United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
S. Kerr Environmental Research
Laboratory
Ada OK 74820.
EPA-600/2-80-1 83
December 1980
/\
c. +*
Research and Development
vvEPA
Industrial Reuse and
Recycle of
Wastewatersrs
Literature Review
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EPA 600/2-80-183
September 1980
INDUSTRIAL REUSE AND RECYCLE
OF WASTEWATERS
LITERATURE REVIEW
by
John E. Matthews
Source Management Branch
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
ROBERT S. KERR ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
ADA, OKLAHOMA 74820
U S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region V, Library
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60604
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Robert S. Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for
publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not consti-
tute endorsement or recommendation for use.
J,8. Environmental Protection Aconcy
ii
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FOREWORD
The Environmental Protection Agency was established to coordinate adminis-
tration of the major Federal programs designed to protect the quality of our
environment.
An important part of the Agency's effort involves the search for informa-
tion about environmental problems, management techniques and new technologies
through which optimum use of the Nation'a land and water resources can be
assured and the threat pollution poses to the welfare of the American people
can be minimized. EPA's Office of Research and Development conducts this
search through a nationwide network of research facilities.
As one of these facilities, the Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research
Laboratory is responsible for the management of programs to: (a) investigate
the nature, transport, fate and management of pollutants in ground water;
(b) develop and demonstrate methods for treating wastewaters with soil and
other natural systems; (c) develop and demonstrate pollution control technol-
ogies for irrigation return flows; (d) develop and demonstrate pollution con-
trol technologies for animal production wastes; (e) develop and demonstrate
technologies to prevent, control, or abate pollution from the petroleum refin-
ing and petrochemical industries; and (f) develop and demonstrate technologies
to manage pollution resulting from combinations of industrial wastewaters or
industrial/municipal wastewaters.
In order to control or abate pollution from industrial sources, it has
become apparent that in-plant controls will be necessary. The reuse/recycle
of process and/or total plant wastewaters must be an integral part of any
in-plant control program. Reuse/recycle technology and systems imployed in
one industry may have applications in another industry; therefore, a compre- -
hensive review of information related to industrial reuse/recycle of waste-
waters should prove beneficial to anyone interested in industrial pollution
control. This report reviews prominent literature published primarily during
the 1967-1978 period on the reuse/recycle of wastewaters for nine different
industrial categories. In addition, literature on economics of wastewater
reuse/recycle and processes necessary for reuse/recycle is included. It is
anticipated that this report will provide a digest of present reuse/recycle
practices by industry.
William C. Galegar
Director
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
iii
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ABSTRACT
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL 92-500)
requires industry to achieve the goal of zero discharge by 1985. In order
for industry to reach this goal, reuse/recycle of treated wastewaters will
be necessary.
A review of the literature on reuse/recycle of wastewaters by industry
is presented in this report. The principal time period reviewed was 1967-
1978. The majority of the references were located either in Water Resources
Information Center Bibliographies on Water Reuse or the Journal Water Pollu-
tion Control Federation Annual Literature Review. A total of 912 references
are cited. Since the literature on reuse/recycle is voluminous, it was
impossible to include all references on the subject; however, an attempt
was made to include the most prominent for nine different industrial cate-
gories. In addition, the report includes sections on industrial use of
municipal wastewater, reclamation processes, and economics of water reuse/
recycle.
There is ample evidence in the literature to suggest that the reuse/
recycle of wastewaters by industry is feasible. Successful applications of
reuse/recycle technology have been claimed at numerous industrial installa-
tions.
It must be remembered, however, that while reuse possibilities are
numerous and easy to propose, each reuse case is different to some extent.
In all cases, the decision on what water can be recycled is not casual but
must be based on careful evaluations of process requirements.
iv
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CONTENTS
Foreword ill
Abstract iv
1. Introduction 1
2. Industrial Use of Municipal Wastewaters 7
3. In-plant Wastewater Reuse and Recycle 14
Food Processing 17
Textiles and Synthetic Products 29
Leather Tanning 38
Petroleum Refining 41
Organic Chemicals 49
Inorganic Chemicals 54
Iron and Steel 56
Metal Plating and Finishing 65
Pulp and Paper and Allied Industries 79
Miscellaneous Industrial. . . 105
4. Reclamation Processes for Industrial Reuse of
Wastewaters 113
5. Economics of Water Reuse and Recycle 126
6. Discussion 133
References 136
v
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
The Federal Water Pollution Act (FWPCA) Amendments of 1972 (PL 92-500)
comprise far-reaching legislation requiring major responses from industry (1).
Industry is now faced with the problem of achieving zero discharge by 1985
(2). This has led to renewed effort to develop water reuse systems for indus-
trial processing. Reuse of treated wastewaters by industry will be required
if the 1985 goal of zero discharge is to be met (3). The relationship of PL
92-500 and the implementation of wastewater reuse projects was reviewed by
Herson (4).
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) views closed-cycle water
systems (zero discharge) as an ultimate goal for industrial plants to control
water pollution (5). Although total reuse may be presently unattractive from
an economic standpoint, future disposal requirements may increase the worth
of waters now discarded. Accordingly, new plants must locate water-use and
distribution systems in a manner conducive to conversion to closed-cycle
systems, and older facilities must incorporate reuse/recycle facilities in
new construction projects. Milligan (6) noted that maximum reuse of waste-
water must become a normal operating practice if the established goals for
the clean-up and elimination of pollutants discharged into navigable waters
are to be achieved.
Zero discharge refers to a goal for water-use systems in which all
vastes are resources which can be used (7). It is based on a concept of
finite resources. Steps in establishing a zero-discharge strategy are:
1) inventorying waste consumption item by item and listing positive means to
be adopted to limit consumption to minimum levels required by each process
stage, 2) defining qualities of water required, and 3) establishing treatment
levels for recycle of water.
Professional people in the field of industrial pollution control have
said for many years that the ultimate goal should be elimination of effluent
discharges to the maximum possible extent (8). Reduction of waste volumes
by good housekeeping, conservation, and reuse is the first step recommended
in any engineering text on pollution control. Angelbect et al. (9) foresees
total water recirculation with possible by-product recovery to be the most
immediate solution to the wastewater problem.
Train (10) reviewed EPA activities in the areas of wastewater treatment
and water reuse along with future challenges in these areas. The Agency has
put strong emphasis on research and development associated with water reuse.
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Norman (11) examined the reasons for reuse of water. Three motives—
scarcity of resources, environmental constraints, and economics—are shown to
be the principal ones. The prime reason can differ for different locations.
Modes of water reuse are described. The equipment and processes utilized to
prepare the water for the various usages vary with quality and environmental
requirements. Some of the problems encountered in water reuse and future
developments to overcome these are described.
Othmer (12) observed that the ancient philosophy of waste disposal by
dilution must give way to optimizing primary, secondary, and tertiary treat-
ments for maximum product recovery and water recycling.
Water reuse is becoming an increasingly attractive solution to industry
(13). New, stricter pollution control standards require large expenditures
to clean industrial waste streams. In many cases, only a small additional
cost would bring these same streams to reusable water quality. In addition,
the costs of providing fresh water from local supplies is increasing. Since
many industrial waste streams are spent washwaters, it is often possible to
recover by-products of value from the wastes. All of these factors combine
to make water reuse an increasingly attractive economic alternative.
The practice of water reuse can be divided into sequential reuse and re-
circulation (14). Sequential reuse is the practice of using a given water
stream for two or more processes or operations before final treatment or dis-
posal—i.e., to use the effluent of one process as the input to another.
Treatment may or may not occur between each process or operation. Recircula-
tion is the practice of recycling the water within a unit process or group of
processes. A combination of these practices will be required for an optimum
reuse scheme. For purposes of definition, reuse is defined as the utiliza-
tion of water that has been used previously for another purpose; whereas
recycle is the reuse of the same water one or more times for the same purpose
(5).
Dugan and McGaufey (15) stated that reclamation and reuse of wastewater
has been inhibited by: 1) confusion concerning objectives of water reuse,
2) need for relating treatment effort to the use, 3) guidelines regarding
effluent discharge, and 4) serious consideration of energy conservation ver-
sus water reuse. A review of the factors involved in the reuse of water was
presented. Suhr (16) discussed the concept of wastewater reclamation. Pol-
lution abatement is probably the most important aspect of wastewater
reclamation. Reclaimed waters may be used in agriculture, industrial pro-
cesses, groundwater recharge or domestic recycling.
In the past, most water reusers were primarily motivated by either the
lack of adequate water sources or by higher pollution standards (17). As
wastewater treatment requirements have become more uniform and stringent
throughout the nation and the costs of meeting these requirements have in-
creased, the management of water resources has become more critical, and the
reuse of wastewaters has become more attractive. At the present time, the
reuse practice is not limited to any particular industry; but major water
users, such as power, steel, petroleum, chemicals, and pulp and paper
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industries, have been involved in wastewater reuse for varied purposes such
as cooling, processing, boiler feed, washing, and others.
The practice of treating wastewater to obtain compliance with discharge
regulations may often produce a water of sufficiently high quality to allow
its reuse within the plant (18); however, once this is recognized, the entire
subject of reusing water in industrial process facilities can be viewed from
a somewhat different perspective. The major concern is now shifted from the
environment to one of proper water management, and an intelligent evaluation
may uncover technically and economically better methods to achieve a total
reuse program.
Water reuse is a solution to two major problems associated with this
natural resource: water pollution and diminishing new, suitable water sup-
plies (19). The benefits from industrial water conservation and reuse are
manifold. Through proper management, all water can be used to the maximum
extent before disposal, resulting in a lesser demand from the primary source
and releasing to some degree the constraints imposed by the quantity and
quality of this source (14). Another benefit would be increased product
recovery and more efficient use of raw materials. Minimization of the waste
treatment problem would also result from improved control.
The obvious benefit to industry of a closed-cycle water-use system is
that the rules cannot change very much and the costs of pollution control can
be predicted for a long time in the future (8). Water users would, at the
same time, have the maximum practical protection of water quality. The
practice of recirculation reduces the overall water volume, reduces the
amount of water subjected to pollution, thus reducing the size, and the cost
of facilities needed to maneuver and treat the water (20).
There are two basic methods by which recirculation systems are designed
and operated (21). Recirculation can be incorporated on each separate
process, or all process waters can be combined, treated to the extent
necessary, and used as intake water for all processes. The choice usually
depends upon the water-use system prior to design of the recirculating
system.
The advantages of recycling water are outlined by Gillie and Stander
(22). Recycling prevents water pollution, while being an important water
augumentation system for producing water conforming to the quality require-
ments for a wide range of uses and constitutes an economically attractive
method of providing new water.
Burnham (23) reviewed design and operating practices for controlling
water pollution from waste treatment operations at a minimum cost. The most
effective way to eliminate pollution is at the source. Water reuse is a
pollution control technique which can provide valuable by-products and an
inexpensive source of process water.
Terminal treatment facilities are subject to malfunctions, as are all
chemical and mechanical operations (21). These failures can result in little
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or no treatment, and resulting discharge of contaminant loads equal to that
from several days of normal operation can occur in a few hours of down-time„
A properly designed recycle system, however, can continue to be operated with
no discharges while repairs are accomplished. Reliability of environmental
protection is an inherent advantage of a recycle system.
Even in areas of abundant supply, treatment for recycle is often more
economical than treatment to meet stringent discharge requirements. Smith
(24) reported that wastewater can be reused not only for water savings but
also in some cases to effect an energy savings as well. Wagstaffe (25)
reports that the shortage of raw materials and energy has provided added in-
centive to reduce pollution by recovery of wastes for recycling or reuse.
The ability of a plant to produce an effluent which meets current and
future EPA guidelines is due in large part to establishment of and adherence
to a water management plan which places great emphasis on water reuse and
product recovery (26). A water management plan is presented with emphasis on
water reuse and product recovery for a paper mill which processes waste scrap
paper into paper used in the manufacture of wallboard liner. Operating data
are included which illustrate how this plant is able to meet Federal EPA ef-
fluent guidelines with minimum end-of-pipe treatment due to an effective
water plan.
Benefits accruable to reclamation and reuse include the identifiable
economic, ecological, and social impact on receiving waterways because of
greatly reduced pollutional loads (16). In addition, other benefits,
including reduced cost for development of alternate sources of water supply,
maximum development and use of the existing water resource, and the ability
to serve more people and industries must be considered. Economic justifica-
tion of water reclamation and reuse is possible only if all potential
benefits are considered. With any industry water management program, the
goal must be the development of performance-guaranteed wastewater treatment
at best costs (1).
Channabasappa (27) contends that increased industrial water requirements
can be met only by in-plant recirculation and reuse. By reuse and recircula-
tion, the total water requirement of industry can be reduced (28). Where
cooling is the principal use, substitution of recycle for once-through can
reduce the water intake by as much as 90 percent.
Because of the rapid municipal and industrial expansions, one-time use
of water has become a luxury that can no longer be afforded (29). Renovation
of wastewater for deliberate reuse must be practiced. Water, once used for
domestic and industrial purposes, still constitutes a natural resource that
can be renovated and reused (16).
It has long been recognized that municipal and industrial wastes may
become an important water resource for industry (30). In the past, treated
wastewaters have been used primarily as cooling water. However, with the
advent of economic demineralization processes, it is possible to consider
water reuse for many additional processing requirements. Direct water reuse
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must be considered as an alternative to development of new water resources
(31). A general treatment of direct water reuse and possible applications
of reuse were provided.
diminishing
Because of the convergence of the
demands placed on that supply, the advanced
wastewater has gained recognition as a keys
management (32). More rigid requirements
intensified the reuse of water and the inte
that might be utilized for renovating
reuse criteria.
supply of water and the
level treatment and reuse of
:one of total water resource
wastewater disposal have
est in various unit processes
to meet effluent and/or
for
wastewaters
Recent restrictive regulations and lira
emphasized the importance of reusing effluent
water has led some industries to reuse subs
for various services, including cooling tow
(34).
Lted fresh-water supplies have
water (33). Scarcity of fresh
:antial quantities of fresh water
ir make-up and boiler feed water
Morris (35) and Partridge and Paulson
the general subject of wastewater renovatioji
brief general discussion of reasons for wat
ting that cities and industries could increase
water five times by total renovation and re
they use. Gallagher (38) discussed the reu
ment for industrial cooling and process wat
presented a discussion principally concerned
industrial applications for wastewater trea
discussed various aspects of
and reuse. Singer (37) gave a
*r renovation and reuse, estima-
their existing supply of fresh
cycling of 80 percent of the water
se of reclaimed water as a supple-
ar. Reidinger et al. (30)
with what might be considered
tment and reuse.
Industrial wastes often contain toxic
face waters is objectionable for many reasons
certain toxic chemicals, if recovered from
economic returns in addition to removing th
stream. Where the water recovered from these
can be reused, resulting in reduction of wa|ste
reuse of wastewater is often a necessity wh
to fill increasing needs of expanding popul
The use of renovated industrial and
raw water sources is becoming widely accept
shown to be the water source alternative at
trend appears to be in favor of increased
pollution control standards and raw water c|osts.
Scherm and Lawson (41) conducted a s
treatment and the feasibility of wastewater
Fritsche and Schima (42) discussed the reus
wastewater for industrial water needs. The
may significantly reduce water consumption
A great deal of concern has been expressed
wastewater treatment systems (43). The primary
chemicals whose disposal into sur-
(39). On the other hand,
industrial waste, bring high
e pollution load from the waste
se wastes is of good quality, it
and costs of treatment. Such
en the natural water is inadequate
ations and industries.
municipal
wastewaters to supplement
ed, and in many cases, is being
least cost (40). The future
ater reuse because of increasing
tudy
with emphasis on tertiary
renovation for industrial reuse.
e of industrial and/or municipal
reuse of industrial wastewater
requirements.
for the future development of
concern is for finding means
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of reusing treated wastewater instead of merely disposing of it. It is
emphasized that any system or method must be cost effective.
Wastewater is reused, principally, for economic reasons (34). Raw water
itself, the treating of raw water, and treating wastewater to meet discharge
regulations all cost money. Present usage and future predictions of water
demands make water resource conservation, renovation, and reuse of waste-
water imperative (44).
By the year 2000, the U.S. will need over 1 trillion gallons of water
daily (45). With common sense and careful management, availability can be
assured through steady attempts to close the loop by recycling or reuse in
another function. Heckroth (46) reviewed the overall potential for reuse by
industry and found that 20 percent of the industrial water demand could be
met by reuse in 1980 and 54 percent by the year 2020. Industries with the
greatest potential for reuse are pulp and paper, plastics, meat processing,
primary metals, drugs, detergents, food processing, petroleum, and rubber.
The purpose of this report is to present a review of available litera-
ture as it pertains to industrial reuse and recycle of wastewaters. Specific
topics include: industrial use of municipal wastewaters, reuse and recycle
of wastewaters by specific industrial categories, reclamation processes and
economics of reuse practices.
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SECTION 2
INDUSTRIAL USE OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
Several factors are responsible for increased interest in reusing munic-
ipal wastewater during the last few years: 1) in many areas of the country,
water is in short supply, 2) advances in wastewater engineering have made
possible higher efficiencies in the removal of pollutants from municipal ef-
fluent, and 3) concern about the quality of man's environment and the
Nation's water resources has been increasing (4).
Gavis (47) evaluated the potential for wastewater reuse through reclama-
tion of effluents from advanced wastewater treatment plants. The potential
for reclamation of used municipal and industrial water was discussed. An
optimistic view was presented for the growth of the practice of water reuse,
concluding that the practice of water reuse will continue to grow with the
growth of population and industry in the United States.
Two potential sources from which industrial water needs can be obtained
are municipal and industrial wastes (48). Whether It is economical to get
additional industrial water by desalination of sewage or industrial wastes
or both must be based on: 1) cost and availability of alternate water re-
sources, 2) actual cost of treating wastes by desalination processes,
3) value of by-product recovery, and 4) cost savings accruing from lesser
volumes of wastes to be discharged.
Eller et al. (49) discussed industrial water reuse and recycling with
particular emphasis placed on the reuse of municipal wastewaters by selected
industries. Experience has shown that industrial use of reclaimed sewage
effluents can be economical; such sources also have the advantages of con-
stant composition and dependable flow (50).
Garland (51) discussed the potential for development of industrial water
supplies from municipal wastewater effluents. He also presented a flowsheet
for a typical reclamation plant. Mendia (52) described treatment of the
secondary effluent from a municipal wastewater plant to render it suitable
for industrial reuse. Janacek (53) discussed the feasibility of utilizing
renovated municipal wastewater effluent as makeup for boiler applications.
It is apparent that industry has a relatively large untapped water
resource available in reclaimed sewage effluent (54). Examples of industrial
use of sewage reclaimed wastewaters were presented. McJunkin (55) reported
that reuse of municipal wastewater for industrial supply appears to offer
the greatest potential for increasing available water resources.
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Many areas with a water shortage have resorted to reuse of treated
wastewater effluent in order to augment their water supplies (56). Indus-
tries have found that municipal effluent is suitable and less costly than
treated potable water for cooling purposes. As the effluent quality improves
due to improvements in waste treatment facilities, the effluent becomes suit-
able for more industrial functions. Weddle et al. (57) reported that
renovated municipal wastewater may be used as make-up for cooling towers or
as boiler feed water.
Petrasek et al. (58) reviewed industrial water supply problems and
requirements. The quality of water required depends on whether it will be
used as a coolant or as boiler feed. Tests were performed at a treatment
facility on two different treatment sequences: biological-physical and
biological-physical-chemical. The authors reported that primary effluents,
although not of high quality, have certain applications as cooling waters
and in the lumber and metals industries. Activated sludge effluent can be
used in the lumber, petroleum, metals, cement, and paper industries. When
filtered, this water can be used in finishing and rinsing processes. After
activated carbon adsorption, the effluent is considered to be of high quality
and can be used for all industries except those requiring potable water.
Train (10) reported that the reuse of municipal wastewater was being
practiced on a continuing basis in 358 locations throughout the United
States, chiefly in the semi-arid southwestern states. Principal applications
include irrigation, landscaping, industrial cooling and processing water
utilization, and recreation lake maintenance. He noted that the present
reuse of wastewater, however, is small in relation to the amount of municipal
wastewater being generated and that expanded practice and continued develop-
ment of municipal wastewater reclamation is required.
A survey of municipal reuse indicated that 358 locations, mostly in the
semi-arid southwest United States, reuse wastewater for such purposes as
irrigation, industrial cooling and process water, recreational lakes, and
fish propagation (59). Of the total volume of 113 billion gallons per year
of reused water, 53.5 billion gallons were used at 14 industrial plants. A
list of industrial users of reclaimed municipal wastewaters was prepared by
Sawyer (60).
In South Africa, secondary effluentsjaave been reclaimed for industrial
and other purposes for some time (61). The reuse of wastewater for indus-
trial purposes is possible at competitive prices and is considered a rational
way to deal with increasing water demands. Hart and Henson (62) reported on
South African experience using municipal wastewater in various industries.
Ikehata (63) discussed the reuse of municipal wastewater in Japan.
Water reuse has been limited to industrial water. Techniques for the recla-
mation of municipal wastewater for reuse were reviewed. Kubo (64) reported
that steel mills, metal-working, and chemical industries, using water for
cooling and washing, have been the principal effluent users.
The largest use of water in industry is for cooling and boiler feed
(65). The author projected that municipal effluent would be the most logical
8
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source of cooling water needed to supply the increasing power demand for
north-central Texas. Municipal wastewater and industrial waste streams have
been reported as potential cooling water sources, provided the contaminants
were properly defined when evaluating suitability of a water for cooling
purposes (66).
Mckee (67) surveyed the potential use of reclaimed wastewaters in north
central Texas and determined that the largest potential market of renovated
municipal effluent was the steam-electric power industry that required make-
up water for cooling towers. By reuse of wastewaters for cooling purposes,
the power industry could readily be able to meet the future generating capac-
ity requirements for the area.
Van Eeden (68) described a cooling system in South Africa that conserved
water for operating at higher levels of dissolved solids and restricted blow-
down. The cooling water is concentrated six to eight times, mixed with
demineralizer brines, and used for conveying fuel ash. Treated sewage efflu-
ents are used as make-up water.
Francis et al. (69) reported on the use of treated sewage effluents for
cooling and quenching applications in cement work and cooling purposes in
power stations, incinerators, and engines. Savings amounting to 82 percent
of the cost of purchasing high-grade water have been realized.
Folster and Barkley (70) described wastewater reuse practices for west
Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. Municipal wastewater from Amarillo, Texas,
is being used by the Southwestern Public Service Company for its steam-
powered electric generating plants and by Texaco for cooling and boiler water
make-up. The El Paso Products Company in Odessa, Texas, uses treated munici-
pal effluent in its chemical manufacturing operations. Cosden Oil and
Chemical Company of Big Springs, Texas, reuses municipal effluent in low-
pressure boiler feed make-up water. Treated municipal wastewater is being
reused in New Mexico for mineral processing, cooling water, irrigation, and
operations at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory.
The water reclamation and sewage treatment plant of the city of
Amarillo, Texas, has been satisfactorily providing reclaimed water to an oil
refinery since 1955 and cooling water to a generating station since 1960
(71). The quality of raw effluent at the treatment plant dictates the cost
of reused water. The reclaimed wastewater is also used as make-up water for
the boilers of an electrical generating station. The wastewater reclamation
system consists of a conventional activated sludge plant.
Industries within the industrial complex at Odessa, Texas, use city
sewage effluent as the primary source of industrial water (72). Careful
attention to the quality requirements of each water user also makes it pos-
sible to reuse significant quantities of wastewater within the plants in the
complex. This reuse can sometimes be accomplished with very simple pro-
cessing or even without any processing at all.
At Odessa, Texas, El Paso Products Company has in the past obtained 85
percent of its process water from the city wastewater treatment facility
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(73). The treatment system at the industry includes lagoon, lime precipita-
tion, recarbonation, and filtration, degasification, and ion exchange. After
use of the reclaimed water for cooling purposes, it is then clarified, fil-
tered, and finally sold to an oil-producing company for utilization in
secondary oil recovery.
At San Diego, California, a reverse osmosis pilot plant was constructed
for the purpose of providing reclaimed water for boiler feed and for cooling
towers (74). The author described the renovation system, tabulated the
operating conditions, and assessed the operating costs.
It has been established that certain electric generating plants can use
significant amounts of treated municipal wastewater (75). For every gallon
of treated water reused, one gallon is added to the total fresh water
resources. The studies and experience of Southwestern Public Service Company
at their Lubbock and Amarillo, Texas plants where sewage effluent is used as
cooling and/or boiler make-up water indicates that sewage effluent is a
valuable source of industrial water (76). The Nevada Power Company has
successfully used sewage effluent for cooling blowdown purposes since 1957
at two of its generating plants (77). A power generating station in Lawton,
Oklahoma, uses purified effluent from the municipal tertiary treatment
facility as make-up for its cooling lake (78).
Various aspects of the use of sewage effluent as cooling water in power
stations were discussed by Humphris (79). The Croydon Power Station in
England has used sewage effluents for this purpose for 20 years. This use
of sewage effluent has proven economical and beneficial to the waterway
receiving the effluent (80). Wood (81) concluded that sewage effluent could
be used in other applications to provide water savings.
The central Contra Costa Sanitary District 30-mgd wastewater recycling
plant at Pacheco, California, will provide 17 mgd of treated wastewater to
five San Francisco Bay-area industries: Phillips Petroleum, Shell Oil,
Stauffer Chemical, Monsanto, and Pacific Gas and Electric (82). Physical-
chemical treatment is necessary because water reused by the area industries
must be low in phosphorus, BOD, and suspended solids. Treatment at the
facility includes: flocculation, sedimentation, oxidation and nitrification,
chlorination, denitrification, and dual-media filtration. Flett (83) de-
scribed the Contra Costa County water reclamation project and industrial
participation in the decision-making process to reuse municipal effluent for
cooling purposes by several industrial plants. HorstKotte (84) discussed
pilot plant operations.
Boler and Grounds (85) described a proposed combination sewage treat-
ment-thermal cooling system in which mixed liquor from a channel aeration
sewage treatment plant is pumped through the condenser of a power plant to
remove rejected heat and then returned to the aeration channel where cooling
and aeration are accomplished. The potential advantages of this type of com-
bined treatment system are discussed in detail. The authors feel that the
proposed combination system should result in about a 50 percent capital cost
savings in comparison with separate sewage treatment plants and closed-loop
cooling systems.
10
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Mayes and Gibson (86) reported on the utilization of sewage effluent
water for almost all refinery uses at the petroleum processing complex of
Cosden Oil and Chemical Company at Big Spring, Texas, with problems listed
that were encountered during 13 years of reuse. The most important consider-
ation in choosing a water for use in a plant is the cost and quality. The
industrial decision to use municipal sewage effluent water in lieu of some
other source must, in the final analysis, be based on cost comparison where
the quality is comparable. To aid a manager in choosing between sewage ef-
fluent and other sources, economic data were presented for the Big Spring
refinery.
At the refinery of the Standard Oil Company in Lima, Ohio, the use of
municipal wastewater treatment plant effluent was required when the city's
treated water supply became inadequate (87). The authors described the
reclamation system and discussed the operating results and operating problems
that were encountered. Refining operations at Enid, Oklahoma, and at Santa
Rita and Hurley, New Mexico, use treated municipal wastewater for all their
water needs (50). The Enid, Oklahoma, plant of Champlin Petroleum Company
uses municipal sewage effluent for all its water requirements (88).
Banerji (89) and Shah (90) described a system for processing municipal
sewage and reusing it for industrial operations at the Union Carbide chemicals
and plastics plant at Bombay, India. The cost of the reclaimed water is 60-
65 percent that of municipal water.
After the investigation of potential solutions to water supply problems
at a Dow Chemical Company plant, the alternative finally selected was use of
the treated effluent from the wastewater treatment plant of Midland, Michigan
(91). Water was provided that required only additional chlorination to be
suitable for use as cooling water, service water, and for fire-protection
systems.
A chemical-industrial complex in an arid region depends upon municipal
sewage for its water supply (92). The sewage is subjected to screening,
primary clarification, activated sludge treatment, lagooning, cold lime
treatment, filtration, and ion exchange prior to use by industry.
Hofstein and Kim (17) described the successful use of treated municipal
wastewaters in an integrated steel mill. Jacobs and Smith (93) described
the refinement of tertiary treated wastewater by the flotation process to
produce water suitable for use in the manufacture of bleached kraft pulp and
fine paper.
Conradi and Smith (94) described the use of municipal wastewater efflu-
ent in large amounts for process purposes at a bleached kraft mill. The
wastewater was successfully treated by addition of lime to pH 1Q,8-11.0,
clarification, carbonation with C02 to pH 9.5 after settling, further carbon-
ation, and sand filtration.
The use of the Baltimore, Maryland, sewage effluent by the Bethlehem
Steel Company is perhaps the classic example of sewage effluent use for indus-
trial purposes (88). This plant accounted for better than 50 percent of the
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sewage effluent utilized by industry for many years. A large number of
mining operations in the southwest utilize treated sewage effluent as feed to
their plants.
The intensive reuse of municipal wastewater for industry has made pos-
sible a high degree of industrialization in Monterrey, Mexico (95). Indus-
try, using the final effluent from the domestic wastewater treatment plant,
has solved the problem of lack of water, poor water facilities, and conta-
mination (96). The industrial complex is dedicated to the manufacture of
rayon, synthetic thread, and chemical products such as sulfuric acid, hydro-
chloric acid, chlorine, caustic soda, carbon disulfide, and refrigerant
gases. Gomez (96) reported that about 60 percent of Monterrey's water was
reused by over 30 industries.
The only way to utilize sewage plant effluent fully and successfully for
industrial or other service is to evaluate each plant's characteristics and
to solve problems involved in each application prior to development of a
project (97). It is important to note that an industry will utilize sewage
effluent if the industry has requirements for such water and if the sewage
plant has sufficient effluent available at an economic price (88).
Although municipal waste is adaptable for limited reuse (cooling water
and process water) with minor pretreatment, municipal treatment processes
increase the total dissolved solids (TDS) level significantly which, in turn,
increases water consumption, pretreatment costs, and internal treatment costs
(42). Such increases in TDS levels do not occur in industrial process waste-
water. Also, if municipal wastewater is to be used in steam generation
systems, phosphorus removal is necessary; ammonia removal may also be neces-
sary, depending on the use of the steam.
According to Fynak (98), the total cost of processing to meet quality
requirements and delivering a reusable municipal wastewater will be the most
important consideration for use by industry. However, recycling of waste-
water within a plant is simpler and is being adopted more extensively.
Sewage plant effluent can be a valuable source of industrial water, but
its degree of response to conventional chemical treatments must be carefully
investigated for each situation (99). Three kinds of industrial water reuse
systems were discussed: 1) a plant which recycles water within its own con-
fines by a cascade system, 2) a plant down river which collects discharges
from other plants and from the city, and 3) a plant which directly uses muni-
cipal sewage plant effluent.
Culver and Thomas (100) reviewed the methods used to reclaim usable
water from municipal wastewater. Results obtained, costs of construction
and operation, precautions to be observed in the use of reclaimed water, and
alternative potential uses of reclaimed water were considered.
A paper mill using purified sewage as its major source of water experi-
enced difficulty in meeting brightness demands for fine bleached paper due to
the presence of residual organic matter and heavy metals in the purified
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sewage (101). Results of laboratory-scale investigations led to the recom-
mendation of alum treatment prior to use.
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SECTION 3
IN-PLANT WASTEWATER REUSE AND RECYCLE
A limited water supply plus stringent environmental requirements combine
to provide industry with a strong incentive for maximizing reuse process
wastewaters (34). While many ideas for industrial wastewater reuse have been
published, each case is rather unique. Reuse of wastewater in applications
such as cooling tower makeup, boiler feed water, fire water and plant ser-
vice water, and crude oil desalting was discussed along with associated
problems and their solutions. Two real cases were discussed in detail.
Companies throughout the United States are recycling more water and
taking in less fresh water (102). This pattern is expected to hold for
the remainder of this century. Intake reductions, as well as cuts in
discharges, are being made possible by increased water reuse within the
plant. Additional water reuse comes from taking in the effluents of other
plants, e.g. municipal treatment units.
Rambow (103) expressed the opinion that treatment of industrial waste-
waters for reuse makes sense for four reasons: 1) it conserves water, 2) it
prevents pollution, 3) it will many times save money, and 4) it reduces
corrosion. Recycling and reuse of wastewaters offers a way out of the zero
discharge dilemma facing so many industries (104). In many cases, however,
zero discharge is simply not achievable. The law of diminishing returns
will render impractical most of the traditional effluent treatment processes.
That last "fraction of a fraction" of a percent of a contaminant is by far
the most expensive to remove.
The reuse and ultimate disposal of industrial wastewaters were discussed
by Dean (105). Industrial wastewaters can be discharged after suitable pur-
ification; they can be evaporated; or they can be purified and reused.
Parish (106) discussed various aspects of the reuse of wastewater for
industrial purposes. Multiple usage of water is suggested to reduce total
water intake, save water costs, provide a water source where supplies of raw
water are limited, and reduce the total amount of effluent to be discharged.
The degree of ability to reuse water within a given industry depends on the
nature of the industry, process wastewater characteristics, and process
water quality requirements. Aspects of waste treatment systems to be
considered include adaptability, versatility, resilience, cost, energy, ease
of operation, and current plant size.
Bell and Goldstein (18) presented a systematic approach for establish-
ment of an effective water reuse program. The approach is pertinent to all
industries. Obviously, no single answer can be developed for any industry
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type, or even within industry types. Major factors which such a program must
consider include: make-up water quality, individual use patterns, type of
manufacturing (batch or continuous process), and degree of direct water con-
tact with product or process streams. Focusing the effort on such total
water use systems helps to integrate the separation between effluent problems
and water user problems and clarifies the real opportunities for the total
reuse of water in industrial process plants.
The most essential prerequisites for a successful reuse program are:
1) an internal need for a sufficient volume of water to balance its produc-
tion, and 2) a process that can accommodate it (104). The case history of a
successful recycle venture in the reuse of chemical process water was pre-
sented.
Water reuse or recycle both reduces the requirements of raw water and
the volume of wastewater which has to be treated as well as the size of
treatment plant required (107), In order for an industry to utilize water
reuse, a detailed survey must be conducted to indicate: whether effluents
are suitable for reuse or recycle with or without treatment; whether water is
being used unnecessarily; frequency of use; nature and amount of contamina-
tion; and nature of treatments required. The status and prospects of water
reuse in various industries were reviewed. Case histories from the food,
electronic, and steel industries were included. Treatment techniques prior
to water recycling were surveyed. Problems related specifically to each
were described. It was concluded that in almost every industry recycle or
reuse of water must be accommodated in the future for both economics and
conservation. The first consideration of industry will remain direct savings
accruing from minimized freshwater intake and process losses.
Companies in California are providing good examples of how to increase
reuse. California has passed a law allowing allocations of virgin water
only if manufacturing facilities prove an inability to operate on reused
water, or inability to find reused water (102).
McClure (108) presented ideas about how industry may be able to treat a
wastewater stream and then, instead of discharging it, recycle it through
all or part of the manufacturing process. Types of industrial reuse and
treatment for reuse were discussed. It was emphasized that there are no set
programs.
Eden et al. (109) pointed out that when industrial water is reclaimed
from wastewater effluent, complete treatment is not always necessary.
Examples were given of different degrees of treatment and the industrial
uses to which the reclaimed wastewaters could be put.
Eller et al. (49) surveyed the status of industrial water reuse and
recycling by a presentation of representative case studies. The authors
stated that in the majority of cases involving industrial reuse, it is
necessary to provide some form of treatment and that several industries are
using several forms of tertiary treatment in support of water reuse and
recycle practices.
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Ling and Kiester (110) reviewed internal reclamation and reuse of indus-
trial wastes, including a discussion of pilot plant studies, choice of
suitable treatment, and continuous monitoring. Mace (111) described a hypo-
thetical case study evaluating recycle versus disposal.
In considering the employment of a reuse system, it is important to
weigh the national impact of the system on lowering energy consumption and
improving the quality of the plant waste discharge to eliminate or reduce
industrial water pollution (112). These factors alone could be a deciding
factor in the employment of the system.
Well-designed, complete, well-operated cyclic process systems are almost
universally applicable and virtually pollutionless (113). They involve
least depletion of resources, least discharges, and so least possibilities of
environmental pollution. The benefits to companies, to the community, and to
the environment of taking advantage of the requirement to reduce discharges
to about zero levels are very large as compared to what will happen if
remedial steps against present common practices are not taken.
According to Fritsche and Schima (42), the only type of industrial
wastewater that can be considered for reuse is process wastewater. Cooling
water and boiler water blowdowns are normally concentrated with respect to
scale formation and corrosion, making these streams impractible for reuse
under circumstances where further concentration occurs or adverse conditions
exist. Although industrial wastewater may contain process contaminants which
must be removed prior to reuse, its reuse may significantly reduce water
consumption requirements.
Industrial cooling is both one of the largest uses of water and one of
the largest examples of water reuse (114). Water can be reused repeatedly in
recirculating cooling systems. Only the most essential, very minimum; and
least expensive treatment is given the water. This may include straining,
sedimentation, chlorination, and corrosion control.
Rey et al. (115) discussed and illustrated multiple use, reuse and/or
recycle techniques in terms of three major functions of use: process use,
cooling, and steam production. A hypothetical plan to purge limiting waste
materials from the reuse/recycle system was also described.
Mace (116) provided a discussion of the reclamation of industrial waste-
water for production processes and cooling. A flow diagram was presented to
describe how much water should undergo treatment for reuse and where it
should be reused. Primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of wastewater
treatment were described. Factors which influence the feasibility of waste-
water reuse are related to the relative effects of suspended solids, water
temperature, dissolved solids, oily wastes, and process modifications to
reduce overall water consumption. A cost analysis was presented for recy-
cling 90 percent, 50 percent, and 0 percent of the wastewater produced at a
typical plant. Typical space requirements for recycling were described.
Rickles (88) discussed water reuse in the chemical processing industries.
He observed that the American practice of water reuse is widespread and
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varied. Specific industries reviewed were chemical manufacturing; petroleum
refining; pulp and paper; iron and steel; mining, metallurgical, and nonfer-
rous metals; and food processing.
Reuse of water and reclamation of effluents arising from unit processes
in a factory can result in a savings on water consumption of between 50 and
90 percent (117). Water requirements of several South African industries
before and after reclamation and reuse were compared.
Bischofsberger (118) described the applications of closed water circuits
by wastewater treatment and recycling in industrial processes in West
Germany. Water circuits may be in the cascade or open system with wastewater
from one stage of the process being suitable for use in a subsequent stage,
or in a closed system, with the process wastewater being returned to the
same process after adequate treatment. Examples were presented.
LeClerc (119) discussed water reuse in the iron, coal, mining, sugar,
and paper industries in Belgium. He observed that recirculation seems to be
a solution to many different industrial problems, either to save as much
purified water as possible, or to limit the wastewater discharged into sewers
or rivers.
Wolters (120) reported that the great concentration of water-using in-
dustries in the Ruhr Valley, and the need to minimize pollution of the River
Rhine, forced maximum inplant reuse of water. Special efforts are made in
new plant design to make more effective reuse possible. One steel mill
completely reuses all incoming water. Special problems with beet sugar, coal
mining, electroplating and heavy chemicals industries are discussed.
Meucci (121) described three Italian reuse plants: in a sugar factory,
washing and conveying waters are recirculated after simple sedimentation and
sterilization; in a metal-working factory, acidic and alkaline waters are
reused after being singly treated for removing cyanide and chromium and then
mixed, neutralized and clarified; in a steel mill, acid-washing waters and
cooling waters are recirculated after oil removal, addition of hydrated
lime, clarification by ferrous sulfate, and cooling.
Lazarescu (122) outlined actions taken in Romania to prevent water
pollution and to develop water resources of good quality. The quality of
water needed for various uses is defined. Water reuse in industrial units
and processes to recover valuable products formerly discharged into polluted
waters are discussed.
Varma (123) examined water use and reuse requirements in India. Water
reuse in textile mills and chemical and pharmacentical industries were
reported as having high potential.
