vvEPA
            United States
            Environmental Protection
            Agency
                EPA-600/8-79-028
                October 1979
            Office of Research and Development
Research
Summary
                id  Rain
           ik.

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        Acid rain may be one of the most significant environmental
        problems of the coming decade. It poses new challenges to
        the full development of our forest, agricultural, and aquatic
        resources; and to the use of fossil fuels as an energy source.
        The objective of our research program is to develop information
        which will assure that the Nation's energy needs are met
        without sacrificing environmental  quality.

        The recently promulgated New Source Performance Standards
        for fossil fuel power plants will control  sulfur oxide emissions
        from future power plants, and after  1 995, begin to effect
        regional reductions of sulfur oxides and hence acid rain. This
        program, however, does not address continued emissions
        from existing plants over the next two  decades. The possible
        alterations for existing plants range from low  cost coal cleaning
        to retrofitting with stack gas scrubbers. Because coal can be
        burned cleanly, the solutions to our acid rain problems need
        not conflict with national energy priorities. Pollution control
        may be expensive, but the costs of environmental protection
        are  far less than the costs of environmental neglect.

        I expect the future results from our research program and
        those of other agencies to be the basis for a  new dialogue
        between many interested parties. This  Research Summary is
        the  first of several documents designed to insure an informed
        public debate on this important national issue.
                            Stephen J. Gage
                         Assistant Administrator
                     for  Research and Development
        This brochure is one of a series providing a brief description of major areas of the Environ-
        mental Protection Agency's research and development program. Additional copies may be
        obtained by writing to:
               Research Publications
               Office of Research and Development, RD-674
               US EPA
               Washington, D.C. 20460

               or by calling 1202) 755-0648


        Cover Photo by David Natella
U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency
Region 5. Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard. 12th Ftoor
Chicago, IL   60604-3590

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                            As a result of the combustion of tremendous quantities of
                            fossil fuels such as coal and oil, the United States annually
                            discharges approximately 50  million metric tons of sulfur and
                            nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. Through a series of
                            complex chemical reactions these pollutants can be
                            converted into acids, which may return to earth as com-
                            ponents of either rain or snow. This acid precipitation, more
                            commonly known as acid rain, may have severe ecological
                            impacts on widespread areas of the environment.

                            Hundreds of lakes in North America and Scandanavia have
                            become so acidic that they can no longer support fish life.
                            More than 90 lakes in  the Adirondack mountains in  New  York
                            State are fishless because acidic conditions have inhibited
                            reproduction. Recent data indicate that other areas of the
                            United  States, such as northern Minnesota and Wisconsin,
                            may be vulnerable to similar  adverse impacts.

                            While many  of the aquatic effects of acid precipitation have
                            been well documented, data  related to possible terrestrial
                            impacts are just beginning to be developed. Preliminary
                            research indicates that the yield from agricultural crops can
                            be reduced as a result of both the direct effects  of acids on
                            foliage, and the indirect effects resulting from the leaching of
                            minerals from soils. The productivity of  forests may be
                            affected in a similar manner.
President's
Environmental
Message
Courtesy of Calvin Grondahl, Deseret News

In addition, acid deposition is contributing to the destruction
of stone monuments and statuary throughout the world. The
2500 year old Parthenon and other classical buildings on the
Acropolis in Athens,  Greece, have shown much more rapid
decay in this century as a result of the city's high air pollution
levels. Research is underway to clarify the role of acid rain in
the destruction.

In recognition of the  potential seriousness of the acid rain
problem, the President's Second Environmental Message to
Congress in August of 1979 called for a minimum $10 million
per year research program to  be conducted over the next ten
years. The Environmental Protection Agency and the Depart-
ment of Agriculture co-chair the Acid Rain Coordination
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Source of
the Problem
Air Pollution
Emissions
Committee established to plan and coordinate the Federal
interagency program which is presently being developed.

In 1977,  sulfur oxides accounted for 14 percent (27.4
million metric tons) of the total air pollution in the United
States, while nitrogen oxides accounted for 12 percent (23
million metric tons). Although other pollutants also act as
precursors to acid rain, it is believed that these two oxides
are the major contributors to  the problem.
                                       National Air Quality, Monitoring, and Emission Trends Report, 1977,
                                       US EPA, December 1978.
Fundamental
Chemistry
Sulfur oxides (SOx) are primarily emitted from stationary
sources such as utility and industrial boilers burning coal as a
fuel. However, nitrogen oxides (N0\) are emitted from both
stationary and transportation-related sources such as cars and
trucks. Approximately 56 percent of the NOx discharged into
the atmosphere in 1977 resulted from the combustion of
fossil fuels by stationary sources, while 40 percent originated
from transportation-related sources. Over the next twenty
years the combustion of fossil fuels is expected to increase
significantly. In particular,  emissions of nitrogen oxides from
stationary sources are likely to increase rapidly during this
period.

