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United States Municipal Environmental Research EPA-600/9-80-014
Environmental Protection Laboratory June 1980
Agency Cincinnati OH 45268
Research and Development
Report
of
Progress
This document has not been
submitted to NT.S, therefore ft
should be retained.
-------
EPA-600/9-80-014
June 1980
Report
of
Progress
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard. 12th Ftocr
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
-------
FOREWORD
The chief aim and primary purpose of our laboratory is to develop technol-
ogy, systems, processes and improved management practices to prevent,
control and treat pollutants that affect communities and municipalities. We
develop and demonstrate cost-effective methods in the areas of sewage and
wastewaters, solid and hazardous wastes, and public drinking water supplies.
We recognize our responsibility to help establish and maintain communica-
tions with our user community. We are also aware that every effort must be
made to reduce the time it takes to move research findings from the laboratory
to the user. This publication is one way for us to share with you our research
results. It briefly outlines our progress during 1979. Should you have any
comments about this publication, or suggestions for its improvement, please
take the time to write to me.
Francis T. Mayo
Director
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR 1
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE RESEARCH DIVISION 6
WASTEWATER RESEARCH DIVISION 26
DRINKING WATER RESEARCH DIVISION 57
INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES "71
-------
OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR
MANAGEMENT
The Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory is composed of the Office of the Director and
three operating divisions. In 1980 it has a budget of almost $26,000,000 and a permanent staff of 160
scientists, engineers and support personnel. The Office of the Director (O.D.) has three major purposes,
the most important of which is to provide direction and leadership to the operating divisions. Program
planning and review, resources management, the timely execution of projects and programs, manage-
ment reporting, and information management are some of the major functions performed within the
O.D. In 1979, the office developed procedures for implementing a new output planning procedure,
began work on a highly visible and intensive system of peer review, implemented a highly successful
final report mailing list system, and mechanized their word processing function.
COORDINATION
The second major purpose of the Office of the Director is to establish effective communications
between the Laboratory and its user community. The Director has devoted much of the office's effort to
strengthening ties between the MERL and the EPA Program Offices and Regional Offices. Additionally,
a mid-year reorganization moved the laboratory from the Office of Air, Land and Water Use to the Office
of Environmental Engineering and Technology, and new channels of communication were quickly
developed to expedite the exchange of information and ideas between and among the ORD Headquar-
ters Office and our new sister Industrial Laboratories in Cincinnati and RTR Another area of increased
effort is with the research committees that provide an effective planning forum for ORD, the Program
and Regional offices.
TABLE 1. MERL BUDGET FOR FY 1979 (In $1000's)
PE# AREA OF WORK PFTE POSNS.* IN-HOUSE $ XM $ TOTAL
1BC821 Urban Systems, Toxics & Residuals Mgmt. 52 $2,170.9 $3,989.1 $6,160.0
1BC822 Wastewater Systems Control Technology 45 1,940.1 11,060.0 13,000.1
1CC824 Drinking Water Treatment 47 1,925.2 5,360.1 7,285.3
1DC818 Solid Wastes Control Technology 16 1,055.8 4,638.4 5,694.2
1NE827 Environmental Impact of Energy Systems 265.0 265.0
1AD712 Carbon Fiber Research 350.0 350.0
XM1627 Reimbursable Agreements 186.3 186.3
Total MERL 160 $7,092.0 $25,848.9 $32,940.9
*PFTE stands for Permanent Full-Time Equivalent
ADMINISTRATION
The third major purpose of the O.D. is to provide our line managers and supervisors with the
resources they need to accomplish their mission. At the MERL, this translates into the nuts and bolts of
moving the paper necessary to recruit personnel, purchase supplies and materials, maintain commit-
ment records of expenditure, provide for adequate space, provide editorial and publications support
for reports and technical information, processing research contracts, cooperative agreements arid
grants, and all of the other chores necessary to keep a laboratory on the move.
1
-------
Where The MERL Dollars Were Spent in FY-79
In-House
$7092.0 K
21.5%
Extramural
$25,848.9 K
78.5%
Total MERL FY-79
Expenditures
$32,940 K
Extramural Costs
In-House Costs
lAG'S - 3.5%
Contracts - 21.4%
Personnel
Costs
73.4%
All Others - 7.7%
Printing - 5.2%
Equipment - 6.6%
Supplies - 4.4%
Travel - 2.7%
PE#
36B1C
35B1C
61C1C
73D1C
07A1D
1MH1E
TABLE 2. MERL BUDGET FOR FY1980 (In SIOOO's)
AREA OF WORK
PFTE POSNS.ซ IN-HOUSE $
XM$
Urban Systems, Toxics & Residuals Mgmt.
Wastewater Systems Control Technology
Drinking Water Treatment & Groundwater
Prot.
Solid Wastes Control Technology
Carbon Fiber Research
Acid-Rain Anticipatory R&D
Total MERL
159.1
TOTAL
55.1
41.0
r
47.0
16.0
$2,438.8
1,690.0
1,981.1
1,025.9
$ 4,825.3
3,966.2
4,648.8
4,565.0
600.0
100.0
$ 7.264.1
5,656.2
6,629.9
5,590.9
600.0
100.0
$7,135.8 $18,705.3 $25,841.1
*PFTE stands for Permanent Full-Time Equivalent
-------
COMPOSITION OF MERL WORKFORCE BY DISCIPLINE
Biological
and Physical
Sciences - 30% I Engineers - 34%
Clerical
Support - 12%
Technical
Support - 17%
Administrative N Other
Support - 4% Professionals - 3%
PROFESSIONAL POSITIONS
Chemical Engineer 8
Environmental Engineer 45
Mechanical Engineer 1
Microbiologist 10
Soil Scientist 3
Chemist 29
Environmental Scientist 2
Physical Scientist 5
Economist 1
Operations Research Analyst 3
Systems Analyst 1
Totals 108
SUPPORT POSITIONS
Secretary
Biological Aid/Tech.
Engineering AioYTech.
Equipment Mechanic
Physical Sci. Aid/Tech.
Administrative Officer
Administrative Tech.
Program Analyst
Management Analyst
Editorial Assistant
Extramural Assistant
20
4
7
1
15
1
1
1
1
1
1
Totals 53
-------
Composition and Size of MERL Workforce by Organization
(December 1979)
DWRD
SHWRD
OD|
3PROFESSIONAL STAFF
]TECHNICIANS AND AIDS
3 ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT
18
11
20
44
40
60
80
MERL Resource Trends
$30M-
$25M
$20M
$15M
$10M
$5M
FY-77
$20.0
-FY-79-
$32.9
FY-78
$23.9
FY-80
$25.8
-------
PERSON YEARS OF EFFORT FOR MERL IN FY 79
Person-Years
100
Permanent Person-Years
Constitute 74% of the
Total Work Effort, While
Temporary Person-Years are
26% of the Total Effort
Shaded Area = Permanent Person-Years
Unshaded Area =Temporary Person-Years
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
PERM P.Y.
TEMP. P.Y
TOTAL P.Y.
WRD
862
24.7
110.9
DWRD
424
16.1
58.5
SHWRD
17.2
7.9
25.1
OD
11 0
47
15.7
MERL
156 8
534
210.2
-------
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE RESEARCH DIVISION
The Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Division (SHWRD) conducts research in three major
functional areas: disposal technology, hazardous wastes, and resource recovery. In the past, solid
waste research was concentrated on problems associated with municipal solid waste. With present
efforts directed primarily toward the environmental effects of hazardous waste disposed onto or into
the land, research has concentrated on disposal or treatment technologies that will minimize or
prevent harmful effects.
The problems of solid waste disposal are interrelated with those of air and water pollution. Incinera-
tion, grinding, the use of water either for transportation of solids or as a solid waste sink - these
impinge upon the concurrent attempts to purify the air and water environments. Additionally, the
elimination of impurities from air or water effluents by such processes as separation, drying or
compaction, results in the generation of solid wastes - solids that, in turn, require disposal. Measures
to reduce pollution or disposal of waste material must, therefore, betaken with full consideration of the
effect on the overall environment - air, water, and land.
The solid waste problem is concentrated in densely populated urban areas. Refuse storage, collec-
tion, transportation, and processing directly and intimately affect some 80 percent of the population.
The costs of waste handling, already severe, are rising. The loss of billions of tons of material to
unreclaimed waste each year indirectly affect each consumer.
Even more threatening in terms of public health and environmental effects are the present disposal
practices for hazardous wastes. Current estimates indicate that 30 to 35 million tons of hazardous
wastes are disposed of to the ground with no controls, no records as to location, and quantity and
composition. At the present time, proven techniques for large-scale disposal of most, if not all,
hazardous wastes are not available and generators of these wastes have little incentive to expend
resources for adequate managment.
Municipalities and other governmental agencies need new and improved systems for storage,
collection, and transportation of solid waste; improved technology or methodology for waste reduc-
tion; and criteria for site selection, design, and operation of landfills.
WASTE DISPOSAL
2. Pollutant Transport
Increasing amounts of waste resjduals are 3. Pollutant Control
being directed to the land for disposal by landfill- 4. Co-disposal
ing. The waste disposal program of SHWRD has 5. Pollutant Treatment
been designed to document and evaluate the po- 6. Environmental Assessment
tentially adverse environmental and public 7. Remedial Action for Inoperative Sites
health effects that could result if precautions are 8. Landfill Alternatives
not taken for handling the environmental degra- 9. Economic Analysis
dation produced in the course of landfilling. The
SHWRD research - encompassing state-of-the- Waste Characterization/Decomposition
art documents, laboratory analysis, bench and Studies in this area involve collecting composi-
pilot studies, and full-scale field verification stud- tion data on municipal and hazardous wastes
ies - will result in research reports, criteria, guid- from individual waste residuals and landfill dis-
ance documents for user communities, and in a posal sites. The study objectives are to (1) quan-
criteria data base for the development of stand- tify the gas and leachate production from current
ards mandated by the recently enacted "Re- best-practice sanitary landfilling and (2) modify
source Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976." the landfill method to reduce the environmental
The current research activities classified and dis- impact of gas and leachate production in a posi-
cussed here are: tive and predictable manner. These objectives are
1. Waste Characterization/Decomposition to be achieved by construction and long-term
-------
monitoring of typical and simulated landfill cells
and investigation, development, and optimiza-
tion of those factors that control gas and leachate
production. Results are expected only after long-
term monitoring, due to the extremely slow reac-
tion rates.
Standard Techniques
Procedures for analyzing contaminants in
leachate samples are being developed, both spe-
cific to the wastes being studied and for general
use. In studying the potential environmental im-
pact of contaminants, a standard test is being
planned to assess contaminants leached from a
waste by water and other solvents, both initially
and over time.
Waste Leachability
The leachability of municipal refuse has been
the subject of several studies. One involves the
determination of long-term gas and leachate
generation characteristics by leaching 395 Mkg
(thousands of kilograms) of municipal refuse and
comparing the results to those from monitoring
106 Mkg and 2.7 Mkg experimental landfills at the
Boone County Field Site (BCFS) of USEPA. The
volume of leachate collected from the 395 Mkg
landfill has been 15 percent greater than pre-
dicted using the USEPA water balance method.
Composition of the leachate seems to have
reached a stable rate of contaminant release (Fig-
ure 1 - total dissolved solids or chemical oxygen
demand vs. time). Gas composition, at 50 percent
O)
E
O 50,000
u
40,000
< 30,000
oc
ฃ 20,000
10,000
Q
LU
H
X
O
O O O
O O
O
O
'CO
8888
00 O CN
-------
w
Q
_l
O
co
euoo
50.00
40.00
3000
2000
10.00
0.00
-
- .
- .
'-
.'
i i i i i i i
O PJ'
T LO oo
CUMULATIVE LEACHATE VOLUME,
LITERS/kg OF DRY REFUSE
to
Q
_l
O
C/3
TIME DAYSxIO
Figure 3. Total solids concentration from experimental refuse landfill leached at 813 mm/yr.
ling, on enhanced methane production. In addi-
tion, several landfills will be used to indicate how
methane may be enhanced at old sites where the
refuse is partially decomposed.
Another ongoing leachability study deals with
inorganic industrial waste in which there is no
appreciable biological activity. Consequently, the
chief mode of decomposition and pollutant re-
lease issolubilization and other strictly chemical/
physical changes rather than the biological de-
composition that takes place as the waste is
leached with water. Accordingly, the testing pro-
gram is designed to evaluate leaching and pollu-
D)
E
Q 60,000
"Z.
LU
CD
>
X
o
^40,000
o
LU
I
CJ
; 20,000
Q
LU
I
I
CD
e-k,v-e-V
maX-e~k2Vma,
oo TEST CELL 2A - BCFS
Dn PREDICTION
C_
C>max
Cmax = 55,4000 m/l
Vmaป = 200 mm
k, = 0.00098
k2 = 00145
EQUIVALENT TIME = 4.25 YR-
400 800 1200 1600
CUMULATIVE LEACHATE VOLUME, mm
Figure 4. Empirical curve fit by wigh for Boone
County Field Site Test Cell 2A.
tant release through time under a variety of
leaching conditions encountered in one or more
disposal situations.
Results to date are consistent with findings
from other projects that leachability of inorganic
wastes is a function not only of the constituent of
interest, but also the surface area per unit weight
of waste and the stability of the compounds
formed during waste treatment. The variability in
degree of buffering against solvent-induced
changes indicates that the time dependent leach-
ability also be considered.
Waste Decomposition
The several research projects underway are
intended to document the rates and gaseous and
liquid releases of decomposing refuse and to
control these processes so they may occur in a
predictable and desireable manner. One tech-
nique to accelerate the rate of decompsotion
which has been under development by the
SHWRD is leachate recycle. Pilot scale evaluation
of a batch operated recycle system was recently
completed and indicated that stabilization of
readily available organic materials in shredded
refuse and transferred to recycled leachate was
essentially completed within six months. Daily
gas production during the period of rapid stabil-
ization was as high as 50.5 ml/kg of dry refuse
which then dropped to 0.79 ml/kg of dry refuse
after stabilization. The total quantity of gas col-
lected was approaching 3.0 I/kg dry refuse, with
approximately 2.76 I/kg dry refuse produced in a
six month period (Figure 5). Additional work is
intended to resolve the long-term environmental
effect if the stabilized waste is allowed to leach in
a traditional manner.
Processing of refuse has also been viewed as a
means of controlling waste decomposition rates.
8
-------
C/3
54.0
450
O
O)
_^
\
E
O)
>
O
c/)
Q
_l
O
C/5
36.0
270
180
90
A
o*
0
ฐ
+
:o
'ฐ
o
. MUNICIPAL REFUSE LEACHED a 813 mm/yr
-+ MUNICIPAL REFUSE LEACHED a 406 mm/yr
O MUNICIPAL REFUSE SLUDGE AND SEWAGE
ฃ LEACHED a 406 mm/yr.
MUNICIPAL REFUSE AND 3% BY WEIGHT
4 of CaCo3 AND LEACHED a 406 mm/yr
MUNICIPAL REFUSE PLACED a FIELD CAPACITY
v AND LEACHED a 406 mm/yr
MUNICIPAL REFUSE AND INORGANIC PIGMENT
_ WASTE LEACHED a 406 mm/yr
T MUNICIPAL REFUSE LEACHED a 406 mm/yr
a 21 ฐC (7ฐC WARMER THAN OTHERS)
J I
1.0
30
20
CUMULATIVE LEACHATE VOLUME,
LITERS/kg OF DRY REFUSE
Figure 5. Total solids removed from different experimental landfills.
The effect of baling on refuse leachability and gas
production was the object of a contractual study
located in Franklin, Ohio. The treatments were
placed in pilot scale (10 Mkg) experimental land-
fills and were subjected to seasonal rainfall ap-
plication of 600 mm/year. Interim results indicate
that baled refuse still is microbiologically active
and yields gas composition typical of un-
processed refuse: 50 percent CH4 and 50 percent
C02. Thus gas migration, which is driven by diffu-
sional rather than total pressure differentials,
presents as much of a hazard at balefill as at a
traditional landfill. Comparison of leachate com-
position and production, however, indicates that
baled refuse may release less of a contaminant to
the environment than unprocessed refuse (Fig-
ure 6) over a four year period. It appears that the
bulk of the refuse is not subjected to the surface
leaching of each bale of refuse in an above the
ground water table balefill, however, when the
bales are allowed to saturate, then there is very
little difference in leaching characteristics of the
baled and unprocessed refuse (Figure 7). It is
uncertain how long the internal volume of each
bale will remain isolated from the percolating
water of an above the ground water table balefill.
Pollutant Transport
Recent pollutant transport studies have
focused on organic compounds that present dis-
posal/toxicity problems. Work has been com-
pleted on polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), is
under way on polybrominated biphenyls (PBB),
hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and hexachlorocyclo-
pentadiene (HCCPD).
A recent publication entitled "Attenuation of
Water-Soluble Polychlorinated Biphenyls by
Earth Materials" (EPA-600/2-80-027) reported the
results of a laboratory study of the aqueous sol-
-------
-------
solvents by the Ambersorb.
PBBs and HCB remain immobile in soils when
leached with water or landfill leachate but are
high mobile when leached with organic solvents.
Mobility is directly proportional to the solubility
of the compounds in the leaching solvents and to
the soil organic matter content.
PBBs and HCB are resistant to microbial degra-
dation. Both compounds presisted in soils in ex-
periments lasting 6 months and in solution
culture experiments lasting for 4 weeks with no
measurable degradation.
Pollutant Control
The pollutant control studies determine the
ability of in-situ soils, ranging from sands to
clays, and natural soil processes to limit the
transport of leachate contaminants as the leach-
ate migrates from landfill sites through the soil.
The studies also determine how various syn-
thetic and admixed materials can be utilized as
liners to prevent leachate migration. The overall
objective is to enable minimization of sub-sur-
face pollution, particularly of groundwater.
Liners/Membranes/A dmixtures
The test program is evaluating, in a landfill
environment, the chemical resistance and du-
rability of liner materials over 12-, 24-, and 52-
month exposure periods to leachates derived
from hazardous wastes, SOX wastes, and munici-
pal solid wastes. The liner materials being inves-
tigated for municipal solid wastes include six
admixed materials.
2 asphalt concretes (varying in permeability),
1 soil asphalt,
2 asphalt membrances (one based on an
emulsified asphalt and the other on cata-
lytically-blown asphalt),
1 soil cement;
and six flexible membranes:
butyl rubber,
ethylene propylene rubber (EPDM),
chlorinated polyetheylene (CPE),
chlorosulfonated polyethylene (HYPALON),
polyethylene (PE), and
polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
Results of the first 12 month's exposure to mu-
nicipal solid wastes produced only minor
changes on the physical properties of the liner
materials exposed to landfill leachate. Subex-
periments within this project have started pro-
ducing results. In an experiment designed to
investigate accelerated testing, samples that
were exposed on both sides in immersion tanks
produced one year exposure results in approx-
imately eight months. Results of the testing indi-
cated minor changes in the physical properties.
Results of the ASTM E-96, Method BW water
vapor permeability has been reported (X). These
results rank polyvinyl chloride as having the
highest permeability to water vapor and butyl
rubber and elasticized polyolefin the lowest.
There was some indication that permeability in-
creased with test time, probably due to the mem-
branes swelling caused by the water. An osmotic
bag test was developed which shows promise of
assessing membranes under a variety of ex-
posure conditions. The advantage of using this
test is its small size, ease of handling and poten-
tial for producing results on a timely basis.
The dismantling of the exposure cells con-
taining hazardous wastes and various liner mate-
rial candidates was delayed so that a longer
exposure data base could be developed.
However, monitoring of the cells continued in
order to detect any failures that may have oc-
curred. No failures or leakages occurred during
this time period. Sub-experiments of the project
were performed to increase the potential cause
and effect of liner failures. The effect of immer-
sion is shown in Table 3, which presents the in-
crease in weight during the exposure period. As
with the results from the first year's data the
effects vary considerably with liner type and
waste. In addition, significant variation in effects
occurs between liners made of the same poly-
mer. This is particularly true among, the three
PVC liners.
Hanging the samples in the wastes allows the
various phases of the waste to contact the speci-
mens. The effects of this exposure on the top and
bottom sections of the samples are shown in
Table 4.
Water Adsorption of Polymeric Liners
Results of the water adsorption tests run on the
same polymeric membrane liners at room tem-
perature and at 70ฐC are presented in Table 5. The
immersion time for this- experiment was 308
days. These results show a great difference in
ultimate swelling of these lining materials by
water. Of particular interest is the low water swell
of the elasticized polyolefin membrane of the
PVC membranes at room temperature.
Membrane Bags Containing Water
This test of the liner membranes which ran up
to 337 days, showed them to be very impermea-
ble. A slight increase occurred in the conductivity
of the deionized water outside the bags, indicat-
ing that some ions do pass through the mem-
-------
TABLE 3. SWELLING OF MEMBRANE LINING MATERIALS ON IMMERSION IN WASTES
Liner Vulcan- Acidic Wastes Alkaline Wastes Lead
Immersion time, days
Butyl rubber
Chlorinated polyethylene
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene
Elasticized polyolefin
Ethylene propylene rubber
Neoprene
Polyester Elastonar
Polyvinyl Chloride
No.
44
77
6-R
55
36
83
91
90
75
11
59
88
TABLE 4. RETENTION
ized
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes
?
Yes
No
No
No
No
OF
HP
250
2.7
9.4
6.8
5.4
0.3
3.1
16.1
9.6
0.6
10.2
2.3
7.5
HNO3 Slop- Spent Waste
water caustic
193
1.4
9.3
10.3
7.5
2.7
2.6
18.3
10.9
4.2
16.8
-2.8
193
2.0
1.5
3.8
3.8
17.3
2.7
3.1
0.4
35.1
13.5
-6.4
19.8 -13.5
238 236
0.4 20.1
0.6 70.9
3
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
-3
0
.3 83.0
.2 69.6
.5 18.2
.3 23.0
.2 29.3
.8 45.6
.6 7.6
.1 4.4
.0 8.8
.1 2.2
Oily Wastes
Aro- Pond
matic 104
257 248
32
59
51
53
21
15
35
60
.3 96.5
.5 31.6
.1 75.1
.2 58.4
.3 33.5
.8 35.4
.3 80.1
.7 25.3
17.1 7.9
10,
11,
7,
.7 -7.7
.3 -1.5
,2 -10.3
Weed
252
70.8
116.7
202.3
210.5
44.2
73.4
79.4
94.8
16.3
10.0
33.4
18.1
Pest-
icide/
Herb-
icide
242
0.8
9.6
13.1
12.3
0.0
3.7
8.1
3.5
2.4
4.0
0.5
2.9
TENSILE STRENGTH OF MEMBRANE LINER
MATERIALS ON IMMERSION
(Percent of
original
IN "WEED OIL""
value)
Original
Polymer
Butyl rubber
Chlorinated polyethylene
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene
Elasticized polyolefin
Ethylene propylene rubber
Neoprene
Polyester elastomer
Polyvinyl chloride
Liner
No.
44
77
6-R
55
36
83
91
90
75
11
59
88
Value,
psi
1520
2235
1730
1715
2595
970
1865
1940
6770
2955
2555
3155
Retention
Top
of specimen
16
(b)
7
(b)
26
(b)
30
18
90
72
50
63
Bottom
of specimen
55
4
43
45
32
39
40
32
81
84
42
68
a Immersion time, 252 days.
(b) Too soft to test
R = Fabric reinforced
branes. On the other hand, the bags have
generally increased in weight, showing that the
water has moved into the bags as a result of
osmotic pressure. Table 6 illustrates this effect for
the bags containing strong acid.
Chemical Stabilization
Chemical stabilization is achieved by incor-
porating the solid and liquid phases of the waste
in a relatively inert matrix that protects the com-
ponents of the waste from dissolution by rainfall
72
-------
TABLE 5. SWELLING OF POLYMERIC MEMBRANE LINERS IN WATER*
(Percent weight increase)
Polymer
Butyl rubber
Chlorinated polvethylene
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene
Elasticized polyolefin
Ethylene propylene rubber
Neoprene
Polyester elastomer
Polyvinyl chloride
Liner
No.
57-R
77
6-R
36
8
26
43
82
75
10
59
Room
Temp.
4.5
10.2
10.9
0
1.6
1.5
37.8
18.5
10.2
0.7
2.4
70ฐC
53.9
140.0
245.6
0.6
10.8
11.2
240.0
191.4
140.0
39.2
24.0
a Immersion time 308 days.
R = Fabric reinforced.
TABLE 6. SEALED BAGS CONTAINING STRONG ACID WASTE IMMERSED IN DEIONIZED WATER*
Deioriized water
Polymer
Chlorinated polyethylene
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene
Elasticized polyolefin
Polybutylene
Polyvinyl chloride
Liner
No.
86
85
36
98
19
88
pH
4.0
7.7
5.9
3.1
2.5
2.4
4.9
Conductivity
/u mho
132
306
25
296
1970
2285
7
Increase in
weight of bag
containing waste
g.
6.1
8.9
0.5
0.6
5.0
11.3
"Immersion time, 337 days.
or other water in the soil.
If this slows the rate of contaminant leaching
sufficiently to render the waste essentially harm-
less, then restrictions on disposal site location
can be minimal. The test program consists of
investigating five industrial wastes, in both the
raw and fixed states. Each waste was treated in
five separate fixation processes and subjected to
physical testing for leachability. Results to date
indicate that leaching of fixed wastes is a function
of physical, chemical, and biological mecha-
nisms and principally occurs in the following two
ways:
1. External leaching which occurs primarily
as surface washing and/or as diffusion
into surface flow.
2. Internal leaching which is primarily a
function of the solubility of the material.
Since most fixed wastes are characterized as
being highly impermeable; then in a field dis-
posal situation the internal leaching contributes
an insignificant mass of contaminants to the en-
vironment. External leaching is the predominant
mechanisms for contaminant mobility stated,
this external leaching is a combination of surface
washing and/or diffusion to surface flow.
Fixation of sludges will generally result in an
improvement in leachate quality because of the
inherent physical and chemical properties of the
fixed wastes as compared to the raw sludges. The
13
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primary factor contributing to improvement in
leachate quality from fixed wastes is the reduc-
tion in raw waste surface exposed to leaching.
This fact generally results, not only in lower
leachate concentrations, but also in a significant
improvement in the total mass of contaminants
released to the environment.
Co-disposal of the fixed waste with municipal
refuse is also being investigated. Chemically sta-
bilized industrial sludges have been loaded into
large lysimeters with municipal solid waste.
These lysimeter systems will simulate landfill
conditions. Differences in leachate quality be-
tween untreated sludges, stabilized sludges, and
MSW without sludges are being determined.
Pollutant Treatment
The treatability of landfill leachate has been
evaluated in the laboratory; a summary of the
pertinent processes and results was prepared by
Chian and DeWalle. A critical problem impeding
the full scale implementation of leachate treat-
ment is the flow and compositional variation. The
long-term trend toward decreasing con-
centration (Figure 8) has caused at least one
treatment facility to be grossly over-designed.
The composition had decreased between field
sampling/pilot-scale testing and completion of
the treatment facility. One means of dealing with
large flow and composition variation is to use a
large equalization pond and bleed directly into a
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O LEACHATE PRODUCTION,
liters/kg of dry refuse
Figure 8. Flux of total solids from experimental
landfills.
municipal sewerage system. Toward this end,
and as a follow-up of laboratory studies, the co-
treatment of leachate and municipal wastewater
at an activated sludge facility will be performed at
the MERL Test & Evaluation Facility.
Co-disposal
Wastewater treatment plant sludges and in-
dustrial wastes are often co-disposed with muni-
cipal refuse at landfills, but there is very little
quantitative information available concerning
the environmental effects of such practices. The
addition of municipal or industrial sludges may
affect the rate and amount of contaminants
leached from refuse by modifying the type and/
or duration of bacterial activity within the refuse.
The introduction of industrial wastes may also
yield new contaminants not usually found in sig-
nificant concentrations in leachate from refuse.
The ability of the landfill and the surrounding
environment to accept increases in types and
quantities of contaminants is not understood. It
was also considered plausible that the rate and
amount of contaminants leached from refuse
may be reduced.
Interim results from a project started in 1975 at
our Center Hill Facility to evaluate the leaching
characteristics of several selected wastes co-dis-
posed with municipal refuse have not provided
consistent conclusions. The addition of refinery
sludge has generally reduced the leaching of
contaminants; copper and lead release, however,
has been greater than the municipal refuse con-
trol. Addition of sewage sludge has not signifi-
cantly affected the leaching characteristics of
municipal refuse, even at per capita production
rates. Large differences in the contaminant re-
lease rates were not noticable for inorganic pig-
ment wastes. Heavy metal and salt flux were
noticeably greater when chlorine production
brine sludge was added to refuse. Despite the
initial alkaline nature of the electroplating sludge,
an increase in the heavy metals, organics, and
chloride was noticed when disposed with muni-
cipal refuse. The addition of battery production
waste showed a similar response. The addition of
organic pigment sludge indicated a general sup-
pression of metal release and an enhancement of
the leading of other materials such as COD, total
solids, and alkalinity. Those results fail to show
any consistent trend but instead indicate that the
landfill response to co-disposal of specific wastes
is unique.
Another project designed to assess the poten-
tial effects of co-disposal involves the leaching of
industrial wastes with municipal landfill leachate
14
-------
as well as water. Leachatefrom a municipal solid
waste (MSW) landfill was used to extract the five
industrial wastes and to study movement of their
components in the soil columns. MSW leachate
dissolved much greater amounts of substances
from the wastes and apparently increased the
mobility of these substances in the soil columns
relative to the dissolution and mobility observed
when deionized water was used as a leaching
solution. The municipal landfill leachate is a
highly odorous material containing many
organic acids and is strongly buffered at a pH of
about 5. Consequently, it has proved to be a very
effective solvent. A sequential batch leaching and
soil adsorption procedure has been developed
that provides information comparable to that
from soil column studies but in a much shorter
time.
Another experimental landfill project involves
a study of the effects of co-disposal of chemically
stabilized sludges in a municipal refuse landfill.
The stability, weatherability, pollutant leach-
ability, and leaching rate of raw and fixed sludges
will be determined. Test results show that fixing
can cause significant changes in the properties of
sludge, that fixed sludges are similar to soil, soil-
cement, or low strength concrete, and that prop-
erties are process dependent.
Environmental Assessment
Disposal of municipal solid waste to the land is
a common practice and is likely to be the pre-
dominant disposal mode for most communities
for many years in the future. This research area is
concerned with the impacts on the environment
due to this landfilling of solid wastes.
The impacts of different disposal practices are
assessed along with the response of vegetation
to landfill environments. Studies on the effects of
land application of waste on vegetation have also
been conducted. Economic analyses will be per-
formed on both municipal solid waste and flue
gas cleaning sludge disposal.
