-------
ROTARY
FEEDER
-pa
I—»
oo
1st
HYDROEXTRACTOR
TO FOURTH STAGE
HEATER
MEDIUM PRESSURE
STEAM
FROM
EVAPORATOR
TRAIN
TO
ADDBACK
TANK
TO
CONDENSATE
RECEIVER
I ROTARY FEEDER
MEDIUM PRESSURE STEAM-
2nd
HYDROEXTRACTOR
ROTARY FEEDER!
„ TO FKST STAGE
VAPOR CHAMBER
LOW PRESSURE
STEAM
TOOL
DISTLLATON
TO
CONDENSATE
RECEIVER
COOUNG WATER RETURN
N2 BLOWER
COOUNG WATER
N2 COOLER
DRY
PRODUCT
STORAGE
AGITATOR
COOUNG
WATER
RETURN
TO
COMBUSTION
FIGURE 13 CARVER-GREENFIELD FACILITY OIL RECOVERY/DRY PRODUCT TRAIN
-------
LIMESTONE STORAGE
LIMESTONE
AMMONIA
STORAGE
DRY SLUDGE
POWDER "
ELECTRICAL
GENERATOR
FLUDIZED BED
COMBUSTOR
PARTICLE
SEPARATOR
>fFLUEGAS
AR PRE-HEATER
*- STEAM TO DEHYDRATION
ASH STORAGE
STACK
FIGURE 14 CARVER-GREENFIELD FACILITY - COMBUSTION AND
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
419
-------
GAS FROM
DIGESTERS
EXHAUST SLENCER
WFTH HEAT EXCHANGER
ELECTRICAL
GENERATOR
RECFROCATNG
ENGWE
EXHAUST GAS ^
EXHAUST GAS
JACKET WATER
RETURN
JACKET WATER SUPPLY
CONDENSATE PUMP
STEAM SEPARATOR
CO
RETURN FROM DIGESTERS
HOT WATER SUPPLY
FOR DIGESTER HEATNG
FIGURE 15 POWER GENERATION FACILITY AT VALENCIA WATER RECLAMATION PLANT
420
-------
SELECTED MUNICIPAL SLUDGE TOPICS
by
Carl A. Brunner, Ph.D.
Chief, Systems £ Engineering Evaluation Branch
Wastewater Research Division
Water Engineering Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
This paper has been reviewed in accordance with
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's peer
and administrative review policies and approved
for presentation and publication.
Prepared for Presentation at:
Eleventh United States/Japan Conference
on Sewage Treatment Technology
Tokyo, Japan
October 12-14, 1987
-------
SELECTED MUNICIPAL SLUDGE TOPICS
Carl A. Brunner, Ph.D.
INTRODUCTION
The amount of sludge from municipal wastewater treatment plants is slow-
ly increasing in the United States because of a continuing increase in the
number of people served by sewers and the upgrading of plants with less than
secondary treatment to full secondary treatment. As the amount of sludge is
increasing, the resistance to disposal is also increasing. Some municipali-
ties and states have banned the placing of sludge in landfills. The estab-
lishment of new landfills, even when not legally banned, is becoming increas-
ingly difficult because of resistance of residents near the sites of these
proposed landfills. Ocean disposal is opposed by much of the public and is
unlikely to increase in the United States. Incineration has not been popular
since the large increase in fuel costs in the 1970's and is now encountering
resistance because of perceived health risks from stack emissions. Applica-
tion to agricultural and forest land has become an increasingly common method
of disposal, but is often not a practical solution for large cities. Disposal
of sludge in the United States is obviously an increasing problem.
Another factor likely to affect sludge disposal in the United States is
the planned promulgation of new regulations for essentially all modes of dis-
posal. These regulations are expected to be based upon health or environmen-
tal risk. Although the exact form of these regulations has not been estab-
lished, they are very likely to place additional restrictions on sludge
disposal.
The result of the pressures on treatment plant management to find more
acceptable routes of sludge disposal has been at least partly responsible for
the development of new methods of sludge treatment which either change the
sludge to a form more acceptable for disposal or convert it to a useable
material.
The following describes briefly the form of planned sludge regulations
for the United States, discusses several new sludge treatment methods which
have been evaluated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and provides some new research results on pathogenic microorganisms in sludge.
Carl A. Brunner is a Chemical Engineer with the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
42?
-------
PLANNEU SLUDGE REGULATIONS
EPA adopted the very logical concept of utilizing risk assessment as the
basis for a planned set of sludge disposal regulations covering land applica-
tion, landfilling of sludge alone (monofill), incineration, and ocean disposal.
Home use of compost and other marketed sludge products are included with land
application. For each mode of disposal, all conceivable routes of exposure
to both humans and other species were listed. From the list the routes
judged to have the most impact were selected. Except for ocean disposal, the
critical routes all involved human exposure. For each disposal method, other
than ocean disposal, a list of approximately twenty toxic materials judged
likely to have the most severe effect on human health was prepared. A similar
list was prepared for ocean disposal, but with recognition that maintenance
of water quality necessary for a healthy ocean ecosystem was the principal
objective. For each disposal method other than ocean disposal a maximum
exposed individual (MEI) was defined. These definitions were very conserva-
tive. For incineration this individual was defined as someone spending a
lifetime of seventy years living 200 meters horizontal distance from the
incinerator stack and being exposed to incinerator emissions 24 hours per day.
Based on available data for health effects of the chosen toxic materials,
using available models for the fate of these materials along the chosen
paths, and assuming reasonable values for other pertinent parameters, concen-
trations of the toxic materials allowable in the sludge were calculated for
levels of risk of fatality or incidence of cancer from one in 10^ to one in
10^ of the exposed individuals. At this time a risk level of one in 10^
individuals is being assumed acceptable except for marketed sludge products.
In the analysis of ocean disposal risk a level of one in 10^ individuals was
also assumed.
A three-tiered regulatory approach was then developed that would allow
different degrees of consideration to be given to site-specific factors which
would attenuate the migration of a pollutant into the environment. The three
tiers are as follow:
Tier I: Sludges regulated under this tier would have to have concentrations
of the modeled toxic materials less than those calculated to result in the
chosen level of risk to the MEI. Site-specific factors would not need to be
considered in this tier. Although a nationwide survey of the degree of
compliance under Tier I has not been carried out, comparison of listed concen-
trations with those obtained for a number of sludges suggests that many
sludges would not meet this requirement.
Tier II: A table would be provided specifying a range of concentrations of
the modeled toxic materials in the sludge based on varying a limited number
of site-specific conditions. Two examples would be height of stack for an
incinerator and end use of the sludge for land application.
Tier III: This tier applies to sludges not meeting the requirements of Tier
II. The permitting authority would have to make site-specific determination
of the acceptability of a disposal method for these sludges. The management
of the treatment plant would have to supply the necessary data to demonstrate
4?3
-------
that pollutants would not violate the chosen risk level. Regulating a sludge
under Tier III is a much more complicated procedure than regulating under
Tiers I and II.
In parallel with the MEI risk assessment, EPA also carried out an aggre-
gate risk assessment that produced an estimate of the national impact of
sludge disposal under existing conditions, and reduction in this impact under
the new regulations. This aggregate risk assessment has not been carefully
reviewed, but the unreviewed results indicate a very low incidence of negative
health effects under existing conditions. The final regulations will probably
be somewhat modified from the preliminary version developed from the MEI
results to reflect this relatively low national impact. That the MEI risk
assessment appears to indicate a greater health impact than the aggregate
risk assessment probably results largely from the fact that there is very
little, if any, of the population that actually experiences conditions with a
degree of risk equal to that of the MEI. For this reason the MEI approach
usually gives conservatively safe results. If the allowable sludge concentra-
tions from the MEI approach were much higher than those usually found in
sludge, sludge producers and regulatory agencies could be assured that there
was extremely small risk from sludge disposal. Where sludge concentrations
calculated from the MEI are within the range actually found in sludges,
further consideration must be given to whether very highly exposed individuals
approaching the conditions of the MEI do actually exist and whether modifica-
tions to results can safely be made to overcome the conservative nature of
the MEI approach.
Pathogenic microorganisms are presently regulated under a technology
based approach. Because of the difficulty in describing mathematically the
exposure routes, completion of a risk assessment methodology has not been
possible. New regulations must, therefore, retain a technology basis.
LIQUID FUEL FROM WET SLUDGE
Conversion of municipal treatment plant sludge to fuel eliminates the
problem of disposal and provides some income from sale of the fuel or saves
operating expense through use in the treatment plant. A number of attempts
have been made to produce a liquid fuel (usually called oil even though the
composition is probably quite different from that of petroleum based products)
from dried sludge. In all cases some amount of char is also produced. Cana-
dian investigators have developed a process to the large pilot scale. Use of
a dry sludge requires energy to remove water from the sludge and greatly
reduces the net energy for fuel production. Use of a wet sludge as a raw
material eliminates the energy consuming drying step. A small continuous
pilot investigation of the conversion of wet sludge to oil indicated technical
feasibility of producing an organic liquid with a heating value comparable to
other liquid fuels, but failed to provide a reliable material balance for the
process.1 More recently a study using a one-liter stirred autoclave operated
in a batchwise manner was undertaken to obtain data on the degree of conver-
sion of energy in sludge to liquid fuel.2 An extraction procedure using
Freon TF, 1,1,2-trichloro 1,2,2-trifluoroethane, was developed to remove the
oil from both treated and untreated sludges. A similar extraction procedure
4?4
-------
usiny a different solvent would probably be used for oil separation in an
operating plant.
In carrying out the autoclave experiments about 400 g of wet sludge was
added to the 316 stainless steel vessel and the vessel was then purged with
nitrogen and pressurized to 1UO psig. The contents were heated to an opera-
ting temperature of 345°C. Heating time was 1.5 hours and reaction time was
1.0 hour The reactor was then cooled to room temperature over a 3.5-hour
period. Although the reaction time of one hour is probably appropriate for a
full-scale plant, the heating and cooling times are not. By proper heat
exchange these times would be substantially reduced. Freon extraction was
carried o'jt, on 50~g samples of wet sludge or reactor product with pH adjusted
to 2.0 using HC1. The pH was lowered to convert fatty acid salts to free
fatty acids for effective extraction. Extraction was accomplished with four
additions of 50 ml of solvent. The solvent was then removed by heating to
65°C. Recovered oil consisted, therefore, of Freon-soluble substances with
boiling point greater than 65°C. The water-char mixture remaining after
extraction was evaporated and dried at 103°C to determine the amount of char.
Oil yields were calculated in relation to volatile solids content of the
sludge. Heating values were determined with an oxygen bomb colorimeter. An
attempt was also made to determine oil composition using GC/MS. After carry-
ing out a number of preliminary runs to develop proper operating procedure
and to obtain approximately optimum operating conditions, three sludyes were
evaluated in detail.
A primary sludge from the Little Miami Wastewater Treatment Plant in Cin-
cinnati, Ohio taken in July 1986 was run with and without additions of 5% on
a wet basis of sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide, which are thought to
act as catalysts. Total solids content of the sludge was 4% and volatile
solids (VS) content was 2.65%. The results of the run without catalyst were
as follows:
0.218 g/g VS of light brown oil was extracted from the feed sludge
0.295 g/g VS of a black oil was extracted from the reaction product
U.355 cal in oil/cal in feed sludge was obtained from the feed sludge
0.474 cal in oil/cal in feed sludge was obtained from the reaction product
Heat of combustion of both oil samples was about 9400 cal/g
Product was solid at room temperature, liquid above 50°C.
Results indicate that there was about a 35% increase in amount of oil
over that in the feed from the thermal reaction, with a recovery of 47.4% in
the oil of the heating value in the original sludge. In this case, the
catalysts had negligible effect on oil production. A significant amount of
the oil consisted of hexadecanoic and octadecanoic acid, materials making up
a large part of natural fats.
A second sample of primary sludge and a sample of secondary sludge was
obtained in September 1986 from the same treatment plant. Believing that a
higher solids content would increase oil yield, the sludge samples were thick-
ened to a VS content of about 11%. Sodium carbonate was added in an amount
equal to 25% of the total solids. Results of runs with these sludges were as
follow:
4?5
-------
From primary sludge -
0.181 g oil/g VS was extracted from the feed sludge
0.313 g oil/g VS was extracted from the reaction product
0.314 cal in oil/cal in feed sludge was obtained from the feed sludge
0.524 cal in oil/cal in feed sludge was obtained from the reaction
product
From secondary sludge -
0.035 g oil/y VS was extracted from the feed sludge
0.221 g oil/g VS was extracted from the reaction product
0.065 cal in oil/cal in feed sludge was obtained from the feed sludge
0.387 cal in oil/cal in feed sludge was obtained from the reactor
product
The recovery of oil from thermal reaction of the primary sludge was 73% more
than recovered from the unreacted feed, more than double the increase obtained
with the earlier, more dilute sample. Recovery of thermal energy in the oil,
compared to the earlier sample, was slightly higher at 52.4% of the energy in
the sludge. Thermal reaction of the secondary sludge increased oil recovery
by over 500%. Much of this increase is believed to result, however, from the
thermal destruction of cells with release of lipids. Since only 38.7% of the
thermal energy in the secondary sludge was recovered in the oil from that
sludge, the thermal energy recoverable from the combined primary and second-
ary sludge from this plant would be slightly less than 50% based on these two
samples.
Balances were carried out on VS. About 30% of the VS was lost in the
gas that is formed, most of which is carbon dioxide. Of the remaining vola-
tile solids, the following distributions were found:
Oil
Char
Remaining Hater
Primary sludge
Secondary sludge
48.7%
30.4%
16.9%
44.3%
34.4%
25.3%
The relatively higher fraction of VS associated with oil from primary sludge
undoubtedly results from the higher original free oil content. Considerably
more charing of the biological solids occurred with the secondary sludge under
the chosen operating conditions. Chars could be used as fuel. Because most
of the metals in the original sludge will remain with the char, there is some
health risk from burning this residual. Landfilling is probably the best
method of disposal. The aqueous streams resulting from thermal treatment con-
tained about 6,000 rng/1 and 11,000 mg/1 total organic carbon from primary and
secondary sludges, respectively. It is assumed this wastewater would be re-
turned to the sewage treatment plant. Molton, et al.1 in the earlier study
with wet sludge obtained slightly more concentrated wastewaters. Because the
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) equaled about 70% of the chemical oxygen
demand (COD) of these waters, the authors assumed they would be aerobically
treatable.
426
-------
Although the feasibility of recovering about one-half of the thermal
energy in sludge as a liquid fuel has been shown, the economics of a full-
scale system still need to be determined. Moulton, et al.l presented costs,
based on very preliminary data and without a clear understanding of how the
oil would be separated from the char and water, which suggested the process
could be practical for large municipalities. From the present investigation
it is believed an extraction process using a low density solvent, such as
propane, will be necessary. Filtration could also be necessary to obtain a
solids-free fuel.
There are two lines of further investigation that need to be undertaken
to clearly define the practicality of this process. The higher priority
appears to be the conceptual design of a full-scale system based on existing
data and carried out by designers experienced with thermal processing equip-
ment. From the design a cost estimate could be made that would be reliable
for the set of assumptions used. This design and cost study could then be
followed by a continuously operating pilot plant study to affirm the assump-
tions made or to provide reliable revised information.
WET OXIDATION OF SLUDGE USING A VERTICAL REACTOR
A full-scale vertical reactor for wet oxidation of municipal wastewater
sludge was constructed at Longmont, Colorado, in 1983 and has been operated
on the sludge from that community-*. The reactor is 1585 in long, extending
vertically underground from the surface, and has an outside diameter of 2b.4
cm. The reactor consists of concentric tubes which, starting from the center,
include heat exchange fluid inlet, heat exchange fluid outlet, sludge inlet,
and sludge outlet. Figure lisa diagram of the reactor. A detailed descrip-
tion of the installation, discussion of the possible advantages of the verti-
cal reactor, and a progress report on operation was given at the Tenth United
States/Japan Conference on Sewage Treatment^. The purpose of this discussion
is to summarize the most important findings from operation at Longmont and to
indicate possible future developments of the technology in the United States.
The performance of the vertical reactor is best characterized by COD re-
duction. Reduction of COD as a function of temperature at the bottom of the
reactor over the period of testing is shown in Figure 2. Data shown include
operation with both air and oxygen as the oxidizing medium. COD reduction
increased with increasing temperature as expected. Scatter in the data re-
sults partly from variations that occurred in flow rate and in overall temper-
ature profile. Although the average reduction was only 76.3 percent, reduc-
tions of 80 percent or more would be expected during normal operation. Early
operation utilized air for oxidation which caused a number of operating prob-
lems, including the need to dilute the sludge. This condition is generally
represented by the lower temperature data because maintenance of satisfactory
reactor temperature of 260°C or higher was difficult with the low-energy
dilute sludge. Use of oxygen increased oxidation capacity and allowed a
higher rate of sludge solids processing. It appears that use of oxygen is
necessary to make the vertical reactor technology practical. At a price of
oxygen of $65/1000 kg, cost for this material is about $50/metric ton sludge
which constitutes almost one half of the estimated operating cost. The
4?7
-------
Process oxygen
(or air)
30m/120m
1580m (194mm i 127mm tubes)
1585m (254mm tube)
unnm fonrrpf,.
Concrete •
I
!
I
•- I
; i,
» j
:- I
; i
• (
; I
: f
j I
• f
I I
: I
I !
(
• j
t
. l^
;^v>i
; ivVt-C1
lr
r
1
T
i
j
i
I
i
i
'!
jj
>.A-['
^ Hcaf exchanger
I] '
EJ tiiiuenr
••'
: '.
\ •
r< . Surface casing
High boiling
(J oil-filled
^. annulus
; N. Oxidation
^\ unit
Primary casing ^ / upcomer
340mm >v /^^-^^^ 254mm
~/^z*^£s ^Oxidation
, , . • downcomer
Insulated
. . . 194mm
tubular
Heat transfer fluid
127mm
U.S. Patent tio. 4.272.383
Figure 1. Subsurface cross-sectional schematic of the vertical reactor.
4?8
-------
'.0
100-
93-
90-
85-
80-
75-'
t- 70-
o
D 85-
R ao"
6 55-
d
U 50-
c
t 45-
4Q-
O
n 33-
y 30-
23-
20-
13-
10-
5-
o-
D
n
D * R D
Qaim0 fen
n OPn ^SS jS?C
_ D D rTpSdniii,, = I Ht
rSH rfrrrS-ssiMftllb 1 HiP
n HLr,5i "?5ffi§!Sc 5sgfiS|
D a DS^==^?^?^^7®
^_^ — R 1 — 1 1 1 --* * J-i 0 p J^^i t
LI=£«J=:==TIJ'— n n ^"-"-^
n nn Q r-i
a D rj ^ 0 cv n
a a
a
a n
a
a a
a D
Operating Conditions
Jin
MfS-iSib
in = Mf E fPS T"^
^ ^ - i fi i
D| n
n i3
OD D
Average Range
( 1 ow-hi gh)
rj COD Influent. mg/L 21.400 5.600 - 48. 5OO
COD Effluent. mg/L 5.030 1.400 - 19.400
COD Reduction 7. 76.3 32.3 - 92.1
Bottomhola Temp. C 267.5 228 - 282
Sludge Load. Ib/hr 1200.0 0 - 1.930
Liquid Flow, gpm 108.8 65 - 145
Air Flow. Ib/min 3.4 0 - 24. O
Oxygen Flow. Ib/min 17.2 9. 5 - 25.4
1 ) 1 (-— 1 1 u 1 j j
1 1 1 1
220
223
230
235
2X0
245
250
255
260
2B5
270
27S
28O
BottomholQ Temperature (C)
285
290
Figure 2. Reduction of COD in the vertical reactor.
-------
overall removal of COD was shown to increase if some of the product from the
reactor was recycled through the reactor. A longer residence time than the
nominal 30 minutes of active oxidation time would be necessary, therefore, if
a higher fraction of COD removal was desired. Another alternative would be
higher operating temperatures.
Reduction of VS was slightly greater than COD reduction. Results with
very low temperature data eliminated are shown on Figure 3. Reductions of
90 percent or more would be expected during normal operation.
Because the vertical reactor was large enough to treat all of the Long-
mont sludge, it was possible to determine, approximately, the effect of
return of the settled liquor from the reactor on the biological treatment
plant. An exact determination was not possible because periods with and with-
out liquor return had to occur at different times with slightly different
conditions. The biological treatment system consists of a trickling filter
followed by a rotating biological contactor. The BOD of the liquor from the
vertical reactor was about 4000 mg/L. Returning this stream before the trick-
ling filter increased the influent BOD to the trickling filter by about 38
mg/L. Effect on the plant effluent BOD was an increase from 21 mg/L to 30
mg/L, with soluble BOD increasing from 13 mg/L to 17 mg/L. Suspended solids
of both effluents was 27 mg/L. Although the Longmont plant was able to
handle the additional load of reactor liquor, the investigators recommend
evaluation of separate biological treatment, especially anaerobic, for cases
where the treatment plant is close to its load limit.
Although the expected mode of residual or ash disposal would be by land-
filling, the investigators carried out limited testing to determine whether
the ash could be used as a brick additive. Standard brick mixes from two
companies were investigated. For one mix 7.1% of wet oxidation ash was
added. Test bricks exhibited 0.5 percent less dry shrinkage, 0.5 percent
more fired shrinkage, and 5% reduction in fired weight. Compression strength
and modules of rupture were comparable to those of other bricks. Some darken-
ing of the brick occurred. In tests with the second brick company mix, wet
oxidation ash was added in a ratio of one part to nine parts mix. This level
of ash produced a slightly rougher edge during extrusion. It was concluded
that 7 to 8% ash would be more satisfactory. Bricks made from the mix also
exhibited less dry shrinkage, more fired shrinkage, and 3% less fired weight.
Brick color was again slightly darker. It was concluded that this ash would
be a satisfactory additive in brick manufacture.
This evaluation showed that wet oxidation of sludge in a vertical reac-
tor is technically feasible, producing a biologically treatable liquid waste
stream and a readily disposable residue very similar to incinerator ash.
There were significant operating problems which the investigators were able
to overcome. The original concept of using air for oxidation seriously
limited capacity, and does not appear generally practical. Preliminary total
cost of operation including amortization of the equipment is estimated at
about $200/metric ton for a 25.4 cm diameter unit treating 9,100 metric
tons/year. The cost is based on a relatively short operating period compared
to the expected operating life of a plant and cannot reflect any longer term
problems that could arise. The estimated cost is within the range experienced
430
-------
V
s
R
a
d
u
c
t
i
Q
n
„
*
100-
95-
90-
83-
80-
75-
70-
65-
eo-
55-
50-
43-
40-
33"
3O-
25-
20-
15-
10-
5-
n—
D p
D n
D
D
r
D'
_
D
a B a i tfPn § D
n "
0 D
n ^—r^sszzz^^^
r~i r- 1^ —
^
rH^O &3 n
a a Eb
a § a a „ n
cP a
Operating Conditions
COD Influent. mg/L
COD Effluent. mg/L
COO Reduction 7.
Bottomhole Temp, C
S 1 udga Load. Ib/hr
Liquid Flow, gp™
Air Flow. Ib/min
Oxygen Flow, Ib/min
Heat Trans Fluid. Ib/min
1 1 1 1 (_
Average Range
Haw-high)
12.700 2.200 - 32.400
2. 700 900 - 10, 900
69. 0 50 - 83. 9
267. 0 247 - 280
700. 0 150 - 1. 500
111.0 93 - 136
11.7 0 - 20. 2
8. 7 0 - 22. 0
310. 0 0 - 470
1 1 1 1
233
240
243
230
233
200
265
270
275
Bottomhola Temporatur-e CO
280
Figure 3. Reduction of total volatile solids.in the vertical reactor.
-------
in the United States for other methods of sludge treatment and disposal.
Although a number of companies in the United States are interested in
this type of technology, no plants other than that at Lonymont have yet been
constructed. One company is proposing use of essentially the same technology
at temperatures above the critical point of water, 374°C. Under supercritical
conditions, the properties of water change greatly. Organic solubility is
greatly increased, and oxygen becomes miscible. The greater solubility,
reduced mass transfer resistances, and inherently increased rate of oxidation
that should result from higher temperature are expected to result in greatly
increased capacity for a given size reactor and essentially 100% oxidation of
most substances found in sludge. Batch autoclave tests with a number of chem-
icals, including PCB's, have shown nearly 100% destruction, usually in less
than five minutes5. Although the application of supercritical oxidation to
toxic wastes would appear to be a more promising application, the developers
of this process also believe it can be cost competitive for treatment of
sludge. For the supercritical approach to be competitive with the subcritical
will require that the somewhat higher cost of the supercritical approach be
offset by the reduced cost of nandling a reactor liquid waste stream with
significantly reduced organic content.
CODISPOSAL OF SLUDGE IN SOLID WASTE LANDFILLS
In the United States about 40% of the sludge on a dry weight basis is
disposed to solid waste landfills. It is presumed by many in the sanitary
field that adding sludge to solid waste landfills increases both the amount
and strength of leachate from these landfills. As a result, some municipali-
ties and states are prohibiting the disposal of sludge to these landfills.
Because of the large amount of sludge that is disposed by this method, signi-
ficant reduction in the availability of this disposal route could lead to
problems for many municipalities that do not have convenient disposal alterna-
tives. To learn the effect of sludge in solid waste landfills a study was
initiated several years ago. More than four years of data has now been
collected on leachate composition and biological activity as measured by
production of methane^.
Because of the difficulty of settiny up different conditions within an
actual landfill that would give reliable comparisons, lysimeters were used to
carry out the investigation. Figure 4 shows the details of these test cells.
The cells were of steel coated with epoxy sealer. A factorial experiment was
designed for the solid waste-sludge (SW-SL) experiments that included two
sludge types from Uashington, D.C., anaerobically digested and lime stabi-
lized, two simulated rainfall or infiltration rates, and three levels of
sludge addition. Controls with no sludge were included. Solid waste was
from Cincinnati, Ohio. Moisture content was 42%. Table 1 gives the design
parameters. Cells 13 to 16 received a dose of small amounts of several toxic
chemicals, but analytical problems prevented comparisons of toxics in leachate
from these cells with leachates from cells 5 to 8. The toxics produced no
significant effects on any other measured parameters so these cells duplicate
cells b to 8. Solid waste and sludge were loaded and compacted in four
0.46-m-high lifts. Leachate was drained once per month and the volume was
43?
-------
1. Leachate Drain
2. Infiltration Line
3. Temperature Probe
4. Gas Port
Dimensions (m)
a
b
c
d
e
f
SW, SW-SL
1.8
2.7
0.3
0.3
1.8
0.3
Figure 4. Test cell design.
433
-------
TABLE 1. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Cell
Contents
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW-SL
SW
SW
SW
SW
aAD
Test
Cell
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
= Anaerobical
Sludge
Type
ADa
LT&
AD
LT
AD
LT
AD
LT
AD
LT
AD
LT
AD
LT
AD
LT
NONE
NONE
NONE
NONE
ly digested
Infiltration
Rate
(Low, High)
Lc
L
Hc
H
L
L
H
H
L
L
H
H
L
L
H
H
L
H
L
H
sludge, 16% solids.
SI udge
Loading
(percent by
wet weight)
10
10
10
10
20
20
20
20
30
30
30
30
20
20
20
20
0
0
0
0
bLT = Lime treated sludge, 16% solids.
CL and H
= Annual water infiltration rate (L/kg of eel
dry weight
basis) , L =
O.b, H = 1.0.
1 waste on a
TABLE 2. ANNUAL AVERAGE OF COU CONCENTRATIONS OF MONTHLY
LEACHATE COLLECTION FOR GROUPS OF TEST CELLS
Year 1 2 3 L_
Test Cell Grouping
COD (mg/L)
SW 39,000 30,000 16,000 1,480
SW-SL-AD 10,600 2,190 1,090 700
SW-SL-LT 26,500 9,930 1,670 930
434
-------
recorded. Infiltration water was added once per month as indicated in Table
1 after draining the leachate.
A large amount of data was obtained from this study and considerable
evaluation of this information was carried out. Only the most important
findings will be presented here.
Leachate was not produced immediately nor even after early additions of
simulated rainwater in any of the test cells. Infiltration gradually in-
creased until it became equal to the added water. The time for this to occur
was between six months for the higher water addition rate and the highest
percentage sludge to 16 months for the lower addition rate and solid waste
without sludge. After the leachate rate reached the rate of water addition,
it consistently maintained that rate. The only effect of the sludye was to
decrease by four to six months the time for which leachate rate equalled
water addition or infiltration rate.
The most significant result of this study was the effect of sludge in
lowering the gross organic content (measured as COD) of the leachate. Figure
5 compares results for the 20%-sludge cells at high infiltration rate with
the SW-only cells. Similar results were obtained for all cells in which
sludge was added. These results are summarized in Table 2. For each of the
four years, sludge addition produced lower leachate COD. For anaerobically
digested sludge, the CUD in the leachate from SW-SL cells had dropped sharply
by the end of one year. In the SW-only cells, a similar drop did not occur
until the end of the third year. Decline in leachate COD from lime-treated
sludge occurred less rapidly than for anaerobically-digested sludge. One
objective of this study was to show the effect of sludge on toxics in leach-
ate from landfills. Although analytical problems prevented this objective
from being attained, the very significant decline in gross organic content
resulting from sludge addition provides some justification that a similar
reduction would be found for at least some toxic materials.
The decline in leachate COD was accompanied by an increase in methane-
rich gas. Table 3 summarizes the rate of gas production and gas composition.
Clearly, the SW-only cells were slower to produce methane than the SW-SL
cells. Although the type of sludge is not differentiated in the table, lime-
treated sludge was slower to produce gas than the anaerobically-digested. By
the third year the volume of gas from SW-SL cells had declined significanlty
and was surpassed by gas production from the SW-only cells. Over the four-
year period total methane production from SW-SL cells still exceeded produc-
tion from the SW-only cells, but over the long term the difference would
probably disappear. The pattern of methane production offers an explanation
for the early marked decline in leachate COD from SW-SL cells. The decline
resulted from the early initiation of anaerobic biological activity in those
cells. Approximate calculation of the amount of dry solids converted to
methane produced would account for the COD decline. The higher pH of the
lime-treated sludge apparently suppressed somewhat the rate of anaerobic
activity in those cells and resulted in the slower decline in leachate COD.
The reason for leachate COD remaining low after decline in gas production
and, therefore, anaerobic activity in the SW-SL cells, is probably the exhaus-
tion of the more soluble materials in the SW-SL mixture. Addition of more
435
-------
100,000 -
- 10,000-
O)
Q
O
O
m
u
(O
4)
1,000-
100-
SW Cell Results
10 15 20 25 30
Months After Startup
35
40
45
50
Figure 5. Comparison of leachate COD from solid waste
cells and cells with 20 percent sludge.
-------
sludye to the cells, and the resulting contribution of nutrients to the
system, might be expected to stimulate more anaerobic activity and again in-
crease methane production. Additional sludye has been added to some of the
cells, but results in gas production are not yet available.
TABLE 3. ANNUAL AVERAGE GAS PRODUCTION AND METHANE CONTENT
Year
Percent Methane
SW 11.5 43.6 52.4 54.2
SW-SL 38.1 54.1 55.3 55.5
Average Gas Production (L/hr)
SW
SU-SL
1.2
10.0
4.2
12.1
7.0
4.9
7.5
3.0
Toxic metals data in the leachates were obtained over the history of the
project. Summarized data for each year are shown in Table 4. All SW cells
and SW-SL cells were averaged in obtaining the values shown in the tdble. In
all cases the metals were lower in leachates from SW-SL cells even though the
original metals concentrations in the sludges were all higher than in the
solid waste. Except for zinc, which showed an increase in the second and
third years in the SW-only cells, all metals declined with time and reached
similar values in both SW-only and SW-SL cells at the end of four years.
The reason for the temporary increase in leachate zinc could have been dis-
solving of metallic zinc under the slightly acid conditions found in the cells
before methane production. Anaerobic biological activity increased the pH by
about one unit. The general decrease with time is probably due to a combina-
tion of washout and precipitation from pH increase. Since the amounts of
metals leached over the four-year period represent only a small percentage of
the total metals in the cells, further leaching of small amounts would be
expected for a long period of time.
This project has shown that the addition of municipal wastewater sludge
to solid waste landfills is not environmentally detrimental, but could be
beneficial. Although production of initial leachate may begin earlier, the
long term volume of leachate is not measurably increased. The gross organic
content of the leachate and, therefore, the annual mass emission, is greatly
decreased when the landfill is new and remains lower for at least four years.
If recovery of fuel gas is desired, addition of sludge hastens the process by
about two years. It may be possible to continue production of gas for very
long times by repeatedly injecting additional sludge every few years. With
this manner of operation the landfill would serve as a long term sludge dis-
posal site. The toxic metals content of the leachate, when the landfill is
new, is also decreased by the addition of sludge. The difference appears to
decrease with time and essentially disappears by the end of four years.
437
-------
TABLE 4. AVERAGE ANNUAL CONCENTRATIONS OF METALS IN LEACHATE
sw
SW-SL
SW
SW-SL
SW
SW-SL
SW
SW-SL
SW
SW-SL
SW
SW-SL
SW
SW-SL
1
0.039
0.034
0.142
0.087
0.044
0.039
1400
660
0.298
0.229
0.64
0.33
2.19
0.60
Year
2 3
Cadmium (mg/L)
0.029 0.007
0.018 0.006
Chromium (my/L)
0.096 0.042
0.053 0.028
Copper (mg/L)
0.042 0.030
0.034 0.027
Iron (mg/L)
1330 270
54 39
Lead (mg/L)
0.232 0.102
0.129 0.063
Nickel (mg/L)
0.60 0.35
0.22 0.21
Zinc (mg/L)
12.0 3.62
0.30 0.12
4
0.004
0.003
0.019
0.022
0.012
0.013
78
40
0.050
0.043
0.21
0.18
0.14
0.12
COMPARISON OF BACTERIAL CONTENT OF SLUDGES FROM CONVENTIONAL
ACTIVATED SLODGE AND LONG AERATION PROCESSES
Present sludge regulations for land disposal in the U.S. assume that the
pathogenic microorganism content of the mixture of primary sludge and acti-
vated sludge obtained from a conventional primary-activated sludge plant is
438
-------
the same as from plants with long aeration and no primary treatment. As a
result, the same degree of additional treatment must be given to all sludges
that are disposed to the land. Arguments have been made that the long aera-
tion time of plants such as extended aeration is comparable to separate
aerobic digestion of the sludge and should reduce the requirement for further
treatment of the sludge. To provide information on the relative destruction
of pathogenic microorganisms in sludges from conventional activated sludge
(CAS) compared to extended aeration (EA), a side-by-side continuous pilot
study was carried out using the same wastewater feed?.
The pilot study was carried out using screened wastewater from the Mill
Creek Plant, Cincinnati, Ohio. The CAS system included the primary settler,
aerator and final settler. Feed rate was 1.6 yal/min (7900 L/day), the aera-
tor hydraulic residence time was about eight hours, and the approximate
solids retention time (SRT) in the aerator was seven days. The EA pilot sys-
tem did not include a primary clarifier. The feed rate to the EA system was
0.93 gal/min (5100 L/day), and the aerator hydraulic residence time was about
24 hours. The SRT was varied over a range from 19 days to 32 days, but reduc-
tion in microorganisms did not change within this ranye. Actual pathogens
were not measured in the study. It was intended to include salmonella, but
levels near or below the detection limit prevented this. The common indica-
tors, total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and fecal streptococci, were used
instead to characterize the effects of the two treatment systems. About 30
sets of grab samples were taken from each system for bacterial analysis.
Overall removals for each treatment system are shown in Table 5 for the
three indicator organisms. Since the microorganism determinations are done
on wet sludge, the results can be reported on a total volume basis or a
solids basis. Regarding disposal on land, organism density on a total solids
basis is usually of greatest interest. In this study, a modification was
made with results reported on a volatile suspended solids (VSS) basis. Simi-
lar results would have been obtained using a total solids basis, except for
very dilute samples where inorganic materials can become significant. Table
5 shows clearly that the longer-SRT process, EA, results in a greater reduc-
tion of indicator organisms. The difference expressed as log-to-base-ten
ranged from 0.84 for fecal streptococci to 1.21 for total coliforms. Although
not shown in Table 5, results from samples taken of the primary and secondary
sludge from the CAS system show that about 85 percent of the organisms are
associated with the primary sludge. Much of the improvement of the EA system
results from the fact that the primary sludge undergoes what is comparable to
a degree of aerobic digeston in this system.
Although actual pathogens were not measured in the pilot study, in an
earlier study a bacterial pathogen, salmonella, was measured along with the
three indicator organisms measured in the pilot study**. In this earlier study
reductions across four long-SRT plants without primary were compared with
reduction across one conventional primary-activated sludge plant. The long-
SRT plants included two EA plants and two oxidation ditches. Reduction of
the indicator organisms over the four long-SRT plants were remarkably consist-
ent. Average reductions expressed as logs were 1.76 for total coliforms, 2.22
for fecal coliforms and 1.64 for fecal streptococci. Results are almost iden-
tical or only slightly higher than those shown in Table 5 for the pilot study.
439
-------
TABLE 5. BACTERIAL DENSITIES IN SOLIDS FROM EXTENDED
AERATION AND CONVENTIONAL ACTIVATED SLUDGE
Indicator
Sample
Bacterial Density[1ogio(no./g VSS)3
Total Coliforms
Fecal Coliforms
Fecal Streptococci
Influent Solids
EAa Sludge
Difference*3
CASC Sludge
Difference
Influent Solids
EA Sludye
Difference
CAS Sludye
Difference
Influent Solids
EA Sludge
Difference
CAS Sludge
Di fference
9.28
7.59
1.69
8.80
0.48
7.95
6.00
1.95
7.05
0.90
7.34
5.99
1.35
6.83
0.51
aEA Extended Aeration
^Difference Influent Solids Bacterial Density - Sludge Bacterial Density
CCAS Conventional Activated Sludye
Results for salmonella were complicated by some determinations being less
than the detectable limit, but estimates of the median reductions for the
four lonySRT plant were from 1.1 to 1.3 loys. Salmonella reduction for the
CAS plant was obtained for both the waste activated sludge and the primary
sludge. As was the case for indicator organisms in the pilot study, much of
the salmonella was associated with the primary sludge. Reduction in the
waste activated sludge was about 1.3 loys, but for the primary only 0.7 log,
giving a reduction for the mixture of about 0.8 log. This reduction was,
therefore, 0.3 to 0.5 log less than for the lony-SRT plants.
Well operated digestion of mixed primary and activated sludge has been
observed to result in about two logs indicator reduction and one log salmon-
ella reduction. Data obtained from these studies indicate there is approxi-
mately a one log greater reduction of indicator organisms for lony-SRT-no-
primary systems compared to CAS and 0.3 to 0.5 log greater reduction of
salmonella. Although there is a need for additional data, especially for
pathogenic organisms, available data suggest that some credit regarding
further sludge treatment for land disposal should be given to the long-SRT
systems.
440
-------
REFERENCES
1. Molton, P. M., A. G. Fassbender, and M. D. Brown. STORS: The Sludge to
Oil Reactor System. EPA-6QO/2-86-034, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1986.
2. Lee, K. M., P. Griffith, J. B. Farrell, and A. E. Eralp. Conversion of
Municipal Sludge to Oil. Accepted by Water Pollution Control Federation
Journal, July 1987.
3. The City of Longmont, Colorado. Aqueous-Phase Oxidaiton of Sludge Using
the Vertical Reaction Vessel System. EPA/600/2-87/022, U. S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1987.
4. Morill, G. B. Municipal Sludge Oxidation with the Vertical Tube Reactor,
In: Proceedings, Tenth United States/Japan Conference on Sewage Treat-
ment Cincinnati, Ohio, 1985, pp 502-515, EPA/600/9-86/0156, 1986.
5. Modell, M. Processing Methods for the Oxidation of Organics in Super-
critical Water. U.S. Patent No. 4,543,190, issued September 4, 1985.
6. Farrell, J. B., G. K. Dotson, J. W. Stamm, and J. J. Walsh. The Effects
of Municipal Wastewater Sludge in Leachates and Gas Production from
Sludge Refuse Landfills. Presented: U.S./U.S.S.R. Bilateral Agreement
Symposium on Municipal and Industrial Wastewater Treatment, March 20-21,
1987, Cincinnati, Ohio.
7. Lee, K. M., J. B. Farrell, A. E. Eralp, and R. A. Rossi. Bacterial
Density Reduction in Activated Sludge Processes. Internal Report, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 1987.
8. Farrell, J. B., B. V. Salotto, and A. D. Venosa. Reduction in Bacterial
Densities of Wastewater Solids by Three Secondary Treatment Processes.
Internal Report, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio,
1987.
441
-------
STATUS OF THE POTABLE WATER REUSE DEMONSTRATION PROJECT AT DENVER
by
William C. Lauer, Project Officer
Denver Reuse Plant
Denver, Colorado 80022
and
John J. Convery, Director
Wastewater Research Division
Water Engineering Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
This paper has been reviewed in accordance with
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's peer
and administrative review policies and approved
for presentation and publication.
Prepared for Presentation at:
Eleventh United States/Japan Conference
on Sewage Treatment Technology
Tokyo, Japan
October 12-14, 1987
443
-------
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is fourfold: (1) report on the current
status of the Denver Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project; (2)
describe the Phase I process performance results; (3) evaluate these
performance results for compliance with the new requirements in the
recent Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act and (4) present a
summary of the Phase I operating costs of the Denver facility.
The project is designed to determine the feasibility of renovating
secondary treated wastewater to potable water including resolution of the
issues of water quality safety, process dependability, economics, regulatory
agency approval and social acceptability.
Process dependability includes both the concepts of reliability
and utilization. Reliability is the ability of the process to produce
water which satisfies specified standards such as the EPA Primary and
Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL) and Maximum Contaminant
Level Goals (MCLG's) for drinking water. The MCL's are enforceable
standards required to be set as near as "feasible" to the MCLG's (treatment
goals), taking cost into consideration. The MCLG's are required to be set
at levels that would result in no known or anticipated adverse health
effects with an adequate margin of safety. The design reliability
standards based upon EPA Primary and Secondary MCL's are shown in
Tables 1 and Table 2, respectively. The EPA proposed MCLG's are
shown in Appendix A. Utilization is measured by comparing the quantity
of water produced which satisfies the reliability parameters to the
maximum production capability exclusive of lost production due to power
failures.
UTILIZATION FACTOR =
(Gallons produced - Gallons not meeting reliiabi'l ity standards) X 100
Maximum production in gallons (exclusive of power outages)
The 1986 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act were signed by the
President of the United States on June 19, 1986. Every public water supply
in the Country must meet the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations
which currently consist of 21 contaminants. The new Amendments require
the regulation of some 83 contaminants within three years^. A complete
list of contaminants which are currently regulated or proposed for regu-
lation is shown in Appendix B. EPA has the option of substituting up to
seven other contaminants for those on the list if the Agency finds this
will provide greater health protection. The Agency is currently consider-
ing the deletion of zinc, vanadium, sodium, molybdenum, dibromomethane,
aluminum and silver. Additions to the list which are being considered
444
-------
include aldicarb sulfoxide, aldicarb sulfone, ethyl benzene, heptachlor,
heptachlor epoxide, styrene, nitrate. In addition to the above 83, at
least 25 more primary standards will be required by 1991; with 25 more
standards expected every three years thereafter. By 1988, EPA must
specify criteria for filtration of surface water supplies and by
1990, criteria for disinfection of surface and ground water supplies.
The Act also requires that MCLG's and MCL's be proposed simultaneously
and promulgated simultaneously. The Administrator of EPA must list the
technology, treatment technique, and other means that he determines are
feasible for meeting the MCL. This does not mean that these specific
techniques must be used for meeting the MCL. To overcome the lack of
information on the occurrence of contaminants of potential health
significance, the Act requires cities to monitor another set of 50
contaminants shown in Appendix C.
The 1.0 MGD (.043 m3/s) Demonstration Facility at Denver began
full operation on October 1, 1985. EPA provided research grant funding
of $7.05M toward the $30 million project cost which includes the capital
cost of the facility, five years of operation and testing as well as
health effects studies.
The Process Flow Scheme2 consists of: single stage of lime clari-
fication, recarbonation, pressure filtration, selective ion exchange for
ammonia removal, first-stage activated carbon adsorption, ozonation,
second-stage activated carbon adsorption, reverse osmosis, air stripping
and chlorine dioxide disinfection. Unit processes following first-stage
activated carbon treatment are operated at a reduced flow rate of 0.1 MGD
(.0043 m3/s).
Process alternatives are to be evaluated in four phases to identify
the overall treatment sequence which could provide the best quality water
at least cost. Special removal studies, contaminant dosing studies, unit
process optimization studies and selected health effects testing will also
be conducted to fully characterize the plant performance.
Following the four phase plant optimization period lasting two
years, the process configuration to be used for the remainder of the
project will be selected. During this phase of the study health effects
testing including whole animal testing will be conducted to compare the
plant product water to the Denver potable supply. A public information
program introducing the concept of water recycling to future consumers
and an extensive quality assurance program are also being conducted.
PHASE I TESTING PROGRAM
During Phase I, which lasted from October 1, 1985 to March 28, 1986,
the ion exchange and regenerant recovery system for ammonia removal were not
operated. The process schematic for Phase I is shown in Figure 1. The
445
-------
operational parameters for the unit processes operated during this phase
of the study are shown in Table 3.
Following first-stage activated carbon treatment the flow stream
was split with 0.1 MGD (.0043 m3/s) receiving the additional treatment.
The remainder of the flow 0.9 MGD (.039 m3/s) was disinfected with
chlorine dioxide and returned to the wastewater treatment plant for
use in nonpotable systems.
Phase I test results for general, radiological, microbiological,
and inorganic parameters are listed in Table 4. The results for the
Reuse Plant Influent, Reuse Plant Product, and the Denver Drinking Water
comparison are presented for the time period October 1, 1985 - March 28,
1986. It is interesting to note that with the exception of turbidity,
fluoride, asbestos, and the microbiological parameters, the measured
Reuse Plant Influent Parameters satisfy all existing and proposed
primary drinking water standards. The Reuse Plant Effluent satisfies
all of the primary, secondary and proposed recommended MCL's except pH
as shown in Tables 5, 6, and 7. The finished water pH in a full pro-
duction plant could easily be adjusted to be in the appropriate range.
Removals of most parameters through the Phase I treatment processes
exceeded 95% except for boron, uranium, chloride, silica, TKN and
ammonia-N. Figures 2 and 3 show the progressive removal of Total
Organic Carbon (TOC), Membrane Heterotrophic Plate Count (M-HPC),
and total coliform through the sequence of unit processes. No
significant removal of the aerobic heterotrophic organisms occurred
until the reverse osmosis unit. It is notable that the results for
the Reuse Plant Product are either lower than or not significantly
different from Denver Drinking Water for every parameter tested
with the exception of three: Boron, Ammonia-N, and Total Kjeldahl
Nitrogen (TKN).
There are no U.S. standards for boron in drinking water. A limit
has been set at 5.0 mg/L for boron in Canada.3 The levels found in the
Reuse Plant Product and Denver Drinking Water are near the analytical
detection limit (0.20 and 0.12 mg/L) and are more than a factor of twenty
lower than the Canadian limit.
The higher ammonia-nitrogen concentrations in the Reuse Plant
Phase I Product than in the Denver Drinking Water (3.2 mg/L vs 0.3 mg/L)
were expected since the ammonia removal ion exchange process was not
operated during the evaluation period. The higher TKN results can be
fully explained by the increased ammonia-N values. There are no
standards for the ammonia-N concentration in drinking water in the
United States, Canada or set by the World Health Organization. However,
there is concern regarding the conversion of ammonia-N to nitrite-N or
4/16
-------
nitrate-N. Both of these nitrogen species are or will be regulated. The
current MCL for N03-N is 10 mg/L. The proposed MCLG for NOz-N is 1 mg/L.
There are definite health effects associated with ingestion of these ions.4
The residual ammonia levels experienced in this test can be reduced by
various means including chlorination. Alternate methods for ammonia-N
removal will be investigated in future process sequence evaluations which
may omit the selective ion exchange system.
Confirmed trace organic compounds found in the Plant Influent, Plant
Product, and Denver Drinking Water are listed in Table 8. The compounds are
grouped by their maximum concentration over the October - March period.
Compounds which have been tentatively identified by mass spectra library
comparison for the Reuse Product Water and Denver Drinking Water are
shown in Appendices D and E, respectively. Estimated concentrations are
based upon internal standards. Compounds identified as having been confirmed
are based upon known concentrations of certified standards. Three sample
preparation methods were used for organic analyses: Grob closed-loop strip-
ping, purge and trap, and liquid-liquid extraction. The results listed
combined data from all of these methods. Only five compounds were found
at concentrations above 1 ug/L in the Reuse Plant Product water. These
represent single events and maximum concentrations. Denver drinking
water contained eleven compounds with concentrations in excess of 1 ug/L.
None of the compounds identified in either sample were in concentrations
approaching any established or proposed standards.
Many analyses were performed which produced undetectable results or
limited data with low concentrations. These included: rare earth elements,
radionuclides, microscopic examination, enteric virus, arsenic, cyanide,
Campy!pbacter. Salmonella. Shigella, parasites and asbestos. Most of
these tests were intended as screening tests which were performed in-
frequently. If concentrations of concern were found, the frequency of
sampling would have been increased. However, this was not necessary in
either the Reuse Product or Denver Drinking Water samples.
UNIT PROCESS OPERATING EXPERIENCE
CHEMICAL CLARIFICATION
Annual cleaning of the influent pipe line to remove organic slime
deposition was found to be necessary to maintain the raw water flow plus
backwash equalization basin recycle flow at 1.0 MGD (.043 m^/s) with the
existing pump. Retrofitting the influent channel with fine bubble dif-
fusers (1 ft-* air/ft^ water) to strip carbon dioxide from the secondary
effluent has reduced the required chemical lime dose by ten percent re-
sulting in a savings of $10,000 per year. Each mg of C02 consumes 1.7 mg
of lime. The tertiary lime clarification system is operated as a single
stage excess lime treatment system with ferric chloride addition as a
coagulant. The pH feedback process control system has been working well
since the response time was reduced to ten seconds by feeding hydrated
447
-------
lime with an eductor. The pH probe requires daily cleaning with an acid
rinse. Carbon dioxide is sparged beneath a radial flow turbine mixer to
reduce the pH to 7.7 prior to entering the ballast pond.
Lime clarification reduced the influent turbidity from 8.6 to 1.9
NTU. Total organic carbon was reduced from 17.2 mg/L to 8.2 mg/L.
PRESSURE FILTRATION
Two of the three multi-media pressure filters are operated simul-
taneously at 4.42 gpm/ft2 (0.18 m/min). Each filter has a surface area
of 78.5 square feet (7.3 m2). The media for the filters consists of 16.5
inches (0.42 m) of anthracite coal (effective size = 1.0 to 1.1 mm, sp.
gr. = 1.6); 9 inches (0.23 m) of sand (effective size 0.45 to 0.55 mm,
sp. gr. = 2.6); and 4.5 inches (0.11 m) of garnet (effective size = 0.3
to 0.4 mm, sp. gr. = 4.0) supported by 10 inches (0.254 m) of gravel.
The filter cycles ranged from 16.0 to 19.0 hours and were terminated
when the headloss reached 11 feet (3.35 m). The backwash sequence
includes a surface wash step. The surface wash routine takes about 17
minutes at an average flow rate of 56.5 gpm (0.00356 m3/s). The total
backwash waste flow is equal to about 7.5% of the total filter flow.
This corresponds to an average filter production efficiency of 92.5%.
Filter flow was wasted for 10 minutes prior to returning the unit to
production service.
The, filters removed an average of 78% of the influent turbidity to
a level of 0.33 NTU. Filter effluent quality was highly consistent and
independent of the influent turbidity levels within the range of 0.6 to
3.3 NTU. The dissolved oxygen was also reduced across the filters from
a geometric mean of 7.53 mg/L to an effluent value of 2.05 mg/L. Total
coliform counts were reduced by an average of 32% across the filters.
Substantial biological activity and loss of dissolved oxygen within the
filters was not controlled by shock treatment of the filters for six hours
with 75 mg/L of chlorine dioxide on a monthly basis.
Multiple (4) and topical additions of solid calcium hypochlorite
(Ca(OCl)2, HTH) with dosages as high as 390 mg/L and contact time of
24-30 hours were able to reduce the initial oxygen depletion to 15%.
For Phase II, the backwash flow rate was increased to 1500 gpm
(0.094 m^/s) for 25 minutes and surface wash time extended to 25 minutes.
CARBON ADSORPTION
The activated carbon used for both the first- and second-stage
adsorption is Filtrasorb 300, a crushed coal-based carbon, in the 8 by 30
mesh (0.6 to 2.4 mm) size range. The nominal bed volume is approximately
448
-------
3200 cubic feet with an empty bed contact time of 33 minutes. The hydraulic
loading rate is 6.04 gpm/ft^ (0.245 m/min) and the columns are operated
in a downflow mode. During a six month evaluation phase this represents
a dosage of 71 mg/L. Initially the columns were backwashed and the sur-
face fines were skimmed which resulted in an initial clean bed headloss
of 8.5 feet (2.59 m). The columns were backwashed at 17.7 gpm/ft^
(0.718 m/min) when the headloss exceeded 15 feet (4.57 m). A combination
of factors including: biological activity, lack of surface wash mecha-
nisms in the column design and 20 feet (6.09 m) excessive free-board
from bed surface to backwash waste header resulted in poor backwash
performance and the necessity to periodically remove 55 ft^ (1.55 m^)
of medium. This was equivalent to removing a six inch (0.15 m) layer
of carbon. During the six months of Phase I operation 5% of the carbon
was physically removed by skimming.
The first-stage carbon adsorption column removed 91% of the influent
TOC initially and 51% after six months of operation. Figure 2 shows the
geometric mean TOC concentration for each unit process for Phase I and
indicates an average removal across the first-stage carbon column of 66%.
Virgin carbon purchased to make up for inventory losses is added to
the second-stage column. Second-stage carbon is used to make up first-stage
inventory needs. Only first-stage carbon is thermally regenerated. The
second-stage column has a nominal bed volume of 340 cubic feet (9.58 m^).
The daily average flow is 86,000 gallons (3.25 m^) which corresponds to a
hydraulic loading of 4.7 gpm/ft? (1.06 m/min). Over the six month period
of Phase I this corresponds to a dosage of 88 mg/L. The second-stage
column had an initial headloss of 7.8 feet (2.38 m) after two feet
(0.61 m) of fines were removed. No further fines removal were required.
TOC removals ranged from a maximum of 85.7% initially to a minimum of
38% at the end of the period. The geometric mean TOC removal average
62% from 2.6 mg/L to 1.0 mg/L.
CARBON REGENERATION
The carbon regeneration system consists of the following functions:
(1) carbon transport as a slurry 1.5 inch eductors (3.8 cm), (2) drying
with a manually controlled variable speed dewatering screw auger feed
system to the drying section of the fluidized bed system, (3) regeneration
of the carbon by gasifying adsorbed organics in an oxygen limiting environ-
ment at 1600 - 1800°F, (4) incineration of the off gases in the presence
of 3 to 4% oxygen and partial recycle to the dryer, (5) quenching of the
carbon and (6) off gas treatment consisting of cooling and particulate
removal in a variable-throat venturi scrubber and a tray impingement
scrubber.
The actual performance of the carbon regeneration furnace compared
to operating goals is shown in Table 9.
449
-------
OZONE
The primary purpose of ozonation is to oxidize organic substances
that were not removed in the first-stage carbon columns. Oxidation was
expected to either remove some of the organics directly or alter their
form to facilitate their adsorption in the second-stage carbon columns.
Ozone also acts as a disinfectant for bacteria and viruses.
The ozone unit is designed to treat 0.086 MGD (0.0037 m3/s) which
is 10% of the discharge from the first-stage carbon adsorption process.
The contact basin is rectangular in shape with a depth of 15.8 feet
(4.82 m), a length of 14 feet (4.28 m), and a width of 2.5 feet (0.76 m)
which provided a mean contact time of 60 minutes. The basin is partitioned
by aluminum baffles into six contacting compartments with ozone diffusers
and one quiescent zone which allows the release of non-absorbed bubbles
of ozone. Released gases are collected and sent to the catalytic ozone
destruction units.
Ambient air is compressed to 100 psig (689 kPa), filtered and
dried to a dew point of - 70°F and then refiltered prior to entering the
ozone generator at 11 psig (75.8 kPa). The air flow to the generators
was 4228 actual ft3/day (0.0014 m3/s). The two ozone generators are
cylindrical stainless steel tanks with 15 glass dieletric tubes each
encircled by stainless tubes. A discharge field generates a corona
effect in the gap between the glass and steel tubes. As air is pumped
through the gap, oxygen molecules are split and ozone is formed. The
production of ozone is varied by a voltage regulator that controls the
amount of electricity to create the corona discharge. A geometric mean
dose of 1.89 mg/L was provided to the contact basin which had an overall
transfer efficiency of 72.7%.
The ozonation unit did not remove any TOC as shown in Figure 2.
Total coliform removal averaged 66.4% (412 to 139 counts/100 ml). The
membrane-heterotrophic plate count was reduced 40% to 1.8 x 105 counts/ml.
Coliphage B removals were 98.8% to 1.4 PFU/100 ml_.
REVERSE OSMOSIS
The second-stage carbon column effluent is acidified with hydro-
chloric acid to pH 6.0, dosed with sodium hexametaphosphate to inhibit cal-
cium sulfate precipitation (6 mg/L), filtered through 5 micron polypropylene
cartridge filters and pressurized to 260 psig (1790 kPa) for processing
in one of three 35 gpm (0.0022 m3/s) reverse osmosis units. Each unit
consists of four first-stage tubes, two second-stage tubes and one third-
stage tube. Each tube contains six spiral wound polyamide membranes. The
water recovery through each stage is approximately 50% resulting in an
overall water recovery of 86% and salt rejection of >97% based upon TDS.
450
-------
Due to the relative permeabilities of the various carbonate species,
the pH of the recovered permeate (4.6) is lower than that of feed. It is
neutralized via air stripping at a gas to liquid ratio of 100:1 to remove
98% of the dissolved carbon dioxide to a residual of 4 mg/L. The brine
stream (10% of flow) is presently discharged to the sanitary sewer.
When feed pressure increases 10-15% to maintain permeate flow, the
unit is first cleaned with warm (32°C) citric acid solution (21 g/L) and
adjusted to pH 3.5 to remove metal hydroxide and calcium carbonate scale.
