vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of
Research and Development
Washington, DC 20460
EPA/600/4-91/019
June 1991
Surface Waters
Implementation Plan-
Northeast Pilot Lake
Survey, Summer 1991
Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment Program
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EPA/600/4-91/019
June 1991
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT PROGRAM:
SURFACE WATERS IMPLEMENTATION PLAN -
NORTHEAST PILOT LAKE SURVEY, SUMMER 1991
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING SYSTEMS LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
LAS VEGAS, NEVADA 89193-3478
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97333
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING SYSTEMS LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45219
JUNE 1991
Printed on Recycled Paper
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ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT PROGRAM:
SURFACE WATERS IMPLEMENTATION PLAN -
NORTHEAST PILOT LAKE SURVEY, SUMMER 1991
edited by
J. E. Pollard" and K. M. Peres"
with contributions from:
S, G. Paulsenb, D. P. Larsen0, P. R. Kaufmann", T. Whittier',
J. R. Baker*, D. V. Peck8, J. McGue", D. Stevense, J. Stoddarde,
R. Hughes6, D. M. McMullenf, J. M. Lazorchakg, and W. L. Kinneyh
The information in this document has been funded wholly or in part by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency under Contract Number 68-CO-0049 to Lockheed
Engineering & Sciences Company, Contract Number 68-C8-0006 to ManTech
Environmental Technologies, Inc., Contract Number 68-CI-0022 to Technology
Applications, Inc., and through Cooperative Agreements CR814701 with the University
of Nevada-Las Vegas, CR815168 with Utah State University, and CR815422 with
Oregon State University. It has been subjected to the Agency's peer and administrative
review, and has been approved for publication as an EPA document. Mention of trade
names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
" Lockheed Engineering & Sciences Company
b Environmental Research Center, University of Nevada-Las Vegas
c U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis,Oregon
* Utah State University
' ManTech Environmental Technologies, Inc.
' Technology Applications, Inc.
* U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio
h U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory,
Las Vegas, Nevada
1 Oregon State University
11
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ABSTRACT
This document outlines the proposed implementation plan for the Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment Program's Surface Waters Northeast Lakes Pilot Survey, to be
conducted from July through September, 1991. The pilot survey will evaluate not only the
utility of the indicators selected thus far for the Surface Waters component, but will provide an
evaluation of the methods that have been identified for collection and analysis of samples.
This implementation plan is not intended to be a step-by-step delineation of field activities
planned for the pilot; for more detailed discussion of concept, approach, and issues, please refer
to either the Surface Waters Research Plan (Paulsen et al., 1991) or the respective subject plans
(i.e., the quality assurance project plan, the field operations manual, and the information
management plan). This plan outlines the objectives of the field pilot activities and the questions
which we expect to answer as a result of these activities. In addition, the plan contains a
description of the indicators, the measurement variables included in each indicator, the design
rationale, and details including site selection criteria and a list of selected sites. Very brief
descriptions of quality assurance, logistical considerations, and the information management
approach are also presented.
in
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Notice ii
Abstract iii
Tables vii
Figures viii
Acknowledgments ix
Acronyms and Abbreviations x
1 INTRODUCTION 1 of 2
1.1 Overview of the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program 1 of 2
1.2 Overview of EMAP-Surface Waters 2 of 2
2 PILOT OBJECTIVES 1 of 10
2.1 Objectives of FY91 Northeast Lakes Pilot Survey 1 of 10
2.2 Questions to be Answered Prior to Full Scale Implementation 1 of 10
2.3 Pilot Study Description and Objectives 4 of 10
2.3.1 Regional Probability Demonstrations 6 of 10
2.3.1.1 Regional Variability Assessment Study 6 of 10
2.3.1.2 TIME Demonstration 7 of 10
2.3.2 Indicator Evaluation Study 8 of 10
3 INDICATORS OF ECOLOGICAL CONDITION 1 of 20
3.1 Introduction 1 of 20
3.2 Trophic State 2 of 20
3.2.1 Overall Objectives 2 of 20
3.2.2 Objectives of the Pilot 2 of 20
3.2.3 Data Collection and Analysis 3 of 20
3.3 Sedimentary Diatom Assemblage 3 of 20
3.3.1 Overall Objectives 3 of 20
3.3.2 Objectives of the Pilot 3 of 20
3.3.3 Data Collection and Analysis 4 of 20
3.4 Macroinvertebrate Assemblage 5 of 20
3.4.1 Overall Objectives 5 of 20
3.4.2 Objectives of the Pilot 5 of 20
3.4.3 Data Collection and Analysis 5 of 20
3.5 Zooplankton 6 of 20
3.5.1 Overall Objectives 6 of 20
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Section Page
3.5.2 Objectives of the Pilot 6 of 20
3.5.3 Data Collection and Analysis 6 of 20
3.6 Fish Assemblage 7 of 20
3.6.1 Overall Objectives 7 of 20
3.6.2 Objectives of the Pilot 7 of 20
3.6.3 Data Collection and Analysis 7 of 20
3.7 Riparian Bird Assemblage 9 of 20
3.7.1 Overall Objectives 9 of 20
3.7.2 Objectives of the Pilot 9 of 20
3.7.3 Data Collection and Analysis 9 of 20
3.8 Sediment Toxicity 10 of 20
3.8.1 Overall Objectives 10 of 20
3.8.2 Objectives of the Pilot 10 of 20
3.8.3 Data Collection and Analysis 10 of 20
3.9 Chemical Contaminants in Fish 11 of 20
3.9.1 Overall Objectives 11 of 20
3.9.2 Objectives of the Pilot 11 of 20
3.9.3 Data Collection and Analysis 12 of 20
3.10 Biomarkers 14 of 20
3.10.1 Overall Objectives 14 of 20
3.10.2 Objectives of the Pilot 15 of 20
3.10.3 Data Collection and Analysis 15 of 20
3.11 Physical Habitat Quality 15 of 20
3.11.1 Overall Objectives 15 of 20
3.11.2 Objectives of the Pilot 15 of 20
3.11.3 Data Collection and Analysis 16 of 20
3.12 Chemical Habitat Quality 18 of 20
3.12.1 Overall Objectives 18 of 20
3.12.2 Objectives of the Pilot 18 of 20
3.12.3 Data Collection and Analysis 18 of 20
3.13 Landscape Stressor Indicators 19 of 20
3.13.1 Overall Objectives 19 of 20
3.13.2 Objectives of the Pilot 19 of 20
3.13.3 Data Collection and Analysis 19 of 20
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Section Page
4 DESIGN 1 of 9
4.1 Introduction and Objectives 1 of 9
4.2 Selection of Grid Lakes 1 of 9
4.2.1 Frame and Tier 1 Sample Selection 2 of 9
4.2.2 Identifying Non-Target Lakes 2 of 9
4.2.3 Stratification Strategies 4 of 9
4.3 Tier 2 Sample Selection 5 of 9
4.3.1 Maintaining Spatial Distribution in the Tier 2 Sample 6 of 9
4.3.2 Drawing the Tier 2 Sample 8 of 9
4.4 Indicator Evaluation Study 8 of 9
5 FIELD OPERATIONS 1 of 8
5.1 Design Considerations 1 of 8
5.2 Probability Lake Site Activities 3 of 8
5.3 Indicator Evaluation Lake Site Activities 7 of 8
6 QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAM 1 of 7
6.1 Data Quality Requirements 1 of 7
6.2 Major Elements of the QA/QC Program 2 of 7
6.3 Assessment of Data Quality 5 of 7
6.4 Estimates of Components of Index Period Variation 5 of 7
6.5 Discussion and Summary 7 of 7
7 INFORMATION MANAGEMENT 1 of 3
7.1 Introduction 1 of 3
7.2 Operational Components of the IMS for EMAP-SW FY91 Pilot Survey .... 1 of 3
8 REFERENCES 1 of 5
VI
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TABLES
Table Page
3-1 Indicator Measurements Proposed for the 1991 EMAP-SW
Northeast Lakes Pilot 2 of 20
3-2 Analytes to be Measured in Fish Tissue for the 1991 EMAP-SW
Northeast Lakes Pilot 13 of 20
3-3 Maximum Allowable Tissue Concentrations for Fish Tissue
Contaminants 14 of 20
3-4 Lake Physical Habitat Indices to be Tested for EMAP-SW 17 of 20
3-5 Chemical Habitat Measurement Variables 19 of 20
4-1 Number of Lakes and Total Area per Size Strata for the
Northeast Lake Frame, Tier 1 and Tier 2 Samples 4 of 9
5-1 Duties to be Divided Between the Fish Crew and the
Invertebrate Crew 2 of 8
5-2 Planned Schedule for Visits to EMAP Grid and TIME Lakes
by State 3 of 8
5-3 Number and Type of Samples to be Collected at each EMAP-SW
Grid and TIME Site 7 of 8
5-4 Samples Collected at the 20 Indicator Evaluation Lakes 8 of 8
6-1 Elements of the Quality Assurance Program, Northeast Lakes
Pilot Study and TIME Project 3 of 7
6-2 Sources of Variation of Interest, EMAP-SW Northeast Lakes
Pilot Survey 6 of 7
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FIGURES
Figure Page
2-1 Components of the pilot activities planned for EMAP-SW
during FY91. 5 of 10
2-2 Two regions of interest for acidic deposition in which the base
EMAP grid will not provide enough coverage. 9 of 10
4-1 Cumulative size distribution for lakes in the Northeast. The
insert is a histogram of the size distribution with areas
< 50 ha. 3 of 9
4-2 Clusters delineated for the EMAP-SW Northeast Lakes Pilot
Survey. 7 of 9
5-la Flow chart of daily activities at EMAP grid and TIME Sites. 4 of 8
5-lb Flow chart of daily activities of field coordinator at EMAP
grid and TIME sites. 5 of 8
Vlll
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Critical reviews of the document by the following individuals are gratefully
acknowledged: S. M. Bartel, Oak Ridge National Laboratory; D. Rickert, U.S. Geological
Service; M. T. Barbour, EA Engineering, Science, and Technology; B. Newton, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water; E. Stoermer, University of Michigan;
W. J. Matthews, University of Oklahoma; K. Dickson, University of North Texas; D. Porteous,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region I; S. Dixit, Queen's University; M. Morrison,
ManTech Environmental Technology Services, Inc.; and W. L. Kinney and D. T. Heggem,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
The authors would also like to thank J. Y. Aoyama, Lockheed Engineering & Sciences
Company, for providing editorial support and J. Mello, ManTech Environmental Technology
Services, Inc., for providing word processing support.
IX
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AERP Aquatic Effects Research Program
ALSC Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation
ANC acid neutralizing capacity
BRC Biologically Relevant Chemistry (Survey)
cdfs cumulative distribution functions
chl a chlorophyll a
DIG dissolved inorganic carbon
DLGs digital line graph (files)
DO dissolved oxygen
DOC dissolved organic carbon
EMAP Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program
EMAP-SW Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface Waters
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EROD ethoxyresorufm-O-deethylase
FAX facsimile
FY fiscal year
CIS Geographic Information System
GPS Global Positioning System
ha hectare
ID identification
IES Indicator Evaluation Study
IFD Industrial Facility Discharge File
IM Information Management
IMS Information Management System
LESC-LV Lockheed Engineering & Sciences Company, Las Vegas
MATC Maximum Allowable Tissue Concentration
METI Man tech Environmental Technologies, Incorporated
NSWS National Surface Water Survey
PAHs polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
PCA principal component analysis
PCBs polychlorinated biphenols
PE performance evaluation
PDR portable data recorder
PIRLA Paleolimnological Investigations of Recent Lake Acidification
QA quality assurance
QA/QC quality assurance/quality control
QAPjP quality assurance project plan
QC quality control
SAS Statistical Analysis System
SCS Soil Conservation Service
SD Secchi disk transparency
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SWIC Surface Waters Information Center
TAI Technology Applications, Incorporated
TIME Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems
TP total phosphorus
T1Y1 Tier 1 Year 1
USFWS United States Fish and Wildlife Service
USGS United States Geological Service
VAX Virtual Address Extension
XI
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Section 1
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT
PROGRAM
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in cooperation with other federal
and state organizations, has designed the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program
(EMAP) to periodically assess the condition of the Nation's ecological resources. The
program will assist decision makers, both within and outside the Agency, to evaluate the
effectiveness of current environmental regulations in protecting the Nation's natural
resources, prioritize issues of concern and regions in which action is needed, and set
environmental policy. EMAP is a strategy to identify and bound the extent, magnitude, and
location of degradation or improvement in the environment. When EMAP has been fully
implemented, the program will answer the following critical questions:
What is the current status and extent of our ecological resources (e.g.,
estuaries, lakes, streams, forests, grasslands, etc.) and how are they distributed
geographically?
What percentage of resources appears to be adversely affected by pollutants or
other anthropogenic environmental stresses?
Which resources are degrading or improving, where, and at what rate?
What are the relative magnitudes of the most likely causes of adverse effects?
Are adversely affected ecosystems improving as expected in response to
control and mitigation programs?
To answer these questions, the various, integrated monitoring networks within EMAP will
focus on the following objectives:
Estimate the current status, extent, changes, and trends in indicators of
condition of the Nation's ecological resources on a regional basis with known
confidence.
Monitor indicators of pollutant exposure and habitat condition and seek
associations between human-induced stresses and ecological condition that
identify possible causes of adverse effects.
Provide periodic statistical summaries and interpretive reports on ecological
status and trends to the EPA Administrator and to the public.
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1.2 OVERVIEW OF EMAP-SURFACE WATERS
EMAP-Surface Waters (EMAP-SW) is intended to estimate the condition of lakes,
reservoirs, streams, and rivers on a national scale as well as on relatively broad, regional
scales. The design of the program, which utilizes an integrated, statistical monitoring
framework based on a global systematic grid, is explained in detail in Paulsen, et al., 1991.
