/ ) United States
V.,t-/r^t/ Envnonmcntdl Protection
I I Aqency
xvEPA
Office of
ResL'jich and Development
Washmqton DC 20460
May 1979
600/8-79-013
First Report of the
Subcommittee on National
Needs and Problems
Committee on Ocean Pollution
Research and Development
and Monitoring
PROOF COPY
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FIRST REPORT OF THE SUBCOMMITTEE ON
NATIONAL NEEDS AND PROBLEMS
Committee on Ocean Pollution Research
and Development and Monitoring
Stephen J. Gage, Ph.D.
Subcommittee Chairman
May 15, 1979
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FOREWORD
Identification of national needs and priorities for ocean pollution
research and development and monitoring has been a great challenge. To write
this synopsis, the Subcommittee sifted through great volumes of reports,
workshop proceedings, books and personal communications, on ocean pollution
study needs, combined like needs, and put them in social and scientific
perspective. Those many persons who cared enough about the well being of the
oceans to offer their time and thought and effort have been our greatest
resource in this task, and we are grateful to them. Their names appear as
participants in the Estes Park and Tysons Corner Workshops, and as members of
the Subcommittee, all in documents which accompany this report.
Point Lobos, California (EPA, Documerica).
The Subcommittee report is a good faith effort to represent the needs of
all of the users of ocean pollution studies. Our scope of inquiry included
federal, state, and municipal officials, representative public interest envi-
ronmental groups, industrial officials, and persons involved in the adjudica-
tion of ocean pollution disputes. In an attempt to break the tradition of
considering ocean pollution study as a purely ocean science enterprise, we
have included lawyers, economists, journalists, and other social scientists
in our inquiry.
The actual needs are stated in terms of their social utility, and are
described in social perspective wherever possible. There is disagreement
about some of these value judgements, and some needs presented below are
matters of present public controversy or litigation. They remain needs for
information, whatever is the argument.
1 1 1
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The needs presented are organized by ocean use category to be judged
each on its merits. Assigning priority to needs for information on ocean
pollution has been a particularly difficult taskv only slightly mitigated by
the realization that priorities change with time and circumstance. The order-
ing suggested in this report reflects our thinking in the late winter and
spring of 1979. It should be opened to questioning periodically throughout
implementation of the plan for ocean pollution studies.
Stephen J. Gage
May 15, 1979
IV
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SUBCOMMITTEE MEMBERSHIP
Wayne Becker
Harold Berkson
Dail Brown
Louis Brown
David Burmaster
Sie Ling Chiang
Elaine Fitzback
David Flemer
Philip Janus
Jesse Lunin
Angus MacBeth
Lowell Martin
Daniel Mueller
James Mueller
Oan Prager
Jeffery Swinebroad
Joseph Valenti
U.S. Coast Guard
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
National Oceanic 8 Atmospheric
Administration
National Science Foundation
Council on Environmental Quality
Department of Interior
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
National Institutes of Health
Department of Agriculture
Department of Justice
National Oceanic & Atmospheric
Administration
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
National Aeronautics & Space
Administration
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Department of Energy
U.S. Coast Guard
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CONTENTS
Foreword i i i
Subcommittee Membership v
Introduction 1
Interdiscipl inary Needs 7
Marine Energy 9
Marine Waste Disposal 13
Marine Transportation 19
Ocean Mineral Resources 23
Living Ocean Resources 29
Ocean Recreation 31
Land Use Practices Causing Ocean Pollution 33
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INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
Congress passed the Ocean Pollution
Research and Development and Monitoring Planning
Act (PL 95-273) on May 8,1978. This legislation
called for establishment of a comprehensive five
year plan for Federal ocean pollution research
and development and monitoring, emphasizing co-
ordination among the concerned Federal Agencies.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
tion (NOAA) in consultation with the Office of
Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) was desig-
nated lead agency in this endeavor.
The development of such a comprehensive
program is an enormous task. To accomplish it,
OSTP created the Interagency Committee on Ocean
Pollution Research and Development and Monitor-
ing under the Federal Coordinating Council on
Science, Engineering and Technology. This Com-
mittee was charged with: identifying national
needs and problems, establishing priorities,
determining existing Federal programs and capa-
bilities, and recommending changes in the over-
all Federal ocean pollution research and
development and monitoring effort. Four subcom-
mittees were established in July 1978 to help
the committee successfully complete its task.
They were: National Needs and Priorities,
Research and Development, Monitoring, and Data
Handling.
SUBCOMMITTEE ACTIVITIES
The Subcommittee on National Needs and
Priorities took Section 4(b) (1) of the law as
its charter. This Section calls for an assess-
ment and ordering of needs. Representatives
from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
National Ocean Atmospheric Administration,
Department of the Interior, Department of Trans-
portation, National Science Foundation, Depart-
ment of Energy, Council on Environmental Quali-
ty, Department of Health Education and Welfare,
National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Department of
Agriculture and the Department of Justice par-
ticipated in Subcommittee activities. This
report is the result of those activities.
The primary purpose for many federal ocean
pollution research and development and monitor-
ing programs is to provide information to those
who make policy and management decisions affect-
ing man's uses of the oceans. Data themselves
do not convey information. Data together with
their reasoned analysis, translated into simple
language are useful in choosing options or in
The Deepsea Submersible "Alvin" (NOAA).
1
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regulating the choices. Thus, in identifying
needs and priorities which would ultimately lead
to better planning of the federal program in
these areas, the Subcommittee consulted the
users of ocean pollution research and develop-
ment and monitoring. These included both the
regulators and the regulated.
Policy level representatives from Federal,
State and local governments, adjudicators, as
well as representatives from industry and envi-
ronmental groups and scientists voiced their
concerns.
The Subcommittee carefully considered the
results of the July 1978 Estes Park Workshop, a
gathering of scientists, whose task was to exam-
ine the state-of-the-art and suggest a marine
pollution research and monitoring program. This
information was complemented by the November
1978 Workshop on National Needs and Priorities
for Ocean Pollution Research and Development and
Monitoring held in Tysons Corner, Virginia.
Participants in this endeavor represented a var-
iety of disciplines, among them law, economics,
and social sciences, as well as the more tradi-
tional marine sciences. Finally, the Subcommit-
tee drew upon its own expertise to identify gaps
and to cite those activities necessary to carry
out legislative mandates.
NEEDS
The needs presented in this report are thus
a synthesis of those identified by the sources
listed above. They are organized according to
ocean use category, i.e., Energy, Waste Dispos-
al, Transportation, Mineral Resources, Living
Resources, Recreation and Land Use Practices.
Scientific, technological, legal, economic and
sociological factors associated with preventing
or abating pollution in the marine environment
have been considered for each topic area. The
needs are thus very general.
The Subcommittee assumed that basic re-
search in oceanography and estuarine systems
dynamics was not part of its mandate, since
basic research is not specifically directed
toward any of the applied problems examined by
the Subcommittee. Studies of oceanographic and
hydro!ogical phenomena will contribute to the
ocean pollution research, development, and moni-
toring efforts recommended in the report. How-
ever, basic research serves broader objectives,
and its use in wiping out ocean pollution is but
one of its justifications.
SETTING PRIORITIES
A systematic approach should be used to
evaluate needs and set priorities. Realizing
this, the Subcommittee conducted a preliminary
survey of ocean use activities and the associat-
ed need for research, development and monitoring
in each area. The factors considered were:
• Immediacy of the pollution threat
• Value and importance of the activity to
society and the economy
• Intensity of the polluting activity
• Distribution of the activity (local,
regional , global)
• Value and vulnerability of resources at
risk
• Likelihood of solving the problem in the
near term, taking into consideration the
availability of scientific expertise and
cost-effectiveness
The Subcommittee members ranked each ocean
use activity over a range of five levels from
Coastal Development, Newport Beach, California (EPA, Documerica).
2
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the least to the most significant. Several mem-
bers (e.g., EPA, DOI) contributed average scores
which represented rankings made by several ex-
perts within their respective agencies. The
ranking of the summed score for all criteria by
each ocean use and agency provided emphasis for
study. The results of the survey are presented
in Table 1 as a general banding of high medium
and low priority areas. Activities within each
category are listed alphabetically. No ordinal
significance is intended.
