PROPERTY OF THE
OFFICE OF SUPERFUND
PB86-165362
DRUM HANDLING PRACTICES AT HAZARDOUS
WASTE SITES
JRB Associates, Incorporated
McLean, VA
Jan 86
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
National Technical Information Service
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PB86-165362
EPA/600/2-86/013
January 1986
DRUM HANDLING PRACTICES
AT HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES
by
K. Wagner, R. Wetzel
H. Bryson, C. Furman
A. Wickline, and V. Hodge
JRB Associates
McLean, Virginia 22102
Contract No. 68-03-3113
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard 12th
Chicago, Ji. 60604-3590'
Project Officer
Anthony N. Tafuri
Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory
Releases Control Branch
Edison, New Jersey 08837
HAZARDOUS WASTE ENGINEERING RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
REPRODUCED BY
NATIONAL TECHNICAL
INFORMATION SERVICE
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
SPRINGFIELD, VA, 22161
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA/600/2-86/013
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCE5SLQN NO. ,,
PB8 b 16 ^T6 2 /*
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
DRUM HANDLING PRACTICES AT HAZARDOUS
WASTE SITES
S. REPORT DATE
January 1986
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
K. Wagner, R. Wetzel, et al
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
ORB Associates
8400 Westpark Drive
McLean, VA 22102
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
CBRD1A
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-03-3113
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final (Nov. 1981-Feb. 1983)
14 SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/14
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Project Officer: Anthony N. Tafuri (201) 321-6604
16. ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research effort was to provide technical guidance on
planning and implementing safe and cost-effective response actions applicable to
hazardous waste sites containing drums.
The manual provides detailed technical guidance on methods, procedures, and
equipment suitable for removing drummed wastes. Information is included on locating
buried drums; excavation and onsite transfer; drum staging, opening, and sampling;
waste consolidation; and temporary storage and shipping.
Each of these operations is discussed in terms of the equipment and procedures
used in carrying out specific activities; health and safety procedures; measures
for protecting the environment and public welfare; and factors affecting costs.
Information is also included on the applications and limitations of the following
remedial measures for controlling or containing migration of wastes: surface
capping, surface water controls, groundwater pumping, subsurface drains, slurry
walls, and in-situ treatment techniques.
This manual will be useful to On-Scene Coordinators, Federal, state, and
local officials, and private firms that plan and implement response actions at
sites containing drums.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19 SECURITY CLASS (This Report!
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
20 SECURITY CLASS (Tins panel
UNCLASSIFIED
22 PRICE
EPA form 2220-1 (9-73)
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NOTICE
This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade
names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation
for use.
11
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FOREWORD
Today's rapidly developing and changing technologies and industrial
products and practices frequently carry with them the increased generation of
solid and hazardous wastes. These materials, if improperly dealt with, can
threaten both public health and the environment. Abandoned waste sites and
accidental releases of toxic and hazardous substances to the environment also
have important environmental and public health implications. The Hazardous
Waste Engineering Research Laboratory assists in providing an authoritative
and defensible engineering basis for assessing and solving these problems.
Its products support the policies, programs, and regulations of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency, the permitting and other responsibilities of state
and local governments and the needs of both large and small businesses in
handling their wastes responsibly and economically.
This manual was conceived and developed to provide guidance in the
planning, selection, and implementation of safe and effective remedial methods
applicable to hazardous waste sites containing drums. In tandem with the
National Contingency Plan, this manual will provide guidance to Federal and
state personnel and private firms in developing technically sound, safe, and
cost-effective remedies for sites containing buried drums or drums stored
aboveground. For further information, please contact the Land Pollution Con-
trol Division of the Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory.
David G. Stephen
Director
Hazardous Waste Engineering
Research Laboratory
iti
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research effort was to provide technical guidance on
planning and implementing safe and coat-effective response actions applicable
to hazardous waste sites containing drums.
The manual provides detailed technical guidance on methods, procedures,
and equipment suitable for removing drummed wastes. Information is included
on locating buried drums; excavation and onsite transfer; drum staging,
opening, and sampling; waste consolidation; and temporary storage and
shipping.
Each of these operations is discussed in terms of the equipment and
procedures used in carrying out specific activities; health and safety
procedures; measures for protecting the environment and public welfare; and
factors affecting costs. Information is also included on the applications and
limitations of the following remedial measures for controlling or containing
migration of wastes: surface capping, surface water controls, groundwater
pumping, subsurface drains, slurry walls, and in-situ treatment techniques.
This manual will be useful to on-scene coordinators, Federal, state, and
local officials, and private firms that plan and implement response actions at
sites containing drums.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No. 68-03-3113 by
JRB Associates under the sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. This report covers the period from November 1981 to February 1983, and
work was completed on February 17, 1984.
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CONTENTS
Foreword 1X1
Abstract iv
Figures vii
Tables x
Acknowledgement xii
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. CONCLUSIONS 3
3. SELECTION OF DRUM HANDLING METHODS 5
Engineering Feasibility 5
Health and Safety of Field Personnel 6
Protection of the Environment and Public Welfare 7
Costs 8
4. LOCATION, DETECTION, AND INVENTORY OF DRUMS 29
Review of Background Data 29
Aerial Photography 30
Geophysical Surveying 34
Sampling 44
Preparing a Drum Inventory 46
5. SITE PREPARATION 51
Site Access Improvements 51
Support Facilities and Structures.-' 52
Site Drainage Improvements 53
6. AIR MONITORING AND INSPECTIONS FOR DETERMINING DRUM INTEGRITY. . 55
Introduction 55
Air Monitoring 56
Visual Inspections . 66
Nondestructive Testing Methods 66
7. EXCAVATION, REMOVAL, AND ONSITE HANDLING OF DRUMS 68
Drum Excavation and Removal Equipment 68
Accessories for Drum Excavation Equipment 83
Selection and Use of Drum Excavation and Removal
Equipment 92
Excavation/Removal Procedures 98
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CONTENTS (continued)
8. DRUM STAGING, OPENING, AND SAMPLING 104
Staging 104
Drum Opening 107
9. WASTE CONSOLIDATION AND RECONTAINERIZATION 125
Compatibility Testing 125
Testing Composite Samples 130
Segregating Wastes Based on Compatible Waste Classes .... 130
Treatment/Disposal Options 130
Preparation of Liquid Wastes for Final Treatment or
Disposal 137
Preparation of Solid Wastes and Soils for Final Treatment
or Disposal 142
Gas Cylinders 145
Lab Packs 146
Drum Crushing 147
Decontamination 148
10. INTERIM STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION 149
Storage 149
Transportation 153
11. ONSITE CONTAINMENT OPTIONS FOR BURIED DRUMS 157
Selection of Remedial Measures for Control or Containment
of Wastes 157
REFERENCES 165
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY. . 174
APPENDIX - HAZARDOUS WASTE COMPATIBILITY CHART 176
VI
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FIGURES
Figure
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Three Dimensional Representation of EM Conductivity Data
Showing Buried Hazardous Materials
Continuous, Parallel Lines of Magnetic Gradient over a
Buried Drum Site Defining the Location and Lateral Limits of
Drums
Comparison of Ground Penetrating Radar and Metal Detection
Survey Results for Drum-Containing Trenches Located at Picillo
Farms, Coventry, RI
Picillo Hazardous Waste Site Layout (Western Trench)
Potential Sources of Information on Drum Integrity
Front-End Loader Hauling Drums at Waste Site
Modified Backhoe (Barrel Grappler) Loading Drums, onto
Barrel Grappler Removing Drums from Pit Excavation
Clamshell Bucket for Crane Attachment
Liquids and Solids Handling by an Industrial Vacuum Loader . . .
Page
43
43
44
54
56
70
71
73
74
76
77
78
78
81
82
84
87
88
Vll
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FIGURES (continued)
Figure Page
19 Forklift-Mbunted Drum Dumper and Hoister-Crane Mounted Drum
Dumper 88
20 Portable Hydraulic Drum Dumper . . . 89
21 Drum Sled 90
22 Plexiglas Safety Shield on Cab of Grappler During Overpacking
Operation 91
23 Use of Grappler Attachment for Overpacking Drums 101
24 Use of Forklift Grabber Attachment for Overpacking 102
25 Layout for Separate Drum Staging and Opening Areas 106
26 Layout for Combined Drum Staging and Opening Operation 109
27 Nonsparking Bung Wrench HO
28 Manual Drum Deheader 112
29 Self-Propelled Drum Deheader 113
30 Self-Propelled Drum Deheader with Support Tower 114
31 Drum Dekinker 115
32 Pneumatic Bung Wrench: Attachment to Drum and Remote Operation
Setup 116
33 Hydraulic Backhoe Drum Plunger Arrangement ... 118
34 Remote Hydraulic Drum Plunger Mounted on Drum 119
35 Conveyor Belt System for Remote Hydraulic Puncturing of Large
Number of Drums 120
36 Backhoe Spike (Nonsparking) Puncturing Drum Held by Grappler . . 121
37 Tube and Spear Device Used for Venting of Swollen Drums 122
38 Compatibility Testing Protocol 126
39 Locations of Treatment/Disposal Facilities for PCBs or
Radioactive Wastes 136
40 Federal PCB Disposal Regulations 138
viii
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FIGURES (continued)
Page
Use of Grappler Aim and Compatibility Chamber for Combining
Compatible Wastes 139
42 Available Options for Streamline Vacuum Trucks 141
43 Combined Handling of Sludges and Contaminated Soils at the
Chemical Control Site 144
IX
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TABLES
Table Page
1A Engineering Feasibility and Effectiveness of Various Drum
Handling Methods - Number of Drums 11
IB Engineering Feasibility and Effectiveness of Various Drum
Handling Methods - Site Accessibility/Location 13
1C Engineering Feasibility and Effectiveness of Various Drum
Handling Methods - Depth of Burial/Surface Disposal 15
ID Engineering Feasibility and Effectiveness of Various Drum
Handling Methods - Hydrogeologic Conditions 16
IE Engineering Feasibility and Effectiveness of Various Drum
Handling Methods - Drum Integrity 17
IF Engineering Feasibility and Effectiveness of Various Drum
Handling Methods - Hazard/Toxicity 19
2 Major Elements of a Site-Specific Safety Plan 21
3 Safety Precautions for Drum Handling 23
4 Measures for Minimizing Environmental Releases During Drum
Handling 26
5 Sources for Background Data Related to Drum Handling and
Disposal. 31
6 Summary of Aerial Imagery as a Tool for Locating Drums. ..... 33
7 Summary of Geophysical Survey Methods 35
8 Applicability and Limitation of Various Soil Sampling Methods . . 47
9 Drum Inventory Format, Keefe Environmental
Services Site, Epping, N.H 48
10 Categorization of Waste Types at the Keefe Environmental
Services Site Based on Random Sampling of Drums 49
11 Estimated Number of Buried Drums at Picillo Farms, RI, Based
on Extrapolation of Best Available Data 50
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TABLES (continued)
Table Page
12 Summary of Direct Reading Air Monitoring Instruments. ...... 58
13 Specific Applications for Air Sample Collection Media Including
the Required Laboratory Analysis 67
14 Drum Excavation/Removal Equipment Capabilities and
Limitations 93
15 Effect of Site-Specific Variables on Selection and Use of Drum
Excavation and Handling Equipment . 95
16 Drum/Bulk Data Form 105
17 Summary Assessment of Drum Opening Techniques 123
18 Potential Analytical Requirements for Disposal 131
19 Major Treatment/Disposal Alternatives for Various Waste Types . . 133
20 Liner-Industrial Waste Compatibilities 151
21 Ranking of Soil Types Based on Percolation Control and
Resistance to Wind Erosion 152
22 Considerations for the Selection, Design, and Implementation
of Capping and Surface Sealing Techniques . 159
23 Considerations for the Selection, Design, and Implementation
of Surface Water Controls 160
24 Considerations for the Selection, Design, and Implementation
of Groundwater Pumping Techniques 161
25 Considerations for the Selection, Design, and Implementation
of Subsurface Drainage Systems 162
26 Considerations for the Selection, Design, and Implementation
of Slurry Walls 163
27 Considerations for the Selection, Design, and Implementation
of In-Situ Treatment Techniques 164
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This document was prepared for EPA's Hazardous Waste Engineering Research
Laboratory (HWERL) by JRB Associates in partial fulfillment of contract no.
68-03-3113.
Mr. Anthony Tafuri was the HWERL Project Manager. Mr. Brint Bixler of
the Office of Emergency and Remedial Response provided many relevant materials
for our review and use. The help and guidance of Mr. Tafuri and Mr. Bixler
during the preparation of this document is gratefully acknowledged.
JRB Associates also acknowledges technical assistance from the following
personnel: the staff of O.H. Materials, Findlay, Ohio, for technical
assistance and review and for providing JRB with several photographs that
appear throughout the report; the Chemical Manufacturer's Association,
Washington, D.C., Norman Franc ingues, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Mississippi, and Mr. Robert Pojasek of Roy F. Weston, Inc., for their tech-
nical review; and Mr. Robert Cibulskis, EPA Environmental Response Team, for
providing JRB with access to video tapes on the cleanup operations at various
sites.
Additional information was obtained from contacts with the following
companies: Wizard Drum Tools, Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Peabody Clean Industries,
East Boston, Massachusetts; Environmental Emergency Services Co., Portland,
Oregon; and CECOS International, Niagara Falls, New York. Their assistance is
gratefully acknowledged.
Xll
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
of 1980 (CERCLA) establishes a nationwide program for the cleanup of uncon-
trolled hazardous waste sites. This program is implemented through pro-
visions of the National Contingency Plan (NCP), 40 CFR Part 300; which sets
forth the process by which response actions will be selected and evaluated.
Such response actions must meet the need for protection of public health,
welfare, and the environment in the most cost-effective manner. Therefore,
three broad criteria have been established for selecting and evaluating
response actions: engineering feasibility; costs; and public health,
environmental, and institutional impacts. The objective of this manual is to
provide technical guidance relative to these criteria on the selection and
implementation of response actions at uncontrolled hazardous waste sites with
drums. '
The need for technical guidance in the area of response actions at
hazardous waste sites with drums has become evident since the establishment
of CERCLA. The results of a 1982 survey of disposal practices at
uncontrolled waste sites indicated that over 20 percent of the sites have
major drum-related problems (U.S. EPA, 1984a). Experience has shown that
there are a number of health, safety, and environmental hazards unique to
drum handling operations. In addition, since the implementation of CERCLA, a
number of removal and remedial actions have been implemented at hazardous
waste sites with drums. The experience gained from these activities and
presented in this manual will be invaluable for future response actions at
similar sites.
This manual has been prepared to provide technical guidance to on-scene
coordinators (OSC), Federal, state, and local officials, private firms, and
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) field personnel. It present's
procedures and methods for planning and implementing cost-effective response
actions applicable to drum problems requiring one or more of the three
response categories outlined in the NCP: removal, surface cleanup, and
subsurface remedial action. The major focus of the document is to provide
guidance specific to the removal of drummed wastes including such activities
as locating, excavating, staging, opening, and transporting drums, and
consolidating wastes from drums. Information is also presented on the use of
source control measures (e.g., pumping, slurry walls, drains) to contain
or control the migration of wastes from drums. The information on source
control measures is presented in the form of summary tables with references
because considerable guidance is available on the design and implementaiton
of these technologies.
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Recognizing that every site is unique in its drum-related problems, the
U.S. EPA and the contractors involved in preparing this manual have generally
taken the approach of outlining the planning process and presenting various
options for handling drums, rather than recommending one specific method that
should be steadfastly followed. The exception to this is when the appro-
priate regulations [e.g., CESCLA, Resource Conservation Recovery Act (RCRA),
Department of Transportation (DOT)] require a certain method or procedure or
when worker safety, public health, or the environment can only be adequately
protected by one specific method or procedure.
Section 3 of the manual draws on more detailed information that is
presented throughout Sections 4 through 11 to provide summary guidance for
selecting and implementing drum handling methods based on the following
criteria:
Technical feasibility
Protection of worker health and safety
Protection of the environment and public health
Costs.
Section 4 discusses procedures for detecting, locating, and inventorying
drumsactivities that typically are undertaken as part of the 'preliminary
assessment or remedial investigation. Section 5 discusses site preparation
activities including measures for improving site access, design and setup of
the various operating areas and support facilities needed for the response
actions, and measures for improving site drainage. Procedures for determining
drum integrity and unsafe contaminant levels in and around drum handling
activities are considered in Section 6. Section 7 addresses equipment and
procedures for excavating buried drums and maneuvering drums onsite.
Equipment and procedures for staging and opening drums are covered in Section
8, and Section 9 discusses procedures for consolidating or repackaging drum
contents. Guidance on interim storage and transportation is presented in
Section 10. Section 11 employs a series of tables to summarize the appli-
cability and limitations of various remedial techniques for controlling or
containing the migration of wastes from drums. The following remedial
actions are discussed: surface capping; surface water controls; groundwater
pumping; subsurface drains; and in-situ treatment methods.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
Response actions involving the offsite removal of drummed wastes are
unique in many respects from response actions taken at other sites. As a
result of associated safety and environmental hazards, a number of
specialized equipment types have been developed for handling drums, and a
number of good operating procedures have evolved.
Much of the equipment used for drum handling has been specially adapted
for the safe handling of hazardous wastes. Where conventional construction
equipment such as backhoes or front-end loaders are used, they can be
equipped with piexiglas safety shields or other modifications to reduce
potential safety hazards. For example, nonsparking bucket teeth can be used
to prevent explosions and a "morman bar" can be used to cover bucket teeth to
prevent drum rupture. One of the most significant equipment modifications is
the flexible barrel grappler, which consists of a grapple attachment suitable
for mounting on a hydraulic backhoe. The grapplier can grab and lift various
sizes of drums from any angle and relocate them without manual assistance.
Remotely operated drum plungers and debungers used for drum opening are other
important developments. Another equipment type for handling hazardous
materials is the industrial vacuum (i.e., the Vactor or Supersucker) which
can convert from liquids to solids handling and can convey materials over
substantial distances.
Procedures and protocols have been developed for the safe and efficient
handling of drums. These methods provide reasonable precautions to prevent
drum ruptures, explosions, fires, toxic releases, and contamination of
groundwater and surface waters. Some of the more important procedures and
protocols that have evolved include the following:
o The site operating areas should be designed to promote the most
efficient and safest operation possible. The layout ideally includes
one or more areas for staging the drums and separate areas for
opening drums, consolidating their contents, equipment decontamina-
tion, and temporary storage of contaminated soils and drums. Within
each area, measures should be taken to provide secondary containment.
Such measures should be consistent with the types of hazards posed by
accidental releases. Highly hazardous materials (e.g., radioactive
materials, explosives, and gas cylinders) should'be isolated to the
extent possible and placed in separate, remote staging or storage
areas.
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Air monitoring equipment should be used extensively during such
operations as drum excavation, opening, consolidation, and storage to
provide an indication of unsafe levels of toxics, explosives, or
radioactive materials.
Drums with poor integrity should be overpacked or their contents
transferred as soon as they are identified.
Compatibility testing should be conducted on all drums to determine
which wastes can be successfully consolidated. Efforts should be
made to maximize the consolidation of compatible wastes since this
provides for the most cost-effective means of transport and disposal.
Once incompatible waste types have been identified, they should be
segregated for all subsequent activities (generally consolidation,
temporary storage, and transportation).
Direct handling of drums should be minimized to the extent practical
by use of such equipment types as the grappler, remote drum opening
equipment, and industrial vacuum trucks.
Drum handling operations can be conducted safely and cost-effectively by
a careful planning process that considers these procedures and others for
protection of health and safety, protection of the environment, and technical
limitations and applications of various equipment types.
In addition to methods for removing drummed wastes, there are also a
number of source control measures, such as capping, surface water controls,
slurry walls, and groundwater pumping, which are suitable for containing or
controlling migration of wastes from drums. These measures are not unique to
drum handling but have a much broader applicability for controlling bulk
hazardous waste migrations from landfills, impoundments, etc. Although they
are summarized in this manual, the U.S. EPA has funded separate studies to
determine the feasibility, design, and.construction of these remedial action
techniques.
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SECTION 3
SELECTION OF DRUM HANDLING METHODS
Selection and detailed design of response actions involving removal of
wastes contained in drums is based on four broad technical criteria con-
sistent with the requirements of the NCP. These are:
\ Engineering feasibility of various equipment types including waste
and site-specific factors which affect equipment performance and any
inherent limitations of the equipment
Protection of health and safety of field personnel
Protection of the environment and public welfare
Costs.
Each of these criteria are dealt with in considerable detail in Sections 4
through 10 of this report in relation to specific drum handling activities
(e.g., excavation, opening, consolidation, etc.). This section draws on the
detailed information presented throughout these sections and summarizes the
data by classifying them under the four broad criteria listed above.
ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY
A variety of procedures, equipment types, and equipment modifications
have been used to respond Co various conditions found at uncontrolled waste
sites. A number of factors go into the selection of equipment for a
particular response action. The selection process considers site and waste
characteristics that limit the feasibility and effectiveness of various
equipment types and drum handling methods as well as the performance record
and the inherent operation and maintenance problem of the equipment. The
engineering feasibility of various equipment and procedures can best be
judged in terms of the following factors:
Number of drums (Table 1A)
Site accessibility/location (Table IB)
Depth of burial/surface disposal (Table 1C)
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Hydrogeologic conditions (Table ID)
Drum integrity (Table IE)
Hazard/toxicity of the drum's contents (Table IF).
Tables 1A through IF, at the end of this section, summarize the use of
various equipment and methods for handling drums under these various
conditions.
HEALTH AND SAFETY OF FIELD PERSONNEL
The U.S. EPA and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) have published extensive guidelines on health and safety procedures
applicable to the cleanup of uncontrolled hazardous waste sites. Since this
guidance is already available, it will not be covered in this report.
Procedures for field health and safety should be consistent with the
following guidance :
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
(CERCLA) Section lll(c)(6)
EPA Order 1440.2 - Health and Safety Requirements for Employees
Engaged in Field Activities
EPA Order 1440. 13 - Respiratory Protection
EPA Occupational Health and Safety Manual (U.S. EPA, 1980)
EPA Interim Standard Operating Safety Guide (U.S. EPA, September
__
Applicable OSHA Standards.
The field health and safety procedures should be detailed in a site-
specific plan that addresses the elements shown in Table 2, at the end of
this section, (based on Buecker and Bradford, 1982). In addition, the plan
should address health and safety procedures and protocols that are unique to
drum handling operations. These measures, summarized in Table 3, include the
use of specialized equipment adapted for the safe handling of drums, such as
remotely operated drum-opening equipment, as well as good safety practices,
such as the prompt isolation of potentially explosive or radioactive wastes.
In addition to health and safety procedures, a site-specific spill
contingency plan should also be developed. The plan should outline
procedures /act ions to be followed in the event of an emergency condition,
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starting with the occurrence of a spill, and defining real-time responsibili-
ties and procedures for the following types of emergencies:
Fires and explosions
Major spills
Medical emergencies
Weather extremes
Civil disobedience/unauthorized site entry.
The contingency plan should accomplish the following objectives:
Identify scenarios that could lead to an emergency (e.g., explosion
of containers of shock-, pressure-, or heat-sensitive materials;
equipment rollover or cave-ins; chain reactions resulting in an
explosion or fire; etc.)
Outline procedures for various types of emergencies
List the response team organization and responsibilities including
cleanup contractors, local authorities, and services (e.g., fire,
police, health services), OSC, and State or EPA officials.
PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND PUBLIC WELFARE
There are numerous tools or measures available for minimizing environ-
mental releases during drum handling. These tools or measures can be divided
into two broad categories:
1. Measures that prevent environmental releases, such as overpacking or
pumping the contents of leaking drums
2. Tools that mitigate or contain spills once they have occurred, such
as perimeter dikes.
Mitigative or containment measures generally include low-cost, easy-to-
implament techniques such as the use of dikes and plastic liners to contain
spills in work areas. A Spills Control and Contingency Plan, prepared as
part of the Remedial Design, should outline specific measures for mitigating
and containing spills.
The selection of tools or measures to minimize environmental releases
depends upon the extent to which the site has already been degraded, the
proximity of surrounding populations, the potential for contamination of
groundwater and surface water, and cost impacts.
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Table 4 summarizes preventive and mitigative measures for controlling
environmental releases during drum handling.
COSTS
Costs consist of all financial (cash) outlays required to implement a
response action, including: engineering, design, installation, and capital
outlays; and other costs, as appropriate. Remedial action costs can range
from as low as $60/drum to as much as $1500/drum or more (U.S. EPA, 1984a).
This wide range is the result of site-specific requirements, waste types,
number of drums, drum condition, and transportation and disposal costs.
Costs associated with remedial actions involving drum handling can be
grouped into four categories based on the activities conducted.
Worker health and safety
Excavation
Containerization (overpacking)
Remov al/transport.
Because of the variability between sites, it is difficult to assign a
specific cost or range of costs to these activities. The interrelationship
of these activities in all phases of cleanup operations preclude isolation of
the cost impact of each element. However, general guidelines can be provided
for each category as to its impact on the total cost of cleanup.
To ensure adequate worker protection it is necessary to test and assess
the potential hazards at the site and establish the appropriate protection
levels. The safety equipment required for a particular level of protection
(e.g., level A, B, C, etc.) will have an impact on the project cost. How-
ever, the cost of protective equipment, is secondary to the cost associated
with the increase in time required for workers to complete activities using
protection levels A or B. Under these conditions, worker mobility is
drastically reduced, requiring additional time to accomplish even simple
tasks.
Excavation costs include equipment rental/lease and mobilization, and
operator time. Costs can be minimized by selecting the appropriate equipment
for the job based on site-specific conditions. When specialized equipment is
necessary to handle unusual problems, costs will increase; standard types of
equipment (e.g., backhoe, forklift, etc.) generally incur lower costs.
Mobilization of excavation equipment will also add to the remedial action
cost. However, job size does not significantly affect this cost. Some
studies of remedial actions (U.S. EPA, 1984a) indicate that the excavation of
drums does not add significantly to the cost of a remedial action. This
suggests that the added cost of excavation equipment is less significant than
other cost items such as treatment or protective equipment necessary for high
risk sites.
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At sites requiring overpacking or recontainerization of wastes, many
specialized service costs may be incurred in addition to thepurchase of
containers for overpacking. Where drums are extensively damaged or wastes
are leaking onto the surface, vacuum systems may be necessary to collect and
contain the waste. This type of response action usually results in addi-
tional costs for crushing and emptying the original drums after their con-
tents have been removed. The drum size required for overpacking will also
affect the cost. For example, overpacking 30-gallon drums requires a
55-gallon overpack, while overpacking 55-gallon drums requires an 80-gallon
overpack. The impact of overpacking costs on overall response costs may be
highly variable.
Costs for removal and transport usually have a significant impact on
total remedial action costs. These costs are extremely variable depending on
the waste type, distance to an acceptable disposal site, drum size and condi-
tion , drum location, and personnel protective equipment required for safe
handling. In addition, careful management of the more hazardous waste types
increases the time necessary for the various elements of the operation (e.g.,
labor and equipment). It should be determined on a site-specific basis
whether bulking is feasible. This procedure can significantly reduce removal
and transportation costs compared to costs assciated with handling individual
drums. Elements of the transport and removal cost are also reflected in the
previous discussion of site cost activities (i.e., worker safety, excavation,
containerization).
Throughout the four activities, economies of scale will affect the total
cost per drum. There is generally a direct relationship between the total
site costs and the number of drums involved and an inverse relationship
between the total site costs and the unit cost per drum. Certain minimum
costs, however, are also generally charged for component tasks independent of
the size of the effort such as mobilization of technicians and equipment or
transportation. Associated costs can be minimized by the selection of the
most cost-effective contractor and equipment types and by effective
management of the cleanup operation.
The following list presents several monetary costs that should be
considered and quantified, when possible, during a cost-effective analysis:
Potential outlays including related administrative costs to obtain
necessary permits, licenses, etc.
Engineering expenses, such as technical services related to sampling,
testing, designing, managing, and reviewing the remedial measure
Land-related expenses for the rental or purchase of rights-of-way and
easements, as well as expenditures for land/site preparation
Construction costs including direct outlays for equipment, hardware,
and materials
Costs for disposing of wastes at an approved off-site facility
-------
Startup costs comprising operator training, temporary professional
services, additional testing, monitoring, process controls, and
equipment or materials transport costs
Labor costs including all payments for wages, salaries, training,
overhead, and fringe benefits to workers employed at the site.
In selecting the appropriate contractor or equipment, the following
points should be considered:
Length of contractor's work dayby specifying that equipment operate
for 12 hours rather than 8 hours, the cost of equipment downtime can
be minimized
, Contractor's performance record with proposed equipment/methods
Equipment efficiency under specific site conditions
Equipment dispatching time (transport and setup)
The extent to which a piece of equipment can perform several
functions thereby minimizing idle time and costs for equipment
mobilization
The ability of one contractor to handle the entire cleanup operation
The location of potential treatment and disposal facilities and their
cost per volume of waste.
Once the contractor is selected, additional cost savings can be made by close
management of the cleanup operation.
A project schedule and cost estimate for each cleanup activity should
be outlined in the Remedial Design. These guidelines provide reasonable
assurance of completing the cleanup within the specified time and budget.