Data obtained from the program will allow estimation of the spatial extent and geographical
distribution of various classes of surface waters. Additionally, the program will estimate the
current status and changes or trends in indicators of ecological condition.
The EMAP-SW Resource Group uses a top-down approach to evaluate the condition
of the ecosystem with respect to endpoints of concern (see Paulsen, et al., 1991). The
strategy chosen for EMAP-SW employs the following attributes that will allow estimation,
with known confidence, of indicators of the ecological condition of regional surface water
populations:
Precise definition of surface water target populations and associated sampling units
and the selection of an explicit frame for listing or identifying all potential sampling
units within each target population.
Probability-based sample site selection from the population frame; a uniform grid and
clustered sampling approach will be used to obtain a randomized, systematic sample
of surface waters with a geographical distribution reflecting that of the population.
Representation of ecological conditions in sample lakes and streams using ecological
indicators employing an index concept.
A documented set of uniform sampling and analytical methods for a suite of response,
exposure, and stressor indicator measurements.
A documented program of rigorous quality control/quality assurance (QA/QC), and
assessment.
This document describes the proposed plan for implementation of the EMAP-SW
Northeast Lakes Pilot Survey. The pilot, which will be conducted in the northeastern United
States from July through September of 1991, will evaluate the usefulness of the indicators
selected thus far. It will also evaluate the methods that have been identified for collection
and analysis of samples.
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SECTION 2
PILOT OBJECTIVES
2.1 OBJECTIVES OF FISCAL YEAR 1991 NORTHEAST LAKES PILOT SURVEY
Prior to full-scale implementation of EMAP-SW, a number of questions must be
answered through a combination of analyses of existing data and of data derived from new
field activities. We distinguish two types of field activities that we intend to undertake prior
to full-scale implementation. These are pilot projects and demonstration projects. The pilot
projects are intended to specifically answer questions about indicator performance, including
sensitivity, components of variance for indicators, method considerations, and logistical
constraints. Pilot studies are not intended to provide regional estimates of condition. A
demonstration activity may be designed to answer many of the same questions outlined
above, but also has as a fundamental objective the demonstration of the ability to estimate the
condition of regional populations. We anticipate a combination of pilot and demonstration
activities over the next three to four years before national implementation of EMAP-SW.
The pilot activity described in this document will begin to answer the many questions that
exist, but will not answer them all. In conjunction with well designed follow-up studies, this
pilot should provide the information needed to implement the program.
2.2 QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED PRIOR TO FULL-SCALE IMPLEMENTATION
The basic questions which need to be answered prior to full-scale implementation of
EMAP-SW are:
(1) What indicators/measurements will we use as part of the basic monitoring
program?
(2) Where and when will we measure them?
(3) How will we use them to make statements about condition, associations,
probable cause of impaired and unimpaired conditions, and how well can we
statistically describe all of this?
The following are questions which we identified in conjunction with our Peer Review
Panel as more specific questions which require answers prior to implementation of EMAP-
SW:
(1) What is the magnitude of the variance components for the identified biological-
response indicators which include fish, macroinvertebrates, zooplankton,
sedimentary diatoms, birds, and fish pathology in a set of regional lakes?
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What are the variance components for the chemical-exposure and physical
habitat indicators? How does the magnitude of these components impact our
ability to describe condition and trends? Components of variance which
should be described include:
a. Differences among lakes within a region resulting from true differences
in different lakes (true population variance).
b. Spatial and temporal differences at a lake within a given index period
(index variance).
c. Differences within index samples resulting from imprecision in sample
collection, sample processing, and sample analyses; and differences
among index samples resulting from different teams and different
laboratories (measurement variance).
d. Year-to-year site variation (annual variance).
e. Spatial correlation effects within a region.
f. Temporal correlation effects within a region.
g. Differences at a site among different index periods.
(2) A variety of habitat types exist within any particular lake and the heterogeneity
of these varies between lakes. The basic question here is, how do we sample
an index of the condition of the lake at a particular time for a particular
indicator? For each biological-response indicator, chemical-exposure
indicator, and physical-habitat indicator, a series of questions must be
answered relative to habitat types.
a. How many discreet habitats need to be recognized and sampled in the
regional set of lakes?
b. How much sample replication is needed for each habitat within each
lake?
c. How will data from the different habitats in each lake be combined to
provide a result for the whole lake to form the regional population
among lakes?
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d. Can a sample from a single location within the lake be used as an index
of lake condition?
(3) Several questions exist concerning the logistics and variability in on-site
performance of sampling teams:
a. Can teams really conduct the field sampling in the time frame described
in the Surface Waters Research and Monitoring Strategy (Paulsen, et
al., 1991)?
b. Can different teams be effectively trained or will the variance be so
great that the program objectives will be compromised?
c. Can the field logistics be effectively monitored and controlled across a
region?
(4) Concerning the ability to define trends in biological-response indicators:
a. What types of rotational sampling schemes are needed to increase
sampling frequency so that trends can be discerned in reasonable time
frames given the levels of variance observed for the identified
biological-response indicators?
b. What test will be used for trends in population data?
c. What is the magnitude of regional trend detectable given the indicator
variability and proposed design?
(5) A host of subpopulations are of concern to various clients:
a. How will critical subpopulations of interest be identified?
b. Can post-stratification really be used?
(6) Can the nominal/subnominal approach for defining conditions be made to work
for each of the listed biological-response indicators?
Questions 4, 5, and 6 above can be answered independently of field pilot activities.
However, answers to questions 1 to 3 require interpretation of existing data and data derived
from a series of carefully designed lake pilot studies. These field activities must be followed
by exhaustive data interpretation and reevaluation of the overall design and approach.
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This document describes the role the Fiscal Year 1991 (FY91) field pilot will play in
answering some of the critical questions outlined. This work will be complemented by
extensive evaluation of existing data and computer simulation.
2.3 PILOT STUDY DESCRIPTION AND OBJECTIVES
In this section, the general description of the FY91 pilot is described along with
questions which will be answered. Further details on specific indicators can be found in
Section 3, while the details of site selection are addressed in Section 4.
A fundamental issue which prevented us from conducting a regional scale pilot on all
indicators was our belief that we were not adequately prepared to collect an index sample of
fish, littoral zone macroinvertebrates, and lake physical habitat. Thus, a key question to be
answered by the pilot is: How do we obtain an index sample of fish, macroinverteb rates, and
physical habitat within reasonable budgetary constraints?
Figure 2-1 shows the basic components of the field pilot for FY91. The first is a
demonstration of the EMAP design for sampling lakes on a regional scale. For this
component, lakes to be sampled were selected from the grid using the selection procedures
described in Section 4.2. This demonstration has two subcomponents, one which begins the
Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems (TIME) program (see Section 3.2.1.2) and
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EMAP-SW NORTHEAST LAKES PILOT SURVEY
Regional
Probability Pilots
Variability Studies
64 regional probability
lakes
32 revisits spatial and
variability
Water Ch'emistry
Trophic State
Zooplankton
Profundal Benthos
Diatom Cores
Physical Habitat
Sediment
Methods and Indicator Evaluation
TIME Survey ) 20 hand $
1
elected lakes
92 regional Fish
probability Tissue Residue
lakes Fish Biomarkers
(64 + 28) Littoral Benthos
Lakeshore Birds
Physical Habitat
Water Chemistry Water Chemistry
Trophic State
Zooplankton
Profundal Benthos
Diatom Cores
Sediment Toxicity
Toxicity
Figure 2-1. Components of the pilot activities planned for EMAP-SW during FY91.
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the other in which we measure selected indicators which we believe we can effectively
sample in an index mode. The difference between these two subcomponents is that the base
EMAP grid has been intensified in two regions where subpopulations of lakes are especially
sensitive to acidic deposition and sample sizes selected from the base grid were insufficient
for trend detection. At these additional sites, only TIME indicators, primarily chemistry,
will be measured.
The second component of the pilot addresses the basic question about our ability to
obtain a cost effective index sample for fish, littoral macroinvertebrates, and physical habitat.
During the discussions over the past year, it became evident that we would be unable to
select a sampling protocol (gear, locations) with which we could obtain a sample of the fish
and macroinvertebrate assemblages effectively. Thus, the primary purpose of this part of the
pilot activity is to obtain sufficient information by which to select an adequate sampling
protocol to be used in later surveys. To conduct this evaluation, lakes were purposely
selected to cover a variety of lake sizes and types of impact to represent the range of
conditions expected during routine surveys. An ancillary, though important, part of this
study is an evaluation of the sensitivity of the suite of biological indicators across various
impact gradients. The lake selection process is described in Section 4.4, and the specific
questions to be addressed for each indicator are identified in the respective indicator
subsections of Section 3.
2.3.1 Regional Probability Demonstrations
The regional probability demonstrations can be divided into two areas of concern:
a. regional variability assessment, and
b. TIME demonstration.
2.3.1.1 Regional Variability Assessment Study
For several of the proposed indicators, we believe we can adopt the index
measurement concept and estimate the magnitude of regional spatial variability and within
index period variability. This is best done using sites selected with known probability from
the grid. Sixty-four probability sites have been selected for this study. Trophic state index,
general water chemistry, zooplankton, profundal benthos, and macrophyte cover information
will be collected on all of these sites. At 32 of these sites zooplankton, profundal benthos,
and sediment toxicity samples will be analyzed along with cores for analyses of diatoms and
chironomid headcapsules. This set of 32 lakes will be revisited during the index period to
estimate index period variability. Appropriate quality assurance (QA) samples in the form of
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field replicates and natural audit samples will be taken to estimate total measurement error.
Detailed evaluation of components of variance that comprise measurement error will occur
during FY92 field activities only if the magnitude of total measurement error is of concern.
Similarly, detailed evaluation of index period variability will proceed via evaluation of
existing data and additional work during FY92 if results of this year's pilot indicate index
period variability to be of a magnitude which is of concern.
This population variability assessment study will estimate:
a. Regional spatial variability.
b. Index period variability.
c. Total measurement variability.
d. Regional status for selected indicators.
This field study will specifically not estimate:
a. Spatial or temporal correlation effects within a region.
b. Differences at a site between different index periods.
c. Specific estimates of the components of measurement variability.
d. Regional estimates of condition for the full suite of EMAP-SW indicators.
2.3.1.2 TIME Demonstration
As described in Paulsen et al., 1991 and Stoddard, 1990, the reauthorization of the
Clean Air Act mandates an assessment of the effects of reductions in emissions on aquatic
systems. The TIME project is a special program within EMAP-SW which will address the
effectiveness of the changes which might result from the Clean Air Act. The regional
population descriptions produced by the TIME project will result from modification of the
general EMAP design. The base EMAP density will provide approximately 64 probability
sites annually for use in the TIME project. Based on the results presented in Linthurst, et al.
(1986), two regions of high interest (Adirondacks and southern Vermont and New
Hampshire, see Figure 2-2) will not be adequately evaluated with this base density (see
Paulsen, et al., 1991 and Stoddard, 1990). A three-fold increase in the grid density in these
regions results in the selection of an additional 28 sites in each year of a four-year rotational
cycle. Section 4 contains details of the site selection process for this project.
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Indicators at the TIME sites will be primarily water chemistry-exposure indicators
(e.g., pH, acid neutralizing capacity [ANC], sulfate, nitrate) intended to estimate the
acidification status of these systems.
This year's TIME project will:
a. Estimate the year 1 acidification status of a variety of sensitive lake
subpopulations in the Northeast. This is the first year of what is expected to
be at least a 10-year period before trends which might result from changes in
the Clean Air Act are expected to be detectable.
b. Evaluate the effectiveness of the design and site density in providing the
needed coverage of important lake subpopulations.
2.3.2 Indicator Evaluation Study
A variety of questions exist relative to effective methods to use within EMAP-SW for
the biological-response and physical habitat indicators currently under evaluation. These
pertain to the gear to be used, habitats to be sampled within a lake, logistics of implementing
all of the indicators, and the effectiveness of the suite of indicators when evaluated together.
We are also interested in determining which indicators have information to cost ratios which
might preclude future use in EMAP-SW. A set of 20 lakes has been subjectively selected to
evaluate the range of lake sizes, types, and conditions that may be encountered in the
Northeast. The selection process includes evaluations of existing maps, and data bases (State
305b Reports; Hocutt and Wiley, 1986; Cusimano, et al., 1990; Adirondack Lakes Survey
Corporation [ALSC], 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988; Landers, et al., 1987; and Linthurst, et al.,
1986), and suggestions from state biologists.
A major aspect of this portion of the pilot is evaluation of sampling gear and habitat
types within a lake, and evaluation of methods for indexing fish (Hocutt and Wiley, 1986;
Cusimano, et al., 1990; Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation [ALSC], 1985, 1986, 1987,
1988; Landers, et al., 1987; and Linthurst, et al., 1986) and macroinvertebrate assemblages
in lakes within EMAP-SW. For sediment toxicity, we are concerned with sample location
variability, crew variability, and temporal variability (which will also be evaluated for birds).
The research concerns for biomarkers center on intra- and interspecies variability. Fish
tissue contamination concerns are whole fish versus filet and interspecies differences, while
observer variability, index locations, and sampling effort are of concern for physical habitat.
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Figure 2-2. Two regions of interest for acidic deposition in which the base EMAP grid will
not provide enough coverage. The grid was intensified by a factor of 3 in
order to provide an additional 28 samples per year for the evaluation of
acidification.
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An additional aspect of this portion of the pilot is the evaluation of indicator
performance over a range of natural and disturbance gradients. Because our sample size is
relatively small for this activity, we will continue to include a set of subjectively selected
sites for indicator performance over the course of the next several years. These sites will
allow us to compare the responses of our full set of response, exposure, and habitat
indicators. In addition, they provide us with the opportunity to evaluate the logistical
constraints and the time necessary to implement our proposals in various types of lakes.
