EPA 910/9-82-089C
vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region 10
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle WA 98101
             Air & Waste Management Division February 1984
                  Wood
Combustion Study

Task 2A
Current and Projected Air Quality
Impacts

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  RESIDENTIAL  WOOD  COMBUSTION STUDY




                 TASK 2A




Current and Projected  Air Quality Impacts

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    RESIDENTIAL WOOD COMBUSTION STUDY

                 TASK 2A

Current and Projected Air Quality Impacts
             -Final Report-
              Prepared by:
              John E. Core
           Dr. John A. Cooper
           Dr. James E. Houck
                NEA, INC.
            Beaverton, Oregon
              Prepared for:
       DEL GREEN ASSOCIATES, INC.
    ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY DIVISION
            Woodburn, Oregon

      Under Contract No. 68-02-3566

   U.S.  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                Region X
        Seattle, Washington  98101

              Task Manager
             Wayne Grotheer
             January,  1983

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THIS REPORT CONSISTS OF SEVERAL DIFFERENT PARTS.

THEY ARE LISTED BELOW FOR YOUR CONVENIENCE.


EPA 910/9-82-089a  Residential Wood Combustion Study
                   Task 1 - Ambient Air Quality Impact
                            Analysis

EPA 910/9-82-089b  Task 1 - Appendices

EPA 910/9-82-089c  Task 2A - Current & Projected Air Quality
                             Impacts

EPA 910/9-82-OS9d  Task 2B - Household Information Survey

EPA 910/9-82-089e  Task 3 - Wood Fuel Use Projection

EPA 910/9-82-089f  Task 4 - Technical Analysis of Wood Stoves

EPA 910/9-82-089g  Task 5 - Emissions Testing of Wood Stoves
                            Volumes 1 & 2

EPA 910/9-82-089h  Task 5 - Emissions Testing of Wood Stoves
                            Volumes 3 & 4  (Appendices)

EPA 910/9-82-089i  Task 6 - Control Strategy Analysis

EPA 910/9-82-089J  Task 7 - Indoor Air Quality

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                      DISCLAIMER




This report has been reviewed by Region 10,  U.  S. Environmental




Protection Agency, and approved for publication.   Approval




does not signify that the contents necessarily  reflect the




views and policies of the U.  S. Environmental Protection Agency,




nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute




endorsement or recommendation for use.

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                           TABLE OF CONTENTS


                                                             page

     Acknowledgements                                         iv

     List  of  Tables                                            v

     List  of  Figures                                          vi

 1.0  Introduction                                              1

 2.0  Current  Residential Wood Combustion                        1
     Air Quality  Impacts

     2.1 Portland and Medford Aerosol  Characterization          2
        Studies

     2.2 Missoula,  Montana  Studies                              3

     2.3 Task 1 Findings                                       7

     2.4 Trends in  RWC Particulate  Impacts                     10

 3.0  Projections  of Future  RWC  Impacts                         10

     3.1 Wood Fuel  and Emission Projections                    10

     3.2 Wood Use - Air Quality Relationships                  13

     3.3 Impact Projections  (1981-2000)                        15

 4.0  Discussion of  Projection Results                          17

     4.1 Implications  for Future Air Quality                   17

     4.2 Potential  Mitigating Measures                         21

 5.0  Summary  and  Conclusions                                   22

 6.0  References                                                24



Appendix 1 - Glossary
                                iii

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                            ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The completion of this study is due, in large part, to the efforts
of the staff of the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, the
Washington Department of Ecology, the Spokane County Air Pollution
Control Authority, the Puget Sound Air Pollution Control Authority
and the State of Idaho, all of whom provided the assistance and
resources required to obtain the residential wood combustion air
quality impact information described herein.  Their efforts have been
combined with those of W.T. Greene and R.L. Gay, who jointly developed
the wood fuel use projection data (Task 3) that are presented.  Current
wood use survey information developed by Del Green Associates, Inc.
(Task 2B) must also be acknowledged as essential to this document.
                                   IV

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                            LIST OF TABLES
TABLE                                                            PAGE

  1     Residential Wood Combustion Impacts
        In The Pacific Northwest (Historical Studies).             4

  2     CMB Estimates of RWC Impacts
        (October 1980 - March, 1981) Task 1.                       8

  3     Summary of Short Term Trends in Wood Fuel Use.            11

  4     Projections for Residential Wood Fuel Use
        and Corresponding Particulate Emissions.                  12

  5     Wood Fuel Use - Household Survey Results
        for February, 1981.                                       14

  6     Estimated Future RWC Impacts
        (24-hour Reasonable Worst Case)                           16

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                            LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE                                                          PAGE

   1     Source Contributions to Air Particles in
        Downtown Portland.                                        5

   2     Annual Average Source Contributions for
        MACS Sampling Period.                                     6

   3     Source Contributions to Fine Particle
        Fraction (Oct. 1980 - March, 1981) Task 1.                9

   4     RWC Impact Projections (1981-2000).                      18

   5     B       Fine Aerosol Mass Relationship -
                Portland, Oregon.                                20
                                  VI

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 1.0  INTRODUCTION

      The use of wood as a residential space heating fuel has increased
 significantly in the Pacific Northwest in recent years (171, 172, 315).
 Information on trends in wood stove sales, commercial firewood distri-
 bution,  emission inventory and ambient air quality monitoring data
 collectively point toward a growing concern as to the current, and
 future,  impact of residential wood combustion (RWC) on community air
 quality  and public health.  The problem of residential solid fuel-
 related  air pollution dated back to London in the year 1250 (82-87,
 212).  More recent studies of the potential public health effects of
 RWC emissions, however,  have underscored the range of carcinogenic and
 potentially toxic pollutants associated with wood combustion emissions -
 most  of  which are within the size range of particles deposited within
 the bronchial tract and  lungs (1,2,29-34,42,43,80,95,97,98,101,122,144,
 145,151,182,194,197,200,202,208,209,214,218,232,234,242,248,276,288,290 ,
 318,330,334,338).

      In  addition  to concerns surrounding  potential public health  effects
 associated  with ambient  and indoor exposure to RWC emissions,  regulatory
 agencies  are  becoming increasingly concerned about visibility reduction
 and airshed capacity  issues related to wood smoke (74,94,105,147,157-159,
 244,306,312,320,322).  Recent data developed for  the Portland,  Oregon
 metropolitan  area,  for example,  shows  that the annual emissions from RWC
 sources now exceed those  from industrial  point sources.   If industrial
 source emissions  are  to  expand with the economic  growth of  Pacific North-
 west  communities,  RWC emissions  and potential emission growth must be
 addressed.

     This document  (Task  2A)  focuses on the issues of future particulate
 air quality impact  from RWC sources, the  basis for the projections,
 air resource  implications  and potential mitigating measures.   The intent
 of  this task  is to  draw  together  the findings from Task 1 (Current RWC
 Air Quality Impacts), Tasks 2B (Current Wood Useage),  and Task 3  (Wood
 Fuel Use Projections).  Results developed from Task 6 (Control  Strategy
 Alternatives)  and Task 5  (Wood Stove Emission Studies)  are  discussed
 within the  framework  of potential  mitigating measures.  Current RWC
 particulate impacts identified as  a part  of  this  study, as  well as
 those quantified by other  Pacific  Northwest  aerosol  studies,  are  presented
 as  are air  quality projection methodology and impact  projection implications.


 2.0  CURRENT RESIDENTIAL WOOD  COMBUSTION  AIR QUALITY  IMPACTS

     Development of projections for future RWC impacts first requires
 an  understanding of the relationships between  current  air quality  impacts
 and emission strength.  Although numerous  investigators have reported
 studies,  only  four studies  conducted within  the Pacific Northwest  have
 explored  this  relationship  (29-34,42,43,80,95,97,98,101,122,144,145,151,
 182,194,197,200,202,208,209,214,218,232,234,242,248,276,288,290,318,330,
 334,338).  Several other,  less definitive studies have been conducted  in
Bend and  Eugene, Oregon.  Although a brief review of  the  findings  from
each of these  studies is presented to provide a basis upon which future
 impact projections can be based, direct comparison of impacts between
studies is confounded by differences in study experimental design  and
 the meteorological conditions under which the samples were taken.

                                  1

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     In interpreting the results from these studies, it is important  to
distinguish between the numerous sources which potentially contribute to
the impacts discussed in this document.  Much of the evidence developed to
date implicating residential wood combustion sources within the Northwest
have been developed through source apportionment studies founded on chemical
mass balance, carbon-14 analysis, temporal variations in light scattering
measurements (both seasonal and diurnal), carbon thermograph analysis and
dispersion modeling.  Each approach is briefly described in Appendix  1.

     These techniques have been used both jointly and independently to
assess impacts associated with fireplace and wood stove emissions from
residential dwellings  (9).  With the exception of dispersion modeling
analysis (which is based on emission factors adjusted to agree with CMS
and 114C results) , all of the impact assessment methods employed quantify
impacts associated with vegetative burning, a general source class that
includes (a) fireplace, (b) wood stove emissions, (c) slash burning,
(d) forest fires, (e) structural fires, (f) backyard burning of yard
debris, (g) grass and field burning and (h) burning associated with land
clearing.   Further apportionment of vegetative burning emissions to iso-
late emissions from urban residential space heating sources has been based
on (1) quantification of vegetative burning components transported into the
urban environment (sources c, d, g and h) and (2) known seasonal variations
in backyard burning activity.  Emissions associated with accidental struc-
tural fires have been assumed to be insignificant in relation to RWC emissions.
Unburned vegetative materials such as pollen, spores, wood fibers and leaf
fragments have been excluded as possible contributing sources on the basis
of particle size.

     Perhaps the strongest evidence supporting the premise that RWC sources
are the predominant contributor to the urban vegetative burning component
is (a) the level of agreement between the CMS and carbon-14 results,  (b) the
seasonal variability in RWC impacts follows known trends in wood burning
emissions and space heating demand and (c) spatial variability patterns in
RWC estimated impacts are reasonable with respect to wood burning emission
density patterns in urban areas.  For example, RWC impacts are consistently
found to be highest in residential land use areas than in commercial or
industrial areas.  The weight of evidence, then, supports the position that
the urban vegetative burning component is dominated by residential wood
combustion emissions.  Since the focus of this document is primarily centered
on the identification and projection of worst case 24 hour impacts within
urban areas during the winter months when RWC emissions are maximized, air
quality impacts identified as vegetative burning have been considered as of
residential wood combustion origin.