The ordering of these diverse ocean pollut-
ing activities and their related study needs is
judgemental. It represents consensus views of
Subcommittee members acting upon their personal
expertise in their ocean speciality and knowl-
edge gained in their many discussions with
diverse users of ocean pollution study results.
These priorities are expected to change with
time. Agency mechanisms for reordering priori-
ties are expected to act upon them throughout
the implementation of the plan. This ranking
process is considered, at best, a rough approxi-
mation. Thus, results should be interpreted
within broad limits. The process should be fur-
ther refined and formalized for future rankings.
TECHNICAL STUDY AREAS
The Subcommittee also tried to determine
the emphasis which should be placed on certain
technical study areas over the next five years.
The study areas considered were:
• Control technology
• Environmental transport (both physical
and biological)
• Transformation (both chemical and bio-
logical
• Ecological/biological effects
• Direct human effects
• Measurement methods
• Habitat modification
As in the survey conducted to set priori-
ties, the Subcommittee members ranked each ocean
use category over a range of five levels from
the least to the most important. The numerical
score averaged for each ocean use activity by
technical study category provided an opportunity
to observe the pattern of recommended study
emphasis.
The results of this survey indicate that
for all the ocean use activities no one
technical study area received major emphasis;
all were of moderate importance. However, for
those ocean use activities which ranked high in
the previous exercise, all the technical study
areas received greater emphasis. The results
are presented in Table 2.
This ranking process is only a rough ap-
proximation based upon value judgements made by
the participants in the exercise. The Subcom-
mittee recommends refinement of the process for
future endeavors.
Louisiana Fishermen with Natural Gas Well in Background (EPA, Documerica).
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TABLE 1. RESEARCH PRIORITIES FOR MARINE ACTIVITIES
HIGH PRIORITY:
ACTIVIJY
Industrial Waste Disposal
Land Use Practices
Municipal Sewage Outfalls
Oil and Gas Development
Oil Transportation
Steam Electric Power Plants
Transportation of Hazardous
Material
MEDIUM PRIORITY: Deep Seabed Mining
LOW PRIORITY:
Fish and Shellfish Process-
ing
Hatcheries and Aquaculture
Ocean Dumping of Dredged
Spoil
Recreation (including small
craft activity)
Sand, Gravel and Shell Min-
ing
Sewage Sludge Dumping
Biomass Fueled Systems
Brine Producing Activities
Kinetic Ocean Systems
OTEC
Salinity Gradient Systems
Satellite Power Systems
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TABLE 2. PRIORITY TECHNICAL STUDY AREAS BY MARINE ACTIVITIES
OCEAN USE ACTIVITY
CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY
ENVIRONMENTAL
TRANSPORT
PHYSICAL BIOLOGICAL
TRANSFORMATION
CHEMICAL BIOLOGICAL
ECOLOGICAL/
BIOLOGICAL
EFFECTS
DIRECT
HUMAN
EFFECTS
SOCIO-
ECONOMIC
EFFECTS
MEASUREMENT
HABITAT
MODIFICATION
MMtefft SEWAGf GUTf AUS
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OIL TBANSPOflTATlON
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•\\S\\\\\\N
amfttt POWER J»UJ|T$
TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS
MATERIALS
DEEP SEA8ED MitiNG
FISH AND SHELLFISH PROCESSING
5
O
HATCHERIES AND AQUACULTURE
OCEAN DUMPING OF DREDGED SPOIL
RECREATION
(INCLUDING SMALL CRAFT AGDViTIES)
SAW), GRAVEL AND SHELL MINING
SEWAGE SLUDGE DUMPING
B10MASS FUELED SYSTEMS
BRINE PRODUCING ACTIVITIES
O
KINETIC OCEAN SYSTEMS
OTEC
SALINITY GRADIENT SYSTEMS
SATELLITE POWER SYSTEMS
MOST IMPORTANT
IMPORTANT
D MODERATELY IMPORTANT
OF SOME IMPORTANCE (JU NOT VERY IMPORTANT
-------
A Water Sampler Designed to Operate at
Environmental Research Laboratory).
Prescribed Depths (EPA, Narragansett
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INTERDISCIPLINARY NEEDS
Certain needs for information transcend
ocean use or academic disciplinary boundaries
and will appear as needs no matter what aspect
of ocean pollution is considered—or who is con-
sidering it. These are needed for choices made
by industries and public interest groups, draft-
ing and enforcing legislation, regulations and
guidelines, applying for and issuing permits,
and planning for the future well-being of the
oceans.
Interdisciplinary needs are singled out for
special emphasis here even though they are woven
through the following descriptions of study
needs related to ocean uses. This special em-
phasis is deserved because several federal agen-
cies are concerned with each of these needs, but
only to the extent that a need relates to an in-
dividual agency mandate, and only using indi-
vidual agency resources.
Decision Analysis
Several issues of option analysis should be
resolved beyond mere method development and val-
idation. The most important is that of breadth
of the analysis. A corollary issue is fragmen-
tation of the analysis and severability of its
parts. Then there are the twin issues of
methods development and incommensurables. If
these four issues can be dealt with successful-
ly, we shall have solved the problem of inade-
quate analysis.
Breadth of the analysis is critically im-
portant to its value in choosing an option.
Whole systems need to be considered—not just
the risk of one ocean pollutant contacting and
damaging one resource. Thus, in deciding
whether a thermal discharge requires a cooling
tower to mitigate its heat effects on the
receiving water, one also must factor in the
polluting effects of the cooling tower, going
back to the coal or oil used to make its bricks
(elsewhere), the transport of materials and wor-
kers, construction effects, as well as its own
operational effluents and fuel penalties. One
may decide that the cooling tower is the greater
evil or that the whole facility is planned for
an unacceptable site and should be built else-
where. Analyses even of this scope are rare
under NEPA's mandates, but they could be broader
still and used in combination to seek new op-
tions. For example, in examining land based al-
ternatives to sewage sludge dumping at sea, one
could analyze the transportation needs of east-
ern cities, the sludge production of eastern
cities, the farm fertilizer needs of western
food and timber producers, and the economic
needs of the railroad industry—all toward
developing an integrated, economically advan-
tageous solution to an ocean pollution problem.
Perhaps this is a poor example but it may not
be, and certainly no executive agency presently
is using this broad a scope of inquiry and anal-
ysis.
We need to compare starfishes with sea cu-
cumbers when oil and water mix. This is the
problem of incommensurables, the non sequiturs
of economic analyses. Not everything that we
need to factor into risk analyses reduces to
economic terms. Aesthetics and recreation, dis-
cussed below, have more value to society than is
expressed by dollars that people are willing to
pay or can afford. Still, we need to employ
methods to relate values measurable in dollars
to values measurable in other units, such as in-
creased summer violent crime when urban recre-
> /***?'<*. «"
A Principal Migratory Bird Stop in California
Slated for Development (EPA, Documerica).
-------
ational beaches are closed due to bacterial pol-
lution, or the effect that the wetlands of Glynn
County, Georgia had on Sidney Lanier and the
readers of his "Marshes of Glynn." These may
seem strange matters for federal officials to
deal in, but the consequences of federal deci-
sions occur anyway and means must be devised to
factor societal values into the choice of ocean
use alternatives. Thus, we should include econ-
omists, planners, and other social scientists to
a greater extent than we have in wiping out
ocean pollution.
Last, we need means to determine how much
uncertainty may be tolerated in reaching deci-
sions about ocean pollution. This is particu-
larly necessary where decisions involve a high
risk option with a low probability of occur-
rence. Acceptable levels of uncertainty should
be addressed, or at least means should be found
to describe the limitations of information that
was used to make choices. That should enhance
the accurate translation of science into public
policy, and should assure that the research
effort expended on any question is appropriate
to its importance.
Measurements, Standards, and Intercalibration
For many practical and theoretical reasons,
we need to detect the presence and measure the
concentration of pollutants in the ocean's aqua-
tic, biological, and solid parts. This is diffi-
cult because very small concentrations of pollu-
tants can be important, sample sizes often are
limited, and the ocean is a dilute and variable
solution of naturally occurring salts and organ-
ic chemicals which interfere with analyses.
