o ce cu cn O 1000 500 200 100 50 20 10 2 xOg / — y* / x ' ^ x /£ 0 °6.»h^ / 6, deep /
-------
ro
O
            L.

            CD
            0.


            D!
            aj
            4->

            o;
            o

            QJ
            o:
            o
            -C
            0.
            I/I
            o
            JC
            ex.
                                                                 O 12(0)    10»  Sha]
                           ow  (55)
          O6, Shallow  (69
                  9(5
'&
                     Figure 7.  Effect of Phosphorus Loading Upon Removal Rate.
                                (See Table 4 for Site Identification Numbers)
                     O  Total  Dissolved Phosphorus


                     D  Rate Based on Crowing Season,

                        Thus is Likely Nigh Relative

                        to Annual  Average
O   Total  Phosphorus


(  )  Denoted Approx. Age of Site

-------
  2000
  1000
   500
>>
fO
s:
en
   300
   100
o
E
OJ
cc

c.
0)
Cn
O
i-
    50
20
    10
                                              >
                                                       o
                                                             Dishallow
                                                                (55)
                                                     6,  shallow
                                                     ' (69)	
                                                  J_
                                                      _L
         20      50     100    200      500    1000   2000     5000

                        Nitrogen  Loading  Rate, kgN/ha/yr
                                                            10,000 20,000
       Figure  8.   The  Effect of Nitrogen  Loading  Upon  Removal  Rate.
                  (See Table 4  for  site identification numbers.)

         ONO^+NQj'-JN!!^     © N03=  only         «$ NH^" only

         ORate  based  upon  growing  season only,  thus likely  high
         Y relative  to annual average.     ()  Denotes approx.. age  of  system

-------
or deeper systems appear to be  displaced in  this  band  in  the  direction of
poorer removal.  Figure 8,  displaying the nitrogen  loading/removal  relation-
ship, shows a similar band  of performance.

INTERPRETATION OF OPERATING DATA

     The approximate bounds observed span the range in  current  wetland AWT
performance, from the best  to the worst.  Since the selection of some of
these sites was based entirely  upon proximity,  and  management techniques
based on convenience, it is reasonable to expect  that many of these systems
operate with depths, flow patterns, and other factors  which are unfavorable.
Nutrient removal  per unit area  may be better at some locations  than indicated,
because the actual  effective/affected area may be considerably  less than the
estimated wetland size.  Preliminary design  judgements  can be made  based upon
the bounds and trends observed  in the preceeding  figures.   Due  to the uncer-
tainty in these data, conservative choices may result  in  systems which are
reliable, but could be far  from optimal.  Conversely,  if  hydrology, wetland
features and ageing are not properly included in  the design analysis, there
is little assurance that a  new  system will give long service  within these
bounds.

     Precise relationships  between system performance  and  controlling factors
are impossible to ascertain from these data, but  general  trends and bounds on
operations can be observed.  The apparent "scatter" in  the following figures
are the result of unaccounted factors in site hydrology and discharge history.
With the exception of the systems at Houghton Lake  and  Bellaire, Michigan,
these data are the-result of short studies  (generally  1-2  years or  less).
The system ages range from  new  to nearly 70  years.

     Important features of the  hydrology at  many  treatment sites have rot
been determined.   The water budget, although critical,  can be difficult to
determine accurately and even estimates are  sometimes  not  available.  In, some
cases, nutrient retention is calculated based solely-on the inlet and outlet
concentrations without water budget corrections due to  rain,  evapotranspira-
tion or other water flows.   The water depth  and inventory within the wetland
vary from month to month, and this information, needed  to  allow residence
times to be calculated, is  seldom reported.   The  residence time, and even the
calculated nutrient retention rates, are subject  to further uncertainty due
to channelization and difficulties in the determination of the  actual
affected wetland surface area.   Lack of detailed  hydrological information cf
this type hinders data correlation from diverse systems.

     Finally, most operating data represent  but a single  year at sites vrith
differing ages.  The separate effects of ageing and of altered  loading rates
cannot be reliably assessed from these present data.  The  typical effluent
from a municipal  treatment plant changes progressively from year "to year,
usually increasing both in volume and in nutrient concentration.  If dis-
charging to a wetland for AWT,  alteration of the  ecosystem may  occur over
the same time period, thus altering its ability to  treat  wastewater.  In
order to adequately de-couple the effects of these concurrent changes a
larger data base will be required.
                                     22

-------
          TABLE 3.   POTENTIAL  FACTORS AFFECTING THE  PERFORMANCE OF WETLAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS
                                  Probable  Effects
                                          Problems in Data  Interpretation
Water depth
Residence time
Nutrient Concentrations
& Loading Rates
Cover-Type & Climatic
Conditions
Type of Substrate/Soil

Discharge Schedule

System Age
*Affects residence time and flow
 characteristics.
*Encourages some species/processes
 while hampering others.

*Long residence times should improve
 wastewater treatment, but may not,
 if due to increased depths.
*While removal  rates should increase
 with concentration, each system will
 likely, exhibit rate limits.

*Largely unknown, but high produc-
 tivity should  enhance nutrient
 removal.

*Largely unknown.

*Unknown.

*Nutrient  retention rates may change
 with time due  to saturation phe-
 nomena and to  changes in the
 ecosystem.
*Controlled experiments have not been
 completed.
insufficient data, often lacking
 from operation reports.

*Difficult to determine accurately
 due to channelization.
*Few data available.  Controlled ex-
 periments have not been completed.

*Data are influenced by other factors
 which have not been accounted for.
*Insufficient data.



insufficient data.

*Insufficient data.

*Data are influenced by other factors
 which have not been accounted for.
*Site histories for older systems are
 often quite sketchy.

-------
        TABLE 4.  OPERATING SYSTEMS REPORTING RATE  DATA
No.
   Site
          Data Sources
 5

 6

 7

 8

 9

10

11

12
Hay River

Bellaire


Houghton Lake


Brill ion

Clermont

Great Meadows

Wildwood

Waldo

Mt. View

Cootes Paradise

Seymour

EBC System
Hartland-Rowe and Wright (16)

Kadlec (17), (18), (19);
Kadlec and Tilton (20)

Kadlec and Hammer (21), (22);
Kadlec (17); Kadlec, e_t a]_. ^

Spangler, et a]_. (24), (25)

Zoltek, Bayley, et. aJL (26)

Yonika, Lowry, e_t aj_. (27)

Boyt, Bayley and Zoltek (28)

Nessel and Bayley (29)

Demgen (30)

Semkin, et al.  (31)

Spangler, et. aj_- (25)

Nute and Nute (32)
                               24

-------
                                  SECTION 5

              CONCEPTUAL MODEL:   THE WETLAND TREATMENT PROCESS
A SIMPLIFIED COMPARTMENTAL MODEL

     In order to develop improved design  techniques  for AWT systems,  it is
necessary to consider individual  phenomena  and processes within  the wetland.
A larger body of reliable data is available on the  function of wetland sub-
systems than on the performance of the  wetland as a  whole.   By developing and
combining relatively simple models of significant on-going  processes,  it is
possible to obtain further insight into the overall  interactions between the
wetland and applied wastewater.  This procedure allows  the  synthesis  of a
conceptual  model, which when represented  in mathematical  terms can  be  used
to evaluate a new design.

     Wetland modelling has frequently employed the concept  of "compartments".
The compartments are physical  entities  (soil,  plants, water,  etc.), between
which exchanges of nutrients or other substances occur.   These transfer steps
are complex and many are poorly understood,.   Figure  9 depicts some of  the
major interactions.  This approach has  been used by  Parker  (35)  and by Gupta
(36) in computer simulations of a wetland ecosystem's response to wastewater
additions.

     To facilitate the use of a model over  long periods  of  time  (e.g.,  29 to
50 years) a simpler, specialized  structure  is  desirable.  Such a structure is
described in Figure 10.   This  arrangement has  been chosen for its simplicity
and its usefulness in characterizing  the  wastewater  treatment process.   All
transfers, between the surface waters  and  the stationary ecosystem are  taken
as the annual net accumulation in each  compartment.   In  this  way, cycling of
nutrients and other materials  on  seasonal basis need not  complicate the mcdel.

THE DELIVERY/CONSUMPTION PROCESS

     The removal of a wastewater  component,  such as  phosphorus,  fron the
surface water sheet can  be envisioned as  a  two-step  process.   First,  phos-
phorus must be delivered to some  consuming  entity or compartment within the
stationary ecosystem.   For solutes, this  is  accomplished  by bulk water  flow,
by diffusion and by convective mass transfer.   For suspended  material  the
nature of the water flow and settling behavior will  determine  the delivery
rate.   Once delivered, phosphorus must  then  be consumed  and incorporated into
the stationary ecosystem, this step also  proceeds at a  finite  rate.  Major
consumption mechanisms for nutrients  and  heavy metals are summarized  in Table
5.  In this case, consumption  is  defined  as  the net  removal of wastewater


                                    25

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       precipitation
          Surface
          Water
                infiltration
         Subsurface
          Water
         Root Zone
deep
ground water     /
     Precipitation
     dissolution
     adsorption  -,
         Subsurface
         Insolubl e
         Inorganic
                                                  trarssoi ration
                                                                                   tion
                                                                               Consumers
                                                                               (Insects
                                                                               Muskrats)
                                                                             Detritus
                                                                             Feeders
                                                                           (Invertebrates)
                                 release of mineralized  nutrients
                                                                             Bacteria
                                                                             Fungi
                                                                                        _j
        Figure 9.   Water  and Nutrients are  Exchanged Between Wetland  Compartments.

-------
Wastewater
Additions
                                                             THE ATMOSPIIERE-
                                                             Gases Released to
                                                             the Atmosphere
                  Dissolved
                  Solids -
                                                              • f     r/.-
Natural
Water
Inputs
                                                                     BIOMASS-Long-Term
                                                                     Retention of      • ;
                                                                     Nutrients and Other
                                                                     Substances  in the
                                                                     Dynamic Biomass  Pool
                                                  Wetland
                                                  Consumption
                                                   Processes    _
                         Suspended
                         Sol ids
                                                               SOIL  & SEDIMENTS-
                                                               Solids Incorporated
                                                                  o  the  Soil  Column
          MOBILE SURFACE  WATCR
Water
Outputs
                                               STATIONARY tIETLAND  ECOSYSTEM

        Figure 10.   Simplified  Compartments!  Model  for  Use  in  Wetland  Treatment,  System  Design,

-------
components from surface  waters,  after  accounting  for  seasonal  cycles.   If  the
potential  delivery or consumption  rates  differ  greatly,  the  slower  step will
dictate the overall  removal  rate.
            TABLE 5.   MAJOR CONSUMPTION  MECHANISMS  FOR  NUTRIENTS
                AND HEAVY METALS  IN  WETLAND  TREATMENT SYSTEMS	


                           1.   Biomass expansion

                           2.   Adsorption

                           3.   Soil  building

                           4,   Microbial activity
     The delivery rate depends  largely upon  characteristics  of  the  surface
water sheet, such as depth, flow rate, and component concentrations.   Thus,
given similar conditions,  the  potential  transport  rate  of  material  to  the
stationary ecosystem should not vary drastically from year to year.  The
consumption mechanisms however, such as adsorption  and  the production  of new
biomass, can exhibit saturation phenomena.   Therefore the  rate  of the  consump-
tion step may slow with time for wetland areas  exposed  to  wastewater.

     In order to determine the  peak rates for these delivery and  consumption
steps,  the nature of the mechanisms involved must  be examined.  The subse-
quent sections discuss the major processes which determine the  removal  rate
of wastewater components,  and  sources of rate data.

TRANSPORT OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS

     In new wetland areas, where no saturation  with nutrients or  heavy ~etals
has occurred, removal  rates for wastewater components appear to be  controlled
by the mass transfer rate  through the surface waters (37).  This  transport,
or delivery phenomenon can be  described by the  following expression:
                                                                      .1]
                                                          9
     where     N.  is the mass flux of component A,  kg  A/m^/s

               C.  is the concentration of A in the  bulk flow
                   of surface waters,  kg A/m3

               C.P is tha concentration of A at the  site of
                 '  consumption kg A/m^

               k,,  is the mass transfer coefficient  for A
                   through surface water, m/sec
                                    28

-------
If CA<- is assumed to be negligible with  respect  to  C^5  the  transport  rate of
A through water is given by:

          NA  =  kC,                                               [5.2]

     where     k is the first-order model  coefficient,  m/sec

This general rate law can represent not  only mass transfer, but also  any
irreversible first-order process,  such as  a chemical  reaction.   The  assump-
tion of negligible C^s is generally valid  when  the  surface  water concentra-
tions of the component of interest are much higher  than the natural  back-
ground levels in the wetland.

     Combining Equation 5.2 with a material balance for A on  the mobile sub-
system the following time-concentration  or distance-concentration relation-
ships result.  For simplicity water is assumed  to be  conserved  throughout
(i.e., no evaporation or rain).

     For the linear discharge system (such as a  gated irrigation pipe), the
downgradient concentration of component  A  can be given  by Equation 5,3. A sim
ilar expression also describes the radial  variation in  concentration  for a
point discharge system.


          In-  =  -*                                            [5-3]
              AO

     where     CAn is the concentration of A at the point of
                   wastewater discharge, kg A/m3

               z   is the distance from the discharge,  m

               v   is the actual water velocity, m/s

               h   is the water depth , m

 Flow is considered to be steady and continuous, and depth has been assured
 constant.  In the linear discharge system, water velocity can also be con-
 sidered constant.

     Figure 11 shows the phosphorus profiles obtained from a large-scale ex-
 periment over a three year period.  Wastewater was added at a rate of "C,GQO
 m3/day over a 1000 m line to a 7 km2 wetland.  It can be seen that a zone of
 saturation expands with time, and that it is followed by a zone of decreasing
 nutrient concentration.  The phosphorus level is seen to approach background
 values at a decreasing rate.  Nitrogen removal  curves exhibit similar be-
 havior (22).  This zone of decreasing concentration does appear to follow
 the first-order model proposed in Equation 5.3, since a plot of field data
 for In (CA/CJJQ) versus z produces a straight line with  slope -k/vh.   Figure
 12 shows such plots for phosphorus and nitrogen.  The linearity of these
 plots support the hypothesis that nutrient removal is mass transfer


                                     29

-------
                                                  oe

                       Total   Dissolved  Phosphorus,  Mg/Liter
in  e:
    -s
-u  o
co
re
CL
to
n>
 i
o
s:
B)

5.
CD
01
r-t-
fB
-s
ro
cu
-O
-5
O
    -h
    Cu
    n
    ro
    Cu
    n-
    o
    -s

    CJ
    «-*•
    o
    c:
    to
    ai
    7T
    ft)
    n>
    CJ
    n


    c/5

    re

-------
 1.0
 0.5
 0.2
 0.1
0.05
0.0
         JL
                                           £	
J_
         0           50           100        TBO
                 Distance frcm Discharge,  in
    Figure 12.   First-Order Model  Fit for  Uptake of Phosphorus
                & Nitrogen.
    Data from Full-Scale System Operations at Houghton Lake,
    Mich.   Sedge-Willow Cover Type August  1978.
         Total  Dissolved  Phosphorus  A Ammonium-?!

-------
controlled.   Similar results  have  been  reported  for  point  discharge  systems
as shown in  Figure T3,  and  also  from  laboratory  studies  (37).

     Batch operations can  be  described  in  an  analogous manner,  combining
Equation 5.2 with a material  balance  to obtain the result:
          In
     where
 A

:AO
  9  is  the  batch  holding  time,  s.
Flow systems can also be represented by this  equation,  identifying  8  as  the
residence time.   Batch data  for phosphorus  removal  have been  plotted  in
Figure 14, and they exhibit  the same first-order  rate  dependence  observed  in
flow systems.   Table 6 presents values  of k computed  for initial  operations
of the batch system at Humboldt,  Saskatchewan.
           TABLE 5.   FIRST-ORDER CONSTANTS  FROM BATCH  OPERATIONS
               AT HUMBOLDT,  SASKATCHEWAN  -  FROM LAKSHMAN  (15)


Lined
Lagoon
Ditch ?!

Ditch 12

Bitch 13

Unl ined
Laaoon


Month
Sept
Oct
Sent
Oct
Sent
Oct
Sept
Oct
Sept
Oct


All entires are k (cm/sec) x
Initial Total
Depth Phosphorus
42 cm
64
22
33
21
33
27
33
27
33
Mean
Std. Deviation
8.4
2.4
3.5
3.8
4.8
7.6
6.2
7.6
5.4
5.3
5.5
2.0
105
B.O.D.
13
5.7
7.1
6.6
5.6
7.6
7.2
6.6
7.2
6.6
7.3
2.1
Total
Nitrogen
6.7
«1 .0
4.4
2.5
0.67
3.3
1 .2
3.1
3.6
1 , 7
2.7
2,0
Zetland Mass Transfer Coefficients

     Well-established nass transfer correlations are available for fully
developed flow in simple geometries.  Such predictive tools might be expected
to describe the behavior of nutrient removal  in wetland treatment systems,
                                     32

-------
0.01  -
                20          40          60

               Distance from Discharge  Point,  M
               80
ICO
    Figure 13.   Ion  Uptake in Point  Discharge Experiment at the
                Houghton  Lake Treatment  Site  (1977  Pilot).
    O Total  Dissolves  Phosof
                          sonorus
                             33
O  Nitrate      A pH

-------
1.0
0.5-
0.2
0.1
0.05
    0
?0
80
100
120
                       40           60

                 Batch  Holding  Time,  Mr.
Figure 14.  Batch Removal  of Phosphorus  from Wastewater at Humboldt, Sask.
Depttts and Substrate Differs for  Phosphorus  Removal  for Various  Batch
Cells; Data from Lakshman  (15).
    O
       September
                         A October

-------
presuming that mass transfer is indeed .the controlling  rate  step.   For both
laminar and turbulent flow,' with developed velocity profiles,  the  mass trans-
fer coefficient not only depends upon the velocity and  characteristic  dimen-
sion of the system (Reynold's number), but for short channels,, the develop-
ment of a concentration boundary layer makes  the  channel  length also a sig-
nificant factor.

     Bennett and Myers (38) give the following correlation  for mass transport,
for laminar flow of a fluid over a flat surface:


          Sh   =  0.56 (Re.)1/2 Sc1/3                               [5.5]
            m             L

     where     Sh  is the mean Sherwood number for the  entire
                 m surface, kL/Dft

               Re,  is the length Reynold's number, pvL/y

               Sc  is the Schmidt number for  the  fluid, u/pDn

               k   is the mass transfer coefficient for the  solute
                   of interest, cm/s

               L   is the length of the flow  path, cm
                                                2
               D.  is the solute diffusivity, cm  /s

               p   is the fluid density, gm/cm

               y   is the fluid viscosity

               v   is the actual fluid velocity,  cm/s

It is convenient to express the mass transfer coefficient in terms of a depth
Reynold's number, Re^ = ovh/y, where h is the surface water  depth.  Using  a
typical solute diffusivity of 1.0 x 10"^ cm^/s and the  physical properties of
water, Equation 5.5 can be recast in dimensional  form,

     for laminar flow:
     	      (Re  }
          k  =  6.6 x 10"5 	~o-                                 [5.5]
                           (hL)'/2


          k  =  6.6 x ID'4 (f )1/2                                  [5.7]


     At higher Reynold's numbers, Re'n greater than about 2000  on a smooth
plate, turbulent flow will occur.  Mass transport in the turbulent regime
for a flat surface has been also described (38),
                                     35

-------
     for turbulent flow:

          ShL  =  0.0355  (ReL)0>8°  Sc°'43               '             [5.8]

Making the same simplifying  substitutions  as  before  the dimensional  equation
is obtained,
                          6
                       10
                            (L0  2  h0.8)
                          .   0.8
          k  =  2.83 x 1Q~4  ^-Qj-                                   [5.10]


Figure 15 shows a plot of Equations  5.6  and  5.9  for  typical  conditions  en-
countered in a wetland with  primarily sedge  and  willow  vegetation.   Natural
channelization has been assumed  to occur,  with open  water  runs  varying  from
approximately one to ten meters  long. Water depth has  been  assumed to  be on
the order of 15 cm.   The values  predicted  by these correlations fall  within
the bands indicated.

     Semi-log plots  have been prepared for field and laboratory data  (similar
to those shown in Figure 12), and mass transfer  coefficients calculated.
Data for water depths and velocities were  employed wherever  possible, or
these parameters were estimated.   The experimental results are  shown  on
Figure 15.  The mass transfer coefficients are higher than predicted  by the
generalized correlations.  This  feature  can  be explained by  consideration of
so called "entrance effects". Most  often, the nature of channelization and
the flow rates of surface water  in the wetland do not result in fully-
developed velocity profiles.  Average transport  rates are  therefore higher,
due to the reduced resistance resulting  from the absence of  a complete  mom en -
tun boundary layer.

     The experimental data for the mass  transfer coefficient at the Houghton
Lake site might be represented by

          k  =  a Reh                                              [5.11]

     where     a is a constant,  cra/s.

If a hydrological model of overland flow at this site is assumed to be  of
the form  (constant gradient):

          v  =  b h8                                               [5,12]

     where     b and 3 are constants

then the velocity dependence of  the mass transfer coefficient can be deter-
mined.   For the case 3   =  2,
                                    36

-------
         (B
CO

-•J
            a
            Q)
         2C er
         iU °
         3 -j
         3 ai
         n> c*
         -i o
            cu
            CL
            ro
            o
                                          Mass  Transfer  Coefficient,  k,  cm/s
                          o

                            On
                                         o
                                           I
                                           01
o
  I
  -p.
                                                                                                       o
                                                                                                         I
                                                                                                        to
                                                                                                                                  o

                                                                                                                                   f\J
            O   2;
                to

      ^ o U   -s
       c (t>   ro
      Cu tf~i -~J
      rf ar O.   —J
      3 rt-     cn
      re o a   •
      3 3 Cu
      c^*    ri-
         I— O)   rg
      C/J CU -
                 w
                 in
                 ~li
                 (0
                 f-J
                 o
ro
3
c-f
-a
-s-
n>
cv

o
r+
ro
Q.

cu
3
(.X

O
                 ro
                        O
                        O
                     (D
                    T3
                     rl-
                     3-
                     o
cr

cr
fD
-s
       O
       o
       o
       o

       o
       o
       o
      "O —1 T1
   JO  ~i  C  C
   •   rn  -5  —'
      ex cr —'
   01 -". c:
   »   o  —'
   oo c-i- n>  o
      -j. n  to
      o
            ro

-------
          k  =  c v3/2                                             [5.13]
                                 1/9  1/2
     where     c is a constant,  s   /m

A plot of the experimental  mass  transfer data  versus water  velocity is  shown
in Figure 16.  A line with  slope 3/2,  corresponding to  Equation  5.13, has
been drawn through these data.   Other  hydrological models will result in
other slopes on this plot.

TRANSPORT AND REMOVAL OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS

     The suspended solids content of wastewater  or of surface waters is in
itself an important water quality parameter.   The movement  of suspended
solids in a wetland system  also  constitutes a  mechanism  for transport of
phosphorus, nitrogen, and other substances.   The importance and  nature  of
such solids in wetland wastewater treatment systems has  been largely uniden-
tified.

     Suspended solids found in  wetland surface waters may come from varied
sources:  incoming wastewater,  stream-borne silt and inorganics,  detritus
from algae and vascular plants,  and in the literal sense, many mobile organ-
isms, particularly invertebrates.   Slow surface  water velocities  and long
residence times promote the retention  of solids.  Vegetation causes surface
waters to follow a tortuous path,  around and through innumerable  obstacles
which provide sites where suspended particles  may impact, lose momentum
settle.

     The suspended material  in  a wetland may be  but a small  fraction of the
accumulated "suspendable" pool.   Prel iminary measurements at the  Houghton
Lake treatment site indicate that this potential pool represents  on the order
of several grams of solids  per  liter of surface  water, and  these  solids pos-
sess a relatively high nitrogen  and phosphorus content  (39).  Some  cf these
solids are of nearly neutral  bouyancy, exhibiting resuspension in a still
water column due to temperature  induced density  changes.  It is  not known hew
mobile these suspendable sediments are under varied hydrological  conditions,
and seasonal sffects have not been elucidated.  These and related topics  are
the subject of ongoing research  at the Houghton  Lake site.

     The resuspension of sediments has received  considerable attention  in the
literature (40, 41, 42), but studies are generally confined to beds of non-
cohesive granular solids.  Shields (43) defined  a dimension! ess  stress, by
forming a ratio between the shear stress applied to the  sediment  bed, T ,  and
the weight of the top layer of  submerged solid grains per unit area,
          s  '
     where     S  is the dimension! ess  stress

               T  is the fluid shear stress  applied  to  the  surface
                  of the sediment  bed,  dyne/cm^
                                    38

-------
  50.0   ~
  20.0   -
  10.0  ~
   5.0  -
o
03

-------
               p  Is  the  density of the  solid  particles,

               pf is  the  density of water,  gm/cm
                                                     ?
               g  is  the  gravitational constant,  cm/s~

               D  is  the  thickness  of a  single layer  of particles,
  " ......... ..... " ....... or  the  particle diameter,  cm

The critical value of the dimension! ess  shear  stress, S ,  is  the  point  of  in-
cipient resuspension.   Shields  further argued  that  this critical  value  could
be correlated as a function  of  the  boundary Reynold's number  alone,  based  on
dimensional considerations.   The boundary Reynold's number is defined as
                                                         2
     where     v  is the kinematic  viscosity of water,  cm /s.

Mantz (40) reviews previous experimental  studies on  incipient  resuspension  of
non-cohesive particles and suggests bounds  from cumulative  data  on  an  extend-
ed Shield diagram.  These limits  are shown  in Figure 17.  Mantz  (40) also
discusses treatment of data for cohesionless flaky sediments,  and  selection
of a characteristic dimension for flakes  presents a  problem.   While data are
limited, use of a boundary Reynold's number based on a  nominal diameter
(defined as that of a sphere having the  same volume  as  the  flake),  best
matches the flake behavior to that  of grains on the  extended Shields diagram.
Critical shear stresses are somewhat lower  for flakes at  a  given Reynold's
number. .

     Other approaches to describing transport and sedimentation  of non-
cohesive particles have been developed in other disciplines, such  as the
consideration of solids conveying in industrial processes.   Useful  concepts
and correlations can be found in  textbooks  which discuss  fluidization  tech-
nology, such as Zenz and Othmer (44).

     Potentially useful design tools exist  for prediction of solids transport
and accumulation in AWT systems.   First  however, research into the nature and
quantities of sediments which are found  in  wetlands  must  be completed  to
provide useful design parameters.  Models which work for  non-cohesive  par-
ticles may prove totally inadequate for  flocculant organic  materials.   The
presence of litter and plant stems  will  affect the solids collection and
retention, and must be quantified,  as well  as the effects of channelization.
Figure 18 displays the rather sparse data reported on suspended  solids
removal .

BIOMASS UPTAKE OF WASTEWATER COMPONENTS

     Incorporation of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other components into  the
tissues of plants represents a temporary removal mechanism  within  the  v,jetland.
In a new treatment system, biomass  generation is stimulated by the introduc-

                                     40

-------
   1 .0
tt)
t-
«=
o

Ul
a
61
a.

-------
   50  -
   40
i. 30
a.
rs
n.
4-J

o

•a
   20
•a
CJ
•a
a

-------
tion of nutrients, and plant size and areal  density increase.   Various inves-
tigators have reported plant productivity at wetland treatment sites to in-
crease by a factor of two or three (21, 45,  46).   Concentration effects have
been illustrated by Pratt, et_ al_, (47) in their study of cattail  growth.
Their results, shown in Figure 19, indicate  that  the growth rate  of individ-
ual plants is stimulated by concentrations up to  about 7 ppm phosphorus and
about 40-50 ppm of nitrogen.  In treatment operations, many factors such as
climate," water depth, maximum stand density, and  even the presence of herbi-
vores, will determine the biomass actually produced per hectare and thus  the
resulting uptake rates.

     Composition data for wetland vegetation, with and without wastewater
additions, are summarized on Figure 20.  It  is apparent that plant growth
can generally account for more than five times as much nitrogen as phosphorus.
Woody plants and reeds will accommodate greater amounts of nitrogen.

     Figures 21 and 22 display current data  on nutrient uptake rates by
vascular plants in wetland AWT systems.  These figures are based  upon the
biomass production rate during the growing season, and the nitrogen and phos-
phorus content of'the plant tissues.   Nutrient concentrations  in  the surface
waters do not show any clear effect on these rates, but in many cases the
concentration values used may not be  fully representative of the  areas used
for biomass assay.  Nutrients in suspendable solids may not be reflected  in
these concentrations but may be available for plant growth.  It can be seen,
however,  (with the exclusion of data for first season operations) that, phos-
phorus uptake by vascular plants has  been in the  range of 0.10 to 0.4 kg  P/ha
/d.  Similarly nitrogen uptake by plants varied between 0.5 and 1.5 kg N/ha/d.
This is the approximate magnitude of the nitrogen and phosphorus  removal  rate
which might be attributed to biomass  harvest.

     Algal growth will  also provide a mechanism for component  removal  fron
surface waters.  The stimulation of algal  productivity by wastewater irriga-
tion has been demonstrated by Schwegler (49) as illustrated in Figure 23.   In
that study, short-term uptake rates of nitrogen and phosphorus of approximate-
ly 0.6 kg N/ha/d and 0.1 kg P/ha/d were obsarved.   Light attenuation by sus-
pended sediments and litter 1imits algal activity  to the upper  5-7 cm of the
surface water pool.  Similarly, as vascular  plants develop, shading effects
limit periphyton production.  Details of nutrient cycling by algae are not
well characterized for wetland treatment systems.   While periodic algal
blooms may provide rapid uptake of nutrients, heavy metals, and other compo-
nents, the ultimate fate of these substances is  difficult to  assess.   Much
is probably released with equal rapidity.  Current research has only begun
to address the questions about the role of algal  detritus in nutrient trans-
port as suspended solids (39).

     Data on uptake rates for heavy metals during biomass production in wet-
land AWT systems are largely unavailable.  Most research in this  area has
been restricted to the assay of plant material  in polluted locations,  to
determine its heavy metals content (55, 56,  57).   Typical  values  are summa-
rized by Stowell, _et_ aj_. (34)  and are shown  in  Table 7.   These values  have
not been related to the metals concentrations in  the surface waters or in the
sediments present.  Heavy metal  tolerance  of certain types of  wetland biomass

                                     43

-------
!
c
fd
   350
   300
   250
   200
   150
JC
en
>>
O
TOO
    50
                                                                                           0
        o
                        50
TOO
150
200
                             Initial  Concentration of Nutrient Solution, ppm
                    Nutrient Stimulation of Cattail Growth.
     Figure 19.
        Nitrogen                 ^ Phosphorus
     Adapted from resul ts  reported by Pratt et al.  (47)

-------
   5.0
CJ
(I)
CD
O
i.
u
s_
OJ
CL.
           DATA FROM:
           A Kadlec and Hammer (22)-Sedge, Grass, Cattail
           ^ Pratt, et al_. (47) Cattail
           0 Boyd (48)-Bnergent Wetland Plants
           m Schwegler (49)- Algaa
           Oprentki, et al.{50)-Bullrush, Cattail,  Reed
           O Davis and Van der Valk (51)-Cattail, Bull rush
           V Chatnie and Richardson-(52)- Leatherleaf9  Bog Birch,  Wil low(Leaves)
           V Straub and Post, (53)-Cyress, Blackgum,  Slash  Pine (Foliage)
           © Mason and Bryant (54)-Cattai1
           Q Boyd(48)-Floating Leafed  Plants
                                                                  N/P
   4.0   -
    3.0   -
    2.0  —
    1.0   -
~r 10
                   0.1           0.2          0.3          0.4

                        Percent Phosphorus  (Dry Weight)
        Figure 20.   Nitrogen  S Phosphorus Content of Wetland Vegetation.
                                    45

-------
5.0
"O
1 2-0
en
_*:
S i.o
en
o
t.
f\ C
<<~ 0.5
o
o
ex
= 0.2
CO
in
ft)
E
O
00 n t
0,0

__

3 03
A o 03 °5
03

@ 3 (first year)
O 3(first year)






1 ( 1 I ! ! 1 11
U.I " ' 	 ^ ~" 	 ' 	 ^ 	 ~~~~ 	 *~— — -——--—-
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10 20
                       Dissolved Nitrogen  Concentration,  ppm
Figure 21.   Nitrogen  Uptake  by Vascular  Plants  During  the Growing  Season.

 O  Treatment Sites  (Sea Table 4  for  Identification Numbers)
 A  Cattail,  Natural  & Fertilized,  Pratt  et al.  (47)

-------
•o

fd
a.
in
o
o

d)

10

o.
na

o
 1 ,fl|




 0.5






 0.2-


    A

 0.




0.0





o.oi-
   0.0>
                                                                                 °1-

                                                               O3 °3   °3

                                                            03
                                                            O3    O3
                                                               03
                                                               8 3 (first year)
                        O 3  (first year)
 O-
        0.01   0.02
                   0,05    0.1
                                      0,2      0,5     l.Q     2.0       5,0     10

                                         Dissolved Phosphorus  Concentration,  ppm

       Figure 22.  Phosphorus Uptake by Vascular Plants  During  the Growing  Season.


       O  Treatment Sites {See Table 4 for identi Fication numbers)


       A  Catlails, Natural  & Fertilized, Pratt, et al.  (47)
20
50

-------
   8  -
.C
O1

to
Iti

O

CO
10
CD
   4  _
   2  -
                10          20          30         40

                Days  tlapsed,  Commencing May 27th.

       Figure 23.  Effects of Wastewater  Irrigation on Algal Biomass.
       A  Near Wastewater Discharge
                                                                         60
       D  Control Area
       Data  from  lloughton Lake  Treatment Site-Adapted from Schwegler  (49)

-------
has also been studied (58, 59).  ,'Seidel  (.60) reports  typical  values for heavy
metal content of Scirpus in clean  and in polluted ecosystems  as shown in
Table 8,  Similarly she reports  comparative uptakes  for various species as
in Table 9.


                     TABLE 7.  ELEMENTAL PLANT ANALYSES
 	-	ADAPTED FROM STOWELL, ET AL.  (34)         "    ;  .;.'	

Typical values in ppm (dry basis)  for plants grown in polluted environments.

    Plant              Cd        Pb        Cr        Cu        Ni        Zn
Water hyacinth
Duckweed
Cattail
Bulrush
10 45
17 120
9
__
12
65
8
12
48
79
37
7
15
26
8
5 '
50
no
30
50
       TABLE 8.  UPTAKE OF METALS BY SCIRPUS LACUSTIS MG/KG DRY WEIGHT
      	   ADAPTED FROM SEIDErT60T~	


                     Cu        Co        Mn        Cr        Ni
Healthy lake
Sewage
18
50
3
15
260
2500
2.5
115
3,5
30
6
115
     At the low heavy metals concentrations observed in most existing wetland
 treatment  systems, it is very difficult to estimate uptake rates by plants,
 The upward travel of heavy metals through the food chain by concentration of
 these low  concentrations in the tissue of wetland organisms warrants further
 research.  The higher the concentration of such pollutants in the wastewater,
 the more important these questions become.