FOOD PROCESSING
Water is absolutely necessary for many steps in the food processing
industry; there is no economical substitute at present. The food industry,
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as a whole, uses prodigious quantities of water (124). Consequently, water
conservation and water reuse are necessary, and most of the industry practice
reuse in order to conserve this vital natural resource and reduce operating
costs. In addition, the amount of liquid waste is reduced as is the pollu-
tion potential from food processing operations. Major efforts are being made
by the food industry toward water pollution control, both within the process-
ing plant and through advancements in wastewater treatment technology. The
highest priority consideration is overall plant sanitation and quality of the
product. Water conservation and reuse are practiced as much as possible, but
there is a limitation to the amount of recirculation and reduction of high
water requirements that can be accomplished and still maintain satisfactory
sanitation conditions. Quality is the most essential factor, and therefore,
sanitary conditions of operation are the controlling criteria for the reuse
of water.
Wilson and Huang (125) discussed water use patterns of the food process-
ing industry. The major cost-effective water conservation measures under-
taken to date, can be classified under the areas of: 1) use consciousness;
2) cooling water conservation; and 3) counter-current reuse of process flume
water. Efforts of food processing firms to comply with BPT requirements have
brought about overwhelming reductions in wastewater throughout the industry.
There are a number of published case studies describing how certain firms
have achieved the ultimate objective of zero wastewater discharge. Such
changes in use patterns are expected to continue.
Although quantities of food processing wastes generated annually are
massive, and production takes place mainly during the summer months when
assimilative capacities of receiving waters are minimal, significant progress
in the areas of waste reduction, wastewater recycling, by-product develop-
ment, and waste treatment have been made (126).
Anderson (127) discussed developments in effluent treatment related to
the food industry in England. Water recycle systems must be considered due
to the increasing costs of raw water and waste discharges. The process of
counterflow rinsing should be considered in an attempt to save water.
Alikonis and Ziemba (128) discussed the proper handling of food wastes,
cost of treatment, in-plant control, preparation, water conservation, waste
segregation, and water reuse. Alternate treatment methods were described
briefly, as were common problems associated with treatment.
Hoover (129) examined various major processing changes for reduction of
wastes and concluded that meeting the goal of zero discharge would require
process modifications to produce concentrated waste fractions which can be
dehydrated, extremely effective biological treatment, or dry processing
methods.
Dloughy and Dahlstrom (130) reviewed the design of food and fermentation
waste disposal facilities. They concluded that waste and water reuse pro-
cesses as well as any byproducts recovery systems should be considered an
integral part of the entire plant scheme to minimize future capital and
operating expenditures.
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Water problems and reuse of water in the food industry were discussed by
Treanor (131). An example of water recovery for process reuse in vegetable
processing was presented. Bowen (132) presented a short review of waste
treatment practices and their application to cannery wastes. The relatively
high cost of treatment was emphasized, and good housekeeping coupled with
maximum water reuse was recommended.
Joyce (133) reported the use of a hydro-cyclone solid-liquid separator
and pressure filter at a Canadian cannery for solids removal. Recirculation
of the chlorinated water was estimated to save 45 percent of the total water
requirement.
The National Canners Association evaluated the performance and effec-
tiveness of a super-rate trickling filter, acidified flume water system, air
flotation, and circular vibration screens in reducing food processing waste
strength (134). Sanitation was improved with acidified recirculation water,
and 75 percent of the fresh water was saved.
Esvelt (135) reported on the investigation of reclamation of biologi-
cally treated effluent in a cannery by filtration through mixed media
pressure filters and disinfection with chlorine. Reclaimed water was put to
several trial uses: 1) initial product conveying; 2) equipment, floor and
gutter washing; 3) direct container cooling; and 4) boiler feed. Steam
generated from reclaimed water was used on a trial basis for equipment
cleaning, exhausting, cooking, and blanching. Reuse of reclaimed water was
found acceptable except during periods of high suspended solids. No degrada-
tion of the product was produced as a result of reclaimed water use during
these trial runs.
Since 1977, the Oconomowoc Canning Company, Paynette, Wisconsin, has
filtered and reused water from vegetable cooking operations as boiler feed-
water and in some cooking operations (136). The continuous recycle of this
hot water between cooking operations and the boilers has resulted in consid-
erable operating cost savings because of decreased fuel requirements for
water heating.
A report on water quality factors to be considered during the recycle of
water used in canning green beans revealed appreciable water savings (137).
Streebin et al. (14) reported on a study directed toward development of a
water conservation and reuse program at the Stilwell Canning Company in
Stilwell, Oklahoma. A summary of the results are presented. It was noted
that due to the many similarities in processing operations in canneries,
development of a water conservation and reuse program for one cannery would
be of general applicability for many canneries.
Preparation of seasonal fruits and vegetables for preservation generates
enormous volumes of liquid wastes and solids residuals (138). Increased
costs of waste management have forced the food industry to modify traditional
processing practices. Conservation measures and operational changes, such
as counterflow recycle use of processing water, have resulted in major
reductions in liquid waste generation rates.
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Plowright (139) discussed alternatives for wastewater treatment, dis-
posal, and reuse in the vegetable processing industry. The most economical
treatment was determined to involve primary solids removal followed by a
biological stage. MacGregor and Parchomchuck (140) used a gas-fired steam
generator to concentrate recycled effluent from vegetable blanchers.
Barrett (141) discussed vegetable-processing waste minimization and
treatment practices in Great Britain. The reuse of effluents after activated
carbon or reverse osmosis treatment and chlorination or ozonation were advo-
cated for certain applications. Wright (142) described tests of an improved
leafy greens washing system using water recirculation to characterize the
quality of the washwater and wastes and to make comparisons with conven-
tional washers. The test system produced a cleaner product while reducing
waste requirements and consolidating waste loads. Hoehn et al. (143)
reported on a project initiated to design, build, and test a full-scale,
immersion-type washer that would recycle the washwater during greens-washing
operations. These workers concluded that recirculation of washwater in
immersion-type, leafy-green washing systems is a promising modification of
existing processing methods for reducing water consumption and concentrating
waste loads so that they can be more easily treated.
Wilson and Huang (144) examined washwater recycle flow schemes from a
tomato processing plant. Comparisons were made between conventional cleaning
(with and without recycle), disc cleaning with recycle, and disc cleaning
with recycle plus chemical coagulation/flocculation. When compared with the
conventional scheme without recycle, a 26 percent increase in tonnage of
tomatoes processed was obtained with disc cleaning with recycle plus chemical
coagulation. Water consumption also decreased by 41 percent.
An in-plant water recycle system with off-line mud removal was demon-
strated for the tomato processing industry (145). The system could result in
approximately 50 percent savings in the total annual wastes/water-related
costs in the industry. The system, installed at a 35 ton per hour plant,
included a solids trapping false bottom, an ejector for solids transport, a
screen with screening discharge hopper, a soil solids separating swirl con-
centrator, a sludge thickener, and a chemical coagulation/flocculation
system. The system was operated in four modes: conventional cleaning,
conventional cleaning with water recycle, disc cleaner, and disc cleaner with
water recycle and chemical coagulation/flocculation. Use of the disc cleaner
and water recycle system increased the daily average tonnage of tomatoes pro-
cessed because solids did not accumulate in the dump tank and impair product
flow. Total^daily water usage decreased by 26 percent with use of the disc
cleaner with water recycle and chemical coagulation/flocculation.
A waste-eliminating beet peeling system coupled with controlled chemical
treatment installed at a Wisconsin Cannery reduced the BOD by 85-90 percent
(3500-4000 ppm to 50-75 ppm) after lagooning and caused a 50 percent drop
in the hydraulic load (146). Measures were being initiated to minimize pro-
duction of waste and to conserve water by recycling.
Alternatives in formulating a wastewater management program are exempli-
fied in the development of a phased program by a carrot processor (1). The
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three-phase program included: evaluation of soil solids removals and water
reuse systems; pilot evaluation of the system for suspended and colloidal
solids rinse; and design, installation, and startup of full-scale solids
removal and water reuse. Reductions of all parameters were noted at each
step of the process, and water was suitable for reuse and discharge. The
operation demonstrates the effectiveness and economy of a phased approach for
developing a waste management program. Treatment consisted of screening,
settling, coagulation, settling, and filtration. A large California carrot
processor successfully recycles nearly all wash and flume water (147).
Holdsworth (148) summarized the nature and composition of effluents from
fruit and vegetable processing industries in the United Kingdom. A survey
showed that water usage was in excess of 750 million gallons annually for
vegetable canners alone, corresponding to a production of over 700 thousand
tons of vegetables. General operations were similiar for every process,
although each product has its own special equipment. Methods which utilize
water reuse and recirculation have increased, especially the use of counter-
current methods for washing and cooling. A typical water recirculation sys-
tem used for pea freezing was illustrated.
Eckenfelder (149) presented a comparison of the cost of in-plant versus
end-of-pipe treatment of various fruit and vegetable processing wastewaters.
In plant modifications were economically justified in nearly all cases.
The unusual problems associated with wastewater minimization and treat-
ment at an artichoke processing plant were discussed by Perkins (150).
In-plant wastewaters conservation reduced water usage from 400,000 gpd in
1958 to 40,000 gpd (151 cu.m/day) in 1968.
Thompson and Esvelt (151) examined the potential for reclamation and
reuse of fruit processing wastewater and found it technically feasible to
reduce wastewater discharge and water demand by over 50 percent. The con-
sistency of renovated water quality along with physical, chemical, and
bacteriological quality were considered critical in determing where water
could be reused.
Activated sludge treatment of citrus wastes followed by lime treatment
and in-plant reuse were discussed by Jones (152). He concluded that the
treated effluent could be recycled, the waste sludge could be used as cattle
feed, and high excess solids production could result from the process.
A full-scale, complete-mixed activated sludge treatment system treats
wastewater from the Winter Garden Citrus Products Cooperative (153). The
treatment plant effluent is reused for barometric leg and cooling water
before being discharged. Reuse of the treated water has resulted in an
approximately 25 percent savings in annual operating costs of the treatment
system.
Stone (154) reported on the commercial application of dry caustic
peeling of peaches. He demonstrated that a reduction in freshwater require-
ment of nearly 90 percent was feasible. Lower operating costs and reduction
of damage to fruit during peeling were also claimed.
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Leavitt and Ziemba (155) discussed the multiple water reuse system of
the Gerber Products Company plant at Fremont, Michigan. Various water-
savings devices were mentioned and the concurrent saving of heat was
emphasized.
A review of the literature pertinent to the production and treatment of
potato processing wastes was presented by Stephenson and Guo (156). The
report outlined unit operations employed in the industry with emphasis placed
on the french fry and potato chip section. Data on the quantity and quality
of wastes generated from each unit operation were collected and analyzed.
In-plant measures for water conservation, water recycle and by-products
recovery were demonstrated as potential methods for reduction of waste loads.
Water use and wastewater reuse studies were conducted at three potato
processing plants whose major product was frozen french fried items (157).
Wastewater characteristics of specific process lines were presented for each
plant. A scheme for more complete reuse of the wastewater in processing was
proposed based on the in-plant investigations.
Lash et al. (158) reported that there is a practical economic way to
remove organic pollutants and suspended solids from potato processing wastes,
and it produces effluents that for the most part can be recycled. The eco-
nomics and processes which make possible the recycle of treated potato
processing liquid wastes were shown. Basically, the process involved
screening course solids, primary clarification of fine solids, and filtration
of underflow solids to produce cattle feed. The primary effluent was treated
by the activated sludge process. Tertiary treatment by granular medi-
filtration removed the final solids. After chlorination, a major amount of
the treated water was recycled to the processing plant for many uses. Expen-
sive local water costs and high sewer costs add incentives to use of recycle.
Hautala and Weaver (159) reported on methods of reducing pollution from
the cutting phase of potato processing. After a two-stage filtration step,
the cutting water could be recycled and the solids recovered from the wash-
water.
Gransfield and Gallop (160) discussed the conservation, reclamation, and
reuse of solids and water in potato processing. Plowright (140) described
biological treatment systems for potato wastes and techniques for using re-
covered water for prewashing and peeling after filtration and chlorination.
A study of water conservation and reuse in potato processing plants
indicated 18.8 percent of the total intake per day could be reused with
little or no further treatment. An additional 14.6 percent could be reused
if suspended solids were removed and treatment to reduce microbiological
populations was applied (161). This applies to a specific plant. Because of
wide variations in plant methods, individual plants should be surveyed before
recommending water reuse.
Disinfection with chlorine dioxide permitted a Pacific Northwest potato
processor to reuse some process water up to three times in successively less
critical processes (162). Water usage was reduced 30 percent.
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Hydamaka et al. (163) discussed a closed-loop recycle system for potato
rinsing as well as methods for treatment and recovery of rinse water consti-
tuents. Activated carbon was evaluated as a means of controlling enzymatic
browning. Colston and Smallwood (164) reported on waste control methods used
in a sweet potato processing plant, including dry caustic peeling and pre-
treatment methods.
Allen (165) described the water reclamation system at an instant mashed
potato plant in Yorkshire, England. The design, construction, operation and
economics of the system were reviewed. Shaw and Shuey (166) described a new
method of potato starch production that would reduce wastes by 90 percent.
The use of anion exchange resins for removal of acids from potato starch
factory wastewater after prior removal of proteins and amino acids was
studied by Schwartz et al. (167). The process removed over 99 percent of the
acids. Data were given on the effect of effluent temperature and flow rate
on column efficiency during the acid adsorption step. Increasing the alka-
linity of the eluating agent or recycling the eluate were listed as methods
of increasing the concentration of acids in the eluate. Possible uses of the
eluate were also discussed.
Secondary wastes from potato-starch processing can be treated by reverse
osmosis (168). This material contains protein, free amino acids, organic
acids, sugars, inorganic acids, and other compounds. In a pilot test, the
recovered water was pure enough for reuse. The best choice of the three
types of membranes tested was the one of medium porosity. This conclusion
was based upon the relationship between flux, retention of desirable waste-
water constituents, and reduction of COD.
Besik (169) discussed the potential and reported uses of the reverse
osmosis process as they apply to the starch industry, to other industries
and to water reclamation. Problems encountered were addressed. Besik (170)
feels that reverse osmosis is suited particularly for treating wastes from
starch manufacturing plants, because both the permeate and concentrate can
be reused and recycled.
The practice of recycling wastewater has become increasingly successful
in the beet sugar industry (171). It has been demonstrated that a factory
which recycles water does not need to discharge any wastewater during the
processing season. A comprehensive discussion of the practice is presented.
The practice of recirculation reduces the overall water volume, reduces the
amount of water subjected to pollution thus reducing the size and cost of
facilities needed to maneuver and treat the water. Most beet sugar factories
recycle at least some of their process water.
The beet sugar industry uses water for transportation, as well as pro-
cessing, and produces very highly contaminated wastewaters. Miles (172)
described optimum uses and reuse at the Hereford, Texas plant of the Holly
Sugar Corporation. A clarification, recirculation, and impounding system was
installed. Description sketches were given to illustrate the reuse processes
and facilities.
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An average of 2,200 gallons of water is required per ton of sugar beets
for fluming and washing operations. Brenton and Fischer (173) reported on a
two-year study conducted within the industry on the containment, treatment,
recirculation, and reuse of sugar beet fluming and washwater. The particu-
lar system studied included two alternately used first ponds in series with a
second pond. At the end of the processing season, the system and surface
waters were discharged into an aerated pond for treatment. Water was not
discharged from the final pond but used as fluming and washwater during the
next processing season.
Crane (174) described advances toward reuse of water in the beet sugar
industry. Process technology was explained as a means of understanding the
effective reuse of wastewater. Flow diagrams showing systems without reuse
and with complete reuse were presented.
Smith (175) gave a description of inplant reuse that reduced water re-
quirements by greater than 97 percent in the processing of beet sugar. By
using various treatment processes and recycling, the amount of wastewater
produced was reduced from 1,200 to 30 tons/100 tons of beets processed in a
beet sugar processing operation.
Bickle (176) discussed procedures used in the treatment of sugar-mill
wastewater effluents before discharge into a creek in Queensland, Australia.
Recycle was used in combination with aeration.
Fischer (177) undertook a study to develop a closed-loop wastewater
treatment system for flume water used for conveying and washing in a sugar
beet factory. Recirculation of flume waters was shown to be possible. An
aerobic pond effectively treated the total flume water after each operating
cycle. Although the treated produce water also met discharge standards, it
was reused in the system.
The California and Hawaiian Sugar Company installed a 1.8 mgd biological
treatment system to renovate water from its Crockett Refinery and from the
adjacent Crockett-Valona Sanitary District (178). Water not reused in the
refinery is diluted with San Francisco Bay waters before discharge.
Paxson (179) reported on the construction of a sugar beet factory in
North Dakota which would have a slicing capacity of 5,000 tons of sugar beets
per day and a yearly production of 75,000 pounds of sugar. Braunschweigische
Maschinenbauanstalt (BMA) of Germany was responsible for its design and
construction. All the water at the facility would be recycled.
A sucessful project by Manitoba Sugar Company, Fort Garry, Manitoba, to
reduce river pollution by eliminating sugar beet processing wastes was
described by Blankenbach and Willison (180). A recirculation system was put
into operation in 1965. The system consists of screening, clarification,
coagulation, and sedimentation. Clarifier overflow is recirculated to the
flume water supply tank. It is felt that the increased concentration of
dissolved solids in the recirculation system produces significant savings of
sugar by reducing osmotic pressure differentials.
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Zero discharge was successfully achieved using a contact stabilization
package plant for treating soy sauce wastewaters in Wisconsin (181). A two-
step membrane process has been demonstrated for the treatment of soy whey
(182). In both laboratory and field pilot studies, ultrafiltration and
reverse osmosis were used to produce protein and sugar concentrates as by-
products, and a low BOD effluent. The soy whey is first introduced into a
low pressure UF unit. The permeate from the UF unit is introduced into a RO
operation. The final effluent from the RO section can either be reused
within the plant or discharged.
A series of 24-hour tests were made in a commercial soybean oil refinery
under eight different operating conditions to select optimum conditions for a
subsequent longer test of the antipollution recycle-washing process in which
wash water would be recycled instead of being discarded (183). Operating and
analytical data, equipment specifications and cost data were acquired. The
new recycle process will provide an economic -solution to the wash water dis-
posal problem.
Research by Lewis (184) showed the feasibility of recycling process
waters in the beer brewing industry. Data were presented indicating recy-
cling did not affect the quality and flavor of the beer. McKee and Pincince
(185) reviewed water quality requirements and washwater characteristics of a
typical brewery. Techniques for water conservation and advanced treatment
methods for partial or complete recycle were included.
Preparation of olives for canning creates a strong liquid waste which is
high in both BOD and sodium chloride content (186, 187). In this study,
storage brines and processing waters from the production of canned and glass-
packed olives were treated with activated carbon. The reuse potential of
reconditional brines were evaluated. Canned samples prepared from olives
stored in reconditioned brines were of good quality. Reconditioned concen-
trated brines can be used to store freshly harvested olives for at least six
months. Reconditioned brines of lower salt content were reused with no
detectable effect on quality of the final product. Cost estimates for the
activated carbon treatment system were given. Treated lye rinse waters were
reused in commercial production with no detectable effect on the quality of
the canned olives as judged by production personnel. There is considerable
promise of using carbon treatment of processing waters to condition these
liquid wastes for reuse at considerable savings in potable water and reduc-
tion of salt pollution potential. It was concluded from this study that the
reconditioning and reuse of olive storage brines is a commercially feasible
process.
Brines used for bleaching, curing, and preserving sweet cherries were
made reusable by treatment with activated carbon. Reuse required the removal
of dissolved pigment in the used brine (188). Cherries packed in the
reclaimed brine were of higher quality than those used in the control. It
appeared that the brine could be reclaimed and reused several times. Savings
would result not only from lower requirements of chemicals for making brine,
but also from reduced sewage charges when discharging into a municipal sewage
system.
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Problems associated with the disposal of strong calcium bisulfite brines
used in the cherry processing industry led to an evaluation of recycling as
a means of alleviating pollution caused by residual sulfur dioxide (SO^) in
the brines (189). Preliminary experiments using activated carbon treatment,
sand filtration, and addition of SCL and lime have produced a product simi-
lar in composition, color, and firmness to that of fresh brines.
Little et al. (190) conducted industrial water and wastes surveys at two
pickle companies. Water usage and waste characteristics were determined on
major unit operations. Laboratory and pilot-scale studies were performed to
evaluate potential for recycling concentrated tankyard brines. Both a high
pH coagulation-precipitation procedure and an ultrafiltration procedure were
investigated. A "desk-top" evaluation of various brine treatment processes
compared their cost effectiveness. The study indicated that in-plant water
and salt usage could be substantially reduced by closer management and better
housekeeping; that tankyard brines could be treated and reused at least once
with no sacrifice of product quality; and that existing wastewater treatment
facilities (aerated lagoons) could be upgraded to improve BOD and solids re-
moval. Results of the study provided a detailed characterization of the
types and concentration of components of waste streams from unit operations
in cucumber pickle production.
Laboratory and in-plant studies have led to the development of a method
for treating spent cucumber brine for recycling (191). The recommended
system includes adjusting the pH of the brine to 11.0 with sodium hydroxide
followed by a 48 hour settling period, and adjusting the pH of the clear
brine to 7.0 with hydrochloric acid. The precipitate can be incinerated to
recover the salt and reduce waste disposal problems. This method results in
an actual savings in the cost of treating brine due to the recovered salt.
This does not include any savings on sewage costs and surcharges.
Brine wastes in the cucumber pickle industry were studied by Horney
(192). Regeneration of these wastes for subsequent reuse was considered the
most feasible method of treating these wastes. Two methods of regeneration
were studied in detail: 1) chemical coagulation-precipitation with lime and
sodium hydroxide to pH 11.5 followed by neutralization with acetic acid, and
2) ultrafiltration.
Two brine treatment procedures, heat treatment and chemical treatment,
were commercially evaluated for their feasibility in recycling spent cucum-
ber fermentation brine (193). Results showed that brine recycling was
practical on a commercial scale. Either treatment procedure resulted in salt
stocks which were equivalent in quality to control cucumbers.
The lye (or alkaline) solution employed in the initial working of fresh
olives becomes contaminated with organic impurities. Because the BOD of this
waste is extremely high, it cannot be released into municipal sewage systems
without first being diluted with large quantities of water. An invention by
Teranishi and Stern (194) provides a means for obviating the problem. Con-
taminants in the lye solution are removed so that the purified liquor can be
recycled. Only the settled contaminants must be disposed of; and since the
volume of waste is small, disposal is not difficult. In fact, it may be used
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as fertilizer because it contains only organic contaminants, the lye having
been removed and recycled.
Smith (24) discussed the reuse of wastewater in the poultry processing
industry. Some basic theories on wastewater reuse were presented:
1. First flow through those processes requiring highest-quality relating
to priority of microbiological content or suspended or dissolved
solids. The next step is to try to find other processes that can
use this effluent with or without further treatment. Note that U.S.
Department of Agriculture closely regulates the types of water reuse,
and the methods of water use in edible food operations.
2. If a cooling process is involved, try to use the effluent where
warm water is needed.
3. If a heating process is involved such as a thawing operation, try
to use the effluent where cool water is needed.
Stricter regulations on water pollution combined with the economic fac-
tors regarding water—purchase, disposal, and cooling—dictate that water
reclamation be a primary goal of the poultry processor (195). Large quan-
tities of water are used in poultry processing plants. On the average, 10-12
gallons of'water are used to process a two to three pound broiler. Recycling
holds the greatest potential for eliminating some of the large amounts of
water used. A demonstration project to demonstrate the feasibility of
recycling water in the chiller portion of the poultry processing plant was
discussed. Some specific results of such a system should be:
1. Savings in water consumption.
2. A decrease in the amount of waste effluent from the chiller.
3. Savings in refrigeration.
4. Technology that can be used at additional locations in the poultry
processing plant and other food industries.
Reuse of wastewater in the food processing industry is often constrained
by the requirement to meet potable water standards (196). A system using
microstraining, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration achieved this
goal in the poultry-processing industry.
Studies were conducted on recycling chiller water in a poultry proces-
sing plant (197). The recycling system must be provided with the capability
of removing solids and controlling the microbial population. Ultraviolet
light was used to control the microbial population. Pilot-scale results
showed that filtration with diatomaceous earth was the most feasible treat-
ment option studied for removal of solids. Filtration also maintained
the bacterial level below that of the nonrecycled system. Operating costs
for the filtrations system were approximately 45 percent lower than normal
operating costs of the chiller without recycle.
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Crosswhite et al. (198) presented benchmark information on water and
waste quantities, wastewater characteristics, and biological characteristics
of both the product and water at selected points throughout the Gold Kist,
Inc. poultry processing plant at Durham, North Carolina. Areas of water use
reduction were defined. Waste reduction measures resulted in an approximate
25 percent reduction in water use. Crosswhite (199) presented a case history
of the project. Results were described of water use and waste load reduction
measures and the economic analysis of such reductions. All of the process
and equipment changes developed in the project increased net revenue and
would be economically feasible.
Love (200) described the design and operation of a poultry processing
waste treatment system including water reuse. The system included
screening, aeration, clarification, lime and alum treatment, further clari-
fication, filtration, chlorination, and sludge transfer to a lagoon.
Berry et al. (201) investigated the feasibility of reclaiming and
recycling poultry processing wastewater by chemical coagulation, dissolved
air flotation, sand filtration and activated carbon absorption. It was
concluded that clarification, followed by dissolved air flotation, could be
used for preparing chiller wastewater for filtration followed by activated
carbon absorption to produce water suitable for implant recycle.
McGrail (202) examined health and safety aspects of the reuse of poultry
processing wastewater. Lillard (203) studied water recycling in poultry-
processing plants and disinfection. Andelman and Clise (204) studied the
internal recycle of poultry-processing wastewater in a phased demonstration
program. The treatment system for chlorinated double lagoon-treated efflu-
ent included jnicrostaining, flocculation/sedimentation, sand filtration and
rechlorination, followed by normal raw water treatment. Results suggested
that renovated water quality compared favorably with that of the raw well
water source.
Hamza et al. (205) reported that approximately 65 percent of the pro-
cess water used in an Egyptian poultry processing plant could be saved
through process modifications. A multiple water use system instituted in
the plant included recycling the second chiller water to the first chiller;
reusing washing water as makeup in the scalding operation; and continuously
feeding uncontaminated compressor cooling waters to the scalding tanks. They
also noted that modifications of the evisceration process and renovating
and recycling of condenser water would also reduce water usage.
Performance and feasibility of various alternatives for pollutant reduc-
tion available to the poultry processing industry were discussed by Woodard
(206). Typical poultry processing operations, wastewater sources, and flow
and pollutant loading were described. Three alternatives for reducing the
discharge of pollutants were presented. The first includes chemical coagula-
tion and dissolved air flotation of combined flows followed by sand
filtration and activated carbon. The second involves effluent flow reduction
through process changes to replace water-using steps with dry processes. The
third alternative involves physical-chemical treatment with screening, chemi-
cal coagulation, dissolved air flotation, sand filtration, activated carbon
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adsorption and disinfection to allow reuse of water for each individual pro-
cess. Results of technical feasibility studies and cost analyses for the
alternatives were presented.
A typical broiler processing plant was used to evaluate changes in
equipment and processing techniques to reduce water use and waste load (207).
Production at the plant was through two processing lines and totaled approx-
imately 70,000 broilers per day. Results indicated that water use per bird
received was reduced by 32 percent. Changes made were detailed. Economic
analysis showed all to be profitable for the plant. A water and waste
management plan was detailed. Microbiological analyses indicated no deter-
ioration in product quality as a result of the changes.
Poultry processing plant chiller effluent is normally discharged to the
sewer with no reuse of water (208). By recycling the chiller water, a pro-
cessing plant could make substantial savings per year in water and
refrigeration costs.
Norbest Turkey Growers Association utilized the "Dri-Flo System," a
waste-handling system using stainless steel belts, to correct wastewater
effluent in their Utah primary processing plants (209). The system saved
400 gpm of water. Overflow water from washing basins was recycled by fil-
tering through diatomaceous earth and chlorination. Plant production was
doubled without doubling water usage. The system employs a series of pro-
cessing units for hydrolyzing solid wastes that are dried into animal meal.
Economic evaluation of the system indicated an operating profit.
Witherow et al. (210) viewed the meat-packing process for the standpoint
of its use and discharge of water. The concept of integrated water manage-
ment through in-plant control, solids recovery and disposal, wastewater
treatment, and water reuse was presented.
Fullen and Hill (211) pointed out that reduction of waste volumes by
reuse of clean cooling and condensing waters, without passing them through
the treatment plant, would result in a substantial decrease in the cost of
treatment facilities in the meat packing industry.
Corban (212) explores new methods for the treatment of wastewaters and
the reuse of water in the meat industry in New Zealand. Incentive for the
investigation of the wastewater situation in the Shortland Works, Auckland,
New Zealand, was increased by the cost of waste treatment and water. The
problem was approached by instituting a water audit in each department.
Results of the audit defined the use and possible reuse of water within the
plant.
TEXTILES AND SYNTHETIC PRODUCTS
Boudreau (213) reviewed water quality problems central to the textile
industry. These involve: producing water suitable for the processing of
textile products; supplying water suitable for boiler feed in power plants;
and, preventing corrosion in metal tanks and pipe lines. Many of the textile
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industry processes require water of a high grade and known quality. Some
forms of water reuse will reduce the costs of process water. Appropriate
methods for recycle are dependent upon costs of water and effluent disposal,
limitations of water supplies, and local conditions.
A general approach for textile waste treatment was given by Leatherland
(214). He discussed sources of pollutants in the textile industry and re-
viewed the potential of both conventional and advanced waste treatment
processes for renovating textile waste discharges for reuse and recycle
purposes.
Porter and Sargent (215) provided a comprehensive examination of waste-
water treatment techniques for the textile industry. Recovery of reuseable
chemicals, water and energy was considered. Wastewater problems of the tex-
tile finishing industry were presented by Stiebert (216). Several practical
solutions to these problems were discussed. Water conservation through
recycling is gaining in importance.
Water reuse in the textile industry was discussed by Laude (217). Seven
methods of reducing water use in the textile industry including recycle and
renovation and recycle were described, but it was indicated that zero
discharge could not be achieved (218). As a result of water recycle, higher-
strength wastes will have to be treated before final discharge.
Gardiner and Borne (219) examined the influence of the use of water and
chemicals and the volume and characteristics of process effluents on water
reuse in the textile industry.
Parish (220) indicated that water for reuse in the textile industry must
have a low level of color and suspended solids, moderately or low levels of
total solids, with less concern for BOD or COD. He evaluated wastewater
treatment systems with respect to producing an effluent for reuse in the tex-
tile industry. Treatment methods which are examined include conventional
biological treatment, flocculation, activated carbon, ion exchange, pretreat-
ment, direct catalytic oxidation, reverse osmosis, and multi-stage
evaporation.
Parish (221) reviewed treatment methods and cost factors for textile
processing effluents. Water quality standards necessary for reuse of pro-
cessing effluents are presented. Reuse of treated or untreated process baths
can reduce costs. Further cost reductions can be realized by waste heat
recovery.
Potential cost savings through in-plant modifications and controls for
the textile industry are outlined by Atwood et al. (222). These include
reduction of process water; reuse of cooling, printing, and effluent waters;
recovery of several agents; handling of effluents; and cleaning of waters.
By designing strategies for process-water and chemical consumption, reuse,
and treatment to meet the specific needs of the mill facility, effluent
requirements should be economically met.
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Waste treatment methods and practices used in the textile industry have
been studied (223). The literature was reviewed and an annotated bibliography
prepared to supplement information obtained from people working in the indus-
try, designing waste treatment plants, and enforcing state and federal water
pollution regulations. It was concluded that more research was needed on
water reuse in textile plants.
Mair et al. (224) cited recovery of chemicals and water from textile
effluents as a cost-effective means of pollution abatement. General charac-
teristics are presented for wastewater produced at a cotton finishing plant,
a dyehouse, and a bank note printing press. Sodium hydroxide has been
recovered from cotton textile mill discharges through evaporation and dialy-
sis. Application of the Envirotech Salt Recovery Process, used for pulp and
paper mill wastes, to textile mills wastes is suggested. Various processes
have been considered for recovery of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and poly-
vinyl alcohol (PVA). Chemical precipitation with metallic salts has been
used to recover 75-85 percent of the CMC in sizing bath effluents for reuse,
while adsorption and molecular filtration have been used for PVA. Research
on use of activated carbon in the treatment of textile wastewaters for reuse
is described.
Several processes available for treating textile effluents for reuse
were described by Dettrich (225). The systems were discussed in terms of
both costs and performance. Porter (226) concluded that it is both economic-
ally desirable and technically feasible to reuse treated wastewater in the
dyeing and finishing industry.
Paulson (227) proposed wastewater treatment and reuse as an alternative
to solvent dyeing. Complete regeneration and reuse of the effluent stream
were proposed as the best solutions to textile waste treatment problems.
Dixit (228) discussed the quality of water for reuse, methods of reducing
water consumption, and steps required to achieve recycle.
Rouba (229) considered the use of water with a low degree of impurities
in a closed-circuit system. He discussed various methods for treatment of
textile wastewaters to this end. Sedzikowaki and Dobrowolski (230) described
work on water reuse carried out at the textile Research Institute at Lodz,
Poland. Arceivala (231) presented a detailed review of water reuse practices
of the textile industry in India. The review covered direct in-plant use,
reuse after treatment, and reuse of the effluent in irrigation.
A discussion on reuse of industrial wastewaters produced in the United
Kingdom textile industry has been prepared (232). Methods of textile water
renovation being investigated include hyperfiltration or reverse osmosis with
different types of membranes. Costs of treatment were discussed. Techniques
for conservation of process water used in the wool industry for scouring,
rinsing, and dyeing processes were described.
Porter et al. (233) presented product changes that have occurred in the
textile industry and discussed their suitability for biological treatment.
When requirements for quality of wastewater discharged approach requirements
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for water for process use, it becomes feasible to consider water renovation
and reuse within the mill.
Experimental studies have shown that wastewater from a textile dyeing
and finishing operation can be recycled (234, 235). Wastewater was run
through a set of hyperfiltration membranes which separated it into purified
water and a concentrated dye residue fraction. Over a 15-month period, up
to 90 percent of the wastewater was recovered and used as the normal supply
in all parts of the dyeing operation. Concentrated dye residues can also
be used to dye fabric. Detailed performance data were tabulated for the
different types of membrane materials used. Cost estimates were given for
the different membrane configurations.
A textile finishing plant processing most synthetic fibers achieved 87
percent water recovery using hyperfiltration through dynamically formed
dual-layer hydrous oxide-polyacrylate membranes on porous ceramic and carbon
tubes without deterioation of membrane performance (236). The purified pro-
duct and the concentration residue from treatment of the dye waste have been
directly reused in critical test dyeings. This may provide an important
economic advantage. Since wastewater can be treated at process temperatures,
the reuse of hot water will also reduce costs.
Effluents from production of cotton and cotton-synthetic and regenerated
fiber fabrics purified by coagulation, and effluents from production of re-
generated cellulose and synthetic fiber fabrics purified on sand filters,
were subjected to additional purification by sorption on granulated activated
carbon in a three-column reactor (237). Results indicate that this method of
additional purification is not only effective in removing impurities but also
presents the opportunity of achieving a closed cycle of process water.
Flexibility of the process makes it possible to control the degree of purifi-
cation desired. The method is economically justified only when applied to
effluents that have been tested chemically or biologically or to effluents
with a low concentration of impurities, such as wash waters.
Brandon etr al. (238) conducted field evaluations of hyperfiltration at
eight plants as a way to renovate composite wastewaters from textile
finishing plants. The evaluations included performance assessment of dif-
ferent types of commercially available membranes, reuse of both renovated
water and waste concentrates, and treatability of wastewater concentrates
by conventional means. Both cellulose acetate and dynamic membranes, when
used with the recommended pretreatment, proved feasible for wastewater reno-
vation. When 90 percent of the feed was recovered, renovated water was
satisfactory for reuse in scouring, bleaching, dyeing, and finishing. Suc-
cessful reuse of residual concentrates containing significant quantities
of dyes and chemicals was not demonstrated. Treatability of the residual
concentrate by conventional processes produced effluent equivalent in
quality to current plant discharges.
Kachel and Keinath (239) detailed a schematic flow diagram of a proposed
textile printing wastewater renovation and reclamation system. The system
provides for addition of a metallic coagulant and caustic to printing waste-
waters for destabilization, for mixing and flocculation of the destabilized
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suspension, for particle aggregation, for flotation, for solid/liquid separa-
tion, for recycling of renovated water to printing machines, for addition of
make-up water, and for solids disposal by incineration. Projected costs for
three system alternatives indicate that the alternative which centers on the
water reuse concept has distinct economic advantages over those in which
treated wastewaters are discharged to a receiving stream.
Dyebath reuse was evaluated for batch dyeing of nylon carpet, nylon
pantyhose, and polyester yarn (240). After an initial, standard dyeing of a
batch of nylon carpet, water removed during the dyeing process was replaced
and dyes were replenished. The recycled bath was then used to dye the next
batch. Carpet and pantyhose dyed with reused dyebaths were considered
acceptable as first-quality merchandise. Both single shade and multicolor
dyeing of the polyester yarn with dyebath reuse resulted in acceptable color-
ation. In addition, there was an estimated savings in water and energy of
65 percent and 15 percent respectively for carpet; 90 percent and 35 percent
for pantyhose; and, 81 percent and 41 percent for polyester yarn.
A new regenerative evaporation recycling system has been developed in
West Germany for treatment and recycling of wastewaters generated in textile
finishing operations (241). Evaporation is done under elevated pressure,
and the distillate is of the highest purity. The residue is concentrated to
50 percent and incinerated to obtain dry salts as a residue. The extra cost
of evaporation is minimal.
The IBK wastewater treatment and water recycling method, designed by IBK
Koeppl of West Germany, has been used by textile manufacturers in response to
increasing costs ofL water and wastewater treatment (242). Based on the
principle of regenerating vaporization, the process treats effluents and re-
covers process substances. Steam produced during vaporization can also be
used in heat-consuming equipment used in textile finishings. The high-
quality distilled effluent can be used immediately in the power or water
supply cycles. Additional treatment with activated carbon can qualify the
regenerated water for other industrial uses. Heat recovery by the IBK recy-
cling system lowers total energy costs for textile wastewater treatment.
Montgomery (243) described a water reclamation system at a textile
dyeing plant. The system recycles 1.9 million gallons of water per day and
can hold 80,000 gallons at one time. Two 20,000 gallon fiberglass tanks are
fed by four working tanks of 10,000 gallons each. Chemical treatment and
filtration are used to clean the water. The entire treatment sequence re-
quires only four minutes, with another five to six minutes being required to
feed the four tanks. Due to the short treatment interval, cleansed water
re-enters the dyehouse at relatively high temperatures, thereby reducing
final consumption and costs for heating dyewater.
Lusher (244) described water conservation measures taken in the linen
industry to reduce waste discharges. Several methods to conserve water were
reviewed, including repeated use of rinse waters. Chemical treatment and
reuse seem to be the most effective way of disposing of industrial laundry
wastewaters from the textile-cleaning industry (245).
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Beaton (246) considered the applicability of ultrafiltration, a fil-
tering process in which molecules of different sizes are separated by means
of a finely porous membrane, to effluent of the wool and yarn industry. Wool
effluent can be recycled or discharged to the sewer; however, yarn effluent
ultrafiltrate cannot be recycled because the water contains dyes. Overall
capital and operating costs were presented.
Water recycling and wastewater treatment adopted at a small-capacity
cotton dyeing plant in East Germany has resulted in introduction of waste-
water treatment by precipitation with ferrous sulfate for recycling in the
flushing process (247). Hot water used for rapid driers also can be utilized
in high-temperature equipment if it is softened. Boiler vapor condensates
are also recycled.
Burke and Burke (248) discussed use of filtration, activated carbon
adsorption and ion exchange for treatment of dye plant effluents and water
recycling. The particular type of waste treatment required for dye removal
is a function of the class of dye and its chemical composition. The parti-
cular system examined was designed for complete recycle of dyehouse effluent.
The process described is capable of recycling about 80 percent of the water
used in typical dye house operations. Operating and capital costs are such
that this system pays for itself over a five to ten year period when compared
with conventional treatment processes. Pilot plant evaluations are necessary
to determine efficiency and economics of the system for a particular dyehouse
wastewater.