2.1  Portland and Medford Aerosol Characterization Studies

     Studies conducted by the State of Oregon Department of Environmental
Quality have quantified the impact af residential wood combustion in the
Portland and Medford Air Quality Maintenance Areas.   Conducted during the
periods June, 1977 to April, 1978 and April 1979 to March, 1980, respectively,
the Portland Aerosol Characterization Study (PACS)  and Medford Aerosol
Characterization Study (MACS) used chemical mass balance (CMS) and radio-
carbon (12C/14C) source apportionment techniques to quantify residential wood

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 combustion impacts  to fine (_<_ 2.5  ym)  and total particulate fractions.
 Impact  estimates  representing both annual average and 24 hour periods were
 developed.   Results from these programs  are listed in Table 1.   Figures 1
 and  2 illustrate  the magnitude of  the  impacts  associated with RWC emissions
 and  other  sources to annual  average total and  respirable particulate mass  in
 Portland and Medford.   The major sources of respirable particles in Portland,
 on an annual basis,  were found to  be residential wood burning (20%), motor
 vehicle exhaust  (15%)  and secondary.aerosols (14%).   Within the  Medford air-
 shed, 47%  of the  locally generated respirable  particulate mass has been
 assigned to  residential wood combustion,  17% to industrial sources and  5%  to
 transportation.   In terms of 24 hour worst case episodes,  residential wood
 burning in Portland and Medford have been found to contribute as much as 36%
 and  86%, respectively,  to the respirable particulate  mass during the fall  and
 winter months.  Estimates of the impact  of vegetative burning from residential
 sources, however, are  typically associated with uncertainties that range from
 20 to 40%  of the  impact estimate,  largely due  to the  high degree of variability
 in the chemical composition  of the emissions.

 Marked seasonal variations in residential wood burning emission  impacts have
 been reported by  the State of Oregon Department of Environmental Quality based
 on seasonal  variations  in atmospheric  aerosol  light scattering characteristics
 as measured  by the  integrating nephelometer.   Comparisons  of  fine particle mass_
 (_< 2.5 ym mass median aerodynamic  diameter)  and light scattering (Bgcat x  10 "m  x
 have clearly demonstrated the usefulness  of  Bscat  measurements in providing
 semiquantitative  estimates of the  impact of  RWC emissions  within the Northwest
 (7,  8).  The validity of  this approach to impact assessment largely rests  in
 the  fact that (a) some  80% by mass of  the emissions from RWC  sources are less
 than 1 ym in size and,  therefore,  within  the size  range  that  is  highly  efficient
 in scattering visible light  and (b)  residential burning  has been implicated, by
 more specific chemical  mass  balance  and  radiocarbon techniques,  as a major source
 of fine particle mass within the airshed  studied (7,  8).   Comparisons of diurnal
 variations in light  scattering measurements  made during  summer and winter  periods
 in the Bend  and Medford,  Oregon airsheds,  suggest  that marked changes in the
 Bscat levels during  evening  hours, peaking between 8  and 11. p.m.,  may be related
 to increases in the  level of  wood  heating appliance use.   Calculations  of  likely
 average winter season impacts, based on Bscat  -  fine  particle relationships
 developed for the Medford airshed, indicate  that about 39  yg/m3  of fine particle
 mass may be  associated  with  residential wood combustion  emissions,  as compared
 to a chemical mass balance-derived estimate  of  37  yg/m3  for winter months  (8).

 2.2  Missoula, Montana  Studies

     Ambient particulate  TSP  and fine  fraction  samples collected  in Missoula,
Montana during the  1979-1980  winter period were  analyzed by four  independent
 researchers  to determine  the  level of  residential  wood combustion  impact in
 the Missoula airshed (9).  Although study period temperatures were generally
warmer than  that typical  of winter weather, a nine day period of air  stagna-
 tion was included in the  field sampling program.   Average  fine particle  RWC
 impacts calculated on the basis of 12  samples collected  during February, 1980
averaged 37 ± 12 yg/m3 or 68.75% of the fine particle mass depending  on  the
 investigator's analysis.  Maximum 24 hour impacts  of 48 yg/m3 was  measured
during the study by chemical mass balance analysis.

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                                               Table  1
                         Pacific Northwest Residential Wood Combustion  Impacts
                             (Locally Generated and Background Emissions)
u.LLy/
State
Medford*
Justice Bldg.
Dodge Road
White City
Port land t
Flavel Park
Industrial Air
Products
Downtown (CAMS)
Carus (Background)
Missoula,
Montana
OULI.UUIIUJ.Llg
Land Use
	 rat Ljucuiaut:
Annual Average
TSP
% JJ£
Commercial
Rural
Industrial
Residential
Industrial

Commercial
Rural


31.1
33.4
15.3
10.5
5.6

8.4
4.5


30
8
14
6
4

6
1


/ml
.1
.6
.3
.9
.4

.5
.5


Respirable
% V£_
65.
58.
42.
18.
9.

16.
9.


7
7
2
6
9

4
6


30
8
13
3
2

3
I


ria 1 1. c i
(1)
/nil
.2
.8
.5
.7
.7

.9
.5


i\L Ll J-UULclUJ-C l_U KWVj 	
24 Hour Worst Case
TSP
% ug/m3
37 100(4)
9 30(3)
24 52(3)
9 14(5)
4 7(5)

5 12(5)
2 1(5)


Respirable (1)
% Pg/m3
86 82(2)
117 33(3)
52 80(3)
36 24(6)
1 1.2(5)

7 5(5)
1 5(5)


 Lion's Park
Residential-
Commercial
Mix
53
68 to 75%
45
 * Ref.  3.
 t Ref.  4.
(1) <_ 2.5 urn particles.
(2) Dec.  26, 1979.  Average 2, 12 hour samples.   Maximum 12 hour impact, 126- |jg/m3.
(3) Fall  worst case day (incl.  vegetative burning & veneer dryers).   Includes "background" aerosol.
(4) Winter  worst case day (incl. vegetative burning &  veneer dryers).   Includes "background" aerosol.
(5) Worst case winter day, Jan.  27,  1978.
(6) Jan.  23, 1978.  Ref. 7.
(7) Ref.  6.
48(7)

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                                    FIGURE  1
             SOURCE CONTRIBUTIONS TO AIR PARTICULATES
                           IN DOWNTOWN  PORTLAND
                    Annual Stratifiea  Arithmetic Average
Residual Oil
  (0.8%)
                                                                 .VolatilizabU Carbon
                                                                        (8.1%)
                                                                    ERST TOTAL
                                                                    (63.5>ig/m3)
                                                                 Nonvo!alilizobl« Carbon
                                                                        (Z.Z-M
                                                             Unidentified (8.0%)
                                                             (NH4. H20, «te)
                                                         Primary Industrial (4.9%)
                                                         i  Calcium Sourc>< (2.0%)
                                                         •  Aluminum Production (1.
                                                         .  5t««l Production (0.94%)
                                                         .  Ho? Fu«l 9oil«ri (0.22%)
                                                         •  Suifili Procf» (0.18%)
                                                         t  Ftrromongon«« Production (0.18%)
   Soil and Road Oust
       (4.3%)
Nonvolafilizafil* Carbon
       (4.0%)
Primary Industrial (3.0%)
, St«l Production (1.0%)
« Aluminum Production (0.72%)
• HogFutl  Sailors (0.48%)
. Sulfiti Proctti (0.39%)
          Unidentified (31.3%)
          (NH4.H,a,«tc)
                                                                    ER  8T FINE
Rtsidual Oil
  (1.4%)
   Marine
   13.2%)

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                                 FIGURE  2
                ANNUAL AVERAGE SOURCE CONTRIBUTIONS
                     FOR THE MACS  SAMPLING PERIOD
                         Medford Justice Building  TSP
                                                    Vegetative
                                                    Burning (9 0%)
     Vegetative
     Burning (22.1%)
Veneer
Dryers (3.9%)'

   Soil and          /
   Rood Oust (18.9%)
                    TSP
        Soil and Road Oust (11.0%)
           Unexplained  (1.0%)
           j Elemental Carbon (1.0%)
            / Nitrate (0.9%)
              Hogged Fuel (0.9%)
              ,Row Wood (0.9%)
               Suifote (0.8%)
               Transportation (0.3%)
               Ammonium (0.2%)
           Elemental Carbon (0.1%)
           Ammonium (04%)
           Sulfat* (I 1%)
          Construction (1.6%)
         Nitrate (2.1%)
       Transportation (2.5%)
     Raw Wood (4.3%)

Unexplained (7.3%)
                Hogged Fuel Boilers and
                Particle Board Dryers (10.0%)
 Vegetative
 Burning (46.7%)
       Vegetative
       Burning (19.0 %)

                  RESPIRA8LE
                  (46Ju.g/m3)

               Soil and
               Road Oust (4.3%)

               Unexplained (4.3%)
               Suifate (1.4%)
               Hogged Fuel (1.3%)
              Transportation (0.6%)
             Nitrate (0.3%)
            Ammonium (0.3%)
        Nitrate (1.3%)
      Transportation (2.8%)

 Hogged Fuel Boilers and
 Particle Board Dryers (10.6%)
                Veneer Dryer* (8.2%)

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 2.3  Task 1 (Ambient Air Quality Impact)  Findings

      The ambient air quality  impact  of RWC  emissions  in eight Pacific Northwest
 cities was studied during  the  1980-1981  space  heating season (10) .   Seventy-five
 selected, worst case fine  particle samples  collected  in Seattle,  Spokane,
 Yakima, Tacoma and Longview, Washington; Boise,  Idaho;  Portland and Medford,
 Oregon were chemically analyzed for  polynuclear  aromatic hydrocarbons (PNA),
 35 trace elements and carbon.  The air quality impact of RWC and  other emission
 sources was determined by  chemical mass balance  and carbon-14 analysis methods.
 Residential wood combustion impacts  measured during this study were largely
 measured during the month  of February, 1981 - a  period  during which average
 heating loads were less than those which typically occur during periods of peak
 space heating demand.  Results reported from the Task 1  analysis,  therefore,
 represent high impact days selected  from a group of samples  collected during a
 period of relatively moderate weather conditions.  Higher impacts may occur
 during periods of greater  space heating demand and poorer atmospheric dispersion.