Analytical chemistry grew into a science in the
laboratory, where experimental mixtures can be
controlled, and is ill equipped for transfer to
the field because of tradition and methods.
Considerable improvement has been made in this
situation over the past three decades, but much
more improvement of analytical method is needed
to (1) increase the numbers of samples that can
be analyzed, particularly for organic pollu-
tants, and (2) bring down the cost of each anal-
ysis. In addition, the accuracy and precision of
organic analysis of marine materials lags far
behind that achieved for inorganic analyses.
Further, the cost per sample is much higher for
organics, and the numbers of persons and
laboratories capable of performing organic
analyses with acceptable accuracy and precision
are miniscule, by any standard. Analytical
capability available to U.S. students of ocean
pollution problems distinctly limits our ability
to make intelligent choices concerning ocean
resources.
Many of our ocean pollution regulations are
based on the prudence of assuming that labora-
tory results mirror what may be expected of a
pollutant in the ocean. Although a prudent
approach to ocean resource use is wise, it is
not in itself a solution to the problem because
it may lead to unnecessary costs of resource use
to burden the consumer. Therefore, case speci-
fic ocean validation of laboratory data used in
regulating ocean use should be performed for all
materials and processes that are regulated based
upon laboratory data. For many of these mate-
rials and processes, the same limitations that
prevented field analyses in the first place
still apply. These must await necessary analy-
tical developments. However, a plan for
research and development and monitoring should
be developed toward the goal of determining the
real importance of each regulated pollutant in
the marine environment.
Juvenile Striped Bass Undergoing Activity Tests in Presence of Pollutants (DOE).
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MARINE ENERGY
STEAM ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
During the past decade the electric power
industry and the government have built a solid
foundation of ecological research information on
which to make decisions about cooling water uses
in the marine environment. The regulators and
regulated have worked in concert, if not always
in harmony, to bring us to a set of regulatory
principles which differ considerably from those
of a decade ago. Regulatory concern has shifted
from discharge temperature to adverse effects of
the intake on small creatures passing through
the plant in its cooling water; from size of the
discharge mixing zone to actual effects of
effluent on the balance of species in the sur-
rounding ecological community; and from pure
regulation of effluent characteristics to tech-
nological means of lessening adverse effects of
the whole cooling water system. The electric
power industry, by broadening its ecological
knowledge and awareness, has developed technolo-
gies and practices which now allow plant siting
in a few places which would be environmentally
unacceptable using old operating practices.
These technologies and practices have their own
environmental costs and benefits, which simply
provide another option to consider. Technology
is the area in which research and development
are most needed to contribute to future opera-
tions and siting decisions concerning steam
electric power generation.
Development of Selective Intake Technology
The young of commercially and ecologically
important marine species need to be kept from
passing through cooling water systems. Where
siting in spawning and nursery areas can not be
avoided due to economic, jurisdictional and
engineering reasons, means to minimize their
exposure to the generating plant need to be
developed, tested, refined, and put in place at
new and some existing problem sites.
Development of Discharge Technology
Shallow water sites and shorelines are the
greatest technological challenge to protect.
Offstream cooling and diffusion technologies
need to be made more effective and less expen-
sive to build and operate. Means to reject heat
directly to the air in larger amounts than pre-
sently is possible are needed. Use of presently
wasted heat for other purposes needs to be
transplanted from Europe to the U.S. technolog-
ical arsenal. Application of cogeneration, the
use of steam produced to generate electricity
for additional purposes, should be re-examined.
Determination of Far Field Effects
An unresolved issue in several steam elec-
tric plant adjudicatory proceedings has been the
extent to which cooling water damage to the
Measuring Dispersion of Thermal Effluent From a Coal-Fired Power Plant (DOE).
-------
young of commercially, recreationally, and eco-
logically important species affects the abun-
dance and distribution of the adults. Better
methods to measure initial damage, follow expos-
ed animals through life history stages and
migrations, and measure adult population sizes
and distributions are needed. Alternatively, a
policy that any field damage is unacceptable
would accomplish the same environmental protec-
tion—but it trades lesser cost to the taxpayer
for greater cost to the consumer.
Cumulative and Individual Risk Assessment
Methods Development
Considerable research and preoperational
monitoring has attended each National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit
issued to a coastal or estuarine power plant.
Thus a lot of data and professional judgement
are available. What are the cumulative effects
One Concept For a Power Station Utilizing Ther-
mal Ocean Gradients. Turbine generators, pro-
ducing 160 megawatts of power, ring a core 250
feet in diameter and 1,600 feet long (Lockheed
Corporation).
on the marine environment of additive stresses
from cooling water use, alone and in combination
with other stresses? For individual steam elec-
tric generating facilities and for multiple gen-
erating facilities which affect the same water
body, the questions of cumulative effects
remain. Data and expertise are available to
answer them and should be applied to doing so.
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION
The OTEC concept requires ocean siting in
areas deep enough to have a thermal gradient at
constant depth. Presently conceived OTEC tech-
nology would require that areas having a shallow
continental shelf place OTEC generating units
far offshore, which may eliminate shallow areas
due to the economics and technology of under-
water electric transmission. Early OTEC experi-
ments are scheduled for insular and deepwater
Pacific trials only.
OTEC may not cause pollution in the oceans.
However, it would be imprudent to suppose so and
therefore not to look for pollution in field
trials of small pilot plants. Certainly the
chemical and physical basis for biological
effects is present, even in deep waters that are
sparsely populated with plants and animals, if
those waters are close enough to shore to mix
with abundantly populated inshore waters. To
that extent, research is important to evaluating
the environmental and economic costs and bene-
fits of OTEC.
BIOMASS FUELED SYSTEMS
Undersea forests are known to grow faster
than those on land, and so have a potential as
industrial fuel. Pilot studies of kelp farming
for this purpose have begun, and require
research evaluation both in underwater phases
and in the fuel cycle phase of developmental
technology. Research and development must con-
cern itself with air and water pollution poten-
tial of undersea farming and harvesting, pro-
cessing the fuel species into burnable form, and
air and water pollution problems of burning the
fuel itself. These activities should receive a
low level of resource support until energy pro-
duction results of exciting magnitude are
achieved.
KINETIC OCEAN SYSTEMS
The appeal of tidal, wave and current
forces to generate electricity lies in their
freedom from fuel requirements. Their difficul-
ties stem from that also, because society is
technologically and intellectually ill-equipped
to harness diffuse energy sources and convert
them into concentrated usable form. Thus we
know more about tidal energy than about wave
energy and we know least about uses of ocean
currents. However, technology exists for com-
mercial tidal generation and wave forces have
produced electricity in European field experi-
ments. Only current forces remain purely hypo-
thetical in 1979.
10
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Tidal Generation of Electricity
Freshwater impelled turbines power dynamos
wherever in the U.S. there are large waterfalls
or dams. In saltwater estuaries and fjords of
considerable tidal range, such as those of the
North Atlantic and Pacific northwest states,
similar dam projects can be engineered to pro-
duce electricity using a dammed up, saltwater
hydrodynamic force to spin a turbine. The pro-
posed international Passamaquoddy Power Project
at the maritime border of Maine and Quebec has
been an engineering possibility planned since
the 1930's and was denied then only through
political and economic controversy. As finite
fuel supplies become more precious, infinite
force mechanisms become more likely, and in the
The Ranee Tidal Power Station on the Brittany
Coast is Man's First Effort to Generate Elec-
tricity From Tidal Flow (DOE).
next five years, some resources should be devot-
ed to re-examination of their practicality and
to a new assessment of their potential to damage
or disrupt the marine environment.
Materials Developments for Saltwater Turbine
Systems
Inventions in metallurgy developed since
the original 1930's tidal power systems designs
were put away should be applied to modernize the
designs. New cost estimates should be developed
both for governmental and private development of
a specified tidal power project.
Environmental Assessment of a Tidal Power
Project
Original plans for tidal electric genera-
tion did not include an assessment of environ-
mental effects. Large impoundments of seawater
change high energy to lower energy ecological
systems. Entrainment, entrapment, and impinge-
ment of fishes and invertebrates, anti-corrosion
anode problems, and other more societal and eco-
nomic impacts should be assessed. It would not
be premature to use the NEPA environmental im-
pact assessment process in a predictive mode--as
a feasibility study of one tidal power proposal.