Next the unit is rinsed and cleaned with a warm solution of borax, EDTA,
and trisodium phosphate (10 g/L each) to remove organic and biological
residues.
Ammonia nitrogen and total organic carbon removals averaged
86% to residuals of 3.2 mg/L and 0.2 mg/L respectively. The few milli-
grams per liter of ammonia-nitrogen can be used beneficially to provide
a chloramine residual in the finished water. Persistent coliform contami-
nation of the permeate at a mean level of 1.5 counts/100 ml was observed
and attributed to permeate side colonization rather than leakage.
Total operating time ranged from a minimum of 10 days to a maximum
of 131 days. Longer term operating expectations are two months for each
module if all upstream units are performing satisfactorily. Membrane
life is now 4 plus years which exceeds the estimate of 3 years.
CHLORINE DIOXIDE
Chlorine dioxide was chosen because it is a more effective viricide
and bactericide than chlorine, is applicable over a wide pH range and with
careful control, and reduces the potential for formation of chlorinated
organics. Chlorine dioxide is generated on-site by reacting chlorine
solution with 25% sodium chlorite (NaClOg) solution with vacuum-induced
delivery of reactants. Chlorine dioxide output capacity is 5.8 - 41.8
Ib/day (0.044 - 0.32 kg/day). Careful monitoring of the various chlorine
species produced from the generator is necessary. The primary chlorine
species include chlorine dioxide, chlorite, chlorine and chlorate.
Speciation analyses are performed weekly and the chlorine dioxide yield
is determined twice daily with the routine absorbance (440 nm) test. The
current generator design is capable of producing yields greater than 90%
with minimal excess chlorine down to concentrations of 20.0 mg/L (15%).
Chlorine dioxide concentrations are of the order of 245 mg/L.
Chlorine dioxide is applied to the first-stage carbon adsorption
effluent and to the reverse osmosis effluent. Profiles of the mean total
coliform and mean membrane heterotrophic plate count (m-HPC) through the
treatment plant are shown in Figure 3. Coliforms are reduced significant-
ly by lime at pH above 11. Ozone further reduces the viable population
451
-------
to a low value. Following reverse osmosis essentially no coliforms
remain. Chlorine dioxide provides protection from regrowth. The plate
count organisms were not reduced significantly by the lime treatment.
Ozone reduced these organisms by less than one log. The reverse osmosis
units provided more than 3 log removal. After complete treatment and
chlorine dioxide disinfection, mean m-HPC values are less than one count
per millilHer. This excellent performance was achieved with an applied
dose of only 0.25 mg/1 and a contact time of 3.8 minutes.
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
The direct operation costs for the Denver Reuse Demonstration
Plant during Phase I are tabulated in Table 10 and summarized graphically
in Figure 4. Fifty two percent of the unit process costs are associated
with the reverse osmosis unit.
The carbon regeneration costs are based upon regeneration at 6
month intervals (i.e., treatment of 7.439 m^ wastewater/m^ carbon) and
cost experience through the 2nd regeneration campaign. The chemical
cost for activated carbon represent the cost of carbon replacement due
to losses during operation (approximately 20% of total) and regeneration
(approximately 80% of total). Two thirds of the utility cost is asso-
ciated with normal operation and the balance with carbon regeneration.
SUBSEQUENT TESTING PROGRAM
Phase II began April 16, 1986 and was concluded in October 17, 1986.
Phase II incorporated the operation of all unit processes including the ion
exchange process for ammonia removal and recovery by regeneration of the
exchange media. The clinoptilolite columns are operated in a downflow
mode at 5 gpm/ft^ (0.2 m/min.) to remove ammonium ion. The columns
are regenerated with a concentrated (2%) sodium chloride solution in a
batch-counter-current flow mode. Ammonia is then removed from the spent
regenerant after pH adjustment with NaOH and clarification by air stripping
and absorbed in sulphuric acid and disposed of on the plant grounds as a
nitrogen fertilizer. Problems occurred with the regeneration system
which resulted in periodic salt leakage into the product water and in-
efficient regeneration of the ion exchange media. Influent ammonia
(NH4-N) levels averaging 24 mg/L were reduced to 4.5 mg/L by the ion
exchange process.
Phase III started November 10, 1986 and was terminated prematurely on
February 24, 1987. The goal in Phase III was to evaluate a non-reverse osmosis
process sequence to obtain information which may support a reuse treatment
sequence which provides for split treatment and blending of effluents to
satisfy quality objectives while minimizing costs. Phase III was terminated
prematurely because nematodes occurred in the product water surviving
clarification, filtration, ozonation and chlorine dioxide disinfection.
45?
-------
Partial nitrification of the ammonia present in the ozonated water occurred
in the second stage carbon adsorption column. The resulting nitrite con-
centrations increased the chlorine dioxide demand of the water to an un-
acceptable level. Complete nitrification was demonstrated by reducing the
flow rate to the ion exchange columns which reduced the ammonia level to
1 mg/L.
Chlorine dioxide was added to the filter pump wet well to provide
0.1 mg/1 residual to the filter influent and eliminate the dissolved oxygen
reduction which occurred across the filters. As a consequence of this
operational change, filter run lengths were extended from 20 to 70 hours.
Phase IV was started March 5, 1987 and is currently underway. This Phase
of the evaluation was initiated without ion exchange, ozonation or carbon
adsorption. The second stage of carbon adsorption and ozonation were
subsequently returned to service because of excessive pressure build-up
in the reverse osmosis unit.
SUMMARY
The Phase I results have shown that the Reuse Plant effluent satisifies
all of the primary, secondary and proposed recommended MCL's except pH.
Furthermore, the Phase I operating results indicate that this high quality
water can be reliably produced at an operating cost of $3.60 per thousand
gallons ($0.95/m3), with approximately half of the unit process costs
attributed to reverse osmosis operation.
453
-------
TABLE 1. RELIABILITY STANDARDS - EPA PRIMARY MCLs
PARAMETER MCL1
Physical/Aesthetic
Turbidity 1 NTU
Major Cations, Anions
Fluoride 1.72
Nitrate-N 10
Trace Metals
Arsenic 0.05
Barium 1
Cadmium 0.01
Chromium 0.05
Lead 0.05
Mercury 0.002
Selenium 0.01
Silver 0.05
Radiological
Gross Alpha 5 pCi/L
Gross Beta 50 pCi/L
Microbiological
Total Coliforms 1/100 mL
Trihalomethanes
TTHM 0.10
Trace Organics
Endrin 0.0002
Lindane 0.004
Methoxychlor 0.1
Toxaphene 0.005
2,4-D 0.1
2,4,5-TP (Silvex) 0.01
1 Units in mg/L unless otherwise noted
2 Fluoride MCL is related to the annual average maximum daily air temperature
-------
TABLE 2. RELIABILITY STANDARDS - EPA SECONDARY MCLs
PARAMETER
MCL1
Physical/Aesthetic
PH
Color
MBAS (Foaming Agents)
Odor
Trace Metals
Copper
Iron
Manganese
Zinc
Major Ions
TDS
Chioride
Sulfate
6.5-8.5
15 CU
0.5
3 TON
1
0.3
0.05
5
500
200
250
Microbiological
Coliphage B
Coliphage C
OTHER STANDARDS
0/100mL
0/100mL
Units in mg/L unless otherwise noted
-------
TABLE 3. PHASE I PROCESS OPERATING PARAMETERS
LOCATION
Influent
Rapid Mix Basins
Flocculation Basin
Chemical Clarifier
Recarbonation Basin
Ballast Pond
Filters
PARAMETERS
VALUES
Flow Rate
Turbidity
Backwash Recycle
Flow Rate
Detention Time
Velocity Gradient
Lime Dose
Ferric ChloriDe Dose
pH Set Point
Detention Time
Velocity Gradient
Flow Rate
Detention Time
Overflow Rate
Waste Sludge Flow Rate
Sludge Solids Concentration
Sludge Wasted Daily
Turbidity
Detention Time
Velocity Gradient
Carbon Dioxide Dose
pH Set Point
Detention Time
Turbidity
Flow Rate
Hydraulic Loading Rate
Avg. Fil ter Run Length
Backwash Duration
Backwash Flow Rate
Surface Wash Duration
Surface Wash Flow Rate
Backwash Loading Rate
Terminal Pressure Drop
Turbidity
0.91 MGD
8.6 NTU
0.11 MGD
1.02 MGD
5.8 Min
326 I/sec
530 mg/L
13 mg/L
11.2
24.5 Min
100 L/sec
0.98 MGD
98.8 Min
808 GPD/Ft2
0.033 MGD
2.53%
6.9X103 Ibs/day
6.3 NTU
11.67 Min
533 I/sec
230 mg/L
7.7
149.6 Min
1.9 NTU
0.32 MGD
4.42 GPM/Ft2
17.2 Hrs
25 Min
1250 GPM
17 Min
56.5 GPM
15.96 GPM/ Ft 2
11.0 Ft
0.33 NTU
456
-------
TABLE 3. (continued)
LOCATION
First-Stage Carbon
Ozone Basin
Second-Stage Carbon
Reverse Osmosis
PARAMETERS
Flow Rate
Hydraulic Loading Rate
Throughput Rate
Empty Bed Contact Time
Backwash Duration
Backwash Flow Rate
Backwash Loading Rate
Terminal Pressure Drop
Flow Rate
Detention Time
Ozone Residual
Ozone Off Gas Concentration
Ozone Transfer Efficiency
Applied Ozone Dose
Ozone Absorbed Dose
Ozone Produced
Generator Air Flow
Generator Power Consumption
Throughput Rate
Hydraulic Loading Rate
Empty Bed Contact Time
Backwash Duration
Backwash Flow Rate
Backwash Loading Rate
Terminal Pressure Drop
Turbidity
Flow Rate
Feed Pressure
Feed Conductivity
Product Conductivity
Product Water Recovery
VALUES
0.98 MGD
6.04 GPM/Ft2
1.73 BV/Hr
33.1 Min
20 Min
2000 GPM
17.7 GPM/Ft2
15.0 Ft
0.086 MGD
59.7 Min
0 mg/L
0.06%
72.7%
1.89 mg/L
1.37 mg/L
1.46 Ibs/day
4228 ACFD
0.8 KWH
1.43 BV/Hr
4.75 GPM/Ft2
42.0 Min
20 Min
200 GPM
15.9 GPM/Ft2
15.0 Ft
0.17 NTU
0.042 MGD
260 PSI
1013 UMHOS/CM
50 UMHOS/CM
86%
Rejection Based on Conductivity 95%
Hydrochloric Acid Dose 147 mg/L
Disinfection
Chlorine Dioxide Dose
Chlorine Dioxide Residual
Detention Time
Turbidity
0.29
0.11
15.9
0.04
mg/L
mg/L
Min
NTU
1 MGD = .0438 m3/s
1 GPM = 6.309 X 10-5 m3/s
1 GPM/ft2 = 0.041 m/mln.
1 ft = 0.305 m
1 Ibs/day = 0.0076 kg/day
1 ACFD = 0.026 m3/day
1 PSI = 6/89 kPa
457
-------
TABLE 4. PHASE I TEST RESULTS
MEAN VALUES OCTOBER 1, 1985 - MARCH 28, 1986
(AH concentrations in mg/L unless otherwise indicated)
PARAMETER
General
Total Alkalinity - CaCOa
Hardness - CaC03
TSS
TDS
Specific Conductance-umhos/cm
pH - Units
D.O.
Temp - °C
Turbidity - NTU
TKN
TOC
Color - Units
Particle Size 128u
(count/50mL)
Particle Size 64-128u
(count/50mL)
Particle Size 32-64p
(count/50mL)
Particle Size 16-32u
(count/50mL)
Particle Size 8-16y
(count/50mL)
Particle Size 4-8u
(count/50mL)
Asbestos-MFibers/L
MBAS
Radiological
Gross Alpha - pCi/L
Gross Beta - pCi/L
Microbiological
m-HPC (count/mL)
Total Col i form (count/lOOmL)
Fecal Strep (count/lOOmL)
Fecal Coliform (count/lOOmL)
Coliphage B - count/lOOmL
Coliphage C - count/lOOmL
Giardia - cysts/L
Endamoeba col i - cysts/L
Nematodes
Algae
Enteric Virus
REUSE PLANT
INFLUENT
273
199
10
545
1022
6.9
3.3
16
7.9
25
17
25
-
-
-
-
-
-
12.2
0.09
4.4
6.9
6.9xl05
3.0x105
l.lxlO4
2.2xl04
3.3xl04
6.0xl04
0.34
0.283
+
+
-
REUSE PLANT
PRODUCT
1
1
<1
14
49
6.0
7.9
18
0.04
2.7
0.2
<1
*
1
6
19
65
156
*
0.01
<1
<1
0.3
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
DENVER DRINKING
WATER
79
105
<1
172
286
7.7
-
4
0.28
0.7
2.1
<1
*
1
68
224
444
780
*
0.01
2.0
1.9
0.6
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
-
-
* = below detection limit, or more than 50X of data was below detection limit -
no mean calculated
- = not tested
+ = detected but not quantified
< = detection limit
45ft
-------
TABLE 4. (continued)
PARAMETER
Inorganic
Aluminum
Barium
Boron
Bromide
Cadmium
Calcium
Chloride
Chromium
Copper
Fluoride
Iron
Potassium
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Molybdenum
Ammonia-N
Nitrate-N
Nitrite-N
Nickel
Orthophosphate
Total Phosphate
Sil ica
Strontium
Sulfate
Lead
Uranium
Zinc
Sodium
Lithium
REUSE PLANT
INFLUENT
0.039
0.026
0.30
0.27
<0.0008
53
80
0.013
0.014
1.9
0.208
10.1
12
0.066
0.00013
0.008
24
0.07
<0.05
0.011
5.9
6.5
15
0.50
140
0.002
0.009
0.034
110
0.021
REUSE PLANT
PRODUCT
<1
<1
0.20
<0.08
<0.0008
<0.5
11
<0.001
<0.005
0.11
<0.01
0.5
<0.02
<0.005
<0. 00005
<0.002
3.2
<0.05
<0.05
<0.001
<0.08
0.02
2.4
<0.01
<0.8
<0.001
0.009
<0.004
3
<0.008
DENVER DRINKING
WATER
0.139
0.038
0.12
0.09
<0.0008
23
28
<0.001
0.017
1.1
0.074
1.9
8
0.012
<0. 00005
0.002
0.3
<0.05
<0.05
<0.001
<0.08
0.02
9.5
0.22
34
0.002
0.004
0.013
20
0.010
459
-------
TABLE 5. COMPARISON OF REUSE PRODUCT WATER
WITH NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING
WATER REGULATIONS (MCLs) - mg/L UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED
PARAMETER
MCL
REUSE PRODUCT
(MEAN VALUE)
Total Coli form - count/100 mL
Turbidity - NTU
Fluoride^
Nitrate-N
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium
Lead
Mercury
Sel en i urn
Silver
Gross Alpha - pCi/L
Total Trihalomethanes
Pesticides/ Herbicides
1.0
1.0
1.7
10
0.05
1.0
0.01
0.05
0.05
0.002
0.01
0.05
5
0.10
+
*
0.04
0.11
<0.05
<0.001
<0.1
<0.0008
<0.001
<0.001
<0. 00005
<0.001
<0.0008
<1
*
*
1 =
* =
+ =
< =
Fluoride MCL is related to the annual average maximum daily air temperature
Below detection limit, or more than 50% of data below detection limit-no
mean calculated
each compound has an individual MCL. None were found
detection 1imit
TABLE 6. COMPARISON OF REUSE PRODUCT WATER
WITH NATIONAL SECONDARY MCLs - mg/L UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED
PARAMETER
MCL
REUSE PRODUCT
(MEAN VALUE)
Color - Units
pH - Units
MBAS
Chloride
Sulfate
TDS
Copper
Iron
Manganese
Zinc
15
6.5 - 8.5
0.5
250
250
500
1.0
0.3
0.05
5.0
-------
TABLE 7. COMPARISON OF REUSE PRODUCT WATER MAXIMUM VALUES
WITH SELECTED FINAL MCLs AND PROPOSED HCLGs - ug/L
COMPOUND FINAL MCL REUSE PRODUCT
Trichloroethylene 5 0.51
Carbon Tetrachloride 5 0.15
1, 2-Dichloroethane 5 <2.0
Benzene 5 0.39
1,1-Dichloroethylene 7 *
1,1,1-Trichloroethane 200 0.2
p-Dichlorobenzene 75 0.04
PROPOSED MCLG (ug/L)
1,2-Dichloropropane 6 <0.5
0-Dichlorobenzene 620 *
2,4-D 70 <0.01
Ethylbenzene 680 0.31
Lindane 0.2 <0.1
Methoxychlor 340 <0.1
Monochlorobenzene 60 0.08
Toluene 2000 0.88
2,4,5-TP 52 *
Toxaphene zero <1.0
trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene 70 *
Xylenes 440 0.41
* - Below detection limit
461
-------
TABLE 8. CONFIRMED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ug/L
COMPOUND
REUSE PLANT
INFLUENT
GEOMETRIC
MAX MEAN1
DENVER DRINKING WATER
1,1 Dichloroethene
trans-1,2
Dichloroethylene
Chloroform
1,1,1 Trichloroethane
1,2 Dichloroethane
Benzene
Carbon tetrachloride
Trichloroethylene
1,2 Dichloropropane
Bromod i chloromethane
cis-1,3 Dichloropropene
trans-1,3 Dichloropropene
Toluene
1,1,2 Trichloroethane
Di brornochl oromethane
Tetrachloroethylene
Chlorobenzene
m&p-Xylene
o-Xylene
Ethyl benzene
Bromoform
1,1,2,2 Tetrachloroethane
m-Dichlorobenzene
p-Dichlorobenzene
o-Dichlorobenzene
trans-Decalin
cis-Decalin
*
4.5
6.9
*
0.28
0.14
6.4
<0.5
0.53
*
<0.5
0.32
*
0.50
60
(0.2
0.65
1.12
0.49
0.12
<0.5
0.22
3.04
5.58
0.81
0.2
EFFLUENT
MAX MAX
2.70(15)
3.74(14)
NQ
1.79(16)
NQ
NQ
NQ
6.27(13)
1.93(15)
1.19(15)
NQ
*
0.92
0.2
*
0.39
0.15
0.51
<0.5
0.12
0.13
<0.5
0.88
*
*
0.21
0.08
0.32
0.09
0.31
<0.5
0.04
*
<0.2
<0.2
6.85
0.2
0.83
0.52
0.48
<0.5
1.61
*
<0.5
0.12
*
1.14
0.34
<0.2
0.82
0.09
0.11
<0.5
<0.5
*
<0.2
<0.2
GEOMETRIC
MEAN
NQ
NQ
0.80(11)
NQ
* = below detection limit
1 = given in cases where more than SQ% of
detection 1imit
2 = number of samples above the detection
NQ = below minimum quantification limit
the test results were above the
limit are shown parenthetically
462
-------
TABLE 9. CARBON REGENERATION FURNACE PERFORMANCE
CRITERIA GOAL ACTUAL
Feed Rate (Ib/day)
Carbon 2000 2167
Adsorbate 1000 403
Natural Gas (BTU/lb Carbon)
Total 4735 - (HVT)1 5310
Electricity (kwh/lb carbon)
Total 0.39 0.46
Iodine Number 852 773
(90% of virgin carbon) (82% of virgin carbon)
Apparent Density (lb/ft3) 28-32 31.2
(virgin carbon is 32.7^ 6)
Heating Value Term = (1.4) x (weight % adsorbate) x (heating value)
1 Ib/day = 0.45 kg/day
1 BTU/lb = 2324 joules/kg
1 kwh/lb = 2.2 kwh/kg
1 lb/ft3 = 1.6 kg/m3
463
-------
TABLE 10. PHASE I DIRECT OPERATION COSTS (IN $/kgal TREATED)
OCTOBER 1, 1985 - MARCH 28,1986
CHEMICALS UTILITIES TOTAL
Unit Process Costs:
Lime Treatment 0.254 0.030 0.284
Recarbonation and Aeration 0.074 0.025 0.099
Filtration - 0.018 0.018
Activated Carbon 0.014 0.083 0.187
Ozonation - 0.072 0.072
R.O. plus Decarbonation 0.358 0.373 0.731
C102 0.019 __- 0.019
SUB-TOTALS 0.809 0.601 1.410
General Facility Operation and Maintenance:
Utilities 0.245
Materials 0.166
Other Services 0.145
Direct Labor i.610
SUB-TOTALS 2.176
COMBINED TOTAL 3.586
4fi4
-------
CTi
UNCHLORINATED
SECONDARY
EFFLUENT
NO. 1 WATER
NO. 2 WATER
CARBON
REGENERATION
DISINFECTION
NO. 2
WATER
PUMP
STATION
FIGURE 1. WATER REUSE TREATMENT PROCESS
SHOWING SAMPLE LOCATIONS
-------
Ul
O
o
o
O
b)
3
17-
16-
15-
14-
13-
12-
11-
10-
9-
8-
7-
6-
5-
4-
3-
2-
1-
0-
FIGURE 2
TOC by Phase 1 Process
Oct. 1, 1985 - Mar. 28, 1986 (mean values mg/l)
15.6
8.3
7.6
2.6
2.6
1
0.2
0.2
I I I I I
Inf Lime Filter Carbl Ozone Carb2
Sample Location
FIGURE 3
m — HPC and Total Coliform
Oct. 1, 1985 - Mar. 28, 1986 (mean values)
R.O. Effluent
6-
5-
4-
3-
2-
1 -
-1-
5.8 5.8
.5
5.7
2.9
1
5.5
•
II
5£ 5.2
2.6
2.1
2.0
ii
1.3
0.0
-0.6
I i i
Influent Lime Filter
m-HPC (/ml)
i i i i i
Carbl Ozone Carb2 R.O. Effluent
I Total Coliform (/100ml)
466
-------
FIGURE 4.
Unit Process Costs
Filtration
(.02)
R.O.
(.73)
Lime & Recarb
(.38)
Act. Carbon
(.19)
Total Unit Process Cost :r$1.41/kgal
CLO2
(.02)
Ozone
(.07)
-------
APPENDIX A
FINAL MCLS/PROPOSED MCLGs
VOLATILF ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS
voc
Final MCL
(ug/L)
voc
"FinarnfTL
(yg/L)
Benzene
vinyl Chloride
Carbon Tetrachloride
l,?-nichloroethane
?
5
5
TrTchTo"roe'thy Te he
1,1-nichloroethylene
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
p-nichlorobenzene
5
7
75
SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS
soc
Proposed MCLGs
(mg/L)
Acrylamide
Alachlor
Aldicarb, aldicarb sulfoxide
and aldicarb sulfone
Carbofuran
Chlordane
cis,l,?.-Dichloroethylene
HRCP
1,?-Dichloropropane
o-Dichlorobenzene
?,4-n
EDB
Epichlorohydrin
Ethyl benzene
Heptachlor
Heptachlor epoxide
Lindane
Methoxychlor
Monochlorobenzene
Pentachlorophenol
Styrene
Toluene
n
0
0.009
0.036
0
0.07
n
O.OOfi
0.6?
0.07
0
n
n
n
o.ooo?
n.34
o.??
0.14
Current MCL
(mg/L)
n.i
n.oon4
n.i
o.oi
Toxaphene
trans-1 ,?-nichloroethyl
Xylene
0
ene 0.07
0.44
0.
005
MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
Parameter
Total col i forms
Turbidity
Proposed Current
RMCL MCL
0
0.1 NTH 1 NTU
Parameter
Giardia
Viruses
Proposed
RMCL
n
0
46R
-------
APPENDIX A (continued)
PROPnSEn MCLfis
INUKRANIC CONTAMTMANTS
inc
Arsenic
Asbestosfmedium and long
fibers)
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Nitrate
Nitrite
Selenium
Proposed MCLRs
(mg/l.)
n.ns
7.1 million
fibers/liter
1.5
0.005
0.1?
1.3
n.n?n
0.003
in.n
1.0
0.045
Current MCI.
(mg/l.)
n.ns
1.0
0.01
O.OB
0.00?
0.01
469
-------
APPENDIX R
VOLATILE ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS
Trichloroethylene
Tetrachloroethylene
Carbon Tetrachloride
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
1,? - Dichloroethane
Vinyl Chloride
Methylene Chloride
Benzene
Chlorobenzene
nichlorobenzene(s)
Trichlorobenzene(s)
1,1 - Dichloroethylene
cis - 1,9 - Dichloroethylene
trans - I,? - nichloroethylene
SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS
Carbofuran
1,1,? - Trichlorethane
Vydate
Simazine
PAHs (Polynuclear Aromatic
Hydrocarbons)
PCBs (Polychlorinated
Biphenyls)
Atrazine
Phthalates
Acrylamide
DRCP (nibromochloropropane)
1,2 - Dichloropropane
Pentachlorophenol
Picloram
Oinoseb
Alachlor
EDB (Ethylene Dibromide)
Epichlorohydrin
nibromomethane
Toluene
Xylene
Adipates
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
2, 3, 7, R-TC.nn (nioxin)
Endrin*
Li ndane*
Methoxychlor*
Toxaphene*
2, 4, - n*
2,4,B - TP (Silvex)*
Total Trihalomethanes*
Aldicarb
Chlordane
Dalapon
Diquat
Endothall
filyphosate
INORGANIC CHEMICALS
Arsenic*
Barium*
Cadmi urn*
Chromium*
Lead*
Mercury*
Nitrate (as N)*
Silver*
Fluoride*
Alumi num
Antimony
Molybdenum
Asbestos
Sulfate
Vanadi urn
Sodium
Nickel
Zinc
Thai lium
Beryll ium
Cyanide
MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTAMINANTS
Turbidi ty*
Total Coliforms*
Giardia Lamblia
Viruses
Standard
Plate Count
Filtration of Surface Water
Disinfection of All Water
RADIONUCLIDE CONTAMINANTS
"Beta particle and PhotonUranium
Radioactivity* Radon
Radium ?26 and _
Gross Alpha Particle
Activity*
* Already regulated
470
-------
APPENDIX C
ORGANICS TO RE MONITORED
Chloroform*
Rromodi chloromethane*
Chlorodibromomethane*
Bromoform*
trans-1,2-nichloroethylene
Chlorobenzene
m-Dichlorobenzene
nichloromethane
cis-l,2-Dichloroethylene
o-Dichlorobenzene
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Fluorotri chloromethane
Dichlorodi fluoromethane
nibromomethane
l,2-nibromoethane(EDB)
1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropro-
pane (OBCP)
Toluene
p-Xylene
o-Xylene
m-Xylene
1,1-nichloroethane
1,1, ?., 2-Tetrachl oroethane
Ethyl benzene
1,3-Dichloropropane
Styrene
Chloromethane
Bromomethane
Bromochloromethane
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene
n-Propylbenzene
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane
Chloroethane
1,1,2-Trichloroethane
Petachloroethane
bis-2-Chloroisopropyl ether
2,2-nichloropropane
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene
n-Butylbenzene
Napthalene
Hexachlorobutadiene
o-Chlorotoluene
p-Chlorotoluene
1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene
p-Isopropyltoluene
1,1-Dichloropropene
iso-Propylbenzene
tert-Butylbenzene
sec-Rutylbenzene
Bromobenzene
* Already regulated
471
-------
APPENDIX
TENTATIVELY IDENTIFIED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
PLANT EFFLUENT
ESTIMATED CONCENTRATION HROUPINHS - ug/L
(RESULTS OF 3] SAMPLES)
5 - 10 ug/L Concentration Range Frequency
HEXADECANOICACID 1
1-5 ug/L Concentration Range
DFCANOICACID 1
HEXENOL, PROPANOATE 1
DIRIJTYLPHTHALATE 1
FURAN, OIETHYL, TETRAHYDRO- 5
Less Than 1 ug/L Concentration Range
OCTADIENE-DIOL 1
CYCLOHEXANE-DIOL 1
NORBORNENE, TRIMETHYL 3
CYCLOHEXADIENE 1
BENZENE, BIS (METHYLETHYL)- 1
BENZENE, BUTYL- 1
BENZENE, ETHYL-METHYL- (? ISOMERS) 1]
BENZENE, METHYL-PROPYL- 1
BENZENE, METHYL-(MEJHYLETHYL)- 1
BENZENE, PROPYL 1 ?.
BENZENE, TRIMETHYL-(METHYLFTHYL)- 1
BENZENE, TRIMETHYL- (3 ISOMERS) 5
BENZENE, (METHYLETHYL) - 5
BENZENE, (METHYLPROPYL)- 6
BENZENE, ETHENYL- 4
BENZENE, METHYL-ETHENYL- 2
BENZENE, (METHYLETHENYL)- 1
HEXENOL, PROPANOATE ?
PROPANOICACID, METHYLPROPYLESTER- 1
BUTANE, PROPOXY- 1
ETHANOL, RUTOXY- 1
HEXANONE, METHYL- ?.
PENTANONF, HYDROXY-METHYL- 4
PENTANONE, METHYL- 3
BUTYL-METHYL CARRAMICACID, METHYLESTER 1
47?
-------
APPENDIX E
TENTATIVELY IDENTIFIED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
DENVER DRINKING WATER
ESTIMATED CONCENTRATION GROUPINGS - ug/L
(RESULTS OF 1« SAMPLES)
5 - BO ug/L Concentration Range
HEXENOL, PROPANOATE
1-5 ug/L Concentration Range
CYCLOHEXANE-DIOL
CYCLOPENTANE, ETHYL-METHYL-
CYCLOPENTENE, ETHYL-
DIRUTYLPHTHALATE
RENZENEMETHANOL
PROPENE, TRICHLORO-
PHENOL
Less Than 1 ug/L Concentration Range
HEXANE, DIMETHYL-
4-CARENE
CYCLOHEXANE, METHYL-(METHYLETHENYL)-
CYCLOHEXADIENE
UNDECYNE
FORMAMIDE, N.N-DIMETHYL-
RENZENE, RIITYL-
RENZENE, ETHYL-METHYL- (3 TSOMERS)
REN7ENE, METHYL-PROPYL-
REM7.ENE, METHYL-(METHYLETHYL)-
REMZENE, PROPYL-
RENZENE, TRIMETHYL-(METHYLETHYL)-
RFNZENE, TRIMETHYL-
RENZENE, (METHYLETHYL)-
RENZENE, (METHYLPPOPYL)-
RENZENE, ETHENYL-
RENZENE, (METHYLETHENYI..)-
8ENZOIC ACID
HEXADECANOICACin
NONANOICACID
TETRADECANOICACID
DIRUTYLPHTHALATE
HEXANONE, METHYL-
PENTANONE, HYDROXY-METHYL-
Frequency
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
7
?.
3
9
?
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
473
-------
REFERENCES
1. "Summary of Revisions of the Drinking Water Regulations and
Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act", Camp, Dresser and
McKee, Inc., June,
?. Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project - Preliminary Process
Evaluations, Phase 1 Report, Denver Water Department, March, ]Q87.
3. Health and Welfare, Canada. "Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water
1978", pp 4?.
4. National Academy of Sciences, "Drinking Water and Health", Vol. 1,
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1977.
474
-------
MICHIGAN'S PROCESS FOR REGULATING TOXIC SUBSTANCES
IN SURFACE WATER PERMITS
by
Paul D. Zugger & James E. Grant
Surface Water Quality Division
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
Lansing, Michigan 48909
This paper has been reviewed in accordance with
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's peer
and administrative review policies and approved
for presentation and publication.
Prepared for Presentation at:
Eleventh United States/Japan Conference
on Sewage Treatment Technology
Tokyo, Japan
October 12-14, 1987
475
-------
CONTENTS
Page
Abstract 477
Introduction 478
Ru 1 e 57 480
Rule 57(2) Guidelines 481
Aquatic Chronic Value 482
Human Life Cycle Safe Concentration 483
Terrestrial Life Cycle Safe Concentration 484
Cancer Risk Value 485
Hereditary Mutagen and Genotoxic Teratogen Values 486
Summary 487
Acknowl edgements 488
References 488
Appendices , 489
A. Department of Natural Resources, Water Resources Commission,
General Rules, Part 4. Mater Quality Standards, filed with
Secretary of State November 14, 1986 490
B. State of Michigan, Department of Natural Resources,
Environmental Protection Bureau, Guidelines for Rule 57(2),
filed with Secretary of State January 2, 1985 507
C. Staff Report, Support Document for the Proposed Rule 57
Package, Michigan Department of Natural Resources,
Environmental Protection Bureau, dated March 26, 1984 539
D. Annual Listing of Rule 57(2) Guideline Levels, dated
January 27, 1987 600
476
-------
ABSTRACT
A necessary aspect of a water pollution control program is a regulatory
system that will not only provide nontoxic water quality conditions but also
assure that toxic substances do not bioaccumulate in fish to levels unaccept-
able for human consumption. In 1985, Michigan promulgated revisions to
Rule 323.1057 of its Water Quality Standards that establish a regulatory
process that will protect public health and the environment from discharges
of toxic substances from point source surface water discharges. Rule 57(2)
specifically addresses the development of allowable toxicant levels in the
waters of the state applicable to wastewater discharges. The universe of
chemicals to which the subrule applies is defined, an upper boundary on
estimated excess risk of 1 in 100,000 for non-threshold carcinogens is estab-
lished, comprehensive procedural guidelines are mandated and a mechanism for
issuance of scheduled abatement permits is provided. This paper reviews the
development of the rule amendments and discusses key aspects of the adopted
rules and guidelines.
477
-------
INTRODUCTION
Michigan's unique geographic position at the heart of the Great Lakes has
provided us with an enormous fresh water resource. With the privilege of
having these wonderful lakes to use comes the responsibilities to protect
their quality; a quality much more fragile than our predecessors earlier in
this century imagined. One of the most sensitive indices of water quality is
the health of the aquatic biological community. The Great Lakes's fishery is
an integral part of the aquatic ecosystem and the health of this fishery
reflects the quality of the Lakes.
Water pollution control programs to protect the aquatic community from acute
and chronic toxicity have been in place for many years. However, in recent
years it has become clear that the traditional means of regulating toxics are
not sufficient. Certain substances, while not being lethal to fish, have
bioaccumulated in some Great Lakes fish species to levels unacceptable for
human consumption. Examples of these are the persistent chloro organic
compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and 2,3,7,8 Tetrachloro-
dibenzo-p-dioxin (dioxin). In recognition of this phenomena, Michigan in
1985 expanded the scope of its Water Quality Standards to assure not only
nontoxic water conditions, but to assure as well that fish are fit for human
consumption.
In 1972, the United States federal government passed major water pollution
control legislation known as the federal Clean Water Act. Under this Act,
wastewater discharges to surface waters are prohibited unless authorized by a
discharge permit. Michigan was delegated the authority to administer the
federal permit program in 1973, after Michigan law was amended to provide
equivalent requirements at the state level.
The basic water pollution control legislation in Michigan is the Michigan
Water Resources Commission Act, Act 245, Public Acts of 1929, as amended.
Section 6(a) reads:
"It shall be unlawful for any persons directly or indirectly to
discharge into the waters of the state any substance which is or
may become injurious to the public health, safety or welfare; or
which is or may become injurious to domestic, commercial, industri-
al, agricultural, recreational, or other uses which are being or
may be made of such waters; or which is or may become injurious to
the value or utility of riparian lands; or which is or may become
injurious to livestock, wild animals, birds, fish, aquatic life, or
plant..."
47R
-------
The Act empowers the Water Resources Commission to set Water Quality Stan-
dards and to control the pollution of the waters of the state through issu-
ance of permits which restrict the constituents of discharges to levels which
assure compliance with the Standards.
One of the major charges of the surface water permit program is to protect
public health and the environment from toxic substances discharged from point
sources. Basic elements of the program are the development of technology-
based effluent limitations determined from federal Best Available Treatment
(BAT) requirements and the development of water quality-based effluent
limitations to assure that Water Quality Standards are met. The process to
calculate the water quality-based limitations for toxic substances is the
subject of this paper. It is important to emphasize, however, that control
of toxic substances inputs to the Great Lakes from nonpoint and aerial
sources is also necessary before the Great Lakes will be adequately
protected.
Water Quality Standards are provisions of law which define the level of
protection for a water body by designating the uses to be protected and
establishing water quality criteria needed to protect those uses. As used in
the surface water discharge permit program, Water Quality Standards also
serve as the basis for the establishment of water quality-based controls
beyond the technology-based levels of treatment required by the Clean Water
Act.
Part 4 of the General Rules of the Michigan Water Resources Commission
contains the State Water Quality Standards (see Appendix A). Michigan's
first formal Water Quality Standards were promulgated in 1967 and revised in
1973. In January, 1985, significant amendments to Rule 323.1057 were adopt-
ed. Rule 57 is Michigan's Toxic Substance Water Quality Standard.
Rule 57 was revised because the 1973 version had been promulgated at a time
when the body of knowledge concerning toxic substances was much less than it
is today. The 1973 version contained references to outdated literature and
only addressed acute and chronic toxicity to aquatic organisms. It was
apparent that the rule needed to be revised to provide protection of public
health from toxic substances.
The Rule 57 revision process began in 1976, and was long and controversial.
The incorporation of a risk assessment process for carcinogens into the rule
was the major cause of controversy. The establishment in 1981 of a Rule 57
Advisory Committee, representing various interest groups, was the key devel-
opment that ultimately led to a rule package acceptable to the regulated
community and the major environmental groups in Michigan. A strong involve-
ment by Michigan's universities on the Advisory Committee was important in
gaining public confidence in the proposed package.
479
-------
RULE 57
Rule 57 is considered a "narrative" Water Quality Standard as opposed to a
"numerical rule" which would have absolute values specified for a list of
toxic substances. In recognition of the rapid advances in the field of
toxicology, the complex process required to amend a rule in Michigan, and
past difficulties in attempting to promulgate a numerical rule, a narrative
rule, blended with more specific guidelines was the format chosen. Guide-
lines, which are also promulgated pursuant to the Michigan Administrative
Procedures Act, are binding only on the agency. An important aspect of
guidelines is that the process for amending them is considerably less burden-
some than the rule making process.
The rule is divided into two subrules. Subrule (1) is a general statement
prohibiting injurious levels of toxic substances in the waters of the state
and stating that the Commission determines allowable levels by using appro-
priate scientific data. Under the rule, determination of allowable levels
for situations other than point source discharges is done on a case-by-case
basis.
Subrule (2) specifically addresses the development of allowable toxicant
levels in the waters of the state applicable to point source discharges. It
is this subrule which is used extensively in our permitting program. Subrule
(2) defines the universe of chemicals to which the subrule applies, estab-
lishes an estimated upper boundary on risk of 1 in 100,000 increased cases of
cancer for carcinogens not determined to cause cancer by a threshold mecha-
nism, specifies that the allowable toxicant levels apply after mixing with a
portion of the receiving stream, mandates development of Rule 57(2) Guide-
lines, and provides a mechanism for establishing compliance schedules h
pern its tc r>ff-* "'TS f r -r> - * .;,
The Michigan Critical Materials Register and the United States Environmental
Protection Agency's lists of priority pollutants and hazardous materials are
used as the generic chemicals of concern. However, if a chemical not on
these lists is of concern for a specific situation, the Commission may make a
determination to include it on a case-by-case basis. Staff of the Commission
routinely review the published scientific literature for emerging problem
chemicals.
The risk assessment process and the upper limit on risk for chemicals assumed
to be non-threshold carcinogens were major issues deliberated by the Rule 57
Advisory Committee and Michigan Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) staff.
The resulting rule requires that a point source discharge not create an
estimated level of increased cancer risk greater than 1 in 100,000 above
background in the surface water after mixing with the allowable receiving
480
-------
stream volume specified in R 323.1082 (mixing zone rule) and calculated using
the model and assumptions specified in the Rule 57(2) Guidelines. Because of
the conservative assumptions used, the actual risk to the individuals exposed
to these levels in most surface waters of the state under these conditions,
is considerably less than 1 in 100,000, and is well below common everyday
risks.
The concept of blending Rule 57 with the Rule 57(2) Guidelines provides a
more flexible package than placing all the details of the Guidelines in the
rule. The procedures set forth in the Rule 57(2) Guidelines are practical
and are being implemented. However, it is important to realize that the
knowledge and understanding of toxic substances is rapidly expanding. The
procedures, while valid today, will require periodic review and revision to
assure current the state-of-the-art science is applied. Accordingly, Rule 57
was kept in the more general narrative form and most of the highly technical,
detailed procedures were placed in the Guidelines. The Rule 57(2) Guidelines
will be discussed in more detail later in this paper.
An important concern of the regulated community was the process by which
discharges which cannot immediately meet the new regulation would be ad-
dressed. This concern was addressed under Rule 57(2), which states that the
Commission may issue a scheduled abatement permit if immediate attainment of
the allowable level of a toxic substance is not economically or technically
feasible and no prudent alternative exists. Scheduled abatement permits are
to be of an interim nature and include a schedule to achieve reasonable
progress toward compliance with the final limits. During the developmental
stages of Rule 57, considerable comments were submitted concerning the
possible adverse economic impact of promulgating Rule 57. The facility
specific scheduled abatement permit approach is a sound mechanism to address
unacceptable economic impacts resulting from compliance with the rule.
RULE 57(2) GUIDELINES
The Rule 57(2) Guidelines (see Appendix B) are specifically mandated in Rule
57(2)(d). These Guidelines were adopted pursuant to the Administrative
Procedures Act, and pursuant to that Act are only binding on the agency
(Michigan Department of Natural Resources). The Guidelines set forth proce-
dures that Michigan Department of Natural Resources staff must use in the
development of permit recommendations to the Water Resources Commission on
allowable levels of toxic substances in the waters of the state applicable to
point source discharge permits. The Guidelines also set forth the minimum
toxicity data needed for a chemical to enable staff to derive recommenda-
tions. Minimum data consists of a rat oral Lethal Dose to 50 percent of the
test organisms (LD50), a 48 hour Effective Concentration to 50 percent of the
test organisms (EC50) for a daphnid (Daphnia magna), and a 96 hour Lethal
Concentration to 50 percent of the test organisms (LC50) for a fathead minnow
(Pimephales promelas) or rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii).
The Guidelines contain detailed procedures for calculating levels necessary
to protect aquatic life (Aquatic Chronic Value), wildlife (Terrestrial Life
Cycle Safe Concentration), and public health from threshold effect toxic
481
-------
substances (Human Life Cycle Safe Concentration); and concentrations which
protect the public from cancer, hereditary mutagenic effects or genotoxic
teratogenic effects. The most restrictive of the above values is used as the
Rule 57(2) level which must be met in the surface water after a discharge is
mixed with the appropriate receiving stream volume. Discussion on the
calculation of these values follows (also see Appendix C).
1. Aquatic Chronic Value
The Aquatic Chronic Value (ACV) is the highest concentration of a
chemical or combination of chemicals which theoretically will produce no
adverse effects on important aquatic organisms (and their progeny)
exposed continuously for a lifetime. The ACV can be calculated on a
chemical specific basis or for mixtures by using biological techniques,
such as bioassays, to assure that chronically toxic conditions do not
exist for important aquatic life in the waters of the state. Under the
chemical specific approach, a specific numerical value is derived for
each chemical using the procedures in the Guidelines. The procedures
also factor in the effects of various water quality characteristics
(i.e., hardness, pH) on the toxicity of a chemical substance. Site
specific data are preferred and used whenever possible.
The chemical specific mechanism used to calculate the ACV for a toxic
substance depends upon the number of chronic data points available for
that substance. When six or more appropriate chronic data points are
available for a chemical, the ACV is calculated directly from fish and
macroinvertebrate chronic toxicity data for that chemical. The ACVs for
chemical substances calculated using this procedure are designed to be
equivalent to, or less than, the chemical's chronic value for 95 percent
of all fish and aquatic macroinvertebrate species resident to Michigan's
waters.
Unfortunately, there exist numerous chemicals for which there are little
or no chronic data available. For these chemicals, the ACV must be
predicted from Final Acute Values (FAV) using appropriate application
factors. An FAV corresponds to the highest concentration of a chemical
in water which theoretically will kill or significantly impair 50
percent of a population of important aquatic organisms exposed continu-
ously for a short period of time (96 hours for fish and aquatic macroin-
vertebrates, except 48 hours for cladocerans and chironomids). When six
or more appropriate acute data points are available, the FAV is calcu-
lated. If this data base is not available, the FAV is predicted by
dividing the LC50 for the most sensitive species tested (rainbow trout/
daphnid; or fathead minnow/daphnid) by a species sensitivity factor of
five if rainbow trout is present in the data base or ten if absent. The
ACV is predicted by dividing the FAV by a chemical-specific application
factor (acute LC50/chronic value ratios) for those chemical substances
which have at least one acute/chronic ratio available. When chemical -
specific application factors cannot be determined due to an absence of
appropriate chronic data, the ACV is predicted by dividing the FAV by a
general application factor of 45. This application factor corresponds
to about the eightieth percentile rank of all similarly selected ratios.
48?
-------
The details of using biological techniques, or the whole effluent
toxicity-based approach, must be established on a case-by-case basis.
The advantages of using this approach are that the interaction of
chemicals is inherently addressed by the test, incomplete chemical
characterization of the effluent can be accounted for, chemical specific
toxicity testing can be reduced in certain cases, and a more site
specific determination can be made.
2. Human Life Cycle Safe Concentration
The Human Life Cycle Safe Concentration (HLSC) is the highest concen-
tration of a chemical which causes no significant adverse effects to
humans and their offspring when exposed continuously for a lifetime.
The HLSCs are derived to provide an adequate margin of safety against
the adverse effects of chemicals which have a toxicity threshold below
which there are no adverse effects. Carcinogenic effects are handled
separately.
To derive an HLSC for a chemical, the No Observable Adverse Effect Level
(NOAEL) for laboratory animals or humans is determined. Although use of
human data is preferred, in most cases these data are lacking, and
animal data must be used instead. The NOAEL is then divided by an
uncertainty factor (10-1,000) to determine the acceptable dose for a
human. This factor is used to account for the uncertainties in trying
to predict an acceptable exposure level for the general human population
based upon experimental animal data or limited human data.
For many chemicals, appropriate toxicological data NOAELs are not
available to derive an HLSC by this method. In the absence of an
adequate toxicity data base, procedures have been developed to derive an
HLSC from a single acute toxicity data point, i.e., an oral rat LD50.
The procedure for deriving an HLSC from an oral rat LD50 involves the
use of an acute to chronic application factor. The acute to chronic
application factor is a numerical value by which the acute oral rat LD50
is adjusted. The value of this factor as derived by MDNR staff is
0.0001 (rationale available upon request). The oral rat LD50 is multi-
plied by the acute to chronic application factor (0.0001) and the value
obtained from this procedure is used as a surrogate NOAEL.
The acceptable dose or milligrams of toxicant (MgT) is translated into a
water concentration using the following formula:
= MgT (mg/day)
WC + (F x BCF)
Where: HLSC = Human Life Cycle Safe Concentration
MgT = allowable milligrams of toxicant/day
WC = volume water consumed/day (liters)
F = fish consumed/day (kg/day)
BCF = bioconcentration factor of chemical (liters/kg)
483
-------
For all surface waters, it is assumed that a person consumes 6.5 grams
of contaminated fish per day (approximately five pounds per year) for a
lifetime. This value is based upon a U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) survey of fish and shellfish consumption in the United
States.
The volume of water consumed per day is assumed to be an untreated 2.0
liters for surface water protected as a drinking water source, and an
untreated 0.01 liters for all other surface waters. The value of 2.0
liters was recommended by the U.S. EPA for establishing drinking water
standards. The value of 0.01 liters of water per day for surface waters
not protected for drinking water is to account for incidental exposure
such as absorption through the skin or ingestion of small quantities of
water while swimming or using the waters for other recreational
purposes.
3. Terrestrial Life Cycle Safe Concentration
The purpose of establishing Terrestrial Life Cycle Safe Concentrations
(TLSC) is to determine surface water concentrations which are considered
acceptable for lifetime consumption by the wildlife and livestock that
utilize these waters. The TLSC is defined as the highest aqueous
concentration of a toxicant which causes no significant reduction in the
growth, reproduction, viability, or usefulness (in the commercial and/or
recreational sense) of a population of exposed organisms (utilizing the
receiving waters as a drinking water source), over several generations.
To derive a TLSC, the scientific literature regarding the toxicological
effects of a chemical is reviewed to determine a NOAEL for appropriate
mammalian and/or avian organisms. Data on organisms native to Michigan
and likely to be utilizing the particular surface water are preferred
for calculating the TLSC. In most cases, however, such data are lack-
ing, and the data from common laboratory animals (usually rodents) must
be used instead. The experimental NOAEL is then divided by an uncer-
tainty factor ranging from 10-100. This uncertainty factor is to
account for: 1) species variability, since data from one species are
used to predict an acceptable level for all wildlife; and 2) inadequa-
cies in study designs or availability of data. When appropriate NOAEL
data are not available, a TLSC may be calculated from an oral rat LD50
by the following equation:
LD50 (mg/kg) x Wa x M
TLSC = Vw
10
Where: TLSC = Terrestrial Life Cycle Safe Concentrations
Wa = weight of test animal (kg)
Vw = volume of water consumed by test animal per day (liters)
M = acute to chronic application factor of 0.0001 derived by
MDNR staff (rationale available upon request).
484
-------
4. Cancer Risk Value
Due to the limits of current predictive testing, the Rule 57 Guidelines
make the conservative assumption that any chemical which has been shown
to be carcinogenic in one animal bioassay of good quality, is a complete
carcinogen having no threshold level. However, the Guidelines do
include a mechanism for evaluating a carcinogen on a case-by-case basis
if the preponderance of data suggests the cancer is caused by a thresh-
old mechanism. A committee of scientists expert in the field of carci-
nogenesis may be convened when MDNR staff will benefit from their advice
and recommendations on this issue or other highly technical scientific
issues which require additional technical expertise to resolve.
If appropriate human epidemiological data are available, an extrapola-
tion from high doses is necessary in order to estimate the carcinogenic
risk for the chemical at low concentrations. There are no standard
guidelines available to estimate the risk from human epidemiology
studies. However, the use of adequate human exposure data to estimate
the risks associated with a carcinogenic chemical is a preferred method
and when necessary, the MDNR may convene an expert committee to advise
staff on an appropriate methodology in order to utilize these data. To
date staff has not used human epidemiological data in setting limits.
When human epidemiological evidence is not available, the carcinogenic
risk to humans is extrapolated from experimental animal data. There is
no conclusive scientific evidence for the choice of one mathematical
model over another; however, the linearized multistage model, GLOBAL 79
(Crump and Watson, 1979), a non-threshold extrapolation model, is used
since no other extrapolation model has as much regu/atory acceptance.
Use of the upper 95 percent confidence limit to estimte the dose rather
than extrapolation from the maximum likelihood estimate dose gives a
more stable value which does not change appreciably with minor variabil-
ity in the biological response at the lower doses. The use of this
methodology provides a plausible upper limit estimate of cancer risk.
The Rule 57 Advisory Committee recommended that an estimated risk level
of 1 in 100,000 excess cases of cancer be used as the upper boundary on
risk for establishing allowable levels of carcinogens in the waters of
the state applicable to point source discharges. The MDNR staff sup-
ported this position, and Rule 57 was promulgated accordingly. Greater
levels of protection may be recommended at facilities where lower levels
are achievable through utilization of control measures already in place.
Allowable concentrations of a carcinogen utilizing the risk-based
approach are calculated using the following formula:
r D x 70 kg
" WC + (F X BCF)
Where: C = allowable concentration of carcinogen
D = dose which theoretically would produce a risk of
1/100,000 (mg/kg/day)
485
-------
WC = water consumed/day (liters)
F = fish consumed/day (kg)
BCF = bioconcentration factor for the chemical
The values are calculated on the basis of a 70 kg human and the fish and
water exposure assumptions are the same as those used for the HLSC
values.
5. Hereditary Mutagen and Genotoxic Teratogen Values
The levels providing an acceptable degree of protection to public health
for hereditary mutagenic effects and genotoxic terat.ogenic effects are
derived by MDNR staff on a case-by-case basis with assistance, as
needed, from an expert committee of scientists.
The Rule 57 Guidelines require the Department to annually publish a listing
of values calculated under the Rule. The last listing was published in
February, 1987, and reflects the most restrictive level of the various
criteria which meets Rule 57(2) after mixing with the receiving waters.
486
-------
SUMMARY
Rule 57 has been in place for more than two years and has been utilized in
the surface water permit program. In general, the application has been very
successful. Michigan has approximately 200 major industrial and municipal
dischargers. More than half of these permits have been reissued since the
promulgation of the Rule 57 amendment. All of these dischargers have been
processed consistent with Rule 57, and necessary and appropriate conditions
placed in the permits. Examples of the types of pollutants limited are:
heavy metals (copper, zinc, cadmium), chlorinated persistent organics (PCB,
HCB), chlorinated solvents, and toxic substances such as cyanide and ammonia.
The regulation of substances such as heavy metals, ammonia, and cyanide is
not new. These substances were regulated in a similar manner prior to the
Rule 57 amendments. The major change has been in the regulation of toxic
organic chemicals, especially those that bioaccumulate in fish and the
concern is with human exposure through consumption of fish. The most common
types of substances in this category are the chlorinated organics. The
Department annually lists the instream values for the chemicals calculated
under Rule 57 and Guidelines (see Appendix D).
Recent amendments to the Federal Clean Water Act have set ambitious deadlines
for the control of toxics. By 1989, control strategies for the discharge of
toxics must be in place for all waters where protected uses are not currently
being met because of toxic substance concerns. Within three years of that
date, toxics discharges must be reduced to where all uses are restored.
Michigan is well ahead of most states since the necessary toxics regulations
are in place and the majority of the major permits have been reissued under
the new rule. Nevertheless, the deadlines set forth in the federal law will
be extremely difficult to meet, especially for highly bioaccumulative sub-
stances such as PCBs where the acceptable Rule 57 value is extremely low.
Michigan welcomes these new federal initiatives, however, which will require
equivalent regulation of toxics by all states.
This paper dealt with the control of toxic substances discharged from point
sources. This alone, however, will not. protect the Great Lakes from toxic
chemicals. Significant loadings of toxic substances are entering the Great
Lakes through atmospheric transport and nonpoint source runoff. Major new
state, national and international initiatives are necessary to address these
issues. When Rule 57 controls are fully implemented, Michigan will have
essentially eliminated point source discharges as factors in toxic chemical
pollution of Great Lakes waters. Only after equivalent levels of control for
atmospheric and nonpoint source loadings have been accomplished will the
Great Lakes be protected. Michigan looks forward to the challenges of the
next decade to accomplish this goal.
487
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the support from Michigan's regulated community and
major environmental groups and the efforts of the Great Lakes and Environmen-
tal Assessment staff and the Rule 57 Advisory Committee members in the
development of this process.
REFERENCES
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1985. Guidelines for Deriving
Numerical National Hater Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic
Organisms and Their Uses. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, NTIS
Number PB 85-227049, Environmental Research Laboratory, Duluth,
Minnesota.
Crump, Kenny S. and Warren W. Watson. 1979. GLOBAL 79. A FORTRAN program
to extrapolate dichotomous animal carcinogenicity data to low doses.
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Contract
NOI-ES-2123.
488
-------
APPENDICES
A. Department of Natural Resources, Water Resources Commission, General
Rules, Part 4. Water Quality Standards, field with Secretary of State
November 14, 1986.
B. State of Michigan, Department of Natural Resources, Environmental
Protection Bureau, Guidelines for Rule 57(2), filed with Secretary of
State January 2, 1985.
C. Staff Report, Support Document for the Proposed Rule 57 Package, Michi-
gan Department of Natural Resources, Environmental Protection Bureau,
dated March 26, 1984.
D. Annual Listing of Rule 57(2) Guideline Levels, dated January 27, 1987.
489
-------
APPENDIX A
DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION
GENERAL RULES
Filed with the Secretary of State on November 14, 1986
These rules take effect 15 days after filing with the Secretary of State
(By authority conferred on the water resources commission by sections 2
and 5 of Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as amended, being
§§323.2 and 323.5 of the Michigan Compiled Laws)
R 323.1041 to R 323.1050, R 323.1053, R 323.1055, R 323.1058 to
R 323.1065, R 323.1070, R 323.1075, R 323.1082, R 323.1092 to
R 323.1098, R 323.1100, and R 323.1116 of the Michigan Administrative
Code, appearing on pages 1630 and 1632 to 1639 of the 1979 Administrative
Code and pages 162 to 164, 166, and 167 of the 1984 Annual Supplement to
the Code, are amended, and R 323.1099 is added, to read as hereinafter
set forth.
R 323.1074, R 323.10,80, R 323.1091, R 323.1110, and R 323.1115 of the
Michigan Administrative Code, appearing on pages 1636 to 1644 of the 1979
Michigan Administrative Code, are rescinded.
PART 4. WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
R 323.1041 Purpose.
Rule 41. The purpose of the water quality standards as prescribed by
these rules is to establish water quality requirements applicable to the
Great Lakes, the connecting waters, and all other surface waters of the
state, to protect the public health and welfare, to enhance and maintain
the quality of water, to protect the state's natural resources, and
serve the purposes of Public Law 92-500, as amended, 33 U.S.C. §466 et
seq., Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as amended, being §323.1 et
seq. of the Michigan Compiled Laws, and the Great Lakes water quality
agreement enacted November 22, 1978. These standards may not reflect
current water quality in all cases, but are minimum water quality re-
quirements for which the waters of the state are to be managed.
R 323.1043 Definitions; A to N.
Rule 43. As used in this part:
(a) "Agricultural use" means a use of water for agricultural purpos-
es, including livestock watering, irrigation, and crop spraying.
(b) "Anadromous salmonids" means those trout and salmon which ascend
streams to spawn.
(c) "Carcinogen" means a substance which causes an increased inci-
dence of benign or malignant neoplasms or a substantial decrease in the
latency period between exposure and onset of neoplasms through oral or
dermal exposure or through inhalation exposure when the cancer occurs at
nonrespiratory sites, in at least 1 mammalian species, or man through
epidemiological or clinical studies, unless the commission, on the basis
of credible scientific evidence, determines that there is significant
490
-------
uncertainty regarding the credibility, validity, or significance of such
study or studies, in which case it shall refer the question of carcino-
genicity to experts on carcinogenesis and shall consider the recommenda-
tions of those experts in making its final determination.
(d) "Coldwater fish" means those fish species whose populations
thrive in relatively cold water, including trout, salmon, whitefish, and
cisco.
(e) "Commission" means the Michigan water resources commission
established pursuant to Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as
amended, being §323.1 et seq. of the Michigan Compiled Laws.
(f) "Connecting waters" means any of the following:
(i) The St. Marys river.
(ii) The Keweenaw waterway.
(iii) The Detroit river.
