EPA 910/9-82-089C
vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region 10
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle WA 98101
Air & Waste Management Division February 1984
Wood
Combustion Study
Task 2A
Current and Projected Air Quality
Impacts
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RESIDENTIAL WOOD COMBUSTION STUDY
TASK 2A
Current and Projected Air Quality Impacts
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RESIDENTIAL WOOD COMBUSTION STUDY
TASK 2A
Current and Projected Air Quality Impacts
-Final Report-
Prepared by:
John E. Core
Dr. John A. Cooper
Dr. James E. Houck
NEA, INC.
Beaverton, Oregon
Prepared for:
DEL GREEN ASSOCIATES, INC.
ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY DIVISION
Woodburn, Oregon
Under Contract No. 68-02-3566
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Region X
Seattle, Washington 98101
Task Manager
Wayne Grotheer
January, 1983
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THIS REPORT CONSISTS OF SEVERAL DIFFERENT PARTS.
THEY ARE LISTED BELOW FOR YOUR CONVENIENCE.
EPA 910/9-82-089a Residential Wood Combustion Study
Task 1 - Ambient Air Quality Impact
Analysis
EPA 910/9-82-089b Task 1 - Appendices
EPA 910/9-82-089c Task 2A - Current & Projected Air Quality
Impacts
EPA 910/9-82-OS9d Task 2B - Household Information Survey
EPA 910/9-82-089e Task 3 - Wood Fuel Use Projection
EPA 910/9-82-089f Task 4 - Technical Analysis of Wood Stoves
EPA 910/9-82-089g Task 5 - Emissions Testing of Wood Stoves
Volumes 1 & 2
EPA 910/9-82-089h Task 5 - Emissions Testing of Wood Stoves
Volumes 3 & 4 (Appendices)
EPA 910/9-82-089i Task 6 - Control Strategy Analysis
EPA 910/9-82-089J Task 7 - Indoor Air Quality
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by Region 10, U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
Acknowledgements iv
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
1.0 Introduction 1
2.0 Current Residential Wood Combustion 1
Air Quality Impacts
2.1 Portland and Medford Aerosol Characterization 2
Studies
2.2 Missoula, Montana Studies 3
2.3 Task 1 Findings 7
2.4 Trends in RWC Particulate Impacts 10
3.0 Projections of Future RWC Impacts 10
3.1 Wood Fuel and Emission Projections 10
3.2 Wood Use - Air Quality Relationships 13
3.3 Impact Projections (1981-2000) 15
4.0 Discussion of Projection Results 17
4.1 Implications for Future Air Quality 17
4.2 Potential Mitigating Measures 21
5.0 Summary and Conclusions 22
6.0 References 24
Appendix 1 - Glossary
iii
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The completion of this study is due, in large part, to the efforts
of the staff of the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, the
Washington Department of Ecology, the Spokane County Air Pollution
Control Authority, the Puget Sound Air Pollution Control Authority
and the State of Idaho, all of whom provided the assistance and
resources required to obtain the residential wood combustion air
quality impact information described herein. Their efforts have been
combined with those of W.T. Greene and R.L. Gay, who jointly developed
the wood fuel use projection data (Task 3) that are presented. Current
wood use survey information developed by Del Green Associates, Inc.
(Task 2B) must also be acknowledged as essential to this document.
IV
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1 Residential Wood Combustion Impacts
In The Pacific Northwest (Historical Studies). 4
2 CMB Estimates of RWC Impacts
(October 1980 - March, 1981) Task 1. 8
3 Summary of Short Term Trends in Wood Fuel Use. 11
4 Projections for Residential Wood Fuel Use
and Corresponding Particulate Emissions. 12
5 Wood Fuel Use - Household Survey Results
for February, 1981. 14
6 Estimated Future RWC Impacts
(24-hour Reasonable Worst Case) 16
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1 Source Contributions to Air Particles in
Downtown Portland. 5
2 Annual Average Source Contributions for
MACS Sampling Period. 6
3 Source Contributions to Fine Particle
Fraction (Oct. 1980 - March, 1981) Task 1. 9
4 RWC Impact Projections (1981-2000). 18
5 B Fine Aerosol Mass Relationship -
Portland, Oregon. 20
VI
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The use of wood as a residential space heating fuel has increased
significantly in the Pacific Northwest in recent years (171, 172, 315).
Information on trends in wood stove sales, commercial firewood distri-
bution, emission inventory and ambient air quality monitoring data
collectively point toward a growing concern as to the current, and
future, impact of residential wood combustion (RWC) on community air
quality and public health. The problem of residential solid fuel-
related air pollution dated back to London in the year 1250 (82-87,
212). More recent studies of the potential public health effects of
RWC emissions, however, have underscored the range of carcinogenic and
potentially toxic pollutants associated with wood combustion emissions -
most of which are within the size range of particles deposited within
the bronchial tract and lungs (1,2,29-34,42,43,80,95,97,98,101,122,144,
145,151,182,194,197,200,202,208,209,214,218,232,234,242,248,276,288,290 ,
318,330,334,338).
In addition to concerns surrounding potential public health effects
associated with ambient and indoor exposure to RWC emissions, regulatory
agencies are becoming increasingly concerned about visibility reduction
and airshed capacity issues related to wood smoke (74,94,105,147,157-159,
244,306,312,320,322). Recent data developed for the Portland, Oregon
metropolitan area, for example, shows that the annual emissions from RWC
sources now exceed those from industrial point sources. If industrial
source emissions are to expand with the economic growth of Pacific North-
west communities, RWC emissions and potential emission growth must be
addressed.
This document (Task 2A) focuses on the issues of future particulate
air quality impact from RWC sources, the basis for the projections,
air resource implications and potential mitigating measures. The intent
of this task is to draw together the findings from Task 1 (Current RWC
Air Quality Impacts), Tasks 2B (Current Wood Useage), and Task 3 (Wood
Fuel Use Projections). Results developed from Task 6 (Control Strategy
Alternatives) and Task 5 (Wood Stove Emission Studies) are discussed
within the framework of potential mitigating measures. Current RWC
particulate impacts identified as a part of this study, as well as
those quantified by other Pacific Northwest aerosol studies, are presented
as are air quality projection methodology and impact projection implications.
2.0 CURRENT RESIDENTIAL WOOD COMBUSTION AIR QUALITY IMPACTS
Development of projections for future RWC impacts first requires
an understanding of the relationships between current air quality impacts
and emission strength. Although numerous investigators have reported
studies, only four studies conducted within the Pacific Northwest have
explored this relationship (29-34,42,43,80,95,97,98,101,122,144,145,151,
182,194,197,200,202,208,209,214,218,232,234,242,248,276,288,290,318,330,
334,338). Several other, less definitive studies have been conducted in
Bend and Eugene, Oregon. Although a brief review of the findings from
each of these studies is presented to provide a basis upon which future
impact projections can be based, direct comparison of impacts between
studies is confounded by differences in study experimental design and
the meteorological conditions under which the samples were taken.