This too is recommended.
SALINITY GRADIENT SYSTEMS
Marine pollution effects from salinity gra-
dient systems are not expected to occur for the
duration of this plan, and require only minor
consideration concurrent with development of
salinity gradient technology. Only when salinity
gradient electric generation field trials are
scheduled for the oceans should pollution
research, development, and monitoring be planned
to accompany them.
SATELLITE POWER SYSTEMS
Ocean pollution effects of satellite power
systems receptor fields located offshore are not
likely during the next five years. Considera-
tion of ocean effects of satellite generation
devices should remain with their developers
until some reasonable likelihood of ocean pollu-
tion problems arises.
11
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Sludge Dumping in New York Bight (EPA, Documerica).
-------
MARINE WASTE DISPOSAL
SEWAGE SLUDGE DUMPING
National policy under the Marine Protection
Research and Sanctuaries Act (PL 92-532)—to
phase out almost all ocean dumping of sewage
sludge by 1981 — is nearly implemented as of
1978. Therefore, the research, development and
monitoring needs described below should be
restricted to existing disposal sites used for
sewage sludge, and should be related to present
and pending litigation. A relatively low level
of research, development, and monitoring
resources are recommended to meet these needs,
and it is anticipated that they shall be met
during the initial five- year planning period.
Pollution Identification
Complete the chemical identification of
sludge pollutants at existing sludge dumpsites.
Pollutant Transport and Fate
Complete oceanographic studies of fraction-
ation, dispersion and distribution of sludge
pollutants within the water column and bottom
sediments.
Metal and Synthetic Pollutants
Complete studies of bioaccumulation of
heavy metal and synthetic organic pollutants
attributable to sludge dumps.
Barges Transport New York City Garbage Down East
River to Overflowing Landfill on Staten Island
(EPA, Documerica).
Environmental Rehabilitation
Perform ecosystem recovery studies at
representative phased-out dumpsites to determine
time and degree of recovery, and residual pollu-
tant abundance, distribution and ecological
effects. Identify possible and probable path-
ways to human exposure.
Risk to Human Health
Perform a risk assessment of human health
consequences of sludge dumping at sea in such
terms as can be compared to similar risk analy-
ses of land disposal practices.
MUNICIPAL SEWAGE OUTFALLS
In addition to development of advanced sew-
age treatment technologies and alternative dis-
posal methods, the 1977 Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments (PL 95-217) require moni-
toring and evaluative comparison of coastal and
insular municipal outfalls exempted from second-
ary sewage treatment requirements. This moni-
toring is required for a five year period—the
duration of each allowed exemption. In 1983,
renewal of the exemptions will depend upon anal-
yses of the monitoring data. For renewal, the
analyses of data must demonstrate that the out-
fall in question produces no adverse impact on
the balance of the ecological community sur-
rounding it. The outfall must continue to meet
other chemical effluent standards established in
the law. Present regulations governing sewage
outfalls temporarily are those used for ocean
dumping, and information specific to outfalls
needs to be developed into regulations governing
them. Research, development, and monitoring
needs for municipal sewage outfalls, including
13
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those which discharge mixed domestic and indus-
trial wastes, are as follows:
Pollutant Movement and Alteration
Information is needed on chemical and phys-
ical processes which disperse, concentrate, and
cycle municipal waste pollutants in the ocean.
Knowledge of these processes is needed to evalu-
ate and determine conditions necessary for dis-
charge permits under EPA's NPDES program. Facts
concerning inshore chemical and physical proces-
ses can be used to improve the scope, accuracy,
and precision of predictive evaluation of dis-
charge permit applications. Predictive evalua-
tions need to include natural episodic phenomena
such as extreme wind and wave conditions which
affect pollutant distributions. Study areas of
emphasis should include sources, transport,
fate, ecological effects, and possible pathways
to human exposure.
Synthetic Pollutants
We should determine the source, distribu-
tion, persistence, and bioaccumul ation of syn-
thetic hazardous chemicals in the marine envi-
ronment, including food web transfers and pos-
sible pathways to man. Chlorination products
from antifouling and disinfection processes
should be included in this investigation.
Environmental Rehabilitation
We should determine the efficiency and
value of differing sewage treatment practices
and choose among them; studies of the degree and
rate of recovery of outfall polluted environ-
ments after treatment is applied or discharges
are removed should be performed. Monitoring
strategies should be designed and applied in
accordance with those mandated in PL 95-217,
Section 301(h). Rehabilitation technologies
should be planned, developed, and tested.
Biostimulant Research
Municipal sewage outfall discharges contain
large amounts of biostimulant nutrients which
could overload the nutrient assimilation capaci-
ty of the receiving waters. Natural differences
in nutritional characteristics of marine ecosys-
tems and seasonal variations occur as well. To
improve our ability to choose waste treatment
strategies and outfall sites, we must be able to
evaluate nutrient characteristics of particular
inshore marine ecosystems, separating natural
from manmade variations and accurately determin-
ing the degree and persistence of change that
any proposed municipal discharge is likely to
produce. Evaluations should include ecological
and economic effects as well as sources, disper-
sion, persistence, abatement technologies, and
risk assessment protocols.
Sediments
We need to develop standard methods and
criteria for evaluating sediment quality so that
we can choose suitable treatment technologies
and strategies. Knowledge of polluted sediment
effects upon diverse marine ecosystems such as
coral, seagrass, kelp, and bottom invertebrate
systems is needed. Migratory fishes and ground-
fishes in coastal waters are affected by pollut-
ed sediments also, and these effects require
ecological and economic evaluation as well.
Microscopic Examination of Marine Organism Tissue Sections Reveals Pathologic Changes Caused
by Pollutants (EPA, Narragansett Environmental Research Laboratory).
14
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Microbial Pollutants
Municipal sewage outfalls cause health and
ecological risks by introducing microorganisms
into the marine environment. These risks must
be determined. Areas of research, development,
and monitoring include sources, identification
of dangerous species, persistence, transforma-
tion, measurement, diagnosis of health and eco-
logical effects, development of risk protocols,
and prevention of microbial contamination of the
marine environment. Costs and benefits of
abatement and prevention technologies should be
determined.
Municipal Waste Treatment Technology Improvement
We need to reduce the volume and kinds of
pollutants which reach the ocean. To do this,
advanced alternative waste treatment technolo-
gies need to be developed, particularly for geo-
graphic areas of immediate hazard such as con-
necting channels of the Great Lakes and broad
continental shelf zones of the Atlantic and Gulf
coasts. Technological, ecological and economic
costs and benefits of such technologies should
be determined at the pilot feasibility stage or
before.
Monitoring Strategies
Monitoring sewage outfall effects in marine
waters traditionally has been a one-at-a-time ,
Biological Oxygen Demand and suspended solids
and floatables effort, which has ignored the
individual and cumulative effects of outfalls
upon larger water masses and the ecosystems
within them. New monitoring strategies to
include these larger considerations need to be
developed and implemented, together with tacti-
cal means of remedial action based upon the
information obtained. Areas requiring immediate
scientific improvement for this effort are anal-
ytical quality control methods, standardization
of techniques and protocols, selection of sen-
tinel species, and development of pollutant ana-
lysis methods for marine living and non-living
materials.
INDUSTRIAL WASTE DISPOSAL
Industrial wastes differ among industries,
among industrial processes for manufacturing the
same material, and even differ from time to time
out of the same outfall pipe (e.g., batch pro-
cessing). These differences coupled with eco-
logical and hydrological site differences,
necessitate case-by-case consideration to admin-
ister the NPDES permit program for industrial
wastes. For permitting purposes, commonalities
within an industry or among industries using
similar processes are useful, but cannot be
counted upon if there is not a great deal of
specific information on the kind, amount, trans-
port, transformation, fate, and effects of
industrial waste in the ocean environment. The
following needs relate to information identified
as necessary for evaluating methods, costs, and
benefits of industrial waste regulation.