During the past dozen years, many attempts to
revegetate completed sanitary landfills have
been undertaken throughout the United States,
with varying degrees of success. This has been
evaluated in a recent nationwide field survey of
vegetation growth on completed sanitary land-
fills. Based on the results of this survey, literature
reviews and other field experiences, a study was
undertaken to determine which species, if any,
can maintain themselves in a landfill environ-
ment; to investigate the feasibility of preventing
landfill gas from penetrating the root zone of
selected species by using gas barrier techniques;
and to identify the factors which are most impor-
tant in maintaining adequate plant growth on
completed sanitary landfills. Ten replicates of
nineteen woody species were planted on a ten-
year old completed sanitary landfill and five gas
barrier systems were constructed. The experi-
ment was replicated on nearby old forest land to
act as a control. Of the nineteen species planted
on the landfill for the past two years, certain spe-
cies have tolerated the landfill conditions better
than others. Where the gas barrier technique kept
landfill gases from the root zone the trees grew
best.
A research program to determine effects of
milled refuse particle size on landfilled solid
waste has also been initiated. Four experimental
test plots were constructed using four different
particle size distributions. Each pit representing a
specific milled refuse particle size will be evalu-
ated in an attempt to correlate particle size with
different parameters. The parameters under
study are: wind displacement of milled refuse,
differential settlement of compacted milled re-
fuse, and attraction of vectors, rodents, birds and
wildlife to the milled refuse. Monitoring of the
test pits has just been initiated so preliminary
results are not available to date.
Remedial Action for Waste Disposal Sites
A recent House Commerce Investigative Sub-
committee report on the waste disposal practices
of 53 of the nation's largest chemical manufac-
turers identified 3,383 sites that were used for
disposal operations since 1950. Of the 3,383 sites
identified 1,099 are no longer in use. The report
states that among these closed sites a substantial
portion, have probably been abandoned with no
company or person identifiable as responsible
for cleaning up the areas. These abandoned sites
contain an estimated 100 million tons of chemical
wastes. The members of the House Subcommit-
tee cautioned that the study only addressed the
53 largest chemical manufacturers, while smaller
companies with less resources for proper dis-
posal are still unidentified.
The EPA has estimated that 379 million tons of
waste were generated in 1977 by all industry not
just chemical manufacturers. There are an esti-
mated 50,000 hazardous waste sites in the U.S.,
over 34,000 of which may pose potential environ-
mental problems and 2000 of which may pose
very serious environmental problems.
In 1976 SHWRD was requested by the Office of
Solid Waste to initiate a definitive research and
development program in the area of remedial
action. Subsequent to this request the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), Public
Law 94-580, Section 4005, Part C designated the
75
-------
SHWRD to assist in solving the Army Creek
(Llangollen) hazardous waste landfill problem.
As a result of these mandates SHWRD awarded
its first contract in remedial action research dur-
ing October of 1976. This initial award resulted in
a full-scale remedial action research project as a
municipal landfill in Windham, Connecticut. This
municipal landfill remedial action will soon be
monitored to determine its effectiveness in re-
ducing the discharge of contaminants into a
drinking water reservoir. An interim report of the
potential remedial actions that were studied in
preparation for this field verification is available
as an EPA publication (EPA-600/2-78-142) entitled
"Guidance Manual for Minimizing Pollution from
Waste Disposal Sites." Work is expected to be
completed by the Spring of 1980.
During the period of 1976 to the present,
SHWRD has been called upon to providefunding,
task force support and technical advice on re-
medial action sites located throughout the United
States from Iowa to Rhode Island. Some of these
sites include:
Love Canal, New York
Saltvill, Virginia (Chloroalkali plant site) '
Army Creek Landfill, Deleware
Kin Buck Landfill, New Jersey
La Bounty Landfill, Iowa
Earthline Corporation Landfill, Illinois
Clermont Environmental, Ohio
Stringfellow Landfill, California
Rollins Environmental, Texas
Mesita del Buey Landfill, New Mexico
Li Pari Landfill, New Jersey
Valley of the Drums, Kentucky
Candy Box Farm, Rhode Island
At the present time SHWRD is in the process of
issuing two new contracts in remedial action
technology. One will be for remedial action at a
hazardous waste disposal site and the other for
remedial action at a surface impoundment. The
purpose of the remedial action programs being
conducted by SHWRD is to provide a data base
for other federal agencies, state agencies, local
communities and private industries in solving
their needs for the selection of viable, econom-
ical and environmentally protective remedial ac-
tions at any type of polluting waste disposal site.
Landfill Alternatives
The promulgation of air and water pollution
control regulations has resulted in more effective
removal of contaminants from waste streams,
especially the hazardous constituents in many
industrial effluent streams. These cleanup ac-
tivities have resulted in an increased quantity of
concentrated hazardous wastes that must be dis-
posed of. Growing concern over possible degra-
dation of the environment from current disposal
methods has led government to seek more ac-
ceptable ways for industry to dispose of its haz-
ardous wastes.
Many disposal techniques have been utilized
or proposed, none of which is problem free.
Problem areas encountered have included ad-
verse enviromental impacts, excessively high
costs and a scarcity of acceptable sites. Current
research activities on landfill alternatives con-
cern such methods as deep-well injection, land
cultivation, and disposal in saline/marshland en-
vironments. Some of these methods are cur-
rently being practiced in the United States.
Deep-Well Injection
Available information has been compiled on
the injection of industrial hazardous wastes into
deep wells. The planning and operation of a deep
well system is a multi-disciplinary effort involv-
ing geological, engineering, chemical, biological
and legal expertise.
Deep-well injection systems for nearly all types
of non-hazardous and hazardous industrial
waste are a safe method of handling if the sys-
tems are properly located, designed, operated,
maintained and regulated.
Land Cultivation
The disposal technique of land cultivation,
whereby specific waste residues have been di-
rectly applied or admixed into soils, has been an
alternate disposal option for many years by phar-
maceutical, tannery, food processing, paper and
pulp, and oil refinery industries. To assess this
concept, various research efforts have been
initiated.
Land cultivation practices were observed at six
sites disposing of industrial residuals. The sites
were selected to permit identification and ver-
ification of parameters that contribute to the en-
vironmental acceptability of land cultivation for a
variety of industrial wastes under markedly dif-
ferent hydrogeological, meteorological, and land
use conditions. Landfarming at each site investi-
gated was characterized as a physical/chemical/
biological waste treatment process. Accordingly,
information was obtained on the physical and
chemical composition of the waste fed to the
surficial soil treatment system; characteristics of
the treatment system; operational procedures;
effectiveness of treatment; potential environ-
mental impacts; and costs. To assess the effec-
tiveness of treatment, samples of waste, soil and
waste-soil mixtures were collected and analyzed
for organic compound classes; pH; S04 and Cl;
-------
electrical conductivity; cation exchange capac-
ity; total Kjeldahl nitrogen; As, B, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu,
K, Mg, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Se, V, and Zn. To access the
extent of uptake of inorganic waste constituents,
vegetation was collected at most sites, and ele-
mental analysis was carried out. Waste inputs to
a landfarming system can be characterized quite
precisely; output stream can be determined in
principle by comparing the composition of waste
application areas with the composition of suita-
bly chosen control areas. Treatment processes
occurring in the soil system for particular wastes
in particular locations can, at the present time,
only be inferred from observed compositional
changes. This points up the need for long-range
research on fundamental mechanisms of waste
treatment in soil systems; and short-range re-
search on monitoring protocol for landfarming
operations.
Preliminary studies of the effects of amending
soils with API oil-water separator sludge on the
germination and yield of ryegrass were initiated
to generate data on acceptable sludge loading
rates and to elicit mechanisms which affect plant
responses.
A petrochemical and refinery waste were uti-
lized and each waste was mixed with each of four
soils in varying ratios by volume. The mixtures
were planted with ryegrass, and emergence and
dry matter yields were determined. Eight plant
harvest cycles were completed over a 17 month
test period. Soil wettability was also determined
periodically.
Concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons as
low as 2 percent by volume depressed ryegrass
emergence and yields, apparently through at
least two mechanisms. Phytotoxic waste constit-
uents initially acted to severly diminish plant re-
sponse. Long term yield reductions largely
resulted from impaired water, air, and nutrient
relations associated with recalcitrant hydro-
phobic hydrocarbons.
The petrochemical sludge suppressed the
emergence and yield over a longer period of
time. The suppression was proportional to the
amount of each waste applied.
Economic Analysis
The use of scrap futures markets as a means for
encouraging resource recovery from solid waste
was investigated. As a result of a preliminary
feasibility study, the Solid and Hazardous Waste
Research Division sponsored a symposium in
May 1979 in New Orleans, Louisiana for persons
interested in implementation of futures markets
for ferrous scrap and wastepaper. A follow-up
symposium, limited to discussions on futures
markets for wastepaper, was held in November
1979 in Washington, D.C. These symposiums
provided forums for informal discussions among
persons in industry, government, and research
on the potential advantages and disadvantages
of scrap futures markets in private industry. As a
result of these meetings, a major stock exchange
has developed plans to submit model trading
contracts to the Commodity Futures Trading
Commission for approval.
A number of case studies were undertaken to
identify and quantify the economical, technologi-
cal, and other impediments which affect the suc-
cessful operation of resource recovery facilities
receiving municipal solid waste. Preliminary re-
sults at the end of the year indicated that none of
the eight selected facilities had been able to
achieve a breakeven financial record in recent
years. The financial analyses were based pri-
marily on actual operating data in contrast to past
studies which relied mainly on engineering esti-
mates, and other preliminary or hypothetical
data. The study indicated that a significant im-
pediment to successful operation of the facilities
(i.e. revenues equal to or in excess of costs) was
the competitive advantage held by landfilling of
municipal solid waste.
RESOURCE RECOVERY
SHWRD is charged with the responsibility for
(1) resource recovery research and development
(including materials and energy recovery), (2)
waste reduction, and (3) hazardous materials
treatment and processing. The multifaceted re-
source recovery programs involve research to
determine and develop the best techniques for
the recovery and reuse of the material and energy
values contained in municipal solid waste. Cur-
rently, the program involves research in seven
basic areas:
1. Refuse derived fuels
2. Evaluation of resource recovery facilities
3. Technology assessment
4. Process equipment evaluations
5. Economic and institutional studies
6. Environmental impacts
7. Special studies under the Resource Con-
servation and Recovery Act (PL 92-580).
Refuse Derived Fuel
This research involves extracting the com-
bustible organic fraction of municipal solid
waste, processing it into an easily handled form,
and investigating its combustion characteristics
in industrial, institutional, and utility boilers. Re-
search priorities include co-firing of refuse de-
rived fuels (RDF) and coal; investigating chemical
17
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and thermal processes for improving RDF fuel
quality; onsite combustion tests to determine en-
vironmental emissions, plant modifications, and
equipment requirements, development of stand-
ard sampling and testing procedures, and speci-
fications for standardized RDF and d-RDF (densi-
fied). With increasing experience the knowledge
the marketability and acceptability of RDF should
improve, making it a promising resource recov-
ery alternative.
SHWRD is cooperating with others to help in-
crease the acceptability of the concept. Joint pro-
jects were implemented with the Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory (IERL) in
Cincinnati to evaluate special aspects of the
Madison and Milwaukee, Wisconsin resource re-
covery systems dealing with the use of RDF Addi-
tionally, IERL and SHWRD are cooperating with
the State of Maryland in a project to use RDF as a
fuel in cement kilns. The State of Maryland was
involved in the first combustion test of densified
refuse derived fuels in the Maryland Correctional
Institute's stoker boiler located near Hagertown,
Maryland. Industry is also participating in the
second phase tests of d-RDF in an industrial
boiler located in Erie, Pennsylvania. SHWRD
provided 60 tons of d-RDF to be tested at a state
boiler in New York. Approximately 2000 tons of d-
RDF were burned in the GE Boiler at Erie, Penn-
sylvania. Test data are still being analyzed, but
tests were successful. Much valuable informa-
tion was obtained on the combustion and boiler
operating characteristics, emissions characteris-
tics, and the storage, handling, and transporta-
tion of d-RDF
Resource Recovery Facilities
Several research projects are directly con-
cerned with the design, implementation, testing,
and evaluation of planned or existing resource
recovery facilities.
The City of Ames, Iowa, received a grant from
SHWRD to evaluate the city resource recovery
system. Research includes statistically designed
experiments to investigate air emissions from
RDF combustion boiler corrosion, burnouts, and
boiler and plant operations.
The project is providing the first long-term data
available on the effects of RDF on the corrosion of
boiler tubes. Tubes placed in situ have been re-
moved after 1,000 hours and one year of ex-
posure to the combined combustion of RDF and
coal. Analyses have indicated virtually no corro-
sion for the 1,000 hour samples for the year-ex-
posed samples. Based upon the detailed analysis
of these samples, the investigators concluded
that burning RDF with coal does not alter the
basic mechanism of corrosion found to exist on
superheater and waterwall tubes when coal is
burned alone. There is no evidence to suggest
that the presence of RDF causes an acceleration
of the rate of attack. This work will provide signifi-
cant information to the industry and should help
to reduce concerns that RDF will corrode boiler
tubes.
SHWRD has conducted several projects to de-
velop facility design and operating data, includ-
ing alternative disposal systems and methods for
predicting waste composition and quantity. A
study of the Palos Verdes, California landfill in-
volved optimizing methane production from the
landfill and testing biodegradation processes
and rates.
An additional study further defined the state-
of-the-art of methane recovery from landfills and
assessed the technical and economic feasibility
of the concept. The concept is technically feasi-
ble, but economically dependent on local market
conditions. Off-site sales of raw (low BTU) gas to
industrial customers in profitable under current
market conditions if a minimum production vol-
ume can be guaranteed. Sales of cleaned gas
(medium to high BTU) to utilities is economical
only in specific cases. With the deregulation of
natural gas, however, this concept will likely be
attractive in most cases.
A current study involves the evaluation of dif-
ferent molecular sieves for gas cleanup. The ob-
ject is to improve the BTU yield by increased
C02 removal.
(g)
Technology Assessments
In addition to the data being generated from
evaluation of available resource recovery facili-
ties, studies are being conducted to assess the
feasibility of alternative technologies for re-
source recovery.
The biological conversion of cellulosic wastes
to methane studies have been completed at three
commercially constructed, intermediate-sized di-
gesters. Materials handling presented the great-
est obstacle to satisfactory operation of farm-
scale anaerobic digesters. Conversion of biogas
to electricity via standard engine-generator sets
is capital and maintenance intensive. Combining
wastes from several forms and/or communities
could provide economics of sale provided man-
agement and social barriers are overcome.
Research was continued on optimization of
acid hydrolysis technology for industrial-scale
conversion of waste cellulose to glucose. This
one ton/day plant utilizes hydropulped refuse
and sawdust as feedstock. The Werner &
Pfleiderer is used as the reactor devise for contin-
18
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Seven Access Ports
1 acid injection
1 steam injection
4 temperature measurement
1 pressure measurent
1 2345 6
Flushing^
Drain
Figure 9. Schematic of the twin screw and hydrolysis system.
uously reacting cellulose in dry or aqueous slurry
at suitability evaluated temperatures. Figure 9 is
a schematic of the Werner & Pfleiderer twin-
screw extruder (reactor), selected because of its
capacity for conveying and mixing the
feedstocks. This equipment allows accurate con-
trol of temperatures, pressure and resident time
and temperature during intensive mixing. Cur-
rently, plans are being developed for a cellulose-'
glucose pilot plant capable of producing 10-50
tons/day of glucose.
Three techniques have been developed and
evaluated on the pilot scale for utilization and
stabilization of pyrolytic oils produced from mu-
nicipal solid waste. Physical and chemical pro-
cessing steps are being investigated to maximize
the value of the oils produced and to maintain
their consistency during storage. Evaluations of
three processes are continuing for the 50 pounds/
day continuous process selection.
Related studies have identified and verified
chemical treatments for cellulose embrittlement.
As a result, the basic requirements were defined
for producing a fine powdered RDF from the
organic fraction of municipal solid waste. This
work is continuing to further evaluate the com-
bustion characteristics of powder fuel obtained
from processed MSW. Additionally, work will
evaluate techniques for preparing stabilized mix-
tures of the powder RDF and oil, and to determine
the mixtures' combustion characteristics.
Process Equipment Evaluations
Several projects are being conducted to evalu-
ate the operating performance of selected types
of resource recovery process equipment. Nine
shredders at several large-scale solid waste pro-
cessing facilities were evaluated to determine
their performance characteristics as well as to
verify basic theoretical relationships developed
in laboratory research on the size reduction of
solid waste.
19
-------
Seven horizontal hammermills, one vertical
hammermill, and one vertical ring shredderwere
evaluated. Also, two stage-size reduction and sin-
gle-stage size reduction were studied. The work
has resulted in the development of analytical re-
lationships among the size reduction parameters
and established levels of shredder performance
with respect to energy consumption and ham-
mer wear.
Another study is evaluating the operating per-
formance of large-scale air classifiers (AC). Pri-
mary emphasis is placed upon parameters that
can be determined from the testing of air classi-
fiers operating the field. Parameters such as the
air/solids ratios, light fraction quality, fuel quality
index, and operation efficiency will be deter-
mined. Seven air classifiers with operation
ranges of 5 to 50 tons per hour will be tested.
Other evaluations at Recovery I in New Orleans
are continuing on the use of froth flotation for gas
recovery and the use of the trommel rotary
screen to separate MSW prior to shredding. In
conjunction with this, SHWRD is providing tech-
nical assistance to the Department of Energy's
large research and development study on the use
of trommel screens for resource recovery.
A more basic research project in investigating
the densif ication of solid waste to produce d-RDF.
Attempts are being made to develop the basis
data required to design proper equipment and
processes for the production of d-RDF Prelimin-
ary results have shown a relationship between
pellet quality and temperature, moisture, die
taper, and the level of compaction of the light
MSW prior to entering the pelletizer chamber.
The effect of temperature is unclear and the effect
of moisture content is counter to observations
made during the actual production of d-RDF for
the field combustion tests.
Explosions in resource recovery facilities have
been a problem. While many have gone unre-
ported, there is documentation for well over a
hundred in only a few years. Some have caused
very extensive facility damage and some have
caused personnel injury. In an effort to minimize
this problem, SHWRD initiated a project to
provide the data necessary to design explosion
venting systems for solid waste shredders, the
one piece of equipment causing the most explo-
sions. The project will adopt information avail-
able for explosion venting of other industrial
equipmentthrough conduct of actual explosions
in a mock-up full-scale shredder.
Economic and Institutional Studies
An economic analysis has shown the feasibility
of employing scrap futures markets for ferrous
and waste paper. Establishment of the concept
could aid the trading of these secondary mate-
rials and encourage the flow of capital to the
scrap industry. The results of this study were
presented at a symposium on scrap futures in
New Orleans. As a result of this symposium,
COMEX decided to recommend the establish-
ment of a futures market for ferrous scrap. An-
other symposium is being conducted to provide
the latest information on futures markets to the
paper industry.
A study of user charges for solid waste man-
agement was inconclusive regarding the rela-
tionships of user charges' effects on the quantity,
composition, and rate of resource recovery of
solid waste. Additional work is required to estab-
lish these relationships. Results did show,
however, that there was a significant relationship
between the user charges and the frequency of
solid waste pick up service demanded.
Environmental Impact
Several continuing projects involve investiga-
tions of the emissions and needed controls to
make resource recovery systems environmen-
tally acceptable. One study involves emissions
from preprocessing and bioconversion systems.
Investigators are characterizing pollutants, de-
veloping assessment criteria and pollution mea-
surement techniques, and performing a trade-off
analysis of cost and performance of pollution
control equipment. Another study involves selec-
tion and on-site testing of various air pollution
control devices, with a determination of unit ac-
ceptability and needed improvements. This work
is being conducted in cooperation with IERL-
Cincinnati.
Potential methods available for removing lead
and other metals from solid waste are being in-
vestigated. The presence of lead in solid waste
has resulted in potentially unacceptable levels of
lead in the emissions from facilities combusting
RDF with coal. Emphasis is being placed on po-
tential lead emissions to the air from current and
planned incinerators and RDF plants over the
next several years.
A study to assess the environmental impact of
resource recovery was completed. It showed that
the net environmental impact of RR from MSW
will be primarily beneficial. Emissions from most
air pollutants will be reduced. Discharge of some
pollutants to surface waters will increase. Less
landfill capacity will be required for disposal of
MSW. Energy savings will be realized from en-
ergy conservation in materials production and
energy recovery from MSW. The analysis is
based on specific scenarios selected from MSW
20
-------
disposal in 1990 with and without resource
recovery.
Special Studies
SHWRD is responding to mandates of RCRA by
conducting several special studies. These studies
are designed to provide status reports to the Con-
gress on various aspects of resource recovery.
Studies include assessments of selected small-
scale, low technology resource recovery meth-
ods, evaluation of the compatability of source
separation with centralized resource recovery fa-
cilities, and techniques for forecasting the quality
and composition of municipal solid waste. In
other special studies, research priorities for re-
source recovery are being assessed as are the
impediments to the economical operation of re-
source recovery facilities. The status of glass and
plastics resource recovery, and the impediments
to passenger tire recycling are the subjects of
other special studies.
The study of forecasting the quantity and com-
position of MSW showed that, based on the
model assumptions, per capita generation of
waste will increase at a rate less than the rate of
increase projected for the GNP through 1990.
This is largely accounted for by the projected
substitution of light materials (plastics, alumi-
num, etc.) for glass and steel. The study of eco-
nomic impediments to resource recovery facili-
ties indicates that large MSW to RDF plants are
uneconomical from a market point-of-view. Mod-
ular incinerators with heat recovery appear to
hold promise. These are preliminary findings
only.
In the assessment of small-scale and low tech-
nology, the study showed that modular incinera-
tion with heat recovery and source separation
were the most feasible at this time. Scaled
downed versions of other technologies or sys-
tems appear unacceptable.
Results of the study to determine the com-
patibility of source separation and centralized
processing (high technology) are still being re-
viewed, however, they tend to show that neither
source separation and centralized processing
(high technology) are still being reviewed,
however, they tend to show that neither source
separation nor mixed-waste processing alone
would provide maximum benefits to the Nation
and to the hypothetical community analyzed. A
combination was judged to provide the greatest
benefits. The study identified various combina-
tions and their relative value for providing max-
imum benefit to a community from resource
recovery.
TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT
Under the mandates of the Resource Con-
servation and Recovery Act and the Toxic Sub-
stances Control Act, the EPA is in the process of
identifying hazardous and toxic materials man-
ufactured or generated by industrial operations
which, if not properly controlled, pose significant
environment and public health problems. Muni-
cipal waste disposal facilities are generally not
capable of treating and managing such materials
and their release in certain instances from unac-
ceptable disposal sites has led to highly un-
desirable environmental contamination. Accord-
ingly, SHWRD's research program is concerned
with the identification/assessment of effective
techniques for treatment and control of toxic and
hazardous waste materials.
These techniques involve biological processes,
incineration, and chemical/physical treatment, as
well as the corresponding economic and en-
vironmental impacts of such activities. The pro-
gram is designed to eliminate or reduce the
hazardous nature of wastes and to protect the
environment. The research program includes:
1. Techno-economic assessments
2. Environmental impacts
3. Treatment technologies
Techno-Economic Assessment
A study has been completed which quantified
the amount of industrial hazardous waste dis-
posed of in public sector facilities. This analysis
determined industrial waste types and disposal
method of generators' Standard Industrial Classi-
fication (SIC) Code. Five SIC codes were exam-
ined. These were chemicals and allied products,
petroleum refining and related industries, rubber
and miscellaneous plastic products, leather and
leather products, and electrical and electronic
machinery, equipment and supplies. These five
codes were found to account for 50 percent of the
hazardous waste generated in the country; with
approximately 10 percent of this waste entering
the municipal sector.
Other assessments being performed involve
the relevancy and adequacy of existing and de-
veloping processing techniques for selected haz-
ardous wastes. Processes examined include
chlorinolysJs, deep-well injection, catalysis, con-
centration techniques for heavy metal waste, as-
sessment of techniques for treatment of selected
hazardous waste, biodegradation treatment pro-
cesses, and state-of-the-art processes for
pesticide disposal.
Economic evaluations of the interrelationships
between control costs and regulations for haz-
21
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Figure 10. Unit Cost Calculator.
Subtotal Capital Costs
Subtotal Direct O & M Costs
Xo/
^^^ซ /o
y o/
X %
Xz
%
Amount Funds Needed During Construction
Working Capital
F-
"-^X
= Administrative Overhead
= Total Capital Costs -*
= Debt Service/Amortization
% = Allowance for R E. Taxes & Insurance
X Inflation Factor = Direct Operating Costs
Admin. Overhead X Inflation Factor + Debt Service/Amotization
+ R.E Taxes & Insurance = Indirect Operating Costs
I = Total Annuahzed Costs
X Present Value Factor = Present Value Annual Costs
Divided by Annual Throughpart
Simple Averages.
Life Cycle
Unit Cost
ardous waste treatment and disposal are being
conducted. For example, a study to evaluate the
cost-effectiveness of available treatment and dis-
posal alternatives for hazardous wastes to meet
proposed RCRA regulations is underway. Some
16 treatment and 5 disposal unit processes ap-
plicable to selected industries are being evalu-
ated for life cycle and simple average costs
(Figure 10. Unit Cost Calculator) using a compu-
ter-assisted cost/performance program. Pre-
liminary indications are the flotation, filtration,
and hydrolysis rank among the more cost-effec-
tive treatment options, while encapsulation and
land disposal are most cost-effective among the
disposal options.
Environmental Impact
Pollution levels associated with the processing
of hazardous waste are being studied to deter-
mine the environmental impacts. One project is
evaluating both toxicity of by-products and the
associated health and environmental hazards of
air emissions from selected hazardous waste
management facilities. Sampling and analysis
are underway at several locations. Thus far, no
hazardous levels of emissions have been de-
tected at any of the test sites.
A second newly initiated project will assess the
nature and magnitude of hazardous pollutants
discharged into the environment from the barrel/
drum reconditioning industry. To date, there is
little information on the nature and extent of air,
land, and water pollution caused by improper
reconditioning of barrels and drums.
Treatment Technologies
To effectively process the diverse hazardous
wastes generated, many treatment technologies
have been evaluated. A study to assess new haz-
ardous waste treatment technologies is ongoing.
The objective of this study is to identify and eval-
uate technologies that are more cost-effective
22
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than the treatment method now being used.
Microwave plasma detoxification of various
forms of hazardous wastes was successfully
tested at 5-7 pounds per hour in the laboratory. A
larger 15 kilowatt, 10-12 pounds per hour unit
effectively destroyed several complex chlori-
nated gases, but liquids and solids were in-
completely treated because of undeveloped
evaporation techniques. Two to five years of addi-
tional research and development may be needed
to perfect the technology for wide ranges of ma-
terials at larger scales. Meanwhile, tests with real
nerve gases (U.S. Army) and PCB's (Canadian
Electrical Association) are continuing. The U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency plans to dem-
onstrate a new pesticide laboratory unit around
1982.
BIOLOGICAL/CHEMICAL/PHYSICAL
TREATMENT
A specially constructed pesticide pit has been
evaluated for three years and has proven to be an
effective method for containment of excess
pesticides and rinse waters generated by farmers
and applicators. Monitoring of air and water in
the surrounding area has shown no pesticide
contamination. Study of the pit content has re-
vealed that microorganisms are present and ca-
pable of destroying many of the pesticides
discharged into the pit. In areas where pesticide
pit disposal will have limited application, filtra-
tion/adsorption techniques are being developed.
Identification of filtration/adsorption for effective
treatment of pesticide waste water will provide
for pesticide removal and safe discharge of
treated water to sewers.
Treatment of hazardous wastes by con-
centration of technologies is being evaluated. In-
dividual unit processes under going evaluation
are chemical coagulation'and precipitation, bio-
logical treatment of activated sludge, activated
carbon adsorption, resin adsorption, reverse os-
mosis, ultrafiltration, and air or steam stripping.
Using the above unit processes and developed
process trains, bench and pilot scale treatability
studies will be performed on hazardous wastes
and leachates. The leachate from Love Canal is a
prime example. The objective of the study is to
develop concentration technologies for the re-
moval of hazardous constituents and enable the
majority of the waste to be discharged to existing
municipal treatment plants. As a result, the con-
centrated wastes can be cost-effectively treated,
incinerated or disposed of in secure landfills.
Techniques to control inorganic chemical
wastes, especially heavy metals, have been iden-
tified and evaluated. Three techniques that have
broad application for hazardous inorganic con-
stituents are high gradient magnetic separation,
solvent extraction, and chemical precipitation.
Demonstration and verification of these selected
techniques for treatment of inorganic pollutants
from municipal landfills, surface impoundments,
and hazardous waste treatment facilities are
ongoing.
A chemical method is being developed and
evaluated for detoxification of halogenated haz-
ardous chemical wastes. The active reagent is for
treatment of molten sodium and polyethylene
glycol. Thus far, the method has proven effective
for decomposition of hexachlorocyclohexane,
tricholorobenzene, Kepon, DDT, and more impor-
tantly, PCB-contained dielectric fluids. Fields ver-
ifications are planned at the conclusion of
laboratory studies.
Encapsulation techniques have been de-
veloped for safe storage and/or disposal of haz-
ardous waste. This project has researched and/or
evaluated the use of cement for encapsulating
small containers of waste; the use of large ce-
ment containers, i.e., culverts, missile silos, etc.
for the disposal of waste; and the four polymeric
techniques which include encapsulation of 55-
gallon drums or other containers. Encapsulating
materials formed with the polymeric techniques
are unique in their capabilities to resist physical
CYLINDER
CLAMP
FLATTEN
COVER
VALVE
HEATER
PUMP
RECEPTACLE
"
55-GAL DRUM
Figure 11. Apparatus for encapsulating
55- gallon drums holding
hazardous wastes.
23
-------
and chemical stresses. They are tough, flexible laboratory scale for three processes, while full-
coatings which prevent leaching of materials into sca|e Work is proceeding for the fuse welding
or from the matrix. Process development and process for encapsulating 55-gallon containers.
product evaluations have been conducted on a (Figure 11)
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
1. Abeles, T.R et al. ENERGY AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF ANAEROBIC DIGESTERS AND
BIOFUELS FOR RURAL WASTE MANAGEMENT. EPA-600/7-78-174, December 1978.
2. SCS Engineers. SELECTED BIODEGRADATION TECHNIQUE FOR TREATMENT AND/OR ULTIMATE
DISPOSAL OF ORGANIC MATERIALS. EPA-600/2-79-006, March 1979.
3. Oberacker, D.A. AIR POLLUTION SAMPLING AND MONITORING AT HAZARDOUS WASTE MAN-
AGEMENT FACILITIES. Paper presented at 72nd APCA Annual Meeting and Exhibition, Cincinnati,
Ohio, June 1979.