The most common sulfur and nitrogen oxides are sulfur
dioxide  (S02) and nitric oxide (NO). After being discharged
into the atmosphere, these pollutants can be chemically
converted into sulfuric (H2SO4) and nitric (HN03)  acid through
a process known as oxidation. There are several  complicated
pathways or mechanisms by which oxidation can occur.
Which path is actually taken is dependent upon numerous
factors such as the concentration of heavy metals, the intensity
of sunlight, and the amount of ammonia present.

Again, one should keep in mind that other acids  contribute to
the acid rain problem. Hydrochloric acid (HCI),  for example,
may be  emitted directly from coal-fired power plants and
2

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                             frequently is found relatively short distances downwind from
                             the source.
                                   NO
                                 nitric oxide
Dry Deposition
Long Distance
Transport
pH Scale
The process by which acids are deposited through rain or
snow is frequently called wet deposition. However, another
atmospheric process known as dry deposition may also occur.
Dry deposition is the process by which particles such as fly
ash, or gases such as sulfur dioxide (S02) or nitric oxide (NO),
are deposited, or absorbed, onto surfaces. While these particles
or gases are normally not in the acidic state prior to deposition,
it is believed that they are converted into acids after con-
tacting water in the form of rain, dew, fog, or mist following
deposition. The precise mechanisms by which dry deposition
takes place, and its effects on soils, forests, crops, and
buildings, are  not adequately understood. Much research will
be undertaken in the coming years to clarify its contribution
to the overall acid deposition problem.

Various sulfur  compounds which may act as precursors to
sulfuric acid are known to travel as far as several hundred
kilometers per day while in the atmosphere. During transport
these pollutants may easily cross geographical and political
boundaries. This situation creates numerous national and
international regulatory problems in that the air pollution stan-
dards of one state or country can have an indirect impact on
the natural resources of another.

It is believed that other nitrogen-containing pollutants may be
transported in a similar manner. Research is underway to
clarify the transport processes associated with the major
pollutants contributing to the acid deposition problem.

The pH, a numerical value used to describe the strength of an
acid, is determined  by a mathematical formula based on a
solution's concentration of hydrogen ions (H+). The pH scale
ranges from a numerical value of 0 to 14. A value of  pH 1 is
very acid (battery acid), pH 7 is neutral, and pH 13 is very
alkaline (lye). Because of the logarithmic nature of the scale,
pH 4  is 10 times more acidic than pH 5, and 100 times more
acidic than pH 6, and so on. Precipitation is defined as being
acidic if the pH is less than 5.6, the pH of normal, unpolluted

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             LEMON JUICE

               VINEGAR

                     MEAN pH OF ADIRONDACK LAKES - 1975

                        "PURE" RAIN (5.6)

                           MEAN pH OF ADIRONDACK LAKES - 1930's

                            DISTILLED WATER
                                BAKING SODA
                                I           AMMONIA
            iCID RAIN
1   2   3   4

 ACIDIC
5  6  7   8

   NEUTRAL
                                      10  11  12  13  14

                                        BASIC
rain. The slight natural acidity of normal rain is due to the
presence of carbonic acid (H2C03), which is formed by the
reaction of atmospheric carbon dioxide (C02) with water.
   C02
            HC03~    +
                                                  4 +
 CARBON
 DIOXIDE
          WATER
                            •' BICARBONATE    HYDROGEN ION
As was pointed out earlier, fish populations are especially
sensitive to changes in the pH of their surroundings. A recent
study of several hundred Norwegian lakes showed that of the
lakes having a  pH between 5.5 and 6.0, less than 10 percent
contained no fish. At pH's of less than 4.5, more than 70
percent of the  lakes were fishless. Acidic lake water not only
affects fish directly. Low pH water frequently promotes the
release of potentially toxic metals from the lake bed. Aluminum,
for example, is frequently found in high concentrations in
fishless lakes, and is released  from soils at approximately pH
4.5.  Rainfall runoff  may carry aluminum from nearby soils into
lakes, or into streams  which empty into lakes and thus magnify
the problem.

The average annual rainfall pH is presently less than 4.5 over
most of the eastern United States. Lakes that lack a buffering
capacity, or ability to chemically neutralize this acidity, face
serious ecological harm. The following figure indicates the
trend in the acidity of rain in the  eastern United States. The
colored area represents a  pH of less than 4.5.

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           1966-1966
                                         1972-1973
   Adapted From:  G.E. Likens, Chemical & Engineering News, 1976 (C.V. Cogbill)
The map below indicates those areas of the continental
United States that are believed to be sensitive to acid deposi-
tion. This map was constructed by examining such factors as
chemical composition of soils, climatic patterns, and types of
vegetation within  a given geographical area. This, and other
maps, will be improved and updated as additional information
becomes available through research  projects that are
presently  underway.
     | High Sensitivity

  j  J Moderate Sensitivity

  |   [Low Sensitivity

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EPA's Program              The Environmental Protection Agency's program for
                             investigating the acid deposition problem and building a data
                             base for possible future regulatory action consists of three
                             major categories of effort:

                               • environmental effects
                               • monitoring
                               • atmospheric processes

                             This program is the responsibility of the EPA's Office of
                             Research and Development (ORD).