1
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In interpreting the results from these studies, it is important to
distinguish between the numerous sources which potentially contribute to
the impacts discussed in this document. Much of the evidence developed to
date implicating residential wood combustion sources within the Northwest
have been developed through source apportionment studies founded on chemical
mass balance, carbon-14 analysis, temporal variations in light scattering
measurements (both seasonal and diurnal), carbon thermograph analysis and
dispersion modeling. Each approach is briefly described in Appendix 1.
These techniques have been used both jointly and independently to
assess impacts associated with fireplace and wood stove emissions from
residential dwellings (9). With the exception of dispersion modeling
analysis (which is based on emission factors adjusted to agree with CMS
and 114C results) , all of the impact assessment methods employed quantify
impacts associated with vegetative burning, a general source class that
includes (a) fireplace, (b) wood stove emissions, (c) slash burning,
(d) forest fires, (e) structural fires, (f) backyard burning of yard
debris, (g) grass and field burning and (h) burning associated with land
clearing. Further apportionment of vegetative burning emissions to iso-
late emissions from urban residential space heating sources has been based
on (1) quantification of vegetative burning components transported into the
urban environment (sources c, d, g and h) and (2) known seasonal variations
in backyard burning activity. Emissions associated with accidental struc-
tural fires have been assumed to be insignificant in relation to RWC emissions.
Unburned vegetative materials such as pollen, spores, wood fibers and leaf
fragments have been excluded as possible contributing sources on the basis
of particle size.
Perhaps the strongest evidence supporting the premise that RWC sources
are the predominant contributor to the urban vegetative burning component
is (a) the level of agreement between the CMS and carbon-14 results, (b) the
seasonal variability in RWC impacts follows known trends in wood burning
emissions and space heating demand and (c) spatial variability patterns in
RWC estimated impacts are reasonable with respect to wood burning emission
density patterns in urban areas. For example, RWC impacts are consistently
found to be highest in residential land use areas than in commercial or
industrial areas. The weight of evidence, then, supports the position that
the urban vegetative burning component is dominated by residential wood
combustion emissions. Since the focus of this document is primarily centered
on the identification and projection of worst case 24 hour impacts within
urban areas during the winter months when RWC emissions are maximized, air
quality impacts identified as vegetative burning have been considered as of
residential wood combustion origin.
2.1 Portland and Medford Aerosol Characterization Studies
Studies conducted by the State of Oregon Department of Environmental
Quality have quantified the impact af residential wood combustion in the
Portland and Medford Air Quality Maintenance Areas. Conducted during the
periods June, 1977 to April, 1978 and April 1979 to March, 1980, respectively,
the Portland Aerosol Characterization Study (PACS) and Medford Aerosol
Characterization Study (MACS) used chemical mass balance (CMS) and radio-
carbon (12C/14C) source apportionment techniques to quantify residential wood
-------
combustion impacts to fine (_<_ 2.5 ym) and total particulate fractions.
Impact estimates representing both annual average and 24 hour periods were
developed. Results from these programs are listed in Table 1. Figures 1
and 2 illustrate the magnitude of the impacts associated with RWC emissions
and other sources to annual average total and respirable particulate mass in
Portland and Medford. The major sources of respirable particles in Portland,
on an annual basis, were found to be residential wood burning (20%), motor
vehicle exhaust (15%) and secondary.aerosols (14%). Within the Medford air-
shed, 47% of the locally generated respirable particulate mass has been
assigned to residential wood combustion, 17% to industrial sources and 5% to
transportation. In terms of 24 hour worst case episodes, residential wood
burning in Portland and Medford have been found to contribute as much as 36%
and 86%, respectively, to the respirable particulate mass during the fall and
winter months. Estimates of the impact of vegetative burning from residential
sources, however, are typically associated with uncertainties that range from
20 to 40% of the impact estimate, largely due to the high degree of variability
in the chemical composition of the emissions.
Marked seasonal variations in residential wood burning emission impacts have
been reported by the State of Oregon Department of Environmental Quality based
on seasonal variations in atmospheric aerosol light scattering characteristics
as measured by the integrating nephelometer. Comparisons of fine particle mass_
(_< 2.5 ym mass median aerodynamic diameter) and light scattering (Bgcat x 10 "m x
have clearly demonstrated the usefulness of Bscat measurements in providing
semiquantitative estimates of the impact of RWC emissions within the Northwest
(7, 8). The validity of this approach to impact assessment largely rests in
the fact that (a) some 80% by mass of the emissions from RWC sources are less
than 1 ym in size and, therefore, within the size range that is highly efficient
in scattering visible light and (b) residential burning has been implicated, by
more specific chemical mass balance and radiocarbon techniques, as a major source
of fine particle mass within the airshed studied (7, 8). Comparisons of diurnal
variations in light scattering measurements made during summer and winter periods
in the Bend and Medford, Oregon airsheds, suggest that marked changes in the
Bscat levels during evening hours, peaking between 8 and 11. p.m., may be related
to increases in the level of wood heating appliance use. Calculations of likely
average winter season impacts, based on Bscat - fine particle relationships
developed for the Medford airshed, indicate that about 39 yg/m3 of fine particle
mass may be associated with residential wood combustion emissions, as compared
to a chemical mass balance-derived estimate of 37 yg/m3 for winter months (8).
2.2 Missoula, Montana Studies
Ambient particulate TSP and fine fraction samples collected in Missoula,
Montana during the 1979-1980 winter period were analyzed by four independent
researchers to determine the level of residential wood combustion impact in
the Missoula airshed (9). Although study period temperatures were generally
warmer than that typical of winter weather, a nine day period of air stagna-
tion was included in the field sampling program. Average fine particle RWC
impacts calculated on the basis of 12 samples collected during February, 1980
averaged 37 ± 12 yg/m3 or 68.75% of the fine particle mass depending on the
investigator's analysis. Maximum 24 hour impacts of 48 yg/m3 was measured
during the study by chemical mass balance analysis.
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Table 1
Pacific Northwest Residential Wood Combustion Impacts
(Locally Generated and Background Emissions)
u.LLy/
State
Medford*
Justice Bldg.
Dodge Road
White City
Port land t
Flavel Park
Industrial Air
Products
Downtown (CAMS)
Carus (Background)
Missoula,
Montana
OULI.UUIIUJ.Llg
Land Use
rat Ljucuiaut:
Annual Average
TSP
% JJ£
Commercial
Rural
Industrial
Residential
Industrial
Commercial
Rural
31.1
33.4
15.3
10.5
5.6
8.4
4.5
30
8
14
6
4
6
1
/ml
.1
.6
.3
.9
.4
.5
.5
Respirable
% V£_
65.
58.
42.
18.
9.
16.
9.
