United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development Washington, D.C. 20460 Office of Environmental Engineering & Technology & EPA Program Summary EPA-600/8-80-020 April 1980 the EPA Energy/Environmental Control Technology Program ------- "The overall objective of EPA's energy/environmental control technology program is to provide the scientific information necessary for developing rational policies that strike a balance between ample quantities of affordable domestic energy and environmental quality." Steven R. Reznek Deputy Assistant Administrator Office of Environmental Engineering & Technology ------- the EPA Energy/Environmental Control Technology Program introduction 2 background 3 interairencSr I^jyp. program 4 rSfchallenge 6 rogram 8 scope 9 gement 10 dination 11 funding 13 ------- During the 1950's, the development of nuclear power preoccupied Federal energy programs. Official policy was based on the belief that nuclear power would someday displace petroleum and natural gas as the nation's main source of electricity generation. The clean fossil fuels, it was thought, would continue to be in abundant supply for transportation, home heating and other uses. Nuclear power research received greater emphasis and funding as the interest in coal research waned. Simultaneously, the production of oil and natural gas increased while mining of coal declined. In the 19601s, the White House commissioned the first compre- hensive review of the nation's future energy problems. Known as the Cambel Report, the review embodied the accepted belief in the two fuels concept—nuclear fuel for electricity, and petroleum fuel for transportation. The 1970's were characterized by major legislation aimed at reversing the trend toward environmental degradation associated with effluents and emissions from energy and industrial sources. The Clean Air Act, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act have had major impacts on existing and new energy facilities. They have required incorporation of state-of-the-art control technology to minimize air, water and land pollution and have encouraged development of more effective and less costly controls in order to improve environmental quality "We can elect to pay the environmental and public health costs with advanced cost-effective control technologies, or burden future generations with far higher costs." Steven R. Reznek Deputy Assistant Administrator OEET By 1967 the White House questioned energy complacency and established an Energy Policy Office within the Office of Science and Technology. In 1971, the President delivered the first energy message, calling for development of flue gas desulfurization technologies and production of synthetic high-BTU gas. Both programs were aimed at finding ways to make coal a more acceptable fuel. By 1972, national science policy makers began to question the conventional wisdom on our future fuels availability. A new study was ordered by the administration to develop a set of energy research and development goals. Before that study could be disseminated, the Arab world imposed the historic oil embargo of 1973-74. Following the embargo, the President commissioned a Federal study of energy problems and needed research programs. That study, "The Nation's Energy Future" —better known as the Ray Report — stated two things quite clearly: first, the cost of new energy supplies would be high; energy supply must cease to be regarded as a public service delivered to meet any and all demands; the amount of energy supplied must reflect its cost of production. Second, available sources of new energy had the potential for degrading environmental quality and impairing public health; proper choices of future energy supplies therefore, must include an evaluation of their potential impact on human health and the environment. Based on recommendations of the Ray Report, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) proposed a program to develop new and environmentally acceptable nonnuclear energy sources. The fundamental legislation for this program was the Federal Nonnuclear Energy Research and Development Act (Public Law 93-577 enacted in December, 1974) and the agency designated to implement the Act was the new Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA). Section 11 of PL. 93-577 directed the President's Council on Environmental Quality to hold annual public hearings and prepare appropriate reports on "... the adequacy of attention given to energy conservation methods and environmental protection... and the environmental consequences of the application of energy technologies." (Responsibility for this review was subsequently transferred, under President Carter's reorganization in 1976, to EPA.) ------- Interagency R&D Program The President's Council on Environmental Quality and the Office of Management and Budget estab- lished two Federal interagency task forces representing 23 Federal agencies and departments to ensure that major environmental problems related to energy resource development were anticipated and evaluated. One of these task forces designed a program for controlling energy pollutants and impacts. The other designed a program for research on environmental processes and effects of energy development. They jointly developed a program structure for the Federal Interagency Energy/Environment Research and Development Program with its two main R&D areas: • The Control Technology Program, and • The Health and Environmental Effects Program. The environmental control technology portion of the Interagency Program is administered