4. Carnes, R.A. CURRENT STATUS OF USEPA INVOLVEMENT IN CARBON FIBER RESEARCH. Paper
presented at a technical information exchange seminar for various agencies involved in carbon
fiber management, Hampton, Virginia, May 1979.
5. Carnes, R.A. CURRENT USEPA/SHWRD ACTIVITIES IN HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION AC-
TIVITIES. Paper presented in a five state regional symposium on hazardous waste research,
Chicago, Illinois, May 1979.
6. Wiles, C.C. FEDERAL SUPPORT FOR DEVELOPING DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SOLID WASTE SHRED-
DER EXPLOSION VENTS. Paper presented at Explosion Protection for Solid Waste Shredders
Seminar, New Castle, Pennsylvania, June 1979.
7. Carnes, R.A. HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION AND GASEOUS WASTE POLLUTION CON-
TROL. Paper presented at 72nd APCA Annual Meeting and Exhibition, Cincinnati, Ohio, June 1979.
8. Carnes, R.A. PARAMETRIC EVALUTION OF A FIELD SCALE HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATOR.
Paper presented at 72nd APCA Annual Meeting and Exhibition, Cincinnati, Ohio, June 1979.
9. Roulier, M.H. and N.B. Schomaker. RESEARCH ON POLLUTANT TRANSPORT. Paper presented at
NATO/CCMS meeting, Vancouver, British Columbia, June 1979.
10. Carnes, R.A. THE THERM AL DECOMPOSITION ANALYTICAL SYSTEM (TDAS): ITS DEVELOPMENT
AND APPLICATION. Paper presented at 72nd APCA Annual Meeting and Exhibition, Cincinnati,
Ohio, June 1979.
11. Carnes, R.A. UDRI EFFORT. Paper presented at 72nd APCA Annual Meeting and Exhibition, Cincin-
nati, Ohio, June 1979.
12. Ham, R.K., et al. RECOVERY, PROCESSING, AND UTILIZATION OF GAS FROM SANITARY LAND-
FILLS. EPA-600/2-79-001, February 1979.
13. Roulier, M.H. FIELD VERIFICATION OF GAS MIGRATION. Paper presented at SHWRD Fifth Annual
Research Symposium, Orlando, Florida, March 1979.
14. Brunner, D.R. FORECASTING PRODUCTION OF LANDFILL LEACHATE. Paper presented at SHWRD
Fifth Annual Research Symposium, Orlando, Florida, March 1979.
15. Carnes, R.A. A HAZARDOUS WASTE INCINERATION PROGRAM. Paper presented at Second
National Conference on Hazardous Materials Management, San Diego, California, March 1979.
16. Roulier, M.H. MODELING POLLUTANT MOVEMENT IN SOIL Paper presented at SHWRD Fifth
Annual Research Symposium, Orlando, Florida, March 1979.
17. Klee, A.J. AN OVERVIEW OF RESOURCE RECOVERY ACTIVITIES. Paper presented at SHWRD Fifth
Annual Research Symposium, Orlando, Florida, March 1979.
18. Wiles, C.C. PRODUCTION AND USE OF DENSIFIED RDF Paper presented at SHWRD Fifth Annual
Research Symposium, Orlando, Florida, March 1979.
19. Leone, I.A., FB. Flower, E.F Gilman and J.J. Arthur. ADAPTING WOODY SPECIES AND PLANTING
TECHNIQUES TO LANDFILL CONDITIONS. EPA-600/2-79-128, August 1979.
20. Fletcher, M.W. and D.E. Fiscus. ANALYSIS OF AIRBORNE VIABLE BACTERIA AT SOLID WASTE
PROCESSrNG FACILITIES. EPA-600/2-79-131, August 1979.
21. Fiscus, D.E., RG. Gorman, M.R Schrag, and L.J. Shannon. ASSESSMENT OF BACTERIA AND VIRUS
EMISSIONS AT A REFUSE DERIVED FULL PLANT AND OTHER WASTE HANDLING FACILITIES;
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. EPA-600/8-79-010, August 1979.
22. Gorman, RG., D.E. Fiscus, M.R Schrag, and L.J. Shannon. COMPARISON OF METHODS FOR
SAMPLING BACTERIA AT SOLID WASTE PROCESSING FACILITIES. EPA-600/2-79-090, August
1979.
24
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23. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station. EFFECTS OF FLUE GAS CLEANING WASTE
ON GROUNDWATER QUALITY AND SOIL CHARACTERISTICS. EPA-600/2-79-164, August 1979.
24. Styron, C.R. Ill and Z.B. Fry, Jr. FLUE GAS CLEANING SLUDGE LECHATE/LINER COMPATIBILITY
INVESTIGATION; INTERIM REPORT. EPA-600/2-79-136, August 1979.
25. Efaw, F and W.N. Lanen. IMPACT OF USER CHARGES ON MANAGEMENT OF HOUSEHOLD SOLID
WASTE. EPA-600/5-79-008, August 1979.
26. Fungaroli, A.A. and R.L Steiner. INVESTIGATION OF SANITARY LANDFILL BEHAVIOR; VOLUME I.
FINAL REPORT. EPA-600/2-79-053a, July 1979.
27. Fungaroli, A.A. and R.L Steiner. INVESTIGATION OF SANITARY LANDFILL BEHAVIOR; VOLUME II.
SUPPLEMENT TO THE FINAL REPORT. EPA-006/2-79-053b, July 1979.
28. Copenhaver, E.D. and B.K. Wilkinson. MOVEMENT OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES IN SOIL: A
BIBLIOGRAPHY; VOLUME 1. SELECTED METALS. EPA-600/9-79-024a, August 1979.
29. Copenhaver, E.D. and B.K. Wilkinson. MOVEMENT OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES IN SOIL: A
BIBLIOGRAPHY; VOLUME 2. PESTICIDES. EPA-600/9-79-024b, August 1979.
30. MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE: LAND DISPOSAL. In: Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Research
Symposium, M.R Wanielista and J.S. Taylor, eds. EPA-600/9-79-023a, August 1979.
31. Gordon, J.G. ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT OF RESOURCE RECOVERY ON THE ENVIRONMENT.
EPA-600/8-79-011, August 1979.
32. Wigh, R.J. BOONE COUNTY FIELD SITE INTERIM REPORT; TEST CELLS 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D.
EPA-600/2-79-058, July 1979.
33. Ham, R.K., M.A. Anderson, R. Stegman and R. Stanforth. COMPARISON OF THREE WASTE
LEACHING TESTS. EPA-600/2-79-071, July 1979.
34. Ham, R.K., M.A. Anderson, R. Stegman, and R. Stanforth. COMPARISON OF THREE WASTE
LEACHING TESTS; EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. EPA-600/8-79-001, May 1979.
35. Lutton, R.J., G.L Regan and L.W. Jones. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF COVERS FOR SOLID
WASTE LANDFILLS. EPA-600/2-79-165, August 1979.
36. Thompson, D.W. ELUTRIATE TEST EVALUATION OF CHEMICALLY STABILIZED WASTE MATE-
RIALS. EPA-600/2-79-154, August 1979.
37. Haxo, H.E. Jr., R.S. Haxo, and T.F Kellogg. LINER MATERIALS EXPOSED TO MUNICIPAL SOLID
WASTE LEACHATE; THIRD INTERIM REPORT. EPA-600/2-79-038, July 1979.
38. Van Noordwyk, H., L Schalit, W. Wyss, and H. Atkins. QUANTIFICATION OF MUNICIPAL DISPOSAL
METHODS FOR INDUSTRIALLY GENERATED HAZARDOUS WASTES. EPA-600/2-79-135, August
1979.
39. Rogers, C.J. RESEARCH ON THE IN-SITU TREATMENT OF TOXIC ORGANIC LANDFILL CON-
TAINMENTS. Paper presented at Office of Science & Technology and ISETAP workshop, Biological
Treatment for Wastes Contained in Existing Non-Nuclear Hazardous Waste Dumpsites, Wash-
ington, D.C., August 1979.
40. James, S.C. METHANE GAS PRODUCTION BY MIXING MSW-MSS IN LARGE SCALE ANAEROBIC
DIGESTERS. Paper presented at Conference on Land Disposal of Municipal and Industrial Waste,
Madison, Wisconsin, September 1979.
41. James, S.C. and C. Rhyne. METHANE RECOVERY FROM THE CITY OF MT. VIEW, CALIFORNIA.
Paper presented at Conference on Land Disposal of Municipal and Industrial Waste, Madison,
Wisconsin, September 1979.
42. James, S.C. RECOVERY OF LANDFILL GAS AT MT. VIEW. Paper presented at Engineering Founda-
tion Conference on Resource Recovery, Henniker, New Hampshire, July 1979.
43. Landreth, R.E. UPDATE ON EPA ACTIVITIES. Paper presented at 87th AlChE National Meeting,
Boston, Massachusetts, August 1979.
44. Carnes, R.A. USEPA CARBON FIBER RESEARCH PROGRAM. Paper presented to Office of Science &
Technology, White House, Washington, D.C., September 1979.
25
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WASTEWATER RESEARCH DIVISION
The Wastewater Research Division (WRD) was formed in July of 1975 from the Advanced Waste
Treatment Research Laboratory which had been initiated in Cincinnati in 1960. Advanced waste
treatment work had been carried out under both the U.S. Public Health Service and the Department of
the Interior before the establishment of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1970. With the
passage of Public Law 92-500 in 1972, with changes in the national perception of municipal research
problems, and with a consolidation of USEPA municipal wastewater pollution research within MERL,
the range of topics expanded beyond those formerly addressed. Wastewater Research Division had
become a more accurate description of the program.
Following the special topics is a description of the work and of important accomplishments in the
Division.
SPECIAL TOPICS
Urban and Rural Communities
Cooperate In Land Utilization of Sludge
When a municipality decides that land applica-
tion of sludge is economically and environmen-
tally desirable, it is generally faced with the need
to convince the potential recipients or the com-
munity at large that sludge reuse is a good thing.
Strategic plans are laid to choose the optimum
sites, keep the community informed, and estab-
lish a "climate of trust."
The "climate of trust" is often very hard to
establish. If the proposed recipient is a farmer, he
is asked to stake his farm and his livelihood on
the claims of "honest-looking" municipal offi-
cials, who clearly have their own reasons for en-
couraging sludge use on land, that sludge is safe
for his crops, is not hazardous to his family's
health, and is a profitable replacement for much
of his fertilizer needs. The farmer knows that his
farm must still be profitably producing crops
long after municipal authorities have left office,
engineering firms have gone on to other jobs,
and those sewage treatment operators who were
so reassuring have transferred to some other
treatment plant. The farmer often concludes that
his safest course is to reject the sludge option.
Another approach, hard at first, but more prof-
itable in the long run, is for the municipality to
surrender to the agricultural community some of
the decision-making authority about the use of
sludge, and let the farmer make up his own mind,
using his own information sources. The mecha-
nism to use is the unique intercommunication
web that provides the farmer with the informa-
tion he needs to do the best thing possible with
his land. Partners in the effort are private organi-
zations such as the Farm Bureau Federations,
State and Federal agricultural extension services,
and the research programs of State and Federal
agricultural agencies. These organizations do not
produce all the information that a farmer needs,
but they are his reliable counselors that assess
the claims of equipment manufacturers, fertilizer
producers, and seed suppliers, and give the
farmer the good advice he needs.
The conventional intercommunication channel
from sludge producer to receiver is not used. A
measure of control by the city must be relin-
quished to the rural residents. The agricultural
community decides what is safe, what sludge
application rates are appropriate, and even what
sludges should or should not be used on land.
When this is done, the farm community reverses
itself, and a difficult struggle for acceptance is
turned into an enlightened program, where
knowledgeable people who have the trust of the
farmer make key decisions.
In Ohio, the nearly traditional confrontation be-
tween farm and city has been encountered and
reversed. Cooperation between State, Federal,
and farm organizations has produced a model
program that may point the way nationally to the
resource-conserving utilization of all the sludge
that should be reused. With support of an EPA
demonstration grant to the Ohio Farm Bureau
Federation, Ohio is showing how city and coun-
try people can work together harmoniously to
use municipal sludge on farms to benefit both the
rural and urban communities. Involvement of
concerned residents of both communities in
planning and implementation of the sludge-use
project has enabJed them to avoid the distrust
26
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and strife that has plagued so many prior efforts
to recycle urban wastes on agricultural land.
Although sludge use on land is common in this
country, there is still a general lack of understand-
ing among participating farmers and munici-
palities of the management procedures neces-
sary to assure the optimal benefits and minimal
health and environmental risks. Residents of the
communities involved in this project were invited
to educational meetings where agricultural and
medical scientists discussed the use of sludge as
fertilizer- its benefits and risks. Thus, the nega-
tive attitudes associated with lack of information
have been avoided.
Who is carrying out a project is often more
important than what is done, or how, in determin-
ing its acceptability. This demonstration was initi-
ated by the Ohio Farm Bureau Federation, an
organization of farmers dedicated to the ad-
vancement of farmers. The Farm Bureau is one of
the oldest and largest farmer organizations in
America with County Farm Bureau Federations
combining to form the Ohio Farm Bureau Federa-
tion which in turn combines with other state
Farm Bureau Federations to comprise the Amer-
ican Farm Bureau Federation. The confidence
that the farmers have in the sponsoring organiza-
tion is important in gaining acceptance of, and
participation in such projects.
The Ohio Farm Bureau Federation's interest in
a project to learn how to use sludge beneficially
developed out of its activities in defense of some
of its members who were threatened with loss of
their farms to a city for use as a municipal sludge
farm. With the assistance of The Ohio State Uni-
versity, College of Agriculture, the Federation
submitted an application for an EPA grant to sup-
port a large demonstration of safe beneficial use
of sewage sludge on privately owned farm land.
The grant application was submitted at a conven-
ient time, because EPA was searching for a model
demonstration of a successful way to plan, im-
plement, and conduct a sludge use program on
farm land. Such a demonstration would involve
resolution of legal and institutional obstacles,
following the best available site management,
and educational programs to publicize the
project.
A grant was extended to the Farm Bureau De-
velopment Corporation in 1977. The scope of the
project was significantly expanded by addition of
an epidemiological study to assess the effects
upon the health of animals and humans from
careful use of sludge on farms. The project is
funded jointly by EPA's Health Effects and Munic-
ipal Environmental Research Laboratories in
Cincinnati.
One of the important aspects of the project that
distinguishes it from most previous efforts to
apply urban wastes on rural land is the great
number of participating agencies, organizations
and individuals that have cooperated in the plan-
ning and implementation of it. They represent.
the rural communities, the urban communities,
and the local, state, and federal government. The
Ohio Farm Bureau Development Corporation ac-
cepted the EPA grant, contributed 25 percent of
the funds, and provided overall supervision and
direction. The Ohio State University and the Ohio
Agricultural Research and Development Center
serve as subcontractor and perform most of the
scientific research work. The College of Agricul-
ture participates through three departments and
the Cooperative Extension Service. The Depart-
ment of Agronomy tests soils and sludges and
recommends sludge application rates and other
soil and crop management practices to be fol-
lowed. Soils and crops are periodically sampled
and analyzed to determine changes caused by
use of sludge. The Department of Agricultural
Engineering advises in matters concerning
sludge handling and application and studies the
effect of sludge on soil density and compaction.
The Department of Agricultural Economics as-
sesses the economic impact of various sludge
handling and application systems on the farm
enterprise. The Extension Service is the leader in
information dissemination and in obtaining
farmer cooperators. They also set up field days
and collect soil and plant samples.
The College of Medicine, The Ohio State Uni-
versity, participates in the epidemiological stud-
ies through two departments. The Department of
Medical Microbiology analyzes sludge for patho-
genic bacteria and viruses, and evaluates sludge-
treated soil to determine the rate of survival of
these pathogens. They also examine the cooper-
ating farm families to determine any evidence of
bacterial or viral infections from sludge applica-
tion. The Department of Preventive Medicine co-
operates in design of the epidemiological study
and in analyzing the data.
The College of Veterinary Medicine cooperates
in the study of the effect of sludge use on human
health and monitors the effect of sludge on the
health of domestic animals. They evaluate the
effects of metals, Salmonella, and parasites.
They also perform the Tuberculin sensitivity test
on farm animals.
All of the participating departments of The
Ohio State University (OSU) and the Farm Bureau
have cooperated under the leadership of the Co-
operative Extension Service in conducting meet-
ings to inform both rural and urban residents of
27
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the objectives and plans of the project and in
obtaining cooperation of farmers. Volunteers to
receive and use sludge and their neighbors have
been fully informed of benefits and risks involved
in sludge use on farms. Thus, enlightened deci-
sions are made possible by publicity and educa-
tional programs. By involving affected residents
in both the rural and urban communities, the
volatile reaction that sometimes accompanies
the initiation of waste disposal projects has been
avoided.
Some of the other participants in the project
include the Ohio Municipal League, State and
County Health Departments and the municipal
officials of the cities that furnish sludge for the
project. Wastewater treatment officials transport
and apply sludge on farms, sample sludge for
analyses, and participate in educational phases
of the program. The Ohio EPA is responsible for
regulating sludge disposal within the state, so
they not only approve sites but also participate in
planning and implementation of the project.
The four communities that were originally se-
lected for participation in the project were chosen
because of geographical distribution and be-
cause of the soil and cropping patterns that were
found there. In the meantime, one community,
Montgomery County, withdrew because person-
nel changes in the Sanitary District resulted in
loss of interest in the project. They were replaced
by Columbus. Defiance elected not to participate
in the health effects studies, but they have ap-
plied sludge on a few farms and the environmen-
tal effects are being measured. Zanesville had to
withdraw because they could not produce sludge
of desirable quality. The cadmium concentration
was higher than desirable and efforts to control
the influent to the treatment plant were not suc-
cessful. Springfield replaced Zanesville and is in
the process of conducting educational meetings,
obtaining participating farmers, and planning
the sludge application schedule. Medina County
was the first community to get started in sludge
application and with the epidemiological studies.
They have nine farms receiving sludge and par-
ticipating in the health studies. In addition, seven
farms that receive no sludge are participating in
the epidemiological studies. Columbus entered
into the study late but have 21 farms that receive
sludge and 20 farms that have not received
sludge participating in the epidemiological
studies.
The plan for sludge application and site man-
agement is a responsibility of the OSU Agron-
omy Department. Acid soils are limed as need is
indicated by a soil test. Sludge is being applied to
supply the phosphorus needs of the crop as indi-
cated by the soil test. Therefore, the application
rates, which range from 1 to 5 tons per acre of
sludge solids, are lower than they would be if
they were determined by the crop's nitrogen re-
quirements. These low application rates assure
that the risk of environmental or health problems
will be very low. Supplementary nitrogen and
potassium are usually needed.
Tours and field days are very important for
publicizing the project. The Ohio State University
established plots on the demonstration site of
The Ohio State University's Farm Science Review,
an annual three-day exposition of the latest
methods and materials used in agriculture.
About 100,000 people attended the exposition.
Several thousand viewed the plots where sludge
had been applied at several rates and heard the
investigators discuss the benefits and risks of
sludge use.
The epidemiological study is an important as-
pect of the study because it provides assurance
to participants that no adverse effect on their
health, if it does occur, will be untreated. These
studies began in Medina County and in
Zanesville and Columbus vicinities in 1978. A
total of 1304 questionnaires were completed and
checked. Each examination and interview was
conducted with a physician and nurse. Blood and
stool samples are collected and analyzed in addi-
tion to the physical examination to determine
general health. To date, no differences in rate of
illness or other indicators between sludge users
and the non-users have been detected. Sixteen
calves we re tested prior to sludge application and
at the time of slaughter with no adverse effects
being detected. Sludge and fertilizer have been
equally effective in enhancement of crop growth
and yields.The value of the nutrients in oneton of
sludge varies from about $7.00 to $46.00, de-
pending upon the composition of the sludge.
Although results of the project are preliminary
and no conclusions can be drawn concerning
eventual environmental or health effects, it is ap-
parent that publicity, educational programs and
cooperative planning can do much to alleviate
the suspicion and fear that often accompany the
disposal of urban wastes in a rural community.
An average sludge applied to a crop that uses
the nutrients efficiently, at a rate of 3 tons per
acre, is worth $75.00 per acre.
Tertiary Wastewater Filtration
Filtration is considered to be the most impor-
tant tertiary process in the implementation of
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend-
ments of 1972 and 1977. Many existing secondary
wastewater treatment plants cannot meet the
28
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minimum monthly average effluent standard of
30 mg/l for suspended solids and biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD) established by the En-
vironmental Protection Agency in 1973. This is
particularly true for small plants where removal
efficiency is usually less than that achieved for
large plants. The addition of tertiary filters will
enable many plants to meet the standard and
higher treatment levels for water quality limited
streams. A survey conducted in 1974 identified
only 77 operating U.S. tertiary filters treating sec-
ondary effluents with flows greater than 0.3 mgd
(1,136 m3/day). Based on tertiary filtration needs
compiled in 1974, tertiary filters will be required
at over 1500 plants to achieve water quality stand-
ards established by the 1972 Act. Approximately
94 percent of the plants will be smaller than 5
mgd (18,925 m3/day) and 80 percent will be
smaller than 1 mgd (3,785 m3/day).
Research on tertiary wastewater filtration in
the United States began in the mid-1960's. Since
then numerous pilot-scale studies have been
conducted to evaluate the effect of media size,
media depth, and flow rate on process perfor-
mance. It is generally recommended that pilot-
scale studies be conducted at each site to develop
design parameters for full-scale plants since fil-
tration models cannot be used to reliably predict
performance. The classical mechanisms for in-
depth filtration, that were developed from stud-
ies of potable water filtration and from laboratory
studies using suspensions with controlled prop-
erties do not adequately describe suspended sol-
ids removal for direct filtration of secondary
effluents due to straining of large particles at or
near the surface of the filter medium. In previous
wastewater filtration studies, insufficient atten-
tion has been given to the effect of secondary
effluent suspension properties on particle collec-
tion mode and clarification efficiency.
A study has recently been completed at North-
western University with objectives to gain a
clearer understanding of parameters affecting
the clarification efficiency of full-scale granular
media wastewater filters and to develop opera-
tional mathematical models to describe primarily
this clarification efficiency. Operating and perfor-
mance data were collected on tertiary filters at
eight small treatment plants in the Chicago met-
ropolitan area. The treatment plants had design
flows between 0.8 and 2.5 mgd (3028 and 9462
m3/day) and used 2-7 filters. Products from six
filter manufacturers were represented. Filter de-
sign flows ranged 1.0-4.3 gpm/ft2 (41-175 1/min-
m2). Five plants had filter configurations shown in
Figure 12 with a backwash storage tank located
above the sand and anthracite dual filter media.
FILTER
INFLUENT
INFLUENT
SPLITTER BOX
EFFLUENT
WEIR.
BACKWASH
STORAGE
TANK
FILTER
EFFLUENT
UNDERDRAINS
BACKWASH
DISCHARGE
Figure 12. Filter design.
The other plants included either trimedia filters
or single media sand filters of unique design.
Typical filter installations are shown in Figures 13
and 14.
Figure 13. Picture of tertiary filter installation.
Filter clarification efficiency was characterized
using conventional design and operating param-
eters, and the statistical properties of secondary
effluent and filter effluent parameters were deter-
mined. Averaged secondary effluent suspended
solids varied from 28 to 62 mg/l for the eight
plants and average filter effluent suspended sol-
ids from 5 to 20 mg/l. The average removals of
suspended solids varied from 47 to 83 percent for
the eight plants. Average secondary efluent BOD
29
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percent of the data for three plants.
The most important single design considera-
tion for small tertiary filtration plants that are not
staffed 24 hours per day is the ability to handle
secondary process upsets. This consideration
appears to favor dual-media designs with rela-
tively large media and high terminal headloss.
Regular inspections should be made to detect
problems in operation and preventive and cor-
rective maintenance should be promptly sched-
uled, this applies particularly to accessories
such as control valves which were observed to
stick frequently in the open position.
In summary, tertiary filters provide a very effec-
tive means for upgrading secondary effluent to
meet water quality standards if proper design
criteria are followed.
TREATMENT PROCESS DEVELOPMENT
BRANCH
The Treatment Process Development Branch is
responsible for the development of technology
and processes in the areas of biological treat-
ment, physical-chemical treatment, and the ulti-
mate disposal of solids.
Full-scale evaluations completed this year in-
cluded the activated bio-filter system, the Max
Plank Institute trophic system, and three types of
fine bubble submerged air aeration systems. The
first municipal Deep Shaft System in the United
States was placed on stream at Ithaca, New York.
A 16-month experimental program has been
designed.
A study was completed on analyzing the oper-
ating and performance data from tertiary filters at
eight small treatment plants. The data showed
that tertiary filters provide a very effective means
for upgrading secondary effluents if proper de-
sign criteria are followed.
Cost effectiveness is an important considera-
tion of any sludge treatment process. Cost esti-
mates are being prepared on three interesting
processes: hot acid extraction to remove metals
and improve dewaterability, vericomposting, and
aerobic digestion that will pasteurize the sludge.
A sizable portion of the Branch research effort
has been devoted to determining the fate and
effects of nutrients and trace elements in sludge-
treated soils. Copper, nickel and zinc have been
identified as metals that are most likely to cause
phytotoxicity. Cadmium is the element of most
concern because of its adverse effect on human
beings.
Figure 14. Picture of tertiary filter installation.
varied from 9 to 44 mg/l and average filter effluent
BOD varied from 3 to 25 mg/l. The average re-
movals of BOD varied from 18 to 87 percent for
the eight plants depending largely on the soluble
BOD content of the secondary effluent. Limited
tests at two plants showed that a significant frac-
tion of the soluble BOD was removed by the
filters.
For plants where flow to individual filters was
varied, average clarification efficiency decreased
linearly with average flow rate. Correlation coeffi-
cients between filter solids removal efficiency
and operating parameters such as flow, solids
loading and run length were poor for data ob-
tained over long time frames, improved correla-
tions were, however, obtained for data analyzed
over shorter time periods which minimized the
effect of seasonal and other variations in second-
ary plant effluent suspension characteristics. Dif-
ferences in characteristics of secondary effluent
suspended solids rather than media grain size
and depth are most likely the major reason for
variations in clarification efficiency between
plants.
The following semiempirical model was de-
veloped for in-depth filtration: C = 0.40C0086Q034
where: C = filter effluent suspended solids
- mg/l
C0 = secondary effluent suspended
solids- mg/l, and
Q = filtration rate - gpm/sf
In testing with independent data, the in-depth
model was able to predict C within ฑ 25 to 85
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
Bunch, R.L. PILOT PLANT DEVELOPMENT OF OZONE DISINFECTION. Presented at Conference on
Physical Methods for Water and Watewater Treatment, Lublin, Poland, June 7-9,1979 (Proceedings
published by Pergamon Press).
30
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Ultimate Disposal Section
The primary responsibility of the Ultimate Dis-
posal program is to find environmentally accept-
able and cost-effective approaches for treatment
and disposal of municipal wastewater sludges.
Frequently, toxic and pathogenic substances are
either not present or can be neutralized so that
constructive use can be made of the sludge. It is
the program's responsibility to develop the po-
tential for reuse to a maximum while at the same
time safeguarding the environment from possi-
ble harm.
Sludge Processing and Treatment
Sludge processing and treatment include all of
the steps from the first appearance of sludge until
it enters the disposal step. A determined effort is
underway to scrutinize quantitatively the cost-
effectiveness of processes under development. A
Boston-based engineering firm is completing
cost estimates of three processes: hot acid treat-
ment of sludge to remove metals and upgrade
sludge dewaterability, vermicomposting - the
use of earthworms to process sludge into a high
grade potting soil, and aerobic digestion of
sludge under conditions such that self-heating
occurs and pasteurizes the sludge. If the proc-
esses prove competitive, the next step will be
either large-scale pilot plant construction or
demonstration.
The LA/OMA (Los Angeles, Orange County
Metropolitan Area) project - an areawide study
supported by EPA, is aimed at developing the
best options for sludge processing and disposal
in this geographical area. Experimental and engi-
neering studies are completed and recommen-
dations have been made. Public documentation
of this project is now underway with MERL
support.
Energy reduction in all aspects of wastewater
treatment is of primary concern; however, if
sludge is properly treated and utilized, it is possi-
ble not merely to reduce energy use but even to
generate a major part of the energy needed in
other parts of the plant. The Wilton, Maine, plant
- an energy self-sufficient facility using solar en-
ergy and the methane generated in sludge diges-
tion - was dedicated in the Fall of 1979. The plant
was built with EPA funds and an evaluation is
being financed by a joint EPA-Department of En-
ergy grant. MERL will also be supporting along
with DOE and the State of California a project, in
which a modular turbine is bieng developed to
generate heat and electricity from sludge gas.
The development of a low-cost modular turbine
is expected to make recovery of energy from
methane cost-effective in smaller plants than is
possible now.
The pathogen content of sludge is a major con-
cern if sludges are to be reused for agricultural
purposes or soil renovation. It is important to
determine the effect of conventional treatment
processes on pathogen densities, and if possible
develop cost-competitive methods that pasteur-
ize the sludge. Disinfection of sludge by ther-
moradiation is being studied at Sandia Laborato-
ries in a project jointly funded with the Depart-
ment of Energy. Previous excellent results show-
ing inactivation of all pathogenic forms at bench
scale in sludge by thermoradiation will soon be
demonstrated at pilot scale. In a study at the
University of Florida, inactivation of virus and
bacteria in sludges during aerobic digestion is
being investigated. Demonstration of a two-step
thermophilic aerobic-anaerobic digestion pro-
cess for sludge stabilization, developed by Union
Carbide Corporation, has reached the operating
stage. In this process, sludge is aerobically di-
gested with oxygen for about one day, which
causes it to self -heat to over 55ฐC. The sludge is
then processed in a mesophilic digester for an
eight-day stabilization period. The sludge is ex-
pected to be pathogen-free.
In-house evaluations of modern dewatering
equipment are underway at the new Test and
Evaluation Facility at Cincinnati's Mill Creek plant.
An important study is underway to determine
whether a high-metals fraction of sludge can be
"scalped off" by passing liquid sludge through a
solid-bowl "classifying" centrifuge. The small
high-metals fraction could be separately dis-
posed of, whereas the bulk of the sludge could
now be constructively reused on the land.
Sludge Conversion
Sludge conversion is any process that changes
the nature of the sludge so that it is no longer
perceived as sludge. The static-pile forced- aera-
tion process, developed by the U.S. Department
of Agriculture with MERL and other EPA assis-
tance, continues to provide answers to the
sludge problems of many communities. Com-
posting has provided a major relief valve for
communities with no other acceptable sludge
disposal options. Our research efforts on this
process now are concentrated improvement of
the process and of our understanding of its fun-
damental nature.