7
7
2
6
9
4
6
30
8
13
3
2
3
I
ria 1 1. c i
(1)
/nil
.2
.8
.5
.7
.7
.9
.5
i\L Ll J-UULclUJ-C l_U KWVj
24 Hour Worst Case
TSP
% ug/m3
37 100(4)
9 30(3)
24 52(3)
9 14(5)
4 7(5)
5 12(5)
2 1(5)
Respirable (1)
% Pg/m3
86 82(2)
117 33(3)
52 80(3)
36 24(6)
1 1.2(5)
7 5(5)
1 5(5)
Lion's Park
Residential-
Commercial
Mix
53
68 to 75%
45
* Ref. 3.
t Ref. 4.
(1) <_ 2.5 urn particles.
(2) Dec. 26, 1979. Average 2, 12 hour samples. Maximum 12 hour impact, 126- |jg/m3.
(3) Fall worst case day (incl. vegetative burning & veneer dryers). Includes "background" aerosol.
(4) Winter worst case day (incl. vegetative burning & veneer dryers). Includes "background" aerosol.
(5) Worst case winter day, Jan. 27, 1978.
(6) Jan. 23, 1978. Ref. 7.
(7) Ref. 6.
48(7)
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FIGURE 1
SOURCE CONTRIBUTIONS TO AIR PARTICULATES
IN DOWNTOWN PORTLAND
Annual Stratifiea Arithmetic Average
Residual Oil
(0.8%)
.VolatilizabU Carbon
(8.1%)
ERST TOTAL
(63.5>ig/m3)
Nonvo!alilizobl« Carbon
(Z.Z-M
Unidentified (8.0%)
(NH4. H20, «te)
Primary Industrial (4.9%)
i Calcium Sourc>< (2.0%)
• Aluminum Production (1.
. 5t««l Production (0.94%)
. Ho? Fu«l 9oil«ri (0.22%)
• Suifili Procf» (0.18%)
t Ftrromongon«« Production (0.18%)
Soil and Road Oust
(4.3%)
Nonvolafilizafil* Carbon
(4.0%)
Primary Industrial (3.0%)
, St«l Production (1.0%)
« Aluminum Production (0.72%)
• HogFutl Sailors (0.48%)
. Sulfiti Proctti (0.39%)
Unidentified (31.3%)
(NH4.H,a,«tc)
ER 8T FINE
Rtsidual Oil
(1.4%)
Marine
13.2%)
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FIGURE 2
ANNUAL AVERAGE SOURCE CONTRIBUTIONS
FOR THE MACS SAMPLING PERIOD
Medford Justice Building TSP
Vegetative
Burning (9 0%)
Vegetative
Burning (22.1%)
Veneer
Dryers (3.9%)'
Soil and /
Rood Oust (18.9%)
TSP
Soil and Road Oust (11.0%)
Unexplained (1.0%)
j Elemental Carbon (1.0%)
/ Nitrate (0.9%)
Hogged Fuel (0.9%)
,Row Wood (0.9%)
Suifote (0.8%)
Transportation (0.3%)
Ammonium (0.2%)
Elemental Carbon (0.1%)
Ammonium (04%)
Sulfat* (I 1%)
Construction (1.6%)
Nitrate (2.1%)
Transportation (2.5%)
Raw Wood (4.3%)
Unexplained (7.3%)
Hogged Fuel Boilers and
Particle Board Dryers (10.0%)
Vegetative
Burning (46.7%)
Vegetative
Burning (19.0 %)
RESPIRA8LE
(46Ju.g/m3)
Soil and
Road Oust (4.3%)
Unexplained (4.3%)
Suifate (1.4%)
Hogged Fuel (1.3%)
Transportation (0.6%)
Nitrate (0.3%)
Ammonium (0.3%)
Nitrate (1.3%)
Transportation (2.8%)
Hogged Fuel Boilers and
Particle Board Dryers (10.6%)
Veneer Dryer* (8.2%)
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2.3 Task 1 (Ambient Air Quality Impact) Findings
The ambient air quality impact of RWC emissions in eight Pacific Northwest
cities was studied during the 1980-1981 space heating season (10) . Seventy-five
selected, worst case fine particle samples collected in Seattle, Spokane,
Yakima, Tacoma and Longview, Washington; Boise, Idaho; Portland and Medford,
Oregon were chemically analyzed for polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PNA),
35 trace elements and carbon. The air quality impact of RWC and other emission
sources was determined by chemical mass balance and carbon-14 analysis methods.
Residential wood combustion impacts measured during this study were largely
measured during the month of February, 1981 - a period during which average
heating loads were less than those which typically occur during periods of peak
space heating demand. Results reported from the Task 1 analysis, therefore,
represent high impact days selected from a group of samples collected during a
period of relatively moderate weather conditions. Higher impacts may occur
during periods of greater space heating demand and poorer atmospheric dispersion.
Results from these studies (Table 2 and Figure 3) have clearly identified
the importance of RWC emissions as a major contributor to the fine particle and
TSP mass. Source apportionment results typically assigned 60 to 75% of the fine
particle mass to RWC emissions during 24-hour worst case conditions. Impacts
exceeding 50 yg/m3 were measured at residential sites in Seattle, Spokane, Portland,
Medford and Boise. The maximum impact (128 yg/m3, 8-hour average, upper limit
estimate) was recorded at the Boise residential site; note that all Boise results
are based on inhalable (_£15 m) particulate, not fine particulate. Measurement of
PNA compounds present on selected high RWC impact samples showed that urban
concentrations of these carcinogenic compounds were typically an order of
magnitude higher than similar measurements made at background sites. Expressed
in terms of exposure to benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P), a PNA compound with demonstrated
carginogenic properties, exposure to B(a)P concentrations associated with RWC
emissions of 4.1 ng/m3 (arithmetic mean value for residential sites) 24-hour
average is comparable to the exposure related to smoking approximately four
cigarettes per day. At the maximum B(a)P concentration measured during the
study (11.1 ng/m3, 24-hour average), the dosage is equivalent to 11 cigarettes
per day. Although the measured PNA concentrations should be of concern, no
direct dose-response relationships are currently available upon which to base
a quantitative assessment of public health risk.
Comparisons of RWC impacts in relation to concurrent TSP measurements suggest
that from 25 to 44% of the TSP mass measured in residential areas was contri-
buted by RWC emissions during worst case impact situations. Initial estimates,
based on inhalable particulate samples, indicate that as much as 60% of the
Boise TSP mass may be related to wood burning. Results from the Boise study,
however, need to be further verified by analysis of fine particle (< 2.5 vim)
rather than inhalable (_< 15 ym) particulate samples. Direct analysis of the
importance of RWC emissions in relation to TSP air quality standards is not
possible because of constraints imposed by the study design.
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Table 2
CMB Estimates of RWC Impacts
(October 1980 - March 1981)
Fine Particle Fraction
(Vlg/m3)
oo
Ull
Spokane
Spokuue *
Spokane*
Suut t le
Scall le*
Se.ill le*
VdLOiua
Yukiiiij*
loMtfvleu*
Holbu'
Oruguu
fori lunJ
HcdforJ*
Site
No.
1
13
14
3
a
10
9
1 1
12
15
i
7
No. of
Samples
1
4
10
2
3
4 .