However, they are subject to change as cleanup reveals additional information
about the number of drums, their contents, and their integrity. A schedule
of project milestones provides some guidance for scheduling certain pieces of
equipment or certain contractors at the site, thereby minimizing the amount
of idle time for equipment and field personnel.
In addition, when the time and costs for a particular activity exceed
that which was planned, it may be possible to modify the approach for
subsequent activities to maintain costs without sacrificing worker safety or
protection of sensitive environmental areas.
10
-------
TABLE 1A. ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF VARIOUS DRUM HANDLING METHODS
NUMBER OF DRUMS
LOCATION AND INVENTORY
Expenditures for remote sensing
must be kept in perspective; if
the number of buried drums it
snail, uae a simple remote
sensing tool (i.e., metal
detector) to locate drums;
may not be worth the expense
to quantify; hand-held tools
are suitable for small sites,
whereas vehicle-towed equip-
ment is sometimes needed at
large sites
A random sampling of drums above-
ground may Involve 5 to 25 percent
of the drums depending upon the
total number of drums as well as
their hazard and accessibility
EXCAVATION
For large numbers of drums use highly
mobile, high-productiop equipment (i.e.,
backhoes, grapplers, rubber tired
loaders, industrial vacuums);
several equipment types can be
employed economically at sites with
over 1000 drums
For small sites «500 drums) use
versatile equipment such as combined
backhoe-front-end loader and limit
number of vehicles onsite
DRUM STAGING
High-production equipment
(grappler, front-end loader)
should be used for staging
and transferring large numbers
of drums
Where there are a large number
of drums, staging and opening
the drums in shifts should be
considered if spacing is
inadequate
If the number of drums is very
large, it may be necessary to
stage and open the drums in
the same area; when this is the
case, drums should be staged
with adequate space between
aisles to allow access of
remote opening equipment and
adequate apace between drums
to prevent chain reactions in
the event of fire or explosion
(continued)
-------
TABLE 1A. (continued)
NUMBER OF DRUMS
DRUM OPENING
For large numbers O500) of
drums, a backlioe plunger
or a remote conveyor should be
considered for drum opening
For small numbers of drums,
hand tools can be considered
depending on conditions of
drums and drum contents
COHSOLIPAT10N/RECONTAIKERIZATION
Where large numbers of compatible
liquid wastes are present, their
contents can usually be bulked
rather Khan shipping the drums
individually. Large capacity
vacuum equipment is generally
preferred over skid-mounted units
providing these vehicles have
access to the site
On site treatment options should
be considered for a large number of
drums
Drum crushers or shredders are gen-
erally used when large numbers of
empty drums are present. If the
number of empty drums is few, back-
hoes and loaders can be used for
crushing
Solids are generally shipped in DOT
approved drums although they can be
shipped in bulk along with heavily
contaminated soils, depending upon
the requirements of the disposal
facility
INTERIM STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
State transportation requirements
must be consulted to determine
the number of drums and volume of
liquid that can be transported
in a load
-------
TABLE IB. ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF VARIOUS DRUM HANDLING METHODS
SITE ACCESSIBILITY/LOCATION
U)
LOCATION AND INVENTORY
Remote wooded site may require
that geophysical surveying be
done manually rather than by
vehicle; clearing and grubbing
may be needed to conduct
continuous surveys
Certain cultural features
commonly present in congested
or populated areas can inter-
fere with geophysical surveying
(i.e., fencing, buried
utilities, passing cars); the
fluxgate gradiometer is
least sensitive to such
interferences
Preparing an inventory of drums
aboveground can be hazardous
if the site is congested.
Minimize hazards by (1) staging
drums for opening, (2) using
remote opening equipment, and
(3) keeping random sampling to
a minimum
EXCAVATION
Remote sites may require special
site preparation, such as clearing
and grubbing for easier access, and
may dictate use of fewer, larger
equipment types (backhoes, grapplers,
crawlers, tractors, cranes)
For readily accessible sites, equip-
ment size and number are not limited;
favors mobile rubber-tired vehicles
(bobcats and backhoes)
For congested, urban sites, may need
smaller machinery (forklifts and
loaders) for lifting and transfer;
may also use hoists or slings to
lift drums from congested areas
Cranes and draglines may be used if
a particularly long reach is
required to lift drums in a
congested area
DRUM STAGING
Where adequate space is avail-
able, drum staging should be
segregated from drum opening
If site is congested, drums
may be staged, opened, and
sampled in shifts to provide
adequate work space; alter-
natively, drums may be staged
and opened in the same work
area; in a combined staging
and opening area, drums should
be staged so there is ade-
quate space between drums to
minimize a chain reaction in
the event of a fire or
explosion and adequate space
between rows to allow access
to drums by remote opening
equipment
(continued)
-------
TABLE IB. (Continued)
SITE ACCESSIBILITY/LOCATION
DRUM OPENING
See preceding discussion on
staging
CONSOLIDATION/RECONTAINERIZATION
Skid-mounted vacuum units may be
needed for waste consolidation
in inaccessible areas
Location of the site with respect
to treatment/disposal facilities
should be considered prior to
consolidation/recontainerization
Onsite treatment of wastes and
soils can be a viable option,
particularly if the site ia not
in a populated area; detonation
of lab packs onsite should only
be considered if the site is
remote
INTERIM STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
Storage area should be as
distant as possible from popu-
lated areas; reactives and
explosives should he stored
away from buildings
-------
TABLE 1C. ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF VARIOUS DRUM HANDLING METHODS
DEPTH OF BURIAL/SURFACE DISPOSAL
LOCATION AND INVENTORY
Geophysical surveying is used
to determine depth of burial;
metal detectors are suitable
for locating shallow drums;
magnetouetry, electrical
conductivity, and resistivity
can detect drums to consider-
able depths
Preparation of a drun inventory
nay be limited to drums above-
ground; however, geophysical
surveying can be used to obtain
a rough approximation of the
number of drums
EXCAVATION
Excavation of buried drums requires
use of backhoe, grappler, etc.; drumt
buried deeper than about 10 meters
(30 feet) may require use of a crane
or dragline or the excavation of a
"working platform" parallel to the
trench or pit; backhoe or front-end
loaders can be used for excavation
of very shallow drums
DRUM STAGING
Not applicable
DRUM OPENING
CONSOLIDATION/RECONTAINERIZATION
INTERIM STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
-------
TABLE ID. ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF VARIOUS DRUM HANDLING METHODS
HYDROGEOLOGIC CONDITIONS
LOCATION AND INVENTORY
Presence of a high water table
may prevent use of a vehicle
to tow remote sensing
equipment
Where groundwater is saline,
ground-penetrating radar,
electromagnetics, and
electrical resistivity may
be ineffective
Complex stratigraphy can make
interpretation of resistivity
and seismic refraction
data very complex
Ground-penetrating radar may
be ineffective in clay soils
EXCAVATION
Water-logged sites may require
surface runoff diversion with
trenches and berms to improve
drainage; wet, muddy sites favor
equipment mounted with good
flotation tires or crawler-
mounted vehicles; swamp pads
(extra-wide crawler tracks);
and timber mats may also be
useful
For dry sites, less site
preparation is needed and
mobile, rubber-tired vehicles
can be used
DRUM STAGING
If the site is in an area with
high water table, drums can be
staged on pallets, flatbed
trucks, or in diked, elevated
areas to prevent contact with
water
DRUM OPENING
Drum opening area should be
diked and lined, particularly
in an area with a high water
table
CONSOLIDATION/RECONTAINERIZATION
High water table may limit access
of vacuum equipment and box
trailers; skid-mounted units may
be better suited than vacuum
trucks
INTERIM STORAGE AMP TRANSPORTATION
Drums stored temporarily onaite
should not be in contact with
standing water; if the water
table is high, construct the
storage area on the highest
ground possible; build dikes
and diversions to control and
collect runoff and improve
drainage; use sump pumps to
remove standing water; store
drums on pallets.
-------
TABLE IE. ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF VARIOUS DRUM HANDLING METHODS
DRUM INTEGRITY
LOCATION AND INVENTORY
If buried drums are leaking, it
may be difficult to distinguish
between drums and the plume
using the following geophysical
techniques: electromagnetic
conductivity, electrical
resistivity, and ground-
penetrating radar; magnetometry
and metal detectors should be
used to confirm location of
drums
If poor drum integrity is
encountered during the inventory
of drums, the following precau-
tions may be needed: (1) staging
of drums for random sampling;
(2) using remotely operated drum
opening equipment; (3) using air
monitoring equipment extensively
to monitor worker safety
EXCAVATION
Corroded or leaking drums may require
immediate overpacking or waste trans-
fer prior to excavation; where the
grappler is available it may be
possible to 'risk rupture of the drum
to protect worker safety
Use of the grappler is preferred for
overpacking; forklift trucks equipped
with grabbers can be used but require
manual assistance, which jeopardizes
worker safety
Equipment adaptations such as the
use of mono an bars to cover the
bucket teeth or wide canvas slings
that can be wrapped around a drum
can minimize drum ruptures
Drums should be excavated and
removed one at a time, especially
if integrity is questionable
Small excavation equipment (with
plexiglas shields) such as front-
end loaders and bobcats can be
used if drum integrity is good
and hazard is low
DRUM STAGING
Overpack or transfer the contents
of drums with poor integrity;
waste transfer requires use of
explosion- and acid-proof pumps;
overpacking should preferably be
done using the grappler; forklift
trucks can also be used but
require manual assistance, which
can jeopardize worker safety
(continued)
-------
TABLE IE. (continued)
DRUM INTEGRITY
DRUM OPENING
All drums with poor integrity
should be overpacked or their
contents transferred prior
to opening
The drum opening area should be
lined and contained with dikes
or benns; spill containment
pans can also be placed
under the drums
COHSOLIDATIOH/RECONTAIHERIZATION
Waste containers for offsite
transport must meet DOT approval
Fibre drums are suitable for
onsite incineration
INTERIM STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
Drums approved for shipment
must have good integrity; no
signs of corrosion, bulging,
etc .
-------
TABLE IF. ENGINEERING FEASIBILITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF VARIOUS DRUM HANDLING METHODS
HAZARD/TOXICITY
LOCATION AND INVENTORY
If explosives or shock-sensitive
drums are buried close to the
surface, geophysical surveying
using a vehicle-mounted instru-
ment should not be undertaken;
surveying may be limited to
station-by-station monitoring
Suspected explosives or shock-
sensitive drums should only be
sampled remotely, and pre-
cautions should be taken to
prevent a chain reaction in the
event of a fire or explosion;
if highly hazardous wastes are
being sampled as part of the
drum inventory, adequate spacing
should be provided for
emergency evacuation
EXCAVATION
, Radioactive wastes should be over-
packed before excavating
Explosive and shock-sensitive wastes
should be handled remotely wherever
possible
Critically over-pressurized drums
should be relieved remotely prior
to excavating
Gas cylinders should be excavated
cautiously, avoiding dragging or
striking them
Potentially explosive or flammable
wastes require use of non-
sparking buckets and tools
DRUM STAGING
A grappler should be used for
staging explosive- and shock-
sensitive materials
Front-end loaders, bobcats, and
forklift trucks can be used for
onsite transfer and staging of
wastes that are not highly
hazardous
Stage radioactive and explosive
materials in separate fenced
areas
Stage gas cylinders in cool,
shaded areas
DRUM OPENING
Exp'foaive and shock sensitive
drums should be opened remotely,
in a controlled area. The
opening area should be
physically separate from other
working areas to avoid a chain
reaction in the event of a fire
or explosion
CONSOLIDATION/RECONTA1NERIZATION
Compatibility testing is required
on all drums to determine which
materials can be safely bulked
Vacuum trucks used for trans-
porting liquids should be
dedicated as much as possible to
hauling one specific type of
waste. This practice will
minimize decontamination costs
INTERIM STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
Incompatible waste types must be
segregated during interim
storage, using dikes and berms,
and cannot be transported
together
(continued)
-------
TABLE IF. (continued)
HAZARD/TOXIC1TY
N)
o
DRUM OPENING
(centinued)
A remote drum opener is
recommended for all hazardous
or highly toxic wastes
Where manual drum opening
tools are used, they should be
nonsparking
CONSOUDATION/RECONTAINEKIZATION
(cont inned)
The lining or coating of vacuum
cylinders must be compatible with
specific waste types
Highly toxic/hazardous wastes
should not be bulked with other
materials where this will create
an off-specification lot unsuitable
for treatment/disposal
Certain wastes may require onsite
pretreatment to make them
acceptable for transport (e>8*>
solidification of sludges,
neutralization, reduction of
flash point)
In some instances, incompatible
waste types ( e.g., acids and
bases) can be combined onsite.
This must be done in a controlled
environment (e.g., reaction tank)
INTERIM STORAfiE AND TRANSPORTATION
(cont in tied)
Special precautions are required
for interim storage of some
highly hazardous wastes ( e.g.,
storage of explosives in
fences areas; gas cylinders in
cool shaded areas; reactive
and explosive waste away from
bui Idings)
-------
TABLE 2. MAJOR ELEMENTS OF A SITE-SPECIFIC SAFETY PLAN
Major Element
Specific Considerations
Comment a
Applicability
Responsibilities
Site Description
Levels of
Protection
Air Monitoring
Personnel/Equipment
Decontamination
site personnel
contractors
government agencies
visitors
definition of roles
organization hierarchy
site supervision
government liaison
safety supervision
public relations
responsibilities
define contaminant
boundaries
define services,
materials, and equip-
ment within hot,
transition, and
clean zones
describe protective
clothing and
respiratory gear,
equipment operators,
and ancillary
personnel
types of equipment
by zone
procedures for
monitoring during
specific activities
offsite monitoring
procedures for
specific types of
contaminants
sequence of procedures
manpower support
Accommodate rotating
supervisory personnel
Consider space constraints,
equipment transportation
access, weather variables,
security, and emergency
response
Consider exposure
potential; job function;
work stations by zone;
level of site activity
Allow for modifications
and input from air
monitoring results
Consider instrument
selectivity & sensitivity;
monitoring location;
frequency; duration;
recordkeeping; worst
case scenarios
Consider reuse and storage
of gear; wet/dry decon-
tamination; discharge of
contaminated wash water;
frequency of use
(continued)
21
-------
TABLE 2.(continued)
Major Element
Specific Considerations
Comments
Operations safety
Emergency
Evacuation
equipment operation
use of specially adapted
equipment/tooIs for safe
handling of drums
health monitoring and
first aid
weather conditions
incident logs
safety meeting
buddy system
procedures and protocols
to minimize potential
for reactions, fires,
explosions, etc.
procedures for onsite
personnel and public
levels of response
notification procedures
communications
rescue techniques
emergency transportation
Consider worst case
and likely events
Adapted from Buecker and Bradford, 1982 with permission of Hazardous
Materials Control Research Institute, Silver Spring, MD.
22
-------
TABLE 3. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR DRUM HANDLING
Drum Handling Activity
Locating and Inventory
of Drums
N)
LO
Determining Drum
Integrity
Potential Safety Hazard
Safety Precaution!
Unknown location and contents of Carefully review background data pertaining to the location and lypt-8
drums can lead to unsuspected hazards of wastes onsite.
Conduct soil and groundwater sampling only after the geophysical survey
is completed to minimize the possibility of puncturing drums
During the random sampling of drums, which may he required for an
inventory, spacing between drums should be adequate to allow for
emergency evacuation if needed
Use remotely operated, nonsparktng tools for random sampling whenever
possible
The process of visual inspections
requires close contact with drums
of unknown content
Use direct-reading, air monitoring equipment to detect hot spots where
contauination may pose a risk to worker safety
Approach drums cautiously, relying on air monitoring equipment to
indicate levels of hazards that require withdrawal from the working
area or use of additional safety equipment
Any drun that is critically swollen should not be approached; it should
be isolated using a barricade until the pressure can be relieved
remoteIy
Use of the grappler or other remotely operated equipment can eliminate
the need for determining drisn integrity prior to excavation provided
rupture of the drum will not result in fire or unacceptable
environmental impact
Drum Excavation and Handling Exposure to toxic/hazardous vapors, Where buried drums are suspected, conduct a geophysical survey befoie
rupture of drums using any construction equipment in order to minimize the possibility
of rupture
Use the drum grappler where possible and cost-effective to mininite
close contact with the drima
If the grappler is not available, ptunp or overpack drums of poor
integrity prior to excavation
Ground equipment prior to transferring wastes to new drum
(continue*!!
-------
TABLE 3. (continued)
DRUM HANDLING ACTIVITY
POTENTIAL SAFETY HAZARD
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Drum Excavation and
Handling (continued)
N>
Use nonsparking hand tools and nonsparking bucket teeth on excavation
equipment
Where slings, yokes, or other accessories must be used, workers should
back away from the work area after attaching the accessory and before
the drum is lifted
Critically swollen drums should not be handled until pressure can be
relieved
Use plexiglas shields on vehicle cabs
Use "morman bars," which fit over the teeth of excavation buckets, to
prevent drum puncture
Where ionizing levels of radiation are detected, the safety officer
should be contacted; generally, the drim should be overpacked and
isolated promptly
Gas cylinders should not be dragged during handling
Where explosive or shock-sensitive material is suspected, every effort
should be made to handle the drum remotely
Use direct-reading, air monitoring equipment when in close proximity to
drums to detect any hot spots
Drum Staging and Opening
Release of toxic, hazardous vapors,
rupture of drums
Stage gas cylinders in a cool, shaded area
Stage potentially explosive or shock-sensitive wastes in a diked,
fenced area
Use remote drum opening methods where drums are unsound
Conduct remotely operated drim opening from behind a barricade or
behind a plexiglas shield if backhoe-mounted puncture is being used
Isolate drum opening from staging and other activities if possible to
prevent a chain reaction if an explosion or reaction does occur
If drim opening cannot be isolated from staging, drums should be staged
so as to (1) minimize the possibility of chain reactions in the event
of a fire or explosion and (2) provide adequate space for emergency
evacuat ion
~ ' (continue,!)
-------
TABLE 3. (continued)
DRUM HANDLING ACTIVITY
Drum Staging ami
Opening (continued)
PUCKNTIAI. SAFKTY HAZARD
SAFETY PRhCAllTIONS
Use only nonsparking hand tools if drums are to be opened manually
Remot«ly rel ieve the pressure of critically swollen drums before
opening
Clean up spills promptly lo minimize mixing of incompatible materials
ro
Ul
Consolidation and
Recontainerizalion
Hixing of incompatible wastes
Interim Storage and
Transportation
Mixing of incompatible wastes
Perform onaite compatibility testing on all drums
Segregate wastes according to cmnp.il ih i I i ty class following
compatibility testing
Clean up spills promptly to avoid mixing of incompatible wastes
Intentional mixing of incompatible wastes such as acids and bases
sliould be performed under controlled conditions in a reaction tank
where temperature and vapor release can be monitored
Monitor for incompatible reactions during consolidation using direct-
reading air monitoring equipment
Segregate incompatible wastes using dikes during interim stoiage
Maintain a weekly inspection schedule
Allow adequate aisle space between drums to allow rapid exit of winkers
in case of emergency
Keep explosives and gas cyl inilprs in a rnnl , shaded or roofed area
Prevent contact of water reactive wastes with water
Clean up spills or leaks promptly
Have fire fighting equipment readily available within the storaRe area
Knsure adherence to DOT regulations regarding transport of im omp
-------
TABLE 4. MEASURES FOR MINIMIZING ENVIRONMENTAL RELEASES DURING DRUM HANDLING
POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEM
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
Groundwater Contamination
a*
Construct a system of dikes and trenches around the site or around specific
work areas to improve site drainage and minimize runoff
Where groundvater is an important drinking water source, it may be necessary
to hydrologically isolate the work area using well-point dewatering. (Limited
to highly sensitive environments)
Construct a concrete or asphalt pad with gravity collection system and simp
for equipment decontamination
Use liners to prevent leaching of spilled material into groundwater during
drum handling and drum opening, use spill containment pans during drum
opening
Use sorbents or vacuum equipment throughout the operation to clean up spills
promptly
Maintain overpacks at strategic locations in work areas and on the access
road to be used for prompt cleanup of spills
Locate temporary storage area on the highest ground area available; install
an impervious liner in the storage area and a dike around the perimeter of
the area; utilize a sump pump to promptly remove spills and rainwater from
the storage area for proper handling
Promptly overpack or transfer the contents of leaking drums prior to
excavation in order to prevent ruptures.
(cont inued)
-------
TABLE 4. (continued)
POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEM
Surface Water Contamination
Air Pollution
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
Construct dikes around the rtriim dandling ami storage areas
Construct a holding pond downs I ope of the site- to contain contaminated
runoff
Use sorbents or vacuum equipment throughout I he operation to catch spills as
they occur
Design the dikes for temporary storage area to contain a minimum of 10 per-
cent of the total waste volume; ensure that holding rapacity of storage an-a
is not exceeded by utilizing a sump pump to promptly remove spills and
rainwater
Avoid uncontrolled mixing of incompatible wastes by (I) handling only one
drum at a time during excavation and (2) isolating drum opening operation
from staging and working areas
Avoid dragging or striking gas cylinders
Promptly reseat drums following sampling
Promptly overpack or transfer the contents of any drum that is leaking or
prone to rupture or leaking
Use vacium units that are equipped with vapor scrubbers
Where incompatible wastes are intentionally mixed (i.e., acids and bases for
neutralization) in a "compatibility chamber" or tank, releases of vapors ran
be minimized by covering the tank
Use small laboratory scrubbers during drum opening.
-------
TABLE 4. (continued)
POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEM
PREVENTIVE MEASURES
Fire Protection
00
Use nonaparking hand tools, drum-opening tools, and explosion-proof pumps
when handling flammable, explosive, or unknown waste
Avoid uncontrolled nixing of incompatible waste by (I) handling only one drum
at a time, (2) pumping or overpacking drums with poor integrity, (3)
isolating drum opening, and (4) conducting compatability testing of all drums
Use sand, foams, etc., to suppress small fires before they spread
Avoid dragging or striking gas cylinders
Avoid storage of explosives or reactive wastes in the vicinity of buildings
In a confined area, reduce concentration of explosives by venting to the
atmosphere
Cover drums that are known to be water reactive
Properly ground equipment
-------
SECTION 4
LOCATION, DETECTION, AND INVENTORY OF DRUMS
The activities described in this section are undertaken either as part
of the preliminary assessment and the remedial investigation or during the
immediate removal operation, as described in the National Contingency Plan
(NCP). These activities include a review of background data, aerial photog-
raphy, geophysical surveying, sampling, and an onsite inventory of drums.
For drum handling, the objectives of these tasks are to locate and define the
boundaries of buried and aboveground drums, assess the types and amounts of
wastes and their potential hazard, and provide needed information to
determine whether immediate or planned removal is warranted.
REVIEW OF BACKGROUND DATA
A review of background data is undertaken as part of the preliminary
assessment. This activity can provide guidance on the site-specific safety
plan, costs, equipment, and methods required for drum removal or source
control measures, and can focus subsequent site investigation activities.
There are four basic types of information that can be obtained by
reviewing background data: drum storage, handling, and disposal practices;
waste characterization; hydrogeologic setting; and location of receptors.
A review of information on drum storage, handling, and disposal
practices should focus on determining .the following:
Location of drums
Number of drums
Condition of drums (and expected condition in 1 to 2 years)
Burial or aboveground storage of drums
Handling of incompatible wastes during disposal
Codisposal of drums with bulk wastes
Nature of the drum disposal operation (whether drums were disposed of
haphazardly or efforts were taken to prevent rupture or denting
during disposal)
29
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Efforts taken to minimize corrosion (i.e., lining of trenches or
cover for drums aboveground).
Although existing data on waste characterization are frequently sketchy,
background data should be used to the extent possible to determine the
physical state of the wastes (solids, liquids, or gases); broad waste
categories (e.g., flammables, radioactives, or water reactives); and specific
waste types (e.g., solvent still bottoms or paint sludges).
Information on the hydrogeological setting should be used to determine
factors such as the elevation of the water table, direction rate, nature of
groundwater flow, and the depth to bedrock. These factors can provide useful
information on the probable condition of the drums, extent of groundwater
plume, and site-specific conditions that may dictate the need for specific
equipment types during drum handling.
Proximity to receptors can determine whether removal or remedial action
is warranted and can dictate the need for specific precautions to protect
sensitive environments or nearby populations.
Table 5 summarizes widely used sources of background information.
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Aerial photography is an effective and economic tool for gathering pre-
liminary information on waste disposal sites and for locating drums. Use of
aerial photographs can minimize the need for extensive remote sensing, exca-
vation, and/or sampling by providing a general indication of the location of
buried drums. Because maps of the site can be prepared before inspection,
potential hazards for field personnel can be noted and minimized.
Aerial imagery' refers to pictorial representations produced by electro-
magnetic radiation that is emitted or .reflected from the earth and recorded
by aircraft-mounted sensors. One type of aerial imagery is the photograph,
the simplest, most common kind of imagery, which uses only the visible part
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Three types of photographs are often used
for gathering information on disposal sites. Oblique photos are taken at
angles to the earth's surface and thus distort the scale of the picture
{objects in the foreground are larger and objects in the background are
smaller than actual size). Therefore, oblique photos are useful when scale
is not important, such as when areas must be 'surveyed for suspicious dead
vegetation, barren areas, or pits. High resolution photographs enable
investigators to identify drums and other small-scale objects. Perpendicular
photos, or stereophotos, which are taken from directly above the site so that
there is little or no distortion, can be used in pairs to show the topography
of the site in three dimensions.
The second type of aerial imagery uses wavelengths of light that are
outside the visible spectrum. The three most common types of images are
infrared, radar, and multispectral.
30
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TABLE 5. SOURCES FOR BACKGROUND DATA RELATED TO
DRUM HANDLING AND DISPOSAL
Drum Storage, Handling,
and Disposal Practices
Site owner/operator
Generator*
Waste Characteristics
Site records
inventories
permits
manifests
Hydrogeologic
Setting
Topographic maps
USDA soil surveys
USDA water supply
Location of Receptors
County Planning
Agencies
County and State
papf-rs Health Departments
U)
Private citizens Generator records
Site records, especially REM/FIT reports
permits
Historic aerial photography Monitoring/sampling
data
REM/FIT1 reports
USGS water resource maps
Flood Insurance maps
Well drillers logs
Property surveys
Climatological data
REM/FIT reports
Zoning records
State Departments
of Natural Resources
Local citizens groups
Historical aerial
photography
REM/FIT1 reports
REM/FIT - Remedial/Field Investigation Team
2USDA - United States Department of Agriculture
USGS - United States Geological Survey
-------
Infrared imagery indicates areas that are hotter or cooler than the
general surroundings. This is useful, as drums leaking hazardous wastes may
give off heat in continuing reactions, and areas of dead vegetation have
different radiant heating (albedo) characteristics than vegetated areas.
Radar imagery uses side-looking radar to accentuate topographic relief
without recording vegetation. This type of image would be especially useful
for discovering covered trenches or pits that are camouflaged by dense
vegetation.
Multispectral imagery refers to a series of images, each of which uses a
different portion of the light spectrum. This type of imagery provides the
greatest amount of data although it also takes the most time and skill to
interpret. The cost involved in data acquisition and computer processing
often makes this system cost-ineffective (JRB Associates, 1980).
Table 6 summarizes the important aspects of photographs and images in
the discovery of drums and leaking wastes from drums.
Aerial photos and interpretative assistance for the eastern EPA regions
are available from the Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center
(EPIC) in Warrenton, Virginia. The Environmental Monitoring Systems Labora-
tory (EMSL) in Las Vegas, Nevada, offers similar services for the western EPA
regions. These groups also provide technical support and film development
for the EPA regions' Enviropod Systems. The Enviropod i-s a portable camera
system that can be readily installed in aircraft.
EPIC's Imagery Analysis System (IAS), designed by Calma Corporation, is
capable of rectifying photo-to-map scales for plotting points directly from
imagery to a standard map. The system also determines the exact geocoor-
dinates for an individual site and computes the area of a particular feature
(Titus, 1981).
Trend analysis using sequential historic aerial photographs is another
useful method for locating drums. Archival photographs taken after 1950 are
available from the National Cartographic Information Center, USGS, Reston,
Virginia, and from Earth Resource Observation System (EROS) Data Center,
Sioux Falls,. South Dakota. Photographs taken from about 1930 through 1950
are available from the National Archives in Washington, D.C. Generally, the
requestor must specify the geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude)
of the site. Standard orders for copies of photographs can generally be
processed within 6 weeks (Holmes, 1980; JRB Associates, 1980). If there are
gaps in the coverage, State archives and. privately owned cartographic plots
may provide the missing information.
