, useful stream
sediment sample were not readily available. This was generally true in the
cases where the stream bed at the sample site was in bedrock or coherent
clay. Fine-grained sediment was also frequently absent in streams with a
steep gradient.
Upon return to the laboratory, sample bags were placed on cardboard
trays and heated at approximately 50° C in a drying oven until thoroughly
dry. Samples were then removed from the bags and crushed with a wooden
roller to remove lumps. The crushed sample was passed through an 18-mesh
(1.0 mm) stainless steel sieve and the coarse fraction discarded. The finer
material was then split with an aluminum riffle splitter and one-fourth was
returned to the original sample bag for storage. The remaining three-fourths
was then sieved through 60-, 120-, and 230-mesh stainless steel sieves. The
sieving was done on a Ro-tap sieve shaker for fifteen minutes. The four
resulting fractions (0.25-1.0 mm, 0.125-0.25, 0.063-0.125, and <0.063 mm)
were weighed. The three coarser fractions were then discarded and the finest
(clay— and silt-sized particles) were retained for analysis. This size was
selected due to the fact that it is (a) more readily transported and (b) rich-
er in metals than the coarser material and as a result is the fraction of
presumably greatest importance in transport of sediment-bound metals by
streams.
pH and Conductivity Measurements
At most of the sample sites, on-site measurements were made of the
stream pH and conductivity. pH measurements were made by filling a 250 ml
plastic bottle with water from the stream and immediately measuring the pH
with a Leeds and Northrop Model 7417 pH meter, equipped with a #117342 com-
bination electrode.
Conductivity measurements were made using a Yellow Springs Instruments
Model 33 conductivity meter. The probe, calibrated against a standard KC1
solution, was lowered into flowing water, with care taken to avoid touching
the bottom with the probe. Simultaneous readings of temperature and conduc-
tivity were then made.
11-11
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LABORATORY METHODS
Analytical Procedures - Oxide Coated Gravels
The analytical procedure involves solution of the manganese oxide coat-
ings followed by a chelation/extraction step to concentrate the trace metals
for analysis by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The leaching solution
used is 0.2 m ammonium citrate and 0.1 m hydroxylamine hydrochloride, at
pH 7. This is prepared by dissolving reagent grade citric acid and hydroxy-
lamine hydrochloride in distilled deionized water and adding reagent grade
ammonium hydroxide until the pH reaches 7.0. This solution is then extraced
with a 0.01% solution of diphenylthiocarbazone ("dithizone") in ethyl pro-
pionate in order to eliminate trace metal impurities, in particular Zn, Cd
and Pb. The solution is then washed with several small volumes of ethyl
propionate in order to remove any remaining dithizone.
For leaching, the 100 g gravel samples are placed in 250 ml Erlenmeyer
flasks and 50 ml of the citrate/hydroxylamine solution are added. The samples
are then shaken 15 minutes on a mechanical shaker and decanted into filter
papers which have been pre-washed with the leaching solution. The solutions
are filtered into 100 ml volumetric flasks containing 10 ml of 1.1 m citric
acid. The Erlenmeyer flasks and filter papers are washed down with several
small portions of distilled deionized water, and the sample volume is made up
to 100 ml. pH of the final solution is approximately 4.2, a value found in
preliminary trials to be the optimum for extraction of the trace metals from
citrate solutions with APDC.M1BK. This leaching procedure dissolves both
manganese oxides (by reduction with hydroxylamine) and poorly crystalline
iron oxides (by complexation with citrate), along with the trace metals ad-
sorbed on the oxide phases. The pH of 7 is necessary in order to avoid disso-
lution of calcium carbonate in the gravels; preliminary trials using stoichio-
metric ammonium citrate (pH about 4.8) resulted in carbonate pebbles being
attacked with the formation of a heavy white precipitate of calcium citrate.
Final pH of the solutions after leaching and before filtering is in the range
of 7.5-8.0. Samples were leached in batches of roughly 12, with one standard
sample and one or two blanks.
The 100 ml sample solution obtained from the above procedure was split
into two 50 ml portions; one was reserved in the volumetric flask for trace
metal extraction and the other was placed in 60 ml plastic bottles for Mn,
Fe, and Zn analyses. A 1:10 dilution of the latter sample was also made and
stored in a 60 ml plastic bottle.
Analyses for Mn, Fe, and Zn were done by means of atomic absorption
spectrophotometry using the aqueous citrate solutions. Standards were made
up in citrate solutions of the same strength as the sample solutions. A
significant interference was found in the iron analyses, apparently due to the
presence of large amounts of manganese in the citrate solutions, although the
exact mechanism of the interference is not known. This interference was
controlled by use of Fe standards with manganese added in amounts approximat-
ing those in the samples, use of a very lean air/acetylene flame, and careful
adjustment of the burner height.
11-12
-------
The trace metals (Cd, Co, Ni, Pb, and Cu) required a preconcentration
step. The samples were first aged at least 72 hours in the volumetric flask
in order to allow cobalt/ammonia complexes formed during leaching at neutral
pH to break down in the more acid (pH 4.2) solution. Without this waiting
period (determined by experiment) cobalt will not extract completely from the
ammoniacal citrate solutions. To the 50 ml of citrate solution in the flask,
10 ml of 1% ammonium pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (APDC) in pH 4.2 ammonium
citrate solution are added. This APDC solution was previously cleaned
by repeated extraction into methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) to remove trace
metal impurities. The sample solution with the APDC added is then thoroughly
shaken, following which 25 ml of MIBK is added and the flask is again shaken
vigorously for one minute in order to extract the metal/APDC complexes into
the MIBK phase. Distilled deionizd water is then added to bring the organic
phase up into the neck of the flask.
At least six 50 ml portions of a trace metal standard solution are
extracted along with each batch of samples. This standard solution matches
the sample solutions in concentrations of ammonium, citrate and hydroxylamine,
and in pH. It contains concentrations of Mn and Fe (500 and 100 ppm respec-
tively) approximating those in an "average" sample. Samples, standards and
blanks are taken through the identical procedure.
Within eight hours after the extraction, the five trace metals (Cd, Co,
Ni Pb, and Cu) were analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. In-
strumental settings are given in Table 2. . Significant amounts of Pb and Cd
were often found in the blanks during early runs of this procedure; these
were largely eliminated by rigorous cleaning of glassware and pre-purification
of reagents. Cd blanks may be introduced by use of plastic laboratory ware
and consequently the procedure was carried out entirely in glass. In addition
to actual blanks, the response for Pb was affected by the composition of the
solution being aspirated; this false blank was often large and occasionally
negative. Aspiration of water-saturated MIBK between samples and careful
adjustment of operating parameters were found to reduce, but not completely
eliminate this effect.
Approximate detection limits for the trace metals using this procedure
are Cd .001 ppm; Co .005 ppm; Ni .005 ppm; Pb .01 ppm; Cu .005 ppm.
All atomic absorption analyses were done with an Aztec Mark II atomic
absorption spectrophotometer, with output recorded on a Texas Instruments
Model PS01W recorder. Absorbance peaks on the recorder charts were measured
with a millimeter scale. Sample/standard peak height ratios were calculated
and converted to ppm or percent values, following subtraction of blanks where
necessary. Table 2 shows the instrumental settings used in the atomic
absorption analysis. For samples with high manganese and iron contents, the
burner head was positioned perpendicular to the beam, in order to remove
the necessity for making large dilutions. This procedure greatly extends the
range over which absorbance for these metals is a linear function of concen-
tration. Comparison of results using the same samples, analyzed by this
technique and also at high dilutions with a parallel burner head, shows no
significant difference.
11-13
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TABLE 2. INSTRUMENT SETTINGS.
Solution
Anal.
Line
Silt
Width
C2H2/air
Mixture
Burner
Position
Burner (1)
Height
Scale
Factor
0.1 m citrate
Mn 2m HN03
0.1 m citrate
Fe 2m HN03
0.1 m citrate
Zn 2m HN03
MIBK
Cd 2m HN03
MIBK
Co
Ni
Cu
2 m HNO-
MIBK
2 m HNO:
MIBK
Pb 2m HN03
MIBK
2 m HNOr
Ca 2m HN03
2795
2795
2483
2483
2139
2139
2288
2288
2407
2407
2320
2320
2170
2170
3248
3248
4227
100
100
50
50
200
200
300
300
50
50
50
50
300
300
200
200
200
lean
lean
lean
lean
lean
lean
lean
lean
lean
lean
lean
lean
lean
lean
lean
lean
rich
perpendicular 0.7 cm XI
perpendicular 0.7 XI
perpendicular 1.2 X5
perpendicular 0.7 X2
parallel 0.45 XI
parallel 0.45 X2
parallel 0.45 X2
parallel 0.45 X5
parallel 0.7 X2
parallel 0.7 X5
parallel 0.7 X2
parallel 0.7 X2
parallel 0.5 X2
parallel 0.5 X5
parallel 0.45 X2
parallel 0.45 X5
perpendicular or
parallel (2) 0.7 XI
(1) distance in cm between axis of beam and base of flame
(2) depending upon concentration
-------
Analytical Procedures - Stream Sediments
For analysis, 2.000 grams of dried sample are weighed into 125 ml Erlen-
meyer flasks. Twenty-five ml of 4 m reagent grade nitric acid in distilled
deionized water are then added to each flask and the samples are boiled on
a sand bath for one hour. Necks of the flasks are covered with inverted
teflon beakers to prevent excess evaporation. The flasks are then removed
and the contents filtered through pre-washed #30 papers into 50 ml volumetric
flasks. The Erlenmeyer flasks and filter papers are then washed down with
several small volumes of distilled deionized water and the sample solution
is made up to 50 ml, also with distilled deionized water. Preliminary experi-
ments indicated that pretreatment of the samples with 5 ml of 30% hydrogen
peroxide to break down organic matter did not add significantly to the amount
of metals recovered from the samples by this method.
A standard solution was prepared by treating a large (88 g) aliquot of a
composite sample (CS-2) by the above procedure. The resulting leach solution
was then carefully analyzed by the addition method for trace metals (Cd, Co,
Ni, Pb and Cu). Sufficient amounts of the trace metals were then added to
yield a standard solution with trace metal levels equal to or exceeding those
expected in the samples. This standard solution has a major element content
similar to that of the sample solutions, thus minimizing possible matrix
effects in the trace element determinations. For determination of Mn, Fe, Zn
and Ca, standards consisting of appropriate amounts of the metals in 2 N HNC>3
solution were used.
Metals were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry on the
aqueous solutions without preconcentration. Dilution of sample and standard
solutions was usually necessary in the case of Mn, Fe, Ca, and Zn. The con-
centrated leachate was used for the trace metals. Samples were processed in
batches of 20 to 25; with each batch at least a 2 g aliquot of the compo-
site sample CS-2 was run as a control on reproductibility.
It was noted during the course of the work that the widely varying
amounts of calcium in the samples appeared to affect the results for cadmium,
introducing an anomalously high background at the cadmium wavelength (2288 A).
The magnitude of this interference was evaluated by analysis of cadmium-free
2 N HNC>3 solutions containing varied amounts of calcium. Based on the results
of this experiment, and empirical correction of -.084 ppm Cd/% Ca has been
applied to all cadmium values reported. No other interferences were detected.
COMPILATION OF MAP DATA
Land Use
Sample sites were located on U.S.G.S 1:24,000 topographic maps. Water-
sheds for each site were then drawn on the map sheets, using a visual estimate
for the positions of the drainage divides. A tracing was made of each water-
shed, which was then overlaid and carefully positioned on the appropriate
1:24,000 LUNR (Land Use and Natural Resources) map. The land use data was
transferred onto the tracing, and the individual land use cells on the tracing
were cut out with scissors or a knife. The cells were then sorted into seven
11-15
-------
categories, a condensed version of the LUNR classification (New York State
Office of Planning Services, 1974). Table 1C gives the correlations between
the seven categories and the detailed LUNR scheme. The fragments of tracing
paper for each category were then weighed to the nearest milligram, and recal-
culated as percent of the total watershed area.
Surficial (Pleistocene) Geology
Data on surficial geology (unconsolidated materials, primarily glacial
deposits and alluvium) were obtained for the most part from soils maps. The
soils classification for each county was interpreted in terms of the probable
parent material; for the western two-thirds of the Genesee basin the resulting
interpretation was checked against the 1:250,000 Quaternary Geologic Map of
New York, Niagara Sheet (Muller, 1977). Soils maps were used for the primary
data due to the greater detail available. After reclassification into the
categories of Table IB, data was transferred to the 1:24,000 topographic maps.
Tracings of each watershed were then made, and the areas occupied by the six
categories of surficial materials were calculated by cutting and weighing the
tracing paper. These areas were then recalculated to percent of the total
watershed area.
Bedrock Geology
Data on the bedrock geology were obtained from the 1971 Geologic Map of
New York, Niagara and Finger Lakes Sheets (Fisher et al, 1971). The bedrock
units and symbols are listed in Table 1A.
Each sample site was assigned to one of these bedrock geology categories,
based on the dominant bedrock in the watershed. Better than 90% of the
sample sites lay entirely within a single bedrock category. For convenience
in computation, the six bedrock categories were transformed into five dummy
variables according to the following scheme.
SMOQ SCLS DONH DSWJ
DUM1 0001
DUM2 0010
DUM3 0100
DUM4 1000
DUM5 0000
This matrix was constructed in such a way that the Canadaway Group (DCAN),
containing the greatest number of samples, has a zero loading on all five
variables. As a result it does not appear explicitly in the regression
equations.
Area and Relief
The total weight of the cut-out land use of surficial geology categories
for each watershed was divided by the weight of a piece of tracing paper
equivalent to one square mile at a scale of 1:24,000. The resulting ratio
provides an estimate of the total area of the watershed in square miles.
11-16
-------
The variable called "relief", an estimate of the uneveness of the topography,
was calculated by dividing the difference in elevation between the sample
site (the lowest point in the watershed) and the highest point in the water-
shed by the area. Symbols used for these variable in tables to follow are
AREA for area and RELF for relief.
STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA
To evaluate the interrelationships between the variables, two different
multivariate statistical procedures were used. Factor analysis (BMD08M) and
Stepwise Multiple Linear Regression (BMD02R) programs were adapted from the
Biomedical Computer Programs Manual (Dixon, 1974). Since the data for all
metals from each sample type show approximate lognormal distribution, the
metals data were converted to logarithmic form for use in the statistical
procedures. Percentage data for geology and land use were used in linear
form.
11-17
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SECTION 5
ANALYTICAL RESULTS
GRAVELS
Oxide Coated Gravels
Data for metals leached from oxide coated gravels are presented in
Table 3 • The data represent 250 sample sites; the first four digits in the
left hand column of Table 3 are the site number. Where a single analysis is
reported from a site, the last three digits in the left hand column are 111.
Replicate analysis are reported for 79 of the sites; these are designated as
121, 131 etc. Mean values are given for the several replicate analysis; these
are designated as 181 in the last three digits.
In those cases where the concentration of one of the trace metals in a
sample was at or below the detection unit the value is reported as the det-
ection limit. This occurred 12 times out of the 250 samples for Cd, once for
Co, twice for Ni, 41 times for Pb, and 4 times for Cu.
Reproducibility of Oxide Data
During the course of the project, a control sample was run at regular
intervals. This was prepared by collecting a large gravel sample (from site
#271, Alder Creek in Saratoga Co., N.Y.). The largest sample was then split
by cone-and-quarter into subsamples of about 50 g each. The smaller sample
size was used due to the relatively high metal content of this sample. The
first batch of 50 g splits, from a sample collected in June of 1975, was
exhausted before the end of the project and a second large sample was collec-
ted at the same site in June of 1976 and split in the same way. A total of
32 splits, 19 from the first batch and 13 from the second, were run during
the course of the analyses. The results for each batch, together with the
mean and standard deviation for each metal, are presented in Table 4.
In addition to splits of single large samples, reproducibility was also
tested on samples obtained at various different times from the same site.
This was done at site 217, and also at site 8102 (Mill Creek in Rensselaer
Co., N.Y.). The results are shown in Table 5. Note that the large absolute
variation in the trace metal content in successive samples from the same site
is due in part to variations in the carrier element, manganese. The relative
variations, shown by the manganese/trace metal ratios, are considerably small-
er. The large Mn variation are probably inherent in the selection process by
which the samples are prepared for analysis. Since the most heavily coated
pebbles are selected, the total Mn analysis will be strongly biased if one
or more pebbles with exceptionally heavy oxide coatings are present in the
original sample.
11-18
-------
TABLE 3, METALS IN OXIDE COATINGS (ppm) .
SITE HO.
1303111
1303121
1303131
1303181
130 Mil
130*121
130*181
1306111
13071H
1308111
1*06121
1304131
1308181
1309111
1309121
1309131
1309181
1312111
1317111
1318111
13181?!
1318131
1318181
1319111
1321111
1323111
1321.111
132%121
132*131
132*181
1325111
1325121
1325131
13251*1
1325151
1325181
1327111
132T121
1327181
1328111
1328121
1328181
1329111
1329121
1329181
133*111
133*111
1936121
1336131
1356181
1338111
13*0111
13*3111
13*3121
13*3181
13*8111
13*8121
13*8131
13*8181
1350111
1352111
1353111
1356111
Mn
320.
*67,
50*.
*30.
258.
1TO.
21*.
95.
31.
130.
1*0.
118.
129.
862.
1080.
99».
9RO.
51.
28.
386.
*08.
536.
**3.
56.
207.
51.
10*.
151.
296.
18*.
726.
6*0.
735.
377.
M)7.
577.
67.
25.
*6.
95.
233.
16*.
127.
1**.
135.
167.
207.
116.
359.
227.
37*.
60.
2*57.
277.
267.
202.
262.
18*.
216.
28.
239.
107.
13*9.
F«
76.200
109.000
81.505
88.904
60.800
*1.BOO
51.100
2*. 500
9.100
2*. 509
32.000
22.603
26.*00
189.000
2*4.009
230.000
222.000
10.000
10.000
73.500
68.606
99.000
»0.*00
2T.200
62.303
8.200
22.900
26.000
37.300
28.700
1*5.003
132.000
199.000
115.000
112.000
1*1.300
39.300
1*.700
26.900
22.*00
37.900
3C.200
38.600
22.000
30.300
3*. 7flfl
79.300
56.800
113.000
83.000
7". 000
26.800
85.600
81.100
83. *00
50.800
62.000
*9.800
54.200
7.800
*1.*00
28.90C
2*9.000
Zn
1.600 1
2.550
2. WOO
2. ISO
2.160
1.5?0
1.870
0.60* •
1.810
0.720
0.770
0.770 |
0.750 1
6*. 300 1
10'. 000
92.*CO
85.9CO
0.222
0.220
1.0*0
1.150
1.510
1.230
0.5C2
1.010
0.233
0.320
0.390
0.830
0.510
1.310
1.020
1.830
l.*CO
0.9*8
1.300
0.510
0.250
0.380
2.180
6.660
*.530
0.620
0.390
0.510
0.778
0.9*0
0.510
1.380
0.9*0
0.690
3.*00
0.370
0.360
0.365
19.600
31.6CO
20.500
23.900
0.670
0.507
0.628
2.280
Cd
1.0028
.0059
.8060
.00*0
.0010
.002*
.0017
.0915
.00??
.0056
.007*
1.0083
1.0071
).031«
.0531
.0*1*
.0*22
.0310
.0028
.006'
.0059
.0083
.00*0
.0016
.0091
.0010
.00**
.0021
.0121 •
.0062
.00*1
.09*4
.0920
.005?
.0036
.00*1
.0010
.0013
.0010
.802''
.0160
.009*
.008"
.00*)
.0069
.0092
.006*
.001*
.0069
.00*9
.0053
.0018
.«028
.0010
.0019
.0071
.0113
.0081
.OOM
.00*7
.0069
.008*
.01*7
Co
,*39
.509
.678
.5*2
.231
.152
.196
.159
.005
.25*
.259
.25*
.256
,**5
.687
.605
.589
.058
.067
.235
.212
.269
.21°
.086
.181
.023
.059
.101
.18*
.115
.6*9
.521
.6*3
.*05
.366
.527
.057
.009
.033
.030
.162
.096
.08*
.076
.080
.157
.3*3
.205
.*59
.336
.15*
.105
.177
.1*5
.176
.21*
.273
.202
.230
.013
.091
.076
.323
Hi
0.5M 1
0.775 1
0.710 1
.689
.11*
.101
.108
.0*2
.021
.220
.22*
.253
.232
0.201
0.36<>
O.*91
0.3«C
0.02<>
0.016
0.229
0.22*
0.267
0.2*1
0.111
0.1*9
0.01E
0.02*
0.011
0.08*
0.0*0
0.1*6
0.1*3
0.197
0.0*e
0.068
0.128
0.025
0.010
0.31?
O.J05
0.0*6
0.026
0.092
0.05«
0.076
0.22C
0.036
o.asi
0.05*
0.0*0
0.056
0.0*0
0.030
0.0*1
0.036
0.198
0.33*
0.235
0.256
0.011
0.089
0.0*8
0.172
Pb
1.13* 1
1.189 1
S.125 1
.139 1
.075 1
.101 1
.088 1
.0*1 1
.C50 1
.016 1
.169 1
.092
.099 1
.387 1
.*** 4
.*18 1
.*16 1
.0*1 1
.0*0 1
.037
.03*
.063
.0*5
.05*
.106
.018
.010
.066 (
.138 I
.071 (
.061 1
.07* 1
.086 <
.128
.062
.082
.082
.025
.05*
.010
.021
.016
.010
.027
.019
.100
.0**
.077
.129
.093
.0*5
.0*6
.060
.098
.079
.171
.250
.211
.211
.0*9
.056
.082
.060
Cu
1.034
1.3*9
J.090
1.350
J.01*
1.028
).021
J.916
1.312
1.010
1.011
9.018
1.013
1.028
1.922
9.062
1.03*
;.3io
1.307
.029
.022.
.321
.92*
.010
.020
.00*
.025
).01*
J.117
1.052
1.029
1.022
1.021
.015
.926
.023
.009
.019
.01*
.008
.017
.013
.03*
.0*0
.0*2
.030
.321
.010
.311
.01*
.012
.905
.016
.004
.013
.021
.025
.017
.021
.908
.021
.0*3
.02*
(oontinuad)
-------
TABLE 3 (continued).
SITE NO.
1*57111
1358111
1360111
1*03111
1*03121
1*03181
1*07111
1*07121
1*071*1
1*11111
1*1*111
ifci8iu
1*19111
1*19131
1*19131
1*19181
1*20111
1*31111
1*31131
1*31181
1*33111
1*33111
1*36111
1*26121
1*36131
1*26101
l*27in
iWitl
1*?T181
11*26111
1*39111
1*31111
1*33111
1*3*111
1*35111
1*35121
1*35131
1*35181
1*39111
1*38121
1*38181
IMtllll
1*1.2111
1**2121
1**3131
1**3181
1**S111
1**7111
1**8111
1**9111
1*52111
1*53111
1*57111
1*59111
1*59131
1*54131
1*591*1
1*59181
1*60111
1*60121
1*60181
1*61111
1*63111
Mn
66.
2**.
*01.
98.
106.
1C 2.
69.
71.
70.
114.
198.
125.
2T8.
28*.
333.
298.
ice.
5*.
222.
138.
102.
13*.
399.
582.
555.
512.
**3.
171.
307.
98.
99.
210.
8*.
109.
197.
557.
536.
*30.
116.
1*8.
132.
102.
162.
169.
200.
20*.
126.
231.
65.
48.
123.
119.
112.
398.
*76.
*21.
688.
*96.
226.
239.
233.
102.
*39.
Fe
19.030
26.800
101.003
15.i»03
13.600
1*.500
19.103
16.503
17.800
*9.0C9
29.500
2*. 000
66.503
*0.*03
52.003
53.00;
20.800
13.100
2*. 900
20.503
16.503
36.*03
86.730
115.003
138.003
113.000
90.900
21.600
56.333
30.500
22.*03
33.500
16.*00
53.503
35.600
10*. 300
*5.500
61.700
16.200
19.801
18.003
26.300
40.7Q3
6*. 303
50.600
51.803
26.633
53.* 00
19.300
26.303
2*. 000
32.700
21.500
11*. 000
123.000
136.000
130.003
126.003
56.600
65.503
61.090
36.300
9C.500
Zn
0.5*0
0.300
2.8?0
0.310
0.230
9.270
9.375
0.375
0.375
0.6CO
O.*l?
0.900
1.320
1.060
1.590
1.320
1.1*0
8.251
0.770
0.511
0.**3
1.600
l.*50
2.1*0
1.9*0
i.eio
1.730
0.630
1.180
0.101
0.37*
0.369
O.*15
3.833
0.510
2.650
3.090
2.080
0.332
o.*?o
0.3^6
O.*20
O.*50
0.610
0.900
0.650
0.620
0.86*
0.890
1.3*0
0.350
o.eco
0.176
1.770
2.050
1.B70
2.820
2.130
O.R90
1.1CO
l.OOC
0.7JO
1.1*0
Cd
0.0010
0.0010
0.00°6
0.00(0
0.0065
0.006''
0.0366
O.Oflo*
o.ooei
0.003:
0.0951
0.0123
0.623*
0.01*5
0.0223
0.0201
0.01C0
C.0120
0.0365
0.02*1
0.00"*
0.01*5
0.010*
0.0162
0.0162
0.01*9
0.02*9
0.0130
0.0210
0.0023
0.01??
0.0125
0.0022
0.0089
0.0368
0.0129
0.0071
0.0989
0.0359
0.000*
0.007'
0.00*1
0.007*
0.03??
0.0261
0.01*2
0.0003
0.00-8
0.0053
0.00*9
0.00*6
0.00*9
0.0052
0.0363
0.00*2
0.00*0
0.005*
0.0062
0.0310
0.0913
0.0010
0.0092
0.0801
Co
0.112
0.095
0.738
0.118
0.080
0.099
0.057
0.111
0.08*
0.113
0.077
0.068
0.223
0.1*9
0.168
0.180
0.099
0.868
0.120
0.09*
0.0*5
0.120
0.5*5
0.691
0.565
0.690
9.385
0.225
0.335
O.Q75
0.113
0.167
0.077
0.29*
0.239
0.522
0.5*2
0.*2*
0.1*6
0.150
0.1*8
0.156
0.129
0.128
0.175
0.1**
0.125
0.162
0.055
0.16*
0.103
0.090
0.106
0.3*2
o.3«ir
0.390
O.*60
0.375
0.162
0.180
0.171
0.101
0.573
Hi
e.9°5
0.052
0.332
0.1*9
C.ll*
0.133
C.lll
0.081
0.006
0.0*1
0.07*
0.067
0.236
0.1*5
0.1*7
0.176
0.136
0.0 80
0.1*8
0.11*
0.055
C.237
0.077
0.120
0.096
0.096
0.338
0.126
0.233
0.005
0.1*3
0.131
0.053
0.113
0.002
0.319
0.*7<,
0.262
0.196
0.1*o
0.17*
0.096
0.029
0.027
0.128
0.061
0.05?
0.06*
0.029
0.003
0.0**
0.036
0.065
0.216
0.269
0.230
0.25*
0.2*3
0.130
0.11?
0.126
0.078
0.21*
Pb
0.0*3
O.C10
0.168
0.033
0.0?1
0.027
0.021
0.030
0.030
0.055
0.033
0.0**
O.C33
0.016
0.012
0.030
0.050
0.350
0.025
0.0*1
0.0*3
0.05T
0.018
0.031
0.010
0.019
0.0*9
0.077
0.063
0.030
0.082
0.062
0.101
0.056
0.010
0.069
0.060
0.0*6
0.010
0.061
0.036
0.0*6
0.0*2
0.0*2
0.039
0.0*1
0.057
0.126
0.178
1.210
0.07*
0.103
0.099
0.197
0.262
0.175
0.236
0.218
0.113
0.108
0.111
0.0*6
0.162
Cu
0.015
0.030
0.056
0.026
0.33?
0.037
0.01T
0.039
0.0?3
0.03*
0.031
0.0**
0.330
0.337
0.035
0.037
0.738
C.016
0.1*3
0.038
0.031
0.329
0.009
0.016
0.009
a. an
0.066
0.016
0.3*2
0.013
0.0*3
0.035
0.925
C.017
0.3M
0.0*9
0.060
0.0*6
0.327
0.029
0.028
C.01*
0.918
0.015
0.051
0.928
0.013
0.03*
0.009
0.9*3
0.0*5
0.95*
0.023
0.02*
0.026
0.011
C.031
0.023
0.021
0.010
0.016
0.020
0.032
(oontinufld)
11-20
-------
TABLE 3 (continued).
SITE NO.
1501111
1502111
1505111
1506111
1515111
1515121
1515181
1519111
1520111
1521111
1521121
1521131
15211*1
1523111
1525111
1526111
1527111
1530111
1531111
1531121
15311M
1532111
1533111
1534111
1534121
1534101
1535111
1536111
1934111
15*2111
151.2121
15*2181
1543111
1543121
15*3181
15*6111
15*7111
15*9111
15*9121
15*9131
15*9181
1550111
1550121
1550131
15501*1
1550181
1551111
1553111
155*111
1555111
155TH1
1557121
1557131
15571*1
1557181
1558111
1559111
1559121
1559131
15591*1
1559181
1560111
1560121
1560131
Mn
**.
1019.
*2.
31.
2*6.
288.
267.
28.
177.
?76.
*65.
503.
448.
128.
883.
230.
71.
595.
5*.
79.
6*.
165.
268.
57.
21*.
136.
27.
23.
P*.
1*.
5*.
3*.
168.
*13.
291.
5*.
16.
669.
681.
707.
686.
398.
*C2.
*64.
500.
*62.
81.
106.
25.
75.
239.
227.
198.
199.
216.
1232.
337.
392.
*»1.
3*0.
390.
3*9.
313.
27*.
Fe
10.309
115.903
9.*03
6.000
33.900
32.700
33.300
5.9CO
30.200
*9.800
57.600
63.100
56.800
18.603
85.100
26.400
i*.o33
68.803
1*.000
12.100
14.700
*2.60Q
*1.1C3
15.200
13.7QO
14.506
8.603
*.900
1*.303
*.5G3
7.000
5.100
28.600
29.600
29. 2.0 C
12.800
3.900
92.*00
9^.200
52.800
BO. 900
00.800
102.003
95.200
62. SOD
87.700
22.009
5.900
5.300
9.9C3
31.700
*5.100
3C.OOO
10.003
29.209
227.000
60.603
71.000
6*.*CO
45.309
60.303
50.700
69.603
46.000
Zn
0.115
1.360
0.263
0.2C1
1.060
1.060
1.060
0.110
1.0 CO
2.0*0
2.**0
2.500
2.330
O.U10
1.130
1.100
O.*60
1.150
0.**2
0.560
0.5CO
0.551
0.73*
0.166
0.2*0
0.218
0.09*
0.2C5
1.090
0.066
9.189
0.128
O.*10
0.615
0.513
O.**0
0.299
2.560
1.790
1.880
2.0*0
7.170
6.530
6.210
7.0*0
6.7*0
0.720
O.*70
0.1*0
0.3 CO
0.690
0.6*0
0.290
0.300
0.480
*.030
1.010
2.610
2.5*0
2.100
2.290
0.530
o.*to
0.5*0
ca
0.09**
0.0205
0.005*
0.0015
0.0975
0.00??
0.00*9
0.001"
0.0109
0.0411
0.0* f*
0.0*79
o.o**<;
0.006*
0.009*
0.0289
0.007*
0.0995
0.0339
0.0100
0.0370
c.oo?2
0.0359
0.0021
0.0033
0.002*
0.0021
0.00*9
0.00*6
0.091*
0.005*
0.0336
0.0059
0.009*
0.0076
0.0321
0.00*9
0.0360
0.0300
0.0375
0.03**
0.0533
0.05*3
0.0523
0.0180
0.0*00
0.015*
0.0029
0.0023
0.0012
0.011*
0.0109
0.00*0
0.0002
0.0396
0.092*
0.0*60
0.0923
0.09*0
0.0680
0.0703
0.0223
0.0170
0.0190
Co
0.091
0.582
0.093
0.122
0.281
0.277
0.279
0.05*
0.188
0.639
0.756
0.8*2
0.756
0.1%*
0.329
0.216
0.063
0.679
0.105
0.091
0.098
0.137
0.201
0.097
0.1*1
0.13*
0.121
0.099
0.113
0.3*9
0.092
0.066
0.137
0.236
0.197
0.097
0.055
0.372
0.405
0.426
0.401
0.389
0.405
0.368
0.410
0.393
0.135
0.082
O.C77
3.023
0.212
0.201
0.162
.191
.192
.688
.630
.6*5
.675
.580
.632
.200
.212
0.175
Ni
fl.3^9
0.3*2
0.123
0.11?
0.17J
0.1*2
0.257
0.0*?
0.990
o.7*e
0.90?
1.0 2C
0.897
c.ioe
0.306
C.**0
O.io?
9.*75
0.08*
0.182
0.1*3
0.136
0.*6*
o.ue
0.1*0
0.129
0.371
0.966
0.077
0.01C
0.09*
0.0*7
o.ooe
0.160
0.133
0.370
C.02?
0.*89
0.631
0.670
0.7QO
0.63*
0.612
0.576
0.7ie
0.636
0.221
0.0**
0.09E
0.01?
0.2*C
0.208
0.111
0.137
e.i7*
0.955
1.070
1.27C
1.33C
1.0 5C
1.19C
0.15?
0.1*0
0.1*7
Pb
0.016
0.010
0.032
O.C10
0.095
0.154
0.120
O.C*5
O.C10
O.blO
G.C1C
0.010
0.010
0.036
O.C10
0.025
C.011
O.C10
0.023
0.052
0.03«
0.010
0.029
0.056
0.0*5
O.C66
0.011
0.06*
0.**3
C.C20
O.C60
0.0*0
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.018
0.096
0.010
0.010
0.060
0.027
0.059
0.059
0.06*
0.049
0.068
0.011
0.610
0.037
0.010
0.010
0.035
O.C10
0.027
0.021
0.010
0.010
0.0*5
0.030
0.017
0.026
0.010
0.010
0.010
Cu
0.313
0.015
0.035
0.320
0.3*1.
0.363
8.3*o
c.301;
C.91*
0.937
0.033
0.055
0.9*2
0.911
0.05*
C.026
0.313
0.336
0.015
0.329
o.ne
C.923
7.560
2.051
0.733
1.303
0.051
C.020
0.910
0.305
0.319
0.312
0.02*
0.928
0.028
0.32*
0.02*
0.063
0.053
0.05*
0.05*
0.031
0.025
0.026
0.020
0.926
0.02*
0.005
0.012
0.006
0.0*9
0.939
0.310
0.025
0.031
0.0**
0.0*9
0.062
0.06*
0.0*1
0.05*
0.331
0.321
0.030
(continued)
11-21
-------
TABLE 3 (continued).
SITE NO.
1560191
1563111
1563121
1563181
1561.111
1561.121
156<.ltl
1567111
1569111
1569121
1569181
1570111
1571111
1573111
1575111
1576111
1577111
1579111
1581111
1581121
1581161
1562111
1585111
1506111
1588111
1591111
1593111
1503121
1593181
159*111
1596111
159M11
1599111
1601111
1601121
1601161
16C3111
160<.lll
1601.121
1604131
1604141
1601.181
1605111
1605121
1605181
160 '111
1608111
1609111
1610111
1611111
1612111
1613111
1613121
1613181
1614111
1615111
1616111
1620111
1621111
1621121
1621161
1622111
1621111
162*111
Mn
312.
64.
22.
«.3.
221.
*5.
153.
34.
129.
115.
122.
5".
57.
29.
18.
M> 9.
185.
217.
306.
527.
417.
320.
1«6.
140.
68.
16.
146.
243.
195.
95.
69.
9'.
75.
208.
220.
21<».
138.
157.
299.
«.60.
344.
315.
269.
181..
227.
239.
235.
201.
20.
20.
13.
272.
232.
252.
87.
92.
126.
163.
67.
108.
88.
137.
51.
1£6.
Fe
55.530
12.103
3.^03
7.900
32.100
13.100
22. '03
8.600
27.703
3*. 300
27.53D
10.9C3
9.100
5.1.05
7.400
56.5CO
26.000
30.600
31.303
59.500
t.5.1.00
29.800
25.409
26.600
15.90C
4.800
31. '00
31.363
31.503
15.9&0
15.903
20.603
20.7QO
32.50:
34.90C
*?.7fl3
22.900
30.100
53.400
100.000
64.600
62.001
51.300
47.103
49.2C3
25.630
29.600
30.403
5.200
6.100
4.803
30.900
14.000
22.503
17.800
23.003
25.009
34.303
14.203
6.703
11.503
20.303
12.200
35.100
Zn
0.520
0.200
0.083
0.1*7
1.97Q
1.1*0
1.5PO
0.160
0.660
0.600
0.630
0.420
0.152
0.170
0.130
2.020
1.490
4.320
0.6'0
0.760
0.720
0.660
0.220
0.460
0.3GO
0.120
0.890
1.820
1.360
0.340
0.650
0.530
0.970
1.470
1.550
1.510
0.810
1.130
1.950
2.490
1.740
1.830
2.610
1.890
2.250
0.720
0.510
0.570
O.O'S
0.380
0.140
0.970
0.820
0.9CO
0.510
0.530
0.420
9.850
0.310
0.340
0.330
0.280
0.390
0.610
Cd
0.0193
0.0034
0.001)
0.0022
0.0153
0.0100
0.0126
0.0010
o.om
0.0153
0.0150
0.0034
0.0074
0.0043
0.03??