     Results from these studies (Table 2 and Figure 3)  have clearly identified
the importance of RWC emissions as a major contributor  to the  fine  particle and
TSP mass.  Source apportionment results typically  assigned 60  to 75%  of the fine
particle mass to RWC emissions during 24-hour worst case conditions.   Impacts
exceeding 50 yg/m3 were measured at residential  sites  in Seattle, Spokane,  Portland,
Medford and Boise.  The maximum impact (128  yg/m3, 8-hour average,  upper limit
estimate) was recorded at the Boise residential  site; note that all  Boise results
are based on inhalable (_£15 m)  particulate,  not  fine particulate.  Measurement of
PNA compounds present on selected high RWC impact  samples showed that urban
concentrations of these carcinogenic compounds were  typically  an order of
magnitude higher than similar measurements made  at background  sites.   Expressed
in terms of exposure to benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P),  a  PNA compound with demonstrated
carginogenic properties,  exposure to B(a)P concentrations associated  with RWC
emissions of 4.1 ng/m3 (arithmetic  mean value for  residential  sites)  24-hour
average is comparable to  the exposure  related to smoking  approximately four
cigarettes per day.   At the maximum B(a)P  concentration measured during the
study (11.1 ng/m3,  24-hour  average),  the dosage  is equivalent  to 11 cigarettes
per day.  Although the measured PNA concentrations should be of concern,  no
direct dose-response relationships  are currently available upon which to  base
a quantitative assessment of public health risk.

Comparisons of RWC  impacts  in  relation to concurrent TSP measurements suggest
that from 25 to 44% of the  TSP  mass measured in residential areas was contri-
buted by RWC emissions during  worst case  impact situations.   Initial estimates,
based on inhalable particulate  samples, indicate  that  as much as 60% of the
Boise TSP mass may be related  to wood burning.  Results  from  the Boise study,
however, need to be further verified  by analysis  of fine particle  (< 2.5 vim)
rather  than inhalable  (_< 15 ym) particulate  samples.   Direct  analysis of the
importance of RWC emissions in  relation to TSP  air  quality standards is not
possible because of constraints imposed by the  study design.

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                                                                     Table  2

                                                        CMB  Estimates of  RWC  Impacts
                                                         (October  1980 - March  1981)
                                                             Fine Particle Fraction
                                                                     (Vlg/m3)
oo
Ull
Spokane
Spokuue *

Spokane*

Suut t le
Scall le*
Se.ill le*
VdLOiua

Yukiiiij*
loMtfvleu*
Holbu'

Oruguu
fori lunJ
HcdforJ*
Site
No.
1
13

14

3
a
10
9

1 1
12
15


i
7
No. of
Samples
1

4

10
2
3
4 .

4
*
9


8
1
Average HWC
Percent of
Site Haue1 Fine Haaa
Country
Homes (R)
County
Health (C)
Crown
Zellerbach (1)
Newport Way (R)
South Park (R)
Georgetown (I)
Fire
Station 112 (I)
Courthouse (C)
City Shops (C)
Falrvlew &
Liberty St. (C)

81.0
64.7

45.3

83.8
65.8
73.4
74.9

93.1
61.4
69.5


Whitman School(R) 68. S
Courthouse (R)
.
Average
Fine Mauii
55.
53.

37.

36.
-
39.
47.

53.
41.
121.


40.

0
I

0

I

7
0

8
8
8


0

Avt; i age
Impact
44 . 5
J4.3

16. 7

30.2

29. 1
35.2

50.0
25.6
84.7


27 .'.

t 11 .
I 21 .

t 14.

i 8.
-
1 20
I 25

1 34.
i 17
1 22


i. 10
-
5
3

9

.6

.2
.8

.rouiiil
.6 6.8 t 3.4
6.8 1 3.4

.3 6.813.4

.6 9.412.8
.6 9.4 • 2.8
.3 9.4 i 2.8
.6

.7
.2
4,


.9 7.4 t 52

t.UL J 1 1 y
It WC luiji.l,
17 7
27.'j

•J.'J

-!U U
57.7
19.7









      lloiui:
            '  Inhalable  Fraction (<_  IS  pn) - upper limit  HUC lupact estimates
            1  8 hour aunple.
            1  Sice key
               R - Residential
               C - Commercial
               I - Industrial

            *  Historical Samples

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                                                     Figure 3
                                           Average 24  Hour Worst Case-
                                               Source Contributions
                                             -Fine Particle Fraction-
                                           (October, 1980-March, 1981)
RESIDENTIAL MOOD COMBUSTION
       < 8IX )
                              ALUMINUM PROC.  (0.4X)
                               RESIDUAL OIL (0.03*)
                                TRANSPORTATION < 3X )
                                GEOLOGICAL <2.3K)

                                SECONDARY BULFATE <3.6X>
                              UNEXPLAINED  <9.7*>
   SPOKAHE COUNTRY HOMES SITE I
       NTIAL  MOOD COniMJSTIO^  RES10UftL  OIL (0.2X)

                                 TRAHSPORTATIOII (5.8V.)


                                 SECONDARY 9ULFATE (7K)

                               MARINE (J.I);)
                               CEOLOG1CRL 

                                 UNEXPLAINED  ( IB.7X)
RESIOEHIIAL
UOOO
COMOUS1I OH
                                                                                               GEOLOGICAL ( M . f<
                               IRAHSPORTnTION (3 2^. )

                               SECONDARY SULFnTE (.1 I •
                               MARINE (O.OK)

                              UHEXI'LAINEO (0 6>.)
                                                                     ooise  FniRuiuu t L lut.Kiy u i s

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     An evaluation of RWC  air  quality  impact  trends  during  the  recent  past
provides an opportunity  to place  the results  from recent  studies  of  ambient
air quality impacts  into historical perspective.   Trend studies reported  in
Task 3, Part  III, have attempted  to determine the short term  trend in  wood
fuel use by examining the  impact  of urban wood  combustion on  various measures
of air quality likely to be impacted by  increased wood use  (11).  Trends  in
evening carbon monoxide concentrations,  the organic  content of  the TSP aerosol,
light scattering properties of  the atmosphere and coefficient of  haze  ("soiling
index") measurements were  examined as  possible  trend  indicators  since an
insufficient  data base of  chemical mass  balance-derived RWC impact data is
available.  Limitations in the  measurements and adequacy of the historical  data
base, however, restricted  the analysis to light scattering measurements (Bscac)
at commercial land use sites in Seattle  and Portland  during the 1978-1981
heating seasons (October-March).

Trends in Bscat measurements were normalized  for  variations in  heating degree
days and wind speed  to minimize variations due  to  meteorological  factors,
averaged to represent a single  heating season and  bivariate plots of Bscat  vs
heating season prepared.   Linear regression analysis  of the data  suggests a
6-8% per year increase in  heating season average  Bscat values,  suggesting that
concentrations of fine particles during  the heating season may  have  increased
in both Portland and Seattle in recent years.  Emission inventory and  dispersion
model analysis for the Portland airshed  during  the 1977-1978 period  indicate
that fine particle impacts  from other major sources should decrease  or  only
slightly increase, suggesting that increases  in Bscat measurements during the
heating seasons are likely  associated with increases  in RWC emissions.  Although
the results of this analysis are, at best, tentative, the rate  of increase
suggested by this analysis  is the same as that estimated from records  of
firewood supplied by the national forests.


3.0  PROJECTIONS OF FUTURE RWC  IMPACTS

     Development of projections for future RWC impacts require  (a) estimates  of
the likely future growth of RWC emissions and (b)  establishment of a relationship
between emission strength and air quality impact.   This section discusses each
of these elements, related assumptions and projections based on the methodology
described.

3.1  Wood Fuel and Emission Projections

     Studies of short term trends in wood use have been conducted to support
the light scattering trend analysis described above and as a means of under-
standing the changes in air pollution problems that have occurred in many
Pacific Northwest communities during the past 3-4  years (14).   Analysis of
trends in the volume of firewood removed from forest lands under cutting
permits,  surveys of household firewood use and trends in the sale of wood
burning appliances have been examined,  but only the wood cutting permit data
base is sufficient to establish possible trends.  Table 3  summarizes the
results of the short term trend analysis, suggesting a 6-8% maximum annual
average increase in wood fuel use or a 34-47% increase between  1980 and 1985.


                                   10

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                                 Table  3

                        Summary  of  Short Term Trends
                             in  Wood Fuel  Use*
                                                        Est.  Annual
Parameter                       Heating Seasons   Rate  of  Increase (%)

A) Cutting Permit Trends

   Seattle, Washington             1975-1980            7.8-7.9

   Portland, Oregon                1976-1981              6.5

   Spokane, Washington             1977-1980              5.7
   (Colville, N.F.)

   Spokane, Washington             1977-1981            7.2-7.3
   (Idaho Panhandle N.F.)

B) Light Scattering Coefficient
   (B     x lO'^m"1)
     scat

   Seattle, Washington             1978-1981               7.9
   (Kent site)

   Portland, Oregon                1978-1981               5.7
   (CAMS site)

*After Table 7, Task 3. Ref. 11.


     Long term projections of wood fuel use  for the period 1985-2000 were
prepared using a state-of-the-art computer simulation model which  considered
the estimated cost of wood and alternative fuels, population and household
growth projections, heating requirements, the mix of fuels used in the
community and other factors.  Projections of wood fuel use are, however,
primarily driven by the magnitude of potential cost savings associated with
heating by wood rather than other fuels.  The model was modified to include
fireplace use as well as wood stoves and furnaces.  Because wood stoves
typically emit more than twice as much particulate per ton of wood burned
than fireplaces, and given the relative increase in the use of wood stoves
over fireplaces, adjustment in wood fuel use were required to obtain estimates
of future particulate emissions.