Comparison of historic photographs over the span of time when operations
took place at a given site can strongly suggest the location of drums. The
following changes should be noted:
Filled-in trenches
Mounded soils or paved surfaces
32
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TABLE 6. SUMMARY OF AERIAL IMAGERY AS A TOOL FOR LOCATING DRUMS
Type of
Imagery
Type of Infor-
mation Provided
Key Features to
Look For
Comments
Oblique photos
Photographic view
of sites
Dead vegetation,
drums, and pits
Readily available and
easy to interpret,
but limited amount
of information
provided
Stereoscopic
photos
Three-dimensional
photographic view
of sites
Same as oblique,
plus drainage
patterns, stunted
vegetative growth,
and unusual mounds
or sinks
Readily available and
can provide much more
information than
oblique photos but
more difficult to
interpret
Infrared images
Variations in sur-
face temperature
Abnormal vegeta-
tive patterns,
leachate plumes,
anomalous hot
or cool areas
Radar images Surface topography Drainage ways,
without vegetative
cover
surface impound-
ments , and pits
Not as readily avail-
able on an appro-
priate scale as are
photographs; much
more difficult to
interpret but can
provide a great deal
of information not
available from photos
Multispectral
images
All of the above
plus data
from other spec-
ialized types of
imagery
All of the above
plus other spec-
ialized types of
features
Generally not con-
sidered cost-effec-
tive
Source: JRB, 1980
33
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Changes in vegetation
Disappearance of pits, quarries, or natural depressions
Changes in traffic patterns.
The areas of concern are generally plotted on overlays to aerial photographs
and analyzed for any changes that may have occurred over time.
GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING
A number of surface geophysical techniques have been proven to be
effective in resolving details of site conditions, locating buried drums, and
defining the boundaries of leachate plumes. These techniques, and their
applications and limitations, have been described extensively in the litera-
ture. A number of valuable references have been included in the reference
list. The theory, applications, and limitations of these methods are briefly
described in Table 7 and in the following subsections.
Metal Detection
Metal detectors respond to the high electrical conductivity of metal
objects and can detect both ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The metal
detector is a near-field device that can detect metal objects to a maximum of
2.4 to 3.7 meters (8-12 feet). The detection distance is generally much
less, however, because of geological or cultural noise or the presence of the
drums. The detection distance may be reduced to as low as 1.2 to 1.5 meters
(4-5 feet) in areas containing buried drums. The major advantage of the
metal detector is that it is inexpensive and easy to use. The hand-held
models are lightweight, readily available, and ,easy to handle, but models are
also available that can be vehicle mounted for continuous surveying. In
addition to low sensitivity, a major disadvantage of the metal detector is
the system's sensitivity to both iron .oxides in the soil and conductive
leachates. The presence of lateral metallic objects such as fences or cables
limit the performance of most of the readily available, commercial models.
However, special systems are available that can minimize these interferences
(Sandness et. al., 1979; Ecology and Environment, 1981; Yaffe, 1980; Pease
and James, 1981).
Magnetometry
A magnetometer responds to changes in the earth's magnetic field caused
by the presence of ferrous objects. Unlike the metal detector, the magne-
tometer will not respond to nonferrous-metals. Compared to the metal
detector, the magnetometer can detect ferrous objects that are smaller and at
a much greater distance to depths of 2 to 9 meters (10-30 feet) . The
increased sensitivity of this instrument makes it valuable for approximating
drum density, boundaries of trenches containing drums, and drum location.
There are three types of magnetometers available: the proton
precession, or total field magnetometer; the fluxgate gradiometer; and the
34
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TABLE 7. SUMMARY OF GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY METHODS
Method
Principle of Operation
Featurea/Advantages
Disadvantagea
Hetal Detector
Induces an electromagnetic
field around an object in
response to radiation from
a transmitter
Widely available commercial equipment;
lightweight
Vehicle-mounted aystems are also avail-
able for operation in the continuous mode
Can he uaed among vegetation
Data can frequently be interpreted in
the field
Can detect ferrous and
nonferrous metals
lav sensitivity; depth of detection is only
1.2 to 1.5 meters (4-5 feet) in areas where
where drums are buried
Not suitable for nonmetallic objects
Host commercial models have limited use in
locations with pipes, chain linked fences,
etc., although apecial models that minimize
these interferences are available
Hay be sensitive to the presence of iron
oxides in soil and conductive fluida
Magnetometers
- Proton
Precession
Hagne-
lometer
- Fluxgate
gradiometer
Heasures minute changes in
the earth*s magnetic field
induced by a buried ferro-
magnetic object
Uses the precession of
apinning protons or
nuclei of the hydrogen
atom in a sample of hydro-
carbon fluid to measure
total magnetic intensity
Uses two sensors that balance
out the effect of the earth's
magnetic field. The existence
of an external field such aa a
drum disturbs the flux balance
and the voltage induced is
proportional to the strength
of the ambient field
Much more sensitive than the metal
detector; can detect metal drums
to depths of 3 meters (10 feet)
or more
Can approximate boundaries of trenches
containing buried drums
Low sensitivity to soil conditions
In simple cases data can be interpreted
in the field
Unsuitable for nonferrous objecta
Generally limited to slat ion-by-
station measurements
Has limited use in locstions with
pipes, chain-link fences, etc.,
because it will respond to nearly
all objects, making data interpretation
very difficult
Virtually blind to interferences in the Detects only ferromagnetic objects
horizontal plane; can be used near
(2m, or 7 ft) a chain-linked fence
Can approximate the boundaries of
trenches containing buried drums
low sensitivity to soil conditions
(ront inued)
-------
TABLE 7. (Continued)
Method
Principle of Operation
Feat ures/Adv ant ages
Diaadvantages
-Fluxgate
gradiometer
(continued)
Can be vehicle-operated or hand-towed,
as conditions dictate
In simple cases, data can be inter-
preted in the field
Ground- Emits electromagnetic pulses
Penetrating into the ground and detects
Radar and records reflections from
from subsurface objects
Can detect plastic drums and leachate
plumes
Provides approximate depth of burial
and orientation of drums in the
trench,
Provides continuous survey data
Can bp vehicle-operated or hand-towed
as conditions warrant
Under certain conditions, can provide
the greatest level of detail of all
subsurface survey methods
Can penetrate concrete if no reinforcing
bars are present
a Can perform rapid exploratory work or
can be hand-towed at slow speeda to
provide detailed studies
Performance is highly site-specific,
affected by presence of cables,
chain link fences, etc.
Not suitable for site* with heavy clay
soils, high groundwater salt concentrations,
or other materials that absorb electro-
magnetic energy
Limited use in vegetated areas
Detection of some drums can be masked by
presence of drums above
Equipment is more difficult to set up
and operate than metal detectors, magne-
tometers, or electromagnetic methods
Low Frequency Measures subsurface
Electromagnetics conductivities
Detects wastes leaking from drums,
approximates plume boundaries, and
determines direction of ptume flow
Continuous conductivity data can be
obtained for depths ranging from 4.5
to 6 m (15-20 ft); measurements of 8
to 60 m (25-200 ft.) are possible in a
atation-by-station point survey
a Most cost-effectively applied to lateral
profiling at fixed depths
Cannot atttaya distinguish between drums and
uncontainerized wasted
Performance ia degraded by presence of buried
pipea , cablea , and fences;. however, aome
interferencea can be filtered during data
processing
Data interpretation often requires computer
processing
(continued)
-------
TABLE 7. (Continued)
He t hod
Principle of Operation
Features/Advantages
Disadvantages
Low Frequency
Electromagnetics
(cont inued)
Combination of continuous and depth
profiling can provide 3-D coverage
Raw data can be approximated in the
field. Further data processing
can be used for 3-D plotting, plotting
of contours, filtering of cultural
features.
OJ
-J
Electrical
Resistivity
- Lateral
Profiling
Based upon the conduction of
electric current through
subsurface materials to
measure changes in bulk
electrical resistivity
(reciprocal of conduction)
- Depth Profiling
Detects materials leaking from drums
and determines the extent of
contaminat ion
Equipment lightweight and portable
Determines change in contamination
with depth
Limited ability to detect nonconductive
pol I ut ant a
Data interpretation may be difficult,
especially if there are lateral variations in
stratigraphy
Performance is degraded by presence of pipes,
fences, etc .
Technique is slow and costly
Limited ability to detect nonconductive
pol lut ants
Provides more detailed sounding than is Technique is slower than depth profiling
achievable with EM conductivity
using EH method
(continued)
-------
TABLE 7. (Continued)
He t hod
Principle of Operation
Feature*/Advantages
Disadvantages
Seismic Refraction
Can be used to determine depth of
buried drums and bedrock
Method not well tested for drm detection
oo
Depth of penetration varies with energy
source
Data interpretation stay be difficult if
stratigraphy ia conplex
Requires access road for vehicles and cannot
be operated in the cont inuous mode
Sources: Ecology and Environment, 198!; Saniiness, et. at., 1979; Benson and Glaccum, 1980; Lord, Tyagi, and Koerner, 1981; Evans, Bfnaen and
Rizzo, 1982; Kolmer 1981; Horton, 1981; Pease and James, 1981; Yaffe, Cichowicz, and Stoller, 1980.
-------
cesium vapor magnetometer. The cesium vapor magnetometer is a relatively new
device that is expensive to use and currently has little practical appli-
cation for hazardous waste investigations. The fluxgate gradiometer is often
preferred over the proton precession magnetometer because the gradiometer is
less sensitive to background noise. Gradiometers are available with a
neutral dead zone in the horizontal plane that blinds the instrument to
potential lateral interferences such as metal fences, cables, or passing
cars. This instrument can be used as close as 2 meters (7 feet) to a chain
linked fence. In addition, the gradiometer can be vehicle-mounted for
continuous profiling, while the proton precession magnetometer is generally
limited to station-by-station measurements. Of all the geophysical surveying
tools, the gradiometer produces the least amount of cultural (e.g., pipes,
fences, passing cars) and subsurface interferences (Benson and Glaceurn, 1980;
Sandness et al., 1979; Ecology and Environment, 1981; Kolmer, 1981; Lord,
Tyagi, and Koerner, 1981; Evans, Benson, and Rizzo, 1982).
Electromagnetic Conductivity
Low frequency electromagnetics (EM) provide a measure of subsurface
conductivities. These conductivities are a function of the basic soil/rock
matrix, its pore space, and the groundwater or leachate that permeates the
matrix. In most instances the conductivity of the pore fluid will dominate
the measurement. The EM method can be used effectively for mapping hydro-
geology of the site and conductive leachate plumes and their direction of
flow as well as for locating and defining the boundaries of buried drums. In
some cases, however, it may be difficult to distinguish between a conductive
plume and buried drums.
EM methods can be used either for continuous profiling at shallow depths
of 4.5 to 6.0 meters (15-20 feet) or for station-by-station profiling at
depths of 7.6 to 60 meters (25-200 feet). EM measurements are usually, and
most economically, made by traversing the site at a fixed depth. However,
sounding data can also be obtained to assess vertical hydrogeologic changes.
A combination of continuous and depth .profiling can provide three dimensional
coverage, although this requires complex data processing. The performance of
EM methods can be degraded by the presence of buried pipes, cables, and
fences (Ecology and Environment, 1981; Lord, Tyagi, and Koerner, 1981; Benson
and Glaceurn, 1980; Evans, Benson, and Rizzo, 1982).
Ground-Penetrating Radar
The response of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is caused by radar wave
reflections from interfaces of materials having different complex dielectric
constants. The reflections are often associated with natural hydrogeologic
conditions such as bedding, fractures, moisture and clay content, and voids,
as well as man-made objects such as buried drums and surface cultural
features (e.g., fences, cables). GPR offers the highest level of detail of
the geophysical survey methods because of the high frequency energy that is
used. However, it is also subject to several interferences. Penetration
depths of commercial systems vary from less than 1 to more than 20 meters
(0.3-60 feet) depending upon the frequency, the dielectric constant of the
medium and the constitutive electromagnetic parameters of the soil. The
39
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depth of penetration may be particularly shallow where clay soils or
conductive groundwater are present. Performance of GPR is highly site-
specific, but under favorable site conditions it can be used to define plume
boundaries, locate metallic and nonmetallic drums, and approximate drum
density, depth, and the boundaries of buried trenches.
Radar performance is also frequency sensitive, and optimum antenna
frequency must be selected based on the depth of penetration and the
resolution required. Low-frequency antennas provide better penetration while
high-frequency antennas provide better detail (Horton, 1981; Benson and
Glaccum, 1979; Benson and Glaccum, 1980; KoLmer, 1981; Lord, Tyadi, and
Koerner, 1981).
Electrical Resistivity
Electrical resistivity is somewhat analogous to EM. In both cases, the
operation depends on the fact that any subsurface variation in conductivity
alters the form of current flow within the earth. However, electrical resis-
tivity measures changes in bulk electrical resistivity rather than conduc-
tivity (the reciprocal). Unlike EM, resistivity requires direct electrical
contact with the earth via four probes driven into the soil. This makes
continuous surveying impossible and station-by-station methods slow in
comparison to EM. Either lateral or depth profiling can be obtained
depending upon the electrode configuration. Although electrical resistivity
is slower and more costly than EM, it generally provides more detailed
sounding data. The two methods can be effectively used together for
delineating subsurface geology and developing three dimensional profiles of
plumes. As with the EM method, resistivity is subject to cultural inter-
ferences and may not always distinguish between drums, and conductive plumes
(Horton, Morey, Isaacson, and Beers, 1981, Lord, Tyadi, and Koerner, 1981;
Evans, Benson, and Rizzo, 1982). In addition, data interpretation in lateral
profiling can be very difficult if radical changes in topography are not
adequately accounted for by the electrode spacing and if there are lateral
variations in stratigraphy (Pease and James, 1981).
Seismic Refraction
Seismic refraction traditionally has determined the depth and thickness
of geologic strata by using elastic waves transmitted into the ground by an
energy source such as a hammer blow on a steel plate. The waves travel
through different subsurface strata at different velocities and the refracted
waves are detected by small seismometers (Yaffe, Cichowicz, and Stoller,
1980). Although not widely used in locating hazardous wastes, refraction
methods have the potential for locating and defining the boundaries of drum
burial pits and trenches (Evans, Benson, and Rizzo, 1982; Pease and James,
1981). A major disadvantage to seismic refraction is the difficulty in
interpreting data in areas with complex stratigraphy or where there is no
sharp contrast in velocity (Yaffe, Cichowicz, and Stoller, 1980; Pease and
James, 1981).
40
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Method Selection and Implementation
There are obvious advantages and limitations to each of the geophysical
survey methods discussed above. Before initiating a geophysical survey it is
necessary to clearly establish the objectives of the survey, whether it be to
locate drums, to estimate their number and the boundaries of the trench, or
to determine the extent to which they are leaking. If drum location is all
that is required, magnetometry, or, in some instances, metal detection will
be adequate. If it is necessary to estimate the number of drums and
determine the extent of leachate migration, EM, GPR, and magnetometry may be
needed in combination.
Site characteristics should also be an important consideration in
selecting the most appropriate survey methods since a number of site-
specific factors can affect method performance. The presence of cultural
features can affect the performance of several geophysical techniques. GPR
is poorly suited for surveying where soils have a high clay content. The
presence of saline groundwater effects the performance of GPR, EM, and
electrical resistivity. Other examples of the effects of site-specific
factors on performance are summarized in Table 7.
Difficulty of data interpretation should also be considered when
selecting the appropriate geophysical surveying equipment, particularly where
immediate results are needed or where financial resources are very limited.
Metal detection and magnetometry will frequently provide useful information
in the field, although further data processing is often recommended for such
things as spatial correction, filtering, and plotting parallel sets of data.
GPR, electromagnetics, and resistivity usually require data processing,
although raw data may be of value as an initial assessment tool depending
upon the complexity of the site.
Costs are influenced by numerous factors, some of which cannot be
predicted at the outset of the survey. Some of the major variables
influencing costs include:
Use of instruments that are towed by a vehicle or are handheld.
Surveys are likely to be done by hand if the drums are close to the
surface and there is a risk of rupture or if the site is in a marshy
or highly irregular terrain.
The type of data needed, particularly the adequacy of determining
only the general location of groups of drums or the necessity of
approximating the boundaries of trenches and the number of drums.
Degree of site preparation. Vegetative cover interferes with many of
the geophysical survey methods, and sites must often be cleared
before surveying.
41
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Degree of data interpretation required, which is determined not only
by choice of survey method but also by the depth of drums and the
need to filter interferences such as cultural features and surface
irregularities.
Previously unpredicted subsurface anomalies, or interferences, which
degrade performance of a particular survey method, requiring a change
to another method.
Case Study Applications of Geophysics
Three case studies are briefly discussed below to illustrate the
application of geophysical survey methods for drum detection and plume
delineation.
Figure 1 shows a three dimensional representation of a 10 hectare (25
acre) waste disposal area developed from lateral and depth EM profiling. The
results clearly defined the perimeter and maximum depth of the wastes. GFR
was later used to further confirm the perimeter of the contamination.
However, neither EM or 6PR could confirm whether the buried material was
bulk-dumped or disposed of in drums. Followup magnetometry profiles
indicated that only a few drums were present within the large disposal area.
Before conducting the geophysical survey, six monitoring wells had been
installed at the site in an effort to locate the wastes. As shown in Figure
1, all of the wells missed the target area. By conducting the geophysical
survey first, there would have been better guidance on the appropriate
location of monitoring wells (Benson, Glaceurn, and Beam, 1981; Evans, Benson,
and Rizzo, 1982).
Benson and 61aceurn (1980) reported on a site investigation in which
ground-penetrating radar, metal detection, magnetometry, and electromagnetics
were used successfully in detecting drums. Electromagnetics, magnetometery,
and metal detection profiles all showed significant anomalies over a trench
indicating large amounts of conductive metal material. The combination of
responses indicated the presence of 55-gallon steel drums. The magnetic
data, when plotted as continuous lines (Figure 2), also provided a
semi-quantitative measure of the spatial location and quantity of steel drums
present. The metal detector provided a sharper response at the edge of the
trench, resulting in a better spatial definition of the drum boundaries. GPR
clearly showed a trench cut into the soil profile and indicated the bottom of
the trench at 2.1 meters (7 feet). This combination of methods provided the
investigators with increased confidence in determining drum quantity and
location.
At the Picillo Farms site in Coventry, Rhode Island, a combination of
metal detection and GPR data were used to determine the dimension of trenches
containing buried drums and to estimate their number. Figure 3 shows a
comparison of the trench boundaries as detected by GPR and metal detection.
The boundaries of two of the three trenches were detected to be similar,
though not overlapping, by the two methods. The contractor in this instance
had more confidence in the GPR data. A third trench was detected by GPR but
42
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Rgure 1. Three Dimensional Representation of EM Conductivity Data
Showing Buried Hazardous Materials
(Senson, Glaccum, and Beam, 1981. Rgures originally printed in the
Proceedings of The National Conference on Management of Uncon-
trolled Hazardous Waste Sites, 1981. Available from Hazardous
Materials Control Research Institute, 3300 Columbia Blvd., Silver
Spring, MD 20910.)
Figure 2. Continuous, Parallel Lines of Magnetic Gradient over a Buried
Drum Site Defining the Location and Lateral Limits of Drums
(Benson and Giaccum, 1980. Rgure originally printed in the Pro-
ceedings of The National Conference on Management of Uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste Sites, 1980. Available from Hazardous Materials Con-
trol Research Institute, 9300 Columbia Blvd., Silver Spring, MD
20910.)
43
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LICENO
U-ILJ STONCFCNCC
f MONITORING WELL
.^--» TMtNCH aOUNOAMV SV HMlAH
TRCNCM BOUNDARY BY
MCTAL OI7ECTION
FfCT
OS
20S
40S
60S
RAOAR
GRID
ws
1 f
/
v x^
\w_.
W1
<
t
^.
*_
^^
-
*^\
^
^
5^/
^ /
\A
x^
^ O
x^
(
^
'-._«
^
:p?S
MM-^BW..
^^B
J
40E 80E /120E 160E 200E 240E I/280E 320E 360E 400E
NORTHWEST
TRENCH
NORTHEAST
TRENCHES
Figure 3. Comparison of Ground Penetrating Radar and Metal Detection
Survey Results for Drum Containing Trenches Located at
Picillo Farms, Coventry, Rl
(Source: Pease et al., 1981)
not by metal detection. However, the GPR data provided incomplete areal
coverage for the western trench, and the data were supplemented by data from
the metal detection survey. The GPR data also provided some qualitative
information on the way drums were placed in the trench (randomly stacked and
clustered), but were unable to indicate the bottom of the trenches because
the upper drums masked what was beneath (Pease et al., 1980).
SAMPLING
Sampling efforts undertaken during remedial investigations can vary
widely in nature and complexity. When conducted prior to an immediate
removal operation for drums aboveground, sampling is generally limited to a
random sampling of the drums. On the other hand, if source control measures
are anticipated, a comprehensive groundwater sampling program may be
required.
44
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Drum Sampling
Drum sampling undertaken prior to immediate removal, or initial removal
measures, is generally limited to a random sampling of drums stored above-
ground. This allows a gross categorization of the types of waste onsite and
this information is then used to prepare bid documents, cost estimates for
cleanup, feasibility studies, and design reports. This random sampling
effort should not be confused with the more comprehensive sampling of every
drum, which is generally required as part of the drum consolidation protocol
(see Section 9). Procedures for opening and sampling drums are discussed in
Sections 8 and 9, respectively.
A determination of the number of drums to be sampled should be based on
the total number of drums, costs, requirements for restaging the drums before
they can be safely sampled, and an observation on the variability of waste
types based on background data and visual inspections. Depending on these
variables, random sampling of drums may involve 5 to 25 percent of the drums.
In an effort to obtain a representative, random sample, drums should be
selected for sampling based on markings, labels, codes, type of drum, and
physical location relative to other drums onsite.
Soil Sampling
Soil sampling is frequently conducted to obtain additional information
regarding drum location, depth of burial, condition of drums, and types of
wastes present.
Sampling points are selected based on information obtained from back-
ground data pertaining to drum disposal practices, aerial photography, and
the results of geophysical surveys. If subsurface burial is suspected, it is
recommended that a geophysical survey precede soil sampling to minimize the
potential for rupturing drums or exposing field personnel to highly toxic
pockets of waste. Direct-reading air monitoring equipment should be used
during soil sampling to warn field personnel of potential hazards. Use of
this equipment is discussed in Section 6.
The sampling points can be selected using one of three approaches:
random sampling pattern, grid pattern, or grid pattern in which several
samples from within the grid area are combined to give average concentra-
tions. The selection of subsurface soil sampling equipment depends on the
accuracy of sampling data needed, the types of soil and subsurface materials
encountered, and the depth of sampling required. A widely used technique for
rapid location of buried drums is to use a backhoe to excavate shallow test
pits that are monitored for volatile organic hydrocarbons. An organic vapor
analyzer (see photoionization and flame ionization detectors under Section
7), equipped with a probe for remote sensing, is lowered into the test pit
and the concentration of volatile organics is measured. The results can be
mapped on overlays of the site to determine vertical and horizontal concen-
tration profiles that can suggest areas of buried drums. The advantages to
this method is its quickness compared to other soil sampling techniques and
its lowered risk for field personnel through the use of a backhoe, rather
than hand tools, to excavate the test pits.
45
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Various types of hand-operated soil sampling equipment are also avail-
able. Applications and use of this equipment is discussed in detail in
Sampling and Sampling Procedures for Hazardous Waste Streams (de Vera,
Simmons, Stevens, and Storm, 1980). Tahl o fl hr-igfly aimimgrT^gg the
capabilities and limitations of hand-operated, soil sampling equipment.
Groundwater Sampling
Groundwater sampling also may be required as part of a remedial
investigation, particularly if source control options are being considered.
Considerable guidance is available on groundwater monitoring techniques and
analysis and interpretation of data. Useful references include the
following:
Groundwater Monitoring Guidance for Owners and Operators of Interim
Status Facilities (U.S. EPA, 1983a)
Procedures Manual for Groundwater Monitoring at Solid Waste Disposal
Facilities (U.S. EPA, 1980b)
Aquifer Contamination and Protection (Jackson, 1980).
PREPARING A DRUM INVENTORY
After completing the site investigation activities, it is usually
possible to prepare a drum inventory, which provides an estimate of the number
and type of drums on a site* The drum inventory can vary considerably in
detail depending on the information gathered during the site investigation and
whether the drums are buried or aboveground. Table 9 shows the format used to
inventory drums at the Keefe Environmental Services Site where drums and other
containers had been stored aboveground (U.S. EPA, 1982c).
Considerable detail was available for this site, and it was possible to
determine the number of specific types of drums and containers at various
locations at the site. This information was valuable to potential sub-
contractors in determining equipment needs and drum removal costs. In
addition, using the data derived from the random sampling effort, it was
possible to develop a gross categorization of waste types found at the site
(Table 10).
Estimating the number of buried drums at a site usually requires a
reliance on geophysical testing methods and background or historic data. At
the Picillo Farm Site in Coventry, Rhode Island, the number of buried drums
was estimated using a combination of geophysical surveying methods. The
procedure used located the trenches and estimated their dimensions through a
combination of metal detection, GPR, limited excavation, and seismic
refraction. Two nominal trench depths of 4.3 to 6.7 meters (14-22 feet) were
used to bracket the range determined by remote sensing and direct excavation.
Two drum densities also were used to estimate the number of drums: 50 percent
and 90 percent. An estimated range of the number of drums was then prepared,
as shown in Table 11.
46
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TABLE 8. APPLICABILITY AND LIMITATION OF VARIOUS
SOIL SAMPLING METHODS
EQUIPMENT
APPLICATION
MAJOR LIMITATIONS
Shovel and scoop
Sampling trier
Hand auger
Hand driven,
split spoon
sampler
Hand-driven
hollow stem
Soil samples up to 8 cm
(3 in) deep
Core sampling to depths
of 0.8 to 0.9 m (2.5-
3 feet)
Soil samples to depths
of 1.2 to 1.5 m (4-
5 feet)
Relatively undisturbed
core samples
Undisturbed core samples
to depths of 4.9 m
(16 feet)
Suitable for surface
samples only
Identical mass sample
units for a composite
sample are difficult to
collect
Cannot be used in soils with
high stone and gravel
content
Mixes soils so that no dis-
tinction can be made be-
tween samples collected near
the surface or toward the
bottom
Depth depends on soil type
and the number of sampling
rod sections available for
the split spoon
Suitability limited in rocky
or wet soils
Source: de Vera, et al., 1980
47
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o
00
TABLE 9. DRUM INVENTORY FORMAT
KEEFE ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES SITE, EPPING, N.H.
Area Lab Packs Overpacks Poly-Liner/ Ring Bung Ring Five Total Total Total TOTAL
(Actually Seen) Poly-Drum Top Top and Gallon Liquid Solid Empties ALL
Bung Pail a DRUM
Top
A
B
C
Subtotal
Adapted from U.S. EPA., 1982c
-------
TABLE 10. CATEGORIZATION OF WASTE TYPES AT THE
KEEFE ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES SITE BASED ON RANDOM SAMPLING OF DRUMS*
Waste Type Percent of Total Drums
Solids 19
Acids , 18
Nonchlorinated Solvents 14
Resins " ' 9
Aqueous Waste 7
Alkali Waste 7
Cyanide Waste 6
Waste Oil 6
Paint Waste 5
Sludges 4
Chlorinated Solvents 2
Glycols 2
Empty 1
PCS Oil 1
*Based on a random sampling of 20 to 25 percent of drums. Total adds to 101
percent due to rounding.
Source: U.S. EPA, 1982c
49
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TABLE 11. ESTIMATED NUMBER OF BURIED DRUMS AT
PICILLO FARMS, RI, BASED ON EXTRAPOLATION
OF BEST AVAILABLE DATA
Maximum Drums Randomly
Trench Drum Density Stacked
Location ^
d - 14 ft d - 22 ft . d - 14 ft d - 22 ft
Northwest 14,800 22,400 8,200 12,400
West 13,500 20,200 7,500 11,200
South 1,700 2,100 1.000 1,200
Total 30,000 44,700 16,700 24,800
Notes: d » nominal trench depth
Random stacking indicated by results of excavation of Northwest
Trenches, approximated by 50 percent drums, 50 percent earth by
volume in trench below 2-foot cover and assumed trench geometry.
Drums are assumed to be uncrushed, 55-gallon drums.
Source: Pease et al., 1980.
50
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SECTION 5
SITE PREPARATION
Before remedial or removal actions can begin, the site must be prepared
to improve the safety and efficiency of drum handling, and the appropriate
support facilities must be constructed or installed. The nature and extent
of site preparation varies widely from site to site depending on the hazard
of the wastes, the environmental sensitivity of the site, and the location of
the site with respect to surrounding populations.
SITE ACCESS IMPROVEMENTS
Site roads are required to provide access to all apparent drum disposal
areas as well as to staging, consolidation, and decontamination areas. Roads
must be suitable for transport of all proposed vehicles under all possible
weather conditions. At some sites it may be necessary to construct edge
gutters that drain into sumps along the access roads in order to collect
spills and contaminated runoff.
Where drums have been disposed of in heavily wooded or vegetated areas,
clearing and grubbing may be necessary to provide access for drum handling
and construction equipment or to provide spacing required for such activities
as staging and opening. This work may include removal of vegetative cover,
tree-cutting and excavation, and removal of tree trunks and roots. Although
conventional construction equipment can be used for clearing and grubbing,
several safety precautions should be taken. Geophysical testing may be
required prior to excavation to determine the presence of drums or buried
pipes that could be easily ruptured by excavation equipment. PI ex iglas
safety shields should be used on all vehicles to protect equipment operators
from explosive or shock-sensitive wastes buried near the surface.
At sites with buried drums, access improvements may involve excavation
of an access trench near the actual drum trench to facilitate drum removal.