0.04?'
0.0553
O.C244
0.00°1
0.0143
0.0116
0.0154
0.007-
0.0105
0.0119
0.0020
0.0063
0.0129
0.00°6
0.0063
0.0140
0.0119
0.0176
0.0185
0.0149
fl.fllf
0.0090
0.022*
0.03<>6
0.0401
0.0519
0.0409
0. 04->5
0.0245
0.0360
0.0105
0.0061
0.0299
•.0044
0.0035
C.0053
0.02?9
0.0160
0.0194
0.0004
0.0102
0.0062
0.0243
0.0054
0.0099
•.037'
0.0086
0.0070
0.0172
Co
0.196
0.138
0.053
0.081
0.165
0.090
0.128
0.049
0.196
0.123
0.155
0.045
0.037
0.035
0.090
0.367
0.262
0.195
0.157
0.224
0.191
0.239
0.119
0.119
0.128
0.047
0.089
0.165
0.127
0.095
0.091
• .135
0.130
0.090
0.138
0.099
0.064
0.072
0.119
0.137
0.130
0.115
0.188
0.156
0.173
0.051
0.069
0.113
0.084
0.011
• .Oil
0.102
O.O'l
0.097
0.105
0.060
0.059
0.132
0.063
0.071
0.067
0.098
0.063
0.150
Hi
0.160
0.132
0.036
0.0*1
0.14?
0.005
0.12C
0.005
0.200
0.12°
0.165
0.034
0.022
0.01?
0.06P
0.351
0.34Q
0.164
0.007
0.145
0.121
0.224
O.lQo
0.1*0
0.121
0.039
0.066
0.126
0.096
0.053
0.071
0.1*5
0.156
0.111
C.126
0.119
0.089
0.096
0.207
0.21?
0.201
0.179
0.274
0.176
0.225
0.074
0.074
0.290
0.060
0.030
0.037
0.1't
0.124
0.151
0.066
0.073
0.042
0.129
0.836
C.040
9.038
0.986
0.034
0.159
Pb
0.010
0.010
0.037
0.024
C.C10
0.120
• .065
0.010
0.010
0.042
0.026
0.077
0.010
0.01C
0.040
O.C32
0.161
0.121
0.093
0.062
O.O'S
0.136
0.047
0.040
0.095
0.030
0.092
0.213
0.153
0.062
0.092
0.092
0.039
0.129
0.353
0.241
0.068
0.061
0.084
0.029
0.018
0.048
0.302
0.237
0.27Q
0.077
0.047
0.062
0.054
0.054
0.047
0.069
0.029
0.049
0.041
0.049
• .012
0.025
0.025
0.041
0.033
0.032
0.011
0.010
Cu
0.027
0.03?
0.311
0.321
0.331
0.326
0.029
0.009
0.321
0.013
fl.Sl"'
0.009
0.015
0.005
0.929
0.046
0.337
C.395
0.060
0.039
0.050
0.073
0.135
0.037
0.325
0.306
0.015
0.313
0.014
O.C21
0.337
0.037
0.010
0.027
0.028
0.028
0.022
0.310
0.043
0.952
0.056
0.043
0.04«
0.040
0.043
0.031
0.029
0.062
0.012
O.OQ7
0.009
0.089
0.036
0.058
0.922
0.318
0.016
0.349
0.016
0.029
0.023
0.029
0.316
0.031
(continued)
11-22
-------
TABLE 3 (continued).
SITE NO.
1630111
1631111
1631121
1631161
1632111
1633111
1634111
1639111
1643111
1640121
16*0161
161.3111
1643121
1643161
1644111
1644121
1644161
1646111
1647111
1646111
U50111
1650121
1690181
1652111
1659111
1656111
1656121
1656131
16561ft!
1658111
1659111
1659121
1659181
1660111
1660121
1660131
16601C1
1661111
1662111
1T03111
1601111
1601121
1601181
1602111
1602121
1602161
1604111
1605111
1605121
1605161
1806111
1806121
1606161
If 0*111
1607121
1607181
1808111
1609111
1810111
1811111
1611121
1611131
1811141
1611181
Mn
233.
514.
568.
541.
44.
42.
54.
116.
245.
200.
223.
280.
571.
426.
119.
726.
423.
54.
18<».
138.
57.
54.
56.
36.
236.
?55.
232.
244.
244.
195.
385.
168.
267.
469.
491.
293.
416.
199.
157.
7fl.
62.
126.
95.
71.
107.
69.
247.
1160.
1260.
1220.
429.
333.
361.
50.
63.
57.
44.
166.
91.
116.
123.
116.
133.
122*
Fe
41.600
69.303
102.000
95.700
6.803
16.200
17.700
21.100
46.209
21.400
34.800
27.300
69.900
48.103
11.90C
53.009
32.500
11.300
15.560
16.70C
12.300
10.200
11.300
6.900
41.900
47.000
75.600
39.9C3
54.209
25.400
47.000
17.003
32.003
46.003
48.603
18.600
37.700
44.800
25.600
16.50C
17.103
20.300
18.700
19.730
19.80C
19.600
66.000
193.000
216.000
206.000
73.000
36.100
54.700
13.000
15.000
14.000
16.003
35.000
23.000
22.000
16.000
15.900
15.300
17.303
Zn
0.900
1.820
1.400
1.610
0.424
a. ieo
0.150
0.750
1.240
0.700
0.970
0.460
2.840
1.660
0.220 1
0.760
0.500
0.460 1
0.450 1
0.730
0.360
0.490
0.440
0.194
0.730
0.390
0.390
0.630
0.470
1.110
1.540
0.410
0.960 <
1.5 tfl {
1.170 |
0.804 I
1.170 1
a. 6 20
0.960
14.600
0.251
0.305
0.276
0.410
0.364
0.367
1.270
6.280
7.160
6.730
6.650
4.790
5.720
2.320
2.840
2.630
0.260
0.950
0.660
0.310
0.390
0.460
0.340
0.380
Cd
.0263
.0394
.0266
.033?
.00 o?
.007-»
.0111
.0302
.014*
.0069
.0112
.0390
.0696
.0543
).007l
9.0154
6.0113
1.0047
9.0113
.01*0
.014?
.0181
.0162
.0024
.0194
.0093
.0055
.0119
.0069
.0069
.0343
.0116
}.0230
1.03?*
(.0232
1.0170
1.0242
.02??
.0102
.0151
.00T4
.0964
.0079
.0066
.0096
.0092
.0300
.1863
.1300
.1169
.1230
.1100
.1170
.0116
.0106
.0111
.006"
. 010'
.0092
.0072
.0094
.OVO
.0171
.012'
Co
0.235
0.258
0.289
0.274
0.062
0.090
0.151
0.136
0.149
0.064
0.107
0.059
0.170
0.115
0.031
0.144
0.086
0.040
0.108
0.107
0.079
0.052
0.066
• .058
0.111
0.075
0.123
0.076
0.092
0.088
0.138
0.036
0.086
0.134
0.141
0.076
0.116
0.190
0.063
0.049
0.104
0.178
0.141
0.060
0.106
0.093
0.251
1.010
1.290
1.150
0.513
0.508
0.511
0.197
0.284
0.241
0.122
0.203
0.132
0.125
0.109
0.152
0.1*6
0.133
Ni
0.164
0.247
0.233
0.24C
0.070
0.062
0.096
0.23*
0.104
0.06?
0.084
0.066
0.240
0.15?
0.036
0.10P
0.360
0.018
0.106
0.122
0.094
0.090
0.092
0.052
0.111
C.061
0.084
0.120
0.095
0.064
0.146
0.050
0.09<>
0.280
0.286
0.19C
0.252
0.146
0.043
0.214
0.127
0.159
0.14?
0.098
0.104
0.101
0.240
0.7TJ
0.834
0.806
0.862
0.856
0.860
0.133
0.103
0.116
0.13?
0.137
0.106
0.126
0.113
0.136
0.139 <
0.129 1
Pb
.010 1
.010 {
.010
.010
.072
.051
.060
.060
.031
.014
.023
.046
.013
9.030
9.010
9.014
.012
.024
.031
.117
.067
.105
.086
.085
.017
.017
.028
.017
.C21
.089
.031
.027
.029
.066 (
.090 (
.066 |
.075 I
.068 (
.079 1
.068 (
.079 (
.011 (
.045 I
.052 (
.012 (
.632 1
.036 1
.023 I
.439 1
.231 1
.085 I
.112 (
.099 1
.690 1
.068 (
.079 (
.076 (
.087 (
.051 (
.178 I
.074 (
.117 (
1.114 (
1.121 (
cu
j.oz7
J.022
.02?
.024
.015
.01*
.340
.02^
.922
.017
.020
.029
.034
.0*2
.016
.027
.92*
.011
.03?
.056
.922
.025
.024
.032
.911
.036
.033
.052
.049
.02T
.027
.015
.321
1.082
I. 0*4
).15T
1.069
1.018
1.022
1.012
1.020
1.036
!.028
1.916
1.022
1.019
1.329
1.033
1.016
1.925
1.049
1.044
».04*
1.914
1.016
1.015
1.013
1.014
1.019
1.028
1.922
1.016
1.027
1.024
(continued)
11-23
-------
TABLE 3 (continued).
SITE hO.
1912111
1813111
1613121
1813181
1811.111
1H4121
1614181
1816111
181M11
1819111
1819121
1419181
1820111
1831111
1821121
1821181
1822111
1*23111
1824111
1824121
1824181
1*25111
1826111
1027111
t«28111
1129111
1*30111
1131111
1872111
1833111
1831*111
1634121
1634131
1834181
1636111
1636111
1837111
1638111
163*121
1638161
1639111
1840111
1906111
1906121
1906181
19G7111
1*12111
1914111
191*111
1917121
191M61
2001111
2001121
2001181
2002111
2007111
2009111
2015111
2018111
2021111
2021121
2021181
2022111
2024111
Mn
895.
961.
910.
936.
281.
193.
237.
134.
272.
113.
181.
147.
3«»3.
96.
122.
109.
434.
64.
280.
358.
319.
1555.
9*.
101.
86.
228.
103.
69.
344.
1125.
30«.
298.
316.
308.
132.
112.
222.
63.
76.
71.
198.
184.
137.
202.
170.
149.
193.
142.
242.
194.
218.
923.
1743.
1333.
166.
53.
125.
113.
255.
448.
414.
431.
121.
61.
Fe
111.090
133.000
107.000
120. 000
54.003
32.000
43.003
21.200
5T.OOC
25.000
21.600
23.300
63.000
27.000
14.20:
20.609
59.000
13.000
26.000
31.700
29.900
165.000
13.300
11.003
14.003
23.003
13.000
11.003
37.000
57.200
17.800
17.500
22.500
19.300
14.500
8.400
19.500
6.000
13.500
10.703
18.603
20.603
22.100
27.TQ3
24.900
27.303
27.000
20.300
36. 800
30.^03
33.600
146.000
129.000
138.000
12.100
5.500
13.200
11.703
43.800
57.5C3
84.900
71.200
If. 600
14.300
Zn
1.820
1.570
1.590
1.580
1.510
1.050
1.260
0.470
0.940
1.430
1.030
1.230
1.050
0.400
0.780
0.590
1.540
0.110
0.600
1.070
0.880
3.920
0.100
0.420
0.240
0.3*0
0.1^0
0.260
0.490
2.040
0.720
0.6fO
0.940
0.770
0.6*0
0.290
0.560
0.185
0.1P2
0.184
0.330
1.330
1.960
3.780
2.870
3.9*0
*.110
1.090
2.300
1.660
1.980
3.810
5.400
4.610
0.590
0.260
0.290
0.393
0.670
1.550
1.450
1.500
0.920
0.210
ca
0.0291
0.0273
0.0242
0.0236
0.0366
0.0265
0.0326
0.0159
0.0251
0.0122
8.0207
0.0165
0.0142
o.oiei
0.0161
o.om
0.0298
0.0049
0.0144
0.0230
0.016?
0.0724
0.001*
0.0073
0..0034
0.0095
0.0039
0.0080
0.0136
0.05 «0
0.0121
0.009*
C.01M
0.0124
0.0128
0.0022
0.0210
0.011''
0.0073
0.0095
0.0047
0.0236
0.0043
0.0103
0.0373
0.0059
0.0146
0.0044
0.0103
0.0071
0.006*
0.0135
0.0350
0.0243
C.0025
0.0012
0.0044
0.0025
0.000"
0.0044
0.0034
0.0079
0.0081
0.0321
(continued)
11-24
Co
0.624
0.593
0.457
0.525
0.243
0.202
0.223
0.242
0.370
0.159
0.220
0.190
0.300
0.122
0.149
0.176
0.371
0.069
0.240
0.310
0.275
1.049
0.065
0.051
0.087
0.246
0.0*1
0.155
0.241
0.900
0.161
0.134
0.197
0.164
0.120
0.094
0.212
0.053
0.064
0.059
0.153
0.216
0.078
0.106
0.092
0.092
0.113
0.065
0.103
0.057
0.080
0.146
0.205
0.176
0.066
0.107
0.339
0.097
0.206
0.269
0.248
0.259
0.119
0.061
Hi
0.401
0.360
0.363
0.362
0.327
0.260
0.294
0.244
0.465
0.147
0.163
0.153
0.289
0.117
0.157
0.137
0.290
0.057
0.201
0.246
0.223
0.543
0.028
0.033
0.056
0.102
0.052
0.127
0.223
0.696
0.153
0.145
0.1^6
0.15V
0.13«
0.062
0.167
0.07T
C.076
0.077
0.076
0.214
0.174
0.392
0.283
0.244
0.75?
0.284
0.572
0.415
0.494
0.12*
0.258
0.193
fl. 196
0.065
0.214
0.050
0.16?
0.156
0.141
0.140
0.006
0.06?
fb
0.048
0.02'
0.022
0.025
0.122
0.106
0.115
0.058
0.077
0.242
0.074
0.158
0.0*0
0.114
0.055
0.085
0.042
0.066
0.067
0.017
0.042
0.050
0.019
0.041
0.039
0.016
0.026
0.121
0.039
0.049
0.054
0.033
0.141
0.0*6
0.064
0.073
0.039
0.098
0.032
O.G65
0.026
0.010
0.156
0.282
0.220
0.113
0.636
0.152
0.429
0.159
0.294
0.0*9
0.253
0.166
0.027
0.021
0.033
0.058
0.102
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.127
0.010
Cu
0.070
0.048
0.059
0.054
0.033
0.123
0.028
0.024
0.361
0.3*5
0.042
0.039
0.052
0.035
0.016
0.026
0.129
0.02''
0.026
0.031
0.329
0.056
0.014
0.020
0.011
0.017
0.019
0.016
0.035
0.056
0.030
0.032
0.033
0.032
0.025
0.023
0.040
0.016
0.81*
0.017
0.026
0.030
3.026
0.060
0.044
0.046
0.1*0
0.038
0.064
0.049
0.352
0.054
0.142
a. 098
0.039
0.913
0.019
0.029
0.03*
0.051
Q.03S
0.045
0.033
0.022
-------
TABLE 3 (continued).
SITE NO.
2026111
2027111
2029111
2029121
2029131
2029181
2032111
2032121
20321B1
2033111
2034111
2034121
2034131
203*141
203*181
2035111
2136111
2037111
2038111
2040111
2142111
2144111
2046111
2046121
2046131
2046181
2047111
2047121
2147161
2148111
2048131
2048181
2050111
2053111
2057111
2057121
2057131
2157181
2058111
2059111
2062111
2065111
2068111
2070111
2071111
2072111
2072121
2072101
2073111
2074111
2075111
2076111
2076121
2076181
2077111
2078111
2079111
2060111
2081111
2082111
2083111
2064111
2*85111
Mn
116.
106.
255.
168.
209.
211.
44.
30.
37.
39.
795.
747.
•68.
1190.
900.
340.
145.
232.
46.
101.
247.
462.
229.
623.
871.
641.
43.
110.
77.
462.
486.
485.
467.
66.
297.
525.
471.
431.
79.
191.
64.
65.
73.
522.
301.
115.
251.
183.
699.
428.
266.
246.
272.
259.
85.
276.
184.
215.
264.
92.
123.
507.
156.
Fe
31.900
31.000
67.700
50.500
56.800
59.000
34.000
16.700
25.400
9.700
136.000
140.009
164.000
180.000
155.000
67.000
16.900
33.109
15.800
16.100
69.000
55.000
47.000
79.700
89.600
72.100
15.000
13.800
14.400
57.000
38.900
46.000
57.000
15.100
85.009
90.900
83.700
86.500
20.000
22.600
20.000
17.000
18.009
108.000
29.400
21.000
26.600
23.800
126.000
105.000
63.000
28.400
23.900
26.200
15.000
11.400
20.100
27.300
26.200
12.600
27.000
65.000
28.00C
Zn
0.590
1.580
1.780
1.020
1.400
1.400
0.470
0.220
0.350
0.170
4.690
4.570
4.740
7.120
5.280
1.620
0.340
0.310
0.190
1.440
1.390
0.940
0.170
0.340
0.360
0.300
0.140
0.510
0.330
1.040
1.040
1.040
2.370
0.430
1.290
2.080
2.050
1.610
0.260
0.420
0.250
0.130
0.090
1.180
3.250
0.310
1.490
0.900
3.660
1.240
0.480
0.290
• 244
.267
.560
.340
.010
.670
1.010
0.240
0.360
5.410
0.540
Cd
.0057
.0039
.0249
.0116
.0264
.0210
.0010
.0014
.0012
.0011
.0112
.0066
.0201
.0260
.0161
.0076
.0032
.0038
.001°
.0050
.0050
.0262
.0013
.0047
.0079
.0046
.0011
.0072
.0042
.0144
.0160
.0152
.0117
.0010
.0131
.0305
.029'
.0244
.003"
.0025
.0029
.0047
.0032
.0033
.0346
.0026
.1081
.0054
.0193
.0079
.0048
.0103
.0060
.0092
.0109
.0049
.00*1
.0044
.0257
.00?5
.0026
.0290
.0011
Co
.146
.075
.280
.184
.262
.249
.062
.017
.040
.033
.758
.753
.924
.140
.894
.141
.098
.147
.026
.116
.173
.546
.093
.253
.291
.212
.026
.053
.040
.152
.123
.138
.118
.110
.229
.377
.340
.315
.037
.063
.059
.212
.047
.178
.252
.064
.173
.126
.300
.226
.089
.168
.138
.153
.147
.071
.139
.083
.258
.093
.092
.552
.077
Ni
0.059 <
0.036
0.593
0.350
0.596
0.514
0.028
0.014
0.021
0.014
0.651
0.576
0.431
1.050
0.677
0.039
0.059
0.05«
0.009
0.09?
0.023
0.486
0.014
0.086
0.083
0.062
0.016
0.039
0.029
0.173
0.153
0.163
0.085
0.044 1
0.171 (
0.273 (
0.276
0.240
0.014
0.022
0.014
0.106
0.029
0.043
0.162
0.621
0.082
0.052
0.202
0.103
0.024
0.106
0.101
0.104
0.202
0.066
0.12?
0.050
0.356
0.033
0.012
0.450
0.018
Pb
1.033
1.063
.590
.348
.555
.498
.010
.010
.010
.046
.413
.199
.321
.475
.352
.053
.046
.053
.034
.135
.076
.020
.020
.010
.010
.013
.010
.037
.024
.094
.010
.052
.109
J.052
1.040
1.216
.226
.161
.031
.010
.075
.026
.018
.016
.091
.«74
.170
.122
.226
.069
.010
.039
.010
.024
.071
.024
.233
.190
.010
.010
.052
.913
.029 I
Cu
.013
.029
.054
.036
.055
.048
.013
.01?
.013
.008
.107
.101
.132
.254
.149
.015
.020
.013
.011
.020
.020
.050
.050
.036
.045
.044
.006
.044
.025
.040
.046
.044
.021
.016
.025
.03?
.036
.031
.010
.016
.005
.012
.014
.056
.155
.015
.056
.036
.26?
.023
.014
.043
.039
.041
.052
.022
.027
.078
.034
.018
.009
.17?
1.013
11-25
-------
TABLE 4. SAMPLE 217 - REPRODUCIBILITY OF GRAVEL ANALYSES.
i
N>
First Batch
(collected
June 1975)
Average
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Mn
513
466
465
435
417
542
425
374
407
473
430
410
461
434
479
466
480
415
531
454
± 44
Fe
87.7
76.3
70.5
82.8
59.3
90.1
59.8
56.7
62.1
68.6
70.5
65.3
96.9
63
77
75
76
66
78
72.7
±11.1
Zn
19.8
17.8
18.3
18.0
18.7
22.6
17.3
16.0
17.4
20.1
19.6
15.8
19.3
18.5
21.5
18.9
20.8
17.4
22.4
19.0
± 1.9
Cd
.243
.213
.268
.236
.230
.269
.217
.191
.210
.240
.240
.208
.235
.234
.293
.287
.261
.222
.309
.242
±.031
Co
1.11
1.04
0.93
1.08
1.00
1.27
0.94
0.87
0.93
1.04
1.05
0.92
1.07
1.07
1.17
1.26
1.10
1.02
1.26
1.06
± .12
Ni
.487
.411
.459
.407
.408
.516
.395
.338
.372
.437
.451
.398
.480
.45
.53
.52
.497
.498
.656
.458
±.072
Pb
.547
.542
.562
.522
.500
.604
.431
.501
.562
.552
.506
.580
.529
.50
.55
.74
.610
.475
.630
.550
±.067
Cu
.027
.025
.024
.027
.027
.032
.021
.021
.022
.026
.026
.023
.019
.017
.027
.025
.020
.014
.026
.024
±.004
-------
TABLE 4 (continued).
Second Batch
(collected
June 1976)
Average
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Mn
487
564
509
499
504
510
484
447
437
438
450
354
565
481
± 57
Fe
66.2
76.8
69.2
52.8
52.8
53.8
49.2
48.6
49.4
50.9
56.0
43.6
67.8
56.7
±10.0
Zn
18.0
21.3
21.2
18.6
19.5
19.5
19.0
17.4
17.5
17.3
17.0
19.8
20.2
18.9
± 1.5
Cd
.306
.373
.438
.369
.417
.269
.289
.243
.254
.202
.226
.171
.322
.298
±.082
Co
1.17
1.37
1.00
1.18
1.27
1.15
1.11
1.11
1.13
0.97
0.93
0.89
1.53
1.14
± .18
Ni
.500
.679
.541
.618
.554
.500
.500
.503
.521
.450
.424
.335
.567
.515
±.086
Pb
.706
.711
.863
.744
.709
.725
.747
.583
.585
.613
.640
.510
.811
.688
±.098
Cu
.048
.045
.049
.049
.043
.043
.028
.033
.043
.037
.028
.027
.039
.039
±.008
-------
TABLE 5. PERIODIC SAMPLING - SITES 217 AND 8102.
Site
217
217
217
217
217
217
217
8102
8102
8102
8102
8102
8102
8102
8102
Site
217
217
217
217
217
217
217
8102
8102
8102
8102
8102
8102
8102
8102
# Date
6/75 (19)
6/76 (13)
9/76
10/76
12/76
A/77
1111
9/76
10/76 (2)
11/76
12/76
4/77
6/77
7/77 (2)
8/77
# Date
6/75
6/76
9/76
10/76
12/76
4/77
1111
9/76
10/76
11/76
12/76
4/77
kill
1111
8/77
Mn
ppm
454
481
473
729
562
523
554
148
131
132
213
320
302
134
156
Mn/
Fe
6.2
8.5
8.5
8.6
8.8
9.1
8.2
11.4
9.4
9.5
11.1
11.7
7.8
12.2
14.3
Fe
ppm
73
75
56
85
64
58
68
13
14
14
19
27
39
11
11
Mn/
Zn
24
25
30
30
26
29
28
110
111
73
74
142
219
115
141
Zn
ppm
19.0
18.9
15.6
24.7
21.4
18.3
19.7
1.34
1.18
1.81
2.87
2.26
1.38
1.17
1.11
Mn/
Cd
1880
1610
1920
1920
1690
1960
1660
19500
24300
19100
16500
26400
23600
24400
26400
Cd
ppm
0.242
0.298
0.246
0.380
0.332
0.267
0.333
0.0076
0.0054
0.0069
0.0129
0.0121
0.0128
0.0055
0.0059
Mn/
Co
428
422
433
458
429
418
443
1300
1100
1430
1500
1520
960
1600
1530
Co
ppm
1.06
1.14
1.09
1.59
1.31
1.25
1.25
0.114
0.119
0.092
0.142
0.210
0.314
0.084
0.102
Mn/
Ni
991
934
922
880
776
983
829
1420
1140
1550
1420
1600
900
1720
1610
Ni
ppm
0.458
0.515
0.513
0.828
0.724
0.532
0.668
0.104
0.115
0.085
0.150
0.200
0.334
0.078
0.097
Mn/
Pb
825
699
720
1240
788
956
801
1760
1600
2320
1680
2640
3110
1860
2110
Pb
ppm
0.550
0.688
0.657
0.588
0.713
0.547
0.692
0.084
0.082
0.057
0.127
0.121
0.097
0.072
0.074
Mn/
Cu
18900
12300
12100
12600
10600
13100
8400
4630
1930
3570
4840
3600
2400
3620
4000
Cu
ppm
0.024
0.039
0.039
0.058
0.053
0.040
0.066
0.032
0.068
0.037
0.044
0.089
0.126
0.037
0.039
Zn/
Cd
79
63
63
65
64
69
60
176
219
262
222
187
108
213
188
Co/
Ni
2.
2.
2.
1.
1.
2.
1.
1.
1.
1.
0.
1.
0.
1.
1.
31
21
12
92
81
35
87
10
03
08
95
05
94
08
05
11-28
-------
No consistent seasonal variations are evident in the relative metal
contents. The scatter of data is greater at site 8102 than at 217, reflect-
ing both the greater analytical uncertainty at low metal values, and also
probably the frequently observed presence of metallic trash in the stream
bed at site 8102.
SEDIMENTS
Stream Sediments
, Data for leachable metals in stream sediment samples is reported in
Table 6. Data are in ppm for Mn, Zn, Cd, Co, Ni, Pb and Cu; percentages
are given for Fe and Ca. Data are reported for 130 sample sites. As in the
table for the gravels, the first four digits in the left hand column are the
site number. For single analyses, the last three digits are 211; for repli-
cates 221, 231, etc., and for averages of replicate analyses 281. Cadmium
data (fifth column from left) have been corrected for calcium interference in
the analysis.
Reproducibility of Stream Sediment Data
A split of composite sample CS-2 was run with each batch of stream
sediments. The results of these replicate determinations are shown in Table
7.
Suspended Sediments
Splits of a set of 17 suspended sediment samples were supplied by Dr.
Michael Reddy of the New York State Department of Health. These samples
were collected during the week of October 19, 1975 by the Canadian Center for
Inland Waters from the Genesee River and large tributaries. The samples
were obtained by on-site centrifugation of large water samples taken during
a storm event.
Table 8 reports the trace metals leachable by hot AM HN03 from these
samples.
CONDUCTIVITY AND pH DATA
Since conductivity and pH data were not measured at all sample sites,
these variables have not been included in the regression equations.
Table 9 gives a summary of the pH and conductivity data, listed by
geologic region.
With a few exceptions, the pH data cluster closely around the overall
mean value of 8.1. Exceptionally low values (minimum 7.0) are generally from
swampy or heavily forested areas; the high values (maximum 9.1) are mostly
from streams draining open fields, exposed to sunlight and rich in algal
growth. Where two or more pH readings were taken at a single site on differ-
ent dates, the variability between replicate readings is comparable in mag-
nitude to the scatter of the data as a whole, probably due to significant
11-29
-------
TABLE 6. HNO.-LEACHABLE METALS IN STREAM SEDIMENTS (ppm) .
SITE NO,
1303211
1306211
1309211
1309221
1309261
1312211
1318211
1321211
1323211
132*211
1325211
1325221
1325231
1325281
1327211
1328211
1329211
1329221
1329281
1335211
13«.3211
13*8211
1356211
tS57211
1358211
1360211
1403211
1*0*211
1*1*211
1*19211
1419221
1*19261
1*20211
1*2*211
1*29211
1*35211
1*35221
1*35231
1*35281
1*36211
1**2211
1**6211
l**72tl
1*53211
1*59211
1*60211
1*61211
1*63211
1501211
ISO 5 211
1506211
1515211
1526211
1531211
153*211
1536211
15*2211
15U3211
15*7211
15*9211
1550211
1553211
1557211
Mn
70*.
793.
1816.
1626.
1721.
39*.
717.
812.
539.
2283.
6C5.
692.
7*2.
6eo.
195.
1*6*.
859.
1*28.
11**.
296.
1*60.
*66.
2*7».
695.
1659.
2P*.
807.
(.55.
1*07.
789.
861.
825.
955.
2185.
880.
610.
566.
735.
677.
•833.
1095.
133.
2212.
50*.
381.
315.
1168.
378.
*91.
*00.
70S.
1025.
873.
660.
203*.
50*.
57*.
2283.
**5.
1755.
1100.
630.
896.
Fe
1.553
1.713
1.750
.36 9
.530
.818
.550
.6*0
0.900
1.6*3
2.200
1.903
1.900
2.030
0.600
1.233
1.91.3
1.790
1.865
1.130
2.593
0.8*0
2.900
1.150
2.229
1.0*3
2.*10
l.*20
1.750
1.910
2.270
2.090
1.720
3.070
1.939
1.650
1.610
1.U90
1.589
2.2*3
1.610
1.283
1.900
1.690
1.353
1.300
1.869
l.**3
.633
.720
.880
.600
.670
.*10
.2*3
.910
.990
2.710
1.860
1.9SO
1.560
1.990
2.890
Zn
70.«tO
8*.9CO
822.000
8C5. OCO
*1*.OGO
50. OCO
89. OCO
10*. OCO
56. SCO
7 I.I. CO
60.0CO
152. OCO
128. OCO
113. OCO
31. 300
937.000
93.000
98.800
95.900 1
75. OCO 1
106.000 1
708.900 i
135.000 !
71.700 |
103.000 (
113.000
100.000
76.*00
88.900
81.800
92.800
87.5CO
81.300
87.700
118.700
99.000
10*.OOC
96.900
93.300
70.700
85.700
60.900
88.100
109.000
72.800
137.000
89.800
63.900
61.900
*0.700
67.2CO
83.000
7*.*00
-5.9CO
90.100
67.300
'5.303
92.7CO
63. OCO
69. ICO
122.000
71. SCO
108.000
Cd
.*aoo
.5109
.2*00
.8600
.0503
.2309
.3700
.6200
.3100
.6109
.5603
.700C
.7900
.6ft 99
.1100
.*90C
.5100
.6*09
1.5800
J.22C3
9.7300
!.2lflO
I. 0100
1.0103
1.5600
.5600
.5600
.5109
.6700
.*700
.6200
.5500
.*600
.6105
.9200
.*300
.*300
.1300
.3303
.5*00
.6000
.7*09
.6004
.*203
.*100
.5009
.6200
.*600
.*303
.3309
.*003
.3200
.3600
.3903
.*101
.*soo
.*103
.**09
.3009
.*303
.7100
.2909
.5*00
Co
e.o'o
12.600
8.350
9.17fl
e.76o
5. '90
8.580
9.260
6.5*0
11.930
9.970
10.7QO
«.7»fl
9.820
5.1*0
6.650
11.000
10.100
10.500
10.130
12.230
7.670
10.500
11.800
11.700
6.910
1*.7QO
7.080
8.560
ft. 600
9.900
9.250
6.860
15.000
11.900
9.*70
9.960
10.800
10.100
15.700
9.080
5.1.60
10.200
8.150
9.*20
10.200
10.*00
7.950
9.510
11.500
12.030
8.900
9.*90
12.900
11.130
12.200
11.600
1*.000
11.600
ll.*00
9.67fl
10.000
13. POO
Ni
15.000
27.30C
9.120
11.900
10.50C
7.9JC
13.(,3C
13.600
9.50C
17.200
1*.200
13.73C
13. HOC
17.900
7.500
o.20C
23.600
21.70C
22.70C
1*.50C
21.7QC
10.300
1*.200
20.80C
17.700
12.300
3*. 000
1*.900
16.000
16.900
19.600
18.300
17.100
27.100
28.300
17.800
18.000
17.50C
17.800
33.200
18.200
10.1,00
1*.600
1*.300
12.800
If. 000
20.500
13.80C
17.300
18.300
19.70C
16.*OC
20.300
22.40C
19.800
20.300
18.90C
30.900
1°.OOC
20.500
16.200
17.800
2*. 100
Pb
2*. 000
3*. COO
27.000
27.000
27.000
13.000
22.030
25.000
19.000
26.000
18.000
2*. COG
20.000
21.030
13.000
17.000
22.090
23.000
23.000
27.000
55.000
25.090
*5.000
29.000
*1.COO
19.000
28.000
15.000
20. COO
17.000
20.000
19.000
19.000
22.000
*3.000
23.000
20.000
21.000
21.000
27.000
23.000
2*. 000
32.000
20.000
26.COO
3*. 000
2*. 000
22.000
16.000
13.000
18.000
27.010
17.000
20. COO
21.000
18.000
15.000
22. tOO
16.000
15.000
17.000
17.000
19. 044
Cu
11.203
17.900
8.710
8.5*0
8.630
12.100
11.000
12.600 '
8.880 i
12.800
9.900
13.300
11.233
11. ^CO i
*.520
6.620 I
2*.*00
22.600
23.500 i
13.300 i:
36.300 (
9.3*9 1
16.7QO i
11.209 1<
18.600 i
10.209 (
28.100 i
11.900 1
15.900 1
12.209
!«.. 900
13.600
15.100
1*.500
28.900
19.900 3
20.300 :
ie.*oo <
19.500 3
26.300 1
1U. 200 1
11.500 I
is.ooo :
9.350
9.093
12.800
19.309
12.000
12.500
1*.200
i*.aoo
16.7QO
11.500
15.109
32.900
16.*00
13.000
1*.900
13.200
11.100
6.780
13.600
20.080
Ca
k.*10
S.260
L.*50
2. 900
2.180
J.760
5.650
l».C50
l>. 2*0
5.110
1.900
J.820
J.*00
J.710
1.860
1.580
S.330
L.eio
!.Q7fl
1.9*0
1.520
1.660
!.680
,.000
J.030
».9*0
J.070
1.068
1.190
.0*7
.0*5
.0*6
.3iO
.017
.930
1.530
1.910
,.150
5.860
i.200
).*«0
1.312
1.390
.0*5
.500
.0*0
.030
.810
.500
.200
.180
.870
.COS
.010
.2*0
.540
.050
.020
.C51
.070
.027
.015
.057
(continued)
11-30
-------
TABLE 6 (continued).
SITE NO.
155921i
1559321
1559381
1563211
1564211
1569311
15TQ2H
1571211
1581211
1565211
1591211
1993211
1597211
1603211
1603221
1603211
160V 211
160*221
1604231
1604281
1605211
1607211
1607221
1607281
161*211
1618221
1608281
1613211
1615211
1621211
1621211
1627211
1693211
1640211
164*211
16*7211
1656211
1660211
1660221
1660261
1662211
1612211
1806211
1806221
1806281
1810211
1811211
1811221
1811231
1811261
1813211
181*211
1016211
1616221
1816281
1817211
1819211
182*211
1826211
1827211
1826211
1829211
1630211
183*211
(to
128T.
1168.
1228.
711.
101'.
465.
675.
430.
2208.
965.
*11.
399.
485.
898.
9**.
921.
1036.
1013.
670.
973.
1726.
18*1.
1819.
1830.
.450
U337
1.030
1.160
1.220
1.020
1.051
1.050
.088
.240
.430
.500
.4'fl
.038
.018
.170
,0'2
.470
.37(1
.350
.360
.021
.010
.016
.015
.170
.012
.110
.050
.030
.061
.007
.300
.280
.013
.011
.013
.180
.009
.034
.CO'
.006
.014
.043
.070
.063
.045
.015
.012
.CC7
.010
.009
.220
.026
.003
.471
.092
1.087
i.005
1.032
3.016
-------
TABLE 6 (continued).
SITE NO.
Fe
Zn
Cd
Co
Mi
Pb
Cu
Ca
«s*22i
•3*281
935311
836211
837211
838211
839211
839221
•39281
•*0211
912311
001211
029211
031211
032211
034211
037211
0*0211
0**211
0*6211
OU? 211
0*8211
•53211
057211
057221
0572*1
059211
071211
072211
073211
07*211
076211
077211
078211
079211
080211
081211
082211
082221
082281
083211
08*211
085211
2857.
3*53.
551.
1*12.
23**.
699.
1188.
1171.
1180.
1193.
255.
1783.
5E7.
2*2.
8*9.
1031.
657.
1061.
6*8.
398.
318.
1899.
7**.
619.
1622.
1120.
650.
7*1.
651.
•72.
959.
927.
910.
1312.
8*1.
2026.
1196.
692.
890.
791.
1232.
37*.
632.