Composting sludge within vessels makes the
process even more acceptable to communities
than unconfined processes. MERL has funded
studies of the economics of European within-
vessel methods, as well as methods developed
31
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by United States firms. MERL will also be spon-
soring a test of composting in a barge-mounted
plant.
Thermal conversion techniques, particularly
those utilizing a low-grade fuel to supplement the
thermal deficiency of dewatered sludge cake, are
the object of high interest for sludge disposal.
MERL is evaluating acoincineration plant (sludge
and refuse-derived fuel - RDF) at Duluth, Min-
nesota. At this plant, solid waste is processed
into metal and RDF fractions, the RDF is burned
with sludge, and surplus steam is generated for
plant use. About 100 acres of scarce landfill space
will be saved annually by using this process.
Two innovative processes that form sludge into
briquettes with another fuel are being investi-
gated and show great promise. At the University
of California (at Davis), sludge and RDF have
been pelletized and burned in a down-flow gas
producer. A grant application for a larger demon-
stration is in preparation. In New York City at
Columbia University, the Sanoplex process is
being evaluated with MERL support. In this proc-
ess, a low value caking coal is pelletized with RDF,
sludge, and a black liquor binder. The pellets are
partially combusted with oxygen to produce a
medium heating value fuel gas. Economic eval-
uations have been extremely encouraging. These
novel processes may provide the solution to the
sludge problem when logistics and/or high met-
als content of sludge preclude constructive reuse
of sludge on land.
Beneficial Utilization and Disposal
Beneficial utilization includes any constructive
use of sludge. The options for selection of sys-
tems for treatment, handling, and disposal of
sewage sludge are numerous; however, land is
the only acceptable ultimate receiver of sludge.
Sludge may be utilized in or near the surface to
enhance soil productivity or it maybe se-
questered beneath the surface. The former offers
the opportunity to consume some of the useful
constituents of sludge while disposing of it eco-
nomically in an energy-use efficiency manner.
Sequestering sludge in landfills, basins, or
trenches offers the possibility of economical dis-
posal where sludge quality or site conditions
make landspreading unfeasible. More informa-
tion is needed for development of technology for
utilizing or disposing of sludge under the multi-
tude of sludge-soil-climate-land use conditions
that may be encountered in planning and con-
struction of public wastewater treatment
facilities.
Plant nutrients, inorganic components, and
organic components of sludge can be beneficial
to soil and make it more productive, or they can
be harmful to the environment or hazardous to
public health, depending upon the amounts
added to the soil and their environmental fate.
The amount of each component that is accept-
able is dependent upon site characteristics and
management.
A sizable portion of MERL's research effort has
been devoted to determining the fate and effects
of the nutrients and trace elements in sludge-
treated soils. Copper, nickel, and zinc have been
identified as metals that are more likely to ac-
cumulate to phytotoxic levels in sludge-treated
soils. Cadmium is the element of most concern
because of its potential adverse effects on human
health. It is assimilated by growing plants and is
accumulated in the human liver and kidneys.
Lead is of concern if sludge-contaminated for-
ages are ingested by humans or animals. Nitrates
can leach into ground water, and both nitrates
and phosphates can be transported by surface
runoff into streams and reservoirs. Progress has
been made in identifying acceptable sludge ap-
plication rates and appropriate site management
techniques for application of specific sludges on
specific soil-climate-crop combinations. A grant
to Chicago is supporting a study of the accumula-
tive effects of annual sludge applications over a
long period of time. After 10 years, cadmium con-
centration ingrain does not appear to be increas-
ing. No phytotoxicity from metals has been
encountered. Corn yields from sludge-treated
soils are equivalent to, or superior to, con-
ventionally fertilized plots. With MERL support,
the Science and Education Administration of the
U.S. Department of Agriculture at St. Paul, Min-
nesota, is developing site management technol-
ogy to enable the beneficial use of sludge as a soil
amendment. Diversion terraces, contour cultiva-
tion, and appropriate cropping systems are being
used to minimize runoff and leaching of soluble
and suspended sludge constituents. Animal
feeding of sludge-produced corn silage is being
used to determine the effect of the cadmium-
enriched feed on animal health, carcass com-
position, and milk composition.
Toxic organic substances that may find their
way into sludge are of increasing interest. The
principal known organic constituents of sludge
are polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and
pesticides, but concentrations of persistent
pesticides in sludge are usually lower than in
soils to which they are applied, so sludge applica-
tion should be of concern only if sludges with
unusually high concentrations of pesticides are
used. PCBs are adsorbed on soils and have low
solubility, plant uptake is negligible, but surface
32
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contamination of crops could be significant. The
lack of data on the environmental fate of the
priority organic compounds has led to the de-
velopment of a grant with North Carolina State
University to determine their fate, and whether
they are taken up by plants.
Pathogens in sludge and their possible trans-
mission to humans when sludge is used on soil
continue to be of concern. Technical support is
being provided to EPA's Office of Solid Waste for
the preparation of landfill criteria as required by
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of
1976. One of the issues is the potential disease
risk from landspreading of sludges. At the Uni-
versity of Illinois, studies are continuing to deter-
mine whether worm-free pigs housed in pens
located on sludge-treated soils became infected
with parasites. Evidence is accumulating that the
pigs can be infected by parasites (e.g., Ascaris
suum) by either direct feeding of sludge or
through foraging on some sludge-treated soils. It
appears that the degree of exposure, which gov-
erns the opportunity for ingestion and parasite
density, must be very high to produce a signifi-
cant degree of infection.
Laboratory studies are beginning at the Univer-
sity of Cincinnati to determine the rate of inactiva-
tion of helminth eggs under sludge lagoon
environments. Eggs of parasitic species of
nematodes and cestodes known to be resistant to
conventional sludge stabilization will be seeded
in sludges before and after mesophilic anaerobic
and aerobic digestion.
Studies on the uses of sludge for non-food
chain crops produced a final^eport on "Effects of
Sludge Irrigation on Three Pacific Northwest For-
est Soils," a grant project with Seattle, Wash-
ington. The results showed that liquid sludge (1
to 3 percent solids) applied at optimum rates of
20 to 30 metric-tons/hectar/year (Mt/ha/yr) (dry
solid basis) was beneficial for growth of existing
forest stands in a coniferous forest and will not
cause environmental problems. Peer Con-
sultants, Inc. is seeking the most feasible non-
food chain crops for sludge use. The most prom-
ising non-food chain crops and crop categories
for sewage sludge use application appear to be:
1. Monoculture timber tract operations
2. Forest nurseries
3. Horticulture specialties
4. "New" crops such as Jojoba, Guayule,
and Eurphorbia.
Cotton is also being evaluated, though the use
of cottonseed oil and meal is being eliminated
because it is a food chain crop. A 3-year grant to
the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development
Center will "Demonstrate the Feasibility of Using
Sludge to Produce a Valuable Non-Food Chain
Crop." The purpose of the study is to elucidate
the effects of digested sludge on:
(a) container-produced conifer and hard-
wood trees in the greenhouse
(b) conventional nursery production of for-
est tree seedlings
(c) mycorrhizal fungi (which are important in
tree nourishment)
(d) plantation production of Christmas trees.
A four-year survey of the background con-
centrations of selected trace elements in the prin-
cipal soils and crops of major food chain crop-
producing areas of the United States is being
conducted under a cooperative agreement with
the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Food
and Drug Administration.
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
1. Bingham, FT, R.J. Mahler, and G. Sposito. EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION WATER COMPOSITION ON
EXCHANGEABLE SODIUM STATUS OF A FIELD SOIL So/7 Science 127:248-252, 1979.
2. Hyde, H.C., A.L. Page, FT. Bingham, and R.J. Mahler. EFFECT OF HEAVY METALS IN SLUDGE ON
AGRICULTURAL CROPS. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation 51:2475-2486, 1979.
3. Kienholz, FW., G.M. Ward, D.E. Johnson, J. Baxton, G. Braude, and G. Stern. METROPOLITAN
DENVER SEWAGE SLUDGE FED TO FEEDLOT STEERS. Journal Animal Science 48(4):735-741,
1979.
4. Kraemar, D.F, J.B. Lucas, H.R. Pahren, J.A. Ryan, and N.E. Kowal. CADMIUM TOXICITY. The Lancet
1979:1242.
5. Mahler, R.J., FT Bingham, A.L Page, and J.A. Ryan. COMPOSITION OF CROPS GROWN ON
SLUDGE-AMENDED SOILS. Agronomy Abstracts 1979, p. 33.
6. Ryan, J.A., and J.B. Lucas. THE CADMIUM CONNECTION: FACT OR FANTASY. Agronomy Ab-
stracts 1979, p. 37.
7. Ryan, J.A., L.D. Grant, J.B. Lucas, R.E. Marland, H.R. Pahren, W.A. Galke, and D.J. Ehreth. CADMIUM
HEALTH EFFECTS; IMPLICATIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. July 1979. (To be
published.)
33
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8. Wall, H.O., and J.B. Farrell. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER SLUDGE
INCINERATORS. In: Proceedings of Mid-Atlantic States Section, Semi-Annual Technical Con-
ference on Air Quality Impact of Ocean Disposal Alternatives, Air Pollution Control Association,
Newark, New Jersey, April 27,1979.
9. Wall, H.O., and R. Olexsey. COMBINED INCINERATION OF SOLID WASTES AND MUNICIPAL
WASTEWATER SLUDGE. Department of Energy Conference on Water and Wastewater Manage-
ment, New Orleans, Louisiana, December 10-13,1979.
10. REVIEW OF TECHNIQUES OF TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF PHOSPHORUS LADEN CHEMICAL
SLUDGES. SCS Engineers. EPA 600/2-79-083.
11. CHEMICAL PRIMARY SLUDGE THICKENING AND DEWATERING. Envirotech. EPA-600/2-79-055.
12. EVALUATION OF DEWATERING DEVICES FOR PRODUCING HIGH-SOLIDS SLUDGE CAKE. Blue
Plains, District of Columbia. EPA-600/2-79-123.
13. THE CODISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE AND REFUSE IN THE PUROX SYSTEM. Union Carbide
Corportion, Linde Division, Tonawanda, New York 14150. EPA-600/2-78-198.
Biological Treatment Section
New developments in wastewater control tech-
nology for municipal applications must be evalu-
ated on a continuous basis. A large portion of the
Section's activity is thus devoted to field scale
studies of innovative unit'processes that are
monitored under carefully defined scopes of
work. Results are published in EPA reports, tech-
nical journals, and seminars.
Technical assistance is provided to EPA re-
gions, municipalities, and consultants on short
term projects. Committee and workshop assign-
ments are also considered an effective way to
assist the technical community by transferring
research information rapidly into practice.
Disinfection of Wastewater
The program on development of alternative
disinfection technology has continued in the
areas of ozonation, ultraviolet irradiation, and
chlorine dioxide treatment.
Ozonation
A comparison of a bubble diffuser ozone con-
tactor and a stirred turbine reactor on filtered and
unfiltered municipal effluent revealed superior
transfer efficiency and coliform reduction effi-
ciency in the bubble diffuser. Factors affecting
final coliform numbers in ozonated effluent were
total chemical oxygen demand, nitrate, total sus-
pended solids, and the absorbed ozone dose. A
model was developed to predict final coliform
density as a function of the absorbed ozone dose.
Ultraviolet Light
Demonstration of ultraviolet light (UV) as a via-
ble, cost-effective alternative to chlorine was suc-
cessful at Northwest Bergen County. A number of
small treatment plants have already committed
themselves to this technology as a result of the
study. Data from the project provided sufficient
information to formulate a design theory for UV
equipment, and the theory will be tested in a
second generation study planned in the upcom-
ing year. A thin-film design will be compared with
a thicker water wall design on a secondary stand-
ard municipal effluent.
Chlorine Dioxide
In a study conducted by Stanford University
personnel, chlorine dioxide was found to be
equally effective as chlorine on a mass dose
basis, using a conventional secondary effluent.
However, on a nitrified filtered secondary
effluent, chlorine dioxide was clearly superior to
chlorine, requiring only about 20 percent of dose
to effect the same coliform reduction. Using the
same nitrified effluent but without filtration, the
two disinfectants were equally effective. Appar-
ently, one or more critical components in the
effluent were removed by the filter.
A commercial, field scale chlorine dioxide gen-
erator was evaluated for product yield. The gen-
eration technique was the acid activation of
sodium chlorite. The chlorine dioxide yield was
approximately 80 percent, compared with the 90
to 95 percent obtainable in the laboratory. The
lower yield in the commercial unit could signifi-
cantly affect costs, because of the relatively high
cost of sodium chlorite. A complete cost evalua-
tion is being conducted, based on all data col-
lected in the laboratory and in the field.
Pre-Conference Workshop at Houston, Texas
The Water Pollution Control Federation Disin-
fection Committee sponsored a state-of-the-art
workshop on wastewater disinfection alterna-
tives. The workshop provided a forum for the
exchange of practical information on chlorina-
tion/dechlorination, ozonation, chlorine dioxide
treatment, ultraviolet irradiation, and bromo-
chlorination. Case histories were also presented,
34
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as well 'as discussions on the need for waste-
water disinfection and methods for assessing the
relative risks and benefits of alternative
processes.
Of the 10 presentations, one was made by a
MERL researcher and 4 were made by MERL
grantees. The meeting was attended by over 110
persons. The papers will be published in a
proceedings.
IJC Chlorine Objective Task Force
The first Chlorine Objective Task Force was
formed in 1975 by the International Joint Com-
mission to address the following issues: (1) the
technical capabilities for monitoring the pro-
posed maximum ambient concentration of total
residual chlorine of 0.002 mg/l in the boundary
waters of the Great Lakes; and (2) to investigate
methods for achieving the proposed objective. In
1978, a second Chlorine Objective Task Force was
constituted to assess the economic and social
implications of achieving the chlorine objective
and to evaluate alternative disinfectants for use in
achieving the objective. A MERL staff member
actively participated on the second Task Force in
the past year. A final report is being drafted and
should be available to the public early next year.
Analysis of Bio-available Phosphorus
Control technology for limiting phosphorus in-
puts into natural waters is becoming more re-
fined. As these inputs diminish it would appear
important to measure the fraction of total phos-
phorus that might readily stimulate the growth of
algae.
Clarkson College, Potsdam, New York, is ex-
perimenting with a Dual Culture Diffusion Appa-
ratus (DCDA) shown in Figure 15.
.Figure 15. Dual culture diffusion apparatus.
The sample to be analyzed is placed in one half
of the DCDA. The other half contains a defined
algal culture. The two halves are separated by a
membrane which allows only soluble con-
stitutentsto interchange between the two halves.
The measured accumulation of phosphorus in
the algal portion of the apparatus yields an esti-
mate of the bio-available phosphorus liberated
by the sample under the test conditions. Results
are being correlated to chemical tests for rapid
estimation of phosphorus bio-availability.
Samples for analysis were obtained from a
field survey of four municipal treatment plants
located in the Great Lakes drainage basin.
Oxygen Transfer Standard
A voluntary Subcommittee formed under the
American Society of Civil Engineers' (ASCE)
Technical Council on Codes and Standards and
partially sponsored by EPA has been working
since early 1978 to develop a tentative interim
oxygen standard and/or procedural manual. The
effort was initiated with a state-of-the-art work-
shop in April 1978 and will culminate in the spring
of 1980 with the completion of an interim report.
This report will cover the Subcommittee's rec-
ommendations on: (a) Modeling and Data Inter-
pretation, (b) Clean Water and Unsteady State
Tests, (c) Respiring System Field Tests, (d) Alpha,
Beta, and Temperature Corrections, and (e) The
Effect of Geometry and Mixing on Scale-up. If and
when these recommendations are adopted as a
final consensus oxygen transfer standard, uni-
form recognized procedures will be available to
enable equitable comparative testing and data
interpretation from one test site to another.
European Aeration Survey
An on-site survey of second generation fine
bubble diffuser installations in the United King-
dom was conducted during September-Novem-
ber 1979. The survey was carried out for EPA by
the U.S. Association of Metropolitan Sewerage
Agencies (AMSA) in cooperation with the Water
Research Centre of Stevenage, England. The ob-
jectives of this project were to review, evaluate,
and document the operating and maintenance
experiences of approximately ten treatment
plants utilizing fine bubble ceramic dome dif-
fuser systems arrayed in total floor coverage pat-
terns. Emphasis was placed on collecting data
related to headloss buildup and diffuser clogging
rates, associated diffuser cleaning techniques,
preferred diffuser and blower design configura-
tions, operating power consumption, and proc-
ess performance. These data will be compared to
the minimal information available on similar sys-
35
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terns in the United States and also with coarse
bubble diffuser operational data and costs for
publication in 1980.
Full-Scale Aeration Evaluation
Three types of fine bubble submerged air aera-
tion systems will be evaluated over a 2-year
period in full-scale aeration trains of the Los
Angeles County Sanitation Districts' (LACSD)
Whittier Narrows Plant. The three systems se-
lected are ceramic dome diffusers, plastic tube
diffusers, and jet aerators. The selection was
based on the results of earlier clean water un-
steady state oxygen transfer tests conducted by
LACSD on various aeration systems including
both fine and coarse bubble devices. The data to
be generated in the second phase field study are
divided into three categories: (a) long-term dif-
fuser headless and maintenance studies in
mixed liquor, (b) oxygen transfer under respiring
biological environmental conditions, and (c)
process performance as a function of organic
load. System design is underway with startup
scheduled for the spring of 1980.
Deep Shaft Project Underway
The first municipal Deep Shaft pilot demon-
stration system in the United States started up in
October 1979 at Ithaca, New York. The Deep Shaft
process was originally conceived and developed
in the United Kingdom and later refined in Can-
ada where several systems are now operational.
The unique features of Deep Shaft are the use of
flotation to achieve final clarification and the in-
jection of air to drive mixed liquor circuitously
through a U-tube to create a vertical activated
sludge reactor. In addition to savings in land and
reactor volume, claimed advantages of the proc-
ess include reduced power consumption, re-
duced excess sludge production, and the crea-
tion of a concentrated waste sludge that does not
require separate thickening priorto handling and
disposal. The Ithaca shaft is 18 in. (0.5 m) in diam-
eter by 435 ft (133 m) deep and has a design
capacity of 200,000 gpd (757 m3/day/m2) at a
nominal detention time of 38 minutes. Operating
and performance data will be collected over a
planned 16-month experimental program which
will terminate in Match 1981.
ABF Project Nearing Completion
A 15-month assessment of Helena, Montana's
existing activated bio-filter (ABF) system will be
completed by the end of February 1980. This proj-
ect represents the first full-scale comprehensive
evaluation of a municipal ABF facility operating
at or near the manufacturer's full recommended
design organic and hydraulic loadings. These de-
sign loadings are 200 Ib BOD5/day/1000 ft3 (3.2 kg/
day/m3) on the first-stage redwood bio-filter and
45 minutes of nominal detention time in the sec-
ond-stage aeration tank. By removing various
segments of the secondary treatment facility
from service, an experimental program has been
carried out which examined: (a) both the bio-
filter and the aeration tank at approximately half
design load - Phase I, (b) the bio-filter at approx-
imately full design load and the aeration tank at
approximately half design load - Phase II, and (c)
both the bio-filter and the aeration tank at ap-
TABLE 8. OPERATIONAL & PERFORMANCE SUMMARY OF ABF PROJECTS*
Parameter
Phase I
Phase II
Phase III
Dates
Duration (weeks)
Flow(mgd)**
Final Eff. BOD5 (mg/l)
Plant BOD5 Removal (%)
Final Eff. SS (mg/l)
Plant SS Removal (%)
Bio-filter Organic Loading
(Ib BODs/day/IOOft3)***
Nominal Aeration Time (min)
12/1/78-
2/22/79
12
3.67
15
91
10
92
91
110
2/23/79-
7/12/79
20
3.75
21
86
24
86
184
104
8/13/79-
9/13/79
6 (partial)
3.48
26
84
27
85
177
56
* Project summary through September 1979
**1 mgd = 3785 m3/day
***1 lb/day/1000 ft3 = 0.016 kg/day/m3
36
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proximately full design load - Phase III. Phases I screened raw wastewater and extended aeration
and II are over, and as expected, the ABF system plant effluent used as system feed. Influent flow
performed satisfactorily. Effluent quality for was alternated on a daily basis between the two
Phase III is more than meeting a 30/30 BOD5/ first-stage filter trenches to allow for a period of
suspended solids standard after the first 6 weeks, drying and stabilization of the organic matter
with the critical 1979-80 winter months still to go. trapped on and in the filter.
Although substantial nitrification was ob-
T , . _ */> / * w served, insufficient overall nutrient removal oc-
Troph,c System Project Completed curred t() justjfy uti|ization of the MP, system in a
An evaluation of the Max Planck Institute (MPI) tertiary treatment mode. As a secondary treat-
system has been completed at the Moulton ment option receiving raw wastewater feed,
Niguel (California) Water District. The MPI sys- Moulton Niguel's system was able to consistently
tern consists first of two filter trenches filled with meet the Federal 30/30 BOD5/suspended solids
three layers of gravel (15 cm of 5 cm gravel over- standard with hydraulic loadings of 15,000-
lain by 30 cm of 2 cm gravel overlain by 71/2 cm of 25,000 gpd (57-95 m3/day). Some form of effluent
pea gravel) topped with a 71/2 cm layer of sand in disinfection would be required where a bacte-
which the reed Phragmites is planted and actively riological standard was imposed. Although addi-
growing. Perforated plastic pipe at the bottom of tional research would be beneficial in the areas of
the filter trenches transport first-stage effluent to plant harvesting and filtered sludge removal, the
a single second-stage polishing elimination MPI system offers the small community a low-
trench filled with gravel and planted with energy treatment alternative with minimal me-
bulrushes. Studies were conducted with both chanical maintenance needs.
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
1. Barth, E.F., and R.L Bunch. BIODEGRADATION AND TREATABILITY OF POLLUTANTS. Municipal
Environmental Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268. EPA-600/9-79-034, October 1979.
2. Hais, A.B., and A.D. Venosa. EPA OVERVIEW OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER DISINFECTION.
Journal for Water Pollution Control Federation 50 (11): 2470-2476. Also presented at the Water
Pollution Control Federation Annual Conference, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, September 2-7,1977.
3. Middlebrooks, E.J., C.H. Middlebrooks, B.A. Johnson, J.L. Wright, J.H. Reynolds, and A.D.
Venosa. MPN AND MF COLIFORM CONCENTRATIONS IN LAGOON EFFLUENTS. Journal for Water
Pollution Control Federation 50 (11): 2530-2547.
4. Venosa, A. D. WASTEWATER DISINFECTION ALTERNATIVES. Presented at the 42nd Annual Con-
ference of the Indiana Water Pollution Control Association, November 7, 1978, Indianapolis,
Indiana.
5. Venosa, A.D. PROGRESS IN WASTEWATER DISINFECTION. Presented before the Sanitary Engi-
neering Institute, University of Wisconsin-Extension, Madison, Wisconsin, March 1-2,1979.
6 Venosa, A.D., E.J. Opatken and M.C. Meckes. COMPARISON OF OZONE CONTACTORS FOR
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER EFFLUENT DISINFECTION: PACKED COLUMN VERSUS JET SCRUB-
BERS. EPA 600/2-79-098. In press.
7. Venosa, A.D., ed. PROGRESS IN WASTEWATER DISINFECTION TECHNOLOGY. Proceedings of the
National Symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, September 18-20,1978. EPA 600/9-79-018, June 1979.
8. Venosa, A.D. WASTEWATER DISINFECTION: ISSUES AND ANSWERS. Presented at the New
England Water Pollution Control Association 50th Anniversary Meeting, June 17-20,1979, Newcas-
tle, New Hampshire.
9. Venosa, A.D. OZONE DISINFECTION: STATE-OF-THE-ART. Presented at the Water Pollution Control
Federation Pre-Conference Workshop on Wastewater Disinfection, October 7,1979. Proceedings to
be published.
10. Venosa, A.D., M.C. Meckes, E.J. Opatken, and J.W. Evans. DISINFECTION OF FILTERED AND
UNFILTERED SECONDARY EFFLUENT IN TWO OZONE CONTACTOR. Presented at the Water
Pollution Control Federation Annual Conference, Houston, Texas, October 8-11, 1979 and to be
submitted for publication in the Journal for Water Pollution Control Federation.
11. Reid, G.W. and L Streebin. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF EXISTING AERATED LAGOON SYS-
TEM AT BIXBY, OKLAHOMA. University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019. EPA-600/2-79-
014, March 1979.
12. O'Brien, W.J., and R.E. McKinney. REMOVAL OF LAGOON EFFLUENT SUSPENDED SOLIDS BY A
SLOW-ROCK FILTER. University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045. EPA-600/2-79-011, June 1979.
37
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13. Gurnham, C.F, B.A. Rose, and W.T. Fetherston. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF THE EXISTING
THREE-LAGOON WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT AT PAWNEE, ILLINOIS. Gurnham and Asso-
ciates, Inc., Chicago, Illinois 60606, July 1979.
14. PROCEEDINGS: PERFORMANCE AND UPGRADING OF WASTEWATER STABILIZATION PONDS.
Edited by E. Joe Middlebrooks and Donna H. Falkenborg, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322
and Ronald F Lewis, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268. EPA-600/9-79-
011, May 1979.
15. FULL-SCALE DEMONSTRATION OF OPEN TANK OXYGEN ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT.
Edited by Stephen R. Pearlman, Metropolitan Denver Sewage Disposal District No. 1, Denver,
Colorado 80229 and Donald G. Fullerton, FMC Corporation, Englewood, Colorado 80110.
EPA-600/2-79-012, May 1979.
16. Nash, N., W.B. Pressman, and RJ. Krasnoff. OXYGEN AERATION AT NEWTOWN CREEK. Environ-
mental Protection Administration, The City of New York, New York 10007. EPA-600/2-79-013, June
1979.
17. PROCEEDINGS: WORKSHOP TOWARD AN OXYGEN TRANSFER STANDARD. Edited by William C.
Boyle, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706. EPA-600/9-78-021, April 1979.
18. Drnevich, R.F. BIOLOGICAL-CHEMICAL PROCESS FOR REMOVING PHOSPHORUS AT
RENO/SPARK, NEVADA. Union Carbide Corp., Tonawanda, New York 14150. EPA-600/2-79-007,
February 1979.
19. Johnson, B.A., J.L. Wight, D.S. Bowles, J.H. Reynolds, and E.J. Middlebrooks. WASTE STABILIZA-
TION LAGOON MICROORGANISM REMOVAL EFFICIENCY AND EFFLUENT DISINFECTION WITH
CHLORINE. Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322. EPA-600/2-79-018, July 1979.
Physical-Chemical Treatment Section
During the past two years, the emphasis of the
Section has been shifted from research on physi-
cal-chemical treatment processes to investiga-
tions of toxic or hazardous compounds, organic
and inorganic, in wastewaters. Thus research re-
sults will be presented both on physical-chemical
studies which were completed during the year
and preliminary results just now becoming avail-
able on toxics research.
Physical-Chemical Process Research
A report is available on the operation of a series
of physical - chemical systems, during the period
from June 1975 to January 1978, located at Rose-
mount, Minnesota. During the demonstration
period, the facility treated an average flow of
approximately 0.25 mgd (946 m3/day) by a treat-
ment system consisting of chemical clarification,
filtration, carbon adsorption and ammonia re-
moval by clinoptilolite. Both the activated carbon
and the ammonia ion-exchange media were re-
generated on-site. Performance data are sum-
marized according to five process flow schemes.
Cost data developed from this small demonstra-
tion were used to estimate the cost of operation
and maintenance of a 10 mgd (38,000 m3/day)
facility. The study demonstrated that despite con-
siderable fluctuations in raw wastewater influent,
the treatment efficiency did not vary significantly
in terms of percent removal which during the
two-year period averaged 93 percent for BOD, 99
percent for suspended solids and 94 percent for
phosphorus. Formation of sulfide was encoun-
tered when the carbon contactors were operated
in a downflow mode, but the study showed that
this problem could be controlled by addition of
sodium nitrate and by daily backwashing of the
columns. The capital and operating cost of a 10
mgd (38,000 m3/day) facility similar to the dem-
onstration system was estimated to range from
$0.56 to $0.83 per 1000 gal (3.785 m3).
The study showed that a physical-chemical
system is fully capable of producing consistently
not only a high quality effluent in terms of BOD
and suspended solids but also an effluent low in
both ammonia nitrogen and phosphorus. The
cost of this system compares favorably with the
cost of biological systems producing an effluent
of equal quality.
In another report, the operation of a 5 mgd
(19,000 m3/day) physical-chemical tertiary plant
at Piscataway, Maryland, is described. Effluent
from an activated sludge plant was treated by
lime, precipitation either single- or two-stage -
followed by dual media filtration and activated
carbon. Significantly, the single-stage lime treat-
ment produced results similar to the two-stage
system but at approximately one-half the dose of
lime. Lime was recovered by calcination in a mul-
tiple-hearth furnace, while the combustion gases
were used for recarbonation.
The carbon system consisted of three parallel
trains of two columns, each column providing 18
minutes of empty bed contact at a hydraulic load-
ing of 6.5 gpm/sq ft (265 l/min m2). Carbon was
regenerated in a multiple hearth furnace. Three
38
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regenerations of the carbon were accomplished
during the project period. Because of difficulties
in obtaining accurate measurements of carbon,
only estimates of carbon losses incurred during
transfer and regeneration could be obtained,
which were 8-10 percent per regeneration cycle.
The operation and evaluation of this full-scale
tertiary system - biological treatment followed
by a physical-chemical series of processes -
demonstrated that a very high quality of effluent
is produced which is suitable for a variety of
reuse purposes.
Granular media filtration is considered to be
one of the most important tertiary processes for
plants to meet the requirements of minimum
monthly average effluent quality of 30 mg/l for
suspended solids and BOD, established by the
Environmental Protection Agency in 1973. The
filters are particularly useful for small plants, 5
mgd (19,000 m3/day). A report has been prepared
on a study of the clarification efficiency of eight
full-scale tertiary granular media filters. The re-
sults of this study are described in more detail
elsewhere in this progress report underthe head-
ing "Tertiary Wastewater Treatment."
Toxics Control
More recent activities of the Section have been
concerned with toxics in publicly owned waste-
water treatment plants. Studies initiated during
the past one to one and one-half years are only
now beginning to produce results for the several
objectives of the program. The first objective is
the development of a data base on the occur-
rence and concentration of priority pollutants en-
tering the Nation's wastewater treatment plants.
Three studies were funded for this objective, with
only preliminary data available at this time.