by EPA!s Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology (OEET) within the Office of Research and Development. At the time of the Arab oil embargo, EPA maintained a program in pollution control technology for combustion sources. For stationary sources, this program included the control of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. For mobile sources, the program was designed to develop alternative, less polluting power systems. With the enactment of P.L. 93-577, the division of responsibility between EPA and ERDA for energy/environment research was made clear. ERDA would develop all new energy technologies and be responsible for their environmental performance. EPA would develop controls for conventional energy technologies and assess the environmental performance of conventional and advanced energy technologies. These defined responsibilities remained effective until Fiscal Year 1979, at which time the Department of Energy, whose role is to oversee large-scale demonstration projects, joined in the program to develop controls for conventional combustion sources. Ibday, EPA and DOE cooperate in the planning, review and implementation of the control technology program, which has three major types of activities: • Environmental assessment, • Regulatory support, and • Environmental control technology development. Environmental assessment is the process of identifying the types or quantities of pollutants or environmental impacts from energy technologies. The purpose of assessment is to identify environmental concerns and to set priorities for establishing control requirements. Regulatory support involves the development of information bases for establishing control requirements under the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and the Ibxic Substances Control Act. Finally, environmental control technology development includes research and development of laboratory techniques, pilot plants and demonstration facilities for new pollution control systems. One important aspect of this control technology program is the review, evaluation and the subsequent dissemination of the results to those in the Federal research community, both within and outside the interagency program, and to other individuals and organizations who are involved in related work. The goal of EPA's energy/ environment program today is to assure that the nation can accomplish the transition from over- dependence on oil and gas to greater use of abundant domestic coal resources and other alternative fuels, without undue degradation of the environment. This means, in essence, that the costs and capabilities of environmental pollution controls must be better understood and new technologies must be designed and operated to minimize pollution. This program can help solve the nation's energy problems by ensuring that environmental problems associated ------- total domestic fossil energy 1975/1990/2000 resources | [ onshore offshore eastern underground • eastern strip | | western heavy oil surface in-situ oil shale 2000 1990 1975 gas 2000 1990 1975 oil 2000 1990 1975 coal 2000 1990 1975 requirements fuels consumed as liquids imports 50 40 30 20 10 0 quads of energy 0 ------- growth in emissions/wastes from stationary sources millions of tons 1300 net emissions (after treatment) 1975 1990 2000 *total suspended particulates "/ "energy and industrial sources 1975 ,1990 2000 *sulfur oxides 1975 1990 2000 *nitrogen oxides 1975 1990 2000 utility coal ash/ sludges 1975 1990 2000 oil shale wastes with alternative fuels are identified and that new, cost effective control measures are developed and used. The Future Challenge The President has proposed a comprehensive and aggressive program to limit the import and reduce our dependency on foreign oil and provide the Nation a measure of energy security. The program emphasizes exploration, development and use of domestic energy supplies - particularly coal, oil shale, unconventional natural gas and heavy oil. Energy conservation measures, related to automobile use and home and office heating and cooling, are strongly encouraged. Assuming that these proposed conservation and production initiatives are successful, projections indicate a massive increase in coal mining and use, as well as major growth in other fossil energy sources. Coal mining in the United States will increase from the current 700 million tons annually to 1.4 billion tons in 1990 and 1.9 billion tons by the end of the century. Although most of this growth in coal use is associated with conventional combustion, 120 million tons are projected to be used for the production of synthetic liquids and gases in 1990 and 300 million tons in 2000. We can also expect that the 1980's will see the oil shale industry emerge as a significant supplier of fuel, producing up to 40,000 barrels per day by 1990 and 1.2 million barrels per day by 2000. Such projections indicate a trend away from traditional and less environmentally damaging energy sources, toward potentially more damaging fossil fuel sources such as coal, oil or gas from the Outer Continental Shelf, and western oil shales. ------- These major shifts toward increased use of fossil fuels can pose a significant threat to human health and the environment. Potential negative impacts are likely to result from the extraction, processing and utilization phases of each major fuel. For example, increases in coal and oil shale mining can create erosion and subsequent surface water siltation problems; groundwater quantity and quality are also likely to be affected. Processing coal and oil shale