The access trench should have gradual side slopes that allow drum transport
traffic in and out without tipping waste containers.
51
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SUPPORT FACILITIES AND STRUCTURES
There are a. number of support facilities or specially designated
operating areas that must be constructed or installed prior to cleanup.
These may include:
Staging areas
Drum opening area
Waste consolidation/loading areas
Interim storage areas
Equipment and personnel decontamination areas
Mobile laboratory
Command post and administration area
Emergency medical facilities
Equipment maintenance area.
The site layout should be such that there is a minimum-safe travel distance
between the disposal and staging areas, the staging and opening areas, and so
on. The drum inventory data gathered during the remedial investigation should
be used to determine the number and size of various operating areas or cells.
At a minimum, the staging, opening, and consolidation areas for wastes
other than those that are highly hazardous, should be graded to prevent
puddling, lined with polyethylene, and bermed or diked using sandbags or clay.
This design will provide only minimal secondary containment, however, and will
not be acceptable at many sites. A preferable design at some sites would
include a hard surface base or multilayer liner (e.g., three 1-foot layers of
graded sands and fines separated by two single layers of 6 mil polyethylene
sheeting). Runoff and spills would be contained by an edge berm of the same
material. Each cell should be sloped toward a sump to collect spillage and
rainfall. The cell, sump, and pump capacity should be adequate to contain
runoff from a 10-year, 24-hour storm.
Highly hazardous materials including explosives, radioactive materials,
and gas cylinders require separate staging/opening areas that are located as
far as possible from the actual drum handling operation.
In addition to the above-mentioned secondary containment measures, these
areas should be fenced in and equipped with warning signs.
The decontamination area should always be a hard surface area that will
retain wash water by perimeter curbing and collect these liquids by means of a
central trough and perimeter sump.
The interim storage area, if required, should be designed to provide a
degree of containment consistent with the length of time wastes will be stored
52
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onsite. Standards for RCRA permitted storage facilities (40 CFR, Part 264)
should be followed where interim storage of three or more months is
anticipated.
Figure 4 illustrates the site layout for the drum removal operation at
the western trench of the Picillo Farm site in Coventry, Rhode Island.
In addition to these support structures, the contractor is required to
make necessary arrangements for power, water supply, and telephone, and to
install security fencing and a guard gate to prevent unauthorized access to
the contaminated zone.
SITE DRAINAGE IMPROVEMENTS
There are a number of provisions that can improve site drainage. In many
instances, it is required that the drum consolidation, drum opening, and
interim storage areas be graded to prevent standing pools of liquid that can
corrode the drum or result in incompatible waste reactions if water reactive
wastes are present.
Dikes or berms may be constructed around poorly drained sites to divert
the flow of run-on. Drainage ditches can be used to intercept runoff and
convey it away from the work areas.
Sites that are poorly drained or swampy may require the construction of
special access roads or work areas for heavy excavation equipment. Access may
be improved by constructing elevated roadways of stable soils that are wide
enough for heavy vehicle use. These areas should be surveyed with metal
detectors and/or magnetometers prior to any construction to assure that no
drums are being covered.
Timber mats can also be used to provide site access for heavy equipment
in swampy, water-logged areas. These mats consist of trees, telephone poles,
or railroad ties that are placed parallel to each other, side by side, and
bound together with heavy rope or wire. When laid across stretches of swampy
areas, they provide a rigid access road or stable working base from which drum
excavation activities can be performed.
53
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TO WHEEL
WASH
EQUIPMENT
PARKING
SOUTH TRENCH
CELL FUNCTION
1-8 SOLIDS STORAGE/MIXING
» STAGING/SAMPLING
10 DRUM CRUSH.RESERVE
STCRAGE
11 LAB PACK STORAGE
12 LA8 PACK DEMOLITION
13.14 ACIO.PC8 DRUM STORAGE
IS CONTAMINATED SOX
18 LIQUID SAMPLE/STAGE/BULK
Figure 4. Picillo Hazardous Waste Site Layout (Western Trench)
(Reprinted from Perkins Jordan, Inc., 1982 with permission of the
Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management)
54
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SECTION 6
AIR MONITORING AND INSPECTIONS FOR DETERMINING DRUM INTEGRITY
INTRODUCTION
Safe handling of drums that are leaking or prone to rupture is the
biggest problem encountered during drum handling operations. The major
causes of drum leakage or rupture at hazardous waste sites include:
Overpressurization, as evidenced by a drum head that is swollen above
the chime line and creased from the chime line toward the center of
the drum. Under these circumstances, the slightest change in
position of the drum can cause the head, to blow off (Niggle, 1982).
Damage caused by abusive handling during transportation and disposal.
Incomplete tightening of drum bungs.
Corrosion from contact with soil moisture, acids, or chlorinated
hydrocarbons that have been hydrolyzed to hydrochloric acid. Drums
may be uniformly pitted or the corrosion can be concentrated in a
particular area. Areas that are particularly susceptible to
corrosion include the area around the chime and areas where the
surface coating has been chipped or the drum surface dented.
A determination of drum integrity usually involves input from several
sources of information, which can be divided into two broad categories:
information obtained during preliminary assessment and remedial investigation
activities, which provide a gross indication of the overall quality of the
drums; and information obtained during excavation and removal, which provides
detailed information on a drum-by-drum basis. Figure 5 shows potential
sources of information on drum integrity during each of these phases. Those
activities undertaken as part of site assessment and remedial investigation
were discussed in Section 4.
During drum excavation, opening, and recontainerization, investigators
must be able to monitor drum integrity on a drum-by-drum basis to determine
whether drums can be safely moved or handled. Most companies involved in
55
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SITE DRUM
INVESTIGATION & ASSESSMENT EXCAVATION 4 REMOVAL
Background Data
\ ! /
Air Monitoring
iral ^^
Surveying
Aerial Photography
DRUM INTEGRITY
Sampling/Monitoring
«>.
\
Visual Inspection
Figure 5. Potential Sources of Information on Drum Integrity
site cleanup use a combination of air monitoring and visual inspection of
drums to accomplish this. Where the grappler is available, and drums can be
handled remotely. Determining drum integrity before handling may not be
necessary.
AIR MONITORING
Air monitoring is the most valuable tool for determining drum integrity
and worker safety. The requirements for air monitoring vary from site-to-
site depending on what is known about drum contents, the availability of
funds for monitoring, and the size and location of the site. The monitoring
program should, at a minimum, accomplish the following objectives:
Provide input, along with.other information, to establish hot, tran-
sition, and clean zones within the waste site (see Section 3) that
56
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dictate safety equipment and safety precautions .to which site workers
must adhere
Monitor changes in air quality in these zones over time
Scan for "hot spots" that indicate a sudden release of toxic,
flammable, or explosive vapors and radioactivity during such dynamic
activities as drum excavation, staging, opening, and consolidation.
Basically, there are two types of monitoring equipment: direct reading
instruments, which provide onsite readout of pollutant concentrations, and
collection media, used to collect and concentrate pollutants for subsequent
laboratory analysis.
Direct Reading Instruments
For sites where the drum contents and their potential hazard are
uncertain, the minimum direct reading equipment needed to protect worker
safety includes:
Combustible gas detectors
Oxygen meters
Gas/vapor analyzers
Radiation monitors.
Table 12 summarizes the capabilities and limitations of the most widely used
direct reading equipment.
When selecting equipment for field monitoring, a number of factors need
to be considered. These include:
Detection limits
Accuracy
Portability and ease of use
.Potential interferences that may impact performance
Alarm capabilities
Remote sensing capabilities
Shelf life/battery storage life
Calibration equipment and other accessories needed
57
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TABLE 12. SUMMARY OF DIRECT READING AIR MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
Monitoring Meed
Instrument
Feature*
Limitation!
Cost
Manufacturer!
Combustible Gas
Combustible Gas
Detector
Ui
CO
Nonspecific detector for
combustible gases measures
gas concentration as a
percentage of lower
explosive limit (LED
si Lightweight, portable,
and easy to use
Visual and audible
alarms
Probe provides remote
sensing capabilities
8-12 hr battery operating
life for most models
Accuracy varies depending
upon Che model, accuracies
of ^ 2 to 3 percent are
attainable
Potential interference
from leaded gasoline and
silicates, which are more
strongly adsorbed on
catalyst than oxygen or
gas in question. Membranes
are available to minimize
these effects.
Host models do not
measure specific gases
Hay not function properly
in oxygen deficient
atmospheres
Approximately
$500-700
ENMET Corp.
Ann Arbor, MI
National Mine Service
Co. Pittsburgh, PA
Gas Tech
Mountain View, CA
Oxygen Deficiency Oxygen Meter
Direct readout in percent High humidity may cause
oxygen interferencea.
Visual and audible alarm Strong ox idants may cause
artificially high readout
Lightweight, portable,
and easy to use
Probe provide* remote sensing
capabilities
Accuracies of *_ I percent are
attainable, but depend on the
particular model.
Generally 8-10 hr battery life
Approximately
$400-700
ENMET Corp.
Ann Arbor, MI.
National Mine Service Co.
Pittsburgh, FA
Gas Tech
Mountain View, CA
(continued)
-------
TABLE 12. (continued)
Monitoring Need
Instrument
Features
Limitations
Coat
Manufacturer!
Combustible Gas/ Combination
Oxygen Deficiency Oxygen Meter
and Combustible
Gas Detector.
Measure percent oxygen
and gas concentration
as a percentage of Lower
Explosive Limit (LED
Both visual and
audible alarm
Remote sensing capa-
bilites
Lightweight, portable, and
easy to use
Accuracies of *_ 2 percent
are attainable but may be
as high as j* 10 percent
depending on the models.
Same limitations as
oxygen meters and
combustible gas
detectors
Approximately
$700-1,000
ENMET Corp.
Ann Arbor, MI
National Mine Service
Co., Pittsburgh, PA.
Gas Tech
Mountain View, CA.
Toxic Gas/Vapors Photo ioniiat ion Nonspecific gas and
Detector (PID) vapor detection for both
(based on HNU organics and most
Systems PID) inorganics
Lightweight (4 kg or 9 Ib)
and portable
Sensitive to 0.5 pom
benzene. Sensitivity is
related to ionization
potential of compound
Remote sensing
capabilities
Does not monitor for
specific gases or vapors
Cannot detect hydrogen
cyanide or methane
Cannot detect some
chlorinated organics
$6,345 including HNU System Inc.
the analyzer Newton, MA.
($3,745); portable
recorder ($445);
calibrated probe
assembly ($1,995);
audible alarm and
instrument corrosion
protection are also
available for $250
Response time of 90 percent
in less than 3 seconds
More sensitive to aromstics
and unsaturated compounds
than the flame ionization
dectector (FID)
10 hr battery operating
life
Audible alarm is available
(continued)
-------
TABLE 12. (continued)
Monitoring Need
Toxic Gas /Vapors
(continued)
Instrument
Flame lonization
Detector (FID)
(based on Century
Organic Vapor
Analyzer,
Model 128)
Features
In the survey mode it
f unc t ions as a non-
apecific total hydro-
carbon analyzer; in
the gas chromatograph
(GC) mode, it provides
tentative qualitative/
quantitative identi-
fication
Limitations
Not suitable for inorganic
gases.
Less sensitive to aro-
matics and unsaturated
compound a than FID
Requirea skilled tech-
niciana to operate the
Coat
Organic Vapor
Analyzer $5,050;
GC with 2 columns,
$880; recorder, $410
Manufacturers
Foxboro Analytical
S. Norwalk, CT.
Infrared
Analyzer
(Based on Miran
Model IA)
Lightweight (5.4 kg or
12 Ib) and portable
Remote sensing probe
is available
Response time is 90
percent in 2 sec
8 hr battery operating
life
a Sounds audible alarm when
predetermined levels are
exceeded
Overcomes the limits of
most infrared (IR)
analyzers by uae of a
variable filter; can be
used to scan through a
portion of the spec trim to
ensure concentrations of
several gases or can be
set at a particular wave-
length to measure a
specific gaa
equipment in the GC mode
and to analyze the reaulta
Requirea changes of
columns and gas supply
when operated in the GC
mode
Since specific chemical
standards and calibration
columns are needed, the
operator must have some
idea of the identification
of the gas/vapor
Not aa aensitive as
the photoionization
detector or flame
ionization detector
Leas portable than other
methods of vapor/gas
detection
Requires skilled tech-
nician to operate and
analyze the reaulta when
positive chemical identi-
fication is needed.
Analyzer, $8,601
Closed loop
calibration, $540
Wilkea Infrared
Center, Foxboro
Analytic,
S. Norwalk, CT
(continued)
-------
TABLE 12. (continued)
Monitoring Need
Instrument
Features
Limitation!
Coat
Manufacturers
Toxic Gaa/Vapora Infrared Detect* both organic
(continued) Analyzer (con't) and inorganic gaeea
Portable but not aa
lightweight (14.5 kg or
32 Ib) aa the photo-
ionization or the flame
ionizstion detectora
Requirea power aource
Detector Tubea
Provides qualitative,
semi-quantitative
identification of
volatile organica and
inorganiea
Accuracy of only
about + 25 percent.
Low accuracy
Subject to leakage
during pumping
a Requirea previous
knowledge of gases/
vapora in order to
select the appropriate
detector tube.
Sane chemicals interfere
with color reaction
to give false positive
reading
Positive identifi-
cation requires
comparison of spec-
trum from atrip
chart recorder with
published adsorption
spectrum; infrared
spectrum ia not
available for all
compounds
Multigaa detector
kit, including
hand operated pump,
stroke counter, and
carrying case,
$200
Detector tubes,
about $20 to $24
for package of 10
Detector tubes are
not available for
all gases
National Draeger, Inc.
Pittsburgh, PA
Matheson Gas Products
East Rutherford, NJ
Bendix/CASTEC
Lewisburgh, WV
Radiation
Radiation
Meters
Measures radiation in
uR/hr (battery operated)
Probe provides remote
sensing capabilitiea
Accuracy and aensitivity
variea considerably with
manufacturer and type of
meter
Some meters do not deter- Start at about
mine type of radiation $500
Solar Electronica
Summertown, TN
Reactor Experiments
Incorporated
San Carloa, CA
Ludlum Measurements
Sweetwater, TN
(continued)
-------
TABLE 12. (continued)
Monitoring Need Instrument
Features
Limitations
Coat
Manufacture
Radiation
(continued)
Radiation
Meters
(continued)
A variety of meters are
available. Some measure
total ionizing radiation;
others are specific for
ganna, alpha, or a comb in'
nation of two or more types
The mo Election
Sante Fe , NH
Sources: Mathamel, 1981; Spittler, 1980; McEnery, 1982; National Mine Service Company, 1980; Gas-Tech, 1980; Enmet, undated; Century Syatem
Coporation, 1979; Foxboro Analytical, 1982; HNU Systems, 1982
N>
-------
Built-in pumping capacity
Explosion-proofing
Sampling range.
For monitoring toxic gases/vapors and oxygen deficient atmospheres, the
investigator should be attuned to the advantages and limitations of the
different equipment types.
Combustible Gas Detectors and Oxygen Meters
Combustible gas detectors, oxygen meters, and combination combustible
gas/oxygen indicators are available from a number of manufacturers. These
instruments are easy to operate and reliable. They are available with audio-
visual alarms, rechargeable battery packs that provide from 8 to 12 hours of
continuous monitoring, and remote sensing capabilities that are facilitated
by attaching the sensor leads to a detachable sensor cable (Enmet, undated;
Gas Tech, 1980).
The combustible gas detector does not express concentration directly but
rather as a percentage of the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL). The LEL is
defined as the lowest concentration of flammable gas, by volume of air, that
will explode, ignite, or burn when there is an ignition source. Although the
combustible gas detector is simple to operate, there are many physical and
chemical factors that affect the instrument's response. The instrument will
not record accurately in oxygen deficient atmospheres. Leaded gasoline,
silicones, and silicates also can impair the response. However, filters are
available to minimize these effects (McEntry, 1982; Mathamel, 1981).
The oxygen meter generally measures oxygen concentrations in the range
of 0 to 25 percent, and the readout is directly in percent oxygen. High
concentrations of strong oxidants such as chlorine will result in erroneously
high oxygen readings (McEntry, 1982; Mathamel, 1981).
Gas/Vapor Analyzers--
The most widely used portable instruments for monitoring toxic gases/
vapors are the photoionization detector (FID), the flame ionization detector
(FID), the infrared analyzer, and the detector tube.
Both the photoionization detector and the flame ionization detector can
be adapted with a gas chromatographic (GC) column attachment to provide
tentative identification and quantification of hydrocarbons.
The HNU Systems-photoionization detector (HNU-PID) has broad applica-
bility for detecting non-specific gases (HNU System, 1982). It can detect
both organic and inorganic gases but will not respond to methane. Lack of
response to methane can be an important feature in many site investigations,
because it allows the detection of hazardous pollutant concentrations as low
as 0.1 ppm without interference from ambient methane concentrations, which
can range from 2 to 10 ppm (Driscoll, undated). Since the instrument works
on the photoionization principle, sensitivity is related to the wavelength of
the exciting lamp and the ionization potential of the vapor to be measured.
63
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The HNU-PID has a sensitivity of about 0.5 ppm benzene and a response time of
less than 90 percent in 3 seconds. The Century Organic Vapor Analyzer (OVA)
Model 128 is a sensitive, non-specific hydrocarbon flame ionization detector
when operated in the total survey mode (see the discussion below on GC mode).
There are a number of important similarities and differences between the
HNU-PID and the Century OVA 128. Both instruments are lightweight, have a
rapid response time, and can be equipped with a rechargeable battery, a probe
for remote sensing, and an audible alarm (Foxboro Co., 1982; HNU Systems,
1976). Unlike the HNU-PID, the OVA 128 responds to background methane but
does not respond to inorganic gases. It is less sensitive to aromatics and
unsaturated hydrocarbons but more sensitve to many chlorinated compounds
(Driscoll and Becker, 1979).
The Century OVA 128 can be adapted with a GC column attachment useful
for separating mixtures of gaseous compounds to provide tentative compound
identification. In the GC mode, the OVA 128 can determine the retention time
of an unknown compound. By comparing the retention time with that of known
standards, a positive chemical identification can be made. However, since
specific chemical standards and calibrated columns are needed, an idea of the
nature of the waste components is needed prior to GC analysis. Equipment
operation and data interpretation requires use of skilled operators.
Photovac, Inc., has developed a portable GC that operates on the photo-
ionization principle (Photovac, Inc., 1980). This instrument is extremely
sensitive and is most applicable to situations where volatile components are
present in the parts per billion (ppb) range.
The Miran Infrared Analyzer also can be used as a nonspecific gas
detector or for specific compound identification. The instrument measures
the amount of infrared light absorbed by the gas being analyzed at a selected
wavelength using a single beam infrared spectrometer (Foxboro, 1981).
Although somewhat simpler to use for positive compound identification, the
instrument is less portable and less sensitive than the GC's discussed above.
The operator must have some idea of the nature of the vapor, since the wave-
length must be preset to determine the absorption spectra of specific com-
pounds. Positive chemical identification requires comparison of printouts
from strip recorder charts with published absorption spectra. Absorption
spectra are not available for all compounds.
Detector tubes also have the capability of providing qualitative, semi-
quantitative determinations. The major advantage of this method is that they
are very simple to use. However, detector tubes have low accuracy as com-
pared to GC and infrared analysis, response time is slow, and they are
subject to leakage. (Gillespie, 1979; Rodgers, 1976). It is not recommended
that they be used for onsite monitoring except as a backup to other more
sensitive and accurate instruments.
Use of a detector tube requires knowledge of the vapors present in order
to select the appropriate detector tube. In some instances other waste
components may interfere with the reaction to give a false reading (McEntry,
1982).
64
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Radiation Meter3
There are three types of radiation that can be encountered at hazardous
waste sites: alpha, beta, and gamma. Field personnel should be equipped
with a portable alpha/beta/gamma survey meter. Gamma radiation monitors that
respond with an audible alarm when gamma radiation is encountered should also
be worn since there is no convenient method of protecting workers from gamma
radiation. In addition, dosimeters that provide an indication of total body
exposure to radiation over an extended period of time (time weighted average)
should be worn (Gillespie, 1979).
Use of Monitoring Equipment
All sites must be checked for radioactivity, explosivity, oxygen levels,
and toxic gas levels during entry. Once it is established that site entry
is safe, air monitoring equipment is then used to establish "zones of
concentration," hot, transition, and clean zones, which govern the types of
activities that can be conducted in each zone.
When the actual drum handling operation begins, air monitoring equipment
should be relied on to monitor any changes that require evacuation or addi-
tional safety precautions, especially when conditions require contact with
the drums. Specific uses of air monitoring equipment include:
Scanning the excavation area before and during the use of hand tools
or other equipment that require working close to a drum burial area.
Approaching the drums cautiously once the earth is removed from
around the drums and scanning the immediate area before making any
physical contact with the drums (lifting, attaching slings or yokes,
loading drums onto vehicles for hauling, opening, etc.). Critically
swollen drains should be isolated from field personnel until the
pressure can be released remotely.
Relying on direct reading instruments and their audible alarm capa-
bilities to indicate unsafe levels of pollutants or "hot spots"
resulting from spills or release of vapors during drum opening,
staging, consolidation, and loading.
Collection Media
Where little information is available on drum contents and where funds
are available, it may be desirable to obtain positive identification of air
pollutants. Since this type of analysis is costly, it is understandably kept
to a minimum.
Positive identification is accomplished by chemically absorbing pollu-
tants on collection media with sampling pumps and transporting the samples
for subsequent GC/MS or atomic absorption analysis. Mylar bags are also
available for collecting air samples but are not recommended unless analysis
is immediate. Sampling pumps are commercially available in numerous configu-
rations, but an intrinsically safe National Institute for Occupational Safety
65
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and Health (NIOSH) pump is recommended. This type of pump is portable and
light enough so that it can be worn by personnel. Table 13 summarizes
applications for collection media and the required laboratory analysis.
In using collection media, it is advisable to place pumps in several
strategic locations. They could be placed within work areas as well as
upwind and downwind of the site. They should also be placed near drums for
positive identification of drum contents. If needed, the PID or FID can be
used to locate hot spots Where pumps should be placed.
VISUAL INSPECTIONS
Visual inspection of drums to determine their integrity before lifting
is a widespread practice. Relying on air monitoring equipment to detect any
potential problems, the investigator carefully approaches the drum, and the
exposed surface is examined for obvious corrosion, swelling, punctures, and
bungs. This method, though potentially unsafe, is commonly used where
equipment such as front-end loaders and backhoes are being used to lift
drums, since under these conditions, worker safety could be jeopardized if
the drums rupture or spill. Where drum integrity is questionable and only
backhoes or front-end loaders are available, investigators should opt to pump
the contents of the drum or place the drum in an overpack rather than lift it
on the basis of their visual inspection. The use of the barrel grappler with
a plexiglas shield (see Section 7) minimizes the need for visual inspections
since worker exposure will not result from rupture.
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
There are a number of nondestructive testing methods that have the
capability of determining cracks, fissures, and the overall integrity of
metal surfaces. Ultrasonics and eddy-current techniques, for example, have
been used to determine the integrity of storage tanks and vessels and
associated piping. However, these methods have not been used to date for
determining drum integrity.
There are severe limitations on the usefulness of these methods for
determining drum integrity. For the methods to effectively detect cracks or
fissures, the drum surface must be fairly clean and chipped paint must be
brushed off. This implies that field personnel must be in contact with the
drum. The second limitation is that the integrity of the underside of a
buried drum cannot be determined.
Since visual inspections are a fairly reliable indication of drum
integrity at least at the exposed surface, there seems to be no significant
safety advantage to using existing nondestructive methods since the field
worker must be in contact with the drum regardless of which method is used.
66
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TABLE 13; SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS FOR AIR SAMPLE COLLECTION MEDIA
INCLUDING THE REQUIRED LABORATORY ANALYSIS
Pollutant
Collection Media
Laboratory Analysis
Volatile organics
Particulate
organics
Pesticides
(including PCBs)
PBBs
Metals
Volatile inorganics
Particulate
inorganics
Cyanides
Carbon tubes
Tenax tubes
XAD-2 tubes
Silica gel tubes
Glass fiber filters
Florisil tubes
Polyurethane plugs
Glass fiber filters
Glass fiber filters
Membrane filters
Impingers/reagent solutions
Membrane filters
Glass fiber filters
Filters/impingers
Gas chromatograph/mass
spectroscopy (GC/MS)
GC/MS
GC/MS
GC/Electron capture
GC/MS
Atomic absorption (AA)
Wet chemical methods
Wet chemical methods
Wet chemical methods
Mathamel, 1981. Table originally printed in the Proceedings of The National
Conference on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, 1981.
Available from Hazardous Materials Control Research Institute, 9300 Columbia
Blvd., Silver Spring, MD 20910.
67
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SECTION 7
EXCAVATION, REMOVAL, AND ONSITE HANDLING OF DRUMS
Drum removal is required when it is more cost effective than source
control measures or when it is necessary for the protection of public health
and the environment. Excavating, removing, and handling drums at hazardous
waste sites are generally accomplished with conventional heavy construction
equipment. This equipment includes vehicles used for excavating, lifting,
loading, hauling, dumping, grading, and compacting onsite soil and waste
materials. Equipment commonly used to excavate and transfer waste containers
and soils at disposal sites includes the following:
Crawler tractors (dozers and loaders)
Rubber-tired loaders
Backhoes
Barrel grapplers
Forklift trucks
Cranes, draglines, and clamshells
Scrapers and haulers
Industrial vacuum loaders
Hand tools.
In some instances this equipment is modified to improve the safety and
efficiency of handling drums. In other instances, specially designed acces-
sories such as slings, drum grabbers, and nylon yokes are used as equipment
attachments for drum handling. This section discusses the applications,
advantages, and limitations of equipment and accessories for drum handling,
emphasizing safety aspects and site-specific conditions that affect equipment
selection. This section also discusses specific procedures for excavating
drums.
DRUM EXCAVATION AND REMOVAL EQUIPMENT
This subsection describes conventional equipment and methods applicable
to hazardous waste drum excavation work. Subsections that follow explain
specialized equipment types and accessories used in drum excavation and
68
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removal, as well as selection and use of equipment combinations used in drum
handling. To illustrate useful equipment combinations, we have included case
histories of hazardous waste site drum excavation efforts.
Dozers and Loaders
Dozers and loaders are generally equipped with a hydraulically control-
led (versus mechanical cable hoist) blade and bucket lift and can be either
crawler-, or rubber-tire-mounted. Crawler machines are equipped with self-
laying steel tracks of variable cleat design and width, which provide good
ground contact and excellent flotation and traction capabilities. For this
reason, crawlers are ideally suited for excavating over rough, unstable
surfaces. In marshy or swampy areas where mobility is limited, extra wide
tracks are recommended to improve traction.
Dozers and loaders are also available with large rubber-tired wheels
that are faster and more mobile than crawler machines on level terrain.
Their ability to maneuver on rough, muddy, and sloping terrain, however,
depends somewhat on the type of tires. For example, tires with a wide base
and low air pressure provide good flotation and traction (Church, 1981).
Crawler dozers equipped with blades of various sizes and shapes
(straight to U-shaped) have tremendous earth-moving power and are excellent
graders. In drum excavation work these dozers can remove miscellaneous fill
or soil overburden, or they can push earth and undamaged or empty drums from
unstable surface areas to more accessible areas for lifting and loading
operations. The dozers are usually used in combination with other excavation
equipment such as backhoes.
Front-end loaders are tractors equipped with buckets for digging,
lifting, hauling, and dumping materials. Both crawler-mounted and
rubber-tired front-end loaders are widely used in hauling and staging
undamaged drums (Figure 6). However, because lifting and loading drums onto
front-end loaders usually requires manual assistance, their use should be
limited to structurally sound drums.
The crawler loader is an excellent excavator that can carry materials as
far as 90 meters (300 feet) (Brunner, 1972). Front-end buckets vary in
capacity and design. Medium-sized crawler loaders typically have maximum
bucket capacities of 3.8 to 4.5 cubic meters (5-6 cubic yards). Wheel-
mounted bucket loaders, for high-production operations on stable surfaces
such as paved areas, have bucket capacities to 15 cubic meters (20 cubic
yards).
The multiple-purpose bucket, also known as a "bull clam" or "4-in-l," is
a hydraulically operated, hinged loader that will clamp onto drums and lift
and haul them. When using the bull clam with "choker chains" to bind the
drums together, three or four drums can be moved at a time (Brunner, 1972).
One widely used model of rubber-tired front-end loaders is the "Bobcat"
series manufactured by Clark Equipment Company (Figure 7). This machine is
well suited for drum loading and transporting on stable working surfaces and
69
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Mi,;,
--4
o
Figure 6. Front-End Loader Hauling Drums at Waste Site
Source: U.S. EPA, 1980a
-------
1. Loader 742 DS has DS rating by NFPA for fire hazards.
2. Special Applications Kit has operator protection at cab
openings.
Figure 7. Bobcat Rubber-Tired Loader and Attachments
(Courtesy of Clark Equipment Co. Fargo, ND)
-------
can be equipped with a variety of hydraulically controlled bucket, grapple,
and lifting attachments. The bobcat can also be converted to an agile,
small-capacity backhoe excavator.
