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United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Industrial Environmental Research EPA-600/9-80-025
^aboratory
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
Research and Development
1979 Research Review
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina
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Research and Development EPA-600/9-80-025
1979 Research Review
Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina
March 1980
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 5, Library (PL-12J)
77 West Jackson Boulevard, 12th Floor
Chicago, IL 60604-3590
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Coal gasification plant in Westfield, Scotland, with the gasification building at left and
the acid gas cleanup facility at right.
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Foreword
For any organization, the beginning of a new year is a time to reflect on the year that
has passed—to assess what has been accomplished and to establish goals for the
future. The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory at Research Triangle
Park (IERL-RTP) in North Carolina, is no exception. It is charged with the significant
task of researching, developing, and demonstrating control technologies for stationary
source pollution and determining the multimedia impacts of energy and industrial
processes on the environment.
IERL-RTP is pleased to present the results of its assessment of the past year's
programs and accomplishments in this 7979 Research Review. Additional information
may be obtained from the appropriate program manager listed in the Information
Transfer section of this report.
We trust that this 7979 Research Review will inform the interested public of our
progress toward a national goal of improved environmental quality.
John K. Burchard, Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory-RTP
HI
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Contents
Page
Introduction 1
Goals and Approach 2
Environmental Assessment 2
Control Technology Development 2
Scope of Effort 3
Controlling Pollution From Industrial Process Sources 4
Ferrous Metallurgical Processes 4
Symposium on Iron and Steel Pollution Abatement Technology .... 4
Coke Battery Environmental Control Cost-Effectiveness Model 4
Feasibility of Total Water Recycle in the Steel Industry 5
Mobile Wastewater Treatment System on Steel Plant 5
EPA/AISI Anticipatory Research Program 5
Development of Novel Coke Oven Door Seal 6
Solid Waste Disposal in the Iron and Steel Industry 6
Identification of Hazardous Pollutants by Iron and Steel Assessments ... 6
Chemical Processes 6
Fugitive Volatile Organic Compound Emissions 7
Hyperfiltration Studies Related to Wastewater Recycle/Reuse in the
Textile Industry 7
Characterization of Wastewater Pretreatment Needs in Pesticide Manu-
facturing 8
Catalytic Incineration of VOC Emissions 8
Granular Activated Carbon Regeneration Using Supercritical Carbon
Dioxide 9
Offshore Incineration Feasibility Study: Phase I—Conceptual Design .... 9
Chesapeake Bay Program Toxic Point Source Assesssment 9
Controlling Pollution From Energy Sources 11
Precombustion Controls : 11
Coal Cleaning and Coal Conversion 11
Feasibility of Cleaning Ohio Coals Economically -. . . . 12
Results of Bench-Scale Coal Gasifier Testing 12
Synthetic Fuels Wastewater Treatability Studies 13
Symposium on Environmental Aspects of Fuel Conversion 13
Assessment of Gasification Facility in Yugoslavia 14
Solid Waste Problem of Proposed SRC Plant 14
Environmental Assessment of Key Gasifier Discharges 15
Environmental Assessment of Industrial Anthracite Gasifier .... 15
Definition of Pollutant Categories by Bench-Scale Gasifier Tests .... 16
Potential of Low-Btu Gasification as Control Approach 16
Environmental Assessment Support to DOE's Evaluation of Indus-
trial Gasifiers 16
Simplifying Complex Synfuel Pollutant Problems 17
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EPA/North Carolina State University Synfuel Environmental Control
Facility
Evaluation of a Lurgi Synthetic Natural Gas Coal Gasification
Plant
Residual and Waste Oils
Potential Carcinogenicity of Residual Oils
Construction of CAFB Evaluation Plant
Combustion Controls
Combustion Modification
Testing Coals in EPA Low-N0x Burner
Environmentally Acceptable Use of Synthetic Liquid Fuels in New
Gas Turbine Combustor
Coal-Limestone Pellet Fuel
Additional Guidelines To Aid Combustion Pollution Control ....
Symposium on Stationary Source Combustion
Catalytic Combustion Panel Meetings
Conference on Coal Combustion Technology and Emission
Control
Effect of Coal Properties, Other Than Nitrogen Content, on NOX
Emissions
Flow Field Test Cases To Aid Fundamental Combustion Research . . .
Conventional Combustion Environmental Assessment: Oil-to-Coal
Conversion
Advanced Combustion Processes
Classification of FBC Solid Residue
Potential of FBC as One Control Approach for Industrial Boilers. . . .
Followup Testing for Mutagenic FBC Fine Particulates
Operation of FBC Unit With Baghouse
Continuation of Test Preparation for DOE on Georgetown Atmos-
pheric FBC Boiler ,
FBC Support to Program Offices
Reducing NOX Emissions From Pressurized FBC by 30 to 50 Percent
Through Combustion Modifications
Potential of Conventional Cyclones and Ceramic Filters for High-
Temperature/High-Pressure Particle Control
Improving S02 Removal by Increasing Gas Residence Time....
Postcombustion Controls
Flue Gas Desulfurization
Utility Dual-Alkali FGD Demonstration
Dry S02 Control Program
Aqueous Carbonate Process FGD Demonstration
Dry Scrubbing of Key Interest to Attendees at Fifth FGD Sym-
posium
Fine Particulates
Significant Cost Savings for Control of Fly Ash Projected From
Pilot Scale Test of Novel Two-Stage ESP
Diesel Emission Control
VI
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Evaluation of a Baghouse for Collection of Fly Ash From Low-
Sulfur Coal 34
Testing To Develop Emission Factors for Inhalable Particulate
Program 34
Particulate Symposium 34
Flux Force/Condensation Scrubber Demonstration 35
NOX Flue Gas Treatment 35
FGT Technology for NOX and Simultaneous NOX/SOX Control ... 35
IERL-RTP Support to the Industrial Boiler NSPS 36
Power Plant Waste and Water Management 36
IERL-RTP Support of RCRA Regulation Development 37
Publication of Power Plant Cooling System Manual 37
Supporting Programs 39
Process Measurements 39
Massive Volume Source Sampler for Health Effects Studies 39
Development of New Five-Stage Cyclone Particle Sizing System ... 40
Limestone Scrubber Slurry Automatic Control 40
Bioassay Testing in Environmental Assessment 41
Spot Test for Detection of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons 41
In Situ Fine Particle Stack Spectrometer System 42
Issuance of Revised Level 1 Methods Manual 42
Special Studies 42
Preparation of a Uniform Procedure for Preparing Engineering Cost
Estimates 43
Environmental Assessment Data Systems as a Major Source of EPA
Research Data 43
CTA Interim Studies 44
Environmental Assessment of Wood Combustion 44
Uncertainty in Data and Decision Making 45
Information Transfer 46
Technical Reports 46
Periodic Research Updates 46
Conferences and Symposia 50
VII
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Introduction
Although mobile sources like cars and trucks contribute to
our Nation's pollution problems, much of our air, land, and water
pollution comes from stationary sources, such as power plants,
oil refineries, and industries that manufacture steel, textiles,
and pesticides. Today there are more than 20,000 major stationary
sources m the United States and hundreds of thousands of
lesser ones, including home and commercial furnaces. These
sources are a primary cause of the environmental problems
identified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
as having "potential for widespread adverse effects on human
health and welfare."
The combustion of fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—
causes a large part of the pollution from stationary sources.
As supplies of oil and natural gas dwindle, more power plants and
industries will convert to coal, a "dirtier" fuel that emits sig-
nificantly more of most major pollutants. As a result, pollution
from stationary sources will increase in the years ahead unless we
do something about it now.
And we are. Landmark legislation, like the Clean Air Act
and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, has made environ-
mental quality a national policy. EPA's Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory at Research Triangle Park (lERL-RTP),
North Carolina, plays an important part in carrying out this
legislation. A coordinated series of research programs is underway
at lERL-RTP to find the most effective and economical methods
of controlling pollution from utilities and industries.
By supplying essential technical information about the
pollutants that pose the most serious problems and about methods
for their control, lERL-RTP supports EPA's goal of setting
realistic and attainable pollution standards to improve the quality
of our environment. lERL-RTP works with industry to assess
the impacts of pollutants and to develop practical, cost-effective
control techniques. Through research into more efficient and
environmentally acceptable ways of using our fuel—especially
coal—the Laboratory makes an important contribution to our
national goal of energy self-sufficiency.
Blast furnaces in an integrated iron and steel plant.
Through its participation in international cooperative efforts,
lERL-RTP also contributes to worldwide environmental quality.
This international experience widens the Laboratory's information
base and enhances the pollution control capabilities of all
the nations involved.
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Goals and Approach
Environmental Assessment
Effective control of pollution requires a comprehensive under-
standing of its source as well as the environment it affects.
That is why programs at IERL-RTP begin with an in-depth
analysis known as an environmental assessment. Environmental
assessments characterize specific industrial processes much
as a football scouting report sizes up the next team. The
objective is to guide research and development efforts by
evaluating the impacts of pollutants on our environment, economy,
energy supplies, and society at large.
But what pollutants are being emitted by a source? To what
extent must emissions be reduced, and how much will it cost?
How will emissions of other pollutants be affected? What are the
potential effects on plant operations, fuel consumption, and
economics?
To answer questions like these, IERL-RTP sifts through a
massive amount of information on stationary sources, pollutants,
control techniques, and environmental effects. Throughout this
effort, IERL-RTP works closely with other parts of EPA, with
the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and other Federal agencies,
and with manufacturers and operators of stationary sources.
Where data are lacking, field tests are conducted to gather the facts.
During the environmental assessment, goals for controlling
a given pollutant are defined and research needs are identified.
After the best available control technology is chosen, a com-
prehensive analysis is conducted on the environmental, economic,
and energy-related aspects of the technology.
Control Technology Development
Even after an environmental assessment determines what needs
to be done, the best available control technology still may
be unable to bring a utility or industrial process into compliance
with regulatory standards, or its costs may be prohibitive.
To solve these problems, IERL-RTP is working with utilities
and industries to develop more effective and less expensive
pollution control methods. This work starts in the laboratory with
fundamental research into the detection and characterization of
pollutants and bench-scale testing of new control techniques.
The most promising techniques are evaluated in pilot-scale
experiments and, finally, in full-scale field demonstrations under
actual working conditions.
The two-pronged approach—environmental assessment
and control technology development—allows IERL-RTP to
combat pollution at industrial process sources and energy-
producing sources, the two major components of stationary
Experimental scrubber used in the IERL-RTP mobile sampling unit.
sources that concern the laboratory. A series of specific environ-
mental assessment and control technology development efforts
is directed at each of these sources.
This systematic approach to highly complex technical
problems is paying off in improved control technologies that
industries and utilities can count on, and that means a cleaner
environment for all of us.
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Scope of Effort * International cooperative agreements
From small home furnaces to giant utility boilers, from bench- |ER|_-RTP reviews the objectives and methodology of all
scale experiments to industrywide applications, lERL-RTP's jts programs to prevent duplication of effort and to ensure
programs to develop effective, economical pollution controls consistency of approach. This approach promotes effective use
span the full range of sources and techniques. Although of the |jmjtecj research funds available.
some of these programs are conducted in-house at the lERL-RTP As tne |\jatjon progresses toward technological breakthroughs
laboratories in North Carolina, most are carried out through: that affect every phase of our Mves lERL-RTP is working to
• Contracts with private companies resolve existing problems and to identify future threats. In this
• Grants with universities way, we will be ready to make the best environmental decisions
• Combined efforts with other Government agencies, such as we switch from old to new energy processes and pollution
as DOE control technologies.
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Controlling Pollution From Industrial Process Sources
One of lERL-RTP's concerns in its environmental assessment/
control technology development efforts is the group of stationary
sources known as industrial process sources. This category
includes ferrous metallurgical processes—steelmaking and allied
processes—and chemical processes—oil refining, petrochemical
manufacture, and pesticide and textile production.
Ferrous Metallurgical Processes
Because steel production and finishing involve a multitude of
operations, the steelmaking industry presents formidable
challenges for assessment and control technology development.
A recent IERL-RTP study concluded that the basic oxygen
process (BOP) is, and will continue to be, the dominant method
for producing steel. Examination of the pollutant-producing
actions in this process indicated that one of the two main
operations—the injection of high purity oxygen into the hot metal
mixture—was already well controlled in domestic BOP shops,
whereas the second operation—charging—still allowed
pollutants to escape into the air. Four promising control systems
were identified for followup, thus offering four alternatives to
fit the unique operating and physical setups in domestic shops.
In addition to studying the basic process of producing steel,
IERL-RTP is researching the significance of some unexpected
sources of pollution in the steelmaking industry. For instance, the
impact of abnormal operating conditions on air and water
pollution has been seriously underrated. The Laboratory reached
this conclusion by analyzing existing data and inferring that
these data were representative of the industry as a whole.
Available data on sintering blast furnace ironmakmg, open
hearth furnaces, BOP steelmaking, and electric arc furnaces, and
on the air and water pollution control equipment used in these
operations, formed the basis for this assumption. A recent
study revealed that the lubricants, oils, greases, and hydraulic
fluids used by the steelmaking industry are other unexpected
sources of pollutants. It has been assumed that most of
these materials are recovered and recycled, but lERL-RTP's
study estimated that 63 percent of the oils, greases, and hydraulic
fluids used by a typical plant enter the environment as pollutants:
44 percent as solid waste, 10 percent as air pollution, and
9 percent as water pollution.
The sections that follow present highlights of the year's
research accomplishments in ferrous metallurgical processes.
Symposium on Iron and Steel Pollution Abatement Technology
The first EPA symposium on iron and steel pollution abatement
technology and environmental assessment was held October
30-November 1, 1979, in Chicago, Illinois. The symposium,
with separate sessions on air, water, and solid waste, served as c
forum for information exchange on environmental control
research and development that is being conducted by EPA
and the steelmaking industry.
During the 3-day symposium, government environmental
officials, contractors for EPA-sponsored work, and industry
personnel presented some 25 papers on all phases of environ-
mental assessment and control in the steel industry. Overview:
on the various impacts of pollution control legislation on
the steel industry were presented by Donald Goodwin of EPA'<
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS), Robert
Schaffer of EPA's Effluent Guidelines Division, and Eugene
Meyer of EPA's Region V Hazardous Waste Management Section
A broad analysis of environmental research and development
in the steel industry was presented by Earle F. Young of the
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). The symposium papers
are included in the published proceedings of the symposium.1
Approximately 260 people attended the symposium. The ratic
of people involved in iron and steel pollution abatement was
balanced, with nearly equal representation of regulatory agencies
and industry. Comments received from participants indicate
a continuing need for and high interest in similar symposia in
the future.
Coke Battery Environmental Control Cost-Effectiveness Mode
A computer model has been developed that can determine
the method of lowest cost for achieving a specified emission
reduction for the whole cokemaking industry or any subset. The
model includes 20 air pollution sources per battery (for example
larry car charging, combustion stack), 9 control options for
each source, and 4 air pollutants (total suspended particulates,
benzenesulfonic acid, benzo(a)pyrene, benzene). The optimiza-
tion mode will minimize capital or operating cost to achieve e
specified pollutant reduction or, for a specified cost, will minimize
emissions of one of the pollutants. Some of the baselines
that can be selected are no control, meets average State
Implementation Plan (SIP), and meets most stringent SIP.
This model is currently operational on EPA's computer at
IERL-RTP. Consideration is being given to expanding the mode
to include all major steel plant sources m addition to cokemakmc
on a multimedia basis.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Proceedings: First Symposium on Iron am
Steel Pollution Abatement Technology (NTIS No. to be assigned), EPA 600/9-
80-012, Feb. 1980
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Larry car charging a coke oven from atop a coke oven battery.
In the background is the coal bunker, where the larry car is
loaded.
Feasibility of Total Water Recycle in the Steel Industry
An engineering study to determine how five integrated U.S.
steel plants could ultimately achieve total recycle of water was
recently completed. The plants represent a cross section '
of plant-specific factors, such as size, age, location, and available
space, that are present in U.S. steel plants. Specific conceptual
engineering designs were prepared to improve each plant's
present water discharge situation. The goals were to meet the
Clean Water Act's 1984 Best Available Technology limitations
and eventually to achieve total water recycle. Potential treatment
technologies for meeting these goals were evaluated; the most
promising were incorporated in the plant designs. Capital
and operating costs and energy requirements were estimated,
and problems associated with implementation of the designs
were addressed. Problems included the lack of steel plant
experience with the technologies required, the high cost and
energy requirements, the additional solid waste disposal
problems, and the more difficult management requirements
for sophisticated water systems. The report on the study is
intended as a reference tool for planning and implementing pro-
grams that will enable steel plants to meet the more stringent
water quality requirements of the future.
Mobile Wastewater Treatment System on Steel Plant
IERL-RTP is using a mobile wastewater treatment system to
investigate and evaluate the effectiveness of advanced waste-
water treatment technology for steel plant effluents. Under
EPA Contract No. 68-02-2671, Rexnord, Incorporated, has
designed, constructed, and is operating a mobile system for the
Metallurgical Processes Branch. The work will provide data
to support the development of effluent guidelines for this
industry and will provide information to help the industry meet
the guidelines.
The equipment is mounted in trailer vans and, because it
is self-contained, requires only connection to plant utilities
and the wastewater source for operation. Facilities for physical/
chemical treatment and biological treatment are available. The
equipment can be operated in any logical sequence and is large
enough to make direct scale-up to commercial size reasonable.
The first studies using the mobile wastewater treatment
system analyzed coke plant and blast furnace wastewaters,
two of the most contaminated wastewaters found in steel
plants. A recently completed 3-month study evaluated treatment
of blast furnace wastewater using three basic physical/chemical
treatment schemes—chlorination, ozonation, and reverse
osmosis. Two more studies evaluating coke plant wastewater
treatment are scheduled for the near future. Two separate
treatment approaches—biological oxidation and chlorination/
carbon adsorption—will be evaluated in the coke plant tests.
Additional work will be done over the next several years
using the mobile wastewater treatment system for the steel
plant sources considered most important by EPA. The Office
of Research and Development (ORD) will work closely with EPA's
standard-setting and enforcement branches to determine
the best approach for this activity.
EPA/AISI Anticipatory Research Program
An anticipatory research program for the iron and steel industry,
funded by AISI and EPA, began in 1977 and continues to
provide a framework for cooperation among EPA, industry, and
university technical personnel in pollution control technology
concepts and communications.
These projects cover a wide spectrum of topics, including
measurement and control of windblown dusts, investigation of
factors influencing biological nitrification of steel industry
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wastewater, removal of cyanide from cokemaking and blast
furnace wastewater, removal of ammonia by filtration through
polymer-coated glass matrix adsorption beds, and treatment of
steel plant emissions containing small concentrations of
hydrocarbon vapors. In addition to the general benefits of the
overall program given above, the individual projects often show
substantial potential to understand pollution problems better
or to alleviate them at relatively modest cost.
The grant applications, which cover all media, are subjected
to individual review and selection by both EPA and AISI.
The AISI Research Committee monitors anticipatory research
program projects for the industry, whereas project officers
from lERL-RTP's Metallurgical Processes Branch monitor
these projects for EPA.
Development of Novel Coke Oven Door Seal
One of the chronic air emission problems from byproduct
coke oven batteries—leakage of organic vapors through small
openings around the doors—is being addressed with develop-
ment of a novel coke oven door seal.
This jointly funded EPA/industry project, which commenced in
1974 with a concepts study, has proceeded through design
and development and is currently in the full-scale field demon-
stration phase. Four demonstration seals were fabricated and
installed in July 1979 on a 6-m- (20-ft-) high battery at
Bethlehem Steel's Lackawanna Plant. These seals, three of
which have been in continuous operation since installation, show
excellent sealing except at the corners. The fourth seal installation
is being modified in light of stress data obtained by the con-
tractor on a full-scale end segment in the contractor's laboratory.
Modifications are intended to reduce stresses in the corners,
which should reduce warpage to an acceptable level.
Four additional seals are currently being fabricated for a
4-m (13-ft) battery at Republic Steel Corporation's Youngstown
Works. Lessons learned at Lackawanna are being factored
into the seal design.
Solid Waste Disposal in the Iron and Steel Industry
The iron and steel industry is the largest single industrial
producer of solid waste. A recently completed study examined
the solid wastes generated by ironmaking and steelmaking,
with emphasis on the impact of Section 4004 of the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). The quantities, properties,
and origins of wastes are estimated, current waste disposal
practices are discussed, and the potential for ground water
pollution is identified in the final report. Cost estimates are given
for collection of leachate that could endanger ground water.
A major finding of this study is that, although most iron and
steel wastes are not listed as hazardous, leaching test results
indicate that almost every type of iron and steel waste potentially
endangers ground water. Leachate collection, which would be
required for proper landfill management of these wastes
under RCRA, would increase the cost of iron and steel waste
disposal by approximately 40 percent.
Identification of Hazardous Pollutants by Iron and Steel
Assessments
Initial studies in a broad IERL-RTP environmental assessment
program have shown the presence of hazardous pollutants in
several ferrous metallurgical processes. The environmental
assessments include EPA Level 1 screening analysis and, in many
cases. Level 2 verification analysis. Both procedures employ
the latest techniques and environmental assessment method-
ologies. Various ferrous metallurgical processes have been
selected for assessment based on the expected environmental
problems created by the process, the information needs of
EPA's regulatory and enforcement offices, and the opportunity
to coordinate assessments with other ongoing activities.
The major results to date have been related to coke plant
byproducts. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's) have
been identified and quantified in coke quench tower emissions,
oven door leaks, fugitive emissions from the byproduct recovery
process, and coal preheater emissions. An intense sampling
effort has resulted in a refined quantification of fugitive emissions
from open sources in steel plants. Major quantities of volatilized
oils and lubricants have been identified in the ventilation
air from steel rolling operations. Various iron foundry casting
operations have been examined and show unexpectedly low
levels of organic air emissions; however, further efforts are
proposed in the foundry area. Preliminary evaluation of an assess-
ment of ferroalloy operations indicates that the ferroalloy
process is an unexpectedly large source of PAH emissions.
Chemical Processes
In addition to ferrous metallurgical processes, IERL-RTP is
examining numerous chemical processes for possible pollutant
discharges.
In the petroleum industry, IERL-RTP is concerned primarily
with hydrocarbon emissions from such sources as petroleum
refining, petroleum storage tanks, and gasoline service stations.
Fugitive emissions are being emphasized in an ongoing
environmental assessment of the petroleum refining industry.
The study indicates that most of these emissions are caused
6
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by a relatively small percentage of the refinery components (for
example, pumps and valves) that might be suspected of hydro-
carbon leaks. An upcoming report will contribute important
data on emission factors for fugitive sources in oil refineries.
Data from this study already are being used by OAQPS to
establish oil refinery air pollution emission guidelines.
Manufacturers of textiles and pesticides are potential polluters
of water because both industries use large volumes of water
in their processing operations. In a major research project
being conducted cooperatively with the American Textile Manu-
facturers' Institute, the Northern Textile Association, and
the Carpet and Rug Institute, IERL-RTP is seeking the Best
Available Technology Economically Achievable (BATEA) for the
textile industry and is contributing data to EPA's Effluent
Guidelines Division for use in preparing proposed 1 983 guidelines
for the textile industry.