The role of reverse osmosis in desalting and recycling textile dye
wastewaters was investigated by El-Nashar (249). A pilot plant was construc-
ted containing a precast membrane reverse osmosis loop and a dynamic membrane
loop. Test results indicated that product water for each module could be
recycled in the dyeing process; however, all membranes suffered from a
tendency to become fouled with organic or inorganic colloids in the feedwater.
Lint content of wash water effluent, particularly from textile wet
processing operations, has previously hampered attempts at recycling because
of the difficulty inherent in removing lint effectively enough in a practical
way to condition the water satisfactorily for reuse (250) . A filter system
is disclosed in which circulation of the liquid to be filtered is such that
a predominant portion is continually returned through the filter unit to
produce a filtered permeate amounting to 70 percent or more of the feed while
also tending to clear the filter media continually.
Day (251) discussed the in-plant reuse of water from fortrel polyester
fiber production. He described a new plant to be built when the water situa-
tion was such that reuse was necessary and economically feasible. The treat-
ment scheme would consist of a plastic media trickling filter preceding the
activated sludge unit. The activated sludge unit would be followed by
polishing ponds, algae removal screens, and activated carbon. The recovered
water would be used selectively in the plant, mainly as cooling water
make-up.
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Day (252) further described the water reuse program instituted at a
fortel polyester manufacturing plant. The program consisted of: 1) pre-
treatment of cooling waters for removal of heavy metals; 2) in-plant
modifications and additions to the existing system to increase treatment
plant capacity; and 3) a post-treatment system for effluent polishing prior
to selected reuse. Treated water was reused at a rate of 0.10 mgd.
Carrique and Jauregui (253) described a system installed at an Argentine
textile mill to segregate the sodium hydroxide waste stream and reclaim the
sodium hydroxide. The decision was made to install the system because high
treatment costs for sodium hydroxide effluents and high replacement costs for
sodium hydroxide itself made it more economical to reclaim the chemical then
to replace it.
Jennings (254) conducted an exploratory investigation of recovery and
reuse of textile size materials. Carboxymethylcellulose was dissolved from
cotton warp with minimal amounts of water and the resulting solution used as
the basis for further sizing formulation. One-third of the applied CMC could
be removed from the sized warp obtaining a two percent solution. New formu-
lations prepared from the solution gave satisfactory performance.
The waste handling system for the Fieldcrest Stokesdale, North Carolina,
screen-printing plant produces no effluent (255). The complete waste flow is
treated through extended aeration, chemical coagulation, filtration, chlori-
nation, and incineration, then recycled back into production use.
Whittall (256) described a system for reclaiming laundry effluent for
the textile industry. Used water from the washers flows over a heat
reclaimer made of copper coils. Cooled water enters a settling tank via a
series of filters which remove large insoluable matter. Water is then cir-
culated through diffusing devices for oxidation of organic matter. Aerated
water passes through additional filters and is then pumped through the heat
reclaimer to the main hot water tanks. Thus, the volume of water discharge
is reduced, heat is recovered, and the quality of the effluent is improved.
Eaddy and Vann (257) reported results of a demonstration project to
treat effluent from two fabric finishing and dyeing plants. Permit require-
ments could be met with chemical additions ahead of multimedia filtration of
biological effluents. Pilot plant studies were performed on recycled efflu-
ent for dyeing man-made fibers.
Brandon and Gaddis (258) reported on use of hyperfiltration to enable
recycling of chemicals, water, and energy from textile finishing operations.
Hot water could be recycled when purified with hyperfiltration. Polyvinyl
alcohol recovery with 1-year payouts have been achieved.
Hyperfiltration and ultrafiltration are pressure-driven membrane proces-
ses which have potential for recycle of water, energy, and chemicals in wet
finishing operations. Gaddis et al. (259) provided results of a study of
energy conservation effects of point source recycle with high-temperature
hyperfiltration in the textile industry. These workers observed that the
reuse of water, energy, and chemicals can be best achieved if separations
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are applied to individual point-source streams rather than to total-plant
mixed effluents.
Hog and Krogh (260) described various purification and regeneration
techniques on wastes from textile and dyeing processes with respect to their
performance and potential effects of recycling the effluent for use in tex-
tile processes.
Brandon (261) described a pilot hyperfiltration process used to purify
and recover 75 to 90 percent of the wastewater from a textile dyeing and
finishing plant. The use of ultrafiltration for removal of polyvinyl alcohol
from textile mill wastewaters was developed by Aurich (262). Three years of
operating experience indicate good and economic performance of the system in
producing a reuse product.
Zawdzke (263) described results of laboratory-scale tests carried out
on cotton bleachery wastes in an attempt to reuse the water. The activated
sludge treatment used required added nutrients and resulted in 85-90 percent
BOD removal. The water was clean enough to be reused for rinsing raw cotton
after bleaching.
Due to acute water shortage and difficulties of waste disposal from
textile dyeing plants in Israel, Rebhum, et al. (264) investigated renovation
of wastewater for in-plant reuse. Separation of weak wastes from rinsing and
wash operations was found to be feasible. By treatment of this wastewater in
an aerated lagoon followed by neutralization, flocculation, filtration and
adsorption, a colorless, turbidity and detergent free effluent was obtained
meeting quality requirements for in-plant reuse. To maintain a constant TDS
level and avoid excessive salinity build-ups, part of the effluent has to be
withdrawn from the recycle system; however, at least 70 percent of the efflu-
ent can be recycled. Cost of treatment is comparable to that of fresh water
supply.
Suchecki (265) reported on a wastewater treatment system built and
operated on a pilot plant scale at a textile mill manufacturing indigo-dyed
denim. The system, called WWTS/100, uses a special design for an electro-
dialysis unit to reduce pH and extract caustic and an electrodialysis cell
and flotation unit to remove indigo dye. The system will recycle not only
the expensive indigo dye but also the hot process water and caustic. When
in full operation about 75 percent of the treated wastewater will be fil-
tered, stored and reused.
Rub (266) described the application of ion exchangers to water reuse
in the textile industry. These should be used where small volumes of very
high purity water would be required. Artyukhov et al. (267) described a wash
water recycling system at the Cherkassk man-made fiber factory in which
demineralization is accomplished by electrodialysis.
Samfield (268) reviewed major water uses in textile plants and identi-
fied some techniques available for conservation and reuse. Ray and Volesky
(269) presented flow diagrams and descriptions of several textile wastewater
treatment systems employing activated carbon as one unit process, to produce
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reusable water. Both granular and powered carbon systems were discussed.
Saito and Yoshida (270) used a carbon column to remove dyes from wastewater
with the effluent being recycled back to the plant. Laboratory tests using
activated carbon to treat dye wastes indicated it was feasible to achieve a
quality suitable for recycle (271).
Rhys (272) observed that adsorption on granulated activated carbon of
dye wastes from a textile dyebath reduced effluent organic content and color
to a level suitable for dyebath water reuse. Carbon adsorption operations
in three textile dyeing plants were detailed. Single stage treatment with
carbon was normally not sufficient to produce a good quality effluent that
could be reused.
A bed of activated carbon is used to adsorb dyestuffs from the 500,000
gpd of effluent water from the dyehouse of a carpet mill, after which the
water is reused (273). Jhawor and Sleigh (274) compared reverse osmosis and
activated carbon for treating dyeplant wastes. Reverse osmosis also removed
color and over 95 percent of the total dissolved solids lending the water
suitable for reuse.
Porter (275) conducted a pilot-plant study on a textile waste stream.
He found carbon adsorption to be a suitable method for regeneration of raw
wastewaters for reuse. MaCrum and VanStone (276) discussed the successful
use of granular activated carbon in the treatment of wastewaters from two
textile mills. In both instances, treated wastewater is reused in normal
plant operations.
A method for reclaiming textile wastes that contain dyes, wetting and
scouring agents, caustic soda, and other chemicals was detailed by Pangle
(277). By use of activated carbon, the Hollytex Carpet Mills in Southampton,
Pennsylvania, has been able to reclaim 80 percent of the water used in the
dyeing operations.
Phipps (278) described the textile wastewater renovation system at the
Hollytex Carpet Mills in Southampton, Pennsylvania. The system, which con-
sists of an activated carbon adsorber, has consistantly reclaimed 80 percent
of the wastewater flow. Renovated water has been used for making up new dye
solutions and for rinsing dyed carpeting. The system required only a 50 x
100 ft. (15.2 x 30.5 m) area.
Rock (279) discussed water use in woolen mills with special emphasis on
possible reuse of effluents. Harker (280) also discussed reuse of effluents
from wool processing with or without pretreatment. A patent was described
by De Novion (281) for treatment of wool-scouring wastes and the return of
the liquid back to production. The material is settled, steam evaporated and
condensed, the settled matter separated, and the liquid returned to the pro-
cess.
An apparatus has been described that continously treats wool wash liquid
by utilizing a supplementary closed contaminant treatment circuit to increase
efficiency and bulk (282). The closed cleaning system consists of a series
of filters, hydrocyclones, heat exchangers, a thermal dryer, and conveyors.
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French and South African patents (283, 284) have been issued for the design
of wool process water purification plants. Separated water is recycled for
reuse in the process.
Baloga et al. (285) reported on a study on the phenolic pollution pro-
blem resulting from manufacture of fiberglass. They concluded that reuse of
the phenolic-resin-containing water was feasible. The water cycle of one
machine in a fiber glass plant was closed, and the phenolic effluent was
treated using a Delpark primary filter, a pressure diatomite filter, and
fiber glass cartridge tubes. Results have demonstrated that: 1) reuse of
phenolic resin containing wastewaters is feasible; 2) plant water usage is
reduced by more than 50 percent; 3) diatomite filtration produced water of
excellent quality; 4) product quality was not affected by using filtered
process water in binder makeup; and 5) the high level of phenolic resin in
the recirculated water has led to reduction in binder usage at a net opera-
tional cost savings.
The Johns-Mansville Company has developed a process for eliminating
phenolic discharges by reusing phenolic wastes generated in the manufacture
of fiberglass in the plant after filtering them to remove suspended solids
(286, 287). Water use for the plant has been reduced more than 50 percent.
Product quality has not been impaired by reusing filtered process waters.
A net cost savings has been realized, attributed, mainly to reduction of
binder usage by the amount which is recirculated in the filtered water.
Amchem Products, Inc., Ambler, Pennsylvania, has been assigned a patent
for a process for treatment of wastewater from a fiberglass manufacturing
process (288). Treated water can be reused in industrial processes, thereby
forming a closed cycle which is both more efficient and more economical.
Steps are: 1) acidifying wastewater to a pH of 2.5-5.5 by addition of a
non-toxic inorganic acid; 2) neutralizing acidified water to a pH of 7-9
by addition of a nontoxic inorganic base; 3) adding a flocculating agent to
neutralized water to promote separation of treated water.
LEATHER TANNING
Tanneries are generally pollution-intensive industrial complexes
generating large volumes of high-concentration wastewaters (289). Tanneries
are not all alike. The basic design of procedures for hide preparation,
tanning, and finishing vary rather widely according to the types of raw
hides employed and the characteristics desired in the finished leather
product.
At various stages in the conversion of raw hide to tanned leather, steps
can be taken which will result in lower effluent volumes and reduction of
the amount of solids, both in solution and as sludge, which needs to be dis-
charged (290). Use of closed circuit tanning systems in vegetable tanning
ensures that the minimum amount of tannin is lost by discharge into the
effluent.
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Bailey (291) made recommendations to the leather tanning industry in
England and Wales for water conservation, reuse, and waste treatment. He
suggested that the industry reduce the total throughput of water by better
housekeeping, alteration of processes to use less water, separate cleaner
fractions of the waste for direct reuse without treatment, and recycle after
complete or partial treatment. Smaller volumes of concentrated wastes would
facilitate the application of advanced treatment techniques. Several methods
were proposed to reduce water usage. A table was presented showing possible
recycle schemes for tanneries.
Wang (292) described three candidate physical chemical processing
techniques for removing pollutants from tannery effluents which allow a
greater bulk of the wastewater to be reclaimed as a useful water resource.
Useful by-products may also be recovered. The techniques are specific
surface adsorption processes: foam separation without additives, adsorbing
colloid flotation, and adsorption-flotation.
Banks (293) proposed a tannery design to avoid or reduce potential
pollution problems. Various chemical and biological treatment processes for
production waste streams were discussed in terms of the different process
steps involved. Reusing purified water and reclaiming chemical and metal
resources were primary concerns. It was noted that this tannery design
was a hypothetical one which assumed unlimited financial resources for
implementat ion.
Perkowski (294) presented several reduction and reuse procedures for
tannery wastewaters. He indicated that in some tanneries water use was
reduced as much as 80 percent by institution of these procedures.
Hauck (295) reported on three methods of chrome recovery and reuse for
utilizing the unspent portion of chrome in the tanning process: reuse
through replenishment, direct reuse of the spent liquor, and chrome recovery.
A review of past work in reuse is presented with reports of successful
operation. Suggestions are given on possible modifications of the processes
covered in the review. Direct reuse of spent liquor, in either the pickle
liquor or as float in tanning is discussed. Several methods of chrome
recovery are reviewed. Precipitation with an alkali will produce the
chromium in a form suitable for reuse in a fresh liquor. Procedures are
given for preparing the product for reuse. Basic requirements for reuse or
spent chrome liquors were outlined. He indicated that there will probably
be an upper limit to the number of recycles that can be used because of a
buildup of impurities in the solutions.
Burns et al. (296) described a method for recycling chrome tanning
liquors which is suitable for short pickling times. Spent chrome liquor is
used as a base for the preparation of the pickle liquor for the following
pack of hides or skins. Between each cycle, the spent liquor is reconsti-
tuted by addition of the full amount of mineral acid normally used in
pickling together with a reduced amount of the desired masking agent.
Results of three small-scale trials on recycling of lime-sulfide
unhairing liquors were reported in which the liquors have been recycled
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up to 27 times without deterioration in leather quality (297). All three
trials produced no inferior quality leather. Advantages of reutilizing
lime liquors are improved effluent quality and savings in water use.
Cortise (298) reported on the recovery of 60 percent of the total water
used from spent tanning liquors. Unhairing wastes were neutralized, clari-
fied, and subjected to biological treatment. As a final step, the water was
disinfected and passed through ion exchange columns. Baskakov (299) neu-
tralized pickling and spent chrome tanning wastes. The wastewaters, after
neutralization and removal of the chromium, were suitable for reuse.
Simoncini and Del Pezzo (300) conducted pilot studies for recovering
tannery wastewater for reuse. The procedure included mixing, flocculation
with alum, and settling. Clarified liquid was mixed with about 20 percent
makeup water and recirculated to the tanning processes. Buildup of soluble
salts limited the number of recycles that could be used.
Vann Meer (301) conducted laboratory studies to evaluate means for
reducing water use and wastewater volumes and found that combining the
soaking and unhairing steps rather than discharging the soak water before
starting the unhairing step reduced total organic waste load by 58 percent.
Davis and Scroggie (302) performed laboratory and full-scale tests on
the feasibility of recycling spent chrome tanning solutions. Recycled
chrome solutions were refortified with chromium oxide to give the desired
chromium concentration. After three recycles, the liquors reached equali-
brium and no further buildup of undesirable constituents occurred. It was
estimated that cost of chromium could be reduced by 25 percent and the level
of chromium in the effluent reduced substantially. Davis and Scroggie (303)
investigated the reuse of spent chrome tanning solutions for preparing
pickle liquor for suquents packs of hides. Chromium was reused for 12
cycles. It was postulated that the method could be used in normal tanning
operations thereby reducing the costs of chromium as well as concentration
of chromium in the effluents.
Weisburg (304) described steps taken by one tanner to reduce their
wastes and the effects of these measures on the proposed treatment system.
Since the major source of water is the dyeing operation, consideration
was given to segregation, treatment and reuse. Unfortunately, none of the
chemical coalgulants could produce an effluent satisfactory for reuse,
primarily due to the color.
Niwa et al. (305) reported on treatment of processing effluents from
the chrome tanning of upper leathers for reuse. Unhairing, tanning, and
dyed fat liquoring wastewaters were screened, aerated individually and
collectively coagulated, settled, passed through a contra-flow sand filter,
and oxidized. Treated effluent was recycled to the original point-of-use
and retreated 10 times. The recycling process was effective in controlling
pH and reducing suspended solids, sulfide ions, and chrome; BOD, COD, and
chloride ions were relatively unaffected by the treatment process. Chemical
and physical properties and commercial value of the leather were not adver-
sely affected by the reuse of recycled process waters. Recycling recovered
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95-97 percent of the effluents and reduced raw water consumption by 91-92
percent.
Process modifications and wastewater reuse and treatment methods to
reduce the total waste load discharged from a large side-leather tannery
were investigated at the Pfister & Vogel Tanning Company in Milwaukee,
Wisconsin (306). After laboratory and pilot-scale investigations, a system
was designed for the recovery and reuse of chromium based tanning agents.
The Blueside Company plant at St. Joseph, Missouri, was designed to be
pollution-free and equipped with the best available pollution control tech-
nology (307, 308). Both unhairing and tanning processes are performed at
the plant. The plant uses only 1.0 - 1.5 gallons of water per pound of hide
compound compared to 40-50 gallons per pound in some other tanneries. The
wastewater treatment system consists of a holding tank from which solids are
removed. The effluent is adjusted from pH 9.0 to pH 5.5 and aerated to
remove sulfides. The airstream is treated with caustic to recover sulfide as
sodium sulfide for reuse in the unhairing process. In addition, all waste-
water streams are available for individual recycling.
Barber et al. (289) discussed reuse potential for treated wastewater at
the Winchester, New Hampshire, chrome tan shearling tannery of the A.C.
Lawrence Leather Company, Inc. Limitations of recycled water are noted.
Estimated costs for effluent reuse are given.
PETROLEUM REFINING
The efficient and intelligent use, reuse, and recycle of water within
refineries and petrochemical installations along with the final disposal
of waste residuals into the environment present a growing challenge to man-
agement (5).
It has been estimated that the petroleum and.petrochemical industry
of the U. S. would require in excess of 12 billion gallons of water daily
for once-through usage (309). Because of reuse-recycle, makeup requirements
are slightly in excess of 20 percent of this amount with cooling water recy-
cle accounting for approximately 90 percent of the reused water. Recent
developments in cooling tower and boiler equipment and the application of
chemicals have enhanced the possibilities of reuse-recycle.
A review of water reuse, water quality requirements, and current treat-
ment practices for water from the petroleum refining industry was given by
Evers (310). Requirements vary depending upon the future use of the
recovered water. Tables illustrate the quality characteristics of untreated
cooling waters, water use and reuse by refinery classification, raw water
and reused water for steam and processing, guidelines for boiler feed water
tolerances and cooling water tolerances, water quality requirements of
water at point of use for the petroleum industry, and treatment systems
used for refinery raw waters.
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Weil and Jackson (311) presented data on water use and reuse practices
of petroleum refineries. The data were gathered by an industry survey con-
ducted by API. Completed questionnaires were submitted by 94 refineries
(4 Canadian and 90 U.S.) with total crude capacity of 6,346,000 barrels per
day. These refineries represented 55 percent of the U.S. total crude capa-
city and 18.5 percent of Canadian capacity. The data are summarized by
refinery operational complexity. Average total water used, raw water used,
and water reused are reported for each classification. The data are further
divided to show use and reuse for cooling, processing, and steam production.
Johnson (312) stated that the petroleum industry has the highest reuse
rate among the top 10 industrial users of water. The reuse of water for
process cooling is by far the largest reuse application of water. Recycling
of cooling water has always received considerable attention by refineries
because it represents as much as 90 percent of refinery water usage (313).
Since the principal water requirement in refineries is for cooling, use of
fresh water is minimized by recirculating the water over cooling towers
and by substituting salt water wherever possible (314).
Some degree of effluent water reuse is practiced by most refiners (33).
Water reuse is usually limited to use of stripped sour water for salt washing
in crude oil desalters. Recent restrictive regulations and limited fresh-
water supplies have emphasized the importance of reusing effluent water.
This paper describes an oily steam system designed for a 200,000-barrel-per-
day refinery to practice reuse of process condensate. Discussions cover
reuse of various refining streams and processing schemes for a conventional
water system, an oily steam generation system, and a zero discharge system.
A number of opportunities exist in industry for the application of
sequential industrial reuse and recycling (5). On a volume basis, recycle
of cooling water is one of the most widely used practices. On an average,
about four percent of the water is lost during one cycle through a cooling
tower. Steam condensate provides a high-quality water, and this source of
water can be recycled.
The possibilities for wastewater reuse as a measure of water conserva-
tion in an oil refinery were considered by Garcia (315). Klooster and
Beardsley (316) outlined water conservation measures for modern oil refin-
eries. The first step necessary to reduce waste effluents is to segregate
waste streams according to the degree of treatment required. Sour conden-
sates produced in crude units and hydrocrackers can be reused as crude
condenser wash water, desalter wash water, and/or recycled water for the
hydrocracker after simple steam-stripping to remove ammonia and hydrogen
sulfide. High mineral, nontoxic salt concentrated streams which are not
contaminated with organics can be reused for various process requirements
after desalination and/or mechanical evaporation. Some waste streams
containing non-hardness and non-siliceous mineral salts, but otherwise
contaminated with organics, may be used as cooling tower make-up.
Milligan (6) presented several schemes for reuse of refinery waste-
waters, while indicating the need for demonstration tests to accomplish
potential reuse objectives. Griffin and Goldstein (317) discussed two
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successful experimental programs conducted as part of studies involving
refinery wastewater reuse. These studies permitted the development of bases
for defining optimum approaches to water use and reuse. Refinery effluent
water reuse presents a unique opportunity for utilization of waste heat for
the reduction of wastewater volumes because the process technology used for
evaporation can use this low grade waste heat as an energy source. In-
creasing present day and future energy costs increases attractiveness of the
approach for those situations where it is needed.
With the degree of treatment required for refinery wastes, recycling
has become an important and feasible practice that must be considered by
industry in any proposed solution to an existing waste problem (313). Basic
fundamentals associated with recycling were examined. These authors feel
that technology to achieve complete reuse in the refining industry is
available, and with increasing costs for purchases of fresh water and for
waste treatment, the implementation of an overall water reuse program will
be justified.
Water reuse in a refinery to be effective and economical requires a
thorough analysis of the quality of wastes at every point in the refinery
with a concurrent establishment of the quality of makeup required for water
utilizing processes (318). Selection of appropriate chemicals for corrosion
and deposit control, appropriate equipment and material of construction
specifications, all together can allow a local reuse of water with minimum
treatment within sections of the refinery. The end result is greatly
reduced volume of highly concentrated waste amenable to total evaporation
and disposal at acceptable costs if such is ultimately required.
Process modifications, in-plant control practices, and recycle-reuse
of wastewaters have resulted in decreased water requirements within the
refining and petrochemical industries (5). However, to exploit all reuse
opportunities, some form of treatment is required. This article examines
interrelationships between treatment and reuse and presents a format for
selecting-the optimum process for reuse.
Through the application of available advanced waste disposal processes
and equipment, it is possible to achieve near ultimate disposal of petroleum
refinery and petrochemical wastes (319). Simultaneously, it is possible to
upgrade the quality of wastewater to degrees commensurate with process
requirements or pollution abatement regulations.
Meyers and Mayhue (320) discussed advanced waste treatment processes
applicable to the petroleum refining/organic chemical industry. It is not
expected that any one process will be universally applicable.
A very high degree of wastewater treatment is a necessity for renovation
of wastewater for deliberate reuse. Huang and Hardie (29) reported on a
study designed to investigate the applicability of using physico-chemical
processes for purifying refinery wastewaters with emphasis placed on explana-
tion of treatment efficiency and performance characteristics.
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In newly constructed petroleum refineries, full integration of in-plant
procedures and multistage wastewater treatment is combined with reclamation
and reuse of purified water (39). This results in considerable progress in
pollution abatement and a drastic reduction of clean water intake require-
ments. Collecting wastewaters separately, according to their subsequent
treatment, and employing pretreatment methods such as evaporation, stripping
of sour water condensates, and equalization of flow and strength of waste-
waters, improves product recovery and reduces waste load. Treated wastewater
is used as makeup water for recirculation cooling systems, and specific water
consumption and wastewater discharge per production unit are reduced.
In the long run, the success of effluent reuse will be predicated on
producing equipment capable of tolerating higher concentrations of contami-
nants, with the end result approaching infinite recycle and inplant
concentration of pollutants (309). In other words, effluent treatment should
be avoided by using process units as contaminant concentrators and employing
in-plant treatment to maintain high recycle rates while minimizing blowdown.
To optimize this scheme, makeup water treatment processes must be consistent
with the philosophy of reuse-recycle.
To minimize refinery effluent water treating costs, it is necessary to
maximize inplant water reuse and treatment (321). Inplant schemes employed
to reduce wastewater and, in some cases, reduce contaminant concentration
were discussed. Prior to any wastewater treatment system modification,
refinery management should first look back to the process and determine what
can be done to reduce wastewater flow and contaminant concentration.
Milligan (6) summarized ideas for the reduction of water use and for
reuse of wastewaters in the petroleum refining industry. He suggested a
step-by-step progression from BPT to BAT and to zero discharge for existing
refineries. He noted, however, that some of the concepts proposed may not
be applicable in specific cases. Order-of-magnitude costs of $6 million and
$10 million respectively, have been estimated in 1975 dollars for the modi-
fications and additions required in changing a representative 100,000 bbl/
day refinery treatment system from BPT to BAT to zero discharge treatment
technology. These costs indicate the large capital investment required to
meet the 1983 and 1985 goals of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendments of 1972. Maximum reuse of wastewater must become a normal
operating practice if these goals are to be achieved at any practical cost.
The goal of zero discharge will be a difficult and expensive one to
attain for oil refineries. Porter et al. (322, 323) described one approach
to the zero discharge goal for a "typical" existing oil refinery. A 100,000
barrel/day integrated oil refinery was defined for use in this study. The
refinery was assumed to have most of the typical large scale oil refinery
processes with wastewater treatment typical of that required for BPT. The
zero discharge requirement alters the usual priorities and constraints
governing the design of waste treatment systems and forces consideration of
the refinery's whole approach to water management, the use of chemicals, and,
to some degree, the hydrocarbon processing steps. These workers presented a
list of several general principles which, if given attention when considering
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the possibility of operating a refinery under the zero discharge constraint,
can help to lesson costs.
The American Petroleum Institute, in a monograph titled "Water Reuse
Studies", termed complete reuse of refinery water technically feasible (102)
The study notes that capital and operating costs appear favorable for com-
plete recycle, although engineering concepts must be demonstrated in a
full-scale refinery. Findings place a high priority on pretreatment of
utility water to permit high cycles of concentration of cooling water. The
report states that zero discharge may actually be desirable.
Boris (324) reported on use of activated carbon adsorption to treat
refinery wastewater for use as cooling tower makeup. The tubuler activated
carbon system followed chemical coagulation and sand filtration.
Brady (325) discussed the effectiveness of in-plant measures in reducing
wastewater discharge problems in the petroleum refining industry. Such
measures were discussed in terms of engineering design considerations, pro-
cess design modifications, recovery and utilization, local pretreatment or
disposal, and operational control. Examples of ways in which pollution
could be reduced by these methods were given.
Lieber (326) discussed reduction of water usage, inplant pretreatment,
effluent segregation, and effluent treatment at a new refinery. Carnes and
Wood (327) discussed refinery wastewater treatment and reuse. In-plant
treatment and recovery practices were reviewed, and effluent treatment sys-
tems were discussed. Primary, intermediate, and tertiary treatment systems
were outlined. Special emphasis was placed on water reuse.
Thompson (328) discussed improvements in processing and housekeeping
techniques designed to upgrade the quality and reduce the volume of refinery
effluents. A proposed wastewater treatment and recycling system was pre-
sented.
Bush (329) described various treatment processes available to treat
refinery wastewater for reuse and to produce acceptable effluent qualities.
Unit processes were categorized as primary, intermediate, or secondary/
tertiary. The choice of one or more of these stages depends upon the quality
of the raw effluent and the required pollutant reduction.
Many refineries practice a combination of recycle and step-wise reuse
that also performs waste treatment functions (5). In these facilities,
selected waste streams containing low dissolved solids are first treated by
removing the oil and then used as makeup water for the refinery's cooling
towers. This practice not only reduces refinery water consumption but also
accomplishes high removal of BOD and phenolic type compounds.
The refinery water system has a number of streams which cannot be reused
without a significant investment in capital and operating costs (33). These
streams do not lend themselves to reuse because they are high in dissolved
solids. Removal of these dissolved solids is expensive, and disposal of the
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solids in an environmentally acceptable manner may also be costly, depending
on plant location. These streams are:
1. Slowdown from the cooling tower;
2. Slowdown from steam boilers;
3. Effluent from the desalter; and
4. Regenerant from water ion exchange facilities.
The schemes discussed show various methods of recovering effluent streams for
reuse. Streams high in dissolved solids do not lend themselves for reuse
without extensive processing.
In order to achieve zero discharge, dissolved solids must be removed
from the recycle stream to prevent corrosion, scaling and other damage to
cooling tower, heat exchange, and steam generation equipment (309).
Apparently, only three processes are suitable candidates for the purpose of
demineralization, i.e. reverse osmosis, electrodialisis, and ion exchange.
Treated effluents may be acceptable for reuse within the refinery;
however, something must eventually leave the system whether in the form of
a liquid blowdown, brine, or dry solids (309). Common practice has been to
maintain a recycle system in economic balance by wasting a portion of the
recycle. However, as water becomes more scarce and disposal criteria more
stringent, additional treatment will be employed to reuse the blowdown or
remove the contaminants from the makeup supply.
Mohler and Clere (330, 331) described a process which successfully
handled oil refinery wastewater and conserved fresh water. The system
reduced water consumption to as little as 17 gallons per barrel of crude oil
compared to the national average of 214 gallons per barrel of crude. The
process evolved from experiments in the Toledo Refinery of Sun Oil Company
based on the use of cooling towers to provide bio-oxidation of phenolic
materials while using the waters for conventional process cooling. The
mechanism, design, operation and maintenance data are given. Additional
reuse from operation of the sand filter system will reduce consumption below
10 gallons per barrel of crude.
The Chevron wastewater treatment process treats refinery wastewater and
converts it into three valuable products: high-purity hydrogen sulfide;
pure ammonia; and treated water for recycle or discharge (332, 333). Opera-
tion of the process is discussed in detail. Economics of the process are
very dependent on the feed concentration; a more concentrated feed requires
a less expensive plant.
A patent has been issued for the Chevron process to produce recycle
water and to separate ammonia and acid gas from wastewater (334). Waste-
water is passed through an acid gas-ammonia stripping column to produce a
recycle water stream and an effluent gas stream of acid gas, ammonia, and
water vapor.
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Sour water stripper bottoms (SWSB) are essentially distilled water and
can be reused as desalter water, process wash water, cooling tower makeup
and/or boiler water makeup (335). If hydrogen sulfide and ammonia are
properly removed, SWSB are ideal desalter water. Problems with use as desal-
ter water include changing ammonia concentrations, cyanides which will
transfer to the oil phase in a desalter, and formation of ammonium naphthen-
ate soaps due to an incorrect pH. SWSB have been used as process wastewaters
in catalytic cracker spray systems and overhead condensers for FCC main
column and crude units with few problems. Results of using SWSB as cooling
tower makeup normally depend on stripper efficiency, cooling water treatment,
and controls. Reuse of SWSB as boiler makeup depends on existing external
treatment equipment. Problems include corrosion and deposition of sulfides,
heat transfer and under-deposit corrosion attack from iron sulfate, ion
exchange resin fouling and boiler foaming and carry over from oil contami-
nants in the stripper bottom, and ammonium bicarbonate deposits from the
presence of ammonia.
Gloyna et al. (336) described a system designed to treat liquid wastes
from oil refineries and produce a salable product. Finished products from
the system are cresylic acid and sodium sulfide solutions.
Grutsch (337) described methods used for reducing or eliminating petro-
leum refinery wastewater discharges. Waste streams were identified that
could be segregated by quality characteristics for reuse in generation, or
cooling, or requiring extensive further treatment. Finelt and Crump (338)
presented a procedure for determining the optimum system for reusing water
in preparing cooling tower process and boiler makeup water in petroleum
refineries.
Several refineries and petrochemical plants, particularly in the western
United States, reuse municipal effluents as makeup (309). The direct reuse
by a refinery of a wastewater from an external source is generally applicable
only if the supply is dependable, reliable, accessible, and economically
competitive with freshwater sources.
Mayes and Gibson (86) discussed an oil refinery's experience with using
reclaimed municipal wastewater for 15 years. Economic data were presented to
aid in making decisions in the choice between using sewage effluents and
other sources of poor-quality water. Foaming, corrosion, and excessive
gypsum content of the water were the only major problems encountered.
Denbow and Gowdy (339) detailed wastewater reclamation programs at the
Humble (Exxon) Oil Refinery in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Several in-plant mod-
ifications were made in the late 1960's and early 1970's to eliminate
wastewater discharges. Among these modifications was the reuse of some pro-
cess wastewater for cooling water.
Kirby (340) discussed water conservation at the Lake Charles Refinery-
Petrochemical Complex of Cities Service Oil Company. Each of the three major
plants in the complex has a separate biological wastewater treatment system.
Designs of the systems for providing secondary treatment differed according
to specified requirements in each plant. All of the butyl rubber plant
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effluent is reused as refinery cooling tower makeup. Kirby reported that
water reuse was being expanded throughout the complex.
The 23 MGD wastewater treatment plant installed at the AMOCO Oil Company
refinery at Texas City, Texas is the most sophisticated refinery effluent
water quality control system in the U.S. (341). The plant treats wastewater
and stormwater from the refinery and two chemical plants. Facilities
include: storage for storm flow; emergency spill basin; preservation;
chemical destabilization and filtration; two-stage activated sludge; and fil-
tration. The quality of the treated water will be high enough to allow it
to be reused, thus reducing the freshwater demand of the refinery and chemi-
cal plants. The facility incorporates all the elements recommended by EPA
at the BPT level of treatment plus unique, proprietary process design and
operating features by AMOCO.
Gulf Oil Canada Limited's oil refinery at Point Tupper, Nova Scotia is
being successfully operated with the help of technologically advanced engi-
neering innovations (342). Features of the plant include substantial fuel
savings, increased process efficiency, low excess air cooling, extensive
pollution control for air and water, and all-electronic instrumentation and
operation. Total air cooling of the plant has eliminated the need for
cooling towers and the use of toxic chemicals associated with cooling towers.
The amount of fresh water required has also been reduced. The wastewater
treatment process includes extensive water reuse.
The water budget and complete water cycle of the Mobil Oil Refinery at
Woerth, West Germany was described by Siebert (343). Hydrogen sulfide and
mercaptans in process waters are separated in an acid water stripper with the
purified wastewater being reused for the desalting of crude oil.
Mobil Oil Corporation's East Chicago, Indiana, refinery has been reusing
water in various ways for more than 30 years (344, 345). Sulfides and
ammonia are removed from process wastewater in a sour water stripper. A
dissolved air-flotation unit removes oil and suspended solids. Treated
wastewater is then reused for cooling tower makeup while cooling tower blow-
down is used for pump-gland systems. Stripped sour water is reused as crude
desalter wash water. One of the major innovations for water quality improve-
ments at this refinery is the reuse of treated wastewater in cooling towers.
This practice was instituted in October, 1969.
Rose (346) discussed the use of cooling towers to permit recirculation
of 40,000 gpm of water for cooling and condensing operations at the Sohio
Refinery, Lima, Ohio. Recirculation of cooling waters conserves water,
reduces the volume of waste to be treated, and minimizes loss of pollutants.
Sodium hydroxide solutions used in several treatment operations are
regenerated for reuse or sold. Separate sewer systems allow recovery and
reuse of lost chemicals. Water used in the high pressure hydraulic coke
cutter is recycled. Sulfides are removed in steam strippers, and phenolic
waters are used as makeup in the crude oil desalting process.
Eygenson and loakimis (347) outlined basic trends in wastewater treat-
ment in the petroleum processing industry in the USSR. Efficient biological
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treatment plants are available at most of the petroleum processing plants.
Recycling of the industrial water following biological purification is
envisioned.
ORGANIC CHEMICALS
Current practice in the organic chemicals and plastics industry is to
treat a raw fresh water supply to a rather high degree of purity, utilize it
in utility and process operations, recycle appropriate portions for reuse,
and treat the balance for discharge back into the environment according to
appropriate effluent standards (348). If the national goal of zero pollutant
discharge is realized, water reuse will be a natural course of action. Of
course, there will always be makeup water required to offset losses due to
evaporation, leakage, certain water treatment processes, and processes
involving the chemical combination of water. There are many economic and
technical hurdles to be crossed before reuse can be generally applied,
however.
Existing secondary wastewater treatment facilities in the organic chemi-
cals manufacturing industry are, in general, of the biological type which
produce effluents not meeting the water quality criteria required of makeup
water for most heat exchange systems; nor is the product suitable feed for
typical water treatment facilities (349).
In-plant reuse of process water and recirculation of cooling water is
now common practice in many petrochemical plants (350). Water reuse is often
one of the most effective and economical means of decreasing waste discharges
from a petrochemical plant. In addition to reducing water costs and waste
treatment costs, water reuse increases the flexibility for plant expansion.
Small quantities of concentrated wastes produced by reuse are easier to
handle than larger quantities of dilute wastes, and the plant benefits by
more freedom from upstream users (351). Potential applications of water
reuse include the utilization of poorer quality cooling and boiler water and
also the reuse of contaminated streams in stripping operations (352).
Feasibility studies are needed to determine the capability of petro-
chemical plants to reuse more of their wastewaters (350). The authors
discussed physical, chemical, and biochemical treatment of petrochemical
plant wastewaters.
Implementation of complete water reuse in an integrated petrochemical
plant will be expensive and requires significant technological advances
(348). This survey of water use patterns points up a key problem in imple-
menting water reuse in many petrochemical plants - that is, discounting the
once through cooling water, the large volume water users (boiler feedwater
and process water) demand premium quality, essentially organic-free water.
This level of quality will not be met by simply subjecting present-day
secondary effluents to conventional clarification and demineralization oper-
ations. A schematic flowsheet of a complete wastewater purification system
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that will be required to meet zero discharge effluent standards or to pro-
vide high purity water for recycle is presented. Estimates of investment
and operating cost to achieve complete water reuse in the subject plant are
given.
A study was conducted by Union Carbide, Inc. to examine costs and water
quality resulting from a best state-of-the-art process for treating waste-
water from the organic chemical manufacturing complex in Puerto Rico.
Effects of residual contaminants in renovated water used as boiler or cooling
tower makeup were also examined (41). Tertiary treatment included coagula-
tion, flocculation, clarification, filtration, granular activated carbon
adsorption, and pressure filtration. The tertiary treatment plant produced
water of a quality sufficient for use as high-pressure boiler feedwater.
Water of high enough quality for use as cycle cooling water was produced with
fewer unit operations. Use of renovated wastewater as cooling or makeup
water required construction of heat exchangers to maintain satisfactory cor-
rosion and heat transfer characteristics.
A wastewater reuse pilot plant was installed in the Union Carbide, Inc.
organic chemical manufacturing plant near Ponce, Puerto Rico (3, 349).
Reuse feasibility was demonstrated in two carefully controlled modeled heat
transfer test loops. The primary objective was to demonstrate the quality of
water each step of the treatment could be expected to produce from an organic
chemical plant secondary wastewater treatment system and to determine operat-
ing costs when this water is renovated for reuse as boiler feedwater or cycle
cooling water makeup.
The total annualized cost of producing boiler feedwater through a reno-
vation system consisting of reactor clarifiers, carbon adsorption, pressure,,
filtration, reverse osmosis and ion exchange would be approximately $2.00/m
($7.50/1,000 gal.) in 1978, not including primary or secondary treatment
costs or facilities for the handling and disposal of waste brines and
sludges (349). Waters of lesser quality than feedwater could be obtained
at significantly reduced costs for use in low pressure steam systems or as
cooling water.
Sidwick (353) discussed the characterization and development of a treat-
ment process for reuse of wastewater from an organic chemicals plant. Units
included oil separation, stripping tower, biological treatment, sand filtra-
tion, activated carbon, and, as necessary, reverse osmosis.
Schroff and Sheth (354) discussed various aspects of the recovery and
reuse of water and chemicals from wastewater produced during the manufacture
of various organic chemicals in India. Water and waste management practices
were discussed with respect to their cost-benefit ratios. Case studies on
the recovery and treatment of liquid and gaseous wastes were presented for
an oxalic acid plant and a malathion plant. Limitations on the reuse of
fully and partially treated industrial wastes were discussed.