4
*
9
8
1
Average HWC
Percent of
Site Haue1 Fine Haaa
Country
Homes (R)
County
Health (C)
Crown
Zellerbach (1)
Newport Way (R)
South Park (R)
Georgetown (I)
Fire
Station 112 (I)
Courthouse (C)
City Shops (C)
Falrvlew &
Liberty St. (C)
81.0
64.7
45.3
83.8
65.8
73.4
74.9
93.1
61.4
69.5
Whitman School(R) 68. S
Courthouse (R)
.
Average
Fine Mauii
55.
53.
37.
36.
-
39.
47.
53.
41.
121.
40.
0
I
0
I
7
0
8
8
8
0
Avt; i age
Impact
44 . 5
J4.3
16. 7
30.2
29. 1
35.2
50.0
25.6
84.7
27 .'.
t 11 .
I 21 .
t 14.
i 8.
-
1 20
I 25
1 34.
i 17
1 22
i. 10
-
5
3
9
.6
.2
.8
.rouiiil
.6 6.8 t 3.4
6.8 1 3.4
.3 6.813.4
.6 9.412.8
.6 9.4 • 2.8
.3 9.4 i 2.8
.6
.7
.2
4,
.9 7.4 t 52
t.UL J 1 1 y
It WC luiji.l,
17 7
27.'j
•J.'J
-!U U
57.7
19.7
lloiui:
' Inhalable Fraction (<_ IS pn) - upper limit HUC lupact estimates
1 8 hour aunple.
1 Sice key
R - Residential
C - Commercial
I - Industrial
* Historical Samples
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Figure 3
Average 24 Hour Worst Case-
Source Contributions
-Fine Particle Fraction-
(October, 1980-March, 1981)
RESIDENTIAL MOOD COMBUSTION
< 8IX )
ALUMINUM PROC. (0.4X)
RESIDUAL OIL (0.03*)
TRANSPORTATION < 3X )
GEOLOGICAL <2.3K)
SECONDARY BULFATE <3.6X>
UNEXPLAINED <9.7*>
SPOKAHE COUNTRY HOMES SITE I
NTIAL MOOD COniMJSTIO^ RES10UftL OIL (0.2X)
TRAHSPORTATIOII (5.8V.)
SECONDARY 9ULFATE (7K)
MARINE (J.I);)
CEOLOG1CRL
UNEXPLAINED ( IB.7X)
RESIOEHIIAL
UOOO
COMOUS1I OH
GEOLOGICAL ( M . f<
IRAHSPORTnTION (3 2^. )
SECONDARY SULFnTE (.1 I •
MARINE (O.OK)
UHEXI'LAINEO (0 6>.)
ooise FniRuiuu t L lut.Kiy u i s
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An evaluation of RWC air quality impact trends during the recent past
provides an opportunity to place the results from recent studies of ambient
air quality impacts into historical perspective. Trend studies reported in
Task 3, Part III, have attempted to determine the short term trend in wood
fuel use by examining the impact of urban wood combustion on various measures
of air quality likely to be impacted by increased wood use (11). Trends in
evening carbon monoxide concentrations, the organic content of the TSP aerosol,
light scattering properties of the atmosphere and coefficient of haze ("soiling
index") measurements were examined as possible trend indicators since an
insufficient data base of chemical mass balance-derived RWC impact data is
available. Limitations in the measurements and adequacy of the historical data
base, however, restricted the analysis to light scattering measurements (Bscac)
at commercial land use sites in Seattle and Portland during the 1978-1981
heating seasons (October-March).
Trends in Bscat measurements were normalized for variations in heating degree
days and wind speed to minimize variations due to meteorological factors,
averaged to represent a single heating season and bivariate plots of Bscat vs
heating season prepared. Linear regression analysis of the data suggests a
6-8% per year increase in heating season average Bscat values, suggesting that
concentrations of fine particles during the heating season may have increased
in both Portland and Seattle in recent years. Emission inventory and dispersion
model analysis for the Portland airshed during the 1977-1978 period indicate
that fine particle impacts from other major sources should decrease or only
slightly increase, suggesting that increases in Bscat measurements during the
heating seasons are likely associated with increases in RWC emissions. Although
the results of this analysis are, at best, tentative, the rate of increase
suggested by this analysis is the same as that estimated from records of
firewood supplied by the national forests.
3.0 PROJECTIONS OF FUTURE RWC IMPACTS
Development of projections for future RWC impacts require (a) estimates of
the likely future growth of RWC emissions and (b) establishment of a relationship
between emission strength and air quality impact. This section discusses each
of these elements, related assumptions and projections based on the methodology
described.
3.1 Wood Fuel and Emission Projections
Studies of short term trends in wood use have been conducted to support
the light scattering trend analysis described above and as a means of under-
standing the changes in air pollution problems that have occurred in many
Pacific Northwest communities during the past 3-4 years (14). Analysis of
trends in the volume of firewood removed from forest lands under cutting
permits, surveys of household firewood use and trends in the sale of wood
burning appliances have been examined, but only the wood cutting permit data
base is sufficient to establish possible trends. Table 3 summarizes the
results of the short term trend analysis, suggesting a 6-8% maximum annual
average increase in wood fuel use or a 34-47% increase between 1980 and 1985.
10
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Table 3
Summary of Short Term Trends
in Wood Fuel Use*
Est. Annual
Parameter Heating Seasons Rate of Increase (%)
A) Cutting Permit Trends
Seattle, Washington 1975-1980 7.8-7.9
Portland, Oregon 1976-1981 6.5
Spokane, Washington 1977-1980 5.7
(Colville, N.F.)
Spokane, Washington 1977-1981 7.2-7.3
(Idaho Panhandle N.F.)
B) Light Scattering Coefficient
(B x lO'^m"1)
scat
Seattle, Washington 1978-1981 7.9
(Kent site)
Portland, Oregon 1978-1981 5.7
(CAMS site)
*After Table 7, Task 3. Ref. 11.
Long term projections of wood fuel use for the period 1985-2000 were
prepared using a state-of-the-art computer simulation model which considered
the estimated cost of wood and alternative fuels, population and household
growth projections, heating requirements, the mix of fuels used in the
community and other factors. Projections of wood fuel use are, however,
primarily driven by the magnitude of potential cost savings associated with
heating by wood rather than other fuels. The model was modified to include
fireplace use as well as wood stoves and furnaces. Because wood stoves
typically emit more than twice as much particulate per ton of wood burned
than fireplaces, and given the relative increase in the use of wood stoves
over fireplaces, adjustment in wood fuel use were required to obtain estimates
of future particulate emissions.
Projections for the Portland area show that total wood use is expected
to increase by 37% between 1980 and 2000 or, in terms of particulate emissions,
by 72% by 2000. For Seattle, total wood use is projected to increase by 19%
between 1980 and 1985 or by 40% in terms of particulate emissions. Projections
for Spokane show an overall 9% increase in wood use and a 26% increase in
emissions based on most probable case assumptions. Table 4 shows these pro-
jections for each 5 year period between 1980 and 2000.