Synthetic Pollutants
Research and monitoring should be conducted
to determine the sources, distribution, persis-
tence, and bioaccumulation of synthetic mate-
rials in the marine environment, including food
Construction Rubble Loaded on Barges in East River, New York, To Be Dumped Offshore in the
New York Bight (EPA, Documerica).
15
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web transfers and possible^
exposure. Accidental chlo
radionuclides should be
thetic materials deli
saltwater environments.
Rehabilitation of Industria
ments
Both ecological and eso":
degree and speed of reco
polluted ocean environments
Persistent and nonpersisten|
ing radionucl ides should
categories for this purpose
Industrial Biostimulants
Certain industrial
rich in carbon, nitrogen,
pounds which act as nutri
environment, much as do domi
Some pharmaceutical manufacta
cessing wastes also are highi
ed from discarded living matter. The ecological
and economic effects of these wastes should be
identified clearly and quantitatively, as should
the costs and benefits of existing and develop-
mental abatement technologies. Information
derived in these research and development activ-
ities should be included in predictive risk
Dead Menhaden Float Behind Tideline
Chesapeake Bay (EPA, Documerica).
Industrial Outfall into Chesapeake Bay (EPA,
Documerica).
assessment methods which are under concurrent
development.
Prevention Technology
Pretreatment is required for many indus-
trial wastes discharged into publicly-owned
treatment works. Others, which discharge sepa-
rately from municipal waste systems directly in-
to our waters must meet effluent regulations.
These regulations all are based upon tech-
nology—best available treatment—and not neces-
sarily upon ecological considerations or exter-
nalities of economics. Therefore, "to restore
and maintain the physical, chemical, and biolog-
ical integrity of our nations' waters, "(PL 92-
500, section 101(a) we need to reduce the volume
and number of pollutants reaching the oceans.
New and more cost effective technology to remove
pollutants from industrial process waste streams
should be developed on a process-by-process
basis. In addition to technological solutions,
alternative disposal strategies including
marketing wastes for other uses need be
analysed.
Advanced Disposal Technology
We should develop methods which will per-
manently destroy or isolate very hazardous
wastes, including radionuclides. Land-based
destruction methods might have obviated the
Kepone, PCB, and PBB problems which we now must
solve. In the future, adequate isolation tech-
niques may re-open the question, now closed by
law, of ocean disposal for high level radio-
active wastes and other presently prohibited
waste materials.
Human Health
• We should evaluate the health effects of
persistent pollutants, including nuclear waste
16
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EPA Biologist Taking Bottom Samples as Part of Systematic Study of Baltimore Harbor (EPA,
Documerica).
in the ocean environment and determine active
pathways to human exposure.
Monitoring Strategy
A nationwide monitoring system to detect
the appearance and persistence of hazardous
materials that are accumulated by marine
organisms to which man may be exposed should be
established and maintained.
Predictive Risk Assessment
Regulation of many industrial wastes is
based solely upon the results of laboratory bio-
logical toxicity assays. We should perform
research and development to relate laboratory-
derived information to actual effects of eco-
nomically or ecologically important pollutants
in the ocean. This knowledge should be used in
predictive risk assessment techniques that are
under concurrent development.
OCEAN DUMPING OF DREDGED SPOIL
Dredged spoil of itself is not necessarily
a pollutant. It's polluting qualities depend
upon the extent to which it has been subjected
to deposition of other polluting wastes and,
secondarily, upon where it is deposited in the
marine environment. Even unpolluted spoil can
be a pollutant in areas where marine species are
affected adversely by siltation, such as coral
communities and oyster beds. Further, the tech-
nology of dredging is primitive and the several
methods developed which are less primitive are
limited geographically to the areas in which
specialized dredges are available. Although
dredged spoil need not be a pollutant, relative-
ly little and only recent attention has been
given to alternative uses, such as wetlands
restoration, artificial island construction,
artificial wetlands construction, and use in
paving and building materials. Clearly harbor
dredging must continue for purposes of commerce,
national security, and perhaps even public
health. Therefore, there is much technological
development and use research required to prevent
dredged spoil pollution and to turn the spoil to
beneficial uses.
Disposal Site Analysis
The issue of what circumstances call for
containment of spoils and which require their
dispersal needs to be resolved. Monitoring of
existing and new ocean disposal sites is mandat-
ed by 40 CFR, Sections 227 and 228. Data from
these monitoring programs should be examined to
develop hypotheses and improve predictive
methods by which sites for ocean disposal are
chosen. Better records should be kept of the
quantity and composition of spoils disposed of
in the ocean. Monitoring should be conducted so
that the persistence of spoil effects may be
determined.
Prevention Technology
Means should be developed for dredging with
minimal siltation of the water column. These
means should also be amenable to cost-effective
transport of dredged spoil to land or ocean dis-
posal sites. Different technology may be needed
to account for geographical differences in need
17
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for improvement and means of disposal. Research
and development also should address methods to
isolate polluted dredged spoil dumped at sea and
at inshore sites from the overlying waters.
Human Health
Thus far no known adverse human health
effects have been attributed to polluted dredge
spoil in the United States. However, polluted
spoil has caused health problems elsewhere in
the world. Further, bottom sediments exist in
United States estuarine waters which would be
hazardous if humans were exposed to them. Thus,
in certain restricted areas such as the James
River (a saltwater estuary), and parts of the
Hudson River estuary where there is heavy bottom
pollution by hazardous materials, research and
development should address how safely to remove
or to isolate pollutants in place and how to
dispose of them without endangering workers or
the public.
Plankton Net Being Drawn Aboard (EPA, Docu-
merica).
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MARINE TRANSPORTATION
SPILL RESPONSE*
Oil and hazardous material spills range
from accidental catastrophic releases to low
level leakages of minor importance to the
oceans. Industrial and governmental responses
to spills have led to the following suggestions
for research, development, or monitoring:
Protection of Birds
Water bird populations often are harmed
severely by large oil spills. We should refine
methods to keep birds from landing in waters af-
fected by acute discharges of oil or hazardous
material s.
Identification and Classification of Shoreline
Vulnerability
Various shoreline types within a coastal
Pollution From Marine Vessels Includes Refuse
Dumped in Port and at Sea (EPA, Documerica).
zone are not equally vulnerable to spilled oil
or hazardous chemicals. We should identify
these differences in vulnerability. Then we
should incorporate this knowledge into
contingency planning for oil or hazardous
material spill response activities. Knowledge
of shoreline vulnerability should help to set
priorities for deployment of response personnel
and material s.
Development of Spill Response Chemicals
Spilled oil penetrates sand causing damage
to burrowing invertebrates, and heavier oils
coat rocks tenaciously. In these situations,
clean-up efforts are as disruptive of ecosystem
integrity as is the spill itself. Shoreline
damage from these twin causes could be lessened
if non-toxic chemicals could be applied to a
jeopardized beach to make sands less permeable
and oil less adherent to rocks. We should
develop such chemicals and perform controlled
field testing.
Separating Oil From Water
The effective holding capacity of oil spill
storage devices decreases when a lot of water is
picked up with the oil. We need to develop a
means to separate water from the recovered oil
in the device--possibly by means of a non-toxic
chemical demulsifier for use within oil recovery
devices.
Measurement of Oil Slicks
Oil spilled on the ocean becomes a series
of variable patches rather than a single concen-
trated mass. These patches differ in size and
oil concentration, and in their threat to shore-
lines. We need a means to measure the amount of
oil in a given slick so that removal operations
may be directed toward greater quantities of
oil.
Definition of Harm
For enforcement purposes we must be able to
define a harmful quantity of a polluting sub-
stance and, secondly, we must be able to measure
it easily.
*Note: It is important to note that many shore
based spills are not directly related to marine
transportation, but the clean-up technology is
similar to that used for spills which result
from marine transportation activities.
19
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Shoreline Cleanup Following the Amoco Cadiz Spill Off the Britanny Coast (EPA, Narragansett
Environmental Research Laboratory).
Oil Dispersant Effects
In defined situations, Environmental Pro-
tection Agency and U.S. Coast Guard can author-
ize use of chemical dispersants to remove spil-
led oil from coastal zone surfaces. Continued
research should be performed to develop effec-
tive chemical dispersants having acceptable
health and environmental effects.