(iv) The St. Clair river.
(v) Lake St. Clair.
(g) "Designated use" means a use of the waters of the state as
established by these rules, including use for any of the following:
(i) Industrial, agricultural, and public water supply.
(ii) Recreation.
(iii) Fish, other aquatic life, and wildlife.
(iv) Navigation.
(h) "Dissolved oxygen"- means the amount of oxygen dissolved in water
and is commonly expressed as a concentration in terms of milligrams per
liter.
(i) "Dissolved solids" means the amount of materials dissolved in
water and is commonly expressed as a concentration in terms of milligrams
per liter.
(j) "Effluent" means a wastewater discharged from a point source to
the waters of the state.
(k) "Fecal coliform" means a type of coliform bacteria found in the
intestinal tract of humans and other warm-blooded animals.
(1) "Final acute value" means the level of a chemical or mixture of
chemicals that does not allow the mortality of important fish or fish
food organisms to exceed 50% when exposed for 96 hours, except where a
shorter time period is appropriate for certain species.
(m) "Fish, other aquatic life, and wildlife use" means the use of the
waters of the state by fish, other aquatic life, and wildlife for any
life history stage or activity.
(n) "Industrial water supply" means a water source intended for use
in commercial or industrial applications or for noncontact food
processing.
(o) "Inland lake" means an inland body of standing water of the state
situated in a topographic depression other than an artificial agricultural
pond less than one acre, unless it is otherwise determined by the commission.
The commission may designate a dammed river channel or an impoundment as an
inland lake based on aquatic resources to be protected.
(p) "Keweenaw waterway" means the entire Keweenaw waterway, including
Portage lake, Houghton county.
(q) "MATC" means the maximum acceptable toxicant concentration
obtained by calculating the geometric mean of the lower and upper chronic
limits from a chronic test. A lower chronic limit is the highest tested
concentration which did not cause the occurrence of a specified adverse
effect. An upper chronic limit is the lowest tested concentration which
491
-------
did cause the occurrence of a specified adverse effect and above which
all tested concentrations caused such an occurrence.
(r) "Mixing zone" means that portion of a water body wherein a point
source discharge is mixed with the receiving water.
(s) "Natural water temperature" means the temperature of a body of
water without an influence from an artificial source or a temperature as
otherwise determined by the commission.
(t) "NOAEL" means the highest level of toxicant which results in no
observable adverse effects to exposed test organisms.
(u) "Non-point source" means a source of material other than a source
defined as a point source.
R 323.1044 Definitions; P to W.
Rule 44. As used in this part:
(a) "Palatable" means the state of being agreeable or acceptable to
the sense of sight, taste, or smell.
(b) "Plant nutrients" means those chemicals, including nitrogen and
phosphorus, necessary for the growth and reproduction of aquatic rooted,
attached, and floating plants, fungi, or bacteria.
(c) "Point source" means a discernible, confined, and discrete
conveyance from which wastewater is or may be discharged to the waters of
the state, including th,e following:
(i) A pipe.
(ii) A ditch.
(iii) A channel.
(iv) A tunnel.
(v) A conduit.
(vi) A well.
(vii) A discrete fissure.
(viii) A container.
(ix) A concentrated animal feeding operation.
(x) A boat or other watercraft.
(d) "Public water supply sources" means a surface raw water source
which, after conventional treatment, provides a source of safe water for
various uses, including human consumption, food processing, cooking, and
as a liquid ingredient in foods and beverages.
(e) "Raw water" means the waters of the state before any treatment.
(f) "Receiving waters" means the waters of the state into which an
effluent is or may be discharged.
(g) "Sanitary sewage" means treated or untreated wastewaters which
contain human metabolic and domestic wastes.
(h) "Standard" means a definite numerical value or narrative state-
ment promulgated by the commission to maintain or restore water quality
to provide for, and fully protect, a designated use of the waters of the
state.
(i) "Suspended solids" means the amount of materials suspended in
water and is commonly expressed as a concentration in terms of milligrams
per liter.
(j) "Total body contact recreation" means any activity where the
human body may come into direct contact with water to the point of
complete submergence, including swimming, waterskiing, and skin diving.
(k) "Toxic substance" means a substance, except heat, when present in
sufficient concentrations or quantities which are or may become harmful
to plant life, animal life, or designated uses.
49?!
-------
(1) "Warmwater fish" means those fish species whose populations
thrive in relatively warm water, including any of the following:
(i) Bass.
(ii) Pike.
(iii) Walleye.
(iv) Panfish.
(m) "Wastewater" means storm water runoff which could result in
injury to a use designated in R 323.1100; liquid waste resulting from
commercial, institutional, domestic, industrial, and agricultural activi-
ties, including cooling and condensing waters; sanitary sewage; and
industrial waste.
(n) "Waters of the state" means all of the following, but does not •
include drainage ways and ponds used solely for wastewater conveyance,
treatment, or control:
(i) The Great Lakes and their connecting waters.
(ii) All inland lakes.
(iii) Rivers.
(iv) Streams.
(v) Impoundments.
(vi) Open drains.
(vii) Other surface waterbodies within the confines of the state.
R 323.1050 Physical characteristics.
Rule 50. The waters of the state shall not have any of the following
unnatural physical properties in quantities which are or may become
injurious to any designated use:
(a) Turbidity.
(b) Color.
(c) Oil films.
(d) Floating solids.
(e) Foams.
(f) Settleable solids.
(g) Suspended solids.
(h) Deposits.
R 323.1051 Dissolved solids.
Rule 51. (1) The addition of any dissolved solids shall not exceed
concentrations which are or may become injurious to any designated use.
Point sources containing dissolved solids shall be considered by the
commission on a case-by-case basis and increases of dissolved solids in
the waters of the state shall be limited through the application of best
practicable control technology currently available as prescribed by the
administrator of the United States environmental protection agency
pursuant to section 304(b) of Public Law 92-500, as amended, 33 U.S.C.
§466 et seq., except that in no instance shall total dissolved solids in
the waters of the state exceed a concentration of 500 milligrams per
liter as a monthly average nor more than 750 milligrams per liter at any
time, as a result of controllable point sources.
(2) The waters of the state designated as a public water supply
source shall not exceed 125 milligrams per liter of chlorides as a
monthly average, except for the Great Lakes and connecting waters, where
chlorides shall not exceed 50 milligrams per liter as a monthly average.
493
-------
R 323.1053 Hydrogen ion concentration.
Rule 53. The hydrogen ion concentration expressed as pH shall be
maintained within the range of 6.5 to 9.0 in all waters of the state. Any
artificially induced variation in the natural pH shall remain within this
range and shall not exceed 0.5 units of pH.
R 323.1055 Taste- or odor-producing substances.
Rule 55. The waters of the state shall contain no taste-producing or
odor-producing, substances in concentrations which impair or may impair
their use for a public, industrial, or agricultural water supply source
which impair the palatability of fish as measured by test procedures
approved by the commission.
R 323.1057. Toxic substances.
Rule 57. (1) Toxic substances shall not be present in the waters of
the state at levels which are or may become injurious to the public
health, safety, or welfare; plant and animal life; or the designated uses
of those waters. Allowable levels of toxic substances shall be deter-
mined by the commission using appropriate scientific data.
(2) All of the following provisions apply for purposes of developing
allowable levels of toxic substances in the surface waters of the state
applicable to point source discharge permits issued pursuant to Act
No. 245 of the Public Acts- of 1929, as amended, being §323.1 et seq. of
the Michigan Compiled Laws:
(a) Water quality-based effluent limits developed pursuant to this
subrule shall be used only when they are more restrictive than technology-
based limitations required pursuant to R 323.2137 and R 323.2140.
(b) The toxic substances to which this subrule shall apply are those
on the 1984 Michigan critical materials register established pursuant to
Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as amended, being §323.1 et seq.
of the Michigan Compiled Laws; the priority pollutants and hazardous
chemicals in 40 C.F.R. §122.21, appendix D (1983); and any other toxic
substances as the commission may determine are of concern at a specific
site.
(c) Allowable levels of toxic substances in the surface water after a
discharge is mixed with the receiving stream volume specified in R 323.1082
shall be determined by applying an adequate margin of safety to the MATC,
NOAEL, or other appropriate effect end points, based on knowledge of the
behavior of the toxic substance, characteristics of the receiving water,
and the organisms to be protected.
(d) In addition to restrictions pursuant to subdivision (c) of this
subrule, a discharge of carcinogens, not determined to cause cancer by a
threshold mechanism, shall not create a level of risk to the public
health greater than 1 in 100,000 in the surface water after mixing with
the allowable receiving stream volume specified in R 323.1082. The
commission may require a greater degree of protection pursuant to R 323.1098
where achievable through utilization of control measures already in place
or where otherwise determined necessary.
(e) Guidelines shall be adopted pursuant to Act No. 306 of the Public
Acts of 1969, as amended, being §24.201 et seq. of the Michigan Compiled
Laws, setting forth procedures to be used by staff in the development of
recommendations to the commission on allowable levels of toxic substances
and the minimum data necessary to derive such recommendations. The
commission may require the applicant to provide the minimum data when
494
-------
otherwise not available for derivation of allowable levels of toxic
substances.
(f) For existing discharges, the commission may issue a scheduled
abatement permit pursuant to R 323.2145 upon a determination by the
commission that the applicant has demonstrated that each of the following
conditions is met:
(i) Immediate attainment of the allowable level of a toxic substance
is not economically or technically feasible.
(ii) No prudent alternative exists.
(iii) During the period of scheduled abatement, the permitted discharge
will be consistent with the protection of the public health, safety, and
welfare.
(iv) Reasonable progress will be made toward compliance with this rule
over the term of the permit, as provided for in a schedule in the permit.
R 323.1058 Radioactive substances.
Rule 58. The control and regulation of radioactive substances dis-
charged to the waters of the state shall be pursuant to the criteria,
standards, or requirements prescribed by the United States nuclear
regulatory commission in 10 C.F.R. §20.1 et seq. and by the United States
environmental protection agency.
R 323.1060 Plant nutrients.
Rule 60. (1) Consistent with Great Lakes protection, phosphorus which
is or may readily become available as a plant nutrient shall be con-
trolled from point source discharges to achieve 1 milligram per liter of
total phosphorus as a maximum monthly average effluent concentration
unless other limits, either higher or lower, are deemed necessary and
appropriate by the commission.
(2) In addition to the protection provided under subrule (1) of this
rule, nutrients shall be limited to the extent necessary to prevent
stimulation of growths of aquatic rooted, attached, suspended, and
floating plants, fungi or bacteria which are or may become injurious to
the designated uses of the waters of the state.
R 323.1062 Microorganisms.
Rule 62. (1) All waters of the state shall contain not more than 200
fecal coliform per 100 milliliters. This concentration may be exceeded
if such concentration is due to uncontrollable non-point sources. The
commission may suspend this rule from November 1 through April 30 upon
determining that designated uses will be protected.
(2) Compliance with the fecal coliform standards prescribed by
subrule (1) of this rule shall be determined on the basis of the geomet-
ric average of any series of 5 or more consecutive samples taken over not
more than a 30-day period.
(3) Protection of the waters of the state designated for total body
contact recreation and public water supply source by the water quality
standards prescribed by this rule may be subject to temporary interrup-
tion during or following flood conditions, accidents, or emergencies
which affect a sewer or wastewater treatment system. In the event of
such occurrences, notice shall be served to those affected in accordance
with procedures established by the commission. Prompt corrective action
shall be taken by the discharger to restore the designated use.
495
-------
R 323.1064 Dissolved oxygen in Great Lakes, connecting waters, and
inland streams.
Rule 64. (1) A minimum of 7 milligrams per liter of dissolved oxygen
in all Great Lakes and connecting waterways shall be maintained, and,
except for inland lakes as prescribed in R 323.1065, a minimum of 7
milligrams per liter of dissolved oxygen shall be maintained at all times
in all inland waters designated by these rules to be protected for
coldwater fish. In all other waters, except for inland lakes as pre-
scribed by R 323.1065, a minimum of 5 milligrams per liter of dissolved
oxygen shall be .maintained. These standards do not apply for a limited
warmwater fishery use subcategory or limited coldwater fishery use
subcategory established pursuant to R 323.1100(10) or during those
periods when the standards specified in subrule (2) of this rule apply.
(2) Waters of the state which do not meet the standards set forth in
subrule (1) of this rule shall be upgraded to meet those standards. For
existing point source discharges to these waters, the commission may
issue permits pursuant to R 323.2145 which establish schedules to achieve
the standards set forth in subrule (1) of this rule. If existing point
source dischargers demonstrate to the commission that the dissolved
oxygen standards specified in subrule (1) of this rule are not attainable
through further feasible and prudent reductions in their discharges or
that the diurnal variation between the daily average and daily minimum
dissolved oxygen concentrations in those waters exceeds 1 milligram per
liter, further reductions in oxygen-consuming substances from such
discharges will not be required, except as necessary to meet the interim
standards specified in this subrule, until comprehensive plans to upgrade
these waters to the standards specified in subrule (1) of this rule have
been approved by the commission and orders, permits, or other actions
necessary to implement the approved plans have been issued by the
commission. In the interim, all of the following standards apply:
(a) For waters of the state designated for use for coldwater fish,
except for inland lakes as prescribed in R 323.1065, the dissolved oxygen
shall not be lowered below a minimum of 6 milligrams per liter at the
design flow during the warm weather season in accordance with R 323.1090(3)
and (4). At the design flows during other seasonal periods, as provided
in R 323.1090(4), a minimum of 7 milligrams per liter shall be main-
tained. At flows greater than the design flows, dissolved oxygen shall
be higher than the respective minimum values specified in this
subdivision.
(b) For waters of the state designated for use for warmwater fish and
other aquatic life, except for inland lakes as prescribed in R 323.1065,
the dissolved oxygen shall not be lowered below a minimum of 4 milligrams
per liter, or below 5 milligrams per liter as a daily average, at the
design flow during the warm weather season in accordance with R 323.1090(3)
and (4). At the design flows during other seasonal periods as provided
in R 323.1090(4), a minimum of 5 milligrams per liter shall be maintained.
At flows greater than the design flows, dissolved oxygen shall be higher
than the respective minimum values specified in this subdivision.
(c) For waters of the state designated for use for warmwater fish and
other aquatic life, but also designated as principal migratory routes for
anadromous salmonids, except for inland lakes as prescribed in R 323.1065,
the dissolved oxygen shall not be lowered below 5 milligrams per liter as
a minimum during periods of migration.
49fi
-------
(3) The commission may cause a comprehensive plan to be prepared to
upgrade waters to the standards specified in subrule (1) of this rule
taking into consideration all factors affecting dissolved oxygen in these
waters and the cost effectiveness of control measures to upgrade these
waters and, after notice and hearing, approve the plan. After notice and
hearing, the commission may amend a comprehensive plan for cause. In under-
taking the comprehensive planning effort the commission shall provide for
and encourage participation by interested and impacted persons in the affected
area. Persons directly or indirectly discharging substances which
contribute towards these waters not meeting the standards specified in
subrule (1) of this rule may be required after notice and order to
provide necessary information to assist in the development or amendment
of the comprehensive plan. Upon notice and order, permit, or other action
of the commission, persons directly or indirectly discharging substances
which contribute toward these waters not meeting the standards specified
in subrule (1) of this rule shall take the necessary actions consistent
with the approved comprehensive plan to control these discharges to
upgrade these waters to the standards specified in subrule (1) of this
rule.
R 323.1065 Dissolved oxygen; inland lakes.
Rule 65. (1) The following standards for dissolved oxygen shall
apply to lakes designated as trout lakes by the natural resources commis-
sion or lakes listed in the publication entitled "Coldwater Lakes of
Michigan":
(a) In stratified coldwater lakes which have dissolved oxygen concen-
trations less than 7 milligrams per liter in the upper half of the
hypolimnion, a minimum of 7 milligrams per liter dissolved oxygen shall
be maintained throughout the epilimnion and upper 1/3 of the thermocline
during stratification. Lakes capable of sustaining oxygen throughout the
hypolimnion shall maintain oxygen throughout the hypolimnion. At all
other times, dissolved oxygen concentrations greater than 7 milligrams
per liter shall be maintained.
(b) Except for lakes described in subdivision (c) of this subrule, in
stratified coldwater lakes which have dissolved oxygen concentrations
greater than 7 milligrams per liter in the upper half of the hypolimnion,
a minimum of 7 milligrams per liter of dissolved oxygen shall be main-
tained in the epilimnion, thermocline, and upper half of the hypolimnion.
Lakes capable of sustaining oxygen throughout the hypolimnion shall
maintain oxygen throughout the hypolimnion. At all other times, dis-
solved oxygen concentrations greater" than 7 milligrams per liter shall be
maintained.
(c) In stratified coldwater lakes which have dissolved oxygen concen-
trations greater than 7 milligrams per liter throughout the hypolimnion,
a minimum of 7 milligrams per liter shall be maintained throughout the
lake.
(d) In unstratified coldwater lakes, a minimum of 7 milligrams per
liter of dissolved oxygen shall be maintained throughout the lake.
(2) For all other inland lakes not specified in subrule (1) of this
rule, during stratification, a minimum dissolved oxygen concentration of
5 milligrams per liter shall be maintained throughout the epilimnion. At
all other times, dissolved oxygen concentrations greater than 5 milli-
grams per liter shall be maintained.
497
-------
R 323.1069. Temperature; general considerations.
Rule 69. (1) In all waters of the state, the points of temperature
measurement normally shall be in the surface 1 meter; however, where
turbulence, sinking plumes, discharge inertia or other phenomena upset
the natural thermal distribution patterns of receiving waters, tem-
perature measurements shall be required to identify the spatial char-
acteristics of the thermal profile.
(2) Monthly maximum temperatures, based on the ninetieth percentile
occurrence of natural water temperatures plus the increase allowed at the
edge of the mixing zone and in part on long-term physiological needs of
fish, may be exceeded for short periods when natural water temperatures
exceed the ninetieth percentile occurrence. Temperature increases during
these periods may be permitted by the commission, but in all cases shall
not be greater than the natural water temperature plus the increase
allowed at the edge of the mixing zone.
(3) Natural daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations of the
receiving waters shall be preserved.
R 323.1070 Temperature of Great Lakes and connecting waters.
Rule 70. (1) The Great Lakes and connecting waters shall not receive
a heat load which would warm the receiving water at the edge of the
mixing zone more than 3 degrees Fahrenheit above the existing natural
water temperature.
(2) The Great Lakes and connecting waters shall not receive a heat
load which would warm the receiving water at the edge of the mixing zone
to temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit higher than the following monthly
maximum temperature:
(a) Lake Michigan north of a line due west from the city of
Pentwater.
J F M
40 40 40
A
50
M
55
J
70
J
75
A
75
S
75
0
65
N
60
D
45
(b) Lake Michigan south of a line due west from the city of
Pentwater.
JFMAMJJASOND
45 45 45 55 60 70 80 80 80 65 60 50
(c) Lake Superior and the St. Marys river:
JFMAMJJASOND
38 36 39 46 53 61 71 74 71 61 49 42
(d) Lake Huron north of a line due east from Tawas point:
JFMAMJJASOND
40 40 40 50 60 70 75 80 75 65 55 45
498
-------
(e) Lake Huron south of a line due east from Tawas point, except
Saginav bay.
JFMAMJJASOND
40 40 40 55 60 75 80 80 80 65 55 45
(f) Lake Huron, Saginaw bay:
JFMAMJJASOND
45 45 45 60 70 75 80 85 78 65 55 45
(g) St. Clair river:
JFMAMJJAS OND
40 40 40 50 60 70 75 80 75 65 55 50
(h) Lake St. Clair:
JFMAMJJASOND
40 40 45 55 70 75 80 83 80 70 55 45
(i) Detroit river:
JFMAMJJASOND
40 40 45 60 70 75 80 83 80 70 55 45
(j) Lake Erie:
JFMAMJJAS OND
45 45 45 60 70 75 80 85 80 70 60 50
R 323.1075 Temperature of rivers, streams, and impoundments.
Rule 75. (1) Rivers, streams, and impoundments naturally capable of
supporting coldwater fish shall not receive a heat load which would do
either of the following:
(a) Increase the temperature of the receiving waters at the edge of
the mixing zone more than 2 degrees Fahrenheit above the existing natural
water temperature.
(b) Increase the temperature of the receiving waters at the edge of
the mixing zone to temperatures greater than the following monthly
maximum temperatures:
JFMAMJJASOND
38 38 43 54 65 68 68 68 63 56 48 40
(2) Rivers, streams, and impoundments naturally capable of supporting
warmwater fish shall not receive a heat load which would warm the
receiving water at the edge of the mixing zone more than 5 degrees
Fahrenheit above the existing natural water temperature.
(3) Rivers, streams, and impoundments naturally capable of supporting
warmwater fish shall not receive a heat load which would warm the receiv-
ing water at the edge of the mixing zone to temperatures greater than the
following monthly maximum temperatures:
499
-------
(a) For rivers, streams, and impoundments north of a line between Bay
City, Midland, Alma and North Muakegon:
JFMAMJJASOND
38 38 41 56 70 80 83 81 74 64 49 39
(b) For rivers, streams, and impoundments south of a line between Bay
City, Midland, Alma, and North Muskegon, except the St. Joseph river:
JFMAMJJASOND
41 40 50 63 76 84 85 85 79 68 55 43
(c) St. Joseph river:
JFMAMJJAS OND
50 50 55 65 75 85 85 85 85 70 60 50
(4) Non-trout rivers and streams that serve as principal migratory
routes for anadromous salmonids shall not receive a heat load during
periods of migration at such locations and in a manner which may adverse-
ly affect salmonid migration or raise the receiving water temperature at
the edge of the mixing zone more than 5 degrees Fahrenheit above the
existing natural water temperature.
R 323.1082 Mixing zones.
Rule 82. (1) A mixing zone to achieve a mixture of a point source
discharge with the receiving waters shall be considered a region in which
the response of organisms to water quality characteristics is time
dependent. Exposure in mixing zones shall not cause an irreversible
response which results in deleterious effects to populations of aquatic
life or wildlife. As a minimum restriction, the final acute value for
aquatic life shall not be exceeded in the mixing zone at any point
inhabitable by these organisms, unless it can be demonstrated to the
commission that a higher level is acceptable. The mixing zone shall not
prevent the passage of fish or fish food organisms in a manner which
would result in adverse impacts on their immediate or future populations.
Watercourses or portions thereof which, without 1 or more point source
discharge, would have no flow except during periods of surface runoff may
be considered as a mixing zone for a point source discharge. The area of
mixing zones should be minimized. To this end, devices for rapid mixing,
dilution, and dispersion are encouraged where practicable.
(2) For toxic substances, not more than 25% of the receiving water
design flow, as stated in R 323.1090, shall be utilized when determining
effluent limitations for surface water discharges, unless it can be
demonstrated to the commission that the use of a larger volume is accept-
able. The commission shall not base a decision to grant more than 25% of
the receiving water design flow for purposes of developing effluent
limitations for discharges of toxic substances solely on the use of rapid
mixing, dilution, or dispersion devices. However, where such a device is
or may be employed, the commission may authorize the use of a design flow
greater than 25% if the effluent limitations which correspond to such a
design flow are shown, based upon a site-specific demonstration, to be
consistent with Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as amended, being
§323.1 et seq. of the Michigan Compiled Laws, and other applicable law.
500
-------
(3) For substances not included in subrule (2) of this rule, the
design flow, as stated in R 323.1090, shall be utilized when determining
effluent limitations for surface water discharges if the provisions in
subrule (1) of this rule are met, unless the commission determines that a
more restrictive volume is necessary.
(4) For all substances, defined mixing zone boundaries may be estab-
lished and shall be determined on a case-by-casre basis.
(5) Mixing zones in the Great Lakes, their connecting waters, and
inland lakes shall be determined on a case-by-case basis.
R 323.1090. Applicability of water quality standards.
Rule 90. (1) The water quality standards prescribed by these rules
shall not apply within mixing zones, except for those standards pre-
scribed in R 323.1082(1) and R 323.1050.
(2) Water quality standards prescribed by these rules are minimally
acceptable water quality conditions. Water quality shall be equal to or
better than such minimal water quality conditions not less than 95Z of
the time.
(3) Water quality standards shall apply at all flows equal to or
exceeding the design flow. The design flow is equal to the most re-
strictive of the 12 monthly 95% exceedance flows, except where the
commission determines that a mor.e restrictive design flow is necessary or
where the commission determines that seasonal design flows may be granted
pursuant to R 323.1090(4). The 95% exceedance flow is the flow equal to
or exceeded 95% of the time for the specified month.
(4) A maximum of 4 seasonal design flows may be granted when deter-
mining effluent limitations for a surface water discharge if it is
determined by the commission that the use of such design flows will
protect water quality and be consistent with the protection of the public
health, safety, and welfare. The seasonal design flows shall be the most
restrictive of the monthly 95% exceedance flow for the months in each
season. Seasonal design flows shall not be granted for toxic substances
which, on the basis of credible scientific evidence, may bioaccumulate in
biota inhabiting or using the waters of the state unless, taking into
account the receiving water characteristics the persistence and environ-
mental fate characteristics of the substance or substances and the
presence of other discharges of bioaccumulative toxic substances into the
same receiving waters, the commission determines that the increased mass
loading of the substance or substances resulting from granting seasonal
design flows is consistent with Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929,
as amended, being §323.1 et seq. of the Michigan Compiled Laws, and other
applicable law.
R 323.1092 Applicability of water quality standards to dredging or
construction activities.
Rule 92. Unless the commission determines, after consideration of
dilution and dispersion, that such activities result in unacceptable adverse
impacts on designated uses, the water quality standards prescribed by
these rules shall not apply to dredging or construction activities within
the waters of the state where such activities occur or during the periods
of time when the aftereffects of dredging or construction activities
degrade water quality within such waters of the state, if the dredging
operations or construction activities have been authorized by the United
States army corps of engineers or the department of natural resources. The
501
-------
water quality standards shall apply, however, in nonconfined waters of the
state utilized for the disposal of spoil from dredging operations, except
within spoil disposal sites specifically defined by the United States
army corps of engineers or the department of natural resources.
R 323.1096 Determinations of compliance with water quality standards.
Rule 96. Analysis of the waters of the state to determine compliance
with the water quality standards prescribed by these rules shall be made
pursuant to procedures outlined in 40 C.F.R. §136, as amended by F.R. pp.
43234 to 43442 October 26, 1984, and F.R. pp. 690 to 697 January 4, 1985,
or pursuant to other methods prescribed or approved by the commission and
the United States environmental protection agency.
R 323.1097 Materials applications not subject to standards.
Rule 97. The application of materials for water resource management
projects pursuant to state statutory provisions is not subject to the
standards prescribed by these rules, but all projects shall be reviewed
and approved by the commission before application.
R 323.1098 Antidegradation.
Rule 98. (1) This rule applies to waters of the state in which the
existing water quality is better than the water quality standards pre-
scribed by these rules or than needed to protect existing uses.
(2) These waters shall not be lowered in quality by action of the
commission unless it is determined by the commission that such lowering
will not do any of the following:
(a) Become injurious to the public health, safety, or welfare.
(b) Become injurious to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultur-
al, recreational, or other uses which are or may be made of such
waters.
(c) Become injurious to the value or utility of riparian lands.
(d) Become injurious to livestock, wild animals, including birds,
fish, and other aquatic animals, or plants, or their growth or
propagation.
(e) Destroy or impair the value of game, fish, and wildlife.
(f) Be unreasonable and against the public interest in view of the
existing conditions.
(3) All of the following waters are designated as protected waters:
(a) All Michigan waters of the Great Lakes, except as these waters
may be affected by discharges to the connecting waters and tributaries.
(b) Trout streams south of a line between Bay City, Midland, Alma,
and North Muskegon.
(c) Inland lakes.
(d) Reaches of country-scenic and wild-scenic rivers designated under
Act No. 231 of the Public Acts of 1970, being §281.761 et seq. of the
Michigan Compiled Laws.
(e) Scenic and recreational rivers designated under the wild and
scenic rivers act of 1968, 16 U.S.C. §1721 et seq.
(4) In addition to the requirements of subrule (2) of this rule, the
waters specified in subrule (3) of this rule shall not be lowered in
quality unless, after opportunity for public hearing, it has been demon-
strated by the applicant to the commission that a lowering in quality
will not be unreasonable, is in the public interest in view of existing
conditions, is necessary to accommodate important social or economic
50?
-------
development, and that there are no prudent and feasible alternatives to
lowering water quality.
(5) Reaches of the following rivers have been designated pursuant to
Act No. 231 of the Public Acts of 1970, being §281.761 et seq. of the
Michigan Compiled Laws:
(a) Jordan river - October, 1972, natural river plan.
(b) Betsie river - July, 1973, natural river plan.
(c) Rogue river - July, 1973, natural river plan.
(d) White river - May, 1975, natural river plan.
(e) Boardman river - December, 1975, natural river plan.
(f) Huron river - May, 1977, natural river plan.
(g) Pere Marquette river - July, 1978, natural river plan
(h) Flat river - October, 1979, natural river plan.
(i) Rifle river - May, 1980, natural river plan.
(j) Kalamazoo river - June, 1981, natural river plan.
(k) Pigeon river - June, 1982, natural river plan.
Designated reaches of these rivers are provided in the department of
natural resources natural river plan for each respective river.
(6) Reaches of the AuSable river - November, 1984, have been desig-
nated pursuant to the wild and scenic rivers act of 1968, 16 U.S.C. §1721
et seq.
(7) Michigan's waters of the Great Lakes are of special significance
and are designated as outstanding state resource waters. In addition to
the protection specified under subrules (2), (3) and (4) of this rule,
mixing zones shall not be used for new or increased discharges to the
Great Lakes of toxic substances, as defined by R 323.1057(2)(b), which
would result in a lowering of water quality. However, the commission may
grant a mixing zone for certain toxic substances on a case-by-case
basis, taking into account credible scientific evidence, including
persistence and environmental fate characteristics of the substances.
Mixing zones for existing discharges of these toxic substances to the
Great Lakes and for all discharges of these toxic substances to the
connecting waters shall be minimized.
(8) Before authorizing a new or increased discharge of wastewater
directly to the Great Lakes or connecting waters, the commission shall
provide, in addition to the public notice required by commission rules,
supplemental notice of its intent to authorize such discharge, of its
proposed determination with respect to the applicable factors set forth
in subrule (4) of this rule, and the proposed national pollutant dis-
charge elimination system permit terms and conditions, to the administra-
tor of the United States environmental protection agency, the director of
the state or provincial water pollution control agency for all states or
provinces which border the lake or connecting waters which receive the
new or increased discharge, the United States fish and wildlife service,
and the international joint commission. The commission shall allow not
less than 30 days for comments from the recipients of the supplemental
notice and shall carefully consider all comments received in making its
determination.
(9) Wild rivers designated under the wild and scenic rivers act of
1968, 16 U.S.C. §1721 et seq., rivers flowing into, through, or out of
national parks or national lakeshores, and wilderness rivers designated
under Act No. 231 of the Public Acts of 1970, being §281.761 et seq. of
the Michigan Compiled Laws, shall not be lowered in quality. Reaches of
503
-------
the Two Hearted river - December, 1973, natural river plan - are designated
under Act No. 231 of the Public Acts of 1970 as a wilderness river.
R 323.1099 Waters which do not meet standards.
Rule 99. Waters of the state which do not meet the water quality
standards prescribed by these rules shall be improved to meet those
standards. Where the water quality of certain waters of the state does
not meet the water quality standards as a result of natural causes or
conditions, further reduction of water quality is prohibited.
R 323.1100 Designated uses.
Rule 100. (1) As a minimum, all waters of the state are designated
for, and shall be protected for, all of the following uses:
(a) Agriculture.
(b) Navigation.
(c) Industrial water supply.
(d) Public water supply at the point of water intake.
(e) Warmwater fish.
(f) Other indigenous aquatic life and wildlife.
(g) Partial body contact recreation.
(2) All waters of the state are designated for, and shall be protect-
ed for, total body contact recreation from May 1 to October 31 in accor-
dance with R 323.1062. The commission will annually publish a list of
those waters of the state located immediately downstream of municipal
sewage system discharges where total or partial body contact recreation
is contrary to prudent public health practices.
(3) All inland lakes identified in the publication entitled "Cold-
water Lakes of Michigan," as published in 1976 by the department of
natural resources, are designated for, and shall be protected for,
coldwater fish.
(4) All Great Lakes and their connecting waters, except the entire
Keweenaw waterway, including Portage lake, Houghton county, and Lake St.
Glair, are designated for, and shall be protected for, coldwater fish.
(5) All lakes designated as trout lakes by the natural resources
commission under the authority of Act No. 165 of the Public Acts of 1929,
as amended, being §301.1 et seq. of the Michigan Compiled Laws, are
designated for, and shall be protected for, coldwater fish.
(6) All waters of the state designated as trout streams by the
director of the department pursuant to section 8 of Act No. 165 of the
Public Acts of 1929, as amended, being §301.8 et seq. of the Michigan
Compiled Laws, shall be protected for coldwater fish.
(7) All waters of the state which are designated by the Michigan
department of public health as existing or proposed for use as public
water supply sources are protected for such use at the point of water
intake and in such contiguous areas as the commission may determine
necessary for assured protection.
(8) Water quality of all waters of the state serving as migratory
routes for anadromous salmonids shall be protected as necessary to assure
that migration is not adversely affected.
(9) Discharges to wetlands, as defined by Act No. 203 of the Public
Acts of 1979, being §281.701 of the Michigan Compiled Laws, that result
in quality less than that prescribed by these rules may be permitted
after a use attainability analysis shows that designated uses are not and
cannot be attained and shows that attainable uses will be protected.
504
-------
(10) After completion of a comprehensive plan developed pursuant to
R 323.1064(3), upon petition by a municipality or other person, and in
conformance with the requirements of 40 C.F.R. §131.10 (1983), the commis-
sion may determine that attainment of the dissolved oxygen standards of
R 323.1064(1) is not feasible and designate, by amendment to this rule, a
limited warmwater fishery use subcategory of the warmwater fishery use
or a limited cold water fishery use subcategory of the cold water fishery
use. For waters so designated, the dissolved oxygen standards specified
in R 323.1064(2) and all other applicable standards of these rules apply.
For waters so designated, the dissolved oxygen standards specified in
R 323.1064(1) do not apply. Not less than sixty days before filing a
petition under this subrule by a municipality or other person, a petitioner
shall provide written notice to the executive secretary of the water
resources commission and the clerk of the municipalities in which the
affected waters are located of its intent to file such petition.
R 323.1105. Multiple designated uses.
Rule 105. When a particular portion of the waters of the state is
designated for more than 1 use, the most restrictive water quality
standards for one or more of those designated uses shall apply to that
portion.
R 323.1116 Availability of documents.
Rule 116. Documents referenced in R 323.1057, R 323.1058, R 323.1065,
R 323.1096, and R 323.1100 may be obtained at current costs as follows:
(a) "EPA Priority Pollutants and Hazardous Substances," 40 C.F.R.
§122.21, appendix D (1983); copies may be obtained from the Department of
Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost,
or from the Office of Water Enforcement, United States Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460, at no cost.
(b) "1984 Michigan Critical Materials Register;" copies may be
obtained from the Department of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30028,
Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost.
(c) "Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for Analysis of Pollu-
tants," 40 C.F.R. §136 as amended by F.R. pp 43234 to 43442, October 26,
1984, and F.R. pp. 690 to 697, January 4, 1985; copies may be obtained
from the Department of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing,
Michigan 48909, at no cost.
(d) "Designated Trout Lakes," a publication of the department of
natural resources; copies may be obtained from the Department of Natural
Resources, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost.
(e) "Coldwater Lakes of Michigan," August, 1976, a publication of the
department of natural resources, fisheries division, copies may be
obtained from the Department of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30028,
Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost.
(f) "Designated Trout Streams for the State of Michigan," April,
1975, a publication of the department of natural resources; copies may
be obtained from the Department of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30028,
Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost.
(g) "Standards for Protection Against Radiation," 10 C.F.R. §20,
January 1, 1985. Copies may be obtained from the Department of Natural
Resources, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost.
505
-------
(h) "Designation of uses," 40 C.F.R. §131.10, as published in November 8,
1983 F.R. pp. 51406 and 51407; copies may be obtained from the Department
of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost.
506
-------
APPENDIX B
State of Michigan
Department of Natural Resources
Environmental Protection Bureau
Guidelines for Rule 57(2)
Rule 323.1057 of the Part 4 Water Quality Standards filed with the Secretary
of State, January 2, 1985 , establishes standards for toxic substances.
These guidelines set forth procedures, pursuant to Rule 57(2), that
Environmental Protection Bureau staff will use in the development of recom-
mendations to the Water Resources Commission on allowable levels of toxic
substances in the waters of the state applicable to point source discharge
permits. The most recent of such toxic substance levels developed pursuant
to these guidelines shall be compiled on an annual basis and be available
for distribution by February 1 of each year.
507
-------
(1) As used in these guidelines:
(a) "Acute toxicity" means the ability of a chemical to cause
a debilitating or injurious change in an organism which results
from a single or short-term exposure to the chemical.
(b) "Bioconcentration" is the increase in concentration of the
chemical of concern and its metabolities in or on the target
organisms (or specified tissues thereof) relative to the con-
centration of the chemical of concern in the ambient water.
(c) "Carcinogen" means a chemical which causes an increased incidence
of benign or malignant neoplasms, or a substantial decrease
in the latency period between exposure and onset of neoplasms
through oral or dermal exposure, or through inhalation exposure
when the cancer occurs at non-respiratory sites in at least
one mammalian species, or man through epidemiological and/or
clinical studies.
(d) "Chronic toxicity" means the ability of a chemical to cause
an injurious or debilitating effect in an organism which results
from repeated exposure to a chemical for a time period represent-
ing a substantial portion of the natural life expectancy of
that organism.
508
-------
(e) "EC50" is the median effective concentration which is the
concentration of a test material in a suitable diluent at
which 50 percent of the exposed organisms exhibit a specified
response during a specified time period.
(f) "Genotoxic teratogen" is a chemical which fits all of the
following descriptions:
(i) It is positive in tests of gene mutation (with or without
metabolic activation).
(ii) It or its genotoxic metabolites are placentally transferred
in any mammalian species through oral, dermal or inhalation
exposure.
(iii) It elicits a teratogenic response when administered orally,
dermally or by inhalation in at least one mammalian species.
(g) "Hereditary mutagen" is a chemical which has the ability to
cause a heritable change in the genome of the germinal cells
through oral, dermal, or inhalation exposure in at least one
mammalian species.
(h) "LC50" is the median lethal concentration which is the concentra-
tion of a test material in a suitable diluent at which 50
percent of the exposed organisms die during a specified time
period.
509
-------
(i) "Life Cycle Safe Concentration" is the highest concentration
of a chemical to which an organism is exposed continuously
for a life time, and which results in no observable adverse
effects to this organism and its progency.
(j) "log Row" means the log (base 10) of the n-octanol/water partition
coefficient.
(k) "MATC" is the maximum acceptable toxicant concentration obtained
by calculating the geometric mean of the lower and upper chronic
limits from a chronic test. A lower chronic limit is the
highest tested concentration which did not cause the occurrence
of a specified adverse effect. An upper chronic limit is
the lowest tested concentration which did cause the occurrence
of a specified adverse effect and above which all tested concentra-
tions caused such an occurrence.
(1) "NOAEL" means the highest level of toxicant which results in
no observable adverse effects to exposed test organisms.
(m) "n-octanol/water partition coefficient" (Row) means the ratio
of the octanol to water equilibrium concentrations of a compound.
(n) "Risk" means the probability that a chemical, when released
to the environment, will cause an adverse effect in exposed
humans, other living organisms, or abiotic environmental compart-
ments .
sin
-------
(o) "Risk assessment" means the analytical process used to determine
the level of risk.
511
-------
(2) The allowable level in the surface water after a discharge is mixed
with the receiving stream volume specified in R 323.1082 shall
not exceed any of the following:
(a) The Aquatic Chronic Value as derived in (3).
(b) The Terrestrial Life Cycle Safe Concentration as derived in
(4).
(c) The Human Life Cycle Safe Concentration as derived in (5).
(d) The concentration providing an acceptable degree of protection
to public health for cancer, as derived in (6), when sufficient
data are available in the scientific literature to establish
that a chemical is a carcinogen.
(e) The concentration providing an acceptable degree of protection
to public health for hereditary mutagenic or genotoxic teratogenic
effects, as derived in (7), when sufficient data are available
in the scientific literature to establish that a chemical
is a hereditary mutagen or genotoxic teratogen.
SI?
-------
(3) The aquatic chronic value (ACV) shall be derived
by one of the following methods. The minimum toxicity data requirements
to calculate an ACV in (a) and (b) shall consist of a 96 hour LC50
or EC50 for a rainbow trout or fathead minnow and a 48 hour EC50
or LC50 for a daphnid.
(a? The ACV is calculated in the following manner (modified EPA,
1983) if chronic maximum acceptable toxicant concentration
(MATC) data for a chemical are available for at least six North
American freshwater species and:
one species is a salmonid
one species is a cyprinid or centrarchid
one species is a daphnid
one species is a benthic macroinvertebrate
one species is in the order osteichythyes and not represented
in a family above
one species is any other freshwater species not represented
above ,
Resident species data are preferred for the above required
data set. If one or more of the required species
R13
-------
are not site resident, the requirement may be waived and
appropriate substitution will be made.
(i) If the chronic toxicity of the chemical has not been
adequately shown to be related to a water quality characteristic,
an ACV is calculated using the following procedures.
If the toxicity of the chemical is related to a water
quality characteristic, go to (a)(ii).
(A) For each' species for which at least one chronic
MATC is available, the Species Mean Chronic Value
(SMCV) is calculated as the geometric mean of the
results of all flow-through tests in which the concentrations
of test material were measured. For a species for
which no such result is available, the geometric
mean of all available MATC's is calculated, i.e.,
results of flow-through tests in which the concentrations
were not measured and the results of static and
renewal tests based on initial total concentrations
of test material.
(B) The SMCV's are ordered from high to low.
514
-------
(C) Ranks (R) are assigned to the SMCV's from "1" for
the lowest to "N" for the highest. If two or more
SMCV's are identical, successive ranks are arbitrarily
assigned.
(D) The cumulative proportion (p) for each SMCV is
calculafed as R/(N+1).
(E) The SMCV's (T) (T=3 for 6-7 SMCVs; T=4 for 8 or
more SMCVs) are selected which have cummulative
proportions closest to 0.05. If there are less
than 59 SMCVs, these will always be the three (6-
7 SMCVs) or four (8 or more SMCVs) lowest SMCVs.
(F) Using the selected SMCVs and PS , the ACV is calculated
as:
S2 = £((ln SMCV)2) - ((g(ln SMCV))2/T)
- ((C(Vp~))2/T)
L - C£(ln SMCV) - SC£(/?)))/T
A = SO/0.05) +L
ACV = eA
515
-------
(ii) If data for a chemical are available to show that chronic
toxicity to two or more species is similarly related
to a water quality characteristic, an Aquatic Final Chronic
Equation must be calculated using the following procedures:
(A) For each species for which comparable chronic toxicity
values are available at three or more different values
of the water quality characteristic, perform a
least squares regression of the ehronic toxicity values
on the values of the water quality characteristic.
Because the best documented relationship is that
between .hardness and toxicity of metals in fresh
water and a log-log relationship best fits the available
data, natural logarithms of both toxicity and water
quality are used here. For relationships based
on other water quality characteristics, such as
pH or temperature, no transformation or a different
transformation may fit the data better, and appropriate
changes will be necessary throughout this section.
(B) Each chronic slope is evaluated as to whether or
not it is meaningful, taking into account the range
and number of the tested values of the water quality
characteristic. For example, a slope based on four
data points may be of limited value if it is based
516
-------
only on data for a narrow range of values of the
water quality characteristic. On the other hand,
a slope based on only three data points may be meaningful
if it is consistent with other information and if
the three points cover a broad enough range of the
water quality characteristic. If meaningful slopes
are not available for at least one fish and one
invertebrate or if the available slopes are not
similar or if too few data are available to adequately
define the shape of the curve, return to (a)(i).
(C) The mean chronic slope (V) is calculated as the
arithmetic average of all the meaningful chronic
slopes for individual species.
(D) For each species the geometric mean (W) of the chronic
toxicity values and the geometric mean (X) of the
related values of the water quality characteristic
are calculated.
(E) For each species the logarithmic intercept (Y) is
calculated using the equation: Y = In W - V(ln X).
(F) For each species the species mean chronic intercept
is calculated as the antilog of Y.
517
-------
(G) The Aquatic Chronic Intercept is obtained by using
the procedure described in (a)(i)(A-G), except "intercept"
is inserted for "Value".
(H) The Aquatic Chronic Equation is written as
(V In (water quality characteristic) + In Z),
where V * mean chronic slope and Z = Aquatic
Chronic Intercept.
(b) If chronic MATC data for a chemical is not available for at
least six freshwater species meeting the requirements in (a)
an ACV is calculated as follows:
(i) The Final Acute Value (FAV) is divided by an acute/chronic
ratio (or geometric mean if more than one is available)
for at least one North American freshwater species. The FAV is
derived in the following manner (listed in order of preference);
(A) The FAV is derived in the same manner as the ACV
described in (a) by substituting FAV for ACV, SMAV
(Species Mean Acute Value) for SMCV, and acute for
chronic, and LC50 or EC50 for MATC.
518
-------
(B) If the required data to derive a FAV in (A) is not
present in the acute toxicity data base, a FAV is
calculated by dividing the most sensitive 96 hr.
LC50 or EC50 for rainbow trout or fathead minnow and 48
hr. EG50 or LC50 for a daphnid by the appropriate
application factor from the following table:
Species Combination
Rainbow trout/Fathead minnow/
Daphnid
" Rainbow trout/Daphnid
Fathead minrtoW/Daphnid
Application Factor
5
5
10
If appropriate, the FAV will be made a function
of a water quality characteristic in a manner similar
to that described in (a)(ii).
(ii) If no acute/chronic ratio is available in the aquatic
chronic toxicity data base, the ACV is calculated by
dividing the FAV by 45.
(c) As an alternative to the chemical specific approaches to calculating
an ACV described in (a) and (b), biological techniques may
be used to assure that chronically toxic conditions do not
exist for aquatic life in the waters of the state. This
approach will be used on a case-by-case basis.
519
-------
(d) On the basis of all available pertinent laboratory and field
information, the FAV and ACV are evaluated as to whether they
are consistent with sound scientific evidence and are protective
of ecologically, commercially, or recreationally important resident
species. If not, staff will evaluate appropriate modifications
of the procedures, including site specific techniques for
deriving acute and chronic values for chemicals.
Reference
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983. Draft Guidelines for Deriving
National Water Quality Critetia for the Protection of Aquatic Life
and Its Uses (July 5, 1983). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Development Document, Environmental Research Laboratory, Duluth,
Minnesota.
5?0
-------
(4) The concentration to protect wildlife is the Terrestrial Life Cycle
Safe Concentration (TLSC). The TLSC shall be derived by one of
the following methods, depending on the type and quality of the
toxicity data base. The minimum toxicity data requirement for
derivation of a TLSC shall consist of an acute oral LD50 for rats.
When mammalian and avian toxicity data are available, a TLSC shall
be calculated for both groups. The final TLSC is the lowest of
the two values.
(a) If a chronic or subacute NOAEL from mammalian or avian species
exposed to toxicant contaminated water ia available,
TLSC = NOAEL
Where: U = uncertainty factor (U = 10-100 depending on quality
of study)
(b) If a chronic or subacute NOAEL from mammalian or avian species
exposed to toxicant contaminated feed is available,
W
NOAEL (ppm) x C x rp
TLSC * w
Where: C = weight of feed consumed daily expressed as a fraction
of test animals body weight
-------
W = weight of test animal (kg)
V = volume of water consumed daily by the test animal (1)
(c) If a chronic or subacute NOAEL from mammalian or avian species
exposed to toxicant by gavage is available,
W
NOAEL (mg/kg) x ^ x Fw
TLSC =• w
u
Where: Fw * fraction of days dosed per week
(d) If an oral rat LD50 is available,
w
LD50 (mg/kg) x ^ x M
TLSC » w
10
Where: M = acute to chronic application factor (M = 0.0001)
(e) TLSCs are best derived from data involving oral exposure.
However, if available oral data are insufficient, it may be
useful to use data from other exposure routes. Use of such
data will depend on the specific pharmacokinetic and toxicolo-
gical properties of each chemical.
-------
(f) If an acceptable NOAEL is lacking, the lowest observable adverse effect
level (LOAEL) may be substituted in some cases, with an additional
uncertainty factor of 1 to 10.
(g) On the basis of available information, the TLSC is evaluated
as to whether it is consistent with sound scientific judgement.
If not, staff will evaluate appropriate modifications of these
procedures.
523
-------
(5) The concentration to protect public health from threshold effect
toxicants is the Human Life Cycle Safe Concentration (HLSC). The
HLSC shall be derived in the following manner. The minimum toxicity
data requirement for derivation of an HLSC shall consist of an
acute oral LD50 for rats.
(a) The HLSC shall be derived from appropriate toxicological data
using the following formula:
HLSC = MgT (mg/day)
WC + (P x BCF)
Where: MgT = maximum milligrams of toxicant per day
causing no adverse effects to humans when
ingested daily for lifetime.
WC = volume of water consumed daily in liters (2 liters (1)
for surface water protected for drinking water supply;
0.01 liters (1) for surface water protected for total
and partial body contact)
F * daily consumption of fish by humans (F » 0.0065 kg)
BCF » bioconcentration factor as determined in (8).
(i) The MgT shall be derived by one of the following methods depending
on the type and quality of the toxicity data base.
5?4
-------
(A) If a scientifically valid Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL)
from the National Interim Primary Drinking Water
Regulations is available,
MgT - MCL (mg/1) x VH
Where: V. • volume of water consumed daily by humans
(V. - 2 1)
n
(B) If a chronic or subacute no observable adverse effect
level (NOAEL) for humans exposed to toxicant contaminated
drinking water is available,
NOAEL (mg/1) x V,
MgT - -
U
Where: U = uncertainty factor (U = 10-100)
(C) If a scientifically valid Acceptable Daily Intake
(ADI) is available from the Food and Drug Administration
Regulations, MgT = ADI.
(D) If a chronic or subacute NOAEL from mammalian test
species exposed to toxicant contaminated drinking
water is available,
525
-------
V
NOAEL (mg/1) x rp x W
MgT = Wa
Where: V = volume of water consumed daily by test animal (1)
W = weight of test animal (kg)
W, = weight of human (W. - 70 kg)
n n
B * uncertainty factor (B = 100-1,000 depending
on quality of study)
(E) If a chronic or subacute NOAEL from mammalian test
species, exposed to toxicant contaminated food is
available,
MgT m NOAEL (ppm) x C x
Where: C » daily food consumption expressed as a fraction
of the animal's body weight
(F) If a chronic or subacute NOAEL from mammalian test
species exposed to toxicant by gavage is available,
MgT m NOAEL (mg/kg) x FW x W
B
Where: F - fraction of days dosed per week
w
526
-------
(G) If an oral rat LD50 is available,
MgT a LD50 (mg/kg) x M x
100
Where: M = acute to chronic application factor
(M = 0.0001)
(H) If an acceptable NOAEL is lacking, the lowest observ-
able adverse effect level (LOAEL) may be substituted
in some cases, with an additional uncertainty factor
of 1 to ia.
(I) HLSCs are best derived from data involving oral
exposure. However, if available oral data are in-
sufficient, it may be useful to use data from other
exposure routes. Use of such data will depend on
the specific pharmacokinetic and toxicological
properties of each chemical.
(J) On the basis of available information, the HLSC
is evaluated as to whether it is consistent with
sound scientific judgement. If not, staff will
evaluate appropriate modifications of these procedures,
527
-------
(6) The concentration providing an acceptable degree of protection
to public health for cancer shall be derived in (a), except for
carcinogens that are assumed to cause cancer by a non-threshold
mechanism. For these chemicals a greater degree of protection
than that derived in (a) may be developed pursuant to R 323.1098
where achievable through utilization of control measures already
in place.
(a) A water concentration of the carcinogen shall be derived from
human epidemiological data or from appropriate animal research
data using the following formula.
D x W,
C = h
WC + (F x BCF)
Where: C = concentration of the carcinogen (mg/1)
D = dose derived in (i) (ii) or (iii) (mg/kg/day)
W, = weight of an average human (Wh = 70 kg)
WC = daily water consumption 0.01 1 for surface water
protected for total or partial body contact;
2.0 1 for surface waters protected for drinking
water supply)
F = daily fish consumption (F = 0.0065 kg)
BCF = bioconcentration factor as determined in (8)
(i) The dose (D) may be derived from appropriate human epidemiological
data on a case-by-case basis with staff seeking the advice
of an expert committee established in (b) as needed.
-------
(ii) Whenever appropriate human epidemiological data are not
available, a non-threshold mechanism shall be assumed for
carcinogens which have not been adequately demonstrated
to cause cancer by a threshold mechanism. The dose (D)
shall be the concentration estimated to cause one additional
cancer over the background rate in 100,000 individuals
exposed to that concentration calculated using the following
method:
(A) All carcinogenesis bioassay data are reviewed and
data of appropriate quality are used for the quantitative
risk estimations. The data are fitted into the
multistage model using the computer model GLOBAL
79 developed by Crump and Watson (1979). The upper
95% confidence limit on risk at the 1 in 100 risk
level is divided by the maximum likelihood dose
at the same level of risk which determines the slope,
q..*. This is taken as an upper bound of the potency
of the chemical in inducing cancer at low doses.
Whenever the multistage model does not fit the data,
as determined by the Chi-square goodness of fit
statistical test, the model is refitted to the data
omitting the highest dose. This is continued until
an acceptable fit is determined as described in,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980. If
a single study in which a chemical induces more
529
-------
than one type of tumor is available, then the response
for the tumor type predicting the highest estimate
of q,* is generally used for the risk assessment.
If two or more studies of equal quality are available,
but vary in any of the following: species, strain,
sex or tumor type, then the data set giving the
highest estimate of q * is generally used for the
risk assessment. If two or more studies exist which
are identical regarding species, strain, sex, tumor
type, and are of equal quality, then the geometric
mean of the q * values from these data sets is used.
(B) The dose corresponding to an estimated one additional
cancer in 100,000 exposed test organisms is determined
by dividing 10 by the value for q.*.
(C) A species sensitivity factor is used to account
for differences between test species and man. It
is assumed that mg/surface area/day is an equivalent
dose between species. The value may be calculated
by dividing the average weight of a human (70 kg)
by the weight of the test species and taking the
cube root of this value; the slope q * is multiplied
by this factor. However, if adequate pharmacokinetic
and metabolism studies are available, this data
may be factored into the adjustment for species
530
-------
differences on a case-by-case basis. Staff may
seek the advice of an expert committee established
in (b) as needed.
(D) All doses are adjusted to give a lifetime average
daily dose. If dosing was only for a fraction
of a lifetime, then the total dose is averaged over
the entire lifespan.
(E) If the duration of experiment (L ) is less than
G
the natural lifespan of the test animal (L), the
slope, q,*, is multiplied by the factor (L »3.
*-e
(iii) Whenever appropriate human epidemiological data are not
available, and the preponderance of data suggests that
the chemical causes cancer by a threshold mechanism and
does not interact with DNA, the dose (D) for chemicals
shall be calculated from animal research data by applying
a safety factor to an appropriate toxicity end point.
Staff may seek the advice of an expert committee established
in (b), as needed.
(A) The appropriate toxicity end point shall be determined
by staff on a case-by-case basis.
531
-------
(B) The safety factor shall be determined by staff based
on an evaluation of appropriate toxicological and
pharmacological considerations including, mechanism
of carcinogenesis, number and type of tumors induced,
the spontaneous incidence of tumors, the number
of animal species tested and affected, metabolic
considerations, epidemiologic observation on exposed
humans, extent of the data supporting a nongenetic
mechanism, and other pertinent information.
(C) A species sensitivity factor may be used to account
for differences between test species and man.
(b) A committee of scientists expert in the field of carcinogenesis
shall be established by the director, as needed.
(i) A committee may be convened when the director determines
that staff will benefit from advice and recommendations
on a highly technical scientific issue which staff requires
additional technical expertise to resolve. Such issues
include, but are not limited to: specific mechanisms
of carcinogenicity (i.e. epigenetic/genetic or promoter/
initiator), species sensitivity, and determination of
carcinogenicity for chemicals with data not fitting the
criteria to determine carcinogenicity established in
532
-------
these guidelines. Social, political and economic issues
shall not be within the charge of this committee. The
director shall provide a specific charge to the committee
on the issued) which they are to address and a time
frame for completing the task.
(11) The committee shall consist of five (5) members.
(A) Three members shall be selected by the director.
Two additional members shall be recommended on a
unanimous basis to the director by the initial three
members.
(B) Each member shall have a PhD degree (or equivalent)
in toxicology or a related field, and extensive
experience in technical areas pertinent to the issue
to be addressed.
(C) Nominees can be recommended by any interested party.
(D) Committee members shall be reimbursed for actual
travel expenses within Michigan.
(iii) The committee shall select a chairperson and adopt operating
procedures. The procedures shall provide for meeting
announcements, agendas and minutes. All meetings shall
be open to the public. Provisions for written and oral
public comment shall be provided in the procedures.
533
-------
(iv) The department shall provide staff to the committee.
(v) The committee shall provide a written report stating
their recommendations and supporting documentation and
rationale.
(c) On the basis of available information, the concentration provid-
ing an acceptable degree of protection to public health for
cancer is evaluated as to whether it is consistent with sound
scientific judgement. If not, staff will evaluate appropriate
modifications of these procedures.
References
Crump, Kenny S. and Warren W. Watson, 1979. GLOBAL 79. A FORTRAN program
to extrapolate dichotomous animal carcinogenicity data to low doses.
National Institute of Environmental Health Science Contract NOI-
ES 2123.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980. Water Quality Criteria
Availability. Appendix C - Guidelines and Methodology Used in
the Preparation of Health Effect Assessment Chapters of the Consent
Decree Water Criteria Documents. 45 Federal Register 79347-79357.
534
-------
(7) The level providing an acceptable degree of protection to public
health for hereditary mutagenic effects and genotoxic teratogenic
effects shall be derived in the following manner.
(a) A committee of scientists expert in the field of hereditary
mutagens and genotoxic teratogens may be established, as in
(6)(b), to advise staff on these chemicals.
(b) As needed, staff may seek the advice of the expert committee
established in (a) above regarding the mutagenic potential
of a chemical or the potential of a chemical to act as a geno-
toxic teratogen and methods for assessing risks.