     Projections for the Portland area show that total wood use is  expected
to increase by 37% between 1980  and 2000 or,  in terms of particulate emissions,
by 72% by 2000.   For Seattle, total wood use  is projected to increase by 19%
between 1980 and 1985  or by 40%  in  terms of particulate emissions.  Projections
for Spokane show an overall 9% increase  in wood use and a 26% increase in
emissions based  on most  probable case assumptions.  Table 4 shows these pro-
jections for each 5 year period  between  1980  and 2000.
                                   11

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                                 Table  4

                Projections of Residential Wood  Fuel  Use
                 and Corresponding Particulate Emissions
             Stove/Furnace      Fireplace          Total      Total Particulate
Year        Wood Usage  (1)   Wood Usage  (1)   Wood Usage  (1)    Emissions (2)
Portland Metropolitan Area


1980              150               190               340               9.3
1985              240               190               430              12.8
1990              240               170               410              12.5
1995              300               150               450              14.5
2000              340               140               480              15.9
City of Seattle

1980               45               110              155               3.7
1985               85               100              185               5.1
1990               85               100              185               5.1
1995               90               100              190               5.3
2000               85               100              185               5.1
City of Spokane

1980               28                93               121               2.7
1985               42                84               126               3.1
1990               45                81               126               3.2
1995               51                78               129               3.4
2000               54                75               129               3.4
 (1) 103 cords/year
 (2) 103 tons TSP/year
    After Table  1, Task 3. Ref.  11
                                     12

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 3.2  Wood Use  - Air Quality  Relationships

     Development  of a  relationship  between wood use and resulting air quality
 impact forms the  foundation  of  future projections  of RWC impact given estimates
 of future wood fuel use.   Numerous  investigators have described the use of
 wood as a space heating  fuel and  energy related issues (23-24,28,36,37,39,
 44-65,70,72,73,77,100,114,123-125,131,134,141,148,160,165,168,173,191,203,204,
 229-231,235,241,249-251,273,278,294-299,313,317,321,332,333).   However, to
 establish this relationship  for a specific city required development of data
 on woodburning activity  during  February,  1981  in Portland,  Seattle and Spokane.
 This data was  gathered within a one square mile area around each air monitoring
 site to insure that wood use survey results could  be related  to ambient impact
 estimates.

     The wood use surveys were based on a random selection of  800  households
 within a one-square mile area around each residential air monitoring  site;
 questionnaire surveys were mailed  to each household and the  results  statisti-
 cally analyzed.  The highest rate  of response (58%)  occurred in  Spokane, while
 Portland and Seattle responses were  36 and 48%,  respectively (10).   Summary
 statistics were obtained for each  survey area in each of a number  of  categories
 related to wood fuel use in the home.
     Table 5 summarizes  the  survey  results used in establishing wood use  -
 air quality relationships  for each  of the three communities studies.   Approxi-
 mately 49, 18  and 19% of the wood burned  during February, 1981  in Portland,
 Seattle and Spokane was burned  in wood stoves,  with the balance burned (primarily)
 in home fireplaces.  Given the  total number of  cords burned during  February
 in each community, an estimate of the weight of one cord of wood  and a parti-
 culate emission factor for wood stoves and fireplaces,  an estimate  of likely
 TSP emissions within one square mile of the monitoring sites was  made.  The
 emission estimates can then  be used in association with concurrent  air quality
 impact estimates and projections  of future emissions to estimate  future air
 quality impacts given the  following assumptions and data limitations:

     1.  Representative Impact Measurements;  Estimates  of  RWC  impacts  must
 be representative of the heavy wood  use areas within the  communities  studies.
 As noted in the Task 1 document,  extreme  care was  taken  during  siting of  the
 samplers to insure that  (a)  samples  were  not subject  to  impact  from  any single
 nearby source; (b) sites were located  in  residential  areas  where, based on
 surveys of wood stove stacks  and wood  piles, wood burning was known  to  be
 occuring; and  (c)  sampler  exposure,   height  above ground  and setback  from
 roadways were determined to be consistent with  40 CFR,  Part 58  EPA siting
 criteria.

     2.  Similar Dispersion Conditions:  Dispersion  conditions  during  the
 periods selected for analysis must be  assumed to be  typical of  those  likely
 to occur in future years.  Because  the measured RWC  impacts are a function of
 emission strength and meteorology at the  time of sampling,  the measured impacts
 reflect both conditions and,  while impact corrections have  been made  to
 emission strength term, no analysis  -or adjustments to the measured impacts
have been made relative to the meteorology.  As noted in Task 1, impact
 estimates made during February,  1981 reflect the relatively mild weather
conditions that occurred during that time,  such that the study results
 represent reasonable,  rather than  extreme, worst cast conditions.
                                    13

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                                   Table  5
                                             .U)
                                Wood  Fuel Use
                          Household Survey Results
                          (Month of February 1981)
CATEGORY
Wood Stove Use
  • Days Used
  • Hours Per Day

Fireplaces & Inserts
  • Days Used
  • Hours Per Day

Wood Burned (Cords)
All Devices
% Wood Stoves
% Fireplaces
Wood Stoves
(mean ± standard deviation)*
Fireplaces
(mean ± standard deviation)*
Furnaces
(mean ± standard deviation)*

TSP Emissions (Tons)**
Wood Stoves
Fireplaces
Total

Average Worst Case RWC
Impacts on fine particle
fraction (2A-hr, yg/m3)
Urban-Residential Site t
Background (average)
Locally generated impact
Number of observations
PORTLAND
SEATTLE
SPOKANE
22.6
10.0
16.4
7.6
20.0
10.6
8.9
4.1
23.3
14.0
12.2
6.3
 433.6
  23.1
   9.8
  13.3
   6
 303.7
  34.7
   9.5
  25.2
   5
 326.5
49
50
103 ±
079 ±
007 ±
8
3
12
.3
.7
.33
.31
.067
.41
.84
.24
18.
81.
.039 ±
.159 ±
.0
2.
4.
6.
6
4
.166
.243

22
33
55
19
80
.069 ±
.246 ±
.002 ±
2
4
7
.5
.5
.368
.437
.048
.50
.59
.09
  44.7
  13.1
  31.6
   8
    Survey results are from a one-square mile area around each residential air
    monitoring site.
 *  Average wood use,  all households.
**  Assuming 1.75 tons wood/cord; fireplace and wood stove emission factors of
    20 and 45 Ibs/ton, respectively.
 t  Mean RWC impact on fine particle  fraction ( <_2 y m)  from samples collected
    during February 1981 only; (since these data are for February only the
    reported values will not exactly  compare to the Table 2 values for October
    1980-March 1981) .
                                     14

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      3.   Application of Emission Estimates:  The rate of change in the
 projected particulate emission estimates (Task 3, Table 4) are assumed to
 reflect  the likely change in emissions in the vicinity of the monitoring
 site.   Since the emission projections were developed for the urban area
 in which sampling was conducted, this assumption further requires that
 the spatial distributions of the RWC emissions remains relatively unchanged
 over time.   Major increases in emission density, for example, in an area
 predominately upwind of the receptor could increase RWC impacts to a greater
 degree than anticipated.

      4.   Importance of Nearby Sources:   RWC emissions located within one
 square mile of the monitoring site are predominately responsible for the
 measured RWC impact,  or conversely,  that RWC sources outside of the survey
 area are relatively unimportant contributors.   While the RWC area source
 emissions located in near proximity  to the monitoring site will collectively
 form a major portion of the impact due to relatively non-dispersed nature of
 the plumes,  the large relative magnitude of all other RWC emission sources
 within the  airshed may also be important,  Determination of the relative
 importance  of the two subgroups would require  a rather comprehensive dis-
 persion  modeling study.   Fortunately, the technical basis of the RWC impact
 projections  does not  rely heavily on this assumption.

      5.   Background Impacts:   Background RWC impacts are assumed to  remain
 constant  over the next 20 years.   Since  no  data is  available upon which  to
 base air  quality projections  of the  background  impacts,  the  total RWC  impact
 estimate  (locally generated plus  background) should be viewed as conservative.

     6.   Other  Locations;   Impact projections  cannot be  developed for  other
 locations within the  community which, because  of  future  changes in emission
 density,  may  experience greater impacts  than the  locations  studies here.

     7.   Limited Data Set;   Impact projections  are  based on  average  RWC
 impacts  calculated  for valid  samples collected  during  February,  1981.  As
 noted  in  Table  5,  relatively  few  (5-8) observations  are  available  upon
 which  to  base an impact/emission  relationship.

     The most critical assumptions employed  in  this  analysis  are  that  (a)
 the emission  projections  made  for the entire Portland, Seattle  and Spokane
 airsheds  also apply to sources  within one square mile  of  the  monitoring
 site and  (b)  that  the  limited  number of RWC  impact  estimates  accurately
 reflect the magnitude  of  nearby emissions (i.e.,  that  the impact  emission
 ratio  is accurate.