MARINE SANITATION DEVICES
Need for Marine Sanitation on Recreational Craft
Devices to hold or treat domestic wastes on
small recreational boats must meet minimum
requirements set by PL 92-500 et. seq. The need
for these regulations has been questioned by the
boating industry and boaters based upon both
volume and damage to the environment and to
human health caused by these wastes. These
questions ought to be resolved by federal
research.
Chiorination of Small Craft Wastes
Studies should be performed to determine
whether chlorinated wastes are more or less
harmful than untreated wastes pumped overboard
from small craft into coastal and estuarine
waters. This is both an environmental and human
health issue.
TRANSPORT OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
The U.S. Coast Guard identifies cargos of
particular hazards in 33 CFR 24-14 (b), and
states specific requirements for their traffic
control and transfer operations. Information on
hazards of a wide range of chemicals is con-
tained in several data storage systems, includ-
ing USCG's "Chemical Hazards Response Informa-
tion System", EPA's "Oil and Hazardous Materials
Technical Assistance Data System", and "CHEMTEC"
run by the Manufacturing Chemists Association.
We should obtain better information on general
traffic routes for hazardous chemicals as well
as trends in quantities transported. Also,
continuing research should be performed, in
coordination with EPA's responsibilities under
the Toxic Substances Control Act, to evaluate
the hazards of new chemicals and products. All
of these facts are needed for contingency
planning and risk evaluations.
NAVIGATIONAL AND OPERATIONAL STANDARDS
Although research in this area is not
directly related to ocean pollution, its in-
direct relationships through vessel accidents
are obvious and important. Two areas of need
appear promising for the coming five years of
research and development to prevent and abate
ocean pollution.
Need for Redundant Equipment on Vessels
Considerable technical work and analysis
has determined the extent to which placing
redundant equipment on vessels may reduce
pollution incidents. This topic most recently
was discussed at the International Conference on
20
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Oil Spews From Damaged Tanker After Collision
With Mississippi River Barge (EPA, Documerica).
Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention, and is
being reviewed within the Coast Guard Commercial
Vessel Safety Program. There still is
disagreement on the extent to which redundancy
should be required. Additional research on
relative reliability among various safety
systems should prove useful in clearing up the
controversy.
Tanker Segregated Ballast
Oil tanker design to reduce pollution due
to collisions and groundings is still a subject
of contention. The Intergovernmental Maritime
Consultative Organization, Society of Naval
Architects, Marine Engineers and Ships
Structural Committee have been working in this
area for some time. Work is needed to determine
the best locations for placing segregated
ballast to reduce the pollution potential.
OIL TRANSPORTATION
The U.S. Coast Guard needs additional in-
formation and capabilities to meet specified
congressional mandates on the drafting and en-
forcement of regulations concerning oil trans-
port. Both new and continuing programs are
invol ved.
Evaluation of Lightering Pollution
The 1978 Port and Tanker Safety Act
requires the Coast Guard to regulate offshore
lightering operations conducted within the
United States outer continental shelf boundary
or the economic zone created by the 1978 Fishery
Conservation and Management Act. Little
information presently is available to define the
pollution threat that these operations pose.
Sensitivity and statistical analyses of the
operation are required to determine this. Such
data will allow prudent drafting of required
regulations and will support their enforcement.
Development of an Oily water Discharge Monitor
for Vessels
International agreements soon will limit
operational oil discharges to 15 parts per
million of oil within U.S. waters. The Coast
Guard will enforce this agreement. The most
efficient enforcement mechanism would require
vessels to install an oily water monitor that
will indicate and record for Coast Guard review
when ballast or bilges were discharged and
whether the oil content exceeded 15 PPM.
Development of such a device is needed for
enforcement.
Emergency Cargo Transfer Systems for Tankers
The need for built-in emergency cargo
transfer systems on tank vessels has been inves-
tigated by the Intergovernmental Maritime Con-
sultative Organization (IMCO). Efforts to date
indicated that such systems would be of limited
value. There is still some disagreement about
this finding. An additional study to estimate
the amount of pollution which would be elimin-
ated if such a system were installed on all
tankers, and the estimated cost of placing and
maintaining such systems may serve to resolve
this matter.
FUEL POLLUTION RISK ASSESSMENT
Identification of Oil Effects
Acute and chronic effects of oil pollution
on the environment have been studied for years,
and no agreement has been reached by opposing
sides concerning their nature or importance.
Definitive studies to resolve these issues
remain as research needs.
Ocean Hazards of Nuclear Propulsion Vessels
There have been many studies performed to
define the risk to the marine environment posed
by nuclear propulsion aboard vessels, but their
results have caused much disagreement. As fos-
sil fuel supplies diminish large numbers of
nuclear propelled vessels may be proposed as an
alternative. Risks of ocean pollution effects
owing to this change should be analyzed.
21
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Spill Movement Modeling
Two dimensional models have been developed
to predict pathways that oil and/or hazardous
chemicals can follow when released into the
marine environment. This work is fundamental to
efforts to predict where discharged pollutants
will be found within the environment. Three
dimensional models which include mixing and
toxicity are needed to perform risk analyses and
to assist personnel involved in planning clean-
up and mitigation strategies during response
actions, as well as to assist researchers in
predicting distribution of pollutants which will
result from planned waste disposal discharges.
The Argo Merchant Oil Spill, 1976 (NOAA).
22
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OCEAN MINERAL RESOURCES
OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT ON THE OUTER CONTINENTAL
SHELF
Easily extractable U.S. oil is nearly ex-
hausted, and it is increasingly difficult to ex-
tract oil on land. This is also true of off-
shore oil in shallow waters of the Gulf of
Mexico. More difficult offshore oil extractions
in Alaska and the Northeastern Atlantic and
California coast are centers of active indus-
trial interest. Whereas Alaska and California
oil fields are proven, Atlantic oil formations
are just opening up to exploration and develop-
ment. Domestic oil and gas supplies take on
greater importance as assured oil imports become
more subject to international political and eco-
nomic pressures. Lease sales for OCS oil and
gas development continue to be scheduled. Even
so, the public call for environmental quality
echos loudly through the coastal states, parti-
cularly those states which are unaccustomed to
oil drilling operations. Thus, it is in Alaska,
New York, and the New England States where the
balance between finite oil supplies and infinite
fisheries and coastal recreation is a matter of
heated controversy and even litigation. If we
are to preserve our resources as we extract
finite fuels and minerals, research and develop-
ment and monitoring need to provide us better
foundations for rational decisions including
leasing decisions on how to minimize risks and
improve extraction methods.
Predicting Drill Platform Blow-out and Spill
Effects
Offshore Oil Drilling Platform (DOE).
Unlike catastrophic tanker spills, those of
drilling platforms occur at known places and in
known ranges of ocean tidal, current, wave, and
wind conditions. Platforms really are "point
sources" of potential spills. As such, spills
trajectories emanating from a platform can be
predicted from rather solid information. Tech-
niques for making these predictions should be
improved. For any exploratory platform in
place, seasonal winds, currents, waves, geolog-
ical hazards, and living marine resources are
known, as is the type of oil produced and its
toxicity and persistence as a toxicant.
Before production platforms are constructed,
these data should be incorporated into a risk
analysis to determine whether or not and how
production facilities should be built.
Oil Spill Damage Assessment
The 1978 Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act
Amendments establish an oil spill compensation
fund managed by the U.S. Coast Guard which auth-
orizes reimbursement for losses to national
resources. A similar compensation fund may be
established soon to compensate for losses of
natural resources due to discharges of oil and
hazardous chemicals from other sources. Ques-
tions that need answers in every instance are:
what was damaged?; how was it damaged?; and how
much was it damaged? What we need to know is
how to convert losses of natural resources into
equitable monetary values. A major research
effort is recommended to develop this method.
Oiled Shallow Water Fisheries
Highly productive, shallow water fisheries
such as Georges' Bank are particularly suscep-
tible to damage by effluents and catastrophic
spills from production platforms. Fisheries
managers are capable of predicting the effects
of fishing pressure on subsequent fish harvest
with an accuracy approximating 20 percent.