For the pesticide industry, IERL-RTP is studying several means
of removing pollutants from wastewater streams. One innovative
and promising process employs supercritical carbon dioxide
to regenerate activated carbon, a commonly used medium
for cleaning wastewaters. If the process proves as effective as
preliminary studies suggest, it will eliminate the need to dispose
of activated carbon, a sizable task that has hampered the
pesticide industry m the past.
IERL-RTP also has contributed to improved technology
for disposing of organochlorine wastes, the best known of which
is the highly toxic Herbicide Orange. Studies have demonstrated
that incineration is the best currently available means of
disposing of these wastes. Because incineration at sea presents
the least threat to the environment, the laboratory has con-
tributed its monitoring expertise over the past 4 years in a series
of organochlorine test burns. Here, again, international
cooperation has resulted in a wider base of knowledge. IERL-RTP,
as well as France, the Netherlands, and West Germany,
contributes data to the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative
Organization. Most recently, representatives from IERL-RTP
and the French Government monitored an organochlorine burn
aboard ship in the North Sea.
The sections that follow present highlights of the year's
research accomplishments in chemical processes.
Fugitive Volatile Organic Compound Emissions
Fugitive emissions from petroleum refineries and petrochemical
process units are a significant source of atmospheric volatile
organic compounds (VOC's). VOC emissions contribute to the
development of photochemical smog; in some cases, specific
VOC's (such as benzene) are known hazardous materials.
Fugitive VOC emissions are caused by:
• Leaking components, such as valves, flanges, pump and
compressor seals, and relief valves
• Spills
• Oily liquids exposed to the atmosphere, such as from open
drains, wastewater ditches, cooling towers, and wastewater
treatment systems
Research in fiscal year 1979 focused on two aspects of the
fugitive emission problem: determination of the rate of fugitive
emissions (that is, development of emission factors) and
evaluation of monitoring and repair programs to control fugitive
emissions.
Data were collected by Radian Corporation and Monsanto
Research Corporation in petroleum refineries and petrochemica
plants, respectively, to develop fugitive emission factors for
various sources and to determine the frequency of leaks. In
addition, data were collected by Radian to determine the
effectiveness of maintenance in reducing fugitive emissions frorr
petroleum refineries. Also, IERL-RTP cooperated with IERL-
Cincinnati in developing a project to determine the effectiveness
of valve maintenance in reducing emissions from petro-
chemical plants.
Achievements in fiscal year 1979 included:
• Development and publication of emission factors and
leak frequency data for various emission sources in petroleum
refineries
• Development of a method for evaluating the effectiveness
of leak detection and repair programs
• Completion of all data collection associated with the assess-
ment of atmospheric emissions from petroleum refining
Fiscal year 1980 will see the completion of the petroleum
refinery assessment project, including an update of EPA's
publication, "Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors"
(No. AP-42). The Symposium on Assessment of Air Emissions
From Petroleum Refineries—held in Austin, Texas, in November
1 979—presented the results of this effort. Work on emissions
from petroleum refinery wastewater systems and frequency
of leaks in petrochemical process units will also be conducted
in fiscal year 1980.
Hyperfiltration Studies Related to Wastewater Recycle/Reuse
in the Textile Industry
IERL-RTP has long supported research and development in the
area of hyperfiltration as a means of wastewater pollution
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control, energy recovery, and material conservation. Hyperfiltra-
tion is a rapidly growing technology now being used extensively
for water desalination and boiler feedwater demineralization.
Municipal treatment plants also use hyperfiltration. Its use
in industry for wastewater pollution control has been limited
thus far to experimental units.
Perhaps one of the most significant hyperfiltration projects
managed by IERL-RTP is being conducted under an interagency
agreement with the U.S. Department of the Interior, DOE,
and lERL-Cincinnati. The project involves the design, construction,
and operation of a hyperfiltration demonstration plant at
the LaFrance Division of Riegal Textile Company, LaFrance,
South Carolina. Riegal supplies approximately 30 percent of the
funding in this cost-sharing project. The total cost of the
project over a 3-year period is expected to be $1.7 million.
Phase I—testing of competitive membranes and design
of the plant—has been completed. Phase II—construction
and initial shakedown of the plant—is underway and all equipment
is on order. The project will be completed by 1981.
The plant will provide for recycle of wastewater to a contin-
uous Kuster dye range with attendant recovery of energy
in the form of heat because water in the dye range exits
at about 71° C (160° F). Various means for recovering concen-
trated dyes and salts are being examined.
Other projects on hyperfiltration completed during 1979 are:
Energy Conservation Through Point Source Recycle with
High Temperature Hyperfiltration,2 Evaluation of Hyperfiltration
for Separation of Toxic Substances in Textile Process Water,3 and
Hyperfiltration Processes for Treatment and Renovation of
Textile Wastewater.*
Characterization of Wastewater Pretreatment Needs in
Pesticide Manufacturing
Under the Clean Water Act of 1977, the pesticides manu-
facturing industry will be subject to effluent guidelines for toxic
pollutants as well as pretreatment regulations for (other)
pollutants that adversely affect publicly owned treatment
works (POTW's) or are not susceptible to treatment by such works.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Energy Conservation Through Point Source
Recycle With High Temperature Hyperfiltration, NTIS No. Pb 299-1 83, EPA
600/7-79-131, June 1979
3U S. Environmental Protection Agency, Evaluation of Hyperfiltration for
Separation of Toxic Substances in Textile Process Water, NTIS No. Pb
801 1 3889, EPA 600/2-79-11 8, June 1 979.
4U S. Environmental Protection Agency, Hyperfiltration Processes for Treatment
and Renovation of Textile Wastewater, NTIS No. Pb 80119563, EPA 600/2-79-195,
Oct. 1 979.
Because EPA must identify potential problem areas and
provide avenues for their resolution, IERL-RTP has supported
and continues to support laboratory and pilot studies on the
treatabihty of pesticide manufacturing wastewaters.
A recent treatability study by the Laboratory has investigated
a triazine herbicide, an organometallic herbicide, a thiocarbamate
fungicide, and a nitrated aromatic herbicide.
The study methodology employed and the results obtained
are based on the use of laboratory bench-scale activated
carbon and activated sludge wastewater treatment units. Pesti-
cide wastewaters, at dilutions of 1:10 and 1:100 with municipal
wastewaters, were investigated. The treatability effectiveness
of various pesticide wastewaters was evaluated based on
the measured removal of known pesticides and their intermediates,
the treatability effects on traditional wastewater treatment
parameters such as chemical oxygen demand and color, and
bioassays with freshwater fish and algae.
Results indicate that activated carbon pretreatment of the
triazine, thiocarbamate, and nitrated aromatic pesticides can
reduce pesticide levels for these wastewaters. The wastewater
concentration of organometallic pesticide was not reduced
significantly by activated carbon pretreatment.
Biological treatment of the four pesticides studied indicated
ineffective treatment of the pesticide wastewaters. Measured levels
of the triazine and organometallic pesticides were not sig-
nificantly reduced by the activated sludge treatment, although
the biological treatment system itself was not impaired. It
was noted, however, that the retention of the metallic pesticide
component could signify failure of the activated sludge unit
during longer runs. Activated sludge treatment of the thio-
carbamate pesticide was characterized by buildup of the pesticide
in the sludge and by the identification of less desirable pesti-
cide intermediates in the wastewater effluent. The nitrated
aromatic pesticide caused loss of sludge solids in the activated
sludge unit and was unaffected by the activated sludge treatment.
Catalytic Incineration of VOC Emissions
Incineration is an effective means for controlling VOC emissions,
and thermal incineration is used throughout the petrochemical
industry. Catalytic oxidation is a recognized means of controlling
VOC emissions, but the lower energy requirements and the
ability to recycle energy have caused an increase in the use of
catalytic incinerators. In many cases, however, data on the
efficiency of catalytic incineration are inadequate for a rigorous
assessment of its overall control effectiveness. Lack of adequate
data is a critical problem for OAQPS in their efforts to set
emission regulations.
8
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To assess the effectiveness of catalytic incineration for con-
trolling VOC emissions, a contract was awarded to Engelhard
Industries, a major catalyst manufacturer. The project involves
evaluation of catalytic incineration of emissions from two
processes:
• Formaldehyde (FORMOX)—full scale
• Ink solvents, plastic sheet printing—pilot scale
Results collected in fiscal year 1979 indicate that catalytic
incineration is very effective in controlling VOC emissions
from these processes. An overall efficiency of greater than 99
percent has been achieved in tests to date. Further testing
will enable evaluation of the catalyst's effective life.
Granular Activated Carbon Regeneration Using
Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
The use of supercritical carbon dioxide for regenerating activated
carbon was investigated and showed promise for reducing
the cost of carbon regeneration. It was also reported that initial
experimental work on pesticides, particularly alachlor and
atrazine, indicated efficient regeneration.
This work has now progressed to the point that negotiations
are underway with a pesticide company for construction
of a demonstration plant.
In addition, the work is being expanded to include regeneration
of granular activated carbon used to adsorb VOC's with special
emphasis on gasoline vapors.
Offshore Incineration Feasibility Study: Phase I—Conceptual
Design
Incineration at sea has been determined to be an effective
and environmentally acceptable method for the destruction of
organochlorine waste, that is, highly toxic chlorinated hydro-
carbons including pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's),
and polybrominated biphenyls (PBB's).
At-sea (offshore) incineration has been employed in European
waters since 1969 and in the Gulf of Mexico, at intervals,
since 1974. At-sea incineration is regulated by EPA under the
Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1 972.
In January 1979 EPA and the U.S. Coast Guard responded
to a proposal by Chevron Oil Company to transfer an offshore
drilling platform to the Coast Guard at no cost. The platform is
located approximately 100 km (60 mi) south of Mobile Point,
Alabama, and 120 km (75 mi) east of North Pass, Louisiana.
A preliminary assessment of the structural integrity of
the 43- by 36-m (140- by 117-ft) oil platform and its utility
as an offshore incineration site led EPA and the Coast Guard
to request a 2-year extension of Department of the Interior lease
stipulations that would have required removal of the platform
by July 1979.
EPA, in cooperation with the Coast Guard, is currently con-
ducting a feasibility study for use of the platform. This study
will provide conceptual designs for an incineration system (mclud
mg hardware and operating procedures) on the platform
and a shore-based support facility. As part of the study, the
cost of installation and operation of the system and its effects
on air and water quality will be estimated for the system.
The conceptual design is focusing on the use of a rotary
kiln incinerator with a ram charger feed and afterburner. The
system will handle either liquid or solid waste, burning them a
1,000° to 1,500° C (1,832° to 2,732° F) under negative pressure
to prevent losses during firing.
System performance will be evaluated through the continuous
monitoring of total hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO),
carbon dioxide (C02), and oxygen (02). Hazardous waste
destruction efficiencies will be monitored by use of gas
chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometr\
(GC/MS) measurements for specific components.
Stack gas emissions will be monitored before and after any
seawater quench for the constituents mentioned above as well
as for total particulates; organic compounds and inorganic
elemental emissions will be collected in solvent-filled impingei
sampling trains.
Occupational exposure will be monitored by requiring ambienl
air quality spot tests for organics, sulfur oxides (SOX), nitrogen
oxides (IMOJ, CO, and halogen acids. Facility cleanliness
will be checked by extraction and analysis of wipes from
environmental surfaces. GC and GC/MS analysis will be used.
Chesapeake Bay Program Toxic Point Source Assessment
The Chesapeake Bay program is designed to discover and
evaluate those factors responsible for the deterioration of the
Bay's ecosystem and to develop management strategies for
the restoration and protection of the ecosystem. The Toxic Poim
Source Assessment is one aspect of the overall Bay program.
The Toxic Point Source Assessment has three objectives:
• Characterize the effluents of a broad range of industries
discharging into the Bay or its tributaries to assess the impact
of these discharges on the Bay ecosystem (such charac-
terization shall particularly stress toxicity).
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• Develop a plan for characterization of effluents that may
be implemented by the States and EPA to support discharge
control decisions.
• Support other activities sponsored by the Chesapeake Bay
program in the areas of food chain accumulation of toxic
materials and toxic material transport.
The Toxic Point Source Assessment is being conducted
in three phases. The first phase, which has been completed,
inventoried the major industrial discharges and rated each outfall
in the Bay Basin for potential toxicity. This project, which
was based on readily available information evaluated with
engineering judgment, identified and chemically described 274
outfalls. From this list, 80 were selected for further charac-
terization in the subsequent phases of the Toxic Point Source
Assessment.
The second phase is to develop and test a chemical and
biological characterization protocol while assessing 50 of the
80 outfalls. The chemical characterization includes specific
analysis of those compounds believed to be present as well as a
general class analysis. Biological characterization includes both
health effects and acute ecological effects testing.
The methods developed and tested during the second phase
will be taught to State and EPA personnel during Phase III
while the remaining 30 outfalls are characterized cooperatively.
The exchange of results between the Point Source Assessment
and other Chesapeake Bay program activities will continue
during Phases II and III, which are under contract.
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Controlling Pollution From Energy Sources
Precombustion Controls
One of the most promising ways of reducing emissions of
sulfur, fly ash, and trace elements is to remove them in the
precombustion stage, that is, before the fuels are burned. For the
near term, IERL-RTP is investigating a number of physical
and chemical methods for cleaning fuels. In line with our
Nation's energy policy, the emphasis of this research is on fuel
treatment methods for coal and waste oils. For the longer term,
the Laboratory is researching methods of converting coal into
cleaner burning products, such as synthetic natural gas and
liquefied coal.
Coal Cleaning and Coal Conversion
Physical processes for coal cleaning change the physical form
of coal (for example, by pulverizing) but not its molecular
structure. Physical processes are especially attractive to utilities
and large industries for two reasons. First, they are less costly
than other sulfur dioxide (S02) removal alternatives, such as
flue gas desulfunzation; second, they do not present the
corrosion/sealing problems experienced with flue gas desulfur-
ization systems. These physical processes for coal cleaning are
suitable for utilities that already are close to complying with
S02 control regulations (those that must reduce S02 emissions
by less than 50 percent to be in compliance), but are not effective
for utilities that must reduce their S02 emissions by 50 percent or
more to reach compliance.
At Pennsylvania Electric Power Company's Homer City
facility, IERL-RTP helped to install a multistream coal-cleaning
plant that can remove sulfur and ash from up to 1,100 Mg
(1,200 tons) of coal per hour. Data from the Homer City study
will go a long way toward improving the cost effectiveness of
physical fuel treatment methods.
Selected pollutants in coal can be changed to nonpolluting
substances through chemical reactions. These chemical processes
may be a more efficient means of supplying clean coal to
small combustion sources, including commercial and residential
furnaces. With the support of IERL-RTP, several studies of
chemical cleaning methods—including hydrothermal treatment,
microwave treatment, and flash desulfurization—are underway.
Environmental assessments provide data to all these coal-
cleaning projects. Current projects include analysis of the toxicity
of wastes from coal cleaning and combustion, examination of
the environmental effects of the steps between coal mining and
burning, and assembly of detailed information on the geological
factors that determine coal's mineral and elemental variations
to identify the best cleaning process for each major type of
coal in the United States.
"Spider" cyclone classifier at Pennsylvania Electric Company's
physical coal-cleaning plant in Homer City, Pennsylvania.
Turning solid coal into synthetic fuels, such as liquefied coal
and coal gas, represents a positive step toward meeting our
national energy and environmental goals. These synthetics are
relatively clean burning and use our most plentiful domestic
fuel—the sizable deposits of lower quality coals that have been
bypassed until now because of their high pollutant content
Coal conversion techniques (although very expensive) have
11
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been available foryears, but the technology needed to apply these
techniques economically is still evolving. Synthetic fuels have
not become cost effective because other cleaner fuels have
been available. Questions remain to be answered about the
emissions we can expect from the conversion of coal and
from the combustion of synthetic fuels.
To determine how the widespread use of coal conversion
will affect our environment, IERL-RTP is sponsoring extensive
environmental assessments. For example, at Georgia Power
Company's Mitchell Plant near Albany, Georgia, liquefied
coal is being fired for the first time in a large utility boiler. Tests
by IERL-RTP at this plant are producing a detailed inventory of the
emissions that result from firing liquefied coal, as well as
information about overall boiler efficiency with this synthetic
fuel. At North Carolina State University in Raleigh, a pilot-scale
coal gasifier is undergoing a variety of tests to supply answers to
questions about the conversion process itself; for example,
how can different controls reduce emissions of coal tar,
particulates, and dust? Ultimately, the information for IERL-RTP
programs like these will help planners to predict the environ-
mental impact of coal conversion and to specify controls
for commerical-scale application.
The sections that follow present highlights of the year's
research accomplishments in coal cleaning and conversion.
Feasibility of Cleaning Ohio Coals Economically. An Ohio
Edison steam electric plant with a history of noncompliance with
paniculate emission standards is the object of a study on the
cleanability of Ohio coals. Teknekron is examining the present
and potential supply of coals (both cleaned and uncleaned)
to the W. H. Sammis plant in Stratton, Ohio. The study will
determine the extent to which physical coal cleaning can enable
Sammis to increase its use of Ohio coals and still meet existing
particulate and planned S02 standards.
To adhere to the design parameters of its electrostatic
precipitators and to meet the particulate and S02 emission
limitations, Sammis must burn coal that, on a 24-hour average,
produces ash at no more than 4.30 ng/kJ (10 lb/106 Btu),
S02 at no more than 1.92 ng/kJ (4.46 lb/106 Btu) for 70 percent
of the plant's capacity, and S02 at no more than 0.69 ng/kJ
(1.61 lb/106 Btu) for the remaining capacity.
Preliminary findings indicate that, although coal cleaning is
not extensively practiced, it is an economically feasible strategy.
At present only about 25 percent of Ohio coals are cleaned
and then only to remove mineral matter. The degree of cleaning
practiced at most Ohio coal-cleaning plants is not sufficient for
compliance with the standard of 1.92 ng/kJ (4.46 lb/106 Btu)
for S02. A number of Ohio coals, however, can be economically
cleaned to meet this standard as well as the ash limitation. Because
few Ohio coals can meet the S02 requirement of 0.69 ng/kJ
(1.61 lb/106 Btu), the most obvious compliance strategy is to
clean Ohio coals to the S02 level of 1.92 ng/kJ (4.46 lb/106 Btu
and purchase low sulfur Appalachian (non-Ohio) coals for
the S02 standard of 0.69 ng/kJ (1.61 lb/106 Btu). Teknekron
is to complete the Sammis study by performing economic
analyses of alternative S02 emission compliance strategies.
Results of Bench-Scale Coal Gasifier Testing. In attempting tc
evaluate the pollution potential of coal gasification, Research
Triangle Institute (RTI) has been operating a small, laboratory-
scale reactor along with extensive sampling and analysis of
reactor streams. A statistical analysis of the voluminous data
obtained from approximately 60 gasification test runs has beer
performed to determine the correlations between operating
parameters, coal types, and pollutant production. Some conclu
sions found to date are summarized in the following paragraphs
In the production of pollutants, the coal total sulfur, sulfate,
and volatile contents were the most important factors influ-
encing pollutant yields. Although the reason is not yet clear, coa
sulfur was found to correlate significantly with the production
of both sulfur and nonsulfur pollutants. The most important
gasifier operating variable affecting pollutant production
was the steam-to-coal ratio. This variable had a significant
influence on total benzene-toluene-xylene production. Heating
rate was found to be influential only in the yield of the fused
aromatic hydrocarbon (also known as polynuclear aromatic, or
PNA) fraction of the tar.
Increases in both the air-to-steam ratio and the bed temperatun
decreased the yield of several of the major pollutants. Howevei
no significant correlations existed between any of the selectee
independent variables and the yields of phenol and naphthalene
Because phenol is the primary pollutant in the gasifier con-
densate, a mechanistic rather than the statistical approach to
explaining the production of phenol is warranted.
The preceding statistical correlations were based on data
from gasification tests conducted in the fixed-bed mode with
batch feed. Currently, a second series of tests is underway
to study in greater depth the effects of varying operating
conditions on pollutant generation. For this parametric test
series, the reactor has been modified to operate in the fluidized
bed mode with continuous coal feed. The reactor operating
conditions that are being varied include coal particle size,
reactor pressure, steam/air ratio, and coal additives.
In six parametric tests with three different coal types, pollulan
production was observed for the product gas in the ranges
shown in Table 1. The wide ranges observed, usually greater
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than one order of magnitude, support an approach to emission
control through process modification. Changing coal type,
pressure, mesh size, and other process parameters influences
pollutant output.
Synthetic Fuels Wastewater Treatability Studies. The University
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill is conducting a major research
effort to study treatment methods applicable to coal conversion
process wastewaters. Preliminary information on the biotreat-
ability of such waters is being gathered using a synthetic
mixture representative of actual wastewaters. In addition, an
actual wastewater supplied by EPA has been subjected to treat-
ment by activated carbon adsorption, coagulation, and pre-
cipitation.
Biotreatment involves bringing the wastewater into contact
with microorganisms that can use the organic contaminants
as a food supply. The University of North Carolina is using
a set of eight bioreactors to perform this study by allowing
the synthetic wastewater to come into contact with an active
biomass for various residence times. Influent and effluent streams
from these bioreactors are analyzed for chemical composition,
toxicity of aquatic life, and potential harmful effects to human
health. Results to date indicate that wastewaters from synthetic
fuel plants will be biologically treatable but that some degree
of dilution may be necessary. Biological treatability improves with
increased solids residence time (sludge age), but it appears
that a sludge age minimum of 10 days may be necessary to
achieve a reasonable degree of treatment. A mammalian cyto-
toxicity assay, used as an indicator of potential human health
effects associated with the wastewater, shows that cytotoxicity
decreases with increasing degrees of biotreatment.
Table 1.
Pollutant Production Ranges for Three Coal Types
Compound
Compound produced/
carbon converted (g/g)
Hydrogen sulfide.
Carbonyl sulfide. .
Thiophene
Benzene
Toluene
Phenol
Benzofuran
3,700-36,000
270-4,500
8-670
3,600-17,000
1,700-5,800
62-920
8-170
Acidification of samples of actual coal gasification waste-
waters obtained from EPA proved to be an effective means of
removing dissolved and suspended tars. Concomitant reductions
in total organic carbon and chemical oxygen demand were
observed with tar reductions. The addition of strong acid—
approximately 40 milliequivalents per liter of wastewater—was
required to obtain about 95 percent removal of tar from the
wastewater. The addition of thisamount of acid tothe wastewater
lowered the pH of the waste to about 5.0.
Alum was found to be ineffective as a coagulant in chemical
treatment of the wastewater. It is proposed that complexes
formed by aluminum and ligands present in the wastewater
result in the solubilization of aluminum and the inhibition
of its effectiveness as a coagulant. Two organic cationic
polyelectrolytes were shown to be effective coagulants, but only
at high dosages. The cost of these polymers probably precludes
their use on a large scale.
One result of the activated carbon adsorption study is that
alkyl-substituted phenols are more strongly adsorbed by
activated carbon than phenol. The degree of adsorption increases
with the number of substituents and the length of the alkyl
chain. The position of the substituent alkyl group has no
effect on the extent of adsorption.