The indicator evaluation study (IES) will:
a. Select protocol for index sampling of the following indicators: fish, littoral
benthos, physical habitat.
b. Identify major habitat types that require sampling for fish and benthos.
c. Estimate and evaluate the logistical and time requirements for implementing
the complete suite of indicators in the field.
d. Begin evaluation of the suite of biological-response indicators across natural
and disturbance gradients to compare their sensitivity, responsiveness,
interpretability, and redundancy.
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SECTION 3
INDICATORS OF ECOLOGICAL CONDITION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the following section, the overall objectives of the EMAP program are presented
for each indicator followed by the specific pilot objective for that indicator. Following the
statement of objectives for a given indicator, the methods of data collection are briefly
outlined along with data analysis plans. Finally, interpretation scenarios are proposed for
each indicator.
EMAP has identified four types of indicators for determining ecological condition:
response, exposure, habitat, and stressor. These categories have been provided as a
guideline for use in the selection, evaluation, and development of the proposed indicators for
EMAP-SW.
Response indicators are attributes that quantify the integrated response of ecological
resources to individual or multiple stressors. Examples of this kind of indicator
include fish assemblage, diatom assemblage, and macroinvertebrate assemblage.
Exposure indicators are physical, chemical, and biological attributes that can be used
to suggest pollutant exposure and assist in the diagnosis of probable cause. In
addition, exposure indicators are extremely critical for assessing water body types and
expected conditions for aquatic systems. Examples of exposure indicators are
sediment toxicity, chemical contaminants in fish, and ambient nutrient concentration.
Habitat indicators are attributes that describe the condition of the environment.
They are used to suggest whether alteration or disturbance of the physical habitat is
the cause of poor condition in response indicators. Examples of this type of indicator
are surface area, lake level, or hydrologic residence time.
Stressor indicators are economic, social, or engineering attributes that are used to
identify the most probable sources of environmental impairment or exposure to
impact. Some examples of this indicator type are human population density, land-use
patterns, pesticide application rates, point-source pollutant loadings, and stocking and
harvest records.
Table 3-1 provides a list of indicator measurements (grouped by indicator type)
proposed for the Northeast Lakes Pilot. Each indicator is described in detail in the following
sections.
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TABLE 3-1. INDICATOR MEASUREMENTS PROPOSED FOR THE 1991 EMAP-SW
NORTHEAST LAKES PILOT SURVEY
Response Indicators
Trophic State
Sediment Diatom Assemblage
Benthic Macroinvertebrate Assemblage
Zooplankton Assemblage
Fish Assemblage
Riparian Bird Assemblage
Exposure Indicators
Sediment Toxicity
Fish Biomarkers
Fish Tissue Contaminants
Fish External Anomalies
Water Chemistry
Habitat Indicators
Physical Habitat Quality
Stressor Indicators
Land Use
Landscape Cover
Human Population Density
Fish Management Practices
Transportation
3.2 TROPHIC STATE
3.2.1 Overall Objectives
The overall objective of this indicator is to estimate the proportion of lakes that are in
various trophic categories (oligotrophic, mesotrophic, eutrophic, dystrophic) based primarily
on measurements of total phosphorus (TP), chlorophyll a (chl a), and Secchi disk
transparency (SD).
3.2.2 Objectives of the Pilot
Estimate the magnitude of spatial variability in the Northeast.
Estimate the magnitude of variation associated with the sampling index window,
especially relative to population variation of lakes in the Northeast.
Evaluate associations between the trophic indicators and sediment diatoms,
zooplankton, benthos, and fish assemblages.
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3.2.3 Data Collection and Analysis
Chlorophyll a, TP, and SD will be taken at a spot that approximates the deepest part
of the lake, in the epilimnion (1.5m below the surface, or a clean sample for shallow lakes).
One important question to be answered in the pilot for the Northeast will be: "How
large is index variation relative to population (regional) variation, and how large is index
variation relative to variation of selected subpopulations?" Our variance models, simulations,
and summaries of variance indicate that it will be necessary to measure both spatial and
temporal components of index variation as part of the basic sampling design.
The basic trophic state measurements will be combined into an index such as
Carlson's trophic state index (Carlson, 1977). This index is constructed on the basis of SD
and its correlation with chl a and TP. The index runs from 0 to more than 100, but
operationally, values generally occur from 30 to 49 or from 80 to 90. The larger the value,
the more productive the system. Each change of 10 on the index corresponds to halving of
SD and doubling of TP. Although cumulative distribution functions (cdfs) of the index can
be reported, it might also be appropriate to report cdfs of the individual measurements.
3.3 SEDIMENTARY DIATOM ASSEMBLAGE
3.3.1 Overall Objectives
Estimate the proportion of lakes that are in various trophic categories.
Estimate the proportion of lakes that were in various trophic categories prior to major
anthropogenic impact.
Estimate the rate of environmental change (as these data accumulate over time).
3.3.2 Objectives of the Pilot
To calibrate sediment surface diatom assemblages to the following environmental
variables:
PH
alkalinity
monomeric and total aluminum
dissolved organic carbon
salinity
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conductivity
total nitrogen
TP
calcium
SD
chi a
NOTE: pH has been calibrated, but it will be informative to compare the model
derived from a probability sample with existing models).
To develop predictive models for inferring lake conditions.
To estimate spatial variability.
To evaluate and document the total method, including:
field methods
coring procedures
core sampling and archiving
laboratory methods
diatom analysis
diatom QA
sediment dating
statistical methods
data base development
ordination techniques
Monte Carlo simulation
bootstrapping
3.3.3 Data Collection and Analysis
Sediment core samples will be collected from the deepest part of each lake. The
upper 1cm of sediment and 1cm of sediment from the bottom of the core will be collected
and preserved for laboratory analysis of the diatom communities. Because funds are
sufficient this year for analyzing only 64 cores, the focus will be on the 20 indicator lakes
and 44 of the EMAP-TIME lakes, which will be chosen to provide a wide range of
conditions. Cores from the remaining lakes will be examined the following year.
Methods for diatom research have been evaluated and standardized for three large,
multi-institution paleolimnological research projects which investigated the effects of acid
rain on aquatic resources in the United States (Paleolimnological Investigations of Recent
Lake Acidification [PIRLA]-!, Charles and Whitehead, 1986; PIRLA-II, Charles and Smol,
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1990), and the Surface Water Acidification Programme of Great Britain and Scandinavia
(Battarbee et al., 1990). Details of the methods to be used in this study may be found in the
EMAP-SW Pilot Field Operations and Training Manual (Tallent-Halsell and Merritt, in
preparation).
3.4 MACROINVERTEBRATE ASSEMBLAGE
3.4.1 Overall Objectives
Develop and measure quantifiable indices of lake condition based on
invertebrate assemblages.
Monitor the condition of lakes using invertebrate assemblage information.
3.4.2 Objectives of the Pilot
Collect profundal benthos and sediment core samples for determination of the
profundal benthic assemblages (regional variability study).
Develop efficient sampling methods for littoral benthic invertebrate
communities (IES).
Determine regional spatial variability.
Determine index period variability.
3.4.3 Data Collection and Analysis
Profundal samples will be collected from the deepest part of the lake using a stainless
steel, petite PONAR dredge. Samples will be sieved in the field, preserved, and transported
for laboratory analysis of the benthic invertebrate community. Sediment core samples will
be collected from the same area of each lake. The upper 1 cm of sediment and 1 cm of
sediment from the bottom of the core will be collected and preserved for laboratory analysis
of chironomid head capsules and Chaoborus mandible remains. This will be the same core
sample used for diatom assemblage analysis (see Section 3.4.2). Littoral benthic samples
will be collected along with inflow and outflow samples using a combination of sweep net,
rock picking, vegetation washing, and kick sampling. The goal is to determine the optimal
combination of sampling methods for definition of overall lake benthic assemblage
composition.
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3.5 ZOOPLANKTON
3.5.1 Overall Objectives
Develop and refine zooplankton indices based on established ecological
principles which measure lake trophic condition.
Define the concept of biological integrity using zooplankton assemblage data.
Elucidate community patterns consistent with other indices to define a metric
for this endpoint.
Develop techniques for detecting changes in zooplankton community structure
by classes of lakes and at regional scales.
Classify lake health or condition according to zooplankton community
assemblages and portray their biogeographical landscape.
3.5.2 Objectives of the Pilot
Collect, process, and analyze the pilot data set emphasizing community
differences among classes of lakes which are known to differ greatly in
anthropogenic stress factors.
Use these data and the zooplankton data subset to develop zooplankton
indicators and metrics for the three major endpoints (trophic state, biotic
integrity, and fishability).
Define objectives of regional spatial variability and index period variability.
3.5.3 Data Collection and Analysis
One vertical tow from one meter off the bottom to the surface will be collected at the
deepest part of the lake using two nets mounted on a 2-ring "bongo" harness designed to
collect a stratified sample (202 /xm and 48 /tm Nitex mesh). Two samples will be collected
simultaneously, giving unbiased macro- and microzooplankton fractions. For the pilot study,
we will evaluate what advantage, if any, quantitative counts provide over relative counts, and
this information will be used to reduce processing efforts in the future. Similarly,
zooplankton will be identified to the lowest taxonomic level possible using current keys. The
degree of taxonomic resolution needed to meet EMAP-SW goals will be assessed and
incorporated in future EMAP analyses. Reference slides for each crustacean taxon will be
made, and reference photographs and measurements taken for rotifers.
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Principal component analysis (PCA) will be done to identify the primary structure of
the data set. This analysis will provide classes of lakes defined by their zooplankton
communities. Using PCA lake groupings, the underlying species structure defining these lake
groups will be studied in more detail. At this point, preliminary indices can be derived, as
well as development of metrics for EMAP-SW applications. These metrics will eventually
be correlated and supported with other independent variables making up the EMAP-SW data
base such as fish community structure, lake trophic state, and physical and chemical habitat
quality.
3.6 FISH ASSEMBLAGE
3.6.1 Overall Objectives
Develop and measure quantifiable indices of lake ecological condition based on fish
assemblages.
Monitor the ecological condition of lakes using fish assemblage information.
Develop and measure indices of the fishability of lakes.
Monitor the fishability of lakes.
3.6.2 Objectives of the Pilot
Determine fish species presence and proportional abundance in individual lakes over a
range of natural and impacted conditions.
Provide sample materials for evaluation of fish tissue contaminants and biomarkers.
Evaluate the variability and effectiveness of five commonly used fish sampling
methods, applied at a variety of habitats and with progressive degrees of effort.
Determine optimal sampling methods for lake fish and the effort required to perform
index sampling, for use in a national scale monitoring program.
Evaluate the effectiveness of a rapid (field) zooplankton assessment for determining
the presence of a planktivorous fish assemblage.
3.6.3 Data Collection and Analysis
Fish will be collected with passive gear (overnight sets of Swedish experimental gill
nets [five mesh sizes], Indiana trap nets, minnow traps, and eel pots [in Atlantic drainage
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lakes]; and by active methods after sunset [i.e., electrofishing in littoral areas, beach seines,
and short haul seines in areas of cover]). Gear will be set and active sampling will be done
in habitat types where fish are expected and at a set of systematically selected sites.
Sampling will require two or three days at each lake, depending on lake size and complexity.
Up to five sets of each passive gear type will be placed, (up to three sites for eel pots). Five
sites will be seined and electrofished in smaller lakes (<20 ha). In larger lakes, this effort
will be doubled (with a maximum of three sites for eel pots). Fish collected will be
identified to species and size class (young-of-year, juvenile, and adult) in the field, and
examined for external gross pathology. All fish data will be recorded by the specific
gear/method used and by the location (habitat type) to assess the relative effectiveness of the
various sampling methods and collection locations. Voucher specimens will be preserved and
placed with the Harvard Museum of Zoology for taxonomic confirmation and curation.
At four small, warm-water lakes chosen over a range of expected industrial and
agricultural impacts, up to ten fish each of four species will be preserved on dry ice and
shipped for laboratory analyses of potential tissue contaminants (Section 3.9). At all four
lakes, blood, gill and liver samples will be collected from up to ten live fish (each of two
species), preserved in a liquid nitrogen freezer or dry ice, and shipped for laboratory analysis
of biomarkers (Section 3.10).
*
Optimal allocation of sampling effort is important to the efficient operation of regional
scale surveys. As sampling effort increases, the probability of error in assessment of fish
species presence/absence becomes asymptotic (EA Science and Technology, 1986). The
pilot data will be assessed both by individual gear/method and in combination to determine
an appropriate level of effort (for an acceptable level of error) for a range of lake sizes and
lake types. It is important for future lake sampling in EMAP-SW to know the minimum
effort (labor, time, and equipment) needed to get an adequate index sample of fish
assemblages.
Ordinations (Detrended Correspondence Analysis and Canonical Correspondence
Analysis) will be used to examine the species assemblage structure, identify lakes with
similar species assemblages, and assess the relationships of the species to components of the
physical environment. Although the number of lakes sampled for fish in the pilot is small,
we can begin to develop indices and metrics for EMAP-SW applications from these data,
especially from the minimally-impacted reference lakes. For example, a species richness
model based on waterbody size and type has potential as a regional-scale indicator of
ecological condition (Whittier and Rankin, 1991), and can also be used as one component of
a multimetric index.
Fish assemblage data will also be used to assess the fishability endpoint of concern.
The occurrence and size of game fish species will determine the potential for a sports
fishery. The presence of external anomalies and/or tissue contaminants will partially address
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the quality and sustainability of the fishery. It may not be possible to develop a single
fishability index because of the subjective nature of this endpoint. Initially, we will probably
report on several indices, such as the proportion of lakes with game species of catchable size,
proportion of game species with anomalies and/or consumption criteria violations due to
contaminants, and proportion of lakes requiring stocking programs to maintain a sports
fishery.
