vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
EPA-600/8-79-028
October 1979
Office of Research and Development
Research
Summary
id Rain
ik.
-------
Acid rain may be one of the most significant environmental
problems of the coming decade. It poses new challenges to
the full development of our forest, agricultural, and aquatic
resources; and to the use of fossil fuels as an energy source.
The objective of our research program is to develop information
which will assure that the Nation's energy needs are met
without sacrificing environmental quality.
The recently promulgated New Source Performance Standards
for fossil fuel power plants will control sulfur oxide emissions
from future power plants, and after 1 995, begin to effect
regional reductions of sulfur oxides and hence acid rain. This
program, however, does not address continued emissions
from existing plants over the next two decades. The possible
alterations for existing plants range from low cost coal cleaning
to retrofitting with stack gas scrubbers. Because coal can be
burned cleanly, the solutions to our acid rain problems need
not conflict with national energy priorities. Pollution control
may be expensive, but the costs of environmental protection
are far less than the costs of environmental neglect.
I expect the future results from our research program and
those of other agencies to be the basis for a new dialogue
between many interested parties. This Research Summary is
the first of several documents designed to insure an informed
public debate on this important national issue.
Stephen J. Gage
Assistant Administrator
for Research and Development
This brochure is one of a series providing a brief description of major areas of the Environ-
mental Protection Agency's research and development program. Additional copies may be
obtained by writing to:
Research Publications
Office of Research and Development, RD-674
US EPA
Washington, D.C. 20460
or by calling 1202) 755-0648
Cover Photo by David Natella
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5. Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard. 12th Ftoor
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
-------
As a result of the combustion of tremendous quantities of
fossil fuels such as coal and oil, the United States annually
discharges approximately 50 million metric tons of sulfur and
nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Through a series of
complex chemical reactions these pollutants can be
converted into acids, which may return to earth as com-
ponents of either rain or snow. This acid precipitation, more
commonly known as acid rain, may have severe ecological
impacts on widespread areas of the environment.
Hundreds of lakes in North America and Scandanavia have
become so acidic that they can no longer support fish life.
More than 90 lakes in the Adirondack mountains in New York
State are fishless because acidic conditions have inhibited
reproduction. Recent data indicate that other areas of the
United States, such as northern Minnesota and Wisconsin,
may be vulnerable to similar adverse impacts.
While many of the aquatic effects of acid precipitation have
been well documented, data related to possible terrestrial
impacts are just beginning to be developed. Preliminary
research indicates that the yield from agricultural crops can
be reduced as a result of both the direct effects of acids on
foliage, and the indirect effects resulting from the leaching of
minerals from soils. The productivity of forests may be
affected in a similar manner.
President's
Environmental
Message
Courtesy of Calvin Grondahl, Deseret News
In addition, acid deposition is contributing to the destruction
of stone monuments and statuary throughout the world. The
2500 year old Parthenon and other classical buildings on the
Acropolis in Athens, Greece, have shown much more rapid
decay in this century as a result of the city's high air pollution
levels. Research is underway to clarify the role of acid rain in
the destruction.
In recognition of the potential seriousness of the acid rain
problem, the President's Second Environmental Message to
Congress in August of 1979 called for a minimum $10 million
per year research program to be conducted over the next ten
years. The Environmental Protection Agency and the Depart-
ment of Agriculture co-chair the Acid Rain Coordination
1
-------
Source of
the Problem
Air Pollution
Emissions
Committee established to plan and coordinate the Federal
interagency program which is presently being developed.
In 1977, sulfur oxides accounted for 14 percent (27.4
million metric tons) of the total air pollution in the United
States, while nitrogen oxides accounted for 12 percent (23
million metric tons). Although other pollutants also act as
precursors to acid rain, it is believed that these two oxides
are the major contributors to the problem.
National Air Quality, Monitoring, and Emission Trends Report, 1977,
US EPA, December 1978.
Fundamental
Chemistry
Sulfur oxides (SOx) are primarily emitted from stationary
sources such as utility and industrial boilers burning coal as a
fuel. However, nitrogen oxides (N0\) are emitted from both
stationary and transportation-related sources such as cars and
trucks. Approximately 56 percent of the NOx discharged into
the atmosphere in 1977 resulted from the combustion of
fossil fuels by stationary sources, while 40 percent originated
from transportation-related sources. Over the next twenty
years the combustion of fossil fuels is expected to increase
significantly. In particular, emissions of nitrogen oxides from
stationary sources are likely to increase rapidly during this
period.