Backhoes
Backhoes (Figure 8), also known as pull shovels or power hoes, are
generally crawler-%ounted, hydraulically operated vehicles with various sized
steel-toothed buckets ("dippers") attached to boom and dipper-arm assemblies
of varying lengths. Backhoes are used for trenching and subsurface excava-
tion. They can dig as deep as 11 to 12 meters (35-40 feet), carry from 0.2
to 2.7 cubic meters (0.25-3.5 cubic yards) of material, and reach up to 18
meters (60 feet).
Backhoes are the most versatile and widely used vehicles for drum
handling. They are suitable for removing the soil covering the drums and for
excavating and lifting the drums. Their long boom assemblies permit removal
of drums from considerable depths' and allow the equipment operator to work
away from immediate and potentially unsafe disposal areas. When drums are
buried deeper than the maximum reach of the backhoe's boom and dipper
assembly, a "working bench" can be excavated for the backhoe next to the
trench so that the vehicle can excavate to the required depth. There are
also several modifications to the conventional backhoe that can further
increase its versatility.
Smaller backhoes with rubber tires are useful for fast excavation on
stable working surfaces. One frequently used smaller backhoe is a wheel-
mounted combination backhoe and front-end loader (Figure 9). This vehicle
can excavate, lift, load, haul, and dump soil and waste materials (including
both crushed and undamaged drums). Its operation, however, is generally
restricted to relatively flat and stable working surfaces.
The conventional backhoe dipper shovel can be replaced by several types
of special purpose, hydraulically controlled accessory attachments,
including:
Drum grapple
Clamshell buckets
Loader buckets
Air percussion hammers
Rotating drum grapples
Drum plungers for sample collection (see Section 8).
Perhaps the most useful backhoe attachment for drum excavation work is
the drum grapple. This articulated backhoe attachment incorporates wrist
action motion and can rotate 360 degrees along the plane of its attachment
assembly platform. The grapple also hydraulically self adjusts its grip
72
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i
»«-..., .^ffiutztjir jwz/WMapKD;!
Reproduced from
bes> available copy.
Figure 8.
American Backhoe Loading Excavated Soil Onto Truck
(Courtesy of Amhoist, St. Paul, MN)
-------
,v
Figure 9. Modified Backhoe (Barrel Grappler) Loading Drums Onto
Combination Backhoe and Front-End Loader
(Courtesy of O.H. Materials, Findlay, OH)
-------
radius so that it can grab and lift containers of various size and lower them
gradually without spillage (verbal communication with J. Walker and R.
Panning, O.H. Materials Co., Findlay, Ohio). When the drum grapple assembly
is attached to a backhoe dipper arm, the conventional backhoe becomes what is
known as a "grappler" (Figure 10).
Grapplers
Grapplers, as discussed above, are specially modified crawler-mounted
hydraulic backhoes with rotating drum grapple heads replacing the con-
ventional dipper bucket. One design by O.H. Materials for hazardous waste
work, has a grapple and dipper-arm assembly with a reach in excess of 9
meters (30 feet) and is used with a Caterpillar 215 or 225 backhoe. The R.J.
Gorman Co., and United Hydraulics of Eugene, Oregon, have also designed
grapplers with similar capabilities.
When controlled by experienced backhoe operators, the grappler can
safely and efficiently grab, lift, and relocate or dump hazardous waste
drums; and selectively remove partially buried or totally uncovered drums,
one at a time from trench excavations, waste disposal pits, and other drum
disposal areas of varying slope and roughness (Figure 11). It is partic-
ularly useful in selectively removing drums from stacks piled several drums
high and from the upper floors of drum storage or disposal warehouses; and
can be used for relocating and segregating undamaged waste drums, overpacking
damaged drums, and as a "scrap grabber" for rapidly lifting, moving, and
dumping a number of damaged drums at the same time.
Forklift Trucks
Heavy-duty, rubber-tired forklift trucks are widely used in drum
handling operations. The advantage of the forklift truck is that it is
compact, maneuverable, and very versatile. Its use in drum handling depends
largely on the type of forklift attachment with which it is adapted. The
various attachments are discussed in the subsection "Accessories for Drum
Excavation Equipment." When adapted with drum grabbers, the forklift
efficiently stages, segregates, and loads structurally sound drums that are
upright. When used with drum lifting hooks and slings, the forklift can lift
drums from shallow disposal areas. This operation, however, requires manual
assistance from field personnel and, therefore, should be used when drums are
structurally sound.
Cranes, Clamshells, and Draglines
Large cable-operated cranes are sometimes fitted with clamshell buckets,
(Figure 12) drum grapples, magnets, hoists, slings, and lifters for large-
scale drum excavation, lifting, and staging at sites with unrestricted
working space. They can also be adapted for use as dragline excavators
(Figure 13) for deeper excavations over large areas.
Clamshells and dragline excavators with bucket capacities up to
4.6 cubic meters (6 cubic yards) and booms as long as 30 meters (100 feet)
can excavate heavy loads from depths of 15 to 18 meters (50-60 feet).
75
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Figure 10. The Barrel Grapple.r
(Courtesy of O.H. Materials Co., Find!ay, OH)
-------
Figure 11. Barrel Grappler Removing Drums from Pit Excavation
(Ctourtesy of O.K. Materials Co., Findlay, OH)
-------
Figure 12. Clamshell Bucket for Crane Attachment
(Source: U.S. EPA, 1982b)
Figure 13. A Dragline
(Source: U.S. EPA, 1982b)
70
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Because of their long reach and deep excavation capabilities, clamshells,
draglines, and other crane-based operations are indispensable in some drum
handling operations. They are economical for large-scale drum removal where
drums are buried deeper than 9 to 12 meters (30-40 feet) . Wheel-mounted
cranes equipped with long booms can lift drums from warehouses or congested
urban areas that are inaccessible to other types of equipment.
Cranes are either crawler-mounted for better stability over rough, muddy
terrain or wheel-mounted for mobility on more stable surfaces. Cranes also
can be mounted on barges for drum removal from congested, urban disposal
areas accessible only from adjacent rivers or bays. Smaller, rubber-tired,
truck-mounted hydraulic cranes ("cherry pickers") are useful in drum lifting
and staging in confined working areas with stable surfaces.
Although clamshells and draglines have excellent lifting power, they are
limited in mobility and rotation speed, which slows drum lifting and staging
operations. Smaller, hydraulic backhoes equipped with wrist action dippers
or grapples are more mobile, dexterous, and generally better adapted than
cranes and draglines for combined drum excavation and relocation operations.
Scrapers and Haulers
The use of wheel-mounted scrapers in drum excavation work are generally
used to remove and haul surface cover material at large disposal sites where
drums are known to be buried at given depths or in given areas (discrete
trenches or pits). They are also useful in respreading and compacting cover
soils after drum removal.
Scrapers are available as both self-propelled, self-loading vehicles,
and as models that are push-loaded by crawler tractors. Soft- to medium-
density cover soils and fill favor the self-loading scraper; medium to hard
rock and earth favor the use of the push-loaded machine. The hauling
capacities of scrapers range from 1.5 to 30 cubic meters (2 to 40 cubic
yards). These earthmoving machines can haul cover material economically over
relatively long distancesmore than 300 meters (1,000 feet) for self-
propelled scrapers (Church, 1981).
A variety of haul trucks are available for transporting excavated
materials and waste drums, both off-the-road and on-the-road. Haulers are
large rubber-tired vehicles available as single-trailer, 2-, or 3-axle
vehicles and as double-trailer, multiple-axle haulers. Their rated haul
capacities range from 0.9 to 91 metric tons (1-100 tons), and they are
available as bottom-dump, rear-dump, and side-dump vehicles. Small 1- and
2-MT (1-2 ton) haul trucks are used most commonly in drum transport
operations. Simple flatbed or enclosed trailer trucks of varying lengths are
also used in offsite transport of excavated drums.
At hazardous waste disposal sites, haul trucks are most useful for
hauling excavated drums (damaged or undamaged) to offsite secure landfills or
selected drum reburial sites. Drums can be carefully loaded onto and removed
from haulers using backhoes, cranes, loaders, and forklift trucks, usually
79
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with manual assistance from field workers. Barrel grapplers, however, can
usually perform this task without manual assistance.
Industrial Vacuum Loaders
Industrial vacuum loaders (Figure 14) such as the "Supersucker" (Super
Products, undated) and the "Vactor" (Peabody Myers, undated) can be used in
large-scale drum removal operations to remove remaining soil or pool-s of
liquid waste from around the drums during excavation. Using industrial
loaders for soil removal is safer and more efficient than using hand tools.
The Supersucker and the Vactor are vehicle-mounted, high-strength vacuums
that can carry solids, liquids, metal, and plastic scraps and almost any
other material that can fit through a 20 cm (8 in) hose. They are equipped
with a boom and up to 150 meters (500 feet) of hose that allow them to convey
materials from otherwise inaccessible areas. Their mobility and large
capacity eliminate the need to transfer materials to other vehicles before
hauling for disposal or treatment. Vacuum loaders can operate in either a
solids or liquids handling mode. Changing modes can be done quickly with an
exterior adjustment and without emptying the load (Figure 15). This allows
the Vactor or Supersucker to convey both soils and pools of liquid waste
without dumping the load.
Hand Tools
Direct handling of drums by field workers is often necessary during drum
excavation, lifting, and unloading operations. However, these operations
should be minimized to limit worker exposure to waste-related hazards, and
the workers should be outfitted at all times with appropriate protective
clothing and safety devices.
There are a number of conventional and specialized tools available for
direct handling of waste containers. Activities that may require such
handling include the following:
Removing soil and debris from around the surface of drums before
excavation
Excavating and removing drums from critical areas (next to buried gas
lines, adjacent drums with noncompatible wastes, building
foundations , etc.)
Placing chains, grippers/lifters, hoists/hooks, and slings around
drums for lifting and transporting by front-end loaders, cranes,
forklifts, etc.
Excavating and segregating small numbers of drums «10) in scattered
locations
Staging and segregating drums in storage areas
80
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(II
oo
-------
Solids Mode Flow Diagram
Quad Filtration
Rotary Blower
Silencer
Bag Filter
External
Screen Control
Secondary Top Inlet
Hydraulic Boom
Solid/Fluid Micro Strainer ^Dust Box
Rotary Blower
Liquids Mode Flow Diagram
Tripte Filtration
Filter Bags Are Bypassed by External
Internal Ducting When Operated Screen
on Liquids Modef^0^^'^^ Cor)
External Auger
Discharge Shut-Off
Centrifugal Separator
Solid/Fluid Micro Strainer
Figure 15. Liquids and Solids Handling by an Industrial Vacuum Loader
(Courtesy of Peabody-Myers, Streator, ID
82
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Opening drums for sample collection and compatibility testing (see
Section 8).
It should be noted that mechanical equipment can successfully replace hand
operations in most of these instances, depending on safety and cost
tradeoffs.
Hand tools useful in excavating and removing drums include shovels and
picks made of special non-sparking manganese-bronze, molybdenum, or aluminum
alloys. Hand-operated pneumatic jackhammers are useful for excavating
through pavement, rock, or brick to get to buried drums. Drum trucks
(special hand trucks) and drum dollies can be used for transporting excavated
drums over short distances. Additional equipment and accessories used for
drum lifting and handling are discussed in the following section.
ACCESSORIES FOR DRUM EXCAVATION EQUIPMENT
There are a number of commercially available equipment accessories that
can be used in drum handling (excavation, lifting, and transport) at hazard-
ous waste sites. These accessories are generally designed for conventional
use as attachments to forklift trucks or in manual container handling
operations. However, they may be adapted for use with other drum excavation
equipment discussed in the previous section. Other accessories include
health and safety equipment available for routine use during drum excavation
work where drum explosions or ruptures may pose a threat to field workers and
equipment operators.
Drum Lifting and Transfer Accessories
There are several types of drum excavation and lifting accessories for
backhoes and cranes (e.g., magnets, loader buckets, clamshell and dragline
buckets, and drum grapples). These accessories have been discussed in the
previous subsection. Other accessories include drum slings and hoist attach-
ments, drum grippers, and drum lifters and dumpers.
Drum lifting attachments and slings include heavy-duty nylon yokes and
straps and a variety of steel or metal alloy mechanical hoist attachments
(Figure 16) of variable capacity (up to 1800 kg or 4000 Ib). The attachments
are adjustable for different drum heights and diameters, and some models can
lift at any angle (BASCO, 1982). They can be used on backhoes, cranes, and
forklift trucks.
Drum lifting attachments are most useful to lift and relocate drums to
staging areas in congested, hard to access areas of waste sites. Drums
lifted with most of these attachments must be structurally sound and should
not contain explosive or shock-sensitive wastes. Wide nylon or canvas yokes
are the best suited attachments for handling drums of questionable integrity
since they can be wrapped around the drum so as to exert little pressure or
stress on any particular part of the drum. The major disadvantage of using
these lifting attachments is that workers must be near the drums to properly
83
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(a) Lifting hook for handling any type of drum.
(b) Drum band for handling and emptying 55 gallon
drums with forklift.
(c) Drum lifting hook for steel drums (may be
used with barrels).
Figure 16. Mechanical Drum Lifting Attachments
(Courtesy of BASCO, Chicago, IL)
84
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(d) Adjustable slings for handling barrels
horizontally; vertical slings are also available,
(e) Drum chime tongs to handle drums in upright
position with or without heads.
(f) Crank operated drum lifter.
Figure 16. (continued)
(Courtesy of BASCO, Chicago, IL)
85
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position and secure the slings, chains, yokes, etc. These operations tend to
be time consuming as well as dangerous if the drum contents are unknown or
hazardous. Drums could easily be damaged during these operations and leaks
could occur. For lifting drums that may contain flammable wastes, lifting
attachments must be made of nonsparking materials such as nylon, canvas,
rope, or bronze.
Drum grippers (Figure 17), also known as drum totes or grabbers, are
forklift attachments that can also be adapted to crawler-mounted backhoes and
loaders for lifting and transporting drums. Adjustable drum totes can handle
two similar or different sized drums simultaneously (30- and 55-gallons),
with a maximum capacity of 680 kilograms per drum (1,500 Ib) (BASCO, 1982).
Drum totes are most useful as forklift attachments for relocating and
segregating drums that have been stacked upright at waste disposal sites. A
single drum grabber on a backhoe boom or loader can selectively remove drums
from exposed waste trenches or pits provided the drums are in an upright
position.
Drum lifters and dumpers are available as hydraulically or mechanically
operated forklift attachments, as manually operated hoist or crane attach-
ments (Figures 18 and 19), and as portable low- and high-level hydraulic
dumpers (Figure 20). These equipment types are useful for stacking struc-
turally sound drums in temporary storage areas, elevating drums to loading
platforms or flatbed trucks, and dumping the contents of drums into
"compatibility chambers" (Section 9).
The drum grabbers, grippers, and lifters described above may not be
cost effective for a large site in which many drums must be transported
efficiently from the excavation area to a staging area. Grouping drums onto
a compartmentalized "scale pan" for removal by flat bed truck with loading
and unloading capability may be more suitable where site conditions permit
truck traffic. Another alternative would be to construct a "drum sled"
similar to the conceptual design shown in Figure 21 (Perkins Jordan Inc.,
1982). The sled, which can be attached to a dozer, can haul drums over level
or gently sloping terrain.
Worker Safety and Drum Protection Accessories
Equipment accessories used for operator safety and drum protection
include plexiglas safety shields for vehicle cabs (Figure 22) and steel bars,
or "morman bars ."
Plexiglas safety shields are installed to provide an explosion- and
splatter-proof layer around the cabs of backhoes, loaders, and cranes when
excavating drums of explosive or liquid hazardous wastes. They should also
be used on forklift trucks, in which the operator is near to the drums being
handled.
Morman bars are cast-iron bars that are placed over the teeth of various
excavator buckets (backhoe dippers, loader buckets, dozer blades, clamshells)
to blunt the digging edge of the buckets to avoid drum punctures and spills.
86
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Adjusted for two 55-galion drums, ...for one 55- and one 30-gallon drums,
...for two 30-gallon drums,
...for one 55-gallon drum...
Figure 17. Drum Gripper Attachment for Forklifts
(Courtesy of BASCO, Chicago, ID
87
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Figure 18. Hydraulic Drum Grab
(Courtesy of BASCO, Chicago, IL)
Figure 19. Forklift-Mounted Drum Dumper and HoisteiCrane-
Mounted Drum Dumper
(Courtesy of BASCO, Chicago, IL)
88
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Figure 20. Portable Hydraulic Drum Dumper
(Courtesy of BASCO, Chicago, IL)
89
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I' PLYWOOD DIVIDERS
2* BAY SUPPORT POSTS
V0
O
CHAIN WITH LATCH
" WOOD SKIDS
t* GRATING WITH
ANGLE IRON SUPPORTS
6* DEEP DRIP PAN RUNS LENGTH OF SLED.
HOLDS 300 GALLONS ON LEVEL GROUND.
66 GA1LONS ON 10% SLOPE.
TIE RODS FOR SKID STABILITY
NOTE: THIS SKETCH FOR
ILLUSTRATIVE PURPOSES ONLY.
NOT FOR CONSTRUCTION.
Figure 21. Drum Sled
Note: The sled has not been used in actual field conditions
(Reprinted from Perkins Jordan, Inc., 1982 with permission of the
Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management)
-------
Reproduced from
best available copy.
Figure 22. Plexiglas Safety Shield on Cap of Grappler During
Overpacking Operation (Note second backhoe in back-
ground)
(Courtesy of O.H. Materials Co., Findlay, OH)
-------
Such bars can also be custom made of nonsparking metal alloys for excavating
potentially explosive drums. Excavating buckets fitted with nonsparking
teeth provide additional protection when working with potentially explosive
drums.
Safety accessories that should be carried in the cabs of all vehicles
involved in drum handling include fire extinguishers, spare respirators and
respirator cartridges, and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) with air
tanks and harnesses. Field workers should wear appropriate protective
clothing at all times.
SELECTION AND USE OF DRUM EXCAVATION AND REMOVAL EQUIPMENT
Drum excavation and removal equipment is used to perform several
distinct, important functions including the following:
Excavating to the depth of buried drums and removing surface cover
over buried drums
Excavating around buried drums to free them for removal
Removing (lifting) drums from exposed pits and trenches
Loading and transporting drums to onsite storage areas
Sampling, segregating, bulking, storing, and recontainerizing (e.g.,
overpacking) drums
Transporting offsite for appropriate storage, treatment, or disposal.
The choice of equipment for drum handling is based on inherent capabil-
ities and limitations of the equipment, site-specific conditions that affect
equipment performance, the necessity to protect worker safety, and costs.
Table 14 summarizes the capabilities and limitations of the drum excavation
and removal equipment considered for this manual. Generally, a combination of
equipment and accessories is required for a particular drum handling problem.
Table 15 summarizes the effect that site-specific factors and safety have on
equipment selection and use.
The most significant ways to improve the safety of a drum handling
operation are to keep the operation as remote from workers as possible, to
avoid sudden releases of chemicals if the operation cannot be remote, and to
provide adequate safety gear and equipment to protect the worker if spillage
or contact with the drums is unavoidable. Implementing these precautionary
measures should be an overriding factor in selecting equipment for excavating
and manipulating drums.
92
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TABLE 14. DRUM EXCAVATION/REMOVAL EQUIPMENT CAPABILITIES AMD LIMITATIONS
Main Function* and Capabilities
Gross Cross
Equipment Type ' Excavation Excavation*
of Cover to Depth*
Material*
Crawler docer* X X
(and attachment*)
Crawler loader*
(and attachment*) X
Rubber-tired loader* '
(and attachment*) X
Bacfchoe*
(and attachments) X X
Crapplert
(modified backhoes)
Crane* and attachment*
(magnets, clamshells, X X
draglines, etc.)
Scrapers X
Box Trailer*
Hand Tools/Hand
Manipulation
Precise Drum Drum Drum Long
Excavation* Lifting Loading Segregation 4 Distance
Around Drissa 4 Transfer 4 Onsite Recontainer- Hauling/
Transport ization Offsite Major Limitations and
Transport Disadvantagea
XXX Limited speed and mobility
Generally require* losding of
X XX drum* by hand; short-distance
transport only
Restricted to fairly stable
X XX surf sees; generslly requires
loading of drums by hand
Very versatile but cannot mani-
X X . X pulate drums without worker
intervention
Host veraatile type of equipment
XXX but limited to handling one
drum at a time
'Very limited mobility; slow
X X
X X Imprecise loading action;
requires manual assistance
for drum loading
X X Used only to transport drums
offsite
with Wai tea
(cnnt i inued)
-------
TABLE 14. (continued)
Main Functions and Capabilitiea
Equipment Type
Forklift Truck*
(and attachxienta)
Drum Lifter* and
Diaaper*
Industrial Vacuum
Loader*
Gro** Groes Precise Driaa Dria*
Excavation Excavation* Excavation* Lifting Loading
of Cover to Depth* Around Drun* & Transfer I Onsite
Materiala Transport
X X
X X
X X
Drias
Segregation i
Recontainer-
izat ion
X
X
l-ong
Distance
Hauling/
Offaite Hajor Limitation* and
Transport Disadvantage*
Limited to stable working
surface* and to lifting drum*
in an upright poaition
Cloae worker contact with
vastes; one drua at a time;
driaaa must be upright for
grabbing
Costly to contract equipment;
coat effective only for large
acale operations
-------
TABLE 15. EFFECT OF SITE-SPECIFIC VARIABLES ON SELECTION AND USE
OF DRUM EXCAVATION AND HANDLING EQUIPMENT
Site Variable
Acceaaibility
Equipment Reconmendationa
Remote wooded site may require clearing.
Major Site Problems/Consideration*
In remote wooded sites, geo-
Ul
grubbing, and road construction; crawler
tractors, dozers, and scrapers would
be used
If site is readily accessible, rubber-tired
vehicles should be used because of their higher
efficiency
Congested urban sites require use of small
equipment, such as forklifts and bobcats; may
require use of slings or yokes attached to
backhoes or crane if drums are located
in a warehouse or building
Industrial vacuum loaders with long hoses (up
to ISO m or 500 ft) can be useful in removing
soil around drums in areas that are inaccess-
ible to large excavation equipment
physical testing should be
conducted prior to clearing
and road construction to mini-
mize the possibility of ruptur-
ing drums with equipment
Population and worker exposure
are of particular concern in
congested areas; extensive
air monitoring is required
Number of Drums
Where a large number of drums are involved, use
high-product ion equipment, such as the barrel
grappler and industrial vacuum loaders
Where few drums « 500) are involved, efforts
should be made to limit the number and types of
equipment; front-end loaders and bobcata may be
suitable at small sites, but the condition of the
drums must be considered in selecting appropriate
equipment
Economics are a major concern
where large numbers or small
numbers of drums are involved;
however, worker safety is not
compromised in efforts to
save money
(continued)
-------
TABLE 15. (continued)
Site Variable
Equipment Recommendations
Major Site Problems/Considerations
Drum Integrity
vo
The barrel grappler ia recommended, however,
liners or dikes should be used in the work
area to contain apilla if drum* rupture; work
areas should be diked and plexiglas shields
should be used on vehicle cabs; drums should
be handled individually to avoid mixing
incompatible wastes; highly over pressurized
drums should be isolated by barriera and
vented before handling
Where drum integrity is poor, contents should be
transferred or drums overpacked rather
than hauled
Worker aafety and environmental
releases are of overriding
concern; every effort should
be made to avoid mixing
incompatible wastes and handling
explosives of overpressurized
drums
Water Table
If water table is high, site may require drainage
prior to drum handling
Crawler-mounted vehicles or flotation tirea are
recommended for swampy, marshy areas; swamp pads
and timber mats may improve accessibility
Where water table is low, rubber-tired vehicles can
generally be used efficiently
Contamination of water and
groundwater
Drum integrity is likely to be
poor where drums have been in
contact with water
Highly Toxic/
Hazardous
Where highly toxic materials are being handled,
the operation should be as remote as possible;
the drum grappler should be used where possible
with precautions taken to contain apilla within
the work area
Worker safety and environmental
releases are an overriding
concern
(continued)
-------
TABLE 15. (continued)
Site Variable
Equipment Recommendations
Major Site Problems/Considerations
Highly Toxic/
Hazardous (continued)
vO '
Radioactive, explosive, and shock-sensitive
materials should be moved remotely to an
isolated staging area.
Where the drum grappler cannot be used, drums
should be handled one at a time; where a
backhoe is used, nonsparking bucket teeth
and a moman bar should be uaed; aplaahes in
the vicinity of workers should be avoided;
if drum grabbers are used for overpack ing,
workers should leave the immediate vicinity
before the drum ia lowered into over pack;
vehicle operator should be protected by a
plexiglas.shield
Where drum integrity is poor,
contents should be transferred
or drums should be overpacked
Depth of Burial
Evacuation of subsurface drums generally
requires use of a backhoe or grappler; a grappler
ia more adept at removing drtnta from parallel
trenches, while the conventional backhoe ia
limited to excavation from above; use no man .
bars and plexiglaa shields on vehicles when
dealing with unknowns
Drums that are very deep may require use
of a clamshell or dragline during excavation
Drums on the surface can he handled using
loaders ,ind forklift trucks providing drum
integrity is good
Where drums are buried beneath
the surface, contents are fre-
quently unknown requiring that
all safety precautions be taken;
although geophysical surveying
may have been done, exact
location of drums ia not a
certainty
-------
The final factor that influences the selection of equipment is the cost
to complete the cleanup. Factors that should be considered in estimating
costs include:
Equipment efficiency under site-specific conditions
Equipment dispatching time (transport and setup)
Contractor performance record with equipment
Equipment idle time and how it can be minimized
Equipment versatility to perform several functions
Adaptation of equipment to increase efficiency.
EXCAVATION/REMOVAL PROCEDURES
Regardless of the type of equipment used for drum excavating and
handling, certain standard operating procedures and safety practices should
be followed.
As the soil around the drum is excavated with nonsparking hand tools or
an industrial vacuum and the face of the drum is exposed, a visual inspection
of the drum is made to determine whether it is empty, intact, leaking, or
potentially dangerous, as evidenced by bulking, buckling, corrosion, and
other deformations. Onsite monitoring should also be done to determine
unsafe levels of volatile organics, explosives, or the presence of
radioactive materials (Section 6). This preliminary visual inspection is the
basis for determining the appropriate mode of excavating and handling.
Drum identification and inventory (Section 8) should begin before
excavation. Information such as location, date of removal, drum identifi-
cation number, overpack status, and any other identification marks should be
recorded on the drum inventory forms.
Handling Precautions for Specific Waste/Container Types
If there is an indication that the drums contain explosive or shock-
sensitive materials, they should be handled remotely, or as a minimum, with
vehicles equipped with plexiglas safety shields. It is important to be able
to identify types of drums as possibly containing explosive materials. For
instance, one cleanup contractor observed that drums without rolling hoops
that are not Department of Transportation (DOT) specification drums are
frequently of military origin and are likely to contain explosives or nerve
gas. Also, small (5 gallon) pails, because of their convenient size, are
probably lab packs (personal communication with F. Klotzbach, SCA, Inc.,
Boston, MA, 1982).
98
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If a drum is critically overpressurized, it should be isolated with a
barricade or steel demolition net until the pressure can be relieved remotely
(Section 8, Drum Opening Tools). If it is not possible to set up a
barricade, a tarpaulin may be used to cover the drum, provided the cloth is
positioned remotely using long poles or rods. However, it must be cautioned
that the mere weight of the tarpaulin or change in position of the drum could
cause rupture. Slow venting using a bung wrench and plastic cover over the
drum has worked for less critical situations; however, this should only be
attempted by experienced personnel and extreme caution should be exercised.
Drums containing ionized levels of radiation should be handled on a
site-specific basis. Generally, when such drums are identified (via
radiation meters), they are immediately overpacked using remotely operated
equipment and moved to a separate staging area. However, depending on the
level of radiation, special shielding devices may be required to protect
field personnel. The Safety Officer should be consulted if radioactive
material is encountered. To avoid tracking the radioactive material about
the site, the equipment used in handling the drums must be decontaminated,
and any radioactive soils immediately surrounding the drum should be
excavated and isolated.
If gas cylinders are encountered, they should be moved promptly to an
area where the temperature can be controlled, particularly if they are
subjected to temperature extremes or direct sunlight. Gas cylinders should
not be rolled, dragged, or slid, even for short distances. Care should be
taken not to drop the cylinders or allow them to violently strike another
cylinder or drum (Matheson Gas Products, undated).
As contaminated soils are excavated from the disposal area, they should
be transferred to a temporary storage area, preferably a diked or bermed area
lined with plastic or low permeability clays. A layer of absorbent should
be placed on the bottom of the diked area.
Handling Drums with Poor Structural Integrity
Any drum that is leaking, badly corroded, or deformed either should be
overpacked or the contents transferred, by pumping, to a new or reconditioned
drum. If the drum has a small puncture or leak, it may be possible to use
wooden plugs, neoprene stoppers, etc., to temporarily plug the leak. Wooden,
felt-covered plugs are most effective because the wood and felt expand to
contain the leak. In some instances, it may be possible to transfer the drum
contents to a "compatibility" chamber or vacuum truck. These procedures,
however, are usually used for bulking after wastes have been identified
(Section 9) rather than at this stage, since lack of knowledge about waste
types could result in incompatible waste reactions.