A second objective in the research on toxics is
the determination of thetreatability/removability
of priority pollutants (Figure 16). Pure compound
research to determine treatability is being con-
ducted on phenomena such as activated carbon
adsorption, biodegradability, volatility and ozone
oxidation. This research is being supplemented
by pilot-scale studies to determine removability
by treatment systems. Initial pilot plant studies
will investigate removals obtained by con-
ventional activated sludge systems. Mass bal-
ance calculations, obtained from analyses of
influent, effluent, sludges and air emissions, will
indicate the predominant mechanisms of re-
moval; volatility, biodegradation or sorption on
the sludge. It is likely that all these mechanisms
of removal, plus others such as precipitation, hy-
drolysis, etc., will be involved.
A third major objective is evaluation of modi-
Figure 16. Modification of chemical extraction
of priority pollutants.
fications to conventional processes for the en-
hanced removal of toxics. One of the more
promising approaches is the addition of
powdered carbon to a biological reactor. The
study will include, besides carbon, other solid
additives such as chars and powdered coal.
A major benefit that will be derived from the
above investigations, is the development of ana-
lytical procedures for trace organics and metals
in such "difficult" media as raw wastewater and
sludges. Without this analytical methodology, re-
search on the priority pollutants would be se-
verely hampered.
One of the major studies on development of
data bases is a survey of 25 cities for all priority
pollutants in a variety of treatment plants located
throughout the country. This study is being coor-
dinated with and will be complemented by a 40-
city survey being conducted by the Office of
Water and Waste Management in Washington.
Thus, sampling a total of 65 cities located
throughout the country and representing a wide
variety of treatment processes and influent com-
39
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position (industrial/municipal waste mixture) will
provide an ample data base for the occurrence
and removal of the priority pollutants in POTW's.
Some very early results show that some 61
priority pollutants have been found in waste-
water influents; comprising 31 base/neutrals, 21
volatile and 9 phenolic compounds. Removals
are highly variable, 16 to 99 percent, not unex-
pected considering the great diversity of chemi-
cal compounds on the list. Early evidence also
shows substantial accumulation of compounds
in the sludges, particularly the substituted ben-
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
zenes such as methyl- ethyl- and chloro-
benzenes. While the lower molecular weight
phthalates were removed, probably by biological
degradation, the higher molecular weight com-
pounds, such as bis(2-ethylhexyl) and
butylbenzylphthalates tended to accumulate in
the sludge, presumably because of their lesser
biodegradability and greater sorption on sludge.
Within the next year much will be learned
about the presence and behavior of priority pol-
lutants in municipal wastewaters as the results of
these studies unfold.
1. Cohen, J.M. PILOT PLANT INVESTIGATIONS ON PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL TREATMENT. Proceedings
of Second Assises Internationales de /'Environment, Paris, France, December 5-6, 1978.
2. Cohen, J.M. OBSERVATIONS ON PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL TREATMENT IN THE USA. Proceedings of
Second Assises Internationales tie /'Environment, Paris, France, December 5-6, 1978.
3. Cohen, J.M. TREATABILITY/REMOVABILITY OF TOXICS FROM WASTEWATERS. Briefing for Dr.
Stephen Gage, Assistant Administrator for Research and Development, U.S.E.P.A., Washington,
D.C., June 1979.
4. Westrick, J.J. and M.D. Cummins. COLLECTION OF AUTOMATIC COMPOSITE SAMPLES WITHOUT
ATMOSPHERIC EXPOSURE. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation, In Press (1979).
5. O'Farrell, T.R and R.A. Menke. OPERATIONAL RESULTS FOR THE PISCATAWAY MODEL 5 MGD
AWT PLANT. EPA-600/2-78-172, September 1978.
6. Polta, R.C., et al. EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL TREATMENT AT ROSEMOUNT. Metro-
politan Waste Control Commission, St. Paul, Minnesota 55101. EPA-600/2-78-201, December 1978.
7. FitzPatrick, J.A. and C.L. Swanson. EVALUATION OF FULL-SCALE TERTIARY WASTEWATER FIL-
TERS. Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60201. To be published.
8. Fochtman, E.G. and W. Eisenberg. TREATABILITY OF CARCINOGENIC AND OTHER HAZARDOUS
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. NT Researh Institute, Chicago, Illinois 60616. EPA-600/2-79-097 (August
1979).
9. Fochtman, E.G., W. Eisenberg, and R.A. Dobbs. OZONE OXIDATION OF CHEMICAL CARCINOGENS
IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION. Fourth World Congress on Ozone Technology, Houston, Texas, Novem-
ber 27-29, 1979.
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
SUPPORT BRANCH
The Technology Development Support Branch
provides technical and support services to the
Division. It operates and maintains pilot plants
and provides analytical services to all Division
technology development operations. It is com-
posed of the Pilot and Field Evaluation Section
and the Waste Identification and Analysis
Section.
Pilot and Field Evaluation Section
The Pilot and Field Evaluation Section is re-
sponsible for conducting most of the WRD pilot
plant studies. These are conducted with U.S. EPA
personnel at the Test and Evaluation Facility in
Cincinnati, Ohio and under contract with the Los
Angeles County Sanitation Districts, Los Angeles
County, California. In addition, personnel of this
Section manage the national program in Instru-
mentation and Automation for Wastewater Treat-
ment Systems. Some of the instrumentation and
automation work is conducted at the pilot plant
facilities mentioned above, but most is imple-
mented through contracts and grants.
During this year construction of the new Cin-
cinnati Test and Evaluation Facility was com-
pleted. This facility provides over 30,000 square
feet of experimental, pilot plant, laboratory and
office space. It was designed to serve as a multi-
purpose facility for environmental technology re-
search, and will be the main site of MERL pilot
plant studies (Figure 17). The MERL projects se-
lected for the Test and Evaluation Facility are:
1) A determination of the fate of the organic
substances on the priority pollutant list
once they gain entrance into the munici-
pal wastewater collection system. The
major objective is to determine the sinks
40
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Figure 17. The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency Test and Evaluation Facility
in Cincinnati, Ohio.
for those substances which are not bio-
degraded, and the degree of removal of
priority pollutants which can be expected
prior to the discharge of wastewater to the
environment.
2) An evaluation of the effect of adding sani-
tary landfill leachate to municipal waste-
water. The purpose of this study is to
determine if it is feasible to treat leachate
by putting it into the municipal collection
system. A primary concern is the potential
for activated sludge upsets caused by
leachate.
3) A comparative evaluation of several types
of Ozone Contactors. The major purpose
of this is to develop mass transfer kinetic
data on various types of ozone sewage
contactors. These data can then be used
by engineers and regulatory officials to
reach cost effective decisions on the use
of ozone for disinfection of sewage.
4) A comparative evaluation of sludge de-
watering equipment. The purpose of this
study is to develop information on the
performance of pilot scale dewatering
equipment such as vacuum filters, vari-
ous types of centrifuges, and various
types of belt pressure filters in parallel on
the same types of sludges.
Provisions have been made in this facility for
cooperative projects with the other Cincinnati
EPA Laboratories, and to allow for quick re-
sponse to special needs of the regions and oper-
ating programs. Development of one or more
cooperative projects is anticipated in the next
year.
Under the contract with the Los Angeles
County Sanitation Districts three projects were
completed in the past year. An evaluation of a
rotary kiln for regeneration of granular activated
carbon was conducted. It was found to achieve
the same results as a multiple hearth furnace at
about the same cost. The rotary kiln has a lower
capital cost but higher operational expense. An
evaluation of dechlorination with sulfur dioxide
indicated that state-of-the-art control systems
can function adequately to automate the system
provided the chlorine residual probe is
periodically exposed to some residual chlorine. If
it is not, it loses its sensitivity to a chlorine re-
sidual. Shortly after dechlorination conforms re-
appear in the effluent. It was found that this was
not regrowth but rather an infestation from natu-
rally occuring coliforms in the air and soil. The
third study involved test tank evaluation of vari-
ous generic types of aeration equipment. It was
found that 2 types of fine bubble diffusers had
markedly superior oxygen transfer capability.
These will be tested in LACSD treatment plants to
determine if clogging occurs and the actual
power savings potential.
The Lebanon Pilot Plant was closed this year
coincident with the Test and Evaluation Facility
opening. Prior to the close some short studies on
anaerobic digestion were completed. In one of
these powdered activated carbon was added to
anaerobic digestion systems. Contrary to claims
reported by others it had no positive effect on
process performance over the detention time
range of 30 days to 5 days. A second study evalu-
ated the kinetics of volatile acid production in
anaerobic digestion. These data will allow con-
struction of a new time dependent model of this
process. The model will be used in computer
simulation optimization studies.
Automation and Instrumentation Program
The basic purpose of this program is to de-
velop and demonstrate automation and instru-
mentation which will improve performance and
economics of wastewater treatment plants. The
foundation of the program is fostering the use of
reliable cost effective instruments. Because field
surveys have often indicated customer dissatis-
faction with the performance and reliability of
many instruments, an instrument certification
program has been initiated. One aspect of this
certification program is development of pro-
tocols for instrument testing and certification.
These are being developed for various types of
flow measurement devices and selected chemi-
cal analysis instruments under an IAG with the
National Bureau of Standards. The protocols will
address: evaluation of manufacturers specifica-
tions for adequacy in the application of the instru-
ment to the wastewater area, bench test pro-
41
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cedures, maintenance procedures, and field
evaluation procedures. The protocol for venturi
type flow measurement devices will be pub-
lished in the early part of 1980. These protocols
will enable professionals in this field to make
rational judgements on purchase specifications
and acceptance tests for instrumentation.
A second objective of this program is to pro-
mote the establishment of a certification center
or laboratory at which instrument testing can be
conducted. The protocols developed under the
NBS program described above would be utilized
by this testing center. Such a center would pre-
clude the need for individual organizations to test
instruments and would thus serve as a center of
information on environmental instrumentation.
Public Technology Incorporated completed a pre-
liminary feasibility study of such a center. They
recommend that it be set up as a private non-
profit organization which tests instruments and
makes its results available only to its members.
Instrument manufacturers could have their in-
struments tested for a fee but could not be mem-
bers. A "cooperative agreement" is now being
considered for the next stage which will involve
detailed planning of the organizational structure,
staffing, physical facilities and cost evaluations.
Another major area of concern is the elucida-
tion, implementation and demonstration of pro-
cess control strategies. Under a grant with the
Metropolitan Waste Control Commission of Min-
neapolis-St. Paul, automation of sludge con-
ditioning, vacuum filtration and incineration is
being tested. During this year all of the instru-
mentation and computer programming neces-
sary to control the latter two devices was
completed. In addition a correlation between
sludge specific resistance and pH, ORP and shear
stress was developed. These.parameters can be
monitored on-line. Thus as sludge characteristics
change, the dose of chemical conditions can be
automatically changed to maintain an acceptable
rate of sludge filtration. During the coming year
the overall automated sludge handling system
will be tested in parallel with a manually operated
system to ascertain cost effectiveness.
A third major area of effort is in the technology
transfer area. During this year an automation and
instrumentation Design Handbook for Activated
Sludge Treatment Plants was completed. This
document is intended to serve as a guideline for
design engineers and regulatory officials who
became involved in the design and/or review of
automation and instrumentation of wastewater
treatment systems. It includes a description of
control strategies now being utilized in the field,
and detailed instrumentation diagrams for im-
plementing these. The strategies addressed are
not only those for the activated sludge reactor
and its sedimentation tank but for all of the liquid
and sludge handling processes at a conventional
treatment plant. Also included in this document
are sections on control theory, generic types of
instruments, cost analysis and computer sys-
tems. The Office of Water Programs has tenta-
tively approved this document for use in review
of designs for construction grant funding. During
the next year a technology transfer seminar
based on this document will be developed.
Waste Identification and Analysis Section
Analytical Support
Modern computerized equipment is used to
provide accurate analyses of a wide variety of
pollutants and to handle the increasingly large
sample load. Analyses include heavy metals, al-
gal nutrients, total and suspended solids and
gross organics in wastewaters and sludges (Fig-
ure 18).
Figure 18. Heavy metals analysis using atomic
adsorption.
The several analytical procedures have been
developed to support the analytical needs of
WRD. The most recent development was the ad-
aptation of the COD test to an automated, com-
puterized autoanalyzer, which provides a more
rapid output of COD analyses and quality control
data not readily available with manual
procedure.
The protocol developed for the analysis of
organics in sludges has been used to analyze a
42
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number of sludges generated by the Physical-
Chemical Treatment Section. These sludges were
a result of a treatability/removability study which
involved eight of the volatile and non-volatile pri-
ority pollutants.
The Computer Services and Systems Division,
in conjunction with contractors, is preparing a
sample file control system to be added to our
computerized laboratory system. The sample file
control will provide us with a more systematized,
rapid a"nd efficient way of keeping records of the
workload and backlog, and of providing final re-
ports for the requestors. The sample file control
will also provide better quality control through
the preparation of control charts and statistical
data on recoveries, standard deviation, etc.
MERL is serving as one of several model systems
to demonstrate the utility of sample file control
for the entire Agency.
Development of Procedures for
Municipal Sludges
Several procedures for the determination of
organics in municipal sludges continue to be
evaluated. A "unified" procedure involving ex-
traction and centrifugation followed by a chro-
matographic clean-up, and a modified Bellar
technique for the volatiles was tested for the anal-
ysis of PCB's, pesticides and the volatile materials
in sludges (Figures 19-21).
Figure 20. Priority pollutant extract clean-up
using liquid chromatography.
Figure 19. Continuous extraction of organic
priority pollutants.
Figure 21. Gas chromatograph/mass spectro-
meter analysis of organic priority
pollutants.
43
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The two alternatives, of base/neutral and acid
extractions or acid/neutral and base extractions
followed by gel permeation and silica gel chro-
matography clean-up procedures have been par-
tially successful with sludges but are unsatisfac-
tory for the analysis of all the priority pollutants,
particularly some of the phenols. Additional
steps such as "base" wash of the acid extract and
steam distillation have been tried but are still not
satisfactory for all of the phenols.
concentration exceeded 500 g/l. The presence of
this compound in the leachate was confirmed by
the Laboratory in Region 2 and investigation
showed it to be present in the surface waters in
the surrounding area.
Analysis of the Cincinnati sample revealed
fewer of the priority pollutants and in smaller
concentrations.
Landfill Leachate Analyses
Samples of leachates from a landfill in Cincin-
nati and the LiPari landfill in Glassboro, New
Jersey, were analyzed using modification of the
sludge analysis procedures on behalf of the Solid
and Hazardous Waste Research Division. Results
showed the presence of a number of priority pol-
lutants, particularly various phenols and phthal-
ates. One of the most significant contaminants
found in the LiPari samples was bis(2-chlo-
roethyl) ether. It is extremely carcinogenic and its
Future Support
The Finnigan GC/MS System Model 4023 con-
tains the latest Incos data system and will en-
hance our present capabilities considerably. The
new capabilities will allow us to have three sys-
tems operating simultaneously, both analyzing
and/or interpreting the data. This should increase
our capacity to provide the Division and the T&E
Facility with critical organic analytical services
needed for toxic studies.
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
1. Bishop, C.F METHODS DEVELOPMENT FOR SLUDGE ANALYSIS IN PUBLICLY-OWNED TREAT-
MENT WORKS. \n: Proceedings of the Effluent Guidelines Division's Seminar "Analytical Methods
for Priority Pollutants," March 8-9,1979, Norfolk, Virginia.
2. Caragay, A.B. and RL. Levins. EVALUTION OF PROTOCOLS FOR PESTICIDES AND PCB'S IN RAW
WASTEWATER. EPA-600/3-79-166, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
100 pp.
3. Cummins, M.D., I.J. Kugelman, A.L Petrasek, J.F Roesler and W.W. Schuk. ANNUAL REVIEW OF
THE LITERATURE FOR INSTRUMENTATION AND AUTOMATION OF WASTEWATER COLLECTION
AND TREATMENT SYSTEMS. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, 51(6):1294-1301,1979.
4. Heidman, J.A. SEQUENTIAL NITRIFICATION-DENITRIFICATION IN A PLUG-FLOW ACTIVATED
SLUDGE SYSTEM. Final Report Contract No. 68-03-0349. In press.
5. Kugelman, I.J., M.D. Cummins, W.W. Schuk and J.F Roesler. PROGRESS IN INSTRUMENTATION
AND AUTOMATION. In: Proceedings of the Sixth U.S.IJapan Conference on Sewage Treatment
Technology, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 1978. In press.
6. Manning, A.W. and D. Dobbs. DESIGN HANDBOOK FOR AUTOMATION OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE
TREATMENT PLANTS. Final Report Contract No. 68-03-2573. In press.
7. Pellizzari, E.D. and L Little. COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF PURGEABLE ORGANICS EMITTED
FROM WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS. Final Report Contract No. 68-03-2681. In press.
8. Polta, R.C. and D.A. Stulc. AUTOMATIC SLUDGE BLANKET CONTROL IN AN OPERATING GRAVITY
THICKENER. Interim Report Grant No. S803602. In press.
9. Rodriguez, C.F, W.A. McMahon and R.E. Thomas. METHOD DEVELOPMENT FOR DETERMINA-
TION OF POLYCHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS IN MUNICIPAL SLUDGE. Interim Report Con-
tract No. 68-03-2606. In press.
10. Skrentner, R.G., A.W. Manning and I.J. Kugelman. DESIGN APPROACH FOR AUTOMATION OF
ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANTS. In: Proceedings Instrument Society of America An-
nual Meeting, October 1979.
11. Warner, J.S., G.A. Jungclaus, RM. Engel, R.M. Riggins and C.C. Chuang. ANALYTICAL PRO-
CEDURES FOR DETERMINING ORGANIC PRIORITY POLLUTANTS IN MUNICIPAL SLUDGES. Final
Report Contract No. 68-03-2624. In press.
44
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SYSTEMS AND ENGINEERING
EVALUATION BRANCH
The Systems and Engineering Evaluation
Branch is composed of the Urban Systems Man-
agement Section, the Storm and Combined
Sewer Section, and the Systems and Economic
Analysis Section. Its programs include the study
of methods for improving the design and opera-
tion of publicly owned treatment works and for
developing approaches to controlling urban wet
weather discharges. The Branch is also respon-
sible for providing design methods for rural,
institutional and individual home systems for
conducting a program for water conservation
and wastewater reuse.
Municipal Wastewater Reuse and
Water Conservation
The objectives of the Reuse and Conservation
Program are the: (1) implementation of research
that proves the feasibility of the near term, less
controversial, nonpotable use of wastewater to
extend valuable water supplies by source sub-
stitution, and the longer term, or possible emer-
gency use of wastewater for potable purposes;
and (2) the development of data on the advan-
tages and disadvantages of water conservation
so that individuals and communities can make
informed decisions on implementing programs
for their own specific situations. The Wastewater
Research Division (WRD) is supporting projects
in both of these areas and is coordinating its
activities with the EPA Health and Drinking Water
Programs, and with other concerned Federal,
State and municipal organizations engaged in
similar research. A cooperative agreement with
the American Water Works Research Foundation
(AWWARF) provides for dissemination and ex-
change of information among participating re-
use oriented organizations.
In order to assess the impact of unplanned
potable reuse on water supplies, the Office of
Drinking Water is using the results of a WRD
project whose purpose was to determine the
quantity of wastewater present in surface water
supplies of U.S. cities of over 25,000 population.
Twenty cities with-a total population of over
seven million were determined to have surface
supplies containing from 2.3 percent to 16 per-
cent wastewater during average flow conditions
and from 8 percent to 350 percent during low
flow conditions.
To assist implemention of reuse opportunities
involving the use of reclaimed wastewater for
direct recharge of groundwater reservoirs that
have been depleted by years of over-pumping.
Phase 1 of a project using injection of treated
wastewater has been completed at Water Factory
21 in Orange County, California, and a new study
involving several methods of recharge has been
undertaken on Long Island, New York at facilities
of the Nassau County Department of Public
Works. Continuous operation and detailed
monitoring programs at Water Factory 21 have
demonstrated the reliability of advanced waste-
water treatment to remove trace contaminants.
Data necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of
these treatment technologies to remove mate-
rials of public health concern is being collected to
show that reclaimed wastewater is a viable and
safe source of water for groundwater recharge.
Reuse of wastewater for potable purposes has
received National attention as an alternative in
selected areas for providing an additional source
of water to meet expanding water demand.
However, many health questions concerning the
safety of these waters for use in domestic pur-
poses need answers. As a result of Congressional
action, Section 1444(a)(2) of RL. 93-523, the Safe
Drinking Water Act, authorized the establishment
of a program to demonstrate the reuse of waste-
water for drinking purposes. A $7 million project
with the Denver Water Department was initiated
as part of this program and will take advantage of
most recent advances in treatment technology
and includes the most complete health effects
program ever considered in relation to reuse.
This phase of the program is scheduled to be
completed in 1988. In addition, a $4 million, five
year program has been initiated and will comple-
ment the Denver project by taking advantage of
existing municipal treatment facilities producing
high quality water to provide more near-term in-
formation on the feasibility for potable reuse of
systems less sophisticated (no reverse osmosis)
than the system planned for Denver. The pro-
gram will include a thorough evaluation of the
treatment effectiveness and system depen-
dability at several sites having: (1) different geo-
graphical characteristics; (2) different climatic
conditions; (3) different institutional constraints;
and, (4) different treatment processes. Health
effects studies are anticipated and, beca'use of
the shorter time frame for projects in this pro-
gram compared to the Denver project, they are
expected to provide useful input to the design of
the Denver analytical and health effects program.
If water conservation is to warrant national em-
phasis as cited in President Carter's water policy
message of June 1978, measurements, in eco-
nomic terms, are needed on its relative merits.
Results of a project with the State of California
Department of Water Resources designed to
45
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evaluate the impacts of water conservation
practices implemented during the 1976 to 1977
drought on wastewater collection and treatment
facilities show no significant adverse effect on
these facilities and indicate expected savings in
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
capital costs at a 30 percent reduction in indoor
water use. Also, data collected on treatment plant
effluent quality indicated the impact of water
conservation on wastewater reclamation was not
significant.
1. English, J.N. RECLAMATION AND REUSE OF WASTEWATER AND URBAN RUNOFF Water Con-
servation and Alternative Water Supplies. Proceedings of Southeast Regional Conference, Novem-
ber 8-9,1978, pg. 185-207, Georgia Institute of Technology.
2. Swayne, M.D., et al. WASTEWATER IN RECEIVING WATERS AT WATER SUPPLY ABSTRACTION
POINTS. EPA Report 1979.
3. Sproul, O.J. CRITICAL REVIEW OF VIRUS REMOVAL BY COAGULATION PROCESSES AND pH
MODIFICATIONS. EPA Report 1979.
Urban Systems Management Section
Treatment Plant Operation and Design
The expansion in program activities during
1979 is evidenced by the change in program title
from Operation and Maintenance (O&M) to Treat-
ment Plant Operation and Design Program. Sig-
nificant progress has been made in improving
POTW performance and reliability, reducing con-
struction and operating costs of municipal collec-
tion and treatment systems, encouraging energy
conservation in plant designs and operation, and
providing data and specific support to the
Agency's operating programs and enforcement
activities.
The Treatment Plant Operation and Design Pro-
gram provides improved design information in
the form of specific design guidelines based on
comprehensive cost, engineering analysis, per-
formance and operational studies of existing
POTW's as well as emerging treatment processes
and techniques. Design manuals and guidance
information are developed and specific con-
densed guidance and checklists are provided to
improve the state and federal review process
with respect to design, plant start-up, operation,
plant trouble-shooting and evaluation tech-
niques. Specific studies identify and document
improved process operation and improved unit
process and system designs incorporating cost
effective, reliable technology.
The detailed findings of the National O&M
Cause and Effect Survey have provided the action
impetus for decision makers who have made
proper plant operation and design their priority
concern. The 31/2 year study that was conducted
nationwide identified and ranked the specific fac-
tors causing poor plant performance and de-
veloped and implemented an approach, called a
Composite Correction Program (CCP), to improve
plant performance and move it toward
compliance.
Because of the success achieved with the CCP
this approach to improving compliance levels of
municipal plants is being demonstrated by the
State of Colorado on a statewide basis. The ob-
jectives of this areawide application of the CCP in
the State's enforcement programs are to docu-
ment the cost effectiveness and management
feasibility of the CCP approach to improving per-
formance on a statewide basis, increase levels of
compliance, evaluate the integration of private
sector technical expertise and state assistance in
the implementation of a cost effective com-
pliance/enforcement program, and provide guid-
ance in the development of a state level com-
pliance and enforcement strategy incorporating
the CCP approach.
Recognizing that proper plant performance is
the critical element in assuring POTW continuing
compliance a methodology for conducting com-
prehensive plant performance evaluations has
been developed. The protocol responds to the
expressed requirements of the Office of Enforce-
ment and Regional Offices in compliance enfor-
cement activities and will assist the Regional
Offices and States that may need to prescribe
interim O&M requirements prior to and during
major upgrading of existing facilities. The eval-
uation methodology is applicable to a wide range
of plant sizes and types of attached growth and
suspended growth biological systems. Specific
detailed guidance is given for all phases of the
plant evaluation from initial plant contact
through presentation of findings and report
preparation. The procedural recommendations
have been developed and prepared as a user
oriented analysis protocol and field manual
which will be used by EPA, State or contract in-
vestigators who visit plants and submit reports. It
46
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contains instructional descriptions and direc-
tions for use including all necessary graphs, fig-
ures, tables, forms, and checklists required.
Design of municipal wastewater treatment pro-
cesses has been further emphasized during 1979.
The major focus on design has been the develop-
ment of the Design Information and Guidelines
Series. This Series is a Wastewater Research Divi-
sion effort, in conjunction with other Agency pro-
grams, to provide clear, concise, and up-to-date
guidance for process design. The guidelines are
intended to include the latest most widely ac-
cepted design practice and the most current re-
search results from all old programs. The
Treatment Plant Operation and Design Program
has taken the lead role in planning and managing
the guidelines development program and for de-
veloping the format and content of each
guideline to be published.
Improving Plant Performance and Design
During 1979 many research projects have been
initiated that are directly related to process de-
sign. A study of design deficiencies has defined
1,700 instances on which correction modules will
be developed for both new designs and existing
facilities. The impact of peak flows on process
performance has been recognized and a project
funded to determine the importance of peak
flows for process design. The potential for perfor-
mance problems in Rotating Biological Contactor
(RBC) facilities which reach their design flows
has been recognized. This has led to a research
project to study RBC performance and design.
Performance data and present design criteria at
26 operating RBC plants will be evaluated at de-
sign flow and changes in design procedures rec-
ommended if necessary. The continuing indict-
ment of in-plant sidestream flows as major
causes of poor plant performance has led to a
study of the impact of these flows on mainstream
process performance. This project includes the
characterization of 23 separate sidestreams and
the development of operational procedures and
design guidance to minimize the impact of side-
streams.
Comprehensive dye tracer studies on eight
common types of secondary clarifiers have re-
vealed the complex phenomenon controlling
clarifier performance. Although all of the phe-
nomenon have not been quantified, it is obvious
that factors in addition to surface area and weir
length are important. Internal physical factors
such as size, shape, inlet configuration and
sludge removal mechanism have been found to
impact clarifier performance. However, there are
external factors, such as flow balancing between
parallel units and the duration and frequency of
peak flows, that may have a greater impact than
the internal factors.
O&M costs represent a major commitment that
municipalities must make in the future if they are
to protect their investment in wastewater treat-
ment facilties. Cost data have been collected in
the past, but it has been too general in nature to
be of any assistance in the management of plant
operations. In cooperation with the Drinking
Water Research Division a study has been funded
to develop a cost analyses system where both
water and wastewater utilities can track their
O&M costs. This cost analysis system will be a
useful management tool to determine, if possi-
ble, reduction in O&M costs are possible.
Reliability projects continue to make progress.
A study of the impact of toxic organics on acti-
vated sludge process reliability is determining
what concentration of toxic organics can be re-
ceived by the process before overall performance
is affected. Data on the reliability of mechanical
components has been collected and analysis of
this data is proceeding. From these results, re-
liability design guidelines will be developed
which will incorporate reliability concepts into
the design and operation of municipal facilities.
Improving Plant and Systems Management
The Wastewater Treatment Process Com-
puterized Data Base, containing extensive data
on over 300 facilities, is operational. Data from
the 1978 Needs Survey is being incorporated so
that information on national trends in waste-
water treatment technology can be developed.
Customized reporting and plotting programs are
being developed by the WRD staff as information
requests on the data base are received.
Research in instrumentation and automation
has concentrated on development of new or ver-
ification of existing control strategies for the acti-
vated sludge process and selected sludge hand-
ling stabilization techniques. These areas are
most important because of the large expendi-
tures scheduled for these processes under the
construction grant regulations. Emphasis has
been placed on demonstration of the control
strategy concept, and deliniation of improve-
ments in process performance and/or process
cost effectiveness. For the activated sludge pro-
cess emphasis has been placed on strategies in-
volving dissolved oxygen level control, and
instantaneous food-to-microorganisms ratio
control (F/M). The major recent effort was to pro-
duce a design handbook which could be used to
aid engineers in designing the most cost effective
systems. This recently published manual dis-
47
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cusses the various activated sludge modifica-
tions, aeration methods, equipment and applica-
tion techniques, compressors and blowers, D.O.
control methods, and presents an economic
analysis of manual versus automatic D.O. con-
trol. Under automatic D.O. control power savings
of over 10 percent were achieved as well as im-
provements in BOD removals.
Studies of centralized managment of waste
treatment plants are investigating potential O&M
cost reduction and improved performance
through changes in operational modes, re-
sources allocation, administrative procedures,
and institutional structures. Specific functions
which may be impacted include the following:
performance monitoring and control, preventive
and emergency maintenance, laboratory analy-
sis, training, personnel administration, account-
ing, purchasing, billing, spare parts control,
regulatory reporting and liaison.
For each function, a variety of centralized ap-
proaches are possible. Studies are defining these
alternatives and estimating the relative changes
in costs and plant performance. Initial emphasis
has been placed upon changes in operational
control, including evaluation of remote telemetry,
automated monitoring, microprocessors, and
various circuit rider schemes.
Small Flows
Implementation of the Clean Water Act
Amendments of 1977 (PL 95-217) has directed
considerable attention to the continuing efforts
of the Small flows Research Program.
The impact of the 1977 Clean Water Act on
program activities has been: reassessing of re-
search priorities and objectives to meet the im-
mediate needs of engineers, planners, and
regulatory authorities; providing technical assis-
tance to a diverse array of people involved with
small scale technologies for wastewater treat-
ment and disposal; and instituting a series of
seven Technology Transfer design seminars
across the country on rural wastewater treatment
alternatives.