The most common sulfur and nitrogen oxides are sulfur
dioxide (S02) and nitric oxide (NO). After being discharged
into the atmosphere, these pollutants can be chemically
converted into sulfuric (H2SO4) and nitric (HN03) acid through
a process known as oxidation. There are several complicated
pathways or mechanisms by which oxidation can occur.
Which path is actually taken is dependent upon numerous
factors such as the concentration of heavy metals, the intensity
of sunlight, and the amount of ammonia present.
Again, one should keep in mind that other acids contribute to
the acid rain problem. Hydrochloric acid (HCI), for example,
may be emitted directly from coal-fired power plants and
2
-------
frequently is found relatively short distances downwind from
the source.
NO
nitric oxide
Dry Deposition
Long Distance
Transport
pH Scale
The process by which acids are deposited through rain or
snow is frequently called wet deposition. However, another
atmospheric process known as dry deposition may also occur.
Dry deposition is the process by which particles such as fly
ash, or gases such as sulfur dioxide (S02) or nitric oxide (NO),
are deposited, or absorbed, onto surfaces. While these particles
or gases are normally not in the acidic state prior to deposition,
it is believed that they are converted into acids after con-
tacting water in the form of rain, dew, fog, or mist following
deposition. The precise mechanisms by which dry deposition
takes place, and its effects on soils, forests, crops, and
buildings, are not adequately understood. Much research will
be undertaken in the coming years to clarify its contribution
to the overall acid deposition problem.
Various sulfur compounds which may act as precursors to
sulfuric acid are known to travel as far as several hundred
kilometers per day while in the atmosphere. During transport
these pollutants may easily cross geographical and political
boundaries. This situation creates numerous national and
international regulatory problems in that the air pollution stan-
dards of one state or country can have an indirect impact on
the natural resources of another.
It is believed that other nitrogen-containing pollutants may be
transported in a similar manner. Research is underway to
clarify the transport processes associated with the major
pollutants contributing to the acid deposition problem.
The pH, a numerical value used to describe the strength of an
acid, is determined by a mathematical formula based on a
solution's concentration of hydrogen ions (H+). The pH scale
ranges from a numerical value of 0 to 14. A value of pH 1 is
very acid (battery acid), pH 7 is neutral, and pH 13 is very
alkaline (lye). Because of the logarithmic nature of the scale,
pH 4 is 10 times more acidic than pH 5, and 100 times more
acidic than pH 6, and so on. Precipitation is defined as being
acidic if the pH is less than 5.6, the pH of normal, unpolluted
-------
LEMON JUICE
VINEGAR
MEAN pH OF ADIRONDACK LAKES - 1975
"PURE" RAIN (5.6)
MEAN pH OF ADIRONDACK LAKES - 1930's
DISTILLED WATER
BAKING SODA
I AMMONIA
iCID RAIN
1 2 3 4
ACIDIC
5 6 7 8
NEUTRAL
10 11 12 13 14
BASIC
rain. The slight natural acidity of normal rain is due to the
presence of carbonic acid (H2C03), which is formed by the
reaction of atmospheric carbon dioxide (C02) with water.
C02
HC03~ +
4 +
CARBON
DIOXIDE
WATER
' BICARBONATE HYDROGEN ION
As was pointed out earlier, fish populations are especially
sensitive to changes in the pH of their surroundings. A recent
study of several hundred Norwegian lakes showed that of the
lakes having a pH between 5.5 and 6.0, less than 10 percent
contained no fish. At pH's of less than 4.5, more than 70
percent of the lakes were fishless. Acidic lake water not only
affects fish directly. Low pH water frequently promotes the
release of potentially toxic metals from the lake bed. Aluminum,
for example, is frequently found in high concentrations in
fishless lakes, and is released from soils at approximately pH
4.5. Rainfall runoff may carry aluminum from nearby soils into
lakes, or into streams which empty into lakes and thus magnify
the problem.
The average annual rainfall pH is presently less than 4.5 over
most of the eastern United States. Lakes that lack a buffering
capacity, or ability to chemically neutralize this acidity, face
serious ecological harm. The following figure indicates the
trend in the acidity of rain in the eastern United States. The
colored area represents a pH of less than 4.5.
-------
1966-1966
1972-1973
Adapted From: G.E. Likens, Chemical & Engineering News, 1976 (C.V. Cogbill)
The map below indicates those areas of the continental
United States that are believed to be sensitive to acid deposi-
tion. This map was constructed by examining such factors as
chemical composition of soils, climatic patterns, and types of
vegetation within a given geographical area. This, and other
maps, will be improved and updated as additional information
becomes available through research projects that are
presently underway.
| High Sensitivity
j J Moderate Sensitivity
| [Low Sensitivity
-------
EPA's Program The Environmental Protection Agency's program for
investigating the acid deposition problem and building a data
base for possible future regulatory action consists of three
major categories of effort:
environmental effects
monitoring
atmospheric processes
This program is the responsibility of the EPA's Office of
Research and Development (ORD).