                             Because of the complex and diverse manifestations of the
                             acid precipitation problem, it is necessary to involve a broad-
                             based, interdisciplinary team of  researchers composed of
                             atmospheric chemists, meteorologists, aquatic and  terrestrial
                             biologists, forest scientists, geologists, and  economists to
                             mention a few. The EPA's program is being conducted in-house
                             and through grants, interagency agreements and contracts
                             with universities  and other institutions. Scientists from more
                             than 10 government labs and 30 universities are presently
                             contributing to the effort.

                             Much of the data developed through the EPA acid  rain
                             research program will  ultimately be incorporated into criteria
                             documents prepared by the Environmental Criteria and
                             Assessment Office in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
                             Criteria documents provide the technical scientific foundation
                             upon which the  EPA develops congressionally mandated
                             standards and regulations, and are used by the Office of
                             Research and Development to identify future avenues of
                             research.
                             Larry J. Heinis

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                            ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
EPA Research
Aquatic Effects
The environmental effects of acid deposition are diverse and
widespread and are being documented by research
throughout the world—especially in Scandanavia and the
eastern United States. Some of the reported effects are:

  • acidification of lakes, rivers and groundwaters resulting in
    damage to fish and other components of aquatic
    ecosystems

  • acidification and release of metals from soils

  • possible reductions in forest productivity

  • possible damage to agricultural crops

  • deterioration of man-made materials such as buildings,
    statuary, metal structures, and paint

  • possible contamination of drinking water supplies by
    metals being released from soils and pipelines

The Environmental Protection Agency's acid deposition environ-
mental effects research is coordinated at the Environmental
Research Laboratory (ERU in Corvallis, Oregon. Research is
also being performed at the Environmental Research
Laboratory in Duluth, Minnesota, and through interagency
agreements with the Department of Energy's national
laboratories, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. In addition,
the EPA is cooperating with NATO's Committee on the
Challenges of  Modern Society (CCMS) in a worldwide effort
to study adverse environmental effects of acid deposition on
historic and artistic stone monuments.

The EPA environmental  effects research program is designed
to answer several broad questions about the present and
future effects of acid deposition on the environment such as:
What are its effects on the nation's lakes and streams? Will
agricultural productivity  be significantly affected, and if so,
what crops will be most susceptible to damage? To  what
extent will terrestrial  ecosystems be adversely affected? Can
we prevent or  reduce any  potential damages or reverse any
effects that have already manifested themselves?

An understanding of the environmental effects of specific
quantities and concentrations of acid deposition on various
resources is essential if policy-makers are to make informed
decisions about the future use of coal and other fossil fuels
as sources of energy.

Research is underway at the EPA's Environmental Research
Laboratory in Corvallis to identify those lakes in the eastern
and western United States that are sensitive to acid deposition.
Suitable lakes for long-term study are being selected in order
to assist in the determination of the factors that influence lake
acidification such as  buffering  capacity, precipitation quantity,
and chemical composition of acids entering lakes. In addition,
researchers are developing physical and chemical models of
aquatic ecosystems designed to link ecological effects with
7

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Northern
Minnesota
specific levels of acidity. Information of this nature will be used
to forecast the impacts of acid deposition on lakes throughout
the United States.

Researchers at the Environmental Research Laboratory in
Duluth, Minnesota, and its Monticello Ecology Research Station
are studying the release of toxic elements from soils and
sediments and the resulting impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
Field studies  in natural watersheds and artificial channels are
used to determine specific quantities of acid precipitation
causing adverse impacts. These studies are designed to pro-
vide insight into the response of aquatic ecosystems to
various levels of acidity, and to provide data for any future
regulations required to protect important aquatic resources.

A recent study was undertaken by the Duluth Environmental
Research  Laboratory concerning possible impacts of a power
plant being built in Atikokan, Ontario, near northern Minnesota.
Results from this study showed that current atmospheric depo-
sition concentrations might already be causing damage to the
sensitive wilderness of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area and
Voyageurs National Park of northern Minnesota. The planned
increase in siting of coal-fired power plants in this region
presents a serious potential problem in light of this  data. ERL-
Duluth is expanding its research to  accurately define the
current sources and concentrations  of pollutants, and to
determine the susceptibility of the forests, agricultural lands,
and some 20,000 lakes of the region to increases in pollution.
                             S     U

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Geological
Sensitivity
Terrestrial Effects
Model Forest
Ecosystems
Initial research indicates that large areas of Minnesota,
Wisconsin, and upper Michigan may be as susceptible to
acid precipitation as the Adirondack lakes region in New
York. Mercury levels in fish, that increase as lakes become
acidic, are already high in some lakes in this area.  Many fish
species, valuable to both commercial and sport fishing,  are
similar to those that have been reduced or eliminated by acid
precipitation elsewhere in the United States and Canada.