2.780
2.670
2.220
2.760
2.983
1.820
2.520
2.*00
2.*60
2.530
2.209
2.173
1.260
0.751
6.820
1.160
0.950
2.120
l.*6C
2.1*0
1.33C
1.800
2.5*0
1.060
1.'23
1.390
1.263
1.630
1.553
1.620
1.560
1.800
2.2*3
1.870
1.110
O.TQT
2.760
1.120
2.320
l.*20
2.170
1.530
0.916
98.700 (
4*. 260
67.500
•»*.8tO
87.1,00
Tfl.SOO
86.300
81.800
8*. 100
8*.606
87.1,00
158.000
85.* 00
25.900
93.900
63,000
ST. 700
10*. 000
79.600
73.100
56.700
101.000
62.000
60.9CO
88.200
7*. 600
57.900
67.600
*8.2CO
87.000
'9.100 1
6*. 700 1
119. OCC 1
7T.200
51.900 1
41.000 1
98.700 1
*3.100 1
10*. 000 1
73.600
89.600
•8. SCO
*5.900
1.5103
.5609
.3500
.5*03
.*OC3
.3303
.6000
.5*03
.5T00
.6909
.*609
.8609
.**OQ
.**00
.2700
.2700
.2503
.3903
.5800
.*303
.3000
.3103
.*60Q
.3100
.6103
.*600
.*100
.*200
.*100
.5200
1.3600
1.3500
1.5900
9.*5CO
l.*200
1.2*09
).**00
9.3003
1.5690
K.*303
j.*5oa
0.5*00
l.*603
1*.*JO
1*.?OC
12.000
1*.700
16.000
9.890
13.2SO
13.000
13.100
l*.5dO
10.*00
8.710
a.*io
7.380
10.*00
11.930
8.630
9.320
11.200
8.150
7.300
7.'10
12.*00
7.590
9.610
8.600
7.670
10.700
9.830
10.500
6.980
10.200
12.700
11.530
5.610
10.600
13.900
8.110
9,170
8.6*0
1Z.HOO
7.890
7.368
22.*00
21.800
19.700
23.20C
25.300
16.800
19.800
17.900
18.900
23.800
18.90C
16.700
15.200
10.606
12.00C
1*.700
10.800
2*. 100
21.300
1*.20C
12.*00 .
13.200
25.300
10.200
13.900
12.100
10.200
17.300
15.100
1*.OOC
9.500
17.900
26.800
21.30C
7.SOC
1*.70C
28. OCC
12.600
13.600
13.100
22.600
1*.200
10.500
26.000
25.000
18.000
21.000
28.000
17.000
25.000
23.000
2*. 000
20.000
27.000
91.000
32.000
21.600
25.030
28.00C
15.000
36. COO
19.000
19.030
9.000
17.090
22.000
19.000
25.000
22.000
17.COO
22.000
20.000
29.000
21.000
16.000
33.000
22.000
16.000
31.000
21.000
15.000
18.000
17.000
26.030
63.000
19.000-
15.103
1*.300
10.709
16.000
15.800
11.300
15.900
16.000
16.300
13.200
23. '00
25.300
16.103
16.603
9.380
15.700
10.603
21.900
22.200
23.500
8.200
13.200
17.300
8.210
11.600
9.919
6.*80
17.003
1*.600
19.*03
11.203
1*.300
2*. 800
19. '00
8.170
13.700
18.300
9.130
11.000
10.109
17.50D
21.300
10.600
0.019
0.018
0.07*
0.011
0.010
0.016
0.010
0.009
0.010
0.007
G.006
0.3C3
*.570
7.2*0
12.*00
12.250
5.8*0
O.*20
2.190
0.018
0.018
0.100
*.67Q
*.370
5.980
5.180
*.030
2.9*0
1.7*0
*.350
1.960
0.220
0.039
3.500
l.**0
5.360
0.017
2.6CO
1.580
2.090
1.590
1.630
*.*90
11-32
-------
TABLE 7. REPLICATE ANALYSES OF COMPOSITE SEDIMENT SAMPLE CS-2.
Run #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
AVG.
±
Addition
Method
ppm
Mn
795
783
764
752
758
746
771
767
765
759
760
747
778
765
14
%
Fe
1.89
1.83
1.82
1.92
1.83
1.85
1.87
1.85
1.86
1.88
1.85
1.82
1.92
1.86
± .03
ppm
Zn
78.0
74.9
72.6
78.2
71.3
72.8
77.2
72.9
60.4
95.6
87.0
75.3
78.7
74.2
±13
ppm
Cd
0.53
0.45
0.57
0.64
0.49
0.56
0.40
0.46
0.50
0.40
0.59
0.41
0.56
0.50
± .08
ppm
Co
10.6
10.5
10.3
11.0
10.4
10.5
10.6
9.4
10.0
11.5
10.8
9.7
11.0
10.4
± 0.6
ppm
Ni
18.6
18.0
18.1
19.4
18.6
19.0
20.0
18.8
19.1
18.5
19.0
18.4
20.6
18.8
±0.6
ppm
Pb
23
23
24
26
23
24
24
25
24
26
23
24
25
24.1
± 1.1
ppm
Cu
16.3
15.9
16.2
16.1
15.5
15.1
16.3
15.3
16.2
16.7
16.3
16.2
16.9
16.0
± 0.5
%
Ca
0.51
0.52
0.50
0.44
0.43
0.42
0.48
0.48
0.52
0.48
0.47
0.47
0.58
0.49
± .03
11-33
-------
TABLE 8. METALS IN SUSPENDED SEDIMENTS.
Site
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
AVG.
AVG.
BOTTOM
SED.
(Table
ppm
Mn
603
644
543
704
584
630
838
1110
588
597
668
611
618
781
727
710
820
693
±137
1020
4D)
%
Fe
4.05
3.18
2.45
3.01
3.07
3.39
2.85
3.41
3.58
2.93
3.31
3.26
3.78
3.91
1.89
3.78
2.52
3.20
± .57
1.90
ppm
Zn
289
170
102
177
143
233
182
253
167
226
136
204
143
141
147
135
205
180
± 49
98
ppm
Cd*
2.53
0.70
0.48
0.85
0.50
1.53
0.96
1.73
0.90
1.32
0.94
0.75
0.76
0.78
0.36
0.52
1.33
1.00
± .55
ppm
Co
19
17
14
18
18
18
17
18
17
17
19
17
20
20
18
20
15
17.8
± 1.6
0.53 10.4
* corrected
ppm
Ni
46
36
28
37
39
44
34
40
37
36
38
38
37
38
32
38
33
37.
± 4.
17.
for Ca
ppm
Pb
60
30
24
35
33
56
41
95
35
63
43
34
32
39
44
25
79
1 45.2
2 ±19.5
7 23.3
interference
ppm
Cu
56
32
26
32
28
50
35
51
36
57
34
30
38
31
26
57
57
39.8
±11.9
15.4
%
Ca
0.22
1.55
3.33
3.92
4.22
1.49
4.11
0.83
1.46
2.29
2.45
1.39
0.33
0.16
0.14
0.09
6.60
2.03
±1.86
1.61
11-34
-------
TABLE 9. SUMMARY OF pH AND CONDUCTIVITY DATA.
Bedrock Geology*
SMOQ
SLCS
DONH
DSWJ
DCAN
DCCO
PH
8.2 ± 0.3 (5)+
8.2 ±0.2 (27)
8.2 ± 0.4 (24)
7.9 ± 0.3 (43)
8.1 ± 0.4 (89)
8.0 ± 0.4 (14)
Conductivity (u mhos)
356 ± 34 (5)
1037 ± 380 (32)
652 ± 248 (25)
414 ± 219 (41)
199 ± 58 (91)
113 ± 34 (14)
* See Table 1A
+ Figure in parentheses is the number of sample sites included in the mean.
11-35
-------
diurnal and seasonal fluctuations.
The mean pH of 8.1 is close to the theoretical value of approximately
9 for fresh waters in equilibrium with carbonate rocks and atmospheric CC^
(Kramer, 1975). In the northern part of the Genesee Watershed, the glacial
tills, soils and stream sediments contain major amounts of calcite and
dolomite, derived from the underlying limestones, dolostones and calcareous
marine shales in the Silurian through Middle Devonian bedrock. This would
tend to buffer the pH of ground and surface waters at a value close to 8.
In the southern portion of the basin, although the bedrock is largely
non-calcareous Upper Devonian shales, siltstones and sandstones, the tills
and soils do contain some glacially transported calcite and dolomite derived
from the carbonate-rich section to the north. This is apparently sufficient
to maintain the pH of surface waters close to 8. Most of the values departing
more than 0.5 pH units from the mean were observed in the southern part of the
basin, probably reflecting the lower buffer capacity of the relatively
carbonate-poor rocks, tills and soils.
Conductivity data show a progressive increase from south to north in
the basin, again reflecting the increased amount of carbonate in the bedrock
and sufficial materials in the northern region. This is further enhanced in
the areas underlain by the Silurian Salina Group. These rocks contain numer-
ous horizons with evaporite minerals, represented in surface exposures
primarily by gypsum, which upon weathering contributes sulfate and additional
calcium to ground and surface waters. The overall pattern of conductivity
data corresponds closely to that shown in the U.S.G.S. Hydrologic Atlas
for the area (Gilbert and Karamerer, 1971). Two exceptionally high values
of 3250 and 5400 micromhos respectively from sites 2002 and 2015, are from
streams close to the Morton Salt Co. plant at Silver Springs (site 2002)
and the Retsof salt mine (site 2015). They almost certainly represent pollu-
tion with brine from the salt works.
Duplicate and triplicate conductivity readings show reasonably good
reproductibility, generally within 10%, reflecting the fact that all readings
were taken during prolonged periods of dry weather with the streams at or
close to base flow.
11-36
-------
SECTION 6
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
LOGNORMAL DISTRIBUTION OF DATA
Frequency distributions of all analyzed metals in the oxide-coated
gravels show a strong positive skewness. Data for the stream sediments like-
wise demonstrate a positive skewness, although this is very slight in the
cases of Zn, Cd, Co and Ni. This tendency toward lognormality is illustra-
ted in Figures 3a-3g, where the frequency distributions are plotted on pro-
bability paper. This observation is in agreement with the common occurrence
of lognonnal trace element distributions in various geologic materials inclu-
ding stream sediments (see, e.g. Rose, Dahlberg and Keith, 1970; Austria and
Chork, 1976). Because of this effect, log^g transforms of the data from this
study have been used for the correlation, factor and regression analyses
reported in this section. Geologic and land use data are, however, treated
in linear fashion in the correlation and regression runs.
In Figure 3, it is evident that departures from a lognormal distribution
occur at the highest concentrations for Zn, Cd, and Cu. In the case of Zn,
this is due to nine very high values, most of which are associated with
either the Zn-bearing Lockport Formation, probable pollution sources, or
exceptionally heavy manganese oxide coatings. The departure from lognormality
in the case of Cd can be traced to five exceptionally high samples, all from
heavily forested or swampy areas in the southern part of the basin; in three
of these cases the excess Cd can be explained largely in terms of very heavy
oxide coatings. In the case of Cu, the departure is due entirely to two
samples (1533, 1534) from the stream draining the Nunda reservoir, which
apparently has been treated with copper sulfate algicide. Departures from
lognormality at the low end of the distribution in the case of Cd and Pb are
probably related to analytical uncertainties.
Figures 3h-3q show the probability plots for the stream sediments. De-
partures from lognormality occur at high values for Zn, Cd, and Pb. As in
the case of the gravels, the anomalous Zn results are mostly associated with
the Lockport Formation and the overlying Zn-rich mucklands, as are three of
the five high Cd values. Three high Pb results reflect probable pollution
sources. The calcium plot shows the probable presence of at least two dis-
tinct populations, one from the carbonate-rich geologic terrain in the north-
ern part of the basin; the other from the carbonate-poor areas in the southern
part.
FACTOR ANALYSIS
Factor Analysis - Results
In order to condense the metals data to a smaller number of variables,
11-37
-------
98
97
95
90
70
£50
30
10
30
70
90
97
98
10
400
1000 ppmMn
99
FIGURE 3A. Manganese in gravels.
11-38
-------
•6
90
10
•7
90
70
95
10
«00
97
FIGURE 3B. Iron in gravels.
11-39
-------
70
I
JtSO
90
K>
90
at
*
*
TO
90
95
97
98
on
uo
-------
•7
70
30
30
70
.001
.01
0.4
Cd
99
FIGURE 3D. Cadmium in gravels.
11-41
-------
10
ppmCo
97
96
99
FIGURE 3E. Cobalt in gravels.
11-42
-------
•r
»s
TO
40
f
to
I
2
K>
70
ppmNi
90
95
97
96
99
FIGURE 3F. Nickel in gravels.
11-43
-------
M
•7
t9
90
TO
30
K>
^^^^f
L
i
i-
7
30
K
4
TO
90
95
97
96
1.0
ppm Pb
99
FIGURE 3G. Lead in gravels.
11-44
-------
10
30
TO
(.0
ppm Cu
90
95
97
90
99
FIGURE 3H. Copper in gravels.
11-45
-------
K>0
1,000
10,000
ppm Mn
FIGURE 31. Manganese in sediments.
11-46
-------
98
97
99
90
K
Ul
o
or
tu
30
90
95
97
96
.40
10
KXO
FIGURE 33. Iron in sediments.
II-4?
-------
99
96
97
95
2
3
90
10
70
=50
30
K
Ul
«3
30
70
90
3
2
10
400
1.000
ppm Zn
95
97
96
99
FIGURE 3K. Zinc in sediments.
11-48
-------
96
97
95
TO
OC
lu
O
-------
V
99
•0
c
70
K
8
§50
30
It
Ui
90'
FIGURE 3M. Cobalt in sediments.
11-50
70
K>
90
10
no
ppm Co
95
97
96
99
-------
•6
17
t5
K>
>90
30
30
50'
10
40
too
ppmNi
FIGURE 3N. Nickel in sediment?.
11-5 1
-------
99
9%
97
•5
90
70
10
30
70
90
95
97
96
1.0
to
too
ppmPb
99
FIGURE 30. Lead in sediments.
11-52
-------
100
ppmCu
FIGURE 3P. Copper in sediments,
11-53
-------
tr
ct
8
K>
K
UJ
90$
30
10
M
10
70
90
95
97
98
XCo
FIGURE 3Q. Calcium in sediments.
11-54
-------
an R-mode factor analysis was used. This approach is capable of showing
the presence of "factors" consisting of groups of one or more variables, in
this case elements, which vary in common, often in response to an identifi-
able underlying cause. Principal components were extracted from the data
and subjected to a varimax rotation procedure. Table 10 shows the results of
the factor analysis, with a 3-factor model shown for the gravels and 4-factor
model shown for the stream sediments.
Interpretation of Factors - Gravels
In the factor model for gravels, the first factor, accounting for 62%
of the total variance, is clearly dominant. The heavy loadings for Mn and Fe
indicate that this factor represents the manganese oxide coatings. The trace
metals Zn, Cd, Co, Ni and Cu also load heavily onto this factor. This re-
flects the fact that most of the variation of these metals in these samples
is a direct result of the variation in the amount of manganese oxide coating
on the gravels. Lead, however, is not strongly associated with this factor,
indicating either that it is associated with a phase other than manganese
oxide in the coatings, or that variations in the amount of Pb entering the
stream from environmental sources outweigh the effects of varying amounts of
Mn oxides.
Factor 2 shows a very strong loading for Pb and lesser but significant
loadings for Zn and Cu. This factor is probably linked to human input in the
form of pollution; among the several trace metals those of most common use in
manufactured products (Zn, Cu, Pb) are weighted most heavily on this factor.
The dominance of Pb may be due to its input as airborne particulates from
the burning of fuels with lead additives. Zinc and copper may derive at
least in part from metal artifacts in or near the streams. Sampling of
gravels upstream and downstream from galvanized culverts show a distinct
increase in zinc in the downstream samples. Cobalt, by contrast, does not
appear significantly in this factor, reflecting its limited use in common
manufactured products.
The third factor is more problematical. The strongest loadings are for
C, Ni and Cu. Since all the metals have positive loadings, this factor shows
a very high '.degree of correlation with factor 1. A tentative explanation is
suggested by the results of the regression analyses, which indicate that it
is associated with the carbonate-poor rocks of the southern part of the basin.
The less alkaline nature of the soils in this rock area, relative to those
overlying the carbonate-rich rocks to the north, may result in increased
geochemical mobility for these elements in groundwater, with consequently
greater input of dissolved Cd, Ni, and Cu to the streams.
Interpretation of Factors - Stream Sediments
No single factor dominates the stream sediment results to the degree
that the first (manganese oxide) factor affects the gravel results. In the
sediment case, the several factors probably are related most closely to the
relative abundances of the several physical components of the samples. Fac-
tor 1, with strong positive loadings for Co, Ni, Cu and Mn, and smaller but
11-55
-------
TABLE 10. RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS.
A. Factors for oxide coatings (242 cases)
FACTOR
Eigenvalue
% of total variance
Log Mn
Log Fe
Log Zn
Log Cd
Log Co
Log Ni
Log Pb
Log Cu
B. Factors for <64y stream
1
4.95
61.8
0.877
0.937
0.690
0.329
0.667
0.352
0.052
0.260
sediments
2
1.05
13.2
0.001
0.075
0.367
0.039
-0.007
0.080
0.973
0.284
3
0.71
8.9
0.380
0.244
0.448
0.807
0.576
0.858
0.121
0.727
(129 cases)
FACTOR
Eigenvalue
% of total variance
Log Mn
Log Fe
Log Zn
Log Cd
Log Co
Log Ni
Log Pb
Log Cu
Log Ca
1
3.3
36.7
0.427
0.194
-0.025
0.124
0.789
0.864
0.580
0.874
-0.170
2
1.86
20.6
0.572
0.070
0.925
0.668
0.145
0.046
0.446
0.042
-0.093
3
1.36
15.1
-0.258
-0.011
0.064
-0.124
-0. 356
-0.336
0.539
0.221
0.874
4
0.97
10.7
0.157
0.940
-0.021
-0.659
0.240
0.187
0.051
-0.103
0.036
11-56
-------
nickel is in no sense caused by the variation in cobalt. The one exception
to this policy of excluding the other metals was made in the case of Mn in
the gravels, where a clear causal connection exists between the amount of Mn
present and the amounts of the other metals. This inclusion of Mn as a
"forced" variable in effect mathematically removes the influence of varying
abundance of the Mn oxide coatings, and permits a more accurate evaluation of
the land use and geologic parameters.
CORRELATION
Correlation Matrices
Gravels - Table 11A is the correlation matrix for the log transformed
metals data for 250 samples, compared to linear percentage data for surficial
geology and land use, and five dummy variables representing the six divi-
sions of bedrock geology. A total of 29 variables are included in the correl-
ation matrix.
The most striking feature of the correlation matrix is the strong inter-
correlation of the eight metals studied. All correlation coefficients in
this part of the matrix are positive, reflecting the dominance of the carrier
element, manganese, over the distribution of the trace metals. In other
words, as the amount of the manganese oxide coatings increases, the amounts
of the adsorbed or occluded trace metals increases. This effect is weakest
in the case of lead, which may be present on the pebble surfaces in a form
not directly related to the manganese oxides. Small amounts of algae are
commonly present adhering to the gravels and provide a possible alternative
source of lead in the leaching solution; chelation of lead on the surfaces
of aquatic vegetation, in particular algae, may be an important mechanism for
removal of Pb from surface waters (Gale et al, 1974). By contrast, among the
trace metals cobalt shows the strongest correlation with manganese, possibly
reflecting the exceptional affinity of cobalt for Mn oxide surfaces (Murray,
1975 ; Burns, 1976).
Correlations between metals and land use/geology variables, to avoid
repetition, are discussed below under regression.
Stream sediments - Table 11B is the correlation matrix for the log
transformed metals data for 129 stream sediment samples, and land use and
geologic variables as in the gravels case.
The intercorrelation of the metals in the sediments is weaker. All save
calcium show positive correlations with each other; all except lead are nega-
tively correlated with calcium. This is interpreted to mean that a metal-
poor calcium carbonate phase acts essentially as a diluent with respect to
the other physical components of the samples (silicates, organic matter,
oxides).
II-5 7
-------
TABLE 11A. CORRELATION MATRIX FOR GRAVELS.
Variable
Number
1 Log Mn
2 Log Fe
3 Log Zn
4 Log Cd
5 Log Co
6 Log Ni
7 Log Pb
8 Log Cu
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
Log Mn
1.000
7
Log Pb
0.108
0.174
0.402
0.183
0.159
0.236
1.000
13
Dum 5
0.100
0.037
0.076
0.245
0.225
0.220
0.071
0.024
2
Log Fe
0.894
1.000
8
Log Cu
0.486
0.387
0.354
0.424
0.452
0.576
0.247
1.000
14
AREA
-0.025
-0.097
-0.040
-0.087
-0.032
0.014
0.112
0.026
3
Log Zn
0.664
0.697
1.000
9
Dum 1
-0.059
-0.105
-0.139
-0.096
-0.073
-0.104
-0.043
-0.028
15
RELF
0.009
-0.034
-0.054
0.199
0.057
0.139
-0.212
0.027
4
Log Cd
0.598
0.528
0.589
1.000
10
Dum 2
-0.002
0.059
-0.042
-0.168
-0.083
-0.259
0.072
-0.102
16
TILL
-0.003
-0.059
-0.110
0.198
0.081
0.078
0.128
-0.091
5
Log Co
0.754
0.735
0.550
0.587
1.000
11
Dum 3
0.110
0.271
0.294
-0.227
0.104
-0.028
0.227
-0.094
17
OUTW
-0.056
-0.036
-0.041
-0.140
-0.154
-0.076
0.017
0.069
6
Log Ni
0.516
0.539
0.593
0.726
0.768
1.000
12
Dum 4
0.021
-0.003
0.160
-0.003
-0.051
0.188
0.250
0.149
18
LKSD
-0.034
0.013
0.131
-0.133
-0.015
-0.078
0.150
-0.064
(continued)
11-58
-------
TABLE 11A (continued)
Variable
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Log Mn
Log Fe
Log Zn
Log Cd
Log Co
Log Ni
Log Pb
Log Cu
19
MUCK
0.049
0.191
0.142
-0.144
0.031
-0.098
0.094
-0.030
25
FRST
-0.006
-0.150
-0.126
0.370
0.140
0.304
-0.262
0.103
20
BDRK
0.129
0.089
0.067
0.011
0.166
0.214
0.013
0.366
26
CIVN
0.072
0.007
0.275
-0.049
0.029
0.147
0.391
0.218
21
ALLV
0
-0
-0
0
-0
0
-0
0
.077
.005
.043
.112
.098
.077
.019
.110
27
LAKE
0
0
-0
-0
0
0
-0
0
.087
.061
.004
.007
.053
.035
.042
.083
22
CRPL
-0
0
-0
-0
-0
-0
0
-0
.004
.106
.017
.365
.146
.341
.169
.124
28
23
PAST
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
-0.
132
097
139
119
134
199
063
196
24
FALL
0.
0.
0.
-0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
066
083
208
027
055
083
103
054
SWMP
0
0
0
-0
-0
-0
0
-0
.033
.175
.197
.066
.023
.106
.071
.060
H-59
-------
TABLE 11B. CORRELATION MATRIX FOR SEDIMENTS.
Variable
Number
1 Log Mn
2 Log Fe
3 Log Zn
4 Log Cd
5 Log Co
6 Log Ni
7 Log Pb
8 Log Cu
9 Log Ca
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
Log Mn
1.000
7
Log Pb
0.347
0.283
0.378
0.379
0.316
0.308
1.000
13
Dum 4
-0.182
0.053
0.013
-0.006
0.010
0.030
0.056
0.124
-0.141
2
Log Fe
0.523
1.000
8
Log Gu
0.311
0.440
0.086
0.147
0.479
0.627
0.586
1.000
14
Dum 5
0.276
0.360
-0.027
0.142
0.463
0.305
0.100
0.003
-0.395
3
Log Zn
0.333
0.168
1.000
9
Log Ca
-0.253
-0.482
-0.038
-0.119
-0.345
-0.396
0.204
-0.037
1.000
15
AREA
-0.067
-0.030
-0.070
-0.046
0.012
0.002
0.107
0.014
0.175
4
Log Cd
0.364
0.209
0.734
1.000
10
Dum 1
-0.013
-0.016
0.034
-0. 044
-0.063
0.150
0.045
0.215
0.001
16
RELF
0.008
0.127
-0.099
-0.092
0.101
0.170
-0.156
0.132
-0.300
5
Log Co
0.515
0.744
0.095
0.176
1.000
11
Dum 2
-0.108
-0.183
-0.226
-0.048
-0.185
-0.270
0.014
-0.175
0.454
17
TILL
0.098
0.189
-0.107
0.005
0.280
0.377
-0.068
0.125
0.404
6
Log Ni
0.424
0.712
0.059
0.141
0.878
1.000
12
Dum 3
-0.197
-0.300
0.316
0.126
-0.211
-0.340
0.248
-0.155
0.481
18
OUTW
-0.109
-0.110
-0.104
-0.214
-0.249
-0.236
-0.007
-0.043
0.196
(continued)
11-60
-------
TABLE 11B (continued).
Variable
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Log Mn
Log Fe
Log Zn
Log Cd
Log Co
Log Ni
Log Pb
Log Cd
Log Ca
19
LKSD
-0.074
-0.199
0.173
0.156
-0.116
-0.205
0.115
-0.080
0.317
25
FALL
0.061
0.076
0.349
0.275
0.104
0.072
0.125
-0.075
-0.035
20
MUCK
-0.044
-0.03?
0.022
-0.123
-0.037
-0.153
0.095
-0.109
0.308
26
FRST
0.256
0.429
-0.074
-0.020
0.432
0.416
-0.261
0.014
-0.720
21
BDRK
0.158
0.186
0.004
-0.007
0.184
0.057
0.018
0.041
-0.027
27
CIVN
-0.214
-0. 085
0.037
-0.064
-0.123
-0.106
0.255
0.149
0.107
22
ALLV
0.009
0.034
-0.076
-0.019
-0.169
-0.083
-0.113
0.038
-0.154
28
LAKE
0.098
-0.019
-0.092
-0.037
-0.033
-0.039
-0.095
-0.102
-0.053
23
CRPL
-0.254
-0.417
-0.025
-0.012
-0. 384
-0.375
0.177
-0.049
0.694
29
SWMP
-0.001
-0.124
0.236
0.111
-0.161
-0.200
0.203
-0.010
0.295
24
PAST
-0.095
-0.178
-0.170
-0.153
-0.248
-0.168
-0.100
0.035
0.201
11-61
-------
TABLE 11C. INTERCORRELATION OF LAND USE AND GEOLOGIC VARIABLES.
Variable
Number
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Dum 1
Dum 2
Dum 3
Dum 4
Dum 5
AREA
RELF
TILL
OUTW
LKSD
MUCK -
11
Dum 2
-0.202
1.000
17
TILL
0.125
-0.268
-0.251
-0.099
0.184
-0.171
0.273
1.000
12
Dum 3
-0.213
-0.160
1.000
18
OUTW
-0.101
0.037
0.073
0.017
-0.148
0.111
-0.087
-0.662
1.000
13
Dum 4
-0.074
-0.056
-0.059
1.000
19
LKSD
-0.066
0.301
0.281
-0.021
-0.126
0.074
-0.185
-0.634
-0.036
1.000
14 15
Dum 5 AREA
-0.161 -0.094
-0.121 0.165
-0.127 0.051
-0.044 -0.088
1.000 0.082
1.000
20
MUCK
-0.027
0.219
0.171
0.000
' -0.114
0.043
-0.219
-0.255
0.200
-0.057
1.000
16
RELF
0.074
-0.263
-0.277
-0.043
-0.030
-0.498
1.000
(continued)
11-62
-------
TABLE 11C (continued).
Variable
Number
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Dum 1
Dura 2
Dum 3
Dum 4
Dum 5
AREA
RELF
TILL
OUTW
LKSD
MUCK
BDRK
ALLV
CRPL
PAST
FALL
FRST
CIVN
LAKE
SWMP
21
BDRK
-0.101
-0.000
-0.066
0.216
0.233
0.062
-0.041
-0.220
0.080
-0.058
-0.057
1.000
27
CIVN
-0.032
0.077
0.154
0.532
-0.096
0.075
-0.131
-0.205
0.061
0.181
0.002
0.106
0.049
0.044
-0.096
0.188
-0.298
1.000
22
ALLV
0.068
-0.075
-0.200
0.258
-0.109
0.125
-0.075
0.002
-0.031
-0.189
-0.183
-0.049
1.000
28
LAKE
-0.051
0.130
-0.098
-0.031
-0.068
0.106
-0.133
-0.131
0.182
-0.016
0.040
0.036
0.072
0.010
-0.021
-0.057
-0. 002
0.003
1.000
23
CRPL
0.198
0.369
0.354
-0.019
-0.281
0.042
-0.293
-0.236
0.115
0.222
0.170
-0.166
-0.017
1.000
29
SWMP
-0.047
0.026
0.313
-0.082
-0.163
0.103
-0.254
-0.218
0.168
0.042
0.382
-0.080
-0.010
0.084
-0.083
-0.216
-0.376
-0.013
-0.014
1.000
24
PAST
0.150
0.114
-0.081
-0.133
-0.072
-0.045
0.134
-0.058
0.082
0.109
-0.087
-0.121
-0.090
0.179
1.000
25
FALL
0.092
-0.052
0.134
0.233
0.009
-0.003
-0.118
-0.131
-0.068
0.195
0.020
0.112
-0.058
-0.180
-0.275
. 1.000
26
FRST
-0.208
-0.347
-0.428
-0.119
0.316
-0.068
0.339
0.357
-0.161
-0.322
-0.225
0.133
0.046
-0.850
-0.300
-0.166
1.000
11-63
-------
Relationship of Geologic and Land Use Variables
Table 11C shows the portion of the correlation matrix involving the
intercorrelation of the bedrock and land use variables. This clearly illus-
trates the difficulty encountered in untangling the effects of land use and
geology. Aside from the predictable negative correlations between variables
and others of the same type (i.e. land use, bedrock geology, surficial
geology), many significant correlations remain between variables of different
types. The clearest example is found in the variation of the relative pro-
portions of cropland and forest (negatively correlated at R= -.85) with
bedrock geology. Cropland is positively, and forest is negatively, correla-
ted with the Silurian and Middle Devonian carbonate-calcareous shale units
underlying much of the northern half of the area; this is reversed for the
Upper Devonian shale-sandstone bedrock of the southern half. Note that
because of the structure of the matrix of dummy variables one of the Upper
Devonian units (DCAN) does not appear explicitly.
REGRESSION
Regression Equations
Tables 12A and 12B present the regression equations for the gravel and
stream sediment data respectively. In the tables, the independent variables
in each regression equation are listed in the order of their entry into the
equation in the course of the stepwise regression computation. The multiple
correlation coefficient is given for the Nth step, where N is the number of
independent variables in the equation.
Interpretation of Regression Equations - Gravels
Manganese - The regression equation for manganese is of limited value,
since the results for this element are heavily dependent upon the sample
selection procedure. Since both sampling and sample selection were done by
various individuals at different times over a 2% year period, and since a
large element of subjective judgement is involved in selecting the "most
heavily coated" gravel, the abundance of manganese in the sample therefore
does not necessarily reflect accurately the abundance of manganese oxide at
the sample site. The role of manganese as a carrier for the other metals
in this study should be understood.
Iron - As is the case for all the other minor and trace components
except Pb, the term for Mn dominates the regression equation for iron. After
the Mn term, three other terms enter the equation with positive coefficients.
These are SCLS, and MUCK which are all positively correlated with one anothen
Muck soils are common in the low, relatively flat terrain associated with
the carbonates and marine shales of the Silurian and Middle Devonian. The
somewhat reducing conditions frequently found in saturated, organic-rich
soils result in much of the iron present being in the more soluble ferrous
form. This in turn leads to greater amounts of dissolved iron in the ground-
water and in drainage from the wetlands, which is oxidized in the stream
environment and deposited along with manganese in the oxide coatings. The
11-64
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TABLE 12. REGRESSION EQUATIONS.
A. Regression equation for oxide coatings (242 cases)
Regression Equation Multiple R
Log Mn = .171 SCLS + .001 BDRK -.006 PAST
+ .007 LAKE + 2.173 0.24
Log Fe » .756 Log Mn + .180 SCLS + .008 MUCK
- .009 AREA + .088 DONH - 0.233 0.92
Log Zn = .690 Log Mn + .017 CIVN + .007 MUCK
+ .114 DCCO + .005 SWMP - 1.774 0.80
Log Cd - .669 Log Mn + .003 FRST - .412 SCLS
- .233 DONH - .113 DSWJ - 3.564 0.75
Log Co = .620 Log Mn - .013 ALLV - .003 CRPL
- .003 OUTW -I- .112 SCLS - 2.042 0.80
Log Ni = .650 Log Mn - .003 CRPL + .574 SMOQ
- .175 DONH + .003 FRST - 2.403 0.74
Log Pb = .026 CIVN - .0002 RELF + .117 SCLS
+ .217 DCCO + .003 CRPL - 1.565 0.47
Log Cu = .390 Log Mn + .012 CIVN - .159 SCLS
- .120 DONH - .005 PAST - 2.404 0.65
FACT 1 - .837 Log Mn -I- .471 SCLS + .734 DONH
- .027 AREA + .021 MUCK - 0.086 0.93
FACT 2 - .075 CIVN + .010 CRPL - .001 RELF
+ .444 DCCO - .024 BDRK - 0.435 0.53
FACT 3 = - .010 CRPL .415 Log Mn - .996 SCLS
- .864 DONH - .283 DSWJ - 0.726 0.67
(continued)
11-65
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TABLE 12 (continued).
B. Regression equation for stream sediments (129 cases)
Regression Equation Multiple R
Log Mn = .175 DCCO - .007 CIVN - .002 CRPL
+ 3.026 0.37
Log Fe = .002 FRST + .127 DCCO - .069 SCLS
+ .003 SWMP + 0.164 0.51
Log Zn * .011 FALL + .129 SCLS - .085 DONH
+ 1.834 0.47
Log Cd = .008 FALL - .005 OUTW - .002 TILL
- 0.212 0.35
Log Co = .121 DCCO + .001 FRST - .001 OUTW
- .003 ALLV - .002 PAST + .0988 0.59
Log Ni = .002 FRST + .001 TILL + .067 DSWJ
+ .084 DCCO + 1.038 0.54
Log Pb « .002 FRST + .109 DCCO + .011 CIVN
- .626 SMOQ - .004 PAST + 1.394 0.46
Log Cu = .050 DSWJ + .005 CIVN - .080 SCLS
- .082 DONH + 1.164 0.35
Log Ca - 0 .016 FRST - 1.854 SMOQ + .955 DONH
+ .921 SCLS - .567 DCCO - O.206 0.83
FACT 1 = - .008 CRPL + .449 DCCO + .004 TILL
+ .220 DSWJ - .011 PAST + 5.103 0.57
FACT 2 = .024 FALL + .002 - .275 DCCO
- .014 AREA - .162 DONH 0.44
FACT 3=0 .016 FRST + .901 SCLS + .842 DONH
- .576 DCCO - 1.458 SMOQ + 2.960 0.84
FACT 4 « .0158 AREA + 5.133 0.14
11-66
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presence of the term for area in the equation, with a negative coefficient,
may reflect the greater contribution of relatively iron-enriched groundwater
to total discharge in small watersheds relative to larger drainage basins.
Zinc - After the manganese term, the most prominant contribution to the
regression equation for Zn is the CIVN term. This reflects the pollution
of soils and surface waters with zinc from galvanized metal, batteries and
other artificial sources in thickly settled areas. SWMP (wetland) and MUCK
(mucklands) also appear in the equation with positive coefficients. This may
result from accumulations of zinc bound to organic matter in these environ-
ments, which is then released by leaching and oxidation when the land is
drained for agriculture or development. DCCO also appears with a positive
coefficient, reflecting the higher mobility of Zn, along with most of the
other trace elements, in somewhat carbonate-poor, less alkaline environment
in the forested, upland areas underlain by the uppermost Devonian rocks.
The zinc equation was computed with the omission of six samples which gave
extremely high zinc values. Samples 1307, 1309, 1328, 1340, 1348 and 1703 are
all from streams draining areas underlain by the Silurian Lockport Formation.
This unit of dolostones and limestones contains visible sphalerite (ZnS) in
many exposures (Zenger, 1965). This is the apparent source of anomalous zinc
concentrations, reaching levels toxic to plants in certain muck soils over-
lying the Lockport (Cannon, 1955). If these samples are included in the
regression computation, SCLS (Silurian bedrock, including Lockport) appears
in the equation as a positive term.
Cadmium - After the effect of Mn is removed, the equation for Cd contains
three bedrock variables with negative coefficients (SCLS, DONH, DSWJ) repre-
senting the more carbonate-rich areas in the central and northern parts of
the Genesee basin. FRST appears with a positive coefficient. This indcates
a generally greater abundance of Cd in streams in the forested, carbonate-poor
uplands in the southern part of the basin. This is compatible with either a
greater mobility of Cd in the slightly less alkaline groundwater and soils
in the southern portion, or with a greater abundance of Cd in the bedrock and
overburden in this area. No data are available to test the latter specula-
tion.