Because of the complex and diverse manifestations of the
acid precipitation problem, it is necessary to involve a broad-
based, interdisciplinary team of researchers composed of
atmospheric chemists, meteorologists, aquatic and terrestrial
biologists, forest scientists, geologists, and economists to
mention a few. The EPA's program is being conducted in-house
and through grants, interagency agreements and contracts
with universities and other institutions. Scientists from more
than 10 government labs and 30 universities are presently
contributing to the effort.
Much of the data developed through the EPA acid rain
research program will ultimately be incorporated into criteria
documents prepared by the Environmental Criteria and
Assessment Office in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
Criteria documents provide the technical scientific foundation
upon which the EPA develops congressionally mandated
standards and regulations, and are used by the Office of
Research and Development to identify future avenues of
research.
Larry J. Heinis
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
EPA Research
Aquatic Effects
The environmental effects of acid deposition are diverse and
widespread and are being documented by research
throughout the worldespecially in Scandanavia and the
eastern United States. Some of the reported effects are:
acidification of lakes, rivers and groundwaters resulting in
damage to fish and other components of aquatic
ecosystems
acidification and release of metals from soils
possible reductions in forest productivity
possible damage to agricultural crops
deterioration of man-made materials such as buildings,
statuary, metal structures, and paint
possible contamination of drinking water supplies by
metals being released from soils and pipelines
The Environmental Protection Agency's acid deposition environ-
mental effects research is coordinated at the Environmental
Research Laboratory (ERU in Corvallis, Oregon. Research is
also being performed at the Environmental Research
Laboratory in Duluth, Minnesota, and through interagency
agreements with the Department of Energy's national
laboratories, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. In addition,
the EPA is cooperating with NATO's Committee on the
Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS) in a worldwide effort
to study adverse environmental effects of acid deposition on
historic and artistic stone monuments.
The EPA environmental effects research program is designed
to answer several broad questions about the present and
future effects of acid deposition on the environment such as:
What are its effects on the nation's lakes and streams? Will
agricultural productivity be significantly affected, and if so,
what crops will be most susceptible to damage? To what
extent will terrestrial ecosystems be adversely affected? Can
we prevent or reduce any potential damages or reverse any
effects that have already manifested themselves?
An understanding of the environmental effects of specific
quantities and concentrations of acid deposition on various
resources is essential if policy-makers are to make informed
decisions about the future use of coal and other fossil fuels
as sources of energy.
Research is underway at the EPA's Environmental Research
Laboratory in Corvallis to identify those lakes in the eastern
and western United States that are sensitive to acid deposition.
Suitable lakes for long-term study are being selected in order
to assist in the determination of the factors that influence lake
acidification such as buffering capacity, precipitation quantity,
and chemical composition of acids entering lakes. In addition,
researchers are developing physical and chemical models of
aquatic ecosystems designed to link ecological effects with
7
-------
Northern
Minnesota
specific levels of acidity. Information of this nature will be used
to forecast the impacts of acid deposition on lakes throughout
the United States.
Researchers at the Environmental Research Laboratory in
Duluth, Minnesota, and its Monticello Ecology Research Station
are studying the release of toxic elements from soils and
sediments and the resulting impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
Field studies in natural watersheds and artificial channels are
used to determine specific quantities of acid precipitation
causing adverse impacts. These studies are designed to pro-
vide insight into the response of aquatic ecosystems to
various levels of acidity, and to provide data for any future
regulations required to protect important aquatic resources.
A recent study was undertaken by the Duluth Environmental
Research Laboratory concerning possible impacts of a power
plant being built in Atikokan, Ontario, near northern Minnesota.
Results from this study showed that current atmospheric depo-
sition concentrations might already be causing damage to the
sensitive wilderness of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area and
Voyageurs National Park of northern Minnesota. The planned
increase in siting of coal-fired power plants in this region
presents a serious potential problem in light of this data. ERL-
Duluth is expanding its research to accurately define the
current sources and concentrations of pollutants, and to
determine the susceptibility of the forests, agricultural lands,
and some 20,000 lakes of the region to increases in pollution.
S U
-------
Geological
Sensitivity
Terrestrial Effects
Model Forest
Ecosystems
Initial research indicates that large areas of Minnesota,
Wisconsin, and upper Michigan may be as susceptible to
acid precipitation as the Adirondack lakes region in New
York. Mercury levels in fish, that increase as lakes become
acidic, are already high in some lakes in this area. Many fish
species, valuable to both commercial and sport fishing, are
similar to those that have been reduced or eliminated by acid
precipitation elsewhere in the United States and Canada.