In terms of terrestrial impacts, the largest and most long-lived
species of trees in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area and
Voyageurs National Park of northern Minnesota, the white
pine (Pinus strobus), is being threatened due  to its sensitivity
to gaseous emissions from coal-fired power plants and high
ozone concentrations from industrial and municipal emissions.
The quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) has shown a
similar sensitivity.

The effects of acidification of fresh  waters within geologically
sensitive regions of the United  States are being examined
through an interagency agreement  between the EPA and Brook-
haven National Laboratory in Upton, New York. Those areas -
lacking bedrock materials with  sufficient buffering capacity
are being looked at in light of existing data on acid deposition.
This information is then compared with historical data on
water quality in order to  make determinations as to the  rate
of water deterioration in  a given area.

The effects of acid deposition on  the leaching of nutrients
from various soils are being documented by the Corvallis
Environmental Research  Laboratory. A soil water chemistry
computer simulation model is being used to evaluate nutrient
leaching from soils varying in chemical composition, organic
content, alkalinity and acidity. Data developed from this project
will be integrated with that from similar soil experiments
designed to measure changes in litter decomposition rates,
effects on microbial populations, and other factors. These
data will then be used to make crude predictions regarding
the long-term effects of acid precipitation on  soil fertility.

Other experiments have been undertaken to estimate the effects
of acid precipitation on forest productivity and the cycling
and  use of nutrients. Model forest ecosystems containing
reconstructed forest soil and litter layers, sugar maples,  red
alder seedlings, and other ecosystem components, have been
exposed to simulated acid  rain  at varying pH's. Biological pro-
cesses such as tree growth, leaf production, nutrient uptake.

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                            and litter decomposition are being monitored to document
                            adverse effects. These data will be used to estimate the loss
                            of nutrients from the forest soil, and the transport of minerals
                            to ground and surface waters.
                            Future research is being planned to document the effects of
                            acid rain on ecosystems representative of the northeastern
                            United States,  to study the historical and  potential adverse
                            impacts of various types of soils and to develop models to be
                            used to forecast the ecological effects of acid deposition.
                            Possible consequences of various management strategies to
                            counteract the adverse effects of acid rain will also be examined.

                            The Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee is examining
                            the effects of acid rain, sulfur dioxide, and ozone on
                            agricultural and forest ecosystems.  Laboratory,  greenhouse,
                            and field studies  are being performed to relate pollutant
                            concentrations to responses of individual  plants and plant
                            ecosystems.  With regards to forest ecosystems, the effects of
                            acid rain and individual atmospheric pollutants on such trees
                            as the yellow poplar, the white and black oak, and the  black
                            cherry, are being documented. A forest growth simulation
                            model is being used to examine the responses of forest
                            ecosystems exposed to air pollution over long periods of time.

Effects on Crops           Researchers at the Brookhaven  National Laboratory in New
                            York are examining the effects of simulated acid  precipitation
                            on  various terrestrial ecosystems. The threshold limits for
                            injury or biological change to crops and organisms within the
                            soil are being documented through the  exposure of plants
                            and various soil types to artificial acid precipitation in
                            laboratory chambers and in the field. Models of forest and
                            plant growth are  being  used  to  assist in the analysis of data
                            related to both the extent of  injury and  relationships of  injury
                            to growth.
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 A crop survey is being performed at the EPA's experimental
 farm facility in Corvallis to determine the sensitivity of
 numerous field crops to various quantities of sulfuric acid.
 Future studies will look at the effects of nitric acid and the
 interactive effects of two  or more acids on crops.

 A research project designed to identify the effects of
 simulated acid rain on the bush bean Phasesolus vulgaris has
 recently been completed. Visual leaf injury was observed on
 plants exposed to precipitation less than pH 3. Microscopic
 cross sections of injured areas of leaves exposed to acid rain
 showed extensive damage to chloroplasts, the centers for
 photosynthesis,  and surrounding cells.

 The photo below shows the  spotting or necrosis of leaves
 that takes place at low pH levels.
 Future research at the Corvallis Environmental Research
 Laboratory will center on the determination of the impact of
 acid deposition on growth, yield, and quality of economically
 important crops taking into account possible future acid rain
 concentrations. Several research sites near current deposition
 monitoring stations are planned to be established in order to
 assess the impacts of known quantities and chemical composi-
 tions of acid precipitation. Data from these experiments will
 augment that data being developed through field, laboratory,
 and exposure chamber studies using simulated acid rain.
EPA Documenca
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Integrated Watersheds
Effects on Stone
Through an interagency agreement with the Tennessee Valley
Authority, the impacts of coal-fired power plant emissions on
a small experimental watershed are being documented. The
Cross Creek watershed in southern Tennessee has been sub-
jected to sulfur and nitrogen emissions from the Widow's Creek
Power Plant in northern Alabama for about thirty years, and
therefore serves as an excellent location for studying the
numerous effects of both wet and  dry atmospheric deposition.
Data on the transport, fate, and effects of pollutants throughout
the forest ecosystem are being compared with similar data
from a relatively remote forest ecosystem in central Tennessee.
A comparative study of the two sites will enable the construc-
tion of models to be used to predict the ecological effects of
man's activities on a given area. These models may then
assist scientists and legislators in the development of atmos-
pheric emission standards.