(c) Staff shall derive acceptable concentrations for these chemicals
on a case-by-case basis.
535
-------
(8) The final bioconcentration factor (BCF-) standardized to reflect
the value for fresh fish tissue having a lipid content of 9.6%
shall be determined as follows in order of preference:
(a) Measured, steady-state bioconcentration factors from standardized
laboratory tests shall be recorded as BCF . If more than
a single value is available the BCF shall be equal to the
geometric mean of the reported values:
(b) If bioconcentration factors are available from other laboratory
tests, the BCF will be the highest of the following values:
m
(i) The projected steady-state BCF as calculated from the
test data.
(ii) The highest individual BCF reported during the study.
(iii) The apparent steady-state BCF if steady-state was reached
but the test duration was not of sufficient length.
(iv) The BCF obtained by dividing the highest tissue concentration
of the chemical by the nominal water concentration.
536
-------
(c) If bioconcentration factors are not available from laboratory
studies, the measured bioconcentration factor from a field
study may be used as the BCF if the following conditions
were met:
(i) Data are available to show that the concentration of
the chemical in the water to which the organism is exposed
remained reasonably constant throughout the study.
(ii) Competing mechanisms for chemical removal from solution
did not markedly affect the bioavailability of the chemical,
(iii) The concentration of the chemical to which the organism
was exposed is known to be less than the concentration
causing any adverse effects on the test species.
(iv) The field measured values agree reasonably well with
values reported for similar compounds or with values
calculated from regression equations.
(d) If measured bioconcentration factors (BCF ) are not available
m
from field or laboratory studies, a calculated bioconcentration
factor (BCF ) will be determined by the following equation:
log BCF - 0.847 log Row - 0.628
537
-------
(e) If a measured Row is not available for the chemical of interest
the Kow may be calculated according to standard references
and used in the regression equation in (d).
(f) If a Kow cannot be calculated, BCF may be estimated on a
case-by-case basis using other regression equations or
correlations as appropriate.
(g) The final bioconcentration factor (BCFf) will be obtained
by normalization to 9.62 lipids as follows:
(i) For measured bioconcentration factors:
BCF, - BCF (-
r m L
where BCF * measured bioconcentration factor
m
L * percent lipid content of fish used in the test
(ii) For calculated bioconcentration factors:
BCFf - BCFc
where BCF • calculated bioconcentration factor from
c
log Kow or other regression equations.
4.8 = average percent lipid for test fish used to
develop the regression equation in (d)
538
-------
APPENDIX C
STAFF REPORT
Support Document
for the
Proposed Rule 57 Package
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
Environmental Protection Bureau
March 26, 1984
539
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 541
Proposed Rule 57 542
Proposed Rule 82 544
Proposed Rule 90 545
Proposed Rule 57(2) Guidelines 547
1. Aquatic Chronic Values 547
2. Human Health Values 556
a. Human Life Cycle Safe Concentrations 558
b. Cancer Risk Values 563
3. Terrestrial Life Cycle Safe Concentrations 567
4. Bioconcentration Factors 568
General Considerations 576
Summary 577
Example Calculations 578
References 585
General Questions and Responses 591
540
-------
INTRODUCTION
This document contains supporting information for the February 28, 1984
draft of the Rule 57 package which includes proposed Rule 57, Rule 82,
Rule 90, and Rule 57(2) Guidelines. Justification for amendments proposed,
assumptions made and safety factors used will be outlined. Example
calculations of Rule 57(2) guideline values will be presented and a
list of commonly asked questions and our responses are included. A
qualitative assessment of the conservatism incorporated into the approach
to calculate allowable levels of toxic substances in the waters of the
state applicable to point source discharges will be presented to demonstrate
that public health and the environment will be protected with an adequate
margin of safety. Uncertainties of the approach are also discussed.
The Rule 57 package is the result of years of effort. Past public comment
and recommendations by both the Water Quality Standards Task Force and
the Rule 57 Advisory Committee have been considered. Many meetings
with interested parties have been held. The Department has been attempt-
ing to amend the 1973 water quality standards since 1976. A more definitive
approach to control the discharge of toxic substances for the protection
of public health is needed. We feel that if the proposed rule amendments
and guidelines are adopted, Michigan will have taken a giant step forward
in the regulation of toxic substances. The package will also give the
regulated community the regulatory certainty that they have been requesting.
The approach of blending rule and guidelines for this highly technical
and controversial area will enable the Department to factor in recent
advances in this field much easier than if the detailed procedures of
the guidelines were in rule form.
Rule 82 (mixing zones) and Rule 90 (design flows) were included in the
Rule 57 package because they are directly involved in the calculation
of allowable levels of toxicants applicable to point source discharges.
The underlying philosophy of the proposed rule package is to promulgate
water quality standards with specific authority to protect the public
health and environment with an adequate margin of safety. It is important
to keep in mind that in dealing with point source discharge permits
under both Federal and State laws, treatment based numbers and water
quality-based values are addressed separately. The more restrictive
of the water quality-based value and the treatment based number becomes
the basis for the limit. The Federal government is to develop treatment
based standards. Where they do not exist, DNR staff will use best
professional judgment to evaluate the need for treatment based numbers
more restrictive than water quality-based values.
The determination of allowable levels of toxic substances is a very
technical area and the guidelines are detailed. We have attempted to
write this document as non-technical as possible; however, some under-
standing of the basic principles of toxicology is required to fully
understand the issues.
541
-------
PROPOSED RULE 57
The 1973 Rule 57 needs to be amended because it contains outdated literature
citations and places its primary emphasis on protecting aquatic life.
The proposed rule is considered a narrative water quality standard as
opposed to a numerical rule which would have absolute values specified
for a list of toxic substances. Because of the rapid advances in the
field of toxicology, difficulties we have had in the past when attempting
to promulgate a numerical rule, and the complexities of amending rules
in this state, we feel the narrative approach blended with guidelines
is the best way to proceed at this time.
The rule is divided into two subrules. The first being a general state-
ment prohibiting injurious levels of toxic substances in the waters
of the state and indicating that the Commission will determine allowable
levels by using appropriate scientific data. Determination of allowable
levels for situations other than point source discharges will need to
be done on a case-by-case basis.
Subrule (2) specifically addresses the development of allowable toxicant
levels in the waters of the state applicable to point source discharges.
More detail is provided by defining the universe of chemicals to which
the subrule applies, placing an upper boundary on risk of 1 in 100,000
for carcinogens not determined to cause cancer by a threshold mechanism,
indicating that the allowable toxicant levels apply at the edge of mixing
zones, referencing the Rule 57(2) guidelines and establishing a mechanism
and conditions for issuing non-conforming use permits.
The Department has received comments from both the regulated community
and some environmental groups recommending that we restrict the number
of chemicals to which Rule 57 would be applied. Staff would like to
have no limits on the universe of chemicals but we feel that a workable
solution is presented in the rule. The Michigan Critical Materials
List and EPA's lists of priority pollutants and hazardous materials
will be used as the generic lists of concern. However, if a chemical
not on the lists is of concern for a specific permit, the Commission
can make a determination to include it on a case-by-case basis.
The risk assessment process and upper limit on risk for chemicals assumed
to be non-threshold carcinogens was agreed upon by the Rule 57 Advisory
Committee and staff. The determination of an acceptable level of risk
is a complex socio-economic issue in which many factors need to be considered.
Rule 57 requires that a point source discharge not create an estimated
level of risk to public health greater than 1 in 100,000 above background
in the surface water after mixing with the allowable receiving stream
volume specified in Rule 82 and calculated using the model and assumptions
specified in the guidelines. DNR staff feels that the actual risk to
the public health associated with exposure to these chemicals in most
surface waters of the state under these conditions, will be considerably
less than 1 in 100,000 and will be well below that of common everyday
542
-------
risks since the background rate of a person contacting cancer is 1 in
3. More discussion on carcinogens will be presented later in this
document.
The concept of blending Rule 57 with the Rule 57(2) guidelines provides
a more flexible package than if all the details of the guidelines were
in rule form. We believe that the proposed procedures are practical
and can be implemented at this time. However, it is important to realize
that the knowledge and understanding of toxic substances is rapidly
expanding. The proposed procedures, while valid today, will require
periodic review and revision to keep up with the state-of-the-art of
the science involved. With this in mind and the fact that guidelines
can be changed easier than rules, we kept Rule 57 in the more general
narrative form and placed most of the highly technical detailed procedures
in the guidelines. The Rule 57(2) guidelines will be discussed in more
detail later in this report.
Rule 57(2) states that the Commission may issue a non-conforming use
permit if immediate attainment of the allowable level of a toxic substance
is not economically or technically feasible and no prudent alternative
exists. In addition, the permitted discharge during the period of non-
confonnance cannot be of a quality which causes long-term adverse impacts
to the public health, safety arid welfare. These permits are meant to
be of an interim nature and must include a schedule to achieve reasonable
progress toward compliance with the final limits. During the developmental
stages of Rule 57, considerable comments were submitted concerning the
possible adverse economic impact of promulgating Rule 57. Staff feel
that the facility specific non-conforming use permit is the most appropriate
mechanism to address the economic impact of Rule 57.
543
-------
PROPOSED RULE 82
Rule 82 establishes mixing zones for point source discharges. Changes
to this rule are primarily proposed to clarify the intent of the rule.
It is specifically stated that for toxic substances, not more than 25
percent of the design flow will be utilized for determining point source
discharge limits, unless it can be demonstrated that the use of a larger
volume is acceptable. Limiting our initial mixing zone determination
for toxics to 25 percent is done when there are insufficient data on
the site-specific mixing characteristics of the discharge with the receiving
stream to evaluate the impacts on the biological communities within
the mixing zone and fish passage.
In general, the entire design flow of the receiving stream is utilized
as a mixing zone for conventional substances. Less concern for adverse
environmental impacts exists for these substances than for toxics and
use of the entire design flow in the general case will not adversely
impact the receiving stream.
Because an acceptable technique for determining mixing zones in all
inland lakes and Great Lakes situations does not exist, they will be
established on a case-by-case .basis.
544
-------
PROPOSED RULE 90
Rule 90 addresses the applicability of the water quality standards.
The major proposed change is the mechanism for allowing a maximum of
four seasonal design flows when deriving effluent limitations when it
is determined by the Commission to be acceptable. This option would
allow the use of additional assimilative capacity of the stream which
is available during periods of high stream flows and can result in substantial
treatment cost saving. However, water quality standards would still
be met 95 percent of the time because the design flow would be the most
restrictive of the monthly 95 percent exceedance flows for the months
in each season. The 95 percent excredance flow concept was chosen as
the most appropriate method to estimate a monthly low flow value.
The most restrictive of the 12 monthly 95 percent exceedance flows was
also substituted for the 7-day Q.Q flow. This was done to be consistent
with the seasonal design flow concept. We feel that this approach is
a close approximation of the 7-day Q._ as shown by flows from some randomly
selected streams in Table 1.
545
-------
Table 1. The 7 day Q10 flows and the most restrictive monthly 95% exceedance
flows at selected sites in Michigan
Black River at Fargo
Bell River at Memphis
N. Br. Bell River at Imley City
Mill Creek NR Abbottsford
Mill Creek NR Avoca
Pigeon River NR Owendale
Deer Creek NR Dansvilie
Red Cedar River at E. Lansing
Grand River at Jackson
Grand River at Lansing
Lookingglass River NR Eagle
Grand River at Grand Rapids
Flat River at Smyrna
Quaker Brook NR Nashville
Thornapple River NR Hastings
Rouge River NR Rockford
Muskegon River at Evart
Bear Creek NR Muskegon
White River NR Whitehall
Big Sable River NR Freesoil
Manistee River NR Sherman
North Br. Kawkawlin
S. Br. Cass River NR Cass City
E. Br. Coon Creek at Armada
St. Joe River NR Burlington
Trap Rock River NR Linden
Ford River NR Hyde
Peshekee River NR Champion
7Q10
(cfs)
5.9
3.6
0.25
4.1
1.4
0.64
0.15
9.4
22
78
16.1
707
127
1.1
49.8
71
310
2.4
187
85.2
704
0
1.1
0
16.6
8
26.5
3.0
95%
Exceedance
(cfs)
5.9
4.4
0.3
4.0
1.8
1.0
0.2
11
22
85
18
750
140
1.3
52
72
320
2.4
190
87
720
0
1.2
0
15
8.7
32
3.2
546
-------
PROPOSED RULE 57(2) GUIDELINES
The Rule 57(2) guidelines are specifically referenced in Rule 57(2)(d).
These guidelines will be adopted pursuant to the Administrative Procedures
Act and are only binding on the Department. They set forth procedures
that Environmental Protection Bureau staff will use in the development
of recommendations to the Water Resources Commission on allowable levels
of toxic substances in the waters of the state applicable to point source
discharge permits. They also set forth the minimum toxicity data needed
for a chemical to enable staff to derive their recommendations. Minimum
data consists of a rat oral LD50, a 48 hr. EC50 for a daphnid, and a
96 hr. LC50 for a fathead minnow or rainbow trout. Beciuse the allowable
toxic substance levels can change based on new toxicity data, a list
of the most recent of these toxicant levels will be compiled on an annual
basis and will be available for distribution by February 1 of each year.
The guidelines contain detailed procedures for calculating levels necessary
to protect aquatic life (Aquatic Chronic Value), wildlife (Terrestrial
Life Cycle Safe Concentration), and public health from threshold effect
toxic substances (Human Life Cycle Safe Concentration); and concentrations
providing an acceptable degree of protection to public health for cancer.
The concentration providing an acceptable degree of protection to public
health for hereditary mutagenic effects or genotoxic teratogenic effects
will be calculated on a case-by-case basis because no recognized methods
are presently available. The most restrictive of the above values is
used as the allowable level in the surface water after a discharge is
mixed with the receiving stream volume specified in Rule 82. Discussion
on the calculation of these values and methods for calculating bioconcen-
tration factors follow. The reader is referred to the proposed Rule 57(2)
guidelines for the specific procedures.
1. Aquatic Chronic Values
The aquatic chronic value (ACV) is the highest concentration of
a chemical or combination of chemicals which theoretically will
produce no adverse effects on important aquatic organisms (and
their progeny) exposed continuously for a lifetime. The ACV can
be calculated on a chemical specific basis or by using biological
techniques, such as bioassays, to assure that chronically toxic
conditions do not exist for important aquatic life in the waters
of the state. With the chemical specific approach, a specific
numerical value is derived for each chemical using the procedures
in the guidelines. The details of using biological techniques
will be established on a case-by-case basis for each facility.
The procedures are based on the belief that effects observed in
appropriate laboratory tests will generally occur to the same species
in comparable field situations. The procedures also account for
the effects of various water quality characteristics (i.e., hardness,
pH, etc.) on the toxicities of chemical substances. Site specific
data are preferred and used whenever possible.
547
-------
The mechanism used to calculate the ACV for a toxic substance
depends upon the number of chronic data points available for that
substance. When six or more appropriate chronic data points are
available for a chemical, the ACV is calculated directly from fish
and macroinvertebrate chronic toxicity data for that chemical using
procedures similar to those described in U.S. EPA, 1983. ACVs
for chemical substances calculated using this procedure theoretically
are designed to be equivalent to, or less than, the chemical's
chronic value for 95 percent of all fish and aquatic macroinvertebrate
species resident to Michigan's- waters.
Unfortunately, there .exists a large number of chemical substances
for which there are little or no chronic data available. For these
chemical substances, the ACV must be predicted from Final Acute
Values (FAV) using appropriate application factors. A FAV corresponds
to the highest concentration of a chemical in water which theoretically
will kill or significantly impair 50 percent of a population of
important aquatic organisms exposed continuously for a short period
of time (96 hours for fish and aquatic macroinvertebrates, except
48 hours for cladocerans and chironomids). The FAV is calculated
using a modified U.S. EPA, 1983 approach when six or more appropriate
acute data points are available. If this data base is not available,
the FAV is predicted by dividing the most sensitive species tested
(rainbow trout/daphnid; or fathead minnow/daphnid) by a species
sensitivity factor of 5 if rainbow trout is present in the data
base or 10 if rainbow trout is absent. These species sensitivity
factors were derived by first assembling those chemicals (Table 2)
that have acute toxicity data meeting the minimum data requirements
to calculate a FAV using the modified EPA methodology described
above and in (3)(b)(i)(A) of the guidelines. Least squares regressions
of the log of the FAV versus the log of the most sensitive species
LC50 value from the rainbow trout/dapnnid and fathead minnow/daphnid
combinations were used to determine the expected (average) log
of the FAV for a specific species L.C50 value (Tables 3, 4 and 5).
The equations in Table 6 were used to determine for a specific
species LC50 value the 80 percent confidence interval for predicted
values of the log of the FAV over the range of LC50 values in
the combined data bases. The formula for the 80 percent confidence
line is:
Y -t ft x s2 n + i uf-x)2 -.
xf n,.8 y.x L» N —5 J
f S 2(N-1)
x
Where:
Y is the log FAV calculated for X, by the regression equations
Xf in Table 1;
Cn,.8 = 0.851;
548
-------
01
-&
•£>
TABLE 2
DATA USED TO CALCULATE AQUATIC ACUTE SENSITIVITY FACTORS
Rainbow Trout/Daphnia sp. Fathead Minnow/
Chemical
Lead *
Lindane
Heptachlor
Cadmium *
Phoamet
Chlordane
DOD
Parathion ethyl
Toxaphene
Phosphamidon
Dieldrin
Endrin
Fenithrothion
Benzene Haxa.
Arsenic
Selenium
Glyphosate
Naled
Carbaryl
Endosulfan
Chromium -1-6
Mercury
Trichlorfon
Ethion
Mexacarbate
Pentachlorophenol
Silver *
Malathion
Hethoxychlor
Trifluralin
Fenthion
Parathion methyl
Dichlobenil
Phenol
Cyanide
Zinc *
Aldrin
Chlorine
Copper *
MtT
FAV
ug/1
115
2.1
0.90
27
0.70
2.6
0.50
0.07
1.7
2
0.48
0.18
2.9
5
408
258
1330
0.16
4.4
0.23
4167
3.4
0.12
0.04
7
55
2.2
0.79
0.60
33
0.52
0.12
3400
10150
45
800
4.3
36
43
0.90
Species
Value
ug/1
2400
32
11.7
93
7.8
20
3.2
0.42
9.2
9.4
2.1
0.71
11
18
1348
710
3000
0.35
6.4
0.34
6400
5
0.18
0.056
10
71
2.8
1
0.78
41
0.62
0.14
3700
10200
46
749
4
28
30
0.36
Sensitive
Species
Daphnia
Rainbow
Rainbow
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Rainbow
Daphnia
Rainbow
Rainbow
Daphnia
Rainbow
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Rainbow
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Rainbow
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Rainbow
Daphnia
: *mia
Dapnnia
Rainbow
Rainbow
Daphnia
Rainbow
Daphnia
Daphnia
Dapnnia
FAV
ug/1
115
2.1
0.90
27
0.70
2.6
0.50
0.07
1.7
2
0.48
0.18
2.9
5
408
258
1330
0.16
4.4
0.23
4167
3.4
0.12
0.04
7
55
2.2
0.79
0.60
33
0.52
0.12
3400
10150
45
800
4.3
36
43
0.90
Species
Value
ug/1
2400
67
42
93
7.8
20
3.2
0.42
10
9.4
17.7
0.41
11
125
1348
710
2300
0.35
6.4
0.83
6400
5
0.18
0.056
10
212
2.8
1
0.78
105
0.62
0.14
3700
14000
83
749
21
28
30
0.36
Sensitive
Species
Daphnia
Fathead
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Dapnnia
Daphnia
Dapnnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Fathead
Fathead
Daphnia
Fathead
Daphnia
Daphnia
Fathead
Daphnia
Daphnia
Fathead
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Fathead
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Fathead
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
Fathead
Daphnia
Daphnia
Daphnia
* Hardness dependent
Hardness = 200 mg/1
-------
Table 3
1
Analysis
Rainbow Trout/Daphnia
FATHEAD /Daphnia
i
Regression Line Formula
log FAV - -0.748 + 0.972 log SPNUM
log FAV = -0.919 + 0.940 log SPNUM
e e
Significance
<0.0001
<0.0001
1
Correlation
0.959
0.938
R Value
0.920
0.879
i
Table 4
Analysis
Rainbow Trout/Daphnia
FATHEAD /Daphnia
Regression Line
FAV = 0.473 x SPNUM0
FAV = 0.399 x SPNUM0
.972
.940
TABLE 5
ANALYSIS
Rainbow Trout/Daphnia
FATHEAD /lluphnia
STATIS-
•ICAL VALUES
Sy .x
0.8688
1.3074
N
40
40
x
2.6156
2.8868
S*2
10.2650
10.4010
TABLE. 6
ANALYSIS
Rainbow Trout/Daphnia
FATHEAD /Daphnia
80* CONFIDENCE LIMIT FOR LOG FAV
80% C.L. log FAV(X ) -
C L
80% C.L. log FAV(X ) «
C (
Log FAV(X .) .7578 -
c t
Loge FAV(Xf) - 1.1404 -
.001847(xf - 2.6156)2
,002234(Xf - 2.8860)2
-------
N is the number of observations used in the regression analysis;
2
S is the mean square error from the simple linear regression
y' analysis;
2
S is the variance of the logged species numbers;
X is the mean logged species numbers; and
x- is the log of the specific species number for which the 80
percent confidence point for the FAV is being calculated.
Dividing the species LC50 value by the 80 percent confidence interval
of the predicted FAV, yielded the ratios shown in Tables 7 and
8. Based on these data, species sensitivity factors of 5 and 10
were chosen for the rainbow trout/daphnid and fathead minnow/daphnid
combinations, respectively, to simplify the calculation process.
FAVs calculated using this procedure will produce an adequate approxima-
tion of the FAV derived by using the modified U.S. EPA, 1983 approach.
The ACV is predicted by dividing the FAV by a chemical-specific
application factor (acute LC50/chronic value ratios) for those
chemical substances which have'at least one acute/chronic ratio
available. The FAV of a chemical substance when divided by the
chemical-specific application factor yields a predicted ACV which
will provide an adequate margin of safety to protect fish and aquatic
macroinvertebrate species for chronic adverse effects elicited
by the chemical.
When chemical-specific application factors cannot be determined
for a chemical substance due to an absence of appropriate chronic
data, the ACV is predicted by dividing the FAV by a general application
factor of 45. This application factor was derived by assembling
all appropriate fish and raacroinvertebrate acute LC50/chronic value
ratios available for chemical substances (Table 9). The ratios
were serially arranged from smallest to largest and the ratios
versus percentile rank were plotted (Figure 1). The application
factor of 45 corresponds to about the 80th percentile rank of all
similarily selected and plotted ratios. To provide protection
greater than the 80th percentile would require a much larger application
factor and was not considered to be appropriate or necessary.
An ACV produced by dividing the FAV of a chemical substance by
45 will provide an adequate margin of safety to protect fish and
aquatic macroinvertebrates for chronic adverse effects elicited
by that chemical substance.
Aquatic acute and chronic values calculated for chemical substances
according to the procedure described in the guidelines will be
routinely evaluated by staff to ensure their consistency with sound
scientific evidence. If not, staff will evaluate appropriate modifi-
cations of these procedures.
551
-------
TABLE 7
ESTIMATED FAV AND SPECIES NUMBER - FAV RATIO
FOR SELECTED SPECIES NUMBERS
RAINBOW TROUT - DAPHNIA ANALYSIS
SPECIES NUMBER
.056
.42
1.49
4.02
9.32
19.50
37.77
69.00
120.20
201.20
325.60
512.00
785.00
1 177.00
1730.00
2497.00
3546.00
4964.00
6856.00
9350.00
10200.00
80% CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
OF FAV
.01
.09
.32
.86
1.94
3.98
7,55
13.53
23. 12
37.96
60.30
93.09
140. 18
206.49
298.27
423.21
591 .00
813.76
1 105.79
1484. 13
161 1 .70
SPECIES NUMBER -
80% C.I. FAV RATIO
4,4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6.0
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.3
55?
-------
TABLE 8
ESTIMATED FAV AND SPECIES NUMBER - FAV RATIO
FOR SELECTED SPECIES NUMBERS
FATHEAD - DAPHNIA ANALYSIS
SPECIES NUMBER
.056
.27
.94
2.67
6.53
14.33
28.85
39.94
54.50
97.40
166.00
272.00
432.00
666.00
1000.00
1468.00
2105.00
2968.00
3505.00
41 14.00
5620. OC
7590.00
10060.00
14000.00
80% CONFIDENCE INTERVAL
OF FAV
.01
.03
. 12
.32
.74
1.56
3.01
4.08
5.45
9.36
15.37
24.35
37.24
55.49
80.63
1 14.66
159.46
218.22
253.95
29r.85
390.26
512.68
661 .82
892.46
SPECIES NUMBER -
80% C.I . FAV RATIO
7.22
7.60
8.00
8.40
8.80
9.20
9.60
9.80
10.00
10.40
10.80
1 1.20
1 1.60
12.00
12.40
12.80
13.20
13.60
13.80
14.00
14.40
14.80
15.20
15.69
-------
TABLE 9
DATA USED TO CALCULATE AQUATIC LIFE ACUTE/CHROMC APPLICATION FACTOR
Chemical
Chronic Value Acute Value C/A Ratio
Rank
Hexachlorocycl open tadi «ne
Acro)«1n
Captan
Endrln
Hexachloroethane
Penttch1oroph«nol
1,2,3,4-TetrseMorobenzene
1 ,2,4-Tr-tchIorob«nzen«
Zinc
LAS
l,3-01chlorobenzene
1,4-Qlchloro benzsne
Arsenic
l,2-01chloro«thane
Pentachloroethane
2.4-01mtnylphenol
Antimony
1.1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
1 ,1 ,2-Tr1chloro«thane
Copper
Naphthalene-
Hexachiorobutadlene
Butyl benzyl phthaUte
01eldr1n
2.4,6-TrichlorophenoI
Llndane
Phenol
Cyanide
ThaMlu*
Tetrachl oroe t«y1 ene
Selenium
l,2-01chloropr«pane
2.4-01ch1orophenol
l,3-01chloroprop«ie
Carbary!
Ka lath-Ion
Nickel
Lead
Atrazlnc
Endosul fan
Tr1flural1n
Silver
DOT
Chlordane
Chromium *3
Chromium
Mercury
Toxaphene
Cadmlun
Beryllium
5.2
24
25.2
M
540
116
.318
70S
133
870
1510
763
912
20000
UOO
2475
2939.
2400
9400
14.5
620
3,3
311
.22
720
84
2560.
16
86
840
159
8100
365
5700
.38
25
130
39
187
4.3
4.2
.12
.74
.8
260
519
.52
.14
2.4
5.3
7
57
64
.SO
1S30
364
40?S
28?Q
671
43SO
7790
4000
5278
118000
7300
167SO
20291
20300
81700
131
6600
102
3494
2.5
S040.
104
36000
233
1280
13460
2500
139300
3230
131100
9
738
4355
1393
6900
166
193
5.4,
*a
59
21700
52970
74
22
414
2500
.7429
.4211
.3938
,365?
.3529
.3214
,29"2
.24SS
.2057
.2000
.1938
.1908
.1728
.1695
.1507
,1478
.1448
.1182
.1151
.1107
.0939
.0912
.0890
.0830
.0796
.0779
.0711
.0687
.0672
.062.4
.0612
.0581
.0443
.0435
.0422
.0352
,0299
,027£
.0271"
.0259
.0218
.C183
.0154
.0136
.0220
.0098
.0070
.C064
.0058
.0021
1.96 .
3.92
5.HB
7.9*
9.80
11.76
n.72
15.68
17.64
19.60
21.56
23.52
25.48
27.44
29.40
31.36
33.32
3S.28
37.24
39.20
41.16
43.12
45.08
47.04
49.00
50.96
52.92
54.88
56.84
58.30
60.76
62.72
64.68
66.64
68.60
70.56
72.52
74.48
76.44
73.40
80.36
32. J2
84.28
36.24
88.20
90.16
92.12
94. C8
96.04
98.00
554
-------
CHRONIC MATC/ACUTt LCbO RATIO
-------
One of the uncertainties associated with the proposed approach
to determine an ACV is that the actual percent level of species
protection is difficult to predict when insufficient chronic data
are available to use the modified U.S. EPA, 1983 procedures. To
account for this uncertainty and add an additional margin of safety,
we selected the 80 percent confidence interval rather than best
fit when doing the regression analysis to predict FAVs. We also
feel that our generic acute to chronic ratio of 45 is higher than
most ratios for common industrial chemicals we deal with.
We also feel that the concept of untested species protection is
a conservative element of our process. The vast majority of ACVs
we derive will be below the available data base for a chemical.
No ecologically, commercially, or recreationally important resident
species will knowingly go unprotected.
2. Human Health Values
The purpose of establishing human health values is to estimate
surface water concentrations which are considered acceptable or
do not present a significant risk to the public. Different procedures
have been developed to estimate these levels based on whether the
effect produced by a chemical is considered a threshold or non-
threshold phenomenon. The threshold response assumes that an organism
has a physiological reserve which must be depleted before an effect
is manifested. For such chemicals, there exists a dose below which
no adverse response will likely occur in exposed animals. The
non-threshold concept assumes that exposure to any dose of the
chemical, no matter how small, will produce a response. For the
purposes of these regulations, the toxicity endpoints that are
regarded as non-threshold are carcinogenicity and mutagenicity.
Since the mechanism of action for causing teratogenesis for some
chemicals may be through gene mutations, some teratogenic chemicals
(referred to as genotoxic teratogens) may also be regarded as non-
threshold toxicants. For carcinogenic chemicals the concentration
corresponding to an acceptable level of risk is determined. Similar
procedures may be used for mutagens and genotoxic teratogens, however,
since methodologies for addressing these types of chemicals have
not been developed they will be handled on a case-by-case basis.
All other toxic effects will be considered to act by a threshold
mechanism. For these chemicals, the acceptable concentration in
water is called the human life cycle safe concentration (HLSC).
HLSCs and acceptable levels of risk will be further discussed later
in this document.
Regardless of whether a chemical produces a threshold or non-threshold
effect, in calculating the HLSC or acceptable risk concentration
similar assumptions are made regarding exposure potential and the
standard reference human. The basis for the exposure assumptions
used in the Rule 57 guidelines, is discussed below.
For all surface waters, it is assumed that a person consumes 6.5
556
-------
grams of contaminated fish per day (approximately 5 lb/yr.). This
value is based upon a U.S. EPA survey (U.S. EPA 1980a) of fish
and shellfish consumption in the U.S. Based on this data it was
estimated that the average per capita consumption of freshwater
and estuarine, fish and shellfish in the U.S. was 6.5 g/day. An
estimate of consumption of inland fish by Michigan anglers was
calculated at about 4 grams/day. The larger EPA value was used
because it was calculated on better data and was slightly more
conservative.
The volume of water consumed per day is assumed to be an untreated
2.0 liters for surface waters protected as a drinking water source,
and an untreated 0.01 liters for all other surface waters. The
value of 2.0 liters was recommended by the U.S. EPA for establishing
drinking water standards (U.S. EPA 1976). This value was considered
to be representative of the fluid consumption of a normal adult
male, based on EPA's review of the literature regarding water
consumption. The EPA recognized that wide variation in individual
consumption would exist, but felt that 2.0 liters was defensible
as a reference standard, since this value was 30-100 percent greater
than the average value cited by several authors. In addition it
was noted that women and children drink less than the average man,
so that it is likely that a large percent of the population consumes
less than 2.0 liters.
The value of 0.01 liters of water per day for surface waters not
protected for drinking water is to account for incidental exposure
such as absorption through the skin or ingestion of small quantities
of water while swimming or using the waters for other recreational
purposes. These exposures are likely to be highly variable and
difficult to quantify. Therefore, to account for these exposures,
MDNR staff felt that the daily consumption of a small amount (0.01
liters) of water could be used to represent such exposures. This
value is believed to provide a conservative estimate of the actual
exposure occuring from such incidents.
The duration of exposure is assumed to be daily for a lifetime.
Exposure for less than lifetime is likely to result in a lower
risk or larger margin of safety.
Daily ingestion of more than 6.5 grams of fish or 0.01 or 2.0 liters
of water will increase an individuals risk. Conversely, ingestion
of lesser amounts should decrease the risk.
It is also assumed that the sole source of exposure for a chemical
occurs from the consumption of contaminated fish and water. Other
sources of exposure, e.g., occupational, dietary (other than fish),
and ambient air are not considered. To factor contributions from
other sources into the calculations would require extensive amounts
o£ monitoring data, which in many cases are not available. Additionally,
exposures from other sources will vary widely. It is recognized,
however, that significant exposure may occur from other sources,
557
-------
and that the actual risk for a chemical will be dependent upon
the combined exposure from all sources.
A 70 kg (approximately 150 Ib.) person is used as the representative
human model for calculating HLSCs and cancer risk concentrations.
This value is assumed to be the average weight of a human adult.
It is the same value used by the U.S. EPA (U.S. EPA, 1980) in developing
their ambient water quality criteria for priority pollutants, and
by the Safe Drinking Water Committee of the National Research Council
(NAS, 1977) in calculating no adverse effect levels in drinking
water.
a. Human Life Cycle Safe Concentrations
The human life cycle safe concentration (HLSC) is the highest
concentration of a chemical which causes no significant adverse
effects to humans and their offspring when exposed continuously
for a lifetime.
HLSCs are derived to provide an adequate margin of safety
against the adverse effects of chemicals which elicit threshold
responses, excluding carcinogenic effects. The threshold
response assumes that an organism has a physiological reserve
which must be depleted before an effect is manifested. For
such chemicals there exists a dose below which no significant
adverse response will occur in exposed animals. Experimentally
such a dose is called the no observable adverse effect level
(NOAEL). Exposure to doses less than the NOAEL will not elicit
an observable response.
To derive an HLSC for a chemical, the NOAEL for laboratory
animals or man is determined. Although use of human data
is preferable, in most cases these data are lacking, and
animal data must be used instead. The NOAEL is then divided
by the appropriate uncertainty factor to determine the acceptable
dose for humans. Uncertainty factors are used to account
for the uncertainties in trying to predict an acceptable exposure
level for the general human population based upon experimental
animal data or limited human data.
Some of the factors that contribute to this uncertainty include:
Interspecies variation in response to a toxicant. Both
qualitative and quantitative differences may exist between
species in their response to a toxicant. Therefore,
the uncertainty factor is meant to account for the possibility
that humans may be more sensitive than the animal model
used to predict an acceptable level.
Individual variation in the susceptibility to the effects
of a toxicant. Such variation present in a genetically
diverse human population would not be seen in the highly
-------
inbred strains of laboratory animals used in most toxicological
testing.
Inadequacies in study designs or availability of data,
e.g., less than lifetime exposures.
Generally the uncertainty factor applied to an experimental
NOAEL will range from 10-1,000. The following guidelines
for application of uncertainty factors were recommended by
the National Academy of Science (NAS, 1977) and are used in
the Rule 57(2) guidelines for derivation of the HLSC.
Uncertainty factor (U = 10) "Valid experimental results
from studies on prolonged ingestion by man, with no
indication of carcinogenicity."
Uncertainty factor (U - 100) "Experimental results of
studies of human ingestion not available or scanty (e.g.,
acute exposure only). Valid results of long-term feeding
studies on experimental animals or in the absence of
human studies, valid animal studies on one or more species.
No indication of carcinogenicity."
Uncertainty factor (U = 1,000) "No long-term or acute
human data. Scanty results on experimental animals.
No indication of carcinogenicity."
In cases where the data do not meet all the conditions for
one of these categories, and appear to fall between requirements
for two categories, an intermediate uncertainty factor is
used. Such an intermediate uncertainty factor may be developed
based on a logarithmic scale (U.S. EPA, 1980a).
In some cases where a NOAEL is not available, a lowest observed
adverse effect level (LOAEL) may be used for lack of better
data. In such cases an additional uncertainty factor is applied.
The magnitude of this uncertainty factor is judgmental, but
should lie in the range of 1 to 10. (U.S. EPA, 1980a).
For many chemicals appropriate toxicological data (NOAELs,
LOAELs) are not available to derive an HLSC by these methods.
To develop this data could take many years of costly testing.
In the absence of an adequate toxicity data base, procedures
have been developed to derive an HLSC from a single acute
toxicity data point, i.e., an oral rat LD50.
The procedure for deriving an HLSC from an oral rat LD50 involves
the use of an acute to chronic application factor. The acute
to chronic application factor is a numerical value by which
the acute oral rat LD50 is adjusted. The value of this factor
as derived by MDNR staff is 0.0001. The oral rat LD50 is
multiplied by the acute to chronic application factor (0.0001)
55°.
-------
and the value obtained from this procedure is used as a surrogate
NOAEL.
To derive the acute to chronic application factor, the scientific
literature was reviewed, and all chemicals having both an
oral rat LD50 and a NOAEL from a lifetime (two year) study
in rats were collected (Table 10). Chronic data for the individual
chemicals were evaluated for various parameters such as body
weight/organ weight changes, sensitive histopathological changes,
alterations in blood composition, abnormal serum enzyme levels,
inhibition of important enzymes, reproductive impairment or
behavioral changes. Chronic studies of a chemical which did
not report evaluating a majority of these parameters were
not used in the data base.
After the data were collected, the acute to chronic ratio
(NOAEL/LD50) was determined for each chemical. This set of
acute to chronic ratios was then serially arranged from largest
to smallest, the percentile rank of each ratio was determined,
and the ratio value vs. percentile rank were then plotted
on log-probability paper. A straight line was then fitted
through these data points and from this line the ratio corresponding
to the 95th percentile rank was determined. The value for
this ratio was 0.0001 (Figure 2). Such an application factor
when multiplied by any randomly selected or newly generated
oral rat LD50 will theoretically give a surrogate NOAEL equivalent
to, or less than, the experimentally derived chronic NOAEL,
95 percent of the time.
The appropriateness of the 95th percentile rank for derivation
of the application factor is like an "acceptable" level of
risk, and therefore, a value judgment. MDNR staff and the
Rule 57 Advisory Committee agreed that the 95th percentile
rank was appropriate and provided an adequate margin of safety.
It is recognized that there are a number of uncertainties
in trying to estimate an HLSC from acute toxicity data. Varia-
tion in the mechanism of action for acute and chronic toxicity,
pharmacokinetic differences from different exposures (acute
vs. chronic), and different measurements of toxicity (NOAEL
vs. lethality) are some of the uncertainties involved. Furthermore,
estimates of HLSCs from acute data do not necessarily represent
the value that would be expected from an actual chronic NOAEL.
The application factor approach used in deriving HLSCs from
acute toxicity data relies on two assumptions, the first being
that the data base used to calculate the application factor
is a representative sampling of data from all types of toxicants.
Since the ratio values varied widely in the collected acute/chronic
data, it was assumed that this data base exemplified the variation
necessary to be representative for such a process. The second
assumption made was that the logs of the ratio values were
normally distributed.
560
-------
Table 10
Data Used to Calculate Acute/Chronic Ratio for HLSC and TLSC
Chemical
Di tertiary butyl methyl phenol
Azinphos methyl
Methyl salicylate
Sodium (2-ethylhexyl) alcohol sulfate
0-phenyl phenol
Pentachlorophenol
Carbaryl
Bipheny1
3',4'-dichloropropionalide
Pimaricin
Ronnel
1,4-dioxane
Bromac i1
2,2-dichloroproprionic acid, Na salt
Methyl raethacrylate
214,5,4'-tetrachlorodiphenyl sulfide
2,3,7,8-TCDD
2 Yr. NOAEL
(mg/kg)
400
2.5
50
290
100
3
7
50
20
25
5
14
12.5
9.75
8.4
0.5
0.000001
LD50
(mg/kg)
1,700
13
887
5,760
2,700
142
510
3,280
1,384
2,730
1,740
5,170
5,200
7,744
8,410
3,550
0.022
Ratio of
NOAEL/LD50
0.235
0.192
0.0564
0.0504
0.0370
0.0211
0.0155
0.0152
0.0145
0.00916
0.00287
0.00271
0.0024
0.00126
0.000999
0.000141
0.000045
Percentile
Rank
5.6
11.1
16.7
22.2
27.8
33.3
38.9
44.4
50.0
55.6
61.1
66.7
72.2
77.8
83.3
88.9
94.4
References
9
31, 10
13, 29
25
11
23
4
1, 8
2
17
18
14, 16
24
20
3, 7
28
15, 22
-------
Figure 2. Relationship Between Oral Pat LD50 and 2 Year NOAEL
3.2
D.05
o.:2
0.01
0.005
10
ex.
§ 0.002
§ 3-MJf
0.3005
5 ..a -.5 20 ;o 10 50 M '0 M 35 W 95 )8',
Percentile Rank
-------
Cancer Risk Values
The regulation of carcinogenic chemicals is a complex issue
since the mechanisms involved in the carcinogenic process
are poorly understood. In recent years advances have been
made in understanding this process; however, the fundamental
mechanisms and causes of cancer still remain uncertain.
Currently, a dominant theory regarding the process by which
a chemical causes cancer involves two stages: a) initiation
which is believed to be a gene mutation through the direct
or indirect interaction of a chemical with the genetic material
(DNA) of a cell, and b) promotion, a process which allows
the expression of the altered genome.
Chemicals which act on the initiation stage of the carcinogenic
process are referred to as initiators. These chemicals are
capable of directly altering in an irreversible manner the
native structure of the DNA of the cell. These alterations
may result from the covalent binding to DNA of the initiator
of one of its metabolites, or distortion of the DNA structure
without covalent binding from chemicals such as intercalating
agents. Initiators may also cause complete scissions of the
DNA chain, elimination of one of its component parts (e.g.,
bases or sugars) or errors in DNA repair (Pitot and Sirica,
1980). If initiation involves a mutational event, then the
carcinogenic process of these chemicals may be characterized
by a linear non-threshold dose response curve since the biological
dose response curve associated with mutagenesis, especially
at low doses, is believed to be a linear non-threshold one.
Chemicals which act on the promotional stage of the carcinogenic
process are referred to as promoters. Promoting agents do
not directly react with the genetic material, but instead
affect its expression by a variety of mechanisms. Although
the process of promotion is not clearly understood, it may
involve various non-threshold mechanisms such as chronic tissue
injury, hormonal imbalance, interference with cell-cell communication,
or immunologic mechanisms.
Because different mechanisms of action appear to be involved
in initiation and promotion, different procedures for estimating
acceptable exposure levels for a chemical might be used depending
upon which stage in the carcinogenic process the chemical
affected. However, it must be kept in mind that the initiation-
promotion model of carcinogenesis is still a hypothesis even
though it is well founded and currently the most accepted
theory.
Due to the limits of current predictive testing, the Rule 57
guidelines make the conservative assumption that any chemical
which has been shown to be carcinogenic in one animal bioassay
563
-------
of good quality, is a complete carcinogen having no threshold.
However, the guidelines do include a mechanism for evaluating
a carcinogen on a case-by-case basis if the preponderance
of data suggests the cancer is caused by a threshold mechanism
and does not interact with DNA. A committee of scientists
expert in the field of carcinogenesia, may be convened when
staff will benefit from advice and recommendations on this
issue or other highly technical scientific issues which staff
requires additional technical expertise to resolve. At the
present time, there are no acceptable methods to establish
a threshold mechanism. There is such diversity in the human
population with wide genetic variation among those at risk,
it will be difficult to establish a threshold.
In addition, even though the word cancer, by strict pathological
definition, means malignant tumors only, chemicals which cause
benign tumors will also be regulated as carcinogens. The
reasons for this approach are that there is not sufficient
evidence to show that chemicals are capable of inducing only
permanently benign tumors without ever inducing malignant
ones, and benign tumors may progress to malignant tumors (IRLG,
1979).
In order to establish acceptable exposure levels for carcinogens,
it is necessary to determine the shape of the dose response
curve for that chemical and the effect observed. If a linear
non-threshold dose-response curve is assumed, then exposure
to any dose, no matter how small, may produce a response.
Thus, for maximum protection of human health, the concentration
of a carcinogen in water is zero. In general, however, a
zero exposure policy is not considered technically or economically
feasible.
If in theory exposure to any dose above zero may produce a
response, the assessment of risk and determination of a response
level low enough to be considered insignificant or acceptable
can be used in establishing allowable levels of carcinogens
in water for point source discharges. The adoption of this
policy involves the consideration of two separate issues:
1) selection of an extrapolation procedure to estimate low
levels of risk, and 2) judgment as to what constitutes an
acceptable level of risk.
If appropriate human epidemiological data are available, an
extrapolation from high doses is necessary in order to estimate
the carcinogenic risk for the chemical at low concentrations.
There are no standard guidelines available to estimate the
risk based on all human epidemiology studies since the conditions
and variables from these studies are not standardized. However,
the use of adequate human exposure data to estimate the risks
associated with a carcinogenic chemical is a preferred method
and when necessary, the Department may convene an expert committee
564
-------
to advise staff on an appropriate methodology in order to
utilize these data.
When human epidemiological evidence is not available, the
carcinogenic risk to humans will be extrapolated from experimental
animal data. There ia no conclusive scientific evidence for
the choice of one mathematical model over another; however,
the linearized multistage model, GLOBAL 79 (Crump and Watson,
1979), a non-threshold extrapolation model, is used since
no other extrapolation model has as much regulatory acceptance.
It is used by various agencies within the state such as the
MDNR Air Quality Division and the Department of Public Health
and by the U.S. EPA Carcinogen Assessment Group, the State
of New York and the State of California in their risk assessment
procedures. Use of the upper 95 percent confidence limit
to estimate the dose rather than extrapolation from the maximum
likelihood estimate dose gives a more stable value which does
not change appreciably with minor variability in the biological
response at the lower doses. The use of this methodology
provides a plausible upper limit estimate of risk. Because
of the uncertainties involved, the true risk may range from
this upper limit to some lower level, possibly approaching
zero, although this cannot be proven. This extrapolation
procedure generally follows those outlined in the health effects
guidelines for the Ambient Water Quality Criteria Documents
which are utilized by the Carcinogen Assessment Group (U.S. EPA,
1980).
Selection of an acceptable level of risk is difficult and
may be controversial because risk perception and the degree
of public acceptance are not easily analyzed from the available
statistics, knowledge about benefits versus costs of the reduced
risk, and the degree of voluntary compared to involuntary
risks. A list of commonly accepted estimated risks given
in Table 11 may help make a more meaningful interpretation
of a given level of risk.
The Rule 57 Advisory Committee felt that the risk associated
with exposure to these chemicals in ambient water should
generally be below that of common everyday risks and recommended
that an estimated risk level of 10 (1 in 100,000) be used
as the upper boundry on risk for establishing allowable levels
of carcinogens in the waters of the state applicable to point
source discharges. Staff agree with this recommendation.
Greater levels of protection will also be evaluated at facilities
where achievable through utilization of control measures
already in place.
Conservative,assumptions in this methodology include the use
of the linearized multi-stage model with the selection of
the 95 percent confidence bound on the estimated carcinogenicity
potency and the linear-non-threshold assumptions made when
5fi5
-------
TABLE U Risks of Other Activities
Everyday Risks
Motor vehicle accident
Falls
Drowning
Fires
Firearms
Electrocution
Tornados
Floods
Lightening
Animal bite or sting
Time to Accumulate a One
in 100,000 Risk of Death
Living in the United States
15 days
60 days
100 days
130 days
360 days
20 months
200 months
200 months
20 years
40 years
Average Annual
Risk per Capita
2 x 10"4
6 x 10"5
4 x 10"5
3 x 10"S
1 x 10"5
5 x 10"6
6 x 10"7
6 x 10"7
5 x 10"7
2 x 10"7
Extrapolated to*
Risk/Lifetime
1.4 x 10"2
4.2 x 10"3
2.8 x 10"3
2 x 10"3
7 x lO"4
3.5 x 10'4
4 x 10"5
4 x 10"5
3.5 x 10"5'
1.4 x 10"5
Occupational Risks
General
manufacturing 45 days 8 x 10"5 5.6 x 10
trade 70 days 5 x 10"5 3.5 x 10"3
service and government 35 days 1 x 10 7 x 10'
transport and public utilities 10 days 4 x 10"4 3 x 10"
agriculture 150 hours 6 x 10"4 4 x 10"
construction 140 hours 6 x 10"4 4 x 10
mining and quarrying 90 hours 1 x 10" 7 x 10"
Specific
coal mining (accidents) 140 hours 6 x 10"4 3 x 10"2
police duty 15 days 2 x 10"4 1.4 x 10"
'railroad employment 15 days 2 x 10"4 1-4 - 10"2
fire fighting 110 hours 8 x 10"4 5.4 x 10"2
Some One in a Million Cancer Risks
Source of Risk
Cosmic Rays one transcontinental round trip by air; living 1.5
months in Colorado compared to New York; camping at
15,000 feet for 6 days compared to sea level
Other radiation 20 days of sea level natural background radiation
2.5 months in masonry rather than wood building
1/7 of a chest x ray using modern equipment
Eating and drinking 40 diet sodas (saccharin)
6 pounds of peanut butter (aflatoxin)
180 pints of milk (aflatoxin)
200 gallons of drinking water from Miami or New Orleans
90 pounds of broiled steak (cancer risk only)
Smoking 2 cigarettes
Adapted from Crouch and Wilson (1982)
•Risk/Lifetime » 1 - (1-p)70
Bfi6
-------
extrapolating from experimentally administered doses. There
are other factors such as the use of total animals with malignant
and benign organ-specific tumors as input data to the model
as well as the selection of the highest potency value (largest
estimate of q,*) which add some additional conservativism.
We also assume that unless there can be an adequate demonstration
to the contrary, the potency is adjusted by a animal to man
sensitivity factor. On a dose per unit of body surface basis,
the effects seen in man are in the same range as those seen
in experimental animals. Thus on a body weight basis, man
is assumed to be more sensitive than the experimental animals
by factors of approximately 5 and 13 for rats and mice, respectively.
Assuming that all animal carcinogens are human carcinogens
may also be considered a conservative approach. However,
since every known human carcinogen, with the exception of
arsenic, has also been found to be carcinogenic in animals,
prudent policy is to accept the use of such data, rather than
wait for the proof of human carcinogenicity.
Uncertainties and limitations are recognized in the quantitative
risk assessment process. The choice of a mathematical extrapolation
model may change the risk considerably. Furthermore, the
validity of any one model cannot be established, given the
limits of current predictive testing methods.
Further uncertainty in the risk estimates comes from the diverse
environmental conditions to which the human population is
exposed. Various factors such as diet, stress, sex, age,
and exposure to the chemical by other routes can alter the
response to a carcinogen. Additionally, genetic variability
may result in differences in susceptibility between various
human subgroups. Because of these limitations, the extent
to which the estimated risk reflects the true human risk will
always be uncertain. These guidelines also are not able to
utilize predictive screening tests to estimate risks without
some parallel positive animal data.
3. Terrestrial Life Cycle Safe Concentrations
The purpose .of establishing terrestrial life water quality values
is to determine surface water concentrations which are considered
acceptable for the wildlife and livestock that utilize these waters.
For the purpose of these regulations, this concentration is called
the terrestrial life cycle safe concentration (TLSC).
The TLSC is defined as the highest aqueous concentration of a toxicant
which causes no significant reduction in the growth, reproduction,
viability, or usefulness (in the commercial and/or recreational
sense) of a population of exposed organisms (utilizing the receiving
waters as a drinking water source), over several generations.
567
-------
To derive a TLSC, the scientific literature regarding the toxicological
effects of a chemical is reviewed to determine a no observable
adverse effect level (NOAEL) for appropriate mammalian and/or avian
organisms. (See discussion in HLSC section 2a regarding rationale
for use of NOAELs.) Data on organisms native to Michigan and likely
to be utilizing the particular surface water are preferable for
calculating the TLSC. In most cases, however, such data are lacking,
and data from common laboratory animals (usually rodents) must
be used instead. The experimental NOAEL is then divided by an
uncertainty factor ranging from 10-100. This uncertainty factor
is to account for 1) species variability, since data from one species
are used to predict an acceptable level for all wildlife, and 2) inadequacies
in study designs or availability of data. When appropriate NOAEL
data are not available, a TLSC may be calculated from a lowest
observable adverse effect level (LOAEL), or an oral rat LD50.
(See discussion in HLSC section 2a regarding use of LOAELs and
oral rat LDSOs.)
In calculating a TLSC it is assumed that 100 percent of the exposure
for a chemical occurs through drinking water alone. Therefore,
for bioaccumulative substances, there may be an additional risk
to wildlife whose diet consists largely of fish. Additionally,
dermal absorption of a chemical may also increase the risk for
that toxicant.
4. Bioconcentration Factors
One critical property of chemicals that has a major influence on
the calculation of allowable toxicant levels is the ability of
persistent, apolar organic compounds to accumulate in aquatic biota
to concentrations which are orders of magnitude higher than the
concentration of the chemical in the water. For toxic chemicals,
this bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms can increase the exposure
of consumers of these organisms to the chemicals in question.
This increased exposure of consumers and subsequent increase in
risk of adverse health effects must be considered by the regulatory
agency in the development of allowable toxicant levels.
Historical releases of toxic substances in the Great Lakes basin
have resulted in the bioaccumulation of hundreds of different chemical
compounds by fish and other organisms. In a recent report, Hesselberg
and Seelye (1982) list four hundred seventy-six compounds which
they have identified in samples of lake trout and walleye (Stizostedion
v. vitreum) collected from selected areas of the Great Lakes.
Restrictions of the commercial fishery and advisories against consumption
of some fish from a number of waters of the State currently limit
the utilization of certain fishery resources due to the elevated
concentrations of pesticides, PCBs, and other chemicals present
in these fish (MDNR, 1984).
The bioconcentration factor (BCF) value is a key element in the
derivation of allowable levels of toxic substances as proposed
568
-------
by the proposed Rule 57(2) guidelines. For those chemicals which
are moderately to highly bioaccumulative in aquatic organisms,
the toxicant concentration in fish tissue can represent the most
significant exposure for humans consuming these organisms. The
dose received via this route of exposure may be the limiting factor
in establishing an allowable toxicant level. Conversely, for materials
which do not bioconcentrate to a high degree in fish tissue, the
bioconcentration factor will be only one of several pieces of data
determining a final level. In either case, bioconcentration factors
must be estimated as precisely- as possible to ensure that the appropriate
factor is used.
To calculate equilibrium residue concentrations of toxic materials
in aquatic organisms, it is necessary to determine the rates of
uptake and depuration of specific chemicals by the species of interest.
Alternatively, measurements of the chemical residue concentration
must be made over a sufficient period of time to ensure that equilibrium,
steady-state conditions have been reached. For purposes of these
guidelines, the final, steady-state bioconcentration factor (BCF-)
is the best available determination of the degree to which a chemical
accumulates in fish tissue over the water concentration of that
chemical.
The term bioconcentration factor must be distinguished from other
terms such as biomagnification, bioaccumulation, and ecological
magnification. These other terms take into account the observed
effects of an organism's trophic level in a given ecosystem and
the subsequent increases in chemical residues due to the chemical
burden from food chains. Throughout this paper the terms "bio-
concentration", "biomagnification" and "bioaccumulation" will be
used as defined by Macek e£ al. (1979). Bioconcentration refers
to the process by which chemicals become concentrated in the tissues
of fish and aquatic invertebrates via direct partitioning across
the gills or epithelial tissue. Biomagnification refers to the
added residues accumulated from the food chain which can be a
significant source of toxicant accumulation in longer-lived predatory
fish in certain ecosystems. Bioaccumulation is a broader term
referring to the total toxicant residue accumulated via bioconcentration
and any additional uptake from dietary sources.
For these guidelines, the term bioconcentration is used with the
assumption that uptake across external membranous surfaces from
water is the main source of the material that is accumulated in
the organism. The Department recognizes that this assumption does
not hold for all chemicals under all ecological conditions. Unfortunately,
it is not yet possible to identify in a consistent manner those
chemicals for which this assumption is in error; nor is it possible
to quantify the magnitude of the underestimation of steady-state
body burden for a particular chemical on the basis of its measured
or estimated physicochemical properties. Where food-chain biomagni-
fication is known to have a major effect on equilibrium tissue
concentrations of toxic materials, the BCF will be appropriately
adjusted to account for this effect.
5fi9
-------
Many variables are known to affect the process of bioaccumulation
of chemicals by aquatic organisms. The combination of these variables
has produced measured bioconcentration factors for a single chemical
that vary by as much as thirteen fold for different species and
life stages of aquatic organisms tested using a single chemical
under uniform test conditions (Kenaga and Goring, 1980). In assessing
measured bioconcentration factors for a single compound, the proposed
Rule 57(2) guidelines specify that the geometric mean of reported
BCFs will be used when more than one measured BCF is available.
It is felt that this value provides a reasonably accurate determina-
tion of the bioconcentration factor given the potential variability
of this parameter.
When measured, steady-state bioconcentration factors are not available
and kinetic data on uptake and depuration rates are not available,
a variety of methods to estimate a bioconcentration factor have
been described in the literature which relate the measured bioconcen-
tration factor to some physical property of the chemical of interest
such as water solubility or n-octanol:water partition coefficient.
Equations describing these relationships are presented in Table 12.
Although correlation coefficients for most of these equations are
very high, several authors have discussed the limits of these estimator
techniques when used to calculate a bioconcentration factor. Veith
and Kosian (1983), after examining data on 122 bioaccumulation
tests conducted on thirteen species of fish, developed a refined
log BCF/log P regression equation. However, the authors cautioned
that the estimation of BCFs by this method provides roughly an
order of magnitude level of accuracy. Furthermore, although the
regession equation holds for Row values over several orders of
magnitude, Veith and Kosian (1983) caution that its application
is limited for chemicals with a molecular weight greater than 600
or a log Row in excess of 6.0. Shaw and Connell (1984) discuss
the limiting effect of what they term a "steric effect coefficient"
on bioconcentration. Both molecular size and structural orientation
of the molecule were shown to influence the relative accumulation
of PCB isomers by aquatic invertebrates and fish.
It is recognized by the Department that bioconcentration factors
which are calculated from Row regression equations may vary by
as much as an order of magnitude in either direction from the calculated
value. In practice, measured values for BCFs that are known appear
to fall within a factor of two from the value which would be calculated
from the regression equation used in the proposed Rule 57(2) guidelines.