In terms of terrestrial impacts, the largest and most long-lived
species of trees in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area and
Voyageurs National Park of northern Minnesota, the white
pine (Pinus strobus), is being threatened due to its sensitivity
to gaseous emissions from coal-fired power plants and high
ozone concentrations from industrial and municipal emissions.
The quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) has shown a
similar sensitivity.
The effects of acidification of fresh waters within geologically
sensitive regions of the United States are being examined
through an interagency agreement between the EPA and Brook-
haven National Laboratory in Upton, New York. Those areas -
lacking bedrock materials with sufficient buffering capacity
are being looked at in light of existing data on acid deposition.
This information is then compared with historical data on
water quality in order to make determinations as to the rate
of water deterioration in a given area.
The effects of acid deposition on the leaching of nutrients
from various soils are being documented by the Corvallis
Environmental Research Laboratory. A soil water chemistry
computer simulation model is being used to evaluate nutrient
leaching from soils varying in chemical composition, organic
content, alkalinity and acidity. Data developed from this project
will be integrated with that from similar soil experiments
designed to measure changes in litter decomposition rates,
effects on microbial populations, and other factors. These
data will then be used to make crude predictions regarding
the long-term effects of acid precipitation on soil fertility.
Other experiments have been undertaken to estimate the effects
of acid precipitation on forest productivity and the cycling
and use of nutrients. Model forest ecosystems containing
reconstructed forest soil and litter layers, sugar maples, red
alder seedlings, and other ecosystem components, have been
exposed to simulated acid rain at varying pH's. Biological pro-
cesses such as tree growth, leaf production, nutrient uptake.
-------
and litter decomposition are being monitored to document
adverse effects. These data will be used to estimate the loss
of nutrients from the forest soil, and the transport of minerals
to ground and surface waters.
Future research is being planned to document the effects of
acid rain on ecosystems representative of the northeastern
United States, to study the historical and potential adverse
impacts of various types of soils and to develop models to be
used to forecast the ecological effects of acid deposition.
Possible consequences of various management strategies to
counteract the adverse effects of acid rain will also be examined.
The Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee is examining
the effects of acid rain, sulfur dioxide, and ozone on
agricultural and forest ecosystems. Laboratory, greenhouse,
and field studies are being performed to relate pollutant
concentrations to responses of individual plants and plant
ecosystems. With regards to forest ecosystems, the effects of
acid rain and individual atmospheric pollutants on such trees
as the yellow poplar, the white and black oak, and the black
cherry, are being documented. A forest growth simulation
model is being used to examine the responses of forest
ecosystems exposed to air pollution over long periods of time.
Effects on Crops Researchers at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in New
York are examining the effects of simulated acid precipitation
on various terrestrial ecosystems. The threshold limits for
injury or biological change to crops and organisms within the
soil are being documented through the exposure of plants
and various soil types to artificial acid precipitation in
laboratory chambers and in the field. Models of forest and
plant growth are being used to assist in the analysis of data
related to both the extent of injury and relationships of injury
to growth.
10
-------
A crop survey is being performed at the EPA's experimental
farm facility in Corvallis to determine the sensitivity of
numerous field crops to various quantities of sulfuric acid.
Future studies will look at the effects of nitric acid and the
interactive effects of two or more acids on crops.
A research project designed to identify the effects of
simulated acid rain on the bush bean Phasesolus vulgaris has
recently been completed. Visual leaf injury was observed on
plants exposed to precipitation less than pH 3. Microscopic
cross sections of injured areas of leaves exposed to acid rain
showed extensive damage to chloroplasts, the centers for
photosynthesis, and surrounding cells.
The photo below shows the spotting or necrosis of leaves
that takes place at low pH levels.
Future research at the Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory will center on the determination of the impact of
acid deposition on growth, yield, and quality of economically
important crops taking into account possible future acid rain
concentrations. Several research sites near current deposition
monitoring stations are planned to be established in order to
assess the impacts of known quantities and chemical composi-
tions of acid precipitation. Data from these experiments will
augment that data being developed through field, laboratory,
and exposure chamber studies using simulated acid rain.
EPA Documenca
11
-------
Integrated Watersheds
Effects on Stone
Through an interagency agreement with the Tennessee Valley
Authority, the impacts of coal-fired power plant emissions on
a small experimental watershed are being documented. The
Cross Creek watershed in southern Tennessee has been sub-
jected to sulfur and nitrogen emissions from the Widow's Creek
Power Plant in northern Alabama for about thirty years, and
therefore serves as an excellent location for studying the
numerous effects of both wet and dry atmospheric deposition.