     The aforementioned uptake rates represent the influx of nutrients into
 the biomass compartment during the growing season.  If the wetland is not
 harvested  and biomass removed, nutrients will eventually be released by decay-
 ing litter, detritus, and standing dead.  The rate of release will vary de-
 pending on species, climate, and water depth.  Litter decay rates have been
 reported by a number of investigators for various types of wetland vegetation,


                                     49

-------
                TABLE  9.   ELEMENTAL  PLANT ANALYSES ADAPTED FROM SEIDEL ,_{_60)  ALL VALUES ARE GM/M2
tn
O

Species
Scirpus lacustris
Carex stricta
Iris pseudacorus
Typha angustifolia
Glyceria aquatics
Phragmites communls
Acorus calamus
Sparganiurn erect urn
Myosotis palustris
Mentha aquatica
P
6.72
5,98
6.20
3.17
5.20
6.27
4.64
4.99
0.64
3.70
Fe
2.62
10.24
3.22
1.58
2.70
4.12
1 .55
4.61
3.26
5.21
Cu
16.13
15.23
14.14
6.77
11.65
18.82
6.56
7.17
3.90
14,28
Co
2.28
1.96
2.75
0.63
0.99
2,78
0.85
1.37
0.46
0,91
Zn
168.
171.
124.
62.
151.
165.
60.
97,
33.
131.

00
36
0
92
84
76
8
28
28
04
Ni
5.75
6.69
4.34
2.68
4.14
6.85
1.73
2.91
1.02
•3.41
Mo
1 .85
0.79
0.93
0.43
0.49
1.16
8.48
0.31
0.17
0.79
Mn
4032
2638
947
1121
1218
743
612
773
640
640

.00
.4
.36
.76
.88
.68
.8
.12
.0
.1
B
49.6
58.21
25.41
35.28
31 .20
36.74
91 .04
51.46
9.86
64.34

-------
Typical results, obtained by .Davis  and Van der Valk  (51)  for Typha  glauca,
are shown in Figure 24.  Submerged  litter appears  to  undergo a  rapid  weight
loss during the first or second month.  After this initial  period,  the rate
of decay can usually be described by a first-order rate law,


          In (-—}  -  -kdt                                        [5.16]
     where     W  is the litter weight,  kg

               W  is the initial

               t  is time, years
W  is the initial  litter weight,  kg
               k, is the decay constant, years"

This rate expression will be valid until  the decomposition  process  is  largely
complete, leaving a non-decomposing fraction.   Table  10  displays  decay con~
stants obtained from data in the literature.  Decomposition of most standing
dead and dry Titter is reported to be somewhat faster than  that of  submerged
material (51, 26, 29).  Conversely, cypress  needles were observed to decay
faster at wet sites (62, 29).

     In the wetland treatment system, stimulation  of  additional plant  growth
creates additional storage for nutrients.  Data  for vascular bicmass increase
in the vicinity of the discharge at the Houghton Lake treatment site are
shown in Figure 25.  Wastewater irrigation was begun  in  mid-summer  of  1978.
The biomass figures shown include live vascular  plants and  litter accumula-
tion, measured at the end of August.   As the live  and dead  faiomass  pool ex-
pands, a sink exists for long-term removal of pollutants from the surface
waters.  Eventually, however, the biomass per unit area  must approach  a max-
imum value, and this growth mechanism for nutrient uptake will  ceasa to
function.  Materials immobilized by plant growth will  be compensated by an
equivalent release from the decomposing litter.

     Woody plants exhibit a much slower approach to the  steady-state condi-
tion.  The build-up of the woody tissues can be  considered  for most purposes
to be permanent storage compared to the typical  time  scale  for other wetland
processes.  The annual litter fall of woody  plants is only  a portion of their
total biomass, and the decay rates for woody stems are much smaller than
those for foliage (44, 52).

     Data on woody wetland vegetation are scarce.  The diameter of  cypress
trees have been shown to increase more rapidly when wastewater is applied
(53).  Similar results were reported  by Nessel and Bayley (29).   But when
compared on an areal basis with a control  area,  the Waldo treatment site
showed no increase in stem wood productivity.  This was  due to  a  much  higher
stem density at the control  site.  The relative  biomass  production  and phos-
phorus storage by cypress and  hardwoods were estimated at the Waldo site by
Nessel and Bayley, their results are  shown in  Table 11.
                                     51

-------
tri
(N3
         TOO
          80
       CD

       C
       e
       o>
       K.
       cn


       OJ
       >>
       QJ

       O
       i-
       Q)
          60  -
                                             200
400
500
               Figure 24.
                                   300

                       Elapsed  time, days


Decomposition of Cattail  Litter-Adapted from Davis & Van  der  Valk (51).

-------
                                TABLE 10.  LITTER DECOMPOSITION RATES

Plant
Leatherleaf (leaves)
Bog birch (leaves)
Sedge
Willow (leaves)
Arrow arum
Wild rice
Bur marigold
Cypress Needles
Panic ium
Sagittaria
Phracimi tcs
Typha glauca (submerged)
Typha glauca (standing)
Decay Constant, years"
from Equation 5.16
0.07
0.24
0.40
0.20
1.8
1 .8
1.5
0.41
0.30
0.36
1.40
0.45
1.83
Half-life
9.9 years
2.9
1.7
3.5
0.4 .
0.4
0.5
1 .7
2.3 .
1.9
0.5
1.5
0.4
Source of Data
Chaimie and Richardson (52)
Chaimie and Richardson (52)
Chaimie and Richardson (52)
Chaimie and Richardson (52)
Whigham and Simpson (61)
Whigham and Simpson (61)
Whigham and Simpson (61)
Deghi (62) ;
Zoltek, et aJL (26)
Zoltek, et a].. (26)
Mason and Bryant (54)
Davis and Van der Valk (51)
Davis and Van der Valk (51)
Note:  Rate constants,  kj,  were determined  from  litter bag data, the initial rapid weight loss period
       (30-60 days)  was excluded  from  this  analysis.

-------
    2800
§>  1600
3   1200
oa
                                                       200
                   Distance  from  Discharge, m
                a.  Sedge  &  Grasses  in  Sedge  &  Willow ARea
                      (live &  litter)
   2400
   2000  =
s  1600
en
   1200  ~
to
§
800  _
    400  _
                                                        200
                   Distance  from Discharge,  m

                b.  Cattails  & Sedge  in  Cattail  Area
                       (live & litter)

        Figure 25.   Effect of Wastewater Irrigation  on  Biomass
                    Production at the  Houg'nton  Lake  Site.
                            54

-------
    TABLE 11.   BIOMASS PRODUCTION'AND PHOSPHORUS-CYCLING IN TREES AT THE
             WALDO TREATMENT SITE - FROM NESSEL AND BAYLEY (29)	
                                 Organic
                                  Matter
                                          Phosphorus
                            Annua'l       Storage      Annual       Storage
                            uptake        kg/ha   "   "uptake       kg P/ha
                            kg/ha                    kg P/ha
cypress
needles       4200          4200

wood          3200       179,200

roots         4100       101,300
7.3

0.3

2.8
 7.3

14.5

57.6

hardwoods

leaves
wood
roots
2300
"" 3200
1700
2300
105,100 "
34,100
3,5
0,4
1.2
3.5
13.6
23.0
     The foregoing discussion has not considered  the  possibility of succes-
sion of one species by another.   Insufficient data  exist to  attempt to quan-
tify such a phenomena.  It is plausible,  however, that one species  could re-
place another in response to increased water and  nutrient levels.   This may
eventually result in a different value for the maximum biomass  per  unit area,
Thus as succession progresses, additional  nutrient  uptake or release may
occur.

     The biomass compartment can be envisioned as shown in Figure 25.   Other
subcom pertinents such as standing dead could be incorporated  in  this model,
but little data is available.  The release of various  components to the
surface waters will include many mechanisms, including litter decomposition,
rainfall, leaching of standing dead biomass, and  the  resuspension of particu-
late material.  Once the biomass compartment has  ceased to expand,  the only
natural mechanisms for nutrient  removal  will  be soil  building,  adsorption on
deep soil horizons, and microbial  gas production.

     In the wetland AWT system,  two biomass management techniques are there-
fore possible.  One is to leave  the wetland alone,  allowing  biomass expansion
to take up a large portion of the added nutrients.  The stimulated  growth
zone will expand year by year until  no space for  biomass expansion  remains
and a new state is achieved.  The removal  efficiency,  particularly  for phos-
phorus, will drop drastically, and a replacement  site  may be needed.   The
only mechanism left for nutrient removal  via biomass  is the  fraction  of de-
composing matter which becomes permanent  soil.  If  the available area  is
sufficient, a natural steady state could  be reached without  impairment of
                                     55

-------
       Nutrients
       and Other
       Components
       from
       Surface Water
                                   Immobilized Biomass
\
en
Oi
                               LIVE
                               BIOMASS
-N
V
                               LITTER
Decomposition
and Release
of Nutrients
and Other
Components
of Surface
Water
                                Harvest
                               Immobilized
                               Fraction
                               to  Soil
                               Building
                     Figure 26.   Conceptual  Model of the Wetland Biomass Compartment.

-------
efficiency.  Net nutrient removal due to btomass activity could equal the
amount incorporated into new soil.   Soil accumulation will be discussed In a
subsequent section, but rates are believed to be relatively low and thus
correspondingly large wetland areas would be needed to permit achievement of
such a steady state.

     Alternatively, some harvesting technique might be employed.  Phosphorus,
nitrogen and other wastewater components, which would become incorporated
into harvestable plants, thus could be removed directly.  Lacking the return
of these materials to the surface waters through litter fall and decomposi-
tion, a long-term steady state could be achieved with less resident biomass.
By reducing the accumulating litter pool, the rate of release can be cur-
tailed, and the net annual nutrient removal  rate could approach that observed
for vascular plants during the growing season (Figure 21 and 22).

REDUCTION OF OXYGEN DEMAND

     Wastewater quality is frequently measured by its biochemical oxygen
demand, BOD or chemical  oxygen demand, COD.   These parameters indicate the
level of dissolved-or suspended substances which are reactive in the presence
of oxygen, and therefore could potentially deplete the oxygen present in
receiving waters.  Wetland AWT systems have  been reported to reduce BOD and
COD levels, often by 80 to nearly 100% (23).   Other investigators report
negligible BOD improvements (30).  Few data  exist for analysis of controlling
factors.   Measurements are often made on a concentration basis, without ad-
justments for dilution or concentration by hydrological  factors.

     In some cases, the natural  background level of COD (e.g.  100 mg/1) may
be higher than that found in the secondarily  treated wastewater to be dis-
charged (63).  Stowell,  et_ §_]_. (34) have presented data on the effluent BOD
from marsh and peatland systems, and their graph has been reproduced in
Figure 27.  It appears that effluent BOD levels are quite insensitive to the
influent values.  This behavior may be the result of sufficient BOD removal
in every case to approach background levels.

     The reduction of BOD/COD in wetland systems is aided by the large sur-
face area of plant stems and litter, forming  a substrate for bacterial  popu-
lations.   BOD/COD which  is associated with settling solids are removed fro,?,
the surface waters and can decay anaerobically.   Algae provide high levels
of dissolved oxygen further enhancing removal.

     While data are insufficient to establish the performance  limits for BOD/
COD removal in wetland systems,  certain information are available.   Data on
the removal rate as a function of loading rate for SOD at eleven sites ara
presented in Figure 28.   The detailed results for year-round operation, re-
ported by Yonika and Lowry,  et_ al_.  (27) are shown in Figure 29.

     First year batch operations at Humboldt, Saskatchewan were reported by
Lakshman  (15).   BODs removal  in  the experiments  can be adequately represented
by a first-order model and showed an average  half-life of 2.8  days  for the
month of September and 4.9 days  for the month of October.   Starting concen-
trations  ranged from 30  to 100 mg/1 Her.

                                     57

-------
       Q.
       CL
          30
           20
in
Co
c
QJ
      0
      o
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           10
                                     A
               0
                                100
200
300
                                       BOD Influent, ppm

               Figure  27.   BOD Reduction in Wetland Treatment Systems,   Adapted from Stowell*
                           et al.,  (34).
                 @  Site  identified in Table 4.


                 A  Values  Reported by Stowel1!, et al.  (34)

-------
                               BOD Removal  Rate,  kg/ha/d
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Release
f


Early Early Mid Late Fall & Mid
Spring Growing Growing Growing Early Winter
Season Season Season Winter
                      Figure  29.   Seasonal  BOD Removal Rates at the  Great Meadovis
                                  Treatment Site. Adapted from Yonika  & Loviry, e_t aj_. (27)
                       D Shrub  Marsh  near Discharge

                      ^Entire Wetland

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     Odor considerations may be a factor in the allowable BOD/COD loading on
a wetland system.  Care must be taken to prevent anaerobic conditions from oc-
curring throughout the surface water sheet.   Stowell,  et_ a]_. (34) suggest that
BOD loading rates in excess of 60-70 kg/ha/d might  result in odor problems.
These authors do, however, cite an example in which 100 kg/ha/d BOO causes no
objectionable odor in a marsh system.
MICROBIAL PROCESSES  	"~	" 	  "  :	

     Bacteria play a significant role in the determination of the nitrogen
removal rate from wastewater discharged to a wetland.   The process known as
nitrification can occur in the presence of oxygen:

                    Nitrosomonas

          NH4+ - N 	^ N02= - N

                    Nitrobacter

          N02= - N	* N03" - N


These reactions are limited by the oxygen supply,  and  thus are possible only
where oxygen can readily diffuse to the reaction site  (64),   Since the bac-
terial populations exist primarily on a substrate  surface such as litter,
plant stems, and  soil, only the upper submerged horizons are active for  nitri-
fication.

     In anaerobic zones denitrification can occur.  This  process may contrib-
ute significantly to the overall nitrogen removal  in wetland AWT systems (65).

                    anaerobic
          NO " . N 	* N  and N?0
            J       bacteria

Bartlett, ejt aj_. (66) studied  nitrate removal  rates  from  solutions exposed to
soil samples from the Great Meadows wetland.  When well-mixed,  the initial
removal rates from a starting  solution of 45.2 mg  N03-N/liter were renorted
to be in the range of 13 to 35% per day, with an accompanying generation of
nitrogeneous gas.  In comparing their results to previous studies these
authors observed that slower denitrification rates were measured using
reactors where intimate mixing of the soil  and solution was  not employed.
Therefore mass transport limitations are likely to dominate  nitrate removal
in wetland treatment systems.

     Laboratory studies by Zoltek et_ _§!_. (26)  were conducted using peaty
marsh soils from the Clermont  study site.   Removal rates  for NH.+-N and
NQ3"-N were measured, both in  the presence of plants and  without.   Their
results are shown in Table 12.   In the aerated solutions  exposed to the soil
surfaces, nitrification proceeded followed by denitrification.   This  phenom-
enon can best be seen when the solution pH was maintained near  neutral , as
for the data presented in Figure 30.
                                     61

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         TABLE 12.  NITRIFICATION AND DENITRIFICATION ON MARSH SOIL
	- FROM ZOLTEK. ET AL.  (26)	

Nitrification study - initial  solution containing 40-50 ppm ammoniacal
                      nitrogen, continuously aerated.

Water depth                           removal  rate, kg N/ha/d

15 cm
30 cm
fluctuating 0-30 cm
15 cm (pH controlled 7-8.5)
~ "with plants
4.9
5.7
7.7
14.3
no plants
2.3
3.6
7.8
15.7
Denitrification study - initial  solution containing 40-50 ppm nitrate
    	       -        nitrogen    -  -

Water depth                           removal  rate, kg N/ha/d
                                      with plants    no olants
15 cm
30 cm
fluctuating 0-30 cm
6.1
7.5
5.7
6.0
3.6
1,7
     Since microbial  activity is largely restricted  to  the surfaces  of solid
substrate materials (e.g. litter and soil),  mass transport through the water
sheet to reaction zones will  likely control  the overall  rate of these  orcc-
esses.  It is important to consider, however, that the accumulation of nitro-
gen within the biomass compartment may be reduced by bacterial  activity.
Nitrogen released to  the atmosphere by the action of denitrifiers  will  be-
permanently removed from the  surface waters.

THE SOIL COMPARTMENT

     If nutrients, suspended  solids, and other substances are to be removed
from surface waters,  an accumulation within  the stationary subsystem must
occur.  The compartments comprising the stationary portion of the  wetland
possess various capacities and storage times for wastewater components.   The
characteristic time for uptake and release of nutrients  by pi ant-biomass  is
short, with the exception of  certain woody plants.   However, the incorporation
of wastewater components into the soil  structure by  adsorption  and by  net
soil building can represent mechanisms for relatively permanent immobiliza-
tion.


                                     62

-------
                    Nitrogen Concentration,
o
o
D
rt
-s
Cu
CT
re
i
n
o

-------
Adsorption

Phosphorus--
     The rapid immobilization of phosphorus  from wastewater by organic  soils
has been reported by many investigators  (67,  26, 68,  69).   The process  has
been shown to reach saturation very rapidly  as shown  in  Figure 31,  and  the
uptake is at least partially reversible  (67).   The  phenomena is wall-described
by a Freundlich-type isotherm for equilibrium adsorption,

          log Cs  =  ag log C + bg                                 [5.17]

     where     C  is the solute concentration  at equilibrium in
                  the 1iquid phase, mg/1

               C  is the solute loading  on the soil at  equilibrium,
                  mg/gm dry soil

               a  and b  are constants
                e      e

Equilibrium data for typical wetland soils are presented  in Figure  32.   The
inorganic phosphorus capacity of a particular  soil will  be  determined by many
factors.  Adsorption is considered to be limited in part  by iron, aluminum,
and other inorganic components to provide the  means for  phosphorus  fixation
(70, 73, 74, 59).  The sorption capacity of  organic soils can  also  be reduced
by the presence of inactive inorganic diluents such as  sand (75).

     Phosphorus profiles in surface water at  the Houghton Lake treatment site
(presented previously in Figure 11) show the  progression  of a  saturation
front, this behavior is consistent with  the  concept of  equilibrium  adsorption.

Nitrogen--
     The tendency of other wastewater components to adsorb  on  wetland soils
has not been so clearly quantified.  Nitrogen  compounds  undergo a complex set
of transformations via biological  and chemical reactions.   These processes
can occur at rates which are rapid enough to  hamper experimental  attempts to
obtain reliable equilibrium adsorption data.

     Studies have been undertaken in the laboratory:;to  assess  the adsorption
capacity of some peat soils for inorganic nitrogen  compounds (76).   Microbial
processes, in particular, make experimental  results more  difficult  to inter-
pret, and sterilization techniques have  been  shown  to modify the soil's  ad-
sorption characteristics.  Figure 33 shows equilibrium  data for the  adsorp-
tion of ammonium ion.  Although data are sparse and do  not  fit the  model
proposed in Equation 5.17 as well  as phosphate, the behavior may still  be
approximated by a Freundlich-type model.   Uptake of ammonium ion was rapid in
these experiments with sorption largely  complete in less  than  one day (for
dilute solutions).  Alternatively, in the case of nitrate ion, no apprecia-
tive sorption on peat was observed.  Chloride is likewise not  adsorbed  by
organic soils.

Heavy Metals--
     Many investigators have reported that heavy metals  are often closely

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                                                 •n-
                                 Days Elapsed

Figure 31.   Peat  Uptake of Orthophosphate from Aqueous Solution.
 A   Sedge  Peat,  Hammer & Kad1ec(67)           Q Houghton Muck, Larsen, et a1 . (69)
 O  Mangrove  Swamp Mud, Hesse (68)

-------
    0,05   0.1
0.5  1.0
                                                                         1000
        .  .   ,:... Equilibrium  Concentration  in  Solution,  mg P/Liter
 Figure  32.   Phosphate Adsorption  Equilibria  on Wetland Soils.
^  Doughty  (70)            €> Larsen,  et,  aU  (69)  <^  Barrow & Shaw (71)
-0  Rajan  !<  Fox  (72)        A Sedge  Peat-Hammer &  Kadlec {67}
Cl  Leatherleaf  f^at-ilaawner  & Kadlec(67)°   Zoltek,  et al. (26)

-------
o
in
5.0





2.0 U




1.0




o.s
1
IB 0.2

-------
associated with sediments and upper soil  horizons  (55,  77,  56,  78),   Actual
measurements of equilibrium uptakes in wetlands  used for AWT are difficult to
obtain.  Literature data consists almost  entirely  of specific compartniantal
assays at a single point in time and offer very  little  information on poten-
tial removal rates or sorption equilibria.  Metal  concentrations in  applied
wastewater are usually quite low, typically below  the detection limits of
routine analytical work.  A strong affinity for  heavy metal  sorption would
imply that soils could rapidly remove them from  overlying waters.   Sorption
of cupric ion on peat-muck soils has been studied  by Sapek  (79).   A  typical
uptake curve is shown in Figure 34.

     Equilibrium sorption data as available from several  sources are shown in
Figure 35.  These high soil capacities suggest that wetlands can remove heavy
metals from-wastewater very effectively.   Removal  rates are likely to be
limited only by mass transfer from surface waters  to the soil.   Soil capacity
for heavy metals has been observed to increase with organic content  (55, 81),
and pH and redox potential have also been shown  to play a role (82,  83, 84,
85).

Closure--    -  -   -        -  —-  --  --         --  -
     In summary, the factors which control the rate and extent of ion sorp-
tion on peat and other wetland soils have not been fully elucidated.  Rates
are fast in comparison to typical biological  processes, thus providing a
rapid capture mechanism which can make nutrients more readily available to
the organisms present.  Operating experience with  wetland treatment  systems
has revealed an apparent nutrient saturation phenomena  in the vicinity of
wastewater  introduction, this behavior is consistent with an approach to an
adsorption  equilibrium.  The presence of these fast sorption mechanisms result
in the first-order removal rates observed in wetland systems.  The rate of
nutrient removal in unsaturated zones- is  limited  by mass transfer.   Informa-
tion is lacking on the temperature dependence of adsorption rates, and it is
conceivable that during winter operation  the sorption step  may provide a sig-
nificant resistance to nutrient removal.

Transport VMthin the Soil Column

     As the upper surface of the wetland soil becomes saturated with an
adsorbing solute, this uptake process will be restricted by the ability of
the component to penetrate the soil column.  Since the  upper horizons of
wetland soils are often 80-90% water (by weight),  dissolved materials can
proceed downward from the surface water sheet, diffusing through the soils'
interstitial water, and reach new unsaturated surfaces.  Bulk flow through
the soil due to water infiltration can transport much larger quantities of
adsorbing substances to lower horizons.  Many wetlands  are  perched and any
applied wastewater will be removed only by overland flow and evapotransoira-
tion.  Water infiltration is often restricted by the low hydraulic cond.jctiv-
ity of organic soils.  Nevertheless, seepage flows must be  considered in the
characterization of some wetland treatment systems (26, 29, 86).

      Vertical transport of an adsorbing substance  through the soil ccluxn car.
be  modeled  as shown in  Figure 36.  Bulk flows due  to water  infiltration and
the flux due to diffusion can be superimposed, giving

                                     68

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                                            Solution  Concentration,  ppm
                                    o
                                    o
                                               o
                                               o
o
o
O
O
tn
o
o
     .
      c:
      -5
      n>
 C/5 -h O
v: -j o
 v> o ~o
 rf 3 X)
   •a c:
   CD "O
   7«r i~(-
      cu

   ~-j TO
   10
 —•    n
VB
      cr
 «_*    c^-
 o
 O    Ca

 3    -O
 —i    ro
      CJ
 O    rf-
 C    I
CO
o
CO
o
c
r-f
c:
o
00
o
      o.
      EU
     TJ
      rt-
      ro
      a.
           3
           rt)
     c:
     rt-
     ro
     i/i
           o    ~
                U1   - —
                ro
                o

-------
   10,000
    1,000
      100
       10

-------
             Surface
             Waters
                                               NA=overall  flux1 of / (Soil
                                                  component A       / Surface)
/ Soil
 Saturated
 with  "A"
                     Soil  not
                     Saturated
                     with  "A"
                                                    (sorptton
                                                     front)
       Water       / /  /
       Infiltration
       Velocity,  i
Tigure 36,   Transport of Adsorbing  Substances Through the Soil  Column.

-------
           A  '  -AlTA                                        .
                                               2
     where     N. is the mass flux  of A,  gm A/m /yr
                                                 7
               0. is the diffusion  coefficient, m /yr
                                                  2
  	    " Cr is" the" concentration of A,  gm A/m  '" 	 ,	

               i   is the water  velocity downward, m/yr

               z   is the distance from the soil surface, m

     Estimation of the infiltration velocity  may  be troublesome  in wetland
systems, requiring careful  closure  on the water budget.  In  general,  the
diffusional term  in Equation 5.18 can be  neglected in the presence of any
significant water infiltration,  and the downward  flux of all wastevmter com-
ponents can be calculated as the product  of the percolation  velocity  and
their surface water concentrations.  This means of wastewater renovation  is
employed in conventional  upland  seepage beds.   As long as the soil column
remains unsaturated, efficient  removal  of many  substances can be accomplished
before the infiltrating waters  reach the  ground water  supply,   Tyoical' removal
efficiencies for  uplant infiltration systems  are  shown in Table  13.   Opera-
tions at the Vermontville wetland treatment site  have shown  phosphorus to be
readily removed by infiltrating  water; TKN and  particularly  N03~  -nitrogen
were not retained (86).


        TABLE 13.  WASTEWATER RENOVATION  BY INFILTRATION-PERCOLATION
         -adapted from EPA Technical Bulletin MCD-07,  "Evaluation of
         Land Application Systems," March 1975  (Table 12, pg.113)

Constituent
BOD
COD
Suspended Solids
Total Nitrogen
Total Phosphorus
Metals
Microorganisms
Removal Efficiency, %
85-99
50 +
98 +
0-50
60-95
50-95
98+
                                    72

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     In perched wetlands, transport of adsorbing material  down the soil
column is by diffusion.  Diffusivities for nitrogenous ions have been mea-
sured through saturated silt loam by Patrick and Reddy (64), and were found
to be 2.5 x 10-6 cm2/s for ammonium and 1.3 x 10~5  cm2/s for nitrate.   These
values are not drastically different than those observed in solutions.   The
total amount of adsorbed material  can be related to the movement of the
saturation front using equilibrium sorption data.   If the equilibrium rela-
tionship may be 1inearized, the total soil inventory of component A can be
expressed as
          "AT
               =  KACAi
                                                                   [5,19]
     where
               C.T is the total adsorbed and interstitial  A per
                   unit of wet soil volume, gm A/m^ wet soil

               C.. is the average concentration of A in inter-
                   stitial solution gm    ^
              . K.   is a constant for component  A
Referring to Figure 36, the average concentration  in  the  interstitial  solu-
tion in the saturated zone can be taken to  be one  half of a  constant  surface
water concentration.   With these simplifications,  Equation 5.18  can  be solved,
for the case where i  = 0,  to predict the progression  of the  vertical  adsorp-
tion front:
                  2DAt
                         1/2
                                                                   [5.20]
     where
               Z- is the depth of the saturation zone,  m
                                                       2
               D. is the diffusivity of the solute A, m /yr
                A

               t  is the time to reach this depth, years

     While the adsorption isotherm for ortho-phosphate  is  non-linear,  the
penetration of this ion can be roughly estimated using  Equation  5.20.
Numerical results for a typical  case are presented in  Figure 37.

Soil Building

     Little data exists on the soil  building rate in fresh water  wetlands.
While sediment accretion rates have  been measured for  salt marshes,  little  is
known about fresh water areas (87).   The accumulation  rate of soil  in  wetland
treatment systems due to the combined effects of imported  sediments  and  bio-
mass decomposition has not been measured, but certain observations can allow
reasonable speculation.  Stewart and Reader (88) cite rates in the range 0.03
cm/yr to 0.06 cm/yr for peat accumulation for northern  marshes, determined  by
carbon dating.  This corresponds to  a range of approximately 3CO  to  600  kg
per hectare per year (dry weight).   The soil accumulation  rate at the

                                     73

-------
§
o
00

•a
tu
+j


I
+j
nj
t/)
 CL
 s>
 o
o


2







6



8



10



12



14



16



18



20



22



24,
                              10

                           Years
                    15
2.4



2.2




2.0

       t


1.8  eJ
       i



1.6    !

       i


1,4




1.2




1.0




0.8




0.6
                                                          0.4
                                                          0.2
                                                   20
                                                                01
                                                                -i->
                                                                «5
                                                                a>
                                                                o
                                                                to
                                          O
                                          t,
                                          O!
                                          tu
                                          •M
   Figure 37.  Phosphorous  Uptake by Diffusion and Adscrpt

               in the Soil  Column.   Model  Parameters (see

               equation  5.20):
                                                   .  3
                                             2.0 gm/m , 'f
= 3.2 x 10"2 m2/yr,
                                                                on
                                                               = 32,2
                            74

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Houghton Lake treatment site, prior to wastewater irrigation was estimated
using "137r,s dating.   It was found to be approximately 0.2 cm/yr or 2000 kg
per hectare per year (22),  This is at the upper end of the range 0.1-0.2
cm/yr, quoted by Farnharn and Boeltar (89)  for Minnesota peatlands.   A larger
data base is needed  to allow good predictions of the soil accumulation rate
even in a natural  marsh, and the effect of wastewater additions must also be
assessed.  In absence of better information, it may be reasonable to assume
that~a three-foldincrease in the plant biomass production rate will have a
similar effect on the soil building rate.

     The actual composition of the accumulating soil in wetland AWT systems
will determine the rates at which phosphorus and nitrogen can be accumulated.
Typical compositions of organic soils are  shown in Table 14.  After three
years wastewater treatment at the Houghton Lake site, no appreciable differ-
ence was observed in composition of the top 5 cm of soil near the discharge
(22).
     TABLE 14.  NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS CONTENT OF TYPICAL ORGANIC SOILS

Type of Soil
Fen Peat
Peat
Grass land marsh
Sedge Peat
Sedge-moss peat! and
Muck from reed peat
Reed peat
Alder peat
Muck from wood peat
Sedge-willow peatland
Sedge peat
% Nitrogen
2.5
3.5
2.4
3.5
3.5-3.7
4.2
3.9
3.4
3.6
2.1-2.9
1.7-2.8
% Phosphorus
0.25
0.7
0.15-0.45
-
-
-
-
-
-
0.07-0.13
0.05-0.15
Source
Ogg & Robertson (90)
Denisov (91)
Valenski (92)
Maciak & Sochtig (93)
Maciak & Sochtig (93)
Maciak & Sochtig (93)
Maciak & Sochtig (93)
Maciak & Sochtig (93)
Maciak & Sochtig (93)
Kadlec, et_ aj_. (76)
Kadlec & Hammer (22)
     Other factors may also prove  important.   The  suspended  solids  load  in
the applied wastewater must be considered.   Research  on  the  transport  of such
material  in wetland systems has just  begun.   Erosion  or  dissolution mechan-
isms may further affect the soil  building  process.  The  organic  substrates,
histosols, found in most wetlands  are comprised  in  part  by polymeric

                                     75

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compounds with acid functionality,  specifically humic  and  fulvic  acids,
Natural surface waters in peatlands typically  have  a pH  in the  range  of  3  to
6.5, and the soil/water system  exhibits  a  large buffering  capacity to  alka-
line additions.  Wastewater often  is alkaline  (7.5  < pH  <  9.0).   It can  be
speculated that humic and fulvic acids,  in fulfilling  their buffering  func-
tion, could be drawn into solution, thereby literally  dissolving  the  existing
soil.  The apparent removal of  peat deposits at the Kinross treatment  sita
(94) is consistent with such speculation.

MODEL SUMMARY

     It appears that removal of dissolved  nutrients from surface  waters  is
controlled by a two-step process.   The process consists  of delivery and  con-
sumption.  Consumption occurs principally  at the surfaces  of the  soil, litter,
plant stems,.and algal mat.  Delivery is accomplished  by corrective mass trans-
fer within surface waters or by downward flow  due to water infiltration.   In
the absence of downward flow, mass  transfer limits  the rate of  nutrient  re-
moval.  Consumption consists collectively  of a number  of processes (see  Table
4) which initially are relatively  fast,  but some will  slow considerably  as
wastewater treatment continues.  Adsorption will  reach an  equilibrium  in the
upper soil horizons reducing the average area!  uptake  rate.  Similarly,  bio-
mass expansion, which offers a  sink for  nutrients,  will  also reach a  satura-
tion condition, where the release  of nutrients due  to  litter decay offset  any
uptake in new growth.  Woody biomass production allows longer immobilization
of nutrients and constitutes a  relatively  permanent removal mechanism.  Soil
production also represents a long-term removal  process but is quite slow.
While data are extremely sparse, the same  basic behavior as for nutrients  can
be anticipated for heavy metals.

     Two treatment regimes will exist in an older wetland  system.   In  tha
vicinity of the wastewater discharge a "saturated"  region  will  exist.  Here
component removal rates will be quite slow, comprised  of the uptake rates
due to (1) adsorption deep in the  soil  column, (2)  incorporation  of material
into new soil and woody plants, and (3)  microbial release  of gases to  the
atmosphere.  Outside this "saturated" region,  surface  water concentrations of
wastewater components will drop exponentially  with  distance. In  this  latter
zone of rapid removal, it is the transport of  dissolved  components through
the surface waters which limits the overall rate.   The amount of  wetland area
needed for this zone of fast removal will  be determined  by mass transfer con-
siderations and for  constant operating conditions (depth,  velocity, etc.)
will not change.  The zone in the  "saturated"  regime will  continue removal
at a rate which is slow but insensitive  to modest changes  in water flow  or
depth.  The expansion of this saturated  region will continue until the area
is sufficient to allow all incoming wastewater components  to be removed  by
water  infiltration,  incorporation  into new soil and woody  biomass. or release
to the atmosphere.   If the wetland area  is less than that  required for total
retention of pollutants, breakthrough will occur.   In  this case,  only a  por-
tion of the wastewater components  fed to the wetland will  be retained  and
collection efficiency will drop sharply.

     Harvesting plant biomass is  a direct  method of preventing  saturation
of the biomass compartment.  Nitrogen, phosphorus and  other

                                     76

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components can be removed from the wetland system.   Higher  removal  rates  can
be maintained indefinitely with limited area  using this technique.

     To employ this conceptual  model  in the evaluation  of wetland system
designs, it must be cast in mathematical  terms.   The resulting  equations  and
examples of design calculations are presented  in  Section  7.
                                     77

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                                  SECTION  6

                      WETLAND  SYSTEM DESIGN:   SYNTHESIS
     The design process  consists  of two  distinct  phases,  synthesis  and  analy-
sis.  Synthesis is  the development  of a  plan  for  a  wastewater  treatment facil-
ity.  Analysis is the evaluation  of that plan,  and  concludes by  acceptance  of
the proposed design, or  rejection and another try at  synthesis.   There  are  no
explicit equations  for synthesis.  Design parameters  are  chosen  based upon
past experience or  educated  guesses.

     A wetland treatment system can be established  at a natural  marsh,  or an
artificial wetland  can be assembled.   The artificial  wetland allows  the -de-
signer more latitude in  his  choice  of physical  features.   In either  case,
operating parameters must be established as part  of the design.