The Office of Research and Development is participating in
an interagency and  international study of the effects of acid
precipitation on stone monuments and statuary, and ways to
protect against such damage. Because of the many variables
associated with material damage to stone, the evaluation of
field data  and its correlation with atmospheric pollutant levels
is very difficult. The ideal subjects for analysis should be
uniform materials produced  under controlled conditions, placed
in a variety of climates and environments over a  continuous
period of time,  and  accompanied  by accessible, high quality
documentation. All of these conditions are met by the marble
headstones and markers placed nationwide under the direction
of the Veterans Administration (VA). Since an 1875 Act of
Congress, the VA has provided over 2.5 million tombstones
to various National Cemeteries. These tombstones have been
relatively standardized, being of just a few basic shapes, and
are made from  stone taken from only three quarries. These
nearly ideal conditions offer researchers an excellent opportunity
to document the effects of acid precipitation on stone. Approxi-
mately one dozen National  Cemeteries have  been selected in
three climate zones for initial study: appalachian, far west,
and northeast. Tombstones will be examined for such effects
as measurable loss  of detail, rounding of edges,  and surface
erosion  to develop quantitative estimates of damage. This
damage will then be correlated with data on the stone's
history from Veterans Administration records a,nd data on air
pollution and meteorological patterns from the National
Weather Service.

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                            ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY
Transformation-
Transport Theory
                            The Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory (ESRL) in
                            Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, and the Department
                            of Energy's Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory in Richland,
                            Washington, have lead responsibility for the atmospheric
                            processes and modeling portion of EPA's acid rain program.
                            Research is presently directed towards understanding the
                            transport of atmospheric acids, the wet deposition of acids
                            through rain and snow, and dry deposition. In addition,
                            regional models are being developed that will enable the
                            prediction of the deposition of both wet and dry acids.
EPA Documenca

Researchers are answering such questions as: Will acid rain
increase with increased coal utilization, and if so, by how
much and where? How does dry deposition vary with terrain,
temperature, particle size, etc.? Are there differences between
S02 transport in the northern and southern hemispheres?

The adverse effects of sulfate on human health and the
environment that were documented by the Environmental
Protection Agency in the early 1970's led to the mandatory
control of sulfur dioxide  emissions. This mandatory control
forced the utilization of low sulfur fossil fuels, and resulted in
lower sulfur dioxide emissions.  However, reductions in urban
sulfur dioxide levels did not result in proportional decreases in
urban sulfate. Several theories have been set forth to explain this
unexpected phenomenon. One explanation, the transformation-
transport theory, holds that reductions in urban S02 emissions
were accompanied by increases in rural S02 emissions from
new power plants located outside cities.  S02 from these power
plants could have been transformed in the atmosphere to
sulfate and transported over long distances to urban areas.
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Project MISTT
Project STATE
ORD's recently completed Project MISTT (Midwest Interstate
Sulfur Transformation and Transport) was initiated in the
summer of 1973 to investigate the transformation-transport
theory and to provide data on the mechanism and rate of
conversion of S02 to sulfate. Results from the project proved
that the SO2/sulfate conversion did indeed take place at appre-
ciable rates (a  previously disputed assumption), and that the
sulfate aerosols could be transported hundreds of kilometers
from the initial  S02 source. This validation of the transformation-
transport theory reinforces data indicating that the acidity of
lakes in New York's Adirondack Mountains, for example, may
be due to the acidic components of deposition originating
from such distant sources as midwest coal-fired power plants.

The Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory is undertaking
various research  projects designed to provide data for the
development of regional atmospheric deposition models. The
STATE Program, "Sulfur Transport and Transformation in the
Environment," was initiated in 1978 primarily to quantify the
impact of various regional air pollution  sources on air quality.

The first major STATE field effort was  conducted in August
1978, and focused on the Tennessee Valley Authority's (TVA)
Cumberland power plant in north-central Tennessee. EPA
funding supported participation in this project by the TVA
and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Numerous aircraft and surface sampling vehicles were used
to obtain measurements of plume dispersion and chemical
transformations over  a range of atmospheric conditions. The
basic design of each  experiment  involved injecting an inert
tracer gas into the pollution source's effluent, and following
this labelled portion of the plume downwind to sample the
dispersion rate  and chemical constituents for as long as possible.

The next major effort of the STATE program is planned for
the summer of 1980. The focal area of the study will be the
Ohio River  Basin because of its high density of emissions from
industrial and utility sources. However, individual experiments
will involve sampling over most of the  northeastern United
States. The core experiment of this effort will  consist of
repeated  sampling of labelled air  masses for periods of
several days to determine the accumulation of pollutants as
air masses move over source areas, and to determine subse-
quent changes in pollutant chemical composition.