Data on the transport, fate, and effects of pollutants throughout
the forest ecosystem are being compared with similar data
from a relatively remote forest ecosystem in central Tennessee.
A comparative study of the two sites will enable the construc-
tion of models to be used to predict the ecological effects of
man's activities on a given area. These models may then
assist scientists and legislators in the development of atmos-
pheric emission standards.
The Office of Research and Development is participating in
an interagency and international study of the effects of acid
precipitation on stone monuments and statuary, and ways to
protect against such damage. Because of the many variables
associated with material damage to stone, the evaluation of
field data and its correlation with atmospheric pollutant levels
is very difficult. The ideal subjects for analysis should be
uniform materials produced under controlled conditions, placed
in a variety of climates and environments over a continuous
period of time, and accompanied by accessible, high quality
documentation. All of these conditions are met by the marble
headstones and markers placed nationwide under the direction
of the Veterans Administration (VA). Since an 1875 Act of
Congress, the VA has provided over 2.5 million tombstones
to various National Cemeteries. These tombstones have been
relatively standardized, being of just a few basic shapes, and
are made from stone taken from only three quarries. These
nearly ideal conditions offer researchers an excellent opportunity
to document the effects of acid precipitation on stone. Approxi-
mately one dozen National Cemeteries have been selected in
three climate zones for initial study: appalachian, far west,
and northeast. Tombstones will be examined for such effects
as measurable loss of detail, rounding of edges, and surface
erosion to develop quantitative estimates of damage. This
damage will then be correlated with data on the stone's
history from Veterans Administration records a,nd data on air
pollution and meteorological patterns from the National
Weather Service.
-------
ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY
Transformation-
Transport Theory
The Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory (ESRL) in
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, and the Department
of Energy's Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory in Richland,
Washington, have lead responsibility for the atmospheric
processes and modeling portion of EPA's acid rain program.
Research is presently directed towards understanding the
transport of atmospheric acids, the wet deposition of acids
through rain and snow, and dry deposition. In addition,
regional models are being developed that will enable the
prediction of the deposition of both wet and dry acids.
EPA Documenca
Researchers are answering such questions as: Will acid rain
increase with increased coal utilization, and if so, by how
much and where? How does dry deposition vary with terrain,
temperature, particle size, etc.? Are there differences between
S02 transport in the northern and southern hemispheres?
The adverse effects of sulfate on human health and the
environment that were documented by the Environmental
Protection Agency in the early 1970's led to the mandatory
control of sulfur dioxide emissions. This mandatory control
forced the utilization of low sulfur fossil fuels, and resulted in
lower sulfur dioxide emissions. However, reductions in urban
sulfur dioxide levels did not result in proportional decreases in
urban sulfate. Several theories have been set forth to explain this
unexpected phenomenon. One explanation, the transformation-
transport theory, holds that reductions in urban S02 emissions
were accompanied by increases in rural S02 emissions from
new power plants located outside cities. S02 from these power
plants could have been transformed in the atmosphere to
sulfate and transported over long distances to urban areas.
13
-------
Project MISTT
Project STATE
ORD's recently completed Project MISTT (Midwest Interstate
Sulfur Transformation and Transport) was initiated in the
summer of 1973 to investigate the transformation-transport
theory and to provide data on the mechanism and rate of
conversion of S02 to sulfate. Results from the project proved
that the SO2/sulfate conversion did indeed take place at appre-
ciable rates (a previously disputed assumption), and that the
sulfate aerosols could be transported hundreds of kilometers
from the initial S02 source. This validation of the transformation-
transport theory reinforces data indicating that the acidity of
lakes in New York's Adirondack Mountains, for example, may
be due to the acidic components of deposition originating
from such distant sources as midwest coal-fired power plants.
The Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory is undertaking
various research projects designed to provide data for the
development of regional atmospheric deposition models. The
STATE Program, "Sulfur Transport and Transformation in the
Environment," was initiated in 1978 primarily to quantify the
impact of various regional air pollution sources on air quality.
The first major STATE field effort was conducted in August
1978, and focused on the Tennessee Valley Authority's (TVA)
Cumberland power plant in north-central Tennessee. EPA
funding supported participation in this project by the TVA
and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Numerous aircraft and surface sampling vehicles were used
to obtain measurements of plume dispersion and chemical
transformations over a range of atmospheric conditions. The
basic design of each experiment involved injecting an inert
tracer gas into the pollution source's effluent, and following
this labelled portion of the plume downwind to sample the
dispersion rate and chemical constituents for as long as possible.