It is expected that when this project is completed, we will
have made a good start at developing and evaluating satisfactory
means of treating coal conversion wastewaters for disposal
in an environmentally acceptable fashion.
Symposium on Environmental Aspects of Fuel Conversion.
In response to the shift in the U.S. energy supply priorities
from natural gas and oil to coal, EPA has initiated a comprehensive
evaluation of the environmental impacts of promising synthetic
fuel processes. During April 17-20, 1979, EPA held its fourth
Symposium on Environmental Aspects of Fuel Conversion
Technology in Hollywood, Florida.5 The first of these symposia
came in the wake of the 1974 oil embargo; this latest one
narrowly preceded the fuel shortage of May and June. Such
occurrences dramatically emphasize the need to evaluate energy
alternatives carefully.
The synthetic fuel industry will require very large and complex
plants that will entail great discharge quantities, large con-
sumptions of water, air, and fuel, and massive extraction of
resources in relatively small areas. The latest findings in the
environmental assessment of coal gasification and liquefaction
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Symposium Proceedings: Environmental
Aspects of Fuel Conversion Technology, IV, NTIS No. Pb 80134729, EPA
600/7-79-217, Sept. 1979.
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drew over 300 representatives of process developers, process
users, environmental groups, and research scientists to the
symposium.
Session I provided an overview of environmental assessment,
addressing methodology as well as specific programs. Several
key elements of lERL-RTP's methodology were explained,
such as Multimedia Environmental Goals and Source Assessment
Models. Other presentations described various environmental
assessment and health programs sponsored by EPA and
other agencies. Two needs surfaced during this session:
eliminating process and pollution control uncertainties, and
unifying the efforts of the various sponsoring groups to ensure
efficiency.
Session II emphasized data and conclusions from ongoing
research and field studies concerning the chemical composition
and environmental impacts of coal conversion waste streams.
Summaries of the solvent refined coal (SRC) plant in Fort
Lewis, Washington, were given, as well as a presentation on the
commercial-scale Lurgi gasifier in Kosovo, Yugoslavia, by the
Yugoslav/U.S. team involved in its environmental assessment.
The final session featured evaluations of environmental control
technology and discussions of possible regulations affecting
coal conversion facilities and the issue of water supplies to
fuel conversion plants. Water requirements for a variety of
synfuel technologies were given for locations in the major coal-
and oil-shale-bearing regions of the United States. Because of
limited water supplies and growing demand, many such regions
in the western United States cannot supply the great amounts
of water necessary for synfuel production.
Although much work remains to be done, the symposium
indicated that substantial progress has been made in defining
the problems of fuel conversion and evaluating alternative
solutions.
Assessment of Gasification Facility in Yugoslavia. In coopera-
tion with the government of Yugoslavia, EPA is sponsoring
an environmental data acquisition program that focuses on a
medium-Btu Lurgi gasification facility located in the Kosovo
region of Yugoslavia. The main objective of the program is to
gather information that will help EPA define environmental
controls needed for U.S. gasification plants.
The Kosovo test program is divided into two phases. In
Phase I—completed during November 1978—approximately
40 of the plant's most significant emission streams were
screened. Stream flows were analyzed to identify the major
components.
The Phase II tests at Kosovo involved the sampling/analysis
of a more select group of about 20 streams. The work examined
detailed characterizations of trace and minor component
emissions, including trace metals and organics. In addition,
Phase II included fugitive emission and ambient monitoring
tests. The objective of the ambient work was to develop and
evaluate methods for characterizing the airborne participates
and the trace organics that originate in coal conversion processes.
Five monitoring stations were set up to collect the samples.
The fugitive emission work included a survey of the sources in the
plant and an analytical screening of the emissions. The fugitive
emission data provide an initial indication of the potential
magnitude of the problem.
A summary of the Kosovo test program, including presenta-
tion of the results obtained to that date, was given at the
fourth Symposium on Environmental Aspects of Fuel Conversion
Technology, sponsored by EPA's IERL-RTP in 1979.
Solid Waste Problem of Proposed SRC Plant. A study of
the potential pollutants from a hypothetical commercial-size SRC
plant suggests that solid wastes would constitute the most
toxic waste stream from the plant.
The SRC system uses a noncatalytic direct-hydrogenation
liquefaction process to convert coal high in sulfur and ash into
clean-burning gaseous, liquid, or solid fuels. There are two
variations: SRC-I, which produces a solid coallike product of less
than 1 percent sulfur and 0.2 percent ash, and SRC-II, which
produces a low-sulfur (0.2 to 0.5 percent) fuel oil and naphtha
product. Both produce gaseous hydrocarbons that are further
processed into substitute natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas.
Byproducts recovered from the hydrogenation reaction include
sulfur, ammonia, and phenol.
The study, conducted by Hittman Associates, Inc., analyzed the
possible environmental effects of waste streams from a proposed
SRC plant in White County, Illinois. The commercial-size
facility would use 28,000 Mg (31,000 tons) of Illinois No. 6
coal per day. The objectives of the study were to evaluate
the pollutants identified in the Standards of Practice Manual
for the SRC facility and to provide background information
for the SRC Environmental Assessment Report. Results from the
analysis, detailed in the report "SRC (Solvent Refined Coal)
Site-Specific Pollutant Evaluation,"7 suggest the following:
• The most significant gaseous emissions appear to be
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
6U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Standards of Practice Manual for the
Solvent Refined Coal Liquefaction Process, NTIS No. Pb 283-028/AS, EPA 600/7-
78-091, June 1978.
7U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, SRC Site-Specific Pollutant Evaluation-
Vol. I, Discussion. NTIS No. Pb 291 -495, EPA 600/7-78-223a; Vol. 2. Appendices,
NTIS No. Pb 291-496, EPA 600/7-78-223b, Nov. 1978.
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• The most important effluents appear to contain aluminum,
copper, zinc, nickel, and several organic compounds.
• The most toxic general category of waste streams will be
the solid wastes.
These findings should be used with caution until more definitive
data are obtained from a comprehensive pilot plant program
and an operational demonstration plant. The environmental
analysis procedure used was intended primarily to determine
safe emission limits for major pollutants, it is difficult, however,
to suggest safe discharge limits for pollutants because of
the complexity of the SRC system and an incomplete under-
standing of such phenomena as transportation of pollutants
through air, water, and land and transformation of compounds
by physical, chemical, or biological means.
Environmental Assessment of Key Gasifier Discharges. During
an environmental assessment, it is unwise to assume that the
problems are known and then to conduct tests and evaluations
that describe and solve the problem. If the problem is different from
the assumption or if other problems exist, they might not
be discovered in time to prevent adverse effects. To avoid this
danger, IERL-RTP uses a phased environmental assessment
approach. The approach includes a broad chemical and biological
screening for determining potential problems (Level 1), a
comprehensive investigation of the potential problems (Level 2),
and long-term monitoring (Level 3) where justified.
The screening evaluation (Level 1) was conducted at a
commercial Chapman low-Btu gasification facility. The Chapman
facility was selected for testing because of its:
• Accessibility
• Well-defined operating history
• Single-stage, fixed-bed, atmospheric pressure gasifiers,
which are representative of those currently in commercial use
in this country
• Use of bituminous coal—a widely available feedstock
• Gas quenching and scrubbing system, which provides a means
of evaluating tar and oil byproducts associated with a gas
quenching operation
• Capability to obtain particle removal efficiency data for a
hot cyclone
The specific objectives of the Chapman facility tests were
threefold: to characterize the waste streams and potential
fugitive emission and effluent streams, to evaluate the applic-
ability of Level 1 sampling and analytical methodology to such
a characterization, and to evaluate the paniculate removal
efficiency of the product gas cyclone.
Results of the chemical and bioassay testing indicated that
all waste and process streams examined contained potentially
harmful organic or inorganic materials, or both. In the coal
feeder vent gases, examples of potentially harmful species
included polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's), carbon
monoxide (CO), and chromium. The potentially harmful species
found in the separator vent gases included PAH's, amines, CO,
ammonia, C2-hydrocarbons, heterocyclic nitrogen compounds,
chromium, vanadium, and silver. Potentially harmful levels
of the following trace elements were found in the gasifier ash
and cyclone dust: boron, phosphorus, iron, calcium, aluminum,
lithium, barium, selenium, lead, copper, thallium, cadmium,
antimony, vanadium, cobalt, uranium, and cesium. The product
gas cyclone was found to be approximately 60 percent effective
in removing paniculate matter from the raw product gas stream.
To verify the existence and quantities of the specific chemicals
that are identified as potential problems, a comprehensive
analysis (Level 2) is required. Only a limited number of gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analyses were
conducted in this program. The results indicated the presence in
the discharge stream of potentially harmful concentrations
of aminotoluene, naphthol, alkylphenols, anisoles, and benzpyrene.
Although the quantities of material, transport properties,
transformation effects, end point effects, and population risk
would need to be determined to ascertain accurately if a real
problem exists for the population as a whole, the phased
environmental assessment approach has proved beneficial in
addressing the environmental assessment source characterization.
Environmental Assessment of Industrial Anthracite Gasifier.
Using the phased environmental assessment approach,
evaluations were conducted at a commercial coal gasification
facility that uses a Wellman-Galusha gasifier to produce low-Btu
fuel gas. These tests used anthracite coal and a different
gasifierfrom anothertest at a Chapman facility that used bituminous
coal. Objectives of the test program were to perform an envi-
ronmental assessment on the facility's waste streams and
fugitive emissions and to characterize the product gas cyclone's
particulate removal efficiency.
Results from the chemical analyses of the plant's waste
streams indicated that all waste streams contained organic
or inorganic components, or both, that could have harmful health
or ecological effects. In the pokehole and coal hopper gaseous
emissions, CO, ammonia, and possibly iron pentacarbonyl were
of major concern. Organic compounds that were not specifically
identified are of potential concern in the ash sluice water.
The gasifier ash and cyclone dust contained a number of trace
elements and possibly organics that could be harmful. Analyses
15
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performed on the leachate from these two solid waste streams
indicated that the leachate could be harmful to health or
the ecology. The possibility of risk, however, is greater from the
gasifier ash and cyclone dust than from the leachate.
In general, the potential for adverse health and ecological
effects was found to be significantly lower for the Wellman-
Galusha facility's waste streams than for waste streams produced
by gasifying bituminous coal, principally because of the much
lower levels of organics in the Wellman-Galusha facility's waste
streams. The results of bioassay screening tests exhibited
a similar tendency.
Definition of Pollutant Categories by Bench-Scale Gasifier
Tests. An important question being addressed by Research
Triangle Institute (RTI) through an IERL-RTP grant is: What
pollutants from coal conversion processes present the greatest
environmental hazards? Figure 1 shows the estimated environ-
mental impact of classes of compounds identified in the gaseous
and condensate streams from RTI's laboratory reactor. The
height of an individual bar was calculated by summing the ratios
of measured concentrations to Multimedia Environmental
Goal values for all compounds found to be present in that
particular compound class and taking the logarithm of the sum.
Thus, the higher the bar, the greater the adverse impact of
that chemical class. Negative bars mean that the sum was less
than 1 and therefore gave a negative logarithm. Plots are shown
for four test runs using three different coals. It is interesting
to note that this graphic display shows little difference among
runs and coals. The most hazardous class of compounds is
the phenols, followed by benzene and alkyl-substituted benzenes
and, for those coals containing significant sulfur, the sulfur
compounds.
Potential of Low-Btu Gasification as Control Approach. The
amendments to the Clean Air Act of 1977 require EPA to
coordinate and lead the development and implementation of
standards of performance for new and modified sources of
air pollution. Because fossil-fuel-fired steam generators are
mentioned specifically in the act, EPA has undertaken a study
of industrial boilers. Based on the results of this and other
studies, EPA will propose standards of performance.
Many methods are available to reduce emissions from
fossil-fuel-fired industrial boilers. These techniques may be
broadly classified as precombustion, combustion, and postcom-
bustion. The purpose of EPA's study was to evaluate the use
of synthetic fuels from coal technologies as precombustion
emission controls for new industrial boilers. The synthetic fuel
technologies examined included coal gasification and liquefaction.
Although major emphasis was placed on reduction of sulfur
oxides, nitrogen oxides, and paniculate emissions in the
industrial boiler flue gases, other gaseous pollutants in the flue
gases—as well as gaseous emissions, liquid effluents, and
solid wastes from the synthetic fuel system—were also examined.
EPA will use the results of this evaluation to assess the need
and, if appropriate, to prepare New Source Performance
Standards (NSPS) for small industrial boilers. The evaluation
of synthetic fuel technologies considered the following factors:
development status, capital and operating costs, energy impacts,
environmental impacts, and performance data.
For reasons such as cost, facility size, and capital investment
required, it was concluded that low-Btu coal gasification
would be an appropriate precombustion control for industrial
boilers and that medium-Btu gasification, high-Btu gasification,
and coal liquefaction would be less desirable.
Based on the results of detailed evaluations of various
synthetic fuel systems, two representative low-Btu gasification
systems were selected—a Wellman-Galusha gasifier with
a Stretford process and one with a monoethanolamine acid
gas removal process. Performance results of these systems
indicate that they are applicable to the boiler sizes under
consideration, capable of controlling major emissions, and
commercially available. In addition, the cost and energy impacts
are reasonable and other environmental impacts are controllable.
These study results will be combined with those of other
studies on techniques for controlling pollutants from industrial
boilers. A comparison among the various systems for the
previously listed items of concern must be completed before
conclusions can be drawn as to the most appropriate controls
for the industrial boiler segment. Findings of this study represent
only a part of the information that is necessary for setting
NSPS for industrial boilers.
Environmental Assessment Support to DOE's Evaluation of
Industrial Gasifiers. In 1977, EPA presented DOE with an
environmental program that the Agency believed was necessary
to demonstrate fully the feasibility of the technology. This
program led to additional discussions and the performance of
limited tests by EPA at DOE's first site. As a result, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory (ORNL) has taken the lead role for DOE in
establishing environmental and worker health programs
at other sites.
EPA has continued to work with DOE and ORNL in establishing
data acquisition requirements. EPA also will perform short-
duration (less than 1 month) testing using the methodologies
developed at EPA, whereas ORNL will conduct longer duration
testing. As sites are tested, the programs will continue to
16
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(b)
+5
-5
-5
(d)
615
Legend
1 Aliphatic hydrocarbons
10 Amines
13 Thiols, sulfides
15 Benzene substituted
benzene hydrocarbons
18 Phenols
21 Fused polycyclics
22 Fused nonalternate polycychcs
23 Nitrogen heterocyclics
24 Oxygen heterocyclics
25 Sulfur heterocyclics
53 Inorganic sulfurs
Figure 1.
Average Gas and Condensate Concentrations by Pollutant Class: (a) Run 23—Illinois Coal, (b) Run 26—Montana Coal, (c) Run 33-
Wyoming Coal, and (d) Run 35—Wyoming Coal
evolve. Improvement is anticipated in sampling, analysis, data
handling, multidisciplined evaluation of data, and other areas.
The quantity of data from any one site will be large. The data
should provide a valuable resource for determining environmental
effects from low-Btu gasification facilities.
Simplifying Complex Synfuel Pollutant Control Problems.
Work at RTI is continuing on the complete characterization
of gases, condensibles, and solids produced by coal gasification.
This effort is being accomplished by means of a laboratory-
scale gasifier and sampling system. Composite results from
17
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preliminary screening tests with eight different U.S. coals have
been analyzed to rank the various pollutants by their potential
effects on the health of human subjects exposed directly
to the reactor effluents.
Major pollutants of concern m the raw product gas stream
are carbon monoxide, benzene, hydrogen sulfide, and other
sulfur species. Eliminating these pollutants from consideration
(or assuming that control technologies exist for such species)
reduces the gas stream discharge severity by four to five
orders of magnitude. If carbon monoxide is considered a
desired fuel product rather than a pollutant, a typical gas stream
discharge severity is about 103. This factor is reduced to about
10° by removing hydrogen sulfide, benzene, and other sulfur
compounds.
Aqueous condensates from coal gasification are heavily
contaminated by phenols, cresols, and xylenols. It appears that if
the e phenolics and the other important condensate constituent,
ammonia, are removed, the condensate discharge severity
would be reduced to approximately a value of 101.
Tars present a more intractable environmental hazard.
Although phenols again represent the dominant hazard, their
elimination reduces the discharge severity to only 103 owing
to the continued presence of PNA's. It should be noted that
typically less than 20 percent of the total tar is identified as
specific compounds in RTI's analyses. This low percentage is
owed in part to restricting analyses to selected compounds that
represent known high environmental hazards, but also to
difficulties in characterizing the heavier fraction of the tar.
Currently applied RTI techniques of gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry restrict compound analysis to species boiling
below about 300° C (572° F). However, from 10 to 75 percent
of gasification tars have a boiling point above 400° C (752° F).
Methods in high-performance liquid chromatography and
other analytical techniques are being developed to extend the
analytical range to the heavier tar fractions; notable success
is being achieved in this area.
Ames mutagenicity tests have been performed on crude
tar samples and on tar fractions. Results of these tests show that
certain fractions—namely, those containing primarily the
PNA's and aromatic amines—possess a higher mutagenic
character than the whole tar. This phenomenon is referred to
as an "unmasking effect" revealed by the tar partitioning process.
The results also show that tars derived from Illinois and western
Kentucky coals are more mutagenic than tars from Montana
subbituminous coal or North Dakota lignite.
EPA/North Carolina State University Synfuel Environmental
Control Facility. Coal gasification plays a large part in the
developing synthetic fuel industry not only because of the
production of fuel gas but also because it represents the first
phase of all indirect coal liquefaction processes. These processes
involve first gasifying coal and then catalytically reforming
the gas into a variety of liquid fuels and byproducts, including
gasoline. To study the environmental effects related to coal
gasification and the associated purification of the raw product
gas, a coal gasifier [20 kg/h (50 Ib/h)] and gas-cleaning facility
was constructed at North Carolina State University in 1978
under the auspices of IERL-RTP.
This project is being carried out by the faculty and staff
of the North Carolina State University Chemical Engineering
Department by means of an EPA grant. The goals.of the project
are to characterize completely the gaseous and condensed-phase
emissions from the gasification/gas-cleaning process and to
determine the dependence of pollutants and their emission
rates on adjustable operating parameters, coal type, and
method of acid gas removal.
During the first year of operation, this facility achieved
fully operational plant status and completed a preliminary
experimental program using a devolatilized coal char as feedstock.
Several 15-hour test runs have been successful with the
acid gas removal system and gasifier fully integrated and working
efficiently. Specific accomplishments at this facility include:
• Excellent mass balances for the major elements around the
various components
• Analyses of the major gasifier products
• Determination of major contaminants removed by adsorption
in methanol refrigerated to -30° C (-22° F).
Recently the facility switched from using char to using a
New Mexico subbituminous coal as feedstock. Future work
will emphasize the capabilities of alternative acid gas removal
methods for removing contaminants other than the major acidic
species (hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide) and the buildup
of trace contaminants in acid gas removal systems. Information
developed from this project should accelerate the design
of environmental control systems for what promises to be a
major new U.S. industry.
Evaluation of a Lurgi Synthetic Natural Gas Coal Gasification
Plant. IERL-RTP has collected, categorized, and evaluated
existing information on Lurgi gasification for the production of
synthetic natural gas (SNG). The report divides the Lurgi
SNG systems into four operations—coal preparation, coal
gasification, gas purification, and gas upgrading—and a number
of auxiliary processes (such as air pollution control, raw water
18
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treatment, and oxygen production), with each operation
comprising a number of processes. The report presents the data
on the characteristics of input materials, products, and waste
streams associated with each process. The pollution control
alternatives for air emissions, water effluents, solid wastes,
and toxic substances in an integrated facility were examined
for performance, costs, energy requirements, and ability
to comply with current and anticipated environmental standards.
In the report, each EPA program office's areas of respon-
sibility are addressed separately. In addition, the report provides
information on the advantages and disadvantages of trans-
ferring a pollutant from one medium to another. This multimedia
approach is important, but much work remains to quantify the
effects. The report is intended as technical background infor-
mation for establishing regulatory actions.
Residual and Waste Oils
Not all of the crude oil that enters a refinery is converted into
products like gasoline, home heating oil, and aviation fuel.
The remainder is called residual oil. Waste oils, such as motor
oil drained from cars, and residual oils would make suitable
fuel for boilers and large engines if they did not contain such
high concentrations of contaminants. To turn this energy
source into an environmentally acceptable fuel, IERL-RTP is
exploring advanced processing methods. Demetallization, desul-
furization, and removal of other trace elements are being
tested as ways of increasing our supply of clean-burning fuels.
Part of the work on the demetallization of residual oils is being
carried out through a cooperative assessment program between
the United States and the Soviet Union.
One promising technology that IERL-RTP is exploring
for residual oil treatment is the Chemically Active Fluid Bed
(CAFB) process. A pilot-scale CAFB plant in Abington, England,
has been successful in removing 85 percent of the sulfur and
all of the vanadium from residual oil without creating serious
environmental problems with the spent bed material. In the near
future, IERL-RTP will help support a commercial-scale CAFB
demonstration at Central Power and Light's plant in San
Benito, Texas. This project should provide the data and exper-
ience to put this energy-saving technology to work throughout
the industry.
The sections that follow present highlights of the year's
research accomplishments in residual and waste oils.
Potential Carcinogenicity of Residual Oils. The conclusion that
40 percent of residual oils may be carcinogenic came to
light during an IERL-RTP project to evaluate the potential
environmental hazards of using residual oil. The program was
aimed at examining residual oils representing a majority of
U.S. production. The Ames test results on 26 residual oils
using strains TA1538, TA1537, TA98, and TA100 (with and
without activation) were: 11 positive, 5 probable, and 10
negative. The 11 positive samples showed no correlation to a
common denominator. The positive tests are being rerun. Yeast
and E. coli tests were negative for all 26 samples. Obvious
differences exist in the chemical nature of volatiles, at 100° C
(212° F), from oils found mutagenic and those found nonmutagenic
in the Ames test. The major differences in the volatiles are
in the first one-third of the chromatogram and involve at least
three major and several minor GC peaks. Additional funding
would be required in the present contract or future advanced
oil processing programs to pursue investigation of any common
chemical factors that may be contributing. Joint studies with EPA's
Health Effects Research Laboratory (HERL) are recommended.
Construction of CAFB Evaluation Plant. The CAFB Evaluation
Plant of about 10-MWe (34 X 106 Btu/h) capacity has been
constructed at the La Palma Station of Central Power and
Light in San Benito, Texas. Preliminary checkout of the unit during
combustion conditions is complete. Equipment modifications
to the cyclones, the coal feed system, and revised instrumenta-
tion of the oil feed system are nearing completion. Hot operations
will be resumed in September with 1 to 3 weeks of combustion
conditions to verify the changes made, followed by gasifica-
tion conditions and commencement of the test program.
Operation during combustion conditions produced some fine
deposits in the boiler that were loose, fluffy, and easily removed.