Banerji (89) described a combined biological-physical/chemical treatment
system providing a reuseable water at a chemicals and plastics plant in
Bombay, India.
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The Pervomaisk chemical complex in the Ukraine has become the first
industrial complex in the USSR to operate with a closed-cycle water system
(355). Because mixing of effluent streams resulting from various manufac-
turing processes may produce complex reactions, wastes are treated separately
in five streams, and on-site reuse of wastewater is maximized. Ion-exchange
resins are used to treat wastewater prior to reuse. Adoption of the closed-
cycle water system has reduced water consumption at the plant to three
percent of its previous level.
Ricci (356) described a new pilot-scale system that renovates organic
chemical-laden wastewater for reuse in manufacturing operations. The system
combines activated sludge treatment, physical/chemical treatment, reverse
osmosis, and primary and secondary ion exchange. Another pilot unit has
demonstrated the effectiveness of ultrafiltration for concentrating dilute
latex wastewaters for reuse.
A pilot plant of 100 gallons/minute capacity was constructed and oper-
ated for one year by Dow Chemical Company to demonstrate the feasibility to
remove and recover phenol and acetic acid from an 18 percent sodium chloride
brine by adsorption on fixed beds of activated carbon (357). Purified brine
was used for production of chlorine and caustic soda. Tests of the purified
brine showed it to be equivalent to pure brine. Desorbed phenol was recycled
to the phenol manufacturing plant. Projected net costs of purifying this
waste brine for reuse were given.
Petrochemical wastewaters containing relatively high concentrations of
salt and refractory organics were selected to study their feasibility for
total recycle (358). A combination of reverse osmosis and electrodialysis
was operated as a hybrid system using pretreated wastewaters to produce
reusable water and a. concentrated brine. The combined system is not con-
sidered economically feasible when applied to industrial wastewaters
containing relatively high concentrations of salt.
Reuse of boiler feed and cooling water is a common practice in the
polymer industry (359). The author focused on reuse of process water. In
considering process water, it must be pointed out that water quality is of
particular concern. Water quality has an important bearing on chemical and
physical properties of the polymers made. To minimize capital investment
and operating costs toward maximum reuse of process water, steps should be
taken first to reduce current uses of process water and chemicals. A con-
cept for maximum use of process water was presented; however, total use of
process water has not been achieved in the proposed scheme. This is in spite
of addition of costly advanced treatment techniques. A means for disposal of
concentrated brine from the desalting unit has to be found.
The Dow Chemical Company's Dalton, Georgia plant uses alum coagulation
and sedimentation to remove synthetic rubber particles from process, coolant,
and wash waters used in the manufacture of styrene-butadiene latexes (360,
361). After clarification, the water is collected in a 9 million gallon
reservoir for subsequent reuse and fire protection.
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A 14-effect vertical tube evaporator was built for recovering water
from a waste stream at a synthetic rubber plant at Odessa, Texas (362, 363).
The plant has a nominal rated capacity of 40,000 tons per year of butadiene-
styrene type synthetic rubber. The waste stream contains 3500 ppm dissolved
solids and organics in excess of 100 ppm. Water having no organics and a
very low dissolved solids level was recovered for use in the manufacturing
process and also for cooling tower and boiler makeup. Engineering data to
improve design of future plants and costs for water reclamation were pre-
sented. Corrosion of the heat exchange surfaces made continous operation for
long periods impossible.
Evaluation of a full-scale wastewater recycle and reuse system was
included in a report by the B.F. Goodrich Chemical Company on wastewater
treatment facilities for a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) production plant that
includes emulsion, suspension, and bulk polymerzation processes (364).
An efficient, nonpolluting fixed-bed ethylbenzene process utilizing a
solid, non-friedel-crafts catalyst to alkylate benzene with ethylene has been
developed (365). After preheating and vaporization, fresh and recycled ben-
zene combines with an alkylaromatics recycle stream and fresh ethylene. The
process has been tested successfully in a 40 million pound per year plant and
is now ready for commercial use. The process avoids pollution problems,
reduces catalyst consumption, eliminates the need for highly-corrosion-
resistant construction materials, and recovers more easily the heat of
reaction.
Malakul (366) provided a system for reclaiming solutions of waste
chemicals such as ethelene glycol. Water in the ethelene glycol is distilled
or evaporated off at temperatures below the boiling point of glycol. The
system includes two or more interconnected evaporating stages, each having a
heating coil. The last or final evaporating stage is provided with an
aqueous solution sensing loop for removing portions of the reclaimed solution
at predetermined levels and is provided with a water sensing station for
removing condensed steam or returning contaminated water to the input of
the system.
Gadjiev and Chian (367) conducted a laboratory study to evaluate poten-
tials of various physical-chemical processes in treating oily wastes
originating from a large aerosol manufacturing plant. Two overall approaches
or alternatives were presumably available to the plant for dealing with its
wastewater problem: 1) to "completely treat" its wastes and either discharge
them directly into the receiving stream or reuse them in the plant; or 2) to
pretreat these wastes and discharge them into the municipal sewage system for
final treatment. The second alternative was negated by costs associated with
flow control and an already overloaded municipal treatment plant. The re-
verse osmosis process showed promise as a method for removal of both organics
and inorganics from aqueous solution, thereby, producing an effluent suitable
for in-plant reuse. Chemical coagulation followed by sand filtration
appeared to be the most promising process for pretreating wastewaters prior
to the reverse osmosis process. A flow diagram of the proposed treatment
system was given, and estimated capital and operating costs of a 100,000 gpd.
treatment system were presented.
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Kuo (368) discussed problems of separation and concentration of organic
solutes in aqueous solution and proper use of reverse osmosis in preparing
such waters for reuse. He noted that not all organic solutes can be removed
by reverse osmosis; in fact, some may be concentrated in the product water.
Thompson et al. (369) reported on a study designed to develop a simple,
structural economic basis to evaluate in ethylene production, the effects of
variation in policy, particularly water policy, on the use of water and the
cost of producing ethylene. The report includes: 1) a description of a
linear economic model of water use and waste treatment for a representative
ethylene plant; and 2) an analysis of the effects of variation in certain
policy variables on the use of water and the cost of producing ethylene. A
flow chart identifies how water is used and how wastes are treated in the
representative model plant. The chart identifies the decision possibilities
available at each point of water use and reuse.
Waste from the manufacture of food grade, fatty acids and glycerides,
and derivitives was treated in two separate systems (370). Water from the
glycerine evaporators vacuum system was used directly as cooling tower makeup
water. Water from the vacuum system of the fatty acids stills was treated by
dissolved air flotation before recycle to cooling towers.
Kakushkin (371) reported on the use of a closed cycle at a biochemicals
factory. After biological treatment, treated liquid was reused. An example
of water reuse in a cresylic acid plant was presented by Burnham (23).
For a realistic approach to water reuse in petrochemical plants, a
coordinated attack is needed, utilizing all available technologies where
appropriate (372). In contrast to experience with domestic secondary ef-
fluent, activated carbon treatment of petrochemical wastewater does not
produce a reusable water, essentially free of organics, even in larger sized
adsorption systems. Myers and Mayhue (320) observed that activated carbon
may pave the way to the use of other waste treatment processes and their
incorporation into the total treatment scheme for water reuse.
A carbon adsorption plant to recover p-cresol from a wastewater effluent
stream by adsorption on granular carbon, followed by chemical regeneration
was piloted, designed, and constructed to meet air pollution standards (373).
More than a year's satisfactory operation was reported. Not only were emis-
sion standards reduced to exceptable levels; but enough p-cresol was
recovered to pay back installation costs in less than two years.
Christenson and Conn (374) described an advanced wastewater treatment
system for petrochemical waste generated from a large sour gas plant.
Wastewater was renovated to near drinkable quality using a treatment
sequence of oil removal, biological treatment, chemical clarification,
mixed media filtration, and activated carbon adsorption.
The nature of waste from pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities is
dependent upon the chemical processes involved so that a decentralized
approach to waste treatment and potential water reuse can be applied
regardless of plant size (375). Segregation of waste streams plus
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decentralized treatment must be applied in a stepwise manner to implement a
sequential long range plan to achieve zero discharge by 1985. Chemical
valves should be recovered, if feasible, in order to permit reuse of the
available water as makeup to the plant supply.
An effluent treatment plant for liquid wastes from a pharmaceutical
chemicals factory in Northeast Italy was described by Cominetta and Summers
(376). The plant was designed to achieve a water quality sufficient for
complete recycling and reuse. Treatment facilities incorporate chemical,
physical, and biological treatment processes. After removal by sedimentation
of the solids and passage through sand filters and activated carbon units,
effluent from the activated sludge unit is suitable for reuse in the factory.
The North Chicago Plant of Abbott Laboratories uses a systems approach
to prevent water pollution (377). The objective is to minimize total pollu-
tion which results from production operations, natural occurences, and
accidental spillage. Included among many different types of treatment opera-
tions are the recovery and recycle type. More than 75 percent of the
potential waste streams, expressed on a BOD basis, are processed through
recovery systems.
A multi-evaporation process, called the Carver-Greenfield process, has
been used in the food processing industry successfully and is now finding
application in the recycling and ultimate disposal of chemical wastes (378).
Since tighter environmental standards have made the cheaper methods of dis-
posal ecologically unsound, the Carver-Greenfield process, previously
considered too costly, has become a viable alternative. Application of the
process to two types of wastes streams was considered: a pharmaceutical
manufacturer and an oil refinery. Basically, the system consists of three
components - a fluidizing tank, evaporator and centrifuge.
INORGANIC CHEMICALS
Because of increased costs and stricter discharge requirements, the
average plant water recycle-rate for chemicals and allied products is pro-
jected to be 27.1 by the year of 2000 (102). Most of the increase will
result from modifications to cooling-tower recirculation systems, but a lot
will come from a variety of measures designed to collect and recycle all
water within the plant and limit discharges as much as possible.
Complete water reuse in a chemical manufacturing plant can be both a
conservation measure and a method of pollution control (19). There are many
problems, however, associated with complete reuse that must be overcome
before it can become a practical application in most plants. Essentially
all plants use some form of recycle now, and with the advent of practical
technology the degree of recycle will be expanded.
Brymer (19) discussed the design of treatment processes for reclaiming
wastewater in the chemical manufacturing industry. The selection of treat-
ment processes for upgrading wastewater to a quality suitable for reuse was
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described by an illustration that involves categorization of wastewaters by
quality.
For selective plants use of innovative process engineering can achieve
in-plant abatements which will result in zero discharges from the facility
(379). Application of process engineering studies have been successful at
alum plants to effect zero discharge. Also reported are process evaluations
in progress to eliminate discharges from both phosphoric and hydrofluoric
acid facilities. Steps necessary in the process engineering program have
been defined and application of this technique discussed.
Reiter and Stocker (380) reported that Allied Chemical has eliminated
waste discharges from an alum plant, and were currently evaluating techniques
for achieving zero discharge from its phosphoric acid and hydrofluoric acid
facilities. A two-pond containment system was installed, pumping wastes to
the first lagoon where suspended solids are removed, then to a second lagoon
which functions as a clear well. The water goes back into the process as
make-up for subsequent batches, completing a closed-loop operation.
Grover (381) described a waste stream management program adopted by the
Dow Chemical Plant in Pittsburg, California. The first phase of the program
identified sources, uses, and sinks of water in the plant. The next phase
attempted to define a balance between the three categories which would
achieve the zero discharge goal for aqueous effluents. The water management
plan in operation at the plant since 1975 utilizes three main water subsys-
tems including a cooling water loop, a recycle water loop, and an aqueous
chemical sewer. A series of solar evaporation ponds provide the primary
means of wastewater disposal. Although the system is not considered tech-
nically feasible for areas of the country having lower annual evaporation
rates, the waste management system is recommended as a means of minimizing
overall discharge volumes.
Eli Lilly and Company has designed and built a fermentation plant at
Clinton, Indiana for total environmental security, regardless of the cost
involved (382). Recoverable chemicals will be recovered regardless of costs.
All waste streams will be treated individually. Ninety percent of the total
water used in all processes will be recycled.
Gaydos and Rogers (383) presented a solution for wastewater disposal
at a factory which manufactures five chemicals and requires substantial
quantities of comparitively pure water. The proposed solution involves a
multi-stage flash distillation unit and a crystallizer. The distillation
unit recovers 88 percent of the water content and returns ultrapure distil-
late to the chemical plant. Slowdown from the distillation unit proceeds to
a crystallizer which recovers the balance of the water content. Solids dis-
charged from the crystallizer are centrifuged, dried, and packaged for sale
as highway de-icer. The income in dollars per day and the quality of
valuable by-products recovered are presented.
Mississippi Chemical in Pascagoula, a manufacturer of sulfuric acid,
phosphoric acid, anhydrous ammonia, and nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
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mixed fertilizers, has installed a 10-unit closed water treatment system
(384). A discussion of the treatment system is presented.
All process water at the Diamond Shamrock Company Chrome Chemicals
Plant at Castle Haynes, North Carolina, is recycled (385). Treated wastes
are held in two six-acre lagoons where solids settle out. The only effluent
is of drinking water quality, except for a higher chloride content.
Recurring problems with operation and maintenance of waste treatment
facilities at a fertilizer plant led to the construction of an addition to
recycle the plant water (386). Significant operation and maintenance savings
have been realized, and effluent flow has been reduced by 93-95 percent.
Miller (387) reported the development of a plant-scale, continous counter-
current ion exchange process capable of producing recycle quality water from
the effluent of an ammonium nitrate fertilizer plant. The FMC Corporate
Research Center which develops new processes for the manufacture of inorganic
chemicals has recently installed a treatment and recycle system to handle the
wastewater generated from on-site investigations of prospective chemical pro-
cesses (389). Wastewater from laboratory sinks, load drains, and kettle and
tank washings is treated biologically, filtered and further processed by
reverse osmosis. The reverse osmosis product stream is chlorinated and
reused.
Quartulli (388) described the process modifications needed to achieve
zero process wastewater discharge in an ammonia plant. The approach used
involves collection and reusing condensate streams to reduce water consump-
tion. Water is injected into the process as steam, which is reacted with
natural gas to generate the hydrogen needed for ammonia production. This
scheme is now part of M. W. Kellogg's design for new ammonia facilities and
also is in operation at Chevron Chemical, Richmond, California.
IRON AND STEEL
Typical steel plants do not allocate water on the basis of individual
processes or recycle water from each process on separate circuits; most do
not even record volume or analyze water to individual unit operations (390).
Water is usually distributed to clusters of processing units. Higher
quality water is infrequently used for lower quality applications in a cas-
cading manner. In some plants, recycling exceeding 98 percent is practiced
without significant equipment or product quality problems. Modern equipment
is able to accomodate significant impurities with the help of chemical con-
trols. Insufficient information is available on the effect of water quality
on product quality. Water recycling and reuse problems are intimately
related to steel plant waste recycling and air pollution problems.
The steel industry ranks quite high among those industries requiring
large quantities of water per unit of project manufactured (391). Not
surprisingly, the industry also produces large volumes of wastewater that
must be treated. Much of this wastewater involves rinse waters emanating
from the pickling of steel with sulfuric or hydrochloric acid and the rinsing
of tin plating operations. Studies at Rohm and Haas Co. have demonstrated
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that the modified DESAL process may be readily employed for renovating steel
pickling and rotating rinse waters. The technique not only solves the pollu-
tion problem but also renovates the water for reuse and permits recovery of
valuable tin.
In the iron industry recycling of the water insures a definite economy
in the consumption of feed water (119). In accordance with the situation
and varying structure of different ironworks, production of 1 ton of steel
may require the use of 80-200 cubic meters of water (averaging 150 cubic
meters)/ton of steel. This requirement may be reduced to 2.5 - 4.5 cubic
meters makeup water/ton of steel produced with the use of closed circuits.
In the iron industry, recycling may reach as much as 98.5 percent.
Because of the large volume of water used, it has been customary for a
steel mill to employ a wastewater treatment system which provides for the
reuse of the wastewater (392). These workers described a wastewater treat-
ment system used in steel mills in Japan. The highly recommended process
consists of natural sedimentation and high speed filtering.
Hofstein and Kohlmann (393) provided results of an engineering study of
five integrated U. S. steel plants to determine how each might ultimately
achieve total recycle of water. The plants represent a broad cross section
of plant-specific factors (e.g., size, age, location, and available space)
that are present in U. S. steel plants. Conceptual engineering designs were
prepared for each plant to advance from its present water discharge situation
to achievement of the 1984 BAT limitations of the Clean Water Act and finally
to achieve total water recycle. Potential treatment technologies for meeting
these goals were evaluated; the most promising were incorporated into the
plant designs. Capital and operating costs and energy requirements were
estimated, and problems associated with implementation of the designs were
addressed. Problems include: the lack of steel plant experience with the
technologies required, the high cost and energy requirements, the additional
solid waste disposal problems, and the more difficult management requirements
for sophisticated water systems.
The general concept of water use in the steel industry is that water
should pass through a number of systems in series, with blowdown of one
system becoming the water supply of the following system (394). Therefore,
an industrial water complex consists of individual systems in series and
parallel to provide for water circulation and reuse.
The Kaiser Steel Plant at Fontana, California, was forced to recirculate
water as a conservation measure and to treat the used water to maintain the
quality necessary for succeeding production steps (394). After the plant
had designed for this procedure, it become apparent that a situation was
created where a water pollution problem could be solved with minimum expen-
ditures. Wight noted that problems of operating an integrated steel plant
with a limited amount of water based on the treatment and reuse of the
wastewater were many and continuing.
Leidner and Nebolsine (395) presented a review of the cost of steel
industry production, the water required, and the resultant wastewater
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treatment. Generally, water consumption in the modern steel mill varies from
35,000-45,000 gallons per ingot produced. The type of process needed for
production determines the amount of recirculation that can be performed which
in turn causes variations in the amount of water needed and wastewater pro-
duced. Waste treatment is complicated by the fact that integrated steel
mills generally produce seven different types of wastewaters that all require
different types of treatment.
Water reuse in the steel industry was discussed by Caswell (21). There
are two basic methods by which recirculation systems are designed and oper-
ated with the choice usually dependent upon the water use system prior to
design of the recirculating system. Recirculation can be incorporated on
each separate process, or all process waters can be combined, treated to the
extent necessary, and used as intake water for all processes. The Kaiser
Steel Plant at Fontana, California, utilizes the first system which was in
the original plant design. Most systems designed to be added at other plants
utilize the second approach. Less extensive treatment is required in the
former system, since water of the lowest quality can be reused where it can
be tolerated with a minimum amount of pumping, reserving more extensive
treatment for the uses requiring higher quality.
Water requirements for various steel-making and processing operations
were discussed by Bowman and Houston (396). In particular, the authors
discussed water reuse and requirements for chemical and physical treatment
required to meet the demands of modern steel mills. Heynike and Von Reiche
(397) described several reuse schemes employed to minimize water usage in
the steel industry of South Africa including recycle of blowdown of one
process as makeup water for another.
Ferruginous wastes, separation techniques, and recycling practices of
the steel industry were described by West (398). Sources, quantities, and
capture techniques used by the British Steel Corporation were identified.
Major problem areas with regard to the recycling effort were discussed.
Nebolsine (399) has reported on steel plant wastewater treatment and
reuse. Several different types of steel plant wastewater were considered.
These were compared on the basis of characteristics, treatment methods and
costs of treatment. Possible economics were considered.
Recirculation of reclaimed water appears to be the trend throughout
the steel industry (400). The Armco Steel plant at Ashland, Kentucky,
completely eliminated discharge of wastewater to the Ohio River when a hot
strip mill water clarification plant was opened. The Ashland plant treat-
ment process is the same as for the Armco plant at Middletown, Ohio.
Hellot (401) reported on pollution control measure in the French iron
and steel industry. He estimated that an allocation of 1-2 percent of the
total cost of a new iron and steel plant for pollution control would permit
recycling of up to 97 percent of the plant's water requirement.
Heynike (402) reviewed improvements in iron and steel industry treat-
ment facilities for waste removal and water reuse. Water treatment for
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reuse in steel processing in South Africa is based on the counter-current
rinse system or cascade system in conjunction with acid regeneration. The
vacuum cooling-crystallization process for acid recovery is preferred.
Erasmus (403) emphasized the need for superior quality water for
specific applications in a steel mill, and that the most effective use is
based on the cascading and in-plant circulating systems. Recirculation
systems are prerequistes for optimum water utilization; however, such prac-
tice often leads to the same weight of pollution in smaller discharges
which could result in unacceptable quality effluents and discourage inten-
sive reuse of water.
Bruehe (404) considered effluent confinement as an ultimate solution to
industrial waste problems. Descriptions were given of inplant changes and
effluent recycling including pickling acid recovery and treatment of oil-
contaminated rolling mill effluents.
Economics in water use in the steel industry have been suggested by
Delaine (405) and Howard and Evans (406). These include carefully defining
water quality needs for given operations and using wastewater from one
process as feed water for another. Correct segregation and treatment of
effluents could lead to a closed circuit water use system.
Simon (407) described a maximum circulation of open and closed water
circuits which recirculate water for blast furnaces, steel works, and
rolling mills. From 1975 to 1978, total water consumption of this plant
was reduced to approximately 720 gal/ton of crude steel. The effluent
rate was 380 gal/ton of crude steel. Simon reported that further reduc-
tions of the total water consumption rate were being investigated.
Jablin and Chanko (408) described details of process and construction,
pilot testing, and economics of a new process for total treatment of coke
plant waste liquor at an integrated steel plant. The process was expected
to provide an economical and technically feasible method for solving a very
difficult problem common to the steel industry. The effluent was expected
to be suitable for discharge to any stream or use as makeup in a cooling
tower or as boiler feed. By-products would be recycled.
Stoner (409) described waste treatment facilities for the Jones and
Laughlin Steel Corporation plant at Hennepin, Illinois. Water from filter
backwash, softener regeneration, boiler blowdown, rolling solutions, conden-
sate, and other uses are collected for treatment. Special procedures for
treating oils, rolling solutions, solids, and sludge are described. The
treated water was good enough for reuse. Waste pickle liquor is treated
separately and its residues injected into deep wells. Excellent results on
a consistent basis have been produced at this plant, but technological
changes and proposed effluent standards pose the threat of obsolescence.
The Appleby-Frodingham works of the British Steel Corporation uses
recycling systems for all major water demands (410, 411). Although the out-
put of steel has continually increased, changes in the steelmaking process
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and careful consideration of all aspects of water conservation and pollution
prevention has resulted in savings in water usage at the plant.
Extensive reuse of water in a hot rolling mill has been described by
Berkbile (412) and consists of sedimentation, filtration, and cooling prior
to reuse for scale removal and roll cooling. Some blowdown from the system
is used in the cold rolling mill.
A 100,000 gallon per minute water treatment plant at the Armco Steel
Corporation, Middletown, Ohio, Works has been employed to permit recycling
of the water from hot rolling mills (413). Treatment consists of dosing
ferric sulfate and lime in flash mix tanks. Addition of coagulant aids in
the flocculation tanks is followed by clarification.
Baker and Pettit (414) detailed reuse and recirculation of water in the
steel industry, particularly at the Middletown, Ohio, Armco Steel Works. The
treatment process consists of sedimentation, coagulation, flocculation, and
clarification. Features of the system include flexibility, ease of main-
tenance, provision of variable flow and raw water quality, minimum operating
manpower, maximum water conservation, and maximum degree of pollution abate-
ment.
Thompson (415) described 17 separate recirculating and waste treatment
systems installed at the Armco Middletown Works. Actual water utilization was
reduced to 5 percent of that required for once through water use.
Treated wastewater at the Chrysler Corporation foundry at Indianpolis,
Indiana, is reused in the gas quenching system with plans for recycling to the
external cupola cooling system (416).
A recycling system was installed both on the blast furnace and the
sinter plant of the Interlake Steel Corporation (417). These systems con-
sisted of polyelectrolyte addition, sedimentation, and sludge concentration,
as well as cooling towers. The recycle systems were phased into operation
at both plants with no downtime. The ultimate goal was for the complete
plant to achieve closed-cycle operation. Krikau and De Caigny (418) des-
cribed problems associated with water recycling units installed at Interlake
Steel. Scaling and lime precipitation were among the difficulties reported.
In order to solve the waste disposal problem created by the pickling of
iron, a regeneration plant was designed at the Hilton Works of the Steel
Company of Canada (419). In the process, the acid content of the pickle
liquor is recycled for further use and iron oxide is produced as a by-product.
Iron oxide produced is 97 percent pure and can be converted into iron powder
by a number of methods. The production of iron could be quite profitable.
The regeneration plant is basically a simple process, but due to production
changes or breakdowns, running the unit can be critical.
The National Steel plant at Weirton, West Virginia, replaced the old mill
rolls coolant system of water and oil directly applied to the rolls with a
recirculating system with vacuum filters (420). Only 50,000 gpd of river
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water is used with the new system compared to 30 mgd with the old system.
Fluid losses occur only through evaporation and leakage.
Studies for a total wastewater control program at a large, integrated
steel mill were begun early in 1975 (421). The study and design work on
this project has shown that many possibilities exist in steel mills for
recycle and reuse of water. Large quantities are required for flume
flushing, a use which does not require high quality water. Filtration of hot
rolling mill wastewaters produces a water quality idealy suited for recycle.
In some cases, some limited treatment followed by recycle is more practical
than treating wastewaters to an extensive degree for discharge, although
operational difficulties may occur. Careful review of both water quality
and operational requirements for each process is necessary before recycle
and reuse should be considered. However, recycled water after modest treat-
ment sometimes is of better quality than a surface water source after a
period of rainfall. It may be found that the plant is already using very
poor-quality service water on many occasions, and that reuse may even reduce
the variability in the service water supplied.
The fully integrated iron and steel works of the Japan Steel and Tube
Corporation at Fukuyama began producing steel in August, 1966, with strip
steel as the primary product (422). A horizontal pickling line using HC1
and regenerating the spent acid in roasters was installed. Operation of
the pickle line and regeneration plant were reported as satisfactory. The
pickling and regeneration facility presented a tangible contribution to
efforts of the steel industry throughout the world toward constantly raising
the quality of steel products while reducing the pollution of the water
resources they must rely upon.
The water pollution control facility at DOFASCO in Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada treats rolling mill water from the mill scale pits and primary
settling basins (423). A splitter box distributes mill water to seven of
the eight cells in each of two ultra-high rate, dual media anthracite fil-
ters. Some of the filtered water is recycled to the acid generation plant
and the hot mill, while the rest is discharged to a sewage system.
The United States Steel South Works in Chicago, Illinois initiated a
three-step program to improve the quality of water discharged (424). The
first phase of the project was to provide treatment for the south side blast
furnace group. The second phase provided a recycle system for the gas washer
water from the north side blast furnace group, as well as a central treatment
plant for primary treatment of all process water. A cooling tower unit was
installed to chill clarified effluent from the thickners before recycling to
the furnaces. Wet, high-energy, gas cleaning plants equipped with water
recycling systems, were installed to treat process water. In the third
phase of the program, a recycle system was installed for gas washer water at
the south side blast furnace group. Complete recycling of all plant process
water was provided in the fourth phase of the program.
Zero discharge has been achieved at a steel mill by a treatment train of
sedimentation, skimming, chlorination, filtration, and cooling (425). Reno-
vated water is completely reused in the plant.
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Theegarten and Von Hartman (426) described the use of a recycle system
in operation at a West German hot strip mill. The company selected to imple-
ment a recirculation system due to the high cost of raw water, the need to
meet stringent discharge requirements, and a high effluent discharge sur-
charge. Important criteria of design and operation were discussed.
Nauratil (427) discussed a recirculating water system for a Czecho-
slovakian steel mill. Mizuno (428) stated that over 90 percent of the water
used in many Japanese steel mills was recirculating water. The high level of
recycle was made possible by improved suspended solids removal techniques.
Katsumi and Nagasawa (429) reviewed the development of water reuse practices
for the steel industry in Japan.
Harrison (430) described the recirculating use of blast furnace gas
washwater at the Bilston (England) Works. The recirculation system included
treatment of blowdown steam by alkaline chlorination for cyanide, precipita-
tion of heavy metals, and sedimentation. Another recirculation system
reported for blast furnace gas wash water employed treatment of the water by
settling before reuse (431). Shah (90) reported that additional treatment
of blast furnace flue dust wash water and rolling mill effluents is normally
required before these effluents can be recirculated.
Kemmetmueller (432) described a process for dry quenching of coke,
thereby avoiding generation of quench washwaters normally associated with
coking. The process is required of all new coke plants in the USSR. Among
the advantages claimed is that there is no air or water pollution because
dry quenching is carried out in a completely closed operation.
Sukhomlinov and Vinarski (433) discussed recycling biologically treated
coke by-product wastewaters. Corrosion, scaling, biological fouling, and air
pollution were all reduced as a result of recycling.
Martin (434) discussed water use and reuse potential for blast furnace
operations, steelmaking, continous casting, hot rolling, cold rolling, and
pickling. For-each area general water quality requirements and waste treat-
ment techniques were summarized.
Recycle of wastewater from rolling mills has been reported following
chemical coagulation and sedimentation (430), sedimentation, sand filtration,
and temperature reduction (435). Hammon (436) reported on a system of gravity
separation, flocculation, sedimentation, oil skimming, sand filtration, and
evaporative cooling to treat 4.4 million cubic meters of recycle process
water at a West German rolling mill.
Barker et al. (437) and Smith (438) described investigations on a pilot-
plant treatment facility which served as the basis for mill-scale wastewater
treatment and reuse in the steel industry. The treatment system involved
sedimentation to remove heavy mill scale, oil, and grease followed by chemi-
cal coagulation, flocculation and clarification. Clarified water was used
for cooling purposes and for pressure demands to satisfy mill requirements.
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Coleman (439) reported that waste lime from acetylene manufacture could
be used to treat pickle liquor. Neutralized wastewater was pumped to a
battery of sedimentation lagoons. Renovated water could be reused in the
plant.
Kruezer (440) discussed water needs and wastewater aspects of continuous
casting. A two-system recirculating water facility was described. System I
treated and reused water that had come into direct contact with steel.
Treatment consisted of scale and oil removal followed by a cooling tower.
System II handled non-contact cooling water in a closed cycle through a
cooling tower and chemical treatment facility. Slowdown from System II was
used as makeup for System I.
Tockman et al. (441) provided results of a literature survey of current
western European and Japanese water pollution control technology in the iron
and steel industry. Recycle technology was identified as being practiced to
a high degree by the Japanese. A variable recycle rate was found to be
practiced at British and western European steel plants. Summaries of typical
pollution control operations are described and comparative date are provided.
Touzalin (442) described an installation to treat, clarify, cool, and
recirculate blast furnace and sinter plant wet scrubber effluents in one
unified system. Hellot (443) discussed current efforts in biological and
physical-chemical treatment of iron and steel production wastewaters for
reuse.
Jablin (444) reviewed the pollution control timetable for the Alan
Wood iron and steel" plant and described processes installed to date. Treated
wastewater is recycled following oil removal, acid neutralization, clarifica-
tion, and sludge lagooning. Mace (116) described recycling operations at
the Armco Steel Corporation plant in Houston, Texas.
Brough and Voges (445) described the use and reuse of water in a basic
oxygen furnace for the following operations: hood cooling, oxygen lance
cooling, spark box spray cooling, gas scrubbing, and gas after-cooling.
Duval (446) patented a process for recovering the zinc content of flue dust
using spent pickle liquor.
The desalting recovery facility for wastewater from a cold rolling mill
of the Kobe Steel Manufacturing Company Limited was described by Kotegawa
and Maekawa (447). The wastewater was pretreated by neutralization, colloi-
dal separation, precipitation separation, and filtration. In the desalting
facility, the waste was first treated with aluminum hydroxide in a high pres-
sure filter to remove oil components, and then in a cation exchange tower,
a decarbonation tower, and finally in an anion exchange tower. Treated water
was mixed with plant water which by-passed the desalting facility and city
supplied water and reused by the factory. About 89 percent of the wastewater
generated at the mill can be reused.
An overview of waste treatment practices in the steel making industry
was given by Koehrsen and Krikau (448). A review of various types of reuse
schemes that are commonly employed in the industry was provided.
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Regeneration of wastewaters from steel works and rolling mills for
recirculation was reported by Albrecht (449). The wastewater is passed
through a sedimentation basin and then a hydroclone. Finally, the addition
of a flocculating agent, followed by a two-step gravel filter, removes solids
of micron size.
Miller (450) reported that water can be pumped through self-cleaning
strainers and then reused in steel mills. This practice will reduce the
suspended solids load to the receiving stream by as much as 94 percent.
One of the most pressing problems in the steel industry is disposal of
mill scale effluents (451). This is the liquid/solid waste created when
steel is washed clean of oxidized scale. One southwestern rolling mill has
solved this problems by recycling 4,000 gpm of scale pit effluent after dual-
media filtration. Filtered water is collected and held in a 500,000 gallon
reservoir for service in roll cooling, descaling, washdown, and cleanup
areas.
De Yarmen (452) investigated specific systems for renovating the water
employed in wet flue gas scrubbers for recycle and reuse. To reduce the
level of pollutant discharges in wastewater resulting from wet scrubbing of
blast furnace flue gases, a portion of the clarifier overflow is recycled
(453). Recycle gas-cleaning systems can be operated similarly to once-
through systems, but the quality of the recycle water must be monitored to
maintain calcium carbonate equilibrium.
Studies of an electro-membrane process for regenerating acid from spent
sulfuric acid pickle liquor have indicated that the process is technically
feasible (454). Estimated treatment costs were given.
Ferner and Higgins (455) and Higgins (456) discussed use of ion exchange
resins for the recycle of spent pickle liquor components. Robert (457)
reported that gelatinous silicon could be removed from spent H_SO, liquor
by filtering through bags made from synthetic fibers. The filtrate was fur-
ther treated to remove FeSO,.7R~0 to recycle the acidic liquor. Lefevre (458)
described an ion exchange methoa employing strong cationic exchangers to
recover iron and recycle HCL to the pickle line.
A process has been developed by Pori, Incorporated, for the regeneration
of hydrochloric acid from spent steel mill pickling solutions (459) . A
sequence of several unit operations is involved in the Pori process. Equip-
ment consists of an evaporator oxidizer, hydrolyzer, falling film condenser
adsorber system, tail gas scrubber, moving bed filter, and necessary pumps,
storage tanks, and utilities. A regeneration plant was to be built at J and
L Steel Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio. This low temperature process will pro-
duce high strength acid and will eliminate the need to install heat exchanges
in pickle lines and to control concentrations of the components in spent
pickle liquor. In addition, soluable or usable products such as EEC 13 and
FE 203 will be produced.
Effects of oxygen converter operation methods on the dissolved solids
content of gas scrubbing water, and the suitability of the water for recycle
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were discussed by Pantelyat and Kuznetsov (460). Available processes for
recovery of spent pickling liquors were reviewed by Hitzemann (461, 462).
The magnidisc water treatment process is especially suited to the treat-
ment of effluents from steel works (463). The treatment process is based
on the magnetic separation of solid particles from polluted water. The
magnidisc system has satisfactorily treated the effluent from the Storfors
Steelworks, Sweden. The cleaned water at Storfors is recycled. The magna-
disc system is very compact; the moving parts are few and slow-moving; and
some dewatering of the sludge occurs as it moves through the discs.
A patent has been issued for a process whereby flushing liquor from a
gas main of a cloke oven undergoes separation in a tank to obtain water which
is essentially free of tar and solids and to obtain tar which is essentially
free from water and solids (464).
Dembeck (465) cautioned that circumstances change from plant to plant
and that it was impossible to take treatment methods from one location and
use them at another without intensive preliminary investigations.
METAL PLATING AND FINISHING
Friedberg (466) reported on closed-loop recovery and recycling of metal
finishing wastes for industrial systems, citing case histories of waste
treatment requirements and their solutions with closed-loop systems.
Leon and Leon (467) reported that water consumption was reduced by 90
percent and waste heat reduced substantially for a metal finishing plant by
installing a reuse and recycle system. Rinse waters were recycled and
cooling water and steam condensate reused. Nickel containing rinse water
was passed through an ion exchange column, then mixed with other rinse
waters, treated with spent acid bath solution, and then lime.
Missel (468) suggested that many spent plating solutions could be
reused. He also suggested use of multiple-tank, countercurrent rinsing of
plated parts to reduce the volume of wastewater to be processed.
Countercurrent rinsing, use of sprays rather than baths, segregation of
different types of plating baths, and treatment by ion exchange, activated
carbon and reverse osmosis make possible 90 percent water reuse in the metal
finishing industry (469).
Trnka and Novotny (470) described the feasibility of a rinse and
recovery system that can be installed in almost any metal finishing line and
does not harm the environment because no plating solution exits to the sewer.
The zero discharge system is an innovative system for use in the metal fini-
shing industry. A conventional multistage aqueous rinsing system is replaced
by a two-stage solvent spray rinse followed by a single-stage aqueous immer-
sion rinse. By continously purifying and recycling the baths, appreciable
savings in operating chemical costs can be realized.
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Von Ammon (471) discussed advantages and problems of ion exchange and
recirculation from the experiences of three metal finishing plants in
Germany. The type and situation of the plants, collection of rinse waters,
design and operation of the ion exchange process, properties of the circu-
lated water, wastewater treatment properties of the final effluent, and
economic considerations were discussed. Recirculation was found to be more
economical unless costs for water supply are extremely low or no waste
treatment is required. Recirculation results in reduction in waste quantity
which gives obvious advantages for reduced waste treatment and a lower pollu-
tion load on receiving waters.
Marino (472) discussed the technical and economic feasibility of closed
loop systems in the electroplating industry to attain zero discharge of pol-
lutants by 1983. Capital costs were summarized and reasons for their
increase was discussed. A wastewater treatment and reuse system was
described. According to Barrett (473), development of an effluent treatment
and recycling system is part of the manufacturing process.
A discussion of the advantages of using resource recovery equipment has
been presented (474). A survey indicated that recovery practices have enabled
electroplating companies to conserve chemicals and reduce the cost of chemi-
cal treatment for meeting discharge limits for heavy metals. A breakdown of
recovery costs from several plants and several types of recovery equipment
in the plants was presented.
Burkhart (475) proposed several design schemes for recovering water and
useful materials from electroplating processes. Purpose of the designs was
to improve water balance of the process cycle and to avoid contamination by
effluent discharges. Kreszkowski and Jackson (476) discussed effluent stan-
dards for electroplating plants in the United States and proposed possible
modifications for water reuse.
Pinner (477) discussed recovery of water and valuable materials in the
electroplating industry in the United Kingdom. The integrated treatment of
eliminating toxic wastes and recovering valuable materials have become more
feasible with discovery of new closed loop systems. For example, after a
process containing toxic or valuable recoverable materials, replacing the
water rinse with a recycled chemical rinse permits the metals to be precipi-
tated out and the clear liquid to be returned as a secondary rinse. Pinner
pointed out three techniques for extracting metals from rinse water: chemi-
cal precipitation, electrolytic recovery, and ion exchange. If metals are
not extracted, they can be concentrated by evaporation and reverse osmosis
to levels suitable for returning to the plating tanks.
Satee (478, 479) discussed the treatment and disposal of anodizing
effluents. He stated that the ideal method of treating water in an anodizing
plant is for reuse within the plant.
Lancy and Rice (480) discussed commonly used waste treatment systems for
upgrading metal finishing facilities to reduce pollution. Savings achieved
in water reuse opportunities and from chemical and metal recovery steps built
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into the waste treatment scheme may allow economics to offset treatment cost,
thereby reducing overall operating costs.
Domey and Stiefel (481) reported on the development of a waste treatment
scheme for metal finishing operations in Massachusetts. Counterflow rinsing
techniques as well as the application of water reuse were instituted. Waste
flows were reduced by as much as 90 percent. Consequently, it was possible
to design small batch-type treatment systems for these and other similiar
firms lacking both available space and capital for pollution abatement facil-
ities.
Almag Chemical Corporation, Baltimore, Maryland, a metal plating and
finishing specialist plant, has developed a closed-loop system for wastewater
decontamination (482). The system continuously decontaminants wash and rinse
water, and the clean water recirculates through the process. No wastewater
is discharged and no fresh water is introduced. Water costs have been
reduced by about 75 percent. Individual systems had to be divided for each
plant area or process because of the diversity of operations in the plant.