The next major effort of the STATE program is planned for
the summer of 1980. The focal area of the study will be the
Ohio River Basin because of its high density of emissions from
industrial and utility sources. However, individual experiments
will involve sampling over most of the northeastern United
States. The core experiment of this effort will consist of
repeated sampling of labelled air masses for periods of
several days to determine the accumulation of pollutants as
air masses move over source areas, and to determine subse-
quent changes in pollutant chemical composition.
In addition to the two intensive field studies described, ongoing
work in related areas continues to receive support under the
STATE program. Techniques are being developed to better
characterize the chemical and physical forms of sulfates and
their precursors. Results from these experiments indicate that
sulfates of more recent origin tend to be more acidic than
"older" sulfate. In addition, researchers have found that the
amount of ammonia (NH3) available in the atmosphere appears
to determine the extent to which sulfuric acid and nitric acid
can be chemically neutralized.
14
-------
Great Lakes Through two interagency agreements underway at Argonne
National Laboratory in Illinois, the effects of wet and dry
deposition of atmospheric pollutants in the Great Lakes are
being evaluated with special emphasis on pollutant transport
processes. Pollutant levels are being monitored at various
locations in and around the lakes, including the water surface
and bottom sediments, to determine how and where various
pollutants are transported.
Modeling Numerous modeling activities are underway through the
Multistate Atmospheric Power Production Pollution Study
(MAP3S) being performed at several of the Department of
Energy national laboratories. The MAP3S study was initiated
in 1975 by the Energy Research and Development Administra-
tion (ERDA) to document pollutant concentration, atmospheric
behavior, and precipitation chemistry resulting from air pollution
from large scale power production processes, primarily coal
combustion. Recently, funding and management responsibilities
for this study were transferred from the DOE to the EPA's Office
of Environmental Processes and Effects Research. The program
is now being modified to focus more strongly on the acid
deposition problem.
Data for the various modeling activities being undertaken
through this study are provided by the MAP3S monitoring
network as well as various other monitoring networks which
are described later in this Summary. The overall goals of the
MAP3S study are to elucidate the sources, processes, and
mechanisms of the acid rain problem.
The Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory is presently
adapting the European Regional Model of Air Pollution (EUR-
MAP) to the eastern United States. This model, originally
developed under the sponsorship of the Federal Republic of
Germany, is being modified to predict monthly and seasonal
wet and dry deposition of sulfur dioxide and sulfate. Through
the use of the model, a series of emissions patterns based on
future projections of energy use in the eastern U.S. are being
examined to determine possible impacts on sulfur dioxide and
sulfate levels.
The EPA is supporting the development of other models
which enable researchers to calculate the concentrations of
sulfur dioxide (S02) and sulfates (SO,,) both along lines of
transport and at specific locations. Through the use of these
models, researchers at Colorado State University recently
found that sulfur dioxide normally resides in the atmosphere
for between 15 and 30 hours in the cold season, and between
15 and 40 hours in the warm season. The residence time of
sulfate, however, was found to be about ten times that of
sulfur dioxide: between 150 and 450 hours for the cold
season, and between 200 and 500 hours for the warm season.
This information will be very useful in making predictions
about the seasonal impacts of acid rain.
15
-------
MONITORING
MAP3S
The EPA's acid deposition monitoring program is primarily
the responsibility of the Environmental and Monitoring and
Systems Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
The major objectives of the program are to:
determine the scope of the present problem
establish long-term trends resulting from atmospheric
acid deposition
help meet the research data requirements necessary to
gain a better understanding of the atmospheric processes
involved in the production of acid rain
provide data necessary for the development of acid
deposition-related models
The major shortcomings of many past and present precipitation
monitoring networks have been a lack of adequate regional
coverage, limited chemical analysis of samples, and a lack of
practical application of quality control procedures. The EPA
monitoring program is being developed with these past short-
comings in mind.
A prototype strategy for building a coordinated Federal
monitoring program has been recently developed to support
the President's acid rain research initiative. This proposed
strategy involves a three-tiered system of monitoring networks.
In addition to this tiered strategy, the EPA plans to continue
to encourage the operation of other precipitation chemistry
networks by EPA regional offices, other Federal agencies,
state governments, universities, and private institutions.
The EPA is presently either solely or partially supporting a
number of monitoring networks.
The Multistate Atmospheric Power Production Pollution Study
(MAP3S) monitoring network was originally established to
document sulfur dioxide emissions. However, this eight station
network is now monitoring for more than a dozen constituents
of acid deposition in the eastern United States.