These methods, used for the International Com-
mission on North Atlantic Fisheries delibera-
tions, should serve as a springboard for predic-
tive risk assessment of oil effects, given tox-
icities, oceanic trajectory and mixing condi-
tions, and the several seasonal resources at
risk. The two worst possible cases and most
likely case production accidents should at least
be assessed bimonthly.
Blow Out Prevention
We should develop improved well control
procedures and blow out prevention equipment for
23
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Skipjack Tuna School
deep water drilling. These should be tested and
put to use as quickly as possible.
Platform Oil Spill Containment and Clean-Up
Equipment
Present oil spill containment and clean-up
devices work only in the mildest offshore sea
conditions and are not suitable to contain rough
water spills. More effective containment and
oil recovery devices could reduce ecological and
economic losses. Their development should be
undertaken in collaboration with industry.
Special Needs for Arctic Oil and Gas Production
• Ue know little about how spilled oil
travels under ice or about its effects
there. Of particular concern are oil
(NOAA).
accumulations in leads and brine ponds
and their effects on migrating marine
mammals and birds. Studies of these
matters are recommended.
• Although means to cap blowouts under
ice are necessary due to rapid move-
ments of the winter ice pack, the tech-
nology for blowout prevention and stop-
page under ice is at present specula-
tive and should be developed.
• The arctic undersea ecosystem is not
well understood under normal condi-
tions. Variations in its structure and
function need to be measured as base-
line information. Effects of spilled
oil on arctic ecosystems, and ecosys-
tems' recovery from spilled oil should
be determined experimentally and, as
opportunities arise, in the field.
A Colony of Fur Seal Bulls, Cows, and Pups, Pribiloff Island, Alaska (NOAA).
24
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Identification of Marine Resources
In order to make better decisions relating
to DCS leasing, the resources in lease tract
areas (including fish, birds, mammals and their
habitats) should be identified. Measures which
could be taken to avoid or minimize danger to
the resources in these areas should also be
determined.
Exploratory and Development Drilling
• Normal operational discharges from ex-
ploratory and production rigs at sea
are comprised largely of drilling muds,
drill cuttings and brines. While we
have some information about their ecol-
ogical effects on Gulf and California
coastal under-sea life, almost nothing
is known about their effects upon the
ecosystems of Georges' Bank, the Mid--
Atlantic, and Arctic lease sale areas.
A comparison of geological hazards
among these areas is recommended. Lab-
oratory and field studies of ecological
effects of drilling are recommended
particularly for sensitive marine life
such as coral, fish and shellfish
spawning and nursery areas, and for
bottom communities in the vicinity of
drilling platforms.
t Drilling muds vary in chemical composi-
tion to fit differing needs of the
drilling process. Their range of com-
position should be examined for amounts
of components harmful to marine life.
Based on this information, protocols
should be established for use and dis-
posal of potentially harmful drilling
muds in areas where their overboard
discharge would either be deleterious
or imprudent.
t A variety of overboard discharge
methods for operational drilling plat-
form wastes should be investigated.
Suggested investigations are shunting
to various depths, storage and trans-
port from site, onsite reconditioning
or cleaning of drilling muds, and on-
shore disposal.
Production, Collection and Transportation
Production, collection, and pipeline trans-
port of offshore oil and gas are, at least in
part, siting issues. Whether drilling facili-
ties are a hazard to marine biota or a sanctuary
for them remains to be resolved. Risks due to
spills should be compared with risks due to
fishing and over-fishing, as well as with risks
of additive worst case situations involving
both. Geological hazards to pipelines and haz-
ards of pipeline construction to marine life and
the biota of on-shore wetlands and barrier beach
portions of the pipeline should be considered.
Analyses should include consideration of real
hazards to pipeline integrity caused by geologic
instability (faults, sediments, sand waves), ex-
cessive permafrost, ice gouging, and undersea
activities of man.
DEEP SEABED MINING
Admitting that jurisdictions are at best
unclear, and at worst, matters of serious inter-
national disagreement, we have considered pollu-
tion of the deep sea floor a common concern to
all. A primary national need is resolution of
the jurisdictional question. To the extent that
Tanker Port Unloading Facility (DOE).
25
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this is likely to occur in the next five years,
the following needs for research, development
and monitoring are pressing.
Surface and Water Column Effects
Bringing deep ocean water turbid with sea
floor sediments to the surface may not neces-
sarily cause significant pollution in the water
column. Although the objective of mining is to
bring only mineral nodules to the surface, with
present technology it is impossible to avoid
raising some bottom sediments along with the
minerals. The following research on surface
waters is recommended:
t Characterize the particle size range of
particulate discharges, their chemical
composition, and their physical
integrity.
• Determine the distribution and fate of
sediments discharged at the surface.
• Examine the extent to which surface
discharges stimulate or inhibit plank-
ton populations and whether or not dis-
solved or particulate discharged mater-
ial enters the marine food web.
• Consider the necessity and practicality
of discharge below the thermocline and
pycnocline.
Bottom Effects
In essence, deep sea mineral extraction
strip mines the surface of the sea floor and is
by necessity highly disruptive. However, at any
given time, it causes a small, single traveling
point of disruption. We need to know whether
this disruption affects deep sea life. Further,
we should find out the extent to which deep sea
living creatures are important to man. Toward
these, the following research is recommended:
• Species disturbed by the dredge should
be inventoried.
• Effect of the mining process on deep
sea life should be described (e.g.,
masceration, siltation of habitats or
food organisms, attraction and destruc-
tion, avoidances, etc.).
• The possibility of recolonizing dis-
rupted areas should be investigated.
• The prospect of regrowing mineral
deposits should be investigated.
Processing and Production
In theory, the least environmentally dis-
ruptive mining technology should be the most ef-
ficient industrial process. The development of
deep sea mining methods should therefore proceed
toward this goal. Chemical and physical proper-
ties of any process wastes discharged at sea
should be analyzed and investigated for pollu-
ting properties, and the fate of these wastes at
sea should be determined.
SAND, GRAVEL, AND SHELL MINING
Onshore sand, gravel, and shell mining pose
a much greater immediate threat to living re-
sources than deep sea mining. Onshore mining
occurs on the shallow continental shelf, in
areas teeming with ecologically and economically
important marine life and represents a use which
competes with ecological habitat stability,
sport fishing, commercial fin and shell fishing,
navigation, and aesthetics of the coastal zone.
Although it does not introduce foreign matter
and chemicals into the sea, its effects are re-
lated to extreme disruption of the shallow sea
floor—excavation and consequent siltation.
Some information on these effects is available
as spill-over from channel dredging projects,
but it is not specific to mining activities,
which differ somewhat from dredging in technol-
ogy, practice, and location. The following
research is recommended:
Manganese Nodules, A Few Inches in Diameter, Rest on Pacific Ocean Floor (NOAA).
26
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Sediment Hazards
Shell Dredging Operation (EPA, Documerica).
Technology Development
Mining technology that is less disruptive
to the water column and surrounding seafloor
should be developed. Silt containment and pat-
tern mining to match hydrologic features of the
area should be considered.
Long Term Effects
Long-term effects of sediment from mining
waste on fishes and bottom dwelling species
should be established for consideration in per-
mitting processes.
Short-term effects on the metabolism and
survival of organisms confronted with high con-
centrations of suspended fine sediments in the
vicinity of mining activities should be deter-
mined.
Bottom Disruption
Effects of mining excavations in the sea
floor on marine plants and animals should be
described and evaluated.
Onshore Effects
Onshore delivery of mined product for sub-
sequent processing and utilization should be
evaluated for ocean polluting effects.
Planning Studies
Demographic, socio-economic, and environ-
mental effects of the development and maturation
of the sand, gravel, and shell mining industries
should be investigated and results made avail-
able for coastal zone planning.
BRINE PRODUCING ACTIVITIES
Natural and man made brines put in the
ocean are heavier than seawater and so tend to
creep along the bottom in streams until physical
mixing disperses them. In the few places where
this is a problem, effects can be devastating to
exposed marine life. Thus far, the problem has
been rare, highly localized, and a threat only
to marine life in the vicinity.