As a rule, liquids contained in drums that are leaking or highly deter-
iorated should be immediately transferred to a new or reconditioned drum.
Leaking drums containing sludges or semisolids, drums that are structurally
sound but opened, or drums that are deteriorated but moveable may be
overpacked.
99
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It is generally safer to pump the contents of a structurally poor drum
into a new drum, since maneuvering the drum into an overpack may cause
rupture. Pumping is usually done with a skid-mounted vacuum pump. Since the
drum contents are unknown, it is necessary to use explosion-proof, chemically
resistant pumps and to decontaminate the pump and hosing between transfers to
avoid incompatible waste reactions.
Overpacking requires considerable skill on the part of the equipment
operator because of the narrow clearance between the overpack and the drum.
Attachments suitable for overpacking include the backhoe-mounted grapple arm
and forklift trucks equipped with drum grabbers (Figures 23 and 24, respec-
tively). The grabbers, however, do not have the flexibility for lowering the
drum into the overpack; consequently, their use may cause the drum contents
to splash out. Where the drums are slightly bent or dented, the dexterity of
the grappler arm is particularly important for successful overpacking.
Severely bent or dented drums, however, are not suitable for overpacking.
When liquids are being removed from a drum by pumping, a ground must be
established between the drum and the receiving container if the container is
metallic, or to a ground stake if the receiving container is not metallic.
Such grounding will eliminate the buildup of significant static charges. If
the liquid, such as a solvent, does not conduct electricity, a very thin area
where the solvent and the wall of the drum touch has an electrical imbalance.
When the solvent leaves the drum through a spout or bung hole, it carries
some electrical charge. The drum is left with a small and opposite elec-
trical charge, which increases as more solvent is drawn from it. If this
charge becomes large enough and the drum comes in close contact with another
surface such as the container or vessel to which the waste is being trans-
ferred, a spark can result causing a fire or explosion. Any spills that
occur when drums rupture should be cleaned up promptly using pumps or sorbent
materials.
Case Histories
A few case histories are presented below to illustrate the use of equip-
ment for drum excavation, staging, and hauling. Other operational aspects of
these case studies (i.e., sampling, recordkeeping, etc.) are not discussed.
At the Chemical Control site in Elizabeth, New Jersey, O.H. Materials
Company used forklifts, front-end loaders, a barge-mounted crane, a specially
developed barrel grappler, and a team of 71 workers to remove over 40,000
drums, many of which were badly charred and damaged by a large explosion and
-fire. The crane and grappler were used to lift and relocate drums piled six
to ten high at the congested site. The grappler was able to remove and stage
as many as 1,000 drums each day. Forklifts equipped with drum grabber
attachments were initially employed to remove and overpack scattered, damaged
drums and provide working space for the grappler and loader operations. Some
liquid from leaking drums spilled out during overpacking. Once the stacked
drums were reduced to one to two layers, front-end loaders were used to
segregate drums by waste type (solid, liquid, sludge) for subsequent sampling
and analysis. Field crews often had to lift the damaged drums onto the
loader buckets by hand. Extensive manual handling of drums was also required
100
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Figure 23. Use of the Grappler Attachment for Overpacking Drums
(Courtesy of O.K. Materials, Findlay, OH)
-------
Figure 24. Use of Forklift Grappler Attachment for Overpacking
(Courtesy of Pollution Engineering Magazine)
102
-------
for the crane lifting operation. Empty, damaged drums were crushed with
backhoe and loader buckets and disposed of as bulk contaminated solids.
Hydraulic compactors were also used by O.K. Materials for drum crushing and
solids compaction. (EPA Environmental Response Team, Video Tapes of Chemical
Control Site Cleanup) (Finkel and Golob, 1981).
At the 3.2-hectare (8-acre) Picillo Farm dump site in Coventry, Rhode
Island, Peabody Clean Industries and R.J. Gorman removed approximately
5,000 drums from excavated trenches using a barrel grappler, crawler loaders,
and backhoes (both crawler-mounted and rubber-tired). The grappler was also
used to excavate and remove over 100 lab packs and proved very efficient and
dexterous. Drums were excavated at several angles from an open trench and
placed directly in a staging area with very little shock to the drums. The
lab packs were segregated and field workers repacked them. Rubber-tired
backhoes then hauled the drums to temporary storage. (EPA Environmental
Response Team, Video Tape of Picillo Farm Site Cleanup.)
Drum handling operations at the Gilson Road Hazardous Waste Disposal
Site in Nashua, New Hampshire, involved the removal of approximately
1,400 drums from four disposal areas. For the most part, the drums had been
disposed of on the surface or partially buried. This site was inaccessible
to some of the heavy equipment required for drum removal and an access road
had to be constructed. The drums were individually handled and moved to a
staging area using a heavy-duty forklift truck with a chain or set of drum-
lifting hooks. Before moving, each drum was visually inspected to check for
drum integrity. Leaking drums were transferred or overpacked. A drum
grabber attachment was also available for the forklift truck. However, the
grabber was not effective in removing drums from the pile because of the
haphazard manner in which the drums had been disposed and because, in many
instances, the drums were stuck together. Both the drum grabber attachment
and the drum-lifting hooks were used to segregate the drums into compatible
waste classes, overpack damaged drums, and load the drums onto flatbed trucks
(Recra Research Inc., 1980).
As these case studies illustrate, drum handling efforts typically
involve the combined use of several equipment types, and in the absence of
the grappler, require close contact between workers and drums in loading or
attaching the drums onto buckets, grabbers, etc. Drum removal equipment must
dig, grab, lift, load, haul, and manipulate drums. These functions generally
require the use of at least two or three different machines in addition to
hand tools or the assistance of site workers. However, the versatile barrel
grappler often eliminates the need for direct manipulation by field person-
nel. Again, the most efficient and cost effective combination of equipment
types is determined by site-specific conditions and required activities.
103
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SECTION 8
DRUM STAGING, OPENING, AND SAMPLING
STAGING
Once a drum has been excavated and any immediate hazard has been elim-
inated by overpacking or transferring the drum's contents, the drum is
affixed with a numbered tag and transferred to a staging area. Color-coded
tags, labels, or bands could be used to mark similar waste types.
A description of each drum, its condition, any unusual markings, and the
location where it was buried or stored are recorded on a drum data sheet
similar to the one shown in Table 16. This data sheet becomes the principal
recordkeeping tool for tracking the drum onsite. A separate drum/bulk sheet
is also required for laboratory analysis and offsite transport (manifest) of
the wastes.
When a large number of drums is involved, a computerized data retrieval
system should be considered to provide instant information on drum location,
waste type, and current inventory of similar drums via search programs. If a
computerized data system is not practical or feasible, forms should be
prepared showing the layout of each storage area. The drum identification
number and color code should then be marked on the form.
In many instances, the state, or responsible party, also requires that
the drums be photographed (before overpacking or transferring), particularly
if they have identifying marks.
Ideally, the staging area(s) should be located just far enough from the
drum opening area to prevent a chain reaction if one drum should explode or
catch fire when opened. The area should be free of debris and arranged so
that vehicles can access the drums easily for transfer to the drum or con-
solidation opening area (Figure 25). Secondary containment measures for
staging areas are described in Section 5. If the site is located in an area
with a high water table, low flatbed trucks may be adapted for staging. If
the site is located in a confined or congested area, the possibility of
excavating, staging, opening, and bulking the drums in shifts should be
considered. If drums have been stored in a warehouse, the warehouse may
serve as the staging area, providing there is adequate ventilation and space
available for drum handling equipment and emergency evacuation in case of
fire or explosion.
During staging, the drums, or other containers, should be physically
separated into the following categories when possible: those containing
104
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TABLE 16. DRUM/BULK DATA FORM
Sampling Date Sampled:
Drum ID#: ___ _ Time:
Eatimated Liquid Quantity;
Grid Location*:
Staging toe at ion:_
Sampler'a Name:
Drum Condition:
Physical Appearance of the Drum/Bulk
Contents:
Odor:
Color:
pH: __^^^_^_______^___^^__^_ t Liquid:
Laboratory Date of Analysis:_
Analytical Data: ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^_^^
Compatibility:
Hazard:
Waste ID:
Treatment Disposal Recoanendationa:
Approval
Lab: - Date:
Site Manager: Date:
*Area of site where drum was orginally located
Based on DiNapoli, 1982. Table originally printed in the Proceedings of the
National Conference on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites,
1982. Available from Hazardous Materials Control Research Institute, 9300
Columbia Blvd., Silver Spring, MD 20910.
105
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High Haunt Slaying Area Linur Explosives
Contaminated Soils
and Empties
Liquids
Staging
Area
\\
iH« Ifjlj/
j:: iH r.
! I :« * '
mm m mmM.m M> mm m mmm m mj
.Dike
Liner
Gas Cylinders
Cool Shaded Area
'Explosives
I! L * l : .": JOium Opening? . i
Liner
Figure 25. Layout for Separate Drum Staging and Opening Areas
-------
liquids, those containing solids, lab packs, gas cylinders, and empties,
since the strategy for sampling and handling drums/containers in each of
these categories is different.
Where there is a good reason to suspect that drums containing radio-
active, explosive, and shock-sensitive materials are present, these materials
should be staged in a separate, isolated area if possible (Figure 25).
Placement of explosives and shock-sensitive materials in diked and fenced
areas will minimize the hazard and the adverse effects of any premature
detonation of explosives.
The process of staging drums is rarely straightforward. Segregating
drums into liquids, solids, and drums containing assorted laboratory
containers may require use of one or more of the following methods:
Visual inspection of the drum and its labels, codes, etc. Solids and
sludges are typically disposed of in open top drums (i.e., with
bolted rings). Closed head drums with a bung opening generally
contain liquid.
Tapping on the drum by hand or with a brass tool, to determine the
category by sound.
Visual inspection of the contents of the drum during sampling,
followed by restaging, if needed.
Several cleanup contractors expressed concern over the practice of tap-
ping drums to determine their contents. This approach is neither uniformly
safe nor effective and should not be used if the drums are visually
overpresssurized or if shock-sensitive materials are suspected.
The use of nondestructive test methods as an alternative for determining
whether a drum contains liquid or solid has been investigated. Ultrasonics
has been found to be unsuitable for this purpose, because it requires that
the surface of the drum be clean and free of chipping paint and debris (Lord,
Tyagi, and Koerner, 1981). Highly sensitive infrared scanners can distin-
guish solids, liquids, and air inside containers based on their thermal
conductivity. However, this method requires that the drum be heated and the
pattern of cooling observed. Such an approach would obviously be unsafe
where drums containing unknown wastes are involved (Greenhalgh, 1980).
DRUM OPENING
Drum Opening Area
Where space allows, the drum opening area should be physically separated
from the drum removal and drum staging operations, as mentioned previously.
107
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There should be sufficient distance between the drum opening and the removal
and staging operations to prevent a chain reaction or fire during drum
opening (CMA, 1982).
A drum opening bunker should be constructed at sites where drum
integrity is poor and drum contents are highly toxic, explosive or reactive.
The bunker is an isolated area surrounded by sandbags, earthen dikes or
cinder blocks and lined with plastic, concrete, etc. The pad should be
sloped so that spills flow toward a central collection sump. Alternatively,
the drum may be placed in a pan that has adequate volume to recover any
spillage in case the drum ruptures (CMA, 1982). The pan should have a drain
for recovering the wastes. Further protection should be provided for field
workers by using a plexiglas shield that they can step behind when opening
drums. Sensors and probes for direct reading of air monitoring equipment
should be located near the drum opening equipment, and the meters should be
situated behind the plexiglas shield. A laboratory scale gas scrubber could
be installed in the opening area for recovering vented gas.
Drums are moved from the staging area to the drum opening area one at a
time using forklift trucks equipped with drum grabbers or the barrel
grappler. In a large-scale drum handling operation, drums may be conveyed to
the drum opening area using a roller conveyor.
Combined Drum Staging/Drum Opening Areas
At some sites where the work space is too confined or where the
logistics of marshalling thousands of drums from a staging area to a drum
opening area is cost prohibitive, cleanup contractors have used a combined
drum opening/staging area rather than the separate staging and opening areas
discussed previously. Using this approach, drums are staged in rows of two
or in groups of four, with sufficient distances between each row or group to
provide easy access for drum opening equipment and adequate space for
emergency evacuation in the event of fire or explosion. A spacing of 0.3 to
0.5 meters (1-1.5 feet) or more is provided between each drum in a row to
minimize the possibility of chain reactions in the event of explosions or
fires. A layout of this type of combined staging/opening operation is shown
in Figure 26. This method was used in the cleanup of drums at the General
Disposal Company in Santa Fe Springs, California, to provide for rapid,
remote opening of drums and to eliminate the need to relocate the barrels
(Buecker and Bradford, 1982).
Drum Opening Equipment
There are three basic techniques available for drum opening at hazardous
waste sites:
Manual opening with nonsparking bung (or plug) wrenches
Drum deheading
Remote drum puncturing or bung removal.
108
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o
VO
Aisle Spacing
Adequate to Maneuver Drum Opening Equipment
and for Emergency Evacuation
* » HUM «IQl*^|
9& fj ^^. f! *^^^|
fc#j&^JfiDike
'Wlri^'
High Hazard Staging Area
^»t? *< ,,
,>' >- ^..». 4J Liner
'vtSi'f.:?!
C*«fl
I -'-^
' i"'*~-l
s.;W^!
c«
Between Drum Spacing
Adequate to Minimize
Chain Reactions
Contaminated Soils and Empties
:ri^:,|
1
|< Dike
^ | Liner
i
i
i
Gas Cyli
i r»uirr. inssKnJi |
Cool Shaded Area
Radioaclives
Dike^
i. Liquids
Drum Consolidation Area
' "'*"""]
*
Lbiaf
i** - - I I * * P»
i ,:, * I 11 * I i *
Water f f .. . I N»n Flammable '
*Heacli«& Liquids I
i. _ __ «^> ti J t
^ w^ » ?
i >
.Solid
1
1
j,:>'s4» I ' : Acids Liquid , I
Figure 26. Layout for Combined Drum Staging and Opening Areas
-------
The choice of drum opening techniques and accessories largely depends on
the number of drums to be opened, their waste contents (if known), and their
physical condition. Remote drum opening eauipment should always be considered
in order to protect worker safety, especially if the drums are damaged or
corroded. Manual opening with bung wrenches or drum deheaders should be
performed only with structurally sound drums with waste contents that are
known to be nonreactive and nonexplosive.
Hand Wrenches
If closed head drums are present, access for sampling or removing the
contents is most conveniently obtained by removing the bung plug located on
the head or side of the drum. Bung plugs are threaded plugs of various
design, and there are a number of commercially available "universal" bung
wrenches suitable for bung removal (Figure 27).
Figure 27. Nonsparking Bung Wrench
(Courtesy of Wizard Drum Tools,
Hydrothermal Corporation, Milwaukee, Wl)
Bung wrenches should be of nonsparking metal alloy construction
(bronze/manganese, aluminum, molybdenum) to eliminate the potential explosions
posed by certain waste types or pressurized gases and liauids. This tool is
generally available for about S20 (Arrow Star Inc., 1981; INTEREX Safety
Supplies, 1982).
Again, manual drum opening with bung wrenches should not be performed
unless the drums are structurally sound (no evidence of bulging or defor-
mation) and their contents are known to be nonexplosive. If opening the drum
with bung wrenches is deemed reasonably cost-effective and safe, then certain
110
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procedures should be implemented to minimize the hazard. Field personnel
should be fully outfitted with protective gear. Drums should be positioned
upright with the bung up, or, for drums with bungs on the side, laid on their
sides with the bung plugs up. The wrenching motion should be a slow, steady
pull across the drum. If the length of the bung wrench handle provides
inadequate leverage for unscrewing the plug, a "cheater bar" can be attached
to the handle to improve leverage. If there is evidence of incompatible
chemical reactions, sudden pressure buildup, or a release of potentially toxic
fumes while the bung is being loosened, field personnel should immediately
leave the area and arrange for remo'te drum opening equipment to be used. If
the drum plug cannot be opened successfully using a nonsparking hand wrench,
then other methods of drum opening (deheading or puncturing) must be
considered.
Drum Deheading
Wizard Drum Tools manufactures manually operated drum deheaders (Figure
28), which act as "can openers" to cut away the heads of steel drums.
Manually deheading a drum is time consuming and inefficient, but it may be
desirable for opening small numbers of drums. Manual deheaders are unsafe
under many conditions since they require that the worker be close to the drums
being opened. The manual deheader illustrated in Figure 28 is manufactured by
Wizard Drum Tools and can be purchased for about $315 (Hydrothermal
Corporation, 1981).
Wizard Drum Tools also manfactures a portable, self-propelled drum opener
(Figure 29) for quicker and more efficient deheading. It may be either
electrically or pneumatically driven and is available for about $1,000 (Wizard
Drum Tools, 1981). The opener can be attached to a support tower via a chain
attachment on a roller sheave (Figure 30). This allows the opener to rotate
around the drum head with minimal manual assistance. The equipment is
generally set up and operated manually. It could be operated remotely as
well, although this would require modification to the existing equipment.
A problem frequently encountered when using a drum deheader or self-
propelled opener is that the equipment cannot cut away those parts of the drum
head that have been dented or otherwise distorted. The deheader must be
frequently readjusted and/or the drum chimes must be undented. A drum
dekinker (Figure 31) can be used to manually straighten dented chimes for
easier deheading and to reseal leaking drum heads. However, its operation
also requires working near potentially hazardous drums.
Remote Drum Opening
Remotely operated drum opening tools are the safest available means of
drum opening. Two basic tools, originally developed by EPA's National
Enforcement Investigation Center (NEIC) and since modified by several cleanup
contractors, are available. Remote drum opening is slow but provides a high
degree of safety compared to manual methods of opening. The remote "bung
remover" is essentially an air impact wrench that uses a compressed air tank.
A specially devised mounting bracket and a nonparking bung socket are used to
spin the bung from the top or side of a drum (Figure 32). The second device
developed by NEIC is a hydraulic drum plunger that forces a penetrator
111
-------
Figure 28. Manual Drum Deheader
(Courtesy of Wizard Drum Tools, Hydrothermal Corp., Milwaukee, WI)
Note: This photograph does not show appropriate safety gear
required in the field
-------
Figure 29. Self-Propelled Drum Deheader
(Electric or Pneumatic Models Available)
(Courtesy of Wizard Drum Tools, Hydrothermal Corportion,
Milwaukee, WI)
Note: This photograph does not show appropriate safety gear
required in the field
113
-------
Figure 30. Self-Propelled Drum Beheader with Support Tower
(Courtesy of Wizard Drum Tools, Hydrothermal Corp., Milwaukee, WI)
114
-------
Figure 31. Drum Dekinker
(Courtesy of Wizard Drum Tools, Hydrothermal Corp., Milwaukee, WI)
Note: This photograph is intended only to illustrate drum opening
equipment and does not illustrate safety precautions required in
the field.
115
-------
Reproduced from
best available copy.
Figure 32.
Pneumatic Bung Wrench: Attachment to Drum
and Remote Operation Setup
al
"
originally printed in the
,300
Blvd., Silver Spring
-------
into the drums and seals the resulting holes. A sample is withdrawn through
the hollow stem of the penetrating device and the device is then left in
place to seal the drum (Blackman et al., 1980). The system can be backhoe-
mounted (Figure 33) or manually set up (banded or clamped around the drum) for
remote operation (Figure 34). The drum plunger may also be incorporated into
a mechanized conveyor system (Figure 35) for remote puncturing of a large
number of drums in a timely manner (CMA, 1982). NEIC has made the specifica-
tions for these pieces of equipment available to several of the EPA Regional
Offices. These tools can be developed by making simple and low-cost modifi-
cations to existing equipment (Verbal communication with K. Fischer U.S. EPA,
NEIC, Denver, Colorado, 1982). As mentioned previously, Wizard Drum Tools'
portable, self-propelled drum opener could also be set up to operate remotely
provided the chime is free of dents that could cause the opener to stick.
Another technique for drum puncturing involves the use of a nonsparking
metal spike attached to a backhoe arm. Figure 36 shows the O.H. Materials
barrel grappler holding a drum as it is spiked open with this tool. This
method achieves relatively quick and safe drum opening for subsequent
sampling, but the nonspecific action of the spike may damage drum integrity.
If this method is used, the backhoe boom and dipper assembly should have a
relatively long reach (at least 12 meters, or 40 feet), and the backhoe cab
should be plexiglas shielded for operator safety. The backhoe spike method
for drum opening should be performed by experienced backhoe operators only.
Drums that have been overpressurized to the extent that the head is
swollen several inches above the level of the chime should not be moved. A
number of devices have been developed for venting critically swollen drums.
One method that has proven to be effective is a tube and spear device
illustrated in Figure 37. A light aluminum tube 3 meters (10 feet) long is
positioned at the vapor space of the drum. A rigid, hooking device attached
to the tube goes over the chime and holds the tube securely in place. The
spear is inserted in the tube and positioned against the drum wall. A sharp
blow on the end of the spear drives the sharpened tip through the drum and the
gas vents along the grooves. The venting should be done from behind a wall or
barricade (Niggle, 1982). This device could be cheaply and easily designed
and constructed where needed. Once the pressure has been relieved, the bung
can be removed, the drum sampled, and the bung hole fitted with & pressure
venting cap set at 5 psi release. The opening made by tube and spear device
should then be sealed.
Table 17 summarizes available drum opening .techniques, their recommended
applications, and major disadvantages. Remote drum opening via pneumatic bung
removal, deheading, or drum puncturing is much more desirable than the manual
methods of drum opening discussed previously. They may require more time for
drum staging and equipment setup, but they maximize the distance between
workers and drums during the potentially dangerous activity of drum opening.
Puncturing drums with hand tools and manual bung removal with wrenches or
manual deheading is recommended only with structurally sound drums (no
bulging, corrosion", dents) with waste contents that are known to be relatively
nonhazardous.
117
-------
BACKHOE
ARM (REF.)
HYDRAULIC LINES
HYDRAULIC CYL.
WITH 6 IN. STROKE
SPLASH PLATE
REPLACEABLE 316
STAINLESS STEEL
CONICAL PLUNGER
(3IN.DIA.X 4IN.LG.)
STANDARD SINGLE
DRUM GRABBER
55 GALLON DRUM
DRAIN TO VACUUM TRUCK,
WASTE RECOVERY SYSTEM ^^^r ^**
OR TANK- -* r
1
i j
^ SPILL C
!
ASLOPE
75 GAL
Figure 33. Hydraulic Backhoe Drum Plunger Arrangement
(Courtesy of Chemical Manufacturer's Association, Washington, DC)
118
-------
Wff,
Figure 34. Remote Hydraulic Drum Plunger Mounted on Drum
(Blackman, et al., 1980. Figure originally printed in the
Proceedings of the National Conference on Management of
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, 1980. Available from Hazardous
Materials Control Research Institute, 9300 Columbia Blvd., Silver
Spring, MD 20910.)
119
-------
55 GAL. DRUM
CONVEYOR
DRAIN TO VACUUM TRUCK,
WASTE RECOVERY SYSTEM
OR TANK :
REMOTE
LOCATION
NEEDLE VALVE
3 WAY VALVE
APPROX. 50FT. OF HOSE
AIR/HYDRAULIC CYLINDER
SPLASH PLATJE
REPLACEABLE, 316 STAINLESS
STEEL CONICAL PLUNGER
(3IN. DIA. X 4 IN. LG.)
DOORS (2 SIDES)
SPILL CONTAINMENT PAN &
SUPPORT FRAME (75 GAL CAPACITY*
BELT CONVEYOR
FORK LIFT SLOTS
Note: A non-sparking, bronze plunger could replace the stainless steel
but will be less durable
Figure 35. Conveyor Belt System for Remote Hydraulic Puncturing of
Large Number of Drums
(Courtesy of Chemical Manufacturer's Association, Washington, DC)
120
-------
Figure 3.6. Backhoe Spike (nonsparking) Puncturing Drum Held by Grappler
(Courtesy of O.H. Materials Co., Findlay, OH)
-------
Hook for Too
CMRNOfOium'
Light might hotow tub*
WprosMiiMy 10 It in tangtti
FraMVtow
nmvww \
©-1-
SMiodvttivjfgihMppeM
VwdnaSM
NOTE: Both tub* «id rod eouU b* out
Figure 37. Tube and Spear Device Used for Venting Swollen Drums
(Source: Niggle, 1982)
{Reprinted with permission of Government Institutes Inc., Rockville,
MD)
122
-------
TABLE 17. SUMMARY ASSESSMENT OF DRUM OPENING TECHNIQUES
Recommended Drum Opening Application* (for Sample Acquisition or Recontaineriiat ion)
Bung Wrenches
(Nonsparking)
Manual Drum
Deheader
Number of Drums to be Opened Physical Condition of Drums
<100
Haste Content of Drum
Restrict iona /Disadvantages
Shock
100-500 >iOO Damaged or Structurally Unknown Senoitive/ Non-
Bulging Sound Explosive hazardous
Not recommended for unknown
waste contents; full protective
gear for worker.
Only if bung is impossible to
open; used mainly for
reconlainerization vs. sample
acquisition; unsafe if waste
contents are unknown.
i Self-Propel led
£J Drum Deheader
(Electric or
Pneumatic)
S3 Portable
May require use of a dekinker
or readjustment of the deheader
it the chine Is dented.
Remotely XX X
Operated
Pneumatic
Wrench
Remote
Hydraul ic
Plunger
X XX Requires direct contact with the
drum during attachment of
wrench .
Time-consuming setup.
Only in controlled area
with spill containment.
the
Host tine-conaiiming of Che
hydraulic plunger method*.
Requires direct contact
with the drum in order to
et up the plunger.
Self -Pro- X X
pel led
(Electric or
Pneumst ic )
X XX X Only suitable if
is free of dents
the chime
(continued)
-------
TABLE 17. (Continued)
Technique
Backhoe-
att ached
Conveyor
Backhoe Spike
(Nona park ing)
Tube and
pear device
for venting
Recommended Drum Opening Application! (for Sample Acquisition
Number of Drums to be Opened Physical Condition of Drums
<100 100-500 >SOO Damaged or Structurally
Bulging Sound
XX X
XX X
X X .X
X X XX
or Recontaineritation)
Uaate Content of Drum
Shock
Unknown Sensitive/ Non-
Exploaive hazardous
X X(l) X
X X(l) X
XX X
X
Restrictions/Disadvantages
Use long boon-dipper arms
(> 12 neters or 40 feet).
Has not been used in the field
to date.
Hay damage drum; use long back-
hoe boom O40').
Method applicable for venting
of pressure, but not for dnun
sampling.
(I) Plunger may be of nonsparking bronze
or of stainless steel, which is more durable.
-------
SECTION 9
WASTE CONSOLIDATION AND RECONTAINERIZATION
The activities discussed in this section are designed to achieve two
basic objectives:
Pretreat, bulk, or recontainerize the waste to meet the requirements
of the treatment or disposal facility in the most economical way
possible
Put the wastes in a safe and acceptable form for transportation to a
permitted treatment/disposal facility.
COMPATIBILITY TESTING
As each drum is opened, it is scanned for radioactivity and, if
negative, a sample is taken for compatibility testing. Compatibility testing
refers to simple, rapid, and cost-effective testing procedures that are used
to segregate wastes into broad categories (i.e., radioactive, oxidative,
water reactive). .By identifying broad waste categories, compatible waste
types can be safely bulked onsite without risk of fire or explosion, and
disposal options can be determined without exhaustive and costly analysis of
each drum.
Sampling is conducted using a sampling thief for liquids and a coring
tool for solids. Solid samples should be taken from several different areas
within the drum. In addition, the contents of all drums should be described
on the drum data sheet in terms of physical state, viscosity, and number of
phases. A sample must be taken for each phase.
Compatibility testing protocols have been developed by a number of
cleanup contractors and waste generators. Often, however, the compatibility
testing procedures must be tailored for site-specific conditions or to meet
the testing requirements of prospective treatment/disposal facilities. A
thorough compatibility testing protocol, developed by Chemical Manufacturers
Association (CMA) (1982) is outlined in Figure 38. This protocol has been
used in a number of cleanup operations.
125
-------
Isolate £
solate Gas Cylinders -*
suspected Explosives *
*
Liquids
»
Open Drum
*
Test for Radioactivity
1 1
Confirm Liquid
1 -
* *
Test for Peroxides
and Oxidizers
\ No
Test for Water
Reactivity
J No
Test for Water
Solubility
| Yes
Test for Water
Content
>10% \
See
Water Soluble
Liquids
Yes
I
Determine Contents » Isolate Oddball Drums
of Containers ^ lso|gte ^ packs
1
Solids
I
Open Drum
*
Yes Yes _ . _
» isolate «- Test for Radioactivity
To Solids To Liquids 1
i » " , .
££J Regroup T No Confirm Solid
I
Test for EP Toxicity
* lsolate ' and PCBs
PCB | | No PCB
No ^x""^""^ ^. ^s^
* f Bulk for \ / Bulk for \
1 Disposal } I Disposal J
<10% X^_^X X.___^X
See
Water Insoluble
Liquids
Figure 38. Compatibility Testing Protocol (Modified by Princeton Aqua
Science)
(Reprinted courtesy of Chemical Manufacturer's Association,
Washington, D.C.)