16
-------
EPA/NOAA/WMO
A major global monitoring network has been established by the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) to help elucidate
long-term global acid precipitation trends. The U.S. contribution
to the 15 station WMO network is being coordinated by the
EPA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA). Precipitation samples collected on a monthly basis
are sent to EPA's Environmental Monitoring and Systems
Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina and
analyzed for pH, and inorganic and organic constituents. The
data are published annually in conjunction with the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Climatic
Center in Ashville, North Carolina.
IMADP
The National Atmospheric Deposition Project Network (NADP)
is a major monitoring network involving a cooperative effort
among numerous Federal, state, and private research agencies.
The network is designed to provide data on atmospheric
deposition and its effects on agriculture, forest lands, and surface
waters. The NADP network will eventually include more than
50 monitoring stations nationwide, utilizing instrumentation
capable of collecting both wet and dry deposition. Analyses
of samples are performed by the Illinois State Water Survey's
Laboratory, and results are sent to the Environmental Monitoring
and Systems Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina, for storage with other acid rain data. The EPA and
other Federal agencies support the NADP network.
17
-------
Atmospheric Pollutants
Loading Study
The EPA's regional office in Chicago, Illinois, is sponsoring a
37 station precipitation chemistry monitoring network in the
upper Great Lakes area.
Data Management
In addition, the EPA is cooperating with private institutions,
particularly the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), which
have acid deposition monitoring networks underway.
The systematic storage of data from all precipitation monitoring
networks has long been a goal of researchers involved with
the major Federal networks. An integrated national data
system will soon be a reality. The Environmental Monitoring
and Systems Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, is now
managing much of the atmospheric deposition data
developed by the various monitoring programs under opera-
tion nationwide.The lab is serving as a focal point for the
reception, storage, and retrieval of data on acidity and
chemical constituents of acid rain. This system will result in
more effective analysis of acid precipitation data by assuring
that accurate and timely information is readily available to
researchers.
18
-------
INDIVIDUAL RESEARCH PROJECTS
Environmental Research
Laboratory Corvallis,
Oregon
Environmental Research
Laboratory Duluth,
Minnesota
Selected acid rain-related research projects being performed
by or through the various ORD laboratories or offices are
listed below. Additional information about any of these projects
may be obtained by writing to:
ORD Information System
Office of Research and Development, RD-674
US EPA
Washington, DC 20460
Potential Impact of Acidified Precipitation on Element
Cycling and Production in Southern Appalachian
Deciduous Forests
Investigation of the Effects of Coal-Fired Power Plant
Emissions on the Tissue Structure of Selected Bird
Species
Monitoring Plant Community Changes Due to Fossil Fuel
Power Plants in Eastern Montana
Aerosol Characterization Research Colstrip, Montana
(through interagency agreement with U.S. Department of
Energy)
Development of Protocol to Assess the Effects of
Western Coal Conversion Activities in a Terrestrial
Ecosystem Colstrip
Assessment of the Acid Precipitation Monitoring Needs
in the Northeastern United States
Impact of Acid Precipitation on Yield of Crops
Response of Model Forest Ecosystems to Acid Rain
Short-term Acid Precipitation Program to Assess the
Extent of Sensitive Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems in
the Eastern U.S. and the Present Extent of Damage
Impacts of Air Pollutants (Acid Rain) on Wilderness Areas
of Northern Minnesota
Mobilization and Transformation of Soil and Sediment
Components into Pollutants by Acid Precipitation and
Related Factors
Acid Effects to Flathead Minnows, Community Functions
and Macro-invertebrates in Outdoor Experimental Channels
(through Monticello Ecological Research Station, Monticello,
Minnesota)
Human and Environmental Exposure and Impacts from
Air and Water Pollutants: Coal-Fired Power Plants
Susceptibility of Aquatic and Terrestrial Resources of
Minnesota and Wisconsin to Damage from Atmospheric
Pollutant Deposition and Loading
19
-------
Office of Environmental
Processes and Effects
Research
Washington, D.C.
(via Interagency Energy/
Environment R&D Program)
Environmental Sciences
Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina
Effects of Acid Precipitation on Terrestrial Ecosystems
(U.S. Department of Energy Brookhaven National
Laboratory)
Effects of Chronic SO2 Exposure on Midwestern Crops
(U.S. Department of Energy Argonne National
Laboratory)
Ecological Effects of Coal Combustion: Response of
Vegetation to S02, Ozone, and Acid Precipitation (U.S.
Department of Energy Oak Ridge National Laboratory)
Great Lakes Pollutant Transformation and Fate (U.S.
Department of Energy Argonne National Laboratory)
Great Lakes Pollutant Transport Processes (U.S.