Operating costs are offset by the savings in water costs.
Swalheim and McNutt (483) described recovery and recycling of electro-
plating plant effluents as extremely desirable and described some practical
and economical methods to avoid pollution problems. Kreszkowski and Tuznik
(484) reviewed recycling and recovery of materials in the electroplating
industry.
A Chicago plating operation featuring recirculation of metallic rinses
has been described (485). The operation includes in addition to the recir-
culation feature, acid, alkali, cleaner dumping and batch treatment,
preliminary sludge collection, final pH adjustment, and final sludge collec-
tion, drying^ and thickening. There are recirculating rinses for zinc,
nickel, chromium, and copper.
The use of countercurrent double rinse tanks that require water addition
only when the reuse water is too dirty, can reduce drainage system require-
ments in the metal finishing industry (23). Nohse (486) attempted reuse by
a cascade rinse procedure during metal finishing operations and found that it
was not always successful. An integrated recovery method was reported to be
an efficient means of maintaining strict control of metal finishing solutions
and maximizing the recovery of recycle water and other valuable materials
(487).
Kolzow (488) discussed water renovation and reuse in the metal finishing
industry. He detailed a chromium and zinc recovery system that was installed
to reclaim the wastewater so that it could be totally reused. Treatment of a
metal finishing waste also was discussed by Snowden (489). The renovation
system consisted of cyanide treatment by alkaline chlorination, nickel re-
moval by precipitation, and chromium and copper treatment by reduction and
precipitation. Because of the high quality of the effluent, treated waste-
water was returned to processes in the plant.
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Installation of a 25 gph "waste saver" evaporative recovery system has
enabled the Dzus Fastener Company, West Island, N.Y. to develop a closed-loop
cadmium plating cycle. The company barrel plates its steel products with
cadmium (490). The evaporative recovery unit receives rinse water from the
first of three counter-flow rinse stages through an intermediate reservoir.
It then evaporates the rinse water and returns distilled water directly to
the rinse tanks. The concentrate is returned to the plating bath. Use of
this system has eliminated chemical consumption from the previously used
chemical-destruct system; eliminated losses of plating chemicals in the drag-
out; reduced water consumption; and, substantially lowered costs for sludge
removal. Through savings, the system was expected to pay for itself within
two to three years.
Pengidore (491) described results of use of counter-current rinsing on
a high-speed tin plating line. Performance of the rinse system and recovery
of chemicals in the concentrated rinse effluent were discussed. The report
also included a description of problems encountered with water recycling and
new technology and methods for solving these problems. Fischer (492)
described a practical example of rinse water recirculation in combination
with the Lancy integrated effluent treatment method.
A complete wastewater treatment system has been installed as part of a
new S.K. Williams Company job plating facility (493). Most of the metal
finishing processes common to the industry are included in the plant. De-
spite the wide range of toxic materials used in these processes, the
treatment system has provided an effluent essentially meeting U.S. P.H.S.
drinking water standards. Operating experiences are described, and data are
presented on operating and capital costs for the entire system.
McDonough and Steward (494) described the waste treatment installation
at a contract metal finishing plant of the S.K. Williams Company. Inte-
grated systems are used to intercept specific wastes before they enter the
rinse waters. With the use of the integrated treatment system, rinse waters
do not become contaminated; and the effluent is suitable for reuse. An
additional benefit of the system is that it eliminates the need for equip-
ment to handle large volumes of effluents.
Collison (495) described an integrated treatment scheme with rinse-
water recirculation in a metals plating facility. Rinse-water requirements
were reduced approximately 85 percent.
McGarvey and Fisher (496) reported that a water recycling process could
be installed and operated at a zinc bonderizing plant at one-half the cost
of a conventional non-recycling system. Closed loop recycling was reviewed
by Webster and Olson (497) and Swartz (498) as a means of meeting zero dis-
charge standards in the aluminum and aluminum products industries.
Kneysa (499) described a fixed-bed electrolysis process for purifica-
tion of electroplating wastewaters, recovery of valuable materials, and
recycling of wash water. The process was applied to treatment of copper
containing electroplating wash waters.
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Although other techniques are under development, evaporation, reverse
osmosis, and ion exchange are the most commonly used processes for rinse-
water recovery (500). Each of these techniques has particular advantages
and disadvantages, and the best technique or combination of techniques will
depend on factors specific to each application.
Treatment of wastes from the metal finishing industry was explored by
Cheremisinoff et al. (501). Chromium, cyanide and other rinse waters have
been treated by single and multiple stage evaporation. This process is
economical only for concentrated rinses and requires segregation of wastes
by compatible types, the use of various means for excluding or removing
impurities, and careful rinsing and water use by the metal finisher. Evap-
orated water is returned to the rinsing system.
One of the recent developments in recycling, an evaporative atmospheric
recovery system, has been reviewed by Kolesar (502). A typical chrome
closed-loop evaporative atmospheric recovery system is described. Cost of
the system for a plating plant depends on individual installation and the
type of plating involved. Comparative operating costs of plating rinse
treatment at a plant of an automotive parts supplier is quoted, showing def-
inite economic gains without affecting process efficiency.
Barta (503) discussed automatic recovery of plating wastes. The
Pfaudler automatic closed-loop evaporation plant for treatment of plating
wastewater and recovery of cyanides was described and illustrated. Rinse
waters were drawn into the evaporator by vacuum and circulated between the
reboiler and the separator until they were concentrated sufficiently for
return to the plating baths. The distillate was used as makeup water for
the rinse tanks. Operating costs were less for those in chemical treatment.
Elicker and Lacey (504, 505) reported on a six-month study of chrome
plating operations. This EPA demonstration project documents the practical-
ity of a new evaporative approach for recovering chromic acid from metal
finishing rinse wastewaters, as well as the economics of the system under
actual operating conditions. Design of the system centered around a
climbing film evaporative recovery unit, a cation exchange column, and
monitoring equipment. Results of the study showed that the system can be
accommodated with little impact on the existing operation. The recovered
chromic acid can be recycled back into the bath without affecting product
quality. The recovery system can decrease chromic acid consumption signifi-
cantly and is economically viable.
Evaporative recovery of plating wastes has advanced from manually
operated batches to completely automated, continuous systems incorporating
processes for removal of impurities and recovery of water (506). Applica-
tions include a wide variety of plating and treatment baths. By reusing
the distallate for rinsing purposes, plating has become a closed-loop process
with no waste effluent. Over the years, problems have arisen which have led
to innovative changes in the overall system. Separate rinse tanks are em-
ployed in each line.
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The Rockford Linen Products Company employs an automatic evaporation
system for concentration of plating rinse waters to permit reuse (507).
Economics of the process were considered, the automatic operation described,
and flow diagrams presented.
Imai (508) reviewed different recycle methods which could be used to
reduce electroplating effluent discharges. Obrizut (509) discussed the use
of a climbing film evaporator which was used to recover chrome and recycle
the rinse water. Bhatia and Jump (510) presented the climbing film evapor-
ator as an effective technique for recycling plating materials such as
chrome.
Because of the inherent disadvantage of end-of-pipe treatment, loss of
valuable plating chemicals, cost of treatment chemicals, and cost of sludge
disposal, increasing attention has been focused on closed-loop recovery
methods (511). A field test was conducted to demonstrate closed-loop recov-
ery of zinc cyanide rinse water at a job plating facility. Reverse osmosis
treatment of rinse water was supplemented by evaporation in order to achieve
the volume reduction necessary for return of a concentrate to the plating
bath. The permeate from the RO unit was recycled to the first rinse after
plating while the distillate from the evaporation was recycled to the second
rinse after plating. Continuous, unattended operation of this system was
demonstrated with no adverse effects on plating quality.
Economics of the combined RO-evaporation system were assessed for a
system designed to provide rinsing equivalent to the present two-stage
counter-current rinse at the demonstration site (511). The analysis showed
that the total operating cost (including amortization) was somewhat less for
the combined RO-evaporation system than for evaporation alone. The minimum
cost occurred for 90 percent water recovery in the RO system. However,
credits for rinse-water recovery were insufficient to completely off-set the
total operating cost of the recovery system.
The New England Plating Company in Worchester, Massachussetts, was the
site of a field test to evaluate the use of a reverse osmosis membrane in
hollow fine fiber configuration for the closed-loop treatment of rinse water
from a Watts-type nickel bath (512). A schematic diagram of the field test
system was presented. Rejections observed for nickel, total solids, and
conductivity were generally very good. Total annual operating costs were
projected.
Reverse osmosis can be used for the closed-loop treatment of plating
bath rinse waters with recycle of the plating chemicals and reuse of the
purified water in rinsing operations (513). Closed-loop RO for treatment
of segregated rinse waters and for treatment of mixed effluents are discussed
in detail with reference to the advantages and limitations of each.
Kremen et al. (514) reported that a reverse osmosis process and system
had been developed to purify a dilute waste stream from a metal finishing
plant. The system achieved a 95 percent water recovery. Plant performance,
after shakedown, has been in good agreement with design predictions. Takao
(515) described a recycle system based on the use of reverse osmosis.
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Bays (516) described a system in which plating bath rinse water was
completely recycled with only dry salt and metal oxides as waste products.
The semiautomatic RO system recycled up to 56 million gallons per year of
wastewater. Advantages of closed-loop recovery of electroplating rinse
waters using reverse osmosis have been noted (517). Principle advantages
are low capital, energy, labor costs, and small space requirements.
Galomb (518) reported.on laboratory studies on the feasibility of
reverse osmosis for recovering nickel from rinse waters from nickel plating
operations. A process scheme for recovery and direct return of chemicals
to the plating bath was proposed. A preliminary cost estimate indicated
favorable economics with the added advantage of pollution control.
On the basis of laboratory studies and subsequent plant trials on an
industrial plating line, nickel plating rinse waters were effectively
treated by reverse osmosis to reclaim reusable materials (519). Cellulose
acetate membranes were used to recover greater than 99 percent of nickel
valves from the waste rinse streams. In addition to the favorable economic
aspects, the "closed loop" reverse osmosis reclamation system can make a
significant contribution toward eliminating unnecessary discharge of contam-
inants and total dissolved solids into the environment.
Reverse osmosis treatment is saving materials and water at the Evanston,
Illinois, plating plant of VGA Corporation (520). More than 8,000 square
feet of plastic is electroplated daily at the plant. The RO treatment has
reduced weekly copper consumption by one-third. In addition to returning
concentrated materials to the plating bath, the closed-loop RO system reuses
purified rinse waters. The RO unit is an automatic compact unit called an
Osmonic Osmo-30043.
Beckman Instruments, Inc. implemented a program at its Porterville,
California, facility to lower the reject rate of the plating operation by
improving the quality of rinse waters (521, 522). In addition, the program
reduced water consumption and complied with EPA discharge requirements.
Reverse osmosis was chosen as the principal method for water purification.
A solar evaporation pond was selected as the means to deal with wastes which
could not be recycled through the RO system. A block diagram of the waste
treatment system, including the pretreatment filter system, is shown. The
system has reduced water consumption by about 70 percent and lowered the cost
of shop rejects to less than a third of its previous value. In addition, it
fully complies with the 1983 goal of zero discharge.
Field tests of RO were conducted on copper cyanide rinse waters at two
different sites: Whyco Chromium Company and New England Plating Company
(523). At both sites, closed-loop treatment was used with plating chemicals
recycled to the bath and purified water recycled to the rinsing operation.
The objective of the tests was to establish under actual plating conditions,
the feasibility of RO treatment for copper cyanide plating wastes. It was
concluded that RO can be used to close the loop in copper cyanide plating.
However, care must be taken to insure that adequate membrane life can be
achieved.
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The North State Research and Development Institution, Minneapolis,
Minnesota, evaluated 17 different reverse osmosis membranes as to their
ability to separate heavy-metal ions, acids, bases, and cyanides from metal
finishing wastewaters (524). Although no one membrane was found to be ef-
fective for all effluents, membranes of five different polymers showed
considerable promise. Preliminary engineering considerations for reverse
osmosis applications to treatment and recycle of acidic copper plating bath
rinse waters showed a 99.8 percent copper recovery and a 99.9 percent recov-
ery of water.
Antoine (525) described two different solutions for the partial recy-
cling of wastewaters from the pickling rinsing of metallic workpieces prior
to galvanization. According to one solution, effluents are neutralized with
lime, and then oxidized for conversion of free acid and iron chloride into
calcium chloride and ferric hydroxide, the latter being eliminated in a
static decanter. The solution obtained is treated continuously with sul-
furic acid for conversion of calcium chloride into hydrochloric acid and
calcium sulfate, the latter being continuously removed by filtration or
decanting. Another solution to the recycling problem, permitting different
uses of recycled water, is separation of the total effluent by RO into a
clear fraction suitable for direct recycling and another residual fraction.
Donnelly et al. (526) examined reverse osmosis treatment of plating bath
rinse waters. Emphasis was placed on closed-loop operation with recycle of
purified water for rinsing, and return of plating chemical concentrate to the
bath. Three commercially available membranes were evaluated experimentally;
tubular, spiral-wound, and hollow-fiber configurations. Tests were conducted
with nine different rinse waters prepared by dilution of actual plating baths.
Advantages and limitations of two RO processes and specific membranes and
configurations were discussed.
Major pollution problems in the automobile industry result from the
large quantities of water used in metal finishing and machining (527). Both
economic and environmental benefits will result if metals and chemicals can
be retrieved and the volume to be disposed can be reduced by the removal of
water. One such technology is reverse osmosis. Benefits and limitations of
reverse osmosis were discussed.
Koyama et al. (528) conducted laboratory studies on the recovery and
reuse of rinse water from tin-nickel plating operations by reverse osmosis
and ion-exchange processes. The authors suggested a closed water cycle pro-
cess of tin-nickel alloy plating which will affect almost complete recovery
of chemicals and direct return of the concentrated product into the plating
bath.
The function and uses of ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and ultrafil-
tration in the purification of wastewaters generated in the sheet-metal
processing industry in general, and in electroplating shops in particular,
were described by Marquardt (529).
More stringent effluent restrictions forced the General Electric range
products plant in Cicero, Illinois, to develop an effective economical
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method of treating 45,000 gallons of wastewater produced daily from the
chrome plating line (530). The two-bed system selected is described. Waste-
water first passes through a column containing Amberlite IR-120 exchange
resin where iron, nickel, trivalent chromium, and other cations are removed.
The second unit containing Amberlite IRA-402 exchange resin removes hexava-
lent chromium, fluorides, sulfates, chlorides, and miscellaneous anions.
The resins are automatically regenerated.
In 1972, Oldsmobile installed two ion exchange systems at its facility
in Lansing, Michigan, to treat nickel rinse water from the bumper plating
lines (531). The treatment systems were designed to accomplish three pur-
poses: 1) reduction of nickel metal in the plant effluent discharge to the
city of Lansing; 2) recovery of nickel metal; and 3) recovery of the rinse
water itself. Although the ion exchange processes did not fully achieve all
the objectives hoped for, it still recycles a combined 50 million gallons of
water and recovers about 30,000 pounds of nickel annually. In addition,
significant reductions of nickel metal in the plant effluent have been obser-
ved.
A pilot plant study was carried out which demonstrated the effectiveness
and economic feasibility of a unique ion exchange process referred to as
"acid retardation" for purifying spent phosphoric acid used in bright fin-
ishing aluminum parts. The anion resin retards phosphoric acid as the
processing solution flows through the bed (532). Aluminum remains in the
waste solution and passes out of the column in the effluent. Acid is eluted
from the bed with water, eliminating use of chemicals which are needed to
regenerate resin in conventional ion exchange systems.
A method and apparatus for handling chromium containing anions from the
rinse bath which is used to rinse plated objects has been invented (533).
Purified rinse water from the plating operation, after having passed through
ion-exchange resin, is used for rinsing of plated objects, backwashing and
rinsing of ion-exchange resins, and makeup of ion-exchange resin regenerant
solution. The solution of chromium-containing anions is delivered to an
anion-exchange resin where chromium-containing anions are removed and ex-
changed for hydroxide ions thereby forming purified water.
A treatment system developed for use with liquid waste generated from
surface coating processes has been designed so that no effluents will be
created, and all liquids will be circulated within a closed system (534).
All liquid wastes that enter the scrub water tank are then sent to the ion
exchange resin treatment unit where liquids are classified into groups and
treated separately. Deionized liquid circulates back to the scrub water
tank. Recovered, newly created waste from the surface coating process and
other miscellaneous liquid waste are sent together to the chemical treatment
system where liquids and solids are separated. Separated liquid is concen-
trated and evaporated. Condensed water is circulated back to the scrub water
tank. Solids are mixed with solid sludge from the separation processes.
Metals in the sludge are recovered by contracted metal refiners and reused.
Problems in the system include material corrosion and noise.
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Petzold (535) introduced a recycling and automatic operations method
that was designed for recovering metallic salt from electroplating rinse
baths. Metal salts could be separated by ion exchange and recovered in
concentrations ranging from 150-225 grams per liter. It was determined that
at these concentrations the treated rinse solution would be suitable for
direct use in the plating bath.
The technological and economic advantages of use of ion-exchange resins
for wastewater treatment in the extroplating industry have been described.
Water treated by ion exchange is of constant quality regardless of fluctua-
tions in ion concentration. Ion-exchange resins are also suitable for the
recycling of process water after the removal of ions, and for the recovery
of precious metals from liquids (536). It is possible to economically remove
copper, nickel, zinc, cadmium, sodium, chromic acid, cyanides, phosphoric
acid, and nitric acid from process waters provided their individual concen-
trations are below 500 mg/liter.
Peterson (537) proposed a closed-loop system for treatment of waste
pickle liquor. The system consists of a crystallizer, ion exchange unit,
oxidizer, and hydrolyzer. All acids are recycled.
Silman (538) noted that equipment is very sophisticated and requires
special skills, resins are expensive and can be ruined beyond regeneration,
and temperature of rinse baths must be carefully controlled because of heat
conservation where the recycle of rinse water is practiced.
Peyron (539) discussed recirculation and direct treatment of electro-
plating wastewaters. The description of an ion-exchange effluent treatment
plant was included.
Ayusawa et al. (540) were awarded a patent for an ion exchange process
for treating zinc electroplating solutions. The process removed iron and
lead impurities and allowed recycle of the waste zinc solution. A patent has
been issued for a process in which chromate ions are removed and recovered
from feed by passing the water through a bed of basic anion exchange resin
(541). An alkaline solution containing regenerant ions is then passed
through the bed to recover chromate ions.
The bronze plating facility of Dowty Mining treats and recycles rinse
water affected from plating operations using a cyanide treatment system and a
neutral treatment system (542). In addition to recycling treatment plant
effluents, Dowty recycles its second stage rinse water without treatment.
The recirculation of 90 percent of rinse water has resulted in a substantial
annual savings on fresh water costs.
Zimmer (543) described an economic water recovery system for metal
plating facilities which combined direct filtration and ion exchange. Var-
ious methods of treatment of rinse water from electro-chemical processes
including chemical treatment, controlled recirculation, ion-exchange, electro-
lytic processes and integrated effluent treatment were presented by Silman
(538). He reported that 50 - 80 percent savings of water requirements could
be realized by the controlled recirculation method.
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A patent has been issued for an invention involving a method and appara-
tus for neutralizing etching agents, and separating metallic and fibrous
particles and particulate matter from a fluid solution to reduce the parti-
culate level in the solution and condition it to permit its reuse in the
manufacturing process and its ultimate disposal without adverse affects to
the environment (544). The process is based on placing a plastic material
carrying an electrostatic charge (electret) in contact with the fluid solu-
tion.
A closed-loop water recycling system was used by the Eaton Corporation
to solve wastewater discharge problems from metal cleaning processes (545).
The process consisted of a first stage in which wastewater discharge is mixed
in an equalization pump. The second stage finds the waste pumped into the
neutralization system. Waste is discharged into a transfer tank and then to
a clarifier. Clarified overflow is transferred to a clear well, and the
clear water is pumped through a polishing filter and then back to the wire
coil rinsing tanks.
Brackett (546) described a process by which wastewater from metal
plating and metal etching operations is treated for recovery of useful solid
contents while permitting recycling of water through the plants without
creating sludge deposits that result from ordinary wastewater treatment
methods. The method does not require addition of sludge-forming chemicals to
the water; saves the cost of valuable materials reclaimed from the waste-
waters; and does not require large, expensive evaporator or freeze units.
The process consists of equalization tanks, pH adjustment facilities, fil-
ters, reverse osmosis or electrodialysis units, organic material removal
unit, evaporator, freeze crystallizer unit, and centrifuge.
A patent has been granted for a method of purifying a galvanizing and/or
metal cleaning plant pickle liquor to permit reuse (547). The operation
includes placing a cathode and an anode in the liquor and passing a DC cur-
rent through the liquid. Metal molecules are recovered by means of a magnet
located near the cathode. Iron oxides and other insoluble salts are formed
near the anode and can subsequently be removed by filtration-.
The Atomics International Metal-Cyanide Removal Process for plating
rinse waters was evaluated in pilot-scale studies by Chen et al. (548). The
process uses an electrolytic cell with a tin particle-bed cathode, a graphite
particle-bed anode, and a cellophane separator in which relatively low vol-
tage is used to remove contaminants from metals processing wastewater. Cost
estimates for the process based on the pilot-plant unit design were pro-
jected.
A treatment system for reuse of wastewater in the electronics metal
finishing industry was described by Miller (549). Wastewater passes through
a disc filter for removal of large solids and a high rate anthracite coal fil-
ter for removal of fine solids. After separation of oil and water at pH
2.5-3.0, a weak ion-exchange resin is used for neutralization. Treated
water is used as feed for a demineralizer system or as makeup for a cooling
tower.
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Full-scale demonstration of electrodialysis for closed-loop treatment
of brass plating cyanide rinse waters was conducted in the Keystone Lamp
Manufacturing plant at Slatington, Pennsylvania (550). In treatment of
actual rinse water the system was only 25 percent as effective as antici-
pated. Numerous attempts to improve the efficiency of the installation were
unsuccessful, and the works were terminated. In this study, the electro-
dialysis system was tested on sodium copper cyanide solutions, whereas the
actual rinse waters contained sodium copper zinc cyanide. To avoid future
failures, the membranes need to be laboratory tested on actual wastewaters
before full-scale demonstration.
A method was developed in a pilot study by Volco Brass and Copper Com-
pany which reduces water consumption by 90 percent through chemical rinsing
and water reuse (551, 552). The sulfuric acid pickle solution is regenerated
and high purity metallic copper recovered through continuous electrolysis.
A design for implementing the new process is included.
The development and successful demonstration of laboratory and pilot-
scale flouride treatment techniques for selected aerospace and metal working
industry chemical processing solutions and rinse waters were described by
Staebler (553). Reuse of treated rinse waters, economics of precipitation,
and production plans for chemical processing solutions and rinse waters were
also presented.
The feasibility of recycling certain categories of water used in the
manufacture of airplanes was demonstrated (554). Water in four categories
was continuously recycled in 380 liter (100 gallons) treatment plants. The
four categories were: chemical process rinse water, electroplating process
rinse water, dye-penetrant crack-detention rinse water, and machine shop
water based coolant. Capital and recycling costs were estimated for each
category.
Hicks and Jarmuth (555) reported on a regeneration process that was
conceived and tested to reduce the frequency of discarding spent chrpmated
deoxidizers used extensively in the metal finishing industry. Engineering
techniques in this project involved reoxidation of trivalent chromium to the
hexavalent state by electrolysis through a diaphragm plus removal of unde-
sirable dissolved metals by crystallization and separation. Results of the
tests established that regeneration of chromated aluminum deoxidizers is
feasible, practical, and economical.
Hayashi (556) described a method for the recycle treatment of chromium
plating wastewater. The process is characterized by the treatment, under
neutral conditions, of the chromium plating wastewater, from which the iron
and other metallic components have been removed by the addition of sodium
or calcium hydroxide followed by precipitation, and by the subsequent adsorp-
tion of sodium or calcium with cation resins before the adsorption of
dichromic acid ions on the anion resins.
A patent has been issued for a process for removing and recovering
chromium from wastewater by direct precipitation of chromium using barium
carbonate in aqueous solutions acidified with glacial acetic acid at a
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preferred pH range of 4.5 -4.7 (557). Hashimoto and Shiralshi (558)
reported on recycling chromate-bearing wastewater from plating by using
submerged combustion.
The ISIS system of wastewater treatment was introduced in 1972 by the
H.D. Jackson Company, Ltd., as a fully automatic method fo: the metal fin-
ishing and allied industries (559). The system consists of individual
modules which allow for a high degree of flexibility. The modular units are:
pressure vessels; powered valve capsule; sequence controller; and pH con-
troller and recorder. This system is used for boiler water treatment at the
Willenhall Works of Albert Monston and Company Ltd., a manufacturer of alumi-
num products anodized at their own plant. The installation, although
complete in itself for boiler water treatment, forms the nucleus of a plant
which is to be extended to handle future demand for treatment of final rinse
water, sealing water, and vat makeup for the anodizing plant, and ultimately
provide reuse and recirculation of the effluent.
Metal treating plants which pickle iron generate large volumes of acid
rinse water containing high levels of iron. It would appear that use of the
modified Desal Process described by Kaup et al. (560) would allow reuse of
the rinse water in a closed cycle operation. Cost of such treatment would
depend on the sulfate level, pH, and iron content of the rinse water.
Chemical rinsing of electroplated parts and batch chemical treatment of
spent processing solutions have been demonstrated to be a practical approach
for abating pollution at a small metal finishing facility (561). The treat-
ment system reduced heavy metals in the wastes to a level where substantial
quantities of water could be reused.
Lewin (562, 563) discussed water usage, reuse, and effluents from motor
assembly and the metal finishing processes in the motor industry. Water
usage and associated trade effluents in relation to car production were il-
lustrated. Several examples of water conservation practices for cooling
waters and process waters were presented. These included introduction of
closed-circuit cooling systems, private cooling towers, or even heat exchange
with refrigeration. Waters used for filling radiators and tank testing were
diverted as makeup for such systems instead of being wasted.
The Lancy method for purification of wastewater from metal surface
treatment industries was discussed by Ishiyama (564). The method utilizes
chemical rinsing processes which are incorporated into the metal surface
treatment processes. Processed metal surfaces are cleaned at the end of each
process by chemical reagent rather than with water; therefore, the chemical
cleaning process could be made more effective by choosing the appropriate
chemical reagent for each manufacturing process and unnecessary water rinsing
could be considerably reduced. As much as 97 percent of the rinse water
required in most of the metal surface treatment industries could be saved if
the Lancy method is used. Water used in the final rinsing step would have a
less complicated chemical composition, facilitating purification for water
reuse.
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There are several methods of liquid-solid separation available for
treating metal finishing wastes (565). Direct pressure filtration was the
most efficient method discussed. With properly prepared wastes, complete
liquid-solid separation can be effected through a pressure filter. The
ultra-high clarity filtrate can be reused. Rising water and sewer costs
make it desirable and economically sound to consider pressure filtration for
treating metal finishing wastes.
A wastewater treatment plant consisting of a collection sump, equaliza-
tion basin, iron contact launders, copper settling pots, clarifier, thickener
tank, and control building was constructed to treat spent acids from a brass
mill (566). Treated effluent is reused as cooling water in the plant.
Data General Corporation, Southboro, Massachusetts received a patent
for a water recycle treatment system comprised of two main treatment sub-
systems to separate out the impurities in contaminated water from
concentrated solutions and rinse baths (567).
Metal surface finishing wastewaters often contain quantities of toxic
materials, including cyanide (568). One method of eliminating cyanide is
ozonation. The process of ozonation can be performed continuously with the
purified water recirculated as service water.
Treatment of metal finishing wastes involves cyanide destruction. A
process involving ozone has been developed that completely destroys iron and
nickel cyanides (569). A small amount of artificially produced ultraviolet
light is used to free cyanide so that it can react with ozone. The process,
called UVOX, may be adopted for plating effluents of varying concentrations.
Cyanide removal is followed by chemical precipitation to remove heavy metals
to below EPA specifications. Advantages of the UVOX process were outlined.
Resulting effluent quality is high enough to recycle at least 80 percent of
the effluent, thereby saving on rinse water costs.
Abe and Hanami (570) described treatment of cyanide compounds in metal
plating wastewater by the impact method. The operation is based on formation
of hydrogen cyanide from metal cyanide compounds by adjusting wastewater pH
with sulfuric acid. Recovered metal cyanides can be reused in the plating
bath solution; the filtered solution can be reused as the rinsing solution
in the plating process. Thus, a closed system of plating wastewater treat-
ment is possible.
The feasibility of using solvent extraction for removal and recovery of
cyanide and zinc from electroplating wastes was investigated in a laboratory
scale continuous mixer-settler (571). Quarternary amines were used to ex-
tract the zinc and cyanide wastes, and regeneration of the amine solvent for
recycle was achieved by stripping it with dilute sodium hydroxide. The pro-
cess yielded two useful products, the decontaminated water and a sodium
hydroxide concentrate containing the recovered chemicals.
Erwin (572) described a closed-loop system which separates oil from the
prewash rinse water of the aluminum can finishing process at the Miller
Brewing Company. Ninety percent of the oil can be removed by this closed
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system which also provides for the recirculation of water. Advantages of
this system are reduced water and chemical consumption and recovery of oil
for reuse or sale.
Wild and Hirschmann (573) indicated that recycling may cause some
adverse effects on the electrodisposition process if proper control is
ignored. Without proper control of pH valves and cyanide content, it was
suggested that adverse effects would result on nonferrous metal and bright
nickel dispositions.
The technique of desalination by freezing is eminently applicable to the
treatment and recycling of metal-plating wastewaters (574). Its main advan-
tages include low-temperature operation, low energy requirements, avoidance
of membranes and other surfaces, and no volatiles carry over. A schematic
description of the freeze-concentration and recovery process is presented
and its operating parameters and economic aspects are discussed.
Stepakoff and Siegelman (2) gave a process analyses of a closed-loop
metal plating waste-rinse system with an electric freezing unit supplying
reclaimed fresh rinse water, makeup water for the plating tank, and a con-
centrated slurry of plating tank chemicals for reuse in the plating process.
Preliminary economics of the process were also presented.
PULP AND PAPER AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES
The recycling of process waters has been a traditional practice in the
pulp and paper industry (575). In some instances, this practice is dictated
by shortage of water, but primarily has been adopted because of the economic
advantages resulting from it. These are namely fiber, filler and chemical
savings, heat recovery, and where its cost is high, conservation of water
itself as well as effluent control. Economic reasons have probably had the
greatest effect on present day practices and are indeed the initial reasons
for recycling process wastewaters. The author has presented an excellent
overview of water reuse in the pulp and paper industry with the discussion
limited to practice for the most common operations of the industry, namely
kraft pulping and bleaching and production of the more common grades of paper
and paperboard from the pulp.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act ammendments of 1972 declared the
National goal to be that the discharge of pollutants into navigable waters be
eliminated by 1985 (576). A kraft mill, for example, will require a combina-
tion of reduction of wastewater generation, maximizing reuse of wastewater
streams, and development and application of new treatment techniques. Among
the process measures which look promising to reduce wastewater discharges are:
increasing pulp washing efficiency, closing down stock screening, oxygen or
other bleaching, increasing dilution in washing, stripping condensates, col-
lecting chemical spills, collecting fiber spills, and dry barking. It may be
possible to maximize reuse of wastewater streams and recover chemicals.
The impact of 1983 discharge limits on existing mills in the pulp and
paper industry was summarized by Rath (577) with reference to in-plant
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conditions and reuse potential of treated wastewater. In-plant reduction of
wastewater volume is beneficial in reducing total effluent of suspended
solids, lowering capital cost of new treatment facilities, and providing
production cost savings, and is essential for stable operation of an activa-
ted sludge plant. Treated effluent reuse potential for most integrated mills
is in the range of 5-20 percent of total mill water requirements. Additional
treatment to the 1983 discharge compliance level will not significantly in-
crease suitability of final effluent for reuse.
Common sense and environmental concerns dictate that water should be
reused as often as possible (578). Benefits from a closed water circulation
system in paper mills include conservation of fresh water, chemicals, and
heat, and reduced volumes of discharged effluent. Problems associated with
water reuse may include machine operating difficulties such as corrosion,
scale and microbiological deposits, pitch troubles, and algal or bacterial
slimes. These problem areas were discussed, and possible countermeasures
were indicated.
According to Gossum and Sager (26), the most likely way the paper mill
industry will solve its wastewater problems is through recovery and reuse
of water, rather than treatment. A water management plan with emphasis on
water reuse and product recovery was presented on a papermill which processes
waste scrap paper into paper used in the manufacture of wallboard liners.
Operating data illustrates how this plant is able to meet EPA effluent guide-
lines with minimum end-of-pipe treatment due to an effective water management
plan.
Thibodeaux et al. (579) noted that the paper industry is one of the
largest users of water and produces wastewaters high in pollution content.
Treatment of these wastewaters so that they could be reused in the mill was
the focus of this study.
The most logical first step toward reduced pollution at a pulp or paper
mill is to maximize water recirculation and thus cut freshwater intake (580).
This will both simplify the task and lower the costs of removing suspended
solids and BOD from effluents.
Recycling of process waters is the best approach to reduction of efflu-
ent volumes in pulp and paper mills (581)- Increased reuse of water requires
improved measures for controlling deposits of a microbiological nature, such
as slime growths, and of nonbiological deposits, such as scales. These
deposits can cause losses in production, losses in heat and raw materials,
reduced life of paper machine felts and wires, and reduced product quality.
Closed-circuit processes have been used in the pulp and paper industry
as a means of reducing the quantity of wastes requiring disposal and of
recovering valuable substances in the wastewater (582). Waste treatment at
a paper/board plant can involve primary treatment for recovery of water to be
used in feed preparation; secondary treatment for recovery of fibers, fil-
lers, and additives; and tertiary treatment for reuse of the residual
effluent. Advantages and disadvantages of adding tertiary treatment were
discussed.
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Edde (583) presented a brief history of pollution control efforts in the
paper industry. Comments were made on several novel treatment methods for
obtaining high-quality effluents for process water reuse. Bush (584) defined
the concept and implementation of the closed paper mill system, pointing out
advantages and updating progress made by the industry in achieving this goal.
Examples of closed mills were given and associated problems enumerated.
Billings (585) presented a critical analysis of problems involved in increas-
ing internal reuse to develop a closed water system in the pulp and paper
industry.
Gottsching and Dalpke (586) described the fundamental principles of
paper-mill closed water systems. Effects of higher concentrations of inor-
ganic salts and/or organic solutes on paper quality were considered. The
water condition and products quality were reported for a tissue mill which
has been operating with a closed circuit for a long time, with an average
discharge of one cubic meter of water per ton of product.
Brecht and Dalpke (587) presented a critical review of the literature
reporting experience with the closing or partial closing of process water
circulation systems in paper mills. Included were discussions on the plan-
ning and engineering stages involved in circuit closure, its advantages for
pollution abatement, and its disadvantages or problems.
The closure of pulp mill water circuits is attractive for several
reasons, including pollution abatement, freshwater conservation, and reduced
fiber losses (588). Key points in closed production lines and some of the
attendant problems were discussed.
Alexander and Dobbin (589) discussed the use of a closed mill water
system as a means of pollution abatement for the pulp and paper industry.
Closure of the paper mill water system eliminates the need for extensive
secondary and tertiary water treatment facilities. However, closure may
allow concentration of dissolved solids in mill water to be drastically
increased through water reuse, possibly affecting water quality and paper
properties. At complete closure the concentration of dissolved solids in the
headbox can be up to 160 times the level anticipated for a completely open
mill.
Although the paper industry uses large amounts of process water, only
about 10 percent is actually consumed in the papennaking process (590).
Since much of the polluting load of a paper mill effluent results directly
from the presence of raw materials in the water, there is a strong economic
incentive to recover these materials and recycle them. This has led to an
increasing use of recovery systems in the paper-machine white water system.
Three devices for recovering suspended solids were discussed including
gravity settling chambers, floatation devices and mechanical filters. When
discharge requirements become very stringent, there are strong incentives to
increase primary in-plant treatment, reduce process water requirements, and
increase water recycle rates. All of these steps approach the ideal goal of
a totally closed mill system and reduce pollution.
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Roberts (591) reported that efforts to stem pollutional effects of
paper mill effluents in England have taken two courses: conventional treat-
ment and water reuse. Since paper mills must pay for water and water must be
conserved like any other resource, a system of recirculating water within a
plant has been instituted. This has reduced the loading on treatment plants
thereby reducing treatment costs. Water reuse has also alleviated the sewage
fungus problems in rivers downstream from paper mill outfalls. New machines
have been designed to accept reused water and show great promise in increasing
benefits from this concept. Effluent purification is expensive and gives no
return on capital. In-plant recovery of water results in substantial savings
and provides for a better effluent.
Resource scarcity, environmental constraints, and economic factors were
noted as the principal reasons for water reuse in the Australian pulp and
paper industry (11). These reasons were examined and water reuse practices
were described. Equipment and processes utilized to prepare the water for
various recycling processes were shown to vary with quality and environmental
requirements. Examples of water reuse systems utilized by Australian Paper
Manufacturers Ltd. mills were included, and some problems associated with
water reuse were discussed. The future of water reuse in the industry was
considered.
The concept of waste-free technology in the pulp and paper industry, as
defined by the Commission on Economics of the European Common Market, was
discussed by Tipisev et al. (592), and measures already introduced toward this
goal at Russian mills were indicated. Measures aimed at reducing consumption
of fresh water include dry barking, diffusion washing of pulp, screening and
beating at high consistency, manufacture of paper by the dry process, and
purification and recycling of fiber-containing effluents. The proposed con-
version of the Selenga pulp and board mill, located near Lake Baikal (USSR),
to entirely effluent free operation was discussed.
Environmental protection of waterways from paper mill discharges can be
achieved by closing the white water circuit of paper machines (593). Swedish
experience with a closed-system newsprint machine has indicated that at least
part of the normally discharged pollutants can be recycled and included in
paper products without detriment to their quality. Some properties, such as
optical and mechanical characteristics, can actually be improved. Moreover,
savings in fiber and heat consumption can result. Operating conditions of
paper machines must, however, be carefully adjusted and monitored.
In order to limit environmental pollution, many paper mills in West
Germany are adopting the closed-water system of production using recycled
water (594). The closed system offers savings in water and energy. Its use
with the alkaline hydrolysis process allows recovery of valuable by-products
such as pentoses and hexoses.
Results of a survey of environmental protection measures being used by
pulp and paper mills in Austria have been presented (595). Emphasis has been
placed on reduction of air and water pollution by technological improvements,
closed-cycle processes, and other measures which permit partial recovery of
chemicals rather than on the treatment of effluents.
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Wernquist (596) discussed recent technology developments by the Swedish
pulp and paper industry in preventing water and air pollution. Closed-circuit
pulp screening and purification of condensate, along with dry barking and an
improved pulp washing method, has resulted in a nearly completely closed sys-
tem in a modern mill up to the bleaching stage. Presently, bleaching is
responsible for nearly 70 percent of mill-caused pollution, and efforts are
being made to develop suitable processes for purification of bleach plant
effluents.
Coats (597) reported on water conservation measures in the design of new
paper mills. It was determined that specific reuse was essential. Typical
demands and methods of economy were described for mill water systems, includ-
ing reuse of cooling water, gland seal water, vacuum pump seal water, and
press felt cleaning water. A closed white-water system was deemed essential
to water economy. Examples were given of typical white-water chest designs
for efficient system purge and maximum white-water reuse.
Springer (598) reported a study program devoted to the development of
information which would be useful to mills in implementing programs of more
extensive water reuse in high quality paper manufacture.
Increased reuse of paper machine wastewaters seems desirable both from
economic and ecological viewpoints (599). Three continuous trial runs were
conducted on the 30-inch wide fourdrinier machine at Western Michigan Univer-
sity with 72 percent versus over 97 percent reuse of white water. Increasing
system closure from 72 to 97 percent water reuse did not seriously effect the
quality of manufactured paper. After several minor changes in equipment and
operating procedure, the paper differed only negligibly in strength proper-
ties, dirt content, and printability.
Due to rising energy costs and environmental constraints, efficient
reuse and recycling of waste streams at kraft pulp mills can be advantageous
because it can reduce overall water consumption, minimize effluent volumes to
be treated, and optimize low-level heat recovery, thereby decreasing steam
usage (600). Quantitative and qualitative methods used to design an effi-
cient water reuse system were analyzed, and examples were given of alternate
modes of unit process operations and how they can affect the overall water,
steam, and effluent streams.