In addition to the two intensive field studies described, ongoing
work in related areas continues to receive support under the
STATE program. Techniques are being developed to better
characterize the chemical and physical forms of sulfates and
their precursors. Results from these experiments indicate that
sulfates of more recent origin tend to be more acidic than
"older" sulfate. In addition, researchers have found that the
amount of ammonia (NH3) available in the atmosphere appears
to determine the extent to which sulfuric acid and nitric acid
can be chemically neutralized.
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Great Lakes                Through two interagency agreements underway at Argonne
                            National Laboratory in Illinois, the effects of wet and dry
                            deposition of atmospheric pollutants in the Great Lakes are
                            being evaluated with special emphasis on pollutant transport
                            processes. Pollutant levels are being monitored at various
                            locations in and around the lakes, including the water surface
                            and bottom sediments,  to determine how and where various
                            pollutants are transported.

Modeling                   Numerous modeling activities are underway through the
                            Multistate Atmospheric  Power Production Pollution Study
                            (MAP3S) being performed at several of the Department of
                            Energy  national laboratories. The MAP3S study was initiated
                            in 1975 by the Energy Research and Development Administra-
                            tion (ERDA) to document pollutant concentration, atmospheric
                            behavior, and precipitation chemistry resulting from air pollution
                            from large  scale power production processes, primarily coal
                            combustion. Recently, funding and management responsibilities
                            for this  study were transferred from the DOE to the EPA's Office
                            of Environmental Processes and Effects Research. The program
                            is now  being modified to focus more strongly on the acid
                            deposition problem.

                            Data for the various modeling activities being undertaken
                            through this study are provided by the MAP3S monitoring
                            network as well as various other monitoring networks which
                            are described later in this Summary. The overall goals of the
                            MAP3S study are to elucidate the sources, processes, and
                            mechanisms of the acid rain problem.

                            The Environmental Sciences Research Laboratory  is presently
                            adapting the European Regional Model of Air Pollution (EUR-
                            MAP) to the eastern United States.  This model, originally
                            developed under the sponsorship of the Federal Republic of
                            Germany, is being modified to predict monthly and seasonal
                            wet and dry deposition  of sulfur dioxide and sulfate. Through
                            the use of the model, a series of emissions patterns based on
                            future projections of energy use in the eastern U.S. are being
                            examined to determine  possible impacts on sulfur dioxide and
                            sulfate  levels.

                            The EPA is supporting the development of other models
                            which enable researchers to calculate the concentrations of
                            sulfur dioxide (S02) and sulfates (SO,,) both along  lines of
                            transport and at specific locations. Through the use of these
                            models, researchers at Colorado State University recently
                            found that sulfur dioxide normally resides in the atmosphere
                            for between 15 and 30 hours in the cold season, and between
                            15 and  40 hours in the warm season. The residence time of
                            sulfate, however, was found to be about ten times that of
                            sulfur dioxide: between 150 and 450 hours for the cold
                            season, and between 200 and 500 hours for the warm season.
                            This information will be very useful in making predictions
                            about the seasonal impacts of acid rain.
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                            MONITORING
MAP3S
The EPA's acid deposition monitoring program is primarily
the responsibility of the Environmental and Monitoring and
Systems Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
The major objectives of the program are to:

   • determine the scope of the present problem

   • establish long-term trends resulting from atmospheric
    acid deposition

   • help meet the research data requirements necessary to
    gain a better understanding of the atmospheric processes
    involved in the production of acid rain

   • provide data necessary for the development of acid
    deposition-related  models

The major shortcomings of many past and present precipitation
monitoring networks have been a lack of adequate regional
coverage, limited chemical analysis of samples,  and a lack of
practical application of quality control procedures. The EPA
monitoring program is  being developed with these past short-
comings in mind.

A prototype strategy for building a coordinated  Federal
monitoring program has been recently developed to support
the President's acid rain research initiative. This proposed
strategy involves a  three-tiered system of monitoring networks.

In  addition to this tiered strategy, the EPA plans to continue
to  encourage the operation of other precipitation chemistry
networks by EPA regional offices, other Federal agencies,
state governments, universities, and private institutions.

The EPA is presently either solely or partially supporting a
number of monitoring networks.