The type of limestone used causes more dust to be formed
when the stone is calcined under combustion conditions, as
it was here, than when calcined under gasification conditions,
as it would be in normal operation. Evaluation is continuing
of the observations made and data collected during the preliminary
shakedown run under combustion conditions. Emphasis
was placed on evaluating and correcting operational problems,
such as excessive vibration being transmitted from the coal
feeders to the structure and the need for additional temperature
sensors.
Combustion Controls
Fundamental research programs focus on the main factors in
the formation of nitrogen oxides (NOX): combustion chemistry
and combustion aerodynamics. Work in the chemistry of
combustion is answering basic questions about the chemical
reactions that occur when fuels burn and how temperature, fuel.
19
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and air affect these reactions. At the same time, research in
the aerodynamics of combustion is examining the physical
conditions in the flame zone and how different ways of mixing
fuel and air alter these conditions.
Combustion Modification
Research has shown that combustion modification is one of the
most effective and economical methods of limiting a number
of major pollutants. The combustion process can be modified by
changing combustion temperatures or air/fuel ratios. Nitrogen
oxide emissions can be reduced by lowering the combustion
temperature if burners are situated to avoid "hot spots" in
the furnace. Limiting the amount of oxygen and regulating the
way air and fuel mix minimize the formation of NOX. Currently,
IERL-RTP is exploring new combustion methods in programs
ranging from fundamental research to field testing.
To date, these programs have emphasized NOX emissions,
which are among the most difficult pollutants to control.
Information being gathered about combustion chemistry and
thermodynamics also will help us to understand how to control
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and other pollutants.
Using the results of fundamental research, IERL-RTP is
testing several combustion modification techniques on pilot-
The experimental "rainbow furnace"—one of several pieces
of in-house equipment used in combustion modification
studies—provides bench-scale information on the use of staged
combustion in NOV control.
scale equipment. New burner designs are being developed
for coal-fired boilers that can cut NOX emissions by as much
as 60 to 80 percent without sacrificing fuel economy or equipment
life. Pilot-scale boilers firing residual oil are being tested
extensively at EPA's facilities in North Carolina. And a new
Iow-N0x residential oil furnace has demonstrated that advanced
burner and firebox designs can reduce NOX emissions and
improve efficiency as well.
IERL-RTP also is evaluating new combustion techniques on
full-scale equipment in the field. Tests under actual working
conditions have been conducted on utility and industrial
boilers, industrial process equipment, residential and commercial
heating systems, stationary internal combustion engines,
and gas turbines. At Gulf Power's Crist Plant in Pensacola,
Florida, a 2-year series of tests has shown that boiler modifications
can reduce NOX emissions by as much as 40 percent without
increasing corrosion, fouling, or slagging.
The sections that follow present highlights of the year's
research accomplishments in combustion modification.
Testing Coals in EPA Low-NOx Burner. An advanced-design,
low-emission coal burner has been developed under EPA
sponsorship. The goal of this development effort has been to
achieve NOX emissions of 86.0 to 129.0 ng/J (0.2 to 0.3 lb/106
Btu) without an increase of carbonaceous pollutants or a
decrease of efficiency. Meeting this goal requires a 50 to 70
percent reduction relative to pending NSPS and a 70 to 85 percent
reduction relative to uncontrolled wall-fired boilers. These
goals have been achieved in pilot-scale experimental tests
of the burner design at scales up to 35 MW (120 X 106 Btu/h),
so a program has been initiated for burner field evaluations in
full-scale industrial and utility boilers over the next 4 years.
As an outgrowth of this work, EPA (working through DOE)
proposed a project for screening non-U.S. coals in the U.S.
facility that is developing the Iow-N0x burner. On May 22, 1979,
a letter of intent for the proposed program was signed by the
United States and five other countries. The scope of the
technical effort has been negotiated among Canada, Sweden,
and Denmark. The project provides for screening 15 non-U.S.
coals in a small furnace followed by testing of up to 4 coals
with Iow-N0x burners at three scales from 3 to 30 MW (10 to
100 X 106 Btu/h). The possibility exists for an additional activity
for field evaluation of selected coals either in the United
States or the host countries. Discussions of the possibility
for similar activities with four other countries are anticipated.
Environmentally Acceptable Use of Synthetic Liquid Fuels in
New Gas Turbine Combustor. A new combustor configuration
20
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for stationary gas turbine engines called the "Rich Burn/Quick
Quench Combustor" has been developed by Pratt and Whitney
Aircraft under EPA Contract No. 68-02-2136. The purpose
of developing a new gas turbine combustor was to find a
technique that would allow the NSPS for NOX to be met without
the use of water injection, and that would allow the use of high
nitrogen fuels such as synthetic liquids. A design approach
meeting both goals was first identified in an extensive series
of bench-scale tests. Significant features of the new concept
include premixing of the fuel and primary airflow, maintaining the
primary combustion zone in a fuel-rich environment, and
then quickly bringing the effluent from the first stage to the
high excess air levels required by the gas turbine cycle.
Following bench-scale testing, the design was scaled
up to a size commensurate with a single can from a multican
25-MW (85 X 106 Btu/h) gas turbine engine. Total heat release
for the single can was approximately 13 MW (45 X 106 Btu/h) at
full load and was designed for operation at pressures up to
1,31 7 kPa (13 atm). Next, the full-scale combustor was mounted
in a test stand and performance was determined while burning
a variety of fuels. NOX emissions on clean No. 2 fuel, which
is a standard fuel used by stationary gas turbines, was measured
to be 40 ppm (at 1 5 percent 02), which compares to an NSPS
limit of 75 ppm. The next fuel used was a No. 2 doped to 0.5
percent bound nitrogen as pyridine, and the NOX emissions were
75 ppm. The NSPS limit for a fuel with greater than 0.25
percent nitrogen is 125 ppm. Limited quantities of residual shale
oil that contain 0.46 percent nitrogen and a coal-derived
liquid fuel (SRC-II) at 1.0 percent nitrogen were secured for
testing. NOX emissions of 65 and 93 ppm were recorded on the
shale oil and on the 1.0 percent SRC-II, respectively.
These results mark a major breakthrough in gas turbine
combustor design. The emissions are not only well belowthe
limits set by the NSPS, they are also achievable without water
injection, owing to the new design approach. Elimination of
water injection translates into a fuel saving of up to 5 percent.
Even more significant is the performance of the synthetic
liquids: these tests represent the first known full-scale experiments
in which a stationary gas turbine combustor has been able
to meet the NSPS while burning very high nitrogen fuels.
Significant additional development is required before this new
gas turbine combustor concept is demonstrated in an actual
engine, but if funds are made available, the probability of
success is quite high.
Coal-Limestone Pellet Fuel. IERL-RTP currently is directing
an R&D program for increased use of high-sulfur coal by
combining the coal with limestone in a pellet fuel. This fuel
would be suitable for use in a wide range of industrial stoker
boilers that require control of S02 emissions. Recent test
evaluations and economic studies indicate that coal-limestone
pellet fuel can be an effective and economical S02 control
method for industrial-sized boilers.
Research and development efforts are being conducted at
Battelle-Columbus Laboratories under Contract No. 68-02-2627.
Initial efforts included evaluation of a 50-percent-coal/50-
percent-limestone pellet that reduced S02 emissions by
74 percent in a full-scale, 8-hour test. Further study was directed
at optimization of the pellet formulation and combustion
performance.
The basic evaluation system used is a tubular fixed-bed reactor.
In this small, batch combustor, several hundred combustor
experiments have been performed to evaluate rapidly a large
number of parameters that affect pellet fuel performance.
These parameters include limestone/coal ratio, pelletizing
method, pellet size, binder material, coal type, and limestone
type. Recent tests have identified binder materials that result in
a pellet with compression strength and weatherability equal
to or greater than the properties of the base coal. Combustion
tests in the fixed-bed reactor indicate an S02 capture as high
as 87 percent using a 70-percent-coal/30-percent-limestone
formula and an organic binder material <3 percent of the
pellet mass.
The next step was to conduct combustion evaluations in a
1 96-kW (20-hp) model spreader stoker boiler for the "best"
pellet formulations developed in the fixed-bed reactor study. With
a 70/30 mill-type pellet, the average S02 emission was reduced
by 70.4 percent compared with straight coal combustion
in the same system. A more fundamental study of the reaction
process involved in pellet fuel combustion is being conducted
concurrently to attempt further improvements in the pellet
fuel formulation. This study includes computer model analysis
of the data along with metallographic and scanning electron
microscope examination of pellets before and after combustion
to identify S02 capture mechanics.
A full-scale, 8- to 10-hour combustion test in a spreader
stoker boiler—11,000 kg/h (25,000 Ib/h) steam—was conducted
in mid-December 1979. This test will be used to establish the
practical performance that can be expected from coal-limestone
pellet fuel under actual operating conditions. The experience
gained from this test will be a guide for conducting a 30-day
demonstration of pellet fuel in May 1980. The 30-day test
will provide data for the industrial boiler NSPS that will be set
in June 1980.
Cost analyses of production techniques have indicated a
favorable outlook for the pellet fuel technology. The cost of
21
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preparing limestone-coal pellet fuel, based on a projected
50-Mg/h (60-ton/h) processing plant located in a coal-mining
region would only add $1 6/Mg ($1 5/ton) to the cost of coal.
This figure is substantially below the comparative costs of wet
scrubber technologies for industrial boilers with streams
smaller than 160,000 kg/h (350,000 Ib/h). Pellet fuel develop-
ment could provide a cost-effective alternative for industrial
and commercial boiler operations.
Additional Guidelines To Aid Combustion Pollution Control.
Three guidelines have been issued recently by IERL-RTP for
adjustment of residential and commercial heating equipment
to minimize emissions and save fuel. Two of the guidelines
discuss adjustment of gas burners for residential and commercial
space heating and water heating, with an emphasis on safety
aspects of gas combustion. The third guideline relates to
domestic heating with oil.
One of the guideline publications, "Guidelines for Adjustment
of Atmospheric Gas Burners for Residential and Commercial
Space Heating and Water Heating,"8 was written for use
by experienced service technicians. By following the step-by-step
procedures outlined in the guidelines, the skilled gas-burner
service technician will be able to adjust residential and commer-
cial space heating equipment and water heaters to minimize
air pollution, attain maximal efficiency, and provide safe,
reliable operation. The 30-page guideline publication, which
was reviewed extensively by industry representatives, can
be used as a training guide for advanced burner service courses.
It is designed to be used as a supplement to the manufacturer's
service instructions.
The second publication, "Get the Most From Your Gas Heating
Dollar,"9 is a brochure for homeowners who heat with gas.
It is written in less technical language and describes how the
layman can inspect a gas flame visually to determine whether
the burner needs adjusting. The primary purpose of the brochure
is to give the homeowner enough information to know whether
his burner is being serviced properly.
The third publication, "Get the Most From Your Heating
Oil Dollar,"10 is actually an updated version of a brochure
U S Environmental Protection Agency, Guidelines for Ad/ustment of Atmospheric
Gas Burners for Residential and Commercial Space Heating and Water Heating,
NTIS No Pb 290-777, EPA 600/8-79-005, Feb. 1979. (Also available from
the Government Printing Office as Report No. 055-000-001 77-4.)
U S Environmental Protection Agency, "Get the Most From Your Gas Heating
Dollar," IERL-RTP-P-252, Aug 1979 (Free copies available from Chris L West,
Public Awareness Office (MD-50), Environmental Research Center, U.S. EPA,
Research Triangle Park NC 27711.)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Get the Most From Your Heating Oil
Dollar," IERL-RTP-P-298, Jan 1980. (Free copies available from Chris L. West,
released in 1976. This brochure is similar to the one just described,
except that it is intended for homeowners who heat with oil.
Over 120,000 copies have been distributed.
In past years IERL-RTP has issued other guidelines for
service technicians. One was aimed at technicians who adjust
residential oil burners,11 another at those who adjust commercial
oil burners,12 and a third guideline was written for operators
of industrial boilers.13 In addition, a guideline publication for
industrial boiler manufacturers14 explained how design affects
emissions and efficiency.
A guideline for operators of coal-fired utility boilers is scheduled
for publication by April 1980, and a guideline for manufacturers
of those boilers is being written. A guideline publication for
operators of coal-fired stoker boilers is planned.
The response to these guidelines has been overwhelming.
They are widely used by industry for training, and three of
them have been reprinted by magazines. Power magazine
summarized the guidelines for industrial boiler operators and
published them in a three-part series.15-16-17 Fueloil and Oil Heat
published articles on industrial boilers18-19 as well as the
guidelines for residential and commercial oil burning in their
entirety.20-21-22
Symposium on Stationary Source Combustion. The Third
Symposium on Stationary Source Combustion was held in San
Francisco, March 5-8, 1979. The meeting, held as part of the
technology transfer activity of IERL-RTP, had about 250
registered attendees. Seven sessions covered stationary
Public Awareness Office (MD-50), Environmental Research Center, U.S. EPA,
Research Triangle Park NC 27711.)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Guidelines for Residential Oil-Burner
Adjustments, NTIS No. Pb 248-292, EPA 600/2-75-069a, Oct. 1975.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Guidelines for Burner Adjustments
of Commercial Oil-Fired Boilers, NTIS No Pb 251-91 9, EPA 600/2-76-088,
Mar. 1976.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Guidelines for Industrial Boiler
Performance Improvement (Boiler Adjustment Procedures To Minimize Air
Pollution and To Achieve Efficient Use of Fuel), NTIS No. Pb 264-543, EPA 600/8-
77-003a, Jan. 1977.
14U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Reference Guideline for Industrial Boiler
Manufacturers To Control Pollution With Combustion Modification, NTIS No.
Pb 276-71 5/AS, EPA 600/8-77-003b, Nov. 1977
12
15...
16..
Tuning Industrial Boilers-1," Power, 121(4) (pp. 64-67), Apr. 1977.
Tuning Industrial Boilers-2," Power, 121(5) (pp. 76-79), May 1977.
Tuning Industrial Boilers-3," Power, 121(6) (pp. 110-11 5), June 1977.
18"HowTo Improve Industrial Boiler Performance," Fueloil and Oil Heat (pp. 41-44),
Feb. 1978.
1 "HowTo Improve Industrial Boiler Performance," Fueloil and Oil Heat (pp. 46-68),
Mar. 1978.
20" Residential Oilburner Adjustments," Fueloil and Oil Heat (pp 49-51), June 1976.
21"Residential Oilburner Adjustments," Fueloil and Oil Heat (pp. 43-44), July 1976.
22"Adjusting Commercial Oilfired Boilers," Fwe/o/'/anrf 0/7 Wea? (pp. 48-51 >, Oct. 1976.
22
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combustion systems, ranging in size from residential to utility,
including boilers, engines, and industrial process equipment.
Advanced processes, fundamental combustion research,
and environmental assessment were the subjects of other sessions.
The symposium generated a great deal of interest, as
evidenced by the stimulating question-and-answer sessions
that followed the 35 technical presentations. The most active
discussions followed sessions on utility boilers, advanced
processes, and fundamental research. It was strongly recom-
mended that NOX be monitored continuously during the long-term
corrosion study. It was also suggested that particulate emissions
be characterized more thoroughly during combustion modi-
fication tests if mass is not measured both upstream and
downstream of the collector. Much interest focused on the
early results from tests of an advanced Iow-N0x pulverized
coal burner design for use with utility and industrial boilers that,
under optimal conditions, yields NOX levels below 200 ppm
forthree burnerscales—4,1 5, and 29 MW(12, 50, and 10OX 106
Btu/h). A study of the responses of commercially available
chemiluminescent NOX analyzers to simulated combustion
products and the errors introduced by the presence of certain
species or conditioning systems also drew the attention of
many researchers in the field.
There were many requests for copies of the recently issued
"Guidelines for Adjustment of Atmospheric Gas Burners for
Residential and Commercial Space Heating and Water Heating."8
Videotapes of selected IERL-RTP projects, which were
shown continuously in a separate room at the Symposium, were
very well received by the attendees. Many favorable comments
were made and representatives of the California Air Resources
Board, University of California, National Bureau of Standards,
and VGB-Geschaffsstelle of West Germany asked to borrow copies.
Catalytic Combustion Panel Meetings. Following the format
established in the Iow-N0x coal burner panel meetings, two
panels have been established to provide review and comment
on EPA's program for the development of catalytic combustion
technology. A Technical Review Panel, composed of repre-
sentatives of equipment manufacturers and technology users,
provides input on practical aspects of the research. The
invited members of the panel represent four gas turbine
companies, four boiler or burner manufacturers, two public
utilities, and a catalyst consultant. A Technology Transfer
Panel, composed of representatives of government and private
agencies, provides guidance to the program on both technical
and emission control trends. This panel also provides a forum
for agencies sponsoring research to discuss areas of program
coordination. The panel has invited representatives of EPA
(Office of Environmental Engineering and Technology, IERL-RTP
and Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards), DOE,
Department of Defense, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), California
Air Resources Board, California Energy Commission, Gas
Research Institute, and American Boiler Manufacturers Association
Two panels are used to maintain a small size (less than 15)
suitable for maximal interchange and to highlight the somewhal
different interests of each group.
The first meetings of the Technical Review and Technology
Transfer Panels were held on May 22 and 23, 1979, respectively,
in Atlanta, Georgia. All members of the Technical Review
Panel and most members of the Technology Transfer Panel
were present. An informal atmosphere promoted active discussion
of the materials presented. Following an introduction by the
project officer, representatives of the contractor (Acurex Corpora-
tion) made presentations on various program aspects, in-
cluding overall program plan, catalyst development and screen-
ing, auxiliary system testing, system concept evaluation,
and fundamental processes. A general discussion period was
concluded with a summary by the project officer. In the case
of the Technology Transfer Panel, a discussion of ongoing
and planned research activities was conducted in a session to
which Acurex was not admitted.
The mam points of the technical presentation were as follows:
• Effort is concentrated on achieving very low emission levels
for stationary sources, especially boilers.
• Catalyst development has led to the development of the
graded cell concept (patented by EPA) that offers a significant
performance advantage over conventional catalysts (addi-
tional work is needed in catalyst structural durability and
life testing).
• A number of system concepts have been developed that
have the potential to achieve very low levels of thermal
and fuel NOX with high system efficiency.
• For practical application, several auxiliary systems are
required—flame safety and control, ignition, and fuel injection
for both light and heavy metals.
• The various components will be integrated into several
prototypes of the most promising system concepts; these will
be tested in the laboratory to simulate practical operating
requirements.
The pretreatment resulted in considerable discussion.
Several of the most pertinent comments follow (the first three
comments are supportive of the program direction):
• Emphasis should be placed on dual-flame systems capable
of burning both gaseous and liquid fuels.
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• The concepts should be capable of burning fuels containing
heavy nitrogen (especially residual oil and synthetic liquids)
and, therefore, should strongly address fuel NOX control.
• Safety systems are of great concern and may be a problem
for conventional approaches because of the flameless
nature of catalytic combustion.
• A list of definitions and descriptive terms should be compiled
to explain the jargon (this has been done).
• Catalytic combustion has the potential for being a much
lower cost option than postcombustion treatment where
very low NOX levels are required, such as in California. This
also indicates the need for the retrofit concepts that are
being considered in the program.
The panels are scheduled to meet again in February 1980.
Conference on Coal Combustion Technology and Emission
Control. A conference on Coal Combustion Technology and
Emission Control was held February 5-7, 1979, in Pasadena,
California, to present an integrated view of all aspects of
coal combustion technology from fundamental processes and
practical system aspects to long-term environmental impacts.
The program was organized into the following four major
topic areas:
• Conference Theme dealt with an overview of the problems,
including health effects of pollutant species, projected
emissions trends and control technology requirements,
and atmospheric interactions of pollutants.
• Kinetic Processes covered fundamental processes in coal
combustion, including devolatilization, homogeneous
kinetics, heterogeneous kinetics, and ash formation.
• Combustion Control of Pollutants covered a wide range of
pilot-scale activities related to operating characteristics and
emissions of coal combustors.
• Full-Scale Applications described low-NOx emission and
operating experience for three major U.S. boiler manufacturers
and one German manufacturer. The EPA Iow-N0x burner
program was covered for both industrial and utility boilers.
The most significant conclusions of the meeting are presented in
the following paragraphs.
Even though existing ambient standards may be sufficient
from the standpoint of health, improved control technology is
needed to offset the projected growth of mass emissions
and to reduce effects of secondary pollutants, such as aerosols,
SOJ,2 and SOj.2
In recent years, significant progress has been made in
understanding key elements of coal combustion fundamentals.
particularly in the areas of devolatilization and heterogeneous
reactions.
Reactor studies are particularly promising as a quick and
relatively inexpensive way of screening the effects of fuels
on emission performance. Although additional work is needed,
attempts to correlate results qualitatively with fundamental
data (for example, devolatilization rates) and with pilot-scale
burner data have been informative.
Combustion control of NOX and other pollutants has been
successful in the past on practical pulverized coal-fired boilers,
and pilot-scale advanced burner designs show promise for
further control.
The presentations provided new insights into the work of
both research and applications people. The conference also
was the basis for the Fundamental Combustion Session
at the Combustion Research Third Stationary Source Symposium.
Several promising areas were identified for further work on
integrating the two types of activities.
Effect of Coal Properties, Other Than Nitrogen Content, on
IMOX Emissions. Small-scale fuel screening experiments
for EPA's Iow-N0x staged combustion burner show that coal
properties, apart from nitrogen content, significantly affect NOX
emissions. In the premixed (nonstaged) mode, the NOX emissions
for five coals having the same nitrogen content (percentage of dry,
ash-free nitrogen) vary by a factor of 1.5. For 15 coals tested,
NOX emissions do not correlate with nitrogen content. These
findings support the hypothesis that other factors, such as
the nitrogen distribution, have important roles in determining
emissions.
The premixed mode is expected to maximize the differences
caused by high conversions of volatile nitrogen compounds.
Experiments under staged conditions, however, show the
same relative ranking of most coals, even though the absolute
emission differences are smaller (about 100 ppm) for coals
of the same nitrogen content. In addition, limited testing of
two coals at 3 and 30 MW (10 and 100 X 106 Btu/h) suggests
that burner results will correlate with the screening results.
Large-scale testing of a number of coals is planned.
Flow Field Test Cases To Aid Fundamental Combustion
Research. The ability to predict flow patterns in the swirling
environment of a flame has long been sought because variations
in the mixing rate of fuel and air streams within a boiler can
markedly influence formation of such pollutants as NOX and CO.
Attempts to develop computer programs for flow field predictions
have been hampered by the complexity and mathematical
characteristics of the governing equations as well as by a
24
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basic lack of knowledge concerning the physics of the flow.
The governing equations form a set of coupled, nonlinear, stiff,
partial differential equations that are elliptic in nature. Questions
concerning the physics of the flow deal mainly with how the
turbulence can be described as a function of mean flow variables.
Several research organizations have developed or modified
numerical techniques that purport to solve these governing
equations. The computer programs to perform the calculations,
however, contain a group of correlation parameters that
are experimentally determined, as well as procedures to ensure
convergence or stability under difficult conditions. Comparing
predictions with experimental data has produced mixed
results; some comparisons are excellent, others are unacceptable.