11
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Table 4
Projections of Residential Wood Fuel Use
and Corresponding Particulate Emissions
Stove/Furnace Fireplace Total Total Particulate
Year Wood Usage (1) Wood Usage (1) Wood Usage (1) Emissions (2)
Portland Metropolitan Area
1980 150 190 340 9.3
1985 240 190 430 12.8
1990 240 170 410 12.5
1995 300 150 450 14.5
2000 340 140 480 15.9
City of Seattle
1980 45 110 155 3.7
1985 85 100 185 5.1
1990 85 100 185 5.1
1995 90 100 190 5.3
2000 85 100 185 5.1
City of Spokane
1980 28 93 121 2.7
1985 42 84 126 3.1
1990 45 81 126 3.2
1995 51 78 129 3.4
2000 54 75 129 3.4
(1) 103 cords/year
(2) 103 tons TSP/year
After Table 1, Task 3. Ref. 11
12
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3.2 Wood Use - Air Quality Relationships
Development of a relationship between wood use and resulting air quality
impact forms the foundation of future projections of RWC impact given estimates
of future wood fuel use. Numerous investigators have described the use of
wood as a space heating fuel and energy related issues (23-24,28,36,37,39,
44-65,70,72,73,77,100,114,123-125,131,134,141,148,160,165,168,173,191,203,204,
229-231,235,241,249-251,273,278,294-299,313,317,321,332,333). However, to
establish this relationship for a specific city required development of data
on woodburning activity during February, 1981 in Portland, Seattle and Spokane.
This data was gathered within a one square mile area around each air monitoring
site to insure that wood use survey results could be related to ambient impact
estimates.
The wood use surveys were based on a random selection of 800 households
within a one-square mile area around each residential air monitoring site;
questionnaire surveys were mailed to each household and the results statisti-
cally analyzed. The highest rate of response (58%) occurred in Spokane, while
Portland and Seattle responses were 36 and 48%, respectively (10). Summary
statistics were obtained for each survey area in each of a number of categories
related to wood fuel use in the home.
Table 5 summarizes the survey results used in establishing wood use -
air quality relationships for each of the three communities studies. Approxi-
mately 49, 18 and 19% of the wood burned during February, 1981 in Portland,
Seattle and Spokane was burned in wood stoves, with the balance burned (primarily)
in home fireplaces. Given the total number of cords burned during February
in each community, an estimate of the weight of one cord of wood and a parti-
culate emission factor for wood stoves and fireplaces, an estimate of likely
TSP emissions within one square mile of the monitoring sites was made. The
emission estimates can then be used in association with concurrent air quality
impact estimates and projections of future emissions to estimate future air
quality impacts given the following assumptions and data limitations:
1. Representative Impact Measurements; Estimates of RWC impacts must
be representative of the heavy wood use areas within the communities studies.
As noted in the Task 1 document, extreme care was taken during siting of the
samplers to insure that (a) samples were not subject to impact from any single
nearby source; (b) sites were located in residential areas where, based on
surveys of wood stove stacks and wood piles, wood burning was known to be
occuring; and (c) sampler exposure, height above ground and setback from
roadways were determined to be consistent with 40 CFR, Part 58 EPA siting
criteria.
2. Similar Dispersion Conditions: Dispersion conditions during the
periods selected for analysis must be assumed to be typical of those likely
to occur in future years. Because the measured RWC impacts are a function of
emission strength and meteorology at the time of sampling, the measured impacts
reflect both conditions and, while impact corrections have been made to
emission strength term, no analysis -or adjustments to the measured impacts
have been made relative to the meteorology. As noted in Task 1, impact
estimates made during February, 1981 reflect the relatively mild weather
conditions that occurred during that time, such that the study results
represent reasonable, rather than extreme, worst cast conditions.
13
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Table 5
.U)
Wood Fuel Use
Household Survey Results
(Month of February 1981)
CATEGORY
Wood Stove Use
• Days Used
• Hours Per Day
Fireplaces & Inserts
• Days Used
• Hours Per Day
Wood Burned (Cords)
All Devices
% Wood Stoves
% Fireplaces
Wood Stoves
(mean ± standard deviation)*
Fireplaces
(mean ± standard deviation)*
Furnaces
(mean ± standard deviation)*
TSP Emissions (Tons)**
Wood Stoves
Fireplaces
Total
Average Worst Case RWC
Impacts on fine particle
fraction (2A-hr, yg/m3)
Urban-Residential Site t
Background (average)
Locally generated impact
Number of observations
PORTLAND
SEATTLE
SPOKANE
22.6
10.0
16.4
7.6
20.0
10.6
8.9
4.1
23.3
14.0
12.2
6.3
433.6
23.1
9.8
13.3
6
303.7
34.7
9.5
25.2
5
326.5
49
50
103 ±
079 ±
007 ±
8
3
12
.3
.7
.33
.31
.067
.41
.84
.24
18.
81.
.039 ±
.159 ±
.0
2.
4.
6.
6
4
.166
.243
22
33
55
19
80
.069 ±
.246 ±
.002 ±
2
4
7
.5
.5
.368
.437
.048
.50
.59
.09
44.7
13.1
31.6
8
Survey results are from a one-square mile area around each residential air
monitoring site.
* Average wood use, all households.
** Assuming 1.75 tons wood/cord; fireplace and wood stove emission factors of
20 and 45 Ibs/ton, respectively.
t Mean RWC impact on fine particle fraction ( <_2 y m) from samples collected
during February 1981 only; (since these data are for February only the
reported values will not exactly compare to the Table 2 values for October
1980-March 1981) .
14
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3. Application of Emission Estimates: The rate of change in the
projected particulate emission estimates (Task 3, Table 4) are assumed to
reflect the likely change in emissions in the vicinity of the monitoring
site. Since the emission projections were developed for the urban area
in which sampling was conducted, this assumption further requires that
the spatial distributions of the RWC emissions remains relatively unchanged
over time. Major increases in emission density, for example, in an area
predominately upwind of the receptor could increase RWC impacts to a greater
degree than anticipated.
4. Importance of Nearby Sources: RWC emissions located within one
square mile of the monitoring site are predominately responsible for the
measured RWC impact, or conversely, that RWC sources outside of the survey
area are relatively unimportant contributors. While the RWC area source
emissions located in near proximity to the monitoring site will collectively
form a major portion of the impact due to relatively non-dispersed nature of
the plumes, the large relative magnitude of all other RWC emission sources
within the airshed may also be important, Determination of the relative
importance of the two subgroups would require a rather comprehensive dis-
persion modeling study. Fortunately, the technical basis of the RWC impact
projections does not rely heavily on this assumption.
5. Background Impacts: Background RWC impacts are assumed to remain
constant over the next 20 years. Since no data is available upon which to
base air quality projections of the background impacts, the total RWC impact
estimate (locally generated plus background) should be viewed as conservative.
6. Other Locations; Impact projections cannot be developed for other
locations within the community which, because of future changes in emission
density, may experience greater impacts than the locations studies here.