126
-------
Water Insoluble Liquids Testing
Test for
Organic Halogen
Compatibility
No
Isolate
No
Compatibility
Yes
Yes
Test for PCS
on Composite
Test for PCS
on Composite
Retest if PCB
<50 mg/l
Retest if PCB
<50 mg/l
Compatibility
Compatibility
<500 mg/l I
No
l>500 mg/l
No
Compatibility
High Halogen
No PCB
Composite
Low Halogen
No PCB
Composite
Mixed
Halogen
Middle PCB
Composite
Mixed
Halogen
High PCB
Composite
High
Halogen
Low PCB
Composite
Low Halogen
No PCB
Composite
Figure 38. (continued) (Modified by Princeton Aqua Science).
(Reprinted courtesy of Chemical Manufacturer's Association,
Washington, D.C.)
127
-------
Water Soluble Scan
Strong
Acids
Weak
Acids
<7
>7
Weak Strong
Bases Bases
I
pH <2
r
pH 2-7
Isolate
Yes
pH 7-12 pH >12
J L
Cyanide, Sulfide
Neutralize (optional)
Isolate
Strong Acid
Composite
No
Neutralize (optional)
No
Isolate
Compatibility
Strong Base
Composite
Figure 38. (continued) (Modified by Princeton Aqua Science)
(Reprinted courtesy of Chemical Manufacturer's
Association, Washington, D.C.)
128
-------
Based on the CMA protocol, wastes can be segregated into the following
broad waste categories:
Liquids
Radioactives
- Peroxides and oxidizing agents
- Red uc ing ag en t s
- Water-reactive compounds
Water insolubles
low halogen, low PCB
- mixed halogen, high PCB
- high halogen, low PCB
Acids
- strong (pH <2)
- weak (pH 2-7)
Bases
- strong (pH >12), with or without cyanides or sulfides
- weak (pH 7-12), with or without cyanides or sulfides
Solids
- radioactives
- nonradioactive.
These field compatibility testing procedures are only suitable for
determining gross halogen content (> 1%). Samples must be retested for PCBs
prior to bulking since the EPA-approved disposal options differ depending
on the PCB concentration. Testing to determine gross halogen content is
sometimes eliminated if all insoluble wastes are to be incinerated at a
facility capable of handling chlorinated organics. However, testing for PCBs
is required, regardless of the need for testing other halogenated compounds.
The protocol also requires that a compatibility test be performed by
mixing small samples of wastes that are intended to be bulked. Visual obser-
vations are made for precipitation, temperature changes or phase separation.
There are some differences between the CMA compatibility protocol and
the protocol used by some cleanup contractors. One commonly used procedure
is to conduct flammability and ignitability tests on a drum-by-drum basis for
both liquid- and solid-containing drums. CMA, on the other hand, recommends
that these tests be performed on composite samples before bulking since these
tests require more costly and time-consuming analysis (torch test and closed
cup flame test, respectively). Another common practice not included in the
129
-------
CMA protocol is to conduct further testing on samples from drums containing
solids. These tests may include water reactivity, water solubility, pH, and
the presence of oxidizers. In general, the decision to perform these
analyses on a drum-by-drum basis rather than on a composite sample (prior to
bulking) is made based on the number of drums and the types of wastes known
to be present on site.
Hatayama et al., (1980a) have also provided guidance on waste incompati-
bilities that can be useful during the waste consolidation process. These
researchers have developed a "Hazardous Waste Compatibility Chart" (included
in the Appendix) that allows the user to evaluate potential adverse reactions
for binary combinations of hazardous wastes. Binary waste combinations are
evaluated in terms of the following adverse reactions: heat generation from
a chemical reaction, fire, toxic gas generation, flammable gas generation,
explosion, violent polymerization, and solubilization of toxic substances.
TESTING COMPOSITE SAMPLES
A detailed analysis of a composite waste is generally required prior to
acceptance by a treatment/disposal facility. Once a significant group of
compatible waste types (about 100 drums) have been identified, a PCB analysis
must be conducted on subgroups (generally about 5 drums). When a composite
sample shows a significant PCB concentration (>50 rag/1), each drum in the
subgroup must be analyzed separately. Once a compatible group of samples is
identified and PCB-contaminated drums are removed, a final disposal analysis
is conducted. Muller, Broad, and Leo (1982) have compared the analytical
requirements of a number of disposal facilities and found that the tests
identified in Table 18 are representative of tests that may be required prior
to acceptance of liquids and solids for disposal.
SEGREGATING WASTES BASED ON COMPATIBLE WASTE CLASSES
Once drums have been categorized into compatible waste classes, the
drums are assigned a color code that corresponds to their compatibility class
(i.e., oxidizers, strong acid, etc.). The drums are then physically
segregated on the basis of compatible waste types and consolidation or volume
reduction techniques. In this way, compatible waste types can be efficiently
combined for final treatment, storage, or disposal. To facilitate easy
access to the drums, compatible waste types should be placed in groups of
four or in long double rows (CMA, 1982). Spacing between rows or groups
should allow easy access to drums by drum handling equipment and rapid exit
in case of emergency.
TREATMENT/DISPOSAL OPTIONS
Once the wastes have been categorized, they are assigned appropriate
treatment/disposal options. These options are selected based on such factors
as protection of public health, regulatory requirements, availability and
130
-------
TABLE 18. POTENTIAL ANALYTICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR DISPOSAL
1. Flammability
2. pH
3. Specific gravity
4. _PCB analysis
5. Thermal content (BTU/lb)
6. Physical state at 70°F
7. Phases (layering in liquids)
8. Solids (%)
9. Hydrocarbon composition
10. Pesticide analysis
11. Sulfur content
12. Phenols
13. Oil and grease (%)
14. Water (%)
15. Viscosity
16. Organochlorine percentage
17. Metals analysis
a. Liquids for soluble metals.
b. Solids extracted according to the EPA Toxicant Extraction Procedure
(24 hr) which shows leachable metals.
c. Both liquid and solids checked for concentrations of the following
metals:
Arsenic Mercury
Barium Nickel
Cadmium Selenium
Chromium Silver
Copper Zinc
Lead
18. Both free and total cyanide content checked.
19. Solids checked for solubility in water, sulfuric acid, and dimethyl
sulfoxide.
Reprinted from Muller, Broad, and Leo, 1982. Table originally printed in the
Proceedings of the National Conference on Management of Uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste Sites, 1982. Available from Hazardous Materials Control
Research Institute, 9300 Columbia Blvd., Silver Spring, MD 20910.
131
-------
appropriateness of Treatment/Storage/Disposal (TSD) facilities, applicability
to site specific conditions (i.e., number of drums, location, etc.), and
costs.
Treatment or disposal options for specific waste types are covered in
detail in numerous reports, several of which are listed in the references.
The U.S. EPA (1981b) prepared a useful summary of major treatment and
disposal options for various waste categories. The summary is shown in Table
19. Although this table was prepared specifically for the Pollution
Abatement Services Site in Oswego, New York, it is generally applicable for
most cleanup operations since it identifies the most widely used treatment or
disposal option for various broad waste categories. Nevertheless, the
selection of the best treatment/disposal option should be made on a site-
specific basis.
The major factors to consider in determining the feasibility and
effectiveness of the various treatment options are summarized below:
Incineration: BTU values, organic chlorine, organic sulfur, water
content, viscosity, heavy metals (i.e., percent ash), feasibility of
onsite incineration, location of a suitable offsite incinerator
Aqueous Treatment: pH, acidity, alkalinity, flash point, water
content, microbial toxicity, TOC, sulfide, cyanide, metals,
feasibility of onsite treatment, sludge disposal if treated onsite,
onsite pretreatment requirements
Resource Recovery:
- organic solvents and nonemulsified oils: PCS content, halogen
content, water content, dissolved metals, and other dissolved
compounds, BTU value
- metals recovery: metal concentration, economics of production of
the metal from the raw material
Secure Landfill: water content, PCB content, radioactivity,
reactivity, ignitability, presence of carcinogens, presence of toxics
Solidification/Stabilization; potential for reversal of reactions,
costs, status of technology, compatibility of wastes with a
solidifying agent.
Location of suitable facilities for final treatment or disposal depends
primarily on the specific waste type. The Hazardous Waste Management
Directory (1982-1983) (Pennsylvania Environmental Research Foundation, Inc.)
identifies treatment/disposal facilities by city and state. The types of
wastes handled, the treatment/disposal processes used, and the service are
listed for each facility. For radioactive- and PCB-containing wastes (except
liquids with <50 ppm PCB) the options are rather limited. Figure 39 shows
132
-------
TABLE 19. MAJOR TREATMENT/DISPOSAL ALTERNATIVES
FOR VARIOUS WASTE TYPES
Waste
Segregation
Radioactive
Waste
Type
Solid
Liquid
Aqueous Recovery/ Incin- Solidification
Treatment Recycle eration Fixation/
De water ing
P
P
Secure
Land
Burial
LD
LD
Water Reactive Liquid
U
Solid
(alkaline PS
metals)
Strong Reducer
Strong Oxidizer
Organic Liquid
with Low Halogen
Concentration
(£2% halides,
<50 ppm PCS)
Solid/
Liquid
Solid/
Liquid
Solvents
U
0
Organic Liquid
with High Halo-
gen Concentra-
tion
(>2% halides,
<50 ppm PCB)
Oil
Other
Solvents
Oil
Pesticides,
Herbicides
Other
PS/U
PS/U
PS/U
PS/U
PS/U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
(continued)
133
-------
TABLE 19. (continued)
Waste
Segretation
Waste
Type
Aqueous
Treatment
Recovery/
Recycle
Incin- Solidification/ Secure
eration Fixation/ Land
Dewatering Burial
Aqueous Acid
Aqueous Base
Contaminated
With Cyanide
Aqueous Base
Contaminated
With Sulfide
Aqueous Base
Acids
with or
without
heavy
metals
Organic
Acids
Alkalines
pH 7-12
with or
without
heavy
metals
Organic
Alkalines
PS/U
P*
LD*
PS/U*
U
U
PS/U
U*
P*
LD*
P*
LD*
PS/U
U*
P*
LD*
Solid Material
Uncontaminated
w/PCB «50 ppm)
Inorganic
Acid
Sludge
p**
LD
Inorganic
Alkaline
Sludge
P**
LD
(continued)
134
-------
TABLE 19. (continued)
Waste
Segregation
Waste Aqueous Recovery/
Type Treatment Recycle
Incin- Solidification/ Secure
eration Fixation/ Land
Dewatering Burial
Solid Material Organic
Uncontaminated Acid
w/PCB «50 ppm) Sludge
(continued)
Organic
Alkaline
Sludge
Salts/
pure
organic
Tar/
Residues
(i.e., still
bottoms filter
cake, spent
catalyst, etc)
Other
Organic
Sludges
Metals
Asbestos
PCS Contam- 50-500 ppm PS
inated Material
>500 ppm . PS
PS
U*
U*
U
U
p
u
p
u
p
LD
LD
LD
LD
LD
LD
U.S. EPA, 1981b
Key.
U -
PS =
P =
LD =
* a
** =
a _
Ultimate Disposal
Pretreatment Sidestream
Pretreatment
Land Disposal
Solid Phase Only
Neutralization Part of Process
Recovery/recycle includes fuel blending, auxiliary fuels and product
recovery
135
-------
Reproduced from
best available copy
Legend
Hiyli Teinpcrdtuie Inciiieidtoi
Low Itvul RddiOdClivlly
Secured PCB Utidlills
Secured PCB iJiidfiDs 160 SUOppm)
Chc-imral Trealmenl
Figure 39. Locations of Treatment/Disposal Facilities for
PCBs or Radioactive Wastes
(Sources: USEPA, 1983b; USEPA, 1983c; USEPA, 1983d)
Note: Mobile incinerators, mobile treatment system, and permitted boilers are
not included. Permitted chemical treatment facilities may not accept
outside wastes.
-------
the location of facilities capable of secure landfilling of low-level radio-
active wastes and PCB containing wastes and of high temperature incineration
of PCB liquid wastes in excess of 500 ppm. The facilities capable of
handling low-level radioactive wastes have very specific requirements
regarding types, concentrations, and packaging of radioactive materials .
Requirements for the land disposal of low-level radioactive wastes are
outlined in the Low-Level. Radioactive Wastes Policy Act of 1980 and 10 CFR
Parts 10, 19-21, 30, 40, 51, 61, 70, 73, and 170. Requirements for treatment
and disposal of PCB-containing wastes are outlined in 40 CFR Part 761. The
PCB requirements are summarized briefly in Figure 40.
PREPARATION OF LIQUID WASTES FOR FINAL TREATMENT OR DISPOSAL
Once the final treatment or disposal options have been determined, the
wastes are then prepared to meet the requirements of the treatment or
disposal facility and the transportation regulations. In some instances this
involves pretreatment of the wastes. In other cases, compatible wastes are
simply bulked for transport or transferred into a DOT-approved container or
fiber container in the case of onsite incineration.
Onsite Pretreatment
Onsite pretreatment of wastes may be required to make them acceptable
for offsite transport, to meet the requirements of the treatment facility, or
to allow them to be bulked with other similar wastes. Onsite pretreatment is
generally limited to the following:
Acid-base neutralization
Metal precipitation
Hypochlorite oxidization of cyanide and sulfide
Flash point reduction (use of a Freon-based flash suppressant).
Chemical reactions should be carried out under carefully controlled
conditions using a "compatibility chamber" or reaction tank for mixing
wastes. O.H. Materials, Findlay, Ohio (undated), developed a 38,000 liter
(10,000 gallon) "compatibility chamber" that monitors the heat of reaction
using thermocouples mounted in the chamber. A nonsparking bar scraper with
explosion-proof drive, prevents sludges and solids from entering the collec-
tion chamber. Other cleanup contractors use small storage tanks. If opened,
the tank should have a minimum of 2 feet of freeboard or some sort of
containment structure equal to the volume of 2 feet of freeboard. Ideally,
the storage tanks should have some type of closure and should be painted
black to control loss of volatiles. Drums should be emptied into an open
chamber or tank using the grappler. This provides for a safe and rapid means
of bulking wastes (Figure 41). Hydraulic drum dumpers (Section 7, Figure 20)
are also suitable for dumping the contents of drums into a reaction tank.
137
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Nan Liquids
Liquids
Large Capacitors Must Be
Incinerated
00
Some Containers and
Large Hydraulic Machinery
May Be Decontaminated
and Landfilled
All Other Items To Be
Disposed of in Chemical
Waste Landfill (There Are
8 EPA Approved Landfills
for Solids')
>50 ppm
>500 ppm
-------
U)
\o
Reproduced from
best available copy.
Figure 41. Use of Grappler Arm and Compatibility Chamber for Combining
Compatible Wastes ,
(Courtesy of O.K. Materials Co., Findlay, OH)
-------
Consolidation
In instances where the contents of a large number of drums can be
consolidated for purposes of treatment or disposal, vacuum equipment can
offer a highly efficient approach to consolidation.
Vacuum trucks are available in capacities ranging from about 4,700 to
23,000 liters (1,250-6,000 gallons.) They are available in a range of vacuum
strengths and with a wide variety of options. Figure 42 illustrates a number
of available options for one manufacturer's line of equipment (Huber
Manufacturing Inc., undated).
Portable skid-mounted vacuum units are also available. They can be
airlifted, dragged by bulldozer, or even hauled on the back of a pickup truck
to otherwise inaccessible areas. These units are generally available in
capacities ranging from 1,900 to 5,700 liters (500-1,500 gallons), although
units that can handle up to 11,400 liters (3,000 gallons) are manufactured.
Skid-mounted units with vapor recovery systems are also available.
A number of factors should be considered prior to contracting for the
services of a vacuum truck. Because of the large capacity of the vacuum
cylinder, vacuum trucks are generally not well suited to sites with fewer
than 30 drums to be consolidated. For a small site it is generally more
cost-effective to overpack the drums or to use a vacuum skid-mounted unit.
This is due to the high transportation costs and cost of handling wastewater
generated from decontaminating the truck. The water or solvent used in
-decontamination is considered hazardous and must be disposed of or treated as
such. Highly hazardous chemicals such as PCBs require stringent
decontamination procedures in accordance with the Toxic Substances Control
Act (TSCA).
The cost of decontamination can be substantially reduced by a number of
good management practices. The vacuum truck or skid-mounted unit should be
dedicated as much as possible to handling a certain type of waste so that
decontamination is not required between each load. The units should also be
sized for the job so that excessive decontamination water is not generated as
a. result of choosing an oversized vacuum cylinder.
Another important factor to consider in selecting vacuum trucks or skid-
mounted units is the compatibility of wastes with materials of construction.
Vacuum cylinders can be purchased in carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum,
nickel, etc., and/or with a variety of coatings including epoxy, fiberglass,
and neoprene rubber. In addition to selecting vacuum trucks with compatible
liners, compatibility problems can be minimized by allowing wastes to react
in a "reaction tank" or "compatibility chamber" where the heat of reaction
can be released before pumping the wastes into the vacuum truck.
In addition, when a grappler is available, it is often more efficient to
dump the contents of the drums into a chamber or tank and transfer the load
to the vacuum truck rather than to load each drum separately into the vacuum
truck.
140
-------
HOIST - Hydraulic lilt lor ease and
speed in dumping heavy materials
from the tank.
TOP HATCH - Available
in sizes 12" and 20" lor
top loading or use as a
manway.
REAR DOOR - Full opening rear
door for ease in dumping. Abo
helpful in cleaning out the tank.
COOLOI Duel P«M oil oooUr
The cooler th* oil. the moi« ef
lici«nt tim xyitcm Coolm »'
tandani «quipm«ill on unite
with hydinultc dnvcn pump*
VACUUM/PRESSURE
PUMP - Air cooled or
liquid cooled, ranging in
size from 90 CFM thru
1.600CFM.
DRIVE FOR PUMP-Your
choice oi either belt or
hydraulic drive lor pump.
J
VIBRATOR - Electric vi-
brator lor shaking out
semi solids, mounted on
the underbelly of the
front quarter of the tank.
Figure 42. Available Options for Streamline Vacuum Trucks
(Courtesy of Streamline Manufacturing, Gulfport, MS)
-------
Use of Overpacks and Drums
Under certain circumstances it is more economical or acceptable to
transport liquid wastes in drums or overpacks rather than to bulk them. This
is the case when the number of drums containing compatible waste types is too
few to make the use of vacuum equipment economical or when there are a few
drums that contain highly toxic or incompatible wastes that cannot be bulked
with other wastes without contaminating the load.
Procedures for overpacking or transferring liquids to new drums were
discussed in Section 7. Drums or overpacks must meet with DOT specifications
with regard to waste-container compatibility, packaging, and labeling before
being transported offsite. Specifications are found in 49 CFR 172 through
179. If wastes are to be incinerated, fiber drums should be considered as an
alternative to steel drums. Fiber drums generally can meet DOT requirements
by lining or overpacking them (Gordon, 1982). The use of a fiber drum rather
than a steel drum greatly simplifies the incineration process.
In instances where the contents of several partially filled drums are to
be combined, a simple flow gauge can be used to monitor the liquid level in
the drums to prevent overfilling. These gauges fit into standard bungs and
can be easily adjusted to any desired liquid level (Industrial Safety and
Material Handling, 1981; BASCO, 1982).
PREPARATION OF SOLID WASTES AND SOILS FOR FINAL TREATMENT OR DISPOSAL
Secure land fill ing is the most common means for ultimate disposal of
solid wastes including sludges, process residues, still bottoms, and highly
contaminated soils. RCRA, State, and DOT regulations will dictate the type
of pretreatment required to make the waste acceptable for secure land fill ing.
Soils and wastes may be bulked, transferred to a new drum, or overpacked
depending upon specific waste and site conditions and requirements of the
secure landfill. Incineration can be a viable alternative to landfill ing
some solids provided water content and heavy metal concentrations are low.
Solidification/stabilization methods are also a potential treatment option,
but their use is limited to highly toxic materials because of the high cost
of solidification.
Use of Drums and Overpacks
In many instances, drums containing sludges and solids are overpacked or
their contents are transferred to new or reconditioned drums. Highly contam-
inated soils are sometimes drummed as well if the volume is small.
RCRA land disposal regulations require that all free-standing liquid be
removed by decanting or by mixing with sorbents before landfilling. No
visible pools or layers of liquid are permitted (Federal Register, March 22,
1982). One common practice is to mix contaminated soils with the drummed
waste to absorb the free liquid. Other absorbents commonly used include
cement kiln dust, fly ash, fuller's earth, saw dust, and vermiculite. A
number of other stabilization/solidification processes are available
142
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including encapsulation, cement-based processes, thermoplastic processes,
organic polymer techniques, and lime-based processes. Success with these
methods is highly waste specific. The cement-based and lime-based processes
that use relatively cheap and readily available materials have more practical
applications than other solidification/stabilization methods. Cement- and
lime-based solidification may be used to solidify inorganic sludges, although
the tendency at hazardous waste sites is to use absorbents such as saw dust,
fuller's earth, etc., rather than the more time-consuming solidification
processes.
Consolidation
Large volumes of contaminated soils and solid wastes are generally
prepared for transport by combining compatible wastes and loading them in a
box trailer. As indicated in Section 7, highly contaminated soils and
spilled waste materials that are excavated during the drum removal operation
either are transferred to a diked and lined storage area or vacuumed as
encountered using high-strength industrial vacuum loaders ("Vactor" or
"Supersucker".) . Compatible solids and sludges in drums may be combined with
these highly contaminated soils to provide a more economical method of
packaging and transporting solid wastes. Sludges and solids may be mixed
directly with the highly contaminated soils along with absorbent material to
create a stable waste pile that is free of visible liquids. These wastes can
then be transferred to a box trailer truck, Vactor or Supersucker. In
instances where the sludges and solids are to be transferred from drums to a
Vactor or Supersucker, the wastes should first be dumped into a compatibility
chamber to avoid reactions that could damage the vacuum system's storage box.
Where box trailers are being used, they should be lined and covered with a
layer of sorbent material. The soils and solids can be rapidly transferred
into the box trailer using a backhoe or a front-end loader (Figure 43).
Handling Nonhazardous Soils
Soils that are determined by laboratory analysis to be nonhazardous are
generally not landfilled but treated or left onsite. There are several
alternatives available for handling slightly contaminated soils depending on
the type of wastes, the volume of soils, and the site location. These
include:
o Backfilling excavation trenches if contaminant levels are very low
o Aerating the soils using a rototiller to release organic vapors
o Employing microbial degradation using indigenous or adapted
microorganisms with or without addition of nutrients and air
o Using chemical treatment methods such as neutralization, redox
reactions, or precipitation.
143
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Reproduced from
best available copy._
Figure 43. Combined Handling of Sludges and Contaminated
Soils at the Chemical Control Site
(Courtesy of O.K. Materials Co., Findlay, OH)
-------
GAS CYLINDERS
Once compressed gases are identified by sampling, they can be disposed
of by one of several methods. However, extreme care must be taken in
choosing the appropriate treatment alternative and in handling the gases. If
possible, the gas supplier should be contacted for appropriate handling
techniques. Physical, chemical, and toxicological data for specific gases
should be consulted prior to selecting the appropriate treatment method.
Safe handling procedures should be followed at all times. The cylinders
should never be dragged even for short distances or permitted to strike each
other. Protective caps should be kept over the valves at all times (Matheson
Gas Products, undated).
Gas cylinders can be disposed of using the appropriate method discussed
below (Matheson Gas Products, undated):
Return to the manufacturer or supplier if known
Vent confirmed nontoxic gases - cylinders containing inert gases such
as helium, argon, or nitrogen do not represent a hazard unless they
are situated in a confined place with no ventilation. The cylinders
should be moved to a well-ventilated outside area, and the gases
should be discharged or vented at a moderate rate. After the gas has
been discharged the valve should be closed.
Chemical treatment - Some alkaline and acidic gases may be chemically
treated but should be done so with extreme caution since these gases
are corrosive and toxic. Alkaline gases are flammable, as well.
Alkaline gases such as ammonia and the lower alkyl amines should be
handled as follows: the cylinders should be moved to an isolated
area free of all sources of ignition. A control valve equipped with
a trap or check valve should be attached to the cylinder and a long
piece of flexible hose should be connected to the control valve out-
let. The gas should then be discharged at a moderate rate into an
adequate amount of sulfuric acid solution. When the cylinder is
empty, the control valve should be closed and the resultant solution
treated and disposed.
Acidic gases are handled similarly. However, the gases should be
discharged into an adequate amount of about 15 percent aqueous sodium
hydroxide.
Destructive combustion - The best procedure for disposing of
flammable gases is controlled burning in an isolated area.
145
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LAB PACKS
The first step in handling lab packs is to manually separate the
individual bottles in the drums into categories of knowns, unknowns, and
debris. This is accomplished by observing labels, physical appearances, and
general chemistry (i.e., pH, corrosivity, reactivity, explosiveness) of
contents, and by determining the origin of the lab pack itself. Care should
be taken to preserve any labels or partial labels present.
Known materials are handled by segregating them into compatible groups.
The chemically compatible bottles can either be repacked in confortnance with
appropriate U.S. EPA, and DOT regulations regarding shipment, or they can be
bulked for treatment or disposal.
Unknowns should be stored separately from known materials. If possible,
the generator of the lab packs should be contacted to assist in material
identification. Containers that are unknown should be separated into similar
groups based on such characteristics as physical state, color, particle size,
etc. A shock test should be performed on samples from each group to deter-
mine whether it is safe to open the containers within tha group. After the
shock test, the remaining containers should be opened, checked for visual
similarity, and randomly sampled for compatibility testing.
Explosive fractions of lab packs must be handled with extreme care and
require the presence of an expert in explosives. However, when there is
reason to believe such chemicals are present, extreme care is necessary
during staging and characterization activities. Aside from the shock test,
one indication of the presence of explosive or shock-sensitive compounds is
the formation of crystals around the caps or within individual bottles.
Any explosive material that is identified should first be labeled and
placed within a remote bunker or staging area in a vermiculite filled
container until all of the waste is categorized. The location of a staging
area for explosive wastes should be based upon a careful evaluation of the
quantity of explosives and their relative hazard. The staging area should be
enclosed with a fence or dike to minimize the adverse effects of any
premature detonation.
The treatment of explosive or shock-sensitive wastes differs from that
of other categories of hazardous wastes. Typically, these types of wastes
are either detonated or incinerated under very controlled conditions.
Detonation at a specially designated site or uncontrolled waste site, if
sufficiently remote, is a widely accepted practice for disposal of
explosives.
Once a sufficient quantity of explosive material has been categorized
and a remote site has been located for detonation, the State Fire Marshall
should be contacted to detonate the wastes. For the removal and disposal of
explosive waste, one basic permit is required from the U.S. Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms. The permit requirement is associated with
the actual transport of explosives and the purchase of any explosive
146
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materials required to detonate the waste material. Once the Federal permit
is secured, written approval from the State and local governments is required
before detonation is begun.
Typically, a bomb trailer would be employed to transport the wastes to
the site. Wastes would be segregated according to their chemical compat-
ibility and shock sensitivity. For example, very shock-sensitive material
such as blasting caps and nitroglycerin would not be transported with
nonshock-sensitive materials possessing explosive properties. This would
ensure that premature detonation of a shock-sensitive item would not result
in a detonation of more stable explosives.
Detonation should be accomplished by exploding downward into clean,
moist earth. At the Picillo Farms site, the detonation area was to be triple
lined with at least 2 feet of soil between each layer of 6 mil polyethylene
plastic film (Perkins Jordan, Inc., 1982). The debris remaining after the
explosion should be cleaned up before the next explosion is prepared.
DRUM CRUSHING
There are several options available for handling empty drums.
Generally, as the empty drums are excavated or generated during consolidation
they are transferred into a dump truck and hauled to a drum crushing area.
Depending upon the site and hazard of the wastes which were stored in the
drums, the empty drums may be crushed daily to minimize the release of
volatile compounds or they may be stored temporarily. If the.empty drums are
temporarily stored, measures should be taken to prevent the accumulation of
precipitation in the drums and leaching of residues into the ground. These
measures might include: diking the empty drum staging area, lining it with
plastic, clay, or sorbent material and covering the empty drums with a liner
material.
Before crushing, the drums should be checked for liquid and solid
residue. Drums containing more than 5 centimeters (2 inches) of residue
should not be considered empty. Liquid residue should be transferred to a
compatibility chamber or reaction tank. Solid residue should be shoveled or
scrapped out and transferred to a bulk storage trailer.
Use of a portable hydraulic drum crusher is generally the most efficient
method for crushing large numbers of drums. Drums can be crushed to a thick-
ness of 20 centimeters (8 inches) or less. In instances where the residues
are highly toxic or difficult to remove, a drum shredder can be used. O.H.
Materials has a shredder that uses negative air pressure to prevent escape of
vapors (personal communication with R. Graziano and S. Insalaco, O.H.
Materials, Findlay, Ohio, 1982). If the number of empty drums onsite is few,
a backhoe or front-end loader can be used for crushing.
Generally, crushed drums are disposed of in bulk storage trailers
without segregating them into the compatibility class of the waste that they
contained. However, some disposal facilities do require that they be
147
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segregated into compatible waste categories. If there are very few empty
drums onsite, it may be cost-effective to overpack them and haul them with
drums to disposal.