Practitioners usually respond to unacceptable comparisons by
calling for more advanced turbulence models, assuming that
the numerical procedures used by the computer programs
are sound.
Under the Fundamental Combustion Research (FCR) Program
(EPA Contract No. 68-02-2631), Energy and Environmental
Research Corporation has carefully reviewed the numerical
techniques used by these computer programs. Conclusions from
this analysis are not yet definitive but indicate the possibility
of error in using the numerical techniques. Two possibilities exist.
First, as suggested by the practitioners, the numerical pro-
cedures could be correct, and discrepancy between predictions
and experimental findings could result from inadequate turbulence
modeling. Second, numerical errors could be substantial,
with agreement between prediction and measurement reflect-
ing merely a fortuitous choice of input correlation parameters.
To investigate these two possibilities and to establish
a rational course of action in refining predictive capabilities, the
FCR program has compiled a set of test cases. Prominent
practitioners in the formulation of these computer programs
will be invited to apply their techniques to these cases. Each
test case will have a known solution for a specified turbulence
model, thus restricting possible sources of discrepancy to
the numerical procedures.
Conventional Combustion Environmental Assessment:
Oil-to-Coal Conversion. An area of recent and growing concern
has been the environmental consequences of extensive con-
version from oil-firing to coal-firing industrial and utility boilers.
IERL-RTP has issued a report showing that the differences
in environmental impacts between coal and oil combustion
emissions from industrial boilers controlled only by FGD
(scrubbers) are potentially significant. The comprehensive
environmental assessment of a 10-MW (34 X 106 Btu/h)
industrial boiler, conducted by the Laboratory's Conventional
Combustion Environmental Assessment Program, suggests
several differences between coal firing and oil firing. The
following eight paragraphs present some of these differences.
First, before the scrubber, the quantity of particles from
coal firing was about 56 times as great as the quantity from
oil firing, but the oil-fired particles are generally smaller and more
difficult to remove. As a result, the quantity of particles from
coal firing was only 1.4 times as great as the quantity from
oil firing after the scrubber.
Second, the data indicate that little or no removal of particles
in the 1- to 3-jum (4 to 12 X 1CT5 inch) range occurred in the
scrubber. In fact, the net increase in emissions of these particles
suggests that particles in this size range are generated, as well
as not effectively removed, by the scrubber. Up to 40 percent
of the fine particle emissions at the scrubber outlet could result from
scrubber-generated sodium bisulfate (NaHSOJ.
Third, as expected, NOX and CO emissions before and after
the scrubber during coal firing were about triple those during
oil firing. This finding is typical because the scrubber does not
remove these pollutants, and no other controls were used.
As a result, it has been estimated that coal firing would produce
NOX levels that exceed the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) in the range of 1 to 3 km (0.6 to 1.9 mi) from the
source under typical weather conditions.
Fourth, S03 emissions from both coal firing and oil firing
before the scrubber are low—0.8 to 1.0 kg/h (1.8 to 2.3 Ib/h).
However, S03 emissions from oil firing were about 1.3 times
as great as S03 emissions from coal firing at the scrubber
inlet and 1.4 times as great at the scrubber outlet.
Fifth, sulfate emissions were about 9 kg/h (20 Ib/h) at the
scrubber inlet for coal firing and about 3 kg/h (7 Ib/h) for
oil firing. At the scrubber outlet, sulfate emissions for both fuels
were about 1.1 kg/h (2.5 Ib/h).
Sixth, although coal firing produced greater quantities of
trace elements in the scrubber cake than oil firing, quantities
of heavy metals and toxic substances in the scrubber cake from
both fuels would require the use of environmentally acceptable
disposal techniques to prevent contamination of ground water
by leaching.
Seventh, after the scrubber, most trace element emissions
(except vanadium, cadmium, lead, cobalt, nickel, and copper)
were higher during coal firing. Oil firing produced cadmium
emissions 60 times greater than coal firing.
Eighth, among the trace element emissions, cadmium and
molybdenum were predicted to produce the greatest burdens
in living plant tissues. Oil firing was predicted to produce
a tenfold increase in cadmium concentrations in living plants,
and coal firing was predicted to result in a thirtyfold increase
25
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in molybdenum concentrations. Because cadmium is considered
highly toxic and accumulates in mammals, its emission to the
environment is a serious problem. Although molybdenum is
much less toxic than cadmium, it has caused injury to farm
animals at very low concentrations; therefore, the emission of
molybdenum to the environment is also of concern.
Even though the differences outlined in the preceding
paragraphs are significant, it was concluded that other factors
may override fuel choice in determining the environmental
acceptability of controlled industrial boilers. These other
factors include location, type, and number of other emission
sources, background pollution levels, and the potential long-term
accumulation of pollutants to unacceptable levels in the
environment.
The comparative assessment of coal firing and oil firing was
conducted under IERL-RTP direction by TRW, Inc., of Redondo
Beach, California, with the cooperation and participation
of Firestone Tire and Rubber Company at the Firestone plant
in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. The study, which is EPA's most
comprehensive assessment of a conventional combustion source
to date, involved the following:
• Sampling and analysis of gas, liquid, and solid emissions
from the boiler and its pollution control equipment
• Estimation of multimedia environmental impacts of the
emissions
• Comparison with best estimates of acceptable levels of
impacts
• Evaluation of techniques for mitigating unacceptable impacts
Details of the comparative assessment are presented in a three-
volume EPA report published in August 1978.23
Advanced Combustion Processes
Along with work on conventional combustion equipment,
IERL-RTP is evaluating advanced combustion processes like
fluidized bed combustion (FBC), catalytic combustion, and
combined-cycle coal combustion.
Comprehensive sampling and analysis of emissions from
fluidized bed combustors have been completed at four units in
the United States and Great Britain. A pilot-scale test of emission
control techniques at DOE's FBC-fired plant [30 MW (102 X 106
Btu/h)] in Rivesville, West Virginia, is scheduled for the near future.
23U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Assessment of Coal- and
Oil-Firing in a Controlled Industrial Boiler: Vol. I, Executive Summary, NTIS
No. Pb 289-942, EPA 600/7-78-164a, Vol. II, Comparative Assessment, NTIS
No. Pb 289-941, EPA 600/7-78-164b; Vol. Ill, Comprehensive Assessment
and Appendices, NTIS No. Pb 291-236, EPA 600/7-78-164c, Aug. 1978.
lERL-RTP's 0.63-MW pressurized FBC Mmiplant, which burns
up to 500 Ib/d of coal, is operated by Exxon to study emissions
and control options.
Extensive tests are being conducted at a pilot-scale catalytic
combustor to develop scale-up criteria for different kinds of
stationary combustion equipment These tests already have
shown that catalytic combustors substantially reduce emissions
of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons
from a variety of fuels.
To unify all combustion modification work, lERL-RTP's
environmental assessment of NOX control is evaluating the
broader environmental and economic consequences of
controlling pollutants from stationary sources. Information on
pollutants, control techniques, and environmental effects
is being weighed and analyzed carefully. When the 3-year
study is completed, EPA will be in a much better position to
make intelligent choices about controlling NOX and other
pollutants in the years ahead.
The sections that follow present highlights of the year's
research accomplishments in advanced combustion processes.
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Classification of FBC Solid Residue. Solid residues from FBC
have been evaluated by the criteria and procedures proposed
in the Federal Register of December 18, 1 978,24 for determining
whether a material is to be considered "hazardous" under
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Materials
found to be hazardous will be subject to special requirements
for handling and disposal, to be specified under RCRA. The
evaluation of FBC residues indicated that, in general, FBC
residues will not be hazardous according to the RCRA criteria
and procedures as currently proposed.
Four criteria have been proposed for determining whether a
material is hazardous: toxicity (as determined by a proposed
leaching test referred to as the Extraction Procedure), corrosivity,
reactivity, and ignitability. Several FBC residues (including both
spent bed material and carryover/fly ash) have been tested to
date by the Extraction Procedure; none of the residues was
found to be hazardous in terms of toxicity (that is, in no
case did any trace metal concentration in the Extraction
Procedure leachate exceed 10 times the National Interim
Primary Drinking Water Standards). Also, it is EPA's current
judgment that the residue would not be considered corro-
sive, reactive, or ignitable. The conclusion, therefore, is that
FBC residue generally would not be found to be hazardous
under the currently proposed RCRA procedures.
In certain cases—perhaps if an FBC plant is burning a coal
or using a sorbent having a high content of trace metals—it is
possible for an individual FBC residue to be found hazardous.
It is likely that any such residue would be included in the same
"special waste" category that has been defined for any electric
utility wastes considered hazardous.
Activities are underway by EPA's Office of Solid Waste to
expand the RCRA test procedures. Biological testing for
toxicity and a fifth criterion (radioactivity) for determining whether
a residue is hazardous are under consideration. In addition,
changes in the test procedures are possible. Further testing of
FBC residue will be conducted as necessary employing any
new or revised procedures.
Potential of FBC as One Control Approach for Industrial
Boilers. GCA Corporation's Technology Division has prepared
a comprehensive Technology Assessment Report (TAR) that
assesses the environmental control options, the "best" control
systems, the cost, and the environmental and energy impacts
of the FBC process. This report was prepared to assist EPA's
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Hazardous Waste Proposed Guidelines
and Regulations and Proposal on Identification and Listing (Part IV)," 43 F.R ,
No. 243, Dec 18, 1978.
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS) in
determining the technological basis for NSPS being considered
for industrial boilers. The TAR concludes that, after the costs
and reliability have been demonstrated, atmospheric FBC
should be a candidate for any new coal-fired boiler installation.
The results from this report, together with results from similar
reports prepared on alternative control technologies (such
as flue gas desulfunzation), will be rigorously examined by
OAQPS in conjunction with several regulatory options to facilitate
the setting of standards for industrial boiler emissions.
Results of the FBC TAR suggest that the following should
be technically achievable at a cost only moderately above
that of an uncontrolled conventional boiler:
• S02 removals as high as 90 percent
• NOX emissions as low as 0.2 ng/kJ (0.5 lb/106 Btu)
• Particulate emissions as low as 0.01 ng/kJ (0.03 lb/106 Btu)
Although it was not in the scope of the TAR to compare alternative
control options, a preliminary comparison concludes that FBC
should be able to achieve the indicated control levels at a
cost competitive with conventional boilers using flue gas
desulfurization.
The large volume of soild residue (spent S02 control sorbent
and fly ash) generated by the FBC process could become an
important environmental concern. Further consideration is needed
of means for handling and disposing of this residue, the
leachate from which is very basic and has a high total dissolved
solids content.
The costs and reliability of this emerging energy technology
must be demonstrated in commercial-scale applications
before the process receives wide commercial acceptance.
Followup Testing for Mutagenic FBC Fine Particulates. Because
positive Ames (mutagenicity) results were obtained with fly ash
from the pressurized FBC (PFBC) Miniplant, IERL-RTP and
HERL-RTP are working together to evaluate Miniplant samples
further. This effort may be considered a methodology devel-
opment effort to identify Level 2 bioassay approaches. Samples
from three Miniplant runs have been provided to HERL-RTP
so far; two more sample sets will be provided in the future. During
these runs, the Laboratory's trailer-mounted partial control
devices (electrostatic precipitator or fabric filter) were on the
Miniplant flue gas so that the fine fly ash responsible for the
previous Ames result is captured in relatively large quantities.
HERL-RTP will repeat the Ames test with these samples,
using different extraction solvents and procedures. Whole animal
tests may be conducted if the early work warrants.
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Operation of FBC Unit With Baghouse. Two 36-hour runs
on the Sampling and Analytical Test Rig have been completed
successfully. The purpose of these test runs was to evaluate the
performance of low-temperature baghouse fabric filters as
paniculate control for FBC. The first 24 hours of each run
was for bag conditioning, and the remainder of the time was
used for sampling the effluent gas streams. Data reduction is
incomplete at this time but will be reported as soon as available.
Other scheduled test programs include: evaluation of electro-
static precipitators, environmental assessment of all emissions
and waste streams, and control of nitrogen oxides.
Continuation of Test Preparation for DOE on Georgetown
Atmospheric FBC Boiler. EPA continues to prepare for environ-
mental tests on the DOE 50,000-kg/h (100,000-Ib/h) steam
atmospheric FBC (AFBC) boiler at Georgetown University. Testing
plans include: Level 1 (and possibly Level 2) comprehensive
analysis, characterization of the performance of the fabric filter
on the unit, and 30-day continuous monitoring in support
of the industrial boiler NSPS development effort. DOE cooperation
continues to be excellent. Shakedown of this FBC is proceeding
well, giving encouragement that EPA's testing may indeed be
possible on the currently anticipated schedule. The Georgetown
unit originally burned coal, but since late June it has had
several reasonably successful coal combustion runs of 8 hours
or more. The unit eventually will be turned over to the university
for routine operation.
FBC Support to Program Offices. To ensure that the IERL-RTP
FBC program is fully supportive of the program offices, the
Laboratory has initiated communication with all the offices in an
effort to define their real needs. The results of these dialogues
will be used to develop the Standards Support Plan for FBC
and to design the FBC program to provide the information that
the program offices require. To date, brief individual documents
have been prepared for each program office. These documents
raise issues to stimulate discussions that should help define
the goals of the IERL-RTP program. It is now planned to follow
through with a visit to each office to discuss these issues
with program office staff. In addition, further action is underway
in connection with some of the offices: for the Office of Solid
Waste (OSW), IERL-RTP (through GCA Corporation) is attempting
to define the precise tasks that should be undertaken to
support OSWs mandate under RCRA; for the Office of Radiation
Programs (ORP), specific radioassays on FBC samples have
been undertaken. Program offices contacted, in addition to
OAQPS, include the Office of Water Planning and Standards,
OSW, ORP, the Office of Toxic Substances, and the Office
of Noise Abatement and Control.
Reducing IMOX Emissions From PFBC by 30 to 50 Percent
Through Combustion Modifications. A test program on the
PFBC bench-scale unit—burning coal at 11 kg/h (25 Ib/h)—at
Exxon Research and Engineering Company indicated that up to
50 percent reduction in emissions of NOX can be achieved
in PFBC through the use of two-stage combustion, ammonia
injection, or flue gas recirculation. Combinations of these
combustion modification techniques, however, do not provide
reductions beyond those obtained using one of the tech-
niques alone.
Two-stage combustion runs were made with primary air
being 75 to 90 percent of stoichiometric conditions and with
enough secondary air injected into the bed, near the top,
to raise the total air to an excess of 15 to 30 percent. Operating
at 800 kPa (8 atm) total pressure, this approach reduced NOX
emissions from the range of 86 to 129 ng/J (0.2 to 0.3 lb/106 Btu),
with an average reduction of 45 percent. Two-stage operation
also had the adverse effect of increasing S02 and CO emissions.
More testing would be required to optimize two-stage operation
and to address the impact of such operation on other FBC
performance parameters.
Ammonia injection tests investigated the effect of ammonia
injection location and temperature, ammonia feed rate (NH3/NO
ratio), and the injection of hydrogen with the ammonia. Injec-
tion location was found to have the predominant effect. When
the ammonia was injected near the top of the bed (at a tem-
perature of about 704° C (1,300° F), NOX emissions were
reduced by 30 to 50 percent to about 0.04 ng/kJ (0.10 lb/106 Btu).
Simulated flue gas recirculation tests were conducted by
mixing nitrogen with the combustion air feed to simulate the
effects of recirculation. Tests simulating different degrees
of recirculation (10 percent and 20 percent of the air feed) showed
no substantial reduction in NOX emissions as a result of the
simulated recirculation.
These results are considered preliminary; further testing is
required to confirm the results and perfect the process.
Potential of Conventional Cyclones and Ceramic Filters for
High-Temperature/High-Pressure Particle Control. High-
temperature/high-pressure particle control devices have
been tested on lERL-RTP's 0.63-MW (2.15 X 106 Btu/h) PFBC
Miniplant at Exxon. The goal of this testing has been to achieve
the revised EPA NSPS for utility boiler emissions—0.01 ng/kJ
(0.03 lb/106 Btu). This goal was achieved using a ceramic
fiber filter, consisting of Saffil alumina, on a 0.85-m3/min
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(SO-ftVmin) slipstream of Miniplant flue gas. Emissions
somewhat higher than 0.01 ng/kJ (0.03 lb/106 Btu) were
achieved using three stages of conventional cyclones. These
results are encouraging.
Approximately 30 tests were conducted using the slipstream
ceramic fiber filter, representing about 90 hours of operation.
At 81 5° C (1,500° F) and 900 kPa (9 atm), the filter captured
between 90 and 99+ percent of the particulate in the entering
flue gas. The inlet particle loading was between 0.2 and 0.5
ng/kJ (0.4 and 1.2 lb/106 Btu), with a mass mean particle size
of about 7 jitm (2.8 X 10~4 inch); the outlet loading ranged from
0.86 to 12.90 ng/J (0.002 to 0.03 lb/106 Btu), which is equal
to or below the standard. Operation of the ceramic fiber filter
was generally smooth and stable. Reverse air pulses, employed
to clean the filter, maintained a reasonable pressure drop
across the filter.
About 2,000 hours of Miniplant operation have been com-
pleted with three stages of conventional cyclones in series
treating the full flue gas flow—up to 14 m3/min (500 ftVmin).
The three cyclones typically reduced particulate emissions to
0.02 to 0.1 ng/kJ (0.04 to 0.2 lb/106 Btu), with a mass mean
particle size of about 1 to 2 /Am (0.4 to 0.8 X 10"4 inch). Of particular
interest was the performance of the third cyclone, which
reduced the particle loading from the inlet value of 0.2 to 0.7 ng/kJ
(0.4 to 1.6 lb/106 Btu)—mass mean particle size 5 to 7 ju.m
(2 to 2.8 X 10~4 inch)—to the outlet levels indicated previously.
This performance of the cyclone on such fine particulate is
superior to that which would be expected based on traditional
cyclone performance equations. The reason for this superior
performance is not fully understood.
Improving SO2 Removal by Increasing Gas Residence Time.
IERL-RTP has projected that improved sorbent performance in
removing S02 can be achieved in FBC's by increasing gas
residence time. A recent test program on the 0.63-MW (2.15 X 106
Btu/h) PFBC Miniplant confirmed that projection, demonstrating
S02 removals greater than 90 percent while limiting NOX
emissions to 0.02 to 0.1 ng/kJ (0.05 to 0.2 lb/106 Btu).
In a series of tests run with a gas residence time of about 1.6
seconds, S02 removals ranged from 94 to 98 percent while
varying the dolomite sorbent feed rate calcium-to-sulfur molar
ratio between 1.5 and 2. When the gas resklence time was
increased to 2.1 seconds, theS02 removals at the same dolomite
feed rates were increased to 97 to 99.8 percent.
In addition to confirming the important effect of gas residence
time, these runs demonstrated that almost any level of sulfur
capture is technically achievable in PFBC. The control levels
that may be employed in practice will have to be assessed
for:
• Overall economic impact of buying, handling, and disposing
of increased quantities of sorbent
• Impact on overall plant performance
• Environmental impact of disposing of increased quantities of
solid residue
Suitable selection of such key parameters as gas residence
time and sorbent particle size may be critical in determining the
level of S02 control that is economically achievable.
Postcombustion Controls
To complete its coverage of possible combustion options,
IERL-RTP is seeking more efficient means of controlling sulfur
oxides (SOX), particulates, and nitrogen oxides after fuel is
burned, that is, in the postcombustion stage. Postcombustion
controls use a variety of technologies to remove these pollutants
from the discharge streams of combustion processes.
Flue Gas Desulfurization
For the immediate future, flue gas desulfurization (FGD) promises
to be technically and economically the most feasible method of
reducing sulfur emissions from utility and industrial boilers.
To improve this technology, IERL-RTP is sponsoring a number
of FGD evaluation and demonstration projects.
Lime/limestone scrubbers are being evaluated in pilot-scale
programs at IERL-RTP laboratories in North Carolina and
at Tennesee Valley Authority's (TVA's) Shawnee Station near
Paducah, Kentucky. Long-term reliability and verification tests
currently are being conducted on two 10-MW (34 X 106 Btu/h)
prototypes at the Shawnee site, and options are being evaluated
for treating and recycling the sludge created by the scrubbers.
This program is an important step in the development of
environmentally safe, cost-effective ways to dispose of the sulfur
wastes and other materials from flue gas cleaning processes.
At Northern Indiana Public Service Company's Dean H. Mitchell
Station near Gary, Indiana, IERL-RTP is investigating the
Wellman-Lord/AHied Chemical process, in which SOX are
removed from flue gases and used to produce elemental sulfur.
In a project funded with the Air Force at Rickenbacker
Air Force Base near Columbus, Ohio, IERL-RTP is testing another
FGD process, the Swedish Bahco lime-scrubbing process.
Dual-alkali and alkaline ash-scrubbing processes also are being
investigated.
29
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Magnesium oxide FGD plant at Philadelphia Electric Company's
Eddystone facility in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Pictured
from left to right are magnesium oxide storage silos, Boiler No. 2
stack, magnesium sulfite dryer, and coal conveyor.
The Laboratory is gaining further valuable msight into S02
scrubber technology through its cooperative efforts with Japan,
where success in the application of scrubber technology has
been impressive. Under the terms of the U.S.-Japan Agreement
on Cooperation in the Field of Environmental Protection,
IERL-RTP is widening its base of knowledge in the whole area
of FGD technology for combustion sources.
The sections that follow present highlights of the year's
research accomplishments in FGD.
Utility Dual-Alkali FGD Demonstration. lERL-RTP's full-scale,
cost-shared demonstration of the dual-alkali process at Louisville
Gas & Electric's 280-MW (960 X 106 Btu/h) Cane Run No. 6
Station entered the startup phase in late spring 1979. The unit
was tested successfully for compliance with S02 and particulate
removal requirements imposed by Jefferson County, Kentucky,
and EPA Region IV.
The EPA demonstration acceptance tests designed to establish
system performance with respect to key contract guarantees
were scheduled for late November 1979. These tests have been
delayed somewhat by a number of mechanical problems that
have hindered continuous operation. Most of these problems.
however, have been resolved as evidenced by a 96-percent
system availability factor for October.
Following completion of the acceptance tests, a 1-year
test program will be undertaken to characterize completely
the system performance, reliability, and economics.
Dry SO2 Control Program. IERL-RTP initiated its dry S02 control
program early in 1979 through support of two surveys. One
survey concerns the economics of dry scrubbing and is being
performed by TV A. The main objective of this study was to
provide an expeditious economic comparison of the most
promising application of a lime sorbent dry-scrubbing system
treating flue gas from western coal (0.7 percent sulfur, high
alkalinity) with state-of-the-art wet limestone scrubbing.
The report on this objective was received in early September
1979, and its revised version serves as an interim in-house
reference. The final report, which is to be completed by TVA m
late 1980, will include process information from vendors and
will cover the three methods of dry FGD technology—spray-
dryer baghouse, dry sorbent duct injection (before baghouse),
and dry sorbent (limestone) boiler injection into a Iow-N0x burner.
The second survey summarizes the status of dry FGD processes
in the United States for both utility and industrial applications.