 3.3  Impact Projections (1981  - 2000)

     Table 6 presents projections for RWC impacts given  these assumptions.
The estimates assume that the particulate emission projections  listed  in
Table 4 and noted below in  terms  of  percent change will result  in  an equi-
valent change in air quality impact.
                                   15

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                                                 Table 6

                                Estimated Future RWC Fine Particle  Impactst
                                     (24-Hour Reasonable Worst  Case)
 City/Site
                        Year
Particulate Emissions
   (Tons/Month)( '
Projected RWC Impactstt
     (Pg/m3)
Local(2)     Total(3)
Projected % Change
In Emissions Over
 Next Five Years
Portland
(Marcus Whitman)



Seattle
(Newport Way)

•

Spokane
(Country Home)



1981
1985
1990
1995
2000
1981
1985
1990
1995
2000
1981
1985
1990
1995
2000
12.2
16.7
16.4
19.0
20.8
6.5
8.9
8.9
9.2
8.9
7.1
8.1
8.3
8.8
8.8
13.3*
18.3
17.8
20.6
22.5
25.2*
34.7
34.7
36.0
34.7
31.6*
36.3
37.5
39.8
39.8
23.1*
28.1
27.6
30.4
32.3
34.7*
44.2
44.2
45.5
44.2
44.7*
49.4
50.6
52.9
52.9
37.6%
- 2.3%
16.0%
9.6%
-
37.8%
0.0
3.9%
- 3.9%
-
14 .8%
3.2%
6.2%
0.0
-
 t  First order approximations.
 tt Fine particle (_<2.5um)  fraction.
 *  Measured data;  February  1981.
    Emissions within a one-sqaure  mile area of  the monitoring  site  based on  February  1981  survey  results.
(U
(2)
(3)
    Average worst case impact  associated with locally  generated  RWC  emissions,  only.   Based  on 1.1,  3.8  and
    4.5 Mg/m3 of impact per ton of  emissions and emission  projections  for  Portland,  Seattle,  and  Spokane,
    respectively.
    Average worst case impact  associated with  local and  background  emissions.
    constant background contribution.
                                         Lower limit estimate • Assume
                                                      16

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     Projections of wood  used, TSP  emissions and  total  RWC  impacts  listed
in Tables 4 and 6 are presented  in  Figure  i.  The higher air  quality  impacts
per ton of emission noted in  Seattle  and Spokane  reflect the  more restric-
tive dispersion meteorology associated with samples  taken in  Seattle  and
Spokane.  While the data  presented  in Table 6 and Figure 4  can provide  a
good indication of likely trends  in RWC impacts,  limitations  imposed  by
the assumptions and data  sets used  restrict quantitative uses of the
projections to first order approximations.  Due to the  tenuous nature of
the projection methodology and the  difficulty in  developing a valid impact/
emission estimate for a single day, no attempt has been made here to
project extreme worst case impacts.   Rather, the  estimate represents  an
average, worst case 24-hour fine  particle  mass impact.  Development of  a
more quantitative understanding of  emission-air quality relationships
will require a much more  intensive  effort  utilizing  urban dispersion  models
that have been validated  with respect to receptor model (e.g. CMB model)
estimates.


4.0  DISCUSSION OF PROJECTION RESULTS

     The RWC impact projections for the period 1981  to  the  year 2000
represents 40%, 27% and 21% increases in average worst  case impacts in
Portland, Seattle and Spokane, respectively.  In  terms  of concentration,
these figures represent an additional 9.2, 9.5 and  8.2 ug/m3 of fine
particulate mass burden to the airshed during poor ventilation winter
days.  These impacts, however, represent average, reasonable worst case
24 hour conditions, rather than a single actual worst case  condition  that
has occurred in history.   Projections, for example,  developed by the
State of Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, for 1987 RWC impacts
to the TSP fraction suggest a 53  ug/m3, 24 hour impact  at a Portland
residential site during worst case  winter  conditions -  an estimate based
on dispersion model analysis of a single 24-hour period of  poor ventila-
tion  (13). In addition,  samples  analyzed  as part of the Task 1 effort
demonstrated 24-hour impacts markedly higher than the year  2000 projections,
demonstrating the importance of clearly defining the meteorological and
emission strength basis for the impact analysis.

4.1  Implications for Future Air  Resource  Management

     As national interest  in revision of the current TSP national ambient
air quality standard turned toward  adoption of a 10  um  particulate matter
(PM10) standard, the importance of RWC emissions to  attaining and main-
taining a new particulate  standard will become increasingly evident.
Studies conducted by the  State of Oregon,  for example,  (Section 2.1)  have
determined that worst case 1987 RWC emission impacts in residential areas
will account for 44% of the TSP,   about 65% of the inhalable particulate
mass (<15 um)  and about 80% of the PM10 mass,  assuming  a 20% reduction  in
impact from paved and unpaved road dust emissions.  When considered in
relation to (a) the rapid  and potentially uncontrolled  growth in RWC
emissions; (b)  the associated impact  that  these fine particles will have
on the visual clarity of the atmosphere;  (c)  the potential public health
implications;  and (d)  consequences to air resource management, the impact
projection presented here  signals the strong need to conduct a more inten-
sive analysis of future impacts in relation to current and proposed air
quality standards.


                                    17

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                  FIGURE 4
    RWC Impact  Projections  (1981-2000)
                   PorcLand. Oraton
KOJ
        100 I
         1M1    1M3
!.S -I    111 I
         1991     l«5
                             ins     :ooo
                     18

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      The implications of an increase in fine particle mass impacts by RWC
 emissions on the visibility degradation is of special interest to Pacific
 Northwest communities with scenic vistas.   Urban visibility degradation
 is  primarily a result of the scattering and absorption of light by fine
 particles.   In most cases the light absorption coefficient is small in
 comparison to the light scattering (Bscat) component.  The relationship
 between  Bscat and fine particle mass concentrations has been studied by a
 number of researchers (15,16).

      Regression analysis of concurrent  Bscat-fine mass measurements made as
 part  of  the PACS program (4)  was also conducted fay Shaw and co-workers (7) .
 Results  of  the analysis indicated:

    (a) An excellent correlation exists  between Be.,_,. and fine mass
                                                 a CcL L
       concentrations (Bscat  =  0.113 + 0.047) mass
       where n = 404 and r =  0.934.   Figure 5 illustrates this relationship.

    (b) The  light scattering efficiency  of  sulfate,  nitrate and carbon
       aerosol were all equivalent  (5 m2/g)  and collectively account for
       86%  of the light scattering  due  to  aerosols.

    (c) The  only significant contribution from primarily aerosol sources
       to Bgcat was from vegetative  burning - the major source of primary
       carbon aerosol.   This  component  accounts for 18% of the light
       scattering,  on an annual average basis.

      Studies of visual  range  (Vr),  the  distance at  which a large  black
 object is just visible,  have  shown  that under a limited set of conditions,
 Vr  is well  correlated with Bg     (commonly about  0.9)  measured in relatively
 polluted  conditions where pollutants  are homogenously distributed.   For
 non-absorbing atmospheres (Bext = Bscat) a relationship of Vr « 3.9/Bscat +0.01
 has been  found (21)  where:

   Vr = visual range (Km)
   Bscat  -  aerosol  scattering coefficient  (Km'1)  at  550nm
   0.01 - standard  Rayleigh scattering value  (Km"1)

      If,  under average  worst  case conditions,  RWC impacts increase  by
 approximately 10  yg/m3  by the year 2000, the  above  relationships  for Portland
 would suggest a resultant 24 hour average  Bgcat  increase of about 0.6 Km 1,
 or expressed in terms of  Vr, a  resultant additional  decrease  in visual range
 of about  6  Km,  or about  4  miles.   This is a  convervative estimate  which
 does not  consider light  absorption effects or  the association with  elemental
 carbon component of  RWC  emissions.

     Expressed  in terms  of  airshed capacity,  increases  in RWC impacts  may
 represent an important  factor in (a)  limiting  emission  growth of  other
 sources in  the  airshed,  (b) exacerbating and/or expanding  the  extent  of
 the nonattainment areas  or  (c)  resulting in additional  control  requirements
on other  sources to  offset RWC  emission growth.

     For  example, cost estimates developed as part of the Medford,  Oregon
TSP control  strategy suggest that reduction of  1  yg/m3  in annual  TSP mass
concentration  for the following control measures will result  in the  costs
noted below  (19):
                                    19

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         scat
                     Figure 5

               Fine Aerosol Mass  Relationship
                 Portland, Oregon
   bscot =  0.113   -i-   0.0474  mass
            (±0.026)  (±0.0009)
   n =  404   r = 0.934
0
20       40
    Fine mass
                                                 100
Relationship between light-scattering coefficient and
fine  aerosol mass for 24  hour samples from five sites.
Solid line represents the linear regression of BscaC
on mass.  Ref.  17.
                   20

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            Control Measure                   ? year/ug/m3

   Small  Hogged fuel boilers (0.1 gSCF)       $ 130,000

   Large  Hogged fuel boilers (0.01 gSCF)       $ 120,000

   Small  Cyclones                              $ 130,000

   Veneer dryers                              $ 500,000


   4.2  Potential  Mitigating Measures

       The  air quality  and emission projections used in preparation of this
   document  include no inherent assumption of  emission mitigation,  other than
   the economics of fuel use.   Control  strategy options are discussed in
   Task 6, while Task 4  is  a technical  analysis of  wood stove combustion
   principles,  design considerations and  operating  techniques (20,21).  A brief
   discussion of the findings  of these  tasks are included here to place the
   air quality  impact projections into  proper  perspective,  as it  is likely
   that a number of mitigating  actions  will be adopted by state,  city or
   regional  regulatory agencies within  the period covered by the  projections.

       Numerous investigators  have  reported on potential control options
   (26,38,40,97,152,163,164,180,192,246,303,329,339)  and regulatory approaches
   (96,104,115,136,153-155,221,224,243,252-254,263,270)  to  mitigating RWC
   impacts.  The design  and  operation of  wood  burning appliances  has been
   studied by many  researchers  (66-68,103,177,179,210,223,240,274,275).   Results
   from these programs have  clearly  demonstrated the  importance of  these
   factors in determining emission rates  of pollutants and  the efficiency of
   the appliance.   Variables such as charge rate, fuel and  combustion air
   regulation,  all  operator-dependent variables, greatly influence  the
   emission  rate and  heating efficiency.   Minimizing  emissions, while
  maximizing efficiency requires:

     (a)   that  stove  be sized to  encourage operation  at  high  burning rates

     (b)  avoiding  overcharging  of the  appliance with  wood  and overnight
         "banking" of fires

     (c)  use of properly seasoned wood

     (d)  fireplace operation only during  periods of mild temperatures with
         the use of  door enclosures and

     (e)  addition of catalyst and/or automatic thermostats  or  other  design
         changes (e.g.,  secondary air)  to improve combustion  efficiency
         (effectiveness  not yet proven  or established).