The Small Flows Research Program has three
main objectives. These include: (1) improved,
cost-effective methods of planning, design, con-
struction and management for small community
wastewater systems; (2) evaluation of alternative
technologies, with respect to performance, costs,
applicability and limitations, and environmental
impacts; and (3) development of new concepts
for waste utilization, recycling, treatment and dis-
posal which are commensurate with society's
goals in the 21st Century.
In past years the majority of program re-
sources has been devoted to the evaluation of
alternative technology for small communities.
Ongoing efforts in this area include studies of
composting toilet and graywater system perfor-
mance and public health risks through a grant to
the California Water Resources Control Board. A
continuing grant to the Oregon Department of
Environmental Quality which is providing data
on a variety of alternative on-site wastewater sys-
tems has produced several designs which are
performing well in the field and has provided
information on some less successful alterna-
tives. A study which documents the costs, perfor-
mance and success of several alternative black-
water systems installed in Appalachia six to eight
years earlier has been completed. Of the seven
alternatives installed, those systems employing
conventional toilets and septic tanks followed by
soil absorption or sand filters were found to have
performed best, while recycling and incinerating
toilets were generally unsuccessful due to high
operation and maintenance requirements which
often resulted in abandonment by the users.
Two studies of septic tank pumpings (septage)
disposal at wastewater treatment plants were
completed by the University of Lowell. The first
documented the effects of receiving this waste in
the plant mainstream on primary clarifiers and
on biological processes without primary clar-
ifiers. As a result, the recommended septage
loading for extended aeration plants with suffi-
cient aeration capacity is as follows:
% Design
Wastewater Loading
25
50
75
100
Recommended Continuous
(% Volume)
Septage Load
3
2
1
0
Slug loads are permissable, but at one-half the
rate shown above. The second study showed that
septage could not be vacuum filtered, even with
chemical conditioning. However, mixtures of 20
percent to 50 percent septage with thickened
waste activated sludge, preconditioned with
alum, iron or acid, were amendable to vaccuum
filtration. The cost of handling septage directly in
the sludge stream of a small wastewater treat-
ment facility appears to be lower than the main-
stream addition. Three other studies have been
completed on septage management by compost-
ing, anaerobic digestion, and a variety of other
systems based on a nationwide survey.
Other continuing studies include the demon-
stration of improved construction techniques for
soil absorption systems at the University of
48
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Wisconsin, a study of the cost competitiveness of
innovative household evaporation systems, and
a desktop study of the costs, performance and
applicability of alternative on-site technologies.
State-of-the-art reports on pressure and vac-
uum sewers have been developed, and numer-
ous demonstration projects have been com-
pleted that deal with these technologies. Re-
cently, a project was completed that was de-
signed to collect data on cost, performance,
operation and maintenance requirements, and
type of treatment provided for a number of pres-
sure sewer installations in operation across the
country. Another project has been completed
which documents the performance of a small
physical-chemical treatment plant with nitrifica-
tion in packed towers.
In response to the needs of the EPA Con-
struction Grants Program several studies have
been undertaken to improve the grants process
as it applies to small communities. A project has
been completed which offers guidance to facility
planners (Step 1) on how to develop the most
cost-effective wastewater management for small
(<3,500 population) communities. Another con-
tinuing project is developing a manual of on-site
alternative systems for this application. A grant
with Pennsylvania State University is attempting
to quantify the value of water conservation sys-
tems in restoring to proper operation failing soil
absorption systems. Desktop analyses indicate
that this approach may be the most cost-effective
retrofitting alternative for many cases.
The 1977 Clean Water Act stipulates that a
"management district" or other public body must
guarantee proper operation of individual sys-
tems for them to be grant eligible. In response,
the Small Flows Research Program has an ongo-
ing research contract which will include detailed
case studies of existing on-site management
practices and policies at the local and state levels.
An analysis will be made of the appropriateness,
effectiveness, and costs of alternative manage-
ment approaches under different local situations.
Recommendations will be outlined for selection
and implementation of management structures
and techniques.
For future years, rt is anticipated that, while
basic research will continue to be supported,
more emphasis will be placed upon providing
improved means of applying low-technology, de-
centralized alternatives which are viable, cost-
effective approaches to ensuring environmen-
tally sound waste management practices for
rural and suburban communities.
Innovative and Alternative Technology
innovative and alternative (I/A) technology was to
be promulgated by the EPA through the Con-
struction Grants Program. Several positive incen-
tives, including increased grant assistance, are
provided to municipalities which adopt solutions
to their wastewater and other waste treatment
needs that conserve or recover energy, reclaim or
reuse water, recycle wastewater constituents,
eliminate surface discharge, or lower total an-
nual costs. The significance of I/A technology is
reflected in the projection that one out of every
four Fiscal Year 1981 grant dollars will involve
such technology. Program Operations Memoran-
dum (POM) 79-3 established four important pro-
gram support activities within the Agency for I/A
technology, of which one, the Technical Support
Group (TSG), was located in MERL. The functions
of the TSG are primarily to coordinate the I/A
program as a central point of contact providing
technical assistance to the regional offices and to
ensure that technical information on I/A projects
is properly disseminated nationwide through the
Innovative and Alternative Technology
Clearinghouse.
Approximately thirty proposed Innovative or
Alternative Projects with accompanying facility
plans have been reviewed by the TSG with rec-
ommendations submitted to the Regional Ad-
ministrator through the Municipal Construction
Division Director. The number of projects to be
reviewed for potential I/A funding have steadily
increased with time, and the TSG is now receiv-
ing two or three applications per week for review.
It is expected that these activities will continue to
increase with time.
In addition to formal application reviews, the
TSG consults with the Regional I/A Coordinators
and the regional ad hoc review groups on a
frequent basis regarding details of technical
analyses on I/A provisions and eligibility
determinations.
A draft I/A Technology Manual was prepared
and disseminated earlier in the year, and was
revised based on comments submitted from all
interested sources. A significant resource com-
mitment was required to develop the draft man-
ual. Not only the TSG staff, but other members of
the Urban Systems Management Section, the
Wastewater Research Division, and the R. S. Kerr
Environmental Research Laboratory contributed
significantly to this effort. The manual contains a
users guide, I/A screening methodology, cost and
energy effectiveness criteria and guidance pro-
cedures, as well as 123 two-page fact sheets con-
taining costs, energy, performance, design and
other pertinent data.
The Clean Water Act of 1977 clearly stated that The purpose of the Innovative and Alternative
49
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Technology Clearinghouse (IATC) is to insure that technologies.
technical and other information regarding I/A An I/A Technology public information brochure
projects is collected and analyzed with results was developed and is being published. A Tech-
appropriately disseminated. The I/A project in- nology Transfer I/A Program was developed, and
formation is collected from EPA Regional Office these two-day seminars were provided to each of
submittals of I/A technology and application ten EPA regions. In addition, ten two-day semi-
clearinghouse records. The data sheets which nars/workshops were provided for federal and
are submitted are processed through a com- state facility plan reviewing officials at ten other
puterized system, and the summary report is dis- locations around the country. Additional presen-
tributed to the Regional Administrators through tations have been made for several national and
EPA Headquarters on a quarterly basis. The Re- statewide organizations.
gional Offices distribute copies to the appropri- The future trends of the I/A technology pro-
ate State agencies and other interest groups. gram at MERL are to become more active in pro-
Data which is collected and summarized in- moting I/A technology, to monitor and document
eludes project and set-aside fund status on a the performance of the I/A systems constructed
State and Regional basis, project classification under the new Construction Grant regulations, to
according to qualifying criteria, and certain addi- more actively disseminate I/A technology infor-
tional technical information when appropriate, mation, and to periodically review and transform
The Clearinghouse Report also contains project to design guidelines the more successful tech-
descriptions and other relevant information ex- nologies, starting with improved sludge hand-
tracted from the Clearinghouse forms describing ling and energy savings concepts.
pending and approved innovative and alternative
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
1. Segall, B.A., C.R. Ott, and W. Moeller. MONITORING SEPTAGE ADDITION TO WASTEWATER
TREATMENT PLANTS VOLUME I: ADDITION TO THE LIQUID STREAM. EPA-600/2-79-132, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
2. Bennett, E.R. SEWAGE DISPOSAL BY EVAPORATION-TRANSPIRATION. EPA-600/2-78-163, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1978.
3. Condren, A.J. PILOT SCALE EVALUATIONS OF SEPTAGE TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES.
EPA-600/2-78-164, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1978.
4. Heidman, J.A. SEQUENTIAL NITRIFICATION DENITRIFICATION IN A PLUG FLOW ACTIVATED
SLUDGE SYSTEM. EPA-600/2-79-157, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio,
1979.
5. Evans, EL. III. SUMMARY OF NATIONAL OPERATIONAL AND MAINTENANCE CAUSE AND EFFECT
SURVEY. Technology Transfer Newsletter, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati,
Ohio, July 1979.
6. Bender, J.H. THE OXIDATION DITCH PROCESS: SUPERIOR PERFORMANCE AND RELIABILITY AT
LOW COST. EPA Environmental News Brief, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, January 1979.
7. Gray, A.C., RE. Paul and H.D. Roberts. EVALUATION OF OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE FAC-
TORS LIMITING BIOLOGICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT PERFORMANCE. EPA-600/2-79-
078, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
8. Hegg, B.A., K.L Rakness and J.R. Schultz. EVALUATION OF OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
FACTORS LIMITING MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT PERFORMANCE.
EPA-600/2-79-034, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
9. Hegg, B.A., K.L. Rakness and J.R. Schultz. A DEMONSTRATED APPROACH FOR IMPROVING
PERFORMANCE AND RELIABILITY OF BIOLOGICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS.
EPA-600/2-79-035, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
10. Harber, A.F and R.C. Bain. NOVEL METHODS AND MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. EPA-600/2-79-
079, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
11. Ongerth, J.E. EVALUATION OF FLOW EQUALIZATION IN MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT.
EPA-600/2-79-096, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
12. COMPUTER-AIDED SYNTHESIS OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND SLUDGE DISPOSAL SYS-
TEMS. L.A. Rossman, ed. EPA-600/2-79-158, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati,
Ohio, 1979.
13. INNOVATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT MANUAL (DRAFT). J.M. Smith, ed.
EPA-430/9-78-009, MCD 53, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
50
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Storm and Combined Sewer Section
Control and/or treatment of storm sewer dis-
charges and combined sewer overflows (CSO's)
are major problems in the field of water quality
management. Every time it rains, in the majority
of the oldest and largest cities, tremendous vol-
umes of mixed pollution laden urban runoff and
raw sewage (CSO) spill into and contaminate re-
ceiving waters. Another problem area during wet
weather exists due to man's land development
activities which have initiated severe, highly un-
desirable, and damaging alterations in the natu-
ral sedimentation cycle, particularly in local
areas, by drastically accelerating the erosion-
sedimentation process. Over the past decade
much research effort has been expended and a
large amount of information has been generated,
primarily through the Storm and Combined
Sewer Section (SCSS).
Storm and Combined Sewer research and de-
velopment effort has been directed to abatement
of pollution loads from CSO. The technology that
has been developed for CSO control in many
cases has almost direct and complete application
for the control of urban stormwater from sepa-
rate storm drainage systems as well as aspects of
sedimentation control.
There has been increased realization that,
along with technology development, there is a
need to better define the actual effects of wet-
weather discharges on receiving waters. Results
from work in this area are currently being evalu-
ated. Also, because of the high capital cost of
treatment methods, there is an increased effort
being undertaken to consider other approaches
that have much lower capital cost. These include
management practices such as improved street
sweeping and flushing of sewers during dry
weather to reduce the amount of sediment that
would otherwise be removed by the next storm.
Treatment and Control
Due to adverse and intense flow conditions and
unpredictable shock loading effects, it has been
difficult to adapt existing treatment methods to
storm-generated overflows, especially the micro-
organism-dependent biological processes. The
new physical/chemical treatment techniques
have shown more promise in overcoming these
adversities. To reduce capital investments, pro-
jects have been directed towards high-rate opera-
tions approaching maximum loading boundaries
by using the swirl, microstrainer, high rate filter,
and dissolved air flotation processes. These pro-
cesses, or combinations of these processes, can
be adjunct to the existing sanitary plant or serve
as remote satellite facilities at the outfall and
the SCS Program recommends their acceptance
in the 201 and Innovative/Alternative (I/A)
Programs.
Major work in this area during 1979 include
pilot demonstrations of the SALA-Magnetics
high gradient magnetic separator which were
conducted on combined sewer overflow and raw
sewage in the Boston area. These tests built on
the data from the first phase lab-scale project,
with special emphasis on specific design and op-
erational parameters, long-term durability and
maintenance problems, and system adaptability
to integrated wet and dry weather flow condi-
tions. Results showed the effectiveness of mag-
netic filters for the dual treatment of CSO and raw
sewage. At 90 gpm/ft2, suspended solid (SS) re-
movals approach 95 percent. A grant proposal
from the Detroit Water and Sewer District for the
full-scale demonstration of a 1 mgd high gradient
magnetic separator is currently being prepared.
The SCSS is planning to ride piggy-back on the
project with anticipated funding from the Region
V108 Program.
A demonstration project in Boston will evalu-
ate the swirl, helical bend and Teacup solids
concentrators.
Source Control and Low Structural Cost
Approaches
Nonstructural and low structurally intensive al-
ternatives, termed best management practices
(BMPs), offer considerable promise as the first
line of action to control urban runoff pollution. By
treating the problem at its source, or through
appropriate legislation curtailing its opportunity
to develop, multiple benefits can be derived.
These include lower cost, earlier results, and
an improved and cleaner neighborhood
environment.
The greatest difficulty faced by BMPs is that the
action-impact relationship is almost totally un-
quantified. It is clear that onsite storage, for ex-
ample, can be closely related to reduced down-
stream conduit requirements but the net water
quality benefits are far less defined. Similarly,
cleaner streets and neighborhoods and enforced
legislation will eradicate gross pollution sources
butto what limit should they be applied and who
will bear the cost? The final answers of cost effec-
tiveness will not be found short of trial imple-
mentation. Key demonstration projects in this
regard are ongoing this year. At Bellevue, Wash-
ington, and Orlando, Florida cost-effectiveness
of various BMPs will be evaluated. Austin, Texas
has been chosen to demonstrate various types of
porous pavements to evaluate their effectiveness
57
-------
in the control of both flooding and pollution from
urban stormwater runoff.
Other significant BMP demonstration projects
have been ongoing throughout the year and have
yielded important results. A study at San Jose,
California has developed sampling procedures to
test street cleaning equipment performance in
real-world conditions. The street cleaning equip-
ment test showed that different test area condi-
tions affected performance more than dif-
ferences in equipment type.
In Rochester, New York, the SCS Program is
providing technical advisors to Region II and to
the Great Lakes Program on a combined sewer
overflow project which will evaluate along with
other minimal structural improvements an over-
all BMP program that includes sewer mainte-
nance, catchbasin cleaning and street sweeping
practices.
Another BMP project funded in the San Fran-
cisco area will investgate the treatment of storm-
water runoff in a saltwater marsh. Evaluation will
include water, sedment and biological conditions
and the preparation of a manual on best vegeta-
tive control practices.
An investigation of periodic sewer flushing
during dry weather for first flush relief has
recently been completed in Boston, Mas-
sachusetts. A set of generalized procedures for
estimating pollutant loadings associated with
dry weather sewage solids deposition in com-
bined sewer systems has been prepared to
provide planners, engineers, and municipal man-
agers with technical information so that they can
make intelligent informed decisions on potential
sewer flushing programs in combination with
other combined sewer management controls.
Collection System Controls
Collection system control pertains to manage-
ment alternatives for wastewater interception
and transport. These include sewer separation;
improved maintenance and design of
catchbasins, sewers, regulators and tide gates;
and remote flow monitoring and control. The
emphasis, with the exception of sewer separa-
tion, is on optimum use of existing facilities and
fully automated control. Because added use of
the existing system is employed, the concepts
generally involve cost-effective, low-structurally
intensive control.
The Program state-of-the-art and manual of
practice on infiltration/inflow (I/I) identified a sig-
nificant problem which led to national emphasis
on I/I control and fruitful countermeasure re-
search. This year Program developments have
included detection methodology and instrumen-
tation; improved materials and improved in-
stallation, construction and rehabilitation tech-
niques. Three new user's manuals including a
product and equipment guide are available.
It is estimated that over 90,000 miles of new
sewage collection pipe, at a cost of approx-
imately $17 billion will be required nationally by
1990. Obviously, even a minor decrease in sewer
construction related costs could result in a sig-
nificant savings in the overall EPA construction
grants program and other construction
programs.
In San Antonio, Texas a project evaluated the
strength increases, corrosion resistance and re-
sulting infiltration prevention from sulfur im-
pregnation of concrete pipe. Since pipe costs are
significant, an increase in strength could lead to a
decrease in pipe materials and construction
costs. A final report is at press. Additionally, the
benefits of impregnation as related to I/I reduc-
tion will be of major significance to the 201 pro-
grams (in lowering treatment and control costs).
The recent withdrawal of AM-9 grout by Amer-
ican Cyanamid has left the I/I rehabilitation pro-
gram without a reliable product capable of being
used with available equipment. Accordingly,
there is an urgent need to assess the potential of
products for use as sewer sealants. (Several
products are currently available which have been
identified as being of possible use.)
Last year the Office of Water Program Opera-
tions (OWPO) requested assistance from the SCS
Program in identifying substitutes for AM-9. Ac-
cordingly, the Program entered a project to sat-
isfy this objective. This project will also concen-
trate on field testing potential grouting materials
along with possible equipment redevelopment
work.
As a result of this project in conducting the
current grouting assessment, the 3M Company
has invested $500K on the development of a suit-
able replacement for AM-9 which can be utilized
in existing equipment. This new material is an
elastomeric hydrophilic polymer known as
CR250. Preliminary field tests yielded excellent
results. In-house toxicity tests indicated that
CR250 is safe and exhibits no evidence of the
neurotoxic characteristics of AM-9 (acrylamide
grout).
Two new demonstration projects in coopera-
tion with Regions III and V were started this year
to determine the feasibility of relining deterio-
rated sewers with the new Insituform process.
The process involves the use of a flexible polyes-
ter tubing inserted into a damaged sewer via an
existing manhole. After hardening, a new pipe-
within-a-pipe is formed. The basic advantages
52
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are that it does not require expensive and disrup-
tive excavation and it takes the form of a struc-
turally sound pipe.
In the City of Hagerstown, Maryland an ORD
funded evaluation will be made on 7,700 feet of
Insituform lining funded by construction grants.
A similar evaluation is being performed in North-
brook, Illinois.
Receiving Water Impacts
Data on the environmental impacts of urban
runoff are being gathered as a first step in de-
veloping methodology to quantify pollutant
stress and evaluate the impact in relation to re-
ceiving water standards and desired uses. Ongo-
ing SCS Program projects as well as case studies
of documented receiving water impacts are
being reviewed and characterized in a project
with the University of Florida. The project is ex-
pected to help identify the types of impacts re-
quiring further verification and the research
needed to quantify receiving water stresses.
A nationwide survey of dissolved oxygen
meters indicated that large dissolved oxygen de-
creases in streams following storms over urban
areas are not found in the majority of cases. The
greatest effect is found in streams where the dis-
solved oxygen is already somewhat depressed
from dry weather discharges. One river showing
a measurable effect in dissolved oxygen from
urban runoff is the Scioto below Columbus,
Ohio. A more detailed dissolved oxygen study of
a stretch of that river will be conducted in 1980.
The study will provide data for verification of
oxygen balance models.
A sediment transport model has been adapted
to urban runoff particulates and has been
checked approximately with solids data from the
Cuyahoga River. Furtherverification of the model
might be carried out on the Scioto River.
Systems and Economic Analysis Section
This group carries out a wide variety of mathe-
matical and statistical analyses in support of
other efforts within MERL.
Total phosphorus loading from municipal
wastewater treatment plants to the Great Lakes
was estimated together with the cost of alterna-
tive treatment strategies for the International
Joint Commission (IJC). The IJC list of plants
greater than 1.0 mgd numbered 325 plants for all
the Great Lakes and 199 plants for Lakes Erie and
Ontario. The plant size distribution was fit with a
log-normal probability density function to esti-
mate the number of plants in any size range be-
low 1.0 mgd. The total number of plants was 974
for all the Great Lakes and 645 for Lakes Erie and
Ontario. Total plant flow was 4258 mgd for all the
great Lakes and 3085 mgd for Lakes Erie and
Ontario. Treatment alternatives considered were
(1) chemical addition in all plants greater than 1.0
mgd, (2) chemical addition in plants between 0.1
and 1.0 mgd, (3) doubling the settlers and in-
creasing the chemical dose by 10 percent in all
plants greater than 1.0 mgd, (4) dual media filtra-
tion in plants greater than 1.0 mgd, and (5) PHO-
STRIP process in plants greater than 1.0 mgd.
Assumed effluent quality was 1.0 mg/l P for
chemical addition, 0.75 mg/l P for doubling the
settlers, and 0.5 mg/l P for dual media filtration
following chemical addition. The PHO-STRIP pro-
cess was found to be competitive with chemical
addition in the larger plant sizes when the influ-
ent phosphorus concentration was relatively
great, but for the 5.8 mg/l P influent phosphorus
assumed for present conditions the cost advan-
tage never exceeded 20 percent. Thus, PHO-
STRIP was not included in any of the treatment
strategies studied. Chemical addition in plants
greater than 1.0 mgd was found to be the most
cost-effective alternative at a unit cost of about
$0.90/lb P removed. Doubling the settlers in
plants greater than 1.0 mgd and adding chemi-
cals in plants between 0.1 and 1.0 mgd were
about equivalent in cost at about $3.5/lb P re-
moved. The most expensive alternative was dual
media filtration at about $7.8/lb P removed. Ap-
plying combinations of treatment alternatives to
plants grouped by size was also considered with
a modest increase in cost-effectiveness shown.
The windrow composting process for waste-
water treatment plant sludge has been simulated
with a time-dependent mathematical model. The
trapezoidal cross-sectional area was divided into
rectangular and triangular areal increments (Fig-
ure 22) and the model computes the flux of air,
oxygen, water vapor, and heat into each incre-
ment over each time interval. The pile is assumed
to be aerated mechanically with the pressure
source at the bottom center of the pile. Although
this mode of aeration is not typical, it appears to
have a number of advantages over conventional
operation and is being pilot tested. Water vapor
within the pile is assumed to be saturated at the
local temperature. Water vapor and oxygen are
transported by advection and diffusion and oxy-
gen is used by the microbiological activity. The
rate of microbiological activity is a function of the
local temperature and the remaining con-
centration of biodegradable organic material.
Heat transfer is by conduction and by movement
of water vapor and air. Heat lost from the boundry
with atmospheric air is by convection and by
evaporation of surface moisture. Heat transfer to
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10 11 12 13 14 15
Figure 22. Discreditization scheme for numerical integration of windrow composting performance.
the soil is by conduction. Airflow streamlines are
established first and used throughout the time-
dependent integration. A time increment of 15
minutes has been found to be satisfactory. Run-
ning time on the PDP-11 computer is about one
minute per day of real time. Initial runs show that
the temperature history of the pile approximates
that seen in experimental work with aerated com-
posting windrows.
A study was undertaken to investigate the im-
plications of designing municipal treatment sys-
tems on the basis of either cost- or energy-
effectiveness. A computer model called EXEC/OP
was used to select the least-cost and least-energy
designs for a conventional treatment system
from over 20 different unit processes that could
be arranged into almost 14,000 different config-*
urations (Figure 23). The differences in these de-
signs for variations in design flow, effluent
quality, and the price of energy was examined.
Results showed that the gap between least-
cost and least-energy designs is reduced as
attached growth biological processes are sub-
stituted for activated sludge treatment and ana-
erobic digestion with gas recovery is employed
in sludge treatment. These changes can result in
significant energy savings at rather modest in-
creases in cost. However, the imputed energy
cost associated with these changes (i.e., the price
of energy which would make these changes cost-
effective) can be much higher than the actual
market price. For secondary treatment levels, in-
creases in energy prices are much more influen-
tial in making digester gas recovery cost-effective
than in making changes in the most cost-effective
model of biological wastewater treatment. It was
shown how EXEC/OP could be useful in generat-
ing several noninferior system designs that offer
alternative cost-energy combinations.
A key feature of EPA's national program for
controlling toxic materials discharged from
POTW's is the establishment of categorical pre-
treatment standards for industries that utilize
municipal treatment systems. Industrial pretreat-
ment standards can be relaxed to the extent that
reliable pollutant removal is provided by the
POTW. A mathematical decision model for plan-
ning cost-effective integrated industrial-munici-
pal pretreatment programs has been developed.
The model seeks to determine the degree of in-
dustrial pretreatment and POTW treatment
needed in a sewer district so that all POTW dis-
charge requirements can be met at minimum
cost. The basic premise which it explores is that
54
-------
PUMPING
PRELIMINARY
TREATMENT
PRIMARY
SEDIMENTATION
ACTIVATED SLUDGE
(MECHANICAL AERATION)
ACTIVATED SLUDGE
(DIFFUSED AERATION)
TRICKLING FILTER
ROTATING BIOLOGICAL
CONTACTOR
GRAVITY THICKENING
NULL
FLOTATION THICKENING
NULL
LIME STABILIZATION
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
AEROBIC DIGESTION
HEAT TREATMENT
NULL
U
AEROBIC DIGESTION
NULL
GRAVITY THICKENING
ELUTRIATION
NULL
NULL
VACUUM FILTRATION
CENTRIFUGATION
DRYING BEDS
NULL
DRYING BEDS
NULL
LANDFILLING
LAND SPREADING
INCINERATION
Figure 23. Multi-option flow diagram for conventional treatment system used in the cost- and
energy-effectiveness study.
in some situations it may be more economical to
have the POTW assume some of the burden in
treating toxic pollutants rather than relying en-
tirely on industrial pretreatment. The model is
currently classified as a prototype because of
several simplifying assumptions used in its de-
55
-------
velopment. Work is proceeding on integrating structure and in assessing its utility as a practical
our growing understanding of the occurrence tool for effective toxics managment.
and fate of these pollutants into the model's
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
1. Allen, D.M., TREATMENT OF COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS BY HIGH GRADIENT MAGNETIC
SEPARATION. EPA-600/2-78-209, December 1978.
2. White, C.A. and A.L Franks. DEMONSTRATION OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL TECH-
NOLOGY- LAKE TAHOE REGION OF CALIFORNIA. EPA-600/2-78-208, December 1978.
3. Innefeld, H., et al. DUAL PROCESS HIGH-RATE FILTRATION OF RAW SANITARY SEWAGE AND
COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS. EPA-600/2-79-015, March 1979.
4. Prah, D.H. and PL Brunner. COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW TREATMENT BY SCREENING AND
TERMINAL PONDING. EPA-600/2-79-084, August 1979.
5. Drehwing, FJ. COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW ABATEMENT PROGRAM, ROCHESTER, NEW
YORK: VOLUME II. EPA-600/2-79-031b, July 1979.
6. Huber, W. and J. Heaney. URBAN RAINFALL - RUNOFF QUALITY DATA BASE: UPDATE WITH
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS. EPA-600/8-79-004, August 1979.
7. Characklis, W.G., et al. MAXIMUM UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES IN A PLANNED COM-
MUNITY- EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. EPA-600/2-79-050a, July 1979.
8. Characklis, W.G., et al. MAXIMUM UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES IN A PLANNED COM-
MUNITY-STORMWATER RUNOFF QUALITY: DATA COLLECTION, REDUCTION AND ANALYSIS.
EPA-600/2-79-050b, July 1979.
9. Diniz, E.V. and W.H. Espey. MAXIMUM UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES IN A PLANNED
COMMUNITY- APPLICATION OF THE STORM WATER MANAGEMENT MODEL: VOLUME I.
EPA-600/2-79-050C, July 1979.
10. Diniz, E.V. and W. Espey. MAXIMUM UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES IN A PLANNED COM-
MUNITY - APPLICATION OF THE STORM WATER MANAGEMENT MODEL: VOLUME II (APPEN-
DICES). EPA-600/2-79-050d, NTIS only, July 1979.
11. Hammond, B. and J. Bishop Jr. MAXIMUM UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES IN A PLANNED
COMMUNITY- CHLORINE AND OZONE TOXICITY EVALUATION. EPA-600/2-79-050e, August 1979.
12. Davis, E.M. MAXIMUM UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES IN A PLANNED COMMUNITY -
BACTERIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STORM WATERS IN DEVELOPING RURAL
AREAS.EPA-600/2-79-050f, August 1979.
13. Bergstedt, L.M., et al. LABORATORY EVALUATION OF METHODS TO SEPARATE FINE GRAINED
SEDIMENT FROM STORMWATER. EPA-600/2-79-076, July 1979.
14. Medina, M. LEVEL III: RECEIVING WATER QUALITY REMODELING FOR URBAN STORMWATER
MANAGEMENT. EPA-600/2-79-100, August 1979.
15. Foreman, K.M. FIELD TESTING OF PROTOTYPE ACOUSTIC EMISSION SEWER FLOWMETER.
EPA-600/2-79-084, August 1979.
16. Meinholz, T.L, et al. SCREENING/FLOTATION TREATMENT OF COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS -
VOLUME II: FULL SCALE OPERATION, RACINE, WISCONSIN. EPA-600/2-79-106a, August 1979.
17. Meinholz, TL, et al. SCREENING/FLOTATION TREATMENT OF COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS -
VOLUME II: FULL SCALE OPERATION, RACINE, WISCONSIN. EPA-600/2-79-106b, NTIS only, Au-
gust 1979.
18. Buxton, H. and FT. Caruccio. EVALUATION OF SELECTIVE EROSION CONTROL TECHNIQUES -
PIEDMONT REGION OF S.E. UNITED STATES. EPA Report No. Pending.
19. Drehwing, F, et al. DISINFECTION/TREATMENT OF COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS, SYRACUSE,
NEW YORK. EPA-600/2-79-134, August 1979.
20. Pisano, W.C., et al. DRY-WEATHER DEPOSITION AND FLUSHING FOR COMBINED SEWER OVER-
FLOW POLLUTION CONTROL. EPA-600/2-79-133, August 1979.
21. Pitt, R. DEMONSTRATION OF NONPOINT POLLUTION ABATEMENT THROUGH STREET CLEAN-
ING PRACTICES. EPA-600/2-79-161, August 1979.
22. Koncza, L, et al. LAWRENCE AVENUE UNDERFLOW SEWER SYSTEM INTERIM REPORT PLAN-
NING AND CONSTRUCTION. EPA Report No. Pending.
23. Berwick, R. SELECT TOPICS IN STORMWATER MANAGEMENT PLANNING FOR NEW RESIDEN-
TIAL DEVELOPMENTS. EPA Report No. Pending.