Cobalt - The regression equation for cobalt shows negative coefficients
for ALLY and OUTW; i.e. with water-laid surficial deposits. This suggests
that possibly some of the cobalt in these materials has been previously
removed by chemical weathering, either before deposition, or after deposition
due to the greater permeability of these materials relative to unsorted,
unstratified till. In other words, these are "recycled" sediments which may
already have lost considerable cobalt. Alternatively, these materials may
contain sufficient oxide minerals on particle surfaces to effectively bind
cobalt and prevent loss of this element to groundwater. In either case, it
is not clear why this effect is seen only in the case of cobalt. It is known
that cobalt is taken up preferentially to most of the other metals by the
oxide phases. There is a strong specific adsorption of Co onto Mn oxides in
particular (Murray, 1975). CRPL occurs in the equation with a negative coef-
ficient; this may be a result of the previously mentioned decreased mobility
11-67
-------
of all the trace metals in the presumably more alkaline soil-groundwater
system of the northern part of the basin. The presence of SCLS as a positive
term in the cobalt equation is not readily explainable.
Nickel - After the dominant Mn term, CRPL and DONH appear with negative
coefficients, and FRST with a positive coefficient. This also is consistent
with the postulated inverse relationship between alkalinity and geochemical
mobility. SMOQ also appears in the nickel equation, with a positive sign,
possibly indicating an enrichment of Ni in the terrigenous clastic rocks of
the Queenston Delta, although no trace element data for the rocks is available
to test this hypothesis.
Lead - In this equation alone, Mn is not the dominant term; for lead the
most important term is CIVN, indicating that pollution from human activities
is the most important source of lead variability in the oxide coatings. SCLS
and CRPL also appear as positive terms; this would be consistent with a source
of Pb as airborne particulates, concentrated in the more heavily settled
northern half of the basin. The negative term for relief may also reflect
this effect, insofar as relief correlates strongly with the more sparsely
settled southern region. DCCO appears as a positive term, again probably due
to the previously postulated enhancement of all the trace metals in the
forested uplands. Alternatively, the uppermost Devonian rocks may contain
more lead.
Copper - Copper, after cadmium the least abundant of the trace metals,
follows the. genreal pattern of Zn, Cd, Co and Ni. It is relatively depleted
in oxides from the northern portion of the basin, as indicated by the presence
of SCLS and DONH in the regression equation with negative coefficients. The
positive CIVN term, second in the equation after manganese, indicates a
significant contribution of Cu from pollution-related sources.
Factor 1 - The equation for factor 1 in the gravels is dominant by mangan-
ese. Three of the remaining variables (SCLS, DONH, MUCK) all appear with
positive coefficients, possibly related to the increased prevalence of heavy
Mn oxide coatings in streams in areas with large proportions of poorly-drained
soils. This equation is of little significance for the reasons discussed
above under Manganese.
Factor 2 - This equation has CIVN as the leading term with a positive
coefficient. This is clearly the result of pollution-related sources of Pb,
Zn, and Cu, the three metals with significant loadings on this factor. The
presence of DCCO, also with a positive coefficient, and CRPL with a negative
sign, are probably a result of the postulated alkalinity/mobility effect.
Factor 3 - Manganese is an important term in this equation, due to the
fact that the metals which load most heavily on this factor (Cd, Co, Ni and
Cu) are all strongly correlated with Mn. The remaining four terms (CRPL,
SCLS, DONH, DSWJ) all negative, correspond to relatively carbonate-rich areas
and consequently low trace-metal mobility. The alternative explanation that
this results from (unverified) low trace metal abundances in the bedrock of
these areas must also be considered.
11-68
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Interpretation of Regression Equations - Stream Sediments
The multiple correlation coefficients in the regression equations for the
stream sediments are much lower than in the case of the gravels, reflecting
the absence of a single dominant term analogous to Mn in the gravels. Few
clear patterns emerge from the single-metal equations, probably due to the
effects of mixing of the several physical components of stream sediments in
different proportions in these samples. A few geologic and land use para-
meters do appear in several of these equations. Most notable is DCCO, which
appears with a positive coefficient in the equations for Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, and
Pb. This may represent a combination of two effects: a greater relative
proportion of the silicate fraction in sediments derived from this carbonate-
poor terrain, and the aforementioned enhanced mobility of the trace metals
in this environment. A similar explanation may account for FRST appearing
as a positive term in the equations for Fe, Co, and Ni. CIVN occurs as a
prominent positive term for Pb and Cu, reflecting the probable importance of
pollutant sources for these metals.
The presence of the SCLS term in the equation for Zn may result from the
inclusion in the calculation of three samples very high in zinc from streams
draining areas underlain by rocks of the zinc-bearing Lockport Formation.
The calcium equation shows a much higher multiple correlation coefficient
due to the clear geologic control of this variable resulting from the north-
to-south decrease in calcite and dolomite content of the bedrock and over-
burden within the Genesee basin. Several variables occur in the Ca equation
which also appeared in one or more of the other equations with the opposite
sign. This is most readily explained in terms of the dilution of sediment
samples in the northern area by a trace-metal-poor carbonate phase. Much of
the carbonate probably enters the streams as sediment in runoff during storm
events, which is reflected in the importance of F as a negative term. Forest
soils in general have low carbonate content due to leaching, and moreover
forested areas are more stable against erosion and contribute less sediment.
In the factor equations for this sediments, Factor 1 (tentatively
identified with the silicate fraction) is negatively correlated with CRPL and
PAST. This probably reflects dilution of the silt and clay with carbonate
in the heavily agricultural and carbonate-rich areas in the northern half of
the basin. DCCO and DSWJ, with positive coefficients, correspond to areas in
the southern part of the basin with relatively carbonate-poor Upper Devonian
bedrock. TILL also appears with a positive sign; this is the surficial
deposit with the greatest proportions of relatively unweathered silt-and-clay
sized silicates.
Factor 2, which may be associated with the organic fraction, shows a
positive correlation with FALL (inactive agriculture) and FRST, the land use
categories which, with the possible exception of wetlands, have the highest
organic productivity and which would therefore be most likely to contribute
organic sediment to the streams through erosion of the uppermost soil hori-
zons. They are also likely to be the most stable against deep erosion of
mineral soil, reducing the relative input of silicate and carbonate sediment.
H-69
-------
DCCO, also positive, is the bedrock category corresponding to the heavily
forested southern extremities of the Genesee Watershed. It is worthy of
note that the three metals (Pb, Zn, and Cd) which are most prominent in this
factor are those for which aerial deposition may be an important source. This
leads to the speculation that heavily forested areas, with large areas of
foliage surface to collect aerially deposited metals, may be characterized by
higher levels of these metals in the stream sediments. The appearance of
AREA in the regression equation with a negative sign may reflect a relatively
greater abundance of organic matter in the sediments of small streams. The
presence of DONH (negative) may be due to the carbonate dilution effect.
Factor 3, dominated by calcium, is clearly associated with the carbonate
fraction and yields a regression equation very similar to that for calcium
taken separately. Factor 4, largely iron, shows a weak, unexplained positive
correlation with AREA, which is the only term entering the regression equa-
tion.
ANOMALOUS RESULTS
Zinc
A total of six samples (numbers 1307, 1309, 1328, 1348 and 1703) show zinc
values in the coated gravels which are far above the predicted values from the
regression equation. These samples are all from streams draining areas under-
lain by the Lockport Formation. These rocks frequently contain visible
sphalerite (zinc sulfide) (Zenger, 1965), and it is reasonable to conclude
that the anomalously high zinc in the oxide coatings has its ultimate source
in the zinc mineralization in the bedrock. This situation does provide,
however, an instructive example of the interaction of geologic and land use
factors. Cannon (1955) describes an area of muckland near Manning, New
York, overlying the Lockport Formation just north and west of the Black Creek/
Genesee River Watershed. Some soils in this area were found to contain sever-
al precent zinc and several hundred parts per million lead. Local concen-
trations of zinc reached as high as 16%. The metals were apparently derived
by weathering of the underlying zinc-bearing dolomite, following which they
were locally concentrated in water-saturated peat by precipitation as finely
divided zinc sulfide, and by complexing with organic matter. Upon draining
of the muck for agricultural use, the sulfides and organic matter were oxi-
dized, releasing the zinc which was then leached from the soil and entered
the drainage. Stream, ditch and well waters in the area near the Manning
muck still contain amounts of zinc up to several ppm. This two-stage mechan-
ism involving weathering of slightly zinc-enriched bedrock, concentration of
Zn in overlying organic soils, and leaching of Zn from the soils when used for
crops, may account for much of the Zn in the manganese oxides found in streams
in the northern portion of the Black Creek drainage basin in this study. The
Mn/Zn ratios in the aforementioned samples reach values as low as 10, an order
of magnitude lower than regional background, and indicative of the presence
of as much as 5% zinc in the oxides.
II-7Q
-------
Copper
Two samples in this study (numbers 1533 and 1534) show highly anomalous
copper contents in the oxide coatings. These samples are from the stream
draining the reservoir for the Town of Nunda, above (1533) and below (1534)
the junction with a tributary stream. There is no reason to suspect a
natural source of copper in the area. The most probable explanation for
the copper anomaly lies in the common use of copper sulfate as an algicide
in ponds, lakes and reservoirs. Small concentrations of copper in the stream
draining the reservoir following treatment are effectively scavenged by the
fairly abundant Mn oxides in these streams, leading to the observed anomalous
values. The anomalous values in the oxides are one to two orders of magni-
tude above regional background; this contrasts with the results from the
stream sediments, which at site 1534 show Cu at only twice background.
ROLE OF OXIDES IN METAL TRANSPORT
The work of Gibbs (1977) indicates the potential importance of manganese
and iron oxides as carriers for transition metals during sediment transport
in major rivers. Gibbs estimates, based on a selective leaching procedure
for suspended sediments, that substantial (>50%) amounts of the total cobalt
and nickel transported by the Amazon and Yukon Rivers is associated with
iron-manganese oxide coatings on sediment particles. Substantially smaller
(<10%) proportions of the total copper are transported in this manner. Due
to the substantial proportions of a carbonate phase in the Genesee sediments,
a similar leaching procedure proved impractical in this study. However, a
rouch estimate of the total contribution of manganese oxides to sediment-
bound heavy metal transport can be obtained. Mn oxides in bottom and suspen-
ded sediments may be present either as coatings on silicate, carbonate or
organic particles, or as abraded fragments of the coatings from large clastic
grains. If it is assumed that the metal/Mn ratios in these oxides are simi-
lar to those found for the coated gravels, and that all of the Mn in the sed-
iment is in the oxides, then maximum amounts of Mn-oxide-bound metals can be
calculated as percentage of the hot HN03-leachable metals in the sediments.
Table 13 shows the results for three cases. All assume the average metal/Mn
ratios found for the gravels. Column A is the calculation for the average
bottom sediment; Column B for the bottom sediment with the maximum Mn content
(sample 1834; 3450 ppm Mn); and Column C for the average suspended sediment
(Table 8; 693 ppm Mn). Particularly in the case of the suspended sediment
(the material actually observed in transport) the contribution of Mn oxides
is relatively minor. In exceptional cases (e.g. Cd in sample 1834) it may
be more substantial.
Iron oxides, as distinct from the manganese oxides, also may occur as
discrete grains or as particle coats. The discrete grains may originate
either from erosion of soils, particularly the Fe-rich B horizons of podzolic
soils, or by flocculation of colloidal Fe hydroxides in the stream. The
prominence of Fe in the third factor derived in the sediment factor analysis
(Table 10B) suggests that such a separate Fe oxide phase may contribute sub-
stantially to the total Fe in the sediment. However, there is no indication
that substantial amounts of any other metals are associated with this oxide
phase.
11-71
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TABLE 13. Mn OXIDE-BOUND METAL AS PERCENT OF TOTAL HNO^LEACHATE METAL.
Metal
Fe
Zn
Cd
Co
Ni
Pb
Cu
A
Ave. Bottom
Sediment
0.9%
6.7
11.0
7.7
4.0
1.5
1.9
B
Max. Bottom
Sediment
0.8%
9.9
25.9
12.9
8.1
3.5
2.4
C
Ave. Suspended
Sediment
0.4%
2.5
4.0
3.0
1.3
0.5
0.5
The contrast between these results and those of Gibbs(1977) may be due
to the real differences in the watersheds involved, or alternately may
result from the different experimental methods used.
11-72
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Whitney, P. R. 1975b. Use of oxide-coated stream gravels in geochemical
surveys: a test case. Trans. AIME 258:294-300.
Zenger, D. H. 1965. Stratigraphy of the Lockport Formation (middle
Silurian) in New York State. New York State Museum and Science Service
Bull. 404. 210 pp.
11-75
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REPORT III
SURFICIAL GEOLOGY OF THE GENESEE VALLEY
by
Ernest H. Muller, Syracuse University
Syracuse, NY 13210
Richard A. Young, S.U.C. at Geneseo
Geneseo, NY 14454
Dallas D. Rhodes, Whittier College
Whittier, CA 90608
Paul Willette, Syracuse University
Syracuse, NY 13210
Michael Wilson, University of North
Carolina at Charlotte
Charlotte, NC 28223
Robert II. Fakundiny, New York State
Geological Survey
Albany, NY 12230
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REPORT III
CONTENTS
Abstract 1
Figures ii
Tables iv
Acknowledgements v
1. Introduction 1
Objectives 1
Geographic relationships 2
Previous work 4
2. Conclusions 7
3. .Glacial geology 9
Surficial geology maps 9
Relationship of valley form to Pleistocene
history 9
Ancestral Genesee valley 10
Deglaciation north to Belvidere 14
Deglaciation from Belvidere to Portageville 20
Deglaciation from Portageville to Mt. Morris.... 23
Deglaciation from Mt. Morris to Fowlerville 24
Deglaciation from Fowlerville to Rochester 31
Summary: Inception of fluvial regime 33
4. Fluvial geology 36
Prehistoric fluvial development, Belvidere to
Portageville 36
Prehistoric fluvial development, Dansville to
Fowlerville 40
Prehistoric fluvial development, Fowlerville
to Rochester 42
Nature of floodplain materials 42
-------
5. Channel morphology and processes 45
The upper Genesee River 45
Letch worth Gorge 48
Alluvial meandering reach of the middle
Genesee 49
Glacial drift reach of the middle Genesee 58
Sediment production and denudation rates 61
6. The Agnes flood 65
Introduction 65
Effects of Agnes in the upper Genesee 66
Effects of Agnes in the middle Genesee 68
References 70
Maps 75
Appendix: Surficial geology of parts of Geneseo, Sonyea
and Dansville quadrangles and adjacent areas
by Richard A. Young 120
-------
ABSTRACT
Far from being an ideal valley system developed as a well
integrated and consistent geomorphic unit by normal fluvial
processes, the Genesee Valley links reaches which have had
diverse origins and dissimilar histories. Understanding of
present processes and characteristics of the diverse reaches
requires knowledge of past conditions.
The inheritance from Pleistocene glaciation accounts for
marked contrasts in valley form, and continues to exercise long-
term control on patterns of subsequent fluvial modification.
During late Wisconsinan retreat, the continental ice sheet
impended a succession of proglacial lakes in the Genesee Valley.
Draining across the lowest divide freed by the retreating ice,
the lakes abandoned the lower northward end of the Genesee Valley
in progressively more recent times. The lake succession in New
York begins with Wellsville Lake, impended perhaps 19,000 years
ago during late Woodfordian time (Almond Glaciation), and ex-
tending from the State Line north to Belmont. South of
Rochester, the final impending involved the Pinnacle Hills
Moraine, built approximately 12,000 years ago. Moraine or
drift barriers continued local impending just south of Portage-
ville, Fowlerville and Rochester, respectively, for a few
millennia following deglaciation. It was on this progressively
uncovered valley floor that postglacial fluvial erosion began,
at different times and in a different manner as dictated by late
glacial history.
Prehistoric fluvial development of the floor of the Genese
Valley generally involved transformation of inherited glacial
and lacustrine features toward fluvial equilibria. Upstream
ends of inherited lake basins were aggraded. Progressive
incision of their outlets simultaneously contributed to their
destruction. Steeper reaches, notably the Letchworth Gorge
were rapidly eroded, with the debris aggrading downstream where
gradient diminished and the valley floor opened out. In
alluvial reaches, stream gradient and channel patterns developed
long-term equilibrium under prevailing load and discharge
conditions which reflect coarseness and abundance of load as
well as bank coherence. Relationships of dated archeologic
sites and radiocarbon analysis of buried wood fragments afford
scattered datum points for estimating rates of floodplain
modification.'
Ill-i
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Although modern fluvial processes have only begun to trans-
form the inherited characteristics of the valley as a whole, they
are dominant in controlling channel character and development of
the valley floor. Two main sediment sources for stream load are
material delivered by tributaries and material eroded from the
channel perimeter. Cobble and boulder-sized material in the
stream bed is derived either from tributaries flowing on steep
gradient across bedrock valley walls, or from sharply incising
reaches where the stream in downcutting encountered bedrock or
glacial till. Downstream from the Mount Morris delta/fan coarse
clastic material moves only gradually and for short distances in
the stream bed. Upstream from Portageville, however, channel
cross section is more open, channel storage is less, channel
pattern shows a tendency to braid and gradient is generally
steeper than below Mount Morris. In short, the equilibrium
among hydraulic parameters is adjusted to handle coarser bed
load than in the reach below Mount Morris.
-------
FIGURES
Number Page
1 Physiography of western New York showing outline
of Gene see drainage basin 3
2 Genesee drainage basin showing U.S.G.S. topographic
quadrangle maps investigated 6
3 Bedrock contour map of area in Monroe County with
drift-filling valley of the preglacial Genesee
River 11
4 Proglacial lake sucussion in the Genesee Valley
during recession of the Ice Sheet 16
5 Overflow cols and outlet channesl that controlled
levels of proglacial lakes in the Genesee Valley.. 18
6 Cross-section from York Landing area through land-
slide at Oxbow Land and adjacent well 25
7 Cross-section from Salt Creek to junction of Nations
Road and Route 39 25
8 Schematic relationships among units along axis of
Genesee Valley 28
9 Cross-section from intersection of Route 36 and
Jones Bridge Road to Macauley site near mouth of
Canaseraga Creek 28
10 Selected sediment size analysis of typical silty
sands from Genesee River Valley 29
11 Size distribution by pipette analysis of gray allu-
vial silt exposed near low-water stage in channel
of Genesee River near Geneseo 34
12 Topographic map locating Christiano Meanders north-
east of Mt. Morris near confluence of Genesee
River and Canaseraga Creek 52
-------
TABLES
Number Page
1 Index to topographic quadranges of Figure 2 5
2 Age of Paleoindian point types 38
3 Distribution of Paleoindian point types at sites
on the upper Genesee 39
4 Channel gradients 46
5 Rates of lateral erosion, east Christiano meanders.. 54
6 Examples of rates of lateral erosion 55
7 Peak discharges recorded in middle Genesee River.... 59
8 Summary of data from sedimentation studies of the
Mt. Morris dam 63
9 Sample sediment production rates for different
land uses 64
Ill-iv
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S
The investigations on which this report is based have been
conducted by the co-authors as a field team, each operating with
independent focus under the administrative supervision of
Robert Fakundiny, Associate Scientist (Environmental Geology).
This report integrates the contributions each member of the
field team, particularly as they relate to his focus and
assignment, as follows (Figure 2 and Table 1.):
Muller - glacial correlation and chronology
Rhodes - fluvial geomorphology
Young - Dansville to Fowlerville (Dansville, Sonyea,
Mount Morris, Leicester and Geneseo Quadrangles)
Willette - Belvidere to Portageville (Angelica, Black Creek,
Fillmore, Houghton and Portageville Quadrangles)
Wilson - Fowlerville to Rochester (Caledonia, Rush,
Clifton and West Henrietta ( formerly Genesee
Junction) Quadrangles)
Geographic division of responsibilities is indicated on Figure 2.
The authors individually and collectively acknowledge their
indebtedness to personnel of the Ithaca and Albany Offices of
the U.S. Geological Survey-Water Resources Division engaged in
aspects of the Genesee Basin study, both for cooperation in the
field and for making available unpublished field results. We
have relied heavily upon county soil surveys of Monroe, Living-
ston and Alleghany Counties prepared by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, and we acknowledge the
courtesy extended in the free use of air photography available
in SCS offices. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Buffalo
Office, made available data from studies of the Genesee River
and specifically the flood damage resulting from Hurricane Agnes.
Dr. R.K. Fahnestock of S.U.C. at Fredonia contributed valued
suggestions and ideas during two days field conference focused
on fluvial geomorphology problems.
We acknowledge a debt of gratitude to Dr. Richard Pardi of
the Radiocarbon Laboratory at Queens College, C.U.N.Y. for age
determination of organic samples; to Dr. Carl De Zeeuw of the
Wood Products engineering Department, S.U.N.Y. College of En-
III-v
-------
vironmental Science and Forestry for identification of the dated
wood sample from the Estabrook Site; to Dr. Thomas Lillesand and
Mr. William Johnson of the Forest Engineering Department, S.U.N.Y
College of Environmental Science and Forestry for technical
assistance in procuring air photography of parts °f tne field
area; and to the Monroe County Planning Commission for the map
of bedrock topography included as Figure 3.
Acknowledgment is made to Mr. Lawrence Smith for assistance
with field work, sediment size analyses and x-ray diffraction
determination of mineral composition, supported by a student
research grant of the Genesee Foundation.
To residents and landowners in the Genesee Valley too many
to enumerate, we are indebted for their forbearance, goodwill
and interest in the progress of our investigations. Among those,
however, we would be remiss not to acknowledge in particular the
help and encouragment of the Bruce McCarty family of Fillmore,
Mr. Howard Lang of Belfast, Mr. William Greene, County Historian,
Allegany County, of Mr. Robert Graham, Mr. Ronald Patridge and
Mr. Conrad Bernhardt of Fillmore, and of the H.W. Estabrook
family. To these and many other residents of the valley, we
express our thanks and appreciation.
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Objectives
Mapping of the surficial geology of portions of the Genesee
River Basin was undertaken by the New York State Geological
Survey in 1975-1976 as part of the International Joint Commission
study of the impact of land use activities on water quality of
the Great Lakes Basin. Specific objectives of the project have
been to delineate the areal distribution of deposits contributing
to sediment load transported by the Genesee River, and to seek
out and evaluate geologic evidence bearing on erosion rates,
recurrence intervals and depositional patterns for catastrophic
discharge events such as those occasioned by excessive precipita-
tion from a stagnating tropical storm like Hurricane Agnes.
Far from being a typical floodplain, an integral geomorphic
unit produced primarily by fluvial processes, the Genesee Valley
involves the linkage of valley reaches that have had diverse
origins and dissimilar histories. Surficial deposits of glacial,
lacustrine and alluvial origin comprise the principal permeable
and erosive materials over which surface waters flow and through
which groundwater moves in the Genesee Valley. This distribution
and composition of the surficial deposits affect the flow,
channel characteristics, chemical properties of the water, and
the quantity and composition of stream load of the Genesee
hydrologic system. Accordingly, a concept of the distribution
and significance of surficial materials is fundamental to all
investigations that address themselves to hydrologic problems
in the Genesee Valley. Such a synthesis is most effectively
presented in the form of a surficial geology map with analysis,
discussion and extended legend. Prior to the present investiga-
tion no surficial geology maps had been published for any
significant part of the Genesee Basin in New York. This report
is intended to satisfy the need for suitably detailed mapping
of major portions of the Genesee Valley from Belvidere to
Rochester.
Because dissimilar geologic histories are strongly reflect-
ed in the continuing geomorphic and hydrologic development of
the several reaches of the Genesee Valley, a major part of this
report involves an elaboration of Late Wisconsinan history.
Establishing a chronology of events in the Genesee Valley
requires correlation with glacial, lacustrine and drainage
features of adjacent areas, but the objective throughout is to
establish the setting and the duration of subsequent fluvial
III-l
-------
modification, though geologically very active at present, has
only begun to develop the ultimate geomorphic coherence toward
which hydrologic systems evolve. Finally, in this report,
comment is included on some of the interrelationships between
the river and man as geologic agents.
Geographic Relationships
Rising in Pennsylvania, the Genesee is the only river that
flows north across the entire breadth of New York State. It
drains a basin of about 2480 square miles, of which all but
about 100 square miles is in New York. The basin ranges to as
much as 40 miles in width, and it about 100 miles long in a
north-south direction (Figure 1).
The Genesee River drains areas of considerable physiographic
contrast. Two physiographic units are involved—the Ontario
Lake Plain of the Central Lowlands Province and the Glaciated
Southern New York Subprovince of the Appalachian Plateaus.
Differences between the two provinces relate generally to lower
rock resistance and greater intensity of glaciation northward.
The Ontario Lake Plain is characterized by widespread
mantling of glacial drift and lake sediments on easily erodable
Paleozoic rocks, comprising a region of generally low relief for
which Lake Ontario at 246 feet above sea level is the temporary
base level. The relatively resistant Lockport Dolomite crops
out as a continuous, though generally inconspicuous, scarp and
nickpoint across north-flowing rivers. North of the low Lock-
port rise are the strandline and floor of Glacial Lake Iroquois.
South of the Lockport outcrop is an east-west trending belt
with shallow swampy basin developed on soft shales. Transverse
across the trend of bedrock contacts, subparallel drumlins give
evidence of divergent glacier flow that spread south out of the
Ontario Basin.
The Glaciated Southern New York Plateau is characterized
by a southward continuation of the simple geologic structure
that underlies the lowlands. The Plateau is developed on
Paleozoic clastic marine sedimentary rocks with low southerly
regional dip. Upland summits are markedly accordant in the
Southern Tier of New York counties where topographic relief is
moderate, ranging from 500 to 1000 feet. Northward, however,
glacial scour has more or less transformed stream valleys into
glacial troughs and has rounded and reduced upland remnants,
producing the characteristics which distinguish the Glaciated
Southern New York Subprovince from the remainder of the Appala-
chian Plateaus.
III-2
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MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC
DIVISIONS
Figure 1. Physiography of Western New York showing outline of Genesee Drainage Basin
III-3
-------
Previous Work
Notwithstanding the lack of published maps, aspects of the
surficial geology of the Genesee Valley have been subjects of
classic reports as well as of more recent investigation.
The framework of Wisconsinan history derives from early
work by Fairchild (1896, 1908, 1909, 1926, 1928), as well as by
Dryer (1890), Giles (1918) and Chadwick and Dunbar (1924), in
papers that focus primarily on proglacial lake drainage history.
Regional summaries of Quaternary geology include Leverett (1902),
Fairchild (1932a,b) MacClintock and Apfel (1944) and Muller (1965).
Muller (1977) updated earlier work, mapping the area of New York
west of Rochester at 1:250,000 scale, as part of an ongoing
program of the New York State Geological Survey (Map 1) .
Field guidebooks for annual meetings of the New York State
Geological Association include notes relevant to surficial
geology of the Genesee Valley. Among these are Guidebooks for
the 1956, 1957 and 1973 meetings. Unpublished thesis and
dissertation studies include the work of Connally (1964),
Street (1963), Terlecky (1970) and Grossman (1973). Water
supply investigations which touch briefly on surficial geology
are reported by Grossman and Varger (1953), Bordne (1960) and
Gilbert and Kammerer (1965, 1971). Archeologic investigations,
White and others at SUNY at Buffalo (Trubowitz and Snethcamp,
1975) and by Rhodes at State University College at Geneseo have
been published, the latter with geologic interpretation (Young
and Rhodes, 1971, 1973). Tabulation of Late Wisconsinan
correlations in the northeastern United States by David Fuller-
ton, U.S. Geological Survey, updates regional correlations.
For the part of the Genesee Valley in Pennsylvania,
recent work by Denny (1956) helps to make current the earlier
classic report on the Gaines Quadrangle by Fuller (1903).
III-4
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TABLE 1. INDEX TO TOPOGRAPHIC QUADRANGLES OF FIGURE 2.
1. Holley
2. Brockport
3. Spencerport
4. Rochester West
5. Rochester and
vicinity
6. Batavia North
7. Byron
8. Churchville
9. Clifton
10. West Henrietta
11. Mendon Ponds
12. Batavia South
13. Stafford
14. Leroy
15. Caledonia
16. Rush
17. Honeoye Palls
18. Victor
19. Dale
2 0. Wyoming
21. Leichester
22. Geneseo
23. Livonia
24. Honeoye
25. Briston Center
26. NE Arcade
2 7. Warsaw
28. Castile
29. Mount Morris
30. Sonyea
31. Conesus
32. Springwater
33. Bristol Springs
34. SE Arcade
35. Pike
36. Portageville
37. Nunda
38. Ossian
39. Dansville
4 0. Wayland
41. Delevan
42. Freedom
4 3. Houghton
44. Fillmore
45. Birdsall
46. Sanaseraga
4 7. Arkport
48. Haskin-
ville
49. Franklin-
ville
50. Rawson
51. Black
Creek
52. Angelica
53. West Almond
54. Alfred
55. Friendship
56. Belmont
57. WeDlsville
58. Andover
59. Greenwood
60. Bolivar
61. Allentown
62. Wellsville S.
63. Whitesville
64. Rexville
III-!
-------
Figure 2. Genesee Drainage Basin showing U.S.G.S.
topographic quadrangle maps investigated.
Names are given in Table 3.
III-S
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
A stream is an open system, responding continuously to
changes in load and discharge imposed by its drainage basin. In
turn, over the course of geologic time, the stream system shapes
its valleys and modifies the drainage basin. The stream responds
to changes in fluid and sediment discharge imposed upon it by
internal changes in its characteristic dependent hydraulic para-
meters - width, depth, cross section, velocity, roughness,
channel pattern. Changes in width, depth and velocity are immed-
iate. A stream will not be overloaded, and therefore, particu-
larly in alluvial channels, load and bedform respond promptly to
changes in depth and velocity. Changes in thalweg and channel
configuration are more gradual, so that equilibrium under given
discharge conditions is seldom achieved before change is dis-
charge alters the flow pattern. Thalweg and channel characteris-
tics therefore are constantly modified toward new equilibrium
conditions over the course of time. At any instant they are the
product of countless incomplete responses to changing conditions
within the existing discharge regime of the recent past. That
the Genesee River is no exception to this generalization has been
shown by the preceding discussion. Its channel characteristics
reflect processes and basin conditions of recent decades.
Channel equilibrium conditions are functions also of the
materials involved, notably their coherence, roughness and tex-
ture. The rythmic meander development which often characterizes
true maturity in streams depends upon homogenized flood plain
materials achieved by stream transport and attrition. The
dynamic equilibrium among hydraulic parameters that has developed
under fluvial processes in the Fowlerville reach differs markedly
from that in the free meanders near Geneseo. It in turn contrasts
with the patterns of channel development and configuration near
Hougnton and Fillmore. Such differences reflect approaches to
long-term equilibria among all hydraulic parameters, operating,
hovrever under somewhat different inherited conditions. The lack
of consistence in downstream development of the Genesee Valley
distinguishes its local appearance of maturity from the true ma-
turity in the ideal erosion cycle developed solely by fluvial
processes.
Understanding of the adverse inherited conditions that
account for differences in longterm fluvial development of the
various reaches of the Genesee River depends upon knowledge of
late glacial and early postglacial history. The chronology of
glacial recession, of the proglacial lake succession, and the
III-7
-------
extinction of subsequent moraine dammed reaches is critical to
understanding subsequent fluvial development.
In a very general sense then, channel characteristics are
products of present processes, long-term equilibria of channel
pattern reflect fluvial processes of past millenia, but broad
relationships among distinctive valley reaches that comprise the
Genesee Valley reflect a longer inheritance, the legacy of
Pleistocene glaciation.
III-8
-------
SECTION 3
GLACIAL GEOLOGY
Surficial Geology Maps
Ten topographic map quadrangles were studied in their
entirety in this program. These were the West Henrietta,
Caledonia, Rush, Geneseo, Sonyea, Dansville, Houghton, Fillmore,
Black Creek, and Angelica (See Figure 2). Clifton and Portage-
ville quadrangiss were only investigated in part. The results
of these studies are a series of maps that have been placed on
file with the New York State Geological Survey in the Open File
at a scale of 1:24,000. These are reproduced herein as the
series of maps in the Illustrations Section which have been
reduced to 8*5 x 11 page size. Each quadrangle has a topographic
map base, which is a reduction of the U.S. Geological Survey lh
minute topographic map, a map of the geology and a geomorphic
map, both based to the topographic map. The Fillmore and
Angelica quadrangles also have some additional geomorphic maps at
slightly different scale (Maps 2-13).
Relationship of Valley Form to Pleistocene History
An "ideal" drainage basin, developing systematically, tends
constantly toward dynamic equilibrium among the mutually depend-
ent hydraulic parameters which respond to changes in discharge
and load imposed upon it. Channel, flood plain and valley
reaches evolve earliest and show the greatest maturity toward
the river mouth, with diminishing maturity headward where the
first-order tributaries occupy newly initiated rills and gullies.
The patterns of drainage and morphology of fluvial features
reflect chance controls in homogeneous materials or the etching
of less resistant materials where structural control is effective.
Such should be the case under "ideal" conditions in which a new
land surface is exposed in its entirety to drainage evolution
under constant external factors of climate and tectonism. Very
different has been the development of the Genesee Valley.
Instead, oscillatory glacial retreat and drainage of proglacial
lakes has exposed newly built, ice-molded surfaces to active
fluvial modification that has been in effect for the shortest
time in the lowest and most northerly parts of the basin.
That "ideal" conditions have not applied in the development
of the Genesee Valley is immediately made clear by contrast
between the strikingly youthful Letchworth Gorge and the broad,
open valley reaches both upstream from Portageville and downstream
III-9
-------
from Mount Morris. This obvious contrast is perhaps the most
conspicuous among many features that demonstrate the dominance
of inherited land form in controlling present depositional and
erosional regimes in the valley except in limited, local reaches.
Post-glacial time has been completely inadequate for the Genesee
River to establish equilibrium conditions in development of its
valley. For all its breadth and openness the Genesee Valley is
not maturely developed. Local apparent maturity is coincidental,
a function of topography developed under glacial and extraglacial
conditions. The influence of Pleistocene glaciation is expressed
in stream derangement, valley modification, valley filling, pro-
glacial impending, and by the series of episodes during which
the Genesee Basin was progressively uncovered and exposed to
renewed operation of normal fluvial processes.
Accordingly, for correct interpretation of present morpholo-
gy and erosional or depositional regime within the valley, it is
necessary to know the nature of the Ancestral Genesee prior to
glaciation and to reconstruct as fully as possible the Late
Wisconsinan history which marked the end of Plesitocene glacia-
tion in the Genesee Basin.
Ancestral Genesee Valley
Various authors have conjectured regarding the pattern of
ancestral drainage in western New York, among them Fairchild
(1908) and Grabau (1909). Fairchild assumed that primitive
drainage was consequent, following initial slopes southwestward.
Subsequent drainage developed along the trend of exposure of weak
rocks, generally east-northeast to west-southwest in western New
York. Extensive exposure of non-resistant strata in the belt
occupied by present Lake Ontario resulted in drainage domination
by an ancestral Ontarian River. Gradually the drainage pattern
expanded along the southern margin of the basin as a result of
progressive piracy by southward encroaching obsequent tributaries,
Fairchild (1908, p. 71) suggested that, by the onset of glacia-
tion, most of western New York was included in this reversal
of drainage northward from the Allegheny tableland. Although
Fairchild probably underestimated the degree to which glaciation
has effaced vestiges of preglacial topography in the Ontario
Lake Plain, independent lines of evidence support the conclusion
that the Genesee Basin had developed fully across New York State
and into Pennsylvania prior to glaciation.
In spite of the sinuousity of the Genesee River, its valley
exhibits remarkable linearity and angularity indicative of ex-
ternal control. For nearly half its length, the valley trends
approximately N30W, an alignment which closely parallels the
through-valleys occupied by Canaseraga Creek southeast of Nunda
and northwest of Dansville (Figure 1). Linear reaches of the
Susquehanna, Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers on the opposite
111-10
-------
OIDROCK CONTOUR MAP
MONROE COUN1Y N Y
. (from;
M • w.'.et oi -.1' MGCVI -i AV^-.'J .-•: .
BCDnCCK CONTOUR
SHOWS *LTITUOE OF BEDROCK SuRfiCf
APPROXIMATE BOUNDARY OF
THE GENCSEE RIVER BASIN
CONTOUR INTERVAL IS 25 FEET
O DATUM IS MCAM SEA LEVEL
.Veil logs in ap
Figure 3. Bedrock Contour Map of area in Monroe County with Drift-filling
Valley of the Preglacial Genesee River.
III-ll
-------
flank of the Appalachian Fold Belt mirror the same alignment,
suggesting relationship to tectonically induced structures.
Significantly, this alignment lies oblique rather than normal to
Appalachian fold axes.
Between Caneadea and Houghton the trend of the Genesee
Valley swings sharply through about 60° and continues at approxi-
mately N30E to Lake Ontario. This trend is paralleled by reaches
of adjacent through-valleys, notably those occupied by Tonawanda,
Oatka and Keshequa Creeks (Figure 1) . On the Ontario Lake Plain
this latter alignment is roughly paralleled by long axes of adja-
cent drumlins marking the orientation of ice-flow and effective
scour during late Wisconsinan glaciation. That this relation-
ship is largely coincidental is suggested by continuation of the
linearity where it diverges from radiating glacial flow direc-
tions. Overall, the repetition of alignments and their angulari-
ty suggests structural control through a prolonged history of
downcutting and drainage development prior to glaciation, with
the pattern intensified by glacial scour a}.ong lines of through-
flow controlled by the preglacial valley system.
The striking contrast between dissimilar reaches of the
Genesee Valley between Portageville and Mount Morris as opposed
to broad, open reaches both upstream and downstream was long ago
identified by Fairchild (1896) as a contrast between pre-glacial
and postglacial valley form. The broad, open reach from
Wellsville to Portageville and the open trough from Dansville to
Avon represent the inferred pre-glacial courses of the Genesee
and Irondequoit Rivers, intensively modified by glacial scour.