Radian Corporation completed the report in late 1979.25
Quarterly updates of this survey for this rapidly developing
technology field are planned during fiscal year 1980.
Three demonstrations of dry FGD systems are in the planning
stages with three different vendors. One demonstration would
involve a full-scale industrial-size boiler—generating steam
at 50,000 kg/h (1 00,000 Ib/h)—using eastern coal (1 to 2 percent
sulfur) and a spray dryer baghouse system with lime as sorbent.
This system at Celanese's Amcelle Plant in Cumberland,
Maryland, is under construction and is expected to be operational
in March 1980. A testing waiver is needed for parametric
testing because the plant must remove S02 to meet Prevention
of Significant Deterioration (PSD) requirements. Full-load
tests are expected to precede the parametric tests and to provide
data relevant to NSPS for industrial boilers.
Two pilot-scale projects at western utilities involve spray
dryer baghouse systems. In addition to scrubber waste charac-
terization for both systems, waste disposal options for sodium
salts resulting from using sodium compounds in both dry
injection and spray dryer processes are being studied for the
project now underway at the Martin Drake plant in Colorado
5U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Survey of Dry SO2 Control Systems
(NTIS No. to be assigned), EPA 600/7-80-030, Feb. 1980.
30
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Springs. For a second site, negotiations are underway for
comprehensive testing of an optimized system using lime as
sorbent in a system handling 140 to 280 actual m3/min (5,000
to 10,000 actual ft3/min) of flue gas.
If the work proceeds as planned, the full-load data for the
full-scale industrial boiler scrubber tests should be available by
June 1980, and the final report should be completed in
September 1980. Reports for the two pilot demonstrations at
utility sites are expected to be completed near the end of 1980.
Aqueous Carbonate Process FGD Demonstration. In early
May 1979, the EPRI and Empire State Electric Energy Research
Corporation (ESEERCO) boards approved funding for the
demonstration of Rockwell International's Aqueous Carbonate
Process (ACP). This regenerable FGD process will be installed
at the 100-MW (340 X 106 Btu/h) coal-fired unit at Huntley
Station inTonawanda, New York. Unlike most current commercial
FGD systems, which produce a throwaway sludge product, the
ACP produces elemental sulfur, a marketable byproduct.
In the ACP, flue gas is brought into contact with Na2CO3 in a
spray dryer. Na2C03 is formed as a dry product, which is collected
and sent to a molten salt bath where it is reduced with coal
or coke. The resulting Na2S "smelt" is quenched and dissolved,
and the resulting "green liquor" reacts with the C02 evolved
during the preceding reduction. The reaction regenerates
Na2C03 and evolves S02, which is sent on to a Claus plant
where elemental sulfur is produced.
Among the various sulfur-producing FGD processes, ACP
is unique because of its direct use of coal or coke as a reductant.
Other processes require natural gas, reductant gas produced
by gasifying coal, or hydrogen. Low energy consumption is
another advantage. Typically in sulfur-producing processes, a
sorbent regeneration step requires energy and produces an S02
stream, which is then reduced. The reduction also consumes
energy.
Negotiations have been completed among EPA, ESEERCO,
Rockwell International, EPRI, and Energy Research and Develop-
ment Authority of New York State to sponsor the demonstration
jointly. Ground breaking took place in September 1979,
and laying of foundations and caissons was completed in
November.
Dry Scrubbing of Key Interest to Attendees at Fifth FGD
Symposium. Approximately 800 representatives from industry,
utilities, and regulatory agencies attended 3.5 days of papers,
presentations, and panel discussions on such subjects as
health effects of S02, status and possible impact of pending
legislation, recent operating history of several significant FGD
installations, and recent technological breakthroughs. Symposium
participants included personnel from TVA, EPRI, DOE, and the
U.S. Bureau of Mines.
The Symposium's keynote speaker, Leon Ring, General
Manager of TVA, stated that TVA "does not view environmental
protection and energy technology as opposing factors."
In their view, "they are two sides to the same coin." Ring
continued by describing TVA's $1 billion capital investment
program for S02 control.
During the panel discussion on the impact of recent legislation,
Walter C. Barber, EPA's Deputy Assistant Administrator for Air
Quality Planning and Standards, described current Agency
thinking on the Clean Air Act amendments. He discussed
alternatives such as 24-hour vs. 30-day averaging times, 85
percent vs. 90 percent S02 removal, and partial vs. full scrubbing.
Gary N. Dietrich, Associate Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Solid Waste, and James Agee, Regional Coordinator for Office
of Water Planning and Standards, discussed RCRA and the
Clean Water Act, respectively. This 1.5-hour session was
marked by active audience participation.
The symposium devoted 1.5 days to utility applications. In
the area of operating experience, Don Ross of Davy Powergas
spoke on Wellman-Lord at Northern Indiana Public Service
Company and Public Service of New Mexico; Harlan Head of
Bechtel described recent Shawnee lime/limestone results,
particularly the dramatic success to date with adipic acid
enhancement. These two programs are EPA sponsored. In
addition, attendees heard about Cholla Station, LaCygne, Martin
Lake, and sludge disposal at Cane Run.
Dry scrubbing was the topic that generated the most interest.
Two papers described the technology, recent testing experience,
and plans for large-scale power plant applications. Dry scrubbing
was also the primary focus at the evening panel discussion on
the current status and future prospects of FGD.
A half-day session devoted to industrial applications in-
cluded papers on significant industrial boiler FGD installations
and a panel discussion on FGD for potential industrial boiler NSPS.
Fine Particulates
Fineparticulates—lessthan3]Ltm(1.2X 10~4 inch) in diameter—
include some of the most dangerous pollutants. These tiny
particles bypass the natural filters in our nasal passages and
penetrate deep into our lungs, where they may cause respiratory
disease and cancer.
IERL-RTP is helping to solve the problem of fine paniculate
pollution by studying novel and advanced techniques and
31
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Photomicrograph of fly ash from a coal-fired power plant
(magnified 200 times).
by improving the efficiency and cost effectiveness of the
three main paniculate control devices in use today—electrostatic
precipitators (ESP's), wet scrubbers, and fabric filter systems.
At present, three techniques are being tested to improve
the performance of ESP's: increasing the specific collection
area, redesigning devices to operate at higher temperatures,
and adding conditioning agents to the exhaust gases.
Tests on new, low-cost designs for wet scrubbers are
underway at TVA's Shawnee Station near Paducah, Kentucky.
Both a mobile bed scrubber and a venturi/spray tower system
are being studied.
For the future, fabric filter systems, called baghouses,
may be the most attractive technique for controlling fine par-
ticulates—especially from boilers firing low-sulfur western coal.
This is true for two reasons. First, these tiny particles are
less likely to escape through fabric filters than through ESP's.
Second, the particles emitted when burning low-sulfur western
coal exhibit a high resistance to obtaining a charge and thus
are difficult to collect using an ESP. (Ordinarily particles would
have no charge of their own and would be attracted to the
electrically charged elements in the ESP.) To improve baghouses,
IERL-RTP is using materials like silica and zirconia to develop
advanced filters that can withstand extremely high temperature
corrosive environments for long periods of time.
The sections that follow present highlights of the year's
research accomplishments in fine particulates.
Significant Cost Savings for Control of Fly Ash Projected From
Pilot Scale Test of Novel Two-Stage ESP. In response to the
need for cost-effective technology for controlling the particulate
emissions from utility boilers burning low-sulfur coal, a novel
two-stage ESP has been developed by Southern Research
Institute under the sponsorship of IERL-RTP. The precharger
stage employs a novel method for control of back corona.
This precharger provides well-controlled electrical conditions
and rapid particle charging in spite of the high electrical
resistivity of the fly ash produced by most low-sulfur coals.
The downstream collector stage is operated at high electric field
strength and low current density to permit efficient collection
of the charged particles and to avoid any substantial back
discharge.
A pilot scale precharger-collector system was fabricated
and tested on a slipstream of approximately 28 actual m3/min
(1,000 actual ftVmin) at a coal-fired power plant where a
high-resistivity fly ash was present. To compare the system with
the conventional ESP technology, the IERL-RTP mobile ESP was
operated simultaneously on a parallel slipstream. During
a test period of approximately 2 weeks, measurements were
made to characterize the particulate matter and the flue gas,
to determine the effectiveness of the precharger in charging
high-resistivity particles, and to assess the particle collec-
tion efficiency.
Although the inlet mass loading was about twice the expected
loading, the precharger worked well. No operational problems
were encountered during the test period. The average of the
overall mass collection efficiency of the precharger-collector
system was 97.7 percent, as determined by daily measurements
during the test period. This rate compares with the average
overall mass collection efficiency of about 90 percent for the
mobile conventional ESP with the same specific collector area.
Thus, the particulate emissions from the precharger-collector
system were nearly one-fifth of the emissions from a conventional
ESP with the same specific collector area. A preliminary
engineering analysis indicates that the precharger produces
an effect equivalent to more than doubling the total specific
collector area of the downstream collector. This result is in
agreement with previous laboratory tests and theoretical studies.
Because the cost of an ESP is nearly proportional to the
specific collector area, a substantial economic benefit can be
projected for the two-stage system.
The field data and previous pilot plant work were used to
estimate the specific collector area and costs of a precharger
32
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system installed on a utility boiler burning low-sulfur coal
and capable of meeting the paniculate emission NSPS—0.01
ng/kJ (0.03 lb/106 Btu). The estimated specific collector area
for a precharger system is 18.3 m2/1,000 actual m3/s (335
ft2/1,000 actual ftYmin), which compares with an estimated
specific collector area of 38.3 m2/1,000 actual m3/s (700 ft2/1,000
actual ft3/min) for a conventional ESP. Order of magnitude
turnkey capital costs for the precharger system are $44/kW to
$50/kW compared with about $80/kW for the conventional ESP.
The field data and previous pilot plant data indicate that the
particulate collection efficiency of a properly designed precharger
system is little affected by increases in the electrical resistivity
of the fly ash (at least in the range of 1 X 1011 to3X 1012 ohm-cm).
Thus, a precharger system with a specific collector area of
20.7 m2/1,000 actual m3/s (380 ft2/1,000 actual ft3/min) should
meet NSPS for even worst case coals. A comparison of esti-
mated costs for meeting NSPS with various ash resistivities for
precharger systems and conventional technology is shown
in Table 2.
The outlook for retrofit applications for the precharger
also shows promise. The electrical characteristics and per-
formance of the IERL-RTP mobile ESP, representing the
conventional technology, were very similar to those found for
the downstream collector in the two-stage system. Therefore,
the addition of a precharger to such a conventional ESP
can be expected to produce a similar magnitude of improve-
ment in collection efficiency.
Diesel Emission Control. To representatives of EPA-Research
Triangle Park, EPA-Ann Arbor, the U.S. Department of Trans-
portation (DOT), and DOE, Southern Research Institute and
Battelle Columbus presented results of recent diesel control
development. The purpose of their presentations was to review
significant progress under IERL-RTP contracts. These contracts
are intended to assess and develop concepts for aftertreatmenl
of diesel emissions. The Southern Research Institute contract
also has assessed the application of stationary source par-
ticulate control devices to mobile sources.
Southern Research Institute found that diesel paniculate is
difficult to collect because of its small particle size and low
bulk density. Application of scrubbers was ruled out entirely
by high evaporation losses. Traps, filters, and electrostatic
devices could be used to achieve 60 to 90 percent collection
efficiencies at pressure drops less than that in current mufflers.
Specific designs for future study were recommended, including
a fiber filter, a two-stage electrostatic collector, and a trap
similar to the one proposed by Eikosha Company.
Battelle Columbus found that a number of approaches
for oxidation of diesel particles were feasible and that cata-
lytic oxidation on some type of filter or trap holds the greatest
promise. The key to successful operation would be frequent
ignition combined with filter media that maintain integrity at
high temperature.
Other discussion was provided by Senichi Masuda of Tokyo
University and Tom Barnes of EPA-Ann Arbor. Senichi Masuda
reviewed the current activity of Eikosha Company in developing
the Aut-Ainer trap. Better cooling of the trap by ram air ducted
from the front of the vehicle had increased efficiency during
a recent road test. Tom Baines reported that work on the
contract with Michigan Technical University had started and
that there were plans to evaluate a series of control approaches
on a heavy duty diesel.
Table 2.
Order of Magnitude Cost Estimates for Meeting Utility NSPS for Particulate Matter of 12.90 ng/J
Resistivity
(ohm-cm)
1 X 1011
2 X 1 01 1
5 X 1011
1012.
SCA of precharger system
(ft2/actual 1,000ft3/min)a
355
355
380
380
Cost of precharger system
($/kW)
44-50
44-50
47-53
47-53
SCA of conventional ESP
(ft2/actual 1,000ft3/min)a
700
800
850
930
Cost of conventional ESP
($/kW)
80
91
97
10fi
"Specific collector area (SCA) is measured in square feet of collector area per actual 1,000 cubic feet of gas per minute (ft2/actual
1,000 rr/Vmin). To convert SCA from English to metric units (m2/1,000 m3/s), multiply by 0.055.
33
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Evaluation of a Baghouse for Collection of Fly Ash From
Low-Sulfur Coal. A contract has been funded with Southwestern
Public Service (SWPS) to provide a full-scale demonstration of
a fabric filter for control of particulates on a large utility
boiler burning western low-sulfur coal. A new fabric filter
began operation in June 1978 on a 356-MW (1,214 X 106 Btu/h)
boiler at the Harrington Station of SWPS in Amarillo, Texas.
IERL-RTP has provided funding for installation and operation
of continuous monitors to track filter operation and performance.
Also, three 1-month detailed emission tests are scheduled
to be completed during the first 2 years of operation to characterize
the fabric filter. Results of these emission tests will provide
a sound basis for NSPS, State Implementation Plan (SIP),
and PSD determinations. The contract will continue until 1984
to determine the technical and economic feasibility and the long-
term reliability of the fabric filter.
Shortly after the fabric filter unit began operating, the pressure
drop began to increase rapidly. At full load the pressure drop reached
25 to 31 cm (10 to 12 inches). Design pressure drop is about
13 cm (5 inches). Also, after about 3 months of operation,
bag failures began to occur at an alarming rate. In June 1979
the fabric filter unit was rebagged after several modifications to
the cleaning system failed to reduce the high pressure drop. Since
rebagging was completed, the pressure drop has improved
and is now operating at 18 to 20 cm (7 to 8 inches) at full
load. No bag failures caused by wear have been observed.
Before the new bags were installed, one of the three 1-month
detailed tests was completed. The average outlet loading
for this test series was 0.01 ng/kJ (0.02 lb/106 Btu), and the
average collection efficiency was 99.4 percent.
Testing To Develop Emission Factors for Inhalable Paniculate
Program. In response to the amendments to the Clean Air
Act of 1977, EPA is considering an ambient standard for
mhalable particles—those particles having aerodynamic di-
ameters <15 ;um (<59 X 10~5 inch). Consequently, it will be
necessary to have emission factors for mhalable particles to
provide for implementation of the standard. IERL-RTP is assisting
OAQPS in determining emission factors based on cutoff size
for mhalable particles for both controlled and uncontrolled sources.
A multiple-award competitive procurement was issued
by IERL-RTP in fiscal year 1979 for three contractors to test
mhalable paniculate emissions. The continental United States
was divided into the following three geographical areas for
contract award:
• Area A: EPA Regions I, II, III, and IV
• Area B: EPA Regions V, VI, and VII
• Area C: EPA Regions VIII, IX, and X
The contractors selected were GCA Corporation for Area A,
Midwest Research Institute for Area B, and Acurex Corporatior
for Area C. Contracts were awarded in September 1979;
testing begins early in fiscal year 1980.
Some mhalable particulate (IP) testing was initiated in fisca
year 1979 under existing EPA contracts for secondary lead
smelters, the iron and steel industry, and paved and unpaved roads
Draft copies of sampling protocols for IP emission testing hav
been prepared and issued to IP emission testing contractors
for both ducted and fugitive emissions. The protocols will
be published early in 1980.
A computer program has been developed to extrapolate dat
from the Fine Particle Emissions Information System to the IP
range. The user can extract data for up to 50 sample runs
from a given source and fit a curve to the data points. From thi
curve, the fraction below 15 ;um (59 X 10~5 inch) or the fractio
below any particle size less than 15 /xm (59 X 10~5 inch)
can be estimated.
Particulate Symposium. The Particulate Control Technology
Annual Symposium was held in July in Denver, Colorado, with 80(
attendees from a wide variety of companies, including 17
utility companies. Approximately 120 papers were presented
at the 4-day meeting, which started with a keynote speech
by Frank T. Princiotta and a plenary session on enforcement
questions.
The attendees were polled to determine areas of interest.
The most popular topic was operation and maintenance, with
ESP's and fabric filters running a close second. Interest in
particulate scrubbers appears to be waning.
Technical presentations drawing great interest were the
application of precipitators and baghouses to power plants
and the development of novel precipitators. Examples of nove
precipitators discussed are the Buell Trielectrode Electrostatic
Precipitator, the University of Denmark Pulse Generator/Precip
tator, and the Wide Plate Spaced Electrostatic Precipitator.
Also discussed were two-stage precipitators using novel chargin
sections, such as the Southern Research Institute Precharger,
the Air Pollution Systems, Inc., High Intensity Ionizer, and
the University of Tokyo Boxer Charger. As an important alternativ
to ESP's, baghouses were shown, in papers given, to have
had general success in controlling emissions from coal-fired
power plants. Current baghouse installations include units of th
Cameo, Harrington, Holtwood, Kramer, Martin Drake, Nucla, an
Sunbury power stations. When operating properly, baghouses
are capable of limiting emissions to less than 5 mg/normal m
(5 X 10~6 oz/stdft3) at pressure drops of less than 2 kPa (0.3 Ib/in2
Not all baghouse installations have been completely successful
34
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Both high pressure drop and bag loss have been encountered
at the Harrington station, but these problems appear to be solved.
Flux Force/Condensation Scrubber Demonstration. A flux
force/condensation (F/C) scrubber system has been developed
by Air Pollution Technology under the sponsorship of IERL-RTP.
An F/C scrubber is any wet scrubber designed to take advantage
of water vapor condensation effects to enhance particle
collection. Some of the water vapor condenses on the particles,
causing their mass and diameter to increase and thereby
making them easier to collect. The rest of the condensing vapor
sweeps particles with it as it moves toward the cold surface
and condenses. To a lesser extent, particle collection is also
enhanced by thermal forces resulting from the temperature gradient
between the gas and the cold surface. The diffusion and
thermal forces are termed "flux" forces.
A full-scale F/C scrubber has been demonstrated on an iron
cupola. The 400-dry-normal-m3/min (14,000-dry-stdft3/mm)
gas-atomized spray F/C scrubber was installed on the iron melting
cupola at the Cleveland, Ohio, plant of Metalblast, Inc. A
6-month period of extensive study under a variety of conditions
is nearing completion. The tests have shown that the F/C
scrubber system uses only 70 percent of the power that a con-
ventional scrubber system needs to achieve the same collection
efficiency.
NOX Flue Gas Treatment
Along with postcombustion controls for SOX and particulates,
IERL-RTP is sponsoring research on flue gas treatment (FGT)
for reducing NOX emissions from utility and large industrial
sources. Although both dry and wet FGT processes are being
investigated, lERL-RTP's program focuses on dry techniques,
such as selective catalytic reduction of NOX with ammonia,
because they avoid many of the sludge disposal problems
associated with wet FGT processes.
The Laboratory's international cooperative program with
Japan has been particularly important in evaluating FGT
technology. Japan already has a number of FGT systems in
operation, and IERL-RTP draws heavily on their utility/industrial
experiences in applying the technology.
In addition, IERL-RTP is performing both an economic
and a control technology assessment of FGT processes. As
part of these assessments, data from the Chicago Air Quality
Control Region are being used in a modeling study comparing
the economic and environmental impacts of currently available
NOX control technologies.
The sections that follow present highlights of the year's
research accomplishments in NO FGT.
FGT Technology for NOX and Simultaneous NOX/SOX Control.
The objective of this research and development program is
to demonstrate the applicability of FGT technology to coal-fired
sources for the highly efficient removal of NOX and SOX emissions.
The goal of the program is to remove 90 percent of the NOX or
90 percent of both the NOX and SOX emissions. Significant
progress was made in 1979 toward meeting the program's
objective.
Construction was completed on a pilot plant to evaluate Hitachi
Zosen's process for the selective catalytic reduction of NOX
with ammonia. Chemico Air Pollution Control Corporation, Hitachi
Zosen's American licensee, operated the unit, which was
installed at Georgia Power Company's Mitchell plant. Preliminary
measurements indicate NOX removal was in the range of
80-90 percent at an NO:NH3 mole ratio of 1:1 and a temperature
of 393° C (740° F).
Final results from the program should be available in 1980.
The pilot plant was the first application of the technology
on a coal-fired source in the United States.
Construction was also completed on a pilot plant to evaluate
the Shell-Universal Oil Products (UOP) copper oxide process
for the simultaneous removal of NOX and SOX emissions. The
unit was installed at Tampa Electric Company's Big Bend
station. Preliminary results indicated NOX and SOX removal in the
90-percent range for a 30-minute acceptance time and an
NO:NH3 mole ratio of 1:1. Final results from the program should
be available in 1980. The pilot plant was the first application
of the technology on a coal-fired source in the world.
The Japanese are the leaders in developing FGT technology
for NOX and simultaneous NOX/SOX control. To apprise interested
U.S. parties of the latest developments, EPA published NOX
Abatement for Stationary Sources in Japan.26 The report
cited considerable advances with selective catalytic reduction
technology for NOX control. Catalysts resistant to sulfur species
and reactors free from particulate plugging have been com-
mercialized. Many large plants have been constructed, mainly
for boilers that burn gas and oil. Demonstration plants for
coal-fired boilers were under construction.
To estimate the cost of applying selective catalytic reduction
technology in the United States, an economic study was
undertaken by TVA. This study was cosponsored by EPRI and
EPA. A 90-percent NOX reduction system for a 500-MW
(1,700 X 106 Btu/h) coal-fired plant was estimated to have a
capital cost of about $42/kW and an annual revenue requirement
of about 2.7 mills/kWh. The dry simultaneous NOX/SO process
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, NOx Abatement for Stationary Sources in
Japan. NTIS No. Pb 80-113673, EPA 600/7-79-205. Aug 1979.
35
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(Shell-UOP) appeared competitive with the NOX control
process followed by a conventional FGD unit. The final report,
Preliminary Economic Analysis of NOX Flue Gas Treatment
Processes, should be available in early 1980.
A study was conducted by Radian Corporation to assess the
applicability of NOX FGT technology to industrial boilers.
The study was one of a series of technology assessment reports
to help determine the technological basis for NSPS for industrial
boilers. This study was the first serious consideration of the
technology for a Federal standard. The study assessed the
status of development and performance of alternative NOX FGT
control techniques and identified the cost, energy, and en-
vironmental impacts of the most promising processes. The
final report, Technology Assessment Report for Industrial
Boiler Applications: NOX Flue Gas Treatment, should be
available in early 1980.
Because results of the pilot plants and other studies will be
available in 1980, a significant advancement should occur in NOX
and NOX/SOX FGT technology in the United States. This progress
will enable EPA to move ahead with its assessment of the
feasibility of applying the technology to coal-fired sources in
the United States.