NATURAL WETLANDS -  SITE  SELECTION

     If a wetland treatment  system  is to be built in  a natural wetland, the
designer may have little freedom  in synthesis.  This  phase may consist  large-
ly of site selection.  Since one  of the  principal costs in wetland  treatment
is a wastewater delivery system (piping, pumps, etc.), proximity of the site
is fundamental.  Sutherland  (95)  has presented  estimates  of the  break-even
distance for wetland facilities.

     Technical questions are not  the only ones  which  the  designer must  ad-
dress.  Land ownership,  political considerations, and public attitudes  must
be investigated.  In the case of  a  natural wetland  site,  environmental  im-
pacts will be of particular  concern.  It is extremely important  to  maintain
open channels of communication between the designers  and  the community, ragu-
latory agencies , and  any other concerned parties.

     Site identification and preliminary evaluation can be accomplished by
collection of basic information which is readily  available.  The location,
size and type of potential  treatment sites should be  determined.   Inspection
of U.S.G.S. maps and aerial  photos  are helpful.   Ground level  visual  "inspec-
tion of a site often reveals important discrepancies  between reality and pre-
vious descriptions of the wetland.   The type  and  depth of soil should be eval-
uated.  Collection of existing data on hydrology  and  water quality,  both for
the wetland and the treatment plant allow estimation  of the site's  qualita-
tive potential.  All links in the network of  ownership and management of tha
site should be determined.  Finally, the water  quality requirements  for the
final effluent should be ascertained.  With this  information,  the feasibility
of using  the wetland treatment alternative can  be assessed.


                                     78

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     If promising, a preliminary design and cost estimate would be prepared.
Site specific information will be required.  Typical  data to be obtained are
1isted in Table 15.
          TABLE 15.  COLLECTION OF SITE SPECIFIC DATA FOR EVALUATION
	OF A PROPOSED TREATMENT SITE	
Water Budget
     Annual precipitation, cloud cover and radiation data acquisition.
     Streamflow data.
     Water level records for wetland and adjacent water bodies.
     Subsurface flow patterns.
     Surface elevation survey.
     Overland flow patterns.
Seasonal Water Quality
     Nitrogen, phosphorus, chloride.
     Coliforms, BOD, suspended  solids, TOS,  etc.
     pH, temperature, conductivity.
Soil Processes
     Type and depth of peat,  detritus.
     Ion exchange capacity of peat.
     Permeability (hydraulic  conductivity).
Flora and Fauna
     Algae inventory.
     Plants - cover map, identify endangered species,  nutrient status.
     Invertebrate inventory.
Use Patterns
     Vertebrates (muskrats,  beaver,  ducks, geese,  etc.).
     Human
                                      79

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PHYSICAL FACILITIES

     With a natural wetland,  the only construction  needed  is  often  a  waste-
water delivery line.  Since wetlands  tend  to  be  at  low elevations,  delivery
can sometimes be accomplished without a  transfer pump
Typical system configurations are shown  in Figure 38.   If  for any  reason  it
is desired to chlorinate the  wastewater  before discharge,  provision must  be
provided to allow dechlorination before  the water enters the  wetland.  Damage
to the ecosystem might otherwise occur.  Dechlorination can be accomplished
by retention of the chlorinated  water in a pond  prior to release.

     Wastewater can be effectively applied to the wetland  by  a number of
schemes.  If flows are small  (less than  about 100,000 gallons per  day) water
can be discharged from several  nozzles or  even at a single point.   Larger
flows can be better accommodated by a linear  discharge. This can  be  conven-
iently obtained by using gated irrigation  pipe.   The choice of material  for
distribution lines is generally aluminum irrigation pipe or plastic (PVC)
pipe.  At northern sites, provision for  draining the lines in winter  should
be included, to prevent damage by ice.  In some  cases, these  lines  can be run
directly on the surface of the wetland soil,  however, provision should be made
to prevent the pipe from sinking into the  peat under its weight when  filled.
The distribution piping has been successfully supported by logs (96)  or ele-
vated on a platform which also serves as a convenient walkway (76).  Trenches
could also be used to distribute wastewater across  the width  of a  wetland,
Care must be taken however to assure that  such a trench is perpendicular  to
the direction of wetland gradient.  If water  can flow downgradient  in a trench
or other channel, severe by-passing of effective wetland surface will occur.
Accurate determination of the direction  of maximum  gradient can prove very
difficult.

     Placement of pipe, platforms and other material in the wetland can pose
a problem.  In northern climes,  this is  often best  accomplished when  ice
cover has formed.  Heavy equipment can then be used with minimal residual
damage to the vegetation.

ARTIFICIAL WETLANDS

     The construction of artificial marshes for  wastewater treatment  theoret-
ically  provides a number of technical advantages.  Control can easily be  main-
tained over water levels and flow rates.  The soil, plants,  and other component.
parts  included in the system can be selected  for their ability to  treat waste-
water.  Treatment cells can be shaped like ditches  or like large basins.   They
can  be  lined to assure bottom seal.  The wetland can be built in a  configura-
tion which permits easy harvesting of biomass.   Cells can  be  operated in
batch-mode, offering a reliable control  on the  quality of  effluent.  The
artificial wetland can be located conveniently.

     Even these technical advantages may be overshadowed  by  the political
advantages.  While objections are sometimes raised to wetland treatment sites
utilizing natural marshes, the artificial  wetland concept  circumvents much of
the  controversy.   In many aspects the constructed wetland  is  akin  to  a piece
of processing equipment at the municipal treatment plant.

                                      80

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       Holding
       Pond
                      Control
                     Structure
                                     Gravity  Flow
                                         lischarge Line
                               (Above or Below ground
                                                          Wetland  Distribution
                                                                System
                                                              (Above Qround)
Figure 38a.   Simple, Gravity Flow Configuration  for a Wetland Treatment  System.

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CO
f\>
"Jl31ng    Control
Pond       'tructure
                                  Chlorlnatlon
                                  Structure
                                 Dechlorlnation
                                    Pond
Wetland Distribution System
Using Gated Pipe.  (Above
Discharge
Pump
                                                                     Force Main
           Figure 38b.   Typical Configuration  for a Wetland  Treatment  System Using
                        Chiorlnation and  Dechlorination,  Pumps  and  Forcemains.

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     Tha design of artificial  systems is very new and little performance
data have been published.  Spang]er,  _et_ a]_.  (24) have reported a  study con-
ducted at Seymour, Wisconsin,  and  Lakshman (15)  has described the batch opera-
tions of the Humboldt treatment facility.  Volunteer wetlands combining per-
colation and overland flow of surface waters have also been reported (85),
Other projects are underway at Ustowel, Ontario (97) and Arcata, California
(30).  The data from these demonstration systems should provide a basis for
design of new artificial wetland systems, and answer some unresolved ques-
tions about the wetland treatment  process in general.

OPERATIONS

     Operation of a wetland treatment facility generally involves establish-
ment of a discharge schedule and monitoring  activities.  In certain cases,
bioinass harvesting may also be considered."  Due  to the large number of un-
answered questions about the wetland  treatment process, many facilities are
also involved in ongoing research.   Funding  for  this work may come largely
from external agencies, but the local community  may also support  scientific
work which goes beyond routine monitoring.

     The discharge schedule in northern climates is often seasonal.  Waste-
water is held in ponds during  the  winter and discharged only during the warm
months, when plants, algae and microorganisms are most active.   Controlled
studies of winter discharge in carefully designed systems have not been com-
pleted.  The discharge rate during  the summer months is sometimes reduced
when water levels are unusually high  within  the  wetland due to  heavy rains.
This is done in an attempt to  maintain a relatively constant residence time.

     Monitoring usually consists of measurements of v/ater quality in the
wetland surface waters and ground  waters. Outflows from the wetland should
be sampled on a regular schedule,  at  least monthly.   Inflows to the treatment
area should be monitored, for  they  may also  carry a significant quantity of
nutrients and other substances.  While preparation of component budgets is
desirable, this can be extremely difficult at some sites.   Measurements of
the concentrations of nutrients and other wastewater components as a function
distance from the irrigation point  (transects) also provide valuable informa-
tion en wetland performance.  Monitoring of  ground waters helps to establish
the importance of infiltration/percolation.

     The wastewater components of  concern will vary from site to  site.   As  a
minimum, analyses of water samples  should include nitrate-N, ammoniurn-N,
total dissolved phosphorus or  total phosphorus,  chloride,  pH,  conductivity.,
and total  suspended solids.
                                    83

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                                  SECTION  7

                      WETLAND  SYSTEM DESIGN:  ANALYSIS


     Performance of a proposed wetland  treatment  facility  can  be  largely
characterized by two types  of  calculations.   The  first  type  focuses  upon  the
zone of rapidly decreasing  concentrations.   In  this  zone,  consumption mecha-
nisms are fast, and the removal  rate of wastewater components  is  controlled
by mass transfer through the surface water.   The  area of this  zone,  for con-
stant wastewater discharge, should not  change drastically  with time.  As  the
facility ages, certain nutrient consumption  mechanisms  exhibit saturation
phenomena, and a second zone may begin  to  expand  about  the point  of  discharge.
This second zone is characterized by sharply reduced removal rates for nutri-
ents and presumably for other  wastewater components; thus  a  greater  total
area is needed to perform the  same degree  of treatment.  Therefore ,  the  second
type of calculations involves predicting the  expansion rate of  the "loaded" or
"saturated" zone.  The use  of  these concepts  in the  analysis of wetland sys-
tem designs will be illustrated in.the  balance  of this  section.

MASS TRANSFER AND OVERLAND  WETLAND FLOW

     When wastewater is caused to flow  over  the surface of a wetland, nutri-
ents and other pollutants are  removed,  primarily  by  delivery to and  consump-
tion at solid surfaces.  Most  homogeneous  processes, that  is,  processes
within the water itself, would occur to no greater or lesser extent  than  in
the holding pond.  However  at  the wetland  surface, sorption  and microbial
processes may occur, as well as plant uptake.   Algal and duckweed uptake may
occur at the upper water surface.  In any  case, these additional  processes
(in comparison to a pond) require that  each  contaminant be transported to a
bounding channel surface.

     A typical relationship to describe this  transport  is:

          N  =  kA (Cw - Cs)                                      [7.1]

     where     N  =  contaminant transport rate,  gm/day

               k  =  mass transfer coefficient, m/day
                                       ?
               A  =  area of surface, m~

               C   =  contaminant concentration in water,  gm/m

               Cs  =  contaminant concentration in water at  channel  surface
                      gm/m 3

                                     84

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Such a relation is well established in the literature (38),
     Such a rate expression must be coupled with mass balances for the con-
taminant and for the surface water to predict the distance or time for the
removal of a dissolved substance.  The mass balance for water (see Section 3)
determines a relation between flows and depth, such as (3):
              *sh+ -   (cfrv)  --e-                       [7,2]
     where       =  flow porosity across the wetland surface
                 =  storage porosity
               h  =  depth, m
               t  =  time, days
               x  =  distance, m
               v  =  actual velocity, m/d
               p  =  precipitation, m/d
               e  =  evapotranspiration, m/d
               i  =  infiltration, m/d
Such an expression contains two variables:   depth and velocity;  a further
relation between these terms is necessary to define the hydrology.   Two im-
portant cases will be considered:   a natural wetland, in which fluid friction
and the gradient of the soil surface determine a velocity-depth  relation; and
a diked wetland, in which depth is set by flow control  at man-made  structures,
     In the former case, Kadlec, _et_ aj_. (3)  have determined several  possible
relations, of which the best for an unchanneled wetland appears  to  be:

          ',  '  Cn h" I' 3?>                                      ^
     where     v   =  superficial  velocity,  m/day
               g   =  soil surface elevation, m
               C
                n
               n   =  constant
Figure 39 defines the needed parameters.   The  gradient,  ( -A ,  is  typically
small  and perhaps nearly constant  in  the  discharge  zone; tfie  exponent  n
appears to be equal  to 2.0 for the Houghton  Lake  wetland (3).

                                     85

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 surface
 water
    soil
  datum
                                Idepth, t
                                              slope=||
 surface
 water

  datum
                  soil
Q = flow rate                     A=area=WX

v = actual  velocity               0A=active  area

0_ = open area for fiow(fraction)   C ^concentration  in water
                                  w

v = Pv=superficia1  velocity
Cs=surface concentration
Figure 39.   Mass Transfer  and  Flow  Quantities.

-------
     In the case of a depth-controlled wetland, the depth is specified, and
the mass balance alone determined velocity.

     The contaminant mass balance is, for a  linear- flow wetland
    -                  ,.       '. 
-------
                  )  =  0                                            [7.6]


          v   =  v  =  ghn(- -£•)  =  cthn                           [7  71
           s                  dx                                    L  •  J
                  (constant superficial velocity)

              dC          -------   ... .	
          v h -—  =  - k(J>(C  - C )                                 [7  8^
           C/1Y            U/C                                  L  * ^ «i
           O   \J A            Vf    O

          k  =  Y(hv)s                                              [7.9]

The starting conditions required to determine the zone behavior are:

          Q  =  Why  (flow = pumping rate)                          [7.10]


          Cw(x = 0)  =  Cf                                          [7.11]

The system is "solvable" if we assume that the surface concentration is con-
stant,  ihe results are:

          Q  =  hv                                                 [7.12]


          4>v  =  ah"                                                [7.13]

             C -C        .
          1n _w	s       kx_                                         .,
          '" Cf-Cs  "  " vh                                         L/.14]


          k  =  ev(s *n]                                            [7.15]

          k  -  evw

     where     z and w are constants

Generally, these variables are not the ones of greatest utility.  Defining
additionally residence time:


          8  =  ^ (days)                                            [7.16]

and loading rate


          !   =4-^"
                             _
                       ..    2
                     active m
The Equations 7.12, 7.13, 7.14 and 7.15 have a single solution for a given Q
and Cw.  For example, the effects of loading rate on the required area (or
length) for a given removal  percentage (above background)  can be explored.
For 90% removal, the logarithmic factor, B is

-------
                    c -c
          -B  =  In •—-?£-  =  In 0.1  =  -2.3
                    Cf~ s
and hence
          B  -   ~  =  2.3
            .    vh
If one adopts the data developed from Houghton Lake:

          4>  =  0.25

          n  *  2

          a  =  11,850 m"1 d"1

          s  =  1

          L  =  0.267 tn/d

          e  -  1.43X1G-W72

then:     v  =  267 m/d

          x  ~  150 m

          h  =  0.15m

          6  =  0.56 d '

It is interesting to note that for this wetland:
          B  =
                kx.
                vh
                                                                   [7.18]
[7.19]
Thus the required length is determined.   In different terms,  depth  is  given
by

                     1  _   1    1

                 e        a

or, for the Houghton Lake  case,
                                                                   [7.20]
Also, since
                                                                   [7.21]
                                                                   [7.22]
                                    89

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we have, for Houghton Lake:


          9 « L"2/3                                                [7,23]

The required length is given 1n general  by:

                   1    1   1-s
    .....  x  -"  (^)n (|)S  L  S           " .......  "  ..... "  "    "   [7.24]
                 *Jt    C-

Steady Depth-Controlled Sheet Flow in Linear Wetlands

     The previous equations  (7.12, 7.14, 7.15, 7.16, 7.17)  and assumptions
apply in this situation.  Equation 7.13  is not applicable;  velocity is now
controlled by means of depth control  on  an outlet structure.   It must be
noted, however, that the control  depth must  be in excess of that required  by
the friction law (Equation 7.8).

     The new depth-length-loading relations  are:

                   1  Jtl
          ,      /£-\W i  W                                           P-7 nt-1
          h  =  (gO  L   x                                         [7.2oj

and further:

                   1    1
          6  -  (f)WL~W  x                                        [7.26]

For the Houghton Lake wetland,

          w  =  s + f  =  3/2

So:       h ^ L1/3 x                                               [7.27]

and       9 ^ L"2/3 x                                              [7.28]

The effect of increased requirements for contaminant removal  (increased
                    c, "c
values of B  =  -ln(rw rs)) require an increase in length:
                    Cf~ s
               1/w
                                                                   [7.29]
 for a  fixed depth and loading.  Since w > 1, length does not increase quite
 as fast as the logarithm of the fraction contaminant remaining.

      If the wetland is operated at a depth, h] , which must be greater than
 that  for  natural drainage, h0, the predicted result is:
                                     90

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                                                                   C7-30]
         Bo
Based upon data obtained for the Houghton Lake treatment site, s = 1  and
n = 2, the fraction removal  decreases for a fixed wetland loading and length;
          Bi
Thus, for that site there is always a penalty for operating at depths greater
than the natural  drainage depth of the wetland.

     These statements are based on "steady" operating conditions,  A large
rainfall would have the temporary effect of increasing depths in a flow con-
trolled wetland and diluting the surface concentrations everywhere.  The
percentage removal would therefore decrease, in  accordance with Equation 7.31,
However, in a depth controlled wetland, the rainfall  effect would depend on
the exponent w:

                          w
          B  =  M  s  £_!_ .  £                                    [7i32]
                hv      v     h                                    L    J

                        w-1
For fixed x and h, B <* v   .An increase in removal  would result for w > 1,
In any case, since depths are  likely to be in the vicinity of 15-20 cm (at
least), it would take a huge rainfall  to significantly alter the performance.

Steady Depth-Control 1 ed Radial  Over! and Flow

     The point discharge of wastewater to a wetland is a possibility, since
it would require less distribution piping.  There would be some form of depth
control required, since it is  unlikely that such a wetland would exist
naturally.   (See Figure 40).

     A "saturated" zone will be presumed to exist to  radius rg, and r-i  will
be the radius at which a specified reduction occurs.   The radius of the wet-
land, ?2,  must of course exceed r-j .   The steady  equations in this geometry
are:

         £(2irrhvs)  =  0                                         [7.33]


              dC,,
                              C)                                  [7.34]
          k  =  e vw                                               [7,35]

The starting conditions required are:

                                     91

-------
                                                                Discharge
                                                                Point
Figure 40.   Circular geometry for Overland Flow.

-------
          Q  -  (2Trrhvs)r=r                                        [7.36]
                           c

          Cw(r=rQ)  =  Cf                                          [7.37]


          Q  =  27rrh4>v                                             [7.38]
                    C -C      frl   k   .
          B  =  -InT^-r1-  =      ^                              [7.39]
                    Cf-Cs      r0
                                                                   [7.40]

Using a loading variable defined as


                	Q	n
          *—  ™*      o   o
                    22           2                                '
                ir(r,  -rQ )4> active m     ,   ...         .  .


Hence:          /  2_f 2^

          v  =  -  \ r°	                                         [7.42]


The resulting relation between depth, loading, and radius is:


                          1  1-1
                          w    w
          h  =  G(3,w) (|)  L    x                                 [7.43]


where     x  =  r,  -  rQ                                            [7.44]
          3  =                                                     [7.45]
          G(B.w)  -  [(!)            f                          [7.46]

This relation is nearly the same as Equation 7.25,  but they differ by the
factor G(3,w).   For the specific case of Houghton Lake, w = 3/2.  The factor
G(3,w) is shown in Figure 41  for this case.   For comparable depths and
loadings, the radial  system requires greater distances for the same degree
of removal under mass transfer control.   For an unsaturated wetland, the
factor is 26% larger; and this decreases to  break-even at rg/r]  = 0.91.
     Thus, no advantage is available until  a very large saturated zone has
developed.


                                    93

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  1.5
  1.0
ca
   ,5
                             J      f      <    ,  »
      0 ,
0.5
1.0
       Figure 41,  Length Factor for Radial  Wetland  Flow Versus
                   Linear Flow.   For the Case  w =  3/2.
                             94

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The Effect of Infiltration

     It is possible that some water infiltrates  into the soil  in the sorption
zone.  This clearly shortens this zone by reducing the overland flow compo-
nent.  The magnitude of this effect is large.

     The appropriate steady mass balance equation for water in a linear sys-
tem is:      -"-..   •-••------	


          gS.  =  - iw                                              [7.47]


     where     W  =  wetland width, m

where precipitation and evapotransplration effects are presumed to  cancel.
The mass balance for a contaminant is:

          d(C.,Q)
            d*    =  - kWcj>(Cw-Cs) - 1 Cs W                         [7,48]


At some starting distance, the overland flow and concentration will  be known.
This flow will be reduced by the amount which  infiltrates  in  the saturated
zone.  The concentration will be the same as in  the wastewater feed  if no
other uptake occurs in that zone.  Thus at x = 0, Cy = C$  and  Q]  = sQo, where
Qg = wastewater flow and e is the fraction remaining at the beginning of the
fast removal zone.  These equations may be solved to give:

          Q  =  Q1 - i x W                                         [7,49]


                             B1
          x  »  -d-0  . e  aw»)                                    [7.50]


                   C.-bC
where:    B  =  In c _bCS                                          [7.51]
                    w"   s


and       a  *  1  + ^                                             [7,52]

Recalling earlier  results without infiltration:

                   Q«
          x
           old

and requiring the same removal  B = k/L,  we  find  the  enhancement  ratio  to  be:

                               _ i

                             "  a(PL
          xold
                       (1  .  e    (P)                                 [7.54]
                     1

                                    95

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For example, if transport by infiltration equals that by mass transfer (i  =
M>, a = 2), and infiltration is one half the loading rate (i/cj> = L/2), then:


            X   =  0,4425                                          [7.55]
          Xold
So even at the outset of irrigation (£ = 1),  the sorption zone would be sig-
nificantly reduced.  In this comparison, it is  assumed that Cs = 0, because
the value of B for this case is:

                   C -bC
                    w   s

where     b  =  - - 1                                              [7.57]
                a

     The case of negative infiltration (wetland discharge)  is governed by
Equation 7.47 with i < 0, a  zero  groundwater  concentration,  and:
          
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CAPACITY CONSIDERATIONS:  AREAL EXPANSION
OF THE LOADED ZONE

     The addition of nutrients to a natural  or newly constructed wetland  will
cause a zone of increased vegetative growth  to appear.   This  zone  will  expend
with time until either the permanent capacity of the zone equals the  loading
rate, or the loaded zone reaches the boundaries of the  wetland.  The  mathe-
matical description of the advance of such a loaded zone for  each  substance
of interest, such as phosphorus, consists of a mass balance on the zone and
the rates at which the substance is taken up by the stationary ecosystem.
These uptake rates fall in three general  categories.  The first of these  is
a permanent binding of the substance in question, or a  gaseous loss to  the
atmosphere, such as denitrification.  In  these cases, a component  is  perma-
nently removed from surface waters.  A second general category consists of
an increase in the adsorbed quantity of the  substance;  which  is the physical
or chemical binding of the substance to the  soil  substrate within  the wetland.
Such processes are known to occur for phosphorus  and ammonia, for  example.
The third general  category of nutrient consumption is storage in an expanding
biomass compartment.

     Other uptake/release processes also  occur in the wetland ecosystem at
rapid rates.  An example of this is the uptake of phosphorus and nitrogen fay
algae.  These algae grow during the summer months, die, and contribute  a  cer-
tain amount of algal litter to the sediment  layers within the wetland.  These
algal sediments decompose and re-release  the nitrogen and phosphorus  that was
incorporated in the biomass.  This process is fairly rapid in the  summer
months, and if one considers only year to year variations in area,  this proc-
ess is too fast to be noticeable.  There  is  little net  effect of such rapid
cycling.   A second type of rapid cycling  of  nutrients is  the uptake by  vascu-
lar plants.  With their senescence and death, the leaching-of nitrogen, phos-
phorus, and carbon from the biomass, directly back to the water column, occurs
every year.  This  cycle is also too fast  to  be considered in a framework  that
is geared to predicting the change of the affected area from year  to  year.
Thus, in  the model development which follows, only those  processes which  per-
sist for  a period  greater than one growing season are considered as long  rerm
consumers for nutrients.  Put in another  way, all  quantities are expressed as
rates, but these are averages over the period of  one year or longer.

     To make this  model more tractable,  it is assumed that sufficient resi-
dence time is provided so that all  materials  can  reach  the plant and  soil
community.  The zone of mass transfer limitation  of the removal rate  is
neglected.  This idealization results in  a sharp  line of  demarcation  between
the loaded and unloaded zones.   This is not  entirely accurate since according
to the principles  of mass transfer a zone must be present in which nutrient
levels within surface water are decreasing.

The Mass  Balance for the Expanding loaded Zone
                                                                     2
     If one considers the increase of a "saturated"  zone  of area A  (m ) due
to the addition of nutrient-laden waters  as  illustrated in Figure  42, this
area can  be calculated from a mass  balance for a  given  material, such as phos-
phorus.  In terms  of the possible sinks,  the  equation in  words is:

                                    97

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ID
CO
            Zone of Rapid
            Removal
                                                                             "Saturated lone"
                                                                    Wastewater Discharge
                                                                    Point
              Unaffected Zone
       Figure 42.   Schematic of  the Zone of Affected Sol! and Biomass.

-------
          addition rate  =  sorption  rate + permanent  removal  rate
                                          + temporary  binding  rate
                                          + discharge  rate.

We next develop reasonable expressions  for each  term.   In  symbols,  we  have:

          addition rate  =  Q C..                                    [7.64]

     where     Q   =  average annual  wastewater  addition  rate, m  /yr

               C.  =  mass average concentration of contaminant or
                      nutrient in influent wastewaters
In this and all  following terms,  rates are  incremental:   they  are  those  in
excess of the background rates  and  concentrations.

     The concentration of a contaminant in  the  overlying  water within  the
affected zone depends somewhat  on location.   Only  permanent  removal mecha-
nisms operate in the older regions  of the affected  zone,  while both temporary
and permanent mechanisms operate  in the newer regions.  Figure 43  shows  a
possible concentration profile  produced in  response to such  effects.

     The average water concentration,  G£, is  thus  less than  the wastewater
concentration (C^ < Cj).  A decrement  of 10-20% for a new wetland  system may
be proper; a lesser decrement would be appropriate  for older systems,

Sorption Mechanisms--
     The sorption of a nutrient such as phosphorus  has been  found  to reach
equilibrium in fairly short periods of time,  on the order of several days.
Consequently, the description of  sorption on  the soil will be  presumed to be
the loading of an upper soil  horizon with an  equilibrium  amount of the ad-'
sorbing constituent.   Of course,  this  may be  zero  for some constituents  such
as nitrate; however,  it is fairly important for constituents such  as ortho-
phosphate.  Penetration to deep soil  horizons by diffusion is  slow because
of the saturation of the overlying  horizons,  and the lengthening diffusional
path required for the transport of  the material  to  the deeper  zones.  When
coupled with possible soil accretion rates  at the  surface, such penetration
does not occur easily in a perched  wetland  situation.  Therefore,  for tha
perched wetland, the rate of sorption  of a  sorbable  constituent is given by:

                            d(A M )
          sorption rate  =  - -rr —                               [7.65]

                                                      ?
     where     M.   =  amount sorbed per unit  area,  gm/m~

               «             2
               A   =  area, m .

In turn, the equilibrium amount sorbed  typically is  calculable in terras  of
an adsorption isotherm, such as

          MA  •   kzfC4                                           [7,66]

                                   99

-------
                                 001
           Concentration  in Surface Water,  C
                                                 ,
TI
-^.


c
O
o
a
eo
-S
O
     S
     trt
     <-*•
     fa
     3
     O
     (D
     3
—*•   O
3    3"
     n>
en    -s
     td
-o   n>
o
Ol
3
D.
I
3
                                      O fi) (/)
                                        n o

-------
     where     k   =  sorption equilibrium constant (gm/m )  /(gm/m )
                                                           s        x»

               C0  =  concentration in surface water,  gm/m
                *6

               zf  =  sorption depth, m

The amount of interstitial  constituent is normally small, thus the net effect
for constant y is:

                                   dA
          sorption rate  =  kzf C£ ~^                              [7.67]


     In contrast to purely diffusional processes,  the  existence of a  downward
component of water flow (recharge or infiltration) can carry contaminants to
"fresh" sorption sites at relatively fast rates.   The  material  not immobi-
lized may continue on to groundwater.  Thus, downflow constitutes a process
for "permanent" removal from surface waters, and  it is an area!  term  (propor-
tional  to area).  Diffusion and sorption for the  perched wetland are  also
area!,  but shut down as the square root of time.   Combining  the two effects'
gives:

             dzf     D(C. - 0)
          downward sorption  _  diffusional     bulk  flow
           front movement    "   additions     additions '

     where     C  is the adsorbed concentration,  gm/m    =  kC
                a                                            A*

               i  is the downward velocity,  m/yr

Here it is assumed that there is no  "leakage"  to  groundwater., and  that a
penetration model is valid.

     Diffusion would likely be small,  thus:

          i  »  I

            _ r   n                             c
Since D ^ ]Q~  cnT/s, a percolation  rate  of  10"   cm/s  (0.864  mm/day)  will
cause equal effects at a depth of 10 cm.

     In the case of a perched wetland,  i  = 0,  penetration proceeds  only by
diffusion.  The depth of the sorption  front  as a  function of  exposure time
can be determined from

              dz      D(C0  - 0)
          kC4lf  -  —~ -                                    [7.59]



                                    101

-------
          zf(0)   -  0
which gives
            2  _  Dt
           f   "  2k
or
The amount sorbed per unit area  at  any place  is  then



           M       J6  T      X«  c,

Adding up all  such contributions over the affected  zone,

                                  rA     -=,-
          total  amount sorbed   =
                                               >7 dA
                                   0
     where     T  =  zone arrival  time.

Converting to the time variable,
                                         Dk
          total  amount sorbed   =      C0/-^/T>7 -^ dr
                                  JQ

The total  sorption rate is  then:
          total sorption rate  =  -rp
f* c /!i /•
^0 £ 2
Die r rr-r ^
J A
, QA ,
T dT 1
f^u i i
C/.70]




[7.71]





[7,72]





[7.73]
                                                                   [7.74]
                                             1  dt

Due to the complexity of this term, the total  sorption  rate  is  approximated
by choosing a constant, average zf-value.

     Alternatively, if downflow predominates as in  the  case  of  recharge
(i » D/Zf), it follows that:


          2f  =  f.                                               [7.75]

This means that the sorption rate is independent of position, and  therefore

-------
          total rate of sorption  =  -rr[A zf kC ]  =  iC  A
                                     Q I*    T   A/        A/
                                                                   [7.77]
The first term represents an area! removal  rate which continues indefinitely;
the second portion represents the addition  of new sorption/downflow area.
This second part becomes zero at steady state.   Solutions to this problem are
difficult and must be done by numerical methods.

Long-term Consumption Mechanisms--
     Permanent loss or immobilization rates occur due to processes such as
soil building, dem'trification, and the development of a woody herbaceous
material which does not decompose for long  periods of time.   The harvesting
of biomass also falls in this category.  All such permanent  removals have  the
feature that their annual rate is proportional  to the area of the loaded zone,
that is such processes occur above background levels only in the area of in-
fluence..  Further, these mechanisms do not saturate as does  sorption; and
therefore, these rates are proportional to the 'entire area of the affected
zone.   In symbols, the following breakdown  results:

        .  permanent removal  rate  =  r C A  + r,A + r ,Ax  + ruXnA   [7.78]


               r   =  excess average annual soil  accretion rate, m/yr

               C   =  contaminant concentration in new soil, gm/m

               r.  =  excess average annual rate of loss to
                      atmosphere, gm/m^/yr

               r   =  excess average annual woody stem accumulation
                      rate,  gm/m^/yr

               x   =  fraction contaminant  in woody stems
                                                       2
               r,,  =  average annual harvest rate, gm/m /yr

               x,,  =  fraction contaminant  in harvested biomass


     It is assumed that the  expansion of the loaded zone during any given
irrigation season does not result in any immediate expansion of the zones  of
harvest, soil  accretion, or  woody stem growth.   Rather, only sorption is con-
sidered to be  active in the  newly- formed loaded zone.   We have chosen to call
woody biomass  formation a permanent mechanism,  since the decomposition time
scale is quite long.

Expansion  of Biomass--
     The description of the  dynamic binding of  a  contaminant within the newly
grown biomass  pool  requires  a bit more sophistication.   Increased  growth of

                                    103

-------
plants produces an increased amount of litterfaTl,  and  hence  the  entire bio-
mass pool within the loaded zone increases.   The  building of  this  new mate-
rial requires the incorporation of some of the  contaminant  into that new
material.  However, after sufficient time has elapsed,  this, process stops,
since no further increases in total  biomass  can occur.   Thus  the  interior
portions of the loaded zone are no longer as effective  in removing contami-
nants from the passing water.  The outer fringes  retain higher consumption
rates for a number of years, as long as biomass is  still accumulating.

     Choosing the point in time for annual  inventory as late  fall, all new
additional biomass is present in the form of wood,  litter,  and standing dead.
Some of the increased growth of biomass has  already been leached  and other-
wise decomposed, leaving only a fraction of the peak standing crop in the
form of litter and standing dead.   This fast cycling loop of  nitrogen, phos-
phorus and other contaminants back to the surface waters can  be neglected as
being too fast to notice on a year to year basis.   Thus, quantification of
this dynamic immobilization of contaminants  within  the  new  pool of biomass
requires a description of the rate of litter accumulation.  This  rate must
then be integrated over the entire area of interest.

     At any one location, the annual budget  for excess  litter biomass can be
written as:

          f  »  F - adH            •'                              C7.79]

     where     M  =  amount of excess litter, gm/rn^
                                                           2
               F  =  average annual  excess litter fall, gm/m  /yr
                                                                  „•]
               a. =  average annual specific litter decay rate, yr


at  the time of arrival of the nutrients, this litter excess is zero:  M{0)  =
0.   Solving this results in:
                        -a t
          M  =  - (1 - e  d  )                                      [7.30]
                ad

and the  excess litter accumulation rate is:

                    ~V                                           [7.31]
 In  a  region which received wastewater with residual nutrients at a time T,
 this  rate  is :

          f   -  Fe""^'"^                •                        [7,82]

 Summing  over the entire loaded zone, the average annual excess litter accumu-
 lation  rate, rL gm/yr, is :

                                   104

-------
                 fA   -d.(t-T)
          r.   =    Fe   a     dA                                   [7.83]
              .   J0

changing variables from A to t:

                      -a.(t-T)
                                        .   . .    .   ,
          r,  -     Fe            dx                               [7.84]


For a contaminant of interest, the removal rate is:

                                             ft   -an^'^dA
     temporary binding rate  =  r,  x,   =  x.     Fe        ^— dr    [7.85]
                                 L  L      t- jg           OT

     where     x.   =  fraction contaminant in  litter, (assumed constant).