Table 13 lists log bioconcentration factors calculated from five
different, published regression equations and compares the calculated
value with the log of the measured value obtained in laboratory
testing. Fish species and test conditions were constant for all
measured values reported. The mean estimated log BCF from these
five regression equations is also listed in Table 13. Regression
of the log BCF against the mean log Row results in the following
570
-------
TABLE 12
Regression Equations for Estimating BCF and Related Parameters
Equation
Reference
log BCF = 0.79 log P - 0.40
log BCF • 0.76 log Pa - 0.23
log BCF = 0.85 log Pa - 0.70
log BCF = 0.66 log Kow - 0.44
(for H-bonding compounds)
log BCF =0.87 log Kow - 0.62
(for hydrocarbons and chlorohydrocarbons)
log BCF = 0.935 log Kow - 1.495
log BCF = 0.635 log Kow + 0.7285
log BCF =0.79 log P - 0.40
log BCF = 0.542 log Pa + 0.124
log BCF = 2.791 - 0.564 log WSC
log BCF = 1.119 log K^c - 1.579
K^ = 0.048 Kow
4 * 86/CL
log BFe = 3.41 - 0.508 log S
log EMh * -0.7504 + 1.1587 log Kow
log EMb = 4.4806 - 0.4732 log WS°
log K1 =1.08 log Kow - 1.3
(Veith, 1981)
(Veith, et^ al., 1980)
(Veith, et al.., 1979)
(Briggs, 1981)
(Briggs, 1981)
(Kenaga and Goring, 1980)
(Brown, 1978)
(Veith and Kosian, 1983)
(Neely e_t a^., 1974)
(Kenaga and Goring, 1980)
(Kenaga and Goring, 1980)
(Mackay, 1982)
(Mackay, 1982)
(Chiou et. al. , 1977)
(Metcalf et. al., 1975)
(Metcalf et al., 1975)
(Steen and Karickhoff, 1981)
log
V
WS =
a.
b.
c.
d. C,
e.
f. S -
g-
h.
i.
"L
BF
Koc
EM =
K
OS
P = log Kow
' BCF
: water solubility
• liquid solute solubility or the "corrected" solid solute solubility
•• BCF
aqueous solubility
= soil sorption coefficient (% carbon normalized)
1 ecological magnification
= biosorption partition coefficient
571
-------
Table 13
Estimated Log BCF
Compound
heptachlor
heptachlor epoxide
p.p'DDE
^pentachlorophenol
hexabromobiphenyl
methoxychlor
mi rex
aroclor 1016
aroclor 1248
aroclor 1254
aroclor 1260
chlordane
octachlorostyrene
p.p'DDT
o.p'DDT
hexachlorobenzene
1,2,4-trichloro-
benzene
lindane
5-bromoindole
tricresyl phosphate
toluene diamine
log
5.
5.
5.
5.
6.
4.
6.
5.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
5.
5.
5.
4.
3.
2.
3.
3.
Kow
44
40
69
01
39
3
89
88
11
47
91
0
29
75
75
23
23
89
97
42
16
Veith
fil 41
1979
3.92
3.89
4.14
3.56
4.73
2.96
5.16
4.3
4.49
4.8
5.17
4.4
4.65
4.19
4.19
3.74
2.9
2.61
1.82
2.21
1 .99
Veith
61 al
1980
3.904
3.87
4.09
3.58
4.63
3.04
5.01
4.24
4.41
4.69
5.02
4.33
4.55
4.14
4.14
3.74
2.98
2.73
2.03
2.34
2.17
Veith
1981
3.90
3.87
4.09
3.56
4.65
3.0
5.04
4.24
4.43
4.71
5.06
4.34
4.57
4.14
4.14
3.73
2.94
2.67
1.95
2.30
2.1
Briggs
1981
4.11
4.08
4.33
3.74
4.94
3.12
4.94
4.49
4.69
5.01
5.39
4.6
4.85
4.38
4.38
3.93
3.06
2.76
1.96
2.36
2.13
Mackay
1982
4
4
4
3
5
2
5
4
4
5
5
4
4
4
4
3
2
2
1
2
1
.12
.08
.37
.69
.07
.98
.57
.56
.79
.15
.59
.68
.97
.43
.43
.91
.91
.57
.65
.10
.84
Mean Log
Estimated Measured
BCF (o) Log BCF
3.99
3.95
4.08
3.63
4.80
3.02
5.14
4.37
4.56
4.87
5.25
4.47
4.72
4.26
4.26
3.81
2.96
2.67
1.85
2.26
2.05
(0.11)
(0.12)
(0.18)
(0.08)
(0.19)
(0.06)
(0.25)
(0.15)
(0.17)
(0.20)
(0.24)
(0.16)
(0.18)
(0.14)
(0.14)
(0.10)
(0.06)
(0.08)
(0.15)
(0-11)
(0.13)
3.98
4.16
4.71
2.89
4.26
3.92
4.26
4.63
4.85
5.00
5.29
4.58
4.52
4.47
4.47
4.27
3.32
2.26
1.15
2.22
1 .96
572
-------
equation which is used in the Rule 57(2) guidelines to calculate
a BCF if measured BCFs are not available from field or laboratory
studies:
log BCF = 0.847 log Kow - 0.628
Figure 3 illustrates this relationship and includes the 95 percent
confidence interval on the line. A plot of the estimated BCF using
this equation against the ideal line (Figure 4) shows very little
variance from the ideal situation. In general, this equation gives
a slight underestimation of the BCF for chemicals with a log Kow
<2.0 and overestimates the BCF for chemicals with a log Kow > 3.0.
In practice this adds an additional level of conservativism to
the allowable levels calculated for materials with higher log Kow
values. Substances with log Kow < 2.0 are not expected to bioaccumulate
to any significant degree in fish due to the ability of aquatic
organisms to excrete or metabolize these more water soluble materials.
Veith £t jal_. (1980) have recommended that substances with log Kow
<3.0 be excluded from further bioconcentration testing due to
the lack of accumulation of these chemicals in fish tissue from
monitoring data. BCFs calculated from this Kow/BCF regression
equation will generally provide a value biased on the high side
and will allow an additional level of conservatism in the calculation.
Additional safety factors are built into the process by using a
BCF value for whole fish when only lean muscle tissue is generally
consumed by humans. A final adjustment is also made to account
for the higher fat content of the average Michigan fish sample
(OTMC, 1982) which in most cases doubles the BCF used in the calcula-
tions. This percent lipid value is the mean of over 2,000 lipid
measurements of Michigan fish samples listed in the "STORE!" data
base of USEPA.
These adjustment are felt to have a secondary effect of providing
an extra margin of safety to account for the probabilities of
underestimation discussed above. In nearly all cases where test
BCF calculations have been performed according to the proposed
Rule 57 procedures, the lipid-standardized bioconcentration factor
is higher than values reported from field studies.
573
-------
Figure 3.
en
o
8.0-
7.0-
6.0-
5.0-
4.0-
3.0-
95?. confidence interval
' log BCF" = 0.847 log Kow - 0.
628
2.0-
1.0
2.0 2'5 3.0
4.0 5.0 .6.0
Mean Est. LOT BCF (N=7)
7.0
-------
Fiqure 4.
TJ
0>
-------
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The guidelines do not contain chemical specific procedures to address
chemical interaction (additivity, synergism, antagonism). However,
the proposed guidelines do allow for use of whole effluent testing or
other biological techniques which would address chemical interactions
from an aquatic toxicity perspective. It is recognized that in complex
effluents containing more than one chemical, such interactions may
occur. For example, if two chemicals acted additively or synergistically,
the risk would be at least twice that assuming independence. However,
if the chemicals acted antagonistically, the risk would be less than
that predicted for independence. In most cases, no data are available
to determine the effect of chemical interaction. Although no generic
assumptions are made regarding chemical interactions, if in specific
cases information is available indicating such interaction, it will
be considered when developing allowable levels.
The protection of aquatic and terrestrial plant life or microorganisms
has not been adequately addressed by these procedures since testing
protocols and methodologies for deriving such allowable levels are not
currently available. However, it is felt that in most situations the
values calculated to protect aquatic life, wildlife or public health
will be sufficient to protect plants and microorganisms.
In addition to the conservatism pointed out in the discussion on the
individual guideline values, other more general conservative elements
are applied in the effluent limit calculations to add an additional
margin of safety to the resultant allowable toxicant levels. One hundred
percent conservation of the chemical substance is assumed. In reality,
most chemicals undergo some form of degradation due to environmental
fate processes (i.e., volatilization, photolysis, microbial degradation,
etc.) and may become bound to particulates and organic matter present
in the receiving stream.
Rules 82 and 90 allow the use of only 25 percent of the most restrictive
monthly 95 percent exceedance flow for establishing effluent limitations,
unless a demonstration is made for a larger mixing volume. Even if
the entire design flow was used, the concentration of the chemical at
the edge of the mixing zone would be lower than the allowable level
95 percent of the time.
576
-------
SUMMARY
Currently, there are no rules, guidelines or policies for surface waters
which provide specific written direction and authority for protecting
the public health and environment from the complete spectrum of possible
adverse toxic effects. Aquatic toxicity and human carcinogenicity are
currently being addressed in surface water permits on a case-by-case
basis using general wording of Act 245 and existing Rule 57 as authority.
However, this approach is currently being challenged on the basis of
"ad hoc rule making". If a challenge is successful, there will be no
authority to regulate toxics in surface water permits (with the possible
exception of aquatic toxicity). The proposed Rule 57 package would
provide both the specific authority and guidelines for staff on development
of water quality standards. Clearly, the amended rule package would
represent considerable improvement over the 1973 rules in terms of public
health and water quality protection and administrative efficiency.
The assumptions and procedures in the proposed Rule 57 package must
be evaluated as a whole to obtain the overall feeling for the degree
of conservatism in the final calculated value. Staff feel that public
health and the environment will be protected with an adequate margin
of safety by developing toxic .substance discharge levels for surface
water permits based on the proposed procedures.
577
-------
EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS
The step-by-step procedures to develop allowable edge of mixing zone
levels for toxic substances according to the Rule 57(2) guidelines are
presented in Examples 1-5. A hypothetical chemical (Chemical X) was
used for illustrative purposes. The allowable level for Chemical X
was derived for a surface water receiving stream protected for warmwater
fish and partial body contact and was not considered to be a drinking
water source.
The allowable level in the surface water after a discharge is mixed
with the receiving stream volume specified in Rule 82 is the most restrictive
of the following derivations:
- Aquatic Chronic Value (ACV) - Example 1
- Terrestrial Life Cycle Safe Concentration (TLSC) - Example 2
- Human Life Cycle Safe Concentration (HLSC) - Example 3
- 1 x 10 Cancer Risk Value - Example 4
For Chemical X, the_allowable level is 33 parts per billion (33 ug/1)
based on the 1 x 10 Cancer Risk Value.
EXAMPLE 1 — CALCULATION OF AQUATIC CHRONIC VALUE (ACV)
Chemical X
Acute Toxicity Data
Species
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout
Fathead minnow
Bluegill
Largemouth bass
Yellow perch
Daphnia magna
Daphnia magna
Scud
Crayfish
Chronic Toxicity Data
Species
Rainbow trout
Daphnia magna
1
590
510
670
820
685
705
935
640
595
,210
2,140
ug/1*
ug/1
ug/1
ug/1
ug/1
ug/1
ug/1
ug/1**
ug/1
ug/1
ug/1
MATC
39 ug/1*
70 ug/1**
820
685
705
935
617
1,210
2,140
Test Duration
96 hr.
96 hr.
96 hr.
96 hr.
96 hr.
96 hr.
96 hr.
48 hr.
48 hr.
96 hr.
96 hr.
Test Type
Embryo-Larval
Life Cycle
*From same study on Rainbow trout.
**From same study on D. magna.
578
-------
Calculation of Final Acute Value (FAV)
Sum
N » Total
Rank
4
3
2
1
i
*2 _ 167.
Number of
SMAV
705
685
617
586
5414 - (25.
SMAVs in
InSMAV
6.5582
6.5294
6.4249
6.3733
25.8858
8858)2/4
Data Set = 8
(In SMAV)2
43.0100
42.6333
41.2789
40.6192
167.5414
1.11110 - (2.04875) /4
S = 0.6068
L =£"25.8858 - (0.6068) (2.04875)] ^ 4 = 6.1607
A = (0.6068)(\/0.05)
6-2964
= R/(N + 1)
0.44444
0.33333
0.22222
0.11111
1.11110
6.1607 = 6.2964
FAV = e- = 543 ug/i
Calculation of Chemical Specific Acute/Chronic Ratio
Rainbow trout
D. magna
590 T 39 = 15.1
640 -r 70 = 9.1
0.66667
0.57735
0.47140
0.33333
2.04875
Xg = 11.7
Calculation of the Aquatic Chronic Value
ACV = 543 t 11.7 - 46 ug/1
EXAMPLE 2 -- CALCULATION OF TERRESTRIAL LIFE CYCLE SAFE CONCENTRATION (TLSC)
The TLSC for Chemical X was derived from a study in which groups of
25 male and female rats were gavaged with Chemical X at 15, 150, 450,
and 1,250 mg/kg/day, five days per week, for six months. No effects
were observed at 15 mg/kg/day, while adverse effects were observed at
higher doses.
I. Data
5/7
NOAEL = 15 mg/kg/day
Fraction of days dosed per week (Fw)
Weight of rat (Wa) = 0.350 kg
Volume of water consumed per day for rat (Vw) = 0.049 1
Uncertainty factor (U) = 100 (Less than lifetime study; species variability)
579
-------
II. Calculations
_ NOAEL x Fw x Wa/Vw
TLSC = 15 ms/ks/day x 5/T^x 0.350kg/0.049 1 = ^ mg/1
EXAMPLE 3 ~ CALCULATION OF HUMAN LIFE CYCLE SAFE CONCENTRATION (HLSC)
The HLSC for Chemical X was derived from a study in which groups of
25 male and female rats were gavaged with Chemical X at 15, 150, 450,
and 1,250 mg/kg/day, five days per week for six months. No effects
were observed at 15 mg/kg/day, while adverse effects were observed at
higher doses.
I. Data
NOAEL =15 mg/kg/day
Fraction of days dosed per week (Fw) =5/7
Weight of human (W ) = 70- kg
Uncertainty factor (U) = 1,000 (No human data; less than lifetime
animal study)
Bioconcentration factor (BCF) = 123 (See Example 5)
II. Calculation
MgT = NOAEL x Fw x W
MgT = 15 mB/kg/d.yS/7 x 70 kg =
U
'da
1,000
HLSC = 0.01 1 + (0.0065 kg x BCF)
HLSC
0.01 1 + (0.0065kgx 123)
EXAMPLE 4 — CALCULATION OF CANCER RISK VALUE (1 x 10~5)
Groups of 50 male and 50 female Fisher 344 rats were dosed with Chemical X
in corn oil vehicle by gavage five days a week for 104 weeks. The Time
Weighted Average (TWA) doses for both sexes were 169 and 339 mg/kg/day.
However, since the doses were administered five days per week, the daily
average doses were calculated as: 169 x 5/7 = 121 and 339 x 5/7 = 242 mg/kg/day,
Groups of 20 animals of both sexes received corn oil as the vehicle
controls .
580
-------
Under the conditions of this bioassay, Chemical X was carcinogenic to
both male and female F-344 rats, inducing statistically significant
increases in hepatocellular carcinomas.
In males, the incidences of animals with hepatocellular carcinomas/animals
at risk were 0/20, 16/48, and 40/45 in the vehicle control, low dose
and high dose groups, respectively. In females, the incidences of animals
with hepatocellular carcinomas/animals at risk were 2/20, 18/49, and
37/49 in the vehicle control, low dose and high dose groups, respectively.
The estimated average mature weight for female rats was 0.35 kg, that
for male rats was 0.40 kg.
For male rats, the carcinogenicity potency q * is calculated by dividing
the 95 percent confidence limit on risk at trie 1 in 100 risk level by
the maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) dose as determined from the multi-
stage model printout (Figure 5).
* 0.499458 x IP"1 0 Q71- ,n-3 , ,, ,, .-1
q.* = — = 2.875 x 10 (mg/kg/day)
0.173728 x 10
This is multiplied by an animal to man species_adjustment factor 1\|70/0.40
= 5.59 and q^ becomes 1.61 x 10 (rag/kg/day)"
For female rats, q * as determined from the multi-stage model printout
(Figure 6):
, 0.621775 x 10"1 . ,. ..-3 , ,, ,, ,-1
q * = —r = 4.51 x 10 (mg/kg/day)
0.137924 x 10
Ji
This is multiplied by a species adjustment factor \70/O.J5 = 5.85 and
q * becomes 2.64 x 10 (mg/kg/day)
Using the female rat data, since it gives the highest estimate of q,*.
the dose at the 10 level of risk:
D = * * 10 —.— = 3.79 x 10"4 mg/kg/day
2.64 x 10 (mg/kg/day)
Using a calculated BCF of 123 (See Example 5), the water concentration
at the 10 level of risk, surface water not protected as a drinking
water source:
C = 3.79 x 10" mg/kg/day x 70 kg = 3 28 1Q-2 ,, „ 33 n
C 0.01 I/day + (0.0065 x 123) J>^ X 1U m§/1 ^ U§/
581
-------
Figure 5
ch«*icaJL r h«p*tocellolar cvcinonas »ale cats
TITLE r CHZSICAL I HEPATOCELLOLAfl CAHCINOHAS HAiZ BATS
0,16,40
0.
CLASS] 3) BUS 45 «»BBHS SITH aO HESPOMSSS TO DOSE Of 2»2'I66o66
T 000<(9
T
u, lit, /»^
CLASS ( 1) HAS 20 BERBERS WITH 0 RESPONSES TO DOSB OF 0.00000
CLASS( 21 HAS 48 HEMBZSS BIT5 -16 9ZSPOHSBS TO DOSE OP 121.00000
KOP - 1 CBADISST 80VES
TH» coernczznTS or THE ?OITBO;ITAL or DBGHBS 2 THAT HAXIBIZ:S TH? LIKELIHOOD o? THE
nin IBT • 3J ") • 0.00000000000+00
DAT* ABE . ^ / 1< « O.OOOOOOOOOOD+00
a.33299686770-0*
TOE .
iUI
TEST or HTPOTHESIS: Q(1) » 0
PSfXTBST STATISTIC) =• 0.50000000000+00
LIKELIHOOD HATIO 0.00000000000+00
COHPIDBHCE LIHITS BASED ON THB NOLTI-STIGE BODEL ( KOP = 1 )
0PP1TR COHflDEHCB LIMITS FOR Q (1) r
90S 95% 97.55 91%
0.1592220-02 0.2370710-02 0.310030D-02 0.399995D-02
CONriDSHCZ LI!UTS FOP A RISS Or O.tOOOOOO+00 ,T.L.B. DOSff » 0. Sfi 249S2631D+02
OPPITS COMUBEHCB LINITS OH EXT7A RISK:
901 «X 97.5? 99t
0.1771070+00 0.212358D+00 0.2940280+00 0.2813.120+00
LOU.ER COHPIDEBCr LIHITS OS S\tjf
yOU 555 97.5* 99%
0-.222274D+02
LJKITS TOff * 3ISK OP 7.100000IT-01 H.E.e. DOSr « 0.171728T573D+02
OPPBT COItFTDeNCZ E.IKTS 0!f PtTFU. RISK:
90* 95% 97.55 99f
0.370095O-OT 0.499iJSgn-OT O.S19118D-01 0.7645960-01
LOB'H COMFIDKSCR LISITf OS SAFB DOSBr
90t 95* 97.5* 99JIL
0.5fi4557n+01 0.40t316D+Ot 0.3136090+01 0.2H62TSO+01
-------
Figure 6
chenical z hapatocellular carcinomas feaale cats
TITLE : CBEBICAL Z HEPAtOCtaLOLAR CARCIHOHAS
FEHALE HATS
7'1
20,49
2,18,
0,121
CLASS
CLASS
CLASS
? 000
1
KOP =
.49
37
,242
HAS 20 SEBBE5S «ITH
HAS 49 HEBBERS KITH
HAS 49 rtENBEDS WITH
1 GBADIEHT flOVES
12
2 PRSPOKS*S TO DOSE OF
18 RESPOHSES TO DOSE OP
37 RESPOHSES TO IX)SZ OF
0.00000
121.00000
242.00000
COEFPICIEMTS OP THE POLIHOniAL OF OP.GRE5 2 THAT IUXISIZES TH? lir^LIHOOD OF THE
Qt 0) * 0. 10536051 "570+00
DATA *SE : ol li •* 0.««767929tt3D-03
0.2037US6378D-OU
THE I
ill!
TEST OF HYPOTHESIS: Q(1) =• 0
PS (>TSST STATISTIC) •* 0. «216851400D+00
LIKELIHOOD RATIO 0.3903^575520-01
COMPIDRSCB LI HITS BASED ON THE BULTI-STAI"! .10DEL ( KOP = 1 )
OPPER COHFIDENCE LIMITS FOR Q(1):
SOt 95*
0.3U6479D-02 0.4373340-02
.
0.511R31D-02
0.5646000-02
CONFIDENCE LlfllTS FOR A RISK OF 0.1000000*00 I.L.2. DOSE = 3.61759157140*02
OPPtH COHPIDEHC2 LIHITS OH EXTRA RISK:
POX 95% 97.5S 9"t
0.253004D+00 0.2937640+00 0.325521D*00 0.3»7148D»00
LOSER CONFIDEHCE LIMITS ON SAFE DOSE-.
90* 95S 37.51 99*
0.2633170*02 0.2186440+02 0.1912850+02 0.1754970+02
CONFIDESCE LI8ITS FOR A PI3K OF 0.1000000-01 B.l.E. DO.SS= 0.11792373840*02
UPP»H COHFIOEMC" LTHITS OK FXTSA PISK:
qot 9-5* -j?.1!1;
0.5035170-01 0.62177SO-01 0.717<42D-01
0.734^^-50-01
LOWRR CONFIDENCE LI(1ITSrON SAFE 003F.:
0.2862850+01 0.2274000*01 1. 1 9484V!J*01 0. 176'379 D»0 1
5R3
-------
EXAMPLE 5 -- CALCULATION OF THE BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR
A search of the published scientific literature revealed no measured,
steady-state bioconcentration studies reported for Chemical X. One
published report of a measured partition coefficient for this substance
was found. A standard n-octanol rwater partitioning experiment was found
and a Kow value of 713.6 was reported. A lipid-adjusted bioconcentration
factor for Chemical X was calculated using the log BCF /log Kow regression
equation listed in the proposed Rule 57(2) guidelines. Calculations are
shown below:
Kow = 713.6
log Kow =2.85
log BCF = 0.847 log Kow -0.628
log BCFC = 0.847 (2.85) -0.628
log BCFC =1.79
BCFC =61.6
c
lipid adjustment for Michigan fish:
BCFf = BCFc
BCFf - (61.6)
BCFf - 123
584
-------
REFERENCES
Aquatic Chronic Value Reference
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1983. Draft Guidelines for
Deriving National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of
Aquatic Life and Its Uses (July 5, 1983). U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Development Document, Environmental Research
Laboratory, Duluth, Minnesota.
Due to the large number of references used in the development of the
species sensitivity factors and the acute/chronic application factor,
they have not been included. They are available for inspection in the
Toxic Chemical Evaluation Section.
Human Health References
1. Ambrose, A. M. 1959. A toxicological study of biphenyl, a citrus
fungistat. Food Research. 25:328-336.
2. Ambrose, A. M. , e£ a_l_. 1972. Toxicologic studies on 3',4'-dichloro-
propionanilide. Toxicol. and Applied Pharmacol. 23:650-659.
3. Borzella, J. F. ejt al_. 1964. Studies on the chronic oral toxicity
of monomeric ethyl acrylate and methyl methacrylate. Toxicol.
and Applied Pharmacol. 6:29-36.
4. Carpenter, C. P. et_ al_, 1961. Mammalian toxicity of 1-naphthyl-
N-methylcarbamate (Sevin insecticide). Agricultural and Food
Chem. 9:30-39.
5. Crouch, E. A. C. ££ a^L. 1983. The risks of drinking water. Water
Resources Res. 19:1359-1375.
6. Crump, Kenny S. and Warren W. Watson. 1979. GLOBAL 79. A FORTRAN
program to extrapolate dichotomous animal carcinogenicity
data to low doses. National Institute of Environmental Health
Sciences Contract NOI-ES-2123.
7. Deichmann, W. B. 1941. Toxicity of methyl, ethyl, and N-butylmetha-
crylate, J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol. 23:343-351.
8. Deichmann, W. B. Q al. 1947. Observations on the effects of
diphenyl, o- and p-aminodiphenyl, o- and p-nitrodiphenyl and
dihydroxyoctachlorodiphenyl upon experimental animals. J.
Ind. Hyg. and Toxicol. 29:1-13.
585
-------
9. Deichmann, W. B. e_t a^. 1955. Toxicity of ditertiarybutylmethyl
phenol. AMA Archives Ind. Health. 11:93-101.
10. Gaines, T. B. 1960. The acute toxicity of pesticides Co rats.
Toxicol. and Applied Pharmacol. 2:88-99.
11. Hodge, H. C. ejt al^. 1951. Toxicological studies of ortho-phenylphenol.
J. Pharmacol. Experiment Ther. 104:202-210.
12. Interagency Regulatory Liason Group (IRLG) 1979. Scientific Basis
for Identifying Carcinogens and Estimating their Risks. A
report of the Interagency Regulatory Liaison Group, WorV Group
on Risk Assessment. Washington, D.C.
13. Jenner, P. M. ejt al. 1964. Food flavorings and compounds of related
structure. I. Acute oral toxicity. Fd. Cosmet. Tox. 2:327-
343.
14. Kociba, R. J. et al. 1971. 1,4-Dioxane. I. Results of a two
year ingestion study in rats. Toxicol. and Applied Pharmacol.
30:275-286.
15. Kociba, R. J. ejt al. 197-8. Results of a two year chronic toxicity
and oncogenicity study of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(TCDD) in rats. Toxicol. and Applied Pharmacol. 46:279-303.
16. Laug, E. P. e_£ £l. 1939. The toxicity of some glycols and derivatives.
J. Ind. Hyg. Tox. 21:173-199.
17. Levinskas, G. J. £££_!. 1966. Acute and chronic toxicity of pimaricin.
Toxicol. and Applied Pharmacol. 8:97-109.
18. McCollister, D. D. £t. £!_• 1959. Toxicological studies of 0,0-
dimethyl-o-(2,4,5-trichlorophenyl) phosphorothioate (Ronnel)
in laboratory animals. Ag. and Fd. Chem. 7:689-693.
19. National Academy of Sciences. 1977. Drinking Water and Health.
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.
20. Paynter, 0. E. e_t al. 1960. Toxicology of dalpon sodium (2,2-
dichloropropionic acid, sodium salt). Agric. Food Chem.
8:47-51.
21. Pitot, Henry C. and Alphonse E. Sirica. 1980. The stages of initiation
and promotion in hepatocarcinogenesis. Biochemica et Biophysica
Acta. 605:191-215.
22. Schwetz, B. A. ejt al. 1973. Toxicology of chlorinated dibenzo-
p-dioxins. Env. Health Perspectives. 5:87-99.
586
-------
23. Schwetz, B. A. £t al. 1978. Results of two year toxicity and
reproduction studies on pentachlorophenol in rats. In Pentachloro-
phenol. Edited by K. Ranga. Rao. Plenum Publishing Corp.,
NY, NY.
24. Sherman, H. and A. M. Kaplan. 1975. Toxicity studies with 5-bromo-
3-sec-butyl-6-raethyluracil. Toxicol. and Applied Pharmacol.
34:189-196.
25. Smyth, H. F. et al. 1970. Experimental toxicity of sodium 2-ethyl
hexyl suTFate. Toxicol. and Applied Pharmicol. 17:53-59.
26. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1976. National Interim
Primary Drinking Water Regulations. EPA-570/9-76-003.
27. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1980. Water Quality Criteria
Availability. Appendix C - Guidelines and Methodology Used
in the Preparation of Health Effect Assessment Chapters of
the Consent Decree Water Criteria Documents. 45 Federal Register
79347-79357.
28. Verschuen, H. G. et^ aK 1973. Toxicity studies on tetrasul. 1.
Acute, long-term, and reproduction studies. Toxicology.
1:63-78.
29. Webb, W. K. and W. H. Hansen. 1963. Chronic and subacute toxicology
and pathology of methyl salicylate in dogs, rats, and rabbits.
Toxicol. and Applied Pharmacol. 5:576-587.
30. Williams, C. S. F. 1976. Practical Guide to Laboratory Animals.
C. V. Mosby Company.
31. Worden, A. N. £t a_U 1973. Toxicity of gusathion for the rat
and dog. Toxicol. and Applied Pharmacol. 24:405-412.
Bioconcentration Factor References
ASTM. 1984. Proposed new standard practice for conducting bioconcentration
tests with fishes and saltwater bivalve molluscs. Draft #8. January,
1984. Committee E-47.01. American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, PA. 117 pp.
Branson, D. R., G. E. Blau, H. C. Alexander, and W. B. Neely. 1975.
Bioconcentration of 2,2',4,4' tetrachlorobiphenyl in rainbow trout
as measured by an accelerated test. TRANS. AMER. FISH SOC.
104:785-792.
Briggs, G. G. 1981. The theoretical and experimental relationships
between soil adsorption, octanol water partition coefficients,
water solubilities, bioconcentration factor and the parachor.
J. AGRIC. FOOD CHEM. 29(5):1050-1059.
587
-------
Brown, D. 1978. U.S. EPA, Environmental Research Laboratory, Athens,
GA - unpublished data.
Brungs, W. A. and D. I. Mount. 1978. Introduction to a discussion
of the use of Aquatic Toxicity Tests for evaluation of the effects
of toxic substances. pp. 15-26 in ESTIMATING THE HAZARD OF CHEMICAL
SUBSTANCES TO AQUATIC LIFE - ASTM STP 657. J. Cairns, K. L. Dickson,
and A. W. Maki (eds). American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, PA. 278 pp.
Chiou, C. T., V. H. Freed, D. W. Schmedding, and R. L. Kohnert. 1977.
Partition coefficient and bioaccumulation of selected organic
chemicals. ENVIRON. SCI. TECHNOL. 11(5):475-478.
Hamelink, J. L., R. C. Waybrant, and R. C. Ball. 1971. A proposal:
exchange equilibria control the degree chlorinated hydrocarbons
are biologically magnified in lentic environments. TRANS. AMER.
FISH SOC. 100:207-214.
Hamelink, J. L., R. C. Waybrant, and P. R. Yant. 1976. Mechanisms
of bioaccumulation of mercury and chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides
by fish in lentic ecosystems. In Fate of Pollutants in the Air
and Water Environments. ADV. ENVIRON. SCI. TECHNOL. #9.
Hamelink, J. L. and A. Spacie. 1977. Fish and chemicals: the process
of accumulation. ANN. REV. PHARMACOL. TOXICOL. 17:167-177.
Hesselberg, R. J. and J. G. Seelye. 1982. Identification of organic
compounds in Great Lakes fishes by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry:
1977. ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT #82-1. Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48 pp.
Johnson, D. W. 1968. Pesticides and fishes — a review of selected
literature. TRANS. AMER. FISH SOC. 97:398-424.
Johnson, D. W. 1973. Pestidice residues in fish. In Environmental
Pollution by Pesticides, ed. C. A. Edwards, pp. 181-212. Plenum
Press, New York. 542 pp.
Kenaga, E. E. and C. A. I. Goring. 1980. Relationship between water
solubility, soil sorption, octanol-water partitioning, and con-
centration of chemicals in biota, pp. 78-115 in AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY.
ASTM-STP 707. J. Eaton, P. R. Parrish and A. C. Hendricks (eds).
MDNR. 1984. Michigan Fishing Guide. Fisheries Division, Michigan
Department of Natural Resources, Lansing, Michigan. 16 pp.
Macek, K. J. and S. Korn. 1970. Significance of the food chain in
DDT accumulation by fish. J. FISH. RES. BOARD CAN. 27:1496-1498.
588
-------
Macek, K. J., S. R. Petrocelli, and B. H. Sleight, III. 1979. Con-
siderations in assessing the potential for, and significance of,
biomagnification of chemical residues in aquatic food chains.
pp. 251-268 in AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY, ASTM-STP 667, L. L. Marking
and R. A. Kimerle (eds). American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, PA.
Mackay, D. 1982. Correlation of bioconcentration factors. ENVIRON.
SCI. TECHNOL. 16(5):274-278.
Metcalf, R. L., J. R. Sanborn, P. Y. Lu, and D. Nye. 1975. Laboratory
model ecosystem studies of the degradation and fate of radiolabelled
tri-, tetra-, and pentachlorobiphrnyi comparted with DDE. ARCH.
ENVIRON. CONTAM. TOXICOL. 3(2):151-165.
Neely, W. B., D. R. Branson, and G. E. Blau. 1974. The use of the
partition coefficient to measure the bioconcentration potential
of organic chemicals in fish. ENVIRON. SCI. TECHNOL. 8:1113-1115.
Niimi, A. J. and B. G. Oliver. 1983. Biological half-lives of PCS
congeners in whole fish and muscle of rainbow troug (Salmo gairdneri).
CAN. J. FISH. AQUATIC. SCI. 40:1388-1394.
OTMC. 1982. Rule 57 Advisory Committee Report on Proposed Surface
Water Quality Standard Deviation Procedures for Chemical Substances.
December 14, 1982. Office of Toxic Materials Control, Michigan
Department of Natural Resources. Unpublished. 83 pp.
Reinert, R, E., L. J. Stone, H. L. Bergman. 1974a. Dieldrin and DDT:
Accumulation from water and food by lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush)
in the laboratory. PROC. 17TH CONF. GREAT LAKES RES. pp. 52-58.
Reinert, R. E., L. J. Stone, W. A. Willford. 1974b. Effect of temperature
on accumulation of methylmercuric chloride and p,p' DDT by rainbow
trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. FISH. RES. BOARD CAN. 31:1649-1652.
Steen, W. C. and S. W. Karickhoff. 1981. Biosorption of hydrophilic
organic pollutants by mixed microbial populations. CHEMOSPHERE
(10):27-32.
Shaw, G. R. and D. W. Connell. 1984. Physicochemical properties controlling
polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) concentrations in aquatic organisms.
ENVIRON. SCI. TECHNOL. 18(1):18-23.
Tulp, M. T. M. and 0. Hutzinger. 1978. Some thoughts on aqueous solubilities
and partition coefficients of PCB and the mathematical correlation
between bioaccumulation and physico-chemical properties. CHEMOSPHERE.
10:849-860.
589
-------
U. S. EPA. 1980. Water Quality Criteria Documents: Appendix B —
Guidelines for deriving water quality criteria for the protection
of aquatic life and its uses. FED. REG. 45(231):79341-79347.
U. S. EPA. 1982. Draft Guidelines for Deriving National Water Quality
Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Life and Its Uses (April 29,
1982). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Development Document.
Environmental Research Laboratory, Duluth, MN.
Veith, G. D. 1981. State-of-the-art report on structure-activity methods
development (II). Structure-activity research at the Environmental
research Laboratory - Duluth. U.S. EPA/ERL., Duluth, MN. 61 pp.
Veith, G. D., D. L. Defoe, and B. V. Bergstedt. 1979. Measuring and
estimating the bioconcentration factor of chemicals in fish. J. FISH.
RES. BOARD CANADA. 36:1040-1048.
Veith, G. D., K. J. Macek, S. R. Petrocelli, and J. Carroll. 1980.
An evaluation of using partition coefficients and water solubility
to estimate bioconcentration factors for organic chemicals in fish.
pp. 116-129 in AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY, ASTM-STP 707. J. G. Eaton,
P. R. Parrish, and A. C. Hendricks (eds). American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
Veith, G. D. and P. Kosian. 1983. Estimating bioconcentration potential
from octanol/water partition coefficients. Chapter 15 in PCBs
In the Great Lakes. D. Mackay, R. Patterson, S. Eisenreich, and
M. Simmons (eds). ANN ARBOR SCIENCE.
Willford, W. A., R. A. Bergstedt, W. H. Berlin, N. R. Foster, R. A. Hesselberg,
M. J. Mac, D. R. M. Passino, R. E. Reinert, and D. V. Rottiers.
1981. Executive summary, pp. 1-7 in_ Chlorinated Hydrocarbons as
a Factor in the Reproduction and Survival of Lake Trout (Salvelinus
namaycush) in Lake Michigan. U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE TECHNICAL
PAPER NO. 105.
590
-------
GENERAL QUESTIONS AND RESPONSES
1. What are the Water Quality Standards?
The Water Quality Standards establish water quality requirements
applicable to all surface waters of the state which protect the
public health and welfare; enhance and maintain the quality of
water; and protect the quality of water for recreation, public
water supplies, agriculture, navigation, and use by fish, other
aquatic life, and wildlife. The Water Quality Standards are promul-
gated as rules (Part 4 of the General Rules of the Water Resources
Commission) under Act 245, P.A. 1929 (Michigan's basic water quality
protection act).
2. How are the Water Quality Standards used?
The Water Quality Standards are generally used to protect the quality
of the state's surface waters. One of the primary specific uses
is to provide authority and direction for protection of the surface
waters from discharges of industrial or municipal wastewaters which
may be harmful.
3. What is the purpose of Rule 57?
Rule 57 is the rule of the Water Quality Standards which pertains
specifically to toxic substances. The purpose of this rule is
to provide specific authority to manage the surface waters of
Michigan in a manner which protects the public health and environ-
ment with an adequate margin of safety.
4- Why does Rule 57 need to be revised?
The existing Rule 57 was promulgated in 1973. It needs to be
revised to bring it up to date technically and to include specific
authority to regulate potential human and mammalian toxicants.
The U.S. EPA also requires that states revise and update their
Water Quality Standards, as needed, every three years.
5. What are the alternatives to the proposed Rule 57 package?
One alternative is not to revise the rule. Staff would then have
to continue to address aquatic toxicity and human carcinogenicity
in surface water permits on a case-by-case basis. This approach
is currently being challenged on the basis of "ad hoc rule making".
If a challenge is successful, there will be no authority to regulate
toxic substances in surface water permits (with the possible excep-
tion of aquatic toxicity). Discharge of toxic substances would
then take place without state mandated controls.
A second alternative is to rely on EPA technology based standards.
591
-------
However, EPA has not promulgated many standards to date. Additionally,
toxic substances may cause adverse impacts at concentrations below
the technology based standards.
A final alternative is to attempt to promulgate either a very
general rule alone or a rule with very specific requirements (possibly
to the extent of specific numerical standards for individual chemicals).
These approaches have been tried in the past and have been unsuccess-
ful. People objected that the general rule did not state how staff
would implement it. People objected to the specific rule because
it lacked flexibility.
6. Why are rules and guidelines proposed in the Rule 57 package?
The Rule 57 package includes Rule 57, other rules pertaining to
implementation of Rule 57, and guidelines providing specifics on
how staff will implement Rule 57 as it applies to surface water
discharges. The other rules which are included in the package
are Rules 43 and 44 which contain definitions of terms used in
the rules, Rule 51 which previously inappropriately addressed
drinking water standards for toxic substances other than chlorides,
and Rules 82 and 90 which deal with mixing zone determinations.
Rule 57, as proposed, contains a section with a general narrative
statement on Water Quality Standards for all waters of the state
and a section specific to deriving allowable levels of toxic substances
in the waters of the state for development of point source discharge
permits. The rule gives the general authority and direction to
develop water quality standards for use in development of limitations
in permits. The guidelines set forth specific methods which staff
will use to develop recommendations to the Water Resources Commission
on allowable levels for the development of permit limitations.
The package was developed in this manner largely to address prior
public comments that very specific Water Quality Standards do not
allow for flexibility and that the very general Water Quality
Standards do not describe the methods staff will use to develop
Specific allowable levels. DNR staff feels that this approach
is a reasonable compromise which addresses both concerns.
7. Why does the proposed Rule 57 contain a section which deals specifically
with deriving allowable levels of toxic substances for development
of point source discharge permits?
Proposed Rule 57(1) provides a narrative statement on Water Quality
Standards for all surface waters of the state. Rule 57(2) deals
specifically with derivation of allowable levels of toxic substances
for development of point source discharge permits. The rule was
designed this way so that the concentrations of toxic substances
corresponding to the design risk would only occur at the edge of
the mixing zone during low flows. At all other times, the risk
would be less than the design risk due to additional dilution,
losses due to degradation or volatility, sorption and removal from
bioavailability, and other factors. This assures that the majority
-------
of our inland waters and the Great Lakes will be protected to an
even greater degree and will not be degraded to the allowable
levels utilized in development of limitations for permits.
8. Is an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) necessary for the Rule 57
package?
An EIS would add significant delay to enactment of regulations
to control toxic substances in surface waters without any obvious
benefits. An EIS is not normally prepared for rules because the
procedure for promulgating rules under the Michigan Administrative
Procedures Act assures ample opportunity for public comment. The
Water Resources Commission and the Joint Legislative Rules Committee
must act affirmatively on the Rule 57 package after public comment
is received. The Attorney General also reviews the rules for
legality and constitutionality. Additionally, the data on discharges
and environmental and public health impacts necessary to do a
complete EIS are not available. Finally, the proposed Rule 57
package would provide a greater degree of protection of the environ-
ment and public health than the present rule.
9. How is the proposed Rule 57. package an improvement over existing
Rule 57?
Currently there are no rules, guidelines or policies for surface
waters which provide specific written direction and authority for
protecting the public health and environment from the complete
spectrum of possible adverse effects from toxic substances. Aquatic
toxicity and human carcinogenicity are presently being addressed
in surface water permits on a case-by-case basis using the general
wording of Act 245 and existing Rule 57 as authority. However,
this approach is currently being challenged on the basis of "ad
hoc rule making". If a challenge is successful, there will be
no authority to regulate toxics in surface water permits (with
the possible exception of aquatic toxicity). The proposed Rule 57
package would provide both the specific authority and guidelines
for staff on development of specific allowable levels. Additional
aspects of potential adverse impacts on humans and terrestrial
animals (wildlife) will also be evaluated and controlled.
10. Where do requirements for treatment of wastewater fit into Rule 57?
Generally, requirements for treatment of wastewater are not included
as a part of the Water Quality Standards or Rule 57. Under both
Federal and State law, treatment based numbers and water quality-
based considerations are addressed separately. Rule 57 and the
other Water Quality Standards are water quality-based, i.e., deal
with development of criteria (numbers) to protect the public health
and environment. The U.S. EPA is developing treatment based standards
(BAT). Whenever the standards are developed, they will be considered
in the development of discharge permits. Where BAT standards do
not exist, DNR staff will use professional judgment to evaluate
593
-------
the need for treatment based numbers. A limitation in a surface
water discharge permit generally is the more restrictive of the
water quality-based or treatment based numbers.
11. What is "risk assessment"?
"Risk assessment" is a process for estimating the likelihood that
a toxic response could take place if people or animals were exposed
to certain concentrations of a substance with hazardous properties
over a given period of time.
12. Does the Michigan Constitution and state environmental law allow
risk assessments?
The Michigan Constitution requires a balance between protection
of our natural resources and maintenance of a viable economy.
The Rule 57 package is consistent with the constitution.
The language of Act 245 requires a risk assessment in order to
determine what is injurious. Risk assessments for aquatic toxicity
evaluation have been carried out for several years under the existing
Rule 57.
13. What are the alternatives to a risk assessment approach?
The only real alternative is zero discharge. This approach is
considered unacceptable because zero cannot be measured analytically
and in general it is technologically infeasible or unreasonable
to achieve.
14. Why isn't the use and discharge of all toxic substances simply
prohibited?
This approach is essentially the same as zero discharge. At first
glance, this simple approach seems to have great merit. However,
closer examination reveals serious problems which make it unworkable.
It is impossible in many cases to avoid the use of a chemical in
a particular manufacturing process or to remove all of the chemical
from a discharge. The only alternative then is to do without the
process, the chemical, and products derived from that chemical.
Furthermore, the costs of treating wastes to remove chemicals
increase dramatically as treatment is installed to remove lower
and lower concentrations.
We have become a society dependent on chemicals. Chemicals are
involved in virtually every aspect of our daily lives. Agricultural
chemicals, including feed additives, growth regulators, pesticides,
fertilizers, and Pharmaceuticals, have played a large part in the
dramatic increases in agricultural productivity achieved over the
past few decades. Plastics constitute a major portion of the
components used to produce consumer goods such as automobiles,
household appliances, and packaging materials which have greatly
594
-------
changed our lives. Pharmaceuticals (drugs and medicines) have
contributed to increased longevity and the improved health of our
citizens. Cosmetics, soaps, deodorants and other personal hygiene
products are largely a direct result of the chemical industry.
Even many of our clothes contain artificial fibers (nylon, polyester,
rayon, etc.) derived from chemicals. Chemicals play perhaps an
even more important, if less obvious, role in many production and
manufacturing processes as raw materials, intermediates, catalysts,
and solvents.
If we wish to continue to enjoy our current lifestyle, we must
accept chemicals as a part of our daily lives, accept some level
of risk associated with these chemicals, and expect some additional
cost of living associated with improved treatment of wastes to
remove chemicals. Most chemicals, when manufactured or used under
the appropriate conditions, can be controlled so that they represent
little risk of adverse impacts on human health or the environment.
The goal of the proposed regulation is to assure that discharge
of toxic substances is properly regulated and controlled.
15. How was the Rule 57 risk assessment process developed?
The proposed process was developed by DNR staff with the assistance
of the Rule 57 Advisory Committee. The committee consisted of
experts in the area of toxicology, chemistry, and biology from
universities, industry, municipalities, environmental groups and
state government. The proposed process utilizes and builds upon
the work of many scientists over the past few years. The process
is also similar to that proposed by the U.S. EPA for development
of numbers to protect surface waters. The "Rule 57 Advisory Committee
Report" is available from the DNR Toxic Chemical Evaluation Section.
16. Does the proposed Rule 57 package protect the environment and public
health with an adequate margin of safety?
Staff are confident that the proposed package protects the public
health and environment with an adequate margin of safety. The
basis for staff's confidence is scientific judgment and a thorough
review and understanding of the subject areas and specific risk
assessment processes and incorporated assumptions. It is important
that the risk assessment processes and assumptions be evaluated
as a whole to obtain an overall feeling for the extent of the
margin of safety.
17. Is the Rule 57 risk assessment process pure science?
No, the risk assessment process is a combination of science, value
judgments and policy. It is impossible to separate these elements
into black and white areas.
18. How does the proposed Rule 57 risk assessment process compare to
programs in the U.S. EPA and other states?
The proposed package represents one of the most comprehensive
595
-------
attempts by any state to address the issue of toxic substances
in surface waters. Relatively few other states are even attempting
to comprehensively address this issue. The comprehensive risk
assessment process is an innovative approach to control the discharge
of toxic substances to surface waters and utilizes the most current
knowledge and information available. Many other states have expressed
an interest in this approach. The approach is also similar to
that proposed by the U.S. EPA to develop numbers to protect surface
waters.
19. What toxic substances are covered by the proposed Rule 57 process?
An allowable level for any toxic substance could be derived under
the general narrative statement in Rule 57(1). Rule 57(2) pertaining
to allowable levels for development of permit limitations deals
primarily with toxic substances on the 1983 Critical Materials
Register and the EPA Priority Pollutants. These lists contain
over 300 distinct chemicals which are of general concern to human
health or the environment. However, other toxic substances could
be addressed if the Water Resources Commission determines that
they are of concern at a specific site.
20. What does the result of the cancer risk assessment process mean?
The cancer risk assessment process utilizes a mathematical model
to estimate the upper boundary (95 percent) on risk of increased
incidence of cancer over background cancer rates for a population
exposed to certain concentrations of a chemical over a lifetime
under an assumed set of conditions. This result is usually expressed
in terms of additional cases of cancer in a given number of individuals
(i.e., 1 in 100,000). The true risk to humans is unknown, but
is expected to be lower than 1 in 100,000. The process is not
intended to be used to actually determine the precise numbers of
cancers which may develop in selected individuals under specific
exposure scenarios and does not estimate deaths from cancers.
21. Why was 1 in 100,000 selected as the design risk level for the
cancer risk assessment process?
The 1 in 100,000 design level of risk for carcinogens was recommended
by the Rule 57 Advisory Committee and concurred with by DNR staff.
The appropriateness of the 1 in 100,000 design risk level can be
judged only after a thorough evaluation of the model and assumptions
used in the process. The 1 in 100,000 design risk level is generally
below risks incurred in everyday life (i.e., driving a car, flying
in an airplane, boating). It is also extremely small in relation
to the background cancer rate in the U.S. (1 in 3).
22. Is the 1 in 100,000 design risk level for cancer appropriate in
all cases?
The 1 in 100,000 design risk level may not be appropriate in all
596
-------
cases. The appropriate design level of risk depends, in part,
on the circumstances of the situation being addressed and the risk
assessment process utilized. A different level of risk could be
judged appropriate in groundwater or air. Even in surface waters,
special circumstances could arise which would require reassessing
the appropriateness of the 1 in 100,000 level.
23. Why would it be appropriate to use different design risk levels
in other programs?
The 1 in 100,000 design risk level incorporated in Rule 57 was
developed specifically for surface waters based on the incorporated
factors and assumptions, current knowledge of the aquatic environment,
and the statutory and policy bases of the surface water regulatory
program. Design risk levels for other programs must be similarly
developed. For example, it would be easy to argue that the design
risk level for groundwater discharges should be less than the 1
in 100,000 level proposed for surface waters. Differences between
surface water and groundwater could lead to a lower level of confidence
that the risk assessment process for surface water would not provide
an adequate margin of safety to protect the public health if applied
to groundwater. Some of the differences which could lead to this
conclusion include: 1) groundwater movement is more difficult
to predict and determine than surface water movement; 2) groundwater
monitoring is more difficult than surface water monitoring; 3) ground-
water is the sole source of drinking water for a major portion
of Michigan's people; 4) people commonly consume groundwater with
no treatment; 5) dilution, degradation and removal of toxic substances
in groundwater is often minimal; and 6) cleanup of groundwater
is often more difficult, lengthy and costly.
24. Why is exposure for cancer risk assessment based on a population,
average consumption of fish, and "average adult" basis?
The decision to use lifetime exposure of an average adult human
weighing 70 kilograms in the cancer risk assessment process was
based on the recommendation of the Rule 57 Advisory Committee.
This approach has also been widely accepted in the scientific
community for dealing with diversified populations of people and
is used by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in the develop-
ment of their water quality criteria documents under the Clean
Water Act. Additionally, many of the animal studies used as a
basis for the risk assessment are based on "lifetime" exposure.
The 0.0065 kilograms of fish per day is also an EPA number based
on average national fish consumption, including marine and shellfish.
An estimate of consumption of inland fish by Michigan anglers was
calculated at about 0.0040 kilograms per day. Staff decided to
use the larger EPA number because it was calculated on better data
and was slightly more conservative.
597
-------
25. What significant impacts are expected on aquatic and terrestrial
life when minimum data are used in the proposed process to calculate
allowable levels to protect these organisms?
Staff would expect a very small percentage of aquatic or terrestrial
organisms, if any, to experience significant adverse chronic effects
when exposed to a concentration of toxicant in water corresponding
to an aquatic or terrestrial value derived from minimum data.
For the aquatic value, this is based on staff's belief that the
acute/chronic ratio of 45 is a conservative application factor
for the vast majority of industrial chemicals in common use that
are not adequately characterized to allow use of the modified EPA
method of calculating an aquatic chronic value. For the terrestrial
value, this is based on inclusion of two separate uncertainty
factors; a ten-fold uncertainty factor to account for the interspecies
variability in response to a toxicant and a 10,000-fold factor
to account for the uncertainty associated with using acute data
to calculate criteria to protect chronic effects. Hypothetically,
a worst-case scenario could be envisioned where these numbers might
not provide adequate protection. However, the only concentration
which would guarantee protection for 100 percent of all species,
100 percent of time is zero. In addition, any limit developed
from the calculated values would be expected to occur infrequently
after mixing with the receiving stream because the allowable level
is used to back-calculate the discharge limit which is an "end-
of-the-pipe number". Generally, this back-calculation assumes
a dilution factor of 25 percent of the 95 percent exceedance
flows, which is a conservative assumption in and of itself.
26. Does the proposed Rule 57 package protect all components of the
environment?
No, the proposed Rule 57 process would directly protect only certain
components of the total ecosystem such as people, terrestrial
mammals and birds, fish and aquatic macroinvertebrates. Other
components, such as bacteria and plants, would not be directly
protected. Staff is unable to develop procedures at this time
to protect these components because of a lack of previously developed
procedures, standardized testing methods, and usable data. However,
these components would receive an unknown degree of protection
from the values calculated to protect the components covered in
the Rule 57 process. Staff will evaluate new methods and procedures
as they become available and suggest revisions to the Rule 57 package
as appropriate.
27. What is a mixing zone?
A mixing zone is an area of a body of water which a discharger
is allowed to use for mixing his wastes prior to meeting Water
Quality Standards. Water Quality Standards, in general, do not
have to be met within a mixing zone. Generally, for toxic substances,
dischargers are allowed 25 percent of the design drought flow in
a river for mixing with their wastewater. The mixing zone is
protected against acute toxicity to aquatic organisms.
598
-------
28. Why does the proposed Rule 57 package use the 95 percent exceedance
flow_a3 the design flow?
The Q10-7 was previously used as the design flow. The Q10-7 is
the low flow which occurs for seven days in every 10 years. The
95 percent exceedance flow is the flow which is exceeded in the
river 95 percent of the time.
The primary reasons for recommending use of the 95 percent exceedance
flows are administrative ease,, simplicity and consistency. The
option to use seasonal flows (particularly for conventional parameters)
requires the use of an approach other than the QlO-7. Water Management
Division recommended the use of the 95 percent exceedance flows
because they closely approximate the QlO-7 and could be calculated
on a monthly or seasonal basis. Staff feels that for administrative
ease, simplicity and consistency, the 95 percent exceedance flow
should be used across the board. Staff does not feel that this
approach significantly reduces the margin of safety.
29. Mtiy_dQg3 the proposed Rule 57 package allow issuance of "non-conforming
Usepermits"?~
The "nonconforming use permit" section of Rule 57 was designed
to provide an alternative to putting a facility out of business
if they could not immediately meet the Water Quality Standards.
The Water Resources Commission would have to determine, based on
a demonstration by the applicant, that immediate attainment of
the Water Quality Standard is not economically or technically
feasible; no prudent alternative exists; the permitted discharge
would be consistent with the protection of public health, safety
and welfare; and that reasonable progress would be made toward
achieving compliance during the life of the permit.
30. Does the proposed Rule 57 package account for interactions between
chemicals?
Interactions between toxic chemicals would be considered only where
data is available suggesting an interaction. Since there is very
little data on this subject, these interactions would be considered
only infrequently. Generally, toxicologists do not have a clear
idea on how important interactions might be or how to regulate
for interactions in the absence of specific data. Staff is confident
that the margin of safety in the process is adequate to protect
for possible interactions. For aquatic toxicity, the proposed
package does allow for use of whole effluent testing or other
biological technique, which would address chemical interactions.
599
-------
STATE OF MICHIGAN
NATURAL ftesOUftCIS COMMISSION
THOMAS J ANDERSON
MARLENE J FLUHABTV
KERRY KAMMER
0 STEWART MYERS
DAVIO 0 OLSON
RAYMOND POUPORE
APPENDIX D
JAMES J. BLANCHARD. Governor
DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
STEVENS T. MASON BUILDING
PO BOX 30028
LANSING. Ml 4909
QOROON E. OUTER CVsclo.
January 27, 1987
TO:
FROM:
All Interested Parties
Paul D. Zugger, Chief
Surface Water Quality Division
SUBJECT: Rule 57(2) Guideline Levels
The Rule 57(2) Guidelines state that the most recent calculations of
water quality-based levels of toxic substances developed pursuant to
the Guidelines shall be compiled on an annual basis and be available for
distribution by February 1 of each year. The following list is in ful-
fillment of that requirement, and is complete as of January 27, 1987.
The values are subject to charge as new data or information becomes
available.
Rule 57(2) Guideline Levels are utilized in making water quality-based
permit recommendations to the Water Resources Commission concerning
toxic substances in the surface water after a point source discharge
is mixed with the r&ceiving stream volume specified in R323.1082. These
levels do not represent acceptable ambient levels in all waters of the
state, nor do they represent or reflect necessary treatment-based con-
siderations.
This list is informational only and is not a mechanism to establish water
quality-based permit limits. It is advisory in nature and not meant
to be binding on anyone.
Water quality-based permit limitations for toxic chemicals are developed
pursuant to existing procedures by staff in the Great Lakes and Environmental
Assessment Section using the R323.1057(2) Guidelines and appropriate
scientific data.
Questions concerning this list should be directed to Linn Duling, of the
Great Lakes and Environmental Assessment Section at 517/335-4188.
R1026
1 88
600
-------
27-Jan-87
CHEMICAL NAME
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Silver
Zinc
PCB #
DDT *
Carbon tetrachloride *
Phenol, 4-chloro-3-methyl
Aniline »
Acetone
Chloroform *
Bexachloroethane *
Benzene tt
Ethane, 1,1,1-trichloro
Methylene chloride *
Ethylene oxide *
Ethylene, 1,1-dichloro *
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
Propane, 1,2-dichloro
Trichloroethylene »
Pentachlo ropheno1
2, 4,8-Trichlorophenol »
Dlnoseb
Naphthalene
Benzidine, 3,3-dichloro *
Benzidine »
Silvex
Benzene, 1,2-dichloro
Phenol, 2-chloro
Ethylbenzene
Styrene *
Benzene, 1,4-dichloro
Pheno1, 4-chloro
Ethane, 1,2-dibromo »
Acrolein
Ethane, 1,2-dichloro *
Acrylonitrile *
Toluene
Chlorobenzene
Phenol
Bia(2-chloroethoxy) methane
CAS NUMBER
Class Oil
Class 013
Class 015
Class 017
Class 018
Class 019
Class 022
Class 023
Class 024
Class 027
Class 079
50293
56235
59507
62533
67641
67663
67721
71432
71556
75092
75218
75354
77474
78875
79016
87865
88062
88857
91203
91941
92875
93721
95501
95578
100414
100425
106467
106489
106934
107028
107062
107131
108883
108907
108952
ne 111911
Rule 57(2) Level
Son-Drinking Water
Value (ug/1) Basis
150 ACV
«exp<0.83(»ln(H))-4.84) ACV
•exp(0.83(91n(H))K).131) ACV
•exp(0.94(«ln(H))-1.3) ACV
5 ACV
«expX1.53(tln(H))-5.92) ACV
•exp(0.92(«ln(H))+0.12) ACV
13 ACV
0.15 ACV
•exp(0.85(«ln(H))+0.67) ACV
0.000012 CRV
0.00013 CRV
27 CRV
4.4 ACV
0.4 ACV
500 TLSC
43 CRV
13 CRV
51 TLSC
120 ACV
430 ACV
56 CRV
3 CRV
0.5 ACV
160 TLSC
94 ACV
»«xp(1.0051*pB-3.6617)/4.6 ACV
1.5 CRV
»exp(1.5837*pH-8.8767)/55.5 ACV
29 ACV
0.04 CRV*
0.0051 CRV*
3 HLSC
7 ACV
10 ACV
82 ACV
19 CRV
43 ACV
9.3 ACV
1.2 CRV*
3 ACV
560 CRV
2.2 CRV*
100 ACV
71 ACV
230 HLSC
4.6 TLSC
fiOl
-------
CHEMICAL NAME
Hexachlorobenzene *
Benzene, 1.2,4-trichloro
Ph«nol, 2,4-diohloro
l,4-dioxan« *
Tetrachloroethylene *
Ethylene, t-l,2-dichloro
B«nzen«, 1,3-diohloro
Xylene
Di-N-propyl formamide
Mercury, methyl
Ammonia (Coldwater)
Ammonia (Warmwatar)
Chlorine
Chromium, hexavalent
NOTES:
CAS NUMBER
118741
120821
120832
123911
127184
156605
541731
1330207
6282004
7439976
7664417
7664417
7782505
18540299
27-Jan-87
Rule 57(2) Level
Non-Drinking Water
Value (u«/l) Baals
0.0019 CRV*
22 HLSC
9exp(0.3589*pH+3.395)/13.95 ACV
360 ACV
20 CRV
90 TLSC*
20* HLSC
40 ACV
63 TLSC
0.0006 HLSC
20 ACV
50 ACV
8 ACV
6 ACV
* - This chemical is regulated as a carcinogen. The Rule 57(2) Level
is not necessarily based on its 1 in 100,000 cancer risk value.