One possible way to reduce discharge of water pollutants from kraft mill
bleaching is to recycle effluent streams from the bleach plant to the recov-
ery system (601); however, this raises questions concerning effects of
increased chloride levels in the liquor cycle and removal of chlorides from
the recovery system. These workers conducted mill trials to determine the
distribution of chlorides between the smelt and gas phase in the recovery
furnace and correlated the distribution with a theoretical chemical process
model. Implications of these studies on operating conditions of the recovery
furnace were discussed.
Recycling bleach plant effluent to the recovery system reduces the
amount of water pollutants from a bleached kraft pulp mill (602). It was
reported that several methods of removing chlorides from a mill with a closed
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bleachery were under development. Extended delignification in the cook,
oxygen bleaching, and the use of a high proportion of chlorine dioxide during
bleaching will help keep chloride levels low.
Haynes (603) reported on the evaluation of a number of processes for
water recycling possibilities in the pulp and paper industry. Systems were
evaluated on the basis of incentives for process installation. This analysis
was carried out on departmental and mill wide scales. The latest water
recycling values were analyzed. The evaluation indicated that reported
values for recycling are probably low, thus, a new mill installation with
the emphasis on practical recycling schemes shows a reuse factor of up to
1600 percent for a bleached kraft pulp mill. The all industry recycling
value last reported was 290 percent.
Water and air pollution in the kraft pulping industry were discussed by
Miller (604). A kraft mill uses 15,000 to 25,000 gallons of water for
unbleached and 15,000 to 60,000 additional gallons for bleached pulp. Sedi-
mentation, aerated basins, and activated sludge are the main external
effluent treatment methods; however, particulars of water-reuse systems vary
from mill to mill.
Hammar and Rydholm (605) outlined papermaking operations of kraft or
sulfate-process pulp mills and evaluated them with regard to their water-
polluting aspects. Among recent technological developments holding consider-
able promise of abating pollution are the trend toward higher yield pulping
processes, especially semi-chemical processing; improved pulpwood digesters
combined with countercurrent pulp washers for increased recovery of black
liquors; bleaching with oxygen resulting in low BOD bleach plant effluents;
and water recirculation for fiber recovery and attendent reduction of sus-
pended solids. Chemical recovery from black liquor via evaporation,
combustion and causticizing of the dissolved smelt was also addressed.
All aqueous effluents from bleached kraft pulp mills can be eliminated
by recovering and reusing all water and chemicals required for bleaching
(606). None of the process changes that would be involved would be radical
departures from existing technology, and none of the equipment needs are
novel. The design and development status of effluent free kraft mills is
discussed in light of these possibilities.
Narum and Moeller (607) described a four part program initiated by
Simpson Paper Company to improve wastewater treatment at its integrated
bleached kraft pulp and paper mill near Anderson, California. The program
included greater internal reuse of process water, upgrading existing primary
treatment facilities, a new low rate aerated stabilization basin as a secon-
dary waste treatment system, and use of the secondary effluent for irrigation
of grain crops.
Developments in pulp bleaching are strongly influenced by the need to
utilize existing equipment and to minimize water and energy use in old mills,
and to reduce capital and energy expenditures in new facilities (608).
Countercurrent reuse of wash liquors can reduce effluent volumes perhaps as
much as from 20,000 to 4,000 gallons per ton of pulp. Diffusion bleaching
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promises to reduce this further to about 2,600 gallons per ton with simil-
taneous reductions in stream consumption and pumping energy. The effluent-
free bleached kraft mill concept promises to find realization in the
Rapson-Reeve system currently undergoing practical trials.
Rapson and Reeve (609) outlined the required processes and process
changes necessary to make bleached kraft pulp mills free of liquid effluents
by recovering and reusing all water and chemicals used for pulping and
bleaching.
The Continental Can Company of Hodge, Louisiana, initiated a moderniza-
tion and expansion program for better water pollution control at an
unbleached kraft and semi-chemical pulp and paper mill (610). A large scale
color removal system was designed from criteria established in laboratory
and pilot plant facilities. New standards for unbleached kraft waste efflu-
ent treatment were also developed. Water consumption was reduced by 30
percent through recycling and utilization of the color removal system to
further reduce BOD in the waste effluent. The total investment necessary
was determined to be less than two-thirds the cost of constructing a new
plant of equal capacity.
An outstanding example of the use of advanced techniques for the control
of air and water pollution is exemplified at the American Can Company plant
for the manufacture of kraft pulp, paper and tissue products (611). Pro-
cesses were selected for incorporation in the extensively automated plant
that minimized odor production and which facilitated the use of recycled
water. The wastewater treatment system consists of a primary clarifier, two
aerated ponds, secondary clarifier, and chlorination basin.
A description of the wastewaters treatment system installed at the
Bridgeview, Illinois, container plant of St. Regis Paper Company was given
(612). Pollutants are precipitated with chemicals, filtered from the water,
and disposed of in a sanitary landfill. Treated water is decolorized in an
activated carbon column and either reused in the container plant or dis-
charged to the municipal treatment system.
Timpe et al. (613) presented a survey of the literature and other
sources on the handling and treatment of pulp and paper mill effluents, with
particular emphasis on the kraft process, and the use of activated carbon
and lime treatment as advanced methods of treatment. The survey was made as
a first step of a development program aimed at maximum water reuse in kraft
pulp and paper mills based on effluent treatment using activated carbon.
Results of the survey include information on activated carbon and its appli-
cation in treatment of pulp and paper mill effluents. Information is
presented on lime treatment of kraft mill and other advanced methods. The
subject of in-plant water reuse is also covered.
Ishii (614) described antipollution features at Oji Paper Company's
kraft pulp and paper mill in Japan. Paper machine white water is filtered
or passed through savealls for recovery of suspended fibers, clay filler, and
other solids and then into in a 24-meter diameter clarifier. The supernatent
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is recycled as condenser cooling water. Installation and operating costs of
all pollution control facilities are listed.
An environmental improvement program has been completed to supplement
existing treatment facilities at the integrated kraft pulp and paper mill and
converting plant of Thilmany Pulp and Paper Company, Kaukauna, Wisconsin
(615). The installation comprised both external and internal treatment
measures. Internal water conservation measures include an extended white
water collection system, high-pressure machine cleaning showers, reuse of
decontaminated evaporator condenser water, and fiber-recovery savealls.
External treatment involves a clarifier basin, centrifugal sludge dewatering
system, and two biological oxidation lagoons. A flow chart of the entire
system including auxiliary equipment, is included.
Renovation programs in two existing kraft mills have demonstrated that
increased water reuse and recycle within conventional bleach plants can
reduce steam and fresh water consumption and effluent volume. The design for
new kraft bleach plants incorporated not only chlorination filtrate recycle
and complete countercurrent washing, but many other steam and water saving
features. All the bleach plant filtrate can be recovered and the last major
source of water pollution from bleached kraft pulp mills eliminated (616).
Warnquist (617) discussed reduction and control of pulp room effluents
and sulfur dioxide emissions from the recovery furnace in bleached or un-
bleached kraft mills by system closure and by internal measures. In-plant
solutions for reducing the large fraction of organic compounds in the screen
room effluent include extensive brown stock washing, recycling the decker
effluent to the screen room, screening at high pulp consistency, and in-line
refining with minimum or no screening. A Norwegian integrated mill was
described which produces kraft pulp for bag paper and linerboard with in-line
refining without screening. A proposal to close the system suggests that the
drum filter effluent be reused counter-currently in the high-heat washer and
that a radial washer be installed after the refiner to increase chemical
recovery.
Nicholls (618) discussed development of closed-process technologies for
kraft mill multistage bleach plants. He noted that treatment of bleaching
effluents adds significantly to production costs. Alternative in-plant
treatments comprise reductions in bleach plant volume and two engineering
approaches to oxygen bleaching: recirculation of bleach effluent in the pulp
mill system, and oxidative pulping bleaching. If bleach plant effluents are
to be recycled, their volume must be reduced, perhaps by reverse osmosis
concentration, and their chloride content must be eliminated.
The large effluent volumes from a conventional brown stock screen room
in a kraft mill can be reduced by recycling the decker effluent, by screening
at high pulp consistency, and by in-line refining with minimum or no
screening (619). Closed handling and treatment of coarse screen rejects can
be accomplished by recooking or refining and recycling of rejects. Cost
comparisons were made for in-plant measures to reduce effluent volumes ver-
sus external treatment and for the options for closed rejects handling.
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Burkart (620) conducted experiments in which the wastewaters from the
alkaline extraction stage of a pulp bleach plant was recycled in order to
study the effects of recycling on the quality of bleached pulp and on the
color or ease of decolorization of the resulting, more concentrated effluents.
Results indicated the pulp required no increased consumption of bleach to
achieve the desired brightness, and that lignin in the recycled alkali-extrac-
tion water is readily precipitated, leaving an amber-colored supernatent that
can be further decolored with activated charcoal or bleach, if necessary.
Black liquor evaporator condensates, raw mill effluents, and chemically
or biologically pretreated aqueous wastes of the Baikal kraft pulp mill (USSR)
were subjected to reverse osmosis in comparison with ultrafiltration, using
soviet-made cellulose acetate membranes (621). Both methods of effluent
treatment recovered water of sufficient purity for recycling as pulp mill
process water. Ultrafiltration was found to operate more efficiently at
relatively low pressures; whereas, reverse osmosis was superior in removing
dissolved mineral compounds.
Engelhoffer (622) indicated technological and economical advantages of
white-water clarification by flotation for treatment of recyclable water and
final effluent and noted the successful experience at four paper mills.
Scharsmied and Slanina (623) discussed the need for, and problems associated
with, recycling white water and effluents in the pulp and paper industry,
particularly the complex nature of deposit and corrosion problems.
Berger and Wilson (624) reviewed the status and possibilities of waste-
water reclamation and reuse in the kraft pulping industry. Ranhagen (625)
presented models for closed-water systems integrated with an air emmission
control system for a kraft pulp and paper mill. He concluded that a closed
system is a realistic possibility.
Ranhagen (626) discussed present and future ways and means for closing
integrated paper mills for air and water pollution control. Particular as-
pects covered included changes in pulp washing, chemical balance control,
treatment of contaminated condensates, and integration of mill operations to
reuse water. Diagrams of a closed kraft and ground-wood mill and theoretical
aspects of washing systems were presented.
Countercurrent washing for pulp from the bleach stage of kraft mills is
one proposed system of pollution abatement (627, 628, 629). Laboratory work
on this method has indicated the effectiveness of this system. Effluents
from the acidic and alkaline sewers of a bleachery using the D(C)EDED
sequence to bleach can be reduced approximately 10-fold by extensive chlori-
nation filtrate recycling and countercurrent washing. The system may be
used as a separate bleach plant effluent treatment or for bleach chemical
recovery.
Histed (630) reviewed countercurrent pulp washing practices of 20
Canadian and U.S. kraft mills. Details, including flow charts, were presen-
ted with emphasis on water needs and recirculation problems. Cornell (631)
described a closed-cycle bleached kraft pulp mill using a salt recovery
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process. Complete countercurrent washing in the bleach plant reduced water
usage by eight percent.
Armstrong (632) discussed the $10 million energy and environmental
improvement program at the Abitibi bleached kraft pulp and stud mill in
Smooth Rockfalls, Ontario. Effluent from the pulp jnills screening operation
plus fines from the bark screen room are processed by an Eimco Envirotech
effluent clarifier. Recycling water from the clarifier and countercurrent
washing in the bleach plant have cut water consumption to 44,000 gallons/ton
of pulp.
Stevens (633) described a white-water recirculation system for a paper-
machine producing various grades and colors of kraft specialty papers. The
system uses a disk filter to clarify the white water with recirculation of
the filtrate to the machine showers and the filter showers.
With presently available equipment and other methods, complete recycle
of condensate in a kraft mill can be achieved while reducing BOD by 75 per-
cent (634). Capital and operating costs of such a system and methods for
reducing operating costs were presented.
Lowe (635) described the effluent treatment system at the Gulf States
Paper Corporation 100 ton/day kraft mill in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Combined
effluent from the pulp and paper mills is clarified in a primary clarifier,
treated in a 4-stage UNOX activated sludge plant, decolored by reacting with
alum mud, and finally clarified and discharged to a holding lagoon. Gulf
States eventually plans to reuse most of the purified effluent.
A description was given of the 700 ton/day bleached kraft pulp mill of
Great Lakes Paper Company, Thunder Bay, Ontario (636). The closed-cycle
process consists essentially of recycling bleach plant effluent through the
standard black liquor recovery cycle and from the resulting white liquor
separating out the salt which becomes the basic raw material for manufacture
of chlorine dioxide. Flow sheets of the closed-cycle recovery system, salt
recovery process, and pulp screening, cleaning and bleaching operations were
included. Benefits of the closed-cycle mill were noted. Savings in oper-
ating costs for the mill were detailed.
The closed-cycle bleached market kraft pulp mill of Great Lakes Paper
Company, Thunder Bay, Ontario is the first practical installation utilizing
the Envirotech salt recovery process (637, 638). Savings are expected to
occur from heat savings, fiber and chemical savings, water savings, reduced
effluent treatment costs, and yield increases. Within 2-3 years, these
economics are expected to pay for the greater capital investment compared to
a conventional new kraft mill. Only 4,000 gallons of water are used per ton
of pulp, about 85 percent less than in conventional kraft mills. Counter-
current reuse of filtrates plus other modification reduce steam demands in
the bleaching to about 10-15 percent of those normally required. Clean clear
cooling water is the only liquid discharge from the mill.
Stevens (639) discussed installation of the Rapson-Reeve salt recovery
process at the 700 ton per day bleach kraft mill of Great Lakes Paper Company
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at Thunder Bay, Ontario. The process will remove sodium chloride from the
recovery cycle, thus limiting its equilibrium concentration to a tolerable
level. The process and operating equipment were briefly described. All
streams containing BOD, suspended solids, color, and toxicity can be reused
within the process, so that only clean water used for cooling will be dis-
charged.
Weyerhaeuser Company at Miquon, Pennsylvania, installed a primary
clarifier and storage lagoon to treat white water from five paper machines
(640). The need for further water conservation prompted the startup of a
pressure filter to treat and recycle a portion of the clarifier effluent.
Although the full-scale plant operated less efficiently than the pre-
investigated pilot unit, freshwater needs were expected to be cut by 50
percent.
Brown et al. (641) described a reverse osmosis system for concentrating
white water from a paper machine, the white water having been previously
freed of its fiber content through treatment in a filter or decanter. The
RO unit separates fiber-free white water into a concentrate of pulp additives
and a permeate. Both the concentrate and permeate can be recycled in the
papermaking process, making it possible to operate a mill on a closed-water
system basis.
The Mayak Revolyutsii paper mill (USSR) was to install a new effluent
treatment system in 1978, in which the machine white water will flow into a
storage tank and be reused in the pulpers (642). The system will increase
the degree of fiber and filler recovery from 78 percent to 94-96 percent
and reduce the solids content in purified water from 150 to 46 mg/liter.
Recovered fibers are used in making high-quality papers. Other advantages
are reduced power consumption and operating costs.
Luzina (643) described a Soviet process for manufacture of high-yield
unbleached kraft pulp with efficient recycling of treated effluent water.
The process is said to reduce freshwater consumption from 29.7 to 9.8 cubic
meters and effluent volumes from 36.1 to 15 cubic meters per ton of pulp
produced. The process features four double-chamber pulp-washing filters;
a two-stage recovery of black liquor entrained with digester relief; surface
condensers in lieu of barometric condensers; partial reuse of purified ef-
fluents in various mill departments; automatic water quality control for
cooling of bearing and other hydraulic functions; and monitoring of water
consumption and effluent discharges in all mill departments.
Fremont et al. (644) examined ultrafiltration (UF) as a means of
reducing color in kraft mill effluents more efficiently and/or more econo-
mically than the presently available method. A 10,000 gpd pilot plant was
operated for six months at the Champion Paper Company pulp and paper mill,
Canton, North Carolina. Four experimental aspects of the process were eval-
uated: feed pretreatment, UF, concentrate disposal, and water reuse
potential. Process color removal efficiency was satisfactory. For all
influent studied, typical results were 90 percent color removal with 98.5-99
percent water recovery. Total operating costs were estimated.
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Internal process control measures for controlling pulp mill pollution
and reducing materials wastage include increased pulp washing, closing the
brown stock screening system, new bleaching process, improved condensate
handling, and spill collection (645). These measures are exemplified in
recent Scandanavian installations. Overall treatment costs to meet various
discharge limits in a bleached kraft mill are examined for different com-
binations of internal and external control measures.
Lyons et al. (646) developed a generalized mathematical model for use
in determining the optimum quality of water recovery and reuse. The model
and associated methodology were applied to the water management system of a
medium size bleached kraft pulp mill. Through optimization of this problem,
the reuse of water reclaimed from industrial wastewater was accomplished by
utilizing the model. The cost solution considered effects of variations in
production process water quality requirements, cost and quality of fresh-
water and reclaimed water, and cost of effluent treatment. Application of
the model to the pulp and paper mill indicated that high levels of recycle
could be economically justified if stringent color standards for wastewater
effluent required a high degree of biological treatment. The key to the
process of reclaiming usable water from the pulp and paper mill was color
removal.
An invention relating to a pulping and bleaching system in which the
bleaching and extraction stages yield an aqueous acid and aqueous alkaline
filtrate, and provides procedures for recycling these filtrates has been
patented (647). Part of the acid filtrate is neutralized with fresh aqueous
sodium hydroxide and used in washing digested pulp in a washing stage imme-
diately prior to passing the washed pulp to the bleaching system. The
remainder of the acid filtrate is introduced as an aqueous medium into the
spent pulping liquor recovery cycle at a point after burning of the spent
liquor. Part of the alkaline filtrate is used as wash water for washing pulp
in the earlier stages of the washing system, before the stage using acid
filtrate. The remainder of the alkaline filtrate is used in diluting regen-
erated pulping liquor to the desired concentration.
Skarsgiris and Skoupskas (648) described wastewater treatment equipment
for a paper mill producing high quality printing papers from bleached pulp.
Equipment consisted of six conical savealls receiving dirty water from wet
presses, felt conditioning, overflows, and water used for general mill
cleaning. Effluent from the clean water treatment system is recycled for
process water makeup and recovered solids are sent to the hydropulpers.
Effluent from the dirty water system is discharged.
The AES 3600 gravity strainer, developed in Finland, can be used to
treat water for use and reuse in the pulp and paper mill (649). The filter
resembles a large vertical drum with effluent flowing toward the center at
about the top perimeter of the tank. The effluent flows through a distribu-
tor plate and a metal or plastic screen into a tank over which the filter is
mounted. A rotating shower beneath the screen lifts, rejects and floats
them toward the center reject outlet. Three applications in the United
States are illustrated.
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Norton (650) discussed water reuse in nonintegrated paper and board
mills and the associated problems. Examples were given of closing the water
system on a multi-ply board machine and of water conservation on a fine
paper machine.
Gibson et al. (651) described the wastewater treatment system which
furnishes water for reuse at the Ponderosa Paper Products Inc. plant in
Flagstaff, Arizona. Plant wastewater is collected at a central point and
treated in a dissolved-air flotation unit. Clarified water is then put in
a 3-section lagoon. From the lagoon storage basin, the effluent is polished
in two automatic granular-media filters. The filtered effluent is pumped
into a water tower for reuse in the mill. Operating problems and plans for
improving the wastewater treatment system were discussed. Fresh water con-
sumption at the mill has been reduced from 500,000 to 30,000 gallons per
day.
A test program performed at a paper mill in Aberdenenshire area of
Scotland demonstrated the ability of the Mecatec effluent treatment system
to recover fiber. The Mecatec system is a multi-purpose low-cost modular
unit developed in the United Kingdom (652). It has been successfully used
for general and industrial wastewater treatment. The system has no moving
parts and combines features of inertial and blanket filtration for effective
removal of particles. The trial run showed impressive separation of thick
and thin fractions. The clarified overflow was used as shower water. The
thickened underflow was returned to a saveall unit achieving 400 percent
increase in saveall drum efficiency. The recycled water resulted in a 50
percent reduction in mains intake. Fiber recovery should pay for cost of
the system in several months.
A patent has been issued for a closed circuit paper mill effluent
treatment process (653). The total effluent is collected in separate closed
circuits. Part of the untreated effluent is used for pulp heating and dilu-
tion. The remainder is collected in at least one other closed circuit,
regenerated by addition of chemicals, conditioned, and then supplied to the
paper making process in place of fresh water. Advantages of the system
include: smaller consumption of fresh water; almost complete elimination of
waste disposal; no buildup of salts; and, use of a smaller quantity of
expensive chemicals.
Mattison and Bier (654) described a proprietary system for recovering
usable fiber from process elements. Data were cited which show that fiber
recovery can reduce waste treatment cost by reducing waste treatment equip-
ment requirements reduce fresh water requirements by permitting water that
would be sewered to be reused, reduce plant maintenance requirements, and
return useful fibers to process or for salt to produce income.
Akerhagen (655) described equipment for removing fiber for reuse.
Fiber is separated from fines by impinging white water on a screen. Water,
containing the fine fraction can be reused. The device was said to be best
applied in combination with flotation. Jacobson (656) described a fraction-
ator to classify white water for various points of reuse and exemplified ~ies
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use in the production of various grades of paper and for removing solids
from barker water.
One technique of recycling wastewater becoming widely adopted in the
U.S. pulp and paper industry utilizes the SWECO, Inc. Centrifugal Waste-
water Concentrator to remove fine particles and fiber from mill effluents
(657). Operation of the equipment and a number of important pulp and paper
applications were discussed. The Experience of the Horner Waldorf, St. Paul,
Minnesota boxboard mill was quoted, and the cost savings achieved by resultant
water recycling, energy conservation and fiber reuse mentioned.
A patent has been issued for a straining apparatus that separates fibers
from backwater coming from a paper making machine so that the water can be
reused as spray-water. The apparatus consists of a funnel-shaped vessel with
an outlet (658). A first strainer forms one wall of the vessel and a second
strainer covers the outlet of the vessel.
Folchetti (659) described the design of a paper mill waste treatment
system that is integrated with the existing process water system to provide
for closed loop operation to reclaim the total effluent or for operation in
conventional open mode. The system consists of chemical coagulation and
solids flocculation and separation in a clariflocculator, with underflow
being dewatered for disposal and overflow going to the process water system.
Follea (660) described the wastewater treatment system developed for a
320 ton-per-day paper mill with two paper machines and one cooler. The
system centers around a flocculator/clarifier and was specifically designed
for recycling of clarified water to the mill process water.
Slightly polluted spray water from papermaking machines and ventanip
presses can be cleaned by the use of Ronningen - Fetter filters, arranged in
units of two or more, for continuous operation in a closed-water cycle (661).
In addition sealing water in vacuum pumps can be purified by means of
Ronningen - Fetter filters for recycle in heat exchangers. The use of these
filters with backflush and snap fit gives easy mounting.
The Ukrainian State Institute for planning of pulp and paper and hydro-
losis industry plants has developed several closed-water cycle systems for
pulp and paper mills. Many of these systems are already in operation or are
being introduced. Dubitskaya (662) described and illustrated water recy-
cling systems operating in an electrical insulation board mill, a pulp and
filter paper mill, a fine paper mill, a boxboard and corrugating medium
mill, and a board mill. All systems considerably reduced freshwater consump-
tion and effluent volume.
Effluent quality leaving the process of an integrated paper mill in
Vancouver, B.C. was upgraded by internal reclaim and recycle of suspended
solids from various streams including press tray water and wire return roll
shower water (663). Saveall-clarified water is used for low-level makeup to
the seal pit and the rich white water tank. Paper quality problems relating
to the closed system have not been encountered.
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McCourt (664) reviewed the use, role, and importance of post-saveall
devices in providing a uniform quality water, hence enhancing the possibility
for continuity of operation and more extensive water reuse in the paper-
making process. Reported experience with post saveall solids devices was
described. It was concluded that more detailed knowledge of capability of
these devices to perform the solids separation function under variable flow
and feed water quality is needed to enhance the potential for more extensive
water reuse.
Stevens (665) discussed and compared saveall types and designs, white-
water characteristics, objectives of a good white-water system, and factors
affecting saveall design. Types of savealls described included drum, flota-
tion, and disc filter.
Brooks (666) discussed types and technology, application, fiber and
water recovery, and operational data relative to savealls. Principles of
operation of the various units were presented as were operational problems.
White-water systems and characteristics were enumerated. The importance of
water reuse was pointed out, and the effects of closing a white-water system
were listed.
Smith and Berger (667) proposed an overall treatment scheme for pulp
and paper mill wastes which handles the wastewater stepwise to produce a
reusable process water. A four-stage process utilizing lime dosing, biologi-
cal treatment, activated carbon filtration, and demineralization was used on
bleached and unbleached total kraft mill effluent. A three-stage system
without biological treatment also was tested. Cost comparisons showed that
reusable water would cost approximately twice as much from the three-stage
system.
A sequential treatment consisting of activated sludge treatment, lime
treatment, and activated carbon adsorption treatment was tested on unbleached
kraft pulp mill washing wastewater in a pilot plant system (668). Activated
carbon treatment of this pretreated effluent produced a colorless, extremely
low COD water suitable for reuse.
A kraft plant owned and operated by La Cellulose D1 Aquitaine, located
at St. Gardens, France, employs a pure oxygen bleaching unit that will com-
pletely recycle its own effluent to the kraft recovery cycle (669). The unit
has a bleaching capacity that completely matches the capacity of the kraft
pulping unit it serves.
Koleskinov (670) diagrammed a closed system for recycling white water in
the manufacture of sized papers. Freshwater makeup to the system is 1.6
cubic meters per ton. A demineralization process is included in the system.
Czappa (671) described a fine paper mill operation that achieved 40 percent
reduction in wastewater flow through reuse of white water and recycle of
vacuum pump seal water.
Leker and Parsons (672) discussed wastewater treatment measures taken
at the Masonite Corporation pulp and paper mill in Laurel, Mississippi. Wash
water from steam processed pulp, containing 90 percent of the BOD but
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amounting to less than 15 percent of the total wastewater flow, is concen-
trated in a quintuple-effect evaporator. Residual solids are converted into
a marketable product. Two other effluent streams containing process water
plus cooling, sealing, and housekeeping waters are handled separately in
primary clarifiers from which 90 percent of treated water is recycled to the
mill. The remainder is treated in a biological contact-stabilization system.
Overflows pass to an aerated lagoon for polishing before reuse or discharge.
Holmes (673) discussed the recycling of white water at the Powell River
Division of MacMillan Bloedel, Ltd, in British Columbia. Although effluent
toxicity did not increase when white water was passed through the direct-
contact heat recovery unit of the thermo-mechanical pulp (IMP) plant, recy-
cling did cause unexpected changes in pH, conductivity, and BOD. Recycled
pulp mill white water is about twice as rich in environmentally deleterious
material as in excess paper-machine white water. Chemical pretreatment of
pulpwood chips and other IMP process variations could cause greater differ-
ences .
Closing of water systems in integrated mills is impossible as long as
slush pulp enters the system at a water content higher than the web enters
the dryers (674). A press capable of high tonnage and high discharge
consistencies was described. This press provides an additional washing stage
and allows a final assault on the objective of a totally closed water system.
An arrangement of a closed system was diagrammed.
Decker and Louie (675) described anitpollution systems and equipment
installed at the Intercontinental Pulp Company mill in British Columbia. In-
plant measures include equipment for maximum reuse of process waters and
fiber and chemical reclaim systems. It is emphasised that systems such as
these will not produce the desired results unless they are operated properly.
Operations and equipment of a German paper mill were described (676).
The mill produces 315,000 tons of newsprint annually on four voith paper
machines. Discharged paper machine white waters are treated in four scraper
filters with the effluent purified chemically-mechanically in a passavant
coagulator and partly recycled.
Foul condensates are collected from digester flue gases, turpentine
recovery operation, and black liquor evaporators at the Nekoosa Papers Inc.
kraft mill at Nekoosa, Wisconsin. After stripping, the condensate is used
to heat the incoming feed and then as wastewater in the brown stock area
(677). Condensates are pumped to a distillation column. The distillation
column is integrated between the first and second effects of the old
multiple-effect evaporators.
Methods of treating aqueous effluents from paper and board mills have
been reviewed, including recycling pf paper machine wastewaters, primary
treatment to remove suspended solids, secondary or biological treatments to
reduce biochemical oxygen demand, premixing of wastes, and treatment of con-
densates (678).
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Model (679) described conversion of a paper and board mill to a closed
water system. Effluents are treated by sedimentation and filtration. The
system has resulted in elimination of a proposed treatment plant, decrease
in water consumption, and recovery of solids. Disadvantages, particularly
corrosion problems, were discussed.
The integrated groundwood kraft pulp and coated paper mill of Boise
Cascade Corporation, Rumford, Maine, instituted in-plant water recycling and
reuse systems to reduce flow, suspended solids, and BOD to the effluent
treatment plant (680). A comprehensive in-plant sewer sampling and reporting
program provided management with the data needed to minimize losses and to
document the effect of the recycle and reuse systems. Feed to the effluent
treatment plant was reduced from 45 mgd in 1972 to 23.71 mgd in September,
1977, which is five percent below Plant design capacity.
Morgeli (681) reviewed closed water cycles in paper and board mills in
Switzerland and discussed problems associated with high salt concentrations
and biological activity in the recirculated water. Possibilities for con-
trolling these problems were outlined. On the basis of theoretical
considerations, test results, and mill experience, three of the processes are
usable in recycling water: flocculation, filtration, and adsorption.
Suitably combined with biological processes, these offer a solution to the
water pollution problem.
A rational basis for water reuse in paper manufacturing has been
developed and applied to combination paperboard manufacture (682). The cen-
tral idea of the approach is to determine the lowest quality water which can
be successfully used in a given application. A water quality guideline is
determined for a given water use based on that limited water quality. Water
quality guidelines for a given application are obtained from actual plant
data. Visits were made to 13 plants which were exhibiting good water reuse
practices. These mills served as the data base for water quality guidelines
for 22 water uses. A steady state water flow model for combination paper-
board manufacture was developed and used to illustrate techniques the mills
employed in reuse and conservation of water.
An extensive mechanical effluent purification system was put into opera-
tion at the Stupino Board Mill, USSR (683). Effluents from the board mill
and auxiliary plants first pass through sand traps and then to radial sedi-
mentation tanks. Clarified effluents then undergo a second purification
stage in contact clarifiers filled with gravel and layers of quartz sand of
different granular composition. About 70 percent of the purified effluents
are recycled to the mill as replacement for fresh process water.
Dubitskaya and Galenko (684) provided a schematic description of a
water-recycling and reuse system for a paperboard mill to be added to an
existing integrated pulp and paper mill at Zhidachev, USSR and a similiar
system to be installed at a board mill in Rostok. Effluent from the board
machine will be treated with chlorine for color removal, coagulated with alum
and polyocrylamide, and passed to contact clarifiers. Clarified water will
be recycled and substituted for 40 cubic meters of the 70 cubic meters of
fresh water needed per ton of board produced.
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The Ukrainian Board Mill in Lovov was faced with the necessity of
introducing a closed water cycle because of a shortage of process water
(685). The first step in this direction was an .improvement in the wastewater
system to increase its degree of purification. The system was described and
illustratied with a diagram. Fibers recovered from two Waco filters are
reused in stock preparation. Partially clarified white water goes to two
vertical sedimentation tanks where aluminum sulfate and polyacrylamide are
added. Purified white water can be recycled. It can be used for washing
belts and cylinder mode wires.
Svitel'skii and Litvinova (686) reported on a study of water reuse at a
paper and board mill processing waste paper. The study, conducted by the
Ukrainian Research Institute of the Pulp and Paper Industry, showed that water
reuse averages 70 percent and at some mills reaches 85 percent. Consumption
of fresh water ranges from 34-80 cubic meters per ton. A purification system
is described which will reduce fresh water consumption of 20-24 cubic meters
per ton, reduce the pollution load by 15 percent, and allow the reuse of over
75 percent of the purified water. The system consists of separating reusable
fibers on an OV-02 fractionator and treatment of the effluent with aluminum
sulfate and polyacrylamide, followed by dewatering the sediment by centrifuga-
tion.
Abitibi Corporation has reactivated a 125 ton per day board mill in
Blountstown, Florida. Pulping and stock refining systems designed specifi-
cally to accomodate the relatively dry raw material and to attain zero
discharge are outlined (687). In general, the closed water system is com-
prised of a series of semiclosed loops within the system. Substantial
operating cost reductions as well as compliance with water pollution control
standards have been achieved with the system.
Wastewater purification procedures for two integrated board-producing/
converting mills and. .one board-converting operation in West Germany were
outlined by Morch (688). Following sedimentation, biological purification,
and chemical treatment, thick-stock material from the wastewater treatment
plant is returned to the mixed waste paper pulper for one of the board-
manufacturing lines, while another uses chemical-mechanical reclarification
plus biological treatment. The influence of recycled solids on board quality
and production was also considered.
Superior Fiber Products, Inc. undertook a project to eliminate any dis-
charge of process water from their wet process hardboard manufacturing plant
through a program of water reuse (689). All but wash up water and some pump
seal leak water discharges were eliminated. Water absorption and linear
expansion of the board increased after close up. Close up of the process
reduced chemical usage. Board strength problems were eliminated through
control of the white water temperature. Some remaining drawbacks to the
system are a darker board color and overall reduced cleanliness of the mill.
Starkweather and Frost (690) discussed various philosophies of achieving
low or zero discharge via water recycle in paperboard manufacture and
outlined operational problems encountered in several mills. Gran (691) dis-
cused the effects of complete or partial closing of the water circuit on
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the volume and concentration of contaminants in a paperboard mill. Various
methods for treating and disposing of highly polluted effluents were con-
sidered.
Successful conversion to closed-circuit operation of a wet process
fiber-board mill was first achieved in France (692). A brief description of
what was done and some environmental and cost factors of recycling process
water for pollution control in a wet-process building board mill were pre-
sented. Efforts to reduce pollution and recycle wastewater at a French paper
mill were discussed by Vandewoestyne and Marie (693). A fiberboard factory
was described that completely recovers and recycles process water with
recovery of all solids in suspension.
The effluent treatment plant at the St. Anne Board Mill, Ltd. plant in
Bristol, England was described (694). The treatment system consists of two
clariflocculators, a sludge thickener, aerated lagoon, and sludge filter.
Provision has been made for recycling some of the clarified effluent to the
mill. Up to 200,000 gph of clarified effluent can be returned to the water
treament plant to be chlorinated and then returned to the mill water system.
Jacobsen (695) described the change to a closed water system in a coated
board mill. The system is based on recycling of process water through a
sedimentation saveall. In addition to reduction in the fresh-water require-
ment, energy requirements were reduced, production was increased, and
fiber-filler recovery was increased. Data on chemical costs, water consump-
tion, fiber recovery, energy costs, and total costs were presented.
Panak (696) reported that water from the manufacture of wood fiberboard
and from the dewatering system was partially recycled. Acceptable levels of
suspended solids were maintained by vacuum filtration, and the recycle ratio
was controlled so that dissolved organic matter was kept below 3 percent.
Forming wire wash water was clarified and recycled separately. Only 1.7
cubic meters of makeup water per ton of product was used.
Godin (697) noted that water use and total suspended solid losses at a
board mill were substantially reduced by installation of a float-wash frac-
tionator to allow recycle of board machine white water to cyclinder and felt
showers. Hammon (698) described a system for total wastewater reuse in a
boxboard mill. Mill water went to a clarifier, then to sedimentation basins,
and into a surge tank from which it was reduced or sent to the process water
treatment plant.
Simon (699) reported the recovery of primary and secondary clarifier
underflow for reuse in filler finish of a 60-ton/day board mill with no ef-
fect on product quality. A portion of the treated effluent is also recycled
to the mill.
Pilot plant reverse osmosis units were operated on weak wastewaters from
a pulp and paperboard mill to obtain further data on RO as an integal part of
a closed water system within the mill (700). Of the many equipment types
tested, the one selected was capable of concentrating a stream containing 1
percent dissolved solids to 99 percent less volume containing 10 percent
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dissolved solids. Product water thus separated was of high quality, suitable
for use for stock dilution, pump shaft seal lubrication, etc.
Trent Valley Paperboard Mills in Ontario planned to partially close
water circuits for two six-vat cylinder board machines by passing the white
water through SWECO concentrators, the filtered water to be reused in felt-
cleaning showers. Initial trial runs indicated that reusability of the white
water was governed not so much by the quantity of suspended particles as by
their size and shape (701). No significant felt plugging or picking was
observed with screened white water compared to river water.
Flocculants, such as aluminum sulfate, and coagulants, such as poly-
aery lamide, make it possible to clarify and reuse paper-machine white waters
and, ultimately, to close the water circuits of paper and board mills,
especially those producing coarser grades of papers and paperboards (702).
Guss (703) examined use of totally closed water systems in board and
tissue mills using secondary fiber as furnish and found that closed systems
can be attained with existing equipment and techniques. Problems include
corrosion, chemical and water balances, and motivating personnel to adopt
new methods. Benefits include material, heat, and chemical savings; elimina-
tion of freshwater and wastewater treament costs and long-range freedom from
farther pollution control restrictions. Problems and benefits were dis-
cussed. Examples of operating closed systems in various board and tissue
mills were presented.
Selected, long clean saleable fiber may be recovered by the action of a
DSM system for paper mills (704). The operating device is a screen com-
prising a series of bars with a wedge-shaped cross section. A highly
detailed study was made at a large tissue mill in Pennsylvania. The full
flow of the mill sewer is run through DSM units to thicken the stock after
cyclone cleaning. This stock is returned to the bleach system. Cleaner
rejects are added to the clarifier sludge for centrifugal dewatering and dis-
posal. The DSM system recovers 39 percent of the sewered fiber at 5 percent
consistency. Additional savings result from reuse of some of the sewered
water and from reduced maintenance requirements at the flotation clarifiers.
Hubble and Bowers (705) summarized trends in white water reuse toward
closed system operation in 30 European paper mills and found the degree of
reuse to be greatest in groundwood and board mills. Very few mills were
operating fully closed systems. Effects of white water reuse on corrosion
were examined in particular, and conditions in the mills were tabulated.
Bowers (706) reviewed the literature relative to corrosion of papermaking
equipment in closed systems. Corrosion problems encountered as a result of
white water recycling were reported. Bowers (707) examined corrosivity of
recycled white water in closed systems and showed effects of pH, temperature,
and chloride content.
The effluent treatment plant at the Bowater - Scott disposable products
plant at Northfleet in Kent, United Kingdom, was described (708). Effluent
from the mill is segregated into two streams; a "clean" stream, containing
fiber from the paper making machine; and a "dirty" stream from floor drains
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and overflows. Each stream is fed into a contact flocculator. Alum and an
anionic polymer are used as coagulants in the clean water flocculator.
Water from the clean water flocculator is fed to a reusable water tank; the
dirty water is discharged to the river.
The absorbent Products Division of Brown Company, Eau Clarie, Wisconsin,
recycles up to 9 million gallons per day of deinking wastewater treated in a
primary stage consisting of the addition of 120-150 ppm of alum at pH 6.0-6.5
and an unidentified anionic polymer (709). Flocculation was improved by the
addition of 10-15 ppm of activated silica. Treatment removed 94-95 percent
suspended solids and 50-60 percent BOD.
Brown Company produces 150 tons per day of absorbent tissue products.
About 85 percent of its mill process water is recycled (710). Sulfuric acid,
aluminum sulfate, an unidentified anionic polymer and activated silica are
added to the process water prior to treatment in a primary clarifier. Recy-
cling treated water raised the in-mill dissolved solids level by a factor of
three.
Springer (711) reported results of a study of process water character-
istics and water reuse practices employed in the manufacture of tissue
products. A large number of such mills were surveyed. Benefits and deficits
of various saveall systems were made. Problems in water conservation efforts
included corrosion, plugging, slime, color, scale, and foam.
Johansson (712) described closed white water systems at a kraft mill
and a tissue mill showing up to 84 percent reductions in water use. Costs
savings are related to fiber recovery and reduced effluent loads. Gropp and
Montgomery (713) described a tissue mill effluent treatment system designed
for a minimum recycle rate of 80 percent. The process uses disk filters,
polishing basins, and percolating beds.