DECONTAMINATION
All equipment, facilities, and field personnel must be decontaminated
before entering the clean zone. Procedures for personnel decontamination are
detailed in several of the references on waste site safety procedures listed
in Section 3 and will not be discussed here.
The equipment decontamination area should preferably include a hard
surface pad (concrete or asphalt) that is diked or bermed to collect rinse
water and a collection sump from which the contaminated water can be col-
lected and treated. Where the site is highly degraded and further remedial
actions are anticipated, all of the precautions may not be required.
Equipment decontamination may include degreasing if required, followed
by high-pressure hot water rinsing with low volime nozzles, supplemented by
detergents and solvents, as needed (U.S. EPA, 1982c). In winter it may be
necessary, to add alcohol to water to prevent freezing. In order to reduce
the volume of rinse water generated, brushes and scrapers may be initially
used to remove packed or caked contaminated soils. Special attention should
be given to material on and within the tracks and sprockets of crawler
equipment, and tires and axles of trucks and rubber-mounted equipment (U.S.
EPA, 1981b). Any small tools or personnel safety.equipment that cannot be
decontaminated should be overpacked and disposed of in a secure landfill.
Decontamination of temporary facilities erected onsite for the cleanup
operation is generally limited to low-volume, high-pressure, hot water
rinsing. More rigorous decontamination procedures may be required for
warehouses or trailers if drums were stored in them.
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SECTION 10
INTERIM STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
STORAGE
Regulations Affecting Interim Storage Facilities
Drum handling operations at hazardous waste sites freauently involve the
temporary storage of drums onsite. Conditions may require that the drums be
stored for an undetermined period of time until additional funds become
available to transport them offsite or until a suitable site is located for
their final disposal. In the event that drums may be stored longer than 90
days, the storage area(s) should comply with the intent of RCRA promulgated
standards (40 CFR, Part 264) for waste storage at RCRA permitted facilities
(treatment, storage, and disposal facilities). Where onsite storage is
expected to occur for only a short duration, measures should nevertheless be
taken to provide some means of secondary containment and segregation of
incompatible wastes.
In many instances the waste site is located in a confined or congested
area and it is not possible to meet the RCRA requirements for spacing and
layout. For these cases, the state or on scene coordinator (OSC) may have to
make alternate provisions to minimize releases and maximize safety during
storage. The discussion below focuses on RCRA requirements for storage of
hazardous wastes. Less stringent storage requirements are generally
satisfactory for short-term storage.
Selection and Layout of the Temporary Storage Area
RCRA requires that incompatible waste types be separated by dikes,
berms, walls, or other devices and that the entire storage area be secured by
fencing. RCRA also requires that ignitable or reactive wastes be a minimum
of 15 meters (50 feet) from the site property line and separated from any
source that may cause them to ignite or react. Although not specifically
mentioned by RCRA, special precautions may be required for specific waste
types. For instance, gas cylinders and explosives, if stored in the open,
should be assigned to separate storage areas that are kept cool, dry, and
protected from sunlight and temperature extremes. Adequate aisle space
should be maintained to allow the unobstructed movement of personnel, fire
protection equipment, etc., in the event of an emergency (40 CFR, Part 264).
The aisle space should also be adequate to carry out inspections and allow
adequate mobility for forklift trucks or other vehicles used in loading drums
for offsite transport. These spacing requirements generally result in a
149
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layout in which the drums are placed in long double rows or in groups of four
with adequate spacing between each row or group.
When the waste site is located in a large unconfined area, it may be
possible to be more discriminating about the location of the temporary
storage area. The geohydrology of the site should be studied to determine
where there are low permeability soils in an elevated ground area suitable
for the storage site. This is particularly important in an area with a high
water table.
Waste Containment Procedures
RCRA regulations require that a permanent container storage area have a
containment system capable of holding spills, leaks, and precipitation. To
comply with this intent, there are several measures which must be taken.
Generally, these measures would provide reasonable assurance of waste
containment at a hazardous waste site without adding excessively to the
cleanup costs.
The interim storage area should have a base underlying the containers
that is free of cracks and gaps and is sufficiently impermeable to contain
leaks, spills, and accumulated rainfall until the material can be detected
and removed. The storage area may be underlain by low permeability,
compacted clay; plastic liner material; or asphalt or concrete pads, provided
the material is compatible with the wastes. Table 20 summarizes the
compatibility of various liner materials with several broad waste classes.
If the chemicals can be neutralized, an alternative would be to cover the
base of the storage area with crushed limestone, shells, or other
neutralizing materials. The disadvantage of such neutralizing ground cover
is that it must be removed and replaced promptly in the event of a spill.
An interim storage area should have sufficient capacity to contain
10 percent of the volume of the containers or the volume of the largest
container, whichever is greater. Run-on should be prevented unless the
system has sufficient excess capacity'to contain it (CFR 40, Part 264). This
is generally accomplished by constructing a system of dikes or bertns around
the perimeter of the storage area as well as between areas containing incom-
patible wastes. Dikes and berms may be constructed of well compacted soils,
cinder blocks, or concrete. Earthen dikes are ideally constructed of
erosion-resistant, low-permeability compacted clays, although, in practice,
readily available soils and excavation equipment are often used at waste
sites. Table 21 lists different soil types and ranks them based on
percolation control and resistance to wind erosion. Clay, silty clays, and
silt are most suitable for dike construction. The problem with using
improper earth materials for constructing dikes and berms is exemplified by a
problem that occurred at the Seymour Site in Indiana. Originally, a sand
dike was built at a storage area on the site at a cost of $800,000. The dike
washed away in a heavy rainfall and had to be replaced by a clay dike
(Hazardous Waste Report, 1981). Earthen dikes constructed of less suitable
materials can be stabilized by mixing the soil with bentonite or fly ash and
lime or by coating the surface of the dike with an asphaltic emulsion.
150
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TABLE 20. LINER-INDUSTRIAL WASTE COMPATIBILITIES
Liner
Material
Soils:
Compacted clayey soils
Soil-bentonite
Admixes :
Asphalt-concrete
Asphalt-membrane
Soil asphalt
Soil cement
Polymeric membranes:
Butyl rubber
Chlorinated polyethylene
Chlorosul fonated poly-
ethylene
Ethylene propylene
rubber
Polyethylene (low den-
sity)
Polyvinyl chloride
Caustic
Petroleum
Sludge
P
P
F
F
F
F
G
G
G
G
G
G
Acidic
Steel-
Pickling
Waste
P
P
F
F
P
P
G
F
G
G
F
F
Electro-
plating
Sludge
P
P
F
F
P
P
G
F
G
G
F
F
Toxic
Pesticide
Formula-
tions
G
G
F
F
F
G
F
F
F
F
G
G
Oil
Refinery
Sludge
G
G
P
P
P
G
P
P
P
P
F
G
Toxic
Pharma-
ceutical
Waste
G
G
F
F
F
G
F
F
F
F
G
G
Rubber
and
Plastic
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G - Good, F = Fair, P = Poor.
Source: Stewart, 1978.
-------
TABLE 21. RANKING OF SOIL TYPES BASED ON PERCOLATION CONTROL
AND RESISTANCE TO WIND EROSION
Soil Type
Gravel
Silty Gravel
Clayey Gravel
Sand
Silty Sand
Clayey Sand
Silt
Silty Clay
Clayey Silt
Clay
Ranking
Impe ding
Percolation
10
7
5
9
8
6
4
2
3
1
for
Resistance to
Wind Erosion
1
3
5
2
4
6
7
8
9
10
Assuming low soil moisture and no cover vegetation.
Source: Lutton, 1979.
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RCRA standards also require that storage areas be designed for
sufficient drainage so that standing water or wastes do not remain on the
base longer than 1 hour after a spill or precipitation event unless the
containers are elevated to protect them from contact with the liquid. A
frequent practice is to elevate the containers on pallets to avoid contact
with standing liquid. Another practice is to have the liquid drain into a
collection sump equipped with a sump pump that is usually manually activated
to remove the liquid. Depending on the type and concentration of contam-
inants, this liquid may be run through an oil-water separator, pumped to a
collecting tank, or discharged to a treatment plant.
The integrity of the drums and containers must be maintaned in order to
minimize the possibility of spills and leaks. There are several measures
commonly taken to ensure this integrity. RCRA requires that container
storage areas be inspected weekly for container leaks and deterioration (CFR
40, Part 264). This practice should be upheld, regardless of whether or not
storage is temporary. Visual inspections for leaks and deterioration should
be supplemented with air monitoring of volatile organics or combustibles. If
drums begin to swell it will be necessary to vent them to relieve the.
pressure. Where overpressure is slight, hand tools may be used. Venting
should be done remotely if containers are critically swollen (head raised
several centimeters above chime).
A number of cover materials are available for minimizing corrosion of
drums. Drums caps, which are available in chemical and UV light resistant
rubber (Uniroyal Chemical, 1981), or as thin, clear polyethylene "shower
caps" (BASCO, 1982), offer some degree of protection against weathering.
Plastic sheets also have been used to cover drums during temporary storage.
However, this practice is not safe because the sheeting can cause a
"greenhouse effect" that can lead to overpressure in the drums. Canvas
provides a more suitable cover material, however it makes inspections
difficult. At the Stump Gap Creek site in West Point, Kentucky, empty drums
and those containing sludges were stored in diked areas, covered with
plastic, and topped with a foot of soil to minimize the "greenhouse effect"
(U.S. EPA, 1981). The soil cover, however, makes it impossible to inspect
the containers.
Roofing provides the highest degree of protection against weathering and
may be advisable to minimize exposure of gas cylinders and explosives to
sunlight and prevent contact of water reactive wastes with rainwater.
TRANSPORTATION
Regulations Affecting Transportation of Hazardous Wastes
The transportation of hazardous wastes is regulated by the Department of
Transportation, the Environmental Protection Agency, the States, and, in some
instances, by local ordinances and codes. In addition, more stringent
Federal regulations also govern the transportation and disposal of highly
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toxic and hazardous materials such as PCBs and radioactive wastes.
Applicable Department of Transportation regulations include:
Department of Transportation 49 CFR 172-179
Department of Transportation 49 CFR 387 (46 FR 30974, 47073)
Department of Transportation DOT-E 8876.
The U.S. EPA regulations under RCRA (40 CFR Part 263) adopt DOT regula-
tions pertaining to labeling, placarding, packaging, and spill reporting.
RCRA regulations also impose certain additional requirements for compliance
with the manifest system and recordkeeping. Specific shipment and packaging
requirements are set forth under 49 CFR Part 173. Requirements for shipping
containers are outlined in 40 CFR Part 178, and specifications for tank cars
are given under 40 CFR Part 179. Additionally, Section 108 (b)(5) of CERCLA
imposes upon motor carriers the financial responsibility requirements of
Section 30 of the Motor Carrier Act of 1980 (PL 96-296). Section 30 requires
the issuance of regulations for minimal levels of financial responsibility to
cover public liability, property damage, and environmental restoration
required as a result of waste transportation (U.S. EPA, 1981b).
State regulations required for hazardous material transportation are
generally similar to the EPA transportation regulations. However, many of
the States that have received EPA authorization to run their own hazardous
waste programs under RCRA have adopted rules for transporters that are more
stringent than the Federal program.
Local codes and ordinances may also govern the transportation of
hazardous waste. These may include weight limitations on roads and bridges
as well as prohibiting the use of some local roads.
Procedures for Offsite Transport
Vehicles for offsite transport of hazardous wastes must be DOT approved
and must display the proper DOT placard. Liquid wastes must be hauled in
tanker trucks that meet certain requirements and specifications for the waste.
type. Contaminated soils are hauled in box trailers and drums in box
trailers or flat bed trucks. The trucks should be lined with plastic and/or
covered with absorbent material. A typical 12-meter (40-foot) truck is
capable of transporting about 80 drums in a single haul. The number of drums
permitted, however, depends on the weight of the container material. The
majority of States permit a gross weight of 36,000 kilograms (80,000 Ib) in a
single transporter. The number of drum stacks a hauler will permit depends
on the distance of transport, the type of material, and the State
regulations.
154
-------
To comply with DOT and EPA regulations, drums must be handled as
follows:
Wastes must be contained in DOT-approved drums for the specific waste
type
Each drum must be individually labeled with the appropriate DOT
hazard classification
Drums must be thoroughly cleaned to remove any residue, defective
parts must be replaced, and drums must show no visible evidence of
pits, creases, or reduction in parent material thickness
Drums containing incompatible wastes are not permitted to be hauled
on the same vehicle.
Mildly contaminated soils, empty and crushed drums, and other debris
not highly contaminated or DOT regulated are frequently hauled in dumpsters
with sealed tailgates, particularly when the volume is so large that the cost
is prohibitive to place the materials in drums. Where dumpsters are used,
they should be lined with polyethylene sheeting and covered with polyethylene
or a tarpaulin.
The hazardous waste manifest must be signed by the OSC and transporter
before shipping bulk liquid or drums containing hazardous wastes. The
manifest summarizes the total quantity of drums or liquid waste and their
respective DOT chemical and hazard classification.
Before a vehicle is allowed to leave the site, it should be rinsed or
scrubbed (Section 10). Before a bulk liquid container is permitted to leave
the site it should be inspected for the following:
Proper placarding
Proper venting
Closed valve positions
Secured hatches
Excess liquid levels
Proper tractor-to-trailer hitch
Cleanliness
Tire conditions.
155
-------
Before a box trailer is permitted to leave the site it should be
inspected for the following items:
Correct line installation
Secured cover tarpaulin
Locked lift gate
Proper placarding
Proper tractor-to-trailer hitch
Excess waste levels
Cleanliness (Di Napoli, 1982).
156
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SECTION 11
ONSITE CONTAINMENT OPTIONS FOR BURIED DRUMS
The use of source control measures to contain or control migration of
contaminants from buried drums generally is preferred over excavation and
removal of wastes for the following reasons:
Excavation of buried drums may present greater hazards to site workers
and nearby residents.
For sites with a large number of drums, excavation is likely to be
more costly than onsite containment.
Excavation and removal of drums may be preferred. However, where onsite
containment is not feasible, excavation is either more cost-effective (i.e.,
very few drums) or is necessary to protect public health or the environment.
Generally, the design, application, and implementation of remedial measures
for controlling or containing migration from buried drums are similar to those
required for bulk wastes. However, two additional factors should be
considered where large numbers of buried drums are involved:
Added precautions may be required during remedial actions at drum
sites to avoid explosion of drums close to the working surface.
The nature and concentration of contaminants in the leachate may
change with time as drums rupture and leak.
SELECTION OF REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR CONTROL OR CONTAINMENT OF WASTES
The NCP (Section 300.70) identifies a number of remedial measures for
controlling or containing wastes from abandoned sites. These remedial
measures can be grouped into six general categories. Within each category
there are specific measures that can be applied to a given situation. The six
categories are as follows:
Surface capping and sealing (with or without gas venting)
Surface water controls
Groundwater pumping (with or without tre'atment)
157
-------
Subsurface drains (with or without treatment)
Slurry walls
In-situ treatment. ^
These categories are groupings of the available onsite containment
options identified in the NCP. It is essential to consider site-specific
conditions before selecting a specific remedial alternative. The selection
should be conducted by a detailed process that is beyond the scope of this
document.
The control and containment categories presented above are described in
Tables 22 through 27 in terms of their applications, limitations, design and
construction considerations, flexibility, reliability, and relative costs. It
should be emphasized that these* are categories of remedial alternatives and
site-specific conditions will influence their selection or applicability.
These remedial alternatives may be used singularly or in combination.
However, the objectives of the remedial action must be clearly established
prior to selection and remedial design. The objective can vary from simple
procedures to minimize infiltration to a relatively complete hydrologic
isolation of the site.
Tables 22 through 27 briefly show how these containment options apply to
sites with buried drums. These tables are not intended to provide a site-
specific detailed remedial alternative selective outline. Instead they
provide a logical starting point for the remedial alternative selection
process. In support of this selection process, there are a number of
documents available on the detailed selection, design, and implementation of
remedial techniques for waste sites. Some of the documents are listed below.
Handbook for Remedial Actions at Waste Disposal Sites. (U.S. EPA,
1982b)
Leaehate Plume Management. (U.S. EPA, 1985, At Press)
Technical Handbook: Slurry Trench Construction for Pollution
Migration Control, (U.S. EPA, 1984b)
Alternatives to the Land Disposal of Hazardous Wastes, (Toxic Waste
Assessment Group, State of California, 1981).
Case Studies! Remedial Response at Hazardous Waste Sites, (U.S. EPA,
1984c)
These and other pertinent documents should be consulted during preparation of
the feasibility study and final design for remedial measures. Additional
documents are in preparation and when available, should also be considered.
158
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TABLE 22. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SELECTION, DESIGN, AND IMPLEMENTATION
OF CAPPING AND SURFACE SEALING TECHNIQUES
Ul
VO
Design and Construction
Applications limitations Considerations
Minimize infiltration Liners stay crack Extensive subgrade prepara~
of precipitation if Isndfill, tion nay be required to
etc., is subject elininate irregularities
Control upward to settling
nigration of gases Potential capping and
sealing materials include:
Control erosion Some sealants native fine-grained soils;
with proper are incompatible bentonite; asplialtic
vegetative cover with various materials; synthetic mem-
wastes types branes, cement a; and soil
sealants. Waste-sealant
incompatibility should be
a major factor in selecting
the moat appropriate
aealant or cap
Gas collection or venting
systems may be required
along with capping if gas
migration is a problem
Precautions are needed to
protect construction
workers againat explosion
and fires during capping
Flexibility*
Design flexibility is
limited when caps or
sealants are used
atone; however, when
used together with
slurry walla.
dewatering, or gas
migration controls,
capping can greatly
increase the flexi-
bility of these
techniques
Some liners have low
tolerance to change
in leachate compo-
sition and concentration
Reliability
High when
compatibil ity
and site-speci-
fic variables
are' considered
in the
selection of
sealant or cap
Performance of
some synthetic
membranes and
asphalt is
affected by tem-
perature extremes
and sunlight
Prolonged contact
with incompatible
wastes <;sn
result in
cracking, shrink-
age, etc., of
sealants and caps
Costs
Capital costs
are generally low
Operating and main-
tenance costs are
relatively low
When used together
with dewatering
systems, sealants
and caps can
markedly decrease
costs
'
^Flexibility is used to describe the ability of the remedial action to (I) withstand changes in
leachate composition and quantity (operational flexibility) and (2) accomplish various
remedial action objectives (design flexibility).
Note: Information in this table was gathered from JRB in-house sources, including staff
experience, and is intended to provide general guidance.
-------
TABLE 23. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SELECTION, DESIGN,
OF SURFACE WATER CONTROLS
AND IMPLEMENTATION
Appl icationi
Dikes and berraa can
be used to direct
upland flow around
a disposal area;
provide erosion or
flood protection;
and contain contami-
nated runoff;
Ditches are used
upslope of a disposal
Limitations
Limited to small
drainage areas
Earthen structures
(dikes, berma ( and
and ditches) are
generally intended
as a temporary
measure until more
permanent actions
can be taken
Design and Construction
Considerations
Seeding and mulching,
linera, or chemical stabil-
izers can be used to extend
the life of these structures
Frequently, a combination of
surface water controla are
neceaaary
Flexibility*
Moderate to high
structures can be
eaaily modified
to account for changes
in flow or voline
Reliability
Moderate
earthen
structures
are subject to
erosion and
flood damage
Continued main-
tenance is
required for
long-term use
Costs
Low capital
costs
Low O4M costs
Generally no
val ue .
salvage
area to channel runoff
to a downslope outlet
Chutes and downpipes
are used to convey
flow from top to
bottom of a slope
without causing
erosion
Holding ponds and
basins are used to
temporarily store
collected runoff
*Flexibility ia used to describe the ability of the remedial action to (I) withstand changea in
leachate composition and quantity (operational flexibility) and (2) accomplish various
remedial action objectives (design flexibility).
Note: Information in this table was gathered from JRB in-house sources, including staff
experience, and is intended to provide general guidance.
-------
TABLE 24. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SELECTION, DESIGN, AND IMPLEMENTATION
OF GROUNDWATER PUMPING TECHNIQUES
Appl icat ions
Use of ex tr set ion
wells to remove or
contain a pi me or
lower the water
table beneath the
disposal area
Use of injection
wells to divert
or dilute a plume
and reinject
clean groundwater
Use of injection
and extraction wells
in combination to
contain a plume or
recycle ground-
water
Limitations
Generally cost
prohibitive in
low transmisai-
vity aquifera
Highly corrosive
wastes can corrode
pumps, casings,
etc.
Viscous wsstes may
clog pimps
Design and Construction
Considerationa
Deaign and operation can be
difficult in very hetero-
genoua soils
Certain natural components
of groundwater (i.e., iron,
manganese, calcium carbon-
nate) can clog well screens
and reduce efficiency
Location of subsurface
utilities and power lines
must be determined
Hells can be tampered with;
security measures are required
Steep hydraulic gradient
can distort the cone of
influence; more water
Flexibility*
High operational flexi-
bil ity can meet
increased or decreased
pumping depends
High design flexibility-
can be used to accomp-
lish almost sny
abjective in con-
trolling groundwater
contaminat ion
,
Reliability
Haa electrical
and mechanical
parts that are
subject to fail-
ure. However,
parts can be
replaced easily
and quickly
Technology ia
well demonstrated.
and experienced
firms are widely
available
If the systems
operation ia
interrupted,
contaminants can
escape
Costs
Capital costs are
high to moderate
O&M costs are high
Generally requires
treatment that
greatly increases
costs
Used together with
capping and slurry
walla to hydro-
logic ally isolate
the site
Usable in rock
and unconsolidated
material
Usable in confined
and unconfined
aquifers
tends to be puaped from
upgradient areaa
Flexibility ia used to describe the ability of the remedial action to (1) withstand changes in
leachate composition and quantity (operational flexibility) and (2) accomplish varioua
remedial action objectives (design flexibility).
Hote:
Information in this table was gathered from JRB in-house aourcea, including ataff
experience, and ia intended to provide general guidance.
-------
TABLE 25. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SELECTION, DESIGN, AND IMPLEMENTATION
OF SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Nl
Applications
Suitable for
removing or con-
taining a plume
and for lowering
the water table
beneath a dis-
poaal area
Hay be better suited
than pumping in low
tranamiasivity
aqui fers
Can be uaed with
capping and slurry
walla to hydro-
logically isolate
a site
Limitations
Generally limited
to shallow or
floating plumes
because of equip-
ment limitations
and the need for
shoring during
construction
Poorly suited to
contaminants
Hay be cost pro-
hibitive in sreas
with frequent rock
outcrops
Hay not be
well suited
above or below
highly permeable
soils; groundwater
may flow prefer-
entially into
permeable, layers
Design and Construction
Considerat ions
Since drains are gravity
flow systems, hydraulic
gradient significantly
affects design
High percentage of fines
in soil may result in
drain clogging
Subsurface featurea and
with installation and
function
Large quantities of
contaminated soils may
be generated during
excavation
Certain natural components
of groundwater can form
precipitates which clog
drains and filters
Flexibility*
Moderate operational
flexibility, can accom-
odate aorae changes in
leachate volume but ia
considerably leas
flexible than pumping
Moderate design
flexibility; can be used
to accompliah several
trolling groundwater
contamination
Low tolerance to change
in leachate viscosity
or solubility
Reliability Costs
System relia- Capital coats are
bility is high high
if properly
constructed and O&H costs are
maintained low to moderate
Technology is Generally treatment
well proven is required that
although design significantly
and operation of increases O&H costs
hazardous waste
sites is limited
Sudden unex-
pected fail urea
are unlikely
aince draina are
a passive col-
lection system
If drain failure
does occur over-
time, repairs are
likely to be
time consuming
and costly; may
need to employ
pumping tech-
niques to prevent
escape of con-
tamination during
repairs
Flexibility is used to describe the ability of the remedial action to (I) withstand changes in
leachate composition and quantity (operational flexibility) and (2) accomplish various
remedial action objectives (design flexibility).
Note: Information in this table was gathered from JRB in-house sources, including staff
experience, and is intended to provide general guidance.
-------
TABLE 26. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SELECTION, DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
OF SLURRY WALLS
Applicationa
a Generally uaed
together with
capping, dewatering.
etc.
a Circiaaferent ial
alurry walla uaed
together with capp-
ing and pumping or
draina to completely
dewater a aite
Uaed downgradient
of a aite to
capture teachate
Used upgradient
of pumping or
drainage system
to prevent dilution
by clean water
Uaed together with
dewatering upgrad-
ient of a aite to
divert the flow of
groundwater around
a aite
Suitable for
iscible, or non-
iacible plumes
Limitations
a Dewatering techn-
ique a (pumping or
draina) are almost
alwaya required
together with
alurry valla to
prevent over-
topping of the
wall or to mini-
mile contact with
leachate which
could degrade the
wall over time
Depth ia limited
only by the coat
of excavation and
capabilitiea of
trenching equip-
ment (24 meter a
modified backhoe;
45 metera or more
for clamshell)
May be coat pro-
hibitive in very
rocky areaa
Prolonged contact
with aome waatea
may degrade the
wall (i.e. atrong
acida and baaea,
inorganic sslts,
aome orfanice)
Deaign and Construction
Considerations
Hell muat be keyed into an a
aquilude in order to
to control water miacible or
denae plumes. Bottom grout-
ing can be uaed to aeal
fractured bedrock
Cement bentonite walla are
leaa chemical resistant
than aoil bentonite walla
Cement bentonite walla are
better auited than aoil
bentonite walla in areaa
subject to heavy traffic
loada or other heavy
atreaaea
Flexibility*
De a i gn f 1 ex ibility ia
low when used alone
When uaed together
with other remedial
actiona, alurry walla
can significantly
increaae flexibility
Hay have low tolerance
to changee in leachate
composition eapecially
increaaed acidity or
baaicity or preaence
of highly concentrated
aluga
Reliability
.
well demon-
atrated aa a
means of
dewatering
during conatruc-
tion but limited
performance data
ia available on
use of alurry
walla at waate
itea
Hall integrity
may be degraded
over time by
prolonged con-
tact with
certain typea of
contaminants
Piping failure
can reault from
{proper mixing
of backfill
during
conatruction
Permeability can
be as low aa
10 cm/aec for
aoil bentonite
walla
Reliability can
be increaaed by
reinforcing the
integrity of the
wall with a
aynthetic liner
Coata
very high
O4M coata are low
No aalvage value
When uaed ogether
with dewat ring
ayatem, al rry
walla can ignifi-
cantly dec ease
MM coata
Flexibility ia uaed to describe the ability of the remedial action to (I) withatand change! in
leachate composition and quantity (operational flexibility) and (2) accomplish varioua
remedial action objectivea (deaign flexibility).
Note:
Information in this table wai gathered from JRB in-house sources including ataff
experience, and ia intended to provide general guidance.
-------
TABLE 27. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SELECTION, DESIGN
OF IN-SITU TREATMENT TECHNIQUES
AND IMPLEMENTATION
In-place treatment
of a contaminated
groundwater plume
aoil to reduce
contaminants to an
acceptable level
Techniques include
bio reclamation,
oxidation-reduction,
neutral i zat ion ,
precipitation,
polymerization, etc.
Bioreclanation:
- aui table for
relatively bio-
degradable waatea
only (i.e., high
BOD/COD ratio)
- not well-suited
where groundwater
temperatures are
leas than 60*F
- better suited
to permeable
substrate
Chemical treatment:
- highly waate
apecific
- generally
limited to
highly permeable
substrata
- chemicals used
for treatment are
often toxic and
could further
contaminate
groundwater
- may be difficult
to achieve good
contact between
wastes and treat-
ment reagents
Bioreclamation: Operational flexibility
- requires hydraulic mani- ia limited; techniques
pulation of the plume; are highly waate
plume can be contained apecific and have a low
by extraction wells or tolerance to change in
aubsurface drains and can leachate composition
be recycled by injection or concentration
wells
- microorganisms can
include indigenous
organisms with or without
nutrient additions, or
adapted or genetically
engineered organisms
- Groundwater may require
pH amendment if too
acidic or baaic
- additional oxygen aource
is generally required
(i.e., aeration, zone,
hydrogen peroxide)
Chemical Treatment:
- as with bioreclamation.
requires hydraulic mani-
pulation of the plume
- Treatment reagenta must
be selected carefully
since many of the
reagents are toxic
Hethoda have not Capital coats -
been well demon- moderate to high
atrated for
treatment at O&M coata can be
hazardous waate aigni f icantly lower
sites than with pumping
or draina aince
In the event of there ia no need for
pump failure offaite or above-
treatment chem- ground treatment
icala, micro-
organiama and
waate contaminants
can eacape
containment
For certain
chemical treat-
ment met hod a
(i.e., precipi-
tation and poly-
merization)
there is the
potential for
reveraal of
react iona
'
<
'Flexibility is used to describe the ability of the remedial action to (I) withstand changes in leachate composition and quantity (operational
flexibility) and (2) accomplish various remedial action objectives (design flexibility).
Note: Information in thi* table was gathered from JRB in-house sources, including staff experience, and is intended to provide general guidance.
-------
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175
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APPENDIX
HAZARDOUS WASTE COMPATIBILITY CHART
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HAZARDOUS WASTE COMPATIBILITY CHART (continued)
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177
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