Fairchild (1896) inferred that narrow, confined reaches of
the Genesee from Portageville to Mount Morris, and across the
Lockport Dolomite in Rochester are youthful products of post-
glacial stream erosion. Such reaches characterize areas where
the Genesee River developing its course over drift-mantled
topography failed to uncover its original valley. Near Rush
(Monroe County), bedrock contours clearly delineate a deep east-
west reach of the ancestral "Irondogenesee River" between the
present courses of the Genesee and Irondequoit Valleys (Figure
3). In this area of southern Monroe County, bedrock topography
supports Fairchild's contention that the Genesee River north of
Henrietta bears no relation to the pre-glacial drainage pattern.
For the pre-glacial Valley downstream from Portageville, Fair-
child similarly hypothesized a drift-filled course past Nunda
and by way of the Keshequa Valley into Canaseraga Trough. For
this inferred pre-glacial river system Chadwick (1924) proposed
the name "Genesaraga River". Although the east wall of the Gene-
see Valley near Portageville exposes only thick glacial drift,
firm delineation of the inferred course of the "Genesaraga River"
by well logs, gravimetry or other geophysical methods does not
yet exist. Location of the drift-filled channel has potentially
significant economic implication that warrant early investigation.
111-12
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Whereas convincing evidence of the "Geneseraga River"
remains elusive, preliminary studies show that an Ancestral
Genesee drained north from Portageville. Between the Portage-
ville High Banks and the Mount Morris High Banks is the relative-
ly open and partly drift-filled St. Helena Reach. The strati-
graphic section in the St. Helena Reach involves multiple tills
and is one of the most complete profiles yet available in
surface exposure in central New York (Young, 1975b).
In this stratigraphic section, an oxidized gravel deposited
by north-flowing waters underlies gray stony till heavily charged
with black shale fragments and many crystalline clasts. Above
this, several thin brownish tills are interbedded with lacustrine
sediments indicating fluctuation of a lake-fronted ice tongue.
In one section, the lower till is separated from the upper glacio-
lacustrine sediments indicating fluctuation of a lake-fronted
ice tongue. In one section, the lower till is separated from
the upper glacio-lacustrine complex by stream gravels showing
distinctive imbrication from the north suggestive of outwash
deposition. Clearly, the drift section has been exposed by
partial uncovering of a pre-Wisconsinan valley reach. The
northward continuation of this glacially modified course of an
Ancestral Genesee Valley passes obliquely into the west wall of
Letchworth Gorge south of the Mount Morris High Banks and may be
connected with the main valley near Cuylerville, occupying the
modern Genesee Valley north beyond Avon. It is not at present
possible to demonstrate conclusively the hypothesized course of
the pre-glacial Genesee as suggested. Such confirmation or
disproof will have to await specific geophysical surveys to
establish the contour of the bedrock surface, a matter that has
potential significance relative to ground water supply.
Indeed, one may question whether a continuous course of the
Ancestral Genesee, marked by unreversed gradient in the long
profile, ought to be expected as a vestige of the pre-glacial
valley. It seems probable that Fairchild underestimated the
extent of glacial modification of the inherited landscape and of
glacial responsibility for the form of the so-called "pre-
glacial reaches". It is in the nature of glacial scour to
produce closed depressions. Convergence of glacial flow may
well account for overdeepening of a trough. Divergence of flow
may permit the development of a threshold. Resistant rock
athwart the line of glacial flow may provide a threshold while
less resistant rock is more deeply scoured as an enclosed basin.
The combination of massive sandstone units and diverging flow
at the branching of ancestral valleys probably resulted in
relatively ineffective scour of the reach between Portageville
and Mount Morris.
111-13
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Deglaciation north to Belvidere
Although the continental ice sheet expanded several times
across western New York, glacial deposits and landscapes in the
Genesee Valley date almost entirely from the last or Wisconsinan
glaciation. Each glacial episode tends to obliterate evidence
of all previous less extensive glacial oscillations. According-
ly, features that are preserved ordinarily record only oscilla-
tions of the waning hemicycle of a glaciation.
With each advance of the ice front from the north, the
northward drainage of the Genesee was blocked, impending its
waters in both main and tributary valleys. The levels of the
proglacial lakes rose as the ice continued to advance southward,
blocking the controlling outlets and forcing overflow across the
next higher available saddle. Deposits laid down in the lakes
impended during glacial advance are seldom observed because their
vestiges tend to be eroded during subsequent glacial scour.
The intervals during which ice covered the Genesee Valley
are envisioned as times in which glacial scour heightened relief
yet smoothed the landscape by abrading solid bedrock obstructions
and removing large quantities of unconsolidated materials.
Because flow was generally southerly, north-south features
tended to become accentuated, whereas east-west trending valleys
were partially filled. Overriden divides tended to be reduced
by glacial scour resulting in a network of trough-like through-
valleys.
The limit of Wisconsinan glaciation closely coincides with
the headwater divide bounding the Genesee Watershed in Pennsyl-
vania. Near it also rise headwaters of the Allegheny and
Susquehanna Rivers. Because the ice sheet was thin near its
terminus, because the duration of maximum glaciation was brief,
and because near-margins ice-flow was erosionally ineffective,
glacial erosion in the Genesee headwaters was limited. However
slight the erosional reduction of the uplands and however modest
the transformation of pre-glacial valley into glacial trough,
even in Pennsylvania the alluvial history of the modern Genesee
begins after deglaciation, making it relevant to establish the
age of the terminal moraine.
On the basis of interpreted stratigraphic relationships,
apparent continuity and correlation of moraines, greater
morphologic modification of drift deposits and greater depth of
leaching in weathering profiles, MacClintock and Apfel (1944)
considered the moraine that borders the northeast flank of
the Salmanca Re-entrant to be considerably older than that on
the northwest. They named the former the Olean Moraine and
correlated it with the Tazewell of Illinois. Denny (1956)
considered the Wisconsinan drift in Potter County at the head of
the Genesee Basin to be the same age as the Olean Drift in the
111-14
-------
Salmanaca Re-entrant and correlated it with the lowan of the
Upper Mississippi. Since Denny's Potter County investigation in
1956, stratigraphic terminology, correlation and interpreted
chronology in the Upper Mississippi type area have evolved
rapidly. The terms lowan and Tazewell have been replaced by
Altonian incorporating Wisconsinan history prior to the Late
Wisconsinan represented by Woodfordian Drift. In the Erie Basin,
two intervals of diminished glaciation within the Wisconsinan
have been documented, the older being the Port Talbot Intra-
stadial. The younger, the Plum Point Intrastadial, separates Mid
and Late Wisconsinan time represented respectively by Altonian
and Woodfordian drift (Goldthwait and others, 1965, p. 94)•
The first direct documentation that the ice sheet receded
from central New York during the Plum Point Intrastadial was
obtained in the course of the present investigation. A small
wood fragment embedded in gray, silty, calcareous till was
collected from the bank of Rush Creek, 2000 feet east of West
Hill Road in Allen Town (Fillmore Quadrangle), Livingston
County. At the exposure, the till is unconformably overlain by
modern alluvial gravel, but unleached lacustrine rhythmite beds
have in past years been seen in direct superposition on the
dated till. Three till sheets, each presumably younger than the
dated till, are exposed in the valley wall directly to the north
(Street, 1963). The wood fragment, unidentified as to species,
afforded minimal material for dating and the probable error is
accordingly large. The data of 25,450+^1^2 radiocarbon years
(QC-238), is, however, finite and the age is in the range that
marks glacial readvance following the Plum Point Intrastadial.
In Ohio, the ice sheet had, at this time, advanced beyond
Cleveland to reach its southern limit as late as 18,000 to
19,000 years ago.
These data clearly argue that the ice sheet spread across
central New York following Plum Point deglaciation. The southern
limit of this advance has not been conclusively established and
remains a point in question. The nearest relevant radiocarbon-
dated locality to establish maximum age for the Olean Till is
near Titusville, Pennsylvania (White and Totten, 1965), where
peat 37,000 to 40,000 years B.P. apparently predates Titusville
Till (White and others, 1969, p. 31; Berti, 1975). If Olean
Till northeast of the Salamanca Re-entrant is properly correlat-
ed with the Titusville Till, it postdates the Port Talbot Intra-
stadial. Primarily on the criteria identified by MacClintock
and Apfel (1944) , but without substantiating stratigraphic
proof, the Olean Glaciation is here assumed to predate the Plum
Point Intrastadial, and the Olean Till is considered Altonian
(Muller, 1977). On this basis, glacial recession from the
terminal moraine at the head of the Genesee Basin probably
commenced no later than 34,000 years ago. A different correla-
tion has recently been suggested by Craft in Ward and others
(1976) for the Titusville locality, and by Sevon and others
111-15
-------
-2500-
2000'
-/5001
9
i T *x \»' <•
/of * /> •* ^ *V ^
^ / yv / / /*• ^- /? /*• /
tf/////Mm
** * *" s' *. / / * v\ -^—^
-looo'
JUne-tion
|\
-------
(1975) and Crowl (1975) who identify the moraine at the head of
the Genesee as Woodfordian, implying age in the range of 19,000
years. Evidence bearing on the history of deglaciation is
discussed in the pages that follow. The interpretations are
summarized in Figure 4 and at the end of this section.
Retreat of the Olean glacier margin within the headward
borders of the Genesee Basin resulted in ponding of "primary"
lakes in valleys of the three sources of the Genesee in Pennsyl-
vania. Each lake, no more than a few square miles in area,
drained briefly southward across a col into the Allegheny or the
Susquehanna watershed. With further recession, the three lakes
coalesced to form Fairchild's (1896, p. 434) Pennsylvania Lake
which drained past Andrews Settlement by way of the Rose Lake
Col approximately 2060 feet above sea level into Oswayo Creek and
the Allegheny River. This is a sharply defined meltwater channel.
Glacial recession of about 10 miles and thinning by nearly 1000
feet was necessary before the waning ice sheet uncovered a lower
outlet (Figure 5).
Little is known regarding detailed history of glaciation
near its maximum extent. Fluctuating terminal conditions are
indicated by the exposure at West Bingham of glacial till over
laminated lake clays representing several hundred years of
impending of Pennsylvania Lake (Denny, 1956, p. 24).
As the ice border receded about 2.5 miles north of the
State Line and uncovered the Stone Dam Col, waters of the
Pennsylvania Lake dropped about 400 feet forming the lake called
by Fairchild (1896, p. 434), Wellsville Lake. The outlet channel
(Figure 5) is at the head of a short branch of Marsh Creek and
the waters escaped through the deep, steep-walled trough of
Honeoye Creek to the Allegheny River. Though incised largely
in shale and siltstone, this trough is probably too deep to
have been cut during a single episode of inter-basin drainage.
No other basis is yet established, however, for distinguishing
multiple phases in its development.
At maximum extent, Wellsville Lake extended some 25 miles
up the Genesee Valley from Shongo near the State Line north
beyond Belvidere, affording a temporary base level responsible
for terrace development at elevations ranging from 1620 to 1660
feet, and according to Fairchild (1896), even higher. At least
some of the benches and terrace remnants cited by Fairchild are
ice-marginal deposits rather than wave-cut terraces, but their
near accordance may well reflect the aggradational base level
afforded by Wellsville Lake. The lake persisted until the ice
front finally receded enough to expose the valley of Black
Creek south of Belfast. That the retreat had been halting and
oscillatory is shown by plugs choking tributary valleys and,
111-17
-------
LAKE ONTARIO
Figure 5. Overflow Cols and Outlet Channels that controlled
levels of Proglacial Lakes in the Genesee Valley.
111-18
-------
Key to Figure 5.
1. Raymond Col drained Middle Branch Lake to the
Allegheny Basin
2. Ulysses Col, drained East Branch Lake to the
Susquehanna Basin
3. Rose Lake Col, drained West Branch Lake to the
Allegheny Basin; later drained Pennsylvania Lake
with final threshold at 2060 ft msl
4. Stone Dam Col, drained Wellsville Lake via Honeoye
Cr. to the Allegheny River, with final threshold
at 1600 ft msl
5. Black Creek Col, drained Belfast-Fillmore Lake with
final threshold at 1496 ft msl
6. Rosses outlet, draining Portage-Nunda Lake via
Canaseraga Creek to Canisteo River with threshold
at 1320 ft msl
7. Burns overflow channel, draining Dansville Lake to
Canisteo River at 1210 ft
8. Pearl Creek Channel, draining Lake Hall west to
the Erie Basin, threshold at 1000 ft msl
9. Rush-Victor Channels, draining Avon Lake east to
the Mohawk basin, final threshold at 580 ft msl
10. Fairport Channels, draining Lake Dawson east to the
Mohawk basin, final threshold at 435 ft msl
111-19
-------
particularly on the east side, by kame terrace remnants flanking
the Genesee Valley wall. Minor oscillations of the ice margin
sometimes affected marked changes, as shown by drift exposures
just north of the col-head of Plumbottom Creek. There, inter-
calation of lake sediments between three tills records oscilla-
tions without evidence of major intervening time intervals,
indicating that the whole section records Altonian recessional
history. In the Genesee Valley between Wellsville and Belvidere,
well logs report as much as 250 ft of sand, clay and gravel,
bearing on Wellsville Lake history.
Evidence discussed in the next section, however, indicates
renewal of Lake Wellsville at the maximum extent of Woodfordian
glaciation. Accordingly, the final episode of uninterupted
fluvial development of the reach of Genesee Valley north from
the State Line to Belvidere began with Woodfordian recession
about 18,000 years ago.
Deglaciation from Belvidere to Portageville (Maps 3-6)
The 1620-ft. strand of Lake Wellsville can be traced
northward along the east wall of the valley into the Angelica
Quadrangle where it terminates rather abruptly about 1.2 miles
south of the Angelica Village Line against a low, southwestward
curving till ridge. By contrast with till exposed farther
south, the till in this ridge is calcareous, clay-rich and
sparsely stony as though reflecting the incorporation of over-
ridden lake sediments in the glacial load. Though topographic-
ally subdued, presumably because it was built into impended
waters of Lake Wellsville, the moraine constricts the west end
of Angelica Valley, displacing Angelica Cr. across a bedrock
spur. North of the confluence of Baker Cr. with Angelica Cr.
the moraine involves a prominent kame delta complex which Mac-
Clintock and Apfel (1944) correlated with the moraine that
borders the northwest edge of the Salamanca Re-entrant. Now
identified as the Kent Moraine, that drift border is considered
to be early Woodfordian, marking the climax of a southward re-
advance of the continental ice sheet following the Plum Point
Intrastadial, beginning perhaps 26,000 years ago and culminating
perhaps 19,000 years ago. As shown by Connally (1964), east of
Hornell, Kent glaciation is represented by two moraines, the
Almond and Arkport Moraines. Peat in a depression essentially
on the Arkport Moraine west of South Dansville has been dated at
15,300 years, affording a minimum date by which time Kent
recession was well underway. The data summarized briefly above
are interpreted as indicating that at the Woodfordian glacial
maximum, Lake Wellsville was restored, flooding the valley as
far south as the State Line.
Glacial recession exposing the mouth of Black Creek Valley
(Figure 5) initiated anew the Belfast-Fillmore Lake (Fairchild,
111-20
-------
1896, p. 436). Waters of this lake covered a longer reach of the
Genesee Valley than any other and the features it produced can
be traced from Portageville to Belfast. The level of the waters
of Belfast-Fillmore Lake was controlled by downcutting of its
outlet past Cuba at present altitude of 1496 feet into the
Allegheny Watershed by way of Oil Creek. Opposite Belfast the
terraces are particularly well defined, perhaps due to the large
open expense of the Black Creek Valley to the west. In this
area, too, lake sediments floor a considerable part of the
valley. Northward the terrace and lake sediments are well
distributed on both sides of the valley. One of the best
developed and most striking strand areas is along Hume Road one
mile southwest of Hume. Lake beds are also well exposed along
Claybed Road northwest of Fillmore, "Isinglass Cliff", one mile
north of Caneadea and near the abandoned railroad bridge over
Black Creek, 0.75 miles south of Belfast.
Most valleys tributary to the Genesee show the effects of
local ice-dammed lakes produced when the ice lobe in the Genesee
Valley blocked the tributary while the surrounding uplands were
ice-free. Most of these lakes were small and of short duration,
but some produced striking features as waters overflowed through
the lowest available col or notched channels along the ice
margin. Probably the best evidence of such marginal lakes
contemporary with the Belfast-Fillmore Lake is the series of
meltwater channels west of and roughly parallel to the Genesee.
The channels are readily traced from a point west of Pike at a
col elevation of about 1800 feet southward, on the Houghton
Quadrangle the westernmost related channel lies between Fitch
Farm Road and Hodnett Road with controlling col elevation at
1610 ± 10 feet. Not only do the channels decrease in elevation
southwards but the series of parallel channels drop in eleva-
tion toward the Genesee as well. Together these channels afford
evidence of progressive waning of the projecting ice lobe oc-
cupying the Genesee Valley. Southward this series of channels
terminates in the basin of Caneadea Creek now occupied by
artificially impended Lake Rushford. The impending kame moraine
complex as seen toward the east from a point one mile east of
Rushford Village shows a prominent delta front facing the basin
of the former moraine-dammed lake.
Glacial recession of unknown extent was followed by re-
advance to a position south of Portageville, probably briefly
reinstating the Belfast-Fillmore Lake. However, by about 14,000
years ago/ as recession began again, the impended waters in the
Genesee Valley found a new course of escape eastward by way of
Delton into the valley of Canaseraga Creek. As this recession
continued, the outlet control shifted from ice-marginal channel-
ing along the escarpment south of Hunt to the col between Nunda
and Swains at the head of the Canaseraga. This outlet, the
Swains-Canaseraga Channel of Fairchild (1896, p. 439) was 150
lower than the Cuba outlet, and controlled the Nunda Lake. In
111-21
-------
spite of the dimensions of the Swains-Canaseraga through-valley,
this was probably a rather brief lake stage. The manner in
which the Valley Heads Moraine projects into the col suggests
only minor modification of a pre-existing channelway. Terraces
from 1320 to 1360 feet near Portageville are ascribed to this
lake. Most extensive is the area of leveled moraine and outwash
one mile east of Portageville. Also associated with morainal
deposition into this proglacial lake are the thick drift deposits
exposed in sharply cut river banks on the Robert Graham Farm, 2
miles due south of Portageville.
Glacial recession adequate to expose the ridge between
Keshequa (Nunda) and Dansville troughs at elevation lower than
the Swains divide terminated the history of proglacial lake
ponding in the Genesee Valley south of Portageville. Nonethe-
less, a drift barrier associated with the Valley Heads Moraine
delayed the onset of normal fluvial development in much of the
valley by impending the Portageville Morainal Lakev (Fairchild,
1896, p. 441). With initial elevation at almost 1300 feet, the
outlet probably incised rapidly through relatively erosive drift
until after perhaps 75 feet of downcutting it encountered bed-
rock. Although outlet incision was then considerably slowed,
the Portageville Morainal Lake which had, at first, extended at
least as far south as Belfast, receded steadily northward in the
face of sedimentation and outlet lowering. Thus, dominance of
fluvial processes spread steadily northward across the Fillmore
and Houghton Quadrangles.
Fairchild suggested that terraces below 1275 feet above
sea level, south of Portageville, resulted from gradually lower-
ing levels of the moraine-dammed lake. However, no terraces
below 1270 feet investigated in the present study show con-
clusive evidence of lacustrine origin. Rather, most are fluvial,
containing little calcium carbonate, as they might if they were
lacustrine. Several isolated terrace remnants at 40 to 60 feet
above present stream level are preserved in Caneadea Town where
meander loops once cut into the east wall of the valley. East
of Houghton, on the H.W. Estabrook Farm, a bluff exposure
reveals the materials underlying one such terrace re-entrant.
Overlying clay till and lake clays.which comprise much of the
lower portion of the bluff, is a 17 foot section of noncalcareous
alluvial gravel with alluvial or paludal silt at its base. Two
radiocarbon dates have been obtained for organic material in
this unoxidized silt.
Analysis of wood fragments and humic material, a sample
diluted for assay because of its minimal size, yielded an age of
6265 ± 340 years B.P. (QC-233). A second sample, consisting of
a single larger piece of wood, was examined by Carl de Zeeuw
(Wood Products Engineering Department, S.U.N.Y., College of
Environmental Science and Forestry) who reports:
111-22
-------
"The sample is very much compressed as is usual in
these ancient pieces that have been waterlogged. There
is no evidence of rotting and the softening of the wood
follows the usual pattern of such samples. ...it is a
hardwood (dicotyledonous wood) and is probably black
cherry (Prunus serotina). This is based on the nature
of the homocellular to heterocellular ray structure,
small ray size, similar intervessel and ray-vessel
pitting, intervessel pitting laternate and medium sized,
simple perforation plates, spiral thickening in vessle
elements, axial parenchyma not evident. ...Black cherry
is a normal component of the northern hardwood type here
in New York State at this date. It occurs in the local
forests and into the southern Adirondacks in company
with beech, yellow birch and maple as a climax type."
Because of its more adequate size, this sample did not
require dilution. Further, the nature of the material diminishes
the likelihood of contamination by younger carbon. Accordingly,
the age obtained for this second sample, 7590 ± 95 years B.P.
(QC-263), is considered the more reliable of the two and
indicative of the significant transition from lacustrine to
alluvial development of this reach of the Genesee Valley. On
this basis, it is inferred that by about 7500 years ago,
Portageville Morainal Lake had been extinguished by a conbination
of infilling and outlet incision.
Deglaciation from Portageville to Mount Morris (not mapped)
The reach from Portageville to Mount Morris was not among
the primary areas assigned for detailed mapping under limitations
of the present project. Nevertheless, knowledge of this reach is
critical for the glacial chronology and essential for integrated
interpretation of fluvial geomorphology of the valley. The
following interpretation is based upon regional correlations
and reconnaissance mapping (Muller, 1977).
During progressive retreat from the Valley Heads Moraine
complex, the Swains-Arkport outlet of Portageville-Nunda Lake
may have yielded briefly to drainage along the ice margin
around the ridge between Keshequa and Dansville Troughs. Such
temporary channels, having fronted against the ice cliff, may
now have only a single bank, and may have developed in the
elevation range from 1320 down to 1220 feet. At this lower
elevation the lake level was controlled by the Burns-Arkport
Outlet southeast by way of Canisteo River into the Susquehanna
(Figure 5). The impended Genesee waters became part of the
Dansville Lake (Figure 4).
111-23
-------
As generally interpreted, the proglacial lake history in
the Lake Erie Basin involved readvance to the Port Huron Moraine
in Michigan and its eastern correlatives. On the basis of its
relationship to the Whittlesey Strandline, the Hamburg or the
Marilla Moraine (Calkin, 1970, p. 95; Muller, 1977) is considered
to mark the Port Huron Advance in New York. As traced into the
Genesee Valley (Muller, 1977), the Hamburg Moraine restored Lake
Dansville about 13,000 years ago. The intercalated till and lake
sediment sequence exposed in the St. Helena Reach of Letchworth
Gorge (Young, 1975b)may in part record subsequent oscillatory
retreat.
Deglaciation from Mount Morris to Fowlerville (Maps 7-9)
Ice withdrawal north of Fowlerville was followed by read-
vance to approximately the latitude of Geneseo as evidenced by
a distinct, though wave-washed, moraine ridge that parallels
Route 63 through Peoria and curves southeast past Tryons
Corners. This moraine is correlated with morainal topography
at Pavilion and the Alden Moraine in Erie County. Although the
moraine is not expressed topographically on the immediate slopes
of floor of Genesee Valley, the occurrence of till in riverbank
outcrop within one mile north of Geneseo suggests an alluvially
buried till (Figure 6). At this stage the proglacial lake in
the Gensee Valley occupied and eroded the sharply defined Pearl
Creek Outlet (Figure 5), with col elevation of approximately
1000 feet. Drainage was westward, developing an extensive low-
gradient alluvial bench at about 950 feet across the floor of
Oatka Trough.
A subsequent glacial retreat of unknown extent was followed
by a minor readvance ending about four miles south of Fowlerville
Road, approximately on the line connecting Salt Creek with Roots
Tavern Road. Evidence of this advance is exposed along the
Genesee Valley as a highly variable sequence of reddish clay
varves on older till, overridden northward by ice that deposited
red clay till. South of Roots Tavern Road, varved lake sedi-
ments comprise the surficial material on the valley floor above
floodplain level(Figure 7). Individual varves vary considerably in
thickness. Ice-rafted stones and pink till inclusions are
common. Right-bank exposures one mile northwest of the west
end of Roots Tavern Road expose two or more tills with inter-
calated varve series, implying an oscillatory ice margin with
perhaps 50 to 100 years between oscillations. Any extensive
readvance in this local area would have scoured out the relative-
ly thin surface deposits and left a more obvious topographic
record. The weakly overridden lacustrine deposits and clast-
poor tills make surface mapping difficult the more so because a
number of localized ice marginal and proglacial lake deposits
have been overridden and slightly, or variably, deformed. The
Oxbow Lane landslide of 1972 (Young and Rhodes, 1973) moved, in
111-24
-------
lay-nthtill (da»t poor)
JL
«« cobble* «»'
' sarC»ce')
till?
Appr-oX'm»te depth o^ foci-
inferred ^rom exposure a+-
L»net+ien
N
^ Milt
312'
lVe.ll 6xie
'dt A.
(ione 52' tfr.Sc.
-^ Sand '«J»*«
w
Figure 6. Cross Section from York Landing Area through landslide at Oxbow Lane
and adjacent well. Geneseo Quadrangle. Map 9-B.
Figure 7. Cross Section from .Salt Creek (T) to junction of Nations Road and Route 39.
Geneseo Quadrangle. Map 9-B.
in-?:.
-------
part, at least because of failure in similar lake clays where the
overlying till is thicker than average. An intercalation of red
till and lake sediments is exposed in the abandoned Town of Avon
Sanitary Landfill on Fowlerville Road at the Genesee River. The
morainal complex involving a belt with suggestion of two or
three minor subdued alignments extends then from Roots Tavern
Road to Fowlerville Road. All are here correlated with the
Buffalo and Niagara Falls Moraines of Erie County and the belt
of morainal topography northwest of Linwood on the LeRoy
Quadrangle.
Westward drainage of the proglacial waters in the Genesee
Valley was initially across the ice margin, two miles northwest
of Linwood (LeRoy Quadrangle) along the route followed by the
Erie-Lackawanna Railroad. Eastward from the Genesee Valley,
this moraine complex trends past Lima, East Bloomfield and
Canandaigua across the north end of Seneca Lake. To the waters
impended in front of the ice margin at this time, Fairchild
(1909, p. 56) gave the name Lake Hall, considering it the
successor to Lake Newberry, incorporating impended waters of
both the Finger Lakes and Genesee Basins.
Final retreat from this moraine complex in the Genesee
Valley left a prominent drift plug with approximately 80 feet of
till exposed at the surface near the northern edge of the
Geneseo Quadrangle. From Geneseo to Fowlerville, modern alluvial
silts lie directly on the reddish varved clays or on red till
that makes up this moraine belt. From Roots Tavern Road to
Fowlerville Road, meanders are confined within a floodplain only
800 to 1000 feet wide and incised in till. At York Landing in
this reach, the river is sufficiently displaced from the valley
axis to have begun cutting into bedrock (Figure 6). If the
valley fill eroded from this clay plug were restored, the outlet
for northward drainage of the impended Canaseraga-Genesee basin
south of Fowlerville would be no lower than 600 feet. Such
presumably was the condition following a late stage of proglacial
Avon Lake.
Possible information as to the duration of a lake impended
south of the Fowlerville drift plug comes from a radiocarbon
determination of 8050 ± 135 years B.P. at depth of 17 feet below
the floodplain and well into underlying gray silty clay near the
abandoned bridge site one mile south of Hampton Corners (Young
and Rhodes, 1973). Unfortunately, the nature of the gray silty
clay is open to question. Extensive thick, gray silt and silty
clay is widely distributed in the Canaseraga Valley and along
the Genesee River from Jones Bridge Road to Route 63 Bridge at
Geneseo. Unlike the more readily recognizable channel fills, the
older gray sediments beneath the floodplain are only partially
exposed at low water and are commonly covered by recent channel
deposits. Careful examination at low water stages confirmed the
existence of sedimentary structure concordant with that in
111-26
-------
overlying channel bank deposits. The gray color and the
preservation of organic material indicate effective continuity
of reducing conditions below water table since time of deposition.
In the Canaseraga Valley south of the Mount Morris Gorge,
the erosion and sedimentation cycles are subject to an additional
complication. When the Genesee River is in flood or at bankfull
stages, water often flows upstream (south) along Canaseraga
Creek. This, it is possible that a shallow lake or marsh environ-
ment persisted for a longer period south of the Mount Morris
alluvial fan/delta deposit which fills the Genesee Valley in the
vicinity of its confluence with the Canaseraga. This would
permit lacustrine clays to be present at shallower depths in the
Canaseraga Valley as a result of differences in gradients of the
two river segments. Deposition of lacustrine or paludal silt
and clay along the Canaseraga could have occurred concurrently
with fluvial scour to the north, the two contrasting processes
taking place on opposite sides of the dominating fan/delta slope
east of Mount Morris. Sedimentation into the basin south of the
Mount Morris alluvial fan/delta transformed it gradually into
the swamp or paludal environment which characterized it until
the digging of drainage ditches early in the present century.
Paleolndian sites indicate that occupying of this part of the
valley floor by man had begun by at least 2500 years ago.
Throughout the Geneseo and Sonyea Quadrangles, exposures
in small tributaries of the Genesee indicate the following
generalized section adjacent to the floodplain (Figure 8) •
Relatively thin till is overlain by varved clays not found to
exceed 10 feet in thickness. Varve couplets are generally about
.5 inch thick and are more silty where small tributaries
entered the glacial lakes, especially south near Dansville.
Red varved clays with silt partings are almost invariably over-
lain by deltaic sands and gravels, in places, extending to
elevations as high as 900 feet or more. Similar sections are
observed between tributary streams along the valley sides,
except that the sands are generally thin, discontinuous and
not apparent above 640 feet. The most extensive sands not
associated with an obvious delta are those at the Macauley
Archaeological Site near the confluence of Canaseraga Creek and
the Genesee River (Figure 9) •
The sedimentologic characteristics of the Macauley Sand,
notably its sorting, distribution and thickness, resemble those
of overbank sand deposits in the adjacent Genesee floodplain
(Figure 10). The Macauley Sand, however, is uniform and super-
ficially structureless, lacking the conspicuous bedding of silt
and clay layers in the modern floodplain. Subsoil oxidation
bands appear related to groundwater processes rather than to
bedding. To ascribe this uniformity to mixing by plant root
disturbance, tree throw, leaching or slope wash ignores.the fact
that other similar deposits preserve sedimentary structures
111-27
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l *«»aACr*+t*
Figure S. Schematic Relationships among unit* along axlt of Qenesee Valley
In th« Qeneaeo. Sonyea, and Dansvllle Quadrangles.
^-itrilA
Genesee ISiver rTood-plam
'
500'
-hll?
w
2JO'
400'
Figure 9. Cross Section from intersection of Route 36 and Jones Bridge Road
to Macauley Site near Mouth of Canaseraga Creek, Geneseo Quadrangle, Map 9-B.
111-28
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O5
4.5
Figure 10.
Selected sediment size analysis of typical silty sands from
Genesee River Valley:
1. Sand dune north of Avon;
2. Sand from Lake Warren Bar near Leicester;
3. Sandy layer in Overbank Deposits near Genesee River;
4. Sand from Macauley Archeology site.
111-29
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under apparently similar conditions. Whereas the size-
distribution curve for Macauley Sand closely matches that of
modern floodplain deposits, it differs significantly from other
representative curves (Figure 11). Dune sand collected from the
Belden Farm east of Route 39, north of Avon differs in being
better sorted and lacking any material coarser than .5 mm
Sand collected from a Lake Warren bar deposit near Leicester
differs in that it possesses coarse sand and pebbles. These
kinds of comparisons, combined with associated radiocarbon-dated
artifactual material led to an interpretation of alluvial terrace
development during several millennia of Paleclndian habitation
(Young and Rhodes 1973; Young, 1975a).
The breadth of the valley opposite the site is such that
terrace development of this nature would have required cycling
at least 0.35 cubic miles of sediment through the valley between
Dansville and Geneseo within 5000 years. Short-term sediment
transport and local floodplain aggradation rates, if long enough
continued, might not be entirely inconsistent with such inter-
pretation. Nevertheless, the implications of this hypothesis
with respect to magnitude and rates of postglacial valley
modification are so staggering as to require further examination
of relevant evidence. Fortunately, recent archeological
investigations in the Canaseraga bear directly on the inter-
pretation.
Radiocarbon dating of a nut storage pit near a 120 foot
long compound hearth lens with associated (?) pottery and stone
artifacts, 2 feet below the floodplain surface near the mouth of
the Canaseraga Creek has yeilded an age of 2495 ± 90 years
(W.D. Rhodes, Anthropology Department, S.U.C. at Geneseo,
informal communication). Apparently even more damaging to the
alluvial terrace hypothesis for the origin of the Macauley Sand
is a radiocarbon date of 3490 ± 80 B.P. (Dicar #494) on nutshell
a foot below the surface from a pit in the living floor of a
Susquehanna Tradition, Frost Island phase, camp site. This
location, the Claud 1 Site (U.B. 1204), was part of the Cana-
seraga Swamp until it was drained early in the present century
(Trubowitz and Snethkamp, 1975). These dates for floodplain
habitation sites parallel ages derived from habitation materials
at the Macauley Site. Accordingly, they seem to preclude over-
bank deposition as a mechanism for terrace sand development at
the Macauley Site, and alternative explanation must be sought
for its origin.
The Macauley Sand is thin where recognized in other places
along the valley sides. Erosion, cultivation and weathering
make identification difficult in many places. Map units have
been generalized from thin remnants on ridges to show the
approximate extent of the sand. Reinterpretation of the
Livingston County soils map with spot checks was used to
delineate extent of the sand below the 650 foot level. At every
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place where this sand was mapped, it can be demonstrated to rest
on varved clays. This relationship suggests a possible origin
by winnowing in a progressively shoaling lake. If lake level
lowered gradually as the outlet was incised across the Fowler-
ville drift plug, wave action would be concentrated at any one
level for only short intervals. The lack of coarse sand and
pebbles can be attributed to the thickness of underlying varves
that must have formerly blanketed the valley even more complete-
ly than at present. Reworking of these materials by waves
would produce no beach gravels and most of the fines would have
been winnowed out to settle farther offshore. Sediment contribu-
ted by nearby tributaries and moved by longshore transport
affords a plausible source for sand that is lacking or in very
limited amounts in the underlying varved sediments. Although
certain aspects of the distribution and character of the
Macauley Sand are difficult to explain as products of winnowing
in a shoaling lake, such origin seems more probable than the
initially hypothesized alluvial terrace origin.
Deglaciation from Fowlerville to Rochester (Maps 10-13)
Turning again from consideration of the postglacial,
moraine-dammed "finger-lake" impended south of the Fowlerville
drift plug to the succession of proglacially ponded lakes,
recession from the drift plug was promptly followed by reversal
of outflow from westward into Lake Warren, to eastward escape
toward the Mohawk Valley. Clear evidence of a strand near 890-
900 feet exists in the Genesee Valley south of the Batavia
Moraine (Fairchild, 1909, p. 50; 1932). Presumably the initial
extension of Lake Warren into the Genesee Valley was contained by
the ice border abutting against the plateau margin in the area
west of Syracuse. Glacial readvance to the Batavia Moraine,
correlated eastward with the Waterloo-Auburn Moraine (Shumaker,
1957) restored Lake Warren in the Erie-Huron Basin.
At this point the history of the Genesee Valley becomes
complex and marked by catastrophic discharge events between
adjacent proglacial lake basins. South of Caledonia, the Taylor
Channel carried impended waters discharging abruptly along the
edge of the Onondaga Scarp east of LeRoy. A thousand feet or
more in width, the eastward drainage built a delta at about 725
feet into a short-lived lake in the Genesee Valley. A possible
control accounting for a lake at this level is preserved as a
horseshoe loop at North Avon. The delta at the mouth of Taylor
Channel, though distinctly flat-topped is crossed by a broad,
flat channel floored at about 690 feet and by a second dis-
tributary only slightly higher. Either the discharge through
Taylor Channel was great enough to fill both channels and spread
across the delta surface with maximum channel depth in excess of
30 feet, or else the level of the lake in the Genesee Valley
dropped during delta building. This latter might well have
111-31
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happened in view of the positions of the North Avon outlet. A
very minor melting of the ice margin probably permitted drainage
to escape across the neck of the horseshoe sluicing drift cover
from the Onondaga Limestone surface to the east.
As the ice margin receded from the slightly higher drumlin-
ized landscape south of the Caledonia Fairgrounds, several
channelways were occupied and probably almost as rapidly
abandoned. Initially the highest of these prograded a delta
flat at about 685 feet at the mouth of the principal distribu-
tary from Taylor Channel. As the meltwater shifted to gradually
lower channels, it moved off the Onondaga Scarp leading to
accelerated outflow and catastrophic discharge, probably simul-
taneously through the White Creek and Dugan Creek Channels,
building massive deltas ranging from 620 down to 570 feet but
particularly extensive at about 600 feet. Gravels of these
deltas are rich in dolostone but lack limestone, in keeping with
the fact that flow was originating below the Onondaga bench.