* - Professional judgement was used - minimum data not available.
ACV- Aquatic Chronic Value
TLSC- Terrestrial Life-cycle Safe Concentration
HLSC- Human Life-cycle Safe Concentration
CRV- Cancer Risk Value
CAS = Chemical Abstract Service Number
Exponential equations: e.g., 9«xp(0.83(»ln(H))-4.84) = e
where H = Hardness (mg/1)
««xp(1.0051*pH-3.6617)/4.6 =
0.83(ln H)-4.84
1.0051(pH)-3.6617
where pH is in Standard Units
4.6
602
-------
SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PHOSPHORUS
REMOVAL EXPERIENCE IN NORTH AMERICA
by
Richard C. Brenner
Environmental Engineer
Wastewater Research Division
Water Engineering Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
and
Denis J. Lussier
Chief, Environmental Control Systems Staff
Center for Environmental Research Information
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
This paper has been reviewed in accordance with
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's peer
and administrative review policies and approved
for presentation and publication.
Prepared for Presentation at:
Eleventh United States/Japan Conference
on Sewage Treatment Technology
Tokyo, Japan
October 12-14, 1987
603
-------
SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PHOSPHORUS
REMOVAL EXPERIENCE IN NORTH AMERICA
Richard C. Brenner and Denis J. Lussier
INTRODUCTION
Discharge of nutrients to receiving waters has been a major water pollu-
tion concern in North America since the late 1960's and early 1970's. Eutro-
phication and oxygen depletion of critical water bodies, particularly the
Great Lakes and numerous inland lakes and estuarine waters in Florida, stimu-
lated intensive private and public R£D efforts directed at nutrient control
throughout most of the past decade. These efforts emphasized phosphorus
removal, nitrification, and, where necessary, nitrogen removal.
During the early years of this period, implementation of phosphorus
removal technology focused on mainstream chemical precipitation of soluble
phosphorus in primary and biological treatment systems, primarily with metal-
lic salts of aluminum or iron. Mineral (metallic salt) addition has proven
to be a reliable phosphorus removal process, but it possesses the inherent
disincentives of significant chemical costs and substantially increased
sludge production. Consequently, most recent R&D programs have directed
their attention to activated sludge processes that accomplish enhanced phos-
phorus removal biologically with minimal increases in waste sludge quantities,
These processes may require supplemental mineral addition for effluent pol-
ishing to reach very low effluent phosphorus concentrations, but only at a
fraction of the chemical cost of a conventional chemical-biological approach.
One activated sludge phosphorus removal process utilizes sidestream addition
of lime to an elutriant stream from a portion of the return sludge flow to
precipitate high concentrations of phosphorus removed biologically from the
mainstream flow, again at a fraction of the chemical cost of conventional
mineral addition. Enhanced or "luxury" uptake biological phosphorus removal
processes will be referred to hereinafter simply as biological phosphorus
removal processes. Phosphorus removal that is accomplished via mainstream
addition of mineral salts to treatment trains employing biological processes
will be referred to hereinafter as chemical phosphorus removal.
Richard C. Brenner is an Environmental Engineer with the Wastewater Research
Division, Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Denis J. Lussier is Chief, Environmental Control Systems Staff, Center for
Environmental Research Information, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
fi04
-------
Nitroyen removal has been achieved to date principally through the
process of denitrification. Initial development centered on staged systems
using externally added carbon sources, such as methanol, to force the denitri-
fication reaction. This approach provides effective nitrogen removal down to
very low effluent nitrogen concentrations, but at a considerable chemical
cost and expanded facility size. Recently, interest in North America has
shifted to managed single-stage biological processes that utilize organic
carbon contained in raw wastewater or primary effluent to trigger denitrifi-
cation. These processes require less overall treatment volume and save
chemical costs, but generally cannot achieve as efficient nitrogen removal as
the staged approach.
The need to control phosphorus and nitrogen concurrently is being encoun-
tered more frequently today in North America than in the past. These require-
ments may take the form of combined phosphorus removal-nitrification or com-
bined phosphorus removal-nitrogen removal. Proven process options available
for accomplishing dual nutrient control range from combining conventional
mineral addition and conventional staged biological systems, wherein the
control of phosphorus and nitrogen is essentially independent of one another,
to combining biological phosphorus removal with nitrification and substrate-
induced denitrification, if needed, in managed single-stage systems, wherein
phosphorus and nitrogen control are inextricably interrelated.
Although the level of North American research activity in phosphorus
removal in recent years is significantly less than at its zenith in the
1970's, important pilot- and field-scale studies are still being carried out
both in the United States and Canada. For the most part, these studies
involve biological phosphorus removal. In addition, an increasingly large
data base is becoming available on chemical phosphorus removal as a result of
the extensive implementation of that technology over the last 15 years.
The objectives of this paper are to summarize the substantial existing
data base on chemical phosphorus removal available in North America and to
describe emerging results on biological phosphorus removal. Comparisons of
the costs and relative advantages and disadvantages of the two approaches
will be offered insofar as generally accepted at this point in time. Nitro-
gen control will be addressed only as it affects phosphorus removal in dual
nutrient control schemes.
DATA SOURCES
Two editions of a Process Design Manual for Phosphorus Removal were
published by U.S. EPA Technology Transfer in the 1970's (1,2). A third
edition entitled Design Manual - Phosphorus Removal (3) has recently been
published (September 1987) by the U.S. EPA Center for Environmental Research
Information (CERI) and Water Engineering Research Laboratory (WERL). Initial
distribution of this third manual was made at the Water Pollution Control
Federation (WPCF) Conference in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in October 1987.
A companion document to the third edition of the above Design Manual
entitled Handbook - Retrofitting POTW's for Phosphorus Removal in the Chesa-
-------
peake Bay Drainage Basin (4) was also copublished by WERL and CERI in Septem-
ber 1987. It, too, was first distributed at the Philadelphia WPCF Conference
in October 1987. The intent of this Handbook is to utilize the extensive
experience developed in other parts of the country as a guide for Chesapeake
Bay Drainage Basin (CBDB) plant designers, operators, owners, and regulators
to implement an efficient and cost-effective program of phosphorus removal.
The contributing states discharging to the CBDB are parts of Maryland,
Pennsylvania, and Virginia, as well as the District of Columbia.
Environment Canada published a comprehensive report in October 1986 that
evaluated the technical and economic feasibility of modifying (retrofitting)
existing municipal wastewater treatment plants in Canada for biological phos-
phorus removal (5). This report examined retrofitting of three types of
existing treatment plants found in abundance in the province of Ontario:
primary plants, conventional activated sludge plants, and extended aeration
plants. Costs of retrofitting these three process configurations with bio-
logical phosphorus removal were compared with the costs of retrofitting the
same configurations with chemical phosphorus removal.
The last three references cited above (3,4,5) comprise the most recent
and thorough compilation of phosphorus removal experience in North American.
Information from these documents was used extensively in preparing this
summary paper. Figures used herein were taken directly from the three docu-
ments. In some instances, tables of data were also reproduced.
MATRIX OF ADVANCED AND SUPPLEMENTARY SYSTEMS
USED IN U.S. MUNICIPAL TREATMENT PLANTS
Advanced and/or supplementary treatment has been or is being incorporated
in many municipal treatment facilities in the United States. As indicated in
Table 1, over 4000 advanced or supplementary treatment systems were in opera-
tion or in the design/construction phases in 1982 (6). Some plants incor-
porated two or more of these advanced or supplementary systems, so the number
of actual treatment plants represented is not known.
The types of advanced and supplementary processes and/or equipment
selected are being utilized for improved soluble organic carbon removal,
improved suspended solids removal, phosphorus removal, nitrogen control,
disinfection, and land treatment, among other uses. As shown, the number
of phosphorus removal systems in use or being designed/constructed in 1982
totalled 897, or 21.9 percent of the advanced/supplementary system total.
The corresponding figures for nitrogen control/removal were 1550 systems and
41.3 percent of the total.
Over the past b years, the number of facilities employing or planning
to implement nutrient control in the United States has risen significantly
beyond the figures presented in Table 1. An exact breakdown of this increase
was not available to the author at the time of this writing, but it is known
to include over 400 treatment plants in the CBDB that will be required to
remove phosphorus in the near future (4). Currently, approximately 100
plants are already removing phosphorus in the CBDB (4).
-------
TABLE 1. MATRIX OF ADVANCED AND SUPPLEMENTARY MUNICIPAL
TREATMENT SYSTEMS IN UNITED STATES IN 1982 (6)
System Description
No. of
Operating
Systems
No. of
Systems in
Design or
Construction
Phases
Total No.
of
Systems
Percent
of
Total
Soluble Organic Carbon Removal
rg
ed
Activated carbon-granular
Activated carbon-powdered
Subtotal
Suspended Solids Removal
Microstrainers-primary
Microstrainers-secondary
Sand filters
Mixed media filters
Misc. filters
Subtotal
Phosphorus Removal
Aluminum addition-primary
Aluminum addition-secondary
Aluminum addition-tertiary
Iron addition-primary
Iron addition-secondary
Iron addition-tertiary
*Single-stage lime-raw
*Single-stage lime-tertiary
*Two-stage lime-raw
*Two-stage lime-tertiary
Misc. chemical addition
Subtotal
Nitrogen Control /Removal
Nitrification-separate
Nitrificaton-combined
Denitrification
Ammonia stripping
Subtotal
Disinfection
19
J5_
24
13
78
954
242
26
1313
45
310
69
30
98
24
16
55
9
19
58
733
247
559
51
8
6
13
283
73
6
38T
15
86
12
1
19
2
0
13
3
3
10
164
101
230
6
0
337
21
_5
26
19
91
1237
315
32
T694
60
396
81
31
117
26
16
68
12
22
68
897
348
789
57
8
1202
0.5
0.1
0.5
2.2
30.1
7.7
0.8
41.3
8.5
19.2
1.4
0.2
Breakpoint chlorination
Land Treatment
Primary
Secondary
Intermediate
Subtotal
Miscellaneous
Recarbonization
Recalci nation
Ion exchange
Neutralization
Others
Subtotal
Grand Total
11
1
84
5
90"
38
9
1
12
61
121
3157
2
2
13
2
IT
7
2
0
8
24
41
944
13
3
97
7
TbT
45
11
1
20
85
162
4101
0.3
<0.1
2.4
0.2
2.6
1.1
0.3
«0.1
0.5
2.1
4.0
100.0
*These systems may have been installed to achieve improved suspended solids
as well as phosphorus removal.
607
-------
CHEMICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL
Chemistry
Because of the large sludye quantities produced and the considerable
operation and maintenance (O&M) problems encountered in its handling, lime
addition is no longer recommended by North American engineers for mainstream
chemical phosphorus removal, except under special circumstances such as
exceedingly low effluent total phosphorus (TP) limitations (_<0.1 mg/L). The
addition of metallic salts of aluminum and iron has become the backbone of
North American phosphorus removal technology.
Insolubilization of phosphorus with metallic ions is most effectively
accomplished when phosphorus is in the orthophosphate form. A large fraction
of the phosphorus present in raw wastewater is in the form of polyphosphates.
Hydrolysis of polyphosphates to orthophosphates is efficiently accomplished
in wastewater treatment plants only after the flow reaches the biological
section of the treatment process train. Consequently, addition of metallic
salts before or during primary treatment is less efficient than if the salts
are added to the secondary process. Once conversion to orthophosphorus is
complete, insolubilization of phosphorus with metallic cations (M+3) can be
expressed as follows:
Retrofit Considerations
Injection sites for metallic salts in municipal treatment plants can
include raw wastewater, the primary clarifier, primary effluent, the biologi-
cal reactor, biological reactor effluent, the secondary clarifier, secondary
effluent, and a tertiary reactor, if provided. As discussed above, metal ion
addition to the primary clarifier is less efficient than addition to the
secondary system. However, if metals are to be added in the primary portion
of the plant, it is recommended that injection to the primary clarifier
influent be utilized rather than the primary clarifier itself. Prior addition
allows for better mixing before entering the clarifier. This will maximize
the capture of organics and suspended solids in the primary clarifier, thereby
increasing the quantity of primary sludge available for methane production if
anaerobic sludge digestion is practiced and reducing the organic load on the
secondary process to the maximum degree possible.
Because of the varying effluent TP limits imposed in some parts of North
America, generally ranging from a high of 2.0 mg/L to a low of 0.2 mg/L in
some watersheds, a consensus chemical dosing scheme has not emerged. Many
plants today are being provided with multiple injection point capability.
This flexibility becomes increasingly important the lower the effluent TP
limit. Some engineers are choosing to provide multiple dosing site capability
even where the current effluent TP limitation is 2.0 mg/L if they suspect
that lower limits may be imposed during the design life of the dosing equip-
ment .
608
-------
Many plants in North America have found that the addition of polymer in
conjunction with mineral salts improves overall suspended solids removals and
enhances the probability of meeting effluent TP requirements. Efficient sus-
pended solids control becomes more critical the lower the effluent TP limit.
For example, a typical suspended solids phosphorus content is 4.5 percent
where chemical phosphorus removal is employed. If the effluent soluble phos-
phorus (SP) concentration is 0.2 my/L, effluent total suspended solids (TSi>)
could not exceed 18 my/L to meet a l.U-my/L TP effluent limit. To meet a
0.5-mg/L TP effluent limit, effluent TSS could not exceed 7 rny/L under the
same circumstances.
Anionic polymers are generally more effective than cationic or nonionic
polymers in combination with metallic salts. Specific types and concentra-
tions of polymers for best results should be determined on site with the aid
of jar testing.
Polymers are normally added at each site where metal salts are injected.
For maximum effectiveness, the insolubilization reaction between metallic
salt and orthophosphate must be completed before polymer is added. A time
lag of 1 to 5 minutes is usually sufficient. Many plant operators find it
convenient to ensure the appropriate time lag by adding the mineral salt to
clarifier influent flows and the polymer to the center feed wells of circular
clarifiers.
Rapid mixing is necessary at both the mineral salt and polymer injec-
tion points to provide intimate contact between reacting molecules, prevent
shortcircuiting of unreacted chemical, and overcome the stratification ten-
dencies of the more dense and viscous chemical solutions. Supplemental in-
line mixers may have to be added if existing turbulence levels are not ade-
quate to ensure satisfactory rapid mix conditions. Following rapid mixing, a
period of gentle mixing is required to promote floe agglomeration and growth.
Clarifier center wells are often used for this purpose. Liquid/solids separa-
tion zones in clarifiers, of course, provide the quiescent conditions essen-
tial for floe settling and removal. An idealized sequence of the chemical
and physical steps involved in efficient chemical precipitation of phosphorus
is shown in Figure 1.
The quantity of additional sludge produced from chemical addition will
vary depending on the chemical additive employed, the amount of chemical
required to reach a desired effluent TP concentration, and the point or
points of chemical dosing. Reference 4 cites an Ontario, Canada survey of
185 plants that documented an average increase in sludge mass of 40 percent
to reach an effluent TP of 1.0 mg/L with metal salt addition at primary
treatment facilities and an increase of 26 percent to reach the same effluent
TP concentration with metal salt addition at activated sludge plants. These
data, summarized in Table 2, depict an increase in the quantity of dry
solids produced of 49 kg/ 1000 m3 (410 Ib/Mgal) for the primary plants vs. 44
kg/1000 m3 (367 Ib/Mgal) for the activated sludge plants. The percent in-
crease in the volume of sludge produced was approximately the same for both
types of plants, although mineral addition resulted in a more pronounced per-
centage reduction in dry solids content of the sludges produced at the primary
plants than at the activated sludge plants.
609
-------
Precipitant, M3 +
Wastewater, PO43-
Insolubil
m
o
zation
IX
m
Polymer
\
O
Rapid Mix
dispers on and
reaction
i
O
Flocculation
x m
0
Rapid Mix
dispersion and
reaction
c
X
Slow Mix
floe growth
Sedimentation
Quiescence
floe settling
Effluent
Sludge, MPO4
1 - 5
1 - 5
15 - 30
60 - 180
Time for each reaction, minutes
Figure 1. Idealized Sequence of Reactions Involved in Chemical
Phosphorus Removal (4).
TABLE 2. SLUDGE PRODUCTION WITH AND WITHOUT MINERAL ADDITION
AT TREATMENT PLANTS IN ONTARIO. CANADA (4)
Type of Treatment
Primary Activated
Conventional
Dry Solids Produced, 120
kg/1, 000 m3
Dry Solids Produced, 1000
Ib/Mgal
Dry Solids Content, 6.0
percent
Sludge Volume, percent 0.20
of influent flow
Metal Salt Conventional
Addition2
169 173
1410 1443
5.3 4.5
0.32 0.38
^,U>J3^
Metal Salt
Addition2*3
217
1810
4.2
0.51
Primary plus waste activated sludges.
2plant influent TP = 7 mg/L; final effluent TP = 1 mg/L.
3Metal salt added to aerator.
fiin
-------
A survey of 174 plants conducted by U.S. EPA (3) found similar increases
in sludge production resulting from mineral addition to those observed in the
Canadian survey. As shown in Figure 2, the increase in total plant sludge
mass at secondary plants where the mineral was added to the primary clarifier
was 100 kg/1000 m3 (834 Ib/Mgal) for iron salts and 50 kg/1000 m3 (417 lb/
Mgal) for aluminum salts. For secondary plants where the mineral was added
to the secondary system, the increase was 40 kg/1000 m3 (334 Ib/Mgal) for
both types of salts. A wide range of influent and effluent characteristics
and treatment plant process schemes are represented in these data.
Figure 2 also illustrates the substantially greater quantities of sludge
production that can be expected from lime addition contrasted to mineral salt
addition. The average increases in sludge volume before thickening resulting
from chemical addition for the plants in the above U.S. survey (3) averaged
25 percent for iron, 58 percent for aluminum, and several hundred percent for
lime.
The sludge production data presented above for both the Canadian and U.S.
surveys are average values for large numbers of plants. Contributing to those
average values were plants exhibiting wide ranges of sludge production. Per-
haps the single most significant factor impacting metal salt dose and the
resulting sludge generation rate is the required effluent TP limitation. As
illustrated in Figure 3, the sludge generation rate (mass total plant sludge
produced/unit mass of TSS in raw wastewater) to achieve an effluent TP concen-
tration of 0.2 mg/L is two to three times that required to reach a 0.7- to
1.0-mg/L effluent TP (4). The considerable effect of the metal ion dose-to-
influent TP (or TP removed) weight ratio, which is dictated primarily by the
effluent TP requirement, on the sludge generation rate is shown in Figure 4
(4). It should be noted, however, that the high sludge generation rates for
Little Hunting Creek, Piscataway, and Dale City were affected not only by the
low effluent TP limit of 0.2 mg/L for all three plants but also the addition
of lime for non-phosphorus removal purposes. At Little Hunting Creek and
Piscataway, lime was used for sludge stabilization, while lime was utilized
for alkalinity adjustment at Dale City.
Process Descriptions
A variety of municipal treatment systems have been retrofitted for chem-
ical phosphorus removal in North America, including plug flow, complete mix,
step aeration, and contact stabilization air activated sludge; extended
aeration and oxidation ditch air activated sludge; single-stage nitrification
air activated sludge; pure oxygen activated sludge; standard- and high-rate
trickling filters; rotating biological contactors (RBC's); lagoons; and
different types of two-stage alternatives. Recommended flow diagrams for
these process options, as tailored to existing plants in the CBDB, are repro-
duced directly from Reference 5 in Figures 5 through 12.
The above figures depict recommended dosing points for metal salt and
polymer. Suggested ranges of chemical doses as a function of final effluent
TP are also given. Four effluent TP limits (0.2, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mg/L) are
considered. Multiple chemical injection point capability is recommended for
all flow schemes except extended aeration plants and oxidation ditches. The
-------
Chemical Added
to Primary-
Primary
Sludge
Only
0.44
0.18
0.12
Chemical Added
to Secondary-
Secondary
Sludge
Only
0.10
009
Chemical Added to Primary -
Total Plant Sludge
Chemical Added to Secondary
Total Plant Sludge
I I Iron Salt Addition Plants
HHHi iron Salt Addition Plants Prior to P Removal
!%%>l Lime Addition Plants
Aluminum Salt Addition Plants
Aluminum Salt Addition Plants Prior to P Removal
Figure 2. Mass Sludge Production Resulting from Chemical Addition Based
on U.S.EPA Survey - [kg sludge produced/m3 plant influent] (3)
fil?
-------
Sludge Generation Rate -
Total Sludge Mass/Raw TSS, kg/kg
4 ,-
• Alum - CBDB
A Ferric - CBDB
A Ferric - Great Lakes
O No Chemicals Added
_L
4 6
Effluent TP, mg/L
10
Figure 3. Sludge Generation Rate for Chemical Phosphorus Removal as a Function
of Effluent TP (4).
need to utilize multiple chemical addition sites increases, as stated before,
the more stringent the effluent TP limit. Also shown on th^se figures are
suggested final clarifier surface overflow rates (SOR's) for the various
effluent TP limits as well as recommendations on whether final effluent
filtration would be required to reach the respective limits.
Well operated plug flow and complete mix activated sludge systems should
offer no problems in retrofitting to chemical phosphorus removal other than
locating the optimum injection points for metal salt and polymer addition.
The location of the primary effluent feed points in step aeration systems may
have to be adjusted to allow sufficient time for enzymatic conversion of poly-
phosphates to orthophosphates to occur prior to metal salt addition. The long
aeration detention times and sludge ages in extended aeration systems combined
with metal salt addition may result in a mixed liquor with undesirably low
volatile solids concentrations. If this occurs, sludge wasting rates must be
increased and/or part of the aeration volume must be taken out of service,
either one of which will decrease the sludge age and increase the mixed
liquor volatile fraction.
Similar strategies are recommended for retrofitting standard-rate trick-
ling filters and RBC's to chemical phosphorus removal since both of these
fixed film processes will produce efficient secondary treatment under proper
loading and operating conditions. High-rate trickling filters, however, which
typically were not designed to meet secondary treatment requirements in the
613
-------
Sludge Generation Rate -
Total Sludge Mass/Raw TSS, kg/kg
4 r—
en
Seneca. MET
Ext Aeration
Aerobic Dig
Filter Press
Elizabeth town, PA*
(1-7) A
• Aluminum Salt
A Ferric Chloride
(0.2) Effluent TP Cone.
• Dose Ratio Based on Metal Ion/Influent TP
- Dose Ratio Based on Metal lon/TP Removed
Little Hunting Creek. VA"
TF
Lime Stab
Filter Press
(0.2) A
Piscataway, MD*
2-Stage AS
(0.2)0
s
Contact Stab
Chem Reactor-Clarilier
Aerobic Digestion
Filter Press w/Polymer
(0.7) » Warren, Mr
AS
Lime/Ferric Cond
Belt Press
Lansing. Mr"
AS
Zimpro
Vac Filtration
(0.65)1
Elizabethtown, PA*
TF
Anaer Digestion
Land Application
(0.9) 1
Port Huron, Mr
AS
Lime Stab
Land Application
(2.0)9 Upper Allen. PA*
Ext. Aeration
Aerobic Dig
Aeri
LJn
L^nd Apphcaliqn
2 3
p * /TP or Fe3 + /TP (weight)
Figure 4. Sludge Generation Rate for Chemical Phosphorus Removal as a Function
of Metal lon-to-Influent TP Weight Dosage Ratio (4).
-------
Polymer Metering
Storage Pump
Degntted '
Wastewater ^
^j Primary
Clanfier
Activated Sludge
Aeration Tank
Return Sludge
Primary Sludge
Ol
" ' i i
i i---* 4
i i r~\
Metal Salt Metering
Storage Pump
Effluent
Waste Activated
Sludge
Final
Effluent
TP
mg/L
2
1
0.5
0.2
* at peak
Polymer
Dose
mg/L
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.5 - 1 .0
sustained flow
M3+/lnf. TP
Ratio
mole
1.0 - 1.2
1.2 - 1.5
1.5 - 2.0
3.5 - 6.0
Final
Clanfier
SOR*
m3/m2/d
33
24
20
20
Final Effluent
Filtration
Required
No
No
Maybe
Yes
Figure 5. Flow Diagram and Design Recommendations for Retrofitting Plug Flow, Step
Aeration, Complete Mix, Pure Oxygen, and Single-Stage Nitrification
Activated Sludge Systems to Chemical Phosphorus Removal in the CBDB (4).
-------
Metal Salt Metering
Storage Pump
Degntted
Wastewater
Activated Sludge
Aeration Tank
Return Sludge
Metering Polymer
Pump Storage
Effluent
Waste Activated
Sludge
Existing
Retrofit
Final
Effluent
TP
mg/L
2
1
0.5
0.2
*at peak sustained
Polymer
Oose
mg/L
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.5- 1.0
flow
M3 + /lnf TP
Ratio
mole
1.0 - 1.2
1.2 - 1.5
1.5 -2.0
3.5 - 6.0
Final
Clanfier
SOR*
m3/m2/d
33
24
20
20
Final Effluent
Filtration
Required
No
No
Maybe
Yes
Figure 6. Flow Diagram and Design Recommendations for Retrofitting Extended
Aeration and Oxidation Ditch Activated Sludge Systems for Chemical
Phosphorus Removal in the CBDB (4).
-------
Polymer Metering
Storage Pump
^" "" " ""* .-^
i i r- \ }
• 1 / — i J
i
i , —
Degntted ' /
Wastewater | / Pnn
4 "V Clai
^
Primary J
lary J
ifier / '
r
sludge
L
Contact
Tank
|
i
i s^\
T ^1 Final \ Effluent
Sludge Reaeration
Tank
"I Clar
Return Sludge
^
her J w
Waste Activated
Sludge
r
Metal Salt Metering
Storage Pump
Existing
Retrofit
Final
Effluent
TP
mg/L
2
1
0.5
0.2
*at peak
Polymer
Dose
mg/L
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.5 - 1.0
sustained flow
M3+/lnf. TP
Ratio
mole
1.0 - 1.2
1.2-1.5
1.5 - 2.0
3.5 - 6.0
Final
Clarifier
SOR *
m3/m2/d
33
24
20
20
Final Effluent
Filtration
Required
No
No
Maybe
Yes
Figure 7. Flow Diagram and Design Recommendations for Retrofitting Contact Stab-
ilization Activated Sludge Systems to Chemical Phosphorus Removal in
the CBDB (4).
-------
Polymer Metering
Storage Pump
Metal Salt
Storage
Metering
Pump
Existing
Retrofit
Final
Effluent
TP
mg/L
2
1
0.5
0.2
* at peak
Polymer
Dose
mg/L
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.5- 1.0
sustained flow
M3+/inf. TP
Ratio
mole
1.0- 1.2
1.2- 1.5
1.5 -2.0
3.5 - 6.0
Final
Clarifier
SOR*
m3/m2/d
33
24
20
20
Final Effluent
Filtration
Required
No
no
Maybe
Yes
Figure 8. Flow Diagram and Design Recommendations for Retrofitting Two-Stage
Biological Nitrification Systems to Chemical Phosphorus Removal in
the CBDB (4).
-------
Polymer Metering
Storage Pump
Metal Salt
Storage
Metering
Pump
Existing
Retrofit
Final
Effluent
TP
mg/L
2
1
0.5
0.2
*at peak
Polymer
Dose
mg/L
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.5 - 1.0
sustained flow
M3+/inf. TP
Ratio
mole
1.0 - 1.2
1.2 - 1.5
1.5-2.0
3.5 - 6.0
Final
Clanfier
SOR *
m3/m2/d
33
24
20
20
Final Effluent
Filtration
Required
No
No
Maybe
Yes
Figure 9. Flow Diagram and Design Recommendations for Retrofitting Standard-Rate
Trickling Filters to Chemical Phosphorus Removal in the CBDB (4).
-------
Polymer Metering
Storage Pump
Fmalt ,
\ Clarifier /
\ /
X /
~~~r*
i
Effluent
*
Waste Sludge
Metal Salt
Storage
Metering
Pump
Existing
Retrofit
Final
Effluent
TP
mg/L
2
1
0.5**
0.2**
* at peak
Polymer
Dose
mg/L
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 -0.2
0.5 - 1.0
sustained flow
M3 + /lnf. TP
Ratio
mole
1.0 - 1.2
1.2-1.5
1.5 - 2.0
3.5 - 6.0
Final
Clarifier
SOR*
m3/m2/d
33
24
20
20
Final Effluent
Filtration
Required
No
No
Maybe
Yes
** major expansion may be necessary
t may be
necessary for 0.5 and 0.2 mg/L
effluent TP
Figure 10. Flow Diagram and Design Recommendations for Retrofitting High-Rate
Trickling Filters to Chemical Phosphorus Removal in the CBDB (4).
-------
Polymer Metering
Storage Pump
i i r-\
i § i—\
Degntted '
Wastewater +
^JL Primary
Clanfier
Units
Primary Sludge
Humus Sludge
Metal Salt
Storage
Metering
Pump
Existing
Retrofit
Final
Effluent
TP
mg/L
2
1
0.5
0.2
* at peak sustained
Polymer
Dose
mg/L
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.1 - 0.2
0.5 - 1.0
flow
M3 + /lnf. TP
Ratio
mole
10-12
1.2 - 1.5
1 5 - 2.0
35-60
Final
Clanfier
SOR*
m3/m2/d
33
24
20
20
Final Effluent
Filtration
Required
No
No
Maybe
Yes
Figure 11. Flow Diagram and Design Recommendations for Retrofitting RBC's to
Chemical Phosphorus Removal in the CBDB (4).
-------
Cell 1
Cell 2
mix (Provide
mixing
chamber)
Degntted
Wastewater
en
Ni
Metal Salt
Storage
Metering
Pump
Final
Effluent
TP
mg/L
2
1
Floating
Aerator
Existing
Retrofit
. TP
Ratio
mole
1.2 -
1.5 -
1.5
2.0
Figure 12. Flow Diagram and Design Recommendations for Retrofitting Wastewater
Lagoons to Chemical Phosphorus Removal in the CBDB (4).
-------
CBDB, may require addition of a second-stage bioreactor and clarifier to
improve overall treatment levels before the desired level of phosphorus re-
moval can be achieved, particularly if effluent TP limits of less than 1.0
mg/L are imposed. The authors of the CBDB Handbook do not believe lagoon
wastewater treatment systems can be reliably retrofitted to achieve effluent
TP concentrations less than 1.0 mg/L without construction of a tertiary
chemical treatment system (4).
Many configuration options are possible for developing a multi-stage
system to remove both phosphorus and nitrogen. One such configuration, taken
from Reference 4, is presented in Figure 13. This system utilizes a first-
stage activated sludge system to remove the bulk of the carbonaceous matter
contained in the flow-equalized influent wastewater stream, a second-stage
RBC unit to oxidize ammonium nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen, and a third-stage
suspended growth denitrification system with methanol addition to remove
nitrogen. Separate clarification is not required after the second-stage RBC
unit. Metal salt is added to the first and third stages, and the final
effluent is subjected to dual media filtration. The plant was designed and
is operated to comply with final effluent limitations of 5 mg/L total BOD5
(TBOD), 5 mg/L TSS, 1 mg/L TP, and 3 mg/L total nitrogen.
Phosphorus Removal Performance
Performance data are given in Table 3 for 58 selected secondary treat-
ment plants in the United States and one in Canada that use mineral salt
addition for phosphorus removal (3). The list of plant types encompasses
all the secondary treatment plant flow schemes illustrated in Figures 5
through 12 except wastewater lagoons. All of the facilities except six are
attaining effluent TP concentrations of 1 mg/L or less. Polymer addition is
practiced at 30 of the 59 facilities. Polymer dosage ranged from 0.04 to 3.8
mg/L, although most plants required a dose of less than 1 mg/L. Metal ion-
to-influent TP weight dosages were-significantly higher, on the average, for
the plants with fixed film secondary treatment systems than for those with
suspended growth secondary systems. For most activated sludge plants, the
weight dosage ratio was between 0.5 and 3.5, while the corresponding ratio
for the fixed film plants generally varied between 1.2 and 4.0. The average
metal ion-to-influent TP dose ratio for the 41 activated sludge plants listed
was 1.90. If the Algoma, Wisconsin contact stabilization plant average dos-
age value (Fe3+/Inf. TP = 10.0) is excluded, the average weight dosage ratio
for the remaining 40 activated sludge plants drops to 1.70. In contrast,
the metal ion-to-influent TP weight dosage ratio for the 18 fixed film
plants listed averaged 2.58.
The potential improvement in phosphorus removal as well as TBOD and TSS
removals with mineral addition is summarized in Table 4 as predicted by Refer-
ence 3. Estimates of improvement are given for primary, activated sludge,
and trickling filter treatment.
The relationship of metal ion-to-influent TP weight dosage to effluent
TP concentration for selected municipal plants in the Chesapeake Bay and
Great Lakes Drainage Basins is shown in Figures 14 and 15 for alum and ferric
iron, respectively (4). The substantially higher metal salt dosage required
6?3
-------
Metal Salt
Storage
Metering
Methanol
Storage T
•—-i i—i
Polymer, , _
Storage ' i . ^ )..
i i i *
Degntted
Wastewater.
r~\ :
t 1 :
r, /S
Flow
Equalization
AS
t
I
I
^
w
2nd-
RBC
i
i
3rd-Stage
Suspended
Growth
Denitrification
Return Slu
Flash
Aeration
dge
/
* FT
"V Clar
/aste Sludge Streams
al )
tier I
To Head
Works "
Decant
Digested
Sludge
To Land
Wastewater
Sludge
Chemicals
Final
Effluent
Figure 13. Flow Diagram of Multi-Stage Biological-Chemical
Process for Removing Phosphorus and Nitrogen (4).
-------
TABLE 3. OPERATING AND PERFORMANCE DATA SUMMARY FOR SELECTED NORTH AMERICAN
PLANTS THAT UTILIZE CHEMICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL (3)
Plant Type
and Location
Plug Flow AS
Waupaca Wl
East Chicago, IN
Mason, Ml
Flushing. Ml
Appleton, Wl
Grand Ledge, Ml
Bowling Green, OH
Kenosha, Wl
Toledo, OH
CUmonviile, Wl
Complete Mix AS
Thiensvi«e, Wl
Two Harbors, MN
EscanaPa. Ml
Sheboygan. Wl
Lima. OH
Ndes.MI
Crown Pont, IN
Cedarburg, Wl
Con'^t Stabilization AS
Neenah, Wl
Neenah, Wl
Algoma, Wl
Gratton, Wl
Port Washington, Wl
Port Clinton, OH
Oberlin, OH
North Otmstead. OH
Pure Oxvoen AS
Fon du Lac, Wl
Extended Aeration AS
Aurora. MN
Upper Allen, PA
Corunna. Ontario
Saukville, Wl
Plymouth, Wl
Trenton, OH
Seneca, MO
Design
Flow
m3/d
4,760
75,700
5,700
4,400
62,500
5,700
30.300
106.000
386,100
3,800
900
4,500
8,300
69.600
70.000
22,000
13,600
11,400
5.700
14.800
2,800
8,100
4,700
5.700
5,700
34.000
41,600
1.900
1,800
3,800
7.600
6,200
13.200
18.900
Average
Flow
nP'd
2.200
59,800
5,000
6.000
52.200
3.000
20.100
90,500
310,400
2,700
3,300
3,400
7,600
46,600
15,100
12,100
8,700
7,600
4,000
16,700
3.000
3.600
5.800
6.400
3.700
21.200
26.900
1,700
1,200
2,000
2,400
5,800
9,600
15.100
Chemicals
Alum
Alum
Polymer
Ferric Chlonde
Polymer
Feme Chlonde
Polymer
Ferrous Chlonde
Ferrous Chloride
Ferrous Chlonde
Polymer
Ferrous Sullaie
Ferrous Sullaie
Polymer
Ferrous Sulfate
Alum
Polymer
Alum
Feme Chlonde
Polymer
Feme Chlonde
Ferrous Chlonde
Polymer
Ferrous Chlonde
Ferrous Chlonde
Polymer
Ferrous Suite*
Polymer
Alum
Alum
Feme Chlonde
Polymer
Ferrous Chlonde
Ferrous Chlonde
Ferrous Chlonde
Ferrous Chlonde
Sodium Ahjmmale
Alum
Polymer
Alum
Alum
Polymer
Alum
Ferrous Chlonde
Ferrous Chlonde
Ferrous Chlonde
Sodium Alummaie
Polymer
Chemical
Feed Point
Sec. Claniier
Sec. Clarifier
Sec. Cianlier
Pnm. Clarifier
Pnm. Clarifier
Sec. Bid. Process
Sec. Bat. Process
Plant Influent
Sec. BioL Process
Sec. Clanfier
Sea Clanfier
Phra Clanfier
Pnrn. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Bid. Process
Sec. Bid. Process
Sec. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Sea Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Sec. Bid. Process
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Sea Bid. Process
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Sea Bid. Process
Pnm. Clanfier
Sea Bid. Process
Sea Clanfier
Sea Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Sea Bid. Process
Sec. Bnl. Process
Sec. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Sec. Bid. Process
Sea Bid. Process
Plant Influent
Sea Clanfier
Chemical
Dosage*
246
7 7
1 0
9.1
0.05
5.3
0.15
16.8
5.6
5.2
5.35
3.6
5.3
9.3
0.82
9.6
4 7
0.35
10.2
13.2
0.07
10.9
11.0
0.94
9.9
7.7
4 1
33.0
0.07
16.2
8.5
10.2
6.4
8.3
8.5
0.75
16.9
3.2
0.37
5.0
10.3
7.7
2.56
4.3
2.4
Metal Ion:
Inf. TP
weight
3.25
399
1.4
1.56
1.6
1.24
0.62
1.43
1.3
1.47
2.46
1.6
1.04
1.6
3.38
2.66
2.0
2.99
2.2
1.0
10.0
2.31
1.44
1.96
1.08
2.86
1.18
5.83
0.92
0.65
1.61
1.15
0.42
0.61
Inf.
TP
mg/L
756
1 93
6.5
3.4
10.5
45
8.4
3.74
2.76
3.6
3.78
6.0
4.5
6.38
3.9
4.1
5.5
3.31
3.5
4.1
3.3
7.0
5.9
5.2
5.9
2.9
7.2
2.9
3.9
774
6.4
6.7
6.1
7.1
EH.
TP
mg/L
0.86
0.38
0.38
0.48
0.8
0.7
0.75
0.36
0.35
0.75
0.29
0.25
0.82
0.9
0.5
0.7
0.7
0.67
0.7
0.8
0.23
0.69
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.7
0.73
0.76
2.0
0.36
0.59
0.77
0.65
1.6
* Precipitant mg/L as metal on; polymer, mg/L of chemical.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 3 (CONTINUED).
OPERATING AND PERFORMANCE DATA SUMMARY FOR SELECTED NORTH
AMERICAN PLANTS THAT UTILIZE CHEMICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL (3)
Plant Type
and Location
Step Aeration AS
Fort Wayne, IN
East Lansing, Ml
Oak Creek, Wl
Elkhart, IN
2-Staoe Nitrification AS
Piscataway, MD
High Rate TF
Geneva, OH
Coldwater, Ml
Oconto Falls, Wl
Kendatville, IN
Standard Rate TF
Willard, OH
Elizabethtown, PA
Ourand, Ml
Saginaw, Ml
Little Hunting Creek, VA
Bay City ..Ml
Coloma, Ml
RBC
Romeo, Ml
Chesanmg, Ml
Negaunee, Ml
Dexter, Ml
Hartford, Ml
Si Johns, Ml
Charlotte, Ml
Oxidation Ditch
Lapeer, Ml
Portage, IN
Design
Flow
m3/d
227,100
71,200
454,200
75,700
113,600
7,600
8,700
1,900
10,100
5,100
1 1 ,400
3,000
16,700
17,000
75,700
8,300
6,100
2,200
6,100
2,200
1,300
7,200
4,500
7,000
13,200
Average
Flow
m^/d
170,100
42,800
340,650
60,200
54,900
3,900
7,400
1.400
7,600
4,800
6.500
2,700
6,400
14,400
33,300
5.300
3.300
2.000
3,300
800
800
6,300
2,700
7,200
8,400
Chemicals
Ferrous Chloride
Ferrous Chloride
Polymer
Ferrous Sullale
Ferrous Sulfate
Alum
Polymer
Alum
Feme Chloride
Polymer
Ferric Chloride
Feme Chloride
Polymer
Alum
Polymer
Alum
Polymer
Fernc Chloride
Ferric Chloride
Polymer
Fernc Chloride
Polymer
Fernc Chloride
Polymer
Ferrous Chloride
Alum
Polymer
Ferric Chloride
Polymer
Feme Chloride
Polymer
Feme Chloride
Polymer
Ferrous Chloride
Polymer
Ferrous Chloride
Polymer
Ferrous Chloride
Polymer
Ferric Chloride
Ferrous Chloride
Chemical
Feed Point
Sec. Biol. Process
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Biol. Process
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Bid. Process
Sec. Biol. Process
Sec. Biol. Process
Pnm. Clanfier
Prim. Clariter
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Pnm. Clarilier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfer
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clanfier
Pnm. Clarilier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Sec. Clanfier
Chemical
Dosage*
4.3
5.9
005
44
1 6
8.8
3.8
12.1
8.3
0.1
8.81
14.7
0.25
6.3
0.14
12.8
0.4
11.2
9.6
0.1
42.5
2.8
9.3
0.29
4.1
7 1
0.77
9.0
0.4
7.5
1.0
10.2
0.5
13.0
0.6
5.01
0.04
13.7
0.18
465
9.9
Metal Ion.
Inf TP
weight
0.54
1 11
0.96
0.63
1.44
4.03
2.02
2.4
4.06
1.21
251
2.2
0.99
4.57
2.07
1 71
2.4
3.46
3.75
2.0
3.25
1.33
2.45
0.88
1.65
Inf.
TP
mg/L
79
53
4.6
2.56
6 13
3.Q
4.1
3.67
3.63
5.2
5 1
5.1
9.7
9.3
4.6
2.4
2.S8
2.6
2.0
5.11
4.0
3.7
5.6
5.3
6.0
Ell
TP
mgjL
0.67
09
0.54
0.83
0.2
0.4
0.88
0.48
0.3S
082
1 7
0.83
s.:.:
f'.li
0.5
085
0.46
0.6
O.SJ
0.46
0.76
0.5
0.68
1.2
1.5
* Precipitant, mg/L as metal ion; polymer, mg/L of chemical.
-------
TABLE 4. POTENTIAL EFFECTIVENESS OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TREATMENT WITH
AND WITHOUT MINERAL ADDITION FOR PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL (3)
Primary Treatment
TP Removal (%) TSS Removal (%) TBOD Removal (%)
Hhout With Without With Without With
5-10 70-90 40-70 60-75 25-40 40-65
Secondary Treatment
Trickl ing
Activated
Filter
Sludge
10-20
10-20
80-95
80-95
80-90
80-95
85-95
85-95
75-90
85-95
80-95
85-95
to achieve effluent TP concentrations of less than 0.5 mg/L are evident.
BIOLOGICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL
Chemistry and Biology
The ability of some activated sludge organisms such as Acinetobacter and
Pseudomonas to first release stored phosphorus under anaerobic conditions and
then remove phosphorus from solution in enhanced quantities under subsequent
aerobic conditions forms the basis for biological phosphorus removal technol-
ogy. During the anaerobic first step, return sludge and influent wastewater
are mixed in the absence of both dissolved oxygen (DO) and nitrate nitrogen.
The above organisms, among others, apparently gain a competitive advantage by
taking up soluble substrate, such as acetate, under anaerobic conditions.
This uptake results in the accumulation of carbonaceous storage products
called polyhydroxybutyrates (PHB's) that are metabolized during follow-on
aerobic treatment.
Soluble substrate removal in the anaerobic step is accompanied by a
release of orthophosphorus into solution by the above organisms. During
subsequent aerobic treatment, these same organisms restore their intra-
cellular polyphosphate supply by taking up the orthophosphorus released
in the anaerobic zone plus additional orthophosphorus contained in the influ-
ent wastewater. During this latter period, a portion of the carbonaceous
substrate removed and synthesized into carbonaceous storage products (PHB's)
in the anaerobic phase is oxidized to provide energy for phosphorus uptake.
A simplified schematic of the phosphorus release/uptake cycle is presented in
Figure 16.
If either DO or nitrate nitrogen (NOs-N) is present at the point where
return sludge and influent wastewater are mixed, the polyphosphate-storing
organisms do not compete successfully with organisms that use either NOo
or DO as terminal electron acceptors. Under these conditions, the biological
phosphorus removal mechanism is interrupted and can be significantly dimin-
ished or even curtailed altogether if DO persists and/or NO^ remains present
in moderate to high concentrations throughout the entire anaerobic zone.
627
-------
A|3 */Influent TP (weight)
6 r
A Secondary Treatment
• Tertiary Treatment
• * •
A •
_L
_L
_L
.6 .8 1 12
Effluent TP, mg/L
1.4
1.6
1.8
Figure 14. Relationship of Aluminum lon-to-Influent TP Weight Dosage Ratio
to Effluent TP for Chemical Phosphorus Removal in the Chesapeake
Bay and Great Lakes Drainage Basins (4).
Fe3 +/Influent TP (weight)
10 r *•
A Secondary Treatment
• Tertiary Treatment
I
J_
-2
.6 .8 1 1.2
Effluent TP, mg/L
1.4
1.6
1.8
Figure 15. Relationship of Ferric lon-to-Influent TP Weight Dosage Ratio
to Effluent TP for Chemical Phosphorus Removal in the Chesapeake
Bay and Great Lakes Drainage Basins (4).
628
-------
Substrate
Facultative
Bacteria
Acetate plus
Fermentation
Products
Anaerobic
Phosphorus-
Removing
Bacteria
Figure 16.
C02 + H20
Schematic Representation of Biological Phos-
phorus Release/Uptake Cycle (3).
Zones where nitrate nitrogen but not DO is present are referred to as
anoxic zones. First-step anaerobic (unaerated) zones may become anoxic zones
when the subsequent second-step aerobic zone is operated to nitrify. Nitrate
nitrogen produced in the nitrification reaction is introduced to the lead
zone in the return sludge. Many investigators (3,4) believe that significant
phosphorus release will not occur in an anoxic zone until the nitrate nitrogen
present therein is reduced to near zero concentration via denitrification.
Not only will this necessitate longer first-zone residence times for phosphor-
us release to occur, but the chemical oxygen released by the denitrification
reaction will be used by obligate aerobes to oxidize readily biodegradable
soluble substrate, making it unavailable to the phosphorus-leaching/storing
organisms.
The impact of nitrate nitrogen in the return sludge on phosphorus re-
lease in the lead anaerobic zone can be minimized by intentionally denitri-
699
-------
fying in other segments of the treatment train. This practice will reduce
the concentration of nitrate nitrogen in the return sludge and decrease the
detention time required in the lead zone to trigger the phosphorus release
mechanism. Some proprietary dual nutrient control processes provide separate
anoxic zones to accomplish nitrogen removal and help protect the lead anaero-
bic zone from unwanted nitrate.
Acinetobacter and other phosphorus-removing bacteria are slow growing
organisms.Phosphorus release from these organisms in the anaerobic zone of
a biological phosphorus removal system is dependent on the availability and
concentration of volatile fatty acids (VFA's) in this zone. These substances
are produced from fermentation of soluble substrate in the influent waste-
water. VFA's are readily assimilated by the microorganisms capable of excess
phosphorus uptake and converted to PHB for carbonaceous storage within the
cell. Under subsequent aerobic conditions, PHB is oxidized to acetyl-COA,
but only after the exogenous carbon supply is nearly exhausted.
The VFA produced in greatest abundance during anaerobic fermentation is
acetic acid or acetate. Propionic acid and bytyric acid, and under the
right environmental conditions several other fatty acids, are also products
of fermentation but in much lesser quantities. Acetate entering bacterial
cells under anaerobic conditions is converted in sequence into acetyl-COA,
then acetoacetate, and finally PHB, provided energy is available. Release of
stored polyphosphates provides the necessary energy for this series of reac-
tions. The relationship of acetate assimilation vs. the increase in ortho-
phosphorus concentration resulting from polyphosphate release in the anaero-
bic zone is shown in Figure 17 as a function of time. For the experiment
depicted in this figure, the molar ratio of acetate assilimilation to phos-
Conc
100
80
60
40
20
, mg/L
— \ Acetate
Orthophosphorus
I
I
20 40
Anaerobic Time, minutes
60
Figure 17. Typical Curve of Acetate Assimilation and
Phosphorus Release as a Function of Anaerobic
Zone Detention Time (3).
630
-------
phorus release was 1.3 (3). Other reported ratios range from O.b to 1.0 (3).
Retrofit Considerations
The VFA's assimilated by phosphorus-removing bacteria in the anaerobic
zone are derived from fermentation of soluble organics in the influent waste-
water. It is generally considered to be uneconomical to provide sufficient
time in the anaerobic zone for participate organics to be hydrolyzed and
converted to fermentation products (3). The exception to this is the Pho-
Strip process (to be described later) where the phosphorus release and VFA
uptake reactions take place in a sidestream reactor (stripper) that receives
and processes a portion of the return sludge flow. Unless supplemented by
raw wastewater or primary effluent bypass, the only mechanisms by which VFA's
are formed in the stripper are hydrolysis of particulate matter and bacterial
cell lysis. The required stripper hydraulic detention time (HOT) for phos-
phorus release to occur is consequently several times that needed in an
upfront mainstream anaerobic zone, but because only 15 to 30 percent of the
influent flow (4) is being processed through the stripper, the economics of
this unit do not become prohibitive. Accumulation of SP in the stripper
supernatant occurs not only from phosphorus released by the phosphorus-
removing organisms but also from the lysed bacteria.
The ratio of SBOD to SP in the secondary system influent of mainstream
biological phosphorus removal processes directly affects attainable phos-
phorus removal efficiency. A SBOD-to-SP ratio of 10 to lb is generally con-
sidered to be necessary to achieve an effluent TP limit of 1.0 mg/L in these
processes (4). To achieve an effluent TP concentration of 0.5 mg/L, the
required ratio increases to 20 to 25 (4). The influent SBOD-to-SP ratio is
not nearly so critical to phosphorus removal efficiency in the PhoStrip pro-
cess since the soluble organics for assimilation by the phosphorus-removing
bacteria are provided riot by fermentation of incoming organics but by solids
hydrolysis and cell lysis in the return sludge stripper.
As discussed in the section on chemical phosphorus removal, effluent
TSS levels determine the degree of phosphorus removal that is possible.
The higher the phosphorus content of the effluent solids, the more the
effluent solids will contribute to the effluent TP residual. The phosphorus
content of mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) in biological phosphorus
removal systems has been reported to vary from 2.3 to 5.8 percent. Because
of the nature of their phosphorus-removal mechanisms, the mainstream pro-
cesses tend to operate in the upper portion of this range and the PhoStrip
process in the lower portion (3). Consequently, lower effluent TSS concen-
trations would generally be required with mainstream processes than with the
PhoStrip process to achieve the same level of effluent TP. Fortunately,
biological phosphorus removal systems generally produce improved sludge
settling rates and liquid/solids separation performance.
The PhoStrip process is considered capable of meeting effluent TP limits
down to 1 mg/L, and in some instances 0.5 mg/L if effluent TSS concentrations
are low, without resorting to effluent polishing techniques. Mainstream
processes may require occasional chemical polishing to meet 1 mg/L TP and
almost certainly a continuous polishing dose of metal salt to meet a 0.5-mg/L
631
-------
effluent TP residual (4). Similarly, effluent filtration should be seriously
considered for mainstream processes wherever effluent TP limits of less than
1 mg/L are required, while the PhoStrip process would probably necessitate
such a step only where TP residuals of less than 0.5 mg/L are specified.
With the PhoStrip process, two routes are possible for removal of phos-
phorus from the system, the waste sludge, which does not pass through the
stripper, and the stripper overflow supernatant. The phosphorus-rich stripper
supernatant is chemically treated with lime to precipitate soluble phosphorus.
Approximately two-thirds of the phosphorus removed in the PhoStrip process is
accomplished via the stripper route, one-third via the waste sludge route
(4). Only that fraction of the removed phosphorus contained in the waste
sludge is subject to resolubilization if anaerobic sludge digestion is prac-
ticed. The lime precipitated sludge will not resolublize during anaerobic
digestion.
In contrast, all phosphorus removed from mainstream biological phos-
phorus removal processes ends up in the waste sludge. Resol ubilization of
a fraction of this removed phosphorus is likely if the waste sludge is
digested either anaerobically or aerobically. The presence of naturally-
occurring metal cations in some digesters may partially offset phosphorus
released therein by precipitating it to insoluble forms. To avoid recycling
a potentially large load of solubilized phosphorus back to the biological
reactor, provision of dosing facilities to chemically treat anaerobic or
aerobic digester supernatant return should be considered in any retrofit
using a mainstream biological phosphorus removal process.
Biological phosphorus removal efficiency is directly related to the
amount of phosphorus-removing organisms that can be grown. Fundamental
studies (3) with pure cultures of Acinetobacter have indicated a maximum
synthesis yield of 0.42 g solids/g acetate removed. The maximum growth rate
of Acinetobacter will be approached only at low sludge retention times (SRT's),
The longer the SRT or the lower the food-to-microorganism (F/M) loading, the
lower the net yield of Acinetobacter and other phosphorus-removing bacteria.
One pilot study noted that phosphorus uptake by the mixed liquor solids
decreased by a factor of 2.6 as the F/M loading decreased from 0.2 to 0.1 kg
TBOD/kg MLVSS/d (3). To maximize phosphorus removal efficiency, therefore,
biological phosphorus removal systems should not be operated at SRT's in
excess of overall treatment needs. Systems that are required to nitrify, and
possibly also denitrify, will by definition operate at higher SRT's than
carbonaceous removal systems. These systems cannot be expected to reduce SP
to effluent concentrations of less than 1.0 mg/L unless the influent SBOD-to-
SP ratio is very high, i.e., 25 or higher depending on the actual SRT.
Although no significant differences in secondary system sludge produc-
tion are reported in the literature for biological phosphorus removal systems
compared to typical sludge yields, some increase should be expected from
associated chemical constituents that are co-transported into and stored in
the sludge mass along with the phosphorus itself for the purpose of balancing
the ionic charges of the polyphosphate compounds. An approximation of the
mass of associated storage products is given in Table 5 (3).
63?
-------
TABLE 5. APPROXIMATE MASS OF PHOSPHORUS-ASSOCIATED STORAGE CONSTITUENTS
IN THE MIXED LIQUOR SOLIDS OF BIOLOGICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL SYSTEMS (3)
Constituent
Mg
K
Ca
0
P
Total
Molecular
Weight
24.3
39.1
40
16
31
Mole per
Mole of P
0.28
0.20
0.09
4
1
g/g P
0.22
0.25
0.12
2.06
1.0
3.65
As indicated in Table 5, the total expected additional stored mass per
unit of phosphorus stored in the mixed liquor solids (or waste solids) is
3.65 units. At a typical net solids yield of 0.70 g TSS/g TBOD removed and
a two-fold increase in the dry solids phosphorus content from 2 percent to 4
percent as a result of biological phosphorus removal, the increase in sludye
production for a mainstream biological phosphorus removal process can be
calculated to be 8.5 percent (3).
The same associated constituent storage mechanism will be operative in
the PhoStrip process. Additional excess sludge will also be produced in
significant amounts from the use of lime addition to precipitate soluble
phosphorus in the stripper supernatant. The amount of excess lime sludge
produced will depend on the percent of plant influent flow passing through
the sidestream chemical reactor and the wastewater bicarbonate alkalinity.
For example, if 20 percent of the influent flow receives chemical treatment
and the bicarbonate alkalinity is 150 mg/L, the additional sludge produced
from lime addition will approximate 70 mg/L, based on plant influent flow.
Total excess sludge produced with the PhoStrip process can be expected to be
equal to or greater than that resulting from conventional mineral addition.
The amount of volatile fatty acids (fermentation products) available in
the anaerobic zone relative to the amount of phosphorus that must be removed
can limit biological phosphorus removal rates, particularly in mainstream
systems. Where influent BOD-to-phosphorus ratios are low, volatile fatty
acid (VFA) production will also be low and the phosphorus release mechanism
will be inhibited. In cases where VFA production from low influent BOD
concentrations is limiting process efficiency, it may be cost effective to
consider increasing the VFA concentration in the anaerobic zone. This can be
accomplished by instituting one of several possible primary sludge fermenta-
tion schemes. These schemes depend on transferring VFA's released from
primary sludge during extended fermentation periods to the primary effluent
for transport into the lead anaerobic zone of the biological reactor. Two
design schemes for achieving primary sludge fermentation, if needed, are
presented in Figure 18 (3).
633
-------
Influent
Primary
Settling
Supernatant
Primary
Effluent
Thickener/
Fermenter
^_ _ Fermented Sludge Recy_cle y (to dige:
Waste Sludge
(to digester)
Activated Primary Sedimentation Scheme
Influent
f
1
T
Primary
Settling
(deep
tank)
k Primary
^ Effluent
Fermented Sludge Recycle
Waste Sludge
(to digester)
Settler/Thickener Scheme
Figure 18. Primary Sludge Fermentation Design Schemes
for Biological Phosphorus Removal (3).