3.7 RIPARIAN BIRD ASSEMBLAGE
3.7.1 Overall Objectives
Develop an indicator that represents the riparian zone to link the aquatic ecosystem
with certain terrestrial sources of disturbance.
Test the sensitivity and cost-effectiveness of birds as indicators of ecosystem condition
relative to other indicators.
Develop an index that uses bird assemblage information to characterize lake and
riparian condition.
3.7.2 Objectives of the Pilot
Evaluate sampling methods, index period, index location, and measurement variability
at a set of twenty lakes of varying size, type, and degree of disturbance.
Determine which bird species and which guild combinations provide the best
information about ecosystem condition.
Correlate avian guild rankings of sensitive and tolerant taxa, trophic groups, wetland
dependent species, and habitat specialists with the range of conditions represented at
the sampled lakes.
3.7.3 Data Collection and Analysis
The EMAP-SW Riparian Bird survey will be conducted by cooperators from the
University of Maine. Two teams of two ornithologists each will visit the 20 lakes twice to
complete a 40-lake sample. The index sampling period is from May 30 to July 3, 1991. At
each lake, the field crew will canoe a transect, stopping every 200m to record birds seen or
heard within a five-minute period. This point-count method is appropriate for estimating bird
community composition in patchy habitats (Reynolds, et al., 1980). The field crew will also
record habitat information. The recording of sightings and habitat information will follow
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the guidelines established for Breeding Bird Survey participants by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service [USFWS] (USFWS, 1990).
The bird survey data from the twenty reference and impacted lakes will be used to
develop a preliminary index that reflects the cumulative disturbance of lakeshore habitats.
The metrics that compose the index will be derived from rankings of species trophic status,
habitat specificity, wetland dependency, etc.
3.8 SEDIMENT TOXICITY
3.8.1 Overall Objectives
Estimate the proportion of lakes that have toxic bottom sediments.
Estimate what proportion of lakes with toxic bottom sediments are toxic due to
conventional pollutants (i.e., not priority pollutants, low dissolved oxygen (DO), or
ammonia toxicity).
Estimate the proportion of lakes that have toxic bottom sediments and fish tissue
contamination.
Estimate the proportion of each trophic category that have toxic bottom sediments due
to conventional or non-conventional pollutants.
3.8.2 Objectives of the Pilot
Estimate regional spatial variability.
Evaluate acute and short-term chronic test endpoints and their relationship to fish
tissue contamination and trophic state, and conventional/non-conventional pollutants
levels (DO and ammonia levels).
Evaluate whether profundal zone sediments can be used to estimate the proportion of
lakes with toxic bottom sediments.
3.8.3 Data Collection and Analysis
Three liters of profundal sediment will be collected from the deepest part of the 32
TIME/EMAP-SW lakes using a stainless steel petite PONAR dredge sampler. In addition, 4
of the 20 indicator testing lakes will be sampled. Samples will be composited and kept on
ice until received by the testing laboratory, then refrigerated. Whole sediment samples will
be used for 7-day testing with the epibenthic amphipod Hyallela azteca. Two-day old (+ 1
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day) amphipods will be placed in test containers with 100 mis of sediment and 400 mis of
moderately hard, reconstituted water. Four replicate test chambers with 20 amphipods will
be used for each profundal sediment collected. A performance control sediment (known to
be non-toxic) will also be used for each batch of lake samples tested. Each day for six days,
overlying reconstituted water will be replaced. Prior to replacement, DO, conductance,
ammonia, temperature, and pH will be measured in the overlying water. Alkalinity and
hardness will be analyzed in the overlying water at the end of day 1, day 4, and day 7 of the
test.
At the end of seven days, amphipods will be recovered from each replicate sample,
counted, and dried at 60 °C for 24 hours. Both survival and dry weight will be used to
estimate acute or short-term chronic toxicity. On a small number of lakes, samples collected
from two littoral zones where macrobenthos have been collected will also be tested in this
manner.
Mortality and short-term growth of amphipods will be compared to the performance
control sediment and sediments taken from known near-pristine lakes (reference control
sediments). Statistical differences between performance control sediments and/or reference
control sediments will be used to evaluate between- and within-lake differences in toxicity.
Statistical difference alone will not be the determinant for toxicity. In order to address
ecological relevance, other indicators such as macrobenthos will be used to establish
ecologically significant toxic sediments.
3.9 CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS IN FISH
3.9.1 Overall Objectives
This is one of the indicators that will be used to assess the fishability endpoint.
Fishability can be described simplistically by the following three questions:
(1) Are there game fish in the system?
(2) Can I catch them?
(3) Can I eat what I catch?
By measuring the level of known toxic chemicals in the tissue of game species from
the systems of interest, we can answer the third question above.
3.9.2 Objectives of the Pilot
Due to the very small number of lakes in the 20-lake portion of the pilot likely to be
impacted by chemical contaminants, there will be no attempt to assess the spatial variability
of this indicator in the pilot. However, if some contaminated lakes are included in the study,
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and sufficient fish are collected at each of the lakes of interest, sufficient information should
be generated to meet the following objectives:
Evaluation of the effects of trophic level differences on tissue contaminant levels.
Evaluation of the effects of species differences within a trophic level on tissue
contaminant levels.
Evaluation of the effects of assaying samples of whole fish homogenates versus
filet-only homogenates on tissue contaminant levels.
3.9.3 Data Collection and Analysis
A detailed description of the data collection and analysis procedures for this indicator
is included in the EMAP-SW Laboratory Methods Manual (Klemm, in preparation). Briefly,
10 fish from each of 4 target species will be collected in 4 of the 20 research lakes. These
lakes include an unimpacted reference lake and three lakes with known or potential chemical
contamination. Target species will include two top carnivores/game species (bass and/or
bluegill and/or yellow perch), and two species of bottom feeders (brown bullhead catfish
and/or white sucker and/or common carp). Final selection of the target species will be
determined once the 20-lake set is chosen. For each of the target species, primary and
secondary size ranges will be developed to ensure selection of adult fish at or above the legal
limit for that location. Use of minimum and maximum values to define the primary size
range will help reduce variability within a composite sample.
For each set of ten fish of a given species, five fish will be gutted in the field and
frozen on dry ice, while the remaining five fish will be frozen whole. All of the fish will
then be shipped on dry ice to a laboratory for analysis. Sections of the filet portion from
each of the gutted fish will be removed from the carcass, and the five filet sections for that
species from that lake will be homogenized together to obtain a composite filet sample. The
remaining five fish for a given target species and lake will be combined and homogenized in
order to obtain a composite whole fish sample. Each composite sample will then be analyzed
for the analytes given in Table 3-2 according to protocols described in the Surface Waters
Methods Manual (Klemm, in preparation) and data compared to the maximum allowable
tissue concentrations as defined by the EPA Office of Water (Table 3-3).
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TABLE 3-2. ANALYTES TO BE MEASURED IN FISH TISSUE FOR THE 1991
EMAP-SW NORTHEAST LAKES PILOT SURVEY
Analyte (CAS* Number)
Detection Limits (ppm)
Aldrin (309-00-2)
Aluminum (7429-90-5)
Arsenic (7440-38-2)
Cadmium (7440-43-9)
Chlordane-<:i« (5103-71-9)
Chromium (7440-47-3)
Copper (7440-50-8)
2,4'-DDD (53-19-0)
4,4'-DDD (72-54-8)
2,4'-DDE (3424-82-6)
4,4'-DDE (72-55-9)
2,4'-DDT (789-02-6)
4,4'-DDT (50-29-3)
Dieldrin (60-57-1)
Endrin J72-20-8)
Heptachior (76-44-8)
Heptachlor Epoxide (1024-57-3)
Hexachlorobenzene (118-74-1)
Hexachlorocyclohexane [Gamma-BHC/Lindane] (58-89-9)
Iron (7439-89-6)
Lead (7«9-92-l)
Mercury (7439-97-6)
Mirex (2385-85-5)
Nickel (7440-02-0)
trana-Nonachlor (3765-80-5)
PCB Isomers
2,4-Dichlorobiphenyl (34883-43-7)
2,2',5-TrichIorobiphenyl (37680-65-2)
2,4,4'-Trichlorobiphenyl (7012-37-5)
2,2',5,5>-Tetrachlorobiphenyl (35693-99-3)
2,2' ,3,5 '-Tetrachlorobiphenyl
2,3',4,4'-Tetrachlorobiphenyl
2,2* ,4,5,5 '-PenUchlorobipheny I (37680-73-2)
2,3',4,4',5-PenUchlorobiphenyl (31508-00-6)
2,2',4,4',5,5'-Hexachlorobipheny 1 (35065-27-1)
2,3,3' ,4,4'-Pentachlorobiphenyl
2,2',3,4,4',5-Hexachlorobiphenyl(35065-28-2)
2,2',3,4',5,5' ,6-HepUchlorobiphenyl (52663-68-0)
2,2',3,3>,4,4'-Hexachlorobiphenyl(38380-07-3)
2,2',3,4,4' ,5,5 '-Heptachlorobiphenyl (35065-29-3)
2,2',3,3',4,4',5-HepUchlorobiphenyl(35065-30-6)
2,2',3,3',4,4',5,6-Oc(achlorobiphenyl(52663-78-2)
2,2',3,3',4,4',5,5',6-Nonachlorobiphenyl(40186-72-9)
Decachlorobiphenyl (2051-24-3)
Silica [Silicon] (7631-86-9)
Silver (7440-22-4)
Tin (7440-31-5)
Zinc (7440-66-6)
0.00025
10.0
2.0
0.2
0.00025
0.1
5.0
0.00025
0.00025
0.00025
0.00025
0.00025
0.00025
0.00025
0.00025
0.00025
0.00025
0.00025
0.00025
50.0
0.1
0.01
0.00025
0.5
0.00025
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0,001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
1.0
0.01
0.05
50.0
Chemical Abstracts Service registry number.
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TABLE 3-3. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE TISSUE CONCENTRATIONS FOR FISH
TISSUE CONTAMINANTS
Analyte (CAS Number) MATC* (ppm)
Aldrin (309-00-2) 0.00036893
Aluminum (7429-90-5)
Arsenic (7440-38-2) 0.00077
Cadmium (7440-43-9)
Chlordane-cii (5103-71-9) 0.006768
Chromium (7440-47-3)
Copper (7440-50-8)
2,4'-DDD (53-19-0)
4,4'-DDD (72-54-8) 0.0012864
2,4'-DDE (3424-82-6) 0.0012864
4,4'-DDE (72-55-9) 0.0012864
2,4'-DDT (789-02-6) 0.0012864
4.4'-DDT (50-29-3) 0.0012864
Dieldrin (60-57-1) 0.00035492
Endrin (72-20-8)
Heptachlor (76-44-8) 0.004553
Hepuchlor Epoxide (1024-57-3) 0.004176
Hexachlorobenzene (118-74-1) 0.0066304
Hexachlorocyclohexane(Gamma-BHC/Lindane] (58-89-9) 0.008125
Iron (7439-89-6)
Lead (7439-92-1)
Mercury (7439-97-6) 0.803
Mirex (2385-85-5)
Nickel (7440-02-0) 4.7
trans-Nonachlor (3765-80-5)
PCB Isomen 0.0024648*
Silica [Silicon] (7631-86-9)
Silver (7440-22-4)
Tin (7440-31-5)
Zinc (7440-66-*)
* MATC =Maximum Allowable Tissue Concentration, based on EPA Office of Water
Human Health Criteria and Bioconcentration Factors (09/09/88).
b MATC for Arochlor 1221, 1232, 1248, 1260, and 1016.
3.10 BIOMARKERS
3.10.1 Overall Objectives
Determine the percentage of lakes possessing "healthy" wildlife based on a set of
biochemical and physiological measurements that are altered by exposure to toxicants
and habitat stressors.
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3.10.2 Objectives of the Pilot
Evaluate a set of biomarkers in fish for their practicality for field use.
Establish response patterns and baselines for two to five species of fish in order to
permit interlake comparisons.
Evaluate correlations of biomarkers with other indicators including external
anomalies, analytical chemistry, toxicity tests, fish assemblages, and other indicators.
3.10.3 Data Collection and Analysis
Fish will be collected by electrofishing, traps, and seines. A total of twenty fish
composed of two species will be selected per sample. Blood will be drawn and plasma
frozen for analysis of cholinesterase, albumin, total and direct bilirubin, creatinine, total
protein, blood urea nitrogen, triglycerides, cholesterol, aspartate amino transferase, alanine
amino transferase, alkaline phosphatase, and lactate dehydrogenase. Liver will be excised
and frozen for later measurement of ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activities,
glutathione, and cytochrome C reductase. Gill tissue will be frozen for identification and
semiquantitation of a 70 K dalton stress protein.
Markers will be evaluated, individually and as a group. Discriminant analysis will be
used to characterize the lakes according to fish health in relation to toxicant levels and habitat
alteration.
3.11 PHYSICAL HABITAT QUALITY
3.11.1 Overall Objectives
Develop and measure quantitative, reproducible indices that:
a. describe biologically relevant aspects of lake morphometry, hydrology, and
shoreline characteristics;
b. can be used to classify lakes on the basis of physical habitat and monitor
change through time.
3.11.2 Objectives of the Pilot
Fix definitions and approaches for measuring indices of lake size, lake persistence,
and lake physical habitat complexity.
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Identify a minimum subset of within-lake habitat types that are necessary sampling
strata for EMAP-SW biotic response variables under current and possible future
conditions of habitat quality.
Refine the definition and methods for quantifying the extent and characteristics of the
minimum set of biologically important habitat types.