Brine producing activities are desalination
for production of fresh water and the storage of
gas in underground or undersea salt domes.
Alternative technologies and safety precautions
for salt residue disposal should be developed on
a case-by-case basis. Criteria for imposing
these treatment technologies should be founded
upon ecological and economic considerations.
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At Depths Where Nodule Mining Would Take Place, The Diversity And Abundance of Lifeforms
Revealed by Special Cameras is Considerably Greater Than Had Previously Been Thought to
Exist (DOE).
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LIVING OCEAN RESOURCES
Industries that farm or process living
marine resources may pollute the ocean with
their facilities and their wastes. Shellfish
and finfish harvesting industry wastes become
processing wastes onshore. Harvesting effects
on living marine resources result less from pol-
lution than from overfishing the resource it-
self. Except for certain declining fish or
shellfish populations which are more vulnerable
to other pollutant effects than are large and
healthy populations, fishing effects per se are
outside the scope of an ocean pollution study
plan. Ocean pollution aspects of offshore fish-
ery resource management should become a more
prominent subject of future PL 95-273 plans as
small but concentrated fisheries such as Georges
Bank come into conflict with other offshore
ocean uses having great pollution potential,
such as oil production. For the duration of
this study plan, a low to moderate effort to
fulfill the following needs is suggested:
Fish and Shellfish Processing Wastes
The present and projected pollutant loading
of U.S. coastal waters from fish and shellfish
processing is not known. We should have this
data to make economic and ecological choices.
Also, the kinds of pollutant problems caused by
suspended and dissolved solids, turbidity, pH
changes, oxygen demand and oil and grease in
these wastes should be documented and evaluated
for ecological significance. The extent to
which these wastes are siting or treatment prob-
lems should be examined.
Hatchery and Aquaculture Wastes
Hatchery and saltwater aquaculture facili-
ties are highly individual and their polluting
characteristics are largely related to site
suitability. Most such facilities operate with
no reported problems. Estimates of industry
increases and characteristics of problem facili-
ties should be attempted to determine whether or
not farming the oceans will become a pollution
or siting problem in the forseeable future.
Tuna Cannery (NOAA).
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Examination of Flounder For Pathology Associated With Pollutants (EPA, Narragansett Environmental
Research Laboratory).
30
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OCEAN RECREATION
Pollution caused by recreational activities
is relatively small in amount. Most forms of
recreation related pollution are subsets of
problems relating to marine waste disposal and
marine transportation. These will be mitigated
by specific solutions to those problems. Two
categorical problems deserve special treatment.
Marine Litter
Although 103,000 tons of litter per year
strewn upon U.S. coastlines is mim'scule com-
pared to solid waste problems of even a small
municipality, we do not know much about its ef-
fects in coastal waters. The kind and impor-
tance of these effects should be investigated to
determine what, if anything, need be done.
Habitat Disruption
Scallop dredging, spearfishing, and coral
harvesting are disruptive to the habitats of
animals other than those which are sought.
These activities have vested, highly vocal pro-
ponents and opponents who make conflicting
claims about their activities' adverse effects.
Objective assessments of their hazards to the
ecosystem, real extent, costs, and benefits are
needed to make intelligent choices at the state
and federal regulatory level.
Smelt Fishermen Cast Nets in Northern California Surf (EPA, Documerica).
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Pelican on Mooring at Florida Marina (EPA, Documerica).
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LAND USE PRACTICES CAUSING OCEAN POLLUTION
There are no federal land use laws or regu-
lations because the states, when forming the
federation, kept such powers to themselves.
Only in land use matters involving interstate
commerce or national defense may the federal
government pre-empt state authorities. Thus the
Coastal Zone Management Act and PL 92-500's sec-
tion 208 required planning for waste disposal
depend upon voluntary compliance by state
governments. Nevertheless, the coastal zone is
a continuous, thin band abounding in rich marine
life which varies with geographic and hydrogra-
phic features rather than with state lines.
Migratory fishes seem to scoff at man's bound-
aries, and for pressing physiological reasons
many northern species refuse to populate the
sunbelt. Further, state governments vary widely
in their concepts of the best and wisest uses of
the coastal zone; tourism vs. developments,
fisheries vs. oil production, marine parks and
sanctuaries vs. commerce, refineries vs.
recreation; all are argued differently among the
coastal states. The resolution of this
jurisdictional problem is well outside the scope'
of this plan. National needs and problems are
discussed here as they relate to onshore land
use practices which pollute the oceans,
regardless of who will use research,
development, and monitoring information to solve
these problems.
Habitat Modifications
Man's alterations in coastal environments
cause the most insidious and long-lasting damage
to ecosystems. Filling and dredging may allow
man's use of the environment while having un-
planned consequences to natural uses.
Effects often extend beyond the predicted
sphere of impact and can be felt over a long
period of time. Alterations may be temporary
with natural environmental patterns quickly re-
established through compensatory processes or
they may be permanent. We need to know the per-
vasiveness of physical alterations in coastal
and estuarine environments, because such alter-
ations can affect wetland and estuarine product-
ivity.
• Effects of dredging and channelization
on selected estuarine and coastal eco-
systems should be determined.
t Effects of altered hydrologic regimes on
salinity, temperature, and nutrient
regimes in selected coastal bays and
Development of Artificial Reefs, Marco Island, Florida (EPA, Documerica).
33
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estuaries where such modifications have
occurred should be investigated.
Potential changes in relatively
unaltered regimes should be predicted
from results of these investiqations.
Effects of altered sedimentation pat-
terns due to increasing turbidity, spoil
disposal, channelization, dredging and
resource extraction on selected estu-
arine ecosystems should be measured.
Effects of reductions in aquatic vege-
tation (marshes, swamps, mangroves, sea-
grasses and macroalgae) on coastal
marine ecosystems should be studied.
Effects of wetland losses due to filling
and grading should be measured.
Habitat areas critical for certain
species should be identified and eco-
system implications of loss or physical
modification of such areas should be de-
fined.
Non-point Source Pollution
• A comprehensive inventory of pollution,
entering the coastal oceans from non--
point sources should be compiled on ai
regional basis and updated frequently.
The inventory should focus on selectedl
critical pollutants from both riverine>
and air sources.
• Existing levels of selected critical
pollutants in estuarine, coastal and
offshore waters should be determined by
regularly scheduled monitoring. General
models of flow into and through the
narrow coastal region (wetlands out to 3
miles offshore) should be developed and
verified. These regional loading models
can be factored into point-source dis-
charge permit conditions.
Facility Siting
Each industrial facility sited along the
shoreline has its own set of requirements for
transportation, transmission, fresh water, salt
water, power, communications, labor force and
markets. Any of these matters may prove criti-
cal in its absence. Often, environmental con-
siderations come late in industrial siting
protocols--so late, in fact, that environmental
protection is considered a backfitting procedure
by many industries which own environmentally
unacceptable or marginally acceptable sites.
This can be very costly, not only to the
industry but to environmentalists and
governmental regulators. In the final analysis,
these costs are borne by consumers and
taxpayers.
There are needs for siting information as
such, and there are needs to revise and stream-
line siting procedures and protocols. Environ-
mental siting criteria are known and understood
by regulators and the industry, but should be
codified and agreed upon to the extent possible.
Shoreline Erosion Stemming From Development in Georgia (EPA, Documerica).
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Further needs for information may emerge from
this process to become subjects of research,
development, or monitoring. Procedural and pro-
tocol siting needs largely are institutional,
and as such are outside the scope of ocean pol-
lution study. However, available studies,
experiences, and experts should be included in
the process of institutional change if and when
it occurs.
Aesthetic Considerations
Ocean pollution is not aesthetic, nor are
many of its causes. It generally is agreed that
"quality of life" in the coastal zone cannot be
measured in purely economic terms. Contempla-
tive values of contact with the unaltered coas-
tal zone have few ad hoc advocates, until the
zone is altered and the option for exercising
those values is gone. We need to know how much
remaining coastal zone there is that the public
perceives as still aesthetically pleasing.
The Snowy Egret is a Bird of Coastal Marshes.
".'. DiPasquale, SCS Engineers).
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'; US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1979-0-295-068/6265
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