IERL-RTP Support to the Industrial Boiler NSPS. The amend-
ments to the Clean Air Act of 1977 required that emission
standards be developed for the fossil-fuel-fired steam generators.
Accordingly, EPA has undertaken a study of industrial boilers
to propose NSPS for this category of sources. The study is
being directed by OAQPS; technical support is being provided
by EPA's Office of Research and Development (ORD). As part
of this support, IERL-RTP prepared a series of technology
assessment reports for determining the technological basis for
the NSPS for industrial boilers. The complete report series
is listed in Table 3.
The reports in Table 3 will be combined with other infor-
mation into the document, "Industrial Boilers—Background
Information for Proposed Standards," which will be issued by
OAQPS.
Emission testing is being conducted by IERL-RTP con-
tractors to establish 30-day performance levels of emission
control technology on industrial boilers. The following testing
was conducted in 1979 or is planned for 1980:
Table 3.
IERL-RTP Technology Assessment Report Series
Title
EPA No.
• NOX combustion modification, 7
o FGD, 3 sites
• FBC, 2 sites
sites
The Population and Characteristics of Indus-
trial/Commercial Boilers in the U.S.a
Technology Assessment Report for Industrial
Boiler Applications: Oil Cleaning
Technology Assessment Report for Industrial
Boiler Applications: Coal Cleaning and Low
Sulfur Coal
Technology Assessment Report for Industrial
Boiler Applications: Synthetic Fuels
Technology Assessment Report for Industrial
Boiler Applications: Fluidized-Bed Combus-
tion
Technology Assessment Report for Industrial
Boiler Applications: NOX Combustion Modi-
fication
Technology Assessment Report for Industrial
Boiler Applications: NOX Flue Gas Treat-
ment
Technology Assessment Report for Industrial
Boiler Applications: Paniculate Collec-
tion
Technology Assessment Report for Industrial
Boiler Applications: Flue Gas Desulfuriza-
tionb
600/7-79-178
600/7-79-178
600/7-79-1 78
600/7-79-178
600/7-79-1 78
600/7-79-1 78
600/7-79-1 78
600/7-79-1 78
600/7-79-1 7£
aNTIS No. Pb 80150881.
bNTIS No. Pb 80150873.
In addition, IERL-RTP project officers and contractors assisted
in the development of computerized algorithms to estimate
cost, energy, and environmental impacts of applying emission
control techniques to industrial boilers. The algorithms were
used in the Industrial Fuel Choice Analysis Model of OAQPS 1
predict nationwide impacts of various alternative regulatory option
The support of the industrial boiler NSPS activity is the mo;
extensive and significant commitment to a regulatory action
undertaken by the IERL-RTP. This high level of involvement i:
expected to continue in 1980.
Power Plant Waste and Water Management
IERL-RTP is conducting a comprehensive program to find
environmentally acceptable methods of dealing with the wastt
36
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and the water pollution problems created in energy production.
The Laboratory is seeking means of disposing of, or using,
FGD byproducts and coal ash, as well as means of minimizing
the adverse effects of cooling tower blowdown, coal pile runoff,
boiler cleaning wastes, ash pond effluents, and the like.
The program has been given additional impetus by the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); it is part of the Inter-
agency Energy/Environment Program.
EPA's Effluent Guidelines Division has requested lERL-RTP's
assistance to develop background data for power plants.
This assistance includes some pilot field tests and studies to
assess technology for meeting effluent guidelines for boiler
cleaning wastes, chlorinated cooling system effluents, and
fly ash sluice discharges.
To improve thermal pollution control technology, IERL-RTP
is analyzing the performance of current wet and dry cooling
systems in cooperative programs with TVA near Charlotte, North
Carolina, and with the town of Braintree, Massachusetts.
Control technology also is being developed for more effective
treatment and recycling of cooling system effluent streams.
For better waste heat use, IERL-RTP is exploring applications
in both agriculture and aquaculture. With cooperation from the
Northern States Power Company and the University of Minnesota,
waste heat has been used successfully to grow flowers, trees,
and vegetables in greenhouses. In another cooperative program
with TVA, waste heat is helping to speed the growth of algae
to feed fish in commercial hatcheries.
The sections that follow present highlights of the year's
research accomplishments m power plant waste and water
management.
IERL-RTP Support of RCRA Regulation Development
The RCRA requires EPA to issue regulations for identifying
and listing hazardous wastes as well as for handling, storing,
treating, and disposing of both hazardous and nonhazardous
wastes. At least part of the high-volume wastes from coal-
fired power plants—coal ash and FGD waste—could fall in the
hazardous category. Coal ash or FGD waste from a specific
power plant would be designated as hazardous or nonhazardous
depending on whether it fails the tests for toxicity required
in the final RCRA regulations. The RCRA regulations proposed
on December 18, 1978, include the proposed toxicity tests.
The proposed regulations also recognize that coal ash and FGD
waste are low in their potential toxicity and therefore have
assigned them a "special waste" status, temporarily exempting
them from many disposal site standards until additional data
are available.
IERL-RTP is playing a key role in generating these additional
data. Three projects have been initiated in support of the RCRA
regulation development. First, a study was conducted for OSW to
develop data on the coal-fired electric utility industry for
a long-term waste management plan. Although this study was
based on the assumption that most coal ash and FGD waste
will be designated nonhazardous, the following results have
general applicability:
• Hydrological data on existing power plant waste disposal
sites are insufficient to determine whether the RCRA
performance criteria (such as prevention of ground water
contamination) are being met.
• Greater use of western coal would result in less waste
generation.
• Power plant waste utilization should be encouraged.
The second effort, which is ongoing, involves testing of power
plant wastes for toxicity. The proposed RCRA Extraction
Procedure, followed by chemical analysis and biological testing
of the extract, has been used on initial samples of fly ash,
bottom ash, and FGD waste from a TVA plant. Results showed
all three samples to be nonhazardous. The fly ash sample
came closest to failing the test; therefore, fly ash from another
TVA plant is currently being tested.
The third (and largest) effort, involves characterizing and
monitoring approximately 16 coal-fired electric utility coal ash
and FGD waste disposal sites. The purpose of this effort, now
in the final stages of planning, is to obtain sufficient full-
scale field data on environmental effects and costs to enable
promulgation of RCRA regulations for management of these
wastes. The sites to be studied will represent a cross section of
the industry, including the prevalent disposal methods as
well as those likely to represent the best disposal technology.
This multimillion-dollar project is underway and should be
completed in the fall of 1981.
Publication of Power Plant Cooling System Manual
Steam-electric power plants use large quantities of water for
condensing steam and other in-plant purposes. This heated
water, frequently containing other pollutants stemming from
in-plant uses, can have adverse environmental effects, especially
on aquatic organisms when the water is returned to a natural
water body or stream. Many studies and reports have addressed
environmental impacts related to aquatic or atmospheric
effects of these discharges, particularly since passage of the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972;
however, no single document provides a broad perspective of
37
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power plant cooling systems or their associated impacts. water treatment, environmental assessment of water and
A state-of-the-art manual27 on closed-cycle cooling systems nonwater quality impacts, permits for construction and operatior
for steam-electric power plants is intended to be a practical, and benefit-cost analyses of closed-cycle cooling systems
user-oriented handbook that synthesizes the information (primarily cooling towers and cooling lakes/ponds).
reported in many specialized studies. Sufficient information is provided to allow an understanding
The manual provides an assessment of current, near-term, and of the major parameters that are important to the design,
future technologies used or anticipated with closed-cycle licensing, and operation of closed-cycle cooling systems.
cooling systems. Intended to provide a broad understanding Consequently, the manual is expected to be a useful reference
of the subject rather than to be a design or specification for engineers, technical managers, and Federal and State
manual, the manual discusses the design and operation, capital regulatory agencies that must evaluate and judge the applicalio
and operating costs, methods of evaluation and comparison, and relative merit of these systems.
27U S. Environmental Protection Agency, Closed-Cycle Cooling Systems for Steam-
Electric Power Plants: A State-of-the-Art Manual, NTIS No Pb 299-290, EPA
600/7-79-001, Jan 1979.
38
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Supporting Programs
Process Measurements
Because every phase of lERL-RTP's work depends on reliable
data, the Laboratory ensures the quality of its data through a
process measurements program that coordinates and monitors
measurement and sampling techniques. Through this program,
IERL-RTP has made important advances in paniculate measure-
ment and sampling procedures as well as in new analysis
techniques for determining organic and inorganic pollutant
concentrations.
In addition to evaluating and developing measurement
methods, reviewing test programs, evaluating test results, and
on-site troubleshooting, the current major thrust of the process
measurements program is the support of lERL-RTPs environmental
assessment program. To provide a comprehensive base of
comparable data on emissions from industrial and energy
sources, IERL-RTP developed a three-level sampling and
analytical strategy.
Level 1 is a screening phase for the detection of any effluent
stream that might be detrimental to the environment. This
phase uses a series of short-term bioassays for the detection
of acute biological effects. Health-related biotests measure for
presumptive carcinogenicity and general toxicity, whereas
ecological biotests measure toxic effects of an effluent on soil
microflora, plants, freshwater or marine fish, and freshwater
or marine invertebrates.
Level 2 involves verification of the hazardous properties
of the effluent streams identified in the Level 1 screening,
followed by specific identification of chemical components of the
effluent stream.
Level 3 focuses on long-term monitoring to determine
the time-related variations of the hazardous materials in an
effluent stream.
To support its three-level environmental assessment approach,
the process measurements program is publishing a series
of technical and procedural manuals oriented toward IERL-RTP
project requirements.
The sections that follow present highlights of the year's
research accomplishments in process measurements.
Massive Volume Source Sampler for Health Effects Studies
A critical need exists for information pertaining to the health
effects of the particulates emitted from emerging alternative
energy sources. A portion of this information can be obtained
from bioassays and animal inhalation studies conducted on
samples of these emissions. However, these studies require large
A process measurements team setting up source assessment
sampling equipment for field studies.
quantities—1 kg (2 Ib) or greater—of particulate sample. The
purpose of this program was to design, fabricate, and test
a sampling system that would collect sufficient quantities of
particulate samples for health studies in relatively short time
periods. A sampling rate of 340 normal m3/h (200 stdft^/min)
was estimated to be adequate.
The system consists of a probe, a cyclone dust collector,
a fabric filter, a flowmeter, a blower, and a sampling/interconnect-
ing line. The probe is 2 m (7 ft) long and has an adjustable
opening at its inlet to establish isokinetic sampling. The probe
is capable of traversing and, although it is designed for a
10-cm (4-inch) port, it can be easily adapted to fit larger ports.
A Fisher-Klosterman XQ-5 cyclone with a calibrated 50-
percent-efficiency cut point (D50) for a 2.5-jum (9.8 X 10~5 inch)
aerodynamic diameter at 340 normal m3/hi (200 stdftYmin)
is the initial particle collector. Immediately following the cyclone
is a single chamber fabric filter. The filter chamber can accom-
modate from 1 to 20 envelope bags. The filtration surface of the
bags is composed of Gore-Tex porous Teflon™ laminate
backed by Nomex. Each bag has 0.5 m2 (5.0 ft2) of collection
surface. The fabric filter is equipped with a manual shaker and
39
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can be easily modified to a double-chambered, automatic
shaker design.
An orifice plate flowmeter is used to monitor the 340 normal
m3/h (200 stdftYmin) flow rate selected for the sampler.
The flow rate must be stable to maintain the 2.5-jum (9.8 X 10~5
inch) D50 cut point of the cyclone. A hand-operated damper
attached to the outlet of the blower is used to adjust the flow rate.
The entire sampler is heat traced from the probe to the outlet
of the fabric filter. Design operating temperature of the sampler
is 204° C (400° F).
This system was used on a 500-MW (1,700 X 106 Btu/h)
utility boiler firing low-sulfur (1 percent) No. 6 fuel oil. No
emission control devices were used on the unit. Sampling began
on August 6, 1979, and was completed on August 30, 1979.
During this period the sampler operated for a total of 413 hours
to gather 2,640 g (90 oz) of paniculate in the <2.5-;um (9.8 X 10~5
inch) size fraction. The nominal total particulate loading in the
stack was 28 mg/normal m3 (28 X 10~6 oz/stdft3) during the test.
Development of New Five-Stage Cyclone Particle Sizing System
Most measurements to determine the particle-size distribution
in process streams are made with cascade impactors. Impactors,
however, have several limitations:
• The stage capacity to retain particulates is low and operation
requires skilled personnel and significant trial-and-error
effort to obtain accurate values.
• When the mass concentration is high, sampling times
are undesirably short.
• Impactors are used with lightweight collection substrates
that can be unstable in mass when exposed to certain
process streams.
• There is not enough mass collected for chemical analysis
of the particles in each size fraction.
• Particle bounce and reentrainment cause an unpredictable
but significant error in the stage and backup filter catches.
A series of small cyclones with progressively decreasing cut
points will perform similarly to impactors, but without many of
these associated problems. Therefore, IERL-RTP has developed,
fabricated, and evaluated a sampling system containing
five small cyclones and a backup filter in series. The cyclones
were calibrated using monodisperse aerosols over ranges
in temperature, flow rate, and particle density similar to those
expected for field sampling. In addition to demonstrating the
utility of cyclones for in situ particle-size analysis, it was
intended that the experimental data supplement data already
available to serve as the basis for the development of a more
accurate theory of cyclone performance.
The system was designed to operate in stack at a sample
flow rate of 28.3 l/min (7.5 gal/min), and is compact enough
to fit through a 10-cm- (4-inch-) diameter port. The objective was
to obtain five cut points equally spaced on a logarithmic scale
within the range of 0.1 to 10jiim(0.4X 10~5to40X 10~5 inch).
Because no theory is sufficiently accurate to serve as a basis
for small cyclone design, the individual cyclones of the system
were designed empirically. The final system has cut points
of approximately 0.3, 0.7, 1.5, 2, and 5 jum (1.2 X 10~5, 2.8 X
10~5, 5.9 X 10~5, 8 X 10~5, and 20 X 10~5 inch) at 25° C (77° F)
and a particle density of 1.0 g/cm3 (0.5 oz/in3).
Limestone Scrubber Slurry Automatic Control
An examination of processes for flue gas desulfurization
by wet limestone scrubbing has led to consideration of process
automation methods. These methods have the potential for
increasing scrubber reliability, improving economy of operation,
and reducing the variance of controlled variables, including S02.
Under an EPA grant sponsored by IERL-RTP with the Universitv
of Cincinnati, control loops crucial to the performance of
the slurry circuit of limestone scrubbers have been identified,
mathematically modeled, and computer simulated to evaluate
their dynamics. A preliminary analysis of expected scrubber
performance under automatic control has been completed.
Results indicate that maintaining a high process gain (defined
as the ratio of slurry pH change per unit of limestone and
buffer addition) under varying scrubber operating conditions
is the primary objective of automatic control.
For limestone scrubbers it is generally acknowledged that
scrubber operating reliability is a significant area of concern.
Reliability is strongly influenced by internal scaling attributed
to two circulating slurry species—sulfite and sulfate. The
solubility of the sulfite can be increased by maintaining low
pH, which also enhances alkali utilization. The solubility of the
sulfate is controlled by the fraction of slurry solids recirculated
The objective of automatic pH control of the scrubber slurry
via the limestone addition rate is to maintain the efficiency
of high alkali utilization while accommodating varying scrubbe
S02 loading conditions. Based on the modeling and computer
simulations, it was determined that a feedback approach to
pH control would accommodate the scrubber geometric
limestone dissolution characteristic. During computer dynamics
studies, both feedforward and linear predictor compensators
were found to offer only negligible control improvement over
pH feedback because of the inherent damping effect of the
40
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scrubber process. These approaches, therefore, do not warrant
mechanization considering the additional complexity required.
The pH control system was installed on an operating limestone
scrubber and maintained the pH set point within the desired
operating range. The major problem experienced was reliability
of the pH sensing electrode in the limestone slurry stream.
Bioassay Testing in Environmental Assessment
The assessment of potentially harmful biological effects
caused by industrial and energy waste streams is the object of
lERL-RTP's biological testing program. These biological
tests have been chosen to conform to the three-phased approach
for performing environmental source assessment.
The first level in the phased approach. Level 1, provides
preliminary screening information for the assessment. The
biological tests at this level identify problem areas and indicate
potential need for further analysis. Level 1 tests provide a means
of rapidly screening a large number of waste streams and
establish priorities for these streams according to the relative
need for more extensive analysis at the next level.
To ensure that an adequate and acceptable battery of tests
is used, the Subcommittee on Biological Analysis was formed.
This subcommittee is made up of senior EPA biologists with
expertise in health, aquatic, and terrestrial bioassays. From
inputs and reviews by the subcommittee, IERL-RTP has estab-
lished a matrix of procedures for biological testing at Level 1.
The tests can be divided into three groups according to the
biological response provided by each test organism. The subgroup
representing health effects tests is composed of a mutagenicity
test, cytotoxicity tests, and a rodent acute toxicity test. The
aquatic ecological subgroup contains biological tests of marine
and freshwater origin. A vertebrate (fish), an invertebrate
(daphnia or shrimp), and an algal test are used in this subgroup.
The terrestrial ecological subgroup contains two bioassays.
The first, the stress ethylene assay, is performed on gas samples
and uses soybean plants as the test organism. The second,
the soil microcosm assay, measures response of intact soil
cores to effluent samples.
The bioassay procedures were evaluated in three pilot studies
involving textile wastewater after secondary treatment, fluidized
bed combustion emissions, and coal gasification emissions.
Level 1 chemical sampling and analysis procedures were
used as guidance for sampling and chemical analyses. The
results of these pilot studies revealed the applicability of the
procedures, allowed ranking of the relative hazard of each
effluent stream, and identified areas in the procedures that
required additional development.
The success of the biological program at Level 1 on complex
environmental samples has resulted from the experience
gained performing these three pilot studies and from additional
studies conducted under other IERL-RTP contracts. The program
is continuing, and a revised Level 1 procedures manual will
be issued in mid-1980. This manual will contain improvements
in test application and data interpretation resulting from the
pilot study experience.
Spot Test for Detection of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's) are among the many
polycyclic organic materials (POM's) commonly encountered
as trace level environmental contaminants in effluents associated
with combustion, pyrolysis, and other thermal degradation
processes. The PAH category, defined as containing hydrocarbon
species with three or more fused aromatic rings, includes
some compounds suspected of being carcinogens as well as
many isomeric noncarcinogenic compounds. Therefore, deter-
mination of PAH emission levels is important in environ-
mental assessment.
Procedures such as gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
(GC/MS) are used to obtain compound-specific information
on potential health hazards associated with PAH-containing
effluents. These procedures, however, are necessarily sophisticated
(because of the large number of possible PAH species) and
require state-of-the-art equipment and extensive investment
of expert analysts' time. It is not cost effective to apply them
routinely to samples that may not contain any detectable
levels of PAH.
A rapid, inexpensive spot test for preliminary screening
of samples to determine the presence or absence of PAH
has been developed. Basically, the test involves marking three
0.25-cm-diameter spots on a filter paper, applying 1 fji\ of
sample extract to spots 1 and 2, applying 1 /xl of naphthalene
(sensitizer) reagent solution to spots 2 and 3, and visually
observing all three spots under 254-nm UV light. The following
criteria can be used to estimate the PAH content in the 1 ju.l of
sample (diluted if necessary):
• Nonfluorescent with sensitizer: <1 pg
• Weakly fluorescent with sensitizer: 1-10 pg
• Strongly fluorescent with sensitizer, but not fluorescent
alone: >100 pg
• Fluorescent without sensitizer: ^lO4 pg
From such estimates, the decision to proceed with further
analysis can be made.
41
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The sensitized fluorescence spot test has been used during
ongoing IERL-RTP environmental assessment programs, including
coal- and wood-burning furnaces, ferroalloy processes, and
conventional combustion sources. Experience has shown that the
test is easy to use and is valuable for preliminary screening.
Results could be relied on to identify samples that contain no
PAH and therefore require no GC/MS analysis and to rank
samples by relative abundance of PAH. The users found
that levels of 10 to 100 pg/jul of PAH, well below the usual
GC/MS detection limits, were readily detectable by the spot test.
mass, and accumulative mass distribution for up to 10 individua
samples. In addition, numerical listings and time series plots
of selected parameters, such as mass loading and number
density, may be generated.
The prototype FPSSS has undergone testing at coal-fired
generating stations and at PMS and IERL-RTP laboratory
test facilities. It has performed well in laboratory tests, showinc
good size agreement with polystyrene spheres of known
size and good agreement with mass measurements of fly ash
by gravimetric methods.
In Situ Fine Particle Stack Spectrometer System
Measurement of the particle size distribution in stacks and other
hot emission sources is of fundamental importance in under-
standing the nature and quantity of paniculate matter emitted.
By combining upstream and downstream measurements,
control device effectiveness can be characterized as a function
of size. Particle size distribution measurements by conventional
methods (for example, impaction) require a great deal of
effort. Additionally, the low rate of collection precludes observa-
tions of transient phenomena such as rapping pulses associated
with precipitators.
Particle Measuring Systems, Inc. (PMS), under EPA Contract
No. 68-02-2668, recently developed an in situ particle size
spectrometer using single particle light scattering from a
helium-neon gas laser source. The Fine Particle Stack Spectrometer
System (FPSSS), in addition to its in situ measuring properties,
provides real-time data acquisition and both size and time
resolutions that are significantly higher than with other methods.
The FPSSS has four size ranges covering 0.4 to 1.1 5, 0.5 to
2.0, 1.15 to 5.65, and 2.0 to 11.0/J.m (1.6 to 4.5 X 10~5,
2.0 to 7.9 X 10~5,4.5 to 22.2 X 10~5, and 7.9 to 43.2 X 10~5 inch).
Each size range has 15 size classes. In normal operation,
two size ranges are sampled concurrently—for example, 0.5 to
2.0 and 2.0 to 11.0 ju.m (2.0 to 7.9 X 10~5 and 7.9 to 43.2 X 10~5
inch)—producing 30 classes from 0.5 to 11.0 jum (2.0 to
43.2 X 10~5 inch). The maximum number density that can
be measured is 5 X 104 cm~3. The water-cooled head can operate
continuously at temperatures above 250° C (482° F). The head
contains the laser, condensing and imaging optics, and
programmable preamplifiers. The instrument's internal velocimeter
is not as accurate as conventional methods but can provide
10 to 20 percent accuracy over a 1- to 30-m sec"1 range.
Data acquisition is accomplished using a microcomputer
with firmware programs and random access memory. Both
cathode-ray tube (CRT) and hardcopy displays are generated.
Sufficient memory capacity exists to generate size, area.
Issuance of Revised Level 1 Methods Manual
Level 1 environmental assessment studies are designed
as a comprehensive, predictive survey of the potential impacts
on health and the environment from various industrial and
energy-generating activities. A revised sampling and analytical
methods manual28 has been published and is available for
future environmental assessment studies. This manual incor-
porates changes from the environmental assessment experience
gained over the last 2 years with the original methodology
selected by IERL-RTP for this data collection. It also incorporate;
many of the technological advances in both sampling and
analytical capabilities that will facilitate or improve data
gathered for these studies. New techniques include acceptanc*
of ion chromatography for inorganic analysis, the addition
of total chromatographable organics to the organic analytical
scheme, and new sampling capabilities with the Fugitive Air
Sampling Train system.