to synthetic liquids and gases may yield toxic emissons and, despite current regulations, an increase in coal combustion will result in increased production of nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides and solid wastes. Many of the adverse impacts on health and environmental quality can be controlled or avoided: most mined land can be reclaimed; particulate matter and the oxides of nitrogen and sulfur can be scrubbed from flue gas; acid precipitation and its effects on agricultural and forest production can be reduced. Controlling these pollutants increases the monetary cost of energy, but failure to control them lowers the productivity of our natural resources, degrades the quality of our environment, and imperils the health 'of our population. We can elect to pay the environmental and public health costs of increased use of fossil fuels now with improved reclamation practices and advanced cost-effective control technologies, or we can burden future generations with the far higher costs of a barren planet whose air, water, land, and human resources have been dissipated. Photo Courtesy Hoffman-Muntner Coal cleaning facility in Greene County, Pennsylvania. Photo Courtesy Department o; Energy Pulverized coal being loaded. ------- The overall objective of EPAs energy/ environmental control technology program is to provide the scientific information necessary for developing rational policies that strike a balance between ample Quantities of affordable domestic energy and environmental quality In order to achieve this objective, the Agency is conducting, in conjunction with other Federal agencies, a comprehensive research, development and demonstration program focused on evaluating and developing cost-effective pollution control technology. The major thrust of the program is to generate technical and cost information on which reasonable environmental standards can be based. Scope In light of the potential increases in coal use for conventional combustion and synthetic fuel production, and the emergence of oil shale and offshore oil as major liquid fuel sources, the EPA control technology program is focused on the following areas of energy research: • Extraction of coal, oil shale and offshore oil; • Fuel processing, with emphasis on synthetic fuels from coal, oil shale and biomass; and • Coal combustion, with emphasis on sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulates, unregulated pollutants, ashes and sludges; • Other emerging energy technologies, particularly geothermal, waste-as-fuel and solar technologies. "OEET is developing advanced environmental control technologies to provide an energy-secure economy and a healthy human environment." Frank T. Princiotta Director, Energy Processes Division OEET The control technology program is comprised of six subprograms: Fuel Extraction. This program deals with environmental quality problems associated with the technologies and processes for obtaining fuels, such as offshore oil or natural gas extraction, oil shale development, or coal mining. It is intended that this research program (1) assess the existing and potential adverse environmental impacts from active and future resource extraction, production, storage and transportation, (2) develop methods, technologies and equipment to prevent, control, and abate environmental pollutants from these operations (including spill clean-up), and (3) document the technical/operational feasibility and cost effectiveness of environmental control options. Fuel Processing, Preparation and Advanced Combustion. This program is involved with the development of advanced technologies for fossil fuel processing by providing environmental assessments, bench-scale research, technology assessments and guidance in process control technology. The program will tie in with DOE's process development and environmental programs to identify and quantify all residuals from synthetic fuels from coal processes, oil shale development, fluidized bed combustors, and coal cleaning. Comprehensive environmental assessments will be performed for these technologies to anticipate the severity of each environmental problem and the corresponding means for its control. Flue Gas Sulfur Oxide Control. This program develops and evaluates alternative technologies for the removal of sulfur oxide emissions from combustion flue gas. The goal of this program is to develop technical data on which EPA may establish emission standards for sulfur-emitting sources. Efforts are underway to evaluate existing sulfur oxides removal installations and to assess other impacts of flue gas desulfurization (FGD) technology and the applicability of FGD technology to industrial boilers and other sulfur oxide sources. Nitrogen Oxide (NOX) Control. The objective of this program is to develop the best practicable combustion technology for the control of NOX emissions from the leading categories of stationary sources including utility boilers, commercial/industrial boilers, residential heating systems, stationary engines, and advanced combustion processes. Advanced combustion processes such as staged coal burners and coal burner systems are being studied and fundamental engineering and analytical support studies are also being conducted to evaluate the potential of these ------- advanced methods of NOX emission control and energy conservation. Major emphasis is being placed on developing and demonstrating low NOX burners for new and existing utility and industrial boilers. Flue Gas Particulate Control. This program identifies and develops effective practicable technology to