Quantify the precision of physical habitat indicator measurements (i.e., lake size and
persistence, physical habitat complexity, and extent of habitat types within lakes).
3.11.3 Data Collection and Analysis
Data collection activities for describing and quantifying lake physical habitat will
involve both map/photo examination and field data collection. Measurements are organized
into three categories leading to indices of: (1) lake size and persistence; (2) lake habitat
complexity; and (3) shoreline characteristics. Field, map, and aerial photo data will
contribute to all three of these major indices (Table 3-4). Field data will be obtained by
crews in boats making observations at systematically spaced near-shore locations around the
lake. Data will be both quantitative (e.g., bathymetry and position-location) and
semiquantitative (e.g., ranking of habitat types, aerial estimates of aquatic macrophyte cover,
and determination of presence-absence of habitat features). Observers will rank shoreline
vegetation and substrate types and will identify the presence of fish cover and evidence of
human influences. They will also describe bank steepness and apparent lake level changes,
and will estimate aquatic macrophyte coverage in the littoral areas.
In the 20-lake indicator testing study, the lake shoreline/littoral habitat and lake
bathymetry surveys will both be undertaken. Replicate measurements of shoreline/littoral
habitat by separate crews in the 20-lake study will allow a comparison of field measurement
variability with the range of physical habitat differences encountered across gradients of
anthropogenic impact.
Systematic shoreline/littoral observations at very dense site spacings in 4 to 7 of the
20 indicator testing lakes will allow estimates of variation in measurements that result from
spatial placement of the shoreline observation points. Interpretation of the sources of
variation in these physical habitat surveys will allow a refinement of the systematic
procedures and, if necessary, an adjustment of sampling effort necessary in the rapid
assessments.
In addition to conducting traditional sonar surveys in the 20-lake indicator
development lakes, crews will attempt to develop rapid sonar survey procedures for obtaining
bathymetric information sufficient for estimating littoral dominance, calculating lake and
littoral volume, and locating sites for fish and macroinvertebrate sampling. Bathymetric
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TABLE 3-4. LAKE PHYSICAL HABITAT INDICES TO BE TESTED FOR EMAP-SW
Variable Protocol
Lake Size and Persistence Index Component!
Lake Surface Area Determined by planimetry on l:24,000-scale m»pt. Where available, mapped lake areai will be
compared with those measured from recent aerial photographs.
Maximum Lake Depth Measured in field by crew judgement of deepest location. Compare results with those from
ba thy metric map and/or sonar survey.
Lake Level Fluctuation Measure and calculate percent changes in lake maximum depth and lake surface area from field
shoreline surveys. Field crews estimate typical annual depth variation by examining shoreline
vegetation and watermarks to determine (using rod and clinometer) the "typical* annual
difference between high and low water levels. Useful non-dimensional ratio is [annual depth
difference]/[maximum depth]. For percentage change in lake area, field crews examine
shoreline vegetation and watermarks in several locations to estimate and then roughly map the
'typical" annual difference between shoreline location at low and high water assumes late
summer sample time is a good surrogate for the lowest water level; this is not perfect for all
regions.
Lake Residence Time Tr = [Est. volume)/[Runoff * Topographic watershed area], where volume is estimated from
bathymetric maps or known documents, runoff is from runoff maps, and topographic watershed
area is determined by planimetry from boundaries drawn on 1:24,000 scale U .S. Geological
Service (USGS) maps.
Lake Habitat Complexity Index Components
Littoral Dominance Indices under consideration are the percentages of the lake area with aquatic macrophyte beds,
the percentage with depth less than some named value (e.g., 3 m), or the percentage with depth
less than the measured Seechi depth.
Bottom Habitat Complexity We propose that field crews criss-cross each lake with 5 to 7 transects recording depth with a
recording analog sonar "fish finder.* A balhymetric map is constructed from this data using a
contouring program. The coefficient of lake depth variation from a "smooth" bottom curve
along a transect of lake depth will be used to obtain an additional index of lake bottom
complexity.
Shoreline Complexity Shoreline development (DL) will be indexed as: DL = L/[2(_A)0.5])wherc L is mapped
shoreline length from planimetry, and A is the lake surface area. DL relates the deviation of the
lake shoreline from a perfect circle. An alternate index under development is measured by
evaluating characteristic sizes of shoreline indentations over a range of spatial scales by
examining aerial photographs and field data with "box filling" algorithms (Loehle, in press).
This approach calculates the change in the fractal dimension of lake shoreline length with
increasing spatial scale (from meters to kilometers).
Lake Shoreline Characterization
Shoreline Littoral Habitat Shoreline/littoral habitat frequency and distribution of shoreline fish concealment, littoral
substrate size, emergent, submergent and floating macrophytes, based on systematic field
observations.
Near Shore Habitat Percent and distribution of near-shore terrestrial/wetland habitat in various habitat classes based
on systematic field observations supplemented by maps and aerial photos. Potential classes
include: urban, industrial, forest, shrub, grassland, row crops, barren, wetland.
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descriptions from these rapid procedures will be compared with more time-intensive
traditional methods to evaluate whether or not detailed bathymetry is needed for full-scale
EMAP-SW implementation.
3.12 CHEMICAL HABITAT QUALITY
3.12.1 Overall Objectives
Develop and measure quantifiable, reproducible indices that describe the chemical
characteristics of lakes that influence biota.
Monitor the change in acid-base status in acid-sensitive regions of the U.S. (EMAP-
TIME).
3.12.2 Objectives of the Pilot
Collect first year of data for evaluating trends in acid-base status as mandated in the
revised Clean Air Act.
Develop classification of lakewater chemical types.
Assess the within index period variability in chemical habitat indicators.
Assess regional within index period variability.
Assess regional spatial variability.
3.12.3 Data Collection and Analysis
Water samples for lake characterization will be collected from a depth of 1.5 m at the
deepest point in the lake. Variables to be measured are presented in Table 3-2 and analytical
protocols are discussed in the laboratory methods manual (Klemm, in preparation). Specific
analytical methodologies for almost all of these variables will be taken from the Aquatic
Effects Research Program (AERP) laboratory methods handbook (U.S. EPA, 1987). A
subset (one-third to one-half) of the pilot lakes will be analyzed at two different times during
the pilot survey index period to assess within index period chemical variability. Existing
data bases will be used to evaluate between-season variability. Field replicate samples and
natural performance evaluation samples will also be analyzed to quantify the sampling
precision, accuracy, and bias.
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TABLE 3-5. CHEMICAL HABITAT MEASUREMENT VARIABLES
Temperature Dissolved oxygen (DO)
Transparency Conductivity
Total suspended solids (unfiltered) Ash-free suspended solids (unfiltered)
pH (field) pH (closed)
pH (equilibrated) Acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) - Gran
Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIG) - air Dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
equilibrated)
Na K, Mg, Ca
S04 NO3
Cl Total nitrogen (unfiltered)
NIL, Total phosphorus (unfiltered)
Soluble-reactive phosphorus (filtered) Aluminum (total monomeric) - closed headspace*
Aluminum (inorganic monomeric) Mn
- closed headspace* Fe
Only for EMAP-TIME regions.
3.13 LANDSCAPE STRESSOR INDICATORS
3.13.1 Overall Objectives
Estimate correlations between ecosystem condition and the landscape stressor(s) which
may be affecting it.
Quantify or apportion the adverse impacts from multiple sources.
3.13.2 Objectives of the Pilot
Create metrics/indices (or modify existing ones) that reflect a range of conditions
from various stressor impacts (i.e., fish stocking, agriculture, silviculture,
wastewater, or toxic influence).
Test ways of filtering and manipulating large amounts of characterization data to
produce a quick and flexible approach for obtaining these metrics/indices.
Develop methods to extrapolate site-specific information into a regional assessment of
lake conditions and stressors.
Map the distribution of relative impacts from various stressors.
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Develop a preliminary model for predicting lake response from landscape variables.
3.13.3 Data Collection and Analysis
Data collection will occur before and during the field season. Available data bases,
maps, reports, and remotely sensed information will be used to establish the stressors at the
20 indicator evaluation sites plus the 32 randomly selected lakes that have repeat visits. Only
these 52 lakes will be characterized because of the large volume of data expected and the
time required to resolve issues of data quality, quantity, and completeness among the data
sources.
Land use and point/nonpoint source data are available through the USGS, the Soil
Conservation Service (SCS), Census Bureau, Industrial Facility Discharge File (IFD), and
various state agencies. Some "ground truthing" may be needed to check the accuracy of
these sources. All data will be entered into a Geographic Information System (GIS).
Stressor index development will be an iterative process using spatial and statistical
analyses. GIS techniques are needed to classify and display spatial distributions of stressors
and evaluate the importance of their proximity to the lakeshore. An ordinal ranking of sites
based on the proportions or intensities of major stressors (agriculture, urban/industrial
developments) within each watershed could comprise an initial metric. Predictions of
relative responses based on stressor data will be compared to the available field response
information.
Some statistical analyses must be performed after the field data are analyzed and
interpreted. Exploratory techniques may include bivariate plots, cluster analysis, or
detrended correspondence analysis.
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SECTION 4
DESIGN
4.1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
One of the design objectives for the FY91 Northeast Lakes Pilot is to select a set of
lakes from the EMAP-SW grid for pilot field activities. The selection of these lakes must be
in concordance with the criteria established for the EMAP probability sampling design
(Overton et al., 1990). Analysis of indicators from these lakes will ultimately allow us to
evaluate the effectiveness of the baseline grid probability sample design to adequately capture
and characterize the diversity of lake resources.
A second design objective is to select approximately 20 to 30 special purpose lakes.
These lakes will serve as reference sites and sites of known or estimated impact, chosen in
consultation with state and local experts. This combination of sites will be used to help
calibrate the sensitivity of the proposed indicators and to evaluate various sampling
techniques.
4.2 SELECTION OF GRID LAKES
The general requirements for the overall EMAP monitoring design are that samples
should be selected with known probability so that uncertainty in the descriptions of the
condition of ecosystems can be calculated. A second requirement is that sampling be spatially
representative so that the population descriptions reflect the spatial distribution of the
resources of interest. The systematic triangular grid establishes the general framework by
which these requirements are met. The search areas specified by the 40 km2 hexagons
centered around each grid point assure spatial representation in the selection of lakes at the
first stage (Tier 1 sample) of the lake selection process. Only a subset of this Tier 1 sample
of lakes will be visited in the field to make measurements on the condition of lakes (Tier 2
sample). This section describes the steps for the selection of the Tier 1 and Tier 2 samples
for the 1991 Northeast Lakes Pilot Survey.
NOTE: In the following sections, unless otherwise noted, the base grid density (a
triangular array of approximately 12,600 points fixed across the conterminous United States)
will be assumed, and "hexagon" will refer to the 40 km2 hexagon surrounding each grid
point. In accordance with the basic design principles established for EMAP, two
fundamental criteria guide lake selection whenever the grid is used. One is that samples are
to be selected using probability methods. The second is that the sample maintains spatial
representativeness. For lakes, spatial representation means that sample selection reflects the
spatial distribution of the population of lakes: where lake density is high, sampling intensity
should also be high, and where lake density is lower, sampling intensity should be lower.
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Exceptions may occur where it is desirable to focus on selected subpopulations; however,
even within areas where these subpopulations can be defined, spatial representation remains
an important criterion.
4.2.1 Frame and Tier 1 Sample Selection
The hydrographic layer carried in the USGS produced l:100,000-scale Digital Line
Graph files (DLGs) is used as the frame, representing the population of lakes for the
Northeast pilot. These digital files contain the spatial distribution of lakes, including sizes <
1 hectare (ha) as represented on the USGS l:100,000-scale map series. Our target
population consists of lakes in the size class between 1 and 2,000 ha. We used a GIS
procedure to extract lakes from these files to produce an inventory for EPA regions 1 and 2
(see Selle, et al., 1991 for details of procedure). Because lake surface area is part of the
file, the inventory can be used to create size distributions, to select subpopulations based on
size, and to create maps of the distribution of lakes.
The spatial intersection of the grid of 40 km2 hexagons with the inventory of lakes
(each lake uniquely represented as a point) selects the Tier 1 sample of lakes. Random
placement of the grid for all resource groups meets the first design criterion (probability
based sample selection). The Tier 1 sample contains all lakes between 1 and 2,000 ha whose
representative point fell inside a hexagon. Selection of lakes within hexagons associated with
the grid points meets the second criterion (spatial representativeness). The Tier 1 sample for
the Northeast consists of approximately 1,200 lakes, whose size distribution is plotted with
the inventory distribution for comparison in Figure 4-1.
In accordance with the interpenetrating nature of the EMAP probability design, one
fourth of the Tier 1 sample is considered for field sampling each year. This set of lakes,
termed the Tier 1 Year 1 sample (T1Y1) for the l"991 pilot, contains slightly over 300 lakes
(Table 4-1).
4.2.2 Identifying Non-Target Lakes
The lake frame will not be completely accurate due to a combination of mapping
errors and changes in the landscape since the time the maps were compiled (some lakes and
reservoirs have been drained; others created). It will be necessary to evaluate the changes
that have occurred since publication of the maps and to estimate these errors. Those
waterbodies identified in the frame as lakes but which in reality do not meet the EMAP-SW
definition of a lake are considered non-target lakes.
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LAKESIZE ALL, LOG10
Frame
Tier 1 Sample
234
LOG10 U\KE SIZE HECT.
Figure 4-1. Cumulative size distribution for lakes in the Northeast. The insert
is a histogram of the size distribution with areas < 50 ha.