Some of the anastamotic contributing channels lead from as far
west as LeRoy. The lake stage controlled by the Rush-Victor
outlets, ranging in level from 700 feet down to 580 feet was
identified as Avon Lake by Fairchild (1908, p. 80).
Glacial readvance to the Batavia Moraine restored Lake
Warren in the Erie-Huron Basin. This moraine, if correctly
correlated with the Waterloo-Auburn Moraine (Shumaker, 1957) was
also built forward in to the Victor Channel near Fishers and
north of Geneva (Muller, in prep.), thus restoring Avon Lake in
the Genesee Valley. Fairchild, who considered that the intrusion
of Lake Warren into the Genesee Valley postdated cutting
of the LeRoy and Rush-Victor Channels (1909, p. 50), also pos-
tulated subsequent stabilization of descending lake level at
about 700 feet as Lake Dana, controlled by the col at Marcellus.
He considered the Pinnacle Hills Moraine to have been built into
Lake Dana rather than Avon Lake controlled by the Rush-Victor
Channels. In the light of the present study, these interpreta-
tions are viewed with reservation.
Glacier recession uncovered the channel that controlled
the level of proglacial Lake Dawson. Lake Dawson probably
yielded to the earliest phase of Lake Iroquois before minor re-
advance to the Carlton Moraine. Neither Lake Dawson, nor Lake
Iroquois extended into the Genesee Valley south of Rochester.
However, impending south of the Pinnacle Hills Moraine persisted
for some time after the ice margin had receded from this
position. Fairchild (1923, p. 186-188), naming this impondment
Morainal Lake Scottsville, surmised that its initial level was as
high as 540 feet and pointed out that it should, therefore, have
extended south as far as Avon. The present report and map
distinguish Lake Scottsville sediments locally, as for example
in the shallow embayment blocked by a till barrier midway between
Golah and West Rush (Rush Quadrangle).
111-32
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Where the Genesee River debouched into the southern limits
of Avon Lake and subsequently of moraine-dammed Scottsville Lake,
it deposited sediment either as prograding delta or as shallow-
water sand and silt. For the higher lake stage, much of this
sedimentation was in the area southwest of Avon. Fairchild
suggested that shallow-water, Genesee-derived sediments filled
much of Lake Scottsville (Fairchild, 1923). Tributaries such as
Oatka, Black and Honeoye Creeks must also have contributed to
this process.
North and east of the shallow water depositional sites in
Avon and Scottsville Lakes, eolian deposits are mapped. At
time of dune deposition, wind activity must have dominated over
stabilizing vegetation. Because water in the source areas was
very shallow, either seasonal drop in lake level by a few feet
or migration of the delta front might expose bare sediment to
erosion. Grain size curves in Figure 11 compare characteristics
of these lacustrine and eolian sands.
Summary; inception of fluvial regime
The implications of the foregoing discussing of glacial and
proglacial lake history are clearly relative to the fluvial
development of the Genesee Valley. The Genesee Valley consists
of reaches with diverse histories.' Any attempt to analyze geo-
morphic rates and processes on the basis of the geologic record
is apt to be misleading if it takes inadequate account of the
diversity of history involved. Some of the reaches that have
evolved for the longest time are in the upper headwaters, where-
as some of the newest and youngest reaches are in the downstream
portions of the valley where, given the normal course of drainage
basin evolution, one might have expected to find the most mature
valley features and the closest approach to equilibrium between
fluvial processes and floodplain development.
In summary:
a. The Genesee headwaters, south of Shongo near the
State Line, have had the longest history of fluvial
development, whether dating from Altonian time, as
inferred herein, or from the beginning of Woodford-
ian recession as proposed by Sevon and others (1975).
Nevertheless, whether fluvial development spans
only 19,000 years as indicated by the latter
correlation, or as much as 34,000 years by the
former, because initial relief was moderate to high,
youthful valley characteristics continue to dominate
in this reach.
b. From Shongo north to Belmont, approximately the
extent of Wellsville Lake at its maximum development,
111-33
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c
_r
-»•
V)
\_
o
u
0
45
e
Figure 11. Size Distribution by Pipette Analysis of Gray Alluvial Silt exposed
near Low-water Stage in channel of Genesee River near Geneseo. X-ray
Analysis shows all fractions to be Predominantley Quartz with subordinate
Illite and Kaolinite in Clay Fraction.
111-34
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uninterrupted fluvial modification began only after
the demise of Wellsville Lake, following the
Woodfordian maximum (Almond Glaciation), 18,000 to
19,000 years ago.
c. From Belmont to Portageville, proglacial Belfast-
Fillmore Lake persisted until glacial recession from
the Arkport Moraine perhaps 16,000 years ago, and
was probably reinstated briefly at the maximum of
Valley Heads Glaciation about 14,000 years ago.
Following glacial recession, the rock threshold at
Portageville imposed a continuing barrier to north-
ward drainage. Gradual incision of Letchworth Gorge
and sedimentation caused the basin of Portageville
Morainal Lake to shrink progressively northward
until its extinction more than 7500 years ago.
Cleaning out of the drift barrier south of Portage-
ville continues actively today.
d. Except for the medial, St. Helena reach where
Fairchild (1896, p. 450) postulated short-lived post-
glacial ponding, Letchworth Gorge from Portageville
to Mount Morris has been a locus of strong down-
cutting since Valley Heads time. Temporary base
levels at the Mount Morris outflow were afforded by
proglacial lakes in downvalley reaches until perhaps
12,800 years ago.
e. The reach from Mount Morris to Fowlerville persisted
as a drift-dammed lake perhaps as late as 8050 years
ago, the age of radiocarbon-dated wood collected from
17 feet below the floodplain surface one mile south
of Hampton Corners. Fluvial dominance spread from
the coarse clastic fan at Mount Morris.
f. The reach from Dansville to Mount Morris was domina-
ted progressively northward by fluvial processes
following disappearance of Lake Warren about 12,800
years ago, but persistence of the drift-dammed lake
south of Fowlervilie and the spread of sediment at
the outflow from Letchworth Gorge served to maintain
a paludal, rather than typical floodplain environ-
ment in the northern part of the basin essentially
to modern tiroes.
g. From Fowlerville north to Rochester, proglacial
ponding was succeeded by postglacial morainal pond-
ing that may have ended more than 10,000 years ago,
but continues to affect the pattern of flooding and
floodplain development to this day.
111-35
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SECTION 4
FLUVIAL GEOLOGY
Free evolution of a drainage basin on homogenous materials
and without external interference tends toward development of an
integrated system with equilibrium between form and process.
Where differences in erosional resistance exist among the
geologic materials involved, or where changes occur among
external factors such as climate, vegetation and elevation, the
tendency toward equilibrium is dynamic and changing with time.
So strong is the inheritance of Pleistocene glaciation that
subsequent fluvial development of the Genesee Basin has only
begun to achieve an integrated development of drainage basin
features. The preceding chapter has indicated the diverse
history of different reaches of the Genesee Valley. In order to
make sense out of what has gone on in each valley reach, it was
necessary to take intg ,account: a) glacial modification and
derangement of topography, b) the sequence and chronology of
deglaciation, and c) the succession and duration of both pro-
glacial and postglacial lakes impended within the valley. It is
relevant now to consider the tempo and direction of fluvial
processes working toward integration of the drainage basin and
development toward equilibrium.
Prehistoric fluvial development — Belvidere to Portaqeville
Where the Genesee River begins its journey through Letch-
worth Gorge, more than 200 feet of drift, till and bedrock have
been eroded since the post Valley Heads glacial recession impended
Dansville Lake and initiated the Portageville Morainal Lake
about 14,000 years ago. Projection of arcuate valley-wall
moraine ridges, and the isolated erosional remnant of moraine
near Rossburg known locally as Fort Hill, make it apparent that
the morainal barrier initially extended four miles south of
Portageville to the Allegany County Line. Dominantly composed of
rhythmically bedded lake sediments and sandy outwash as exposed
in high banks two miles south of Portageville, the drift was
rather rapidly removed down to bedrock. In the process of
incision, the Genesee River failed to recover the course of its
preglacial valley. At Portageville the new course of the river
passed obliquely across the old valley side, encountering bed-
rock after perhaps 75 feet of incision. Thereafter, outlet
deepening may be presumed to have occurred more slowly.
Simultaneously sedimentation at the southern or inlet end led to
northward shrinkage of Portageville Morainal Lake. That the
111-36
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process of removal of the impending barrier still continues at a
diminished rate is indicated by the extensive exposure of un-
weathered till laid bare since 1972 in the process of meander
cutoff at the Robert Graham Farm, two miles south of Portage-
ville and near Fillmore where the Genesee exposes bedrock
overlain by dense, stony, silty-clay till.
Wood from a terrace remnant on the H.W. Estabrook Farm east
of Houghton submitted for radiocarbon dating yielded an age of
7590 ± 95 years B.P. Its deposition postdates disappearance of
Portageville Morainal Lake.
A second means of assessing rates of change of floodplain
morphology involves the limiting ages of projectile points found
in archeological sites along the edges of fluvial terraces. The
points were all associated with firepits when collected and were
generally within 18 inches (plow depth) of the surface. The
assumption is made that sites were not occupied below floodplain
level at that time. The oldest point types associated with a
site should give a minimum age for the terrace, i.e. its age as
active floodplain should be greater than that of the associated
points. The effort at dating terraces upstream from Portage-
ville was made possible by the aid of Mr. Howard Land, an
experienced amateur archeologist of Belfast, New York. Mr. Lang's
extensive knowledge of sites and relics in the Genesee Valley
comes from more than 20 years of collecting. His well displayed
and catalogued collection of more than 5000 projectile points
and thousands of other artifacts and his knowledge of point types
cultures and site locations afforded a fortunate opportunity to
estimate prehistoric erosion rates.
Land identified 12 point types using Ritchie's (1961)
typology and nomenclature (Tables 2,3). The earliest point type,
Lamoka was described (Ritchie, 1961) as belonging to a culture
that existed from 3500 to 2500 B.C. All sites at which Lamoka
points were found are on terraces at least 20 feet above the
current river level as estimated from the U.S. Geological
Survey 1:24,000 topographic map with 20 ft. contour interval.
The Genesee and Brewerton points were made by people whose
cultures followed the Lamokan closely, so it is not surprising
that they are found at many of the same sites. Levanna point
were found at only one site where they were the oldest point
type (Site 19), approximately 10 feet above the river. The
Madison points are associated with the Iroquois Indian culture,
the latest in the valley. Lang notes only one site where
these points are found along, that being Site 20 at elevation
of approximately 10-15 feet above the river. The other point
types found in the valley contribute little significant informa-
tion on erosion rates either because clearly not related to
floodplain morphology (Site 6), or because of association with
older point types that provide more definitive data for the
surface on which they were found.
111-37
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TABLE 2. AGE OF PALEOINDIAN POINT TYPES.
Point Type
Adena
Brewerton
Corner-notched
Ear-notched
Side-notched
Genesee
Lamoka
Levanna
Madison
Meadowwood
Perkiomen
Steubenville stenuned
Susguehanna broad
Relative Age
Early Woodland 800 BC-800AD
Archaic
Middle to late archaic
Archaic
Middle to Late Archaic 3000-1500
BC
Archaic 3500-2500 BC
Middle Woodland 700-1350 AD
Late prehistoric to historic 1350
AD-P
Late archaic to early woodland
2450-560 BC
Late archaic to early woodland
Associated with pottery archaic?
Late archaic to early woodland
1200-700 BC
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TABLE 3. DISTRIBUTION OF PALEOINDIAN POINT TYPES AT SITES ON THE
UPPER GENESEE.
Site Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Elevation above40 20 20 20 20 480 40 70 40 6020402030202040501010 100
River in Ft.
Adena x x x
Brewerton-corner xxxx x xxxx xxxx
Berwer ton-side xxxx xxxxxxxx xx
Brewerton-eared x x x
H Genesee xxxx x x x
M
V Lamoka x x xxxxxxxxxx x x
u>
03 Levanna x x x x
Madison x x x x x x x
Meadowood x x x x
Perkiomen x
Steubenville
stemmed
Susquehanna x
broad
For locations see geomorphic overlays of Fillmore, Houghton, Portageville, Black
Creek and Angelica sheets.
-------
Although in theory archeologic information can be utilized
in dating parts of a fluvial terrace system, the data in the
present case are as yet inadequate. By limiting the survey to
points found in association with buried hearths, it is hoped to
eliminate transported or dislocated points. Still the procedure
supplies only possible ages and elevations obtained only from the
topographic map are not adequately determined. Two notable
conclusions can be drawn even at this stage of the survey. Since
Archaic (Lamokan) occupance, 4500 to 5500 years ago, the channel
shortly south of the Portageville threshold has been incised no
more than 10-15 feet. Nor has the full width of the valley
flood been cleared out in the same interval.
Prehistoric Fluvial Development — Dansville to Fowlerville
Several independent lines of evidence suggest that the
Genesee River floodplain has undergone net and continuing
aggradation in the reach from Dansville to Geneseo and beyond.
Between Jones Bridge Road and the Route 63 Bridge at
Geneseo (about 10 river miles), more than 50 buried hearths were
observed at depths of 1.5 to 10 feet below the floodplain. The
hearths are concentrated at depths of 3 to 5 feet with very few
above or below this interval. One or more hearths can be loca-
ted at each cut bank. They commonly occur in groups along the
same general horizon. Some were being eroded by the river during
the study and it is apparent from the number presently exposed
in steep bank faces that they must be very numerous throughout
the floodplain. New ones are constantly being exposed. Unless
net aggradation has occurred over a long interval, these numer-
ous hearths could not have been preserved. At one hearth within
a few hundred feet of the Route 20A Bridge southwest of Geneseo,
a single arrowhead was collected along with flint chips, bird
bones and clam shells at 4 feet below the surface. W.D. Rhodes
(Anthropology Department, S.U.C., Geneseo) estimates the age of
the point to be approximately 400 years. At this point, then,
overbank sedimentation has totaled 4 feet in a few hundred years.
A distinct buried soil profile is widely developed at
depths of 1.5 and 5 feet in the stream banks referred to above.
The profile is, in many places, made apparent as a dark brown
somewhat organic rich zone, but obvious color change is not
always present. This evidence, too, supports the inference that
as much as 5 feet of aggradation has taken place in such loca-
tions.
In one prominent west bank exposure near Geneseo, a lone
tree is now exposed in cross section through its root system.
It is apparent that the lower branches of the tree had to adjust
as 3-4 feet of sediment buried the lower part of the tree during
its lifetime. Whereas this is common along point bars closer to
111-40
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stream level, it is apt to happen on the floodplain only where
long-term aggradation is occurring. This single instance is
not compelling, but it supports other evidence of recent over-
bank aggradation.
A single radiocarbon date on a nut storage pit near a 120-
foot long compound hearth lens with associated (?) pottery and
stone artifacts has provided an age of 2495 ± 90 years B.P. at
two feet below the floodplain surface near the mouth of Canaseraga
Creek (W.D. Rhodes, informal communication). The Canaseraga
floodplain is underlain by thick peat deposits that have been
gradually covered around their perimeter by overbank deposition
and alluvium washed from the valley sides. This situation
implies aggradation and suggests that termination of the post-
glacial lake phase south of Mount Morris, at least, was followed
by gradual development of an extensive swamp in the lower valley
which gradually shrank in size. Remnants of this swamp con-
tinued to develop right up until early drainage in the present
century. The thickest peat not covered by alluvium is in a one
square mile area near Kysorville.
Consistent overbank aggradation cannot in itself be taken
as conclusive evidence of net long-term sediment gain in a
valley cross section. Aggradation is a normal process in over-
bank flow, even where effective channel erosion may be causing
net sediment loss. Nonetheless, the lines of evidence suggested
above, their consistency and widespread distribution, together
with the absence of stream terrace remnants on the valley flank
and adjacent to tributary streams, all point conclusively to net
long-term sediment gain in this reach of the Genesee. Explana-
tion must be sought in basin relationships.
Downcutting of the Genesee north of Powlerville was con-
trolled primarily by the nature of the Fowlerville drift plug.
For the Canaseraga trough from Dansville to Mount Morris, the
present controls are clear. This reach aggrades or erodes as
a function of the behavior of the Genesee. From the head of
the trough near Dansville, as from the trough walls, clastic
sediment is abundantly contributed to the basin. The Genesee,
in particular, actively incising the Letchworth Gorge, has
built a broad delta/fan across the valley floor. The steepest
stream gradient other than at trough-head is the nearly six feet
per mile of the Genesee where it flows transversely across valley
from Mount Morris, driving the much smaller Canaseraga against
the east wall. The Canaseraga at Shaker's Crossing is cutting
into till as a result of being forced against the east wall of
its valley. Long-term sedimentation in this transverse reach
presently controls sedimentation in the Canaseraga, which must
either maintain a matching gradient or become increasingly
swampy and impended. Presently, 'the channel rests entirely on
bedrock at only two places between Geneseo and Fowlerville.
Thresholds near Route 63 Bridge at Geneseo and at York Landing
111-41
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may have resulted from fortuitous and purely temporary impinge-
ment of meanders against the sides of the bedrock valley. If,
however, with the erosion of the Fowlerville plug, the channels
become incised, these rock thresholds will in the future become
temporary base levels for reaches immediately upstream.
Prehistoric Fluvial Development —- Fowlerville to Rochester
When, in turn, the beds of Avon Lake and then later,
Scottsville Lake, were drained, the Genesee River inherited
broad flats across which it could meander freely. At various
times the river has flowed, either in flood or normal discharge,
both west and east of its present channel in the area north of
the Thruway. Overbank deposits and meander scars show past
flood levels. Either Black Creek or the Genesee may have con-
tributed to this deposition.
Fairchild (1923, pp. 187-189) made no distinction between
Scottsville Lake sediments and later overbank deposits. He
recognized Scottsville Lake gray or yellow silts over brown
clays which he ascribed to Lake Dana, over till and outwash, a
sequence commonly encountered in foundation pits and ditches
in Brighton Town. In part the original Scottsville Lake silt
and sand have been reworked by wind as indicated by mapped
eolian deposits. In the present report, the gray and yellow
silts are interpreted as being largely overbank deposits,
including reworked Lake Scottsville materials.
From Avon to Honeoye Creek, meander scars are abundant, the
sinuosity of this vestigial channel indicates a longer stream
course and lower gradient. The reasons for this change are not
clear, nor can it yet be established whether they record condi-
tions early in fluvial development of this reach. No major
changes in stream course north of Honeoye Creek are indicated by
comparison of historic maps and air photos. Lateral erosion
rates of more than a few feet per year seem exceptional in this
reach.
Nature of Floodplain Materials
The two main sediment sources for the Genesee Floodplain,
in a general sense, are material delivered by tributaries and
material eroded from the channel perimeter.
Most of the coarse sediment moved by the Genesee is deliver-
ed to it by its tributaries. In restricted reaches related to
the morainal plugs or where meanders impinge against the valley
wall, coarse elastics undergo limited transport as lag from
which the fine component has been removed. Downstream from the
Mount Morris delta/fan coarse elastics, even small pebbles, are
111-42
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a very subordinate component in the bed materials. Evidence of
outwash is conspicuously absent in this reach, both in surface
exposures and in the few deep well logs that are available.
Likewise, the lowland tills in this reach are commonly sparsely
stony, presumably, in part, because of assimilation of overridden
lake sediments. Valley walls are developed on drift-mantled
shale with very subordinate thicknesses of carbonates south of
Ashantee. The result is that even point bar deposits tend to
involve only fine gravel.
The situation is different up-valley from Portageville.
Most of the small streams cut moderately stony till and even the
lodgment till occasionally encountered in the valley floor is
moderately to very stony. The rate at which this coarse material
moves in the bed of the Genesee has not been adequately studied;
but as for the capability of tributary streams to move it under
flood conditions, there can be little doubt. All of the larger
tributaries have fans composed of fairly coarse gravels. Some
of the fans are quite extensive, presumably because of the
occasional exceptional discharge event such as that associated
with Hurricane Agnes. Vandermark Creek near Scio provides an
excellent illustration of the magnitude of erosion and sediment
movement under such conditions. Some of the heaviest rainfall
from Agnes was concentrated near the basin of Vandermark Creek.
Measured precipitation exceeded 14 inches. During the storm
the stream became a true torrent and a large part of its valley
was eroded. For long stretches of its 9-mile course, the flood
waters stripped all loose material and exposed bedrock.
Imbricated boulder-sized material torn from the local bedrock
attests to the magnitude of the forces applied and the size of
bedload material transported. A large part of the valley fill
was dumped at the confluence with the Genesee forming an
alluvial fan spreading downstream as a bar composed mostly of
pebbles and cobbles.
The mineralogy and size distribution of sediments exposed
to channel erosion and bank failure in the Geneseo Quadrangle
were given particular attention. The striking feature of all
sediments examined is the predominance of quartz in all size
fractions. This was not anticipated in view of the diversity
of rocks in the basin and of erratics in the till. Microscopic
analysis, magnetic separation and x-ray analysis were employed
along with sieving and pipette analysis. The coarser material
is obviously dominantly quartz with rock fragments and smaller
proportions of common ferromagnesian and feldspar minerals.
However, x-ray analysis of many fine-grained samples showed
exceedingly strong quartz peaks with little else beside illite
and kaolinite in the finest fractions (less than 3.9 microns).
This may imply either that the sedimentary rocks in the basin,
including the shales, are very quartzose or that weathering
has broken down the remaining minerals effectively and removed
those components in solution and suspension.
Ill-43
-------
A wide range of glacial, fluvial, lacustrine and eolian
materials is present in the basin, but most of the mechanical
analyses were directed to sorting characteristics of floodplain
and sandy lacustrine (?) deposits. A number of samples chosen
for both the coarsest and finest sediments, but excluding channel
gravels, produced no samples with more than 1% by weight in the
very coarse sand range (1-2 mm). Many fine-grained sediments
which might commonly be termed "clay" can be shown to be pre-
dominantly silt. Even the gray lacustrine sediments are 90% or
more silt. Only the glacial verves contain as much as 50% to 80%
clay-size particles and require special treatment to prevent
flocculation.
111-44
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SECTION 5
CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY AND PROCESSES
The channel morphology and associated processes of the
Genesee River change along its course in response to changes in
the valley materials. Between Wellsville and Avon, New York,
four distinctive channel reaches are recognized. Each is char-
acterized by a generally consistent channel morphology, slope,
and sediment load.
For the purposes of this study, the 48 miles of river
channel between Wellsville and Portageville, New York, is
designated the Upper Genesee. The Letchworth Gorge section of
the river is 21 miles long and extends from Portageville to near
Mt. Morris, New York. The term Middle Genesee is applied to the
river channel downstream from Mt. Morris to Rochester. The Middle
Genesee is subdivided into two distinctive units. Between Mt.
Morris and Genesee (14 river miles) the river meanders across a
valley filled with clastic alluvium. At the New York State
Route 63 Bridge near Geneseo the river encounters a valley fill
of glacial tills and glaciolacustrine clays. The river has
incised its channel in these materials for the next 17 river
miles. Subunits have been identified within each of the major
channel reaches on the basis of thalweg slope (Table 4).
The Upper Genesee River
The Genesee River enters New York State at an elevation of
1610 feet, approximately 148 river miles from its mouth. Between
Wellsville and Portageville, New York, the river slope averages
7.75 feet/mile (0.0015). Although the gradient is by no means
uniform, two general slope changes divide the river into three
reaches (Table 4 ) . The cause of the change in slope that takes
place near the Southern Tier Expressway (mile 122) is not known.
The break in the long profile near Fort Hill (mile 94) is assumed
to result from the near surface presence of glacially derived
valley fill. The river is incised into bedrock at two locations:
Belmont, New York (mile 126.7) and near Fillmore, New York (mile
100.5) .
The upper Genesee flows in a valley cut in glacial sediment.
Numerous temporary baselevels resulted in the formation of a
number of terraces. Remnants of these terraces occur along both
valley sides. Net degradation appears to have been the dominant
trend in postglacial time through the present. A number of
111-45
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TABLE 4. CHANNEL GRADIENTS.
Upper Genesee
Overall
Wellsvilie
(mile 135)
Subunits
(1) Wellsville
(mile 135)
(2) Expressway
(mile 122)
(3) Fort Hill
(mile 94)
Gorge
Portageville
(mile 87)
Middle Genesee
Alluvial reach
Mt. Morris
(mile 66)
Subunits
(1) RG & E dam
(mile 66)
(2) Canaseraga Jet.
(mile 62)
Glacial Reach
Geneseo
(mile 52)
Alluvial (lake bottom)
Avon
(mile 35)
Channel dis-tances and
files prepared by the
to Portageville
(mile 87)
to Expressway
(mile 122)
to Fort Hill
(mile 94)
to Portageville
(mile 87)
to Mt. Morris
(mile 66)
to Geneseo
(mile 52)
to Canaseraga Jet.
(mile 62)
to Geneseo
(mile 52)
to Avon
(mile 35)
to Rochester
(mile 12)
7.75 ft/mi
12.23 ft/mi
6.86 ft/mi
3.0 ft/mi
24.95 ft/mi
2.93 ft/mi
6.5 ft/mi
1.5 ft/mi
0.75 ft/mi
0.48 ft/mi
thalweg elevations were read from long pro-
U.S. Army of Engineers (1973afb).
111-46
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unfilled oxbow lakes left hanging more than 20 feet above the
present level of the river are indicative of recent and continued
vertical erosion. One such oxbow lake is located on the west
side of the valley near Houghton (Map 4). Base level for the
upper Genesee is now controlled by bedrock at the head of the
Gorge near Portageville. The approximate elevation of the
control is 1090 feet.
The Upper Genesee meanders across a floodplain with a width
of .25 to 1.5 miles and composed of cobble to silt-size material.
Although most alluvial layers composing the floodplain are thin
and discontinuous, the general stratigraphic sequence is remark-
ably uniform. A typical exposure is located south of Houghton on
the outside of a bend near river mile 106. The lowermost unit is
a dark grey fine silt that contains some very fine sand and
probably some clay. In places, this unit is distinctly layered
and contains organic material that ranges from leaves to large
tree branches. Primary sedimentary structures are ill defined.
The upper surface of the unit has been eroded unevenly.
As much as five feet of well-oxidized coarse sediment (sand
to small boulder-size) overlies the gray silt. Much of the
rounded pebble to cobble-size material is imbricated and numerous
cut-and-fill structures are present. This unit almost certainly
was deposited as a channel bottom lag.
Overlying the oxidized layer is a unit of gray fine silty
sand. The thickness of this sand layer averages about three
feet. Toward the top of this unit it is interbedded with the
yellowish silty sand that overlies it. This uppermost unit is
as much as nine feet thick and contains ripple cross beds and
laminae. Together, these two units form a point bar to
overbank depositional sequence. However, it is not clear where
the deposits of one environment end and the next begins.
This sequence, with variations in the thickness and
detailed appearance of the units, is present throughout much of
the upper valley. The nearly ubiquitous oxidized gravel and the
consistency of its appearance provide a tempting basis for
correlation. However, no evidence exists that the numerous
outcrops of oxidized "gravels" are correlative or that they
represent a single contemporaneous environment. The presence of
these channel bottom lag deposits at various heights above the
present channel floor is further evidence of vertical erosion
throughout the upper valley. The quantity of material deposited
by overbank flow is also problematical. The only firm data on
thickness of overbank deposition were obtained just downstream
from Fillmore. On the right bank of the river at mile 99.8, a
piece of metal rod was found buried five feet below the flood-
plain surface indicating a minimum thickness of overbank
deposition. Commonly/ it is difficult to distinguish between
point bar and overbank deposits.
111-47
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Where the river has moved against the valley side and is
eroding into terrace materials, entirely different strata are
exposed. In some instances, glacially deposited sediment has
been uncovered. One example is at the Houghton sewage treatment
plant where the river has encountered a stony clay till.
The channel of the Upper Genesee in cross section is
commonly rather broad and shallow (high w/d ratio). Throughout
nearly all of the upper valley, the channel is floored with
coarse sediment. Particle sizes range from sand to small boulders,
the latter chiefly adjacent to eroded till exposures, but the
greatest area is covered by pebbles and small cobbles. Reworking
of oxidized gravels exposed in the floodplain is one important
source of channel armoring. The remainder of the bed material
is delivered to the Genesee by its larger tributaries. Notable
among these are: Dyke Creek at Wellsville; Vandermark Creek at
Scio; Van Campen Creek, north of Belmont; Angelica Creek, near
Transit Bridge; Black Creek, at Belfast; Caneadea Creek, at
Caneadea; Rush Creek and Cold Creek at Fillmore; and Wiscoy
Creek, near Rossburg. All of these streams transport large
quantities of coarse debris derived from the upland deposits of
till and from bedrock. Each of these streams has constructed a
fan-shaped deposit at its junction with the Genesee. These
materials are reworked by the Genesee as indicated by their
imbrication parallel to its direction of flow. Much of this
coarse-grained material, as well as the smaller particles
transported by the river, are trapped behind the Mt. Morris Dam
at the lower end of Letchworth Gorge.
Letchworth Gorge Section
The Letchworth Gorge of the Genesee is a deep bedrock canyon
in interbedded shales and sandstones. The average slope of the
river between Portageville and Mount Morris is nearly 25 feet/
mile, but three waterfalls with aggregate height of 225 feet
account for sharp breaks in the profile.
The Mount Morris Dam erected by the U.S. Army Crops of
Engineers is located about a mile upstream from the mouth of the
gorge. This structure was authorized by Congress in 1944 and
began storage operations in 1952. Because flood control is the
primary purpose of this facility, no permanent reservoir is main-
tained. The maximum flood storage pool has a capacity of 337,400
AF and is 17 miles long. More than 95% of available storage was
used during the Agnes flood. Although the dam does not impound a
permanent lake, storage is maintained during high flows, the
times of maximum sediment transport. Consequently, much of the
sediment contributed by the 1077 mi2 drainage basin is trapped
above the dam.
111-48
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From the time Mount Morris Dam began operation in 1952
until May 1963, nearly 4.5 million tons of sediment (2617 AF)
were deposited in the reservoir (U.S. Army Crops of Engineers
Reservoir Sediment Study, 1963). Projection of the average rate
for this period through the 14 years since the last survey
indicates that total sediment now in the reservoir should be
about 10 million tons (5850 AF). Based upon the amount of
sediment deposited in the reservoir and the quantity of water
passing through it, the Corps calculated average concentration of
sediment at inflow to be 332 ppm. This figure is not the actual
concentration because the reservoir is not 100% efficient as a
trap. In fact, no data are available to indicate the percentage
of sediment lost. However, it must be a rather large part of the
total because a pool is established during all high discharge
events, and a conservation pool is maintained for scenic purposes
between June 15 and November 1.
Alluvial meandering reach of the Middle Genesee
At the mouth of Letchworth Gorge, the Genesee flows into a
broad open valley. The reach of the river in this valley is
divided into two subunits (Table 4). For four miles just down-
stream from the gorge, the river crosses the Mt. Morris alluvial
fan with a gradient of 6.5 feet/mile. Below the confluence of
Canaseraga Creek, its largest tributary, the average slope
decreases to 1.5 feet/mile.
The geometry of the channel of the alluvial meandering
reach of the Lower Genesee is quite different from that of the
Upper Genesee. Throughout this reach, the channel is deep and
maintains essentially vertical banks on the concave side of
meander bends. Width-to-depth ratios are lower than in the Upper
Genesee indicating somewhat finer grained, more cohesive channel
materials (Schumm, 1960). As an example, the Jones Bridge gaging
station (mile 61) has a bankfull width of 168 feet and an average
bankfull depth of 10.7 feet, yielding a width-depth ratio of 16.
The hydraulic geometry of this station has been calculated
(Williams, in press)-. The hydraulic geometry exponents b, f, and
m, the respective rates of change of width, depth, and velocity
with increasing discharge are: b=0.06, f=0.55 and m=0.42. The
values indicate a relatively small increase in width with dis-
charge, rapidly increasing depth, and a moderate rate of increase
in velocity. Streams adjust their at-a-station hydraulic geo-
metries to accomodate discharge in response to the external
variables of valley materials and sediment load. The typical
cross section characterized by a hydraulic geometry similar to
that at Jones Bridge has a relatively stable channel morphology
cut in cohesive materials, and has a form that is conducive
to the transportation of suspended sediment (Rhodes, 1977).
Although this is the only cross section in this reach for which
hydraulic geometry values have been computed, the characteristics
111-49
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of the channel appear to be consistent enough to warrant its use
as a descriptive example.
The cross-sectional geometry is in part a direct function of
the properties of the valley fill encountered by the channel. A
typical cross section is exposed on the outside of an active
meander near Chandler Road (mile 53.8) . The lower part of the
section (0-3 feet above river level) is the sandy dark grey "blue"
silt that is found everywhere in the alluvial valley segment.
Bedding, if present, is very poorly defined. This unit contains
a number of wood fragments. Overlying the "blue" silt is approx-
imately seven feet of interbedded fine sand and clay-rich silt.
The clay-rich silt is dark grey and contains some very fine sand.
Sand interbeds are very fine grained and light brown. At the
base of the unit the layers are thin and indistinct. Layering
becomes more distinct higher in the unit. At four feet above the
base the sandy layers are about 1.5 inches thick, and the silt
layers 0.25 to 0.75 inches in thickness. There are at least 21
repetitions of the sand and the clay-rich silt. No primary
sedimentary structures were observed'in either the sand or the
silt. The material is mottled throughout. Overlying this unit is
about 8-10 feet of very fine silty sand that is cohesive enough
to maintain a vertical face. The entire thickness of the unit is
stratified. The light colored layers are relatively clean fine
sand. The darker, thicker layers contain more silt and probably
some clay. The layers, though distinct, are often discontinuous.
Ripple laminae can be found in the sandy layers. All of the
layers in this unit have a definite low angle dip. The unit is
interpreted as a point bar deposit.
As in the upper valley, differentiation between point bar
and overbank deposits is quite difficult. Evidence of the ac-
cumulation rates, or even the thickness of overbank sediment is
uncommon. An additional problem in this part of the Genesee is
the fact that in most places where a cross section is exposed,
the upper 1-2 feet of the sequence has been disturbed by cultiva-
tion. However, evidence of overbank deposition is present.
The sediment load of this part of the Genesee is predominantly
fine-grained material. Sediment deposited in cutoff meanders, on
point bars, and in backwaters commonly contains no larger than
coarse sand. The size of the sediment deposited on point bars is
especially instructive because it is the coarsest sediment avail-
able to the river. Only where tributary streams that drain the
valley sides enter the Genesee is the bed covered with larger
fragments derived from till and bedrock. One such tributary is
Fall Brook (mile 59.8). Furthermore, under present conditions,
the Mt. Morris Dam effectively traps coarse sediment supply from
the upper valley and gorge.
111-50
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Fine-grained sediment transport occurs during low flows as
well as during large discharge events. The river remains turbid
even during summer base flow periods. Some of the fine sediment
is delivered to the river from upstream, and seasonally from
valley side tributaries. However, the greatest part of the
sediment appears to originate through bank and channel erosion by
the Genesee itself. One result of this process is the lateral
migration of the river across its valley. Numerous channel scars
and cut-offs seen everywhere on the floodplain are evidence of
previous movements.
Recently, the most rapid channel erosion and consequent
lateral migration have occurred on two sets of meanders located
between miles 60.1 and 60.8 and 62.4 and 64 (Figure 12). In
addition to their geomorphic interest, the progress of these
meanders has economic importance. U.S. Route 20A and the bridge
by which it crosses the river at mile 60.1 are threatened by the
more northerly set of meanders. The southerly set, herein
termed the Christiano meanders for the family that has farmed the
land for many years, now threatens Jones Road with destruction
(Figure 12). Furthermore, many acres of prime agricultural land
have been lost in recent decades at both locations as well as many
other places throughout the valley.
Channel erosion is occurring by the mass wasting process of
slab failure (Carson and Kirkby, 1972, p. 112), which is far
more effective than particle by particle removal of the alluvium.
Slab failure results from instability associated with a free face
that is higher than can be supported by the shear strength of
the material. Prior to failure, tension cracks often develop as
a stress release mechanism. Partially freed blocks and associat-
ed tension fractures are common on the convex sides of all active
meariders. These blocks vary in size but are commonly two to
three feet wide and four to six feet long. The maximum dimensions
measured for a single block were four feet wide and twelve feet
long. The blocks are separated from the stable floodplain by
tension cracks as much as 8 inches wide and more than seven feet
deep.
When the maximum stable height (critical height) is attained
because of channel scour or support is lost by subaqueous flowage,
the blocks either settle vertically or topple forward. This
process was observed during an interval of particular activity in
September 1975. Every minute or so, another partial slab slipped
into the river—often unseen, but not unheard. The perimeter of
the meander was freshly cracked and cracking further. Tractor
tire tracks, presumably made when the bean crop was harvested,
were transected by the fresh scarp face, suggesting that 8 to 10
feet of recession had occurred in at least one point within the
previous two to three week period. Almost everywhere, the
stream swirled against a vertical or overhanging cliff face some
8 to 10 feet above stream level. Essentially, the same conditions
111-51
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Figure 12. Topographic Map locating Chrictiano
Meanders Northeast of Mount Morria near confluence
of Qenesee River,and Canaaaraga Creek.