Closure--                  .  -- .
     All of the above may be combined to form  the mass balance for the expand
ing loaded zone:


          QCi  =  kzfS f + (rsCs + rA + Vw + rHXH)A

                        t   -ad(t-T),,
                        oFe-d.    fd-r                          [7.85]


for which A(0) = 0 (starting).  If permanent terms are combined:,


          Rp  =  rsCs + rA + Vw + rHXH                           [7.87]

     where     R   =  total average annual excess removal rate,
                P     gm/m2/yr
then
                        dA
                        f + RpA
It is noted that the final, steady-state area is given as:

                 qc.
          A*  =
To simplify notation, we define

                 A
                 A
       n
f   =  -gz      (fraction of final  area)                   [7.90]

                          105

-------
          al
=



V
FxL
RP
kzfCila
RP
(time in terms of decomposition time)
litter fall rate
permanent removal rate
sorption rate
permanent removal rate
[7.91]
[7.92]
[7.93]

[7.94j
which then gives:

                        ft    f   T\
          1   -  f  + a  f  e      4f +  a  ^
                    al  J0        df   2 d9


       f(0)   =  0
     This equation may be  solved  in  any one of  several ways.  Results are the
area! expansion of the loaded  zone in  terms of  two groups of parameters, a-j
and 32-  As an illustration, consider  the  following  parameter set for phos-
phorus :

         ad  =  0.25 yr"1

                      -3
         r   =  4 x 10  m/yr

         C   =150 gm/m3  (0.15%  dry weight)


         rA' V rH  =  °

         F   =  300 gm/m2/yr

         XL  =  0.002 (0.22 dry weight)

                (300)(0.002)   _  , n
         al  -  	(oTeJ         ]-°
                   m     m

         z,  -  0.05 m

         C.  =  1.5 gm/m3

         C.  =  1.5 gm/m

         a2  =  1.0

         Q   =  100,000 m3/yr (25.4 x 105 gallons/yr)
                                   106

-------
         A*   =  250,000 m2 (25 hectares)
                         o
         R    =  0.6 mg/ra /yr


Figure 44 shows the progression of the loaded area from zero  to its  final
value of 25 hectares, expressed as a fraction.  For comparison, if harvest
is added, for which:   	

         rH  =  1000 gm/m2/yr


         xu  =  0.002
          n

                               2                                       ?
Then the value of R  = 2.0 gm/m /yr and an ultimate area,  A*  = 75,000 m~
(7.5 ha), results.  plt is further presumed that harvest prevents excess
litter buildup, hence F = 0.  This speeds the process  of reaching the  final
loaded area, as shown in Figure 44.

     The relative importance of the different removal  mechanisms can be seen
in Figure 45.  Each (fractional) rate term is plotted  separately, and  they
must add to the application rate (fraction =  1.0).   Initially,  the entire
consumption of wastewater components is due to sorption.   Soil  and litter
formation quickly become important;  but only  the  long-term consumption  mech-
anisms remain operative after a few decades.

Breakthrough:  Insufficient Area

     A wetland may prove smaller than required for complete removal of  nutri-
ents to natural background levels.  This condition may develop after a  number
of years.  The mass balance equation (and solution)  up to  the time of  break-
through is unaltered.  Thereafter, no further sorption can occur, no more
area is added to the bioir.ass pool , and the permanent removal  mechanisms are
fixed at the current level.  A certain amount of  excess  litter accumulation
continues to occur within the wetland, predominantly at  the outer edges.   The
mass balance equation for these new circumstances  reflects these changes,
plus the addition of a discharge rate term:
     QC.  =  R A + e
,(t>t*)
                                    t*  -a.(t-T)
                                      e
                                    0
     where     t*  =  breakthrough  time, yr

               Qp.  =  discharge  rate, m /yr
                   =  contaminant  concentration  in wetland discharge,
                      gm/m^
In dimension!ess terms:
                                    107

-------
          1.0
o
CO
      •K
      •=c
td
cu
t-
       o

       c
       o
      O
      03
                               Harvest Vascular Biomass at

                               1000 gm/m2 and 0.2% P
                                       No  Harvest,  Extra
                                       Soil  Accumulates
                                       at  400  gm/m2 and  0.15% P
             Figure 44.
                                            3            4

                                         0,  Dimensionless Age

                   Area  Requirement for a  Typical Wetland Treatment System

                   (See  Text  for Data Used).

-------
    Application
    Rate Fraction
o
                                                     Soil and Woody Biomass
                                                                         4            5

                                                                0-, Dimension!ess Age
                        Figure 45.   Phosphorus Uptake Rates for a Typical Wetland.
                        Application Rate:  150 kg P/yr
                        til timate Area Req'd:  25 ha
                        See Text for Data Used.

-------
a £ 6 s
          1  =  f + al IQ e"(9"T) f dT + *2 %                    C7.97]

          f(0)  =  0


                                ;e*
'r
                     Qr
               e
                                    -(9*-T) df
                                                                   [7.98]
                        D
     where     d  =  -^—  =  fractional  contaminant discharge.     [7.99]
                        i

     If the same example wetland data set is chosen as in the previous ex-
ample, and in addition we specify the area available to be 16.5  ha, then we
will have breakthrough at 8 years (9 = 2).  Of the applied nutrient, some now
exits the wetland.  For QQ = 1.2 Q (some  dilution due to runoff  and rain),
the concentration is plotted in Figure 46.

     The rates of uptake due to litter building,  sorption, and permanent
removal are shown for this case in Figure 47.   The ultimate fraction dis-
charged of contaminant (phosphorus) is equal to the fraction of  missing
required area.

Extensionto other Contaminants

     The foregoing examples have been worked out  for phosphorus  as a con-
trolling contaminant.  However, it may also be applied with suitable parameter
values to nitrogen or any other contaminant for which information  is availa-
ble on the processes described above.  The constraints under which the fore-
going has been constructed bear further elaboration.  • Processes  which take
place on a time scale less than one year  or greater than 100 years have been
neglected in this model.  Thus rapid internal  cycling through algae does not
play a role, and the immobilization of materials  within woody material  is
treated as a permanent sink for those materials.   In  addition, it  must be
mentioned that the controlling wetland size may not be governed  by the capa-
city of the wetland, but rather by the required residence time and depth con-
straints discussed in the previous section.  This is  especially  true in the
case of a harvested wetland, for which the area!  requirements may  be much
smaller than for an unharvested wetland.   This  may mean that the mass trans-
fer restriction will predominate over capacity  restrictions in some cases.
It is also presumed throughout the foregoing that the quality of the incoming
wastewater is sufficiently good so that a viable  ecosystem survives and
indeed thrives in the presence of added nutrients.

     Modifications must be made for contaminants  which are not growth-
controlling.  Further, the foregoing'examples do_not~ apply in their entirety
to wetlands that are in the recharge or discharge mode.
                                     110

-------
            1   .         2           34           5

                             Dimension]ess time, 9

Figure 46.   Breakthrough in a Wetland with 66% of the Required Capacity.
            (See  text  for data used)

-------
   1.0
ra
cc
K)
o
   0-5
c.
o
          SORPTION
                                   Soil/Woody Biomass
0
                   1
                         2345
                        9, Dimensionless Age
Figure 47.  Phosphorus Uptake and Release for a Typical Wetland.  Ultimate
Capacity is Insufficient.
Basis:  Wetland Area = 16.5 ha
        Req'd Area =25.0  ha
See Text for Other Data

-------
Comparison of the Frontal  Progression
Model  wUh Field Data

     System parameters shown  in  Table  16  were  estimated  for  the  operation  of
the Houghton Lake treatment site.   Utilizing the mass  balance  equation  devel-
oped in the previous section  (Equation 7.95) the predicted phosphorus front
progression was calculated.  The observed system behavior and  the  prediction
are both plotted in Figure 48.   Similar calculations were made for nitrogen
front movement; the prediction and  field  data  are  shown  in Figure  49.

     The expansion of  the  "saturated"  zones about  the  discharge  point have
been found to be much  as predicted  by  the material  balance,  considering only
the principle mechanisms discussed  in  Section  5.   The  aging  of the Houghton
Lake site can therefore be described by this model.


     TABLE 16.  PARAMETERS USED  TO  PREDICT PHOSPHORUS  FRONT  PROGRESSION
                    AT THE HOUGHTON LAKE TREATMENT SITE
                           QC..     =   342,000  gm/yr


                           ad     =   0.15  yr"1


                           R      =   0.14-fS-
                            "             m  yr

                           XLF     =   0.69  gm/m /yr


                           kZC    =   2.37  gm/m2
                                   113

-------
   200  -
i.
OJ
O)
s:
cu
D.
OJ
01
Q

C
O
i,
OJ
(_>
C
        Figure 48.  Movement of TOP  Concentration Fronts in Surface Waters, C = 1 mg/1
                    lloughton Lake Treatment Site.

-------
  200
cu
4J
O

-------
       	 .. .   _  .  SECTION  8

                       WASTEWATER  IMPACTS  ON  WETLANDS


     By exposing a wetland to  altered  water levels  or  unusually  high  nutrient
loads, changes within the  ecosystem  can  be expected.   Plant  growth  is  general-
ly accelerated and changes in  the  species  composition  can occur.  As  a  result
of alterations of the water depth  and  of the  plant  community,  the make-up  of
the wetland fauna may also change.   Wastewater may  affect the  soil  substrate
as well.

     All  of these changes  within the wetland  system must be  evaluated  with
regard to the possible environmental costs or benefits.  Such  judgements are
by nature subjective.  Increased plant productivity and shifts in the  species
composition could be considered negative aspects of wetland  treatment,  simply
because they constitute an alteration  of the  naturally evolving  state  of the
ecosystem.   Under these circumstances, any penalty  incurred  might best  be
considered  in terms of the economic  costs  of  alternate treatment methods or
in terms  of the ecological  penalties incurred elsewhere if the wastewater
were released without wetland  treatment.   No  adequate  system has been  devised
to quantify changes in the economic  or ecological status of  a  wetland  as the
result of wastewater irrigation.   However, decisions regarding wetland  system
designs must be based in part  upon the available information on  potential
ecosystem changes.

     No long-term studies  have been  completed to fully elucidate potential
effects,  but Table 17 contains a list  of observed changes in wetlands  that
are believed to have been  the  result of  AWT operations.  Also  included  is  a
list of other potential  ecosystem  impacts  which are at present only specula-
tive.  A comprehensive review  of current knowledge  on  wastewater effects in
wetlands  has been prepared by  WAPORA  (1).

     In some cases, researchers have considered wastewater irrigation  to pro-
vide positive contributions to various wetland ecosystems.   Improvements in
wildlife habitats have been described  for  artificial wetlands  such as Mt.  View
(30) and Vermontville (98). The availability of wastewater  could constitute
a valuable  resource, for the creation  of new  wetland habitat or  improvement
of existing sites.
                                    116

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	TABLE 17.   WASTEWATER EFFECTS UPON WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS	


OBSERVATIONS:

     Increased plant productivity

     Altered species composition within the plant community

     Altered animal  populations as a result of food  and habitat  changes

     Altered soil/substrate

     Altered nutrient content and elemental  analysis of plants


SPECULATIONS:

     Changes in detrital  cycling

     Transfer of heavy metals and other toxins up the food  chain

     Transmittal  of viral  or bacterial  diseases  at various  levels  of  the
     food chain
                                    117

-------
                                  SECTION  9

                                  ECONOMICS
     The economics of wetland treatment are  attractive  in  those  situations
where there exists a suitable land  parcel  adjacent  to the  community.   This
appears to be true whether or not an  existing  wetland already  exists  at the
site, although an existing wetland  eliminates  some  construction  costs.

     Estimates of the economics  of  such systems  have been  presented  by
Sutherland (95) and Fritz and Helle (99).   These are  in excellent agreement
on both capital and operating costs.   Both deal  with existing  wetlands.
Tables 18, 19, and 20 detail  an  example of cost  estimation for a potential
site.  The basis for such an  estimate must contain  the  following key  items:

     1.  Total acreage to be  obtained,  for both  irrigation and isolation.

     2.  Flows, both annual average and irrigation  season  actual.

     3,  Distance to the wetland from the  treatment site.

     4.  Length of distribution  pipe  required  within the wetland.

     5.  Pumping requirements, if any,  expressed in terms  of static,
         friction, and site discharge heads.

     6.  Disinfection requirements.

     7.  Harvesting requirements.

     8.  Grading, ditching, and diking requirements.

     9.  Plant community establishment.

    10.  Underdrain requirements.

The first seven items are common to all systems; the last  three  pertain only
to constructed wetlands.

     This type of analysis shows the  major contributions to capital  cost for
an existing wetland to be pumps  and piping,  land and land  access,  and disin-
fection.  Site alteration must be added for a  constructed  wetland.   The major
contributions to 0 & M costs  are manpower, pumping  energy, and monitoring
costs.

-------
 TABLE  IS.   BASIS  FOR  EXAMPLE  COST  ESTIMATE  FOR A WETLAND  TREATMENT  SYST:
                 BASED. ON THE NEEDS OF MAPLE RAPIDS," MI,
,___	FROM SUTHERLAND,L95L,_. EXISTING ..WETLAND.  	

                     Population served       =  683

                     Av. daily flow (MGD)    =  0.085

                     Actual flow (SPM)       =  236

                     Force main length (ft)  =  1,980

                     Force main size (in)    =  4 and 6

                     Static head (ft)        »  -35

                     Friction loss (ft)      =  10

                     Site pressure (ft)      =  20

                     TBH to provide (ft)      =5

                     Gated pipe length (ft)  =  2,400

                     Irrigated acreage       =  44 .

                     Isolation acreage       =  -

                     Total  acreage to be
                      purchased - State
                      owned                  =  0

                     Disinfection required

                     No harvesting
                                   119

-------
TABLE 19.  CAPITAL COST ESTIMATE, MAPLE RAPIDS, MIvFROM SUTHERLAND (95!


                Chlorination  facilities            =   $ 25,000

                Dechlorination  pond                =     30,000

                Pumping station   	  ""  	='   20,000

                Forcemain* @  $     /ft.              =     19,720

                Gated pipe and  fixtures @ $21/ft.   =     50,400

                Installation,  initial               =      5,000

                Crossings:

                     Highway     @$15,QOQ           =

                     Interstate @ 50,000         -  =     -

                     Creek      @  5,000

                     River      @ 30,000

                     Railroad   @ 10,000

                Access roadway** 3,900  ft.
                     @ $14/ft.                      =     54,600

                Monitoring wells                   =      2,000

                Subtotal                            =   $206,720



                Construction  cont. (10%)           =     20,672

                Land State owned                   =      0

                Easement not  needed                =      0

                Total Capital  Cost                 =   $227,392
                * 4-in. $8 x 423 ft.
                  6-in. $10.50 x 1,552 ft.

                ** in trees
                                   120

-------
TABLE 20.  OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COST ESTIMATE FOR MAPLE RAPIDS, MI,
                         FROM  S1JIHFRI AND  (9fi).   .  '   	—

                   0 & M COSTS

                   Labor                   =  $^ 7,000

                   Power
                     9.0327 (GPM) (TDH)    =       39

                   Chemicals
                     (2.45 GPM)            =      578

                   Lab supplies, services  =    2,000

                   Misc. repair,
                     replacement           =    1,500

                   Administration          =    2,000

                   Total 0 & M Costs       =  $13,117
                                  121

-------
     Capital  costs, estimated and actual,  are shown in Figure 50.   The esti-
mates are those of Sutherland (95).   The data are lower than these estimates
for four'cases; and higher for two cases.   The reasons are instructive:

A)  Houghton  Lake, MI (high):  added costs for 5700 feet of boat dock -  pipe
    support,  and a duplicate pump.  Provisions for disinfection.  No land
    cost, existing wetland.

B)  Listowell, Ont. (high):   constructed wetland; no land cost,  elaborate
    flow control, harvest capability.

C)  Humboldt, Sask. (low):  constructed wetland;  but no disinfection, no
    land cost.

D)  Riverside, IA (low):   gravity feed, no land,  no disinfection,  existing
    wetland.

E)  Drummond, WI (low):   gravity feed,  no  land,  no disinfection, existing
    wetland.

F)  Bellaire, MI (low):   gravity feed,  no  land,  no disinfection, existing
    wetland.

However, it is noted that for distances less  than about 4-6 miles,  the
capital costs for existing wetland,  no-harvest systems are attractive ('95,
99).

     Operation and Maintenance (0 & M)  costs  are  shown in Figure 51, with
Sutherland's  (95) estimates  as a referent.  Data  are sparse, and difficult
to determine  accurately;  but actual  systems are  cheap to run by  any standard.
They require  little attention, essentially no chemicals, and have  simple
equipment.   Actual data  are  confused by the current extraordinary  monitoring
requirements, which have been excluded  from Figure 51.  The Houghton Lake
system currently requires an "extra" $10,000  per  year for vegetation and
animal research.  Such expenditures  are necessary to fill  the gaps  in our
understanding of wetland systems - apparent throughout this report  - but not
essential to  the performance of the system.

     Capital  recovery costs  and 0 & M costs combine to yield a cost for
advanced treatment for a gallon of wastewater.   Figure 52 gives  Fritz and
Helle's (99)  estimates for cypress strands for 200,000 gpd facilities.
Sutherland's  estimates for comparable size facilities are included, using a
capital recovery factor of 0.1.  Data  for  Houghton Lake and Bellaire are in
reasonable agreement with their estimates.  The  estimates of Tchobanoglous
and Gulp (100) for total  treatment costs are  in  agreement with the  data  and
other estimates; in addition they support  the economic advantage of artifi-
cial wetland systems for capacities  up  to  1.0 MGD.

     Thus,  from a cost viewpoint, wetland  treatment looks attractive for
small communities with appropriate land/wetland  availability.
                                    122

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TABLE 21.  SITE IDENTIFICATION KEY FOR..FIGURES_50,. 51,  AND_52.
Estimates, (95):
Au Gres, MI
Decker-vine, MI
Edmore, MI
Maple Rapids, MI
Marcel! us, MI
Ovekama, MI
Rosebush, MI
Scottville, MI ~ -
St. Charles, MI
Westphalia, MI
Dataj
Koughton Lake, MI
Bellaire, MI
Vermontville, MI
Unnamed, MI
Drummond, WI
Listowell , Cnt.
Humboldt, Sask.
Riverside, IA

• 0 A6
"" " 0 D -• •- - 	
0 E
0 MR
0 M
0 0
0 R
'OS
0 SC
0 VI

8 HL
8 B
8 V
8 SU
8 D
8 L
8 H
8 R
                            123

-------
1,000
       Figure 50.
         Pond-Wetland Distance (Miles),  D
Wetland Capital  Costs Versus Wetland Distance Adapted From Sutherland (95)
See Table 21  for Site Symbol  Identification,

-------
   15
O)
J>>
o"
o
o
O
CJ
o
   10
   ' u
      -^  B
V

SU
                                                                       OD
                                           OAG />..
                                         OR    Uw
                                      J_
                                      L
_L
       Figure  51
        123          456          71
                       Pond-Wetland Distance (Miles)

        Wetland 0  & M Costs Versus Wetland Distance-Adapted from Sutherland(95).
        See  Table  21 for Symbol Identification,

-------
                                                        Cost  of  Advanced  Treatment
                                                             Cents/1000 Gallons
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                 D)
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                 31
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                 cr
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                            c
                            -i
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   i  n> o
•t«t <  n> -j
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o    ro ro
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-~~ CD  H- rt-
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  to  3 3
                 o.
                 ro
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                 PI
        -s  n>
        —»-
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     O N  O
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     DJ    s:

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     o ro  3
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-------
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86.  Sutherland, J.C.  and F.B. Bevis.   Reuse  of  Municipal  Wastewater by
     Volunteer  Fresh  Water  Wetlands.   In:   Abstracts of  the  Conference on
     Freshwater Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater Disposal, Higgins  Lake,
     Michigan,  1979.

87.  Boto, K.G. and W.H. Patrick, Jr.   The  Role  of Wetlands  in the  Removal
     of Suspended Sediments.  In:  Wetland  Functions and Values:   The  Stats
     of our Understanding,  P.E.  Greeson,  J.R.  Clark  and  J.E.  Clark, Eds.
     American Water Resources  Association,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  1978,
     pp. 479-489.

88.  Stewart, J.M. and  R.  Reader.  Some Considerations of Production:
     Accumulation Dynamics  in  Organic  Terrain.  In:   Proceedings  of the
     Fourth International  Peat Congress.  Volume 1,  1972,  pp.  247-358.
                                   133

-------
89.  Farnham, R.S.  and D.H.  Boelter.   Minnesota's  Peat Resources:   Their
     Characteristics and Use in  Sewage Treatment,  Agriculture,  and  Energy.
     In:  Proceedings of a Symposium  on Freshwater Wetlands  and Sewage
     Effluent Disposal, University of Michigan,  Ann Artor, 1976,  pp."241-255.

90.  Ogg, W.6.  and  I.M. Robertson.  The Reclamation of Moorland.   Empire
 ••  Journal  of Exp. Agriculture,  2:163-173,  1934.

91.  Denisov, Z.N.   Natural  and  Historic Features  of the  Formation  of the
     Pipet Marshes.  Izuet.  Akad.  Nauk. Beloruss SSR.  1:43-60, 1954.

92.  Valenskii, D.G.  Soil Science, 3rd Ed.,  State Teachers  College Publ.
     House, Ministry of Culture, Russ.  Socialistic Fed. Sov.  Republic.
     Moscow,  1957,  488 pp.

93.  Maciak,  F. and H. Sochtig.   Effect of the  Degree of  Decomposition  on the
     Changes  in Nitrogen Fractions and Phenols  in  Low Peat.-   In:   Proceedings
     of the 5th International  Peat Congress,  V.  II, Poznan,  Poland, 1976,
     pp. 306-319.

94.  Bevis, F.  and  R.H. Kadlec.   Effect of Long-Term Discharge  of  Wastewater
     on a Northern  Michigan Wetland.   In:   Abstracts of the  Conference  on
     Freshwater Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater Disposal, Higgins  Lake,
     Michigan,  July 10-12, 1979.

95.  Sutherland, J.C.  Investigation  of the Feasibility of Tertiary Treatment
     of Municipal  Stabilization  Pond  Effluent Using River Wetlands  in
     Michigan.   .Report to NSF,  Grant  IENV76-20812, 1978,  59  pp.

96.  Kappel,  W.  The Drummond Project.  In:  Abstracts of the Conference  on
     Freshwater Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater Disposal, Higgins  Lake,
     Michigan.   July 10-12, 1979.

97.  Wile, I.  An Experimental  Approach to Wastewater Treatment Using Natural
     and Artificial Wetlands.   Progress Report,  Ontario Ministry of the
     Environment,  1980.

98.  Bevis, F.   Ecological Considerations  in  the Management  of  Wastewater -
     Engendered Volunteer Wetlands.   In:  Abstracts of the Conference on
     Freshwater Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater Disposal, Higgins  Lake,
     Michigan.   July 10-12, 1979.

99.  Fritz, W.R. and S.C. Helle.  Cypress  Wetlands as a Natural Treatment
     Method for Secondary Effluents.   In:   Environmental  Quality Through
     Wetlands Utilization, M.A.  Drew, Ed.   Coord.  Council on the Restoration
     of the Kissimmee River Valley,  1978,  pp. 69-31.

100. Tchobanoglous, G., and G.  L.  Gulp, "Wetland Systems  for Wastewater
     Treatment:  An Engineering  Assessment."  In:  Aguaculture Systems for
     Wastewater Treatment:  An  Engineering Assessment, S. C,  Reed  and R.  K.
     Bastian, Eds., USEPA MCD-68,  pp. 13-42,  June  1980.
                                     134

-------
                    -  -APPENDIX
        WETLAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS - DATA SOURCES

        Site                                      Pace
Bellaire, MI	,  3:35
Bradford, ONT	140
Brill ion, WI	144
Brookhaven, NY	148
Clermont, FL  . . .	152
Cootes Paradise, ONT	155
Drummond, WI	  160
Dulac, LA	164
Gainesville, FL	  168
Great Meadows, MA	173
Haniilton, NJ	,	177
Hay River, NWT  . .<	181
Houghton Lake, MI	185
Huniboldt, SASK	'.  .  .  193
Jasper, FL	197
Kesalahti, Finland	201
Kincheloe, MI	205
Lake Balaton, Hungary ..... 	  209
Las Vegas, NV	,	213
Listowel, ONT	217
Mt. View, CA	221
Seymour, WI	  225
Suisun, CA	229
Vermontville, HI	233
Waldo, FL	,	237
Wildwood, FL	241
                            135

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BELLAIRE , Michigan

     Stabilized wastewater has been discharged on a summer seasonal  basis
for a period of five years to this  40-acre partially forested wetland in
the northern part of the lower peninsula of Michigan.   Nutrient budgets
are available, and the hydrology of the site has been  studied to a moderate
extent.   Nutrient budgets are available at this site.   Excellent removal of
nitrogen and a diminishing removal  of phosphorus are currently being dis-
played at this site.  Research here is being conducted by a group of
researchers from the University of  Michigan.
                                    136

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                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:  Bellaire, Michigan
Current as of July
1
                                1981
Summary of System Management Technique
Dates of operation:  1 972	to Present
Annual approximate discharge:  30  x,
Estimated affected area   30  acres
Wetland size  40 acres   (area")
                                             gal
    Distance from inlet to outlet
    Type of water discharge:
         	 Point discharge
                                 500
(approximate meters)
               Flood irrigation with gated pipe,  	
               Multiple point discharge at 3	locations
                                                   ft.  in length.
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
           X   Seasonally from     Hay
               Continuous discharge all  year
               Periodically, explain:  __
                                       through October
    Factors which have actually been  used to make decisions  to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
           X _ none, relatively continuous discharge  at  predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         	 water depth in the wetland
         	 water quality discharged to wetland
         	 water quality at the wetland outflow
         	 water quality at points  inside the wetland
         	precipitation
         	other:	    	„___

    Wetland vegetation harvested; JjoTZ.      "~~.   .L"''y".--.-~riIIIZ!ir7I^
    Description of harvesting technique: _Nc)_
    Disposal  or use of harvested  material: jjo_
2.
Overall Budgets for Water-borne Components
Information known to exist covering one or more years:
i 
— di s>» 4->
5 %.  CJ
O OJ ^-3 3* *?"*" O
•M 01 +j o O <— . — > 3Sr— V!4-« M-^J.r- 4JO-M J3+J i-4~>
HJ1^- <»- ftl 
-------
       I  l/»
       §O> S-
       i-  3
CD  +J
s_    c -a cn
ro    01 c c
J=    =J 

                                             •>-
                                               O
                                             r-+J-tD
                                             CO   C
                                             i-uiro
                                             33i —
0)
u
RJ
<)-
S_ Ul
3 j.
V5UJ
J3-M
3
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study
•x I


X

















Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  £r inc 1 pal Data Sou re as

Kadlec, R.  H.,  D.  L.  Tilton,  "Monitoring  Report  on  the  Bellaire Wastewater
Treatment Facility,"  Utilization Report No.  1, Univ.  of Mich.  Wetlands
Ecosystem Research Group,  (Two versions:   Complete  and  Abridged),  1976-77.

Kadlec, R.  H.,  D.  L.  Tilton,  "Monitoring  Report  on  the  Bellaire Wastewater
Treatment Facility,"  Utilization Report No.  2, Univ.  of Mich.  V.'etlands
Ecosystem Research Group,  1977.

Kadlec, R.  H.,  "Monitoring Report on  the  Bellaire Wastewater Treatment
Facility,"  Utilization Report No. 3,  Univ. of Mich. Wetlands Ecosystem
Research Group,  1978.                 ,        ,

Kadlec, R.  H.,  "Monitoring Report on  the  Sellaire Wastewater Treatment
Facility,"  Utilization Report No. 4,  Univ. of Mich. Wetlands Ecosystem
Research Group,  1979.

Kadlec, R.  H.,  "Performance of the Bellaire, Michigan Wetland  Treatment
Facility,"  (Abstract)  Presented:   Conference on  Freshwater Wetlands and
Sanitary Wastewater Disposal, Higgins  Lake,  MI,  July  10-12, 1979.
                                   139

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BRADFORD, Ontario

     A long narrow natural  marsh at Bradford,  Ontario,  has  been  monitored
since 1979 in order to study processes such  as evapotranspiration,  nutrient
assimilation, and other processes relating to  nutrient,  water and vegetation
dynamics in natural wetlands.*  This is a  companion,  small  scale study,  to
that being conducted at Listowel, Ontario.  Research  reports  from Bradford
are not available at this point in time.  	
•^Starting in the spring of 1981  sewage has been added and work is underway
to attempt to describe how this  will  change the processes of the marsh.
                                    140

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                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of     September
1
                           Bradford, Ontario
                                1981
Summary of System Management Technique
Dates of operation:   1979     to Present
Annual approximate discharged. 5 x 10°
Estimated affected area 900 m?
Wetland size
                                             gal
                900
                            (area)
                                     180      (approximate meters)
Distance from inlet to outlet
Type of water discharge:
       X    Point discharge
     	Flood irrigation with gated pipe,	ft.  in length.
     	Multiple point discharge at 	 locations
Typical monthly discharge schedule:
     _____ Seasonally from  	through	
       X    Continuous discharge all year
     	Periodically, explain:	_____„
    Factors which have actually been used to make decisions to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
           X   none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         _ water depth in the wetland
         _ water quality discharged to wetland
         _ water quality at the wetland outflow
         _ water quality at points inside the wetland
         _ precipitation
               other:
    Wetland vegetation harvested; NO
    Description of harvesting technique:
    Disposal or use of harvested material:
2.  Overall Budgets for Water-borne Components
    Information known to exist covering one or more years:
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
                            flj CD
                            •P Cft
                            03 S-
                            3 re)
                            
                              "*- O «
                                +-> 3
                              CT "O CD  r—
                              GJ C C   (C
                              O   r- r— >
                                  M- +J ••-
                                  <+- OJ OJ
                                  UJ 3 O
                                          3 3 i—
                                                
-------
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
PH
Chloride content
8.O.D.
C.O.D.
Fecal coliform
Fecal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metals
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other:


Wastewater
discharge
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

2/yr
Z/yr


1  3
+J
c ty en
0) c e
3 ra -r-
I— 1— >
 T-
U- 
Ol O)
i— ^:
5= •(->
•r-
o
i — -i-> -O
(13 C
S- W5 It!
3 3 •—
4J O 4J
ra <— 
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study











X



X

X
X
X

f
Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  Pri nci p aQataJSources^

Slaughter, R., I.  Wile, "Natural  and Artificial  Marshes  for  Sewage  Treatment
in Ontario,"  (Abstract), Presented  at Conference on  Freshwater  Ketlands  and
Sanitary Wastewater Disposal,  Higgins Lake,  MI,  July 10-12,  1979.

Wile, I., "An  Experimental  Approach to Uastewater Treatment  Using Natural
and Artificial Wetlands,"  Progress  Report, Oct.  27,  1980.
                                    143

-------
BRILLION, Wisconsin

     A research group from the  University  of  Wisconsin-Qshkosh conducted
this study over a two-year period  in  1974  and 1975.  The Brill ion marsh
is a large, deep water channelized fresh v/ater marsh in south-central
Wisconsin.  Phosphorus removals and nitrogen  removals were  not as good
as experienced at other research sites.  The  hydrology at Brill ion  is
somewhat confused.  Removals  of nitrogen were approximately 50 percent  "
and phosphorus removals were  comparable.   Some solids removal was also
documented.  This is a rather thorough  study  involving a large number
of water quality parameters,  as well  as some  estimates of the hydrology
at the site.
                                     144

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                  DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
 Location  and/or Name of Site:
 Current as  of   Ju1y	
 1
                            Brill ion, Wisconsin
                                1931
Summary of System Management Technique
Dates of operation:    1925    to Present
    Annual  approximate discharge:  98.3  x  10° gal
    Estimated  affected area  300  acres
    Wetland size 335  acres   (area)
    Distance from inlet to  outlet   1800     (approximate meters)
    Type  of water discharge:                 (400 m  channel  included)
          	X_ Point  discharge
          	Flood  irrigation with gated pipe,	 ft,  in length.
                Multiple point discharge at 	 locations
    Typical monthly  discharge schedule:
         	 Seasonally from
                Continuous  discharge all  year
                Periodically,  explain:
                                       through
    Factors which  have  actually been used to make decisions to modify  the
    wastewater discharge rate:
         _ X_ none,  relatively continuous discharge at predetermined  rate
               for predetermined period
         _ water  depth  in  the wetland
         _ water  quality discharged to wetland
         _ water  quality at the wetland outflow
         _ water  quality at points inside the wetland
         _____ precipitation
               other:
    Wetland vegetation  harvested:   No
    Description of  harvesting  technique:
    Disposal or use of  harvested material:
2.  Overall Budgets for  Water-borne  Components
    Information  known to  exist  covering  one or more years:
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
                             ("0 S—
                             3 re
                             
                               T-
                              **~ CJ QJ
                              UJ 3 u
                                           OJ  O 4-»
BJ f— OJ
Z <4- 3
OJ
U

9-      01
i- wi    u m
^3 t-    e& &.
WO)   <*-
-------
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
pH
Chloride content
B.O.D.
C.O.D.
Fecal co li form
Fecal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metals
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other :


Wastewater
discharge .

X

X
X

X
X








Effluent from
wetland to re-
ceiving waters

X

X
X

X
X








+J
OJ OJ
i — JZ
c +->
•^-
o
•— •*-> T3
as e
i- in KS
=J 3 •—
4-> O 4J
(O i— O)
= «»- 3

X

X
X

X
X








Subsurface
waters
















Surface
waters
















3.  Hydrology
    Data known to be available for one or more years:
    Complete water budgets   	
    Water depth measurements 	
    Soil elevations within  the wetland (by survey with optical  level or
      equivalent 	
    Estimates of subsurface water flow through the underlying soil
    Estimates of the fraction channel  flow as opposed to sheet flow 	
    Details of water flow patterns across the wetland 	

    Detailed Component Balances
    Detailed budgets known to have been prepared for one or more years.
    A "detailed budget" is defined here as accounting for a particular
    component, considering its transport between water and soil, plants,
    algae, or other physically identifiable entity within the wetland,
    Total phosphorus   x
    Total nitrogen 	
    Suspended solids 	
    Chloride 	
    Heavy Metals 	
    Other:
    Ecosystem .Changes.
    Studies .have been made of the following changes 1n the wetland since
    wastewater discharge began.   It is indicated whether these studies are
    qualitative or quantitative  observations.
                                   146

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qualitative quantitative
study study











X










Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  .Princjpa] Data Sources

Fetter, C. W., Jr., W.  E.  Sloey,  F.  L.  Spangler,  "Biogeochemical  Studies  of
a Polluted Wisconsin Marsh," Presented  at  First Annual Wisconsin  Water
Resources Conference, Stevens Point, HI, pp.  13-49,  Feb.  11,  1977.

Fetter, C. W. , Jr., W.  E.  Sloey,  F.  L.  Spangler,  "Use of  a  Natural  Marsh
for Wastewater Polishing," Water  Pollution Control  Federation,  Journal,
50, 2, pp. 290-307, Feb.  1978.

Spangler, F. L.,  C. W.  Fetter,  Jr.,  W.  E.  Sloey,  "Phosphorus  Accumulation  -
Discharge Cycles  in Marshes," Water  Resources  Bulletin, 13, 5,  pp.  1191-
1201, Dec. 1977.