7. Limited Data Set; Impact projections are based on average RWC
impacts calculated for valid samples collected during February, 1981. As
noted in Table 5, relatively few (5-8) observations are available upon
which to base an impact/emission relationship.
The most critical assumptions employed in this analysis are that (a)
the emission projections made for the entire Portland, Seattle and Spokane
airsheds also apply to sources within one square mile of the monitoring
site and (b) that the limited number of RWC impact estimates accurately
reflect the magnitude of nearby emissions (i.e., that the impact emission
ratio is accurate.
3.3 Impact Projections (1981 - 2000)
Table 6 presents projections for RWC impacts given these assumptions.
The estimates assume that the particulate emission projections listed in
Table 4 and noted below in terms of percent change will result in an equi-
valent change in air quality impact.
15
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Table 6
Estimated Future RWC Fine Particle Impactst
(24-Hour Reasonable Worst Case)
City/Site
Year
Particulate Emissions
(Tons/Month)( '
Projected RWC Impactstt
(Pg/m3)
Local(2) Total(3)
Projected % Change
In Emissions Over
Next Five Years
Portland
(Marcus Whitman)
Seattle
(Newport Way)
•
Spokane
(Country Home)
1981
1985
1990
1995
2000
1981
1985
1990
1995
2000
1981
1985
1990
1995
2000
12.2
16.7
16.4
19.0
20.8
6.5
8.9
8.9
9.2
8.9
7.1
8.1
8.3
8.8
8.8
13.3*
18.3
17.8
20.6
22.5
25.2*
34.7
34.7
36.0
34.7
31.6*
36.3
37.5
39.8
39.8
23.1*
28.1
27.6
30.4
32.3
34.7*
44.2
44.2
45.5
44.2
44.7*
49.4
50.6
52.9
52.9
37.6%
- 2.3%
16.0%
9.6%
-
37.8%
0.0
3.9%
- 3.9%
-
14 .8%
3.2%
6.2%
0.0
-
t First order approximations.
tt Fine particle (_<2.5um) fraction.
* Measured data; February 1981.
Emissions within a one-sqaure mile area of the monitoring site based on February 1981 survey results.
(U
(2)
(3)
Average worst case impact associated with locally generated RWC emissions, only. Based on 1.1, 3.8 and
4.5 Mg/m3 of impact per ton of emissions and emission projections for Portland, Seattle, and Spokane,
respectively.
Average worst case impact associated with local and background emissions.
constant background contribution.
Lower limit estimate • Assume
16
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Projections of wood used, TSP emissions and total RWC impacts listed
in Tables 4 and 6 are presented in Figure i. The higher air quality impacts
per ton of emission noted in Seattle and Spokane reflect the more restric-
tive dispersion meteorology associated with samples taken in Seattle and
Spokane. While the data presented in Table 6 and Figure 4 can provide a
good indication of likely trends in RWC impacts, limitations imposed by
the assumptions and data sets used restrict quantitative uses of the
projections to first order approximations. Due to the tenuous nature of
the projection methodology and the difficulty in developing a valid impact/
emission estimate for a single day, no attempt has been made here to
project extreme worst case impacts. Rather, the estimate represents an
average, worst case 24-hour fine particle mass impact. Development of a
more quantitative understanding of emission-air quality relationships
will require a much more intensive effort utilizing urban dispersion models
that have been validated with respect to receptor model (e.g. CMB model)
estimates.
4.0 DISCUSSION OF PROJECTION RESULTS
The RWC impact projections for the period 1981 to the year 2000
represents 40%, 27% and 21% increases in average worst case impacts in
Portland, Seattle and Spokane, respectively. In terms of concentration,
these figures represent an additional 9.2, 9.5 and 8.2 ug/m3 of fine
particulate mass burden to the airshed during poor ventilation winter
days. These impacts, however, represent average, reasonable worst case
24 hour conditions, rather than a single actual worst case condition that
has occurred in history. Projections, for example, developed by the
State of Oregon Department of Environmental Quality, for 1987 RWC impacts
to the TSP fraction suggest a 53 ug/m3, 24 hour impact at a Portland
residential site during worst case winter conditions - an estimate based
on dispersion model analysis of a single 24-hour period of poor ventila-
tion (13). In addition, samples analyzed as part of the Task 1 effort
demonstrated 24-hour impacts markedly higher than the year 2000 projections,
demonstrating the importance of clearly defining the meteorological and
emission strength basis for the impact analysis.
4.1 Implications for Future Air Resource Management
As national interest in revision of the current TSP national ambient
air quality standard turned toward adoption of a 10 um particulate matter
(PM10) standard, the importance of RWC emissions to attaining and main-
taining a new particulate standard will become increasingly evident.
Studies conducted by the State of Oregon, for example, (Section 2.1) have
determined that worst case 1987 RWC emission impacts in residential areas
will account for 44% of the TSP, about 65% of the inhalable particulate
mass (<15 um) and about 80% of the PM10 mass, assuming a 20% reduction in
impact from paved and unpaved road dust emissions. When considered in
relation to (a) the rapid and potentially uncontrolled growth in RWC
emissions; (b) the associated impact that these fine particles will have
on the visual clarity of the atmosphere; (c) the potential public health
implications; and (d) consequences to air resource management, the impact
projection presented here signals the strong need to conduct a more inten-
sive analysis of future impacts in relation to current and proposed air
quality standards.
17
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FIGURE 4
RWC Impact Projections (1981-2000)
PorcLand. Oraton
KOJ
100 I
1M1 1M3
!.S -I 111 I
1991 l«5
ins :ooo
18
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The implications of an increase in fine particle mass impacts by RWC
emissions on the visibility degradation is of special interest to Pacific
Northwest communities with scenic vistas. Urban visibility degradation
is primarily a result of the scattering and absorption of light by fine
particles. In most cases the light absorption coefficient is small in
comparison to the light scattering (Bscat) component. The relationship
between Bscat and fine particle mass concentrations has been studied by a
number of researchers (15,16).
Regression analysis of concurrent Bscat-fine mass measurements made as
part of the PACS program (4) was also conducted fay Shaw and co-workers (7) .
Results of the analysis indicated:
(a) An excellent correlation exists between Be.,_,. and fine mass
a CcL L
concentrations (Bscat = 0.113 + 0.047) mass
where n = 404 and r = 0.934. Figure 5 illustrates this relationship.
(b) The light scattering efficiency of sulfate, nitrate and carbon
aerosol were all equivalent (5 m2/g) and collectively account for
86% of the light scattering due to aerosols.
(c) The only significant contribution from primarily aerosol sources
to Bgcat was from vegetative burning - the major source of primary
carbon aerosol. This component accounts for 18% of the light
scattering, on an annual average basis.