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TABLE 4-1. NUMBER OF LAKES AND TOTAL AREA PER SIZE STRATA FOR THE
NORTHEAST LAKES FRAME, TIER 1 AND TIER 2 SAMPLES.*
Size Class
(Area)
1 -5
5 -20
20-500
500-2000
Frame
Number
10,791
5,969
3,444
174
Lakes
Area
22,292
59,207
276,523
162,558
Tier 1
Number
662
371
197
9
Lakes
Area
1,632
3,651
16,620
7,521
Number
16
20
24
4"
Tier 2
Area
38
190
1,741
2,451"
Lakes
Inclusion Probability
1.95x10'
3.91x10-'
7.42X10'3
15.63x10-'
(All size and area measures are in hectares. Inclusion probability per strata reported for Tier 2 pilot
sample.)
One Tier 2 lake included in this stratum was subsequently found to be under 500 ha.
We evaluated the T1Y1 sample for non-target lakes by examining larger scale maps
(7.5-minute topographic and larger scale county maps) and via discussions with local experts.
Four categories of non-target lakes were identified in the Northeast: (1) cranberry bog
reservoirs; (2) waterbodies identified as portions of larger lakes; (3) wide spots on rivers;
and (4) miscellaneous errors. Approximately 15 percent of the T1Y1 sample was considered
non-target, with most lakes (45 out of 48) being less than 20 ha in surface area. Identified
non-target lakes in the T1Y1 sample were excluded before the Tier 2 selection.
Identifying lakes not represented in the frame will be more difficult and has not been
planned as part of the pilot activity. Some methods considered for identifying lakes not
represented in the frame include using remote aerial imagery/photography and relying on
local experts to provide detailed area knowledge. Both, either in conjunction or separately,
can be compared to the lake frame. Our initial sense is that the frame overrepresents the
target population in the Northeast, and that there are more non-target lakes than lakes that
are missing.
4.2.3 Stratification Strategies
Some discussion has centered on the desirability of stratifying lakes by subpopulations
as part of the Tier 1 activity. Part of the discussion was whether a lake classification (other
than that based on size) ought to be developed a priori to stratify the Tier 1 sample. Because
of the variety of overlapping classifications, it was decided that classification would be best
performed as part of the evaluation of results; the lakes can be classified on the basis of the
Tier 2 sample and the data summarized according to various subpopulations. After
evaluation of the pilot results, we may discover compelling reasons to stratify at Tier 1 in the
future.
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A second part of the discussion was whether to stratify lakes on the basis of surface
area. A non-stratified random sample would select lakes in proportion to their abundance;
most of the sampling effort would occur on the smaller lakes. An attractive approach was to
allocate equal numbers of samples along a logarithmic or square root transformation of
surface area to select more large lakes than would have been selected otherwise. However,
allocating samples along a continuous scale requires using variable inclusion probabilities,
substantially complicating variance estimation (Overton, personal communication). The issue
of whether the advantages of using variable inclusion probabilities outweigh the
disadvantages of complicated variance estimation has not been resolved.
In the absence of that resolution, a conservative approach of stratifying on lake area
was chosen. An iterative process that varied size classes as strata and sample sizes among
strata was used to select samples roughly equally among logarithmic classes, approximating
what would have been achieved by using logarithmic or square root transformations. Size
classes chosen are: 1 to 5 ha; 5 to 20 ha; 20 to 500 ha; and 500 to 2,000 ha. Table 4-1
summarizes the numbers of lakes in each size class, the stratum inclusion probability, and the
Tier 2 sample size.
4.3 TIER 2 SAMPLE SELECTION
The basic design requirements were followed for the selection of lakes for field
sampling during the 1991 index period. Because the actual number of these Tier 2 lakes is
under continual modification as cost estimates are supplied and refined, we selected 120 Tier
2 lakes with the understanding that we would likely visit no more than 60 of these during the
first year of the pilot. We also recognized that it may be necessary to reduce the number of
visited lakes further.
The selection of the 120 Tier 2 lakes reflects an iterative process that included several
elements:
1. A portion of the sample should be drawn from the grid to initiate EMAP
activities; sufficient information is available on some indicators such that
EMAP can be implemented for these indicators in the pilot (e.g., water
chemistry). To make reasonable statements about condition after the first
year, a sample size of about 50 is necessary.
2. There is a need to select a set of lakes subjectively (as opposed to a probability
based selection) to assure that there are 20 to 30 lakes that represent both ends
of an impairment spectrum (heavily impacted to minimally impacted), or as
reference sites of good condition to calibrate sensitivity of indicators.
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3. It is necessary to sample a subset of lakes at least twice during the index
period to estimate index period variability. It is desirable to sample 20 to 30
lakes during the pilot to estimate this component of variation; in subsequent
years it may not be necessary to devote this much sampling effort to estimating
index variation.
4. It should be feasible to collect and use some information for purposes of
subpopulation development on all Tier 2 lakes, regardless of whether they are
field visited or not.
Selecting 120 as a target size for the Tier 2 sample has advantages in that the sample
size can be reduced easily in a random way and still meet the criteria for Tier 2 sample
selection. For the pilot, the sample is split in half (and added the four largest lakes from the
unselected half) to produce the 64 Tier 2 lakes that will be visited in the field. As funding
becomes clearer for each sampling year, the number of field visits can be adjusted to a
maximum without violating the selection criteria.
4.3.1 Maintaining Spatial Distribution in the Tier 2 Sample
The selection of the Tier 2 sample from the Tier 1 set of lakes was done both to meet
the need for a probability sample and to represent the spatial distribution of lakes.
Conceptually, the selection process starts by dividing the region of interest into smaller
compact clusters, then randomly selecting lakes within each cluster. Cluster size reflects the
ratio of the Tier 1 to Tier 2 sample size. Delineating the clusters and selecting lakes within
each cluster randomly assures the desirable spatial distribution.
Since the primary function of the delineation of the clusters is to distribute the
sampling effort in proportion to the spatial distribution of lakes, the actual dimensions and
boundaries need not be precise and are somewhat arbitrarily drawn. However, compactness
is a desirable feature; long, thin clusters are undesirable. Also, it is desirable that at least
one lake per cluster be selected, but the purpose of defining the clusters is somewhat
defeated if more than two or three lakes are selected within each. Thus, the target cluster
size is such that two lakes would be selected in each. A final goal was to delineate the
clusters in concordance with important geographic features such as physiography or land
surface form. Figure 4-2 shows the clusters delineated for the Northeast pilot.
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Cluster! Used for Tier 2 Site Selection
in EPA Reqioni 1 ond 2
.
0
G>
0
Year
Ye fl r
Y e o r
Year
1
2
3
4
Figure 4-2. Clusters delineated for the EMAP-SW Northeast Lakes Pilot Survey.
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4.3.2 Drawing the Tier 2 Sample
The actual selection process included the following steps:
1. Assignment of a weight equal to the square root of the lake surface area to
each target Tier 1 lake.
2. Calculation of the total weight to be represented by each cluster as: (2* (total
weight in Northeast)/Tier 2 sample size). As noted above, a sample size of
120 was used. Total weight in the Northeast was the sum of the individual
weights (calculated as square root of lake surface area) for all Tier 1 lakes.
3. Delineation of the clusters with the above criteria in mind and keeping cluster
size as consistent as possible for each year of the four-year cycle. A single
cluster represents lakes from all four years; the weight within and among
clusters must be approximately equal among years (see Figure 4-2).
4. Selection of the Tier 2 lakes by establishing an array within which random
assignment of clusters, then hexagons within clusters, then lakes within
hexagons occurred.
5. Within this array, each lake was assigned an arbitrary length proportional to its
inclusion probability. Thus lakes > 500 ha (with inclusion probability = 1 )
have an array length four times that of lakes < 5 ha (with inclusion
probability = 0.25).
6. With a random start, move a pointer with an array length of one down the
array. The lake identified at each step is selected as a Tier 2 lake.
This procedure was used to select 120 sites for the Tier 2 sample, with four size
strata. The sample was then randomly split to produce a sample of 60. Four large lakes
were added to produce the final set of 64 lakes proposed for field sampling. Table 4-1
summarizes the lakes chosen in each size class, inclusion probabilities, and other related
information.
4.4 INDICATOR EVALUATION STUDY
For a variety of reasons, several indicators were deemed not ready for a
demonstration study of their variability among the EMAP grid sites (see Section 3). The
major concern centered around fish sampling methods and necessary level of effort. Also of
concern was the evaluation of the set of candidate biological indicators for their sensitivity,
redundancy, cost, responsiveness, and interpretability. It was estimated that one fish crew
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could sample approximately 20 lakes in the 10-week index period; this determined the
number of lakes in the indicator pilot. Because sampling methods, effort, and lake condition
are largely determined by size, type, complexity, and level of disturbance, it was decided
that it was wisest to select 20 lakes rather than draw them from the grid.
The design we selected was based on the variables that best discriminated among
several of the indicators. Chemistry (Herlihy, et al., 1991; Landers, et al., 1987), diatoms
(Sushil Dixit, personal communication), zooplankton (Richard Stemberger, personal
communication), and fish (Cusimano, et al., 1990; Schmidt, 1986; Underbill, 1986) data
bases and data summaries were examined and it was concluded that the major gradients were
warm-cold, small-large, and reference-impacted. Information on lakes along these gradients
were obtained by consulting existing maps, 305b reports, data bases, and state agencies. We
first located a set of approximately 150 candidate lakes and then apportioned them as
follows:
(1) WARM, LARGE (> 100 ha)-Five lakes in this class arrayed over a gradient of
increasing human residential influence from near pristine to an urban, non-industrial
setting.
(2) WARM, SMALL (1-20 ha)-Six lakes arrayed over a gradient of agricultural
influences and one influenced by toxins, from near pristine to heavily agricultural to
urban/industrial.
(3) COLD, LARGE-Five lakes, from relatively pristine to extensively and recently clear
cut, especially near the lake.
(4) COLD, SMALL-Four lakes, with little disturbance other than the intensity and
timing of fish stocking.
In selecting the lakes we also attempted to cluster them or choose those that were
fairly accessible to reduce travel time and maximize sampling time.
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SECTION 5
FIELD OPERATIONS
5.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Field activities for EMAP-SW will begin in July, 1991 with the lake pilot program in
the Northeast. The field operations described here and associated support activities are based
on experience gained during the National Surface Water Survey (NSWS) lake chemistry
surveys (Morris et al., 1986; Bonoff and Groeger, 1987) and the Biologically Relevant
Chemistry (BRC) Survey (Cusimano et al., 1990). The parameters in Table 2-1 (taken from
Paulsen, et al., 1991) and the following design characteristics were used for planning and
developing the logistics for the Northeast Lakes Pilot.
(1) The index period will be July, August, and early September; a sampling
window of approximately ten weeks.
(2) The number of sites sampled will be approximately 64 EMAP-SW grid lakes,
28 TIME lakes, and 32 revisits of EMAP-SW grid lakes. In addition, 20
indicator evaluation sites will be hand selected.
(3) Site selection of EMAP-SW grid and TIME lakes is completely random and
does not consider site access.
(4) Lakes range in size from 1 to 2,000 ha.
(5) Small, motorized boats (Zodiacs) will be the primary sampling platform.
(6) Four-wheel drive vehicles will be used for site access and each sampling team
will have a second vehicle (e.g., small U-Haul truck) for logistics support.
(7) Field mobile laboratories will not be used, and there will be a minimum of
sample preparation in the field.
(8) Samples requiring immediate laboratory analyses will be shipped to the
appropriate laboratory by overnight courier.
(9) A field crew will consist of two people for the teams sampling the EMAP-SW
grid lakes, and five to eight people for crews sampling the indicator evaluation
sites. Efforts at the 20 indicator evaluation sites will be divided among the 5-
person fish crew and the 2-person invertebrate crew (Table 5-1).
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Based on these requirements, a field crew for the EMAP-SW grid and TIME lakes
will be able to sample 1 lake per day, while the indicator evaluation sites will require 2 or
more days to sample, depending on the data collection planned. The large indicator
evaluation lakes (7,100 ha) will require 3 or more days to sample. Larger lakes (greater
than 20 ha) and lakes with difficult access will require additional time and/or staff. A key
issue to be addressed in the Northeast Lakes Pilot is what indicators can be adequately
characterized given a maximum 2-day sampling period. Invertebrate indicator evaluation at
the 20 lakes will be performed by an independent two-person crew and should require one
day per lake. A total of 3 field crews will be required to sample all EMAP-SW grid and
TIME lakes within the index period. The 20 indicator evaluation lakes will be sampled for
all parameters planned for the grid and TIME lakes. The 20 indicator lakes will be used to
evaluate the utility of various collection techniques for fish assemblages, fish biomarkers,
fish tissue contamination, physical habitat evaluation, and whole lake macrobenthic
communities. Table 5-1 provides a schedule for sampling grid and TIME lakes by state, and
Table 5-2 provides the division of duties for the fish and invertebrate crews.
TABLE 5-1. DUTIES TO BE DIVIDED BETWEEN THE FISH CREW AND THE
INVERTEBRATE CREW
Fish Crew Invertebrate Crew
Fish Assemblage Invertebrate Assemblage
Biomarkers Diatoms
Anomalies Sediment Toxicity
Tissue Chemistry Zooplankton
Nutrient Chemistry Habitat
Trophic State
Habitat
Bathymetry
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TABLE 5-2. PLANNED SCHEDULE FOR VISITS TO EMAP GRID AND TIME LAKES
BY STATE
State Number of Lakes Dates for Sampling
First Sampling Round
Maine 16 July 8-16
New Hampshire/Vermont 12 July 16-August 23
CT/RI/MA 15 July 23-29
New York 44 July 29-August 19
New Jersey 5 August 19-27
Second Sampling Round
Maine 10 August 27-September 3
New Jersey/New York 13 September 3-13
CT/RI/MA 6 September 13-16
New Hampshire/Vermont 3 September 16-17
5.2 PROBABILITY LAKE SITE ACTIVITIES
The three two-member field crews will be housed at a motel within 50 miles of the
sampling sites. Activities will start each morning by calibrating the instruments and ensuring
that all necessary equipment and supplies are loaded into the vehicles (via an equipment
checklist). The crews will then depart for the lake.