     The  Task 4 report concludes that a considerable  reduction in
contaminants could be realized  by providing more public  information  and
education on proper appliance  firing techniques.  These  conclusions  are
consistent with the greater body of  literature describing the nature and
quantity  of  pollutants emitted  from  wood  combustion processes  (75,77,80,
81,89,91-93, 1-1,1-6,116-118,121,126', 128-130,132,133,137,142,146,156,162,
167,169,170,174,181,184,187-189,195-199,207,216,228,236,237,245,255-260
266-269,271,272,277,283-285,281,301-305,307-311,313,316,327,328,331).


                                      21

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5.0  Summary and  Conclusions
     The use of wood as a residential space heating fuel in the Pacific
Northwest has  increased markedly in the past four years.  The apparent
increase in wood  use,  as indicated by trends in wood stove sales, emission
inventory and  ambient  air monitoring information collectively point toward
a problem of growing concern related to future air quality management and
public health  issues.   In light of these concerns, a study of the current
and likely future impacts of RWC emissions in ma-jor population centers in
Oregon, Washington and Idaho was conducted during the 1980-81 heating
season.  The study design incorporated concurrent measurements of worst
case RWC impacts, development of an RWC emission inventory data base for
three cities and  estimates of likely future emissions, given certain
trends in energy  use and economics.  Through development of a RWC impact/
emission inventory relationship, air quality impact projections have been
prepared and likely implications have been examined.
     Studies of worst  case  24-hour  RWC  impacts measured during the 1980-81
space heating  season have  been  developed as described in Task 1 and compared
to  those derived  from  aerosol studies conducted in Oregon and Montana.
Results from these studies  have clearly identified the importance of RWC
emissions as a major contributor to  the fine  (_<2.5ym) and TSP mass.  Source
apportionment  results  developed by  Chemical Mass Balance and confirmed by
radiocarbon techniques,  typically assigns  60  to 75% of the fine mass to RWC
emissions during  24-hour worst  case  conditions.  Impacts of 50 Mg/m3 or greater
from wood smoke were measured at  residential  sites in Seattle, Spokane, Portland,
Medford and Boise,  with the maximum impact  (128 )Jg/m3, inhalable particulate
fraction 8-hour average upper limit  estimate) recorded at the Boise residential
site.  Concentrations  of polynuclear aromatic compounds present in selected
samples suggest that urban concentrations  are a factor of ten higher than those
measured in rural areas.   Exposure  to average B(a)P concentrations associated
with wood smoke is comparable to the exposure associated with smoking four
cigarettes per day.  At the maximum B(a)P  concentrations (11 ng/m3)t the dosage
 is  equivalent  to  about 11  cigarettes, per day.  Since no direct dose-response
 relationships  are available for B(a)P exposure, a quantitative assessment of
public health  risk cannot  be determined.
                                     22

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      Analysis of the trends  in firewood  use during  the  past  3-4  years and
 estimates  of  likely  short-term trends  have  suggested  a  6-8%  maximum annual
 average  increase in  wood  use during  the  1980-85  period  or  a  total  maximum
 increase for  the 5 year period of  34-47%.   Long-term  projections (1985-2000)
 developed  by  a computer simulation model given the  cost of wood  and alterna-
 tive  fuels, population growth and  wood stove-fireplace  use trends  indicate a
 wood  fuel  use increase of  41%,  26%,  and  7%  by the year  2000  in Portland,
 Seattle, and  Spokane, respectively,  resulting in a  72%  increase  in RWC
 emissions  by  the year 2000 in Portland,  40% in Seattle,  and  a 26%  increase
 in  Spokane.
      Wood  use-air quality  relationships  developed for Portland,  Spokane and
 Seattle  for the period of  February 1981  have been used,  in association with
 the emission  projections  to  estimate future impacts related  to wood  burning.
 A direct,  proportional relationship between emission growth  and  wood smoke
 impact assumed in this analysis limits the  accuracy of  the projections to
 first order approximations.   The impact  projections for  the  period  1981 to
 2000  represent a 40, 27, and  21% increase in average worst case  impacts in
 Portland,  Seattle, and Spokane, respectively.  These figures represent an
 additional 9.2,  9.5, and 8.2  Ug/m3 fine  particulate burden on the airsheds
 in  each  of the above cities.
      The implications of these projections  to air resource management  in the
 Pacific Northwest are numerous, especially when considered in relation to
 the absence of  any regulatory control on the growth of RWC emissions and
 their impact  on  the visual clarity of the atmosphere.   Based on  established
 relationships  between visual range, light extinction and fine particle aerosol
mass in Portland, the projected 10 Ug/m3  increase in RWC impacts during the
year 2000 would  contribute to a decrease  of about 4 miles in visual range
during cold periods of poor atmospheric ventilation in addition  to the existing
visibility impairment (estimated at approximately 9 miles)  from RWC.  Other
implications may include  limiting the emission growth  of other sources in the
airshed,  expanding the extent of nonattainment areas and requirements  placed
on other  sources to  offset RWC emission growth.
                                     23

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                             6.0  References

1.   Residential Solid Fuels, Environmental Impacts and Solutions.  J.A.
     Cooper and D. Malek, Eds., Oregon Graduate Center, Beaverton, OR  1981.
2.   J.A. Cooper, "Environmental Impact of Residential Wood Combustion and
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     Vol. 30, No. 8, August, 1980.
3.   R.T. DeCesar and J.A. Cooper, "Medford Aerosol Characterization Study,"
     Final Report to the State of Oregon Department of Environmental
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4.   J.A. Cooper and J.G. Watson, "Portland Aerosol Characterization Study,"
     Final Report to the State of Oregon Department of Environmental Quality,
     July, 1979.
5.   J.E. Core, J.A. Cooper and J.E. Houck, "A Study of Residential Wood
     Combustion; Task 1  - Ambient Air Quality Impact Analysis", prepared for
     U.S. EPA, Region X, December 1981.

6.   J.A. Cooper and R.T. DeCesar, "Missoula, Montana Source Apportionment
     Study", Final Report prepared for the Montana State Department of
     Health, September,  1980.
7.   J.F. Kowalczyk and  W.T. Green, "New Techniques for Identifying Ambient
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     Oregon Graduate Center, Beaverton, OR  1981.
8.   Fine Particulates in Oregon's Air, Oregon Department of Environmental
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9.   J.H. Carlson, "Residential Wood Combustion in Missoula, Montana: An
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10.  J.E. Core, et al.,  "A Study of Residential Wood Combustion - Task 1,
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11.  R.L. Gay and W.T. Greene, "Residential Wood Combustion Study - Task 3,
     Wood Fuel Use Projections," prepared for U.S. EPA, Region X, Del Green,
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12.  "Residential Wood Combustion Study - Task 2B, Household Information
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13.  "Portland-Vancouver AQMA  (Oregon Portion) State Implementation Plan for
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14.  J.G. Watson, J.C. Chow and J.J. Shaw, " Analysis of Measurements from
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15.  W.H. White and P.T. Roberts, "On the Nature of Visibility - Reducing
     Aerosols in the Los Angeles Air Basin," Atmos. Environ., 11:803  (1977).
                                      24

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16.  R.J. Charleston, et al., "Monitoring of Atmospheric Aerosol Parameters
     With the Integrating Nephelometer," Journal of the Air Pollution Control
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17.  J.J. Shaw, J.J. Huntzicker, J.A. Cooper and J.G. Watson, "Sources of
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18.  "Protecting Visibility:  An EPA Report to Congress," U.S. EPA,
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19.  "Development of a TSP State Implementation Plan for Medford," State of
     Oregon, Department of Environmental Quality, February 13, 1981.

20.  R.L. Gay and W.T. Greene, "Residential Wood Combustion Study - Task 6,
     Control Strategy Analysis," Prepared for U.S. EPA, Region X, Del Green,
     Associates, May, 1982.

21.  "Residential Wood Combustion Study - Task 4, Technical Analysis of
     Wood Stoves," Prepared for U.S. EPA, Region X, Del Green Associates,
     May, 1982.
                                     25

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 22.  Adams,  D.F. ,  Kopt-p.,  ILK.  and Robinson, E., 1973, Air and Surface Measure-
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          Forest  Fires, Fort Collins, Colorado, published by National Academy
          of Sciences,  Washington, D.C., 1976, p.  105-120.

 23.  Adams,  J.A.S.,  Lundell, L.L. and Mantovani, M.S.M.,  Wood Versus Fossil
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 24.  Adams,  J.A.S.,  Mantovani,  M.S.M. and Lundell, L.L.,  1977, Wood Versus Fossil
          Fuel  as  a Source of  Excess Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere; a
          Preliminary Report:   Science, v.  196, p. 54-56.

 25.  Aldrich, B.F. and  Sanborn, C.R., 1979, Waterbury,  Vermont:   A Case
          Study  of Residential  Wood Burning, Montpelier,  Vermont, Agency
          of Environmental Protection.

 26.  Allen,  J.M.,  1981, Control of Emissions from Residential Wood Burning by
          Combustion Modification, in:   Proceedings of Wood Heating Seminar,
          New Orleans,  Louisiana, p. 167-190.

 27.  Allwine, K. J.,  Jr.,  1981,  Assessment of the Long-Range Transport of
          Residential Woodstove Fine Particulate Emissions for Two Future
          United  States Energy  Scenarios, in:   Proceedings of International
          Conference on Residential Solid Fuels, Cooper,  J.A., (ed.), Portland,
          Oregon.

 28.  American Forestry  Association, 1978, Wood for Energy:   American Forests.

 29.  Anonymous,  1978, Can Air Pollutants Cause Chronic Lung Diseases?: Environ.
          Science  Technology, v.  12, p. 1356.