control aerosol emissions from man-made sources. Source categories addressed include utility and industrial coal combustion. Major research efforts in the program are: assessment and extension of the capability of conventional systems (electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers, or fabric filters) for abating aerosol emission; exploration of new and improved methods of control; and bench-scale investigation of specific control methods for major problem sources including low-sulfur coal combustion, new fuels, power production, and selected industrial processes. Environmental Impacts of Con- ventional and Advanced Energy Systems. This program includes en- vironmental assessment and toxic pol- lutant control technology development for coal and oil combustion facilities, from residential furnaces to utility boilers; advanced energy systems, such as geothermal and solar, and conservation technologies, particularly waste-as-fuel operations. Emphasis is placed on unregulated pollutants such as polycyclical organic materials, trace elements, sulfur compounds, and ashes and sludges. The program also provides analysis of environmental, economic, and social impacts of alternative energy supply and use patterns on both a regional and na- tional level. R&D Management The Office of Research and Devel- opment (ORD) has made a major commitment over the last several years to upgrade the relevance, im- pact and quality of EPA's research program. Particular emphasis has been placed on assuring that the research program is focusing on im- portant Agency regulatory and en- forcement issues. Toward this goal, ORD has instituted twelve research committees comprised of ORD and Program Office representatives who are involved in' developing the re- search program. ORD's Office of En- vironmental Engineering and Technol- ogy supports the research committee approach and also maintains close communications with EPA's regulatory offices. In order to manage the energy program effectively, ensuring that it is responsive to the Agency needs, ORD has instituted a management system that identifies major OEET research projects and places them in one of three categories. Category I desig- nates projects in direct response to near term and specifically scheduled Program Office needs. Category n projects are desired by the Program Office but are not required by a regulatory schedule. Category HI proj- ects are of interest to one or more Program Offices, but are usually de- signed to anticipate a regulatory re- quirement and are motivated by re- search interests. EPA is also establishing a Synfuels Steering Committee, co-chaired by ORD and the Office of Planning and Management, whose responsibility will be to coordinate all research and regulatory activities relating to synthetic fuels. The day-to-day functioning of this committee will help assure the relevance of the energy program to EPA's mission. The Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology recognizes that energy research results are not only important within the Agency, but are also important to potential users outside the Agency. These others users may include energy facility designers and operators, state and local government environmental officials, control technology firms and other research organizations, such as DOE, the TVA and the Electric Power Research Institute. The Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology is conducting an agressive information and technology transfer program to reach these important groups. The program sponsors internationally- recognized symposia, in selected technology areas, where federal and other researchers may present their results to others. Among the major, regularly scheduled conferences are the Flue Gas Desulfurization Symposium, Stationary Source Combustion Symposium, Symposium on Transfer and Utilization of Particulate Control Technology and the Conference on the Environmental Impact of Fuel Conversion. The Energy/Environment R&D Decision Series reports are another approach utilized for technology transfer. The Decision Series, inaugurated in 1976, presents, in an easily understood and concise manner, key issues and findings of the research program. 10 ------- simplified U.S. domestic fuel flow: 1990 PRIMARY FUELS TCONVERSIONfTREATUENT EXTRACTION PROCESS SECONDARY FUELS UTILITY ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION/TRANSPORT UTILIZATION DEVICES nNUCLEAR J POWER PLANTS metallic processes lighting Nxtures space home/office appliances ndustrfaf machinery transportation vehicles water healing air conditioning ELECTRICAL POWER LINES DIVERTED TO PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY LIQUID/GASEOUS DEVICES transportation vehicles fumaces/bollers/sloves gas turbines water heating space nesting TRUCK/TRAIN OTHER VEHICULAR SOLID FUEL DEVICES • furnaces/boilers LEGEND; major energy-related pollution potential | WATER (r%) LM4D Interagency Coordination Since the program's inception, EPA has maintained a close working relationship with other Federal Agencies involved in energy-related research. In fact EPA often funds other agencies when their expertise or unique facilities enable them to perform the required research, development or demonstrations more effectively. Major partners in these "pass-through" efforts have been the Tennessee Valley Authority in the flue gas desulfurization (FGD) area, the Department of Interior in mining and coal cleaning, and the Department of Energy in the assessment of synfuel processes. Efforts to work even more closely with DOE have intensified over the last year since DOE embarked on a large coal combustion control technology program. 