Wisconsin Tissue Mills in Menasha, Wisconsin, installed a new effluent
system in 1973 (714, 715). An EIMCO reactor-clarifier achieves primary
treatment followed by a two-stage activated sludge process patterned after
the Zurn-Attisholz process developed in Switzerland. Clarified overflow from
the secondary system is reused in the deinking mill or in the paper mill.
The Kimberly-Clark of Canada Ltd. tissue mill in Huntville, Ontario
controls pollution by a water reclamation system which recycles about 87
percent of the process water to a high-speed tissue paper machine at rates
up to 2.5 mgd while reducing the effluent to about 0.12 mgd (716). The
multistage water and effluent treatment involves essentially retention in a
polishing basin, aeration, and filtration through twin one-acre percolation
beds.
A tissue mill at Huntsville, Ontario, has been designed to meet strin-
gent effluent quality regulations (717). A high proportion of the white
water is treated in a large disk-type saveall, using magnesium hydroxide as
primary flocculant, and is then recycled to the tissue paper manufacturing
process. A flowchart of the water treatment cycle was given, along with a
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chemical description of the Kimberly-Clark patented lime process for precipi-
tation of magnesium hydroxide.
Hartley (718, 719) reported that products recovery from wastewaters and
wastewater reuse was essential in holding down costs at the Building Products
Ltd. Edmonton, Canada plant. Wastewater treated in a circular clarifier and
a detention lagoon is reused to the maximum extent possible.
White water from the grinder room of a groundwood mill in Mexico was
purified in a clarifier basin with addition of flocculants (720). The
treated water was found suitable for reuse as process water in the mill with-
out requiring microbicidal or algaecidal additions for slime control.
Thompson (721) reviewed wastewater generation, disposal, and recycle in
veneer and plywood plants in British Columbia. He reported that the waste-
water can be totally recycled for extended periods of time. Frost (722)
obtained a patent for an improved process for manufacture of roofing felts
which involves incorporation of separated sludge into the felt and reuse of
clarified water in a closed cycle operation.
Roscoe (723) considered the economics of water reuse at an integrated
printing paper mill in order to meet effluent limitations and compared sev-
eral alternatives. Experiments were reported concerning treatments for
effluents from the pulping of straw with lime (724). Improvement in effluent
quality to a level permitting reuse in the manufacturing process was achieved
by flocculation of wastewater solids with phosphoric acid.
Teer and Russell (725) described a prototype wastewater treatment system
and design criteria for wood preserving plants of the Osmose Company of
Griffin, Georgia. Treated wastewater is reused as makeup water supplies for
mixing the wood treating chemicals.
Recirculated water is increasingly being used to reduce water consump-
tion in the paper industry. Some of its aspects were discussed by Lutz
(726). A diagram was given of the Attisholz process for the water treatment
system of sulfite pulp mills, and a sketch was included of the Ruthner rapid
clarifier for purifying effluents. Some statistics on costs of different
purification processes for effluents of various types of paper mills were
presented.
A significant development has been made toward solving the problem of
pollution and costs by recovering sodium base spent sulphite liquors (SSL)
and marketing products produced from them (727). The spent liquor is acidi-
fied and the organic acids extracted. The residual liquor can be sold as a
salt cake substitute. A flow diagram explains the many steps of the process.
Basic chemistry and required equipment are also detailed. Significant
results of the system are that a major portion of the chemicals required in
the pulping process are reusable; no significant odors are generated from
the pulping or recovery processes; recovery of sodium base sulphite pulping
liquor has been tested on a plant scale; and the process is economically
competitive. This system should be applicable to any independent sodium
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base neutral sulphite semichemical pulp mill and for sodium base sulphite
pulp mills practicing full chemical cooking.
The largest consumers of water in Finland and the ones who pollute it
most are sulphite pulp mills (728). A successful solution for water protec-
tion is represented by the 3-stage pulping method with soluable sodium base,
employed by Rauma-Repola Osakeyhtio, who mainly produces rayon pulp. The
method enables 95-98 percent recovery of the waste liquor and the regenera-
tion of chemicals.
In-plant measures taken to reduce air and water pollution at a Swedish
sulfite pulp mill were described by Brannland et al. (729). A flow diagram
was presented of the Stora chemical recovery process used at the sodium-
base sulfite pulp mill. The condensate is reused in the cooking liquor and
for final pulp wash time in the bleach plant. Changing the bleaching
sequence from CEHD to ECHO allows the extraction effluent to be returned to
the recovery furnace via the screen room and unbleached pulp washing plant.
A study of freshwater usage potential at the Vetrni integrated pulp and
paper factory in Czechoslovakia showed that it would be advantageous to
reduce the newsprint machine effluent, after mechanical treatment, in the
sulfite pulp mill (730). The only problem might be contamination of the
sulfite pulp mill system, mainly the spent liquor evaporators, with sulfite
ions originated in the paper mill. Results from computer simulation of the
proposed recycle showed that the sulfite ion concentration would not reach
a dangerous level when the newsprint paper mill effluent is used in the
separation section of the sulfite pulp mill.
Properties related to combustion, chemical recovery, and reuse of
recovered chemicals and relief liquors from waste liquors in magnesium-based
semichemical pulp production were investigated by Chou et al. (731). Pro-
duction methods assessed were the vapor-phase magnetite, magnetite, slurry,
two-component, and high-yield sulfite processes. Reuse of recovered chemi-
cals presented no problems, except for the relief liquor of the vapor-phase
magnetite method. Results indicated that the vapor-phase magnetite and
liquid-phase magnitite methods were more beneficial than the others. Because
the former has the additional disadvantages of a longer cooking time, the
latter may be the best method available.
In many Scandinavian sulfite mills, SSL evaporation condensates are
recycled either to the cooking liquor preparation or to the pulp washing
stage (732). Two possibilities for internal reuse were proposed: 1) un-
treated condensates might be reused in the bleach plant; or 2) partial
purification by anion exchange would reduce the BOD by 50-60 percent and the
COD by 70-75 percent, so that treated condensates could be used in lieu of
fresh water for pulping and pulp washing without adverse effects on pulp
quality.
Nelson et al. (733) described the pulp and papermaking operation at the
Green Bay, Wisconsin, neutral sulfite semichemical mill. Generation and dis-
tribution of solubles in the process and excess waters of the mill were also
discussed. The operation consists of mill sewers, recycled water flows,
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spill surge flow, and internal monitoring control system. Wastewater
handling with a proposed reverse osmosis operation was detailed.
Green Bay Packaging Company operates a tightly closed neutral sulfite
semichemical corrugating medium mill at Green Bay, Wisconsin (734). An
essentially closed white water system, liquor combustion plant, white water
surge storage system, and full-scale reverse osmosis unit are integrated in
such a way that steady operation is expected to result in less than 5 pounds
of BOD per ton of pulp in the mill discharge. Some difficulties with the
membrane support structure have been experienced.
The rationale and methodology of the in-plant waste control system at
the Green Bay Packaging, Inc. semichemical pulp and paperboard mill in Green
Bay, Wisconsin were presented by Morris et al. (735). The system includes a
RO plant to maintain volumetric control of reused process waters. The RO
plant design and operating performance were described. The effort to
reliably maximize the reuse of excess water and to define the capability of
RO as a tool for controlling reuse volume were the goals of this project
(736).
Kunzler (737) described pollution abatement measures instituted at a
sulfite paper mill to reduce effluent load and application of clarification
to the effluent with recycling of some of the clarified effluent. Akim and
Bystrova (738) described a process for manufacture of sulfite dissolving pulp
in which cooking liquor is prepared from spent liquor of oxygen - alkali
refining, and other liquors are reused resulting in drastically reduced ef-
fluent volumes.
A theoretical calculation was made of the effects to be expected in sul-
fite pulp mills in which spent sulfite liquor is neutralized and recycled to
the wood digester along with recovered evaporator condensates obtained at
different liquor pH and with varying degrees of condensate reuse (739).
Complete closing of the liquor cycle was found to be impossible because the
volume of condensates exceeds the water demand of the acid-making system.
Excess condensates may conceivably be reused as wash water in a sectional
spent liquor recovery system with a major portion being introduced into the
dilute liquor while a minor portion would accompany the washed pulp and be
lost down the screen room sewer.
Process modifications made at the ITT Rayonier pulp mill, Fernandia,
Florida, to reduce wastewater discharge from the sulfite pulping process
were discussed (740). Conversion of the pulp bleaching process from an
ammonia-based cooking cycle to a soda-based cycle allowed for direct recovery
of many digester wastes as solids rather than liquids, with the result that
they can be incinerated for full value. The process change resulted in a
decrease of BOD in the plant raw water loadings of about 90 percent. Over-
all costs of the modifications were quoted as $38 million in 1972 dollars.
A reverse osmosis pilot unit at the institute of paper chemistry was
used to concentrate dilute pulp wash waters obtained from a nearby pulp mill
where a high-yield sodium sulfite semichemical pulp had been dewatered in a
screw press (741). At elevated temperatures (about 45 C), the problem of
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membrane fouling was alleviated. Continuous operation of the RO unit in
conjunction with the screw press, gave 90 percent or better recoveries of
dissolved liquor solids. Clear water obtained was of sufficiently high
quality to be recycled to the process stream of the pulp mill.
Claussen (742) described ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis modules
developed by a Danish company for treatment of pulp and paper mill effluents.
Purification of SSL by UF and RO treatment of dilute SSL and wash waters
were discussed. A RO plant has been operating at a Norwegian sulfite mill
since September, 1976. The plant processes 14 cubic meters per hour of
dilute SSL. The permeate is reused in the bleaching plant for neutralization
after the hypochlorite stage. Suggestions were offered for using membrane
filtration equipment as parts of larger integrated systems for treatment of
pulp mill effluents. Data were presented showing the mass balance concen-
tration data capacity and cost of UF and RO treatment of SSL using coarse
and dense filtration membranes.
A waste treatment process which involves contacting a waste effluent
with a metal salt reagent, preferably alum mud, has been patented (743).
The method is applicable for treatment of pulp and paper mill wastes.
Effluent is oxidized, and a substantial portion of the organic content is
precipitated. The decolorized effluent is bio-oxidized in a multistage
sequence and subsequently is sufficiently pure for recycle purposes. The
purified effluent may also be bleached prior to recycle.
Laboratory evaluations of twenty resins and seven carbons showed that
resins were equal to carbon for decolorizing the combined waste from a four-
stage kraft bleach plant (744). With few exceptions, resins were unsuited
for decolorizing wastesrom each stage separately. Single stage ion ex-
change produced water adequate for unbleached pulping. Two stage
desalination produced water adequate for bleached pulping. Any of the con-
tinous counter-current ion exchange processes are probably adequate for
producing water for bleached pulping.
Davis et al. (745) reported that sand and gravel pressure filtration
improved the quality of primary clarifier effluent to the extent that the
filtrate could be used as process water in the manufacture of printing and
other fine papers. The filtered water is further improved by adding an
amylase enzyme to destroy the dispersant power of cationic starch present in
the white water, and be treatment with chlorine to prevent slime deposits.
Reeve (746) presented a review of the literature on sodium chloride
(NaCl) in alkaline pulping and chemical recovery. The history of NaCl
accumulation in recovery systems, and methods available for NaCl control and
removal were reviewed.
Mulford and Cooke (747) reported and evaluated 16 methods of reusing
vacuum pump seal water. These were grouped into three categories in order
of preference: a) freshwater supply with reuse after the vacuum pumps;
b) reuse of previously used water; and c) recirculation of seal water.
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Dickbauer (748) examined effluent problems in the corrugated board
industry and pointed out the advantages of wastewater recycling. In the
case of cooling water, a substantial reduction in fresh water consumption
results. With starch-containing effluent, the most important aspect of
consumption can be reduced by 80-90 percent by conversion to an oil lubrica-
ting system operating via compressed air. Finally, recycling can eliminate
the need for building and operating a biological clarifier.
Widmer and Widmer (749) described a completely closed circulation
system for paper and board machines. The system is based on treatment of
white water in flotation savealls with addition of a nontoxic slime-control
additive. Experience with the system in two fourdrinier and two combined
fourdrinier/cyclinder machines for production of corrugating media, coated
and uncoated paperboards, and packaging papers showed it to permit machine
operation with a minimum of fresh water intake and practically no effluent
discharge. In addition, there were no adverse effects on product quality
and production rate.
A chemical treatment system for corrugated box factory wastewaters has
been developed in Japan (750). Effluents containing corrugated starch paste
and flexographic printing ink wastes are combined and then flocculated and
precipitated with ferric chloride, calcium or sodium hydroxide, and/or or-
ganic coagulant aids. Clarified wastewater is recycled and reused for
preparation of more starch paste and a wash-up water for the flexographic
printing presses. Some cost data were given, along with an outline descrip-
tion of the process.
Brief descriptions were given of the clearator, expunger, flexo-o-kleer,
and color tamer systems for clarifying flexographic press wastewater from
corrugated box plants (751). Chemicals are added to the effluent to floccu-
late and precipitate residual ink and other substances so that they can be
separated from the water by filtration and/or sedimentation. Reuse of press
wash water in preparation of corrugating adhesive was also discussed.
A German paper mill which manufactures corrugating medium, packaging
papers, and similiar coarse and low-grade paper utilizes two fourdrinier
machines with completely closed water circuits with essentially no effluent
during normal operations (752). The manufacturing scheme was described,
including diagrams of the pulp stock and water circulation systems. Although
closure of the water system has increased concentrations of solids in the
white water with attendant corrosion and slime deposit problems, these
difficulties are amenable to technological solutions. No adverse effect on
either the quality or quantity of paper products has been noted.
Unqualified success with reuse schemes is not always achieved. Morris
(753) reported that when inhouse recycle was started at a pulp and paperboard
mill, it had an adverse effect on some aspects of plant operation. Recycle
raised the processing water temperature which produced higher humidity, thus
reducing some material service life.
Miner (754) identified factors that have limited the extent to which
water reuse has been practiced in bleaching operations. The evaluation was
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based on a literature survey and information gained through a series of
visits with mill personnel aquainted with both successes and problems asso-
ciated with further reuse. Activities where water reuse practices create
operating problems, such as temperature increase and corrosion, were identi-
fied, and steps taken to reduce them were noted. Where materials of
construction permit, extensive or alternative bleaching water recycle prac-
tices were also identified.
Although the pulp and paper industry has made considerable progress in
reducing its water consumption, much more can be achieved by using modernized
methods and equipment (755). Reuse of water for washing, general cleaning,
felt conditioning, wire showers, and lubrication of shaft packing boxes was
discussed. Careful attention to details of mill design, including proper
selection of auxiliary equipment, provisions for greater reuse of water, and
machine operation, can contribute to further reductions in specific water
consumption to manufacture a ton of paper.
MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIAL
Power plant wastewater discharge regulations require that the use of raw
water be minimized and the recycling of in-plant water be maximized (756).
In-plant reuse was discussed with the idea that either renovated water, raw
water, or a combination of the two may be the principal plant makeup. Poten-
tial reuse and subsequent effluent effects were explored by interrelating
power station water systems. It is apparent that to meet zero discharge
requirements, a thorough case-by-case analysis will be necessary that will
require a complete investigation of water quality, treatment, and solids
separation technology.
Design criteria for power plant water systems requires that all water
should be processed as required and reused insofar as practicable (757). As
water is recycled in an effort to eliminate water discharges, the design must
also provide flexibility so that the plant can continue to operate in the
event that a part of the cycle goes out of control. Flow diagrams of the
circulating water system and recycle water system at Northern States Power
Company in Sherburne County, Minnesota are presented.
Jaske (758) presented an overview of water reuse in power production.
He feels that water reuse will continue to play a key role in the dissapation
of heat from Rankin cycle thermal effluents. Aschoff (45) discussed and
illustrated various modern technologies for treatment and reuse of polluted
or thermally polluted wastewaters in the power industry.
Noblet and Christman (759) examined water reuse alternatives in coal
fired power plants. Five power plants were studied to identify major water
problems and develop methods for treatment and reuse. Rough costs were
presented for alternative reuse schemes for each water system.
A brine concentrator returns more than 95 percent of the blowdown from
cooling towers at the El Paso Natural Gas Company compressor station to the
towers for reuse (760). The pure water recycled to the tower dilutes the
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mineral content of the well-water used for makeup requirements by 25 percent.
By-product salts can be recovered from the concentrated waste brine before
disposal. Bromley and Gorber (761) discussed plans for maximizing recycle
and reuse of water streams from a new thermal power plant to be located on
the east coast of Canada.
Crutchfield and Wackenhuth (762) presented and discussed some of the
problems associated with attaining zero discharge in the electric power
industry. However well-intentioned this concept is, the fact remains that
since matter can never be eliminated, only transformed, the proper disposal
of aqueous wastes will entail some form of treatment which in itself will add
to the amount to be handled.
Sengest et al. (763) provided results of a technical review of the
state-of-the-art of thermal pollution control and treatment of cooling water
in the steam-electric power generation industry. Current, near horizon, and
future technologies utilized or anticipated to be used with closed-cycle
cooling systems were assessed. The design and operation of closed-cycle
cooling systems, their capital and operating costs, methods of evaluation
and comparison, water treatment, environmental assessment of water and non-
water impacts, permits required to build and operate these cooling systems,
and benefit-cost analyses were discussed. Sufficient information to allow an
understanding of the major parameters which are important to the design,
licensing, and operation of closed-cycle cooling systems were provided.
Coal gasification is a relatively new industry in the United States so
there are no commercial plants practicing extensive water reuse (34). Hence,
there is little information available even on the quality and treatment of
process wastewaters. Design of a wastewater reuse system does present prob-
lems if no comparable system has been demonstrated before. This is actually
the case for a commercial coal gasification plant currently in the design
stage. Wastewater reuse possibilities have been studied with emphasis on
reclaiming a large quantity of process wastewater for use as boiler feed
water. This is only part of the extensive effort involved in designing a
zero discharge plant.
Millos (764) described design features for a water reuse system at a
coal gasification plant planned for New Mexico that include reuse of a
phenolic process condensate as cooling tower makeup, use of methanation water
of reaction as boiler feedwater, and reuse of plant-blowdowns in the gasifier
ash removal system.
The Western Electronic Company, Buffalo, New York, recirculates and
reuses the water rquired for cooling hot plastic jacketing as it is extruded
and formed around the outside of cable. Water consumption has been reduced
by 95 percent or about 90 million gallons per year (765). The system uses a
unique injection, spray-type commercial cooling tower chosen for its reli-
ability, ease of installation and maintenance, and reduced installation and
maintenance costs. The cooling tower, two pumps, and a previously unused
pump comprise the recirculating system. There are two water circulating
loops in the system. The recirculating system has performed successfully
since its initiation in December, 1972. Costs of the system have been offset
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by the reduction in the need for municipal water. The system represents one
way to reduce water consumption and to achieve zero discharge.
The Western Electric plant, Lee's Summit, Missouri, developed a method
of treatment which rendered the plant effluent pure enough for reuse but did
not result in increased dissolved solids (112, 766). An evaluation of the
use of a weak base anion exchange resin indicated that a pilot plant employ-
ing six cubic feet of resin was capable of treating 2,000 gallons per day.
A larger unit was constructed to handle 200,000 gpd, with provisions for
scaling up to 600,000 gpd, of low-conductivity low-acidity water for reuse.
A stainless steel disc filter is used to remove solids over 200 microns and
an anthracite filter removes additional solids and oil. The exchange resin
column neutralizes wastes and removes organics from the water. The major
operating cost is for anion replacement required every seven years. This
cost, however, is recovered by savings in freshwater and regenerent chemicals.
Reverse osmosis has been used at the IBM facility in Manassas, Virginia,
to provide reusable water from electronics waste (767). Two-stage hollow
fiber and spiral wound RO units were tested with dilute acid wastes from
IBM. A hollow fiber RO system was selected in 1977 for wastewater recycling,
with provisions for maintaining the fouling index below 3.0 and cleaning the
permeators whenever signs of plugging or fouling occurred.
Beasley (768) described studies using reverse osmosis to treat electro-
nic wastes. Both spiral wound and hollow fiber membranes were used. After
pilot plant studies, the hollow fiber units were used to treat rinse waters
for recycle.
A wastewater reclamation system, featuring reverse osmosis and a solar
evaporation pond for metal wastes disposal, was installed at a California
electronics plant (769). Objectives of the program were to reduce water use,
improve reclaimed water quality, and reduce waste discharges which inter-
fered with production. Costs of the system were offset by water reduction,
increased product quality, and replacement of other treatment systems.
Schrantz (770) discussed the role of ultrafiltration in the technology
of electrodeposition (EDP) finishing with a specific description of the
closed-loop UF process of an 18,000 gallon EDP tank installed in the Equipto
plant at Aurora, Illinois. Due to the closed-loop nature of the process,
savings of 45 gpm of rinse water have been achieved.
Plant expansion and new processes forced the development of a water
reuse scheme at a large electric machine tool plant (771). Wastewater is
treated in two Imhoff tanks and a high rate trickling filter and then stored
in a large pond. Water is drawn from the pond, filtered and fed back to
those parts of the plant that can use it or be adapted to use it. Numerous
problems were associated with perfection of this system. Approaches to the
solution of these problems were presented and the results discussed.
Bhattacharyya et al. (772) investigated membrane ultrafiltration for
treating TNT wastewater for in-plant reuse. Four membranes were tested.
Millipore PSAL was selected,as the optimum membrane due to its consistently
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better performance. A computer simulation was used to develop a process
design for a treatment and water reuse system for nitrotoluene production.
Results of this design process indicated that a' tapered module system would
be optimum. This system had limited concentrate recycle requirements and
produced the highest solute rejection at high water recoveries.
Baker and Drury (773) presented a discussion of pilot-plant developments
of water reuse technology at an ammunition plant. The treatment process
requires granular media filtration and chlorination of the effluent from
primary treatment. Reuse test results and projections of capital and opera-
ting costs were included. Results of the pilot plant programs and an
evaluation of future potential for reuse water requirements within the plant
led to preparation of a conceptual design for the treatment facilities
required.
The U.S. Army's Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois has recycled all process
water and discharged no effluents since 1973 (774). The fully automated
system employs reverse osmosis units to treat process water prior to recy-
cling. Annual operating costs have been reduced, and 54 million gallons of
water a year have been saved.
Kelchner (775) described plans for total reuse of water at a nuclear
weapons plant. Recovered water from an RO desalting unit would be used as
boiler feed and in the cooling tower.
Modifications to nuclear field reprocessing facilities, process flow-
sheets, and equipment have permitted reuse of wastewaters and recovery and
reuse of chemicals at the Atlantic Richfield Hanford Plant in south central
Washington State (776). Improved process performance, reduced operating
costs, and decreased waste volumes have resulted. Although these modifica-
tions were implemented for nuclear fuels reprocessing facilities, other
industry may have similar opportunities in their operation.
Methods to recover or destroy complex cyanides in industrial wastewater
effluents were evaluated in laboratory studies (777). Techniques tested
included electrolysis, ozonation, chlorination, and heavy metal ion precipi-
tation. It was found that ferrocyanide can be oxidized to ferricyanide in
overflow photographic color process bleaches using either electrolysis or
ozone and the waste bleach recirculated for reuse in the process. Dilute
concentrations of ferricyanide can be destroyed using ozone or chlorine
under proper conditions of temperature, pH, and catalyst addition.
Dagon (778) presented a state-of-the-art review of wastewater treatment
technology available to the photographic processing industry. Current treat-
ment methods are based on biological treatment, activated carbon adsorption,
ozonation, ferro-cyanide precipitation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange.
Methods of silver recovery, fixer reuse, bleach regeneration, bleach fixer
reuse, and color developer regeneration are outlined.
Daignault (779) discussed pollution control in the photo processing
industry through regeneration and reuse. A waste treatment system has been
in operation at the PCA International color portrait processing plant in
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Mathews, North Carolina, since 1972 which provides for:
1. electrolytic recovery of silver from spent fixing solutions;
2. recycling of ferricyanide bleach solutions after regeneration by
ozone treatment; and
3. treatment of other wastewater by reverse osmosis; the permeate
from the RO unit is reused.
In all, 20,000 gallons per day of wastewater are treated and reused.
Ciesielski (780) presented two case histories related to recycle of
process waters at tall oil and turpentine chemicals production sites. Use of
wastewater recycle systems has drastically reduced wastewater discharge at
both locations.
Two conceptual physicochemical waste treatment systems have been pro-
posed for animal glue plants in what is believed to be an optimum combination
of appropriate unit processes (781, 782). Experimental results indicate that
high reductions of common wastewater parameters could be achieved by the
proposed treatment system. In addition, the purified effluent could be
recycled for in-plant use.
A study of industrial laundry wastewater treatment by ultrafiltration
and activated carbon adsorption has indicated that a consistantly high qual-
ity product water, potentially reusable within the laundry can be produced
(783). The operation of the sprial-wound UF modules was, however, hindered
by the fouling tendency of the feed system. Average module permeate flex
was therefore low. This factor resulted in high capital and operating cost
estimates for full-scale treatment systems.
Robertson and Pople (784) described water recycling in an aggregate
plant with process water requirements of 6,100 gallons per minute. All
wastewater flows are collected and treated for solids removal. Clarified
water is recycled through the plant operation, accounting for about 98 per-
cent of the plant requirements.
Ahlgren (785) conducted a thorough study of water borne wastes coming
from a typical heavy equipment manufacturing operation to determine the
treatment rationale necessary. After screening many possible treatment
methods, a final approach was selected using settling and flotation as the
primary treatment, and evaporation as the final processing step. All influ-
ent wastewater was directed to an API separator. In the RO step, recoverable
product water and concentrated waste are generated. The concentrated waste
is further processed through vapor compression evaporation for additional
concentration of the unwanted materials and recovery of reusable water.
A study regarding wastewater reuse in the smelting industry was described
by Eynon (786). This study explained the techniques required for utilizing
and recycling secondary treated wastewaters for flue gas scrubbing and cooling
operations in an integrated zinc-lead smelter.
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Treatment of wastewater from the paint and varnish factories were ex-
amined by Freotte (787). Chemical precipitation followed by biological
treatment was described. The potential for recycle was discussed. Gaefgen
(788) discussed ultrafiltration of electrovarnishing wastewater. The fil-
trate was used as a wash liquid and recovered varnish was returned to the
electrovarnishing bath.
A reverse osmosis system is being used at the Mooka plant of Kobe Steel
Ltd. in Japan to treat rinse water from an electropainting line (789). The
acrylic plant recovery water reuse system has reduced paint expenditure by
40 percent and overall costs by 30 percent for the plant which uses an
electropainting line to apply an acrylic finish to aluminum window frames.
The unit is also a closed-loop system which separates the acrylic paint and
associated solvents from water so both can be reused in the process, thus
eliminating the need for waste disposal to the municipal wastewater treatment
system. The system should pay for itself in two years. Product water con-
tains less than 0.3 percent of the acrylic paint ingredients.
The Modine Manufacturing Corporation plant at Clinton, Tennessee, pro-
duces aluminum air conditioning condensers with processes which generate
wastewater containing zinc, aluminum, and flourides (790). In 1972, the
facility modified its existing treatment system to move toward zero dis-
charge. Plant wastewater is lime-neutralized, clarified, and fed to settling
lagoons from which about 400 gpm is recycled.
Rising energy costs and stricter effluent regulations have encouraged
energy-saving modifications in wastewater treatment and disposal practices
of electrolytic zinc refining operations (791). Waste generation within any
given process can be minimized by maximum recycling of treated water to the
plant, maximum rinse without pretreatment of lightly contaminated water
within the plant, and careful control of the water balance. A zinc plant
designed by Kaiser engineers provides maximum recycling and minimum consump-
tion through separation of treatment streams into nonrecyclable and recyclable
effluents. Effluent discharges will be reduced to 7-10 percent of the plant's
total intake of water.
Since December, 1977, Amchem Products, Inc., Ambler, Pennsylvania, has
been operating a reverse osmosis and reuse system to treat wastewater from
phosphating steel drums (792). The coil coating facility for a single line
is capable of processing aluminum, cold-rolled steel and galvanized steel
with a rinse water flow of 57,600 gpd, 300 days/year. Pretreatment consists
of alkaline cleaning, zinc phosphate conversion and a final acid rinse. The
RO unit was designed for a 90 percent recovery rate and a 95 percent rejec-
tion of waste stream contaminants. This process was chosen as the most
practical and cost-effective alternative to conventional waste disposal
methods.
A reverse osmosis process was chosen by Cummin's Engine Company,
Charleston, South Carolina, for treating industrial wastes from machining and
engine test operations (793). The system was chosen because it was cheaper,
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more efficient, and had zero discharge when compared with the standard chemi-
cal waste treatment system. The system was designed for 98 percent water
recovery.
The use of activated carbon as the advanced treatment method for waste-
water discharged from machinery factories was discussed by Kishi (794).
Biological treatment of this wastewater is difficult since the BOD varies
greatly. Activated carbon would be the most effective method of advanced
treatment with the treated water suitable for reuse.
The Black and Decker plant at Hampstead, Maryland, has been a no-
discharge facility since October, 1973 (795). The closed-loop water reuse
system incorporates a four-stage tertiary treatment unit. The treatment
plant uses a unique flocculation and filtering system and takes the effluent
from the sewage plant and manufacturing process and further refines- the
wastes. Treated effluent from the sewage treatment plant is directed to a
smaller 4-million gallon reservoir while recycled industrial cooling water
and effluent from the tertiary plant is directed to a larger 10-million
gallon reservoir. With the closed-loop system, the plant uses 1.2 million
gallons of recycled water per day. Because of evaporation losses, 100,000
gallons per day of freshwater must be added to the plant.
The best practicable control technology currently available for the
primary aluminum smelting industry is treatment of wet scrubber water and
other effluents to precipitate the fluorides, to decrease the concentration
of dissolved solids, and to allow recycling of the treated water (796).
Lopez and Johnson (797) reported on the use of ultrafiltration and
reverse osmosis in series to treat an industrial waste stream containing
process solutions, cutting fluids, rinse tank waters, cooling tower bleed,
and washer waters. Ultrafiltration reduced extractable materials to levels
acceptable for sewer discharge; however, the permeate was too high in or-
ganics to permit direct recycle. Additional treatment by RO allowed direct
recycle into controlled systems. Behnke (798) reviewed the application of
screening magnetic separators, flotation, hydrocyclone, roll media filters,
reusable media filters, and precoat filters for recycling metal working
fluids.
Reuse of water has been practical for several years in iron ore and
coal processing plants (799). This is also true of base metal and industrial
minerals processing plants. The reuse of water has occurred primarily
because of economic consideration. Reuse of water is achieved by proper
control of water usage within the processsing plant followed by clarification
of the water by use of flocculants and a clarifying thickener. Significant
savings are effected by reduced chemical consumption, conservation of heat,
elimination of large tailings dams with subsequent high maintenance costs,
and greater preservation of land values.
Hautala et al. (800) investigated a treatment for acidic wastewater
containing iron and lead resulting from production of lead storage batteries.
Presence of these metals prevents recycling of the water for production and
prevents disposal to sewer systems. Powdered calcium carbonate (CaCO.,) added
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to a slurry concentration of neutralized wastewater, which was then filtered,
produced an effluent with less than 0.2 ppm of iron and a lead concentration
of less than 0.3 ppm. Further filtration through a bed of redwood bark pro-
duced an effluent suitable for recycling or disposal to a sanitary sewer
system.
All wastewater from the Globe Union Inc. lead acid battery manufacturing
plant in Canby, Oregon, is clarified, filtered, and recycled (801). Sus-
pended solids in the waste stream, i.e. lead oxides, are reused. About
280 liters per minute of wastewater are reused and 280 pounds per hour of
solids recovered. Capital and operating costs are given.
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SECTION 4
RECLAMATION PROCESSES FOR INDUSTRIAL REUSE OF WASTEWATERS
There is considerable interest among United States industries in
developing methods for consolidating and reducing waste loads within their
operations so that they can comply with effluent standards that will be
imposed as a result of the FWPCA Amendments of 1972 (143) . As a part of
these efforts, an attempt is being made by industries to reduce freshwater
consumption so that both the cost required to produce their product and the
waste volumes they generate in their operations can be minimized.
The quality of water required for various industrial uses often dictates
the most desirable form of reclamation and reuse. For example, water for
many industrial uses need not be of as high a quality as that used for human
consumption. Therefore, it is often possible to reuse treated wastewaters
for industrial purposes. In the majority of cases involving reuse, it is
necessary to provide some form of treatment (5). The extent of pretreatment
will depend on the concentration and type of pollutants and the water quality
requirements.
A great deal of concern has been expressed for the future development of
wastewater treatment systems (43). The primary concern is for finding means
of reusing treated wastewater instead of merely disposing of it. This invol-
ves the introduction of systems which can provide water of the required
quality. Any system or method must be cost effective.
Industrial water can be used on a once through basis, or as is becoming
more frequently the case, on a multiple use or a reuse-recycle basis (802).
The trend is to increase the reuse ratio to a point where minimal or zero
discharge of water is achieved. This requires new chemical and mechanical
methods for water treatment to remove salinity, hardness, alkalinity, sus-
pended solids, and organic matter.
Steps in establishing a zero-discharge strategy are: 1) inventorying
water consumption item by item and listing positive means to be adopted to
limit consumption to minimum levels required by each process stage; 2) de-
fining qualities of water required; and 3) establishing treatment levels for
recycle of water (803).
Interest in greater reuse of treated wastewaters has focused attention
on the need for critical evaluation of the effectiveness of water and waste-
water treatment processes (804). Their capability for removing undesirable
constituents from wastewater must be known in order to correlate the degree
of treatment and level of quality to a particular reuse application.
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Reclamation and reuse of wastewater has been inhibited by: confusion
concerning objectives of water reuse, need for relating treatment effort to
the use, guidelines regarding effluent discharge, and serious consideration
of energy conservation versus water reuse (15).
There are many possible routes to complete water treatment, and for
each individual case a very careful study should be made to select processes
that will give the desired objective with minimum capital investment and
operating costs (805). An essential part of a complete water reuse program
is to first employ all known techniques for minimizing wastewater from
manufacturing operations (19)•
There are two basic methods by which recirculation systems are designed
and operated (21). Recirculation can be incorporated on each separate pro-
cess, or all process waters can be combined, treated to the extent necessary,
and used as intake water for all processes. The choice usually depends upon
the water use system prior to design of the recirculating system. Most new
plants use the first system while most older plants utilize the second
approach.
Advanced wastewater treatment processes may be applied to wastewater in
treatment systems for which the effluent water quality improves through each
additional process in the treatment sequence (806). Since cost of treatment
increases with each additional process in the treatment sequence, the user
should select the minimum water quality required for the reuse purpose and
thus minimize size of the treatment plant and cost of treatment.
The assumption that improvements in quality of receiving water is
related to increased sophistication of the treatment process must be re-
placed by an effort to match treatment efforts to reuse objectives (15).
A treatment system designed to meet stream quality requirements can not
always be effectively used to meet reclaimed supply requirements (9). Weber
et al. (807) noted that conventional "secondary" biological waste treatment
processes are often inadequate to provide the effluent quality needed for
water reuse purposes.
For many years it has been recognized that conventional primary plus
secondary biological treatment is not able to produce effluents of suffi-
ciently high quality to be suitable for direct reuse (808). This is
especially true when the conventional method is applied to treatment of cer-
tain industrial wastes which are either relatively refractory or biotoxic.
Considerable research interest has been focused on new and advanced waste
treat technologies with the hope that these new technologies will provide
sufficient degrees of treatment so that treated effluents can be reused
directly. Huang, et al. summarized results of a research study designed to
investigate the effectiveness of carbon adsorption for the treatment of
three selected industrial wastes: a refinery wastes, a high-strength acidic
chemical waste, and a pharmaceutical waste.
There are many possible wastewater reclamation processes and schemes,
of which one or more in combination can be used to solve almost any special
waste treatment problem. Sawyer (60) reviewed the status of wastewater
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treatment technology and evaluated various chemical treatment methods and
water recycling schemes. Both in-plant recycling systems for various indus-
tries and municipal wastewater reclamation systems for industrial and general
use were covered. Cost data for various treatment processes were indicated.
Water reuse is a recognized option for augumenting water supplies to
provide for expanded water needs. A methodology has been developed by Bishop
et al. (809) examining optimal strategies for water reuse within the context
of the total water resources system, including both the provision of water
supplies for various uses and management of wastewaters. The optimizing
objective of the formulated model is to minimize the cost of meeting water
supply requirements and of wastewater treatment to satisfy effluent require-
ments .
Mace (116) discussed a procedure for conducting an in-plant study to
determine feasible recycling schemes. Finelt and Crump (810) directed inter-
est toward development of industrial plant water recycle policies. These
efforts could reduce water cost and effluent discharge. Several systems
utilized in water reuse operations were discussed in terms of cost, proce-
dure, and efficiency.
Norman and Busch (811) discussed applications of biological waste treat-
ment technology to renovation of wastewater for reuse. Principle topics were
the application of biological processes for water reuse and engineering
decisions leading to the optimum selection of process units.
Various wastewater treatment sequences were evaluated by Petrasek and
Rice (812) as part of a research program for developing water reuse systems.
Treatment sequences evaluated consisted of the following unit processes
operating in series, with the most significant difference being the type of
chemical treatment utilized in the sequence: biological treatment with
completely mixed activated sludge; chemical coagulation, flocculation, and
clarification; multi-media filtration; and activated carbon adsorption.
Ricci (813) reviewed laboratory and pilot-scale developments in water
reuse systems. A pilot-scale system that renovates organic chemical-laden
wastewaters for reuse in manufacturing operations was described. The system
combines activated sludge treatment, physical/chemical treatment, reverse
osmosis, and primary and secondary ion exchange. Another pilot unit has
demonstrated the effectiveness of ultrafiltration for concentrating dilute
latex wastewaters for reuse.
Rickles (88) described techniques applicable to treatment of industrial
wastewater for reuse purposes in chemical process plants and discussed
several examples. Shuval (814) reported on recent advances in technology
conducive to achieving greater efficiency in water reuse. Linstedt and
Bennett (815) evaluated advanced waste treatment technology for production
of industrial grade water. Several major reclamation and reuse systems for
steel, pulp and paper, and petroleum industries have been described (816).
Rose (817) offered a brief description of various unit processes either
utilized in existing advanced waste treatment plants or being considered for
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plants in the study or design phase. Factors entering into design of process
equipment for advanced waste treatment were analyzed. Pollution control by
itself is frequently insufficient to restore wastewater to a point where it
will be suitable for reuse. Further treatment may be necessary to actually
renovate or renew wastewaters so that they can be available for reuse. Reno-
vation of wastewater for reuse requires separation from the liquid phase of
several distinct types of contaminants: suspended solids, colloidal solids,
dissolved organic solids, and dissolved inorganic solids. Removal of each
type of material requires a different unit process. Selection of a particu-
lar treatment process therefore is a function of the type and composition of
water to be treated in the process and quality required in the product water.
Hospodarec and Thomason (33) discussed schemes showing various methods
of recovering effluent streams for reuse. They noted that streams high in
dissolved solids do not lend themselves to reuse without extensive processing.
Marynowski et al. (818) described three promising wastewater schemes
which may have favorable application in industrial wastewater renovation.
The three processes analyzed were:
1. ion exchange treatment of ammonium nitrate plant waste;
2. evaporation of steel mill waste ammoniacal liquor; and
3. treatment of power plant stuck scrubber blowdown by electro-
dialysis and evaporation.
Estimates of capital and operating costs were prepared for all three illus-
trative applications.
Bishop (806) provided a description of two basic advanced treatment
systems and a brief review of three other systems which represent combina-
tions of processes from the two basic systems. A summary of the average or
typical water qualities of the intermediate and final effluents from each of
the five treatment systems was given.
Bayley and Waggott (819) described several recent developments in water
reclamation processes. Filtration, ultrafiltration, adsorption on granular
activated carbon, coagulation, ion exchange, and reverse osmosis were
included.
Leitner and Ahlgren (820) reviewed various conventional and advanced
processes available to industry for solution of their problems of water
supply and reclamation, waste disposal, and recovery of certain valuable
materials. Electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, and evaporation were the prin-
cipal techniques discussed. Cost figures were also provided.
Kelsey (821) discussed reuse of water from the standpoint of materials
recovery. Methods of treatment included reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration,
electrodialysis, polishing filters, adsorption, and ozonation.