As a general rule, hiyh influent BOD-to-phosphorus ratios favor selec-
tion of a mainstream biological phosphorus removal process. Low influent
BOD-to-phosphorus ratios normally favor the PhoStrip process, conventional
mineral addition, or a mainstream process coupled with primary sludge fer-
mentation (3).
Biological phosphorus removal is most applicable to wastewaters with
relatively low influent TP concentrations in the range of 3 to 6 my/L (4).
Higher influent TP levels increase the probability that effluent chemical
polishing and/or filtration will be required to meet effluent TP limits.
Only activated sludge plants are amenable to biological phosphorus re-
moval retrofitting. The sidestream features of the PhoStrip process make it
634
-------
suitable for retrofitting with almost any type of existing aeration tankage.
Most activated sludge configurations are acceptable for the PhoStrip aerobic
process segment with the possible exception of contact stabilization and
extended aeration. If the HOT of the contact zone of a contact stabilization
flow regime is too short to promote satisfactory phosphorus uptake, some or
all of the stabilization (sludge reaeration) tankage may have to be appro-
priated for additional aerobic contact time. Conversely, if the HOT of an
extended aeration reactor is so long that it is adversely affecting cell
yield and phosphorus uptake, some of the tankage may have to be taken out of
service to decrease the system SRT and increase biological growth rates.
Mainstream biological phosphorus removal retrofits are most easily
accomplished in plug flow reactors. This preference arises from the need
to delineate and provide separate anaerobic and aerobic (and anoxic if
denitrification is desired) zones in a staged sequence within the existing
tankage. If necessary, most other activated sludge flow configurations can
be successfully adapted to mainstream biological phosphorus removal by crea-
tive engineering. Additional space is generally not needed for a mainstream
process retrofit, while space for the new sidestream unit processes must be
provided with PhoStrip. For this reason, a mainstream process retrofit is
typically more easily and cheaply accomplished than a PhoStrip process
retrofit.
Process Descriptions
General--
Simplified flow schematics for achieving biological phosphorus removal,
reproduced directly from Reference 5, are presented in Figure 19 for main-
stream process options and in Figure 20 for PhoStrip process options. Some
of the process options shown are also designed to achieve nitrogen control,
either nitrification or nitrification plus denitrification. The term EBPR
used on some of the schematics refers to "enhanced biological phosphorus
removal".
The original Bardenpho process was designed to remove nitrogen, but not
phosphorus. The absence of an initial anaerobic zone dictated that any phos-
phorus removal achieved would be to satisfy incidental metabolic needs only.
The recycle of mixed liquor from the first aerobic zone to the first anoxic
zone, where soluble substrate is normally available from the secondary system
influent in substantial quantities, is responsible for the majority of the
denitrification obtained with this flow scheme. The second anoxic and aerobic
zones are provided to ensure more complete denitrification and nitrification,
respectively. Denitrification in the second anoxic zone will occur at reduced
rates due to the relative lack of readily degradable soluble substrate. Ni-
trate nitrogen entering the lead anoxic zone in the return sludge will also be
reduced rapidly in the presence of high soluble substrate and concentrations.
The modified Bardenpho process adds a fifth zone or stage to the origi-
nal configuration to achieve dual biological phosphorus and nitrogen removal.
An anaerobic zone is placed ahead of the first anoxic zone to promote phos-
phorus release therein. Although the major denitrification reaction is
635
-------
A
•^
0
K
RAS
WAS
A. ORIGINAL BARDENPHO
• For denltrlflcatlon
only. EBPR Incidental.
AN
A
n
A
0
RAS
HAS
B. MODIFIED BARDENPHO
« For EBPR. also
termed Phoredox.
AN
fe-
A
n
RAS
WAS
C. 3 STAGE PHOREDOX
• Modified for partial
denitrification.
AN
.. . te
o
k
^
RAS
WAS
D. 2 STAGE PHOREDOX
• No nitrification.
AN
A
o
kj
*1
I
RAS
H!
t-ira.«,..-;
RAS
R
AN
te.
A
_te.
RAS - Return Activated Sludge
WAS = Waste Activated Sludge
AN = Anaerobic Basin
A = Anoxic Basin
MAS
E. UCT
• RAS passes through A
basin prior to entering AN
basin for removal of
residual N03~.
F. A/0
• No nitrification,
tightly compartmentalized
AN and 0 basins.
G. A^/O
• Nitrification & denitri-
fication, tightly compart-
mentalized AN, A A 0
basins.
R = Recycle Flow
0 = Aerobic Basin
I = Influent
E = Effluent
C = Secondary Clarifier
Figure 19. Basic Flow Diagrams for Mainstream Biological
Nutrient Control Processes (5).
636
-------
WAS
A.
B.
C.
WAS
PHOSTRIP WITH RECYCLE
STRIPPER (non-nitrifying
system).
• Stripper (AN) overflow
precipitated with lime &
returned to PC for settling
& removal with PC.
PHOSTRIP WITH ELUTRIATION
STRIPPER (non-nitrifying
system).
• Stripper (AN) "elutriated"
with PE. Stripper overflow
precipitated with lime (P)
and settled. Chemical sludge
disposed of separately.
Overflow returned to PC.
PHOSTRIP FOR NITRIFYING
ACTIVATED SLUDGE.
• Stripper (AN) is "pro-
tected" from N03- in RAS by
an anoxic denitrification
basin (A).
RAS = Return Activated Sludge
WAS = Waste Activated Sludge
AN = Anaerobic Basin
A = Anoxic Basin
P = Reactor for Line Addition
S = Lime Sludge Settler
R = Recycle Flow
I = Influent
E = Effluent
PC = Primary Clarifier
PS = Primary Sludge
PE = Primary Effluent
0 = Aerobic Basin
C = Secondary Clarifier
Figure 20. Basic Flow Diagrams for Sidestream Biological
Nutrient Control Processes (5).
fi37
-------
takiny place downstream of this added zone, any nitrate nitroyen contained
in the return sludge will have a neyative impact on phosphorus release in
this zone. Some investigators believe that any nitrate nitroyen present in
the anaerobic zone must first be reduced before fermentation of soluble sub-
strate into the VFA's used by phosphorus-removing bacteria can begin. Others
theorize that fermentation reactions can occur simultaneously with denitri-
fication at some unspecified moderate level of nitrate nitroyen. It is
universally acknowledged though that whichever of the above scenarios is
correct, denitrification in the anaerobic zone does partially deplete the
supply of soluble substrate that could otherwise be utilized in the fermenta-
tion products uptake/phosphorus release segment of the phosphorus removal
cycle.
A three-zone or three-stage Bardenpho configuration, also known as the
three-stage Phoredox process, is recommended by its proprietors where less
stringent nitrogen removal is satisfactory. Whereas the five-stage Barden-
pho process with effluent filtration has been designed to meet an effluent
total nitrogen concentration of 3.0 mg/L (3), the three-stage alternative
should not be expected to produce an effluent with less than 5 to 6 mg/L
total nitrogen under the same conditions. Phosphorus removal efficiency with
either alternative will depend, in large measure, on the SBOD-to-SP ratio in
the influent wastewater.
A two-stage Phoredox process option is shown for situations where nitri-
fication/denitrification is not desired. In this option, the second-stage
aerobic zone is preceded only by a first-stage anaerobic zone with no inter-
vening anoxic zone. The Anaerobic/Oxic (A/0) process is similar to the
two-zone Phoredox concept except that the anaerobic and aerobic zones are
divided into a number of equally-sized compartments (usually three in the
anaerobic zone, four in the aerobic zone) to promote plug flow operation.
A modification of the basic A/0 concept called the Anaerobic/Anoxic/
Oxic (A^/0) process is similar to the three-stage Phoredox process. The
A^/0 process was conceived to provide dual phosphorus/nitrogen control.
Like the A/0 reactor, the several zones in the A2/0 reactor are tightly
compartmentalized to create plug flow conditions.
The University of Capetown (UCT) process employs a three-stage reactor
configuration with an added feature designed to protect the lead anaerobic
zone from nitrate nitrogen intrusion. The return sludge is directed to the
intermediate anoxic zone instead of the first-stage anaerobic zone. Nitrates
contained in the return sludge are thereby reduced downstream of the anaerobic
zone along with the mixed liquor recycled nitrates. Denitrified mixed liquor
is then recycled from the anoxic zone to the anaerobic zone.
The above configurations are all considered mainstream biological phos-
phorus removal process options because the entire forward flow of a treat-
ment plant must pass through both the phosphorus leaching and phosphorus
uptake steps. In contrast, the PhoStrip process uses a sidestream flow
regime for the phosphorus leaching (stripping) operation, with the forward
flow passing only through the phosphorus uptake step.
-------
The first two PhoStrip schematics in Figure 20 are designed for phos-
phorus removal only. The third schematic shows an anoxic basin incorporated
in the return sludge feed line ahead of the sidestream stripper. The
functions of the anoxic basin are to achieve partial denitrification in
PhoStrip systems designed to nitrify and to protect the stripper from the
introduction of nitrates via the return sludge.
The stripper supernatant is subjected to lime addition to precipitate
the leached SP contained therein. The lime-phosphorus sludge can either
be returned to the primary clarifier (Figure 20A) for co-settling and removal
with the raw sludge or directed to a sidestream settler (Figures 2UB and C) 1
for subsequent separate disposal. In lieu of either a primary clarifier or a
separate sidestream settler, a combination reactor-clarifier can be used to
accomplish both lime coagulation and settling of the lime-phosphorus sludge
in a single tank. Because the precipitated phosphorus is chemically rather
than biologically insolubilized, it will not resolubilize during co-settling
with raw sludge in the primary clarifier or during subsequent anaerobic or
aerobic digester operations.
The return sludge solids in the stripper underflow, having been partly
stripped of their intercellular-stored polyphosphates, are returned to the
mainstream aeration tank along with that portion of the return sludge that
was not processed through the stripper. This phosphorus-poor segment of the
return sludge is now conditioned to biologically insolubilize enhanced quan-
tities of SP from the mainstream flow.
Phosphorus release efficiency in the stripper can be increased by utili-
zing an elutriation stream. Possible elutriant sources include stripper
tank underflow recycle (Figure 20A), primary effluent (Figures 208 and 20C),
lime precipitation clarifier overflow, secondary effluent, and digester
supernatant. The type and magnitude of elutriation flow selected is a site-
specific decision based on wastewater characteristics and operational con-
siderations. The decision sometimes is between a stream high in soluble
organics and SP, such as or digester supernatant, and a stream low in both
constituents, such as lime clarifier overflow or secondary effluent. In the
first case, the presence of the soluble organics can expedite the release of
phosphorus in the stripper through the production and assimilation of VFA's
but at the risk of contaminating the return sludge with elutriant phosphorus.
In the second case, the contamination risk is avoided, but the substrate-
enhanced phosphorus release rate is forfeited.
North American Process Options--
In North America, the three process configurations from the above list
employed to date are the PhoStrip process (without nitrificaiton/denitrifi-
cation), the five-stage modified Bardenpho process, and the A/U process.
More detailed flow diagrams of these three processes are given in Figure 21
as modified from Reference 3. Typical operating conditions, also modified
from Reference 3, are summarized in Table 6 for all three processes plus the
A/0 process combined with nitrification/denitrification (A^/O).
PhoStrip process—Key sidestream flow rates and other information are
-------
Influent (Q) ^
Aeration
Basin
Direct Return Sludge (0.2-0 5 Q)
Phpsphprus-Stripped_ReU.irn SludgeJOVO 2
(Stripper Underflow)
Phosphorus-Rich Supernatant
(0.1-0 2 Q)
Reactor-Clanfier Supernatant
Anaerobic
Phosphorus
Stripper
Effluent (Q)
Waste AS
Sidesiream Feed Sludge
(0.15-0.3 Q)
Elulriation from any of:
Stripper Underflow Recycle
Primary Effluent
Secondary Effluent
Reactor-Clanfier Supernatant
Digester Supernatant
Reaclor-Clarifier for
Chemical Precipitation (pH = 9-9 5)
Waste Chemical Sludge
PhoSlrip Process
^ Angornhir AriOXIC A
Influent (Q) ^ Stage SlaQe !
t
i
i.
erobic Anoxic Aero
Stage Stage Stag
i Internal Recycle (4 Q ± )
i
Return Sludge (Q ± )
Modified Bardenpho Process
i i
i i
^ Anaerobic
Influent (Q) + *~ Stages
i i
i
Oxic Stages
(Aerobic)
i
Return Sludge (0 25-0 4 Q)
3ic ^[ Final \ ^
e "\ Clanfier / Effluent (Q) "
i
' k Waste AS
^1 Final J ^
"V Clanfier / Effluent (Q) "
-__ _ _ Tl _ _ -k. Waste AS
A/0 Process
Wastewater or Supernatant
Sludge
Chemical
Figure 21. Flow Diagrams of Commercial Biological Phosphorus Removal Processes
Marketed in North America (adapted from Reference 3).
-------
TABLE 6. TYPICAL OPERATING CONDITIONS FOR COMMERCIAL BIOLOGICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL
PROCESSES MARKETED IN NORTH AMERICA (MODIFIED FROM REFERENCE 3)
CTl
PhoStrip
Parameter Value
AS System
F/M, kg TBOD/ -1
kg MLVSS/d
SRT, days2 --<
MLSS, mg/L 600-5,000
HOT, hr3 4-10
Stripper
Feed, 15-30
% of inf. flow
SRT, hr 5-20
Sidewater 6.1
Depth, m
Elutnation Flow, 50-100
% of stripper
feed flow
Underflow, 10-20
% of inf. flow
P Release, 0.005-0.02
g P/g VSS
Reactor-Clanfier
Overflow Rate, 48
m3/m2/d
pH 9-9.5
Lime Dosage, 100-300
mg/L
Modified Bardenpho
Parameter Value
F/M, kg TBOD/ 0.1-02
kg MLVSS/d
SRT, days2 10-30
MLSS, mg/L 2,000-4,000
HOT, hr3
Anaerobic 1 -2
Anoxic 1 2-4
Nitrification 4-12
(Aerobic 1)
Anoxic 2 2-4
Aerobic 2 0.5-1.0
Return Sludge, 100
% of inf. flow
Int. Recycle, 400
% of inf. flow
A/O A2/O
Parameter Value Parameter
F/M, kg TBOD/ 0.2-07 F/M, kg TBOD/
kg MLVSS/d kg MLVSS/d
SRT, days2 2-6 SRT, days2
MLSS, mg/L 2,000-4,000 MLSS, mg/L
HDT, hr3 HOT, hr3
Anaerobic 05-1.5 Anaerobic
Aerobic 1.5-3 Anoxic
Nitrification
Return Sludge, 25-40 Return Sludge,
% of ml flow % of inf. flow
Int Recycle,
% of inf. flow
Value
0.15-0.25
4-8
3,000-5,000
0.5-1.5
05-1.0
3.5-60
20-50
100 300
1 Based on activated sludge system design.
2 Average mass of solids in the system divided by average mass of solids wasted daily
3 Nominal hydraulic detention time, volume divided by influent flow rate
-------
superimposed on the PhoStrip process schematic (Figure 21). A key design
feature is the SRT selected for the anaerobic stripper. The SRT, defined as
the mass of solids in the stripper blanket divided by the mass of solids
removed per day in the stripper underflow, can vary from 5 to 20 hr (3,4),
with 8 to 12 hr being more typical (3). The sidestream feed sludye rate
to the stripper controls the distribution of phosphorus that is removed
chemically vs. that which is removed in the waste activated sludye. As
previously mentioned, this distribution ratio typically approximates two-
thirds via the chemical sludye route and one-third in the waste activated
sludge.
Stripper supernatant is rich in SP with concentrations ranging from 15
to 10U mg/L (4). Lime dosages necessary to maintain reactor-cl arifier pH
values of 9.0 to 9.5 to effect precipitation of this SP load vary from 100
to 300 mg/L (3), depending on wastewater akalinity. From a chemical usage
standpoint, lime is more economical than metal salts for phosphorus preci-
pitation when the phosphorus stream is concentrated as it is in the stripper
supernatant. In general, lime dosage is independent of phosphorus concentra-
tion, whereas iron or aluminum salts must be added on a metal ion-to-phos-
phorus molar basis. Consequently, lime consumption per unit of phosphorus
removed decreases with increasing influent phosphorus concentration while
metal salt consumption remains roughly the same (at least down to an effluent
TP concentration of 1 mg/L) regardless of the influent phosphorus concentra-
tion. Metal salts, however, can be used in lieu of lime in the PhoStrip
sidestream chemical reactor, if desired. Considering the extensive O&M
problems often encountered with lime handling and feeding, metal salts may
represent a more cost-effective choice in some cases despite their higher
dose requirements.
Stripper surface area is sized to provide an SOR in the range of 16 to
24 rn-Vm^/d (400 to 600 gpd/sq ft), a range representative of typical gravity
thickener designs (4). In contrast, a much larger SOR can be used for the
reactor-cl arif ier or separate chemical clarifier, normally about 48 m-Vm^/d
(1200 gpd/sq ft). The stripper SOR must take into account the elutriation
stream flow rate, which typically ranges from 50 to 100 percent of the
stripper sludye feed rate.
This process should be able to reliably produce a 1-my/L effluent TP
without any type of effluent polishing (4). Attainment of an effluent TP
concentration of 0.5 mg/L may require supplemental solids removal, such as
effluent filtration (4). Meeting anything less than 0.5 mg/L effluent TP
will probably involve some form of chemical polishing plus effluent filtra-
tion.
PhoStrip plants have been installed in activated sludge plants to date
where the existing wastewater characteristics and operating conditions have
fallen in the ranges listed below (4). Until additional information is
developed to indicate otherwise, these characteristics and conditions should
be considered prerequisites for retrofitting to the PhoStrip process.
642
-------
Influent TBOD = 70 to 300 mg/L
Influent TP = 3 to 10 mg/L
Secondary clarifier oxidized nitrogen = 3 to 30 mg/L
Wastewater temperature = 10 to 30°C
Aeration tank HOT = 4 to 10 hr
HLSS = 600 to 5000 mg/L
F/M loading = 0.1 to 0.5 kg TBOD/kg MLVSS/d
The PhoStrip process is under license in North America to Biospherics,
Inc., 4928 Wyaconda Road, Rockville, Maryland, 20852. A total of 13 PhoStrip
systems have been constructed in North America to date, although five of
them are no longer in operation. A fourteenth system is currently under
construction. A list of these 14 PhoStrip systems along with their design
capacities and current status is presented in Table 7.
Modified Bardenpho process — Because it is designed for highly efficient
nitrogen removal as well as phosphorus removal, the range of total reactor
HDT's shown in Table 6 for the modified Bardenpho process is much higher than
for any of the other processes shown. The range of 9.5 to 23 hr is recommend-
ed by the vendor to cover the range of design wastewater temperatures encoun-
tered from the northern U.S. states and Canada to the southern U.S. states.
TABLE 7. PHOSTRIP SYSTEMS IN NORTH AMERICA AS OF SEPTEMBER 1987 (7)
Plant Site
Design Flow
m^/day (mgd)
Operating Systems
Lansdale, Pennyslvania
Adrian, Michigan
Tahoe-Truckee, California
Savage, Maryland
Southtowns, New York
Brockton, Massachusetts
Rochester, Minnesota
Reno-Sparks, Nevada
Systems No Longer in Operation
Seneca Falls, New~York
Lititz, Pennsylvania
Carpentersville, Illinois
Texas City, Texas
Amherst, New York
9,500
26,500
28,000
56,800
60,600
68,100
72,300
113,600
3,400
13,200
18,900
28,400
90,800
(2.5)
(7.0)
(7.4)
(15.0)
(16.0)
(18.0)
(19.1)
(30.0)
(0.9)
(3.5)
(5.0)
(7.5)
(24.0)
System Under Construction
Ithaca, New York
37,900 (10.0)
643
-------
The five-stage modified Bardenpho process is designed to achieve >9U
percent nitrogen removal. Approximately 70 percent of the nitrate nitrogen
produced in the system is removed in the first anoxic zone by instituting a
400-percent internal recycle of mixed liquor from the first aerobic zone to
this zone. Any influent soluble substrate left over from the anaerobic zone
aids the denitrification reaction (3). The remaining 20+ percent is removed
in the second anoxic zone using endogenous destruction of mixed liquor solids
to provide the necessary organic carbon to trigger denitrification (3,4).
The design SRT of the modified Bardenpho reactor (based only on the
solids inventory in the aerobic and anoxic stages) is typically 10 to 20
days. Tank volumes in some designs have been increased to produce design
SRT's of 20 to 30 days. The increased SRT results in increased in-process
sludge stabilization, which may obviate the need for separate sludge diges-
tion in the sludge handling cycle and avoid the possibility of phosphorus
being recycled back to the reactor in digester supernatant (3).
Attainment of a 1-mg/L effluent TP with this process may require an
occasional supplemental dose of metallic salt, particularly if the influent
SBOD-to-SP ratio is low (4). Reliable production of an effluent with 0.5
mg/L TP or less will most likely necessitate a continuous polishing dose of
metal salt combined in some instances with effluent filtration.
The license for marketing the modified Bardenpho process in North
America is held by Eimco Process Equipment Co., 669 Uest Second South, Salt
Lake City, Utah 84110. Nine modified Bardenpho systems are currently in
operation in North America with six more under construction. These Ib systems
are identified in Table 8 along with individual design capacities.
A/0 and A?/0 processes—The key features of the A/0 process are its
short HOT and SRT and its relative high F/M loading rate compared to the
other processes listed in Table 6. The A/0 process produces more excess
sludge than the modified Bardenpho process and higher phosphorus removal
rates per unit of BOD removed. Unlike the 20- to 30day SRT modified Barden-
pho process alternative, however, A/0 systems must contend with the possi-
bility of biologically-removed phosphorus reentering the reactor in digester
supernatant recycle (3). A backup chemical feed system for adding polishing
doses of metal salt to the aerobic zone, if needed, is recommended to meet
effluent TP limits of 1 mg/L or less. Some locations may be able to attain a
1-mg/L effluent TP concentration most or all of the time without chemical
polishing (4), but the element of risk will probably justify the backup feed
system in most designs, particularly considering the relatively low capital
cost of such a system.
The sequence of reactions that occur in the anaerobic and aerobic (oxic)
stages of the A/0 process is illustrated conceptually in Figure 22 (4). This
conceptual schematic applies to any mainstream biological phosphorus removal
approach provided nitrate nitrogen is not entering the anaerobic zone in the
return sludge and/or via mixed liquor recycle. Figure 22 depicts concurrent
SBOD uptake and SP release in the anaerobic zone followed by continued SBOD
removal and cellular synthesis combined with "luxury" SP uptake in the aero-
bic zone.
644
-------
TABLE 8. MODIFIED BARDENPHO SYSTEMS IN NORTH AMERICA AS OF SEPTEMBER 1987 (8)
^Design Flow
Plant Site mj/d (mgd)
Operating Systems
Orchard Development, Pennsylvania 800 (0.2)
Pluckemin, New Jersey 3,200 (0.85)
Palmetto, Florida 5,300 (1.4)
Payson, Arizona 6,400 (1.7)
Tarpon Springs, Florida 15,100 (4.0)
Easterly Orange County Sub-Regional, Florida 22,700 (6.0
Kelowna, British Columbia 22,700 (6.0)
Fort Meyers (South Sub-Regional), Florida 45,400 (12.0)
Fort Meyers (Central Sub-Regional), Florida 46,400 (12.0)
Systems Under Construction
Oldsmar, Florida
Cocoa, Florida
Easterly Orange County Sub-Regional
(expansion) , Florida
Rogers, Arkansas
Orlando, Florida
Springdale, Arkansas
8,500
17,000
22,700
25,400
45,400
59,000
(2.25)
(4.5)
(6.0)
(6.7)
(12.0)
(15.6)
When nitrogen removal is required, the A^/O modification of the basic
process is utilized. An anoxic zone, consisting of two or more baffled
stages, is interposed between the anaerobic and aerobic z,nes. Nitrified
mixed liquor is recycled from the last stage or compartment of the aerobic
zone to the first stage of the anoxic zone. Nitrogen removal will not be
as complete in this process as in the modified Bardenpho process due to the
lack of second anoxic and aerobic zones. Using internal recycle rates of
100 to 300 percent of the influent flow, overall nitrogen removals of 40 to
70 percent can be expected (3).
The North American license holder of the A/0 and A^/0 processes is Air
Products & Chemicals, Inc., P.O. Box 538, Allentown, Pennsylvania 18105. Of
the 15 full-scale A/0 systems sold in North America to date, two are in
operation and 13 are under construction. The list of North American A/0
systems is summarized in Table 9 along with their design capacities.
Phosphorus Removal Performance
PhoStrip Process--
Basic design information and documented past phosphorus removal perform-
ance data for seven full-scale PhoStrip systems are summarized in Tables 10
and 11, respectively (3). Two of the systems, Seneca Falls, New York, and
Amherst, New York, are among those PhoStrip units that are no longer in oper-
ation (see Table 7). The Seneca Falls project was a full-scale demonstration
645
-------
SLOTS FOR SCUM TRANSPORT BETWEEN STAGES
WASTEWATER FEED
. « *•* »*
»*.*"*'»* *
•***••*.*L».-»
Figure 22. Conceptual Sequence of Anaerobic and Aerobic Reactions in the A/0 Process (4)
-------
TABLE 9. A/0 SYSTEMS IN NORTH AMERICA AS OF SEPTEMBER 1987 (7)
Design Flow
Plant Site m3/d (myd)
Operating Systems
Pontiac, Michigan 13,200 (3.b)
Largo, Florida 56,800 (15.0)
Systems Under Construction
Titusvi lie, Florida
Montgomery, Pennsylvania
Warminster, Pennsylvania
Newark, Ohio
Fayettevil le, Arkansas
Huron River Valley, Michigan
Rochester, New York
Springettsbury, Pennsylvania
York, Pennsylvania
Genesee County, Michigan
Lancaster, Pennsylvania
West Palm Beach, Florida
Baltimore, Maryland
11,400
18,200
30,300
37,900
41,600
45,400
56,800
56,800
98,400
113,600
113,600
208,200
265,000
(3.0)
(4.8)
(8.0)
(10.0)
(11.0)
(12.0)
(15.0)
(15.0)
(26.0)
(30.0)
(30.0)
(55.0)
(70.0)
that was scheduled to be terminated after completion of planned evaluation
studies. At Amherst, where the influent TP concentration has dropped to
lower-than-anticipated levels of 3 to 4 my/L, two-point addition of ferric
chloride has been found to be more effective than PhoStrip in removing phos-
phorus. Amherst also experienced mechanical problems with the PhoStrip lime
feed system, which may have contributed ta the City's decision to discontinue
use of the process.
Four of the seven plants listed employ second-stage nitrification sys-
tems. Partial nitrification also occurs in the first-stage of the two-stage
Savage, Maryland plant. With the exception of Savaye, the nitrifying con-
ditions did not impose nitrate nitrogen loads on the PhoStrip strippers
during the data collection periods indicated in Table 11 because nitrifica-
tion was taking place downstream of the stripper feed sludge takeoff point.
Primary clarification is provided at all of the plants shown except the
Lansdale, Pennsylvania facility. Here, a 24-hr in-line flow equalization
tank is used instead. Flow equalization is also provided at three other
plants where primary clarification is practiced.
Four of the treatment plants were utilizing effluent filtration during
their data collection periods. The effluent phosphorus data given in Table
11 for these four plants represent filtered effluent except for Savage. The
effluent phosphorus data for Savage are for samples taken after the first-
stage activated sludge system (3). The improvement noted in phosphorus
647
-------
TABLE 10. BASIC DESIGN INFORMATION FOR FULL-SCALE PHOSTRIP SYSTEMS (3)
Parameter
Design flow, m3/d
Final eff. TP sld , mg/L
Aeration by Oxygen or Air
Aeration mode
1 - or 2-stago sec.
treatment
Equalization
Final filtration
Sludge handling
Strippers, no
Reactor-Glanders or
Mixer/Flocculators, no.
Elutnation source2
Seneca Falls,
N.Y.
3,400
1.0
A
Complete Mix
1
No
No
Thickening,
Anaer. Dig.
1
MF 1
SR
Landsdale,
Penn.
9,500
20
A
Plug Flow
2
Yes
No
Thickening,
Vac Fill
1
RC 1
RC/SEC
Adrian, Mich
26,500
1.0
A
Conv.
2
Yes
Yes
Thickening,
Anaer. Dig
1
MF 1
PRI
Savage,
Maryland
56,800
0.3'
A
Plug Flow or
Step Feed
2
Yes
Yes
Thickening,
Anaer Dig
2
RC 2
RC
Southtowns,
N.Y.
60,600
1.0
O
Plug Flow
1
No
Yes
Filler Press,
incineration
4
RC4
RC
Amherst,
N.Y
90,900
1.0
O
High Rate
2
Yes
Yes
DAF
Thickening
2
RC 1
RC
Reno-
Sparks,
Nevada
113,700
0.51
A
Plug Flow
1
No
Planned
Anaer. Dig.
5
MF 2
SR
1 With final final filtration; chemical polishing available but not utilized
2 Sludge Recycle elutnation; Reactor-Clanfier overflow elulnation; PRhmary effluent supplement; SECondary effluent.
TABLE 11. PERFORMANCE DATA SUMMARY FOR FULL-SCALE PHOSTRIP SYSTEMS (3)
Total Phosphorus, mg/L
Plant
Design Startup Data
Flow Date Period
Influent Averages
Effluent Averages
Notes
Seneca Falls,
N.Y.
Landsdale, Penn
Adrian, Michigan
Savage,
Maryland
Southtowns, N Y.
Amherst, N.Y.
Reno-Sparks,
Nevada
m3/d
3,400
9,500
26,500
56,800
60,600
90,900
113,700
1973
1982
1981
1982
1982
1982
1981
mo.
1
12
11
6
1
1
4
12
4
mm. mo. ave. mo. max. mo.
63
4.0 52 64
3.4 4.4 5.3
57 81 9.3
66
7.0
2.3 32 4.1
2.9 5.2 14 3
7.0-7.3
mm. mo.
0.6
<0 1
0.5
0.3
04
ave mo.
0.6
1 2
04
1 2
1.7
05
05
1.3
0.8-1.1
max. mo
2.0
0.6
1 7
0.9
2.5
Full-scale
demonstration
Excludes periods
of upset due to
other plant
problems
July 1984
April 1985
9/82-12/82
648
-------
removal performance for Savage in April 1985 resulted from changing the
aeration tank operating mode from step feed to plug flow and replacing part
of the reactor-clarifier overflow elutriation stream with stripper underflow
recycle. The modified elutriation scheme was credited with increasing
stripper overflow orthophosphorus concentration from 7.2 my/L in July 1984 to
17.6 mg/L in April 1985.
As indicated in Table 11, effluent TP for all seven PhoStrip systems
for the data periods considered ranged from 0.4 to 1.7 rng/L. The average
effluent TP concentration for the seven plants was U.9 my/L. It should be
remembered, though, that performance data for three of the plants were based
on filtered effluents.
Modified Bardenpho Process--
Basic design parameters for the first two full-scale modified Bardenpho
systems in North America, Palmetto, Florida (United States), and Kelowna,
British Columbia (Canada), are given in Table 12 (3). A 1-year performance
summary (April 1981 through March 1982) for Palmetto is presented in Table 13
(3). Two years of available performance data (January 1983 through December
1984) are summarized in Table 14 for Kelowna (3).
The total reactor design HOT for Kelowna is approximately twice as long
as for Palmetto and the design SRT 1.5 to 2.0 times that of Palmetto because
of the substantially colder wastewater temperatures experienced at Kelowna
(3). The secondary clarifier design SOR and the polishing filter design
application rate are also much more conservative for Kelowna.
Required effluent (filtered) limits for Palmetto are 5 mg/L for TBOD,
5 mg/L for TSS, 3 mg/L for total nitrogen, and 1 mg/L for TP (3). The
corresponding filtered effluent limitations for Kelowna are 8, 7, 6, and 2
mg/L, respectively (3).
Palmetto more than met its required effluent limits for TBOD, TSS, and
total nitrogen for the year of data shown in Table 13. For effluent TP,
however, the 1-mg/L limit was met only during 4 of the 5 months when a small
polishiny dose of alum was added prior to secondary clarification. The some-
what limited phosphorus removal capacity exhibited was attributed to a rela-
tively weak influent wastewater. The influent TBOD-to-TP ratio, which aver-
aged 18.8 for the year, was not especially low. It is not known, however,
what the primary effluent SBOD-to-SP ratio was during th-is period. This
soluble ratio would be the more critical factor in determining the phosphorus
release rate in the first-stage anaerobic zone.
The less strinyent effluent limitations at Kelowna were reportedly met
throughout the 2-year data period described in Table 14. This period
included operation in a two-train mode, a single-train mode, with thickener
supernatant feeding, and with the return sludge being split between the
anaerobic zone and the first anoxic zone (3). With the influent load only at
about 54 percent of the total plant design level during this period, the
single-train operation resulted in a load equal to approximately 110 percent
of design. Effluent requirements were also reportedly met during the 5-1/2
649
-------
TABLE 12. BASIC DESIGN INFORMATION FOR FULL-SCALE
MODIFIED BARDENPHO SYSTEMS (3)
Parameter
Startup date
Flow, m-Vd
Palmetto,
Florida
10/79
5,300
Kelowna,
British Columbia
5/82
22,700
Detention time, hr (no. cells)
Anaerobic zone 1.0 (1)
Anoxic 1 zone 2.7 (1)
Nitrification zone 4.7 (1)
Anoxic 2 zone 2.2 (1)
Reaeration zone 1.1 (lj
Total 11.6 (5)
SRT, days 20
MLSS, my/L 3,500
Temperature, °C 18-25
Sec. clarifier application rate,
m3/m2/d 22.3
Polishing filter application rate,
2.0 (1)
4.0 (4)
9.0 (9)
4.0 (4)
2.0 (2)
21.0 (207
30-40
3,000
9-20
14.0
m-3 /rn^
Primary
Biologi
/d
treatment
cal sludge handling
93.7
No
Drying Beds
23.4
Yes
DAF Thickening,
Composting
month single-train period of operation (3).
Both plants utilize supplementary fermentation schemes to increase the
concentration of fermentation products (VFA's) in the anaerobic zone (3).
At Palmetto, return sludge is directed to the primary clarifier rather than
the anaerobic zone to provide additional fermentation time. At Kelowna, this
objective is accomplished by holding raw solids in the primary sludge gravity
thickener for an extended period and recycling the thickener supernatant to
the anaerobic and/or first anoxic zones.
Neither plant employs anaerobic or aerobic sludge digestion because of
potential recycling of resolubilized phosphorus in the supernatant of either
unit process back to the main plant flow (3). Sludge handling and disposal
techniques are used that do not result in recycle sidestreams high in SP.
650
-------
TABLE 13. PERFORMANCE DATA SUMMARY (1981-82) FOR PALMETTO,
FLORIDA MODIFIED BARDENPHO SYSTEM (3)
Parameter
Influent
Flow, m3/d
TBOD, mg/L
TSS, mg/L
Temperature, °C
TKN, mg/L
NH4-N, mg/L
Total P, mg/L
Ortho P, mg/L
Alkalinity, mg/L
Filtered effluent
TBOD
TSS, mg/L
Total N, mg/L
NO3-N, mg/L
NH4-N, mg/L
Total P, mg/L
Ortho P, mg/L
April
3,200
164
155
25
31.8
25.0
9.2
65
174
2
3
2.1
1.0
04
2.5
2.2
May
3,000
159
157
27
40.8
25.2
6.4
6.1
169
1
2
2.1
1.3
0.3
3.4
1.4
June
3,500
124
144
29.5
30.1
20.4
7.0
5.3
156
1
2
1.9
1.0
0.3
2.6
2.5
July
3,600
104
112
30.5
25.0
18.7
5.6
4.5
154
1
2
2.8
1.9
0.2
1.8
1.7
Aug.
5,500
74
76
295
19.7
12.7
4.1
2.8
143
1
2
2.0
1.2
0.2
1.5
1.1
Sept.
5,900
67
76
29
21 9
12.7
4.9
35
140
1
1
1.7
1.1
0.2
1.2
1.3
Oct.
3,700
113
116
28
28.1
17.8
6.3
47
144
1
2
1.9
1.1
0.2
1.1
0.9
*
Nov.
3,300
157
160
27
40.0
22.6
8.5
59
171
1
2
2.1
1.3
0.2
0.7
0.7
*
Dec.
3,200
182
182
24
38.2
27.2
8.8
5.9
198
1
2
2.5
1.5
04
1.6
1.0
Jan.
3,600
160
141
23
37.7
28.0
8.7
5.4
191
1
1
2.7
1.9
0.3
0.6
0.5
*
Feb.
3,700
163
167
23
42.4
25.8
8.0
5.2
201
1
2
2.6
1.8
0.1
0.8
0.7
*
March
4,500
150
128
23
32.4
23.7
6.6
4.4
187
1
3
28
2.1
0.2
0.9
0.8
*
Minimal alum dose applied prior to secondary clarification.
Both systems use submerged turbines for aeration. Kelowna also uses
them for mixing without air supply in the anaerobic and anoxic zones (3).
Fine bubble diffusers have been employed for aeration at Payson, Arizona, and
the Carrousel oxidation ditch process has been used in modified Bardenpho
designs at Fort Meyers and Orange County, Florida.
A/0 Process--
The only two full-scale A/0 systems in operation to date are located at
Largo, Florida, and Pontiac, Michigan (see Table 9). Both of these A/0 sys-
tems are preceded by primary clarification. Neither is followed by effluent
filtration. An existing contact stabilization system was retrofitted to an
A/0 system at the Largo facility (3). At Pontiac, two of four existing plug
flow activated sludge trains were converted to A/0 trains to afford a side-
by-side comparison of biological phosphorus removal with conventional acti-
vated sludge treatment (3).
The Largo reactor was subdivided into 10 stages with a total design HOT
of 4.1 hr (3). When operated to remove phosphorus, nitrify, and partially
denitrify, the reactor sequence consists of three anaerobic stages, two
anoxic stages, and five aerobic stages with mixed liquor recycled from the
fifth aerobic stage to the first anoxic stage. When the City's objective is
to remove phosphorus only, the SRT is lowered by increasing the activated
651
-------
TABLE 14. PERFORMANCE DATA SUMMARY FOR KELOWNA, BRITISH COLUMBIA MODIFIED
BARDENPHO SYSTEM BASED ON CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY PLOTS (3)
Parameter
Median
Lower 5% Upper 5%
Influent
(1/83-12/84)
Flow,
COD, rng/L
TKN, mg/L
NH4-N, mg/L
Total P, mg/L
Ortho P, mg/L
Final Effluent (Filtered)
(1/83-12/84)
TKN, mg/L
N03-N, mg/L
NH4-N, mg/L
Total P, mg/L
Ortho P, mg/L
Final Effluent - 1 Train
(5/22/84-11/9/84)
Flow, m^/d
NOs-N, mg/L
NH4-N, mg/L
Ortho P, mg/L
12,400
195
24.5
17.b
4.5
3.8
1.5
1.8
0.1
0.8
0.77
14,000
2.0
l.'l
10,400
150
19.0
15.0
3.3
3.0
0.2
0.8
C0.1
0.2
0.15
12,000
1.2
o!o8
10,000
275
33.5
21.1
5.8
4.3
1.8
4.2
6.0
1.8
2.25
17,000
3.4
0.75
1.75
sludge wasting rate and the two anoxic stages are operated as additional
anaerobic stages.
Table 15 summarizes 5 months of Largo A/0 performance data for the non-
nitrifying mode and 6 months when the system was nitrifying (3). As would
be expected, effluent TP and orthophosphorus were higher for the nitrifying
operational mode.
Average operating conditions for an 8-1/2 month period spanning parts
of 1984 and 1985 are presented for the Pontiac A/0 system in Table 16 (3).
The system was operated at various times to fully nitrify and at other times
to partially nitrify. Anoxic cells for denitrification were not utilized so
the full impact of nitrate nitrogen in the return sludge was imposed on the
anaerobic zone. Performance for four operating phases during the above 8-1/2
month period are summarized in Table 17 (3).
Anaerobic digester supernatant was returned to the A/0 system during
-------
TABLE Ib. PERFORMANCE DATA SUMMARY FUR LARGU, FLORIDA A/0 SYSTEM (3)
Parameter Non-Nitrification* Nitrification*
Data period
TBOD, mg/L
TSS, mg/L
Total P, mg/L
Ortho P, mg/L
2/81 - 6/81
7 (6-8)
10 (8-13)
1.4 (1.2-1.5)
0.6 (0.5-0.8)
9/81 - 2/82
5 (4-7)
18 (10-22)
1.7 (1.3-2.2)
1.0 (0.5-2.0)
''Data ranges are shown in (
Phases II and IV. Minimal SP concentrations were measured in the digester
supernatant; consequently, no adverse impact of the supernatant recycle
on A/0 system performance could be detected. The exact reason why more
phosphorus was not solubilized during anaerobic digestion is not clear. One
explanation offered by the investigators is the formation of a magnesium
ammonium phosphate precipitate in the digesters, but more research is needed
to verify this hypothesis (3,4).
Effluent TP at Largo was greater than 1.0 mg/L for both modes of opera-
tion, while at Pontiac, effluent TP was well below 1.0 mg/L for all four
phases documented. Probable reasons for this difference were the lower
influent TP levels at Pontiac [3.0 to 4.1 my/L vs. 7.0 to 9.4 mg/L (3)] and
Pontiac's higher influent TBOD-to-TP ratios [33 to 39 vs. approximately 12
(3)]. The high influent organics-to-phosphorus ratios at Pontiac were
apparently sufficient to compensate for the soluble substrate depleted in
the anaerobic zone by the return sludge nitrate nitrogen.
The Pontiac 13,200-m3/day (3.b-mgd) A/0 retrofit was accomplished at a
capital expenditure of $b7,000 in 1984 dollars (4). Wooden baffles were
utilized to divide the aeration tanks into the desired stages. Mixing in
the anaerobic stages was achieved with side-mounted submersible mixers after
first plugging the existing diffuser lines in those stages (3). The normal
license fee was waived for Pontiac beacause the project was a O.S. EPA-
sponsored demonstration (4).
Operationally Modified Activated Sludge Plants--
Existing activated sludge plant operating patterns can be modified to
simulate biological phosphorus removal performance achieved by proprietary
mainstream processes. This modification is effected by turning off the
aeration devices in the front segment of the aeration tank to create the
anaerobic fermentation conditions essential to initial soluble organics
uptake and SP release.
Modifications as described above were implemented at the Reedy Creek,
Florida, and DePere, Wisconsin plants (3). At the Reedy Creek plant, which
serves the Walt Disney World resort complex at Lake Buena Vista, the air
supply to the first third of each of four plug flow aeration basins was
653
-------
TABLE 16. OPERATING DATA SUMMARY FOR PONTIAC A/0 SYSTEM (3)
Parameter
Operating dates
Average flow,
Average HOT, hr (no. cells)
Anaerobic zone
Aerobic zone
SRT, days
Temperature, °C
Primary treatment
Biological sludge handling
Value
7/13/84 - 3/31/8b
12,200
1.8 (3)
6.7 (4)
16-24
10-17
Yes
Anaerobic Digestion
TABLE 17. PERFORMANCE DATA SUMMARY FOR PONTIAC A/0 SYSTEM (3)
Parameter
Phase I
Phase II*
Phase III
Phase IV*
Influent
Flow,
TBOD, mg/L
SBOD, mg/L
NH4-N, mg/L
Total P, mg/L
Soluble P, mg/L
Temperature, °C
Reactor
MLSS, mg/L
MLVSS, mg/L
SRT, days
Effluent
11,300
110
65
15
2
3.2
1.9
17
2,820
1,800
24
10,800
137
65
17.8
4.1
2.2
16
2,410
1,670
21
12,070
143
87
16.1
3.7
2.2
11
2,340
1,640
19
TBOD, mg/L
SBOD, mg/L
NH4-N, mg/L
N03-N, mg/L
Total P, mg/L
Soluble P, mg/L
TSS, mg/L
VSS, mg/L
6.2
1.8
0.9
10.4
0.8
0.7
6
4
9.4
3.0
2.8
11.6
0.7
0.6
7
4
12.9
2.6
5.9
6.7
0.4
0.3
8
5
14,680
112
65
18.5
3.0
1.6
10
2,360
1,590
16
12.7
2.0
4.5
8.8
0.7
0.5
10
6
*Anaerobic digester supernatant returned during these phases.
654
-------
turned off. No interstaye baffles were installed, and backmixing from the
aerated section was adequate to keep solids in suspension in the anaerobic
zone. The stabilization basin of a contact stabilization system was con-
verted to an anaerobic zone at DePere. Existing submerged turbine aerators
without air supply were utilized for mixing. The complete mix contact tank
was used for the second-stage aerobic zone.
Both plants were completely nitrifying during a 3-month test period from
June through August 1984. Denitrification of return sludge nitrates was also
occurring in both plant's anaerobic zones. Mixed liquor recycle from the
aerobic zone to the anaerobic zone to increase nitrogen removal was not
practiced at either plant. Operating and performance data for the above 3-
month test period are summarized in Table 18. Excellent phosphorus removal
was obtained in both plants.
COMPARISON OF CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL
Economics Stan d point
Cost estimates for retrofitting existing wastewater treatment plants
vary widely depending on the assumptions made in developing the estimates.
For chemical phosphorus removal, the handling and disposing of the addition-
al sludge generated by mineral addition is potentially the most significant
cost in the entire estimate and, at the same time, the most difficult to
generalize. If an existing plant is operating below design load and the
sludge processing facilities have excess capacity available, only minor
increases in retrofit capital and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs may
be involved. Conversely, if the existing plant is fully loaded or overloaded,
considerable increases in capital and O&M costs may result from retrofitting
to chemical phosphorus removal.
For biological phosphorus removal, the degree to which existing plant
treatment facilities can be incorporated in a retrofit design can signifi-
cantly affect the costs of conversion. This factor is usually of more
importance in retrofitting to mainstream biological phosphorus removal
schemes than to the PhoStrip process. On the other hand, the PhoStrip pro-
cess will produce significantly more additional sludge to handle and dis-
pose of than the mainstream process options. License fees for proprietary
biological nutrient control processes are generally determined on a case-
by-case basis and can have a substantial impact on overall cost effective-
ness.
The applicable effluent TP limitation is another important consideration
in estimating costs for a phosphorus removal retrofit. For the mainstream
biologically-based processes, achieving any effluent TP concentration below
1.0 mg/L, and in some cases including 1.0 mg/L, will typically require
effluent polishing, either in the form of a small dose of metal salt supple-
ment or granular media effluent filtration or both. The PhoStrip process
would not normally be expected to require effluent polishing except for
effluent TP requirements of O.b my/L or less. Likewise, conventional chemi-
cal addition should not require effluent polishing (filtration) except at TP
residual levels of 0.5 my/L or less.
-------
TABLE 18. OPERATING AND PERFORMANCE DATA SUMMARY FOR
OPERATIONALLY MODIFIED ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANTS (3)
Parameter Reedy Creek DePere
Operating Data
Design flow, m3/d 22,700 53,7bO
HOT, hr
Unaerated zone 3.0 7.5
Aerated zone 6.0 15.0
Sec, clar. overflow rate,
nWrn2/d 14.7 17.9
SRT, days 7.2 10.6
MLSS, mg/L 2,100 3,000
Return sludge ratio 0.59 0.81
Primary treatment Yes No
Sludge handling DAF Thickening, OAF Thickening,
Aerobic Digestion, Filter Press,
Land Spreading Incineration
Performance Data
Influent
TBOU, mg/L 155 150
SBOD, my/L 85 86
Total P, rng/L 6.7 5.1
Ortho P, mg/L 5.3 1.9
Effluent
TBOU, my/L 3 7
TSS, my/L 13 7
Total P, my/L 0.9 0.3
Ortho P, my/L 0.4 0.1
NH4-N, my/L 0.7 1.4
The authors of the C8DB Handbook (4) prepared cost estimates for retro-
fitting to chemical phosphorus removal (1986 U.S. dollars). They chose not
to develop generalized cost estimates for retrofitting to biological phos-
phorus removal because of the uncertainties involved. The chemical retrofit
estimates are based on the addition of alum and polymer and are specific for
price quotations in the CBDB. These estimates were generated for four dif-
ferent effluent TP limitations (2.0, 1.0, 0.5, and 0.2 mg/L) and two influent
TP ranges (6 to 10 my/L and 3 to 6 mg/L). The costs of handling and dispos-
ing of the chemical phosphorus sludge produced and for possible effluent
polishing at the lower effluent TP limits were not considered, i.e., the
estimates include the costs associated with the dosing of chemicals only.
-------
Capital cost estimates for dosing alum and polymer in the CBDB are shown
in Table 19 (4). Estimated chemical costs are given in Table 20 (4). As
facilities is a small fraction of the total capital cost of a conventional
activated sludge plant. Estimated chemical costs escalate dramatically as
the required effluent TP level becomes more stringent. The ranges of esti-
mated chemical costs also become increasingly broad with decreasing allowable
effluent TP, reflecting the higher level of dependence of chemical dose
requirements on wastewater characteristics and other site-specific conditions
at low effluent TP limitations.
More extensive phosphorus removal retrofit cost estimates were made by
the authors of Reference 4 to define the technical and economic feasibilities
of modifying existing plants in Canada for this purpose. Estimates were pre-
pared for metal salt addition using ferric chloride and the modified Barden-
pho, UCT, A/0, and PhoStrip biological processes. Three existing plant
configurations were considered: primary treatment, conventional activated
sludge (CAS), and extended aeration. Estimates were generated for two dif-
ferent effluent TP limitations (1.0 and 0.3 mg/L).
For brevity, only the results of the estimates dealing with the CAS
configuration will be summarized in this paper. In addition, since no full-
TABLE 19 ESTIMATED CAPITAL COSTS FOR STORAGE AND DOSING EQUIPMENT
FOR CHEMICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL IN THE CBDB (4)#
Plant Size
2.0 mg/L
Effluent TP
1.0 mg/L
0 5 mg/L
0 2 mg/L
Influent TP: 6-10 mg/l
< 380 m3/d
380-3,800 m3/d
> 3,800-1 8,900 rrvVd
> 18,900-37,800 m3/d
> 37,800 m3/d *
Influent TP: 3-6 mo/L
< 380 m3/d
380-3,800 m3/d
> 3,800-18,900 m3/d
> 18,900-37,800 m3/d
> 37,800 m3/d *
34,000
54.000
130,000
170,000
213,000
34,000
34,000
115,000
160,000
200,000
34,000
54,000
130,000
170,000
213,000
34,000
54,000
115,000
160,000
200,000
34,000
54,000
145,000
170,000
213,000
34,000
54,000
120,000
170,000
213.000
41,000
87,000
185,000
200,000
250,000
41,000
79,000
185,000
200,000
250,000
To put these capital costs in perspective, the approximate capital costs for conventional secondary treatment plants without phosphorus
removal utilizing the activated sludge process, vacuum filter sludge dewatenng, arid landfilling ol dewatered sludge are.
Design Flow
380 m3/d
3,800 m3/d
18,900 m3/d
37,800 m3/d
Capital Cost
$2,400,000
$8,000,000
$18,600,000
$29,300,000
* Capital cost estimates of 25 percent above the 18,900-37,800 m3/d estimates are recommended across the board for plant sizes above
37,800 m3/d
657
-------
TABLE 20. ESTIMATED CHEMICAL COSTS FOR CHEMICAL
PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL IN THE CBDB (4)
Effluent TP
Influent TP Limitation
(mg/L) (mg/L)
6-10 2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
3-6 2.0
1.0
0.5
0.2
Unit Chemical
Cost
($71000 m3)
18 -
22 -
27 -
36 -
11 -
13 -
16 -
22 -
22
27
38
92
14
17
23
57
Annual Chemical
Cost
($/yr/1000 m3)
6550 -
8050 -
9850 -
13,150
4000 -
4750 -
5850 -
8050 -
8050
9850
13,850
-33,600
5100
6200
8400
20,800
scale UCT systems have yet been installed in North America, only the modi-
fied Bardenpho, A/0, and PhoStrip systems are included in the CAS cost
estimate summaries presented herein.
A flow diagram of the model CAS plant chosen for the Canadian estimates
is illustrated in Figure 23 along with selected design criteria (5). This
was the basic flowsheet used for preparing chemical addition and biological
phosphorus removal retrofit estimates. Super-imposition of the modified
Bardenpho, A/0, and PhoStrip retrofit alternatives on this flowsheet is shown
in Figures 24, 25, and 26, respectively (5).
For the mineral addition option, Reference 5 assumes ferric chloride
doses of 8 and 14 mg Fe3+/L, respectively, for the 1.0- and 0.3-mg/L TP
effluent limits. Increases in total plant sludge generation of 26 and 42
percent were also assumed for the 1.0- and 0.3-my/L TP effluent objectives,
respectively. To meet the 0.3-mg/L TP effluent limit, effluent filtration
was assumed to be necessary for the mineral addition alternative. No efflu-
ent polishing provisions were incorporated in the estimates to attain the
1.0-mg/L TP effluent limit.
For the mainstream modified Bardenpho and A/0 biological phosphorus
removal retrofit estimates, either supplemental ferric chloride dosing
or dual-media effluent filtration was assumed to be necessary to meet the
1.0-mg/L TP residual and both supplemental chemical dosing and dual-media
effluent filtration to achieve an effluent of 0.3 mg/L TP. For the 1.0-
mg/L TP effluent goal, the assumption was made that ferric chloride would
be added (dosing rate unspecified in Reference 5) only during effluent
excursions above 1 mg/L TP. Ferric chloride at a dosing rate of 6 mg
Fe3+/L, equivalent to the difference in the selected chemical dosages to
achieve effluent TP limits of 1.0 and 0.3 mg/L for the mineral addition
option, was assumed for the 0.3-mg/L TP effluent goal. No effluent polishing
requirements were assumed to be necessary for the PhoStrip process to meet
658
-------
PLANT TYPE : CONVENTIONAL ACTIVATED SLUDGE
Design Criteria
PROCESS FLOW SHEET
RAW SEWAGE
SUPERNATANT
AERATION
BASIN
SLU
PUM
STA'
DGE
PING
DON
RETURN ACTIVATED SLUDGE /
1 /
SLUDGE
PUMPING
STATION
SLUDGE HAULED
TO DISPOSAL
TREATED
EFFLUENT
Headworks:
Manual Bar Screen
Aerated Grit Chamber
- Comminutor
- Parshali Flume
Primary Clarif ier:
Surface Overflow Rate
@ Peak Flow (m3/m2-d) 80-120
Sidewater Depth (m) 3.0-4.6
Aeration System:
Organic Loading Rate
(g BOD/m3-h) 13-30
F/M (d-1) 0.2-0.5
Secondary Clarif ier:
Surface Overflow Rate
@ Peak Flow (m3/m2.d) 35
Sidewater Depth (m) 3.6-4.6
Anaerobic Digestion:
Volatile Solids Loading
(kgVS/m3-d) 0.65-1.6
Volatile Solids Destroyed (%) 50
Chlorine Contact:
- 30 min HRT
- 8-15 mg/L Chlorine Dosage
Figure 23. Flow Diagram and Design Criteria for Model CAS Plant Selected For
Canadian Biological Phosphorus Removal Retrofit Cost Estimates
-------
Retrofit Design Criteria
31
31
PLANT TYPE : CONVENTIONAL ACTIVATED SLUDGE
PROCESS FLOW SHEET
INTERNALECYCLE
Bardenpho Basin - 5 Stage
Stage 1: Anaerobic - 1.0 h HRT
Stage 2: Anoxic
- 3.1 h HRT
Stage 4: Anoxic
Stage 5: Aerobic
Total
- 0.5 h HRT
- 0.5 h HRT
9.9 h HRT
Stage 2 HRT equals model plant HRT.
Internal Recycle Pumping Station
Stage 2 @ *00% of Average
- Stage
Flow
NOTE:
FeCl3 or filter required to
achieve 1.0 mg/L TP. FeCl3
and filter required to achieve
0.3 mg/L TP.
Figure 24. Flow Diagram and Design Criteria for Retrofitting Modified
Bardenpho Process to Canadian Model CAS Plant (5).
-------
Retrofit Desigp Criteria
PLANT TYPE : CONVENTIONAL ACTIVATED SLUDGE
PROCESS FLOW SHEET
RAW SEWAGE
SUPERNATANT
(TO BE TREATED)
SLUDGE HAULED
TO DISPOSAL
A/O Basin
- 3 Stage Anaerobic HRT - 1.2 h HRT
4 Stage Aerobic HRT - 2.2 h HRT
Total 3.4 h HRT
3.4 h HRT equals HRT of model plant.
NOTE: FeCl3 or filter required to
achieve 1.0 mg/L TP. Fed 3
and filter required to achieve
0.3 mg/L TP.
TREATED
EFFLUENT
NEW OR MODIFIED
PROCESS
Figure 25. Flow Diagram and Design Criteria for Retrofitting
A/0 Process to Canadian Model CAS Plant (5).
-------
Retrofit Design Criteria
PLANT TYPE : CONVENTIONAL ACTIVATED SLUDGE
PROCESS FLOW SHEET
RAW SEWAGE
RETURN ACTIVATED SLUDGE
SLUDGE
HAULED
TO DISPOSAL
NEW OR MODIFIED
PROCESS
Existing Activated Sludge Pumping Station
Modifications
Modifications as required to transfer
sludge to anaerobic phosphate stripper
tank.
Anaerobic Phosphate Stripper Tank
- 1C h HRT
- Inflow @ 20-30% Average Flow
Reactor-Ciarifier
Surface Overflow Rate
@ Average Flow (m3/m2-d) = 49
Underflow Pumping Capacity
@ 10-20% Average Flow
Elutriate Pumping Capacity
@ 10-30% Average Flow
Chemical Feed System
- 240 mg/L Hydrated Lime
NOTE: Effluent filter only required to
achieve 0.3 mg/L TP.
Figure 26. Flow Diagram and Design Criteria for Retrofitting
PhoStrip Process to Canadian Model CAS Plant (5).
-------
the 1.0-mg/L TP effluent limit and only dual-media filtration to reach the
0.3-mg/L TP effluent objective.
Elutriation by recycle of stripper underflow was factored into the
PhoStrip estimates along with a dedicated reactor-clarifier for precipitating
and settling the phosphorus-rich stripper supernatant. Sludge production
from the reactor-clarifier operation was assumed to be 0.5 kg dry solids/m3
(4.2 Ib/Kgal) of stripper supernatant. Submerged turbine aerators at a mixing
requirement of 10 W/m3 (0.4 hp/1000 ft3) were selected for the anaerobic,
anoxic, and aerobic zones of the modified Bardenpho process and the anaerobic
and aerobic zones of the A/0 process.