 30.  Anonymous,  1978, Chemical  Carcinogens: How Dangerous Are Low Doses?:
          Science, v. 202, p. 37-41.

 31.  Anonymous,  1978, Inhaled Particulates: Environmental Science Technology,
          v.  12, p.  1353.

 32.  Anonymous,  1979, Debate Continues  Over Dow's  Dioxin  Theory:  Chem. Eng. News 27

 33.  Anonymous,  1979, Dow Dioxin  Data Appear Reliable:  Chem.  Eng. News 19.

 34.  Anonymous,  1979, EPA Disputes Dow's Dioxin Theory: Chem. Eng.  News 6.

35.  Anonymous,  1980, The Lesson  of Wood Burning?:  Environmental  Science &
          Technology, v.  14, p. 769-771.

36.  Anonymous,  1980, Use of Wood for Energy Up  in Pacific Northwest:  Wood
          Energy  Institute Reports, 3 pp.

37.  Anonymous,  1981, CCEA Continues Study  of  Residential Wood Combustion:
          CCEA  Conventional Combustion  Environmental Assessment Program
          Report,  v.  3, a. 1, 2 pp.
                                       26

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 38.  Anonymous, 1981, Device May Clean Up Wood Stoves, Oregonian, Feb. 10, 1981,
          p.  3M.

 39.  Anonymous, Biomass and Briquetring - An Inexhaustible Source of Cheap Energy
          for Quebec and Canada, 14 pp.

 40.  Anonymous, The Domestic Fire Testing Facility at the Department of Health's
          Environmental Laboratory, Auckland,  4 pp.

 41.  Anonymous, Wood Space Heating Emissions and Control Strategies in the
          Portland-Vancouver Air Quality Maintenace  Area,  6 pp.

 42.  Aronow,  W.S.,  1981,  Effects of 2% Venous  Carboxyhemoglobin  on Exercise-
          Induced Angina  Pectoris, EPA-600/SI-81-012.

 43.  Ashe,  W.F., 1952,  United States Technical Conference  on Air Pollution
          McCabe, L.C.  (ed.), McGraw-Hill,  New York,  NY.

 44.  Auburn University, Mechanical Engineering Department,  1977, Woodburning
          Quarterly Report WB-1, 80 pp.

 45.  Auburn University, Mechanical Engineering Department,  1978, Safety,
          Efficiency, Output and Utility Testing,  Product  Development  and  Basic
          Research  on Woodburning Units  and Accessories  at  the AWL,  30  pp.

 46.  Auburn University, Mechanical Engineering Department,  1978, Woodburning
          Quarterly Report WB-2,  100 pp.

 47.  Auburn University, Mechanical Engineering Department,  1978, Woodburning
          Quarterly Report WB-3,  145 pp.

 48.  Auburn University, Mechanical Engineering Department,  1978,  Woodburning
          Quarterly Report WB-4,  v.  I,  195  pp.

 49.  Auburn University, Mechanical Engineering Department,  1978,  Woodburning
          Quarterly Report WB-4,  v.  II,  148  pp.

 50.  Auburn University, Mechanical Engineering Department,  1978,  Woodburning
          Quarterly Report WB-4,  v.  Ill,  347 pp.

 51.  Auburn University, Mechanical Engineering  Department,  1978,  Woodburning
         Quarterly Report WB-5,  59  pp.

 52.  Auburn University, Mechanical  Engineering  Department,  1979,  Creosote and
         Chimney Studies  at  the Auburn Woodburning Lab, 47 pp.

53.  Auburn University, Mechanical  Engineering  Department,  1979,  Efficiency and
         Heat  Output Measurements  for Residential Wood Heating Appliances, 92 pp.

54.  Auburn University, Mechanical  Engineering Department,  1979,   Improving the
         Efficiency, Safety and Utility  of Woodburning Units - Major Accomplishments,
         33 pp.
                                       27

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55.  Auburn University,  Mechanical Engineering Department, 1979, Independence,
          Economic Advantage, Hazard, and Confusion From Wood Energy as an
          Alternative Resource, 16 pp.

56.  Auburn University,  Mechanical Engineering Department, 1979, Measuring the
          Efficiency and Heat Output of Residential Wood Heating Appliances,
          24 pp.

57.  Auburn University,  Mechanical Engineering Department, 1979, Results of Six
          Tests  to Assess the Accuracy of the Flue Loss Method Versus the
          Calorimeter Test Procedure, 24 pp.

58.  Auburn University,  Mechanical Engineering Department, 1979, Special
          Creosote Report, 144 pp.

59.  Auburn University,  Mechanical Engineering Department, 1979, Standard for
          Rating  Wood Fired,  Closed-Combustion Chamber Heating Appliances, 26 pp,

60.  Auburn University,  Mechanical Engineering Department, 1'979, Studies of
          Creosote and Chimneys at the AWL,  76 pp.

61.  Auburn University,  Mechanical Engineering Department, 1979, Wood Heating -
          Can It  Work?,  11 pp.

62.  Auburn University,  Mechanical Engineering Department, 1979, Woodburning
          Quarterly Report WB-6, 121 pp.

63.  Auburn University,  Mechanical Engineering Department, 1979, Woodburning
          Quarterly Report WB-7, 44 pp.

64.  Auburn University,  Mechanical Engineering Department, 1979, Woodburning
          Shortcourse Booklet.

65.  Auburn University,  Mechanical Engineering Department, 1979, Woodburning
          Stove  Efficiency Data (Condensed Version of WB-4,  v. Ill), 20 pp.

66.  Barnett, S.G., 1981, The Effects of Woodstove Design on Condensable
          Particulate Emissions and Creosote Formation Rate, in:  Proceedings
          of International Conference on Residential Solid Fuels, Cooper, J.A.,
          (ed.),  Portland, Oregon.

67.  Barnett, S.G., 1981, The Effects of Woodstove Design on Condensable
          Particulate Emissions, In-Home Delivered Efficiency, and Creosote
          Formation Rate, in:  Proceedings of Wood Heating Seminar,  New Orleans,
          Louisiana, p.  268-269.

68.  Baum, F., 1974, Measures for the Reduction of Emissions from Wood-
          Fired  Furnaces:  Gesundheits-Ingenieur,  95, p. 362-363.

69.  Beall, S.E.  et. al, 1974, Assessment of Environmental Impact of
          Alternative Energy Sources, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
          Tennessee, Report No. ORNL-5024, 134 pp.
                                      28

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70.  Bendersky,  C.,  1981, Results of the DOE Think Shop on Residential Wood
          Combustion,  in:  Proceedings of Wood Heating Seminar, New Orleans,
          Louisiana,  p.  275.

71.  Bergvall,  J.A.,  Bullington, D.C. and Gee, L.,  1979, Wood Waste for
          Energy Study,  Final Literature Review, State of Washington,
          Department  of  Natural Resources, 265 pp.

72.  Bergvall,  J.A.,  Bullington, D.C., Gee,  L. and Koss, W.,  1978, Wood
          Waste  for Energy Study, Inventory  Assessment and Economic
          Analysis, State of  Washington, Department of Natural Resources, 216 pp.

73.  Bergvall,  J.A.,  Gee, L.  and Koss, W., 1979, Wood Waste for Energy
          Study, Executive Summary, State of Washington, Department of
          Natural Resources,  16 pp.

74.  Berk,  J.V., Young,  R.A., Brown, S.R. and Hollowell, C.D., 1981, Impact
          of  Energy-Conserving Retrofits on  Indoor Air Quality in Residential
          Housing, in:   74th  Annual Meeting  of the Air Pollution Control
          Association, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,  27. pp.

75.  Blanchet, M.A. and  Sanborn, C., 1981, Particulate Emissions from
          Residential  Wood Combustion in Vermont, in:  Proceedings of
          International  Conference on Residential Solid Fuels, Cooper, J.A.,
          (ed.), Portland, Oregon.

76.  Booz,  Allen and  Hamilton, 1979, Assessment of  Proposed Federal Tax Credits
          for Residential Wood Burning Equipment, report for  the U.S. Department
          of  Energy, Report .No. SAN-1693-1,  212 pp.

 77.  Bosserman,  P.B.,  Tombleson, B. and Kowalczyk,  J., 1981,  Particulate
          Emissions from New, Low Emission Wood Stove Designs Measured by EPA
          Method V, in:   Proceedings of International Conference on Residential
          Solid  Fuels, Cooper, J.A. (ed.), Portland,  Oregon.

 78.  Bohac, C.E., Duncan, J.R. and Beeman, L.E., 1981, Residential Wood
          Combustion Issues for the Tennessee Valley, in:  Proceedings of Wood
          Heating Seminar, New Orleans, Louisiana,  p. 274.

 79.  Bohac, C.E. and Hickey,  H.R., 1980, Environmental Considerations of
          Alternative  Uses of Wood for Energy, Tennessee Valley Authority,
          Office of Natural Resources,  Chattanooga.

 80.  Braeten, R., Sellers, T., Prokopuk, R.,  Lee, S.W,,  Thomas,  R.S. and Lao, R.C.,
          1981,  Investigations of Priority Organic  Pollutants and Particulate
          Organic Matter Emissions from Wood-Burning  Stoves,  in:   Proceedings
          of  International Conference on Residential  Solid  Fuels,  Cooper, J.A.,
          (ed.), Portland, Oregon.

 81.  Brandon, R.J., 1981, An  Assessment of the Efficiency and Emissions of  Ten
          Wood  Fired  Furnaces, in:  Proceedings of  Wood Heating Seminar, New
          Orleans, Louisiana, p. 267.
                                      29

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82.  Brimblecombe,  P.,  1975,  Industrial  Air  Pollution  in  Thirteenth Century
         Britain:   Weather  30,  p.  388-396.

83.  Brimblecombe,  P.,  Attitudes and  Responses  Towards Air  Pollution
         in Medieval  England:   Journal  of  the  Air  Pollution  Control
         Association,  v.  26,  No.  10,  p.  941-945.

84.  Brinblecombe,  P.  and  Ogden, C.,  1977,  Air  Pollution  in Art  and
         Literature,  Weather  32,  p.  285-291.

85.  Brimblecombe,  P.,  1978,  Air Pollution  in  Industrializing England:
         Journal  of the Air  Pollution Control  Association, v.  28,  No.  2,
         p.  115-118.

86.  Brimblecombe,  P.,  1981,  Environmental  Impact  of  Fuel Changes in Early
         London,  in:   Proceedings of International Conference on
         Residential  Solid  Fuels,  Cooper,  J.A.,  (ed.), Portland, Oregon.