56
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DRINKING WATER RESEARCH DIVISION
The Drinking Water Research Division (DWRD) of MERL determines the occurrence of contaminants
and conducts research and development to establish the water treatment and control technology, in
accordance with the provisions of the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-523). The Division
maintains liaison with the Office of Drinking Water in the Office of Water and Waste Management so
that requirements of the Act can be met in a timely fashion.
The Division Director provides a focal point for the coordination of all water supply activities in ORD,
including Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio; Health Effects Research
Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio; Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio; the
Environmental Research Laboratory, Athens, Georgia; and the Environmental Research Laboratory,
Ada, Oklahoma. The Office of Drinking Water provides resources to these groups for technical
assistance to the states, to water utilities, and to the general public.
Major issues that have spotlighted the research effort during the past year include the investigation
of treatment practices to minimize the presence of organics in treated water, the examination of
treatment technology and associated costs to reduce contaminant levels to those specified in the
National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NIPDWR), the use of disinfectants other than
chlorine and the determination of whether harmful by-products are formed, the removal of asbestos
fibers from drinking water, the removal of Giardia lamblia from public water supplies not using
filtration, the development of rapid methods for the detection of bacteria, the relationship of turbidity
to disinfection efficiency, the role of viruses in disinfection, and the evaluation of point-of-use treat-
ment devices.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS
REMOVAL BRANCH
The objectives of the in-house and extramural
research conducted by the Physical and Chemi-
cal Contaminants Removal Branch are to develop
economic drinking water treatment unit pro-
cesses to allow a water utility of any size to meet
the Drinking Water Regulations, either those
presently effective or those contemplated in the
future, and to devise techniques to allow the dis-
tribution of water to the consumer without deteri-
oration in quality. To accomplish this, the Branch
isdivided into five research areas: InorganicCon-
taminants, Particulate Contaminants, Organic
Contaminants, Economic Analysis, and Distribu-
tion System Quality.
Inorganic Contaminants
In-house studies and extramural research
grant programs on the removal of trace metals
and other inorganics listed in the National Inte-
rim Primary Drinking Water Regulations
(NIPDWR) stressed the development of technol-
ogy to remove the four significant ground water
contaminants that impact small communities: ar-
senic, fluoride, nitrate, and selenium.
Activated alumina, which has been effectively
used to remove fluoride from water, continued to
be investigated for the removal of selenium and
arsenic. This material was shown to remove se-
lenium IV and VI and arsenic III and Vfrom water
under certain conditions. Studies also showed
that slightly different regeneration processes for
activated alumina may be required for the three
contaminants of fluoride, selenium and arsenic.
Ion exchange treatment was investigated for ar-
senic removal and results showed that strong
base resins were effective for arsenic V, but not
for arsenic III.
Field projects to complement in-house re-
search continued to investigate the removal of all
the inorganic contaminants listed in the NIPDWR
from ground water by reverse osmosis; se-
lenium from ground water by activated alumina;
and nitrate from ground water by ion exchange
and reverse osmosis (Figure 24). A new project
was also funded to study the effectiveness of
conventional package plant systems that have
specific application for small communities. A
mobile pilot plant housing activated alumina
treatment, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and
electrodialysis was developed by the University
of Houston. This mobile system will be operated
57
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in small communities to provide practical infor-
mation for the design and operation of treatment
systems for small water supplies. Economic data
will also be developed in all of the field projects.
Detailed information on completed jar test and
pilot plant studies for trace metal removal by
conventional treatment and lime softening is
being published in a series of articles in the Jour-
nal of the American Water Works Association.
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
Figure 24. Reverse osmosis for the removal of
inorganics from drinking water.
1. Sorg, T.J., M. Csanady, and G.S. Logsdon. TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY TO MEET THE INTERIM
PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS FOR INORGANICS: PART 3 (CADMIUM, LEAD AND
SILVER). Journal of American Water Works Association, 70(12) :680-691,1978.
2. Sorg, T.J. TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY TO MEET THE INTERIM PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REG-
ULATIONS FOR INORGANICS: PART 4 (CHROMIUM AND MERCURY). Journal of American Water
Works Association, 71(8):454-466,1979.
Particulate Contaminants
Particulate removal studies continued for two
types of contaminants- asbestos fibers and Giar-
dia cysts. A comprehensive report on water filtra-
tion for asbestos fiber removal was prepared in
order to explain results reported by other inves-
tigators, to provide information for designers of
water filtration plants, and to give guidelines for
the successful operation of filtration plants that
are removing asbestos fibers from drinking
water. This document reviews the literature of
other investigators (mostly Canadian), summar-
izes filtration studies funded by U.S. EPA at Du-
luth and Seattle, and presents monitoring data
gathered at water treatment plants in Phila-
delphia, Chicago, the San Francisco Bay area,
and the Lake Superior North Shore.
Results of treatment for asbestos removal are
now available for a number of widely separated
geographic locations from coast to coast in the
United States and Canada, for a wide range of
source waters, from a pristine mountain lake to
turbid rivers and estuarine waters, and for varia-
tions in flow from 10 gallons per minute or
smaller to more than 200 million gallons per day
and several modifications of granular media
filtration.
Data from Seattle and Lake Superior show that
chrysotile and amphibole fiber concentrations in
drinking water can be substantially reduced by
granular media filtration. Reductions of up to
99.99 percent were reported during storm condi-
tions at Duluth, Minnesota. Effective granular
media filtration required very diligent plant oper-
ation with careful control of pH, coagulant doses,
and filtered water turbidity.
When a granular media filtration plant is prop-
erly operated, turbidity readings can be used as a
guide to fiber removal efficiency even though
turbidity cannot directly measure asbestos fibers
in the concentrations found at water treatment
plants. Filtered water turbidity should be 0.10
nephelometric turbidity units (ntu) or lower to
maximize fiber removal. Turbidity increases of 0.1
or 0.2 ntu above this value generally were accom-
panied by large increases in asbestos fiber con-
centrations. The 1 ntu Maximum Contaminant
Level (MCL) for turbidity is not a satisfactory
quality goal if asbestos removal is needed.
Some of the results presented suggest that fi-
ber removal is more easily accomplished when
source waters have turbidities greater than 1 ntu,
which is the raw water turbidity typical of Lake
Superior and Seattle's Tolt Reservoir.
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Diatomaceous earth filtration was found effec-
tive for asbestos fiber removal in bench-scale and
pilot plant studies. A full scale diatomite filtration
plant has not yet been evaluated forfiber removal
efficiency. Research to date indicates that coating
the diatomaceous earth filter aid with aluminum
hydroxide substantially increases the removal of
both amphibole and chrysotile fibers. Duluth re-
sults indicate that filtered water turbidity should
be 0.10 ntu for most effective fiber removal.
Research on Giardia cyst removal by water fil-
tration continued in the laboratory, with the use
of G. muris, a mouse parasite, because the
human parasite, G. lamblia, was not generally
available in the Cincinnati area. G. lamblia and G.
muris are similar in size, and both are elec-
tronegative (negative zeta potential), so results
obtained with G. muris should be a good indica-
tor of the behavior of G. lamblia under similar
conditions.
Diatomaceous earth filtration studies showed
that operating technique is important. Cyst re-
moval with a clean filter operating at 1.0 gallons
per minute per square foot (gpm/sf) ranged from
99.8 to 99.98 percent. At 1.5 gpm/sf removal
ranged from 99.95 to 99.998 percent. Cyst re-
moval at 1.0 gpm/sf by a filter that was not uni-
formly precoated dropped to 99.36 percent.
Granular media filtration tests utilizing dual
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
media (coal and sand) show that for this kind of
filtration proper operating technique is again es-
sential. Bench scale tests with a 1.5 inch (4 cm)
diameter f ilter indicated that changes that upset
the equilibrium condition in the filter can result in
the release of floe and cysts that had been stored
in the media, or can result in the passage of cysts
through the filter media. Abrupt increases in fil-
tration rate, loss of chemical feed, and turbidity
breakthrough at the end of a run all resulted in
substantial increases in cyst concentration in fil-
tered water. Small increases in turbidity (0.1 or 0.2
ntu) were associated with increases in cyst con-
centration often to one hundredfold.
When clear waters (1-5 ntu) are filtered,
treated water turbidity must be well below the 1
ntu Maximum Contaminant Level for turbidity for
the most effective cyst removal. Cyst removal
generally exceeded 99.0 percent when effluent
turbidity was in the range of 0.2 - 0.3 ntu.
Research on G. lamblia cyst removal by water
filtration is under way in a pilot plant study at the
University of Washington. The Drinking Water
Research Division is completing construction of a
trailer-mounted 20 gpm package plant for use by
the University of Washington at various locations
in the State of Washington. This work will be
done during the 1980 calendar year.
1. Logsdon, G.S. WATER FILTRATION FOR ASBESTOS FIBER REMOVAL. EPA 600/2-79-206, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, December 1979.
2. Logsdon, G.S. FILTRATION WORKS OUT ASBESTOS FIBERS. FX. Schleppenbach and TM. Zaudtke.
Water and Sewage Works, 126(10):44-46,1979.
Distribution System and Water Quality
In-house studies utilizing sections of asbestos
cement (A/C) pipe inserted in circulating systems
with varying water quality conditions in the dif-
ferent systems have shown that (1) pH 8.2 and
zinc concentrations =ฃ 0.3 mg/l will protect A/C
pipe from attack regardless of the zinc compound
used to provide the zinc and that even waters
with very low calcium concentrations do not at-
tack the A/C pipe when these conditions exist; (2)
calcium carbonate saturation of the water will
prevent attack on A/C pipe; (3) sodium silicate
added to the water can provide protection to A/C
pipe; and (4) the same aggressive waters that do
not attack the A/C pipe at pH 8.2 with zinc will
attack A/C pipe when zinc is not present. A grant
with the city of Greenwood, South Carolina
showed that a concentration of 0.3 mg/l zinc
provides much better protection of A/C pipe than
do concentrations of s 0.1 mg/l zinc.
Energy dispersive X-ray spectral elemental
analyses using the electron microscope show
that A/C pipe surfaces protected against attack by
coatings, such as iron or zinc, have significant
calcium peaks as well as iron and zinc peaks. A/C
pipe surfaces showing attack have none or very
low calcium peaks and insufficient iron or zinc
peaks to indicate protection. The size of calcium
peak for the protected pipe depends on the de-
gree of coating. As the coating thickens the cal-
cium peak size will decrease and a heavy coating
of iron or zinc could very well eliminate the cal-
cium peak for a protected pipe.
In-house studies on the corrosion of lead pipe
are continuing by evaluating control techniques
involving pH and alkalinity adjustments. Litera-
ture references to lead solubility diagrams had
shown that the solubility of lead hydroxide de-
creased with increasing alkalinity and that mini-
mum solubility occurred at pH 8.6. However,
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laboratory corrosion rate meaurements using
linear polarization techniques suggested that the
protective coatings became more unstable as the
alkalinity was increased while maintaining pH
8.5. Computer generated solubility diagrams
showing the response of lead solubility to dis-
solved carbonate later showed that increased
carbonate concentration would tend to dissolve
lead hydroxide. Furthermore, these solubility di-
agrams showed that the minimum solubility of
lead hydroxide would occur at pH 9.5 at an al-
kalinity of about 20 mg/l as calcium carbonate.
Preliminary corrosion rate measurements ap-
peared to confirm these predictions. Raman
Spectroscopic techniques, which have been
shown to be capable of analyzing surface films
on lead pipes, will be used to corroborate these
results.
In a grant with The Metropolitan Water District
of Southern California, the EPA Mobile Water
Quality Monitoring Labortory was used in a
study to evaluate the effects of blending waters of
different quality and to relate their composition
to the corrosive effects of the water on the sys-
tem. The mobile lab proved to be an effective tool
for data collection at thirty Southern California
locations in the Los Angeles area, especially after
automation of the calcium deposition tester and
modifications to the corrosion test equipment.
Corrosion rates were correlated with the Lan-
gelier saturation index, the Ryzner index, the cal-
cium concentration and conductivity. The cal-
cium carbonate deposition test (CCDT) could
readily detect changes in alkalinity or calcium
hardness. The addition of corrosion inhibitors
such as zinc orthophosphate could be detected
by the CCDT. Although a number of effects of
blending waters of various quality were observed
during this study, none of the effects of blending
imported surface waters with local groundwaters
generated any serious problems in water in the
distribution systems of the area. This work has
now been completed and a final report has been
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
received for publication.
The mobile laboratory was moved to the Law-
rence Berkeley Laboratory where it is undergoing
extensive updating and renovation under an in-
teragency agreement with The Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory. A new computer and data
acquisition system has been received so that all
data can be handled at the mobile lab rather than
through the outside terminal. After renovation,
the mobile lab will be used in a study on corro-
sion control treatment for the water supply of
Seattle, Washington.
Investigations are continuing at the University
of Florida to evaluate water quality parameters
for establishing a corrosion index that would be
more useful in predicting corrosion rates in a
metal pipe. Laboratory corrosion rate testing is
being done on coupons in forty-eight sample
containers under carefully controlled conditions.
Data obtained for mild steel showed that corro-
sion rates in deaerated systems were low com-
pared to those in aerated systems, and that there
may be a relationship of corrosion rate to chlo-
rine residual levels. Pipe loops studies using
these metals are also in progress.
A laboratory cortosion study at John Hopkins
University was completed to isolate the source of
lead and other metals present in the drinking
water in portions of Carroll County, Maryland.
The lead in Carroll County's system is being
picked up from the copper pipe distribution sys-
tems because lead is not detectable in the source
water. The corrosion studies were conducted
with copper pipe loops constructed with solders
of various compositions to evaluate the effect of
various water quality parameters and flow rates
on corrosion rates. Test data showed highest lead
levels when low pH (5.5), low alkalinity (10 mg/l)
and low hardness (10 mg/l) simultaneously oc-
curred. The effect of dissolved oxygen on corro-
sion rate was present at low pH and negligible at
higher pH. Maximum lead levels were achieved
within fifteen minutes.
Buelow, R.W., J.R. Millette, E.F McFarren, and J.M. Symons. THE BEHAVIOR OF ASBESTOS-CEMENT
PIPE UNDER VARIOUS WATER QUALITY CONDITIONS - A PROGRESS REPORT, PART I - EXPERIMEN-
TAL RESULTS, Proceedings of 99th Annual AWWA Conference, San Francisco, California, June 27,
1979 (In Press). Manuscript available.
Organic Contaminants
The basic objective of our field investigations
efforts is to evaluate and develop water treat-
ment technology that minimizes the presence of
potentially harmful organics in drinking water.
The research projects involve organic sub-
stances associated with the disinfection of drink-
ing water, such as trihalomethanes and precur-
sors, and specific organic substances that occur
in the source waters and are not substantially
removed by commonly used water treatment
methods. The projects also include evaluation of
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the costs required for a given technology, when-
ever the scale of the project is large enough.
Surface Water Studies
Current investigations include studies of ad-
sorbents, alternative disinfectants and modifica-
tion of the points of application of disinfection to
minimize organic contamination. Also, onsite
granular activated carbon reactivation technol-
ogy is under investigation.
Two extramural research projects on the com-
bination of ozone and granular activated carbon
(GAC) as a means of extending activated carbon
bed life are expected to have the pilot plants in
operation by December 1979. Shreveport, Loui-
siana will operate a 10 gpm pilot plant and Phila-
delphia, Pennsylvania will operate a 20 gpm pilot
plant.
In-house studies are continuing on the com-
bination of oxidants with granular activated car-
bon. A pilot scale in-house project is examining
the effects of ozone followed by deep bed filtra-
tion (to maximize biodegradation of trace
organics before adsorption). A parallel study is
using hydrogen peroxide as the oxidant to see if
the effects are similar to those obtained in earlier
studies with ozone.
Granular activated carbon (GAC) studies invol-
ving both full-scale gravity contactors and pilot
columns are progressing at a site along the lower
Mississippi. Four, six-month phases of full-scale
operation of gravity GAC beds using lower Mis-
sissippi river water have been completed (Figure
25). One bed was operated as a system. Prelimin-
ary results were reported in June 1979 at the
AWWA in San Francisco, California and at the
Figure 25. Overview of the New Orleans Water
Treatment Plant.
May 1979 EPA/NATO/CCMS sponsored Adsorp-
tion Techniques Conference held in Reston, Vir-
ginia. Preparation of the final project report has
begun.
At a site on the Ohio River, a recently instituted
second phase of pilot column investigation using
two types of carbon operated as post filter adsor-
bers along with columns operated as sand re-
placement systems in parallel with virgin and
once reactivated carbon has been completed.
Construction of the full scale water supply GAC
post filtration pressure contactors is complete
and one of the four 1 million gallon per day con-
tactors was placed into operation in October. The
remaining two will be put into operation at one
month intervals. The on-site fluid bed carbon re-
activation system is scheduled for shakedown
tests and full operation by December 1979.
In 1979, full-scale operation of the on-site fluid
bed carbon reactivation systems was begun at
Manchester, New Hampshire. The system is reac-
tivating carbon that has been used for surface
water treatment.
Studies evaluating the potential of an electric
furnace for reactivating granular carbon are near-
ing completion at the Little Falls, New Jersey site.
Thus far, the infrared furnace looks very promis-
ing as an alternative to fossil fuel devices. Also
encouraging are the indications that simple and
inexpensive tests such as iodine numbers and
apparent densities are reliable monitors of reac-
tivation efficiencies. On a smaller scale, studies
were initiated to compare three different type
furnaces for reactivating granular carbon used in
a sand replacement operation mode and a pro-
ject was started to examine the potential for sol-
vent regeneration by supercritical carbon
dioxide.
A lower Ohio River study is using the full-scale
plant as a control and a pilot plant at this location
is being used for comparison of the effects of
chlorine and chlorine dioxide disinfection both
with and without GAC. Various modes of opera-
tion of the pilot plant have been evaluated in
short term tests and a mode has been selected for
long-term evaluation. Using pre and post chlo-
rine dioxide disinfection, the performance of vir-
gin activated carbon and subsequent off-site
regenerated carbon will be evaluated (Figure 26).
Ground Water Studies
Groundwaters, particularly from deep well
sources, have traditionally been considered less
susceptible to organic pollution than surface wa-
ters. Improved analytical procedures, however,
combined with more widespread monitoring are
showing an alarming number of groundwaters
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Figure 26. Carbon contactors at Evansville,
Indiana.
contaminated with industrial solvents. In almost
all cases, the water was being analyzed for other
constituents (mainly trihalomethanes) when the
solvents were discovered.
Currently (October 1979) dozens of wells serv-
ing several thousand people have been reported
contaminated in New England, New Jersey, New
York (particularly Long Island), Pennsylvania and
Florida. California, Arizona, Michigan and Vir-
ginia also have reported isolated incidences of
ground water pollution resulting from surface
activities. More cases are expected as monitoring
increases.
For the past two years the Drinking Water Re-
search Division (MERL-Cincinnati) has conducted
treatment experiments for removing these sol-
vents from drinking water. Cooperative pilot
scale studies with the U.S. Air Force and a utility
in Connecticut and one in New Jersey have
provided important information on the useful-
ness of treatment techniques such as aeration
and adsorption (Figure 27).
In addition to our in-house activities, an extra-
mural treatment project was started last fiscal
year with a utility on Long Island and another
indepth project is likely to be funded in New
England at a utility that has no alternate source of
water.
At the request of Region III, the DWRD partici1
pated in a workshop/seminar in Philadelphia, at
which the state-of-the-art for treatment of
organic contaminated groundwaters was the
topic.
Pilot plant testing for the removal of organic
contaminants from ground water began this year
at Glen Cove, New York (Long Island), where sev-
eral wells have been closed down; The processes
of adsorption by a synthetic resin (XE-340ฎ) and
Figure 27. Pilot scale aeration and adsorption
units to study groundwater
decontamination.
aeration are being investigated as techniques for
the effective removal of primarily tri-
chloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene. In situ
steam regeneration of the exhausted resin is tak-
ing place and represents the first such applica-
tion for drinking water studies.
A third extramural research project on the
combination of ozone and GAG (a 100 gpm pilot
plant) will be in operation by December 1979 in
Miami, Florida. Preliminary data from the Miami
project were reported at the Reston meeting.
General Studies
Research is continuing to investigate the re-
moval of specific organic compounds using GAC.
Isotherm and kinetic data are also being gener-
ated to be used for evaluation of dynamic adsorp-
tion models developed under projects to be
compiled in 1979.
Gas chromatographic methods using glass
capillary column technology and both flame io-
nization and mass spectrometric detection have
advanced to the point that they are being used to
assess qualities of water samples from all stages
of treatment including granular activated carbon
effectiveness (Figure 28). This technology has
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of an intense research effort. Progress has been
made on several fronts. Firstly, a three year study,
originally designed to determine mechanisms of
trihalomethane formation from aquatic humic
material, has been successful in compiling more
information on humic structures and chlorina-
tion byproducts than previously available in the
literature, as well as in meeting the initial
objectives.
Secondly, work on development of a routine
method for measurement of organic substituted
halogen has progressed to the point of accep-
tance of a standardized technique. Organo-
halides are adsorbed onto activated carbon, the
carbon is combusted in a pyrolysis tube under a
continuous gas flow, and the resulting chloride is
determined by microcoulometric titration. The
method and apparatus have been modified and
simplified for routine laboratory use. The tech-
nique is being used to provide information on the
degree of halogen substitution on high molecu-
lar weight compounds caused by various disin-
fectants including chlorine, chlorine dioxide,
chloramines, and ozone. This work is being car-
ried out on both laboratory model mixtures and
various tap waters. In 1979 an expanded program
to investigate the nature of these higher molecu-
lar weight disinfection byproducts will be
initiated.
Figure 28. Gas chromatograph/mass spectro-
meter instrumentation for the
confirmation of organics present in
water.
now been applied at a number of full scale plants
to gain qualitative impressions of unit process
performance. A detailed broad spectrum quan-
titative analysis now seems to be a realistic goal.
Disinfection Byproducts
Organic byproducts of disinfection other than
trihalomethanes have continued to be the subject
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
1. Dressman, R.C., B.A. Najar, R. Redzikowski, et al. THE DETERMINATION OF CARBON ADSORBA-
BLE ORGANIC HALIDES AS CHLORIDE (CAOX AS C1 ) IN WATER BY MINI-COLUMN ADSORPTION,
PYROLYSIS, AND CHLORIDE-ION MEASUREMENT - AN EVALUATION AND COMPARATIVE
STUDY. In: Proceedings of the American Water Works Association Water Quality Technology
Conference, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, December 1979 (In Press).
2. Dressman, R.C., A.A. Stevens, J. Fair, and B. Smith. COMPARISON OF METHODS FOR DETER-
MINATION OF TRIHALOMETHANES IN DRINKING WATER. Journal of the American Water Works
Association, 71(7):392-396, 1979.
3. Symons, J.M. and A.A. Stevens. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PRETREATMENT FOR REMOVAL OF PRE-
CURSORS. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Oxidation Techniques in Drinking
Water Treatment, September 9-12, 1978, Karlsruhe, FRG,September 1979.
4. Stevens, A.A. FORMATION OF NON-POLAR ORGANOCHLORO COMPOUNDS. In: Proceedings of
the International Conference on Oxidation Techniques in Drinking Water Treatment, September
9-12, 1978, Karlsruhe, FRG, September 1979.
5. Stevens, A.A., D.R. Seeger, J. DeMarco, and L Moore. REMOVAL OF HIGHER MOLECULE WEIGHT
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BY THE GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON ADSORPTION UNIT PROC-
ESS. In: Proceedings of the Conference on Practical Application of Adsorption Techniques in
Drinking Water TreatmentNATOICCMS, EPA International Conference, Reston, Virginia, April 30,
May 1-2, 1979. (In Press) Manuscript Available.
6. Murin, C.J. and V.L Snoeyink. COMPETITIVE ADSORPTION OF 2,4-DICHLOROPHENOL and 2,4,6-
TRICHLOROPHENOL IN THE NANOMOLAR TO MICROMOLAR CONCENTRATION RANGE. En-
vironmental Science and Technology, 13:305, 1979.
7. Varma, M.M., M.R. Siddique, K.T Doty and A. Machis. ANALYSIS OF TRIHALOMETHANES IN
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY. Journal of the American Water Works Associa-
tion, 1'1(7): 389-392, 1979.
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8. Stevens, A.A. and J.M. Symons. FORMATION AND MEASUREMENT OF TRIHALOMETHANES IN
DRINKING WATER. In: Proceedings of Seminars on Control of Organic Chemical Contaminants in
Drinking Water, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 10-11, 1979.(In Press) Manuscript Available.
9. Miller, G.W., et al. AN ASSESSMENT OF OZONE AND CHLORINE DIOXIDE TECHNOLOGIES FOR
TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLIES; EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. EPA-600/8-78-018, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 1978.
10. Love, O.T, Jr. and J.M. Symons. BASIS FOR DECISION MAKING - ENGINEERING EVALUATIONS
OF APPROACHES TO SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CONTROL: PILOT STUDY DESIGN. In: Proceedings of
Seminars on Control of Organic Chemical Contaminants in Drinking Water, Cincinnati, Ohio,
October 10-11, 1979 (In Press) Manuscript Available.
11. Symons, J.M. UTILIZATION OF VARIOUS TREATMENT UNIT PROCESSES AND TREATMENT
MODIFICATION FOR TRIHALOMETHANE CONTROL. In: Proceeding of Seminars on Control of
Organic Chemical Contaminants in Drinking Water, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 10-11, 1979. (In
Press) Manuscript Available.
12. Love, O.T, Jr. and W.R. Inhoffer. EXPERIENCE WITH INFRARED FURNACE FOR REACTIVATING
GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON (A PROGRESS REPORT). In: Proceedings of Practical Applica-
tions of Adsorption Techniques in Drinking Water, Reston, Virginia, April 1979, (In Press) Man-
uscript Available.
13. Symons, J.M., J.K. Carswell, J. DeMarco and O.T. Love, Jr. REMOVAL OF ORGANIC CON-
TAMINANTS FROM DRINKING WATER USING TECHNIQUES OTHER THAN GRANULAR ACTI-
VATED CARBON ALONE - A PROGRESS REPORT. In: Proceedings of Practical Applications of
Adsorption Techniques in Drinking Water, Reston, Virginia, April 1979. (In Press) Manuscript
Available.
14. Love, O.T, Jr. EXPERIENCE WITH REACTIVATION OF GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON. In: Pro-
ceedings of the Preconference Seminar "Controlling Organics in Drinking Water" at the 99th
Annual American Water Works Association Conference, San Francisco, California, June 1979 (In
Press).
15. DeMarco, J. and N. Brodtmann, Jr. PREDICTION OF FULL-SCALE PLANT PERFORMANCE FROM
PILOT COLUMNS. In: Proceedings of Practical Applications of Adsorption Techniques in Drinking
Water, Reston, Virginia, April 1979. (In Press) Manuscript Available.
16. Wood, R and J. DeMarco. TREATMENT OF GROUND WATER WITH ACTIVATED CARBON. In:
Proceedings of Practical Application of Adsorption Techniques in Drinking Water, Reston, Virginia,
April 1979 (In Press) Manuscript Available.
17. Brodtmann, N., W. Koffskey, and J. DeMarco. TECHNIQUES FOR THE EVALUATION AND
MONITORING OF GAC PERFORMANCE. In: Proceedings of the Preconference Seminar "Controll-
ing Organics in Drinking Water" at the 99th Annual American Water Works Association Con-
ference, San Francisco, California, June 1979 (In Press).
18. DeMarco, J. and R Wood. DESIGN DATA FOR ORGANICS REMOVAL BY CARBON BEDS. In:
Proceedings of National Conference on Environmental Engineering Research Development and
Design, American Society'of Civil Engineers, 1978, p. 149.
19. Wood, R and J. DeMarco. EFFECTIVENESS OF VARIOUS ADSORBENTS IN REMOVING ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS FROM WATER- PART I, REMOVING PURGEABLE HALOGENATED ORGANICS AND
PART II, REMOVING TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON AND TRIHALOMETHANE PRECURSOR SUB-
STANCES. In: Proceedings of Symposium on Activated Carbon Adsorption of Organics from the
Aqueous Phase, Ann Arbor Science Publication, Ann Arbor, Michigan (In Press).
20. Brodtmann, N.V., J. DeMarco and D. Greenburg. CRITICAL STUDY OF LARGE-SCALE GRANULAR
ACTIVATED CARBON FILTER UNITS FOR THE REMOVAL OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES FROM
DRINKING WATER. In: Proceedings of Symposium on Activated Carbon Adsorption of Organics
from the Aqueous Phase, Ann Arbon Science Publication, Ann Arbor, Michigan. (In Press).
Economic Analysis
Economic factors are to be considered in the
implementation of the various provisions of the
Safe Drinking Water Act. One of the major eco-
nomic concerns facing EPA is small systems
compliance. Economies of scale insure that small
utilities have higher unit costs than do larger
utilities. If these small water systems are forced
to invest in additional expensive treatment proc-
esses, the cost burden may be more than many
small communities can afford. Therefore, the
Drinking Water Research Division is devoting a
significant portion of its economic analysis effort
to problems relating to small systems and the
64
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management of technology in small utilities.
For example, the economic analysis unit has
conducted a field survey of 10 small utilities in
EPA Regions III, V, VI, VIM, IX and X. A report
discussing the results of the data collected in
Regions III, V and VI has been completed. An-
other phase of the small systems study deals
with the use of package plants as a means of
providing cost effective treatment for small water
utilities. Package water treatment plants are pre-
fabricated units constructed on site. A study has
been completed and a report published detailing
the results of a study of 36 small utilities utilizing
package plant technology in Kentucky, Ten-
nessee, and West Virginia.
Another important item in the study of water
utility economics is that of standardized account-
ing systems. A cost analysis system that can be
used by all utilities has been implemented in
Kenton County Water District Number 1, in Ken-
ton County, Kentucky. Included is a financial
reporting system that will utilize data from the
cost accounting system to generate standardized
fiscal reports. A two volume report has been
completed; one volume describes the philoso-
phy and implementation procedures for the sys-
tem and the second volume contains a series of
detailed flowcharts that will allow the system to
be implemented as a water utility management
tool.
The Drinking Water Research Division has re-
cently completed a detailed study of the cost of
water supply unit treatment processes. This four
volume report contains costs for 99 unit proc-
esses. It provides examples of how cost analysis
can be conducted; shows typical flowcharts for
several of the more common treatment proc-
esses; and contains the listing for computer pro-
grams that allows these cost data to be used in an
efficient manner.
A study has been initiated to analyze the im-
pacts and trade-offs associated with regional
water supply systems. A computer model is
being developed that allows users to make a real-
istic assessment of the cost of joining or not
joining a regional water supply system.