111-52
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were observed when Rhodes visited the same area on April 29
during the spring runoff of 1977. Several blocks were observed
as they toppled forward into the stream. One block, though its
fall was not observed, was large enough to cause a loud noise
when it hit the water which attracted attention in time to see
water splashed at least eight feet in the air. From these
observations and other lines of evidence, it is obvious that
slab failure is the active mode of failure on these meanders.
Erosion on both of the Christiano meanders had been quite
rapid until 1973, at which time the more westerly meander was
cut off at its neck. Since then, active erosion opposite the
cut-off channel has begun and the more easterly meander has
continued to move northward toward Jones Road. Average rates of
lateral movement of these two meanders have been calculated on
the basis of their distance from specific reference points.
Topographic maps, air photographs, and field measurements have
been used to determine the distances (Table 5)•
Before its progress was halted in 1973, the western meander
was moving toward Jones Road. Between 1950 and 1968 the bank
receded at least 300 feet yielding an average rate of about 17
feet/year. More detailed data are available for the eastern
meander (Table 5). During the same 18 year period the rate was
slightly higher on this meander. The rate appears to have
remained relatively constant until no later than October 1975.
By late April 1977, the average annual erosion rate was more
than three times that measured for the initial 18 year period.
Taken overall, the data strongly indicate an accelerating rate of
erosion.
Before discussion of possible causal relations, these rates
should be placed in perspective. Even the highest rate, 70 feet/
year, is no means unusual. Table 6 lists erosion rates recorded
for other rivers in the U.S. as well as that for the Genesee.
In their study of the origin of floodplains Wolman and Leopold
(1957, p. 96) observed that larger rivers tend to erode laterally
more rapidly than smaller rivers, but that there is no consistent
relationship between the size of the river and the rate. Viewed
in relationship to the size of its drainage basin at this point
the average rate of motion does not appear to be inconsistent with
the other data. Thus when considered in relationship to other
river data the erosion rate of the Genesee would be of little
consequence were it not for the fact that it has apparently
accelerated and because of the previously mentioned economic
considerations. For these reasons a detailed consideration of
possible causes is necessary.
Three possible causes are: 1) differences in valley materials
including the effect of vegetation; 2) changes resulting from the
Agnes flood including the cutoff; and 3) changes in sediment load
and discharge resulting from the operation of the Mt.Morris dam.
111-53
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TABLE 5. RATES OF LATERAL EROSION, EAST CHRISTIANO MEANDER.
Distance to
Jones Road
Average rate
of movement
Period
April 29,
October 2,
June 2 ,
April 29,
i oa na
X
1968b
1975
-------
TABLE 6. EXAMPLES OF RATES OF LATERAL EROSION.
Colorado River at
Needles, CA
Mississippi River nr
Rosedale, MS
Missouri River nr
Peru, NB
Yukon River nr
Holy Cross, AK
Genesee River nr
Mt. Morris, NY
North River at
Paranassus, VA
Reference : Data other
Wolman and
Drainage
170,600
1,100,000
350,000
320,000
1,419
50
than that
Leopold ,
area
sg mi
sg mi
sg mi
sg mi
sg mi
sg mi
for the
1957.
Period
(yrs)
25
32
20
30
27
50
Genesee River
Rate
(ft/yr)
800
630
250
120
26
8
from
111-55
-------
The rate at which a river can erode its channel is a func-
tion of the resistance of the alluvial materials and the force
applied by the current. Given streams of approximately equal
discharge but in different environments, the nature of the allu-
vium may greatly effect erosion rates (Wolman and Leopold, 1957,
p. 97) . However different types of floodplain deposits do not
appreciably affect the occurrence of slab failure (Slavin, 1977).
Further, considering that the alluvial stratigraphy of this
part of the Genesee floodplain is generally uniform it seems un-
likely that meander migration has accelerated because the river
had encountered less resistant materials.
Vegetation has limited effect on the occurrence of slab fail-
ures. If the level of instability is seated below the root mat,
extensive root systems such as willows do not prevent the process.
Removal of stream-bank vegetation by flood or by man, eliminates
even this protection. On small streams slab failure is sometimes
slowed by the natural rip-rap produced when failed blocks topped
with dense vegetation remain near the banks (Slavin, 1977). In
larger streams these blocks are quickly destroyed by the current
and the effect is minimal. Except for active point bars and
stream-bordering tree lines the Genesee floodplain has been
cleared of native vegetation for more than 100 years as a result
of agriculture. Crops, such as beans, corn and alfalfa, pro-
vide no protection for the stream banks. After streambank forest
and shrub vegetation were gone, no changes in vegetation were
encountered that might explain the accelerated rate of erosion.
The time during which the rate began to accelerate roughly
corresponds with the date of the Agnes flood and the cut off of
the western meander. Flood discharges durina Agnes undoubtably
deepened the channel bv scour. Peak discharges at the Jones
Bridge gage was 17,500 cubic feet per second and represented the
60 yr. flood (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1973b) • This is the
greatest discharge to pass this gage since the completion of the
Mt. Morris dam, but it is by no means the flood of record. That
occurred in 1916 when peak discharge reached 55,100 cfs. Channel
scour during major floods can be great, but recovery is normally
quite rapid (Lane and Borland, 1953).
Bed scour during the Agnes flood probably deepened the
channel well beyond the critical height necessary to cause
repeated slab failures. Under natural conditions the scoured
bed would probably have been filled within a few months as
occurred on several streams in Maryland after the Agnes flood
(Costa, 1974, Gupta and Fox, 1974). However, unlike the Maryland
streams the sediment load reaching this part of the Genesee is
greatly reduced by the Mt. Morris dam. Without an upstream, source
of sediment the unstable channel form resulting from the flood
would be likely to be maintained for some time. Futhermore, the
only source of channel fill would be the flood plain material.
111-56
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These conjectures, though inadequately documented, are wholly con-
sistent with basic geomorphic and hydraulic principles.
The cut-off of the western meander caused further instability
as a result of the local steepening of the bed slope. The effects
of this knickpoint should have been experienced both up and down
stream. One result of the higher gradient would be vertical ero-
sion, which would favor increased slab failure. The redirection
of the current through the neck of the cutoff has resulted in
severe erosion of the opposite bank. This process will continue
until a suitable meander form has been achieved.
The effects of the Mt. Morris dam on the Genesee River have
not been assessed in detail. However the effects of major dams
on other rivers have been intensively investigated and some gen-
eralizations are possible Clackin, 1948, p. 494: Leopold and Mad-
dock, 1953, p. 39) • The two major results of damming a stream
are a great reduction range of discharge variation with the vir-
tual elimination of catastrophic floods. Both of these changes
are important because they require the river to adapt its slope
and channel form to a new regimen.
Mackin (1948) stated that rivers make their primary adjust-
ments to changes in discharge and sediment load by altering their
slopes. Downstream changes form a dam "the stream simply makes
up for the deficiency in load supplied from above by picking UD
additional load from its channel floor. The net result is down-
cutting, with a consequent lowering in declivity downvalley from
the point where the change occurred" (p. 494)• Downcutting will
continue until the slope is reduced to an angle which would pro-
duce just the velocity necessary to transport the reduced load.
This response has been documented on the Colorado River below
Hoover Dam, on the Rio Grande below Elephant Butte Reservoir, and
on a number of other rivers. However, on these rivers local
aggradation has occurred because the coarse debris supplied by
the tributary streams is no longer moved through the system by
flood stage discharges (Mackin, 1948, p. 494-495).
Rivers also alter their cross sectional form in order to ac-
commodate decreased sediment loan and discharge. Leopold and
Haddock (1953, p. 37-39) analyzed gaging station data for the
Colorado River at Yuma, Arizona, 350 mi below Hoover Dam. Be-
cause the great suspended-sediment load that the Colorado had
formerly carried was largely eliminated, the effects of the dam
were detectable at this distance, although the main degradation
had occurred in the first 100 miles below the dam. Leopold and
Maddock (1953) found that for any given discharge the river had
adjusted to the new regimen through a decrease in width, an in-
crease in depth, decrease in velocity and increased bed roughness.
Water surface slope for any discharge was essentially the same as
it had been before construction of the dam. These adjustments in
width-depth-velocity-relationships provided for the transporta-
111-57
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tion of load and were balanced against the relative erodability
of the bed and banks of the channel. Reduction in channel width
was the main response of the river to reduce peak discharges.
The Mount Morris Dam has significantly reduced peak dis-
charges downstream (Table 7). These changes in sediment load and
discharge have presumably altered the regimen of the river below
the dam in ways comparable to those observed by Leopold and Mad-
dock on the Colorado River below Hoover Dam.
In the absence of detailed channel cross sections and long
profiles documenting the geometry of the river prior to the com-
pletion of the Mount Morris Dam it is impossible to state with
certainty what the effects of the structure have been. However
it is a fact that the dam has altered the regimen of the river
and that lateral erosion rates have increased during the 26-year
period of operation. Degradation of the channel, with or without
overall change in slope/may account for the increased activity,
if as a result heights for slab failure of the banks are exceeded.
Furthermore, floodplain materials are the only source available
to the river to replenish its diminished sediment load. Because
of the economic consequences, both in terms of the loss of valu-
able land and the impending destruction of manmade structures, a
detailed study should be undertaken to document the relationship
between operation of the Mount Morris Dam and changes in channel
geometry occurring downstream.
Any control measures considered, should be planned for the
entire alluvial meandering segment of the Genesee as well as for
specific sites. Lateral erosion is highly discontinuous both in
time and location. Attempts to control the natural response of
a river to changed regimen in one place will lead to a chain re-
action of changes throughout the system.
Glacial Drift Reach of the Middle Genesee
The cross sectional morphology, slope, and plain pattern
of the Genesee change quite markedly where its valley is filled
with glaciolacustrine clays and dense clay till. The average
slone of the river as it cuts through these materials is 0.76
ft /mi (Table 4)• Considering the resistance to erosion of the
glacial valley fill, this is a low slope, and is a direct result
of the channel pattern.
Taken overall the channel pattern is meandering. However,
a more accurate description of the pattern is that it consists
of long nearly straight segments linked by short angular bends.
Also in contrast to the meandering reach upstream, virtually
no change in the position of the river is revealed by a compari-
son of 1950 topographic maps and 1968 air photograohs. In fact,
the air photographs show no oxbows or meander scrolls whatsoever
TII-58
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TABLE 7. PEAK DISCHARGES RECORDED IN MIDDLE GENESEE RIVER.
Maximum recorded Q
before Mt. Morris
Maximum Q Estimated Ag-
post-1953 nes Q without
Mt. Morris
Rochester
Avon
Jones Bridge
(Mt. Morris)
48,000 cfs
55,100
25,000 cfs
16,360
17,500
79,800 cfs
77,500
93,200
Reference: Data from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1973b.
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between Mile 50 and Mile 36. Through this distance the Genesee
appears hardly to have moved laterally since it reached its pre-
sent level.Two interrelated factors are responsible for the fixed
position of the river. They are: the depth of incision of the
channel and the resistance to erosion of the glacially derived
materials.
In many places along this reach the Genesee is incised 60-80
ft below the surface of the morainal plug. The present pattern
of the river may well be relict of a meandering pattern that
existed at a higher level. As the stream entrenched itself into
the glacial plug, the pattern and cross sectional geometry of
the channel were altered by the valley materials and the sediment
load imposed upon the river.
The straightness of parts of the river is unusual. Several
of the straight reaches are from 1/2 to 3/4 of a mile long. If
the general pattern is inherited from an earlier, higher level
meandering pattern then the river must have altered its geometry.
Straight rivers characteristically have low slopes, low sediment
(bed) load, and low width-depth ratios (Schumm and Kahn, 1972),
but some of the cause and effect relationships are difficult to
determine. The width-depth ratio of the channels is low. At
the Fowlerville Road bridge (Mile 40.8) the channel is 250 feet
wide and has a bankfull depth of about 40 feet yielding a bank-
full width-depth ratio of approximately 6. This value is quite
low for a river size of the Genesee at this point. Low width-
depth ratios are associated with cohesive channel materials
(Schumm, 1960) . Therefore the cross sectional channel shape is
consistent with the nature of the valley materials. Low width-
depth ratios are also characteristic of channels that convey the
greater part of the their loads as suspended sediment (Mackin,
1948, p. 29; Leopold and Maddock, 1953, p. 24). Although few
detailed data are available on the nature of sediment transport
in the middle Genesee, field reconnaisance has shown that coarse-
grained sediment is notably absent. The sources of coarse debris
are minimal. Much of the supply from upstream is cut off by the
Mt. Morris Dam. In this reach, the river encounters bedrock only
at York Landing (Mile 44). Furthermore the tills exposed are
sparsely stoney. The majority of the sediment transported through
this reach is fine grained material delivered from above and
the products of erosion of clay tills and lacustrine deposits.
Through this glacial valley reach of the Genesee the channel pat-
tern, slope and geometry are all adapted to the nature of the
valley materials and the fine grained sediment load.
The depth of incision of the river is also greatly re-
stricted. Lateral erosion surfaces identifiable as flood plains
are quite narrow. Near the Fowlerville Road cross section the
flood plain is less than three times as wide as the channel.
Lateral erosion and bank failure occur in this segment of the
Genesee, but the style of failure is completely different from
111-60
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that in the alluvial segment. The lacustrine clays and clay
tills fail by rotational slumping when the toes of inclined slopes
are cut below a critical depth. In fact, rotational slumping is
the only style of failure that can occur in clay messes (Carson
and Kirkby, 1972, p. 163) because they will not support a verti-
cal face. The most recent large slump occurred at Mile 43 near
the end of Oxbow Lane. During the spring flood in April 1972
(prior to Hurricane Agnes) the river cut the toe of the east bank
and removed support from a block of glaciolacustrine clay and
till. The block broke into a number of slices and moved on
curved surfaces of failure downward and out-ward into the channel.
Parts of the failed mass moved across the entire width of the
channel and partially impounded the flow. A new channel was cut
at the out edge of the failure at a position a full channel width
west of its previous location. The slope has not yet become
stable. The blocks have continued to move and the distinctive
ridge and swale topography of a rotational slump retains a fresh
appearance.
Although no other recent slumps were observed^two earlier
slumps were identified by their characteristic topography. These
features are located near Mile 39 and Mile 45.8.
Because of the size of these landslides they may be danger-
ous to life and property. The area affected by the Oxbow Land
slide is approximately 1000 feet long and 425 feet wide. Fortun-
ately the only property destroyed was part of the road and a
fence. The only large development near enough to the river to be
in jeopardy from a similar landslide is the toxic chemical pro-
ducing Lucidol Plant near Piffard, NY (Mile 47.2)- The position
of this plant near a sharp bend in the river may make its location
more precarious. The three slumps identified above are all loca-
ted at sharp turns in the channel presumably because the acceler-
ation of flow around the bend intensifies scour at the base of
the bluff. The stability of this area should be investigated as
should that of any proposed construction site near the river. In
general straight reaches of the river should be more stable than
bends where accelerated flow may scour and undermine the slopes.
Sediment Production and Denudation Rates
Reservoir sedimentation data compiled for the Mt. Morris
facility allow the computation of minimum sediment production
and denudation rates for the upper valley. Since the dam began
operation in 1952 two surveys have been made of the sediment
trapped in the reservoir (Table 8)* A third survey is planned
for 1978.
111-61
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During the 11.4 year period covered by these surveys, sedi-
ment production in the upper Genesee basin averaged 375 tons/sq
mi/yr. This value is within the range of 808-233 tons/sq mi/
yr that Wolman (1967, p. 387) found to be characteristic of
rural-agricultural lands in Maryland (Table 9). Many factors
such as precipitation amount and intensity, basin area,slope, and
land use influence the rate of sediment production. All of these
factors are subject to temporal variation and, as they change,
sediment production rates will be affected. From the data now
available no trends are evident. However, the 1978 resurvey of
the reservoir should be instructive particularly as a means of
assessing the degradational effects fo the Agnes Flood.
Minimum rates of denudation as calculated from the sedimen-
tation data indicate that the upper valley is being eroded at the
rate of 11.1 cm/1000 yr (.36 ft/1000 yr). This rate is a minimum
value not only because of the transportation of some of the sedi-
ment through the reservoir, but also because dissolved load is
not considered.
Both the sediment production rate and the denudation rate
for the upper valley are slightly higher than would be predicted
for a basin having its precipitation and runoff. However, land
use is not taken into account by most estimating techniques.
Extensive long term agricultural use of the upper basin may well
account for the differences.
The sediment survey also gives some indication of the size
of the sediment delivered to the reservoir. The 1963 survey
showed that 61.4 percent of the total sediment in the reservoir
was deposited in the 30 percent of the basin nearest to the dam.
Assuming that the coarsest sediment is deposited near the head
of the basin, the large percentage of sediment near the lower
end would seem to indicate that a. great part of the sediment
entering the reservoir is carried in suspension.
No data are available to make calculations of sediment
production in the lower basin.
111-62
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TABLE 8. SUMMARY OF DATA FROM SEDIMENTATION STUDIES OF
- TflE MT. MORRIS DAM.
Total drainage area of reservoir: 1077 sq mi
Sediment contributing area: 1011 sq mi
Mean annual precipitation: 28-42 in
Mean annual runoff: 975,000 AF (16.98 in)
Survey data
From To AF/sq mi/yr Tons/sq mi/yr Period
11/24/51 5/29/57 0.25 419 5.5 yr
5/29/57 5/ 5/63 0.20 335 5.9 yr
Means 0.23 375 11.4 yr
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TABLE 9. ANNUAL SEDIMENT PRODUCTION RATES FOR DIFFERENT
LAND USES.
Rural-agricultural lands 803-233 tons/sq mi
Forested land 5-15 tons/sq mi
Land under construction 2320-140,000 tons/sq mi
Urbanized lands 54 tons/sq mi
From Wolman, 1967 (p. 387)
111-64
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SECTION 6
THE AGNES FLOOD
Introduction
Hurricane Agnes was the most devasting natural disaster to
occur in the United States in historic times. The storm and
resulting floods were the direct causes of 122 deaths. More than
$3.5 billion in damages were incurred by the eastern seaboard
states from Florida to New York. Within the Genesee River basin
one life was lost and the damage was estimated at $50 million
(U.S. Army Corps at Engineers, 1973a and b) .
Tropical storm Agnes developed off the Yucatan coast on June
15, 1972. The storm reached hurricane strength by June 19 when
it hit the Florida panhandle. Agnes weakened to a tropical de-
pression as it moved overland through the Carolinas. As Agnes
approached the Virginia coast it began to acquire more moisture,
and while over the Atlantic near Norfolk it once again reached
tropical storm intensity. On the evening of June 22 the storm
turned westward from its location over Long Island, and reached
west-central Pennsylvania by the morning of June 23. After mak-
ing a southerly loop over Pennsylvania Agnes moved north across
western New York and into Ontario. During the next two days
(June 25-26) the storm travelled quickly eastward and moved off
the continent near the Maine-Nova Scotia border.
Rainfall in the southern tier of New York began on the
night of June 23. Occasional showers occurred for the next two
days. Total rainfalls in the Genesee Basin for the period June
21-26 ranged from 3.2 in. at Batavia, to more than 18 in. near
Wellsville. Isohyetal maps of the area show that precipitation
amounts increased from 7.3 in. near the southern end of the basin
to the maximum near Wellsville and then decreased gradually to
the north. During the week proceeding the storm (June 14-20)
the basin had received about 1.5 in. of rain which had raised
soil moisture levels and contributed to the high runoff during
the Agnes storm.
At Wellsville runoff for the period June 20-25 totaled
approximately 145,000 AF, or about 31 percent of the rainfall.
Runoff increased to 359,000 AF (68 percent of rainfall) at Porta-
geville. This volume is about 40 percent of the mean annual run--
off for the basin at this location.
In the upper valley, Agnes became the flood of record. Re-
currence intervals for the flows ranged from 35 years at Shongo
111-65
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to 285 years at Portageville (U.S. Arny Corns of Engineers,1973b).
The vast majority of the damages sustained in the basin occurred
in the upper valley.
Effects of Agnes in the upper Genesee
The reaches of the Genesee upstream from Portageville beyond
Wellsville was the part of the basin most severely affected by
Hurricane Agnes. Rainfall in this part of the basin was extra-
ordinarily heavy. Peak flood deoths ranged up to 40 feet near
Portageville where valley constriction increased the depth of
inundation immediately upstream. Throughout the upper Genesee,
the most lasting effects of the flood were shifts in channel posi-
tion and attendant erosion of previously stable parts of the
floodplain. Notable and representative of such changes was devel-
opment of the Graham Farm Cutoff.
The meander cut-off is located on a farm owned by Mr. Robert
J. Graham, Jr., of Hunt, NY. Prior to the Agnes flood the entire
area of the inner loop of the meander was cultivated. The sur-
face was relatively flat and sloped very gradually toward the
apex of the bend.
During the flood the entire area was inundated by flows that
reached maximum depths of between 32 feet (at Mile 90) and 23 ft
(at Mile 92) above the channel thalweg. Flows over the meander
surface were probably 10 to 15 ft deep. Maximum discharges
through this reach ranged from 67,000 cfs at Fillmore, NY, to
83,000 cfs at Portageville, NY. The recurrence intervals of these
flows are 240 yr. and 285 yr., respectively. The discharge across
the oxbow on Graham's farm was probably near the recorded at
Portageville.
Because of the configuration of the valley, maximum veloci-
ties and discharges occurred across the lower neck of the meander.
This part of the floodplain surface was scoured and a channel up
to 730 ft. wide was carved in the fluvial sediments. This width
is considerably greater than that of the original channel which
was about 300-350 ft. wide. Vertical erosion was impeded by the
presence of dense stony clay till at a depth of about 14 to 18 ft.
below the original surface. Maximum vertical erosion directly
attributable to the flood waters is uncertain. A photograph taken
soon after the flood shows about 12 feet of exposed well pipe the
top of which had been 2-3 feet below the original surface. The
pipe was not in the area of maximum scour, so the maximum erosion
must have been in excess of 15 feet.
The configuration and surface conditions of the new channel
after the flood were judged from another set of photographs. The
channel was covered with rippled sand littered with numerous cob-
bles and boulders. The western bank of the channel was marked by
111-66
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a vertical wall more than 8 feet high.
During the post-storm period, until the spring of 1976, the
new channel was used only during high stages, especially those
resulting from spring snowmelt. The appearance of the channel
was modified by these flows. The sand and finer-grained materials
that covered the surface were removed leaving a surface lag of
cobbles and boulders. The limits of the active channel were
established at a width of about 290 feet. Poplars and willows
began to grow on the inactive part of the surface. An ice and
debris dam formed in the old channel during the late winter or
early spring of 1976 diverting a large part of the flow through
the new channel. A gravel shoal near the site of the dam has
continued to direct the discharge through the new channel. For
the first time since its creation the new channel has not become
inactive after spring runoff.
In early June 1976, the edge of the original surface (the
upper eroded bank), and the active portion of the channel were
mapped. The surface between these two lines is strewn with
gravel, pebbles, and cobbles. The total vertical incision meas-
ured from the original surface is now in excess of 24 feet. Till
is exposed in many places along the flanks of the active channel
and floors it throughout. The slope of the new channel is 0.0034
which is in marked contrast to the slope of about 0.0006 for the
original channel. The new channel has a clear advantage in this
regard. The resistance of the till to erosion may well be the
main reason the new channel has not taken all of the discharge.
The erosion effects of the flood have not been limited to
the cutoff itself. The realignment of large discharges through
the new channel has caused severe erosion problems downstream.
The channel bank opposite the exit from the new channel now
receives the force of the current at high stages. This bank has
receeded 20 to 40 feet in the last two years, and a large sand
and gravel bar has been constructed on the inside of the curve.
Erosion of this area is likely to continue until a new and stable
form has been achieved.
Further downstream the toe of a steep slope composed of
glaciolacustrine and glaciofluvial sediments has been undercut.
This entire area is falling at a rapid rate. The evidence of
rapid mass wasting is found up to a height of more than 100 feet
above the river. If the Genesee continues cutting the toe of
the slope, unstable conditions will persist and the activity may
accelerate.
Upstream from the cutoff unstable slopes exist, and this
condition may become more severe, if the new channel becomes the
dominant path of flow. As stated earlier, the new channel has a
111-67
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considerably steeper gradient than the old one. This short,
relatively steep reach forms a knickpoint in the profile of the
river. If this knickpoint migrates upstream the depth of the
channel may be increased with further undercutting of the already
unstable slope. Other responses may also occur if the knickpoint
moves and this segment of the channel may undergo a variety of
modications in future year.
The area of the Graham Farm oxbox and the cut-off is the site
of the most intense erosion along the upper Genesee River. The
area is notable not only because of the direct effects of the
Aunes flood, but also for the continuing adjustments to the
changes which is caused.
Effects of Agnes in the Middle Genesee
Flows in the lower Genesee were controlled by the Mt. Morris
dam. The operation of the dam signified lowered flow levels
throughout the lower valley and prevented a major catastrophy
Recurrence intervals of the instantaneous peak discharges ranged
from 10 years at Rochester to 60 years at the Jones Bridge gage
near Mr. Morris. The actual discharges at these stations were
only 53 percent and 32 percent respectively, of the discharges of
the floods of record.
Largely because of the operation of the "It. Morris dam the
geomorphic effects of the flood in the lower valley were minimal.
With only minor exceptions the Genesee stayed within its banks
below mile 16. Throughout most of the lower Genesee above this
noint flooding extended from valley side to valley side although
it was discontinuous in many areas. Depths of inundation gener-
ally were not great.
The most severe flooding in the lower valley occurred near
the village of Mt. Morris. The inundation was a result of severe
flooding of the uncontrolled Canaseraga Creek and the releases
from the Mt. Morris dam. Near the mouth of the Canaseraga the
Agnes flow produced the flood of record with an estimated recurr-
ence interval of 125 years (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1973h).
High discharges from the dam caused flood depths to increase
because of a backwater effect. With high flows in the Genesee
the Canaseraga discharge was inhibited from entering the main
channel. However, without the dam natural discharges would have
been even higher and the backwater and resulting flooding would
have been much more worse.
Floodwaters in the lower valley produced overbank deposits/
which are shown clearly on post-flood air photography. However,
during field investigations for this study, none of these
deposits could be identified with certainty. This is a result
TII-68
-------
of agricultural disturbance of the surface and the fact that
initially the deposits were not thick. Undoubtedly more sedi-
mentation would have occurred had the supply from the upstream
river not been trapped in the Mt. Morris Reservoir.
111-69
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Mount Morris Reservoir: U.S. Army Engineer Dist.,'Buffalo.
Ward, A.M., W. F. Chapman, M.T. Lukert and J. L. Craft, 1976.
Bedrock and glacial geology of northwestern Pennsylvania in
Crawford, Forest and Venango Counties: Guidebook, 41st Ann.
Conf. of Pennsylvania Harrisburg, 64p.
White, G. W., S.M. Totten, 1965. Wisconsinan age of Titusville
Till (formally called "Inner Illinoian") northwestern Penn-
sylvania: Science 148:234-235.
White, G.W., S.M. Totten and D.L. Gross, 1969. Pleistocene
stratigraphy of northwestern Pennsylvania: Penn. Geol.
Survey Rep. G55, 88p.
Williams, G.P., in press. Hydraulic geometry of alluvial channel
cross section - theory of minimum variance: US Geol. Survey
Prof. Paper 1029.
Wolman, M.G., 1967. A cycle of sedimentation and erosion in
urban river channels: Geografiska Ann., 49A:385-395.
Wolman, M.G. and Leopold, L. B., 1957. River flood plains:
some observations on their formation: US Geol. Survey Prof.
Paper 282-C:87-107.
Young, R.A., 1975a. The effects of a Late Wisconsinan glacial
readvance on the postglacial geology of the Genesee Valley,
Livingston County, New York: Geol. Soc. America Abstr. with
Programs (Northeastern Sect.) 7:135-136.
Young, R.A., 1975b. Glacial and postglacial geology of the Letch-
worth Park gorge of the Genesee River, Livingston County, NY:
Rochester Acad. Sci. Trans.
Young, R.A. and W. D. Rhodes, 1971. Geologic and archaeologic
significance of fluvial terraces in the Genesee Valley,
Livingston County, NY: Geol. Soc. America Abstr. with Pro-
grams (Northeastern Sect.) 1:64..
Young, R.A. and W. D. Rhodes, 1973. Late glacial and postglacial
geology of the Genesee Valley in Livingston County, NY: NY
State Geol. Assoc. Guidebook, 45th Ann. Met. pp.El-E21.
111-74
-------
MAPS
1. Regional Surficial Geology of the Genesee River Valley
(Muller, 1977 and in prep.)
2. A. Angelica-Topography
B. Angelica-Geology
C. Angelica-Geomorphology
D. Angelica-River Positions at Transit Bridge 1935 and 1955
E. Angelica-River Positions at Transit Bridge 1964 and 1972
F. Angelica-River Positions at Belfast 1935 and 1955
G. Angelica-River Positions at Belfast 1964 and 1972
3. A. Black Creek-Topography
B. Black Creek-Geology
C. Black Creek-Geomorphology
4. A. Houghton-Topography
B. Houghton-Geology
C. Houghton-Geomorphology
5. A. Fillmore-Topography
B. Fillmore-Geology
C. Fillmore-Geomorphology
D. Fillmore-River Positions 1938 and 1958
6. A. Portageville-Topography
B. Portageville-Geology
C. Portageville-Geomorphology
D. Portageville-River Positions 1938 and 1955
7. A. Dansville-Topography
B. Dansville-Geology of Canaseraga Creek Valley Bottom
8. A. Sonyea-Topography
B. Sonyea-Geology of Canaseraga Creek Valley Bottom
9. A. Geneseo-Topography
B. Geneseo-Geology and Geomorphology
10. A. Caledonia-Topography
B. Caledonia-Geology of East Half
C. Caledonia-Geomorphology of East Half
111-75
-------
MAPS (continued)
11. A. Rush-Topography
B. Rush-Geology
C. Rush-Geomorphology
12. A. Clifton-Topography
B. Clifton-Geology of Southeast Corner
C. Clifton-Geomorphology of Southeast Corner
13. A. West Henrietta-Topography
B. West Henrietta-Geology
C. West Henrietta-Geomorphology
111-76
-------
MAP LEGENDS
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
Lithostratigraphic mapping units employed in mapping of the Gen-
esee Valley as indicated on accompanying overlays for the U.S.
Geological Survey 1:24,000 Series topographic maps are as follows
A = Alluvium
Includes silt, sand and gravel of channel and overbank
floodplain deposits of the Genesee, its major tribu-
taries and some upland streams. Af is alluvium with
100-yr flood boundary; AP is thin alluvial cover 1-3
feet over peat.
PM = Peat, much (organic silt), gyttja and (north of
Mt. Morris) marl.
Generally in kettles and related basins, in abandoned
stream courses and meltwater channels, and in
depressions between drumlins. Commonly overlies
inorganic silt or silty clay.
S, = Fine to medium sand, stratified in part, very well
sorted.
Extensive areas in north associated with Scottsville
Lake, below 545 ft. msl; also on flanks of Dansville-
Geneseo trough. Interpreted as lacustrine.
Se = Eolian sand, fine to medium; extremely well-worked;
includes coarse silt, but lacking in clay; comprise
dunes where adequately thick; generally stabilized
under present regime. Limited distribution on east
side of Genesee Valley.
Lcs = Rhythmically laminated lacustrine silt and clay.
Especially the red-brown varves of glacial lakes; many
containing very sparse ice-rafted pebbles and red till
fragments, occuring below 1000 ft. above sea level
north of Mount Morris, but to 1500 ft msl in upper
valley, upstream from Portageville, where they are less
ruddy and involve alteration of gray summer with brown
winter laminae.
111-77
-------
S = Fine to coarse sand, undifferentiated as to origin,
but generally fluvial overbank deposits, or deltaic
and littoral lacustrine materials. Pebble size
fraction lacking or insignificant.
SG = Gravel and sand, undifferentiated as to origin but
include primary fluvioglacial materials washed from or
deposited against a former glacier margin; also terrace
and fan gravels.
T = Till, including primary lodgment till, but subordinate
ablation till, as well. Silt and silty clay dominant
in matrix but coarser in upland areas; sparsely to
moderately stony in lowlands, in general. Includes
areas of subaqueous moraine in lower parts of valley,
estensive ground moraine, drumlinized moraine and
some undifferentiated areas of end moraine. TV is
till with a thin cover of varved clays.
R = Rock, involves Paleozoic strata of various lithologies
where lacking in unconsolidated cover. Most extensive
is an east-west band of Onondaga Limestone in the
Caledonia and Rush Quadrangles.
TR = Rock with till cover.
V = Varves, lacustrine
TV = Till
V = Approximate limit of youngest ice readvance.
Ill-IB
-------
GEOMORPHOLOGIC FEATURES
eroded river bank (cut bank)
deposited river bank (bar)
abandoned river courses
strandlines
'«£ !>:f-'-2*£''' stream terraces
Cavern
/o/o/o/O/oyo/o/oy •-
/////•///• Ao/« //// deltas (580-5901 surfaces)
a/o/0/o/o/o/*/0 ' i
?, e> "„ O
& ooooo°o
deltas (610-6201 surfaces)
X
•.. •*
x
meltwater channels
deltas (600-610' surfaces
thick portions of irregular or
discontinuous stagnant ice
(•
V
well defined stagnant ice masses
line of separation between ground
moraine and end moraine
glacially streamlined topography -
long axis
numbers refer to Paleolndian Sites
111-79
-------
MAP 1 Regional Surficial Geology of the
Genesee River Valley
—J""L" (Muller, 1977
III-BO
-------
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTEMOIt
OEOLOOICAL SURVEY
ANGELICA QUADRANULt
MM VOOK AllXGANV CO
t » HIHUTI UBIEI
T r __r: .„.._
:t^ i i/
-------
MAP 2-B ANGELICA
_ — _ _j »«-t
-------
Numbtri art Pol«o-Indian Situ
MAP 2-C ANGELICA
(R Willette)
111-83
-------
N
TRANSIT BRIDGE
\
MAP 2-D ANGELICA River Positions 1938,1955 (P. Willette)
111-84
-------
N
TRANS IT BR IDGE
1972
0 10OOFEET
MAP 2-E ANGELICA River Positions I964,I972 (P. Willette)
111-85
-------
(938
1955
2000 FEET
MAP 2-F ANGELICA River Positions 1938,1955 (R Willette)
111-86
-------
1964
1972
0 2000 FEET
MAP 2-ff ANGELICA River Portions 1964, 1972 (P. Willette)
111-87
-------
BLACK CRIEK QUADRANGLE
VOMUALLUIANV CO
I* WMin HMU (TOVQOftAPHIC)
„„, m^nnn, \
! I«M« ^^_ ^K
., ^
MAP 3-A BLACK CREEK (Eo« hotf)
•LACK CltMK. M jf.
•»•
111-88
-------
/ ;// / / v-^;-vV. .-•?
X.. /(.<•-/ / • vv \ ', ;'•*•-, .
•'' // ,? ; " ') t \\ ( l&'^1_.::;::\ \
•:'-'»' /'' /'/'"•}''"*"' ' •''"'/ '' ». 'i - '-
«,* '/•//! / ,*,.'
C X/V ^;::;^ /// ,S-\ \
\ '-;'<./..;^,, *"'' • r '\ /.'N'' I'''/'*/
{' / .'''*-'''/'""' ,-N / \' ' ' ^'"'
r*X t * t i f « ^L«» *"•
•\ •'•
MAP S-B BLACK CREEK(Eo*t half) \ Geology L
(P Wiliette)
111-89
-------
Numbtrt arc Pal*o-Indian SHn
c
MAP 3-C BLACK CREEK (East half)
Geomorphology
!•»-£ (P Willette)
111-90
-------
MMOHTON QUAMUNOLC
*•% TOM - ALLCOAMV CO f
t* Mmun WUHM rroPO(Mi*rHtc ^'
>p2/^^:'
iwvfe "^TV ••'
MAP4-A HOUGHTON
111-91
-------
vTT
~
r*<-'\
' > V
> ••
•-, • vj
''^.
V'l
q4/ )-_:;•
\
v/
\\
/I
I I
,--' r
-v.,j
/ / >
"-'^
,,s, \T
' \\
/>"' .. I .' x
''rv /-//'"^
^ v^ /;'—x/' ,/•
\ W' //?
i / ^-^,- !