11 ------- Photo Courtesy EPA-IERL-RT? Testing experimental "package boiler" for reduced NOX emissions. Synthetic fuels plants produce liquid and gaseous fuels from coal. Photo Courtesy S Gage In order to best use the resources available for the development of economical and reliable coal combustion pollution control technology a cooperative planning and review system has been formed to support the objectives of the joint EPA/DOE program. The two agencies have agreed on two broad goals to guide their efforts: • Support the increased use of coal, as specified in the National Energy Act. • Ensure that coal use is managed in a manner that will protect public health and the environment. To fulfill these goals, EPA and DOE have developed a set of specific objectives for their cooperative effort: first, improve the reliability and performance of available environmental control technologies for use by electric utilities and industry; second, reduce the capital -and annual costs associated with environmental control; and third, develop and demonstrate methods of disposing of, or using, solid waste created by coal use. The joint planning arrangement is formulated in a proposed Cooperative Agreement whose goals are to coordinate interagency activities, maintain interagency cooperation in areas of mutual interest, and formulate an overall management structure for implementing joint goals. Provisions include semi-annual reviews of the cooperative program and mechanisms for the transfer of funds between the agencies. Not all of the non-nuclear research and development is supported by Federal organizations. Private 12 ------- energy control technology funding, FY 79 and FY 80 dollars (in thousands) 25 FY79—EPA total 58,805 I extraction coal combustion | sulfur oxide control | nitrogen oxide control environmental assessment Hi particulate control | [fuel processing FY 79—from DOE/DOI total'3,900 FY80—EPA total 53,275 endeavors, principally the Electric Power Research Institute and the Gas Research Institute, administer substantial research programs. EPA coordinates and undertakes joint program reviews with these two organizations. EPA staff serve on the Research Coordinating Committee of GRI. Funding The accompanying table summarizes program funding, by subprogram area, for Fiscal Years 1979 and 1980. It also indicates FY 79 "pass-through" funding from DOE and DOI to EPA. In Fiscal Year 1979, DOE funded $3.4 million in the coal combustion, fuel processing and environmental assessment areas, and DOI funded $500 thousand toward an EPA/DOI project that evaluated the environmental effectiveness of selected mining reclamation techniques. Program Highlights The energy control technology program has been and will continue to be unusually productive in terms of generating information that makes a significant positive impact on environmental quality. The program has improved the quality of data used in Agency decisions and has affected the types of equipment and performance of commercial pollution control systems. Several on-going or recently completed activities have made or have the potential to make a significant impact on the goal of environmental quality with acceptable cost. These activities may: • Support EPA's program offices directly, • Advance the state-of-the-art for commercial control technology, or • Define control requirements by the types and quantities of pollutants or environmental impacts (environmental assessments). 13 ------- Selected projects highlighting direct support of EPA program offices are described below: Coal Ash And Sludge Disposal. Information has been compiled to establish economically achievable guidelines or regulations for the disposal of ashes and sludges from coal-fired power plants and non-coal mining wastes. Synfuel Pollution Control Guidance Documents. Pollution control guidance documents are being prepared for the emerging synthetic fuels industries, e.g., oil shale, coal liquefaction and gasification, and ethanol from biomass. These documents will provide engineering and cost data for the issuance of permits and will provide background information and the development documents needed for the promulgation of technology-based regulations. Offshore Oil & Gas Effluents. EPA is currently producing an information document dealing with the effluent characteristics of discharges from offshore oil and gas production facilities. Utility and Industrial NSPS Support. Data, technology assessments and economic impact analyses are being provided to the Office of Air Programs to allow them to establish New Source Performance Standard (NSPS) for the electric utility industry and for industrial steam production which are economically and reliably achievable. Inhalable Particulate Characterization. The program is characterizing inhalable particulate matter emissions from major energy and industrial sources. This information will be required to allow selection of the most economical control strategies to achieve a possible inhalable or fine particulate ambient standard. Stationary Gas Turbine NSPS Support. A new, low-cost, energy-efficient technique to lower NOX emissions from stationary gas turbines has been developed. This Technology, known as "dry NOX control," can lower oil consumption by about 3 percent while complying with existing emissions regulations. Typical of the program's activities designed to advance the state-of-the-art of environmental control technologies are the following: Particle Precharger. EPA is currently developing