Spangler, F. L.,  W, E.  Sloey, C.  W.  Fetter, Jr.,  "Wastewater  Treatment
by Natural and Artificial  Marshes,"  Prepared  for:   Robert S.  Kerr Environ-
mental Research Lab, Ada,  OK, NTIS Report, P8-259 992, EPA  600/2-76-207,
Sept. 1976.
                                   147

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BROOKHAVEN. Long Island,  New York

     A series of tests were performed at  the  Brookhaven  National  Laboratory
on the ability of an artificially  constructed marsh/meadow/pond  system.
Various configurations were tested.   The  influent  to  this  system  was  raw
sewage blended with septage and  sludge.   Studies span the  period  1975
through 1977.  A wide variety of water quality parameters  were studied.
No problems in establishing a cattail community were  found.   Excellent
water rennovation was accomplished,  with  lesser results  during the  winter
season for some of the parameters.
                                     148

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                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of     July    	
1
                            Brookhaven_»--N...Y.
        (Artificial
                                1979
Summary of System Management Technjque
Dates of operation:  Spring,73,, to  .LJan.,7_9__.
Annual approximate discharge:  ~ 3 mtn     gal
Estimated affected area   0.4  acres
    Wetland size  0.4,..acres_ (area)
    Distance from inlet to outlet _
    Type of water discharge:
           X   Point discharge
                                100
(approximate meters)
               Flood irrigation with gated pipe, 	
               Multiple point discharge at 	 locations
                                                   ft. in length.
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
               Seasonally from
               Continuous discharge all  year
               Periodically, explain: _
                                       through
    Factors which have actually been used to make decisions to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
         ___X__none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         	 water depth in the wetland
         	 water quality discharged to wetland
         	 water quality at the wetland outflow
         	 water quality at points inside the wetland
         	 precipitation
         	other:	

    Wetland vegetation harvested; Yes''"                  .~l^Z-^~	.1_~
    Description of harvesting technique: Wheeled  tractor withrotary cutter
          and manual collection.	
    Disposal or use of harvested material: 	.	,
2.  OyeralJ Budgets for Water-borne Components
    Information known to exist covering one or more years:
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
O &.
&. 4— O
Q} Q} -J»J
4-> CD 4->
0} S- K 13

0) -C 3 rT3
1/1 t/1 M— 4-J
ig •r— ^« ^J
3-0 UJ 3
X
X
X
X
ai 01
KS C
3 i-

CD r~
a fa
•<~ t.
•f- +j
 OJ
u
o *o
4-i 13 V- 4)
c s- w o
trt «3 3 t- ro
O -4-> JD 4-) S«
r- 
-------
                              
                              «3i-
                              3 ra
   i i/i
e  & s-
o  t- 
•*-
  o
r— 4-i "O
    c:
                                                    ca
                                                     3 3 i — V> 
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study






X




X










Vascular plants
Vertebratas
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land usa

6.  P_r_ 1 nci pa] Data Sources

Small, M. M., "Marsh/Pond Systems as Sewage Treatment Plants,"  Brookhaven
National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 39 p., 1975.

Small, M. M., "Marsh/Pond System," Brookhaven National  Laboratory,  Upton,
NY, 28 p., 1976.

Small, M. M., "Marsh/Pond Sewage Treatment Plants,"  Presented at the
Conference on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal, Univ.
of Mich., May 10-11 , 1976'.;.

Small, M. M., "Artificial Wetlands as Non-Point Source  Wastewater Treatment
Systems," Proceedings:  Environmental Quality Through Wetlands  Utilization,
Tallahassee, FL, pp. 171-181, Feb. 28-March 2, 1978.

Small, M. M., "Wetlands Wastewater Treatment Systems,"  Presented at the
International Symposium, State of Knowledge in Land  Treatment of Wastewater,
Hanover, New Hampshire, August 20-25, 1978.

Small, M. M., "Meadow/Marsh/Pond System," Brookhaven  National  Laboratory,
Upton, NY, 33 p., 1977.

Small, M. M., "Marsh/Pond Sewage Treatment Plants  II,"  (Abstract),  Presented
at the Conference on Freshwater Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater Disposal,
Higgins Lake, MI, July 10-12, 1979.
                                    151

-------
CLERMONT, Florida

     In a study spaning at least two years,  a  group from  the  Florida  Center
for Wetlands at Gainesville, studied the ability of a  fresh water  marsh  in
central Florida to assimilate nitrogen and phosphorus.  The studies at this
site were conducted on relatively small  test cells, with  measurements being
made of water, soil and vegetative compartments.   Principle emphasis  of  this
project appears to 'have been to establish nutrient budgets at this particular
site.  A very detailed report on nitrogen and  phosphorus  cycling and  assimi-
lation at this research site has been issued.   Results  show nutrient  assimi-
lation to be remarkably effective.
                                     152

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED  FOR WETLAND  AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of    July
1
                            Clermont,  Florida
                                1981
Summary of System Management Technique
Dates of operation:    1977     to  1979
Annual approximate discharge:
Estimated affected area  6000 i
Wetland size
                                    4  x  1.06    gal
                    32 ha    (area)
    Distance from  inlet to outlet
    Type of water  discharge:
         	 Point discharge
           X   Flood irrigation with gated  pipe,
         	Multiple point discharge  at  	
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
         	 Seasonally from
                                          (approximate meters)
                                              _98	 ft.  in length.
                                              locations
                                       through
         _ Continuous discharge all year
           X   Periodically, explain:  water applied  over  a  24
                once each week _ _ _ _____ _
    Factors which have actually  been used  to make  decisions to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
           X   none, relatively  continuous  discharge at  predetermined rate
               for  predetermined period
         _ water depth  in the wetland
         _ water quality discharged to  wetland
         _ water quality at  the wetland outflow
         _ water quality at  points inside  the  wetland
         _ _ precipitation
               other:
    Wetland vegetation harvested:  No
    Description of harvesting technique:
    Disposal or use of harvested material:
2.  pyaral 1 Budgets for Water-borne Components^
    Information known to exist covering one or more years:
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
                             41 

                              (f. OJ Q^
                              uj 3 o
 03
3 3 r—
*J O -s-J
O
o

J- 
ui aj
n ra
in 3
                                     153
o 

3 03
oo 3
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
r x
X
X





-------
                                CU
                                CD
                                1-
                                IB
                                -C
                                O
                                     5 eu i.
                                     o s- 
                                    
r— +JT3
IB    e:
&. i/i  «3
                                                 O!
OJ
o

-------
Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use
qualitative quantitative
study study











X


X




X


Dolan, T. J., S. E. Bayley, J. Zoltek, Jr., A.  Hermann, "The Clermont Project:
Renovation of Treated Effluent by a Freshwater Marsh:   Biomass Production and
Phosphorus' Results," Proceedings:  Environmental  Qual ity Through Wetlands
Utilization, Tallahassee, FL, pp. 132-152, March 2,  1978.

Hermann, A., J. Zoltek, Jr., S. E.  Bayley, T.  Dolan, "Nutrient Budget in a
Fluctuating Freshwater Marsh System in Florida,"  (Abstract), Presented at the
Conference on Freshwater Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater Disposal,  Higgins
Lake, MI, July 10-12, 1979.

Zoltek, J.,  Jr., S. E. Bayley, et_ aj_. , "Removal of Nutrients , from Treated
Municipal Wastewater by Freshwater Marshes," Final  Report to City of Clerinont,
Florida Center for Wetlands, University of Florida,  October 1979.

Dolan, T. J., S. E. Bayley, J. Zoltek, Jr., A.  Hermann, "The Clermont Project:
Renovation of Treated Effluent by a Freshwater Marsh,"  In:   Environmental
Quality Through Wetlands Utilization, Coord. Council on the Restoration of
the Kissimmee River Valley, March 1978, M. A.  Drew,  Ed., pp. 132-152.
                                     155

-------
COPIES PARADISE. Ontario
                                2
     Cootes Paradise is  a  5.2  km  wildlife  sanctuary  near  Hamilton, Ontario.
The Dundas sewage treatment  plant  began  discharging to  the wetland  in 1919.
The wetland is channelized.   Heavy metals have accumulated;  species compo-
sition changes have occurred.   Sediments are  important  sinks.
                                    156

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of	Jujj£	
1
                           jCo_otes._ Paradise, Ontario
                                1981
Summary of System Management Technique
Dates of operation:   1920     to Present
Annual approximate discharge: 	
Estimated affected area	]_.7_J 3
                                              4)
                                              O
                                              (O
ra t- e-acr> r— •»-> TJ «— tu
3 
QJ -C ^3 rt3 **~ S. t/> rt3 C3 i- ft3 i.
•MO i — r~- >• :33r— t/>GJ ^- H— 4J •?-• ^«l O -^ f~i 4J ^» 4J
ro'r- 4— OJQ) td »— CJ I3rd rj(O
S-a LUSO EE't-S: 003 003
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X








                                     157

-------
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
pH
Chloride content
B.O.D.
C.O.D.
Fecal col i form
Fecal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metals
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other :


Wastewater
discharge .
Effluent from
wetland to re-
ceiving waters

X









X





X









X




+J
Ol  O 
t-  tti 3 S_  OJ 4- 
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study











	 X
X




X

r x


Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use
6.  Principal Data Sources

Mudroch, A., J. A. Capobianco, "Effects  of Treated  Effluent  on  a  Natural
Marsh," Journal MPCF, Vol. 51, No.  9,  Sept.  1979, pp.  2243-56.
                                    159

-------
DRUMMOND, Wisconsin

     The Drummond project  started  in  1979.   This  sphagnum-spruce  bog  in
northern Wisconsin receives  treated wastewater  from  stabilization ponds
near the small  town of Drummond.   Rather  extensive study of the hydrology,
water quality,  and biological  compartments  is currently under way.  A large
variety of agencies have been  involved, and  no  centralized report is  yet
available.	          '     ""    '  "  ""*     	
                                     160

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
 Location and/or Name of Site:
 Current as of	July	
 1
                            Drummond,  Wisconsin
                                1981
2.
Summary of System Management Technique
Dates of operation:   V979     to Present
Annual approximate discharge:  15 y 106
Estimated affected area  ?n
                                             gal
                                             (approximate meters)
Wetland size  27 acres  (area)
Distance from inlet to outlet   200
Type of water discharge:
     	 Point discharge
        X   Flood irrigation with gated pipe,  400   ft. in length.
           Multiple point discharge at 	 locations
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
            X   Seasonally from    Hay
               Continuous discharge all year
               Periodically, explain: _
                                       through  October
    Factors which have actually been used to make decisions to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
         	none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         	 water depth in the wetland
         	 water quality discharged to wetland
         	 water quality at the wetland outflow
         	 water quality at points inside the wetland
            X   precipitation
         	other:	              	

    Wetland vegetation harvested: No           ~_       	J~~~~~"~~'
    Description of harvesting technique:
    Disposal or use of harvested material:
Overall  Budgets for Water-borne Components
Information known to exist covering one or more years:
                            11
                                    t m
                                    &} SM
                                    S- 
S- C
ns cu
C 3
tj r"~*
in f-
n3 •!- t-
3T3 UJ
X
X

X

•o
sr
 3 3 i— w ttl H~
•^- +J O •!-> -Q 4J S.
O) 
S-
QJ
J <
fO
3
X
X

X
                                    161

-------
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
PH
Chloride content
B.O.D.
C.O.D.
Fecal col i form
Fecal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metal s
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other:


Wastewater
discharge .


X

X
X
X
X








Effluent from
wetland to re-
ceiving waters


X

X
X
X
X








4J
Ol 0)
r^ JZZ
C +J
•T—
O
r— +J T3
fO C
SIS
fO r~ 
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study











X






X
X


Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6,  Principal Data Sources

Kappel, W., "The Drummond Project," (Abstract), Presented at the Conference on
Freshwater.Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater Disposal, Higgins Lake,  MI, July
10-12, 1979.

Kappel, W. M., U.S. Geological Surveys "The Drummond Project - Applying
Lagoon Sewage Effluent to a Bog; An Operational Trial," In:   Seminar
Proceedings on Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment, Univ.  of
California at Davis, USEPA 430/9-80-006, Sept.  1979, Pub. No. MCD-67,
Bastian and Reed, Ed.

Anderson, R. K., and D, Kent, Progress Report:   Drummond Wisconsin,  Tertiary
Treatment Demonstration Project Study.  Report  to the U.S.  Fish and  Wildlife
Service.  University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, WI, 22 p., 1979.

Guntenspergen, G.5 and F. Stearns, "Ecology of  an Ombrotrophic Bog," Summary
of a presentation to the Ecological Society of  America, Stillwater,  OK, 9 p.,
1979.

Guntenspergen, G., W. Kappel, F. Stearns, "Response of a Bog to Application
of Lagoon Sewage:  The Drummond Project - An Operational Trial," Summary
Project Report, Sept. 10, 1980.

Anonymous, "Nature's Filter," Audubon, July 1980, p. 140.

Mechenich, B. J., "Tertiary Wastewater Treatment Using a Natural Peat Bog,"
Masters thesis, College of Natural Resources, University of  Wisconsin,
Stevens Point, WI, 1980, 135 p.

Reim, J., "Sewage Treatment in a Sphagnum Peat  Bog," Great  Lakes Focus on
Water Quality, 6(3):6-9, 1930.

Wikum, D., and M. Ondrus, "The Drummond Bog Project:  Growth of Selected
Plant Species as a Function of Foliar and Peat  Substrate Nutrient Concen-
trations," Report to the U.S. Forest Service, University of  Wisconsin,
Stout, WI, 1980, 38 p.
                                     163

-------
DULAC, Louisiana

     This study was conducted  with the  introduction  of  fish  processing
waste to a fresh water marsh  in  Louisiana.   Small  scale test areas were
subjected to sprayings of liquid fish plant  waste.   Nitrogen and  phosphorus,
as well  as biomass data,  were  collected  during  the summer  season  of  1973.
Approximately half of the carbon nitrogen  and phosphorus were  removed from  ;
the wastewater in a relatively short retention  time  at  the edge of the
marsh.  Biomass increases were significant but  could not be  statistically
defended.
                                     164

-------
                  DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or  Name  of Site:
Current as  of      July	
1
                            Dulac, Louisiana
Summary of System Management Technique
Dates" of operaTFonlT971      to
    Annual approximate  discharge:    33,150
    Estimated affected  area   0.03~nl
    Wetland  size  170  ha
             	 (area)
Distance from inlet to  outlet _
Type of water discharge:
     	 Point discharge
                                     10
                                          gal
    (approximate meters)
                Flood  irrigation with gated pipe, 	
                Multiple  point  discharge at  12   locations
                                                    ft.  In length.
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
         	 Seasonally from
                            	 through
           Continuous discharge all year
           Periodically, explain:    biweekly
    Factors which  have  actually been  used to make decisions to modify the
    wastewater discharge  rate:
            X   none,  relatively continuous discharge at predetermined rats
               for predetermined period
         _ water  depth  in the wetland
         _ water  quality discharged to wetland
         _ water  quality at the wetland outflow
         _ water  quality at points  inside the wetland
         _ precipitation
               other:                                _
    Wetland vegetation  harvested:   No
    Description of  harvesting  technique:
    Disposal or use of  harvested material:
2.  Overall Budgets for Water-borne  Componen^s_
    Information known to  exist  covering  one  or more years;
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
                             S.
                             O C3
                             4J cn
                             n» i-
                             S  ra
3 S i—
*-> O -fJ
J? r~ §
o;
o
S3
C)-
S_ M

W «U

3 (O
CO S
OJ
U VI

-------
         I  VI
         §  i— -C
S-     •*- O «3  C +J
O) O)      +J 3  -r-
+J CD  4J         O
«!-    CXJCT)  r—+J13
3 CO    cu c c  ra   c
C) ^^    3 «3 •»"  S» t/) rQ
                                                     
-------
Vascular  plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use
5 •
qualitative quantitative
study study










X



X





Z___™-._^_™____
Smith, W. G. ,  and J. W.  Day, "Enrichment of Marsh  Habitats  with  Organic
U'uStes," Louisiana Water Resources  Research Institute,  Baton  Rouge,  LA,
9 p., 1973;

Meo , M. , J. li.  Day, Jr., T.  B.  Ford,  "Land  Treatment  of fish  Processing
Wastes on Dredge Spoin Sites:   Comparative  Cost  Evaluations,"  Coastal
Zone Management Journal , _3,  3,  pp.  307-318, 1977.

Turner,  R.  E.,  J, W. Day, Jr.,  M.  Meo,  P. M.  Payonk,  T,  8.  Ford,  W.  G.
Smith, "Aspects of Land-Treated Waste Applications in Louisiana  Wetlands,"
Presented at the Conference  on  Freshwater Wetlands and  Sewage  Effluent
Disposal, Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor,  Ml, May 10-11, 1976.
                                    167

-------
GAINESVILLE, Florida

     Wastewater from a package plant  at  a  trailer  park  has  been  pumped  to
small cypress domes in this  central  Florida  location  for  a  number  of years,
A very extensive research project  under  the  auspices  of the Center for
Wetlands at the University of Florida has  accompanied this  effort.  All
components of the ecosystem, including the soils,  water and other  abiotic
components,-have been studied in great detail.   Excellent water  renovation
has been displayed at this site.   Percolation  is downward to groundwater
during most periods of the year, although  overflow to surrounding  ecosystems
is possible at times.  This  study  includes some  virology  and bacteriology
as well as heavy metals work.  A complete  set  of documentation is  available
in the form of five annual reports.   A book  summarizing the results is
forthcoming.
                                     168

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of    July  '	
1
                           Gainesville, Florida
                                1981
Summary of System Management Technique
Dates of operation:   1973      to Present
Annual approximate discharge: 6 x To^
Estimated affected area  1.5 ha
Wetland size   1,5,_ha    (area)
Distance from inlet to outlet     50
Type of water discharge:
       X	 Point discharge
     	 Flood irrigation with gated pipe,
     	Multiple point discharge at 	locations
Typical monthly discharge schedule:
     	Seasonally from  	through
                                             gal
                                             (approximate meters)
                                                       ft, 1n length.
               Continuous discharge all  year
               Periodically, explain: _
    Factors which have actually been used to make decisions to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
           X   none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         	 water depth in the wetland
         	 water quality discharged to wetland
         	 water quality at the wetland outflow
         	 water quality at points inside the wetland
         	 precipitation
         	other:	

    Wetland vegetation harvested:  No        —  -       —
    Description of harvesting technique:
    Disposal or use of harvested material:
2.   Overall Budgets for Water-borne Cornpgjients
    Information known to exist covering one or  more years:
                                          V 
as
<4-
cu
en *J
s- e:
res cu
-C 13
U i—
 M-
*"" H—
3T3 UJ
X
X
X
V
A
o
4->

•o
C
rt3
fBM
4->
OJ
S
re e:
3 T-

cr> i—
c: re
•f- S-
> 3
•^- 4J
CU re
u z
X
X
X
X
•4->

O
+->

t/)
'S
o

<+-

<1) =3 f8
3 to 3




x__.
tZJZI
\
~l ~



QJ
O 01
ro &-
^- cu
S- 4J
3 ro
tsi 3;
___X 1
X
X
X
                                    169

-------
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
PH
Chloride content
B.O.D.
C.O.D.
Fecal co li form
Fecal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metals
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other: sulfur


Wastewater
discharge .
X
X

X
X
X
X

X

X
X

X


Effluent from
wetland to re-
ceiving waters
X
X

X
X
X
X

X

X
X

X


  O *J J3 *J S_ +J
« r— » 33 B3 3 «J
Z 
-------
Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use
6. £r»l!l£l2Jl_^§M_l
qualitative quantitative
study study



X
X
X
1






X
r™~~™
X
X
\ x
X
x j
ources
Ewel,' K. C., "Effects of Sewage Effluent on Ecosystem Dynamics in Cypress
Domes," Presented at the Conference on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage
Effluent Disposal, Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, MI, May 10-11, 1976.

Ewel, K. C., "Effects of Sewage Recycling on Structure and Function of
Cypress Ecosystems," (Abstract), Presented at the Conference on Fresh-
water 1,'etlands and Sanitary Wastewater Disposal, Higgins Lake, MI,
July 10-12, 1979.

Fritz,  W.  R., and S. C. Helle, Cypress Wetlands for Tertiary Treatment,
Boyle Engineering Corporation, Orlando, FL, Report to NSF, Grant #ENV76-
23276,  1979.

Qdum, H, T., K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, M. K. Johnston, VI.  J, Mitsch,
"Cypress Wetlands for Water Management Recycling and Conservation,"
Annual  Project Report to NSF, Grant IGI-28721 and to the Rockefeller
Foundation, Grant IRF-73029, 1974.

Fritz,  W.  R. and S.  C.  Helle, "Updated Preliminary Report  - Tertiary
Treatment  of Kastewater Using Cypress Wetlands," Report to NSF, Grant
#ENV76-23276, Nov. 1977.

Vlellings,  F. M., "Viral Aspects of Wetland Disposal  of Effluent,"
Proceedings of the Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands  and Sewage Effluent
Disposal,  Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor,  MI, pp. 297-305, Hay  10-11, 1976.

Odum, H. T., K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, M.  K. Johnston, "Cypress Wetlands
for Water  Management, Recycling and Conservation," Second  Annual  Report
to NSF, Grant =?AEN-07823A01, and the  Rockefeller Foundation, Grant # RF-
73029,  Dec. 1975.

Odum, H. T., K. C. Ewel, J. W. Ordway, M.  K. Johnston, "Cypress Wetlands
for Water  Management, Recycling and Conservation," Third Annual  Report
to NSF  Grant tf£NV73-07323A02, and to  the Rockefeller Foundation,  Grant
i?RF-76034s  Dec. 1976.
                                     171

-------
Odum, H.  T., K.  C.  Ewel,  "Cypress  Wetlands  for Water Management,  Recycling
and Conservation,"  Fourth Annual  Report t»  NSF, Grant #AENV-7307823AQ2 and
ENV77-06013, and to the Rockefeller Foundation, Grant #RF-7606,  March 1978.

Odum, H.  T., K.  C.  Ewel,  "Cypress  Wetlands  for Water Management,  Recycling
and Conservation,"  Fifth  Annual  Report to NSF, Grant #PFR-7706013A02 and
Rockefeller Foundation, Grant I RF-76034, April 1980.

Sitton, G., and  W.  Smith-Holmes,  "Bacterial  Aerosols Generaged by a  Package
Treatment Plant," Journal of Environmental  Health,  A13(566):391-401, 1978.

Bitton, G., N. Master, and G. E.  Gifford, "Effect of a Secondary Treated
Effluent on the  Movement of Viruses Through a Cypress Dome Soil," Journal
of Environmental Quality, 5(4) :370-375, 1976

Bitton, G. P., P. Scheuermann, G.  E. Gifford, and A. R.  Overman,  "Transport
of Viruses Through  Organic Soils  and Sediments," ASCE Journal  of Environmental
Engineering Division, (in press),  1979.

Deghi, G. A., K. C. Ewel, and W.  J. Mitsch,  "Effects of Sewage Effluent
Application on Litter Fall and Litter Decomposition in Cypress Domes,"
Journal of Applied  Ecology, 17(2)-.397-408,  1980.

Ewel, K.  C., and W. J. Mitsch, "The Effects of Fire on Species Composition in
Cypress Dome Ecosystems," Florida  Scientist, 41:25-31, 1978.

Ewel, D.  C.3 and H. T. Odum, "Cypress Domes:  Nature's Tertiary  Treatment
Plant," Pages 103-14 j_n_ W. Sopper  and S. N.  Kerr (Eds.), Utilization of
Municipal Sewage Effluent and Sludge on Forest and  Disturbed  Land,
Pennsylvania University Press, University Park, 1979.

Ewel, K. C., and H. T. Odum, "Cypress Swamps for Nutrient Removal and
Wastewater Recycling," Pages 181-198 jn_ W.  P. Wanielista and  W.  W.
Eckenfelder, Jr. (Eds.),  Advances  in Water  and Wastewater Treatment:
Biological Nutrient Removal, Ann Arbor Scientific Publications,  Inc.,
Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1978.

Mitsch, W. J., and  K. C.  Ewel, "Comparative Biomass and Growth of Cypress  in
Florida Wetlands,"  American Midland Naturalist, 101:417-425,  1979,

Murphy, J. B., and  R. G.  Stanley,  "Increased Germination Rates of Bald
Cypress and Pond Cypress Seed Following Treatments  Affecting  the Seed Coat,"
Physiologia Plantarum, 35:135-139, 1975.

Odum,  H. T.,  K.   C.  Ewel, W. J. Mitsch, and  J. W. Ordway, "Recycling  Treated
Sewage Through Cypress Wetlands in Florida," Pages  35-67 j_n_ Frank M. D'l-cri
(Ed.), Wastewater  Renovation and Reuse, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1977.

Wang,  F. C. and  A.  R. Overman, "Physical Description of Saturated-
Unsaturaged Zones  of Cypress Domes," American Geophysical Union,  58(6):392,
1977.


                                    172

-------
GREAT MEADOWS . Massachusetts

     This study, conducted by IEP of Wayland,  Massachusetts,  details  a  two-
year study of a wetland near the Concord River in  Lexington,  Massachusetts,
This wetland was basically a deep water, fresh water  marsh  that  had been
receiving effluent for some sixty-eight years  prior to  the  study.  The
principal water quality parameters still showed significant reductions:
phosphorus at approximately 60 percent and nitrogen at  above  90  percent.
Suspended solids were shown to be reduced at this  site  as well.  This is  a
very detailed study done by a professional  consulting organization.   The
discharge to the wetland was to be discontinued in 1979, due  to  its
classification as a wildlife refuge.  This  report  does  some speculation
based on the literature concerning discharge of secondary wastewater  to
wetlands.
                                   173

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED  FOR  WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of
1
                            Great Meadows, Massachusetts
Summary of System Management Technique
Dates of operation:   f912(?jto  1980
    Annual approximate discharge:  1 .6 x 10^  gal
    Estimated affected area   54 acres
    Wetland size   54 acres  (area)
    Distance from inlet to outlet   700       (approximate meters)
    Type of water discharge:
           X   Point discharge
         	 Flood irrigation with  gated  pipe,  	 ft. in length.
               Multiple point discharge  at  	 locations
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
               Seasonally from
            X
           Continuous discharge all year
           Periodically, explain:
                                       through
    Factors which have actually been used  to make  decisions  to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
           X   none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         	water depth in the wetland
         	 water quality discharged to wetland
         	 water quality at the wetland outflow
         	 water quality at points inside the  wetland
         	 precipitation
               other:
    Wetland vegetation harvested: No
    Description of harvesting tecnm'que:
    Disposal or use of harvested material:
2.  Overall Budgets for Water-borne Components
    Information known to exist covering one or more years;
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
                            t-
                            O) O)
                            4^ O
                            ra i-

                            

                            3^
                                     I  
                                   S 

                              4J         O
                              != "O W   i— 4-> t3
                              
ra J-

-------
                                    S OJ i.
                                    O i. 
O) O
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
pH
Chloride content
B.O.D.
C.O.D.
Fecal col i form
Facal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metals
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other:


Wastewater
discharge
X




X
___ ,









**- O « C +J CD
+-> 3 T- o
•i~> O «
C T3 O) r— •»-! T3 t-
03 C C 03 d S- "5
3fO'f- t.t/)fO Si-
r—i— > 33r— W1(D
UJ3O 2:<*^S VIS
X




X
X









































Surface
waters
X




r x
X


	 1






3.  Hydrology
    Data known to be available for one or more years:
    Complete water budgets  	
    Water depth measurements 	
    Soil elevations within the wetland (by survey with optical level or
      equivalent 	
    Estimates of subsurface water flow through the underlying soil  	
    Estimates of the fraction channel  flow as opposed to sheet flow 	
    Details of water flow patterns across the wetland 	

4.  Detai 1 ed_ Componsnt^ Bajariceji
    Detailed budgets known to have been prepared for one or more years,
    A "detailed budget"  is defined here as accounting for a particular
    component, considering its transport between water and soil, plants,
    algae,  or other physically identifiable entity within the wetland.
    Total phosphorus 	
    Total nitrogen 	
    Suspended solids 	
    Chloride 	
    Heavy Metals 	
    Other:
    ECosy_stern Changes
    Studies have been  made of the following changes  in the wetland since
    wastewater discharge began.   It  is indicated  whether these studies are
    qualitative or quantitative  observations.
                                   175

-------
qualitative quantitative
study study
X





X






X








Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  Principal Data Sources

Yonika, D.  A., D.  Lowry,  "Bi-Monthly  Summary  Report,"  Interdicipl inary
Environmental  Planning, Vlayland,  Mass.   Periods:   Nov.  -  Dec.  1977;  May  -
June 1978;  Sept.  - Oct.  1978;  March - April 1978.

Yonika, D.,  et_ aj_., "Feasibility  Study  of  Zetland  Disposal  of  Wastewater
Treatment Plant Effluent,"  Final  Report to the  Commonwealth of Massachusetts
Water Resources Comission,  Division of  Water  Pollution  Control,  June 1979.

Lowry, D.,  D.  A.  Yonika,  "Feasibility of Wetland Disposal of Uastcwacer
Treatment Plant Effluent  in Massachusetts," (Abstract),  Presented  at the
Conference on Freshwater  Wetlands and Sanitary  Wastewater Disposal ,
Higgins Lake, MI,  July 10-12,  1979,

Yonika, D.  A., "Effectiveness  of  a Wetland in Eastern Massachusetts  in
Improvement  of Municipal  Wastewater," In:   Seminary  Proceedings  for
Wastewater Treatment, University  of California  at  Davis,  USEPA 43Q/9-30-C06,
Seotember 1979, Pub,  no.  MCD-67,  Bastian and  Reed, Ed.
                                    176

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HAMILTON, New Jersey                       '                                -

     Research was conducted at the Hamilton Township Sewage Treatment  plant
in Trenton,  New Jersey.   Wastewater from  the  sewage  treatment  plant was  used
to irrigate  relatively small  (10m x 20m)  enclosures  in  a  variety  of different
ways.  Different loadings and different'nutrient  contents were tried at
different time periods during the tide,cycle.   Monthly  water samples were
collected and analyzed for nitrogen,  phosphorus,  carbon dioxide,  oxygen, and
alkalinity.   Decomposition rates  were determined, and some species composi-
tion data acquired.   The Hamilton wetland is  a  fresh water tidal  wetland.
I believe there is no long term data  from this  site, because I believe their
research discontinued after approximately three years.  This is a relatively
detailed study done by university people, and consequently suffers only  from
the short time period over which  the  study was  conducted.
                                   177

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                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT  OPERATIONS
Location and/or Mama of Site:
Current as of July,
1
                                                 ^
                  ,        _ _
    Summary of System Management Technique
    Dates  of operation:   1975     to _ 1971
    Annual  approximate discharge:  1.7 x 10° gal
    Estimated affected area  200 rn^~each    ~
    Wetland size j50Q_ha(area)    "
    Distance from inlet to outlet ____lp_____ (approximate meters)
    Type of watar discharge:
         	 Point discharge
         	 Flood irrigation with gated  pipe, 	 ft. 1n length.
         __JL_ Multiple point discharge at  	locations
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
           X   Seasonally from   April      through   December
               Continuous discharge all year
               Periodically, explain:
    Factors which have actually been used to make  decisions to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
         ___£___ none, relatively continuous discharge  at predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         ______ water depth in the wetland
         	~ water quality discharged to wetland
         	 water quality at the wetland outflow
         	 water quality at points 1nside-tha  wetland
         ______ precipitation
               other:
    Wetland vegetation harvested:  No  (except for b 1 omass ana nutri ent
         ..studies)....	_,
    Description of harvesting technique:	
    Disposal or use of harvested material:
2 .  Ovaral 1 Budgsts_
                   _ .^,
    Information known to exist covering  one  or more years:
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
                             ,
                              a>
                                  UJ 5 o
cu 
u
to
t-
s, w
3 i.
in SJ
                                                   CO 2S
OJ
(J 
-------
                                    s  O3
0) Ql »p 3s ••- o
+-> en 4J o us
.jj o ,_,_-. 33*- in cu
fO *»™ H— QJ O TO r— !3J ^3 (13
1 |





























X














. j
















Surface
waters
x_















3.  Hydrology
    Data known to be available for one or more years:
    Complete water budgets  	
    Water depth measurements 	
    Soil elevations within the wetland (by survey with  optical  level  or
      equivalent	
    Estimates of subsurface water flow through the underlying  soil 	
    Estimates of the fraction channel  flow as  opposed to  sheet  flow 	
    Details of water flow patterns across the  wetland 	

4.  Petal 1 e_d Component 8al ances
    Detailed budgets known to have been prepared  for one  or more years,
    A "detailed budget" is defined here as accounting for a particular
    component, considering its transport between  water  and soil,  plants,
    algae,  or other physically identifiable entity within the  wetland.
    Total phosphorus   X   ,,         ,         ...  ,    ,
    Total nitrogen _XT~ }    SSVe     M&r       °y
    Suspended solids 	
    Chloride 	
    Heavy Metals	
    Other:
    Ecosystem Changes
    Studies have been  made of the  following changes  1n  the wetland  since
    wastewater discharge  began.   It  is  indicated whether these  studies  are
    qualitative or quantitative  observations,
                                  179

-------
qualitative quantitative
study study



X


r x










X i
X

	 	 —
Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Al gae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  _Princi pa 1 Data  Sources

Sickels,  F.  A.,  R.  L.  Simpson,  and D.  F.  Whigham,  "Decomposition of Vas-
cular Plants in  a.Del aware  River,  Freshwater Tidal  Marsh Exposed to
Sewage Spray Irrigation,"  Bulletin of  the New Jersey Academy of Science,
22,  2, pp.  41-42,  1977.

Simpson,  R.  L.,  "The Effects of Sewage Spray Irrigation in a Freshwater
Tidal wetland.   II.   Decomposition Studies."  Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting  of  the American  Institute  of Biological  Sciences, held
at Stillwater,  OK,  Aug.  12-17,  1979.

Whigham,  D.  F.,  "Effects of Sewage Spray  Irrigation on  a Freshwater
Wetland.  I.  Primary Production
Nutrient Standing Stocks,"  Paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Biological
Sciences, held at Stillwater, OK, Aug. 12-17, 1979.

Whigham, D. F., J, McCormick, R. E. Good, and R. L. Simpson, "Bicmass
and Primary Production in Freshwater Tidal Wetlands of the Kiddie Atlantic
Coast."  In:  Freshwater Wetlands:  Ecolocicai Processes and Management
Potential, R. E, Good, D. F. Whigham, arid R. Simpson (Editors), Academic
Press, Inc., New York, NY, pp. 3-20, 1973.

Whioham, D, F. and R. L. Simpson, "Sewage Spray Irrigation in a Delaware
River Freshwater Tidal Marsh."  In:  Freshwater Wetlands and Sewace
Effluent Disposal, D. L. Til ton, R. !i. Kadlec, and C. J. Richardson
(Editors), Proceedings of a Symposium held at The University of Michigan,
Ann Ardor, HI, pp. 119-144, May 10-11, 1976.