Special Studies
Because IERL-RTP directs its efforts at a wide range of pollutioi
control problems, it maintains the special studies program
as a means of ensuring that these complex problems are
approached from all angles, systematically and efficiently. In it
overview/support capacity, the special studies program has
emphasized developing and implementing a computerized
information system on fine particle emissions, continuing an
integrated assessment of coal-based technologies, and
formulating standard cost-estimating procedures for use in
control technology demonstration projects.
In support of the Laboratory's environmental assessment
28U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, IERL-RTP Procedures Manual: Level 1
Environmental Assessment (2nd ed.). NTIS No. Pb293795/AS, EPA6OO/7-78-20
Oct. 1 978.
42
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Drogram, the special studies program is developing an Environ-
nental Assessment Data System (EADS) that will include data
Dases on fine particle emissions (already implemented), gaseous
;missions, liquid effluents, and solid discharges. The fine
^article emissions data base is already supplying important data
o regulatory groups.
Participation continues in an integrated Coal Technology
Assessment (CTA) that will offer policy options on the social,
jconomic, and environmental impacts that may arise from the
tevelopment and deployment of coal-based energy technologies
intil the year 2030.
To meet the need for complete, consistent economic
valuation methodology for pollutant emission control facilities,
he special studies program also has developed a standard
>rocedure for the use of the Laboratory's project officers in
istimating capital and operating costs and in assessing the
iconomic feasibility of proposed control options.
In addition to the above emphases, the special studies program
)erforms technical evaluations of projects at the request
)f Laboratory management, manages engineering services
:ontracts, and consults on the technical aspects of lERL-RTP's
Jata processing applications.
The sections that follow present highlights of the year's
esearch accomplishments in special studies.
'reparation of a Uniform Procedure for Preparing Engineering
lost Estimates
The two-volume work, A Standard Procedure for Cost Analysis
if Pollution Control Operations,23 was completed in 1979.
/olume I, User Guide, provides both general and "boilerplate"
nformation for a cost analysis for projects in all three economic
sectors: private, regulated, and public. The general information
Jelineates the need for and the characteristics of a complete,
>ound, appropriate, and understandable estimate. The core
»f Volume I, however, is the boilerplate material:
» The guidelines for information on the type of estimate,
the desired measures of merit, and the financial and operation
factors (these are usually designated by the requestor of a
cost estimate)
• Specifications for the uniform format, which consists of
three segments—descriptive, cost analysis, and reliability
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, A Standard Procedure for Cost Analysis
of Pollution Control Operations- Vol !, User Guide, NTIS No. Pb 80108038.
EPA 600/8-79-018a; Vol II, Appendices, NTIS No. Pb 80108046, EPA
600/8-79-018b, June 1979.
assessment (the format specifications are to be adhered to
by those who make the cost estimate)
Volume II, Appendices, contains nine independent monographs
and two examples of the use of the procedure:
A. Capital Investment Estimation
B. Annual Expense Estimate
C. The Cash Flow Concept
D. Discrete and Continuous Interest Factors
E. Measures of Merit
F. Cost Indices and Inflation Factors
G. Rates of Return and Interest Rates
H. Methods of Reliability Assessment
I. Sensitivity Analysis
J. Example I—Cost Analysis of Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD)
Retrofit Facility
K. Example II—Cost Analysis of Chlorolysis Plant
Courses covering fundamentals of cost analysis and an explanation
of the procedure were presented to lERL-RTP personnel and the
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards on three separate
occasions in 1979.
Environmental Assessment Data Systems as a Major Source
of EPA Research Data
The EADS is a group of interrelated computerized data bases
that describe multimedia discharges from energy systems
and industrial processes and provide reference information on
potentially hazardous chemicals that may be found in the
discharge streams. The EADS has been developed by lERL-RTP
to consolidate the increasing volume of environmental data,
to provide uniform data reporting protocols, and to provide
current information and methods for evaluating sampling data.
The EADS waste stream data bases consist of:
• Fine Particle Emissions Information System
• Gaseous Emissions Data System
• Liquid Effluents Data System
• Solid Discharges Data System
In conjunction with the waste stream data bases are two
reference data bases—one that provides detailed toxicological
and health effects data for more than 1,000 chemical compounds,
and a second that records reported ambient concentrations of
unmonitored multimedia pollutants. These reference data
bases will allow users to compare sampled pollutant concen-
tration with known values to aid in the determination of any
hazard potential.
43
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The EADS data bases are currently available to process waste
stream sampling data. Detailed data input forms have been
developed and distributed to allow the comprehensive encoding
of data, which include source/process conditions, fuel/feed
material characteristics, control technology characteristics, and
the results of chemical, biological, or radiological assays.
The EADS has been designed to accommodate full Level 1 and
Level 2 reporting of sampling data. An extensive program
library is being developed that will enable users to perform
statistical analyses, calculate control technology efficiency, and
model the data in a variety of ways.
The EADS supports the data needs of the Office of Research
and Development's Wastewater Treatability Coordination
Committee in the development of treatability manuals, the
data storage and analysis of wastewater toxics data for the
Wastewater Research Division/Municipal Environmental
Research Laboratory, and the evaluation of existing fine particle
data pertinent to the inhalable particulate sampling program.
User documentation on the EADS was issued in late 1979
and consisted of an EADS System Overview Manual and a
User Guide for each waste stream data system. Training
seminars on the use of the EADS have been conducted at Research
Triangle Park, in Cincinnati, and at two locations in California.
In only a few months, the EADS waste stream data bases
have grown dramatically as a result of this training. This growth
is expected to continue as new sampling results are included
in 1980.
CTA Interim Studies
The CTA project aims at determining the environmental,
social, and economic impacts of coal use in the United States
to the year 2030. The project, which began in 1978, is at
midpoint. Based on three different levels of coal use with
associated economic and social characteristics, investigators
are comparing the potentials of conventional and emerging
coal technologies for various applications—industrial, electric
utility, residential and commercial, and synthetic fuels. These
technological studies are integrated for impact analysis by
a simple and flexible computer program that provides detailed
estimates of resource, environmental, and economic factors
using various coal technologies.
Results from 1979 include completed studies of hazardous
material impacts from coal use, air quality impacts of projected
power plants, a comparison of six coal technologies for industrial
energy production, the problem of atmospheric accumulation
of carbon dioxide, water availability and allocation, and reports
of two forums of interested parties and energy experts who
identified issues for further study.
CTA studies underway or projected include solid waste
from coal technologies, coal for export, residential and com-
mercial systems, utility systems, synthetic fuels and chemica
from coal, the "acid rain" problems, and studies of the social
and political systems that will constrain or facilitate coal
use nationally and regionally.
In the final segment of the CTA, several regional and one
national forum of interested parties will examine the technologic
and publication options the study has revealed. The final
report, due in 1982, will convey the findings of the investigate
and the reactions of the forums.
Environmental Assessment of Wood Combustion
In response to the rapid increase in the use of wood and
wood residues for both industrial boiler fuel and residential
space heating, IERL-RTP has initiated several projects to evalua
the potential environmental impacts of this growing energy
source. Current national use of wood for energy is approximate
1.6 X 109 GJ (1.5 quads) per year, with 75 percent of this
consumption occurring as direct combustion of wood processii
residues in industrial boilers, primarily in the forest products
industry. The Department of Energy's Wood Combustion Con
mercialization program seeks to double the current rate to
3.2 X 109 GJ (3 quads) per year by 1985. Rising costs of
conventional fossil fuels are already making wood fuels com-
petitive for some applications in forested areas.
To determine the impact of residential wood combustion
sources on ambient air quality, both source testing and ambie
air sampling projects are underway. Emissions testing has
been conducted on a prefabricated fireplace and two "airtigh
stoves for two species of wood and for two fuel moisture
levels. A significant portion of the particulate matter was fou
to consist of condensable organic material. Analysis of this
organic material resulted in identification of over 75 organic
compounds, which included high-molecular-weight organic
acids, high-molecular-weight fused ring aromatics, aldehydes
furans, phenols, and naphthalenes. As many as 22 individual
polycyclic organic compounds were identified. To relate
the formation and emission of these compounds to ambient
impacts, another study involves sampling ambient air in a
small northeastern community where wood burning represen
the primary mode of residential space heating. Analysis of the
samples should provide information on the chemical fate of
many of the organics emitted from wood burning.
44
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IERL-RTP is also actively engaged in continuing assessment
of industrial wood and wood residue boilers. Sampling and
analysis of stack effluents for six small- to medium-sized industrial
or commercial wood-fueled boilers has been accomplished.
Emissions of hazardous organics, such as polycyclic organic
materials, have been measured in addition to criteria pollutants.
The objectives of the wood combustion program are asfollows:
• Characterize the types and quantities of emissions from
both industrial and residential wood combustion sources.
• Determine the impacts on air quality of these wood combustion
sources, relative to more conventional combustion processes.
• Learn how these emissions can be minimized through
modification of combustion parameters (for example,
combustor design, fuel properties, and operating variables).
Uncertainty in Data and Decision Making
Generally, the classification of a waste stream from an industrial
source as acceptable or unacceptable is made from measure-
ments of pollutant concentrations at the discharge point. Because
these measurements are subject to error, the classification
procedure should involve statistical considerations, such as the
calculation of misclassification probabilities. The possibility of
error has been recognized (and some theory developed)
in past IERL-RTP studies.
In 1 979, IERL-RTP has been concerned with the development
of the ideas and concepts involved, with a view toward
obtaining the best possible classification criteria and determining
their precise statistical characteristics. In the course of this
work, it has been recognized that various uncertainties, in
addition to pure measurement errors, may arise. For example,
the process of sampling may be variable, a goal level of acceptable
concentration may be only imprecisely known, and a transport
model used—needed when concentration at ambient points
away from the source are of interest—may be only approximate.
The presence of temporal (or daily) variation in the discharged
concentrations has also been recognized and accounted for
by defining a source as unacceptable (or "dirty") if its discharged
pollutant concentration is expected to exceed the goal level
on more than some specified small percentage of days in the
year. The work has been directed mainly toward obtaining
appropriate criteria for classifying a source as acceptable or
unacceptable, in view of whatever variability and error exist.
The classification procedures developed in this effort have
been designed from the most realistic basic statistical assump-
tions and transport models currently known. Attention has
been focused on the sizes of the misclassification probabilities,
which depend on the numbers and accuracies of the measure-
ments made, and on the amount of temporal variability involved.
Worksheets have been designed to summarize and draw
conclusions from the data and to highlight points at which
further or more accurate measurements may be needed. Finally,
the developed procedures are being tested with data obtained
in previous and current IERL-RTP projects.
45
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Information Transfer
IERL-RTP conducts a sizable information transfer program as
an integral part of its stationary source research and development
mission. During 1979, the laboratory produced 223 technical
reports, 12 periodic research updates, and a monthly abstracts
series, sponsored 9 conferences/symposia, and exhibited
at 2 of its conferences and 1 national scientific meeting.
This section of the report provides assistance in acquir-
ing information (Figure 2), indicates the scope of the Laboratory's
information transfer program (Table 4), and previews information
transfer activities for 1980.
Technical Reports
IERL-RTP produces numerous technical reports describing the
results of its research projects. Table 5 indicates the level
of technical report information transfer activity in 1 979 for th
program areas described in this report.
The monthly publication of Report Abstracts: Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory-RTF notifies the research
community of new technical reports issued by the Laboratory
To be placed on the mailing list for this report, write to
Technical Information Coordinator (MD-64), Industrial Enviror
mental Research Laboratory-RTP, U.S. EPA, Research Triangd
Park, North Carolina 27711.
Periodic Research Updates
IERL-RTP produces several periodic reviews designed to
keep its audiences abreast of current developments in various
areas of stationary source R&D. Table 6 lists periodic reviews
produced in 1 979 for the program areas described in this repo
lERL-RTP's 40-ft display at the June 1979 Air Pollution Control Association Annual Meeting in Cincinnati, Ohio.
46
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Administrative Officer
Jack H Greene
629-2903
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
Director
Dr. John K. Burchard
629-2821
Deputy Director
Dr. Norbert A. Jaworski
629-2821
Utilities and Industrial Power
Division
Mr. Everett Plyler
629-2915
Emissions/Effluent Technology Branch
Mr. Mike Maxwell
629-2578
Process Technology Branch
Mr. Richard Stern
629-291 5
Paniculate Technology Branch
Mr. James Abbott
629-2925
Energy Assessment and Control
Division
Mr. Robert Hangebrauck
629-2825
Combustion Research Branch
Dr Joshua Bowen
629-2470
Fuel Process Branch
Mr. T. Kelly Janes
629-2851
Advanced Process Branch
Mr. P.P. Turner, Jr
629-2825
Office of Program Operations
Dr. John 0. Smith
629-2921
Special Studies Staff
Dr. W. Gene Tucker
629-2745
Planning, Management, and
Administration Staff
Mr. C.T. Ripberger
629-2921
1
Industrial Processes
Division
Mr. Alfred B. Craig
629-2509
Chemical Processes Branch
Dr. Dale Denny
629-2547
Metallurgical Processes Branch
Mr. Norman Plaks
629-2733
Process Measurements Branch
Mr. James Dorsey
629-2557
Commercial Telephone No. (919) 541 + Extension
Figure 2.
IERL-RTP Organization Chart
47
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Table 4.
Index of Research Programs and Contacts for IERL-RTP
Program
Contact
Federal Telepho
Service (FTS) Ni
Boilers—utility/industrial:
Byproduct marketing Norm Kaplan 629-2556
Effects/assessment Wade Ponder 629-3997
Fluidized bed combustion Bruce Henschel 629-2825
NOX control:
By combustion modification Josh Bowen 629-2470
By flue gas treatment David Mobley 629-291 5
Paniculate control James Abbott 629-2925
S02 control Mike Maxwell 629-2578
Thermal effects control Ted Brna 629-2683
Waste disposal Julian Jones 629-2489
Water pollution Julian Jones 629-2489
Coal:
Cleaning Jim Kilgroe 629-2851
Gasification Bill Rhodes 629-2851
Liquefaction:
Direct Dale Denny 629-2825
Indirect Bill Rhodes 629-2851
Combustion modifications Josh Bowen 629-2470
Environmental assessment data system Gary Johnson 629-2745
Ferrous metallurgy Norm Plaks 629-2733
Fugitive emissions control b —
Furnaces—residential/commercial Josh Bowen 629-2470
Gas turbines/IC engines Josh Bowen 629-2470
Iron and steel foundries Norm Plaks 629-2733
Lime/limestone scrubbing—power plants Mike Maxwell 629-2578
Measurements for stationary sources:
General Jim Dorsey 629-2557
Organic analysis Larry Johnson 629-2557
Inorganic analysis Frank Briden 629-2557
Particulate samples Bruce Harris 629-2557
Instrumentation Bill Kuykendal 629-2557
Oil processing:
Petrochemicals Dale Denny 629-2825
Refineries Dale Denny 629-2825
Residual oil Sam Rakes 629-2825
Particle control:
Control devices:
Electrostatic precipitators Les Sparks' 629-2925
Fabric filters Jim Abbott 629-2925
Scrubbers Dennis Drehmel 629-2925
From specific sources b —
48
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Table 4.
ndex of Research Programs and Contacts for IERL-RTP—Concluded
Program
Contact
Federal Telephone
Service (FTS) No.a
'esticides manufacturing Dave Sanchez 629-2547
'etrochemicals manufacturing Dale Denny 629-2825
'etroleum refineries Dale Denny 629-2825
>teelmaking Norm Plaks 629-2733
Synthetic fuel production:
Coal gasification (surface) Bill Rhodes 629-2851
Coal liquefaction:
Direct Dale Denny 629-2825
Indirect Bill Rhodes 629-2851
'extile manufacturing Max Samfield 629-2547
"oxic chemical incineration:
At sea Dave Sanchez 629-2547
Specific sources b —
For those using commercial telephone lines, use the prefix code 541 plus the 4-digit number given (e.g., Norm Kaplan's commercial
telephone number is 541-2556; commercial area code for all numbers listed is 919).
Call appropriate industry contact.
Jote.— For further assistance on IERL-RTP programs, contact C. T. Ripberger at 629-2921.
able 5.
echnical Report Information Transfer Activity
Subject
Number of reports
produced in 1979
.DUSTRiAL ENVKONMENW R^A** LA
errous metallurgical processes
hemical processes
oal cleaning
oal conversion (synthetic fuels)
Residual and waste oils
ombustion modification
Advanced combustion processes
lue gas desulfurization
ine particulates
IOX flue gas treatment
lower plant waste and water management. . .
Yocess measurements
Special studies
15
16
19
22
4
33
7
29
40
2
10
22
4
'otal technical reports produced in 1979.
223
1979 Flue Gas Desulfurization Symposium attendees exchange
information at the IERL-RTP exhibit booth.
49
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Table 6.
Periodic Reviews of Stationary Source Research and Development
Subject
Title
(issues produced in 1979)
Production
schedule
Project officer3
(mail code)
Ferrous metallurgical processes
Coal cleaning
Coal conversion
Combustion modification
Advanced combustion processes
Flue gas desulfunzation
Fine particulates
Process measurements
Special studies—coal technology
assessment
Ferrous Metallurgical Processes Review: Vol. 1, Intermittent
No. 1
Coal Cleaning Environmental Review: Vol. 2, Semiannual
No. 1; Vol. 3, No. 1
Environmental Review of Synthetic Fuels: Vol. 2, Quarterly
Nos. 1-4
CCEA Quarterly Report: Vol. 1, Nos. 1 -3 Quarterly
NOX Control Review: Vol. 4, Nos. 1-4 Quarterly
FBC Environmental Review: none in 1979 Intermittent
FGD Quarterly Report: Vol. 2, No. 4; Vol. 3, Nos. 1 -3 Quarterly
Industrial Boiler FGD Survey: first quarter 1 979 Quarterly
Utility Boiler FGD Survey: Dec.-Jan. 1978-1979, Bimonthly
Feb.-Mar. 1979, April-May 1979, June-July
1979, Aug.-Sept. 1979, Oct.-Nov. 1979
Paniculate Control Highlights: Recent Develop-
ments in Japan, Nov. 1 979; Research at High
Temperature/Pressure, Dec. 1979
Process Measurements Review: Vol. 1, Nos. 3-4; Quarterly
Vol. 2, Nos. 1-2
Future of Coal: Issues and Impacts: Vol. 1, No. 2 Intermittent
Norman Plaks (MD-62)
James D. Kilgroe (MD-61)
William J. Rhodes (MD-61;
Wade H. Ponder (MD-62)
David G. Lachapelle (MD-6!
D. Bruce Henschel (MD-61
John E. Williams (MD-61)
J. David Mobley (MD-61)
Norman Kaplan (MD-61)
Intermittent Dennis C. Drehmel (MD-61
James A. Dorsey (MD-62)
Michael K. Bergman (MD-6:
aTo be placed on the mailing list for a given review, write to the appropriate project officer at Industrial Environmental Researc
Laboratory-RTP, U.S. EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711.
Conferences and Symposia
To extend its outreach as far as possible, IERL-RTP sponsors
a number of conferences and symposia each year. Attended by
industry, Federal, State, and local government representatives,
consultants, the academic community, public interest groups, and
representatives of public and private foreign organizations,
these meetings have a twofold purpose:
• To present up-to-the-minute findings on key issues
• To gather user-community feedback that can be factored
into the R&D process
Table 7 gives an indication of the level of conference/symposiu
information transfer activity in 1979 for the program areas
described in this report.
IERL-RTP has several conferences/symposia in its calendar
of planned events for 1980 and beyond. Table 8 lists meetmj
tentatively scheduled to take place during the next 18 month
for the program areas described in this report.
50
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Table 7.
Conference and Symposium Information Transfer Activity in 1979
Conference or symposium
Subject
Title
Location
Date
Ferrous metallurgical processes
Chemical processes
Coal conversion
Combustion modification
Flue gas desulfurization
Fine particulates
Process measurements
Iron and Steel Pollution Abatement Technology
Assessment of Air Emissions From Petroleum
Refineries
Environmental Aspects of Fuel Conversion—IV
Coal Combustion Technology for Emission Control
Stationary Source Combustion
Flue Gas Desulfurization
Shawnee Industry Briefing
Transfer and Utilization of Particulate Control Technol-
ogy
Advances in Particle Sampling and Measurement
Chicago IL
Austin TX
Hollywood FL
Pasadena CA
San Francisco CA
Las Vegas NV
Raleigh NC
Denver CO
Oct. 30-Nov. 1, 1 979
Nov. 4-6, 1979
Apr. 17-20, 1979
Feb. 5-7, 1979
Mar. 4-8, 1979
Mar. 4-8, 1979
Dec. 5, 1979
July 23-27, 1979
Daytona Beach FL Oct. 7-10, 1979
fable 8.
Proposed Conferences and Symposia for 1980-1981
Subject
Conference or symposium title,
tentative location, and date
Conference coordinator3
(mail code)
Combustion modification
Flue gas desulfurization
Fine particulates
Process measurements
Catalytic Combustion Workshop IV, Cincinnati OH, May 13-15, 1980
Catalytic Combustion Workshop V, location not selected, Sept. 1981
Combustion Symposium, Denver CO, Oct. 6-9, 1980
Flue Gas Desulfurization, Houston TX, Oct. 27-31, 1980
Transfer and Utilization of Particulate Control Technology, Orlando FL,
Mar. 9-12, 1981
Environmental Assessment Measurements, Atlanta GA, Feb. 25-27, 1980
Fugitive Emissions Measurement, New Orleans LA, May 1980
G. Blair Martin (MD-65)
G. Blair Martin (MD-65)
Robert E. Hall (MD-65)
Michael A. Maxwell (MD-61J
Dennis C. Drehmel (MD-61]
James A. Dorsey (MD-62)
D. Bruce Harris (MD-62)
'For further information, write to the appropriate conference coordinator at Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory-RTP, U.S.
EPA, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711.
51
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO. 2.
EPA-600/9-80-025
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
1979 Research Review--Industri_tl Environmen
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC
7 AUTHOR(S)
J.E. Cook
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
same as block 12
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
5. REPORT DATE
tal Respnrrh March 1980 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
N130
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
In-House
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS 13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory- RTF
Office of Research § Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, NC is
responsible for the research, development and demonstration of control technologies
for stationary source pollution and multi-media impact of energy and industrial
processes. This research review presents the Laboratory's 1979 programs and
accomplishments, including pollution control from ferrous metallurgical and chemical
processes, fundamental and advanced combustion research, air, waste, and water
pollution control systems, process measurement research, and supporting programs of
the Laboratory.
17. KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
UNLIMITED
b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report/ 21. NO. OF PAGES
UNCLASSIFIED
20 SECURITY CLASS (This page/ 22. PRICE
UNCLASSIFIED
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDI T>ON i s OBSOLETE
52
VUS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICF 1980-657-146/5661
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