Department of Energy Argonne National Laboratory)
Support to the NADP Precipitation Monitoring Network
(coordinated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture)
Camp Branch and Cross Creek Experimental Watershed
Projects (Tennessee Valley Authority)
Development and Evaluation of a Prototype Device to
Analyze Ambient Sulfuric Acid
Aircraft Measurement in Support of Sulfur Transformation
and Transport Studies
Atmospheric Transport and Transformation from Coal-
Fired Power Plants
Analytical Support for Determining the Character and
Origin of Aerosols
Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfates Materials Damage Study
Long Range Transport Modeling
Dry Deposition of Gaseous Pollutants
Adaptation and Application of the EURMAP Model to
the Eastern United States
Experimental Study of Aerosol Formation Mechanisms in
a Controlled Atmosphere
Kinetics and Mechanisms of Nitrate Formation in
Photochemical Smog
Long-Range Transport and Transformation of Sulfur
Dioxide and Sulfate
Scavenging of Gases and Aerosol Particles by Clouds
and Precipitation in the Atmosphere
Experimental Determination of Dry Deposition Rates
Formation of Atmospheric Aerosols
Aerosol Deposition Rates
Engineering and Development of Dichotomous Sampler
Characterization of Primary Sulfate Emissions from
Industrial/Residential Sources
Development of Analytical Techniques for the Measure-
ment of Nitric Acid
20
-------
Environmentel
Monitoring and
Systems Laboratory
Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina
Office of the Assistant
Administrator
Washington, D.C.
Standards For and Methods of Analysis of Rainwater for
Acidity
WMO Collaborating Center on Background Air Pollution
Data
Quality Assurance for Environmental Pollutant Monitoring
Improvement and Evaluation of Methods for Sulfate
Analysis
Standardization and Quality Assurance of Stationary
Source Emission Methodology
Ambient Air Monitoring Reference and Equivalent
Methods Program
Quality Assurance in Support of Energy-Related Monitoring
Activities in the Western USA
Development of a Strategy for Acid Rain Monitoring
Development of an Integrated Five-Year Plan (FY 80-84)
for the EPA's Atmospheric Acid Deposition Program
Correlation of Existing Acid Deposition Exposure Sites
with Air Pollution Records
Determination of the Effects of Individual Pollutants on
Materials and Development of a Damage Function Model
(Jointly Funded with the National Bureau of Standards)
21
-------
Technical Reports
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
Decision Series: Acid Rain. December 1979.
EPA-600/9-79-036.
An in-depth discussion of the global acid rain problem
focusing on the latest environmental effects data being
developed in North America and Scandanavia. Intended
for those seeking a good overview of the issue.
EPA Research Outlook. February 1979. EPA-600/9-79-005.
140 Pages.
A concise description of the EPA's plans for future
environmental research.
EPA Research Highlights. December 1978.
EPA-600/9-78-040. 70 Pages.
Highlights of the EPA research program accomplish-
ments of 1978.
Information on the availability of these publications may
be obtained by writing to:
Research Information, RD-674
Office of Research and Development
US EPA, Washington, DC 20460
or by calling (202) 755-0648
Sulfates in the Atmosphere: A Progress Report on Project
MISTT. March 1977. EPA-600/7-77-021. 29 Pages.
(PB 268 361, $4.00)
Environmental Effects of Increased Coal Utilization:
Ecological Effects of Gaseous Emissions From Coal
Combustion. June 1978. EPA-600/7-78-108. 49 Pages.
(PB 285 440. $5.25)
Simulation of Nutrient Loss From Soils Due to Rainfall
Acidity. May 1978. EPA-600/3-78-053. 44 Pages.
(PB285 174, $6.00)
Technical reports can be obtained by writing to:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
or by calling (703) 557-4650
22
-------
Questions or Comments
The office of Research and Development invites you to address
any questions or comments regarding the EPA acid rain
research program to the appropriate individuals listed below:
Topic
Environmental Effects
Environmental Effects
(especially Minnesota,
Wisconsin, Michigan
region)
Atmospheric Chemistry
Monitoring
Interagency Agreements
Program Management
Contact
Dr. Norman Glass
Environmental Research Laboratory
200 SW 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97330
Dr. Gary Glass
Environmental Research Laboratory
6201 Congdon Blvd.
Duluth, MN 55804
Dr. Paul Altshuller
Environmental Sciences
Research Laboratory, MD-59
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Mr. Franz Burmann
Environmental Monitoring and
Systems Laboratory, MD-75
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Mr. Clinton Hall
Office of Research and
Development, RD-682
US EPA
Washington, D.C. 20460
Mr. Dennis Tirpak
Office of Research and
Development, RD-676
US EPA
Washington, D.C. 20460
23
------- |