Whigham, D, F., R. L. Simpson, and K. Lee, "The Effect of Sewage Effljent
on the Structure and Function of a Freshwater Tidal Marsh Ecosystem."
New Jersey Water Resources Research Institute, Rutgers University, Rutgers,
NJ, pp.  171, 19SO.
                                    180

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HAY RIVER s Northwest Territories

     Sewage effluent from the  town  of  Hay  River, Northwest Territories,
Canada, is released into  a seasonal  stream,  and  flows about  6  km  from the
discharge site into Great Slave  Lake.   Throughout much  of the  year, the  ,
stream comprises of a series of  channels,  ponds and  swamps,  with  little
flow.   The majority of the sewage  is discharged  from stabilization lagoons,
with about 20% of the total released directly, untreated.  Substantial
improvement in water quality is  achieved.   Elevated  standing crops of
Tyjiha  and Carex are reported.  Discharge began in 1970.
                                   181

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             DATA COLLECTED FOP WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Mame of Site:
Current as of
1

                _ _______
Summary of System Management Technique
Dates of operation:  196FT~~^o  Present
Annual approximate discharge:  J1
Estimated -affected area-, .32. ha -
Wetland size  47  ha      (area
                                   5,360
Distance from inlet to outlet
Type of water discharge:
        X  Point discharge
     _ Flood irrigation with gated pipe,
           Multiple point discharge at       "Vocations
(approximate meters)


          ft. in length.
Typical  monthly discharge schedule:
     	 Seasonally from
           Continuous discharge all  year
           Periodically, explain:
                                           through
Factors which have actually been used to make decisions to modi fy "tns
wastewater discharge rate:
     __X__ none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined rata
           for predetermined period
     	water depth in the wetland
     	water quality discharged to wetland
     	 water quality at the wetland outflow
     	water quality at points inside the wetland
     	 precipitation
     	other: 	_____	

Wetland vegetation harvested:  Sedae
Description of harvesting tecnnique:
Disposal or use of harvested material:
                f r '-ja t s r - born s_ C cmpon_en t s
Information known to exist




i.
o
•f"3
a
3
(y
4J
W
G3
covering one or more
1  i-
S~ 01
i- •4-'
i- a  3
en jj
i, c T3 cn
a 
V5 H- +j .-.
r- M- 03 0
3 -o uj 3 o
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content


/ V
< .. X 	

4^
OJ CD
r— .£^
C +J 0




years ;







o
» n^ ^**
CU tfr- <3J
•^-J S» 4J
ta 3 o
3 -o 3


X
X
                                182

-------
                                      I  in
                                      d) i.
                                      S. ft)
                                        4J
O) S)
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
PH
Chloride content
B.O.D.
C.O.D.
Fecal co li form
Fecal strep
Viruses
heavy Metals
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other: 
QJ^r 3 «J •«- S-W5K3 3S- (OS~
*JU r-r-> 3Si— trtOI «*-
t/J tn 4— -M •!*" 4J O -I™3 »O -M £-• 4-^
(Oi— <4— OJSJ (3 p— OJ 3B3 nit!
3T3 UJ3U z:M-3: o->s (-03
x
X




X

X




1
X

X .
X




X

X




__JL_
x















1














. . t .
X
X




X









3.  Hydrology
    Data known to be available for one or more years:
    Complete water budgets  	
    Water depth measurements	
    Soil elevations within the watland (by survey with optical  level  or
      equivalent 	
    Estimates of subsurface water flow through the underlying soil  	
    Estimates of the fraction channel  flow as opposed  to sheet  flow 	
    Details of water flow patterns across the wetland  	

4.  Detai1ed Component Balances
    Detailed budgets known to have bean prepared for one or more years,
    A "detailed budget" is defined here as accounting  for a particular
    component, considering its transport between water and soil, plants.
    algae, or other physically identifiable entity within the wetland.
    Total phosphorus  x
    Total nitrogen 	
    Suspended solids 	
    Chloride	
    Heavy Metals 	
    Other:
    Ecosystem Changes
    Studies have been  made of the  following  changes  1n  the  wetland  since
    wastewater discharge  began.   It  is  indicated  whether  these  studies  are
    qualitative or quantitative  observations.
                                   183

-------
qualitative quantitative
study study










_x

i- x







!
Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Vi ruses
Sediments
Utter
Soil
Human use
Land use
6.  Prlnci pal- Data Sources

Hartland-Rowe, R.,  and P.  B.  Wright,  "Effects  of  Sewage  Effluent  on
Swampland Stream,"  Verb.  Int.  Ver.  Limnol,  Vol. 19,  p. 1575,  1975.
                                    184

-------
HOUGHTON LAKE,  Michigan

     Research at this site  has  been  under  way  since  1971, and  includes
several  different scales  of additions  of secondary wastewater  to a sedge-
leatherleaf area in  central  Michigan.   Water renovation has been excellent
at all  scales of operation,  and a  large amount of data has been acquired
concerning all  aspects of that  waste treatment operation.  Studies include
some work on viruses, vertebrates,  invertebrates, and extensive work on"
the vegetation  of the area.   Water quality, sediments and soils have been
studied extensively.   The current  full-scale operation, averaging 1,000,000
gallons of water per  day  during the  summer season, has been under way for
three years at  this  location.
                                   185

-------
                 DATA  COLLECTED  FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of
1
              _,  _ __
    Summary of System Management  Technique
    Dates  of operation:  Ii75_ _ to   Present
    Annual  approximate discharge:  100 x ]0g_  gal
    Estimated  affected area   100 Acres
    Wetland size JJOO_Acres Tareil
    Distance from inlet to outlet   4000      (approximate meters)
    Type of water discharge:
         	Point  discharge
            X   Flood  irrigation  with gated pipe,   32QQ ft. in length.
                                                 locations
         	Multiple point discharge at
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
            X  Seasonally from  May
                                           throuah September
               Continuous  discharge all  year
               Periodically,  explain:  	
    Factors which have actually been used to make decisions to modify
    wastewater discharge rate:
            X   none., relatively continuous discharge at predetermined
               for predetermined period
         	water depth in the wetland
         	 water quality discharged to wetland
         	water quality at the wetland outflow
         	water quality at points inside the wetland
         	 precipitation
            X   other:  Research Activities	

    Wetland veg'itatTol'Pharvested: "_No	      .J..__._...Z~ZZZ1	
    Description of harvesting technique: _No_
    Disposal  or use of harvested material :  jj[
2.   Oj/erjJJ_Bj^^rts__foT__ya^
    Information known to exist covering one or more years:
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
                                  o
                                  s_
                                       in

                                       4)
                                       4->
                                     O "3
OJ OJ
r— x:
c +J

  o
                                                  cu
                                                  u
S «j  3S>~
(/1V5 q_4J.^- +JO-S->
(O «r- 4- 
-------
                                       I in
                                    s 
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study









X
1 - - 	 -X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
" X~~

X
Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Al gae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6,  Prlnci pal Data Sources^

Bergland,  M.  $.,  "Foraging Ecology of the Female Red-Winged Blackbird,"
M.S. Thesis.  The  Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor,  MI, 1975.

Bergland,  M.  S.,  "Foraging Behavior of Red-Winged Blackbirds Breeding in
a Wetland  Ecosystem," Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
MI,  1978.

Chamie,  J.  P. M., "The Effects of Simulated Sewage Effluent upon Decompo-
sition,  Nutrient  Status and Litterfall in a Central Michigan Peatlano,"
Ph.D. Thesis, The Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 1975.
Croson, S. C., "Distribution and Abundance of Insects in a Wetland E.CO
system," M.S. Thesis, The Univ.  of Mich.,  Ann Arbor, MI 1975.

Croson, S. C., and J. A. Witter, "Distribution and Abundance of Mosquitoes
in a Wetland Ecosystem," North Central Branch, Entomological Society of
America, Proceedings. 1975.

Oixon, K. R., "A Model for Predicting tne Effects of Sewage Effluent en a
Wetland Ecosystem," Ph.D. Thesis, The Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, MI, 1974.

Gupta, P. K., "Dynamic Optimization Applied to Systems with Periodic
Disturbances," Pn.D. Thesis, The Ur.iv. of Michigan, Ann Aroor, MI, 1377,

Haag, R. 0., Jr., "The Hydrogeology of the Houghton Wetland," Doctoral
Thesis, Geology Dept., The Univ. of Mich., Ann Arcor, MI, June, 1S79.

Haag, R. D.,"The Hydrogeology of the Houghton Lake Wetland," The Michigan
Academician, (In Progress), 1979.

Hammer, D. E., and R. H. Kadlec, ''Grthophosphate Adsorption on Peat," 5th.
International Peat Congress, Duluth, Minnesota, (In Progress), 193C.

Jones, R. C., "Design and Construction Aspects of the Houghton Irrigation
Project," Presented at the Conference on Freshwater Wetlands and Sanitary
idastewater Disposal, Higgins Lake, MI, July 10-12, 1979.
                                    188

-------
Kadlec, J. A., "Dissolved Nutrients in a Peatland Near Houghton Lake,
Michigan," Proceedings of the Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage
Effluent Disposal, The Univ. of Mich., pp. 27-50, May 10-11, 1976.

Kadlec, J. A., "Nitrogen and Phosphorus Dynamics in Inland Freshwater Wet-
lands," Proceedings of the Symposium on Waterfowl and Wetlands, Midwest
Wildlife Conference, Madison, Wisconsin, (In Press), 1978.

Kadlec, J. A., R. H. Kadlec, P. E. Parker, K. R. Dixon, "The Effects of
Sewage Effluent on Wetland Ecosystems,: Report to NSF/RANN, Grant ?GI-
34812X, Progress Report, July 1, 1972, to April 1, 1973.

Kadlec, J. A., R. H. Kadlec, C. J. Richardson, "The Effects of Sewage Efflu-
ent on Wetland Ecosystems," Report to NSF/RANN, Grant #GI-34812X, Progress
Report, April 1, 1973, to March 1, 1974.

Kadlec, J. A., R. H. Kadlec, and C. J. Richardson, "The Effects of Sewage
Effluent on.Wetland Ecosystems," Semi-Annual Report No, 1 to NSF/RANN,
Grant #GI-34812X, May 1974.

Kadlec, R. H., "Performance of the Houghton Lake, Michigan Wetland Treatment
System," (Abstract), Presented at the Conference on Freshwater Wetlands and
Sanitary Wastewater Disposal, Higgins Lake, MI, July 10-12, 1979.

Kadlec, R. H., "Surface Hydrology of Peatlands," Proceedings of the Symposium
on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal, The Univ. of Mich.',
Ann Arbor, MI, pp. 5-24, May 10-11, 1976.

Kadlec, R. H., "Wastewater Treatment Via Wetland Irrigation:  Hydrology,"
In:  Wetlands Ecology, Values and Impacts, C. B. DeWitt and E. Soloway,
Eds., Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin, 1978.

Kadlec, R. H., "Wetlands for Tertiary Treatment," In:  Wetland Functions and
Values:  The State of our Understanding, American Water Resources Association,
1979.

Kadlec, R. H., "Wetland Tertiary Treatment at Houghton Lake, Michigan," In:
Seminar Proceedings on Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment, Bastian
and Reed, Ed., Univ. of California at Davis, USEPA 430/9-80-006,  Pud. No.
MCD-67, Sept. 1979.

Kadlec, R. H., "Wetland Utilization for Management of Community Wastewater -
1978 Operations Summary, Houghton Lake," Report to the National Science
Foundation, R. H. Kadlec, Ed., Grant # ENV-23868, March, 1979.

Kadlec, R. H., D. E. Hammer, "Wetland Utilization for Management  of Community
Wastewater - 1979 Operations Summary, Houghton Lake," Report to the National
Science Foundation, Grant ? ENV-3868, Feb., 1980,

Kadlec, R. H., D. E. Hammer, I.  S,  Nam and J.  0.  Wilkes, "Overland Flow in
Wetlands," 88th National Meeting, American.Institute of Chemical  Engineers,
(In Progress), 1980.

                                     189

-------
Kadlec, R. H., D, E. Hammer, D. L. Til ton, "Wetland Utilization for Manage-
ment of Community Wastewater," Status Report to NSF, Grant •? ENV77-23353,
Oct. 1978.

Kadlec, R. H., D-. -E. Hammer, D. L. Tiltons L. Rosnian, B. Yardley, "Hcughtcn
Lake Wetland Treatment Project," First Annual Operations Report, Dec. 19/5,

Kadlec, R. H., and J. A. Kadlec, "Wetlands and Water Quality," In:  Wetland
Functions and Valu-es:  The State of Our Understanding, American Water Re-
sources Association,, 1979.

Kadlec, R. H., C. J. Richardson, J. A. Kadlec, "The Effects of Sewaae Efflu-
ent on Wetland Ecosystems," Semi-Annual Report No. 2 to NSF/RANN, Grant
# GI-34812X, Nov. 1974.

Kadlec, R. H., C. J. Richardson, J. A. Kadlec, "The Effects of Sewage Efflu-
ent on Wetland Ecosystems," Semi-Annual Report No. 3 to NSF/RANN, Grant
# GI-34812X, May 1975.

Kadlec, R. H., C. J, Richardson, J, A. Kadlec, "The Effects of Sewage Efflu-
ent on Wetland Ecosystems," Semi-Annual Report No. 4 to NSF/RANN, Grant
# GI-34812X, Nov. 1975.

Kadlec, R. H., D. L. Tilton, "Nutrient Dynamics in Effluent-Irrigated Wet-
lands," In:  Environmental Quality Through Wetlands Utilization, M. A. Drew,
Ed., The Coordinating Council on the Restoration of the Kissimmee River
Valley, Tallahassee, Florida, 197S.

Kadlec, R. H., D. L. Tilton, J. A. Kadlec, "Feasibility of Utilization of
Wetland Ecosystems for Nutrient Removal from Secondary Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Plant  Effluent," Semi-Annual Report No. 5 to NSF/RANN, Grant
# AEN75-08855, June  1977.

Kadlec, R. H., D. L. Tilton, B. R. Schwegler, "Wetlands for Tertiary Treat-
ment:  A Three-Year  Summary of Pilot Scale Operations at Hcuchton Lake,"
Report to RANN,  Grant y AEN75-03855, Feb. 1979.

Linde, J, E.,  "Marsh Project Map Generator," Class Project, (ChE 695, Cept.
of  Chemical  Engineering,  University of Michigan, Jan. 1978).

Maguire,  L.  A.,  "A Model  of Beaver Population and Feeding Dynamics  in a
Peatland  at  Houghton Lake, Michigan," M.S. Thesis, The Univ. of Mich.,
Ann Arbor, MI, 1974.

Parker,  P. E., "A Dynamic Ecosystem Simulator," Ph.D. Thesis, The Univ.  of
Mich., Ann Arbor, MI,  1974.

Parker,  P. E,, P. K. Gupta, K. R.  Dixon,  R.  H. Kadlec, D. E. Hammer,  "RESUS:
A Computer Routine  for  Predictive  Simulation of Wetland Ecosystems,"  Report
to NSF/RANN, Grant  # ENY76-80708,  Aug. 1978.

Parker,  P.  E., R. H.  Kadlec,  "A Dynamic  Ecosystem Simulator," Paper presented

                                     190

-------
at American Institute of Chemical Engineers 78th National Meeting, Salt Lake
City, Utah, Aug. 1974.

Rabe, M. L., "Impact of Wastewater Discharge upon a Northern Michigan Wetland
Wildlife Community," Report to Houghton Lake Sewer Authority, 1979.

Richardson, C. J., J. A. Kadlec, W. A. Wentz, J. P. M. Chatrne, and R. H,
Kadlec, "Background Ecology and the Effects of Nutrient Additions on a
Central Michigan Wetland," The Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor, MI, Pub. No. Four,
June 1975.

Richardson, C. J., D. L. Tilton, J. A. Kadlec, J. P-. M. Chamie, and W. A.
Wentz, "Nutrient Dynamics in Northern Wetland Ecosystems," In:  Freshwater
Marshes: Present Status, Future Needs, R. E. Good, R. L. Simpson, D. F.
Whigham, Eds., Academic Press, New York, NY, 1978.

Richardson, C. J,, W. A. Wentz, J. P. M. Chamie, J. A. Kadlec, and D. L.
Tilton, "Plant Growth, Nutrient Accumulation and Decomposition in a Central
Michigan Peatland used for Effluent Treatment," Proceedings of a Symposium
on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal, Univ. of Mich., Ann
Arbor, MI, pp. 77-118, May 10-11, 1976.

Rosman, L., "Impact Assessment of a Northern Michigan Wetland Invertebrate
and Vertebrate Fauna Receiving Secondarily Treated Sewage Effluent," Report
to Houghton Lake Sewer Authority, 1978.

Scheffe, R. D., "Estimation and Prediction of Summer Evapotranspiration
from a Northern Wetland," M.S. Thesis, THe Univ., of Mich., Ann Arbor, MI,
1978.

Schwegler, B. R., Jr., "Effects of Sewage Effluent on Algal Dynamics of a
Northern Michigan Wetland," M.S. Thesis, The Univ. of Mich.,  Ann Arbor, MI,
1978.

Schwegler, B. R., and R. H. Kadlec, "Wetlands and Wastewater," Phamphlet,
1978.

Schwegler, 8. R., and C. J. Richardson, "Effects of Nutrient Additions on
Algae in a Central Michigan Wetland," Bulletin of the Ecological Society
of America, 1977.

Tilton, D. L,, "Nitrogen Dynamics in Northern Freshwater Wetlands," Bulletin
of the Ecological Society of America, 1977.

Tilton, D. L., "Recovery of Nutrients from Peatlands used for Tertiary
Treatment,"'Presented at the Conference on Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage
Effluent Disposal, The Univ. of Mich. Wetlands Ecosystem Research Group^
Ann Arbor, MI, May 1976.

Tilton, D. L., and R. H. Kadlec, "The Utilization of Freshwater Wetlands for
Nutrient Removal from Secondarily Treated Wastewater," Journal of Environ-
mental Quality, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1979.

                                     191

-------
Til ton, D. L., R. H. Kadlec,  C.  J.  Richardson, "Freshwater Wetlands and
Sewage Effluent Disposal," Proceedings of the NSF/RANN Conference on
Freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal, The Univ. of Mich,, Ann
Arbor, MI, May 10-11, 1976.

Wentz, W. A,, "The Effects of Simulated Sewage Effluents on the Growth and
Productivity of Peatland Plants," Ph.D. Thesis, THe Univ. of Mich., Ann''
Arbor, MI. 1975,                                 '

Wentz, W. A., R, L. Smith, J. A. Kadlec, "A Selected Annotated Bibliography
on Aquatic and Marsh Plants  and  their Management,"  The Univ. of Mich.,
Ann Arbor, HI, Publication Number Two, August 1974.

Williams, T. C., "The History and Development of the Houghton Lake Wetland -
Wastewater Treatment Project," (Abstract), Presented at the Conference en
Freshwater Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater Disposals Higgins Lake, MI,
July 10-12, 1979.

Williams, T. C., J. C. Sutherland,  "Engineering, Energy and Effectiveness
Features of Michigan Tertiary Wastewater Treatment Systems," Seminar on
Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater  Treatment, Univ. of Calif., Davis, CA,
Sept. 11-12, 1979.

Williams and Works, "Operation and  Maintenance Manual," Houghton Lake Sei'?r
Authority, Houghton Lake, MI, 1973.

Williams and Works, "Proposal and Specifications," Roscommon County, MI,
Dept. of Public Works, Wastewater Treatment Expansion, Tri-Township Con-
tract No. 6, Farmers Home Administration, EPAC-262768 05, Aug. 1977.

Witter, J. A., S. Croson, "Insects  and Wetlands," Proceedings of a Symposium
on freshwater Wetlands and Sewage Effluent Disposal, Univ. of Mich.s Ann
Arbor, MI, pp. 269-295, May 10-11,  1975.
                                     192

-------
HUMBOLDT, Saskatchewan

     The sewage treatment operation  at Humboldt,  TOO  km  east  of  Saskatoon  is
the culmination of three years of controlled  experiments at the  Saskatchewan
Research Council  on the use of aquatic plants for  treating waste waters.
The system at Humboldt consists of two 1/2  hectare lagoons and three  separate
90 metre long ditches.  They are stocked  with cattail  (Typha  sp.) and  bulrush
(Scirpus sp.) the most common aquatic  plants  on the prairies.  As a demon-
stration project, the treatment system has  been designed to treat a part of
the town's sewage from over 5,000 people.   Raw (untreated) sewage from the
town's primary lagoon is pumped through irrigation pipes with flow regulators
into lagoons  and  ditches.  After a period of  time, from  a few days to  a few
weeks, the effluent is discharged and  another batch of sewage is pumped in.
                                    193

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of  jui^/
1
Summary of System Management_ Technique
Dates of operation:   1979,	to _P_resent_.
    Annual approximate discharge: 5-8 x 10g__ gal
    Estimated affected area
    Wetland size
                         1 ha
                1 ha..  (area)
Distance from inlet to outlet
Type of water discharge:
       X    Point discharge
                                    90
(approximate meters)
               Flood irrigation with gated pipe,	 ft, in length.
               Multiple point discharge at  	 locations  •
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
         	 Seasonally from
               Continuous discharge all year
               Periodically, explain:
                                       through

Factors which have actually been used to make decisions to modify  ins
wastewater discharge rate:
     _______ none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined  rate
           for predetermined period
     _ _ water depth 1n the wetland
     _ water quality discharged to wetland
       X   water quality at the wetland outflow
           water quality at points inside the wetland
           precipitation
           other:            _____
           X
    Wetland vegetation harvested: __Yes_
    Description of harvesting technique: _Jte4iuarLj-i_sne.ar_s.
    Disposal or use of harvested material:  --
2.  Overall Budgets forHater-borne Components
    Information known to exist covering one or mora years:
                               

°r~ ^— QJ
T3 Ul 3
X
X


X
X
O} r*~
C 113
•r- i.
> 3
•1**" H-J
aj res
U 'Z
____x__
X
X
X
4->

V)
IS
O

M-
"O <*- 0)
C S, 10 CJ
rtJ 35- 113
r™ i/) qj t4»


-------
                                       a) +j 3 •*- o
4J O) -*-> o n3
R3 S« d "O OS *— • -^ "O **— Q^
3
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study



X
X






X


X
X






Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land u-se

6.  Principal Data Sources

Lakshi'nan, G., "A Demonstration Project at Humboldt to Provide Tertiary
Treatment to the Municipal Effluent Using Aquatic Plants - Progress Report
1979," Saskatchewan Research Council, Publ.  No. E-820-13-1-E-8Q, March
1980.

Lakshman, G., "A Demonstration Project at Humboldt to Provide Tertiary
Treatment to the Municipal Effluent Using Aquatic Plants - Progress Report
1930, Saskatchewan Research Council, Publ, No. E-820-4-E-81, April 1931,
                                      196

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JASPER. Florida

     A significant research project  on  the  use  of a  cypress  strand  for  the
treatment of secondary effluents is  under way at this  location,  A  small
community in north Florida  have been discharging wastewater  to this wetland
for a fair number of years.  The project  is  under the  joint  auspices  of
Boyle Engineering Company and the Center  for Wetlands  at  the University cf
Florida.
                                    197

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                  DATA  COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or  Name  of Site:
Current as of    July	
1
                             _Jasp.gr_, __F lor id a
                                 1981
Summary 'pf System Management  Technique
Dates of operation: __	to 	
Annual approximate discharge;	
Estimated affected area     -    _
Wetland siza	m	(area)
Distance from  inlet to outlet	
Type of water  discharge:
     	 Point discharge
                                              gal
                                              (approximate meters)
                Flood  irrigation with gated pipe, 	
                Multiple point discharge at 	 locations
                                                    ft.  1n  length.
    Typical monthly  discharge schedule:
               Seasonally from
               Continuous  discharge all year
               Periodically,  explain: _
                                        through
    Factors which  have actually been used to make decisions  to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
         	none,  relatively continuous discharge  at  predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         	 water  depth  in the wetland
         	water  quality discharged to wetland
         	water  quality at the wetland outflow
         	 water  quality at points Inside the wetland
         	 precipitation
               other:
    Wetland vegetation harvested:
    Description  of harvesting technique:
    Disposal  or  use  of harvested material
    Overall  Budgets  for_._.jjater-borne_Cofn_p_g_nents_
    Information  known to exist covering one or more years:
                                  I to
                                 §ty SP«   -^~*
                                 &* OJ   QJ QJ
                               £»   4-5   r~ -C
                         &-     *t— O ^   K 4-*
                            4J         O
                         rt3S-   C:-OCTi  P— +J-O
                         S rt3   CL> C C   ft3   C
                         GJ J^I   ^3 fO •r""   S«. V) TO
                         ^,0   ^- ,— >   rsSr«
                         t/l trt   U- 4_) .f».   4-J O 4-1
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                                                    O
                                                    153
                                                      !-
                                                      4)
                                                          0)
                                                          o m
                                                          (3 S_
                                                   XI
                                                    rj m   3 
-------
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
PH
Chloride content
B.O.D.
C.O.D.
Fecal co li form
Fecal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metals
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other:


E 0) i. 4J
O &»- QJ  0) -M 3 T- 0
4- Ol 4-> O H3
03 1. CTT3GT) r~-MT3  (/I <4« 4^ »)»» ^ £) 4^3 ..r^ 4^
nS'i— M—
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study
!



, - • •














f
Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  Principal Data Sources,

Fritz', W. R.,  and S.  C.  Helle,  "Natural  Tertiary Treatment  of  Secondary
Effluents by Wetlands in Florida,"  (Abstract),  Presented  at the  Conference
on Freshwater  Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater  Disposal,  Higgins Lake,  MI,
July 10-12,  1979.
                                     200

-------
KESALAHTI, Finland

     The Finnish process of allowing treated sewage to flow down ditches and
percolate sideways into peat soils has been the subject of several  studies -
but almost all  of the literature is in hard to get Finnish language sources.
                                    201

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of
1
                            KesJJ.ah.ti,...F i n1 and
                                1981
Summary_of System Management Technique
Dates of operation:	 to 	
Annual approximate discharge: 	
Estimated affected area _^___^___
Wetland size	 (area)
Distance from inlet to outlet 	
Type of water discharge:
     ______ Point discharge
                                             gal
                                             (approximate meters)
               Flood irrigation with gated pipe, 	
               Multiple point discharge at	locations
                                                   ft. in length.
    Typical  monthly discharge schedule:
         	Seasonally from
               Continuous discharge all  year
               Periodicallys  explain:
                                       through
    Factors which have actually been used to make decisions to modify tna~
    wastewater discharge rate:
         	 none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         	 water depth in the wetland
         	 water quality discharged to wetland
         _______ water quality at the wetland outflow
         	 water quality at points inside the wetland
         	 precipitation
         	 other:	____

    Wetland vegetation harvested: 	~_	j———-           •  —•——
    Description of harvesting technique:
    Disposal or use of harvested material:
Overall
                                 ne Component^
    Information known to exist covering one or more years;
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
                                  S= flj i_
                                  3 i. 
                                    O «3
                                                  O!
4) 0)
4J Cfi -fJ
ra 4. C
•3 to m
 (j r^-
CO tfl ^S~
fQ •r^ ^f—
3 tf 1JJ

X

x
4J S

13 cn
c s:
n3 -r-
r~ >
j_i 
-------
      O  S- O)   O OJ
      4.    ^J  ,— -£=
S-     *)-  O flS   C +->     O>
 3  -I-       o
•M Cl  -P          O     03
(OS-   KT3CTI  r— +J"O   *f-
3ro   
   3 3 r—   IrtflJ
y} y^   *^-. ^_) •?.•  <$«3 O ^»J   J2 j *
(73 *f"~   ^~  ^ QJ   fl3 r~™ Q^   «3 fl3
                                                            O!
                                                            o to
                                                            fOS-
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
PH
Chloride content
B.0.0.
C.O.D.
Fecal col i form
Fecal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metals
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other:








•^






X
|
__x__







X







1 i













































3.  Hydrology
    Data known to be available  for one or more years:
    Complete water budgets	
    Water depth measurements	
    Soil elevations within  the  wetland (by survey with optical  level  or
      equivalent	
    Estimates of subsurface water flow through the underlying  soil 	
    Estimates of the fraction channel  flow as opposed to sheet  flow	
    Details of water flow patterns across the wetland	

4.  Detai1ed Compgnent_Balances
    Detailed budgets known  to have been prepared for one or more years,
    A "detailed budget"  is  defined here as accounting for a particular
    component, considering  its  transport between watar and soil,  plants,
    algae, or other physically  identifiable entity within the wetland.
    Total phosphorus 	
    Total nitrogen 	
    Suspended solids 	
    Chloride 	
    Heavy Metals 	
    Other:
    Ecosystem Changes
    Studies have been made of  the  following changes in the wetland  since
    wastewater discharge began.   It  is indicated whether these studies  are
    qualitative or quantitative  observations.
                                      203

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qualitative quantitative
study study
i




















Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae.
Microorganisms
Vi ruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  Princi paJLPata Sources

Surakka, S.,  and A.  Kamppi,  "Infiltration  of  Wastewater  into  Peat  Soil,"
SU05 22, 3-4, pp. 51-57,  1971.
                                    204

-------
KINCHELQE. Michigan

     The strategic air command base at  this  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan
location discharged the wastes and storm water  runoff  from the  community
of some 5,000 to 10,000 people for a period  of  some  twenty years.  The
base closed in 1978, with a drastic reduction  in the occupancy  and the
waste load from that location.  No reliable  discharge  records are available,
but a small amount of research work has been done  by Grand Valley State
College in Michigan as well as by the University of  Michigan Wetlands
Ecosystem Research Group.  No official  reports  are available on this  project.
Nitrogen removals here are good,  and phosphorus removals  are not.  Peat
erosion has occurred at this site.  A complete  conversion of some 600-acres
of wetland to a mono-culture of cattail  has  occurred.
                                    205

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED  FOR  WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of .j!iliL_	
1
                           Klnraa_s^JJJ_chJ,gan. (Kinchel oej
                                 1981
Summary of System Ma nagement Techn i qua
Dates of operation:    1955    to   Present
    Annual approximate discharge:  150  x 1Q&_
    Estimated affected area  4QQ Acres
    Wetland size  5QQ  ACre.s,.T-  (area)
    Distanca from inlet to outlet    2,400
    Type of water discharge:
            X   Point  discharge
                                          gal
                                          (approximate meters)
               Flood irrigation with  gated  pipe, 	 ft. in length,
               Multiple point discharge at  	 locations
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
               Seasonally from
            X
           Continuous discharge all year
           Periodically, explain:
                                        through
    Factors which have actually  been  used  to  make decisions to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
         	X   none, relatively  continuous discharge at predetermined rate
               for  predetermined period
         	water depth  in the wetland
         	water quality discharged  to wetland
         	 water quality at  the wetland outflow
         	water quality at  points  inside the wetland
         	 precipitation
         	other:	

    Wetland vegetation harvested7~^Tio   "                        7ZZZZZZI
    Description of harvesting technique: j\c
    Disposal or use of  harvested material:  Ho_
    Overal 1 Budgets for Viater-borne  Component^
    Information known to  exist covering  one or more years;
                                     I  VI
                                      3   *r-
                              -*-J         Q
                               e: -a cn   r— +-> -c
                               QJ c c   ra   c
                               3 n3 T~   i. W5 ns
                              r— r— >   3 3 i—

                              M- O) O)   (13 i— OJ
                              uj 3 U   z <(- 3

13 fS    ZJ [O
vi 3   f> 3
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen  content
Total phosphorus content
                                    206

-------
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
PH
Chloride content
B.O.D.
C.O.D.
Fecal co li form
Fecal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metals
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other:


Wastewater
discharge
X
X

X
X
X
X

X







Effluent from
wetland to re-
ceiving waters
X


X
X
X









OJ «J
r- J=
C •(-> O
•i- o
O 03
(O C $-05 O 
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study










X





X
X
X

i ~f
Vascular  plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  Princi pa? Data  Source_s

Bevis,"  F.  B.,  and  R. H.  Kadlec,  "Effect of Long-Term Discharge of kaste-
water on a Northern  Michigan Wetland,11 (Abstract and Lists),  Presented at
the Conference on  Freshwater Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater Disposal,
Higgins  Lake,  HI,  July 10-12, 1979.
                                     208

-------
LAKE BALATON. Hungary

     Studies at the edge of this lake have  shown  that  the  lake margin
wetland (a fresh water reed swamp)  is successful  in  renovating wastewater,
                                    209

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:  Lake Balaton.  Hungary
Current as-of Ma	_> 19JZ2
Summary of Systein Management Technique
Dates of operation:   „	to 	___
Annual approximate discharge:     --
Estimated affected area  2000 m^
Wetland size
                 	 (area)
    Distance from inlet to outlet _
    Type of water discharge:
           X   Point discharge
                                140
                                             gal
(approximate meters)
               Flood irrigation with gated pipe, 	 ft. in length.
               Multiple point discharge at       locations
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
         	 Seasonally from
               Continuous discharge all year
               Periodically, explain:
                                       through
Factors which have actually been used to make decisions to modify
wastewater discharge rate:
     __JL__ none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined
           for predetermined period
     _ water depth in the wetland
     _ __ water quality discharged to wetland
     _ water quality at the wetland outflow
     _ water quality at points inside the wetland
     __ _ precipitation
           other:
                                                                      the

                                                                      rats
    Wetland vegetation harvested :"lio
    Description of harvesting technique:  »;o
    Disposal or use of harvested material:
2.  Overall._Bud_g_e^s jfojMjajter_^b^jTe_^m^nents_
    Information known to exist covering one or more years:
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
                                S-
                               O S-  
E:
01
^
r~-
 -o "*- o
C£ ns C t-w owl
fo-r- s-t/ita 3S- n3U
r— > Z3 3 r~ t/> 3J **— O
4-J «r™ -tJ O -i-1 -^ 4^ S~ ^-J
<3JUJ « p— 
-------
i.
O) 01
4J CD
                                      I 

  O
                                                    s>
                                                    
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study
1
[

" " ' " i














\
Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
A] gae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use
6.  Principal Data Sources

Toth,  L., "Reeds Control  Eutrophication  of  Balaton  Lake,
Pergamon Press,  Vol.  6,  pp.  1533-1539,  1972.
                                     212

-------
LAS VEGAS, Nevada

     Several hundred acres of cattails have been receiving treated waste-
water from the metropolitan Las Vegas area (Clark County) since the plants
were built.  Water exits to the Las Vegas wasti,  thence to Lake Mead,
Questions of water reuse and leaching of contaminants are important.
Studies of the wetland are under way as part of a Regional planning effort.
                                    213

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of __jalv	
1
    Summary ofSysfemManagement Technique
    Dates of operation; 	^^ to _Presen;L
    Annual approximate discharge: 30 x 10JL
    Estimated affected area   600 Acres
    Wetland size 800 Acres  larea)^
    Distance from inlet to outlet JLJ5QO_
    Type of water discharge:
               Point discharge
                                             gal
                                             {approximate meters)
            X
               Flood irrigation with gated pipe, 	 ft, in length.
               Multiple point discharge at   3   locations
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
               Seasonally from	: through
               Continuous discharge all year
               Periodically, explain:
    Factors which have actually bean used to make decisions to modify
    wastewater discharge rate:
                                                                       ;na
               none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined  rata
               for predetermined period
               water depth in the wetland
               water quality discharged to wetland
               water quality at the wetland outflow
               water quality at points inside the wetland
               precipitation
               other:
    Wetland vegetation harvested:
    Description of harvesting technique: No
    Disposal or use of harvested material:  No
2.  Overall Budaats
                        Water-borne Comoonents
    Information known to exist covering one or more years:
                            
                                                   0!
                                                   U
                                                   3 S,
                                                     OJ
                                                         Ol
                                                         u
                                                         S3
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
in t/i 4-+J-I— +jQ-f-> jQ-jj i--(->
(tj-t- M~0)
-------
                                   I Ul

                                o  s- oi   i)  3   •!-
                          *> cn   +J         o
                          (Ot.   C"OCn  r— +•> T3
                          3 to   ai  c c   IB   c
                          CUJE   3K3'r~   S-U1   3gr-


                          3-0   LuSu   2:
-------

x
X
x





X










X 1
                     qualitative      quantitative
                        study	study
Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  Principal Data Sources

Clark Co.  208,  "Las Vegas Valley  Water Resource Planning and Management,,"
December 1978,

Clark Co,  208,  "Las Vegas Wash,"  Interim Report #2,  Water Quality Series,
September  1977,

Clark Co.  208,  "Las Vegas Wash,"  Interim Report =3,  Water Quality Series,
June 1977.