Studies of visual range (Vr), the distance at which a large black
object is just visible, have shown that under a limited set of conditions,
Vr is well correlated with Bg (commonly about 0.9) measured in relatively
polluted conditions where pollutants are homogenously distributed. For
non-absorbing atmospheres (Bext = Bscat) a relationship of Vr « 3.9/Bscat +0.01
has been found (21) where:
Vr = visual range (Km)
Bscat - aerosol scattering coefficient (Km'1) at 550nm
0.01 - standard Rayleigh scattering value (Km"1)
If, under average worst case conditions, RWC impacts increase by
approximately 10 yg/m3 by the year 2000, the above relationships for Portland
would suggest a resultant 24 hour average Bgcat increase of about 0.6 Km 1,
or expressed in terms of Vr, a resultant additional decrease in visual range
of about 6 Km, or about 4 miles. This is a convervative estimate which
does not consider light absorption effects or the association with elemental
carbon component of RWC emissions.
Expressed in terms of airshed capacity, increases in RWC impacts may
represent an important factor in (a) limiting emission growth of other
sources in the airshed, (b) exacerbating and/or expanding the extent of
the nonattainment areas or (c) resulting in additional control requirements
on other sources to offset RWC emission growth.
For example, cost estimates developed as part of the Medford, Oregon
TSP control strategy suggest that reduction of 1 yg/m3 in annual TSP mass
concentration for the following control measures will result in the costs
noted below (19):
19
-------
scat
Figure 5
Fine Aerosol Mass Relationship
Portland, Oregon
bscot = 0.113 -i- 0.0474 mass
(±0.026) (±0.0009)
n = 404 r = 0.934
0
20 40
Fine mass
100
Relationship between light-scattering coefficient and
fine aerosol mass for 24 hour samples from five sites.
Solid line represents the linear regression of BscaC
on mass. Ref. 17.
20
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Control Measure ? year/ug/m3
Small Hogged fuel boilers (0.1 gSCF) $ 130,000
Large Hogged fuel boilers (0.01 gSCF) $ 120,000
Small Cyclones $ 130,000
Veneer dryers $ 500,000
4.2 Potential Mitigating Measures
The air quality and emission projections used in preparation of this
document include no inherent assumption of emission mitigation, other than
the economics of fuel use. Control strategy options are discussed in
Task 6, while Task 4 is a technical analysis of wood stove combustion
principles, design considerations and operating techniques (20,21). A brief
discussion of the findings of these tasks are included here to place the
air quality impact projections into proper perspective, as it is likely
that a number of mitigating actions will be adopted by state, city or
regional regulatory agencies within the period covered by the projections.
Numerous investigators have reported on potential control options
(26,38,40,97,152,163,164,180,192,246,303,329,339) and regulatory approaches
(96,104,115,136,153-155,221,224,243,252-254,263,270) to mitigating RWC
impacts. The design and operation of wood burning appliances has been
studied by many researchers (66-68,103,177,179,210,223,240,274,275). Results
from these programs have clearly demonstrated the importance of these
factors in determining emission rates of pollutants and the efficiency of
the appliance. Variables such as charge rate, fuel and combustion air
regulation, all operator-dependent variables, greatly influence the
emission rate and heating efficiency. Minimizing emissions, while
maximizing efficiency requires:
(a) that stove be sized to encourage operation at high burning rates
(b) avoiding overcharging of the appliance with wood and overnight
"banking" of fires
(c) use of properly seasoned wood
(d) fireplace operation only during periods of mild temperatures with
the use of door enclosures and
(e) addition of catalyst and/or automatic thermostats or other design
changes (e.g., secondary air) to improve combustion efficiency
(effectiveness not yet proven or established).
The Task 4 report concludes that a considerable reduction in
contaminants could be realized by providing more public information and
education on proper appliance firing techniques. These conclusions are
consistent with the greater body of literature describing the nature and
quantity of pollutants emitted from wood combustion processes (75,77,80,
81,89,91-93, 1-1,1-6,116-118,121,126', 128-130,132,133,137,142,146,156,162,
167,169,170,174,181,184,187-189,195-199,207,216,228,236,237,245,255-260
266-269,271,272,277,283-285,281,301-305,307-311,313,316,327,328,331).
21
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5.0 Summary and Conclusions
The use of wood as a residential space heating fuel in the Pacific
Northwest has increased markedly in the past four years. The apparent
increase in wood use, as indicated by trends in wood stove sales, emission
inventory and ambient air monitoring information collectively point toward
a problem of growing concern related to future air quality management and
public health issues. In light of these concerns, a study of the current
and likely future impacts of RWC emissions in ma-jor population centers in
Oregon, Washington and Idaho was conducted during the 1980-81 heating
season. The study design incorporated concurrent measurements of worst
case RWC impacts, development of an RWC emission inventory data base for
three cities and estimates of likely future emissions, given certain
trends in energy use and economics. Through development of a RWC impact/
emission inventory relationship, air quality impact projections have been
prepared and likely implications have been examined.
Studies of worst case 24-hour RWC impacts measured during the 1980-81
space heating season have been developed as described in Task 1 and compared
to those derived from aerosol studies conducted in Oregon and Montana.
Results from these studies have clearly identified the importance of RWC
emissions as a major contributor to the fine (_<2.5ym) and TSP mass. Source
apportionment results developed by Chemical Mass Balance and confirmed by
radiocarbon techniques, typically assigns 60 to 75% of the fine mass to RWC
emissions during 24-hour worst case conditions. Impacts of 50 Mg/m3 or greater
from wood smoke were measured at residential sites in Seattle, Spokane, Portland,
Medford and Boise, with the maximum impact (128 )Jg/m3, inhalable particulate
fraction 8-hour average upper limit estimate) recorded at the Boise residential
site. Concentrations of polynuclear aromatic compounds present in selected
samples suggest that urban concentrations are a factor of ten higher than those
measured in rural areas. Exposure to average B(a)P concentrations associated
with wood smoke is comparable to the exposure associated with smoking four
cigarettes per day. At the maximum B(a)P concentrations (11 ng/m3)t the dosage
is equivalent to about 11 cigarettes, per day. Since no direct dose-response
relationships are available for B(a)P exposure, a quantitative assessment of
public health risk cannot be determined.
22
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Analysis of the trends in firewood use during the past 3-4 years and
estimates of likely short-term trends have suggested a 6-8% maximum annual
average increase in wood use during the 1980-85 period or a total maximum
increase for the 5 year period of 34-47%. Long-term projections (1985-2000)
developed by a computer simulation model given the cost of wood and alterna-
tive fuels, population growth and wood stove-fireplace use trends indicate a
wood fuel use increase of 41%, 26%, and 7% by the year 2000 in Portland,
Seattle, and Spokane, respectively, resulting in a 72% increase in RWC
emissions by the year 2000 in Portland, 40% in Seattle, and a 26% increase
in Spokane.
Wood use-air quality relationships developed for Portland, Spokane and
Seattle for the period of February 1981 have been used, in association with
the emission projections to estimate future impacts related to wood burning.
A direct, proportional relationship between emission growth and wood smoke
impact assumed in this analysis limits the accuracy of the projections to
first order approximations. The impact projections for the period 1981 to
2000 represent a 40, 27, and 21% increase in average worst case impacts in
Portland, Seattle, and Spokane, respectively. These figures represent an
additional 9.2, 9.5, and 8.2 Ug/m3 fine particulate burden on the airsheds
in each of the above cities.