The Multistate Atmospheric Power Production Pollution Study
(MAP3S) monitoring network was originally established to
document sulfur  dioxide emissions. However, this eight station
network is now monitoring for more than a dozen constituents
of  acid deposition  in the eastern United  States.
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EPA/NOAA/WMO
A major global monitoring network has been established by the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) to help elucidate
long-term global acid precipitation trends. The U.S. contribution
to the 15 station WMO network is being coordinated by the
EPA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA). Precipitation samples collected on a monthly basis
are  sent to EPA's Environmental Monitoring and Systems
Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina and
analyzed for pH, and inorganic and organic constituents. The
data are published annually in conjunction with the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Climatic
Center in Ashville, North Carolina.
IMADP
The National Atmospheric Deposition Project Network (NADP)
is a major monitoring network involving a cooperative effort
among numerous Federal, state, and private research agencies.
The network is designed to provide data on atmospheric
deposition and its effects on agriculture, forest lands, and surface
waters. The NADP network will eventually include more than
50  monitoring stations nationwide, utilizing instrumentation
capable of collecting both wet and dry deposition. Analyses
of samples are performed by the Illinois State Water Survey's
Laboratory, and results are sent to the Environmental Monitoring
and Systems Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina, for storage with other acid rain data. The EPA and
other Federal agencies support the NADP  network.
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Atmospheric Pollutants
Loading Study
The EPA's regional office in Chicago, Illinois, is sponsoring a
37 station precipitation chemistry monitoring network in the
upper Great Lakes area.
Data Management
In addition, the EPA is cooperating with private institutions,
particularly the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), which
have acid deposition monitoring networks underway.

The systematic storage of data from all precipitation monitoring
networks has long been a goal  of researchers involved with
the major Federal networks. An integrated national data
system will soon be a reality. The Environmental Monitoring
and Systems Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, is now
managing much of the atmospheric deposition data
developed by the various monitoring programs under opera-
tion nationwide.The lab is serving as a focal point for the
reception, storage, and retrieval of data on acidity and
chemical constituents of acid rain. This system will result in
more effective analysis of acid precipitation data by assuring
that accurate and timely information is readily available to
researchers.
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                            INDIVIDUAL RESEARCH PROJECTS
Environmental Research
Laboratory — Corvallis,
Oregon
Environmental Research
Laboratory — Duluth,
Minnesota
Selected acid rain-related research projects being performed
by or through the various ORD laboratories or offices are
listed below. Additional information about any of these projects
may be obtained by writing to:

  ORD Information System
  Office of Research and Development, RD-674
  US EPA
  Washington, DC  20460

  •  Potential Impact of Acidified Precipitation on Element
     Cycling and Production in Southern Appalachian
     Deciduous Forests
  •  Investigation of the Effects of Coal-Fired Power Plant
     Emissions on the Tissue Structure of Selected Bird
     Species
  •  Monitoring  Plant Community Changes Due to Fossil Fuel
     Power Plants in Eastern Montana
  •  Aerosol Characterization Research — Colstrip, Montana
     (through interagency agreement with U.S. Department of
     Energy)
  •  Development of Protocol to Assess the Effects of
     Western Coal Conversion Activities in a Terrestrial
     Ecosystem  — Colstrip
  •  Assessment of the Acid Precipitation Monitoring Needs
     in the Northeastern United  States
  •  Impact of Acid  Precipitation on Yield of Crops
  •  Response of Model Forest  Ecosystems to Acid Rain
  •  Short-term Acid Precipitation Program to Assess the
     Extent of Sensitive Aquatic and Terrestrial Systems in
     the Eastern U.S. and the Present Extent of Damage

  •  Impacts of Air Pollutants (Acid Rain) on Wilderness Areas
     of Northern  Minnesota
  •  Mobilization and Transformation of Soil and Sediment
     Components into Pollutants by Acid Precipitation and
     Related Factors
  •  Acid Effects to  Flathead Minnows, Community Functions
     and Macro-invertebrates in Outdoor Experimental Channels
     (through Monticello Ecological  Research Station, Monticello,
     Minnesota)
  •  Human and  Environmental  Exposure and Impacts from
     Air and Water Pollutants: Coal-Fired Power Plants
  •  Susceptibility of Aquatic and Terrestrial Resources of
     Minnesota and  Wisconsin to  Damage from Atmospheric
     Pollutant Deposition and Loading
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Office of Environmental
Processes and Effects
Research —
Washington, D.C.
(via Interagency Energy/
Environment R&D Program)
Environmental Sciences
Research Laboratory —
Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina
• Effects of Acid Precipitation on Terrestrial Ecosystems
  (U.S. Department of Energy — Brookhaven National
  Laboratory)
• Effects of Chronic SO2 Exposure on Midwestern Crops
  (U.S. Department of Energy — Argonne National
  Laboratory)
• Ecological  Effects of Coal Combustion: Response of
  Vegetation to S02, Ozone, and Acid Precipitation (U.S.
  Department of Energy — Oak Ridge National Laboratory)
• Great Lakes — Pollutant Transformation and Fate (U.S.
  Department of Energy — Argonne National Laboratory)
• Great Lakes — Pollutant Transport Processes (U.S.
  Department of Energy — Argonne National Laboratory)
• Support to the NADP Precipitation Monitoring Network
  (coordinated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture)
• Camp Branch and Cross Creek Experimental Watershed
  Projects (Tennessee Valley Authority)