87.  Brimblecombe,  P.  and  Wigley,  T.M.,  1978,  Early Observations of
         London's  Urban Plume:   Weather 33, p. 215-220.

88.  Buser,  H.R.,  Bosshardt,  H.P.  and Rappe, C.,  1978, Identification of Poly-
         chlorinated  Dibenzo-o-dioxin Isomers  found  in Fly Ash:  Chemosphere
          (No.2)  p. 165.

89.  Butcher,  S.S., 1978,  The Air Pollution Potential of  Small Wood Stoves,
         in:   Proceedings of Wood Heating  Seminar 3,  Madison, Wisconsin,
         p.  1-12.

90.  Butcher,  S.S., 1978,  The Impact  of Residential Heating by Wood Stoves
         on Ambient Air Quality, Report to the Maine Department of
         Environmental Protection.

91.  Butcher,  S.S. and Buckley,  D.I., 1977, Preliminary Study of Particulate
          Emissions from Small Wood Stoves:  Journal of the Air Pollution
          Control Association, 27, p. 346-348.

92.   Butcher,  S.S. and Ellenbecker, M.J., 1981, Particulate Emission Factors
          for Small Wood and Coal Stoves, in:   Proceedings  of International
          Conference on Residential Solid Fuels, Cooper,  J.A.,  (ed.),
          Portland, Oregon.

93.   Butcher,  S.S. and Sorenson,. E.M., 1979, Study of Wood  Stove Particulate
          Emission:  Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 29,
          p. 724-728.

94.   Butler, J.D. and Crossley,  P., 1979, An Appraisal of Relative Airborne
          Sub-urban Concentrations of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
          Monitored Indoors and Outdoors:  The Science of  the Total
          Environment, p.  53-58.
                                       30

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  95. Carlson,  J.H.,  1981,  Wood-Burning in Missoula, Montana, Air Quality,
           Health Effects,  and Possible Solutions, in:  Proceedings of
           International Conference on Residential Solid Fuels, Cooper, J.A.,
           (ed.)> Portland, Oregon.

  96. Carlsson,  S.,  1981,  Residential Wood Combustion in Sweden-Environmental
           Aspects and Regulations, in:  Proceedings of International Conference
           on Residential  Solid Fuels, Cooper, J.A. , (ed.), Portland, Oregon.

  97. Carnow, B.W.,  1978,  The 'Urban Factor'  and Lung Cancer: Cigarette Smoking
           or Air Pollution?:  Environmental  Health Perspectives, v.  22,  p.  17.

  98. Carnow, B.W. and Meier, P.,  1973, Air Pollution and Pulmonary Cancer:
           Arch.  Environmental Health, v.  27, p. 207.

  99. Cavanaugh,  W.,  1980,  Vegan Invents 'Scrubber' To Help Fight Pollution,
           Las  Vegas  Sun, October  12, 1980, p. 14.

 100. Cawthron  Technical Group,  1981, Efficiency Testing of Domestic  Space Heaters,
           Nelson, New Zealand,  4  pp.

 101.  Chlorinated Dioxin Task Force, The Michigan Division, Dow Chemical,  1978,
           The  Trace  Chemistries of Fire-A Source of  and Routes for the Entry  of
           Chlorinated Dioxins into the Environment.

 102.  Clayton,  L., et  al.,  1968, Emissions from Residential Type Fireplaces,
           San  Francisco, Bay Area Air Pollution Control District,  68 pp.

 103.  Clean Air  Council, Requirements for  the Design  and Testing of Solid  Fuel
           Burning Domestic Heating Appliances,  Wellington, New Zealand, 6 pp.

 104.  Collom, R.H., Jr., 1973, Georgia's Open Burning Regulations,  in:  Proceedings
           of International Symposium on Air  Quality  and Smoke  From Urban  and
           Forest Fires, Fort Collins, Colorado,  published  by National  Academy of
           Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1976,  p.  198-205.

 105.  Colome, S.D., Irvine, C.A. and SPengler,  J.D.,  1981,  Residential  Indoor
           and Matched Outdoor Measurements of Fine Particulate Trace Elements,
           in:  Proceedings of International  Conference  on  Residential  Solid
           Fuels,  Cooper, J.A.,  (ed.), Portland,  Oregon.

 106.  Cooke, W.M., Allen, J.M. and Hall, R.E.,  1981,  Characterization of Emissions
           from Residential Wood Combustion Sources,  in:  Proceedings of
           International Conference  on Residential  Solid  Fuels,  Cooper, J.A.,  (ed.),
           Portland, Oregon.

107.  Cooper, J.A., 1979, Medford  Aerosol  Characterization  Study  (MACS),
           Report  to Oregon Department o'f  Environmental Quality.

108.  Cooper, J.A., 1980, Environmental  Impact of Residential Wood Combustion
           Emissions And Its  Implications,  in:  Proceedings of Wood Heating
           Seminar 6,  Atlanta, Georgia,  p.  26-55.
                                       31

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 109. Cooper, J.A., 1981, Chemical and Physical Methods of Apportioning the
           Contributions of Emissions from Residential Solid Fuels ro Reductions
           in Air Quality, in:  'Proceedings of International Conference on
           Residential Solid Fuels, Cooper, J.A.,  (ed.), Portland, Oregon.

 110. Cooper, J.A. , submitted for publication, Assessment of Contemporary
           Carbon Combustion Source Contributions  to Urban Air Particulate Levels
           Using Carbon-14 Measurements.

 111. Cooper, J.A., Currie, L.A. , and Klouda, G.A., 1979, Evaluation of
           Carbon-14 as a Unique Tracer to Determine the Maximum Impact of
           Contemporary Carbon Sources of Atmospheric Particulates to the
           Portland and Eugene Airsheds, Final Report to the Oregon Department
           of Environmental Quality.

 112. Cooper, J.A. , Currie, L.A. and Klouda, G.A., submitted for publication,
           Application of Carbon-14 Measurements to Impact Assessment of
           Contemporary Carbon Sources on Urban Air Quality.

 113. Cooper, J.A. and Watson, J.G., 1979, Portland Aerosol Characterization
           Study (PACS):  Application of Chemical Mass Balance Methods to the
           Identification of Major Aerosol Sources in the Portland Airshed,
           Prepared for Portland Air Quality Maintenance Area Advisory
           Committee and Oregon Department of Environmental Quality,  67 pp.

 114.  Cooper, J.A. , Watson, J.G. and Hxintzicker, J.J. , 1979, Summary  of the Portlanc
           Aerosol Characterization Study (PACS), in:   Air Pollution  Control
           Association, Cincinnati.

 115.  Cooper, R.W., 1973, Trade-Offs Between Smoke from Wild and Prescribed
           Forest Fires, in:  Proceedings of International Symposium  on Air
           Quality and Smoke From Urban and Forest Fires, Fort Collins,
           Colorado, published by National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. ,
           1976, p.  19-26.

 116.  Corrin, M.L., 1973, Physics of Smoke Formation,  in:  Proceedings of Inter-
           national Symposium on Air Quality and Smoke From Urban and Forest Fires,
           Fort Collins, Colorado, published by National Academy of Sciences,
           Washington, D.C., 1976, p.  90-100.

 117.  Craig,  L.S., 1979, Residential Wood Survey, memo containing the results of
           a  state and area wood use survey conducted by GMA Research Corp, in
           the winter of 1979.

 118.  Cramer, O.P. and Pickford, S.G., 1973,  in:   Proceedings of International
           Symposium on Air Quality and Smoke From Urban and Forest Fires, Fort
           Collins,  Colorado,  published by National Academy of Sciences,
           Washington, D.C. , 1976, p.  2"31-240.

119.  Crossley,  F.R.E., 1980,  Wood Chips - An Alternative Heating Fuel:   Mechanical
           Engineering, p. 36-43.

120.  Currie, L.A.,  and Klouda,  G.A.,  1981,  Radiocarbon:   Nature's Tracer  for
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                                        43

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                                        44

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                                        45

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                                        49

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                                   Appendix 1
                          Residential Wood Combustion
                      Particulate Impact Assessment Method
                                   Glossary
Chemical Mass  Balance

     This method matches  source particle size and chemical "fingerprints"
     to those  measured  at  the  receptor  to estimate the impact  of  specific
     sources.  Given data  on the ambient concentrations of several  chemical
     species and the percent by weight  of these species in the emissions
     from the  sources,  a  set of equations is  formed and solved to determine
     source impacts.

Carbon-14
     "Modern"  carbon sources,  such  as wood burning,  can be distinguished
     from fossil fuel sources,  based on the fact  that  the  isotopic  ratio
     of 1'*C/12C in plant tissue is  in equilibrium with the same ratio  in
     atmospheric COa, whereas  fossil carbon contains essentially  no  1<+C
     because of its old age relative  to  the half  life of  the  1'*C isotope
     (5730 years) .

Light Scattering
     Temporal variations in the light scattering  characteristics of ambient
     air, as measured by an integrating  nephelometer, can provide a measure
     of hourly and seasonal variability  in fine particle mass concentrations
     which, when compared to diurnal and seasonal variations  in residential
     wood combustion emissions, can provide a qualitative measure of likely
     impact.

Carbon Thermograph Analysis
     Carbon thermographic techniques measure the  concentration of carbon
     dioxide generation from stepwise combustion  of the carbonaceous
     aerosol found in ambient air.  Thermograms reflecting the relative
     amounts of carbonaceous material in the sample, as a function of combus-
     tion temperature, reflect distinct  source profiles which, when compared
     to similar profiles developed for source emissions, can provide a
     qualitative indication of likely carbonaceous source impacts.

Dispersion Modeling
     Urban dispersion models (CDMQC and  Eulerian model)  have been used to
     estimate residential wood combustion impacts given detailed information
     on atmospheric dispersion properties,  a wood burning emission inventory
     and data describing the diurnal and seasonal variations in source
     strengths.   In most studies,  current residential wood combustion emission
     inventory data was developed through telephone surveys of each community
     studies.
                                     1-1

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