Clark Co.  208,  "Las Vegas Wash,"  Interim Report #4,  Water Quality Series,
February 1978.

Clark Co.  208,  "las Vegas Wash  Engineering/Water Quality Management Study,"
Interim Report  #1,  June 1977.

Clark Co.,  "Las  Vegas Wash:   Environmental  Assessment,"  November 1980.

Clark Co.  2C8,  "Revised Water Quality Management Plan,"  December 1979.

Clark Co.  208,  "Subsurface Water,"  Interim  Report #1,  Water Quality Series,
Hay 1977.

Clark Co.  208,  "Subsurface Water,"  Interim  Report #2,  Water Quality Series,
September  1977.

Clark Co.  208,  "Subsurface Water,"  Interim  Report #2,  Water Quality Series,
March 1978.

Culp, Wesner &  Culp,  "Analysis  of Water Quality in Las Vegas Wash," July-
November 1979.

Ecological  Research Associates, "A Proposal to Study the Biological Aspects
of Nutrient Stripping in the Las  Vegas Wash Wetlands," April 1979.

Krenkel, P. A.,  and L. P. Smith,  "A Study of the Characteristics of the
Las Vegas  Wash  Regarding it's Ability to Remove Phosphorus, Nitrogen and
Carbon," Proposal to Clark Co., 1973.
                                     216

-------
LISTOWEL , Ontario

     This  is an artificial  marsh  consisting  of  five  independent systems
constructed in the late summer of 1980  for the  treatment of aerated raw
sewage and partially treated lagoon  effluent.   It  is being used on a year-
round basis to treat wastewater.   The wetland plant  community was established
with no difficulty at the end of  summer 1980.   This  wetland site is currently
functioning in a very efficient manner  to reduce various water quality
parameters to acceptable levels.   Harvest of the vegetation is carried out
at the site, and several  pathogenic  organisms are  also monitored at this
location.   No official  reports have  issued from the  facility as yet.
                                    217

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of  Seotember
                                Llstowel, Ontario (Artificial)
                                  , 1981
    Summa ry of System Ma nagement Techni qua
    Dates of operation: __JL980_    to 	Pj^esent^
    Annual approximate discharge:  15 x  IQD    gal
    Estimated affected area  2.5 AcrejL
    Wetland size   2.5 Acres  (area)
    Distance from  inlet to outlet   330 Chan-(approximate meters)
    Type -of water  discharge:          neled rnarsh, 66 open marsh, 462 System
            X   Point discharge
               Flood irrigation with gated  pipe,  	 ft, in length.
                                                  locations
         _ Multiple point discharge at
    Typical  monthly discharge schedule:
               Seasonally from
               Continuous discharge all year
               Periodically, explain:
                                           through
    Factors which have actually been used to make decisions  to  modify t;ia
    wastewater discharge rate:
         _ _ none, relatively continuous discharge at  predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         ___X_ water depth in the wetland
         _ _ water quality discharged to wetland
         _  x   water quality at the wetland outflow
         _____ water quality at points inside the wetland
         _ precipitation
               other:
    Wetland vegetation ha>vestedT~eTT^IuIy'..ajrid"/_Auqu_st  1981
    De s c rp
    Disposal or use of harvested material:  None.at  this  time
2.   Oyera!1_Budgets for Water-borna^ Components
    Inforrnation"'known to exist covering  one or more  years:
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
                             i.
                              Ol
                             JO S-
                             3 id
                             ui ut
                             s'-o
                                     CJ S-
                                     S. CD
                                     +-> 3
                                   c -ss en
                                   o c c
                                   <4- 4J -i-

                                   UJ 3 U
4) OJ
c TJ
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.— +-> -a
ns   c
^s^
4-> O -P
03 i~ 
i- tn   u i/>
3 S~   (81.
w aj   «»-    i- +->
3 «   3 «
to 3   01 3
x ! x
y
X
x! x ^
V
L x
X !










                                     218

-------
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t/t v> ^~' 4u> *n« ^^ o ^ _fD +^ s> 4-*
ra -r- t-aioi «jr--(i) 3
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study
,
X
X
X







X


X
X

X
X
X


Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  Principal Data Sourcjs_

Slaughter,  R.,  and I.  Wile,  "Natural  and  Artificial  Marshes  for  Sewage
Treatment in Ontario," (Abstract),  Presented  at  Conference on  Freshwater
Wetlands and Sanitary  yastewater Disposal,  Higgins  Lake,  MI,  July 10-12,
1979.

Wile, I., "An Experimental  Approach to Wastewater Treatment  Using Natural
and Artificial  Wetlands," Progress  Report,  Oct.  27,  1980.

wile, I., "Experimental  Harsh Project at  Listowel,"  Progress  Report (un-
published),  1930.
                                     220

-------
MT. VIEM. California

     The Mt.  View Sanitary District developed  artificial  marshes  for  wildlife
habitat enhancement, utilizing treated  wastewater.   This  is  a  relatively
small site which receives secondary effluent,  and  does  not accomplish much
in the way of water quality improvement,  because of  the high loading  rate.
However, a demonstrable impact on  the biota  of the region- has  been  documented.
Wetland consists of a fresh water/cattail/open water environment, with
intentional habitat design.  It has been  in  operation for approximately
four years.
                                    221

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:  Mt.  View Sanjtary  District, California^  ,	
Current as of 	July	____» 19_81                       (Artificial!
1.   Summary of System Management^Technique
    Dates of operation:   1974     to ^Present
    Annual approximate discharge:  255 x 10fa   gal
    Estimated affected area  ' 21 Acres
    Wetland size ,21Acres  (area)
    Distance from inlet to outlet
    Type of water discharge:
            X   Point discharge
400
(approximate meters)
         	 Flood irrigation with gated pipe, 	
         	 Multiple point discharge at ______ locations
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
         	Seasonally from  	through _
                 ft. in length,
               Continuous discharge all year
               Periodically, explain: __
    Factors which have actually bean used to make decisions to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
            X   none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         	 water depth in the wetland
         	 water quality discharged to wetland
         	 water quality at the wetland outflow
         	water quality at points insida the wetland
         ____ precipitation
               other:
    Wetland vegetation harvested: _Np_
    Description of harvesting technique: No
    Disposal or use of harvested material: _Np_
2.  Overall Budgets for Water-borne_ Com£qnenj:s
    Information known to exist covering one or more years:
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
                                     i 
                                    01 i.
                                          03 O)
i-



CD -(-> O
i- e -o cn p— *j
its 4! C C ra
^: =J us T- S- 01
O i— i— > 33
(/) 4- -*J -i— +-> O
•r- <+- O!  
-------
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
PH
Chloride content
B.O.D.
C.Q.D.
Fecal co li form
Fecal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metals
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other :


Wastewater
discharge

X


X

X









Effluent from
wetland to re-
ceiving waters

X


X

X









4J
03 HI
i— J=
C +J
»r-
o
i — •*-> "O
res c:
5- o1) fi3
33,—
•*-> O +•>
re) . — CO
Z M- 5
















Subsurface
waters
















Surface
waters
















3.  Hydrology
    Data known to be available for one or more years:
    Complete water budgets  	
    Water depth measurements    x	
    Soil elevations within the wetland (by survey with  optical  level  or
      equivalent	
    Estimates of subsurface water flow through the underlying  soil
    Estimates of the fraction channel  flow as  opposed  to  sheet  flow _____
    Details of water flow patterns  across  the  wetland	

4.  Petal 1 ed _ Com pon e nt Ba 1 a nc e s
    Detailed budgets known  to have  been  prepared  for one  or more years.
    A "detailed budget11 is  defined  here  as accounting  for a particular
    component, considering  Its transport between  water and soil, p1ants3
    algae,  or other physically identifiable entity within the wetland.
    Total phosphorus 	
    Total nitrogen 	
    Suspended solids	
    Chloride 	
    Heavy Metals	
    Other:
    Ecosystem Changes
    Studies have been  made of the  following  changes  1n  the wetland  since
    wastewater discharge began.   It  is  indicated whether these  studies are
    qualitative or quantitative  observations.
                                    223

-------
qualitative quantitative
study study
X











X
x








Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  Principal Data Sources

Demgen, F, C., "Water Used One More Time:  Treated Wastewater for Wildlife,"
Outdoor California, pp. 28-29, March-April 1979.

Derugen, F. C., Mt. View Sanitary District, "Wetlands Creation for Habitat
and Treatment - At Mt. View Sanitary District, California,"  In:  Seminar
Proceedings Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment, Bastian and
Reed, Eds., The Univ. of California at Davis, CA, US EPA A30-9-80-006,
Publ. Ho. MCD-67, Sept. 1979.

Uemgen, F. C., and B. J. Blubaugh, "Mt. View Sanitary District Harsh Enhance-
ment Pilot Program," Progress Report Ho, 3, to the Mt. View Sanitary District,
June 1977.

Demgen, F. C., and J. W. Mute, "Wetland Creation Using Secondary Treated
Wastewater," In:  American Water Works Association Research Foundation,
Proceedinas of the Water Reuse Symposium at Washington, DC, Vol. 1, Denver,
CO, pp 727-739, March 25-30, 197S.

Demgen, F, C., and J. W. Nute, "Wetlands Enhancement Using Secondary Efflu-
ent," Paper Presented at the National Conference on Environmental Engineer-
ing, Research Development and Design, Kansas City, Missouri, July 10-12,
1978.

E3C Company, "The Mash-Forest System:  A Pleasant and Positive Answer for
Water Reclamation, pp. 1-9, 1979.

Nute, J. W., F. Demgen, "The Wetlands Wastewater Management Alternative."
(Abstract), Presented at the Conference on Freshwater wetlands and Sanitary
Wastewater Disposal, Higgins Lake, MI, July 10-12, 1979.

Nute, J. K., 'A. E. Nute, "Marsh/Forest Demonstration Project Feasibility
Assessment," J. Warren Nute,  Inc., Civil and Sanitary Engineers, pp. 1-15,
1979.
                                      224

-------
SEYMOUR, Wisconsin

     The research team from the University of Wisconsin  at  Oshkosh  also
conducted a study at this location.   Artificial  basins were constructed
and planted with bulrushes on different substrates.   Reductions  in  nutrients
were not encouraging.   Significant reductions in BOD  and COD were measured
as well  as significant reductions in suspended solids in some cases.   These
were fairly deep water retention basins that were used'in this study.   Data
were acquired during 1975.
                                    225

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of  . July
1
                                Seymour, Wisconsin  (Artificial
                                  ,  1981
    Summary, of System Managgnent Technique
    Dates  of operation: ,   1973	to     1975
    Annual  approximate discharge:
    Estimated-affected area   112 r
    Wetland size  112- ra2
                                             gal
                                             (approximate meters)
                  	 (area)
Distance fronfTnTet to outlet ____ijLJL
Type of water discharge:
     ___X__ Point discharge
     	 Flood irrigation with gated pipe, 	 ft. 1n length.
     	 Multiple point discharge at 	locations
Typical monthly discharge schedule:
        X   Seasonally from  June       through  November
               Continuous discharge all year
               Periodically, explain: __
    Factors which have actually been used to make decisions to modify  tne
    wastewater discharge rate:
         ___X_ none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined  rate
               for predetermined period
         	 water depth in the wetland
         	 water quality discharged to wetland
         	water quality at the wetland outflow
         	water quality at points Inside the wetland
         	 precipitation
               othar:
    Wetland vegetation harvested: _  gujrushes
    Description of harvesting technique:
    Disposal or usa of harvested material: _No_.JD_ata.
2 .
                    ^
           _
     Information known to exist covering one or more years:
 Water flow  rate
 Total  nitrogen content
 Dissolved nitrogen  content
 Total  phosphorus  content
                                     I  in
                                     
in in **- -i-J •!—
« «r- 
-------
                                      I  
                                       O>
*» 35 i- 0
+J O 03

3 ro •»- s_t/i*- O! 
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study


X

i " "
















Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  Principal Data Sources

Spangler, F. L., ti. E.  Sloey,  C.  W.  Fetter,  Jr.,  "Artificial  and  Natural
Marshes as Wastewater Treatment Systems  in Wisconsin,"  Proceeding of  the
Symposium on Freshwater Wetlands  and Sewage  Effluent Disposal,  The Univ.
of Mich., Ann Arbor,  MI, pp.  215-240,  May 10-11,  1976.

Spangler, F. L,, to. E.  Sloey,  C.  W.  Fetter,  Jr.,  "Wastewater  Treatment by
Natural and Artificial  Marshes,"  Prepared for Robert S.  Kerr  Environmental
Research Lab,, Ada, OK, (EPA  - 600/2-76-207), NTIS Report (PB-259 992),
pp. 1-171, Sept. 1976.
                                     223

-------
SUISUM CITY, California

     Wastewater from a  sanitary treatment  plant  near  the  Suisun marsh  is
being used in Duck Club  management  there.   An  attempt is  being made  here
to utilize wastewater solely for habitat  improvement.
                                    229

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT  OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of  August
I
                           Sulsun City, California
                                 1931
Summary of System Management Technique
"	    '	1977	'	—
    Dates of operation:
to
1982
    Annual approximate discharge: 5.0
    Estimated affected area 300 Acres
                                  '
                               ^
    Wetland size  84,000 Acreferea)'
    Distance from inlet to outlet
    Type of water discharge:
            X   Point discharge
                                 400
                                          gal
          (approximate meters)
               Flood irrigation with gated  pipes
                                                        15
     _____ Multiple point discharge at	locations
Typical monthly discharge schedule:
       _X_ Seasonally from  _0ctobej__l_ through
     	 Continuous discharge all year
     ___X_ Periodically, explain:
            February and March
                                                    ft. in length.
                                                   . Except Perl od 1 c a.l ly j_n
    Factors wh i H "ha v e a ct u~a T 1 ybeef^e^tolnake~" o>
                              o
                                 I  lO
                               e 
                               ^0§

                               •(-)
                               C T3 Cn
                               4) C C
                               3 (O -r-
                               r— f~ >
                                           O QJ
                                           r- JE
                                           se •*->
         i-+j
ns'i— 4— 
-------
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
PK
Chloride content
B.O.D.
C.O.D.
Fecal coliforra
Fecal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metal s
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other: Dissolved Oxygen


Wastewater
discharge .
Effluent from
wetland to re-
ceiving waters
X


X
X
X
X

X


„! '

X


X


X
X
X
X

X


X

X


+•»
 -Q +-> &» +J
rg i — O> Z3 « 3 «3
2: M- S to 3 oo s
X


X
X
X
X

X


X

. X


















LJL__


X
X
X
X

X


X

i x


3.  Hydrology
    Data known to be available for  one or more  years:
    Complete water budgets   	
    Water depth measurements    x	
    Soil elevations within  the wetland (by  survey with  optical  level  or
      equivalent 	
    Estimates of subsurface water flow through  the underlying  soil 	X_
    Estimates of the fraction  channel  flow  as opposed to  sheet  flow 	
    Details of water flow patterns  across the wetland   T	

4.  Detailed Component Balances
    Detailed budgets known  to  have  been prepared  for one  or more years,
    A "detailed budget" is  defined  here as  accounting for a particular
    component, considering  its transport between  water  and soil,  plants,
    algae, or other physically identifiable entity within the  wetland,
    Total phosphorus 	
    Total nitrogen 	
    Suspended solids 	
    Chloride 	
    Heavy Metals 	
    Other:
    Ecosystem Changes
    Studies have been  made  of the  following  changes  in  the wetland  sines
    wastewater discharge began.   It  1s  indicated whether these studies are
    qualitative or quantitative  observations,
                                    231

-------
qualitative quantitative
study study
X

X
X 	 _j






X



j
X I
i
i
Vascular  plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
AT gae
Microorganisms
Viruses   -",-',
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  P r 1 n c i p a 1 Data_Sgu_rces_

Cederquist,  N.,  "Using Wastewater for Duck Club Management in the Suisun
Marsh of California," (Abstract), Presented at the Conference on Freshwater
Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater Disposal, Higgins Lake, MI, July 10-12,
1979.

Cederquist,  N.,  "Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse Pilot Demonstration
Program for the Suisun Marsh," Progress Report, U. S. Dept. of the Interior
Bureau of Reclamation, Mid-Pacific Region, Water Quality Branch, Sacramento,
California,  March 1977,
                                     232

-------
VERMONTVriLE. Michigan

     Slow seepage from surface (flood)  irrigation  fields  receiving  effluent
from facultative stabilization ponds  led  to  the  establishment  of a  volunteer
wetland at this location.   The counsulting  firm  of Williams  &  Works,  Inc.
conducted a study of the water quality  and  species composition at that
location for the National  Science Foundation.  This  study spans 1978  and
19797"   "~		"	" 	~
                                    233

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of   July
1
                                     le.  MI  (volunteer')
Summary of System Management Technique
Dates of operation:   1978     to    1979
    Annual  approximate discharge: 25 x 10°   gal
    Estimated affected area 11.5. Acres
    Wetland size  J1..5. Acres(areaT
    Distance from inlet to outlet _NA~seepage,(approxImate meters)
    Type of water discharge:              wetlands
         	 Point discharge
         	 Flood irrigation with gated pipe, 	 ft. in length.
           X   Multiple point discharge at  12 t locations
    Typical  monthly discharge schedule:
           X   Seasonally from   June
               Continuous discharge all year
               Periodically, explain:
                                       through  October or November
    Factors which have actually been used to make decisions to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
           X   none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         	 water depth in the wetland
         	 water quality discharged to wetland
         ______ water quality at the wetland outflow
         	 water quality at points inside the wetland
         	precipitation
         	other:	

    Wetland vegetatTcm Harvested: No  '           ~~          .,J."~~"~~'~~   "
    Description of harvesting technique: Mo
    Disposal or use of harvested material: No
2.  Overall Budgets for Water-borns Components
    Information known to exist covering one or more years:
                                     I VI
                                     3
•I— 4->
tu «
o 2:


£

4->

0


V>
^3
O

lf-
01
o
*X3
"O t^--
C S.
fl3 3

^J _£^
QJ Z3
S 00
X
X
X




GJ
tfl O
S- (0
OJ 'r-
4^ &>
ra 3
3 oo

x
X





I/I
<_
a)
4->

3-

x
X

                                     234

-------
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
PH
Chloride content
B.O.D.
C.O.D.
Fecal col i form
Fecal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metals
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other:


Wastewater
discharge .
X




x.










£  3
£? *O O>
cu c c
33 rt3 *1"™
,— t— >
*4— TJI.J •?•—
<*- 
-------
qualitative quantitative
study study











X
X









 Vascular plants     	,	_^	
 Vertebrates          (	[	y	  1 No wetland prior
 Invertebrates        II    to irrigation
 Algae
 Microorganisms
 Viruses
 Sediments
 Litter
 Soil
 Human use
 Land use

 6.  Principal  Data Sources

Bevis,' F.,  "Ecological  Considerations  in  the  Management of Uastewater -
Engendered  Volunteer Wetlands,"  (Abstract),  Presented at the Conference
ort Freshwater Wetlands  and Sanitary Wastewater Disposal, Higgins Lake, MI,
July 10-12, 1979.

Sutherland, J.  C.,  "The Vermontville,  Michigan,  Wastewater-Grown Volunteer
Seepage  Wetlands:   Water Quality and Engineering Implications," (Abstract),
Presented at  the Conference on Freshwater Wetlands  and Sanitary Wastewater
Disposal, Higgins  Lake, HI, July 10-12,  1979,

Sutherland, J.  C.,  and  F.  B.  Bevis, "Reuse of Municipal Wastewater by
Volunteer Fresh-Water Wetlands," (Abstract),  Presented at the Conference
on Freshwater Wetlands  and Sanitary Uastewater Disposal, Higains Lake, MI,
July 10-12, 1979.

Williams, T.  C., and J. C. Sutherland, "Engineering, Energy and Effective-
ness Features of Michigan  Tertiary  Wastewater Treatment Systems," Seminar
on Aquaculture Systems  for Wastewater  Treatment, University of California,
Davis,  CA,  September 11-12, 1979,

Williams and  'xorks, "Reuse of Municipal  Wastewater  by Volunteer Fresh-
Water Wetlands," (EiMV-20273), Interim  Report  to  the National Science
Foundation, April  1979.
                                     236

-------
WALDO, Florida

     A cypress strand at Waldo has been receiving primarily treated
municipal wastewater for a period of some twenty years.   The site has been
researched in some detail  by personnel  from the Center for Wetlands at
Gainesville.  Significant increases in  cypress growth are documented at
this site.
                                    237

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT  OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of July
1
Summary-of By-stem Management Technique
Dates of operation:   1935 	 to   Present
Annual approximate discharge:  30 x 1QQ   gal
Estimated affected area 2.6 ha
Wetland size  2.5 ha    (area)
                                400 ,
    Distance from inlet to outlet
    Type of water discharge:
            X   Point discharge
                               (approximate  maters)
               Flood irrigation with gated  pipe, 	 ft,  in length.
               Multiple point discharge at  ______ locations
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
         	Seasonally from
            X
Continuous discharge all year
Periodically, explain: _
                            through
    Factors which have actually been used  to make  decisions to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
         	X  none, relatively continuous  discharge at predetermined rate
               for  predetermined period
         	 water depth in the wetland
         	 water quality discharged to  wetland
         	 water quality at the wetland outflow
               water quality at points inside  the  wetland
         	 precipitation
               other:
    Wetland vegetation harvested:   No
    Description of  harvesting technique: _Ji_o_
    Disposal or use of  harvested material:   Ng_
           --...--..-.-..--..
     Information  known  to  exist covering  one or more years:
                             0) CJ
                             •M CD
                             (O 4-
                             5 -
                             3 XJ
                                     I  t/1
                                     §O S.
                                     i. O)
                                   S-   -M
                                   1- O 
                              o
                              4-* "O
                                       3 3 •—
                                       +-> O 4->
                                       « r— CU
                                       s; H- 3
                                               O
                                               u
                                               as
                                               t*-
                                               S_
                                      S-
                                      
3 03
to 2
X


X
X


X
X


X
X


X



X
                                      238

-------
Dissolved phosphorus content
Suspended solids (total)
Volatile suspended solids
Conductivity
pH
Chloride content
8.O.D.
C.O.D.
Fecal col i form
Fecal strep
Viruses
Heavy Metals
Organic chemicals/pesticides
Other:


Wastewater
discharge
X















Effluent from
wetland to re-
ceiving waters
X















Natural inlet
flows to the
wetland
Subsurface
waters
L__JL_-















X















Surface
waters
X















3.  Hydrology
    Data known to be available for one or  more years:
    Complete water budgets      .y	
    Water depth measurements    X	
    Soil elevations within  the wetland (by survey with  optical  level  or
      equivalent 	
    Estimates of subsurface water  flow through the underlying soil  ____X__
    Estimates of the fraction channel  flow as  opposed to  sheet  flow	
    Details of water flow patterns across  the  wetland 	

4.  Detailed Component Balances
    Detailed budgets known  to have been prepared for one  or  more years,
    A "detailed budget" is  defined here as accounting for a  particular
    component, considering  its transport between water  and soil, plants,
    algae, or other physically identifiable entity within the wetland.
    Total phosphorus __X	
    Total nitrogen 	
    Suspended solids 	
    Chloride 	
    Heavy Metals 	
    Other:
    Ecosystem Changes
    Studies have been made of the following  changes  1n  the  wetland  since
    wastewater discharge began.   It  1s Indicated  whether these studies  are
    qualitative or quantitative  observations.
                                     239

-------
qualitative quantitative
study study










X






X .
X

1
 Vascular plants
 Vertebrates
 Invertebrates
 Algae
 Microorganisms
 Viruses
 Sediments
 Litter    , •
 Soil
 Human use
 Land  use

 6.   Principal  Data Sources

Fritz, W. R.,  and S. C. Helle,  "Natural Tertiary Treatment of Secondary
Effluents by Wetlands in FLorida," (Abstract),  Presented at the Conference
on Freshwater  Wetlands and Sanitary Wastewater  Disposal, Higgin^ Lake, MI.
July 10-12, 1979,

Fritz, W. R.,  and S. C. Helle,  "Cypress Wetlands for Tertiary Treatment,"
In:  Aquaculture Systems for Wastewater Treatment:  Seminar Proceedings and
Engineering Assessment, R. K,  Bastian and S.  C.  Reed (Project Officers),
EPA-430/9-80-006, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water
Program Operations, Municipal  Construction Division, Washington, DC,
pp. 75-81, 1979.

Nessel, J. K., "Distribution and Dynamics of  Organic Matter and Phosphorus
in a Sewage Enriched Cypress Swamp," Master's Thesis, Department of Envi-
ronmental Engineering Sciences,  University of Florida, Gainesville, FL,
pp. 159,  1978.

Odum, H.  T., and K. C. Ewel, (eds.), "Cypress Wetlands for Water Manage-
ment - Recycle and Conservation," Fifth Annual  Report to NSF and Rockefeller
Foundation, NSF Grant # PFR-7706013 A02, RF Grant ? RF-75034, Center for
Wetlands, University of Florida, Gainesville, FLS April  1930.
                                      240

-------
WILDWQQD. Florida

     Fresh water marshes at this location were shown to remove nutrients,
in studies performed by Boyt, e.t a]_.   This study led to the more closely
controlled study at Clermont, Florida.  A fairly large number of parameters
were studied at this site, including  metals and coliforms.
                                     241

-------
                 DATA COLLECTED FOR WETLAND AWT OPERATIONS
Location and/or Name of Site:
Current as of ____ul_y.	
1
                           flildwood. Fierida
                                1981
Summary of System Management Technique
Dates of operation:   1957     to  Present
    Annual approximate discharge: 55 x 1QQ
    Estimated affected area 500 Acres
    Wetland size  500  Acres  TareTJ   ~  ,,
    Distance from inlet to outlet _9^^n___
    Type of water discharge:
           X   Point discharge
                                         gal
                                         (approximate meters)
               Flood irrigation with gated pipe,	 ft, in length.
               Multiple point discharge at  	 locations
    Typical monthly discharge schedule:
         	 Seasonally from
               Continuous discharge all year
               Periodically, explain:
                                       through
    Factors which have actually been used to make decisions to modify the
    wastewater discharge rate:
         ___X_ none, relatively continuous discharge at predetermined rate
               for predetermined period
         _ water depth in the wetland
         _ water quality discharged to wetland
         _ water quality at the wetland outflow
         _______ water quality at points Inside the wetland
         _______ precipitation
               'other: _ _
    Wetland veg¥tatTon~"harvested: _N
    Description of harvesting technique:
    Disposal or use of harvested material:
2 .  Overall Budgets for Water-borna Components
    Information known to exist covering one or more years:
                            iU
                            CU (U
Water flow rate
Total nitrogen content
Dissolved nitrogen content
Total phosphorus content
                                  O i.
                                  i.
                                  M- O
                                      •P
                                      CJ GJ
                                      r— -C
                                      C 4J
                                      3   n-
                                              Ol
                                              o
Wastewat
i~ s -a en i—
 r!

•r- 4- (U 
in
3
O
r—
wetland
Subsurfa
X
Y
x
x
waters
Surface
X



waters

X
X
X
                                     242

-------



fc.

«


•o
c
res

4J
0!
U5
S-
m
4-i
«3
3

crs
c
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-------
qualitative quantitative
Study study
X i X















X



Vascular plants
Vertebrates
Invertebrates
Algae
Microorganisms
Viruses
Sediments
Litter
Soil
Human use
Land use

6.  Principal Data Sources

Boyt, F. L.,  S,  £.  Bayley,  and  J.  Zoltek, Jr.,  "Removal of Nutrients from
Treated Municipal  Wasteland by  Wetland Vegetation," J. Water Poll. Contr,
Fed., 49, pp. 739-799,  1977.

 Qdutn , H. T., and  S.  Brown, "Regional  Implications of Sewage Effluent
Application on Cypress  Domes,"  (Abstract),  Proceedings of the Symposium
on Freshwater Wetlands  and  Sewage  Effluent  Disposal, The Univ. of Mich.,
Ann Arbor, MI, pp.  329-330, Kay 10-11, 1976.
U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency

230 "south Dearborn  Street
Chicago,  Illinois  60604
                                     244

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                                      EPA-600/2-83-026
                                      April 1983

                                         P3a3-1i8722
         DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR WETLAND
               TREATMENT SYSTEMS
                David E.  Hammer
               Robert H. Kadlec
            University of Michigan
           Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
                   CR807541
                Project  Officer

               William R.  Duffer
      Office of Research and Development
           Robert  S.  Kerr  Laboratory
     U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency
              Ada,  Oklahoma  74820
           This Study Was Conducted
              In  Cooperation With
     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
              Ada,  Oklahoma 74820
Robert S. Kerr Environmental  Research  Laboratory
      Office.of Research and Development
     U.S. Environmental  Protection Aaencv
              Ada, Oklahoma 74820
             fSPSOOtlCEO 3Y
             NATIONAL  TECHNICAL
             INFORMATION SERVICE
                U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE                             ,.    A _-.„ _.i
                        VA 22i6i    yg  Frr^^rtnv-nix!  Protection Agency


                                 2sb"coLil'.i D .'<::! ~orn Street    ^
                                 Chicago,  Illinois  60604  ,  ^"

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J
o
                                             TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                                      (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
           1. REPORT NO.

             EPA-600/2-83-026
           4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
            DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR WETLAND TREATMENT  SYSTEMS
                                                                     5. REPORT DATE
                                                                       April  1983
                                                                     6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
           7. AUTHORIS)

            David E.  Hammer and Robert H. Kadlec
                                                         8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
           l. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
            University  of Michigan
            Ann Arbor,  MI 48109
           12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
            Robert S.  Kerr  Environmental Research Laboratory
            Office of  Research and Development
            U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency
            Ada, Oklahoma 74820
                                                         3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
                                                              ^r"  ^          -o -9
                                                                      10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
                                                           CAZ81B
                                                          11. CONTRACT, TRANT NO.

                                                          CR807541
                                                          13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
                                                           Final-   7/80  -   10/81
                                                          14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE


                                                           EPA/600/015
           15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
           16. ABSTRACT
     Published  data  pertaining to the treatment of wastewater by  26  wetlands have
been assembled  and  analyzed to identify general  principles for successful  design of
wetland facilities.   Source of operating data  have been tabulated.   Performance is
correlated with overall  system features but  cannot be predicted on the current basis,
A simplified  compartment model is presented.

     The selection  of natural  sites and the  physical  facilities associated with
wetland treatment are discussed.  A protocol for site review is presented.
Operational techniques and the use of constructed (artificial) wetlands are also
considered.   Wastewater impact on wetland  and  the economics of wetland treatment
are discussed.
                                          KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                            DESCRIPTORS
            Aquaculture, waste  treatment
            Hydroponics, wastewater
            Mathematical models
            Pollution
            , DISTRIBUTION STATEMEN1

            RELEASE TO PUBLIC
                                                        b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TEPMS
                                             Irrigation
                                             Sewage,  sewage treatment
                                             Wetlands
                                            19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report/

                                            UNCLASSIFIED
                                                        !0. SECURITY CLASS /Tills page)

                                                        UNCLASSIFIED
          EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
                                                                                   o.  CCSAT; Fie'd/Grouc
 63D
 98F
21 NO OF PAGES

    257
                                                       l

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                 NOTICE






THIS DOCUMENT  HAS BEEN REPRODUCED



FROM TEE BEST  COPY FURNISHED  US BY



THE  SPONSORING AGENCY.  ALTHOUGH IT



IS RECOGNIZED THAT CERTAIN  PORTIONS



ARE  ILLEGIBLE,  IT IS BEING RELEASED



IN THE  INTEREST OF  MAKING AVAILABLE



AS MUCH  INFORMATION AS POSSIBLE.

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                                 DISCLAIMER

     Although the research described in this article has been funded wholly
or in part by the United States Environmental  Protection Agency througn
cooperative agreement number R807541 to the University of Michigan,  it has
not been subjected to the Agency's required peer and policy review and
therefore does not necessarily reflect the views of the Agency and no
official endorsement should be inferred.   Mention of trade names  or  commercial
products does not constitute endorsement  or recommendation for use.

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                          .   -  ..  FOREWORD

     EPA is charged by Congress to protect the Nation's land,  air,  and water
systems.  Under a mandate of national  environmental  laws focused on air and
water quality, solid waste management and the control  of toxic substances,
pesticides, noise, and radiation,  the Agency strives to formulate and imple-
ment actions which lead to a compatible balance between human  activities and
the ability of natural systems  to  support and nurture life.   In partial  re-
sponse to these mandates, the Robert S. Kerr Environmental  Research Laboratory,
Ada, Oklahoma, is charged with  the mission to manage research  programs:   to
investigate the nature, transport, fate,  and management of  pollutants in ground
water; to develop and demonstrate  technologies for treating  wastewater with
soils and other natural systems;  to control  pollution from  irrigated crop and
animal production agricultural  activities; and to develop and  demonstrate
cost-effective land treatment systems for the environmentally  safe disposal of
solid and hazardous wastes.

     Natural wetlands provide an  effective wastewater treatment system at less
cost than conventional or advanced treatment systems.   Published data on
26 existing systems have been assembled and analyzed to identify principles
for successful design.  Performance is correlated with overall  system features
and a simplified compartment model is presented.
                                       Clinton W. Hall
                                       Director, RSKERL

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                                   PREFACE

     The treatment of wastewater  by overland  flow  through a wet!ana  is  i new
concept.  Only in the last  decade has  the performance of such systems become
a topic of scientific study.   This is  not to  imply that wastewater discharge
to wetland areas is a new practice, for  a number of sites have  been  identi-
fied where discharge has  been  ongoing  for more  than half a century.  New
treatment systems are being established  at  natural  wetlands and at wetlands
specifically constructed  for this purpose.  Significant improvement  in
wastewater quality is generally observed, at  a  cost which is low when com-
pared to other alternatives.   It  is essential that the  information which is
useful for the design of  wetland  systems be readily available to engineers,
ecologists, and planners.

     It is our purpose here to identify  data  sources, and to present certain
design concepts and their application  to wetland treatment.  The topics dis-
cussed were selected partly of necessity on the basis of data availability.
Designers of a wetland facility must address  many  complex, interdisciplinary
issues.  Not only must answers be found, but  in many cases useful  questions
must first be formulated.  The text which follows  is not intended  to con-
stitute a comprehensive treatment of the subject.   Further research  Is  still
needed to permit complete analysis of certain aspects of wetland system
design.

     The concepts and design techniques  presented  in the subsequent  pages
will hopefully facilitate the  application of  research to date.  They may
also suggest future directions for research studies to  improve  our abi'^rj
to design reliable wetland treatment systems.
                                      IV

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                                  ABSTRACT

     Published data pertaining to the treatment of wastewater by wetland
irrigation have been assembled and analyzed to begin  to identify general
principles for successful  design of wetland facilities.   Sources of operating
data have been tabulated.   Performance is roughly correlated with overall
system features, but cannot be predicted on the current basis.   Existing
compartmental models require more detailed information than does or will
exist; thus a simplified compartment model is  presented.