and testing, at pilot scale, an advanced electrostatic precipitator which includes a precharger stage that holds promise of greatly reducing the cost of particulate control for coal-fired boilers. Such a device is particularly attractive for low-sulfur coal applications where the ash's electrical properties lead to a requirement for a large and costly precipitator. Low-Nox Coal Burner. EPA developed a low NOX coal burner, which can lower NOX emissions rates by a factor of 4 while maintaining or improving fuel efficiency. The new burner is of very low cost. Full-scaled demonstrations on two industrial-sized boilers will begin in 1980. A demonstration on one 300 MWe utility-scale boiler will begin in 1981. Dry SO2 Control. Research and Development is leading to the application of dry SO2 control technologies to industrial and utility-scale boilers. Dry S02 control appears to offer substantial reductions, about 30-70 percent, in capital and annual revenue requirements while achieving levels of SO, reduction comparable to conventional wet scrubbers. Three different approaches are being pursued: post combustion spray dryer SO2 control technology, coal/limestone pellets, and simultaneous limestone/injection coal combustion in the low NOX burner. Additives for Improved SO2 Control. Chemical additives are being tested to improve flue gas desulfurization (FGD) reliability and to lower costs.Additives, such as adipic acid, can improve the operational reliability of utility scale FGD systems by eliminating the effects of sudden changes in coal sulfur content or equipment variability on FGD performance. These additives will lower the amount of limestone required to remove SO2. The use of adipic acid in conjunction with forced oxidation of scrubber sludge to gypsum can yield a solid waste which is easier and cheaper to dispose than conventional lime/limestone scrubber sludge. 14 ------- components of domestic coal utilization 1975 1990 2000 electric utilities 1975 1990 2000 industrial 1975 1990 2000 conversion Residential Oil Furnace. EPA is completing the evaluation of a new, EPA-developed residential oil furnace. This furnace, which has undergone two years of testing in New York and Massachusetts, could lower fuel costs by an average of 18 percent. Improving fuel utilization while simultaneously lowering NOX, soot, and hydrocarbon emissions, demonstrates that effective environmental control can be achieved without increasing costs. The following brief descriptions highlight program activities related to environmental assessment: Emissions/Effluents From Coal and Oil Shale Synfuel Processes. A comprehensive environmental assessment program has been conducted over the last three years. The program is aimed at characterizing emissions/effluents and control options for processes producing synthetic fuels from coal. This program has allowed prioritization of waste streams for their potential environmental impact based on their potential for health and ecological damage. Fundamental Combusion Phenomena. Fundamental combustion phenomena which yield SOg, Nox, soot and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons have been investigated to determine more effective ways of controlling these pollutants prior to their formation. Emission/Effluents From Emerging Non-Fossil Fuel Facilities. Potential, environmentally damaging non-fossil fuel energy technologies are being assessed; prominent are geothermal and waste-as-fuel operations. 15 ------- For many decades, this country experienced plentiful and inexpensive energy supplies. The cost of energy decreased, due in part from expanded discoveries of easily obtainable fuel, in part from technological innovation, and in part from investments in the production and transportation eeniipment capital necessary to make energy delivery efficient. The first 74 years of this century saw investments of capital and labor returning increased amounts of useful energy in the form of electricity, home heat, and transportation fuel. Today, however, the cost of new energy sources is increasing, and we wiH use increasing amounts of our productive capacity to obtain decreasing amounts of energy The challenge will be to stimulate investment in these high-cost/low-yield techniques. The present situation has created remarkably difficult problems for our economic and social systems which are unique to a hitherto vigorously expanding country. As a society, we have found it enormously difficult to accept the fact that inexpensive fuels are disappearing and that we must now not only pay more, but use less. Foreign or domestic oil interests may exploit the situation to realize large profits, but this does not deny the fundamental reality—the American people will have to pay more for their energy and use less. The nation must change from a society oriented to resource exploitation to one oriented to resource conservation. We are currently embarked on an energy path that will require, along with conservation, the continuing expansion of our domestic energy resources and exploration of new sources. Many of these fuels will be more difficult to extract, and wiH be "dirtier" to use. But the hazards to human health and to the environment can.be avoided, through the vigorous development and capital investment in pollution control systems. The EPA Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology is pursuing just such a program to develop advanced cost-effective environmental control technologies, which will allow this nation an energy secure economy and a healthy human environment. 16 ------- epilogue ------- |