An additional crew member (field coordinator) will remain at the motel base site; this
individual will provide logistics support (picking up equipment and supplies, shipping and
tracking samples, transmitting data, contacting landowners, etc.) and will provide a
communications link with program management. The field coordinator also serves as a
backup sampler.
Figure 5-la and 5-lb and the following discussion summarize daily activities for the
EMAP-TIME sampling crews as detailed in the Field Operations and Training Manual
(Tallent-Halsell and Merritt, in preparation).
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Predeployment
activities
Crews depart
| Arrive at site
Verify site
* local confirmation
* signs
* topo maps
GPS- If available
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[ Launch boat |
Find Index site
(deepest point)
anchor boat
Seech I depth transparency
YSI temp./DO/cond.
at regular Intervals
Van Dorn samples
4 syringes
1 4L Cubitainer
Chlorophyll a
filter
Zooplanklon vertical tow
Return to shore
Fix zooplanklon samples
Unload used equipment
Store In truck
Load unused equipment
Return to index point on lake
JL
Sediment core slices for
Invertebrates and diatoms
Sediment toxicity samples
Profundal benthte collection
using Petite Ponar dredge
Return to shore
Load boat onto trailer
Secure equipment
Return to base site
Arrive at base site
Unload samples
J_
Clean equipment
Refuel trucks & boats
Resupply for next day's
sampling
Daily Debriefing:
Field Coordinator briefs on next
day's activities
Crews discuss problems or
observations
Figure 5-la. Flow chart of daily activities at EMAP grid and TIME sites.
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FAX dally Itinerary
to
Communications Center
telephone to confirm receipt by
Communications Center
Research next day's
sampling sites
Contact gate keepers
Check weather conditions
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1
Ship previous day's samples
Pick up supplies and equipment
at
Federal Express
Make purchases and repairs
Including : dry ice
consumables
Relocate to new base site
(if applicable)
Prelabel sampling
containers
for next day
1
Prepare for next day's
sampling
Prepare weekly reports for
managers
Check in samples upon
arrival of
crews
Data forms checked
and FAX'd to
LV Communications
Center
Daily Debriefing:
Field Coordinator briefs next
. day's activities
Crews discuss problems or
observations
Figure 5-lb. Flow chart of daily activities at EMAP grid and TIME sites.
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On arrival at the lake, the field crew will verify that they are at the appropriate lake.
Lake verification will be based on landscape features and topographic maps, and/or GPS
information, if coverage is available at that time. An inventory of all equipment and supplies
will be performed, the water sampling and zooplankton collection equipment will be loaded
into the boat, and the boat will be launched.
The boat crew will first conduct a survey to determine the deepest part of the lake
using sonar. This activity is followed by anchoring at the index site (the deepest part of the
lake) and collecting water chemistry samples, chlorophyll a, Secchi disc transparency, DO
and temperature profiles, and zooplankton samples. All samples are preserved (when
appropriate), labeled, and packed for return to the base site, and the boat is returned to
shore. The boat is then re-outfitted for collection of sediment samples. Profundal benthic
invertebrates will be collected using a petite PONAR dredge; sediment core slices from the
surface and bottom of benthic core samples, and sediment for toxicity tests (PONAR) are
collected at the index site. All samples are checked for completeness against a checklist and
then packed for return to the base site.
At the motel, the field coordinator will debrief the sampling crews and check the data
forms, sample labels, and the condition of the samples. Selected data forms will be
transmitted via facsimile to the Las Vegas Communications Center for data entry after they
have been reviewed by the field coordinator. The sampling crews and the field coordinator
will clean and prepare equipment and supplies for the next day.
Water chemistry and chl a samples will be shipped to the analytical laboratory the
following morning, while sediment toxicity samples may be held for shipment for up to one
week. The preserved benthic invertebrate, zooplankton, and sediment diatom samples will
be stored for later shipment. Table 5-3 summarizes the number of samples and
measurements to be taken at EMAP-SW grid and TIME lakes.
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TABLE 5-3. NUMBER AND TYPE OF SAMPLES TO BE COLLECTED AT EACH
EMAP-SW GRID AND TIME SITE
Indicator Number Type of Container
Zooplankton 1 125-milliter Nalgene
Sediment Core 1 top, 1 bottom 2 1-quart Ziplocs
Sediment Toxicity 1 3-L sample 2 1-gallon Ziplocs
Ponar Dredge 3 500-milliter Nalgene
Water Chemistry 1 4-liter Cubitainer
Water Chemistry 4 60-milliter syringe
Chlorophyll a 1 OFF filter in foil
On the next day, the field crews will travel to a new set of lakes and the field
coordinator will move to a new motel base site, if a move is logistically necessary. The field
coordinator will FAX data and forms to the Communications Center each day, will take the
samples to the overnight courier, and pick up additional supplies and equipment. The
specific location of the courier will be predetermined during reconnaissance and verified
through daily communications with program management.
5.3 INDICATOR EVALUATION LAKE SITE ACTIVITIES
The 20 lakes will be sampled by four different crews. Two bird crews (via a
cooperative agreement with the University of Maine) will sample all 20 lakes twice in June.
A macroinvertebrate crew will collect benthic organisms, sediments, zooplankton, and
physical habitat data. The fish crew will take fish, biomarker, tissue residue, nutrient
chemistry, and physical habitat samples.
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TABLE 5-4. SAMPLES COLLECTED AT THE 20 INDICATOR EVALUATION LAKES
Sample Type
No. Lakes Treatment
Fish Assemblage 20
Liver, Gill, Blood 4
Anomalies 20
Tissue Chemistry 4
Invertebrate Assemblage 20
Diatoms 20
Zooplankton 20
Nutrient Chemistry 20
Chlorophyll a 20
Sediment Toxicity 20
Physical Habitat 20
Tally
Foil in Nitrogen-Dry Shippers, dry ice
Tally
Foil; 5 whole, 5 filet, dry ice
500-mL Nalgene, formalin
4°C, Ziplocs
CO2, formalin, 125-mL wide-mouth Nalgene
125 mL Nalgene, H2SO4
Dry ice, foil, Ziplocs
4°C, Ziplocs
2 Field sheets per crew
Birds and their habitats will be sampled in early morning by observations at 10 to 20
(depending on lake size and complexity) transect points along the lake shore.
Communications and data entry and storage will be coordinated by the University of Maine.
The benthos crew will first sample physical habitat to determine major habitat types and sites
in which to sample benthos. Nearshore sampling will be followed by sediment coring and
sediment dredging for profundal benthos and sediment toxicity tests.
The fish crew will also sample physical habitat to determine fish collection sites for
the various types of gear. Passive gear will be set overnight and active fish sampling will
occur at night. The following day, fish tissue and biomarker samples will be taken and
preserved. Before leaving the lake, water quality and zooplankton will be sampled and
preserved.
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SECTION 6
QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAM
For the Northeast Lakes Pilot Survey and TIME project, quality assurance and quality
control (QA/QC) are an integral part of all activities associated with the collection,
measurement, and management of environmental data and information. The major purpose
of a formalized QA program is to ensure data are of adequate quality to provide information
which can be used with confidence to satisfy the research objectives of the project. For the
pilot study, information is required to determine the adequacy of the proposed probability-
based sampling design. Information is also required to evaluate the feasibility of several
different types of ecological indicators being considered for use in large-scale monitoring
efforts of lakes. For the TIME project, the research objectives relate primarily to
determining the status and subsequent regional trends in lake chemistry relative to
acidification.
Major objectives of the QA program developed for the Northeast Lakes Pilot Survey
and TIME project are:
Implementing appropriate QC and quality assessment measures for each
ecological indicator, providing measurement data of known quality to
adequately satisfy the research objectives for that indicator.
Obtaining estimates of various sources of error (sampling and measurement)
associated with the sampling design and with individual ecological indicators.
This information is required to develop appropriate data quality requirements for subsequent
studies, considering the quality required for data interpretation and limitations to quality
posed by available methodologies. For individual indicators, the allocation of QA/QC efforts
can be optimized based on this information. Finally, the sampling design can be refined for
future efforts with this information, in terms of the required number of lakes, and the
temporal and spatial allocation of sampling effort.
6.1 DATA QUALITY REQUIREMENTS
Data quality requirements necessary to provide information that can be used with
confidence to satisfy the research objectives of the pilot study are established for five
different elements (following Smith, et al., 1988). Precision and bias requirements relate to
the tolerable amount of random and systematic errors, respectively. Precision and bias are
determined through the use of replicate sampling and analysis, use of PE samples of known
composition, and, in the case of taxonomic identification, through confirmatory
identifications by independent experts. Completeness requirements stipulate the minimum
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amount of valid data necessary to confidently interpret the information relative to the
research objectives. A minimum number of lakes must be sampled to provide population
estimates which have acceptable confidence limits. For the indicator evaluation study, data
must be collected from a variety of lake types and disturbance regimes to properly evaluate
the sensitivity of a particular ecological indicator. Comparability requirements establish the
criteria that allow information collected by different sampling teams and measured by
different laboratories to be confidently combined before interpretation. Consistent use of
standard procedures for data acquisition and subsequent reporting are used to ensure
comparability in data and information generated during the pilot survey. Documentation of
methods, precision and bias, and other pertinent information are required to determine
comparability of the pilot survey data with other data sets. Requirements for
representativeness are established to ensure that the information and interpretative
conclusions that result from a study provide accurate inferences to the true state of nature.
The first requirement for representativeness is a sampling design to provide statistically
unbiased (and thus representative) population estimates. Criteria are also established for
obtaining ecological data from lakes which are characteristic of conditions during the
specified index period. In some cases (e.g., water chemistry), a single sample is sufficient;
in others (e.g., fish assemblages), several different locations on an individual lake must be
visited to obtain a single sample that adequately characterizes the extant assemblage
composition and relative abundance.
6.2 MAJOR ELEMENTS OF THE QA/QC PROGRAM
Major elements of the QA program are presented in Table 6-1, and are generally
applicable to all types of activities related to data acquisition and management. Management
policies and philosophies related to the overall QA program for EMAP will be documented
in a QA program plan. Policies and guidelines for QA and QC which pertain specifically to
Surface Waters activities will be documented in an integrated QA project plan (QAPjP). The
QAPjP will describe the policies, procedures, and acceptance criteria to define, monitor, and
evaluate data quality to ensure it meets or exceeds established requirements for the program.
Research objectives and the proposed plan for the pilot survey are presented in this
implementation plan. Standard procedures associated with field operations are described in
the field operations manual (Tallent-Halsell and Merritt, in preparation). Analytical methods
are summarized in the methods manual (Klemm et al., in preparation). The strategy and
procedures used to manage data and associated information is presented in the information
management plan (McGue, in preparation).
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TABLE 6-1. ELEMENTS OF THE QUALITY ASSURANCE PROGRAM, NORTHEAST
LAKES PILOT STUDY AND TIME PROJECT
Program Element
Mode of Implementation
Document plans, procedures, methods,
and data quality requirements.
Responsibility and Accountability
Ensure appropriate technical skills and
competency of project participants.
Correct and consistent implementation
of required procedures.
Maintain data acquisition systems
within required data quality criteria.
Ensure recorded data and information
are accurate and of acceptable quality.
Determine and report achieved quality
of data.
Preparation of implementation plan, field operation
manual, methods manual, QA project plan, and
information management plan.
Define project organizational structure and
responsibilities.
Training program for field personnel prior to initiation
of sampling operations; Laboratory performance
evaluation prior to any analyses.
Site visits and auditing activities, with prompt
implementation of required corrective actions.
Define preventative maintenance requirements for
equipment and instrumentation. Specify calibration
procedures and frequency. Implement appropriate
quality control measures at critical points of system.
Monitor performance as data are acquired against
acceptance requirements and correct problems
promptly.
Specify reporting format, units, and range of
acceptable values (or codes). Review recorded data at
point of collection and after entry into computerized
data base. Verify accuracy and acceptability of
information using internal consistency checks and
quality control information; validate data for intended
use by exploratory statistical analyses.
Assessment of quality against requirements for
precision, bias, completeness, comparability, and
representativeness, using estimates of variance
components, performance evaluation data, quality
control information, and results of verification and
validation analyses.
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The development and implementation of the QA program for the pilot study is the
responsibility of the Surface Waters QA Officer. Those aspects of the overall QA program
which are of direct relevance to the TIME project are directed by a designated QA
representative for the project. Project organization and responsibilities are documented in the
QAPjP.
Training programs for field personnel are conducted before sampling activities
commence. Training ensures consistent implementation of the required procedures and
attainment by each person of a desired level of technical competency. Formal training
programs for laboratory personnel are not required; laboratories providing analytical support
are evaluated before analytical activities to ensure they can conduct the appropriate analyses
and produce data of the required quality. Laboratory evaluations are conducted using blind
PE samples and by site visits.
Site visits of field operations and laboratories will be conducted by experienced
technical and QA personnel. Such visits ensure that documented methods are being
implemented correctly and consistently.
For each indicator, critical points in the information acquisition process are identified
and subjected to internal QC procedures and/or measurements. Statistical process control
methods (e.g., control charts) are utilized where possible to monitor the performance of the
acquisition system. These methods provide rapid feedback on the performance of the system
to allow for prompt corrective action, ensuring data quality remains within established
acceptance criteria during collection and measurement. Specific QC requirements and
procedures to be used for each indicator are described in the QAPjP.