     Water quality is controlled by rapid processes related to  water move-
ment, mass transport to other compartments, and consumption kinetics.   Thus,
wetland hydrology is fundamental to the analysis of water quality improvement.
The ultimate fate of nutrients and contaminants is determined by sedimenta-
tion, biomass production and harvest, and soil and microbial processes.
Required wetland area depends on effluent quality, ecosystem type and age, and
hydraulic regime.  These questions can be addressed in terms of a mass trans-
port model for the zone of rapid removal, and  a "saturation" model  for the
expansion of a zone of stabilzed activity about the discharge point.  Material
balances, considering only long-term consumption mechanisms for nutrients  and
other pollutants, determine the useful life and ultimate  performance of a
wetland system.

     The selection of natural sites and the physical  facilities associated
with wetland treatment are discussed.  A possible protocol  for  site review
is presented.  Operational techniques and the  use of  constructed wetlancs
are also considered.  Finally, wastewater impacts on  wetlands and the
economics of wetland treatment are discussed.

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                                  CONTENTS

Foreword
Preface ................................   1V
Abstract .......................... •  .....   .v
Figures ............ •  ..............  .....   ix
Tables. . ................... - ...... -.-.....-.   XT
     1.  Introduction .........................     1
     2.  Conclusions  .................  ........     4
     3.  Wetland Hydrology  ......................     5
              The Water Budget  ....................     5
              Wetland Water Flow  ...............  ....     7
              Evapotranspiration  .  .  .................    10
              Residence Time  ........ .  ............    13
     4.  Overall Analysis of Operating Data ..............    15
              Correlation of Operating Data ..............    15
              Interpretation of Operating Data  ...... .  .....    22
     5.  Conceptual  Model :   The Wetland Treatment Process .......    25
              A Simplified Compartmental Model   .......  .....    25
              Delivery and Consumption  ........  . .......    25
              Transport of Dissolved Solids ......  , .......    28
                   Wetland Mass Transfer Coefficients .........    32
              Transport and Removal  of Suspended Solids  ........    38
              Biomass Uptake of Wastewater Components .........    40
              Reduction of Oxygen  Demand  ...............    57
              Microbial Processes  ............ . ......    51
              The Soil Compartment  ..................    62
                   Adsorption .........  .......  ,  .  .  ,   .    64
                   Transport Within  the Soil  Column .....  .  ,  .  .   ,    63
                   Soil Building  ...................    73
              Model  Summary ......................    76
     6.  Wetland System Design:  Synthesis  ..............    78
              Natural Wetlands - Site Selection  ............    78
              Physical Facilities  ............. ,  .....    80
              Artificial  Wetlands  ...................    SO
              Operations  .......................    83
     7.  Wetland System Design:  Analysis ...............    24
              Mass Transfer and Overland Wetland Flow .........    84
                   Steady Friction-Controlled Sheet Flow in Linear
                    Wetlands  .....................    37
                   Steady Depth-Controlled Sheet Flow in Linear
                    Wetlands  .....................    90
                   Steady Depth Controlled Radial Overland Flow ....    91
                   The Effect of Infiltration .............    95
          Preceding page blank
                                     VII

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              Capacity Considerations:   Aerial  Expansion of  the
               Loaded Zone	   97
                   The Mass  Balance  for  the  Expanding  Loaded Zone   ...   97
                   Breakthrough   	  107
                   Extension to  other  Contaminants	  HQ
                   Comparison of the Frontal  Progression Model
                    with Field Data	113
     8.  Uastewater Impacts  on Wetlands   	  116
     9.  Economics	,  ,  ,  H&

Bibliography	  127
Appendix 	  ......  135
                                    viii

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                                  FIGURES

Number                                                                   JliSJL

  1    Establishing the water budget 	  .  	  6
  2    Wetland surface water flow impeded by porous  clumps  of vegetation
        and hummocks	  9
  3    The effect of system age upon phosphorus  removal  rate	16
  4    The effect of system age upon nitrogen removal  rate	17
  5    The effect of concentration upon phosphorus  removal  rate  	  18
  6    The effect of concentration upon nitrogen removal  rate  	  19
  7    The effect of phosphorus loading rate upon removal rate	20
  8    The effect of nitrogen loading rate upon  removal  rate .  ,  	  21
  9    Water and nutrients are exchanged between wetland compartments   .  .  26
 10    Compartmental  model for use in wetland treatment  system design,  .  .  27
 11    Phosphorus profiles in surface water at the  Houghton Lake
        treatment site	  30
 12    First-order model  fit for the uptake of phosphorus and nitrogen  .  .  31
 13    Ion uptake in point discharge experiment  at  the Houghton Lake
        treatment site	  33
 14    Batch removal  of phosphorus from wastewater  at  the Humboldt
        treatment site	34
 15    Mass transfer coefficients - predicted and observed  ........  37
 16    Effect of surface water velocity on the mass  transfer coefficient
        at the Houghton Lake treatment site	39
 17    Typical range of behavior for resuspension of granular solids ...  41
 18    Removal of suspended solids by wetlands	42
 19    Nutrient stimulation of cattail  growth  	  .....  44
 20    Nitrogen and phosphorus content of wetland vegetation 	  45
 21    Nitrogen uptake by vascular plants during the growing season. ...  46
 22    Phosphorus uptake by vascular plants during  the growing season.  .  .  47
 23    Effects of wastewater irrigation on algal biomass 	  ,  48
 24    Decomposition of cattail litter 	  52
 25    Effect of wastewater irrigation on biomass production at the
        Houghton Lake site	54
 26    Conceptual model of the wetland biomass compartment  	  56
 27    BOD reduction in wetland treatment systems	53
 28    Effect of loading rate on BOD removal rate.  .  ,	  59
 29    Seasonal BOD removal rates at the Great Meadows treatment  site.  .  .  50
 30   Nitrate and ammonium ion concentrations in flooded soil  cores ...  63
 31    Peat uptake rate of orthophosphate from aqueous solution.  .....  65
 32    Phosphate adsorption equilibria on wetland soils.  .  	  66
 33    Ammonium adsorption equilibria on wetland soils 	  67
 34    Copper uptake rate by a peat-muck soil	69
 35   Equilibrium sorption of heavy metals on wetland soils 	  70


                                      ix

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                              FIGURES Continued

Number                                                                   Page

 36   Transport of adsorbing substances through the soil  column .....   j\
 37   Phosphorus uptake by diffusion and sorption  in the  wetland
        soil  column	  .   74
 38   Typical configuration for wetland treatment  systems .,...„.  81-32
 39   Mass transport and flow quantities	,..,,...   86
 40   Circular geometry for overland flow	   92
 41   Length factor for radial  wetland flow versus linear flow, for
        the case w = 3/2	   94
 42   Schematic of the zone of affected soil  and biomass	93
 43   Concentration profiles in a possible wetland treatment scenario .  .  1QQ
 44   Area requirements for a typical wetland treatment system. .....  108
 45   Phosphorus uptake rates for a typical  wetland 	  109
 46   Breakthrough in a wetland with 66% of required capacity 	  Ill
 47   Phosphorus uptake and release for a typical  wetland	,  j.12,
 48   Movement of TOP front at the Houghton Lake treatment site .....  114
 49   Movement of nitrogen front at the Houghton Lake treatment site. .  .  115
 50   Wetland capital costs vs. wetland distance	  124
 51   Wetland 0 & M costs vs. wetland distance	]25
 52   Incremental cost estimate for wetland treatment	  .  126

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                                   TABLES

Number                                                                   Page

  1    Site Summary List	    2
  2   Constants for Various Overland Flow Models 	   11
  3   Potential Factors Affecting the Performance of Wetland Treatment
        Systems	   23
  4   Operating Systems Reporting Rate Data	   24
  5   Major Consumption Mechanisms for Nutrients and Heavy Metals in
        Wetland Treatment Systems	   28
  6   First-Order Constants from Batch Operations	   32
  7   Heavy Metal Content of Plants Grown in Polluted Environments ...   49
  8   The Effect of Environment Upon Metal- Content of Scirpus Lacustris.   49
  9   Selected Elemental Analyses of Various Wetland Plants	   50
 10   Litter Decomposition Rates 	   53
 11    Biomass Production and Phosphorus Cycling in Trees at the Waldo
        Treatment Site	   55
 12   Nitrification and Denitrification on Marsh Soil	   62
 13   .Wastewater Renovation by Infiltration-Percolation	   72
 14   Nitrogen and Phosphorus Content of Typical Organic Soils 	   75
 15   Collection of Site Specific Data for Evaluation of a Proposed
        Treatment Site	   79
 16   Parameters Used to Predict Phosphorus Front Progression at the
        Houghton Lake Treatment Site	113
 17   Wastewater Effects Upon Wetland Ecosystems 	  117
 18   Basis for Example Costs for a Wetland Treatment System 	  119
 19   Capital Cost Estimate, Maple Rapids, Michigan	120
 20   Operation and Maintenance Cost Estimate for Maple Rapids,
        Michigan	  121
 21    Site Identification Key for Figures 50, 51, and 52	123

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                                  SECTION  1

                                INTRODUCTION


     The function of wastewater  treatment  is to  improve the  quality of the
effluent before its ultimate release  to  surface  waters of  lakes and streams
or to ground water.  Wetlands have been  shown to be capable  of removal of
nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) and  other wastewater components to very
low levels,  they therefore constitute advanced wastewater  treatment (AWT)
processes.   The reliable design  of a  wetland treatment facility requires the
development  of performance equations  which describe both the response of the
ecosystem to wastewater additions  and the  alteration of water quality.  These
equations must be developed from the  operating data of existing systems and
from insight obtained from research studies conducted in the laboratory and
at field sites.

     The 26  projects listed in Table  1 represent the data  upon which the
following models are based.  Further  details of  this data  base are given in
the Appendix.  This list is incomplete for two reasons:  some new projects
have begun while this study was  underway,  and our focus has  been primarily
on North American sites.  It is  also  known that  there are  a  great number of
unstudied wetland/wastewater systems. In  the Midwest alone  (EPA V) there
are over 100 such sites (1).  The  data collected at any one  site are often
incomplete.   Mass balances on water,  or  any other constituent of interest,
are almost always lacking.  Depths and flow patterns are generally not known,
so residence times can only be estimated.   New projects, now beginning, have
been planned to obtain more specific  design data than many of the pioneering
studies available for this analysis.

     Since experience is somewhat  limited, only  the basic  features of the
wetland treatment process are susceptible  to meaningful analysis.  These
include wetland hydrology and overland flow, removal rates for wastewater
components,  and the effects of nutrient  additions on the continued ability
of a wetland to treat wastewater.

     When wastewater is discharged to the  surface of a wetland it flows away,
spreading into a dynamic mound about  the discharge point.  The depth which
will result  depends upon the hydrological  characteristics  of the wetland.
The faster the wastewater flow,  the deeper the surface water.  Therefore each
wetland system will have a hydraulic  capacity, which could change rapidly in
response to  rain or other hydrological factors.   Depth limits will be deter-
mined by the tolerance of wetland  vegetation and by consideration of oper-
ating factors such as residence  time. Depth and velocity  will also affect
the ability  of the wetland to remove  pollutants  from the surface waters.

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TABLE 1.  SITE SUMMARY LIST

Site
Bellaire, MI
Bradford, ONT
Brillion, WI
Brookhaven, NY
Clermont, FL
Cootes Paradise, ONT
Drummond, WI
Dulac, LA
Gainesville, FL
Great Meadows, MA
Hamilton, NO
Hay River, NUT
Houghton Lake, MI
Humboldt, SASK
Jasper, FL
Kesalahti, Finland
Kincheloe, MI
Lake Balaton, Hungary
Las Vegas, NV
Listowell, ONT
Mt. View, CA
Seymour, WI
Suisun, CA
Vernnontville, MI
Waldo, FL
Wildwood, FL
Annual
Approximate ^charge
Age, yr. 10 gal.
25
1
56
6
4
52
3
2
7
68
2
16
4
2
60
-
25
-
60
2
7
2
5
2
46
20
30
0.5
98
3
4
-
15
0.03
6
1600
1.7
11
100
10
-
-
150
-
30,000
15
255
0.1
20
25
30
55
Identifying
Data Base Number
Size In Flaures
Small
Small
Medium
Small
Medium
Small
Small
Small
Large
Medium
Small
Small
Large
Small
-
-
Small
Small
Medium
Medium
Small
Small
Medium
Small
Small
Small
2
_
4
-
5
10
-
_
-
6
-
]_
3
_
-
_
-

-
-
9
11
-
-
n
O
•7
/

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Hydrology of the wetland site is therefore crucial  to  the  understanding  of
the treatment processes which occur.   A discussion  of  wetland  hydrology  is
included in Sections.

     The removal of wastewater components  from  the  wetland surface  waters  is
of primary concern to the designer.   The rate at  which this  occurs  will
dictate the relationship between the  wastewater inputs and the  quality of
the wetland effluent.  These terms  and other parameters such as  removal
efficiency, are interrelated through  a material  balance about  the surface
waters.  Therefore, the removal  rate  for each component must be  determined.
These rates can vary with factors such as  water flow rate, depth, season,
species composition within the wetland,  type of soil substrate,  and the  age
of the treatment facility.

     Prediction of removal rates, over time, is a primary  task  in the analysis
of a wetland treatment  system design.   Two approaches  to this  problem will  be
discussed in subsequent sections.  The first is the correlation  of  operating
data from existing systems (Section 4),  and the second is  the  development  of
a conceptual model for  the wetland  treatment system (Section 5).  The synthe-
sis phase of design and numerical applications  of the  wetland  system model
are discussed in Section 6, and Section  7,  respectively.

     While the wetland  facility must  fulfill its  function  of wastewater
treatment, the impact of wastewater upon the pre-existing  ecosystem of a
natural marsh must also be considered  at the design stage.  Both short-term
and long-term changes should be considered.  The  status of knowledge in  this
area is addressed in Section 8.

     Evaluation of a proposed system  design must ultimately turn to eco-
nomics.  The available  data on capital  requirements and operating expenses
are discussed in Section 9.

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                                  SECTION 2

                                 CONCLUSIONS

     Selection of equipment and materials for wetland wastewater treatment
systems follows conventional  engineering practices.   The  principal  difficulty
is predicting the performance and age of a proposed  facility.   The  impact  of
wastewater upon the wetland ecosystem must be considered  as  part of the  design
process.

     Data from existing wetland treatment systems  are as  yet insufficient  to
provide complete performance correlations for use  in  design  of new  facilities.
However,  the assembled research findings have made it possible to describe the
wetland wastewater treatment process  by a two step model-pollutant  transport
and pollutant consumption.   Since nutrients,  heavy metals, and other contami-
nants are consumed or immobilized primarily at solid  surfaces  within the wet-
land ecosystem, they must first be transported through the water sheet.  The
subsequent uptake mechanisms  are numerous and complex. A complete  material
balance on the surface water sheet, coupled with rate equations  for long-term
pollutant removal mechanisms  provide  a basis  for meaningful  design  calcula-
tions.

     Transport phenomena are  determined by site topography and hydrology.
Wetland areas which have not been previously  exposed  to wastewater  show  rapid
removal of pollutants from  flowing surface waters. The overall  process  is
rate-controlled by mass transfer.  The delivery of nutrients and other mater-
ials to the wetland surfaces  is slower than their  consumption.   This process
can be described in terms of site hydrology and convective mass  transfer coef-
ficients.

     The ageing effects observed in wetland treatment systems  can be attribu-
ted to changes in the rate-controlling mechanism for  pollutant removal.
Certain consumption processes, such as adsorption  and biomass  pool  expansion,
exhibit "saturation" phenomena, while other mechanisms such  as soil  building
and microbial activity continue at an undiminished rate.   Saturated mechanisms
result in a zone of reduced pollutant removal near the wastewater discharge,
This zone will expand with  continued  wastewater irrigation,  requiring a  larger
wetland area to achieve an  equivalent improvement  in  water quality.   The expan-
sion of this zone can be predicted by a material balance  and knowledge of
certain site-specific rate  parameters related to the  vegetation, soil, and
other ecosystem features.

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                                  SECTION  3

                              WETLAND HYDROLOGY
     The design or evaluation of wetland  wastewater  treatment  systems  re-
quires a sound understanding of the  marsh hydrology.   Surface  water  flow
rates, soil  infiltration,  and depth  are of primary concern.  The  performance
of wetland wastewater treatment systems will  depend  upon  prevailing  hydro-
logical conditions.   Water depths and  flow rates  are usually determined by
natural stream flows, overland flow, precipitation,  and evapotranspiraticn.
.introduction of wastewater irrigation  may result  in  localized  increases in
water depths, which in turn, combined  with increased nutrients, may  cause
changes in the species composition of  the plant and  animal communities,
Removal of nitrogen, phosphorus,  and other pollutants  is  best  accomplished
by slow overland flow of surface waters in a  thin sheet,  or by infiltration.
Channelized  flow,  characterized by greater water  depths and shorter  residence
times tends  to reduce the  system's effectiveness  for pollutant removal.

     In order to properly  assess the performance  of  a  wetland, a  complete
water budget must  be prepared.  All  points of influx and  efflux must be
identified and the flows estimated throughout the year.   Similarly,  precipi-
tation and evapotranspiration must be  quantified.  This water  budget,  illus-
trated on Figure 1,  when combined with mea-surements  of nutrient concentra-
tions, can provide a complete picture  of  the  wetland treatment system
performance.  Concentration values at  the inlet and  outlet of  any system
are only part of the picture, and can  be  misleading  if the inflow and  outflow
of water are not identical.  If not  taken into account, infiltration,  dilu-
tion of wastewater by flowing surface  waters  or by rain,  or concentration of
solids due to evapotranspiration can confuse  the  interpretation of system
performance.

THE WATER BUDGET

     The annual water budget of any  region in a wetland can be expressed as
an unsteady-state  material  balance of  the form:

          Qi - QQ  + A + P  - E - I =  AM                             [3.1]

     where     Q.   =  flow in, m3

               Q   =  flow out, m

               A   =  wastewater additions, m

               P   =  precipitation, m

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              PRECIPITATION   EVAPQTRANSPIRA1ION ,/
       mf^:7«l'-
          r^'^
             WATER IN-WATER OUT=ACCUMULATION
Figure 1.  Establishing the Water Budget.

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               E   =  evapotranspiration,  m

               I   =  downward infiltration through  the  soil,  m
                                                        3
               M   =  above ground water accumulation, m

Surface water depth, denoted as h,  can  be  related  directly to  the accumula-
tion term, AM, so long as there is  standing water

          h  =  (M/scps)                                              [3,2]

     where     h   =  water depth,  m
                                               2
               s   =  surface area  of region,  m

               (p   =  fraction of wetland  volume,  above  ground,  available
                s     for water storage, dimension!ess.

     Should the above ground water accumulation become negative,  no  surface
water exists.  Under these conditions the  soil  is  no longer saturated.   Due
to the hygroscopic nature of peat and typical  wetland organic  substrates,
it is generally impossible to measure the  elevation  of the below ground
water table by usual techniques.

     Closure on the wetland water budget is necessary before the performance
of an existing system can be meaningfully evaluated.  Inflows  and outflows
must be identified and measured.   Precipitation figures  are normally availa-
ble from official weather records.   Evapotranspiration can be  estimated
using techniques which will be discussed subsequently.   Infiltration flows
can be estimated by examination of soil  borings and  determination of the
permeability of underlying soils.  Such flows  can  more often be  determined
only by the discrepancy in closure on the water balance.

     Similarly the water budget is essential  to prediction of  new system
performance.  In this case, future inflows must be estimated,  and precipi-
tation predicted from historical  weather data.   Infiltration/percolation
can only be estimated by examining soil  cores.   Outflows will  be system
dependent and can be predicted by estimating both  the expected evapotrans-
piration and the rate of overland water flow.

WETLAND WATER FLOW

     The rate at which water can  flow across a  wetland  is  controlled by the
ground slope, water depths, type  of vegetation, and  by the degree and type
of channelization.  The flow is not only related  to  water  depth  by the  water
balance equation, but also by an  appropriate expression  which  relates the
water velocity to driving forces  (hydraulic gradient) and  resistances.

     Typical water depths in a wetland  may range  from a  few centimeters to
about one meter.  Spatial variations in depth  within a wetland are largely
due to changes in the elevation of the  underlying  soil.  The water pool is
relatively flat with very small surface gradients.   Wastewater,  introduced

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to the wetland, will  spread from the discharge points,  and if the irrigation
rate is sufficiently high, a shallow mound of water will  form.   Properly
applied, this mound will  not exceed about 10 centimeters, but the height
will be determined by the discharge rate and piping configuration.

     The water will move  away from the discharge through  the wetland vegeta-
tion, which presents an obstruction to flow.  This vegetative mat comprises
a doubly porous medium, with plant stems and litter forming fine-scale
porosity, while hummocks, islands, and channels cause a coarse-scale porosity,

     The movement of surface waters through wetlands is characterized by very
slow velocities, which result in developing streamline  flow.  Considering the
momentum balance under these conditions, the inertia!  and acceleration terms
are negligible with respect to frictional and gravitational effects.  Flow
therefore proceeds at the rate at which gravitational  forces are just counter-
balanced by frictional drag forces.

     Although a great deal of work has been done on overland flow (e.g.,
Woolhiser and Liggett (2)), most have not addressed the problem of point or
line water discharges.  These geometries are the common approach to waste-
water irrigation in wetlands.  The functional dependence  of water velocity
upon depth and gradient in wetlands has been studied by Kadlec, ert aj_. (3).
For a point discharge, the material balance for radial  flow can be repre-
sented by


v]  =  p - e - 1
                                                                     [3,3]
     where     r  is the radial  spatial  coordinate, m

                 is the fraction of 'wetland available above ground
                s for water storage (storage porosity)

               4>  is the fraction of wetland available for water
                  flow (flow porosity)

               v  is the water velocity, m/s

               p  is precipitation, m/s

               e  is evapotranspiration, m/s

               i  is the infiltration rate, m/s

               t  is time, s

 It  should be noted that there can be a difference between the porosity for
 water  storage and the pore space available for water flow.  This is illus-
 trated  in Figure 2.  Water may soak into hummocks, for example, but they
 still  provide an obstacle to overland flow.  The apparent porosities can be
 expected to vary with water depth, but little quantitative information is

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Figure 2,   Wetland  Surface Water  Flow  is
           Impeded  by  Porous  Clumps of
           Vegetation  and Hummocks.

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available.   Various forms  can be  assumed for the friction  law, to replace $
in the Equation 3.3 in terms of h and 3h/3r and  thus  allow solution (3).
These include Darcy's law, which  is based upon  laminar flow through porous
media :

                                                                     [3.4]
     where     kn is a constant,  m/s.
                u
For turbulent flow in channels,  the well-known Manning equation  has  been
verified:
          ,         . l/2r3h,l/2
          ^v  =  cMh   [^

                                  1/2
     where     cv. is a constant,  m/s.

If the porosity for flow is assumed to be linearly dependent upon depth,  the
following friction law results  from modification of Darcy's  law:
                                                                     [3.6]
     where     c,  is a constant, s"
And similarly if the hydraulic radius is assumed to be the  channel  depth
rather than the typical  size of an obstruction (as  in  Darcy's  law)  another
power law flow expression results:

          .          .2 3h                                            r-, T\
          *v  =  -C2h  —                                            [3.7j

     where     c^ is a constant, s" m~ .

Other forms of the friction law for overland flow have been presented by
Morgali (4) and by Thompson and Roberson (5).

     Kadlec, _et_ §]_. (3), determined solutions  to Equation 3.3  using each of
the four friction laws shown above.  Results were compared  with field data
for both point and line wastewater discharges.  It  should be noted  that these
equations, presented for a point discharge, can easily be converted for the
line discharge case, replacing the operator 1/r 3(r)/3r by  3/3x.   It was
shown that all field data could be reasonably  represented by any of these
friction laws, with the exception of the Manning equation.   Equation 3,7
allowed better fit to certain data sets at the Houghton Lake treatment site.
Table 2 shows the characteristic constants determined  for overland  flow
across a sedge meadow in this study.

EVAPOTRAMSPIRATION

     A number of predictive equations have been developed to allow  estimation
of evapotranspiration in wetlands.  Solar radiation, wind,  relative humidity,
soil temperature, air temperature, and cover type are  all recognized as con-
trolling factors, but the more useful predictive techniques are usually thosa
which use only the meteorological measurements which are commonly available.

                                     10

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             TABLE  2.   FRICTI01TLAW  CONSTANTS  FOR OVERLAND  FLOW
               AT THE  HOUGHTON  LAKE  MASTEWATER TREATMENT  SITE
Darcy's Law                   vg   =   -kQ                  kQ   =   0.44  m/s

                                          3h                          -1
Linear Porosity               v$   =   -^h  -^              cl   =   6<9 s"

Depth dependent               vs   =   -c^2 ~            C2   =   TOO  (m-s)"1
 hydraulic radius

where v   =  v,  m/s.
The,more popular general  methods  do  not  account  for  variation  in  transpira-
tion between plant species.   Reviews of  the  major  techniques currently in
use, have been presented  by  Chang (6),  Knisel  (7)  and  Scheffe  (8).

Thornthwaite Method (9)

     This procedure is widely used,  since  it is  very simple and  generally'
provides adequate estimates  for temperate  humid  climates.   It  is  empirical,
based entirely upon average  monthly  temperatures and insolation,  which are
readily available.  The approximate  nature of this method restricts its
usefulness to periods of a month  or  longer.

     Based upon the mean  monthly  air temperature,  values of monthly  "heat
indices" are obtained (9).  Summing  the  values provide an  annual  "heat index",
I.  Daily potential evapotranspiration  is  now determined,  based  upon  the
value of I, and the mean  temperature for month (9).  These  values are finally
adjusted, by applying a correction factor  for day  length,  based  upon  latitude
and month (9), and the prediction of potential evapotranspiration is  complete.
Thornthwaite's method provides no corrections for  changes  in relative humid-
ity, cloud cover and other solar  radiation effects,  wind,  or cover type.   In
general, the mathematical form of this model is  (7):

          e  =  aTm6                              .                   [3.8]

     where     T  is the monthly  mean temperature

               a and 0 are constants, empirically  determined.

Penman Method (10,11)

     These predictions utilize more  of  the meteorological  data which  is
commonly available from weather stations.  Specifically, data  on  air  tempera-
ture, duration of bright sunlight, air  humidity, and wind  speed  are  included
with empirical constants  to  produce  estimates of evapotranspiration  from
vegetated surfaces.  Based in part upon  an energy  balance,  this method


                                     11

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involves relatively complicated  calculations.   Computer  programs  have  baen
developed to facilitate its  use  (12,  13).   Mathematically  the  Penman equation
can be represented by:

                a,(/lQ  + Yl)(P0  -  PJ  f(v)
          e  -  -1       (!+YI)	                           [3-9]


     and  f(v)  -  0.35(0.5  + U/100)                                 [3.10]

     where     Q  is the net solar radiation,  Langleys

               P  is the vapor pressure  of  water  at  the  mean daily
                  temperature, torr

               P  is the partial  pressure of water vapor,  torr
                a

               U  is the wind velocity at a height of 2  meters,
                  miles/day

               A  is the slope of  the  water vapor pressure curve,
                  at the mean daily temperature

               Y-] is the psychrometer  constant maintaining consistent
                  units

               a, is an empirical  constant.

Equation 3.10 expresses the  functional dependence of evaporation  upon  wind
speed, with empirically determined constants.   Chang (6) and Knisel  (7)
consider this method to be among  the  most  accurate for estimation  of evapo-
transpiration.  Determination of Qn may  pose some difficulty,  averaging  about
55» of measured incident solar radiation for various cover types  (7).

Other Methods

     Predictive equations have been devised by many  investigators, and have
been compared by Stephen and Stewart  (14)  and  elsewhere  (6, 8, 13).  Scheffa
(8) investigated evapotranspiration in wetland cover-types,  including  sedge,
willow, leatherleaf, and cattail.   He developed a predictive  equation  in the
form

          e  =  a2 + 32B + 62C + Y2D  + AjE   .                        [3.11]

     where     B is the incident radiation  as  measured by  pyranograph

               C is the air  temperature

               D is the relative humidity

               E is the wind speed
                                    12

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a2» 82, So' YO>
                                  are correlation  constants.
The results of this work showed that an evapotranspiration  equation  of this
form, based upon wetland data,  could provide predictions  which were  somewhat
better than the Penman method.   It was  discovered  however,  that the  process
was largely dominated by radiation effects.   Consideration  of wind  speed was
found to be unnecessary, with small  effects  noted  only in the cattail  cover-
type.

Calculating Evapotransplration

     Methods which require only data readily accessible from weather stations
are obviously to be preferred for design predictions.   The  simplicity of the
Thornthwaite method makes it especially attractive for monthly estimates.   It
has been used very successfully in preparing water budgets  for wetlands in
areas of temperate climates, but was found quite inaccurate in a humid sub-
tropical climate (7).  Estimates can often be improved by modification of the
model constants based upon evaporation  data  collected  in  the cover  type of
interest.

     If daily estimates are required, better accuracy  is  needed. Therefore,
models which include more meteorological data (i.e.,  Penman, Scheffe or
others) are recommended.

RESIDENCE TIME

     The rates at which nutrients and other  solutes can be  removed  from the
surface waters will dictate the permissible  rate'of water passage through the
system.  The period available for treatment  is termed  the residence  time of
the system.  Wastewater can be exposed  to the wetland  ecosystem in  various
ways.  If a small area is surrounded by a dike or  other enclosure to maintain
a captive water pool, wastewater can be treated batchwise (15).  The treat-
ment site is flooded, and the water held until the desired  effluent  quality
is achieved.  The area can then be drained,  releasing  the treated water and
refilled with a fresh charge.  The water residence time for such a  process
is easily defined.  However, as with most large-scale  processes, it  is often
convenient to employ a continuous flow system and  an analogous residence time
can be defined.  The actual residence time 8, for  a flow system is

                volume of the surface water __
                                           __
                volumetric flow rate of surface waters

In general the volumetric flow will  vary from one point in the wetland to
another due to rain, evaporation, or stream flows.  If these changes are not
extreme, an average flow rate will  often suffice, otherwise smaller portions
of the wetland can be considered separately.   For a rectangular wetland with
a linear discharge along one side,

                                                                    [3.13]
                                     13

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or

          9  =  7                                                   [3.14]

     where     0 is the void fraction of the wetland for water flow

               h is the surface water depth, m

               w is the width of the flow path,  m

               z is the distance from the point  of wastewatsr
                 discharge, m

               Q is the average surface water flow rate,  mJ/s

               v is the true velocity of surface waters  (average),
                 m/s.

This actual  residence  time is difficult to  obtain accurately, due  to  the  lack
of information on wetland void fractions.   Small-scale obstructions  due to
vegetation are a factor in determining the  void  fraction,  but even  more
difficult to assess are the contributions due to large-scale  channelling.
In addition  the void fraction is undoubtedly a function  of water depth.
Values of $  for the Houghton Lake treatment site have been estimated  to be
about 0.1 -  0.3 for shallow water sedge meadows, and to  approach 1.0  for
deep, open water areas.

     In absence of better data, some choose to define a  superficial  velocity,
v ,  and superficial residence time,  8 :


          vs  E  to                                                 V-m
While lacking intrinsic information  about  the  topography and  hydro locy of
the wetland,  the superficial  residence  time  can  sometimes  be  of use  in
examining data from a  single  site  under varying  water  depths  and  flows.
At any rate,  care must be  taken  not  to  confuse the  significance and
applicability of the actual and  superficial  values.
                                    14

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                                  SECTION  4

                     OVERALL ANALYSIS OF OPERATING DATA
     One tool for analysis of performance data is correlation.   Used exten-
sively by the engineering disciplines, this method allows the determination
of controlling factors and the development of predictive equations.   In gen-
eral, unaccounted parameters as well  as experimental  errors lead to  inaccura-
cies in such predictions.  For complex processes, with more than one or two
controlling factors, large data sets  are needed.   If minor but  significant
factors are neglected, broad bounds on the correlation predictions  result.

     The prediction of removal rates  for wastewater components  in wetland
systems can be approached from this empirical  standpoint.  Operating systems,
for which performance data are available, can be  treated as "black-boxes",
each with an average removal rate for each' component.  By applying  only an
overall material  balance to such a system, the characteristic removal  rate
can be determined from the inlet and  outlet flows.  These removal  rates might
then be correlated in terms of gross  system features, such as those  listed in
Table 3.

CORRELATION OF OPERATING DATA

     Data from a  number of wetland AWT systems allow calculation of  the gross
average removal  rates of phosphorus and nitrogen.  Data reported for the oper-
ating sites listed in Table 4 have been presented in various  figures which
follow.

     Correlative  efforts have been presented previously by other researchers.
Nichols (33) plotted percent removal  of nitrogen  and phosphorus  as a function
of loading rate  for 7 locations, he found it to result in relatively smooth
curve.  The importance of system age  was difficult to interpret.   Other cor-
relations were attempted by Stowell,  _et _a]_.  (34), but the data were  rather
sparse for marsh/peat!and systems.

     Plots of nutrient removal rate versus system age do not, on their  own,
establish any clear trend as can be seen in  Figures  3 and 4.  Figure 5  and
Figure 6 show the average removal  rate versus  input  concentration  for  phos-
phorus and nitrogen, respectively. While precise relations cannot be  estab-
lished using these data from diverse  systems,  a trend of increasing  reniova"
rate with increasing nutrient concentration  is suggested.   Plots  of  nutrient
removal rate versus nutrient loading  rates,  are shown in Figures  7 and  8.
These define the  operating limits  which are  observed  on existing  systems,
regardless of hydrology, cover-type,  or climatic  considerations.   In Figure1?
the phosphorus removal rate is seen to fall  within a  broad  band.  Older and/

                                    15

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220
200

180
160
140

120


100


80


60
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1 1 1 ! 1 1 • 1
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NEW 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 SC
                    System Age,  Years

Figure 3.   Effect of System Age  on  Phosphorus Removal  Rate.
           (See Table 4 for Site Identification Numbers)
 O Rate Based Only on Growing Season,  thus  Likely High
 * Compared to Annual Average.

 O Total  Phosphorus         O Total  Dissolved Phosphorus
                      10

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          325   831
  300
                                    1500
  250
  200
     c^69

     o.
             12
           05
                                           510/ shallow,
                                             suiiimer only
                                             o
                                         6, shallow

                                     OlO,deep
                                 summer only  Q
  150
  100
o
cu
Di
   50
      _     a
                    ©i
           O3
         NEW
Figure 4.
           10    20
50    60    70
                      System Age,  Years
                 The  Effect of System Age on Nitrogen  Removal
                 Rate.   (See Table  4 for Site Identification
                 Numbers . )
                             NO-,"  only
      »H4
                                            only
                         17

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   500
   200
   100
:=   50
Q.
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    20
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=   10
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                     J_
           1.0     2.0         5.0      10

                Phosphorus Concentrationj. ppm
            20
50
         Figura  5.  The Effect of Concentration on "the Phosphorus
                   Removal Rate.  (See Table 4 for Site Identifi-
                   cation Numbers.)
           Rate  based on only growing season, thus is likely high
           compared  to annual average.
        O Total  phosphorus
Total  dissolved phosphorus
                              13

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