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Goddard (822) compared operating principles, application, and capital
and operating costs of ion exchange, electrodialysis, and reverse osmosis.
The choice among these three treatment processes is dependent on numerous
technical and economical considerations, including the desired treated water
quality. These factors were discussed in some detail.
Desalination processes such as reverse osmosis, evaporation, ultrafil-
tration, and others have been studied for their potential as water recovery
methods (823). Demonstrations have shown the feasibility of recovering
usable water from a wide variety of effluents. Pilot-scale demonstration
systems have been constructed and operated, and data have been gathered
relative to economics of water recovery and product water quality. In addi-
tion to water recovery, these processes concentrate unwanted solid materials
for ultimate disposal.
Evans (824) discussed the question of the effect of mineralization of
wastewaters on reuse, and concluded that mineral content is the basic chara-
cteristic which determines the number of cycles that reclaimed water can be
used.
Spiewak (825) conducted a review of the major aspects of desalting
technology and reviewed the more promising methods. These included
electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, dynamic membrane hyperfiltration, and
distillation. Nearly all the processes lead to a product water of greater
purity than that of most natural waters used for municipal supplies. How-
ever, these processes also produce a resultant concentrate which is very
difficult to dispose of. Cost estimates were formulated for various systems
alternating between complete recycle and no recycle.
Kalinske (826) deals with eventual disposal of solid and liquid pollu-
tants and residues that are removed by various treatment processes. As in
wastewater treatment, ultimate disposal of solids or liquid sidestreams
generated by water reuse treatment must be considered an integral part of any
process, both technically and economically. Costs associated with processing
and disposal of the residues must be considered part of the treatment cost.
Preparation of wastes and polluted waters for reuse requires treatment
for removal of inorganic and organic contaminants released to the water in
its prior use (827). Conventional water and waste treatment techniques are
inadequate and uneconomical for preparing poor quality waters for reuse.
Since water purification basically involves solute-solvent separation,
reverse osmosis membrane technology offers considerable promise as a waste-
water treatment techniques; however, new and improved membranes are very
much needed to improve the economics of RO technology for water reuse appli-
cations.
According to Channabasappa (27), the RO process offers an excellent
tool for industry to meet the challenge of pollution control in the future.
He noted, however, that while present RO membranes and equipment are suitable
for certain wastes, new families of membranes and equipment designs are
needed to improve the economics of by-product recovery.
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A preliminary survey of 18 industries was made to determine the economic
potential of by-products recovery (27) . The following six industries were
found to offer the most potential: cheese, pulp and paper, organic chemicals,
nuclear power, iron and steel, and metal plating. Membrane processes appear
to be most suited for by-product recovery with reverse osmosis better suited
than electrodialysis. Besides by-product recovery, an important economic
incentive in using RO for industrial waste treatment is recovery of water for
plant reuse.
In order to employ a closed-cycle system, methods for removing dissolved
solids must be incorporated within the treatment cycle (5). Studies indicate
that the reverse osmosis process has the best chance for serving this pur-
pose, and there are stong indications that it may be used to replace
secondary and tertiary procedures.
Nusbaum and Kremer (828) discussed reclamation of used water by reverse
osmosis. Reverse osmosis can remove purified water from a mixed stream con-
taining organic and inorganic pollutants leaving a concentrated stream of
these pollutants amenable to recovery, if justified, or to facilitate dis-
posal.
Cruever (40) summarized the status of development of reverse osmosis
processing for reuse of acid mine drainage, municipal sewage effluents and
some industrial streams. Current capital and operating costs were presented
and future improvements outlined. Technical feasibility of spiral wound RO
processing for use of many industrial and municipal waste streams has been
demonstrated. Limitations to the application of RO to water, wastewater,
and other aqueous solutions were listed.
Witmer (829) discussed the potential of low pressure RO systems in water
reuse applications. In order for low pressure RO to become a viable process
within the wastewater reuse leg, costs must be pinned down for the overall
process which are, of course, inclusive of pretreatment and brine disposal
costs.
Bregman (830) initiated studies in which reverse osmosis was employed
for reclaming various types of wastewaters. These studies were discussed in
detail. Because of difficulties encountered, use of several pretreatment
techniques were necessitated. It was concluded that there was an obvious
need for tailor-made membranes for the retention or passage of specific
materials, that problems of organic fouling must be overcome, and that mem-
brane compaction difficulties must be remedied.
Reverse osmosis may be regarded as a technique of separating components
of waste streams to accomplish one or more of the following: 1) reclamation
of water for reuse; 2) concentration of the constituents of reuse for con-
venient disposal; or 3) abatement of pollution. Golomb and Besik (831)
discussed five basic reverse osmosis designs and assessed the feasibility of
employing reverse osmosis for treatment of various industrial wastewaters.
Beder and Gillespie (832) delineated in detail both the design and oper-
ational variables for the reverse osmosis process when employed specifically
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for reclamation of pulp mill effluents. The process compared favorably with
massive lime and activated carbon treatment. The authors concluded that
reverse osmosis would fit best after primary treatment but before activated
carbon treatment when reclaiming wastewater for reuse.
Reverse osmosis is finding an increased number of applications to
reduce the volume of industrial wastewater (30). In addition to the standard
application where the waste is processed so that a portion can be reused,
incorporating reverse osmosis into the process frequently reduces the volume
of waste which is produced. Kremen (833) reviewed the concept of reverse
osmosis and briefly discussed its effectiveness in purifying different types
of waters and the economics (capital and operating costs) of reverse osmosis
treatment.
Koyima (834) and Koyima and Tatsumi (835) discussed reverse osmosis
treatment of industrial wastewater for production of reusable water. Leitner
(836) reviewed the applicability of reverse osmosis to industrial renovation
and reuse systems. Application was most advantageous for plating waste, food
processing, and treatment of cooling tower water.
Ironside and Sourirajan (837) discussed the use of reverse osmosis as a
means for reclamation of wastewaters, and presented results of laboratory
investigations with cellulose acetate membranes. Gregor (838) discussed the
effects of hydrogen-bonding, pH of influent water, porosity, and contamina-
tion of organic matter on cellulose acetate membranes used in reverse osmosis
systems for water reclamation. It would appear that only the product water
from the moderate and highly selective membrane modules would be satisfac-
tory.
Reverse osmosis is not in itself without short comings (366). Major
obstacles limiting reverse osmosis today are membrane fouling and high cost.
High costs can be alleviated somewhat when by-products of value can be re-
covered with use of the membrane process. Membrane fouling can be reduced
by using an appropriate pretreatment process to remove fouling constituents
prior to their introduction into the reverse osmosis unit.
Murkes (839) discussed problems still to be resolved in development of
membrane systems. Major problems identified were membrane fouling and
secondary membrane formation. In a reverse osmosis water reuse or recycle
process that achieves partial demineralization of the waste stream to control
the level of dissolved solids, precipitation of sparingly soluble calcium
compounds can produce serious operational problems when not closely con-
trolled (840).
Shimozato et al. (841) reported on experiments dealing with membrane
scale prevention during wastewater treatment with reverse osmosis. A com-
bined chemical and ball cleaning system was operated continuously for 1500
hours and demonstrated both effectiveness and reliability. Application of
reverse osmosis to closed-system wastewater treatment is illustrated for the
electronics industry. The use of electrodialysis and evaporation in closed-
system treatment is also discussed.
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Reverse osmosis can provide for recycling of effluents when combined
with filtration and ion exchange (842). Principles, applications and limi-
tations of reverse osmosis was the subject of a two-day seminar attended by
representatives of various industries. Reverse osmosis must be matched to
local conditions such as turbidity, water hardness and colloid levels.
Kaup (843) compared two water purification processes that can be used
to control mine drainage pollution and still produce a potable water with a
minimum of disposal problems. Results of the DESAL ion exchange process are
presented and compared to published reverse osmosis work.
Newman (844) discussed application of a novel fluidized moving bed ion
exchange resin system to several waste recycle applications. Data are pre-
sented from a commercial installation in operation on recycled scrubber
wastewater, and hypothetical cases are presented with tabulated data for
recycling chromates from cooling water blowdown. He concluded that ion-
exchange can be a major factor as a reuse tool.
Ion exchange has been used in industry for many years in recovery of
valuable substances from industrial liquids and purification of these
liquids for their reuse (845). The economic limitation of this process
comes from the expensive regenerant that must be used in order to obtain the
original ion exchange resin again. Difficulties arise because, in many
cases, substances to be removed are in low concentrations. The AVCO contin-
uous moving bed process is described. The ion exchange, regeneration and
wash operations occur simultaneously in the same column.
Mace (846) reported that use of granular media filtration for removing
suspended solids from wastewaters which are intended for reuse has recently
increased. Granular filters are also the only time-tested unit operation
available for filtering volumes of wastewater experienced in industrial
waste treatment plants. The various types of granular filters and their
performance and application in reuse situations were discussed. Types of
granular filter configurations available include: vertical gravity, deep
media vertical gravity or pressure, horizontal, concrete gravity, and up-
flow gravity or pressure types.
Processing industrial wastes by reverse osmosis or ultrafiltration can
bring about process economics by recovery of valuable materials dissolved in
the waste stream, by recovery of high quality water for reuse, and by con-
centration of pollutants for disposal C847).
Bregman (830) presented results of studies with both reverse osmosis
and electrodialysis which show that it is technically feasible to convert
sewage to potable quality. Costs and results of RO treatment on a variety
of wastewaters are presented. Problems encountered are listed.
The ultrafiltration process may play a key role in most industrial
water and wastewater treatment systems as environmental regulations get
tougher (848). Descriptions of three types of membranes used in ultrafil-
tration systems are given. Generalizations regarding pricing are
considered.
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Membrane ultrafiltration with non-cellulosic membranes is a promising
technique for the removal of various organic compounds present in aqueous
solutions, particularly for waste treatment systems designed for in-plant
water reuse (849). The process has been successfully used as an effective
technique for treatment of a large number of industrial wastes.
Use of ion exchange and electrodialysis systems to treat various indus-
trial process wastes for recycle was described by Fisher and McGarvey (496)
and Westbrook and Wirth (850). Electrodialysis applications were discussed
by Birkett (851). Design and operation of the process may require more
skill and care than that of other systems. It does not appear to have
general utility as a waste treatment tool. Its most likely areas of appli-
cation are recycle and reuse of recovered products in industrial wastes.
Korngold et al. (852) conducted pilot plant studies to examine appli-
cation of electrodialysis to a variety of industrial wastewater effluents
with low salt concentrations and few membrane fouling components. The
technical and economic feasibility of electrodialysis treatment was con-
sidered for the following industrial wastewaters: chemical copper plating,
chemical plating, electro-plating, phosphate plating, and sulfuric acid
pickling.
Water reuse is possible only after applying some kind of treatment of
water that has been already used (853). Distillation promises to be among
the most important treatment units for water reuse systems as technical and
economic aspects are improved, and as more experience in this service is
gained. The distilled vapor is condensed for recycling to process or other
uses while the contained salts are concentrated to the solid form for dis-
posal. Through the distillation process is old and well established, and
technically ready for application to waste streams, certain problems still
hinder its widespread usage. These are primarily related to costs.
To be suitable for conventional boiler make, effluents from treatment
processes must go through pretreatment for removal of troublesome constitu-
ents (854). A typical flow diagram of makeup water treatment was presented,
including a cationic exchanger,^degasifier, anion exchanger, and a mixed bed
of cation and anion exchange material. Evaporators are still a significant
factor in feed water treatment. Multi-stage flash evaporators produce excel-
lent feed water. Also presented was a short discussion on condensate
treatment.
An evaporative process has been developed for reclaiming industrial
wastewater (802). The process has been demonstrated through operation of
pilot and full-scale facilities on a variety of feed waters. The system
consists of a two-stage evaporator with associated deaerator, feed and pro-
duct pumps, recirculation pumps, holding tanks, heat exchangers, mixers,
compressors and automatic controls. The system is configured to permit
operating of either stage by itself or both stages together.
Stepakoff and Siegelman (2) gave a summary of the eutectic freezing
process along with a brief review of the results of bench scale testing of
process components and feasibility studies. The freezing process is an
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extension of desalination technology and has broad application in the recov-
ery of water from wastes having a high content of organic and inorganic
dissolved solids (855). Freezing effects all the dissolved contaminants in
the effluent. For treatment of concentrated wastewaters, the system may have
economic advantages over chemical destruction.
Emmermann et al. (13), lammatino (856), and Ziering et al. (857)
described the Avco crystalex freeze crystallization process for concentrating
industrial wastes and producing reusable water. Its application to a variety
of industrial wastes was summarized. The process is based on the fact that
ice crystallized from an aqueous solution contains pure water, with all im-
purities remaining behind in the concentrated solution. The ice crystals
can then be efficiently washed free of adhering mother liquid to potable
water standards or below. The process uses a secondary refrigerant, Freon
114, which is inflammable, nontoxic, and practically immiscible with any
aqueous waste.
The crystalex process ck produce a reuable product stream with as
little as 30 ppm total dissolved solids with 99.9 percent contaminant re-
moval, as demonstrated by large scale laboratory tests. These tests also
indicate that all dissolved contaminants are reduced in the same ratio, re-
gardless of their relative initial concentrations.
*
The AVCO concentrex process is an extention of the crystallex process
(13). It is a two-stage arrangement which is applied when the final freezing
point depression exceeds 5 - 10 F. In this case, concentrate for the first
stage is feed for the second stage. Need for the second stage depends on
the highly varying freezing point depression for different aqueous solutions.
Flow schematics of both the crystalex and concentrex systems were presented.
Sephton (858) discussed the effectiveness of a novel evaporation method
which reduces energy and capital cost requirements for the renovation/
recycle of industrial wastewaters. Interface enhancement depends on foamy
two-phase vapor/liquid flow induced during the evaporation of a liquid
flowing over a heat transfer surface. This flow mode substantially increases
the evaporation rate of the liquid, after adding a surfactant.
Equipment for the cooling of industrial wastewaters to be recycled has
been described (859). The atmospheric cooler operating in a closed cycle,
and providing direct contact between the wastewater to be cooled and the air,
has a water consumption amounting to only two percent of that of an open-
cycle cooler.
Increasing demand for clean water coupled with the rising costs of
treating wastewater for discharge is prompting industry and government to
examine new avenues of water conservation (860). One approach is reuse of
treated plant effluents. There are several technically sound and economi-
cally acceptable unit operations which can prepare a waste stream for further
use. One of these is adsorption using granular activated carbon. If em-
ployed properly, effluent from the treatment system employing granular
activated carbon will be clean of suspended solids and relatively free of
organic materials which may effect additional unit operations used to prepare
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the water for reuse. Advantages offered by an adsorption process, such as
flexibility and dependability, together with economic considerations and its
history of proven performance makes it a process that should be seriously
considered when planning a water reuse program.
Rizzo (861) reported that granular activated carbon adsorption is a
unit process which treats wastewater to a quality suitable for reuse. Chow
(862) investigated activated carbon adsorption as a tertiary treatment in
wastewater treatment and reuse systems. The costs and efficiency of water
reclamation by activated carbon were summarized by Cooper and Hager (863),
and processing design parameters were tabulated for optimizing engineering
decisions in reuse.
Through a simple physico-chemical treatment process, dyes of all types
can be removed successfully from water along with elimination of remaining
substances (864). The purification effect can be controlled and continued
until drinking water quality is reached. The process is insensitive to
disinfectants, temperature, and intermittent discharge. There is no feed-in
phase, and the water may be recirculated.
Helfgott (865) presented a process flowsheet suggesting a graviational
electrodialysis (GED) system for water renovation on reuse. GED is an elec-
trokinetic technique that fractionates organics by migration in an electric
field. Analytical and process classifications were shown for several indus-
trial wastewaters.
A precipitator has been manufactured by Precipitator, Inc., of Santa Fe
Springs, California, for the reclamation of water from waste streams (866).
The Lindman Precipitator is a physical and chemical wastewater treatment sys-
tem using sulfur dioxide, iron, and lime in a continuous-flow process.
Workings of the system are described along with test results and operational
data. Operating costs for the system are estimated.
A process has been provided by Haase, et al. (867) for the purification
of industrial effluents, in particular the decolorization of wastewaters
occurring in the textile, paper, and leather industries and in the manufac-
ture of flourescent brightness and dyes. The process consists of bringing
the effluents into contact with an adsorption material that contains a
carrier which has been pretreated with a precipitate of a basic, nitrogeneous
polymeric compound with an activated clay mineral. On account of the broad
applicability of the adsorption material, it is possible to meet the ever
present demand for saving fresh water by a partial to complete recirculation
of residual or waste liquors.
A patent has been issued to Phillips Petroleum Company, Bartlesville,
Oklahoma, for a process to purify aqueous waste streams containing organic
material impurities (868). Contaminated streams are mixed with an oxygen-
containing gas and a copper manganite catalyst under liquid-phase oxidation
conditions at a temperature of 350 F. Organic materials are converted to
relatively innocuous forms, and the stream can be safely discarded or reused.
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A process has been patented for the effective flocculation and coagula-
tion of an epithalohydrin with a specific family of alkylene polyamine, the
polymerization being carried out under certain conditions and utilizing
specific concentrations of the respective ingredients (869). The process
will remove fines and fibers from the aqueous systems of certain industries
to permit water conservation and reuse and/or to insure that the water is
acceptable for discharge.
Greiser (870) classified wastewaters and projected the potential for
recycling water and all waste constituents for useful purposes. A proposed
system provided for solids/liquid separation with subsequent use of water as
a feed for stream generating plants.
Golov and Egorov (871) discussed a treatment system less costly than
discharge employing flotation to produce water for recycling. Read and
Manser (872) surveyed methods used to remove organics by flotation processes
and produce reusable process water.
A demineralization system combined with a system using a relatively
nonvolatile fluidizing liquid has been patented (873). Dehydration by heat
evaporation and condensation provides a condensate water effluent and a
slurry. A portion of the condensate water is returned for industrial use.
Thorne (874) discussed an electrolytic process for the continuous recov-
ery of metal powders and the production of potentially recycleable water.
Sphere, Inc., Bedford, N.Y., has been assigned a patent for a treatment
process which comprises passing an electric current, preferably off peak
current, through a liquid waste to convert the water content of water vapor,
thereby sterilizing the total body of the waste (875). This is followed by
utilization of the vapor and its sensible and latent heat for recycle and
reuse. When applied to systems which are large users of power and water
and which discharge large quantities of liquid wastes, the process of this
invention will result in both environmental and economic advantages.
A patent has been issued for a highly efficient process for separation
of oil from water in wastewater treatment (876). Paraffinic hydrocarbons
with a specific gravity of less than 0.8 are added as extractive solvents.
This mixture is then stirred and allowed to stand; the floating oil-
containing scum is then removed to eliminate fats and oils from the waste-
water. The resulting treated water may be reused as process water in the
plant or discharged.
The thermopure process, developed at laboratories of ALCOA, uses waste
heat to purify industrial and sewage wastewaters (877). Waste heat is used
to concentrate waste products for reuse or simplified disposal and also
produces deionized quality water that can be reused. A process description
is given. The process employs conventional materials and established
engineering technology and is operated with low-pressure steam generated
preferably by waste heat from various sources.
La Sasso et al. (878) discussed the benefit of polymers for increased
efficiency of liquid/solid separation. The application of polymers falls
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into three broad categories:
1. recovery of liquid stream where the desired product is dissolved
in water;
2. recovery of a solid product from a liquid stream; and
3. recovery of water for reuse.
Higher recoveries, greater throughput and lower energy costs in subsequent
drying steps have led to acceptance of polymers in these areas. In recycle
systems, the fact that polymers do not add substantial amounts of soluable
ions to the system is important.
The optimum system for any industrial plant will be unique to some
extent; seldom can a system simply be copied from another installation (8).
There are however, sufficient criteria and operating data available from
existing installations to design any such system, without exceeding a "state-
of-the-art." Such methods should be receiving careful consideration as the
most practical long-term solution to industrial pollution abatement.
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SECTION 5
ECONOMICS OF WATER REUSE AND RECYCLE
Water reuse is becoming an increasingly attractive solution to industry
(13). New, stricter pollution control standards require large expenditures
to clean industrial waste streams. In many cases, only a small additional
cost would bring these same streams to reusable water quality. In addition,
the cost of providing fresh water from local supplies is increasing. Many
industrial streams are spent wastewaters; it is often possible to recover
by-products of value from the waste. All of these factors combine to make
water reuse an increasingly attractive economic alternative.
Wastewater reuse is a resource conservation measure and a method of
pollution abatement (879). By-product recovery and utilization techniques
can reduce the net cost of waste treatment and hopefully will become less
expensive than disposal. Recycled water is valuable because of intake water
supply shortages, increasing water supply and treatment costs, and rising
municipal sewage charges. The recovery of usable water and thermal energy
are the main techniques of reducing overall waste treatment costs.
It cannot be overemphasized that the goal of complete water reuse is the
only economical way to achieve minimal pollution of our fresh-water supplies
(826); moreover, reuse will be the only economical method by which an increase
by several times the amount of water available for industrial and domestic
use can be achieved.
The strongest arguments for the reuse of water in industry are to be
found in production costs (880). Water is one of industries' raw materials,
and it costs money to buy it, to process it, and to dispose of it as efflu-
ent; consequently, water use and effluent disposal must be considered
technically and economically as integral parts of production costs.
The concepts of water reclamation versus its antithesis, that wastewater
is fit only for disposal, were discussed by Suhr (16). Probably the most
important aspect of wastewater reclamation is pollution abatement. Further-
more, estimated costs of recycling may be less than the cost of merely
treating wastewater for disposal^ Economic advantages that may be gained by
recycling were illustrated.
Costs play an important part in determining the practicality of recircu-
lation systems or any other pollution abatement system (21). However, costs
to the system uses alone do not necessarily determine the economic desirabil-
ity of any such measures. Costs must be compared to the overall benefits to
be derived in evaluating the economics of pollution control. Costs must be
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determined in each specific case and will vary widely among industries and
among plants within particular industries. Costs vary primarily because of
the water volume to be handled, water quality required for the process,
degree to which recirculation is previously utilized, extent of the combina-
tion of process and cooling waters, and local conditions which affect the
difficulty of construction.
Struzk (881) reviewed reuse trends for a variety of industries for the
period of 1964-68 and found that economics played a role in a shift in favor
of water reuse. Nernerow and Canotis (882) analyzed the economics of indus-
trial waste treatment and observed that reuse should be considered in the
cost benefit analysis. De Rooy (883) reported that price has a great effect
on demand for industrial water supplies and that there is a great economic
incentive for application of reuse in this area.
In order to promote industrial implementation of in-plant water manage-
ment programs, Irvine and Davis (884) presented the concept of water
conservation and reuse. Cost analyses were presented that point out the
economic benefits of conservation and reuse. In addition, procedures were
described that increase the efficiency of biological waste treatment facili-
ties. Segregation of waste streams was stressed. Also, with the implementa-
tion of conservation and reuse programs, the cost of waste treatment becomes
part of the production scheme.
It is conceptually possible to process any quality water for any use
with existing technology with the major constraints of operation and control
(18). The concept of total plant water management relying upon conservation,
reclamation and reuse can, if properly conceived and implemented, provide the
most cost-effective means of solving pollution problems.
Stephan and Weinberger (885) noted that wastewater renovation for reuse
is technically feasible and that costs are related to the degree of treatment
required to meet a particular reuse purpose. Billings (585) defined the
economic limits for extending water resources by water reuse and raised the
technical problems involved and put them in perspective.
Rambow (103) analyzed and tabulated the cost of industrial wastewater
reclamation. In some cases reclamation may be the most desirable solution
economically and otherwise, even where water is abundant. In many cases,
reclaimed water is of higher quality than untreated water. Tabulated cost
data include capital costs of tertiary treatment plants, yearly operating
costs of tertiary treatment, basic system costs, basic system costs less
secondary treatment costs, electrodialysis costs, and reverse osmosis costs.
For many industries reuse of water may significantly decrease total
water and wastewater treatment costs (886). However, in other instances the
cost of process modification required to implement water reuse practices
might more than offset saving in water costs. The incentive to reuse water
will be determined by the net savings realized. In order to illustrate
savings which might be achieved, examples were developed for several of the
major industries in the Cleveland - Akron, Ohio area.
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When disposing of wastewater causes loss of valuable products, value of
water supplies is high, effluents are strictly regulated, pollution drainage
is excessive, or if effluent quality must be higher than the quality of
available raw water, it is cheaper to reuse water then dispose of it (887).
Costs of disposal, treatment conveyance, and reuse processing are tabulated
and shown graphically to permit comparison of costs of alternatives.
Dahlstrom, et al. (888) reported that reuse of treated wastewater to
meet regulatory requirements is often economical. By-product recoveries may
represent substantial credit to the overall costs. Two examples of water
reuse and reclamation are given.
System costs for water renovation and reuse were reviewed in terms of
1974 dollars by Middleton (889). Unit operations were identified with re-
spect to performance, applications, and costs.
Expensive local water costs and high sewer costs add incentives to the
use of recycle (158). Recycle of treated effluent reduces the raw water
requirement and the volume subject to sewer charges; therefore, savings are
made at both ends.
Long-range economics foreseen in total water reuse systems, such as
lower water-use costs, no discharge surcharge costs, and potential savings
in by-product and/or product recovery, are certainly maximized at a manufac-
turing facility when the end result is maximum water conservation at maximum
production with no water pollution (9).
Analysis of water use, reuse, recycle, and economics must consider the
problem o£ ultimate disposal (5). The total mass of solids will not be
decreased through conventional reuse and recycle practices. Consequently,
concentrated waste streams must be disposed of in some suitable manner and
this charge must logically be added to the cost of water management.
The product of waste must be considered as an integral part of the
manufacturing process, and the cost of treating industrial wastes must be
charged against the product (39)• Product recovery processes can frequently
reduce the cost of treatment and accomplish various degrees of pollution
abatement at little or no expense.
Choijnacki and Krzyzanowski (890) compared economic aspects of water
purification and waste treatment with closed-cycle processing for various
industries. Partridge and Paulson (36) considered economic reuse of water
in a closed system. Morris (35) provided a summary of technical capabili-
ties and economic considerations in wastewater renovation.
Bramer (8) presented results and conclusions from a study on costs of
implementing minimum and zero discharge requirements for the manufacturing
and electric power industries. Assumed technology was maximum in-plant
recirculation and reuse, concentration of the recirculation blowdown by
evaporation, and final residual disposal by the applicable least-cost method
among incineration, deep-well disposal, solar evaporation, and ocean dis-
posal.
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Clayton (891 provided a detailed description of the Windhoek wastewater
reclamation plant. Special attention is given to the economics of the opera-
tion. All aspects contributing to the total operating costs are analyzed and
tabulated.
Anderson and Marks (892) approached economic considerations from the
need to integrate the treatment and reuse system with other process require-
ments. The analysis considered the effect of total fixed investment and
operating costs to the real cost of water to the user. Hernandez (893)
analyzed the energy used for advanced wastewater treatment. Costs were
divided into three components: plant operations, support services, and in-
direct uses. Energy used in the operation of the treatment process was
found to be minimal when compared to support services and indirect services.
Parker (894) discussed the economic impact on industry of the zero-discharge
concept. Costs, technology and economic analysis will require considerable
effort before implementation. Anderson (895) analyzed technological and
economic factors of importance when considering industrial water reuse
systems. A general assessment method was presented.
Costs of establishing water pollution control systems including water
recycling have been presented (816). Reuse of water could actually cut
wastewater treatment costs, and, in some cases marketable by-products might
be produced.
Engineering techniques for improving water economics to reduce water
consumption and contamination were discussed by Hnetkowsky (896). Garrison
and Miele (897) presented cost estimates for treatment processes necessary
for the various modes of reuse.
Anand, et al. (898) conducted a study to determine the cost of waste-
water treatment as a function of plant size, waste characteristics and degree
of treatment. The analysis was based on flow sheet combinations of three
plant sizes, two wastewater strengths, and three levels of effluent quality.
Cost analysis included construction costs, operational costs, equipment
costs, and chemical costs. The processes were given, as were costs for
dewatering and disposal methods.
Smith (899) examined the economic feasibility of using renovated waste-
water to supplement raw water sources. Operating, maintenance, and capital
costs are estimated for various wastewater renovation processes which might
supply 1, 10, and 100 mgd requirements. Cost of such treatment is dependent
on the uses to which the water will be applied. In general, wastewater
renovation may represent higher costs than water from normal sources.
Wastewater renovations however, compares favorable with development of new
sources of raw water.
Determining the amount of water to be reclaimed is an economic based
decision, providing the technology is available (646). Each industry has
its own individual needs and problems, but all such water mangement problems
have these general considerations: production process water requirements,
cost and quality of fresh water, cost of effluent treatment, and cost and
quality of reclaimed water.
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A systematic approach for analyzing the economics of wastewater disposal
versus reuse is presented by Mace (900). The approach consists of four major
steps: 1) a detailed analysis of the effluent; 2) a determination of the ef-
fect of recycle water on product quality; 3) a survey of waste treatment
operations available; and 4) a total economic analysis. Cost data for a
hypothetical problem involving the following three alternatives are presented:
1) purchase and sewer disposal of 100 percent of the water; 2) recycle of 50
percent and sewer disposal of 50 percent of the wastewater; and 3) recycle
of 90 percent and river discharge of 10 percent of the wastewater. Figures
cited are intended only to demonstrate results that can be derived from a
well-planned program of industrial plant design.
Mcllhenny (901) reviewed the treatment and reuse of industrial waste-
waters in order to increase industrial water supplies, with particular
reference to cost and economics. Dahlstrom (902) discussed economics of
water reuse as the key to handling water and wastes at maximum profitability.
Bridgewater (903) presented a series of articles on methods available for
estimating costs and evaluating proposals for both effluent treatment plants
and waste recovery and recycling possibilities. Dukstein and Kisiel (904)
presented a discussion of a cost-effectiveness approach for comparison.
The social, economical, and technical practicality of wastewater reclama-
tion was investigated for domestic, agricultural, irrigational, recreational,
and industrial reuse (54). A cost-benefit model was presented that can
determine the overall socio-economic feasibility of reclaiming wastewater for
a variety of alternate uses, taking into account local restraints likely to
be encountered.
Carnes et al. (5) presented an economic balance equation on reuse:
Net cost = supply water cost + treatment for reuse cost + treatment for
recovery cost - product recovery value. Comparative economics of a once-
through system (either direct disposal or subsequent reuse) and a recycle
system also were illustrated. Some generalizations made about the two
systems were:
1. The feasibility of recycling with regards to cost depends on
savings appreciated by handling a smaller volume of water as
compared to the cost of treating the effluent for recycle.
2. Recycle systems are more judicious when contaminant additions
are either low or easily removed and quality requirements are
not stringent, e.g. cooling operations.
3. Product recovery is often only feasible in recycle systems.
4. Recycle systems become more attractive as final effluent
requirements become more stringent.
5. Rigid feedwater quality requirements generally favor once-
through systems.
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Pingry (905) estimated functions, using regression techniques, which
relate cost of energy use of wastewater treatment plants to measure of flow,
treatment load and level of use. The sample of plants is drawn from Arizona
and consists of plants which are or could be engaged in wastewater reuse.
The resulting functions are used to estimate net water gain from reuse. In
addition, bounds of value of water relative to energy which are necessary for
reuse to be economical are calculated.
Brown (906) proposed an explanatory economic model for determination of
water reuse rates based on the classical theory of the firm as a cost-
minimizing institution. Water behavior of the firm is conceptualized as
consisting of a finite set of interdependent relationships with each rela-
tionship representing some specific segment of the entire operation.
Individual relations were constructed as jointly or simultaneously providing
a theoretical representation of the entire ongoing manufacturing operation.
Implementation of the theoretical model empirically requires very detailed
information on cost structures of manufacturing water use, such as complete
knowledge of the cost function of all potential levels of operation. With
projections of how these functions will change over or with changing condi-
tions in the economic environment of the firm, it would be possible to
predict reuse rates utilizing the model.
Eckenfelder and Ford (907) qualitatively assessed the economic analyses
that must be conducted when recycle operations are contemplated. The econom-
ics of various wastewater treatment methods were compared and analyzed.
Among economic considerations discussed are returns to industry in terms of
product recovery and water reuse. A generalized cost model for estimating
capital costs of wastewater treatment facilities for different levels of
renovation was included.
The optimized reuse of industrial wastewater can be accomplished
economically by means of a mathematical model (646). Effects of variations
in production process water, cost of effluent treatment, and cost and quality
of reclaimed water were considered.
Eckenfelder and Barnard (908) detailed treatment cost relationships for
industrial wastes. Economic analyses that must be conducted when recycle
operations are contemplated were qualitatively assessed. Although recycling
systems have often allowed product recovery not possible with singelpass
systems, the latter were considered best suited to operations where process
water quality requirements are inflexible.
Nelson (909) reported on methodology to economically evaluate potential
power plant recycle/reuse systems. Eller, et al. (49) discussed an economic
balance equation on water reuse and presented a simplified model establishing
a basis for making economic decisions.
The usefulness of applying Kazanowski's cost-effectiveness approach to
civil engineering systems is demonstrated by means of a case study of water
reuse (910). The method facilitates evaluating and comparing alternative
systems designed to reach a given goal. For each alternative system, the
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economic analysis, the environmental impact upon implementation, and the
horizontal and vertical externalities are evaluated and presented in tabular
form. The result of a sensitivity analysis performed on major system
variables is given.
Water reuse operations, just as wastewater treatment to obtain a higher
degree of effluent quality, will result in increased problems relating to
disposal of solids and concentrated liquid sidestreams (826). Cost associ-
ated with such disposals must be included in the costs of producing water
for reuse. To design the most cost-effective treatment system to attain the
desired water quality, various processes must be analyzed as part of the
total integrated system.
The ultimate costs to industry and to the economy of providing a degree
of waste treatment sufficient to comply with statutory requirements will
depend on the interweaving of a complex set of variables that includes, but
is not limited to, industrial location, regulatory policy, rate of increase
in industrial output, waste treatment technology, development of cooperative
institutional arrangements, and the speed with which obsolete industrial
plants are replaced (911).
It is impossible to consider multi-faceted water reuse operations on the
basis of economic comparisons with typical fresh water (785). The costs of
advanced treatment methods usually amount to several times the typical cost
of normally purchased fresh water supplies. Truly valid comparisons can only
be made when water pretreatment and waste processing costs are viewed
together. Even then there are several factors on which a precise dollar
value cannot be put, but which should be considered in the analysis. Situ-
ations such as decreasing supplies of fresh water, political and social
implications regarding wastes, and changing quality requirements from both
influent and effluent standpoints are all important when these factors are
viewed. Collectively, it is sometimes found that onsite treatment and
recovery of wastewaters is, in fact, the most technically practical and
politically feasible course of action.
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SECTION 6
DISCUSSION
While the panacea of zero effluent is to a large extent obviously not
achievable in a complex chemical industry, a projection of present activity
in both technical and pollution control enforcement directions will lead to a
considerably increased degree of process water reclamation and reuse (575).
The limiting factors in implementing zero discharge appear to be the
physical resources required, particularly for means to effect effluent
volume reductions beyond those attainable by maximum recirculation and reuse
of water within a plant (8). Energy requirements of evaporation, as well as
capacity to produce such equipment, appear to be unrealistically high. Im-
plementation of a strict definition of zero discharge of liquid effluents
from industrial plants, utilizing technology clearly available, does not seem
to be feasible in the near future.
The feasibility of successful reuse, involves matching the quality of
renovated water with water quality requirements of each category of water use
(19). A successful match eliminates water pollution and is equivalent to
developing a new water supply. In some cases, the location and quantity of
water available through reuse may be more attractive from both an engineering
and economic viewpoint than transporting the same quantity of water from a
natural source located outside the plant property line. It may be possible
to directly match some high quality wastewater streams with a particular
water use, thereby requiring no treatment. These cases represent the minimal
amount of recycle that should be practiced assuming the wastewater is nearby
and can be recycled practically.
In almost every industry recycle or reuse of water must be accomodated
in the future for both economics and conservation (107). The increased ex-
pense of higher levels of wastewater treatment coupled with the projected
future shortage of quality water may make reusable water the most valuable
product recoverable from industrial wastewater (646) .
A sound water management plant will reduce new water usage, thereby
decreasing plant operating costs (26). Improved water management goes hand
in hand with improved operations and product quality improvement.
Reuse possibilities are numerous and are often easy to propose (34).
Each reuse case is different to some extent. The process engineer must be
aware of reuse possibilities, significant problems that can occur, and
experience available in solving similiar problems. If there is not suffi-
cient confidence that the reuse possibility is indeed practical, some
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experimental work should be advisable—bench-scale, pilot-scale, or a
limited test in the plant itself. In most cases some upgrading of wastewater
will be needed to produce water of acceptable quality for reuse.
Reuse means eventually all dissolved or suspended materials must be
accounted for (105). Those that cannot be thrown away, given away, or sold
must be stored somewhere. Wastes that are necessary by-products will accu-
mulate in quantities that cannot be further reduced by any waste control
program. Removing water minimizes the volume of waste to be stored, but the
cost of drying must be balanced against the reduced cost of storage. Waste
can be converted to useful products only if the cost of conversion can be
justified by the market value of the 'products. Careful segregation of waste
streams can reduce cost of treatment and disposal substantially, and may
permit profitable recovery of some of the toxic wastes.
The decision to recycle process water depends principally upon the
quality of water required for the process and how seriously the water is
affected by the process (912). In all cases the decision on what water can
be recycled is not casual but is based on careful evaluations of processing
requirements.
To make the most of effluent reuse, a total system approach which con-
siders treatment of makeup, recycle, in-plant treatment, and effluent
treatment must be pursued (309). If zero discharge is the objective,
demineralization processes must be employed at one or more points within
the overall scheme.
In developing plans for maximum water reuse, factors to be taken into
account include the types of industries involved and the manufacturing
processes employed, the age of industries located in the area, and other
factors specific to major industrial categories (886). Factors which will
determine the feasibility of water reuse include: 1) cost of water avail-
able to industry; 2) water quality standards or pretreatment requirements
the industry will meet; 3) cost of treating water to a quality suitable for
reuse; and 4) availability of land.
Attainment of the goal of complete water reuse will to a large degree
eliminate water pollution problems and water shortages for the foreseeable
future, and is worth expending a great deal of effort and resources (826).
Achieving this goal will not be easy; however, efforts to attain it cannot be
delayed. Fortunately, an impressive beginning toward achieving that goal has
already been made.
There are many reasons to project an increase in the water reuse trend
but certain pitfalls must be avoided (816). In sampling several hundred
industrial wastewater facilities, some costly problems were uncovered. These
stemmed mostly from improper design, poor operation, inadequate operator
instruction, lack of maintenance, and absence of management interest. In
many cases, corrective action could be taken, however, with careful design,
training, personnel motivation, and other necessary factors, these problems
should not arise in the first place, or should be easily minimized if they
do arise. With good technology, proper motivation, and common sense, water
134
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cleanup goals can be achieved in a timely manner. Moreover, wastewater
reuse will be a major step toward achieving these goals, and conserving a
precious resource as well.
Wastewater reuse is clearly a. necessity in our water economy. Many
ways of accomplishing it have already been demonstrated. We cannot afford
to do less than get the maximum amount of use out of our limited water
supply.
135
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203
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-60Q/2-80-185
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
5. REPORT DATE
Industrial Reuse and Recycle of Wastewaters
Literature Review
Sept. 1980 Issuing Date.
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7 AUTHOR(S)
John E. Matthews
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
P. 0. Box 1198
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
A33B1B
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Same as above
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA-600/15
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL 95-500) require
industry to achieve the goal of zero discharge by 1985. In order for industry to
reach this goal, reuse/recycle of treated wastewaters will be necessary.
A review of the literature on reuse/recycle of wastewaters by industry is
presented in this report. The principal time period reviewed was 1967-1978. An
attempt was made to include the most prominent references for nine different indus-
trial categories. In addition, the report includes sections on industrial use of
municipal wastewater, reclamation processes, and economics of water reuse/recycle.
It must be remembered, however, that while reuse possibilities are numerous and
easy to propose, each reuse case is different to some extent. In all cases, the
decision on what water can be recycled is not casual but must be based on careful
evaluations of process requirements.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Industrial waste disposal
Water reclamation
Recycling
Literature review
Industrial water use
68D
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
212
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
204
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