Standardized procedures will be developed for the review of data during recording,
and during subsequent entry into a computerized data base. Standardized recording forms
and sample labels are used to maintain consistency in data recording within the pilot survey.
Review procedures include an independent review of forms at the point of measurement, and
comparison of computerized entries against the original recording form.
Data are verified to confirm that information associated with an individual sample or
measurement is accurate with respect to what was initially recorded, and that all QC
acceptance requirements have been met. Verification is conducted using automated review
procedures, such as range checks, frequency distribution of coded variables and other
internal consistency checks (e.g., calculated chemical ion balance checks, summation of
relative abundance estimates, and absence of expected taxonomic groups), and review of
associated QC information. Verified data are subjected to validation procedures to identify
data values which are potentially unrepresentative because of anomalous conditions at the
time of sampling.
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Various univariate and multivariate statistical procedures are used on the verified data to
identify outlying observations which are subjected to additional review.
Assessments of data quality against the established data quality requirements are
conducted to determine the overall performance of the QA program, to identify potential
limitations to use and interpretation of the data, and to provide information for other data
users to make determinations regarding the usability of the data for other purposes. Such
assessments are a part of project interpretative reports, as well as other products (e.g.,
accompanying data bases).
Finally, scientific peer reviews of the activities (and products) of the pilot survey are
conducted to help guarantee that the information acquired for the pilot survey and the TIME
project are technically sound and suitable to meet the objectives of the project.
6.3 ASSESSMENT OF DATA QUALITY
The success of the QC measures implemented to maintain data quality within
acceptable bounds is evaluated a posteriori in several ways. Precision and bias associated
with important components of the sampling and measurement processes of individual
indicators are evaluated using results from carefully designed replicate sampling and PE
studies. Results of verification and validation procedures provide information on the amount
of acceptable data of the type required to satisfy the requirements established for
completeness. Information on precision, bias, and completeness are used to determine the
comparability of data acquired during the study. This information is important for those
ecological indicators that must use additional information acquired as part of measurement
programs for other indicators (e.g., the sediment diatom assemblage indicator requires water
chemistry data to allow historical inferences to be made regarding trends in water quality
characteristics). After acceptable comparability is determined, overall representativeness of
the information in satisfying the research objectives can be ascertained.
6.4 ESTIMATES OF COMPONENTS OF INDEX PERIOD VARIATION
Certain components of variation that relate to the sampling design and sampling
strategy within a single index period (Table 6-2) are estimated using temporal (and in some
cases spatial) sample replication schemes. Temporal variation of conditions within the index
period are estimated by sampling 32 of the probability sample lakes twice during the course
of the pilot survey. Spatial variability that exists within an individual lake during a single
sampling event will be estimated only for the sediment toxicity indicator. At two lakes
selected for the indicator evaluation pilot study (representing a lake suspected of having
contaminated sediments and one known to be free of contamination), sediment samples are
collected from three sites (a profundal site and two near-shore sites). The results of sediment
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bioassays from each sampling location will be used to determine if spatial variability in acute
toxicity is greater than the variability resulting from single profundal samples collected from
a number of lakes.
Temporal and spatial variability during an index period are potentially confounded by
variability or bias resulting from different sampling crews visiting a site and collecting a
sample, or from the same crew visiting a site more than once, and introducing bias due to
increased experience, or increased variability due to a lack of attention to standard operating
procedures
TABLE 6-2. SOURCES OF VARIATION OF INTEREST, EMAP-SW
NORTHEAST LAKES PILOT SURVEY
Variance Component
Description
Method of Evaluation
Variance resulting from temporal
differences in an index sample from a
single lake within a single index period.
Variance resulting from spatial differences
within a lake for a single sampling event.
Variance resulting from different crews
collecting data from a single lake
Variance resulting from the collection,
handling, and analysis of samples.
Repeat visits to 32 lakes during the index
period.
Collection of additional samples from
several locations at individual lake.
Independent sampling of individual lakes
by two teams within a 2-day period.
Replicate sampling at a single site at
individual lakes; Use of evaluation samples
of known composition which are
introduced in the field or at the laboratory,
Replicate analyses of individual samples.
because of a crew's perceived familiarity with them. Such crew effects could severely
impair the interpretation of regional patterns or trends. It is not feasible to factor out crew
effects by assigning lakes to each crew at random (regardless of location), or to sample the
lakes at random within an index period. Thus, there is a potential for all lakes within a
subpopulation of interest to be sampled by the same crew. It is also likely that, for a given
subpopulation, some lakes will be sampled early (when crews are inexperienced), while
others will be sampled later (when crews are experienced).
To assess the potential impact of "team effects", a subset of lakes will be visited and
sampled on successive days by two different crews. The collection of these "team duplicate"
samples will be spaced over the duration of the index period to investigate changes in
performance due to experience. Lakes selected for team duplicate sampling will have to be
in close proximity to each other. To the extent possible, candidate lakes for team duplicate
sampling should include those selected for revisits during the index period.
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One important contribution to o2^ (Table 6-2) will not be determined during the
pilot survey. Because only one laboratory will be utilized for analytical support, variability
due to random and systematic errors among laboratories cannot be estimated. The total
variance associated with the replicate lake samples will include an among-batch contribution
from a single laboratory.
6.5 DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY
Many facets of the QA program implemented for the pilot study are themselves
"pilot" in nature. For a number of the indicators being used and evaluated, formalized
QA/QC practices have not been developed, or existing practices are not appropriate for the
proposed sampling strategy of EMAP-SW (i.e., synoptic sampling at a large number of lakes
using an integrated sampling program to concurrently collect a diversity of data for several
indicators). Appropriate criteria for defining the "quality" of information associated with
various ecological indicators is currently lacking.
The various aspects of the QA program will be reviewed following the completion of
the pilot survey. Realistic data quality requirements will be developed for the various
indicators and their associated measurements. Replicate sampling and PE studies, as well as
QC measures, will be optimized to provide the necessary information with a minimal number
of measurements.
Refinement of the QA program will be accomplished through a team effort of
program management, scientists responsible for the design, collection, and subsequent
interpretation of ecological indicators, and QA personnel. Management must be committed
to providing adequate resources to both successfully complete projects and to provide for the
documentation of the quality of acquired information. The research scientists should use QA
as a tool to facilitate the interpretation of status and trends in condition, using information
from their respective indicators. Quality assurance personnel have a responsibility to develop
a QA/QC program that provides information on data quality of maximum value to
prospective users. This information must be collected with minimal impedance to the
research activities or associated operations.
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SECTION 7
INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
EMAP-SW will be collecting a large volume of data during the FY91 Northeast
Lakes Pilot Survey. More than 50,000 data points will be generated from the data collection
activities at approximately 100 lakes; this estimate does not include the revisited lake sites.
The ability of EMAP-SW to manage and disseminate this amount of information will have a
major influence on the success of the program. Development of an adequate Information
Management System (IMS) is, therefore, as important to the success of EMAP-SW as is the
collection of the data. A fully automated system for the FY91 field activities ensure that data
are properly collected and tracked in a timely manner for analysis.
7.2 OPERATIONAL COMPONENTS OF THE IMS FOR EMAP-SW FY91 PILOT
SURVEY
The system designed to date was intended to provide the EMAP-SW Resource Group
with the optimum resources and automated systems for supporting information management
(IM) activities. Only critical systems that will ensure the success of the data collection
activities will be implemented for the pilot program. The Surface Waters Information Center
(SWIC) will be located at Lockheed Engineering & Sciences Company, Las Vegas, Nevada
(LESC-LV), The following describes the components that will be available for the FY91
field activities. It does not include data analysis activities or final reporting.
Frame Development Data Base (Tier 1 sites) - Contains information on all
Tier 1 lakes (e.g., name, contacts, etc.). This data base has also been used
for lake selection (Tier 2 sites). Data entry screen interfaces have been
developed in the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) on the Virtual Address
Extension (VAX).
Lake Access Data Base - Contains all information on the Tier 2 and Tier 3
(TIME and reference) lakes. Data entry screens have been developed for this
data base and can also be used to aid in obtaining information for lake access.
Sample Tracking System - Sample tracking will be fully automated with the
use of bar code readers. This will facilitate the identification and tracking of
all samples collected in the field. The system will check that all appropriate
sample containers go out to the field and that all samples were collected. The
sample tracking data system will also link sample identification information
with all pertinent site information. This information will then be transferred to
a floppy disk and shipped by Federal Express within 48 hours along with the
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original field forms. This information can also be output and sent via FAX to
the SWIG.
Portable data recorder (PDR) - This system will only be tested with one field
crew at the 20 special interest lakes. Data entry screens will be developed
and programs will be written for the Global Positioning System (GPS). This
will allow for the direct linkage of the sonar reading with the latitude and
longitude for all locations. If time permits, data entry screens for fish
identification will also be written. Until these systems have been fully tested,
field forms will also be used. Data stored will be transferred to a laptop at the
hotel nightly and then to a floppy for shipment with the field forms and sample
tracking information.
Logistic Information System - A predeployment GIS data base will be
established to help prepare for field activity and effectively monitor and
coordinate field operations. The predeployment data base will provide
logistical support for sampling teams by identifying locations of ancillary
facilities and information for gaining access to sampling sites. This will
include information and location of hotels, Federal Express facilities, dry ice
locations, hospitals, boat repair facilities, post offices, and other pertinent
facilities. At present, the information will be stored on the VAX in a SAS
data base. Accessing this data will have to be done by someone
knowledgeable of SAS, as query screens will not be developed. However, if
GIS support is available, this system will be implemented and maintained in
ARC/INFO, with user friendly interfaces. This will allow for the display of
spatial data associated with a given site (i.e., the field coordinator could
monitor sampling progress using simple mapping techniques).
Data entry screens - Entry screens for all field forms will be developed.
Some entry screens will be implemented in C programming language for the
field laptops and PDRs; all others will be developed in SAS for data entry at
the SWIC. Whenever possible, QA/QC checks will be embedded into the data
entry screens to ensure validity. Double entry will also be used to QA the
data. Data entry screens will not be developed for the analytical laboratories.
Samples will be sent to the analytical laboratories with the necessary
information and results will be sent back in a specified format.
GPS - There are a several areas in which the GPS units will help us. They are
as follows: developing bathymetry maps, developing indexes of variability for
the morphology of the lakes, determining residence time, and as an aid in the
development of the physical habitat and characterization of the lakes. They
will also be used to determine if the field crews are at the correct site, and to
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determine the location of sample sites (grabs, etc.) so that site can be found
upon return visits. The locational data collected by the field crews will be
stored in non-volatile memory and then downloaded to a laptop that night back
at the hotel. QA programs will be developed to ensure that the locations were
not recorded twice. Programs will also be developed to link this information
with the proper sample information, and the lake depth (taken by sonar).
Customized screens will be developed for the polyrecorders while in the field.
A base unit will be located at a base site supported and operated by Region 1.
This allows for the post-processing of the data using differential calculations to
provide better accuracy of the locational information recorded.
Field forms will be designed and generated that will be used as backup for
electronically entered data. However, some data will still be recorded solely
on hard copy forms in the field. The forms will be printed on waterproof
paper to facilitate field data entry during inclement conditions. Backups will
be made at the hotel (using the FAX machines as copiers).
QA/QC reports will be generated during data entry for verification.
Questionable data will be flagged, and added to a report which will be given to
a qualified person for validation. Some of this will be automated; however,
some will be done manually.
Personnel Information System - This information will be available on hard
copies only. When time permits, it will be electronically entered and stored in
a data base in SAS on the VAX.
Sample Labels - Labels will be preprinted and bar coded for sample tracking.
CIS - The integration with these activities are unknown at this point.
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SECTION 8
REFERENCES
Battarbee, R. W., J. Mason, I. Renberg, and J. F. Tailing (eds). 1990. Paleolimnology and
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Cusimano, R. F., J. P. Baker, W. J. Warren-Hicks, V. Lesser, W. W. Taylor, M. C. Fabrizio,
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Lowe, R. L. 1974. Environmental Requirements and Pollution Tolerance of Freshwater
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*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1992-648-003/40721
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
RWORT NO.
EPA/600/4-91/019
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
PB92-139948
. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT PROGRAM: SURFACE
'^TERS IMPLEMENTATION PLAN-NORTHEAST PILOT LAKE SURVEY,
SUMMER 1991
5. REPORT DATE
June 1991
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
. AUTHOR(S)
J.E. Pollard and K.M. Perez
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Lockheed Engineering and Sciences Co.
1050 E. Flamingo Rd., Suite 120
Las Vegas, NV 89119
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
H109
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
CR 68-CO-0049
2. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory - LV, NV
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Las Vegas, NV 89193-3478
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Project Report
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/07
5. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
S. ABSTRACT
This document outlines the proposed implementation plan for the Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment Program's Surface Waters Northeast Pilot Lake Survey, to be
conducted in July through September, 1991. The pilot survey will evaluate not only the
utility of the indicators selected thus far for the Surface Waters component, but will
provide an evaluation of the methods that have been identified for collection and
analysis of samples.
This implementation plan is not intended to be a step by step delineation of field
activities planned for the pilot; for more detailed discussion of concept, approach,
and issues, please refer to either the Surface Waters Research Plan (Paulsen et al.,
1991) or the respective subject plans (i.e., the quality assurance project plan,the Eiek
operations manual, the information management plan). This plan outlines the objectives
of the field pilot activities and the questions which we expect to answer as a result
of these activities. In addition, the plan contains a description of the indicators,
the measurement variables included in each indicator the design rationale, and details
including site selection criteria and a list of selected sites. Very brief
descriptions of quality assurance, logistical considerations, and the information
management approach are also presented.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (Tins Report)
UNCLASSIFIED
!1 NO. OF PAGES
_7J5_
20 SECURITY CLASS (Tins pagel
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (R.v. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
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