A study has been undertaken to find an effi-
cient computer-based system for analyzing re-
search data generated from the Division's field
and in-house studies. When fully implemented,
the system will be interactive, allowing the pro-
ject officers to manage and analyze their data
efficiently and effectively.
Several studies have been conducted and pa-
pers and reports completed detailing the costs
associated with the treatment of organics in
drinking water. These studies are primarily ori-
ented toward the use of granular activated
carbon. Costs have also been developed for alter-
native disinfection systems such as ozonation,
chlorination, and chlorine dioxide. A study was
conducted in which a selected sample of utilities
was studied in-depth to establish a cost record
over a period of time and to examine the eco-
nomic impact of Safe Drinking Water Act.
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
1. Clark, M., R.G. Stevie, and G.D. Trygg. AN ANALYSIS OF MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY COSTS.
Journal of the American Water Works Association, 70(10) :543-547,1978.
2. Clark, M., J.A. Machisko, and R.G. Stevie. COST OF WATER SUPPLY: SELECTED CASE STUDIES.
Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
105(EEI):89-100, 1979.
3. Clark, R.M., Y.H. Kim, and G. Huband. ENERGY UTILIZATION IN WATER TREATMENT. In: Proceed-
ings of the Conference on Engineering Conservation and the Design of Water Quality Facilities,
Kansas City, August 1979. (In Press) Manuscript Available.
4. Clark, R.M. and P. Dorsey. INFLUENCE OF OPERATING VARIABLES ON THE COST OF TREATMENT
BY GAC ADSORPTION. In: Proceedings of Practical Applications of Adsorption Techniques in
Drinking Water, Reston, Virginia, May 1979. (In Press) Manuscript Available.
5. Clark, R.M. LABOR, WAGE RATES, PRODUCTIVITY AND THE COST OF WATER SUPPLY. Journal of
the American Water Works Association, 71 (7):364-368,1979.
6. Clark, R.M. and R.G. Stevie. MEETING THE DRINKING WATER STANDARDS: THE PRICE OF
REGULATION IN SAFE DRINKING WATER: CURRENT DIRECTIONS AND FUTURE PROBLEMS. C.S.
Russell, ed. Resources for the Future, Research Paper 12,1978.
7. Clark, R.M. SMALL WATER SYSTEMS: THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY. Accepted for publication by
the Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division of American Society of Civil Engineers.
8. Clark, R.M. THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN MANAGING SMALL WATER UTILITIES. In: Proceed-
ings of the EPA Conference on Small Water Systems, November 1978.
9. Clark, R.M. REGIONALIZATION FOR WATER SUPPLY: A CRITICAL EVALUATION. Journal of the
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Water Resources Planning and Managment Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
105(WR2):279-294, 1979.
10. Gumerman, R.C., R.L Gulp, and R.M. Clark. COST OF GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON IN THE
USA. Proceedings of Practical Applications of Adsorption Techniques in Drinking Water, Reston,
Virginia, (In Press) and Journal of The American Water Works Association, 71(11):690-696,1979.
11. Guttman, D.L and R.M. Clark. COMPUTER COST MODELS FOR PORTABLE WATER TREATMENT
PLANTS. EPA-600/2-79-181, Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, September 1978.
12. Gillean, J.I., W.L Britton, Jr., J.H. Brium and R.M. Clark. DEVELOPMENT OF A WATER SUPPLY COST
ANALYSIS SYSTEM- VOLUMES I AND II. EPA-600/2-8fK)12a and EPA-600/2-80-012b, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio (In Press).
13. Gumerman, R.C., R.L. Gulp and S.R Hansen. ESTIMATING WATER TREATMENT COSTS: VOLUME I
- SUMMARY. EPA-600/2-79-162a, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
14. Gumerman, R.C., R.L Gulp and S.R Hansen. ESTIMATING WATER TREATMENT COSTS: VOLUME II
- COST CURVES APPLICABLE TO 1 TO 200 MGD PLANTS. EPA-600/2-79-162b, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
15. Gumerman, R.C., R.L Gulp and S.R Hansen. ESTIMATING WATER TREATMENT COSTS: VOLUME
III - COST CURVES APPLICABLE TO 2500 GALS PER DAY TO 1 MGD TREATMENT PLANTS.
EPA-600/2-79-162c, U.S. Environmental Proection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
16. Lineck, T.S., R.C. Gumerman and R.L. Gulp. ESTIMATING WATER TREATMENT COSTS: VOLUME IV
- COMPUTER USERS MANUAL FOR RETRIEVING AND UPDATING COSTS. EPA-600/2-79-162d.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
17. Stevie, R.G., R.M. Clark and J.T. Adams. MANAGING SMALL WATER SYSTEMS: A CASE STUDY-
VOLUME I. EPA-600/2-79-147a, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
18. Gillean, J.I., K.W. Adams and R.M. Clark. MANAGING SMALL WATER SYSTEMS: A CASE STUDY-
VOLUME II. EPA-600/2-79-147b, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979.
19. Morand, J.M., C.R. Cobb, R.M. Clark and R.G. Stevie. PACKAGE WATER TREATMENT PLANTS: A
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION - VOLUME I. EPA-600/2-80-008a, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio (In Press).
20. Stevie, R.G. and R.M. Clark. PACKAGE WATER TREATMENT PLANTS: A COST EVALUATION -
VOLUME II. EPA-600/2-80-008b, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio (In Press).
MICROBIOLOGICAL TREATMENT BRANCH enteroviruses vary greatly in their resistance to
-r. . x x * xi. ... - i . chlorine; 2) the presence of inorganic ions can
The research strategy for the Microbiological have prOnouneed effects on enterovirus inactiva-
TreatmentBranch.sdes.gnednotonlytosupport tion ^ gnd a,SQ Qn h aggregation charac.
the implementation of the National Interim Pn- teristjcs of vj 3) wnNeyv9iru9s aggregation
mary Drinking Water Regulations but to begin to can cause differences in inactivation rates, ex-
lay a foundation of knowledge for anticipated treme protection from disinfectants due to ag-
revised regulations. Microbiological research to gregation has not been observed; 4) turbidity can
support these program needs include the broad have major effectg Qn enterovirus and co^orm
areas of: 1) disinfection m alternative treatments; disinfection rates, the effects being largely de-
21 water supply distnbut.on quality; and 3) meth- dent on the t of turbidjt *esenat rather
ods development. tnan the amount
Disinfection Because of its increasing importance as a
cause of waterborne giardiasis research on the
Final reports on several primarily virus-ori- protozoan etiologic agent, Giardia lamb/ia, and
ented studies included studies on the range of the effects of water treatment processes, par-
resistance of enteroviruses to chlorine and stud- ticularly disinfection, on the cysts of the
ies of the effects of various kinds of turbidity on organism, was initiated in 1976. Success in de-
the resistance of viruses and bacteria to ozone velopment of a culture method for determination
and chlorine dioxide. A three year study of the of Giardia cyst viability has made it possible to
effects of virus aggregation on the disinfection conductthe disinfection studies on this organism
resistance of enterovirus, and a field study of the currently in program. In addition to studies of G.
effects of water treatment processes on virus in- lamblia, the species pathogenic for humans, in-
activation or removal are being completed. house disinfection research on G. muris, a
Overall, the results of these studies indicate: 1) related species infectious for mice is being con-
66
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ducted. Reports on several aspects of this re- widespread impression that the cysts are vir-
search are available and other reports are in tually impossible to kill by disinfection. Our
press. The proceedings of a Symposium on Wa- Branch participated in preparing a Report to Con-
terborne Transmission of Giardiasis, jointly gress on the current status of information on
sponsored by MERL and HERL also has been viruses in water. The report, which will serve as a
published and distributed. While we do not have guide to Congress and the Agency in determin-
precise information on the chlorine resistance of ing the future cause of virus research related to
G. lamblia cysts, the information thus far de- drinking water, has been published and
veloped indicates that the cysts can be inacti- distributed.
vated by chlorine. This is contrary to the
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
1. Engelbrecht, R.S., M.J. Weber, C.A. Schmidt, and B.L Salter. VIRUS SENSITIVITY TO CHLORINE
DISINFECTION OF WATER SUPPLIES. EPA-600/2-78-123, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1978. 52 pp.
2. Scarpino, P.V., FA.O. Brigano, S. Cronier, and M.L Zink. EFFECT OF PARTICULATES ON DESTRUC-
TION OF ENTEROVIRUSES BY CHLORINE DIOXIDE. EPA-600/2-79-054, U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979. 68 pp.
3. Sproul, O.J., C.E. Buck, M.A. Emerson, D. Boyce, D. Walsh, and D. Houser. EFFECT OF PARTICUL-
ATES ON OZONE DISINFECTION OF BACTERIA AND VIRUSES IN WATER. EPA-600/2-79-089, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979. 86 pp.
4. Brigano, FA.O., RV. Scarpino, S. Cronier, and M.L. Zink. EFFECT OF PARTICULATES ON INACTIVA-
TION OF ENTEROVIRUSES BY CHLORINE DIOXIDE. In: Progress in Wastewater Disinfection
Technology. A.D. Venosa, ed. EPA-600/9-79-018, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincin-
nati, Ohio, 1979. pp. 86-94.
5. Hoff, J.C. THE RELATIONSHIP OF TURBIDITY TO DISINFECTION OF POTABLE WATER. In: Evalua-
tion of the Microbiology Standards for Drinking Water, C.H. Hendricks, ed. EPA-520/9-78-OOC, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 1978. pp. 103-117.
6. Floyd, R. and D.G. Sharp. INACTIVATION OF SINGLE POLIOVIRUS PARTICLES IN WATER BY
HYPOBROMITE ION, MOLECULAR BROMINE, DIBROMAMINE, AND TRIBROMAMINE. Environ-
mental Science Technology 12:1031-1035,1978.
7. Young, D.C. and D.G. Sharp. PARTIAL REACTIVATION OF CHLORINE-TREATED ECHOVIRUS. Ap-
plied Environmental Microbiology, 37:766-773,1979.
8. Jensen, H. and D.G. Sharp. AGGREGATION OF COXSACKIE B 5 VIRIONS. Abstract Annual Meeting
of the American Society for Microbiology, Q60:229,1979.
9. Young, D.C. and O.G. Sharp. EVIDENCE FOR TWO INFECTIOUS CONFORMATIONAL STATES FOR
ECHOVIRUS DURING CHLORINE INACTIVATION. Abstract Annual Meeting of the American So-
ciety for Microbiology, Q(H)7:235,1979.
10. Reach, C.D., Jr., L Hemphill, and J.T. O'Connor. VIRUS AND BACTERIAL QUALITY OF MISSOURI
RIVER WATER. Proceedings 1979 Annual Conference and Exposition, San Francisco, California,
June 24-29,1979. (In press).
11. Foster, FM., M.A. Emerson, C.E. Buck, D.S. Walsh, and O.J. Sproul. OZONE INACTIVATION OF CELL
AND FECAL ASSOCIATED VIRUSES AND BACTERIA. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federa-
tion, 1979. (In press)
12. Walsh, D.S., C.E. Buck, and O.J. Sproul. OZONE INACTIVATION OF HYDRATED ALUMINUM OXIDE
FLOC ASSOCIATED VIRUSES AND BACTERIA. Journal of Environmental Engineering, American
Society of Civil Engineering, 1979. (In press)
13. Sharp, D.G., D. Young, F Floyd, and J.D. Johnson. EFFECT OF IONIC ENVIRONMENT ON THE
INACTIVATION OF POLIOVIRUS IN WATER BY CHLORINE. Applied Environmental Microbiology,
1979. (In press)
14. Meyer, E.A. DETERMINATION OF GIARDIA CYST VIABILITY. EPA-600/2-79-063, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979. 35 pp.
15. Bingham, A.K. and E.A. Meyer. GIARDIA EXCYSTATION CAN BE INDUCED IN VITRO IN ACIDIC
SOLUTIONS. Nature 277:301-302,1978.
16. Jakubowski, W. and J.C. Hoff. WATERBORNE TRANSMISSION OF GIARDIASIS. EPA-600/9-79-001.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979. 306 pp.
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17. Bingham, A.K., E.L Jarroll, Jr., E.A. Meyer, and S. Radulescu. INDUCTION OF GIARDIA EXCYSTA-
TION AND THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON CYST VIABILITY AS COMPARED BY EOSIN EXCLU-
SION AND IN VITRO EXCYSTATION. In: Waterborne Transmission of Giardiasis. W. Jakubowski
and J.C. Hoff eds. EPA-600/9-79-001,1979. pp. 217-229.
18. Hoff, J.C. DISINFECTION RESISTANCE OF GIARDIA CYSTS: ORIGIN OF CURRENTCONCEPTS AND
RESEARCH IN PROGRESS. In: Waterborne Transmission of Giardiasis. W. Jakubowski and J.C.
Hoff eds. EPA-600/9-79-001,1979. pp. 231-239.
19. Bingham, A.K., E.L Jarroll, Jr., E.A. Meyer, and S. Radulescu. PHYSICAL FACTORS OF EXCYSTA-
TION IN VITRO, AND EXCYSTATION VS. EOSIN EXCLUSION AS DETERMINANTS OF VIABILITY.
Exp. Parasitol. 47:284-291,1979.
20. Hoff, J.C., E.W. Rice, and E.E. Geldreich. INACTIVATION OF GIARDIA MURIS CYSTS BY CHLORINE.
Abstract Annual Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology, Q55:228,1979.
21. Jarroll, E.L, A.K. Bingham, and E.A. Meyer. GIARDIA CYST DESTRUCTION: EFFECTIVENESS OF
SIX SMALL QUANTITY WATER DISINFECTION METHODS. American Journal of Tropical Medicine
and Hygiene (In Press).
22. HUMAN VIRUSES IN THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT: A STATUS REPORT WITH EMPHASIS ON
THE EPA RESEARCH PROGRAM. (REPORTTO CONGRESS) EPA-579/9-78-006. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 41 pp. 1978.
Distribution System Studies
In addition to providing effective treatment,
municipal potable water supplies must be con-
tinually alert for contamination problems in their
distribution systems and the possible occurence
of microbial degradation of water quality and
pipe integrity. The persistence of organisms in
pipe networks is influenced by a variety of physi-
cal and chemical conditions in the water, the type
and age of pipe, and the availability of suitable
sites for colonization. These sites are often cre-
ated, in part, by corrosion, turbidity or inade-
quate treatment processes, including corrosion
control.
Problems related to the use of corrosion con-
trol chemicals are currently being evaluated.
Often the effectiveness of calcium carbonate or
orthophosphate as corrosion inhibitors is im-
peded by flow characteristics, high pH or high
sulfate concentrations in the water that prevent
the formation of a uniform coating on pipe sur-
faces. Porous or irregular coatings of these so-
called "corrosion inhibitors" can actually entrap
and protect bacteria, promote tuberculation and
finally enhance corrosion rates. Use of the cor-
rect chemical at the correct dosage in any given
water supply, is essential for effective corrosion
control.
Turbidity in finished water also contributes to
sediment accumulations and in some cases, pro-
tects the microbial population from inactivation
by residual disinfectants. Research programs in-
vestigating the effects of turbidity on bacterial
survival have, in general, indicated that inorganic
particles such as clay and flocculating agents
may trap microorganisms, but provide little pro-
tective effect against disinfection. In contrast, cell
debris, sewage solids, or other organic particul-
ates, can provide microorganisms with protec-
tion from disinfection, an attachment site for
population growth and a deposit of absorbed
nutrients. A striking series of electron micro-
graphs, obtained as part of our in-house effort in
this area, very graphically demonstrates bacterial
survival and protection in particulates. It appears
that microorganisms are predominantly seen at
the surface or near-surface areas, where nu-
trients and oxygen are constantly present.
Bacterial survival and regrowth in distribution
systems is an extremely complex phenomenon
that is dependent on many interacting condi-
tions. Most of the above mentioned studies have
been characterizing bacterial populations that
are existing and multiplying in finished water
distriBution systems. How these various bacte-
rial populations affect one another is not yet
clear, but grouping those identifiable isolates to
genera or species, does provide
useful information about the occurrence of bac-
teria that may have pathogenic significance or
that may interfere with coliform persistence or
isolation. One current project is studying patho-
gen survival under varying conditions in an un-
used section of a full scale distribution system
within a military base.
The effects of handling and storage on bacte-
rial densities in potable water samples is being
investigated. Often, problems in shipment or
transport of samples to an examining laboratory
result in delays exceeding the 30 hour recom-
mended time prior to analysis. Changes in col-
iform and standard plate count populations may
occur during this time and would directly impact
on compliance with the Drinking Water Standard.
Additionally, an attempt to consider all of the
above processes and interactions and how they
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should impact on sampling frequency in com-
pliance with the National Interim Primary Drink-
ing Water Regulations, is continuing.
In short, microbial quality degradation of
drinking water transmitted through distribution
systems may be minimized with an effective dis-
infectant residual. However, this entire effort is
superfluous without a good understanding of
treatment dosages and a conscientious system
maintenance program to present the accumula-
tion of sediment and corrosion products which
provide the nutrient substrate and protection
necessary for microbial survival.
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
1. Ridgway, H. and B.H. Olson. MECHANISMS OF CHLORINE RESISTANCE IN BACTERIAL ISOLATES
FROM WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS. Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the American Society
for Microbiology, N4,1979.
2. Reilly, J.K. and J.F Kippin. ENCAPSULATED COLIFORM - CHLORINE RESISTANT. Presented at the
New England Water Works Association Conference, Lake Placid, September 1978.
3. Snead, M.C., V.R Olivieri, C.W. Kruse, and K. Kawata. BENEFITS OF MAINTAINING A CHLORINE
RESIDUAL IN WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS. EPA-600/2-80-010, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio (In Press).
4. Allen, M.J., E.E. Geldreich, and R.H. Taylor. THE OCCURRENCE OF MICROORGANISMS IN WATER
MAIN ENCRUSTATIONS. Presented at 7th Annual AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, December 1979.
Methods Development
The agar pour plate procedure for enumeration
of the aerobic heterotrophic bacterial count of
water (standard plate count) is used to monitor
changes in the bacterial concentration of finished
water throughout a distribution system.
However, the pour plate procedure is limited by
the volume of sample that can be examined thus
creating a need for a procedure that would allow
examination of sample volumes larger than one
milliliter. Medium-standard plate count (M-SPC)
medium used with the membrane filter tech-
nique was developed to permit analysis of sam-
ple volumes ranging from decimal dilutions to
more than one liter when necessary or desired.
Though not yet acceptable as a standard method,
the m-SPC procedure generally yields bacterial
count results equal to or greater than the stand-
ard plate count procedure. A total of 1,970 drink-
ing water samples from 50 different sampling
sites were examined by both the m-SPC and the
standard plate count procedure in order to estab-
lish comparability of the m-SPC medium with the
accepted standard method. Commercial prepa-
ration of the m-SPC medium is available on spe-
cial request and results in a significant savings in
time and effort over preparing the medium from
individual ingredients. By permitting bacterial
plate count analysis of samples larger than the
one milliliter maximum volume used in the
standard pour plate procedure, the number of
statistically acceptable sample results should be
increased significantly for most users.
Development has been completed on a rapid 7-
hour test medium (m-7HrFC) for fecal coliform
bacteria. This membrane filter procedure uses a
lightly buffered lactose and mannitol based me-
dium and incubation at 41.5ฐC for detection of
fecal coliform bacteria in 7-hour to 7.25-hour
m-7HrFC medium can be utilized in an emer-
gency situation to detect gross contamination of
potable water due to events such as line breaks or
cross-connections.
The 7-hour fecal coliform test can also be used
to monitor bathing beach waters. Results from
the 7-hour fecal coliform test can be used to
judge the necessity for opening or closing
bathing beaches to public use. The procedure
may also be useful for stream survey work.
RELATED RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS
1. Taylor, R.J. and E.E. Geldreich. A NEW MEMBRANE FILTER PROCEDURE FOR BACTERIAL COUNTS
IN POTABLE WATER AND SWIMMING POOL SAMPLES. Journal of the American Water Works
Association, 71(7):402-405,1979.
2. Reasoner, D.J., J.C. Blannon, and E.E. Geldreich. RAPID SEVEN-HOUR FECAL COLIFORM TEST.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 32(2): 229-236,1979.
3. Reasoner, D.J. MICROBIOLOGY-DETECTION OF BACTERIAL PATHOGENS AND THEIR OCCUR-
RENCE. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, 51(6):1760-1778,1979.
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4. Geldreich, E.E. MICROBIOLOGY OF WATER. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation,
51(6):1721-1743, 1979.
5. Allen, MJ. MICROBIOLOGY OF GROUNDWATER. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation,
51(6):1743-1746, 1979.
6. Reasoner, D.J. and E.E. Geldreich. A NEW MEDIUM FOR THE ENUMERATION AND SUBCULTURE
OF BACTERIA FROM POTABLE WATER. Abstracts Annual Meeting of ASM, N7:180,1979.
7. Allen, M.J. MICROBIOLOGY OF POTABLE WATERS. Journal Water Pollution Control Federation,
51(6):1747-1751, 1979.
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INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES
During 1979 the Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory (MERL)-Cincinnati received 59 for-
eign visitors representing national and local governments, industry, academic and other institutions
from 15 countries. The countries represented by these visitors and the number from each during this
period were: Japan, 15; People's Republic of China, 9; Canada, 7; Sweden, 7; England, 4; Poland, 3;
South Africa, 2; Netherlands, 2; Mexico, 2; Germany, 2; Australia, 2; and one each from Italy,
Switzerland, and Pakistan.
These visitors were interested in all phases of work in MERL. Quite often other laboratories within the
Environmental Research Center were also visited.
Committee on the Challenges to Modern Society (CCMS)
This NATO-sponsored committee attempts to bring together several countries in various peaceful
endeavors. The Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory has been involved in projects on
wastewater treatment and drinking water supply research. Dr. Robert L. Bunch, WRD, is a member of
the Advanced Wastewater Treatment Group and U.S. Representative.
ORD's active participation in CCMS began in January 1973 and is to continue with yearly workshops
to provide various technical discussions of wastewater technology and serve to acquaint all partici-
pants with the research going on in member countries.
Two projects were conducted, one on advanced treatment of wastewater by physical-chemical
processes and one on the use of pure oxygen in activated sludge pilot plant at Wuppertal, Germany.
The last meeting of the delegates was in London on June 14,1979. The final report on the Advanced
Wastewater Treatment studies done at Coleshill, England, has been completed and published as NATO/
CCMS Report No. 90.
APAN 15
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC
-OF CHINA 9
SWEDEN 7
_ NETHERLANDS 2
ENGLAND 4 ^GERMANY 2
SWITZERLAND 1|POLAND 3
ITALY 1 _^^
PAKISTAN 1
AUSTRALIA
SOUTH AFRICA 2
71
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PUBLIC LAW (PL) 480 Projects
Under PL 480, the U.S. is financing projects in foreign countries designed to advance scientific and
technical research that is of mutual benefit to both countries. Project Officers from MERL supervise the
following projects:
TITLE: Water Reclamation and Useful Utilization of Sewage Solid Waste
LOCATION: University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan
GRANT PERIOD: October 1,1976 to December 21,1980
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Dr. M. Zain-ul-Abedin
PROJECT OFFICER: Robert L Bunch, MERL-Cincinnati, WRD, TPDB (Phone: 684-7655).
TITLE: Investigations of Biodegradability and Toxicity of Organic Compounds
LOCATION: Institute of Meterology and Water Economy, Warsaw, Poland
GRANT PERIOD: March 1,1975 to February 28,1978, extended to February 28, 1979
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Dr. Eng. Jan Dojlido
PROJECT OFFICER: Robert L. Bunch, MERL-Cincinnati, WRD, TPDB (Phone: 684-7655).
ENGINEERS EXCHANGE PROGRAM
Two Japanese engineers were sponsored under the auspices of the United States/Japan Environ-
mental Agreement (Sewage Treatment Technology Project) to work at the Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory in Cincinnati, Ohio.
Dr. Tadahiro Mori, Japan Sewage Works Agency, Today City will work in the Ultimate Disposal
Section, Wastewater Research Division from September 1,1979 through February 28,1980.
Mr. Shunsoki, Ministry of Construction Tokyo will work at the Test and Evaluation Facility, Wastewater
Research Division from September 1,1979 through August 31,1980.
FOREIGN TRAVEL AND MEETINGS ATTENDED
Dr. Robert L. Bunch
Monitored research project PL 480, "Investigations of Biodegradability and Toxicity of Organic
Compounds," at Warsaw, Poland in May 1979. The project is now completed and the final report
published in March 1980.
In May 1979 presented a paper, "Pilot Plant Development of Ozone Disinfection," at Marie Curie-
Sklodowska University in Lublin, Poland.
Participated in the 4th International Liquid Chromatography Symposium in Strasbourg, France, on
October 23-26,1979.
In October 1979 trips were made to Karachi and Islamabad, Pakistan, to monitor research project PL
480, "Waste Reclamation and Useful Utilization of Sewage Solids Waste," at Univesity of Karachi.
Lectures were given on "Wastewater Treatment Processes" at University of Karachi and on "Advances
in Wastewater Treatment" at Quaid-e-Azam University at Islamabad.
Dr. James A. Ryan
Visited the University of Guelph and Canada Centre for Inland Waters to discuss land application of
sludges on October 24-26,1979 in Burlington and Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
Dolloff F Bishop
On November 6-8, 1979 in Toronto, Ontario, Canada attended the 33rd meeting of the Science
Advisory Board of the International Joint Commission (IJC).
Edwin E. Geldreich, Jr.
Attented a World Health Organization Conference to develop "WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water
Quality," and served on a Microbiological Contaminants Subcommittee on December 17-21, 1979 in
Medmenham, England.
John J. Convery
Attended and participated in the International Joint Commission's (IJC) Great Lakes Research
72
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Advisory Board 29th meeting on February 5-7,1979 in Windsor, Ontario, Canada.
On May 8-10, 1979 attended and participated in the Science Advisory Board meeting in Windsor,
Ontario, Canada.
Attended and participated in a meeting of IJC Phosphorus Management Strategies Task Force on
December 5-7, 1979.
Richard I. Field
Participate and present paper entitled "Urban Stormwater Pollution Control in the United States" at
the Second (1979) Short Course on Urban Water Resources Workshop sponsored by the University of
Toronto. Also reviewed on-going project at LaSalle Hydraulic Laboratory in Montreal. This trip oc-
curred on March 12-16,1979 to Montreal and Toronto, Canada.
Douglas C. Ammon
Represented Storm & Combined Sewer Section at the EPA Storm Water Management Model
(SWWM) meeting sponsored by the Office of Air, Land and Water and Canadian Ministry of the
Environment on May 23-29,1979 in Montreal, Canada.
James F Kreissl
On September 15 thru October 1,1979 in Oslo and Aas, Norway; and Malmo and Stockholm, Sweden
exchanged information on research activities on alternative systems for small communities and
individual homes with three European countries most active in this area.
Albert D. Venosa
Attended the International Joint Commission (IJC) Meeting of Chlorine Objective Task Force on
March 14-15,1979 and October 24-25,1979 in Windsor, Ontario, Canada.
Michael Roulier
On June 3-9,1979 participated as a member of the U.S. Delegation to the NATO/CCMS Pilot Study
Meeting on "Disposal of Hazardous Wastes (Phase 2)." This participation related primarily to landfill
research activities and required several presentations of papers discussing the current SHWRD/MERL
research activities in this overall area. The meeting was held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Richard Carnes
Participated in a roundtable discussion on incinerator technology for hazardous wastes on Decem-
ber 11-13, 1979 in Ottawa, Canada. This was part of a continuing coordinated research between the
SWMB, Environmental Canada and the Disposal Branch, SHWRD/MERL.
Dirk Brunner
From September 17 thru October 7,1979 traveler visited London, England; Paris, France; and Zell,
Dannenberg, and Berlin, Germany. The purposes for the trip were to participate (by invitation) in an
International Roundtable Discussion on Landfilling of Municipal Waste, specifically baled refuse and
gas production; to attend an Energy and Materials Recovery International Conference; to observe a
proposed hazardous waste disposal site near Dannenberg; and to observe solid waste management
practices in Berlin where land use is intense.
Norbert Schomaker.
In Munich, Germany on September 24 thru October 13,1978 participated as a member of the U.S.
Delegation at the NATO/CCMS Pilot Study Meeting "Disposal of Hazardous Wastes (Phase 2)" and
presented a paper which described the USEPA landfill research programs with specific emphasis on
the chemical fixation activities.
On June 3-9,1979 participated as a member of the U.S. Delegation to the NATO/CCMS Pilot Study
Meeting on "Disposal of Hazardous Wastes (Phase 2)." This participation related primarily to landfill
research activities and required several presentations of papers discussing the current SHWRD/MERL
research activities in this overall area. The meeting was held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Again on October 13-21,1979 traveler attended an experts meeting of the NATO/CCMS Pilot Study on
73
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Hazardous Waste Disposal (Phase 2). A paper was presented describing the U.S. EPA landfill research
programs with specific emphasis on planned revisions to the current program regulations relating to
hazardous waste disposal as it relates to the Resource Conservation Recovery Act. This meeting was
held in Paris, France.
Carlton Wiles
Represented EPA at Norchem Laboratories in Oslo, Norway in discussions about hazardous waste
encapsulation. Inspected hazardous waste emplacement into salt mines, observed technical opera-
tions, and obtained data on precautions used, waste handling procedures, and waste containerization
methods.
Haynes Goddard
Attended a meeting of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and
met with experts on waste policy research for planning research programs for the next several years in
Paris, France, on October 3-6,1978.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
REPORT NO.
EPA 600/9-80-014
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
TITLE AND SUBTITLE
"REPORT OF PROGRESS--MERL 79"
5. REPORT DATE
JUNE 1980
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPOI
i. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of the Director
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory
USEPA, 26 W. St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
A73D1C
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
N/A
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory - Gin, Ohio
Office of Research & Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Progress - 1979
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/14
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Contact - Diana Irwin
(513-685-7957)
16. ABSTRACT
The Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory is the EPA research
organization responsible for the development of technology, systems, and
processes to control or remove environmental pollutants that trouble our
communities and municipalities. The MERL Report of Progress will provide
you with updated information about the programs of the Laboratory in 1979.
The report will discuss the development and demonstration of cost-
effective pollution control methods in the areas of municipal wastewater,
solid and hazardous wastes, public drinking water supplies, and urban
systems management.
Although some of its content is technical, the report is written to be
informative for the broader audiences in business and industry, education,
and government, and others who are interested in the environment and related
fields.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Pollution
Abatement
Water Reclamation
Wastes
Water Supply
Sewage Treatment
Water Treatment
Waste Disposal
Solid Waste Research
Hazardous Waste Research
Drinking Water Research
Wastewater Research
13B
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release Unlimited, Upon Request
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
79
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77)
75
>US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1980-657-165/0033
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Cincinnati OH 45268
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