The implications of these projections to air resource management in the
Pacific Northwest are numerous, especially when considered in relation to
the absence of any regulatory control on the growth of RWC emissions and
their impact on the visual clarity of the atmosphere. Based on established
relationships between visual range, light extinction and fine particle aerosol
mass in Portland, the projected 10 Ug/m3 increase in RWC impacts during the
year 2000 would contribute to a decrease of about 4 miles in visual range
during cold periods of poor atmospheric ventilation in addition to the existing
visibility impairment (estimated at approximately 9 miles) from RWC. Other
implications may include limiting the emission growth of other sources in the
airshed, expanding the extent of nonattainment areas and requirements placed
on other sources to offset RWC emission growth.
23
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6.0 References
1. Residential Solid Fuels, Environmental Impacts and Solutions. J.A.
Cooper and D. Malek, Eds., Oregon Graduate Center, Beaverton, OR 1981.
2. J.A. Cooper, "Environmental Impact of Residential Wood Combustion and
It's Implications," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association,
Vol. 30, No. 8, August, 1980.
3. R.T. DeCesar and J.A. Cooper, "Medford Aerosol Characterization Study,"
Final Report to the State of Oregon Department of Environmental
Quality, February, 1981.
4. J.A. Cooper and J.G. Watson, "Portland Aerosol Characterization Study,"
Final Report to the State of Oregon Department of Environmental Quality,
July, 1979.
5. J.E. Core, J.A. Cooper and J.E. Houck, "A Study of Residential Wood
Combustion; Task 1 - Ambient Air Quality Impact Analysis", prepared for
U.S. EPA, Region X, December 1981.
6. J.A. Cooper and R.T. DeCesar, "Missoula, Montana Source Apportionment
Study", Final Report prepared for the Montana State Department of
Health, September, 1980.
7. J.F. Kowalczyk and W.T. Green, "New Techniques for Identifying Ambient
Air Impacts from Residential Wood Heating," Residential Solid Fuels,
Environmental Impacts and Solutions, J.A. Cooper and D. Malek, Eds.,
Oregon Graduate Center, Beaverton, OR 1981.
8. Fine Particulates in Oregon's Air, Oregon Department of Environmental
Quality, Air Quality Division, May, 1981.
9. J.H. Carlson, "Residential Wood Combustion in Missoula, Montana: An
Overview of Its Air Pollution Contributions, Health Effects and Proposed
Regulatory Solutions," Residential Solid Fuels, Environmental Impacts
and Solutions, J.A. Cooper and D. Malek, Eds., Oregon Graduate Center,
Beaverton, OR 1981.
10. J.E. Core, et al., "A Study of Residential Wood Combustion - Task 1,
Ambient Air Quality Impact Analysis", Prepared for U.S. EPA, Region X,
NEA, INC., April, 1982.
11. R.L. Gay and W.T. Greene, "Residential Wood Combustion Study - Task 3,
Wood Fuel Use Projections," prepared for U.S. EPA, Region X, Del Green,
Associates, Inc., April, 1982.
12. "Residential Wood Combustion Study - Task 2B, Household Information
Survey," prepared for U.S. EPA, Region X, Del Green, Associates, Inc.
February, 1982.
13. "Portland-Vancouver AQMA (Oregon Portion) State Implementation Plan for
Total Suspended Particulate," State of Oregon Department of Environmental
Quality, Air Quality Division, September, 1980.
14. J.G. Watson, J.C. Chow and J.J. Shaw, " Analysis of Measurements from
the Inhalable Particulate Matter Sampling Network," U.S. EPA Contract No.
68-02-2542, July, 1981.
15. W.H. White and P.T. Roberts, "On the Nature of Visibility - Reducing
Aerosols in the Los Angeles Air Basin," Atmos. Environ., 11:803 (1977).
24
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16. R.J. Charleston, et al., "Monitoring of Atmospheric Aerosol Parameters
With the Integrating Nephelometer," Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, 19:937 (1969).
17. J.J. Shaw, J.J. Huntzicker, J.A. Cooper and J.G. Watson, "Sources of
Visibility Degredation in Portland, Oregon," Proceedings of the 74th
Annual Meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, 1981.
18. "Protecting Visibility: An EPA Report to Congress," U.S. EPA,
450/5-79-008, October, 1979.
19. "Development of a TSP State Implementation Plan for Medford," State of
Oregon, Department of Environmental Quality, February 13, 1981.
20. R.L. Gay and W.T. Greene, "Residential Wood Combustion Study - Task 6,
Control Strategy Analysis," Prepared for U.S. EPA, Region X, Del Green,
Associates, May, 1982.
21. "Residential Wood Combustion Study - Task 4, Technical Analysis of
Wood Stoves," Prepared for U.S. EPA, Region X, Del Green Associates,
May, 1982.
25
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22. Adams, D.F. , Kopt-p., ILK. and Robinson, E., 1973, Air and Surface Measure-
ments of Constituents of Prescribed Forest Slash Smoke, in: Proceedings
of International Symposium on Air Quality and Smoke From Urban and
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Appendix 1
Residential Wood Combustion
Particulate Impact Assessment Method
Glossary
Chemical Mass Balance
This method matches source particle size and chemical "fingerprints"
to those measured at the receptor to estimate the impact of specific
sources. Given data on the ambient concentrations of several chemical
species and the percent by weight of these species in the emissions
from the sources, a set of equations is formed and solved to determine
source impacts.
Carbon-14
"Modern" carbon sources, such as wood burning, can be distinguished
from fossil fuel sources, based on the fact that the isotopic ratio
of 1'*C/12C in plant tissue is in equilibrium with the same ratio in
atmospheric COa, whereas fossil carbon contains essentially no 1<+C
because of its old age relative to the half life of the 1'*C isotope
(5730 years) .
Light Scattering
Temporal variations in the light scattering characteristics of ambient
air, as measured by an integrating nephelometer, can provide a measure
of hourly and seasonal variability in fine particle mass concentrations
which, when compared to diurnal and seasonal variations in residential
wood combustion emissions, can provide a qualitative measure of likely
impact.
Carbon Thermograph Analysis
Carbon thermographic techniques measure the concentration of carbon
dioxide generation from stepwise combustion of the carbonaceous
aerosol found in ambient air. Thermograms reflecting the relative
amounts of carbonaceous material in the sample, as a function of combus-
tion temperature, reflect distinct source profiles which, when compared
to similar profiles developed for source emissions, can provide a
qualitative indication of likely carbonaceous source impacts.
Dispersion Modeling
Urban dispersion models (CDMQC and Eulerian model) have been used to
estimate residential wood combustion impacts given detailed information
on atmospheric dispersion properties, a wood burning emission inventory
and data describing the diurnal and seasonal variations in source
strengths. In most studies, current residential wood combustion emission
inventory data was developed through telephone surveys of each community
studies.
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