• Development and Evaluation of a Prototype Device to
  Analyze Ambient Sulfuric Acid
• Aircraft Measurement in Support of Sulfur Transformation
  and Transport Studies
• Atmospheric Transport and Transformation from Coal-
  Fired Power Plants
• Analytical Support for Determining the Character and
  Origin of Aerosols
• Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfates Materials Damage Study
• Long Range Transport Modeling
• Dry Deposition of Gaseous Pollutants
• Adaptation and Application of the EURMAP Model to
  the Eastern United States
• Experimental Study of Aerosol Formation  Mechanisms in
  a Controlled Atmosphere
• Kinetics and Mechanisms of  Nitrate Formation in
  Photochemical Smog
• Long-Range Transport and Transformation of Sulfur
  Dioxide and Sulfate
• Scavenging of Gases and Aerosol Particles by Clouds
  and Precipitation in the Atmosphere
• Experimental Determination of Dry Deposition Rates
• Formation  of Atmospheric Aerosols
• Aerosol Deposition  Rates
• Engineering and Development of Dichotomous Sampler
• Characterization of Primary Sulfate Emissions from
  Industrial/Residential Sources
• Development of Analytical Techniques for the Measure-
  ment of Nitric Acid
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Environmentel
Monitoring and
Systems Laboratory —
Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina
Office of the Assistant
Administrator —
Washington, D.C.
Standards For and Methods of Analysis of Rainwater for
Acidity
WMO Collaborating Center on Background Air Pollution
Data
Quality Assurance for Environmental Pollutant Monitoring
Improvement and Evaluation of Methods for Sulfate
Analysis
Standardization and Quality Assurance of Stationary
Source Emission Methodology
Ambient Air Monitoring Reference and Equivalent
Methods Program
Quality Assurance in  Support of Energy-Related  Monitoring
Activities in the Western USA

Development of a Strategy for Acid Rain Monitoring
Development of an Integrated Five-Year Plan (FY 80-84)
for the EPA's Atmospheric Acid Deposition Program
Correlation of Existing Acid Deposition Exposure Sites
with Air Pollution Records
Determination of the Effects of Individual  Pollutants on
Materials and Development of a Damage Function Model
(Jointly Funded with the National  Bureau of Standards)
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Technical Reports
                            FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
                              • Decision Series: Acid Rain. December 1979.
                                EPA-600/9-79-036.

                                An in-depth discussion of the global acid rain problem
                                focusing on the latest environmental effects data being
                                developed in North America and Scandanavia. Intended
                                for those seeking a good overview of the issue.
                                EPA Research Outlook. February 1979. EPA-600/9-79-005.
                                140 Pages.

                                A concise description of the EPA's plans for future
                                environmental research.
                              • EPA Research Highlights. December 1978.
                                EPA-600/9-78-040. 70 Pages.

                                Highlights of the EPA research program accomplish-
                                ments of 1978.
                                Information on the availability of these publications may
                                be obtained by writing to:

                                  Research Information, RD-674
                                  Office of Research and Development
                                  US EPA, Washington, DC 20460

                                  or by calling (202) 755-0648
Sulfates in the Atmosphere: A Progress Report on Project
MISTT. March 1977. EPA-600/7-77-021. 29 Pages.
(PB 268 361, $4.00)
                              • Environmental Effects of Increased Coal Utilization:
                                Ecological Effects of Gaseous Emissions From Coal
                                Combustion. June 1978. EPA-600/7-78-108. 49 Pages.
                                (PB 285 440. $5.25)
                              • Simulation of Nutrient Loss From Soils Due to Rainfall
                                Acidity. May 1978. EPA-600/3-78-053. 44 Pages.
                                (PB285 174, $6.00)
                                Technical reports can be obtained by writing to:

                                  National Technical Information Service
                                  5285 Port Royal Road
                                  Springfield, VA  22161

                                  or by calling (703) 557-4650
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Questions or Comments
The office of Research and Development invites you to address
any questions or comments regarding the EPA acid rain
research program to the appropriate individuals listed below:
                              Topic

                              Environmental Effects
                              Environmental Effects
                               (especially Minnesota,
                                Wisconsin, Michigan
                                region)

                              Atmospheric Chemistry
                              Monitoring
                              Interagency Agreements
                              Program Management
                           Contact

                           Dr. Norman Glass
                           Environmental Research Laboratory
                           200 SW 35th Street
                           Corvallis, OR 97330

                           Dr. Gary Glass
                           Environmental Research Laboratory
                           6201 Congdon Blvd.
                           Duluth, MN 55804

                           Dr. Paul Altshuller
                           Environmental Sciences
                            Research Laboratory, MD-59
                           Research Triangle Park, NC 27711

                           Mr. Franz Burmann
                           Environmental Monitoring and
                            Systems Laboratory, MD-75
                           Research Triangle Park, NC 27711

                           Mr. Clinton Hall
                           Office of Research and
                            Development, RD-682
                           US EPA
                           Washington, D.C.  20460

                           Mr. Dennis Tirpak
                           Office of Research and
                            Development, RD-676
                           US EPA
                           Washington, D.C.  20460
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