'-.
ff
I f
^ \
r/
N
v.. v> v~"( •
I V \
A
MAP 4-B HOUGHTON
1 Geology
(P. Willette)
111-92
-------
\
II
.Or' J,
V,
Ntmtar* art Prtw Indian SHm
MAP 4-C HOU6HTON
Geomorphology »_
[•»•« (P. Willette)
111-93
-------
riUJ*OB£ QUADRANGLE
MAP5-A FIUMORE
-------
z
•D
(II
d)
F~T
I
VD
U1
f
&
,
\ '
'--^
Lf,
'
*r < (
\v
-
t
*
=
-------
3
m
H
H
M
o
o
3
o
-------
N
a:
o
- 1938
I 95 5
1000 FEET
MAP 5-D FILLMORE
River Positions I938,1955
(P. Willette)
111-97
-------
\UNfTED STATES
MPARTMENT Of THE IKTEKtOtt
QEOLOO1CAL SURVEY
MAP6-A PORTA6EVILLE
-------
,.,' \. .• i r- '-
'•> v> ,' / / " '
' i •• 'I ' / .«• »»
•'"-) / V\ \ ^ ,^> --<^
/ > V: ^ s^ V " Xv
/'' .; '•' »\ \ \ /: . Y"
'. / >* "*•$:' 'J • ' xx -> > S
°M? ((? \;? ciV-:Cv"-^ x;v
,^ " ^-O )^\ " //J"
> i \ ,' * .' /
MAP 6-B PORTAGEVILLE (Southern tad) \ Geology
111-99
(RWillttte)
-------
Numbcri or* Potto-Indian Situ
MAP 6-C PORTAGEVILLE (Southwn half) \ Geomorphology
< ««.£ (RWilleite)
III-100
-------
B i_ J E S
MAP 6-D PORTAGEV.LLE River Positions 1938,1955 (P. Willette)
III-101
-------
UHTTED STATES
DEPARTMENT Of THE IKTERIOR
OtOLOOICAL SURVEY
MAP 7-A DANSVILLE
-------
MAP 7-B DANSVILLE (Conowrogo Grv* ? Otology
Vttlty Bottom)
(R. A. Young)
III-103
-------
-------
MAP 8-B SONYEA (ConoMrogo CiMk
Vofay Bottom)
Otology
J "« (RA Young)
III-105
-------
UNITED niawt
atnumatiT or IHE unman
mam or raw root
MAP9-A GENESEO
"topography
IH-106
-------
MAP 9-B 6ENESEO
Gtology-Geomorphology
(RA.Yoong)
IIJ-107
-------
.V BffK UNHID BTATBB
V. DEPARTMENT OF THK IHTERnR
onouniCAL »URVIY
ujr«M t£?t£i iTiii'>^'«i» !T- 'Fir ivy""
MAPIO-A CALEDONIA
111-109
-------
MAP 0-B CALEDONIA (Eoct holt) 1 Geology
(MWilson)
III-109
-------
MAP 10-C CALEDONIA (East half)
Geomorphotogy
(M. Wilson)
III-llO
-------
m-iii
«^v«4M-*MM
A H 'HIM "i *•
«.«o -»««a -.—o ; T7
WSMP"
-------
MAP II-B RUSH
(M. Wilton)
III-112
-------
MAP II-C RUSH
(MWilson)
III-113
-------
CUFTON QUADRAHQLI \*
NBV YOWI-HONNOI CO S
MAPB-A CLIFTON
Topography
-------
MAPI2-B CLIFTON (S.E.Ccrnw)
Geology
*'" (M. Wilton)
I11-115
-------
MAPIZ-C CLIFTON (S.E. CORNER) !j Gaomorphology
(M.Wil»on)
III-116
-------
HfNniCTTAQUAD«ANOi.E yv
MMvnt wn» » >^MI»^M^«fc ^
MAP B-A WEST HENRIEnA
-------
MAP 13-B WEST HENRIETTA
(M.Wilson)
III-118
-------
MAP 13-C WEST HENRIETTA •) Geomorphology
(M. Wilson)
III-119
-------
APPENDIX
STJRFICIAL GEOLOGY OF PARTS OF THE
GENESEO, SON YEA, ATTD DANSVILLE
QUADRANGLES AND ADJACENT AREAS
DR. RICHARD A. YOUNG
III-120
-------
INTRODUCTION
Emphasis in this study has been placed on mapping and inter-
preting the origin of surficial deposits on the Genesee and Can-
aseraga Valleys that contribute most to the sediment in the
river or that provide further understanding of the late glacial
and postglacial events in the valley.
The relatively short time available to complete studies in
the Geneseo, Sonyea, and Dansville Quadrangles resulted in some
areas being hastily or incompletely covered. The greatest amount
of time was spent in trying to delineate deposits that gave pro-
mise of providing the greatest understanding of the geologic
events considered to be most important.
Understanding of the following problems was considered to be
of greatest value:
Nature and mode of deposition of sediments within
and beneath the floodplain.
The extent and general composition of the glacial
till plug (moraine) in the northern part of the
Geneseo Quadrangle. This dam appears to have
exerted a significant control over events and
deposits in the valley to the south during post-
glacial time.
Evidence for the magnitude of recent erosion and
deposition within the main valley, including evi-
dence of long-term trends.
Subdivision of the main study area into subregions
that can be used to better understand the geologic
history and modern behavior of the Genesee River.
Because of high water conditions throughout most of April,
May and June, 1976, it was impossible to adequately examine the
river bed and channel margins in detail. Some preliminary work
was completed during low water conditions in 1975.
Most of the channel of Canaseraga Creek has been channelized,
diked, or dredged within the past few years. For these reasons
it was considered to be impractical to conduct studies along the
III-121
-------
main channel. Most observations in this area were made in newly
dug drainage ditches and from shallow (51) coring. High water
levels were a problem in all areas. It has been assumed that sub-
surface soils mapping studies in the Sonyea and Dansville Quad-
rangles are adequate to define the extent of significant near sur-
face deposits. Field checks were made of all major soils map
units to develop a geologic interpretation.
It is obvious that the Canaseraga has had a different history
from the Genesee River, largely represented by the thick peat
deposits. This is undoubtedly due to the inability of Canaseraga
Creek to build up or erode its floodplain as rapidly as the ^ene-
see River.
It is also obvious that the behavior of the Genesee River is
atypical of large rivers formed solely by fluvial processes. Many
of its characteristics are influenced by glacial events and the
distribution of glacial and postglacial sediments.
III-122
-------
CONCLUSIONS
The Genesee River and Canaseraga Creek between Dansville
and the north edge of the Geneseo Ouadrangle can be divided
into several distinct geologic subregions (see maos) that
have controlled the development and nature of the modern
channel and floodplain for the last several thousand years.
All these differences result from the sequences of events
during deglaciation, and the topography nroduced by earlier
glacial stages.
Although the bulk mineralogy of the sediments in the
floodplain is similar, the style of erosion and deposition
in each section can be related to the local geologic condi-
tions. .Many of these more obvious differences are best shown
on the accompanying maps (with explanations.)
Evidence for periodic events producing unique records in
the floodplain sediments was not obvious. It may be that be-
cause of the narrow width of the floodplain near the Fowler-
ville Bridge, floods of large magnitude do not produce thick-
er depositional units or more erosion than more common floods
of lesser magnitude. The constriction of the valley to the
north may simoly have produced deep "auiet11 overbank flooding
during events of large magnitude.
Over the past 38 years, photographic records of meander
migration and channel erosion indicate that most of the obvi-
ous changes have occurred in the section in the section bet-
ween the Letchworth Gorge and the mouth of Canaseraga Creek
(Average gradient 5.5 feet per mile.) Changes of intermedi-
ate magnitude have occurred between the mouth of Canaseraga
Creek and Geneseo on meanders in the more "normal1' floodplain
(average gradient 1.5 ft./mile). Little change has occurred
in sections oriented N-S or in the section north of Geneseo
cut into till and glacial varves. The Canaseraga has been
confined mainly to the eastern 1/3 of its valley as demonstra-
ted by the thick section of peat filling much of the western
2/3 of the valley. This may be partially due to the fan grad-
ient near Mount Morris that probably keeps the river on the
east side of the valley where it joins the Genesee.
The former course of the ancestral Genesee River through
the Letchworth Gorge probably connected with the main valley
near Cuylerville and occupies the modern Genesee Valley to
III-123
-------
Avon. Development of the modern floodplain across the till
plug near Geneseo has been on the extreme west side of the
buried valley, which is about 300 feet deep and centered near
the junction of Oxbow Lane and Nation's Road. Beneath the
multiple tills and glacial lake deposits exposed in the Letch-
worth gorge are fluvial conglomerates demonstrating northward
flow of the preWisconsinan Genesee River.
Although specific sources of sediment on the valley sides
cannot be easily identified from study of floodplain sediments,
it is possible to identify geologic conditions where channel
behavior is distinctive due to local geologic factors. The
floodplain surface may have been in a state of quasiequilibrium
over the past several thousand years with an apparent tendency
toward aggradation over the past few hundred (?). This would
imply a reasonable balance betvreen erosion, storage, and trans-
port of sediment through the system with the caoability for
net erosion of aggradation of the floodplain dependent on cli-
mate and land use conditions. The relatively recent aggra-
dation on the floodplain could have been accelerated by clear-
ing of the forest cover within the surrounding basin. It ap-
pears likely that clearing of the main floodplain has acceler-
ated meander migration, because those meanders that are not
tree lined show"the greatest change between 1963 and 1976.
However, the recent effect of the Mount Morris dam may have
complicated the natural conditions which prevailed prior to
its completion.
III-124
-------
GEOLOGIC SETTING: DEGLACIATION
1. Valley Heads Moraine (^15,000 BP) •
2. ice withdrawal north of Geneseo Quadrangle with accompany-
ing proglacial lake level changes (little evidence for
this sequence of events preserved in surficial deposits).
At least two tills in Letchworth Park gorge with lakebeds
between suggest retreat was oscillatory.
3. Readvance of ice to within 1 mile north of Geneseo.
Evidence: till exposed in river channel. Probably Port
Huran age (^13,000 BP).
4. Lake in valley either reoccupied eroded outlet
channel at 1000 + ft level westward into Wyoming Valley
(follows "Old State Rd." to Pearl Creek). Conspicuous
delta on west end of channel indicates drainage westward
for this lake stage (Lake Hall?). Moraine parallels Rt.
63 on north side (?)(Leicester Quadrangle). May include
morainal deposits north of Pavilion Center, Stafford Quad-
rangle (Hamburg or Batavia moraine?).
5. Minor retreat of ice to unknown position north of Geneseo
Quadrangle- possibly only a few miles (Lake Whittlesey
events?).
6. Minor readvance ending about 2 miles south of northern
edge of Geneseo Quadrangle (see map). Ice front near
line connecting Salt Creek with Roots Tavern Road. Evi-
dence: Highly variable sequence of reddish clay varves
on older till exposed along Genesee River has been over-
ridden and deformed in northern part of Quadrangle. In-
dividual varves vary greatly in thickness and contain
much evidence of ice rafted stones and till inclusions
within them. Overlying till has few clasts (none in some
areas) as a result of only minor reworking of underlying
varves. Timing: Immediately preceding Lake Warren?
This short (?) readvance may have been a relatively minor
oscillation or series of oscillations of limited regional
significance. The readvance is superimposed on the over-
all "Port Huron" event in the Genesee Valley. Reasoning:
Any significant readvance in this local area would have
III-17.5
-------
scoured out the relatively thin surface deposits and left
a more obvious record in the topography. The variety of
slightly overridden lacustrine deposits and clast-poor
tills of this event make surface mapping difficult until
one realizes that a number of localized ice marginal and
proglacial lake deposits have been overridden and slightly
deformed. On the west side of the Genesee River this ad-
vance may correlate with the morainal topography extending
southeastward from LeRoy, paralleling the Delaware, Lacka-
wanna and Western Railroad on the LeRoy Quadrangle (a2 mi
NE of RR). This would have left open drainage outlets to
the west near 950 ft across the LeRoy and Stafford Quad-
rangles.
Deposits of both advances (items C,F above) filled ances-
tral, glacial-scoured Genesee Vally throughout most of the
section (6 miles) between Geneseo and Fowlerville. The
final retreat left a prominent drift plug with approximate-
ly 80 ft of till exposed at the surface near the northern
edge of the Geneseo Quadrangle. The Genesee River flows
on till and glacial varves for most of the distance between
Geneseo and Avon, New York.
III-126
-------
POSTGLACIAL EVENTS IN THE GENESEE VALLEY
Effect of Drift Constriction
The greatest lateral constriction of the Genesee River
channel is immediately north of the Geneseo Quadrangle
south of the Fowlerville Rd. bridge where a 2-mile reach
of the floodnlain is only 800 to 1000 feet wide incised
in till, but mantled with alluvium. If the obvious
valley cut by the river in this reach is restored to its
probable immediate postglacial appearance, it is likely
that the initial outlet for the northward drainage was
no lower than the 600 foot elevation across the till
plug. Evidence: Extensive lacustrine, deltaic, and
fluvial (?) deposits concentrated mainly between 600 and
640 foot elevations along both sides of the Genesee and
Canaseraga Valleys above the modern floodplain.
Postglacial Lakes
Throughout the Geneseo and Sonyea Quadrangles exposures
in small tributary streams indicate the following gen-
eralized section adjacent to the floodplain. Relatively
thin till is overlain by varved clays not found to exceed
10 feet in thickness. Varve couplets are generally 1/2
inch thick. They are more silty where small tributaries
entered the glacial lakes, especially to the south near
Dansville . The reddish varved clays (with silt partings)
are almost invariably overlain by deltaic sands and
gravels extending to elevations of 900 feet or more near
tributaries. The same sections are observed between tri-
butary streams along the valley sides, except that the
sands are not apparent above 640 to 650 feet and are
generally thin and discontinuous. The most extensive sand
deposits not associated with an obvious delta are those
at the Macauley Archaelogical Site near the confluence of
Canaserage Creek and the Genesee River.
Because of the thickness (up to 18 ft ) of this sand, its
sorting characteristics and the associated archaeological
radiocarbon dates on hearths within the deposits, it was
originally interpreted as indicative of terrace formation
over the period of Indian occupation during the past 5000
III-127
-------
years. This could only be explained by a climatic model
requiring cyclical aggradation and degradation of the
floodplain. To fill Darts of the valley 80-90 feet above
the modern floodplain would require cycling 0.35 cubic
miles of sediment through the valley between Dansville
and Geneseo over a 5000 year period. Present estimates
of sediment transport suggest that this amount of sedi-
ment can be added or removed in 2500 years (minimum).
Current measures of recent floodplain aggradation-are not
inconsistent with this model. Aggradation of 1 ft /100
years on the floodplain is indicated (discussed in follow-
ing section).
However, my current, more complete evaluation of all the
available data suggests that the sand deposits along the
valley walls are more likely to be lacustrine deposits
formed by a rather unique combination of geologic events
beginning with formation of the till dam in the northern
part of Geneseo Quadrangle. However, this low level lake
could not have formed until the ice retreated and all
lakes stages with shorelines above 650 (?) feet in ele-
vation had drained.
Evidence from radiocarbon dating of an archaeological
site 2 feet below the modern floodplain (560 feet) near
the junction of Canaseraga Creek gave an age of 2495 +
90 years B.P., in direct conflict with similar dates at
at the Macauley Site at elevations near 610-620 feet.
If the single date in the modern floodplain is correct
to within a few hundred years, it precludes overbank
floodplain deposition as a realistic mechanism at the
Macauley Site. (Date from W.D. Rhodes, SUNY Geneseo)•
In addition, although the Macauley Site sands have sort-
ing characteristics identical to the sandy layers in the
modern floodplain deposits, no sedimentary structures are
visible at the Macauley Site except for subsoil laminae
produced by groundwater effects. The sand throughout the
Macauley Site is exceedingly uniform and structureless.
Originally this was interpreted as due to leaching and
plant root disturbance, but many older glacial deposits
do preserve sedimentary structures under similar conditions,
Unique Sorting Characteristics of Postglacial Lacustrine (?) Sands
The bulk sorting (sieve analyses) characteristics of the
sands match sand layers within modern overbank deposits,
but the sands deposits lack the conspicuous quantities
of silt and clay layers seen in the modern floodrlain.
III-1P8
-------
For this reason comparisons were made between fluvial,
lacustrine, and eolian sands throughout the valley.
Lake Warren bar deposits were used as a standard for
lacustrine sands. The Macauley sands (and equivalents)
do not match any other deposits well with regards to the
critical parameters. In particular there is little or
no coarse sand, no pebbles, and no gravel associated
with the sands where they occur between small tributaries
along the valley sides. These observations are difficult
to reconcile with other glacial shoreline deposits formed
over shorter intervals. Interpretation: The lack of
coarse sand and pebbles can be attributed to the thick-
ness of underlying varves which must have formerly
blanketed the entire valley. Reworking of these mater-
ials of waves would not produce any coarse beach gravels
and the fines would settle further offshore. However,
the sand could not have come from the much finer-grained
varves themselves. This leaves only tributary sediments
as the plausible source and longshore transport as the
mechanism for distributing the lacustrine sand. If the
lake level gradually fell as the lake outlet was incised
through the till plug, wave action might not have been
concentrated for long periods of any one level. Near
the edge of the modern floodplain overbank flooding and
slope wash could have masked the existence of any coars-
er beach gravels, if they existed. The sands are com-
monly very thin along the valley sides. Erosion, culti-
vation, and weathering make identification difficult in
many areas. Map units have been generalized from thin
remnants on ridges to show the approximate extent of the
sand. Reinterpretation of county soils maps with spot
checks was used extensively to define the sands below
the 650 foot level. At some point near every place
where this sand was mapped it can be demonstrated that
the deposit rests on varved clays, either by coring or
from exposures in small gullies.
Lacustrine Sediments Beneath the Genesee River Floodplain(Fig.A)
In the Canaseraga Valley and along the Genesee River
floodplain from Jones Bridge Road to the Route 63 bridge
at Geneseo (and probably as far north as Salt Creek)
there are extensive thick,gray, silty clays beneath the
modern floodplain sediments. Their lack of sedimentary
structures and high organic content imply these sediments
are lacustrian. They differ from gray sediments filling
old oxbows and sloughs in that the filled oxbows and sim-
ilar channel deposits are much more heterogeneous. Old
oxbow fillings can be best observed along the mile of
river channel north of Route 20A near the mouth of Fall
J.II-129
-------
Figure A. Cross Section from Ross Corners to junction ot Route 63 and Macauley
Road, Sonyea Quadrangle. Map 8-B.
Ill-ISO
-------
Brook. These old channel fills are mottled with browns
and grays and contain stratified units much like the
floodplain, including conspicusous sandy layers. The
older like sediments beneath the floodplain are only par-
tially exposed at low water and are usually covered by
recent channel deposits. They can be sampled by coring
along most of the channel and show no obvious layering.
Unfortunately, during the course of studies in the Spring
and Summer of 1976 the Genesee River never was low enough
to study this gray silty clay in detail throughout the
area mapped. Pipette analyses show the grain size range
to be predominantly silt with about 5 nercent clay. The
bulk by weight is medium to fine silt. By contrast, in
the finest overbank "silts" we analyzed from the flood-
plain, 40 percent of the sample was coarser than very
fine sand (.0625 mm)- It is clear that the gray silty
clay beneath the floodplain is much finer than the bulk
of the floodplain sediments and has a very different
structure (no visible layering except irregular organic
partings)• It is unlikely that oxbows or sloughs in this
valley could escape periodic influxes of moderately
coarse silt or fine sand. Thus this gray clay does not
appear to be unoxidized floodplain sediment. In addition,
if erosion of the till plug near Fowlerville has served
as the main base level for the region upstream, the valley
cannot be filled with fluvial sediments below 510 feet
elevation (minimum at Fowlerville Bridge). The till
channel must have developed a coarse lag armor of boulders.
Recent erosion has incised the base of the channel into
the older lake sediments near Geneseo. Thick sections of
glacial outwash are conspicuously absent throughout the
Geneseo Quadrangle both in surface exposures and a few
deep-well logs. Thus it does not appear likely that the
valley was filled by any thick outwash deposits. This is
probably due to a lack of significant coarse debris in
the glacial ice as well as the repeated deposition and
reworking of fine-grained glacial lake sediments during
multiple glacial advances and retreats along the axis of
the valley. Wells in the delta north of Dansville pene-
trate mainly thick deposits of "tough blue clay" at depth.
Comparison of materials from seven wells near Dansville
demonstrates that the top of the "blue clay" (lacustrine?)
lies at a relatively uniform elevation throughout the
southern end of the valley. The clay slopes from about
600 feet in elevation near Dansville to near 520 feet
near Geneseo. The much greater depth of the color change
to gray silty clay near Dansville indicates that the
transition is not likely to merely reflect oxidation
above the groundwater table (Figure B) .
III-131
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Figure B. Cross Section North of Dunsville near Airport, Dansville
Quadrangle, Map 7-B-
III-132
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SEDIMENTATION AND EROSION ON THE MODERN FLOODPLAIN
1. Several independent lines of evidence suggest that the
Genesee River floodplain has undergone net aggradation over
the past several hundred years.
a. Between Jones Bridge Road and the Route 63 bridge at
Geneseo (°» 10 mi) more than 50 buried hearths were
located at depths below the floodplain of 1.5 to 10
feet. The hearths are concentrated at depths of 3 to
5 feet with very few above or below this interval. One
or more hearths can be located at each cut bank. They
commonly occur in groups along the same general horizon.
No accurate record of numbers was kept, as the signifi-
cance of these hearths was not immediately recognized.
Some of them were eroded by the river during the study
and it is apparent that they are very numerous through-
out the floodplain with new ones continually being
exposed (Figure 9).
From a single arrowhead found in one hearth along with
flint chips, bird bones and clam shells, W. D. Rhodes
estimated the age to be 1500 + A. D. (Iroquois) - A
radiocarbon date on charcoal and bone is being obtained
by W.D. Rhodes from this hearth (depth 4 feet).
Unless net aggradation had occurred over a long inter-
val, these numerous hearths could not have been pre-
served.
b. Prominent buried soil profiles are common at depths
between ISinand 5 feet. Only a single buried profile
was observed in each cut bank and an obvious color
change is not always present. It is generally a dark
brown organic rich zone. This supports recent aggrada-
tion of up to 5 feet, depending on the local variations
in the floodplain profile.
c. In one prominent cut bank near Geneseo (west bank) a
lone tree is currently exposed in cross section through
its root system. It is obvious that the lower branches
of the tree were forced to grow upwards for 3 or 4 feet
along the trunk as sediment buried the lower portion of
the tree. Whereas this is common along point bars
III-133
-------
closer to stream level, it is likely to happen on the
floodplain only when long-term aggradation is occurring.
Although this single instance is not compelling, it
supports the other observations for recent aggradation.
d. A single date on a nut storage pit near a 129 ft long
charcoal lens with associated (?) pottery and stone art-
ifacts has provided a date of 2495 + 90 years B.P. near
the mouth of the Canaseraga Creek 2 feet below the
floodplain (W.D. Rhodes). This date (if accurate)taken
in the context of the other geologic evidence implies
a long term relative stability of the floodolain with
minor net aggradation.
In any event, rapid net lowering of the floodplain dur-
ing past several hundred to several (?) thousand years
seems unsupportable.
e. The Canaseraga floodplain is underlain by thick peat
deposits which have been gradually covered around their
perimeter by overbank depositions. This situation im-
plies aggradation also, and suggests that termination
of the postglacial lake phase was followed by gradual
development of a large swamp in the lower valley which
gradually shrank in size. The thickest peat not covered
by alluvium is a one-square-mile area near Kysorville.
2. Controls limiting the downcutting and lateral migration of
the Genesee River channel:
a. Canaseraga Valley - this area would aggrade or erode as
a function of the behavior of the main Genesee River.
The Genesee River has built a broad delta/fan into the
valley across which the river gradient is approximately
6 feet per mile. Long term sedimentation in this region
is likely to have controlled the rates of sedimentation
along the Canaseraga Creek. It must maintain a gradient
matching the Genesee level.
b. Bedrock channel controls: Within the valley the main
channel rests entirely on bedrock near the Route 63
bridge and near York landing (B and K on map). The
bedrock threshold near Geneseo may be temporary and
fortuitous, but the channel near York Landing (B) is on
the extreme west side of the axis of the old buried val-
ley. In this general region rock may be close to the
surface along much of the channel (Levanna Shale at York
Landing, Ledyard Shale at Geneseo). At present the
channel may be temporarily constrained between these two
points, and it flows mainly through till and varves bet-
ween these two exposures. Behavior of the channel
through this section must be very different from that
III-134
-------
3.
further south.
c. Lakebed clays below floodplain: Wherever the gray la-
custrine silty clays crop out in the river channel
there is evidence of increased large scale bank slump-
ing on cut banks near the contact of the gray clay with
the alluvium. The banks fail as large blocks due to
"liquefaction" of the lacustrine silty clay rather than
by small scale vertical sloughing of the alluvial bank
common elsewhere. This seems to happen usually vhen
the alluvium has been saturated at high water stages,
providing a head for the water saturating the silty
clay beneath. The large landslide at Oxbow Lane
occurred near the contact between varved clays and
overlying till near river level, a similar but more un-
usual situation.
Modes of sediment deposition and transport on floodplain
and in channel of Genesee River:
a. Typical streambank cross-section-
Overbank:
Channel Margins:
Channel Bottom:
10-15 feet horizontally stratified sands and
silts. Thicknesses vary from .f factions of an
inch to several inches, seldom exceed one foot.
Thick coarse silt and sand is commonly separated
by thin layers of finer material.
15-20 feet gently dipping (10-30°), stratified
units of relatively uniform thickness similar
to above but containing more coarse layers.
Couplets deposited on channel point bars and
stream side slopes during rising and falling
stages. Usually coarse sandy layer topped by
finer-grained thin organic layer as velocity and
stage decrease.
Sand and gravel bars, ripple laminated sands,
etc. Gray silty clay lacustrine beds sometimes
crop out along base of channel sides at low
water.
In some instances the gently dipping "point bars"
type deposits extend from water level to the sur-
face of the floodplain where recent point bar
deposition has been dominant or where the sur-
face of the floodplain is slightly lower than
average.
Buried hearths and soil profiles are within the
unt>er 10 feet of overbank deposits.
III-135
-------
4. Mineralogy of sediments:
The striking feature of all the sediments examined in this
study is the predominance of quartz in all size ranges in all
sediments. This was not anticipated in view of the diversity
of rocks throughout the basin and the erratics contained in
the till and channel gravels. Microscopic analysis, magnetic
separation, and x-ray analysis were employed along with siev-
ing and pipette analysis to look for gross trends in the bulk
mineralogy. The coarser material is obviously quartz with
rock fragments and a lesser proportion of the common ferromag-
nesian and feldspar minerals. However, X-ray analysis of
many fine-grained samples showed exceedingly strong quartz
peaks with littleb else besides illite and kaolinite in the
finest fraction (<3.9 microns).
This may imply that either the sedimentary rocks in the basin,
including the shales, are very quartzose or that weathering
of the rocks breaks down the remaining minerals relatively
effectively and removes them in solution.
5. Size Analyses
A wide range of glacial, fluvial, eolian and lacustrine mater-
ials are present in the basin. -Most of our attention was
directed to the sorting characteristics of the floodplain
sediments and sandy lacustrince (?) deposits. Although the
Genesee River channel contains significant amounts of coarse
material, the point bars and overbank deposits in the flood-
plain are relatively uniform and fine grained with a conspic-
uous absence of channel gravel deposits along the channel
sides. This is different from areas south of Portageville.
In the Geneseo Quadrangle a number of analyses chosen to sam-
ple both the coarsest and finest sediments produced no samples
with more than 1 percent by weight of the sample in the very
coarse sand range (1-2 mm). Of course, this excludes all
channel gravel lenses.
Many fine-grained sediments which would commonly be termed
"clay" can be shown to be predominantly silt. Even the gray
lacustrine sediments are 90 percent or more silt. From out-
ward appearances these sediments would probably be described
as slippery, greasy clays.
Only the glacial varves contained as much as 50 percent to 80
percent clay-size particles and require special treatment to
prevent flocculation.
III-136
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SELECTED AREAS OF INTEREST, GENESEO QUADRANGLE (MAP 9-B
A. Large slump exposing ^70 feet of till over varves cropping
out at river level (April 1973).
B. Bedrock exposed across river channel at low water (probably
Levanna Shale).
C. Sequence of varves with extreme variations in thickness of
individual laminae, dipping up to 90°. Till exposed above
and below deformed section. Upper till is deficient in
clasts and probably was formed by short readvance of ice
over varves.
D. Varves exposed under stony till at river level during low
water stages. Outcrop suggests deformation, possible over-
thrusting.
E. Till exposed in channel at low stage.
F. Varves exposed throughout north bank of channel with thin
mantle of alluvium.
G. Till at river level in channel overlain by varves with thin
cover of alluvium.
H. Till exposed in channel at low stage.
I. Varves exposed in cut bank with 5 feet of alluvial cover.
J. Section of varves overlying till can be traced down qullies
on east bank from railroad almost to stream level. Covered
by alluvium near channel. Till-varve contact dips westward
from railroad to edge of channel.
K. Outcrop of bedrock across channel near lower contact of Led-
yard shale (?).
L. Area where lacustrine clay crops out beneath floodplain
sediment of relatively high elevation (visible at moderately
high stages about 25 feet below edge of bank)•
M. Area of natural meander cut off after 1938 but prior to 1963,
Actual age uncertain from photographic record. Overlooked
in 1967 U.S.D.A. Genesee River Basin Study.
III-137
-------
N. Area of abandoned oxbow or slough. Section form M to N shows
cross sections of these features best on Geneseo Quadrangle.
0,P. Areas of recent bank erosion which appear to represent real,
short term threats to major highway and houses.
Q. Artificial cut-off created sometime subsequent to 1938, prior
to 1942? Bedrock section in gullies on east bank is similar
to Fall Brook (see X).
R. Junction of Canaseraga Creek. Macauley Site on east bank.
Section of till overlain by varves and sand along gullies
east bank.
S. Most active meander showing average erosion rate of ^34 feet
per year along cut bank (record 1963-1976 photography)•
T. Exposure of till, varves, lacustrine silts and outwash, show-
ing significant deformation by ice thrusting or overriding.
Section along Salt Creek west of River Road indicate that
youngest ice readvance did not extend south of "T" on west
bank at Genesee River.
U. Gray (lacustrine?) clay at shallow depth beneath alluvium
between river and drainage ditches. Not well exposed along
river channel.
V. Centerfield Limestone exposed in creek bottom in Salt Creek.
W. Along Wheeler's Gully: Section of Centerfield Limestone up
through Tichenor Limestone exposed between old railroad bed
at Nation's Road and Highway 39. Lower part of section has
been recently covered with alluvium.
X. Section from Windom Shale up through West River Shale exposed
between floodplain and Highway 63 at Fall Brook.
Wells with depth to bedrock indicated. Source: (Kreidler
and others, 1972).
A-A. Cross section in Figure 6.
B-B. Cross section in Figure 7.
C-C. Cross section in Figure 9.
River changes. Dots: 1938
Yellow-Black: 1963
Red line: 1976 channel
Red with hachures: 1976 bank positions
Map: 1942-1950?
III-138
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POINTS OF INTEREST, SONYEA QUADRANGLE (Map 8-B)
1. Approximate location of J & R Site (archaeological).
Charcoal Site 2 ft. below surface. Date on nut storage
pit 2495 + 90 B.P.
2. Site of core for date on wood in lacustrine clays at ^17 ft
8050 + 135 B.P.
3. Good exposure of sand-varve contact in creek bank.
4. Good exposure of till, varve, sand contact in drainage ditch
parallel to highway. Ten feet of varves preserved between
till and sand.
5. Gravel pit in delta showing varves near top of section covered
by sands. Photo in NYSGA 1973 Fieldtrip Guidebook, p.ElS
(Young and Rhodes 1973)•
6. Gravel pit in hillside not obviously related to deltas from
creeks north and south. May be outwash deposit or kame ter-
race if not delta.
7. Three shallow wells in this area. Logs in appendix.
D-D. Cross Section in Figure B.
III-139
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POINTS OF INTEREST, DANSVILLE QUADRANGLE (MAP 7-B)
Four wells located by star symbol indicate depth to bed-
rock or depth of fill prenetrated. Many other wells can
be found in Genesee River Basin Study, Vol. 5 (Corps of
Engineers, 1969) Approx. Locations.
E-E. Cross section through well sites with subsurface informa-
tion in Figure A.
X. Lake shoreline? Gravel bar ^880' prominent.
III-140
-------
TABLE A
WELLS IN GENESEE VALLEY NEAR DANSVILLE
Thickness of units generalized from Genesee River Basin Study Vol. 5*
lines indicate top of "blue clay" layer above sea level (ASL)
*(U.S. Corps of Engineers, 1969).
MATERIAL
THICKNESS
MATERIAL
THICKNESS
Well No. 234-742-1
clay, gravel, sand
tough blue clay,
some gravel and sand
gravel, sand clay
bedrock at
68
592'ASL
183'
17'
268'
Well No. 233-742-2
clay, gravel, sand
tough blue clay,
some gravel
rock not reached
65'
580'ASL
89'
Well No. 233-742-3
clay, sand, gravel
tough blue clay
rock not reached
Well No. 234-734-2
clay, sand, gravel
25
603'ASL
32
Well No. 234-743-1
clay, sand, gravel
tough blue clay,
some sand
rock not reached
25
603'ASL
Well No. 233-742-5
clay, sand, gravel
36,5'
593'ASL
86
25
585'ASL
-------
H
H
I
M
ib.
K»
MATERIAL
Well No. 234-734-2
(cont'd.)
touch blue clay
rock not reached
Well No. 233-742-1
clay, sand, gravel
tough blue clay
some sand, gravel
TABLE A" (cont'd.)
THICKNESS
MATERIAL
THICKNESS
27
Well No. 233-742-5 (cont'd.)
tough blue clay,
some gravel
rock not reached
62
608'ASL
75
rock not reached
-------
U)
TABLE B. WELLS IN GENESEE VALLEY NEAR DANSVILLE.
Thickness of units generalized from Genesee River Basin Study Vol. 5(USAGE,1969).
Lines indicate top of "blue clay" layer above sea level(ASL).
MATERIAL
THICKNESS
MATERIAL
THICKNESS
Well No. 234-742-1
clay, gravel, sand
tough blue clay,
some gravel and sand
gravel, sand, clay
bedrock at
68
592'ASL
183'
17'
268'
Well No. 233-742-2
clay, sand, gravel
tough blue clay,
some gravel
rock not reached
Well No. 233-742-3
clay, sand, gravel
tough blue clay
rock not reached
25
603'ASL
27'
Well No. 234-743-1
clay, sand, gravel
tough blue clay,
some sand
rock not reached
65
580'ASL
89'
36.5'
593'ASL
75'
Well No. 233-742-1
clay, sand, gravel
tough blue clay,
some sand, gravel
rock not reached
62'
608'ASL
75'
-------
TABLE C
WELL LOGS, SONYEA QUADRANGLE
SHAKERS CROSSING AREA
#1 Soil 1
yellow-brown silty 28
clay with some sand
sand and gravel 9
blue clay* 12 Depth 50'
#2 Soil 1
brown silt and sand 28
sand and gravel 2
blue clay* 10 Depth 41'
#3 Soil 1
yellow-brown sand, 14
silt, and clay
sand and gravel, 17
some clay
blue clay* 8 Depth 40'
Source Genesee River Basin Study, Vol. 5. (U.S. Corps of
Engineers, 1969.)
*Blue clay (lacustrine) horizon starts at average depth
of 35 feet below surface elevation of 525 feet ASL.
Thickness near Dansville is up to 183 feet in wells that
do not penetrate near axis of valley.
III-144
-------
TABLE D
WELL LOGS, SONYEA QUADRANGLE
SHAKERS CROSSING AREA
UNIT THICKNESS (ft.)
#1 Soil 1
yellow-brown silty 28
sand and gravel 9
blue clay* 12 Depth/SO'
#2 Soil 1
brown silt and sand 28
sand and gravel 2
blue clay* 10 Depth 41'
#3 Soil 1
yellow-brown sand, 14
silt and clay
sand and gravel, 17
some clay
blue clay* 8 Depth
Source Genesee River Basin Study, Vol. 5. (U.S. Corps of
Engineers, 1969 ) •
* Blue clay (lacustrine) horizon starts at average depth of
35 feet below surface at elevation of 525 feet ASL. Thickness
near Dansville is up to 183 feet in wells that do not penetrate
bedrock near axis of valley.
III-145
-------
REFERENCES
Kreidler, W.L., A.M. Vantyne, and K.M. Jorgensen, 1972. Deep wells in
New York State; NYS Museum Bull. 418A, 335p.
US Army Corps of Engineers, 1969. Genesee River Basin Comprehensive Study
of Water and relative Resources. NY State Conservation Dept. Dept. 8 vols.
Young, R. A. and W. D. Rhodes, 1973. Late Glacial and postglacial geology
of the Genesee Valley in Livingston County, NY; A preliminary report; NYS
Geol. Assoc. Guidebook; 45th Ann. Meeting, Sept. 28-30, 1973, p. El-21.
III-146
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Iituruetions on the rtvenc before completing!
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-905/9-91-005B
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Genesee River Watershed Study
Volume 2 - Special Studies - New York State
5. REPORT DATE
March 1978
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Michael M. Reddy
Philip R. Whitney
Ernest H. duller
I. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
New York State Department of Environmental
Bureau of Technical Services and Conservation
,.„ , , , Research
50 Wolf Road
Albany, New York 12233
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
A42B2A
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
P.005144
2,sPCN£or'.;^q '.c:^;;r :.:z A up ADDRESS *.-,.•
Great Lakes National Program Office
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVtRtO
Final 1974-1978
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
GLNPO/USEPA
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Ralph G. Christensen, Grant Officer - Patricia Longabucco, MY DEC Coord
16. ABSTRACT
Report I
Report II
Report III
Sediment Nutrient and Metal and Water Column
Heavy Metal Characterization in the Genesee River
Geochemistry of Oxide Precipitates in the Genesee
Watershed
Surficia.1 Geology of the Genesee Valley
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
Nutrients
Sediments
Heavy metals
Oxide precipitates
Water quality
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATi Field/Group
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMEJ
Jpcument is
;hroucjh the —._.._.. Y
information Service (NTIS)
°pringfield, VA. 22161
ATEME.NT
available to tbe public
National .Technical
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport/
None
21. NO. OF PAGES
282
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
None
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
111-147
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