The estimated total annual costs in 1984 Canadian dollars of the above
four options for retrofitting CAS plants to phosphorus removal are summarized
in Table 21 (b). Estimates are shown for design flows of 4bOO m3/d (1.2 mgd),
13,600 m3/d (3.6 mgd), and 36,400 m3/d (9.6 mgd), which correspond to the 25,
50, and 7b-percentile frequency distributions of actual CAS plant design
flows in the province of Ontario.
An annual interest rate of 12 percent over 20 years was assumed for
capital ammortization. Operator and maintenance labor rates of $(Can.)
15.60/hr and $(Can.) 18.00/hr, respectively, were used as were $(Can.) 0.04/
kWh for the cost of electricity, $(Can.) 187/ton for the cost of chlorine,
$(Can.) 0.92/ky Fe3+ for the cost of ferric chloride, and $(Can.) 77/ton for
the cost of lime. No license fees were included for the biological phosphor-
us removal options.
The data in Table 21 clearly depict that effluent filtration is a much
more expensive polishing step to meet a 1.0-rng/L TP effluent requirement than
supplemental chemical dosing with the modified Bardenpho and A/0 processes.
Based on these estimates, none of the biological process alternatives are
competitive with iron addition for the 1.0-mg/L effluent TP case using efflu-
ent filtration. With supplemental chemical dosing, retrofitting with the A/0
process becomes more cost-effective than chemical addition retrofitting at
plant sizes above about 14,000 m3/d (3.7 mgd)(5). Retrofitting with the
PhoStrip process, without any type of assumed effluent polishing add-on, is
shown to be more costly than the A/0 retrofit option with effluent filtration
to attain a 1.0-mg/L TP effluent limitation and more costly than both the A/0
and modified Bardenpho process options when supplemental chemical dosing is
used for effluent polishing.
All of the biological phosphorus removal alternatives become more
competitiive with chemical phosphorus removal in attempting to meet a 0.3-
mg/L effluent goal. However, retrofitting with A/0 is still the only option
that is actually more cost effective than chemical addition, again at plant
sizes above approximately 14,000 m3/d (3.7 mgd).
The above cost estimates are presented here as guides only. Extreme
caution should be used in applying them to individual situations. For
example, depending on wastewater characteristics, effluent polishing may not
be required with a modified Bardenpho or A/0 retrofitted system to produce an
effluent with 1.0 my/L TP. It also must be remembered that with a five-stage
663
-------
TABLE 21. SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS (1984 CANADIAN $/kg TP
REMOVED)* FOR RETROFITTING CAS TREATMENT PLANTS TO BIOLOGICAL
PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL IN ONTARIO, CANADA (5)
Effluent
TP Limit
(mg/L)
1.0
Retrofit
Option
Chemical
Modified
BardenPho*
A/0*
PhoStrip
4500
8.27
46.83
31.31
33.84
Plant Hydraulic Capacity
13,600
6.14
28.12
18.51
22.45
(m3/)
36 ,400
5.17
18.46
11.81
16.74
1.0 Chemical 8.27 6.14 5.17
Modified
Bardenpho1" 28.84 16.28 10.28
A/Of 13.34 6.68 3.62
PhoStrip 33.84 22.45 16.74
0.3 Chemical* 28.03 19.22 14.46
Modified
Bardenpho*1" 45.60 27.80 19.08
A/0*1" 32.38 19.63 13.39
PhoStrip* 46.74 30.10 21.63
|The average exchange rate in 1984 was $1.00 Canadian = $0.772 U.S.
With dual-media effluent filtration.
"'"With 6 mg/L Fe3+ supplemental chemical addition.
*tWith both effluent filtration and supplemental chemical addition.
modified Bardenpho flow regime, efficient nitrogen removal will be achieved,
which may have an economic value in some cases.
As further cases-in-point of the site-specificity of phosphorus removal
cost estimating, the following examples are offered: 1) the Pontiac, Michigan
retrofit to a 13,200-m3/d (3.5-mgd) A/0 system at a cost of $b7,000 in 1984
U.S. dollars (4) is over eight times less than the estimated capital cost of a
similarly-sized, more-permanently constructed A/0 retrofit system based on
the Canadian estimates (5), and 2) the engineer's recommendation to select
PhoStrip for the 113,700-rn3/d (30-mgd) Reno-Sparks, Nevada phosphorus removal
retrofit was based on an estimate that this option would produce a total annual
cost savings of $500,000 compared to mineral addition.
Process Considerations Standpoint
A comparison of the key process factors affecting retrofitting with
chemical addition vs. retrofitting with either the A/0 or PhoStrip biological
phosphorus removal processes is given in Table 22, as adapted from Reference
664
-------
TABLE 22. COMPARISON OF KEY FACTORS AFFECTING CHEMICAL AND
BIOLOGICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL RETROFIT SYSTEMS
Items
Chemical
Biological
Attainable
Effluent TP
Concentration
Amenable Unit
Processes
Reliability
Costs
Sludge
Quantities
Operator
Training
Additional
Staffing
Requi rements
Infiltration/
Inflow
Potential
Technical
Advances
0.2 mg/L
All secondary treatment pro-
cesses can be retrofitted.
Reliable, proven technology.
Low capital cost. High O&M
costs for purchase of chemi-
cals and handling of addition-
al sludge produced. Chemical
feed system O&M costs can be
significant if feeding corro-
sive chemicals (such as ferric
chloride) and/or if utilizing
sophisticated instrumentation.
A considerable amount of
chemical sludge is produced
for which additional sludge
handling facilities may be
required.
Relatively simple to operate.
Some training will be required
for operation of chemical feed
pumps and systems.
An additional person may be
required depending on the
size of the plant.
No major effect on retrofit
design.
None anticipated.
1.0 mg/L (0.5 mg/L or less
requires chemical addition).
Amenable only to activated
sludge-type secondary
processes.
Long-term reliability not
proven.
Capital cost can be high
depending on degree to which
existing tankage can be util-
ized and amount of license
fee. Small increase in ex-
cess sludge handling O&M
costs with A/0, large in-
crease with PhoStrip. Low
equipment O&M costs except
for PhoStrip lime feeding
system.
Sludge quantities will in-
crease only slightly with
the A/0 process but signifi-
cantly with the PhoStrip
process.
More difficult to operate and
control. Some training will
be required for monitoring
and operating the chemical
feed system for the PhoStrip
process.
For the PhoStrip process, an
additional person may be re-
quired depending on the size
of the plant. Additional
staff should not be necessary
for the A/0 process.
Can significantly affect
retrofit design.
Several anticipated.
-------
4. As indicated, chemical addition is more reliably proven, has a lower
achievable effluent TP concentration without polishing, is amenable to more
types of existing secondary treatment systems, is less affected by infiltra-
tion/inflow, and is easier to operate than the biolgical processes. On the
other hand, the biological processes generally produce less excess sludge,
have lower OSM costs, and have greater potential for technical advancement
than chemical addition.
SUMMARY
The following synoptic statements are offered based on the information
presented in this paper:
1. Over 15 years of experience with chemical phosphorus removal has pro-
duced a high degree of confidence in North America in the technology's
ability to meet a wide range of effluent standards.
2. Biological phosphorus removal is relatively new in North America. In
some areas, it is still considered to be an emerging technology.
Although some biological phosphorus removal approaches possess inherent
potential advantages over mineral addition in the areas of O&M require-
ments and sludge handling costs, their eventual acceptance and usage
on equal terms with the chemical alternative will depend on their
ability to provide long-term reliable operation and performance.
3. Lower effluent soluble phosphorus concentrations can be achieved with
chemical (mineral salt) addition than with biological phosphorus removal.
4. Lower effluent phosphorus concentrations can more consistently be at-
tained with the sidestream PhoStrip biological phosphorus removal process
than with the mainstream biological phosphorus removal processes. This
is especially true at low influent SBOD-to-SP ratios.
5. Recycle of significant quantities of solubilized phosphorus in digester
supernatants back to the main plant flow is a distinct possibility that
must be considered with some biological phosphorus removal options.
6. Lower mineral salt dosages appear to be required to reach effluent TP
concentrations of 1 mg/L or less with activated sludge plants than
with plants employing fixed film biological systems. Part of the higher
dosages required with the fixed film systems may be attributable to the
generally shallower and less-conservatively designed final clarifiers
provided in many older North American trickling filter plants.
7. Biological phosphorus removal technology offers the engineer a variety
of options for effectively combining nitrogen control with phosphorus
removal, if desired. However, combining nitrogen and phosphorus control
in a single biological system requires careful design to avoid upsetting
the operation and efficiency of the anaerobic zone.
666
-------
REFERENCES
Process Design Manual for Phosphorus Removal. Prepared by Black & Veatch,
Consulting Engineers for U.S. EPA, Technology Transfer, Washington, D.C.,
October 1971.
Process Design Manual for Phosphorus Removal. EPA 62b/l-76-OOla, Prepared
by Shimek, Roming, Jacobs, & Finklea, Consulting Engineers for U.S EPA,
Technology Transfer, Washington, D.C., April 1976.
Design Manual - Phosphorus Removal. EPA/625/1-87/UU1, Prepared by J. M.
Smith & Associates, PCS for U.S EPA, CERI & WERL, Cincinnati, Ohio,
September 1987.
Handbook - Retrofitting POTW's for Phosphorus Removal in the Chesapeake
Bay Drainage Basin. EPA/625/6-87/017, Prepared by McNamee, Porter &
Seeley, Consulting Engineers for U.S. EPA, WERL & CERI, Cincinnati, Ohio,
September 1987.
Retrofitting Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants for Enhanced Biological
Phosphorus Removal. Report EPS 3/UP/3, Prepared by CANVIRO Consultants
Ltd. with Norbert W. Schrnidtke & Associates Ltd. and David I. Jenkins and
Associates Inc. for Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Programs
Directorate, Burlington, Ontario, October 1986.
Letter report from John N. English, U.S. EPA, WERL, Cincinnati, Ohio, to
James W. Wheeler, U.S. EPA, OWPO, Washington, D.C., March 28, 1983.
Personal communication from S. Joh Kang, McNamee, Porter & Seeley, Ann
Arbor, Michigan, to Richard C. Brenner, U.S. EPA, WERL, Cincinnati, Ohio,
September 10, 1987.
Personal communication from David DiGregorio, Eimco Process Equipment
Co., Salt Lake City, Utah, to Richard C. Brenner, U.S EPA, WERL, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio, September 10, 1987.
667
-------
STATUS OF FINE PORE AERATION IN THE UNITED STATES
Richard C. Brenner
Environmental Engineer
Wastewater Research Division
Water Engineering Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
and
William C. Boyle, Ph.D.
Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin 55706
This paper has been reviewed in accordance with
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's peer
and administrative review policies and approved
for presentation and publication.
Prepared for Presentation at:
Eleventh United States/Japan Conference
on Sewage Treatment Technology
Tokyo, Japan
October 12-14, 1987
-------
STATUS OF FINE PORE AERATION IN THE UNITED STATES
Richard C. Brenner and William C. Boyle
INTRODUCTION
With its potential for enhanced energy efficiency, fine pore diffused
aeration (FPDA) has become a major force in the United States aeration market
in the 1980's. Virtually every aeration system design undertaken in the
United States today, new or retrofit, includes consideration of one or more
types of FPDA devices before a final decision is made. More often than not,
an FPDA system is being selected for installation.
The renewed interest in FPDA in the Unites States can be traced to esca-
lating energy costs in the mid- and late-1970's. Prior to that, coarse
bubble aeration had been the standard of U.S. municipal wastewater treatment
for several decades. Coarse bubble aeration, although relatively energy
intensive, is reliable and requires little maintainence. The first FPDA
systems to make a significant impact in the United States following the
energy crisis were the ceramic grid configurations used successfully in the
United Kingdom for many years. Today, a wide array of FPDA alternatives is
available, including ceramic plates, domes, discs, and tubes; plastic plates,
discs, and tubes; and flexible membrane tubes and discs.
Because of the expanding number of FPDA choices that are becoming avail-
able, the sometimes exaggerated claims made for them, the inherent potential
for greater maintenance requirements than with other devices, and a general
lack of reliable performance data on which to base the design and operation
of these systems, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) decided to
initiate a major R&D effort to expand and improve the technical data base for
this aeration technology. A $1.2 million cooperative agreement was entered
into between EPA and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) in 1985
for this purpose.
The ultimate goal of the EPA/ASCE project is the publication of a Com-
prehensive Design and Operating Manual (CDOM) on Fine Pore Aeration in 1989.
Richard C. Brenner is an Environmental Engineer with the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, and Project Officer of the EPA/ASCE
project on fine pore aeration.
William C. Boyle is Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univer-
sity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin; Principal Investigator of the EPA/
ASCE project on fine bubble aeration; and Chairman of the ASCE Committee
on Oxygen Transfer.
670
-------
It is intended that the first distribution of this manual will be at the 1989
Water Pollution Control Federation Conference. The project is being techni-
cally administered and supervised by the ASCE Committee on Oxygen Transfer.
The Committee's first action following consummation of the cooperative agree-
ment was to prepare a Summary Report on Fine Pore Aeration (1)*. This report
discusses the status of the technology in 1985 and identifies perceived
technical gaps. It is recommended to the reader as an excellent background
source in the subject area.
Since mid-198b, the Committee has, under the cooperative agreement,
funded a number of subcontracts to address the gaps in the FPDA data base
mentioned above. For the most part, these subcontracts are in the form of
full-scale field studies. Several of the studies will continue well into
1988 to provide as much long-term data as possible for incorporation in the
CDOM. Primary areas of study include in situ evaluation of oxygen transfer
performance of several generic FPUA systems, assessment of the impact of
process operating conditions on FPDA oxygen transfer efficiency, investiga-
tion of the incidence and severity of fouling of fine pore devices and the
impacts on performance resulting therefrom, and evaluation of the effective-
ness of several methods used for cleaning fine pore diffusers (either for
preventive or restorative purposes).
This paper will describe interim results in two major areas of study on
this project: the effect of process operating conditions and the impact of
diffuser cleaning on FPDA performance and design. The reader is urged to use
any relationships and trends shown herein with caution, as additional data
are being generated.
DESCRIPTION OF EPA/ASCE PROJECT
Background
The ASCE Committee on Oxygen Transfer is an outgrowth of the ASCE Oxygen
Transfer Standards Committee, which was formed in 1977 to research and develop
consensus standard methods for conducting oxygen transfer tests and evalua-
ting oxygen transfer test data. The Standards Committee, through two pre-
vious EPA/ASCE cooperative agreements, produced a "Standard" for clean water
oxygen transfer testing and evaluation (2) and refined and field evaluated
several procedures for process water oxygen transfer testing (3). The method-
ology produced on these forerunner projects is being used extensively on the
fine pore aeration project.
Committee Structure and Operating Procedures
The ASCE Committee on Oxygen Transfer is composed of bO volunteer engi-
neers and scientists, primarily from the United States, but with representa-
*In this report, the ASCE Committee on Oxygen Transfer defines fine pore aera-
tion as diffused aeration by a porous device that typically produces a head-
loss due to surface tension in clean water of greater than about 5 cm (2 in.)
water gauge.
671
-------
tion from Canada, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and West Germany. The Com-
mittee roster includes representatives from academia, local and federal
government, POTW users, consultant engineering, and manufacturing.
Administrative responsibilities are handled by ASCE staff. Technical
direction is provided by a 10-member Steering Subcommittee, selected from
the Committee-at-large. The Committee Chairman/Principal Investigator is a
non-voting member of the Steering Subcommittee. The Subcommittee and Com-
mittee are chaired by different individuals.
Subcontractors were chosen on the basis of competitive proposals (in
response to broad general criteria provided by the Steering Subcommittee)
from the Committee membership. Steering Subcommittee members were not eligi-
ble to receive subcontracts. Each Steering Subcommittee member is responsi-
ble for monitoring one or more subcontract field studies.
The Steering Subcommittee meets four to five times a year to review prog-
ress on all phases of the project and to make mid-course changes in direction
as needed. The entire Committee membership meets once a year, is invited
throughout the year to review and comment on all Subcontractor reports, and
is periodically advised of Steering Subcommittee actions. Preparation of the
CDOM on Fine Pore Aeration will be the responsibility of the Steering Subcom-
mittee using authors from the general membership and from within the Subcom-
mittee itself.
Project Field Studies
Fifteen (15) major field studies have been funded by the Steering Subcom-
mittee to date to generate the data necessary to carry out the objectives of
this project. A brief description of each field study along with a list of
the study sites is given in Table 1. Two of the studies (I and 0) have been
completed; the_other 13 are ongoing. The diffuser cleaning methods referred
to in some of the study descriptions are discussed in more detail later in
the paper.
TABLE 1. FIELD STUDIES FUNDED BY EPA/ASCE FINE PORE AERATION PROJECT
Study Site
Description
A. Whittier Narrows
(LACSD)*, California
B. Terminal Island
(City of Los Angeles),
Cali fornia
C. Green Bay, Wisconsin
Evaluation of acid gas cleaning on ceramic
disc and dome fine pore diffusers
Retrofit comparison of two types of flexi-
ble membrane tube fine pore diffusers vs.
coarse bubble diffusers
Side-by-side performance comparison of ceram-
ic disc and flexible membrane tube fine pore
diffusers with preventive acid gas cleaning
of the disc diffusers and preventive cleaning
of the tube diffusers by membrane flexing
(continued)
672
-------
TABLE 1. (continued)
Study Site
Description
D. Frankenmuth, Michigan
E. Monroe, Wisconsin
F. Madison, Wisconsin
G. Hartford, Connecticut
H. Glastonbury, Connecticut
Design, operating, and cleaning (acid gas)
case history of ceramic disc fine pore
diffuser system comparing two side-by-side
cleaning frequencies
Side-by-side performance evaluation of
ceramic disc fine pore diffusers of several
different permeabilities with possible com-
parison of acid gas and Milwaukee cleaning
methods if diffusers become sufficiently
fouled
Side-by-side comparison of several cleaning
methods (to be selected from Milwaukee,
hosing, and steam methods) on ceramic disc
and dome fine pore diffusers
Design, operating, and cleaning (hosing)
case history of ceramic dome fine pore
diffuser system
Performance evaluation of porous plastic
tube fine pore diffuser system
I. Ridgewood, New Jersey
J. North Texas Municipal
Water District (Dallas),
Texas
K. Jones Island (Milwaukee),
Wisconsin
L. South Shore (Milwaukee),
Wisconsin
M. Valencia (LACSD)*,
California
N. Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Design, operating, arid cleaning (hosing)
case history of ceramic dome fine pore
diffuser system
Laboratory evaluation of six cleaning methods
applied to ceramic dome fine pore diffusers
Performance evaluation of ceramic fine pore
plate diffusers
Side-by-side performance comparison of
ceramic plate and disc fine pore diffusers
Performance evaluation of porous plastic disc
fine pore diffusers
Long-term case history write-ups of ceramic
plate fine pore diffuser performance and O&M
on Milwaukee's Jones Island and South Shore
plants (predates ongoing Studies K and L)
(continued)
673
-------
TABLE 1. (continued)
Study Site Description
0. Northern Europe Survey of Scandanavian O&M and performance
experience with porous plastic tube and disc
fine pore diffusers
*LACSD - Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts
Test Methods
A substantial clean water oxyyen transfer data base exists for FPDA
systems. Where additional clean water data have been necessary or desirable,
the ASCE "Standard" clean water test method (2) has been utilized.
The great majority of data needed for this project, however, are in the
area of process water or in-process oxyyen transfer performance evaluation.
Two methods, the off-gas analysis and inert gas tracer procedures, that do
not require steady process loads, a positive aeration basin dissolved oxygen
(DO) concentration, or oxygen uptake rate measurements have been found to be
very effective and reliable for process water testing of diffused aeration
systems (1).
All of the process water oxygen transfer data on this project have been
generated using the off-gas procedure because it is considerably cheaper to
implement than the inert gas tracer methods. A portable gas collection hood
is utilized to sample off gas at different points around an aeration basin.
An integrated oxygen transfer rate for the entire basin can be developed, if
desired. Off-gas testing is also useful in defining differences in oxygen
transfer efficiency at various points in the basin.
In addition to off-gas oxygen transfer measurements, the following tests
have been devised to evaluate fine pore diffuser characteristics. Air flow
profiles are measured across the surfaces of selected diffusers removed from
aeration basins. These removed diffusers are also subjected to dynamic wet
pressure (DWP) and bubble release vacuum (BRV) tests. DWP is defined as the
operating headloss across diffuser media submerged in water at a specified
air flow rate per diffuser (1). BRV is defined as the applied headloss re-
quired to induce air flow through the diffuser media at a given point (1).
Benchmark values have been established for these tests for new or clean
("like new") ceramic diffusers. Corresponding values determined on dirty
diffusers help to assess the deyree to which fouling has proyressed. DWP
tests can also be conducted on in-place, permanently-installed diffusers for
ijv-situ prediction of foulant buildup.
Samples of foulants are scraped from the surfaces of the test diffusers
for further characterization. Laboratory tests include determinations of
acid solubles and percent volatile fractions, among others. The Committee is
674
-------
currently attempting to develop a fundamental study using Scanning Electron
Microscopy technology that will shed additional light on the nature and pro-
gression of fine pore diffuser fouling.
To better characterize fine pore diffuser fouling patterns and to coor-
dinate and interpret fouling data from one plant, to another, an interplant
fouling control study was initiated early in the project. Specially construc-
ted removable units called "four lungers" have been installed in eight of the
key project plants. The "four lungers" are each equipped with four ceramic
disc diffusers to which air flow can be individually controlled. The "four
lungers" are immersed in the mixed liquor and operated as conventional diffu-
ser units. Periodically, diffusers are removed and shipped to a central
laboratory facility for extensive testing and foulant characterization.
Although the data developed through the individual plant evaluations and
interplant fouling control study are still too preliminary at this juncture
to present detailed summaries, they do indicate that fine pore diffuser
fouling is apparently not as universal and severe as initially suspected.
Rather, fouling is encountered on a random basis with little or none experi-
enced at some plants and extensive problems experienced at others. The
variables influencing measurable fouling of fine pore diffusers are still
being delineated at this time.
It has also been determined that less-than-acceptable oxygen transfer
efficiency at some facilities may not be due to diffuser fouling or clogging,
but rather to local wastewater characteristics and/or secondary process oper-
ating conditions. The presence of undegraded surfactants especially has a
negative impact on fine pore oxygen transfer performance. The effects of
process operating conditions on oxygen transfer performance will be discussed
later in the paper.
Terminology
A number of terms are used in this paper, the definition of which are
important to a full understanding of the data presented. SOTE, SOTR, and SAE
refer to standard oxygen transfer efficiency, standard oxygen transfer rate,
and standard aeration efficiency in clean water, respectively. Standard
conditions are defined as: DO = 0.0 mg/L, water temperature = 20°C, pressure
= 1.00 atmosphere, alpha (a) = 1.0, and beta (3) = 1.0.
Alpha is a factor that describes the ratio of the apparent volumetric
mass transfer coefficient (K|_a) in dirty or process water to that of the same
coefficient in clean water. As such, a describes the negative (usually)
impact of a particular wastewater on the oxygen transfer rate of a specific
type of aeration device operating in a specific aeration system configuration
under specific environmental conditions and with a specific basin geometry.
By definition, a is a term that measures this impact on new or clean ("like
new") diffusers.
The random and unknown effects of fine pore diffuser fouling will normal-
ly reduce the alpha factor with time. It is difficult, if not impossible, to
separate the effects of wastewater characterisitics from fouling on diffuser
675
-------
performance. To account for this situation, the Committee has coined a new
term called the apparent alpha factor (a1).* The apparent alpha factor
combines the above two impacts into one term that defines the real-life oxy-
gen transfer situation under process conditions at any one time. Theoreti-
cally, a and a' are only equal at the moment new diffusers are placed in
service or immediately after full restorative diffuser cleaning.
When describing in-process oxygen transfer performance in this paper,
the terms ct'SOTE, a'SOTR, and ot'SAE will denote standard oxygen transfer
efficiency, standard oxygen transfer rate, and standard aeration efficiency
under process or dirty water conditions.
PERFORMANCE OF FINE PORE DIFFUSERS UNDER PROCESS CONDITIONS
Summary of Selected Performance Data
The performance of fine pore diffusers under process conditions is
affected by myriad factors. Some of the better-documented factors appear
in Table 2. Not included in this table, but of great concern to design
engineers and operators, are the additional factors of flow regime, operating
conditions, and diffuser fouling. One of the objectives of this research
program is to better quantify the influence of these variables on performance.
Over the past 2-1/2 years, a substantial amount of field data have been col-
lected relative to these factors. Table 3 presents an abbreviated tabulation
of selected data generated to date. Several interesting observations sug-
gested by these data are discussed below.
TABLE 2. SELECTED FACTORS THAT AFFECT OXYGEN TRANSFER
OF FINE PORE AERATION DEVICES
Wastewater Characteristics
Diffuser Submergence
Diffuser Type and Characteristics
Gas Flow per Diffuser
Diffuser Density (No. of diffusers per unit floor area)
Diffuser Layout (Configuration)
Basin Geometry
Mixed Liquor Temperature and DO
Effect of Operating Conditions on Performance
For some time, it has been suspected that process operation affects the
oxygen transfer performance of fine pore diffusers. The impacts of volumetric
organic loading, solids retention time (SRT), food-to-microorganism (F/M)
loading, and mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) concentration on performance
*Tn"ReTeTence 1, the term
-------
TABLE 3. FINE PORE DIFFUSER PERFORMANCE SUMMARY - PROCESS WATER INTERIM DATA BASE
System Diffuser Diffuser
No.§ Type Age*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Cer. Dome
Cer. Dome
Cer. Disc
Cer. Disc
Cer. Disc
Cer. Dome
Cer. Dome
Cer. Disc
Cer. Dome
Cer. Dome
Cer. Dome
Cer. Dome
Cer. Dome
Cer. Dome
Flex. Memb.
Tube
U
N
N
1 yr
1 yr
1 yr
1 yr
N
1 yr
1 yr
U
U
U
U
2 yr
Diffuser
Subm.
(m)
4.6
4.2
4.2
5.0
5.0
4.6
4.6
3.8
4.1
4.1
4.3
4.3
3.2
3.2
4.0
Diffuser
Density
(m2/d1ff.)
0.39
0.31
0.35
0.57
0.57
0.37
0.37
0.41
0.22
0.22
0.40
0.40
0.36
0.46
0.57
Air Flow/D1ff.
(L/sec)
0.9-1.4
0.42-0.61
0.24-0.71
0.42
0.42
0.28-0.52
0.28-0.52
0.47
0.57
0.35
0.38-1.1
0.8-0.9
0.42
0.42
1.4-1.9
F/M Loading SRT
(day-l)f (days)
1.26
0.55
0.61
0.18
0.10
0.75
0.30
0.51
0.4
0.2-0.3
0.25
0.19
0.1
0.44
0.22
-1.0
1.98
1.63
5.4
10.3
1.5
4.8
2.2
-
-
4.3
1.6
11.7
2.7
4.5
a1 SOTE**
(%} (
6.86
7.92
8.18
14.32
17.88
10.75
12.70
10.3
9.0
13.77
9.5
10.7
10.5
7.0
7.6
;*/m)
1.61
1.89
1.95
2.86
3.58
2.34
2.76
2.71
2.20
3.36
2.21
2.49
3.28
2.19
1.90
"a1"** Flow
Regime
0.27
0.29
0.28
0.44
0.60
0.34
0.40
0.33
-
-
0.40
0.47
-
-
0.36
SF
PF
PF
PF
PF
PF
PF
PF
SF
SF
PF
PF
PF
PF
PF
§System nos. do not correspond to the sequence of S
*Age: I) = unknown; N = "like new"
'Expanded units: kg total BOD5 (TBODb)/day/kg MLSS
**Mean weighted values
ttSF = step feed; PF = plug flow
'" sites presented in Table 1
-------
are being examined in the field studies that are a major part of the EPA/ASCE
project. Although it is too early to develop reliable quantitative informa-
tion, the effects of SRT and F/M loading on a'SOTE are indicated in Figures
1 and 2, respectively, developed from the data in Table 3. As SRT increases
(or F/M loading decreases), the value of a'SOTE (expressed as %/m of diffuser
submergence) increases. As much as a two-fold increase in a'SOTE appears to
occur within the range of SRT's and F/M loadings studied. It should be
emphasized that this information is preliminary. As evident in Table 2,
there are other variables that influence a'SOTE that were not "controlled"
in presenting these data. Of particular interest in Figures 1 and 2 are the
data from Rye Meads, United Kingdom, which were reported by the Water Research
Centre (WRC) from studies conducted in 1983 (4) and will be discussed later.
In more controlled studies at the Madison (Wisconsin) Metropolitan Sewer-
age District (MMSD) facility, the influence of F/M loading on a'SOTE is illus-
trated in Figure 3. These data, representing the first two ceramic disc
diffuser grids of a six-grid aeration system, were collected over a narrow
range of F/M loadings wherein nitrification occurred. Nevertheless, the ad-
vantage of operating at higher MLSS concentrations (lower F/M loadings for
the same volumetric loadings) is indicated.
The independent effect of SRT (or F/M loading) on a'SOTE values at con-
stant volumetric organic loading is depicted in Table 4 for the MMSD facility.
Over a 2-month period, the first-pass tanks of two parallel three-pass aera-
tion trains were operated at two different SRT's (approximately 11 and 6
days) at the same volumetric organic loading rate. As seen in Table 4, the
average first-pass (comprising two ceramic disc grids) a'SOTE value for the
11-day SRT train was approximately one percentage point higher (10.52% vs.
9.62%) than for the 6-day SRT train.
Avg.
TABLE 4. EFFECT OF SRT ON a'SOTE FOR CONSTANT VOLUMETRIC
ORGANIC LOADING AT MADISON, WISCONSIN (FIRST-PASS TANKS)
Test
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
System A
SRT
(days)
11.
11.
10.
12.
10.
10.
11.
11.
6
6
4
1
7
9
1
1
a1
(
14
10
9
10
10
9
9
9
SOTE
%)
.39
.13
.89
.07
.51
.61
.85
.71
Vol. Org. Load
(kg TBOD^/day/m-3)
0.15
0.19
0.15
0.16
0.14
0.17
0.17
0.18
SRT
(days)
7.
6.
5.
6.
6.
5.
5.
5.
6
4
8
0
3
6
9
6
a
(
13
9
7
9
9
9
8
9
System B
SOTE
%)
.06
.37
.99
.29
.74
.20
.91
.40
Vol. Org. Load
(kg TBOD^/day/nv3)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.15
.19
.15
.16
.14
.17
.17
.18
11.2
10.52
6.1
9.62
678
-------
4 -
3 -
E
i
w
2 -
V)
1 -
0
8"
12*
14A
13A
* — Estimated SFTT
A — Rye Meads, England Data
0
8
I
10
SRT (days)
12
FIGURE 1. Effect of SRT on oc SOTE of Fine Pore Diffusers.
679
-------
o
V)
4 -I
3 -
1 -
0
A13
• 10
0
11* 9« A14
^5• 2%
— Rye Meads, England Data
n i i \ i
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
F/M Loading (kg TBOD5/day/kg MLSS)
I I
1.2 1.4
FIGURE 2. Effect of F/M Loading on <*'SOTE of Fine Pore Diffusers.
-------
20 -i
15 -
ui
6
10 -
5 -
— Ceramic Disc Diffusers
— First Passes of Two Three-Pass Plug Flow Tanks
— Air Flow Rate Per Diffuser = 0.47 L/sec
0
0
0.04
0.08
I
0.12
I
0.16
0.20
F/M Loading (kg TBODs/day/kg MLVSS)
0.24
FIGURE 3. Effect of F/M Loading on oC'SOTE of Nitrifying
Fine Pore Aeration Systems at Madison,
Wisconsin.
681
-------
The reasons for the increases noted in a'SOTE values with increasing SRT
(or decreasing F/M loading) can only be speculated on at this time. Since
surfactants play an important role in depressing oxygen transfer in many
wastewater treatment systems, factors that affect surfactant concentrations
in these systems may directly impact values of alpha. The higher SRT systems
may produce biomass that will more effectively sorb or biodeyrade surfactants,
resulting in an overall higher value of alpha than in lower SRT systems.
More research is needed, however, to substantiate this hypothesis,
Figure 4 depicts the impact of SRT on a'SOTE down the length of two plug
flow aeration tanks at MMSL) equipped with fine por? ceramic disc diffusers.
Recovery of ofSOTE (due to rapid increases in alpha) with tariK u-ng^h Is
greatly enhanced in the longer sludye aye system. For the conditions of this
test, alpha values ranged from 0.22 to 0.30 for the low-SRT system and from
0.25 to 0.50 for the higher-SRT system. A review of Table 3 suggests that
low-SRT systems must be designed with significantly lower alpha values than
higher-SRT systems.
The value of operating an aeration system at high SRT's (low F/M load-
ings) is well documented in the literature. The benefits of high-SRT opera-
tion include greater biological process stability, production of a nitrified
effluent, lower SVI's, lower sludge yields, a more stabilized waste activated
sludge, and improved waste activated sludge thickening properties. Limita-
tions to high-SRT operation include clarifier and aeration tank capacities,
unwanted (in some cases) nitrification, floating sludge in final clarifiers,
and supposedly higher aeration power requirements. Other site-specific con-
siderations may also make operation at high SRT's infeasible and/or undesir-
able.
Preliminary results of the EPA/ASCE field studies suggest that higher
aeration power costs may not necessarily result from operation at high SRT's
since a'SOTE appears to increase more rapidly with increasing SRT than does
oxygen demand. Figure 5 diagrams in a simplistic qualitative fashion what
might occur as SRT increases with respect to the system oxygen balance and
the power required to achieve sufficient oxygen transfer to satisfy oxygen
demand. For this hypothetical example, a low-SRT system was assumed. As
shown on the diagram, if oc'SOTE increases more rapidly than oxyyen demand
increases, a net power savings will be realized according to the equation:
Power = f Oxygen Demand
a'SOTE
When incipient nitrification occurs, power consumption increases momen-
tarily (Figure 5) because of the rapid increase in oxygen demand and standard
oxygen uptake rate (SOUR). As SRT continues to increase past the point of
incipient nitrification, overall power consumption may decrease to a level
below that for non-nitrifying operation, again depending on the relative
slopes of the oxygen demand and oxygen transfer curves. An additional advan-
tage of a nitrifying mode of operation is the potential positive impact on
the oxygen balance in the form of denitrification credits with the use of a
lead anoxic stage.
682
-------
24 -,
20 -
SRT = 7.4 days
<*' SOTE = 16.7%
MLSS = 1450 mg/L
16 -
LLJ
05
x
*
12 -
en
oo
oo
8 -
SRT = 2.2 days
oC SOTE = 9.4%
MLSS = 980 mg/L
4 -
0
Ceramic Dome Diffusers
Average Results of Three Three-Pass, Plug Flow Tanks
Air Flow Per Diffuser = 0.33 L/sec
0
I
30
60
Tank Length (m)
I
90
120
FIGURE 4. Effect of SRT on oc SOTE Tank Profile Values of Fine
Pore Aeration Systems at Madison, Wisconsin.
-------
Power
Aeration
Power
OC SOTE,
SOUR
Incipient
Nitrification
SOUR
Standard Conditions, Steady State
SOUR = SOTR = <*' SOTE x Air Flow x K
Power = f (SOUR/OC'SOTE)
SRT
FIGURE 5. Hypothetical Diagram of the Impact of SRT on
(X'SOTE, Oxygen Uptake, and Aeration Power
Requirements of Fine Pore Aeration Systems.
684
-------
The potential for achieving aeration power savings via selection of a
nitrifying operational mode was demonstrated in the WRC study at Rye Meads.
Two parallel ceramic dome diffuser systems were operated at SRT's of 2.7
(non-nitirifying) and 11.7 (nitrifying) days. The nitrifying system consumed
1726 kg 0?/day (3805 lb/day) at a power expenditure of 964 kWh/day (1293 wire
hp-hr/day), while the non-n1tr1fy1ng system utilized 1170 kg 02/day (2597 lb/
day) at a powtr consumption of 981 kWh/day (1316 wire hp-hr/day). Tha field
aeration efficiency for tha 11,7-day SRT system was 1.79 kg Og/kWh (2.94 1b/
wire hp-hr) vs. 1,19 kg Og/kWh (1.96 1b/w1re hp-hr) for the 2.7-day SRT system.
Effect of Flow Regime on Performance
Several field studies have been conducted to evaluate the impact of flow
regime on a'SOTE. Figure 6 compares the effect of a step aeration flow regime
vs. that of a plug flow configuration on the oxygen transfer performance of
ceramic dome diffusers at Madison, Wisconsin (MMSD). In both instances, SRT
was approximately 2.2 days. Clearly, the plug flow configuration produced a
superior mean weighted a'SOTE value compared to that of the step feed mode
of operation (9.44% vs. 7.15%). Addition of primary effluent at several
points along the basin of the step aeration system resulted in depressed
a'SOTE values at each feed point. Apparently, reduced alpha values associated
with each feed point overrode the benefits of load balancing, such that a'SOTE
was negatively impacted from the second feed point through the remaining
length of the aeration tank. These data suggest again that sorption (and/or
biodegradation) of surfactants may be favored in the plug flow configuration,
at least in short-SRT systems.
EFFECT OF CLEANING ON FINE PORE DIFFUSER PERFORMANCE
Cleaning Techniques
Although data collected to date indicate that fine pore diffuser fouling
is not as prevalent and severe as first presumed, some installations do ex-
perience rapid fouling rates. Rapid fouling situations appear to be closely
tied to wastewater characteristics that either 1) promote deposition or preci-
pitation of solids onto diffuser surfaces and/or penetration of those solids
into the outer pore structure of the diffusers or 2) encourage profuse biolog-
ical slimes to grow on the surfaces of diffusers. Solids deposition is often
associated with wastewaters that do not practice primary treatment or have
poor grit removal. Solids precipitation may occur under certain conditions
with wastewaters that have high natural concentrations of metal cations or
introduce metal salts to the wastewater for phosphorus removal and/or improved
settling. High rates of biological growth on diffusers are usually related
to municipal wastewaters that contain industrial waste components with high
soluble carbohydrate concentrations. These types of waste exhibit abnormally
high C/N ratios, and the resulting nutrient imbalance may be the primary
causative factor in accelerated biofouling.
Fine pore systems that do not experience rapid fouling can generally rely
on long-term rigorous cleaning every 1 or 2 years to restore a'SOTE to accept-
able levels. When severe fouling is encountered, however, a'SOTE can be
685
-------
16—i
oo
12 —
4-
0
0
— Ceramic Dome Diffusers
— Average Results of Three Three-Pass, Plug Flow Tanks
- SRT = 2.2 days
— Air Flow Per Diffuser:
Plug Flow = 0.33 L/sec Plug Flow
Step Aeration = 0.47 L/sec
t
Step Aeration
and Plug Flow
Pri. Eff. + RAS Feed
t
Step Aeration
Pri. Eff. Feed
t
Step Aeration
Pri. Eff. Feed
30
I
60
Tank Length (m)
I
90
120
FIGURE 6. Effect of Flow Regime on or SOTE of Fine Pore
Diffusers at Madison, Wisconsin.
-------
expected to decrease at a sufficient rate to warrant more frequent rigorous
cleaning or implementation of a preventive cleaning strategy. Such strate-
gies may include regular usage (e.g., monthly) of techniques that only par-
tially restore a'SOTE but do not require aeration basin dewatering. These
techniques are combined with periodic, less frequent utilization of rigorous
cleaning methods that restore diffuser performance to "like new" or nearly
new conditions but do necessitate basin dewatering.
Cleaning techniques that require the aeration basin to be taken out of
service to gain access to the diffusers have been broadly classified by the
Committee as process interruptive techniques (1). Those that do not require
such access are referred to as process noninterruptive techniques (1). A
further distinction can be made in the process interruptive category between
those techniques that require the diffusers to be removed for cleaning once
the basin is dewatered (ex srtu) and those that do not require removal (in
s1tu)(l). All process noninterruptive techniques are by definition in situ
procedures.
In-situ techniques in use today include high and low pressure water
hosing, brushing, steam cleaning, externally-applied liquid acid soaking,
internally injected acid gas or liquid, and flexing. The first four are all
process interruptive methods that are applied to the external surfaces of
diffusers. Internally-injected gas or liquid and flexing are the only pro-
cess noninterruptive techniques to be commercially developed to date.
Hosing, brushing, and steam cleaning are all predicated on the use of
physical action to dislodge loosely adherrent, liquid-side biological fou-
lants. Biological foulants consist of an initial slime layer of primarily
biological origin that subsequently entraps inert materials (sand, grit,
etc.) that impinge on the diffuser surface. As the slime layer grows, a
gelatinous mixture forms whose nonvolatile content can vary from 10 to 90
percent, depending on the character of the wastewater. Steam cleaning may
provide an additional benefit in some cases of dissolving greases and oils
in the gelatinous mixture.
Externally-applied liquid acid cleaning is used primarily to dissolve
inorganic scale that forms on the surfaces and within the interstices of
ceramic diffusers from chemical precipitation. Hosing, brushing, and steam
cleaning are not effective for this purpose. A solution of 14-percent HC1 is
applied to the surface of each diffuser with a portable spray applicator and
then hosed off after 20 to 30 minutes. Externally-applied liquid acid
cleaning is not appropriate for flexible membrane diffusers and also not for
porous plastic diffusers unless they are made of acid-resistant materials.
Some operators have found that a combination of rigorous cleaning tech-
niques is necessary to cope with the variety of foulants that may exist at a
given plant. For example, the sequence of hosing or steam cleaning followed
by a 20- to 30-minute external application of 14-percent liquid HC1 followed
by rehosing of the spend acid has been reported to be effective in removing
both organic and inorganic foulants from ceramic diffusers and restoring
their transfer efficiencies to the original "like new" condition (1). This
sequence using hosing as the first step is known as the Milwaukee method,
687
-------
acknowledging one of the first cities that employed it.
Internal acid gas cleaning utilizes injection of an aggressive gas (HC1
for porous ceramic diffusers; formic acid for porous plastic diffusers) into
the air supply for passage through the diffuser media from the air side. Since
the technique does not require basin dewatering, it can be readily applied at
frequent intervals as needed. An approximate cost for internal HC1 gas appli-
cation is 6 to H per diffuser per cleaning (5). Initially developed by Sani-
taire, Water Pollution Control Corp. (U.S. Patent No. 4,382,867) to combat
chemical scale formation, there is now evidence that HCl gas cleaning may also
be effective against some biofoulants (6). It will not remove inert granular
material such as silica deposited or entrapped in gelatinous slimes adhering
to the liquid side of ceramic diffusers. Its principal use is envisioned as
a preventive procedure to extend the interval between more rigorous cleaning.
An alternative in-situ technique proposed by the Norton Company for
cleaning ceramic diffusers utilizes liquid HCl instead of gaseous HCl. With
this technique (7), liquid HCl is first injected into the air supply piping
followed in succession by 1) turning off the air supply, 2) mixing the liquid
acid with backflowing or added water, 3) forcing the solution into the dif-
fuser media pores by briefly turning on the air supply, 4) turning off the
air supply and allowing the acidic solution to saturate and contact the
clogged pores for sufficient time to react with the foulants, and 5) forcing
the spent solution into the basin liquid by turning the air supply on again.
This sequence is generally repeated at least once to promote the maximum
obtainable level of cleaning, consistent with the character of the foulants.
Although a recently installed full-scale prototype liquid HCl cleaning system
has reportedly been successfully demonstrated at La Crosse, Wisconsin (8),
published results were not yet available at the time of this writing. The
technique is claimed to be effective in dissolving and removing internal fou-
lants (primarily carbonate scale) and causing the release of biological
surface-adherring foulants (7), Effectiveness is reportedly enhanced in a
high hardness, high alkalinity environment.
Flexing is applicable only to flexible membrane diffusers and involves
periodically shutting off the air to collapse the flexible sheath onto its
frame, then increasing the air flow to approximately twice its normal rate
to balloon the sheath, and finally returning to the normal air flow rate.
The premise of flexing is that alternate collapsing and ballooning of the
membrane sheath causes foulants to break away from the surface and from
around the orifices. Like internal gas cleaning, flexing is an inexpensive
preventive cleaning strategy that can be used in an attempt to decrease the
frequency of or need for rigorous cleaning.
Diffuser refiring (applied only to ceramic diffusers) is the principal
ex situ cleaning technique being used today. It involves heating the dif-
"fUsers in a kiln in the same fasion and to the same temperature used in their
manufacture to thermally remove essentially all foulants from the surfaces
and/or incorporated within the pores. Diffusers removed for refiring are
typically replaced immediately with other diffusers that have already been
refired to minimize downtime. The removed diffusers are transferred to a
"diffuser bank" for later use once they are refired. Refiring, although
688
-------
highly effective in restoring diffusers to their original condition, involves
extensive labor and a certain degree of diffuser element breakage as well as
the refining operation itself. It is the most expensive of the methods cur-
rently in use and is practiced primarily in the United Kingdom.
Another ex situ cleaning technique used only in the United Kingdom is
acid bath soaking of ceramic diffusers. This method is not widely practiced.
The Screiber Corporation utilizes an ex situ jet washing machine to clean its
fine pore tube diffusers.
The Green Bay Project
As described earlier in this paper, the Committee is assisting in spon-
soring studies at seven municipal treatment plants that will evaluate all of
the above diffuser cleaning methods except steam cleaning. A study of consid-
erable magnitude is being undertaken at the time of this writing by the Green
Bay (Wisconsin) Metropolitan Sewerage District (GBMSD). The District operates
an activated sludge plant with an average design capacity of 2.3 m3/sec (52.5
mgd). Currently, the plant is receiving a flow of about 1.8 m3/sec (42 mgd)
with an aeration system influent TBODs concentration that averages approxi-
mately 440 mg/L. A combination of paper mill, meat packing, and canning
wastes contributes significantly to the plant load. All of the influent
wastewater receives primary treatment except the paper mill fraction of the
industrial wastes.
The Green Bay aeration tankage is comprised of four contact stabiliza-
tion quadrants (9). Each quadrant has a contact basin with dimensions of
74.4 m x 22.3 m x 6.2 m SWD (244 ft x 73.3 ft x 20.5 ft) and a stabilization
basin with dimensions of 74.4 m x 11.1 m x 7.8 m SWD (244 ft x 36.3 ft x 22.b
ft). Both the contact and stabilization basins are operated in the plug flow
mode. The Green Bay plant has excess treatment capacity and, therefore, does
not need to keep all of its aeration basins in service at any one time.
Typically, only enough contact and stabilization basins are operated to
prevent the contact basin volumetric organic loading from exceeding 4.0 kg
TBOlVday/nr3 (250 lb/ day/ 1000 cu ft).
Prior to the study, the Green Bay plant was equipped entirely with sub-
merged turbine aerators: 93-kW (125-hp) units that actually drew 78 kw (105
hp) in the contact basins and 56-kW (75-hp) units that actually drew 48 kW
(65 hp) in the stabilization basins (9). An analysis conducted in 1984
indicated that to transfer 81,700 kg 02/day (180,100 lb/day) to satisfy an
average design load of 81,700 kg TBODs/day (180,100 lb/day) would require a
total power draw of 3500 kW (4695 hp) with the existing turbine aerators.
These figures equate to a field aeration efficiency (a'SAE) of 1.02 kg
02/kWh (1.67 Ib/wire hp-hr). Estimated power requirements were split 39% for
the turbines and 61% for the blowers. This power estimate was based on an
assumed field OTE (at 2 mg/L DO) of 19% and an assumed alpha factor of 1.0.
The same analysis suggested that considerable power might be saved by
retrofitting the Green Bay aeration basins with fine pore aeration (9). To
treat the same 81,700-kg TBOD5/day (180,100-lb/day) design load with fine pore
ceramic disc diffusers, it was estimated that the total power draw could be
689
-------
reduced to 1665 kW (2230 hp), a 52.5% savings in aeration energy. This pro-
jection, which was based on assumed field OTE's (at 2 mg/L DO) of 15.8-19.6%
in the contact basins and 23.8% in the stabilization basins and assumed alpha
factors of 0.6-0.75 in the contact basins and 0.9 in the stabilization basins,
would result in an a'SAE of 2.14 kg 02/kWh (3.51 Ib/wire hp-hr). Based on a
present worth analysis approach and the above energy projection, the payback
period for a ceramic disc system was estimated at 1.5 years.
Likewise, an energy projection was also prepared based on retrofitting
with fine pore flexible membrane tube diffusers (9). The assumed alpha
factors were the same as for the ceramic disc diffusers, but the assumed con-
tact and stabilization basin field OTE's (at 2 mg/L DO) were somewhat lower
at 12.4-15.4% and 18.7%, respectively. The estimated aeration energy require-
ment to treat the aforementioned design load was 2125 kW (2850 hp), a reduc-
tion of 39.3% compared with the existing turbines and equivalent to an a'SAE
of 1.67 kg 02/kWh (2.75 Ib/wire hp-hr). The projected payback period was 1.8
years.
To more accurately define the potential for saving aeration energy, the
District decided to conduct a side-by-side comparison of the above two fine
pore diffusion systems. Ceramic discs were installed in one quadrant and
flexible membrane tubes in a second quadrant. The submerged turbines were
left intact in the other two quadrants. Since the beginning of the evalua-
tion in May 1986, the two fine pore diffuser quadrants have handled most of
the plant load. A third contact basin (either one of the two remaining
submerged turbine contact basins) is brought on line as needed to reduce the
contact basin volumetric organic loading to 4.0 kg TBOD5/day/rtr (250 lb/day/
1000 cu ft) or less.
GBMSD and its consultant postulated that the key to maintaining the
desired high field OTE's and realizing maximum power savings was a preventive
diffuser cleaning program that would routinely interrupt and reverse the
inherent diffuser fouling pattern before extensive fouling occurred. Signifi-
cantly high fine pore media fouling rates were anticipated due to the nature
of the combined municipal/industrial wastewater. A program was initiated to
investigate the effects of regular internal acid gas cleaning on the performance
of the ceramic disc diffusers. Similarly, a program to evaluate the efficacy
of regular membrane flexing on the performance of the flexible tube diffusers
was also implemented. The contact and stabilization basin air diffusion
systems were divided into six plug flow grids or bays per basin (Figure 7)(10).
In the contact basins, the north grids were cleaned and the south grids were
not, providing a control against which to measure cleaning effectiveness. In
the stabilization basins, only every other grid or bay was subjected to
cleaning.
Using Figure 7 as a reference, grids C-1N, C-2N, and R-l of the ceramic
disc quadrant were gas cleaned on 5/29/86, 7/10/86, 8/19-8/20/86, 9/24/86,
and 10/21/86. Grids C-3N, C-4N, and R-3 were gas cleaned on 7/10/86, 8/19-
8/20/86, and 9/30/86, while grids C-5N, C-6N, and R-5 were cleaned only on
8/19-8/20/86. As indicated by the numbering sequence, the more heavily
loaded grids (nearer the influent end) were cleaned more frequently. In the
flexible member diffuser quadrant, the north grid diffusers in the contact
690
-------
RAS
Mixed Liquor
To Clarifier
vO
Stab.
Basins
R-1
R-2
R-3
R-4
R-5
R-6
C-6S C-6N
______j___ __
C-5S C-5N
C-4S C-4N
.______f_______
C-3S C-3N
C-2S C-2N
, i .
C-1S C-1N
i
I
Reaerated
Sludge Pri. Eff.
North
Mixed Liquor
To Clarifier
RAS
itact
sins
C-6S C-6N
C-5S C-5N
C-4S C-4N
C-3S C-3N
C-2S C-2N
_I
C-1S C-1N
R-1
R-2
R-3
R-4
R-5
R-6
I
Reaerated
Pri. Eff. Sludge
Stab.
Basins
Flexible Tube Quadrant
Ceramic Disc Quadrant
FIGURE 7. Schematic Diagrams of Flexible Tube and Ceramic Disc
Aeration Basins at Green Bay, Wisconsin (10).
-------
basin (C-1N through C-6N) and every other stabilization basin grid (R-l, R-3,
and R-5) were air flexed every 3 weeks during the May-October 1986 period.
For this period, the SRT of the ceramic disc system averaged 2.65 days com-
pared to 2.61 days for the flexible tube system (10).
Off-gas OTE results for five tests are summarized 1n Tabli 5 comparing
performance of the cleaned vs. the uncleaned grids for the two contact basins.
As Indicated, the tests span the period prior to the Initiation of add gas
cleaning and membrane flexing (I.e., when the dlffusers were new) through
October 1986.
In Table 6, the oxygen transfer performance of the cleaned and uncleaned
grids is combined for each quadrant. a'SOTE results and estimates of apparent
alpha are given for both the contact and stabilization basins. As indicated,
an extra contact basin equipped with existing submerged turbine aerators was
in service on three of the five test dates to reduce the organic loading on
the ceramic dome and flexible tube contact basins.
The two test systems were placed in side-by-side operation (the ceramic
discs new and the flexible tubes after one process interruptive rigorous
cleaning) on 4/26/86. The data in Tables 5 and 6 show that process noninter-
ruptive preventive cleaning was apparently not required to maintain oxygen
transfer efficiency at original "like new" levels in either system for the
first two months (through 7/2/86). Sometime in July, oxygen transfer effi-
ciencies began to drop as noted by the 7/30/86 off-gas test results. The
substantial drops in a'SOTE values during this period, indicative of rapid
fouling rates, may have been stimulated by the onset of the local canning
season. Continued regular preventive cleaning through October 1986 failed
to fully restore oxygen transfer performance to its original level. When
compared with uncleaned diffuser test results (Table 5), it is questionable
whether preventive cleaning had any significant effect on diffuser oxygen
transfer performance in the contact basin of either system.
Comparing the average of the clean and uncleaned diffuser test data in
Table 6 indicates little difference in process water performance between the
two systems. Overall, oxygen transfer performance for the two diffuser sys-
tems through October 1986 was judged to be equivalent by the project engineer
(10).
Because of deteriorating effluent quality in October 1986 (presumably
due in part to reduced oxygen transfer performance), Green Bay plant person-
nel requested that rigorous cleaning of both systems be considered. The pro-
ject engineer concurred, and it was decided to drain and clean both aeration
basin systems in November 1986 before severe winter conditions arrived.
The rigorous cleaning procedure used for the ceramic discs consisted of
low pressure hosing with fire hoses from the basin walkways, partially
filling the basins with water and gas cleaning the diffusers using 0.09 kg
(0.2 lb) HC1 gas per disc, draining the basin again, and rehosing from the
tank top. The flexible membrane tubes were first subjected to high pressure
hosing from 1-1/2 to 3 m (5 to 10 ft) using a jet rodding machine with a
discharge pressure at the nozzle of about 9 kN/m2 (100 psig) followed by
692
-------
TABLE 5. COMPARISON OF CONTACT BASIN OXYGEN TRANSFER PERFORMANCE FOR
PREVENTIVELY CLEANED VS. UNCLEANED DIFFUSER GRIDS, GREEN BAY. WISCONSIN (10),
a'SOTE (%)
Date
5/13/86
5/15/86
7/2/86
7/30/86
10/30/86
Ceramic
North Grid
(Cleaned)
14.1
14.9
16.2
10.4
11.9
Disc Quadrant
South Grid
(Uncleaned)
15.8
14.8
17.1
9.1
12. b
Flexible
North Grid
^Cleaned)
16.6
16.7
16.9
9.8
14.1
Tube Quadrant
South Grid
(Uncleaned)
16.7
16.2
16.6
14.9
14.6
TABLE 6. COMPARISON OF CERAMIC DISC AND FLEXIBLE MEMBRANE TUBE OXYGEN TRANSFER
PERFORMANCE DURING PREVENTIVE CLEANING FOR CONTACT AND STABILIZATION BASINS,
GREEN BAY, WISCONSIN (10).
Ceramic Disc Quadrant
Date
5/12/86
5/13/86
5/16/86
5/15/86
7/1/86
7/2/86
7/29/86
7/30/86
10/29/86
10/30/86
Avg.
Avg.
Basin
Stab.
Contact
Stab.
Contact
Stab.
Contact
Stab.
Contact
Stab.
Contact
Stab.
Contact
Air Flow
Rate per
Diffuser
(L/sec)
0.73
0.86
0.80
1.03
1.14
0.98
0.94
1.53
1.09
1.25
0.94
1.13
a'SOTE
(*)
18.5
15.0
17.2
14.9
21.4
16.9
14.6
9.8
11.6
12.2
16.7
13.8
a1
0.50
0.45
0.50
0.47
0.65
0.57
0.42
0.32
0.34
0.39
0.48
0.44
Flexible
Air Flow
Rate per
Diffuser
(L/sec)
1.58
1.19
1.65
1.47
1.65
1.30
1.89
1.77
1.62
1.52
1.68
1.45
Tube Quadrant
a' SOTE
(*)
17.8
16.7
17.2
16.4
18.6
16.7
11.5
12.2
13.4
14.3
15.7
15.3
a1
0.53
0.48
0.52
0.50
0.57
0.53
0.35
0.40
0.41
0.44
0.48
0.47
Extra
Contact
Basin in
Service
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
693
-------
scrubbing with a nylon brush and low pressure hosing or rinsing. The above
cleaning procedures were applied to all diffusers in the two test contact
basins and two test stabilization basins, not just the diffuser grids to
which preventive cleaning had previously been applied.
The effect of rigorous cleaning on the two systems was assessed in early
December 1986 using off-gas analysis. The results of this testing are summar-
ized in Table 7. a'SOTE data for this test plus the five off-gas tests
conducted during the preventive cleaning cycle are plotted in Figure 8 for
the contact basins and in Figure 9 for the stabilization basins.
TABLE 7. EFFECT OF RIGOROUS CLEANING ON CERAMIC DISC AND FLEXIBLE MEMBRANE
TUBE OXYGEN TRANSFER PERFORMANCE, GREEN BAY, WISCONSIN (10)
Ceramic Disc Quadrant
Date
12/2/86
12/3/86
Basin
Stab.
Contact
Air Flow
Rate per
Diffuser
(L/sec)
0.81
0.75
a'SOTE
(%} a'
19.6 0.55
19.1 0.57
Flexible
Ai r Flow
Rate per
Diffuser
(L/sec)
1.15
0.96
Tube Quadrant
a'SOTE
(%)
13.1 0.38
16.3 0.46
Extra
Contact
Basin in
Service
Yes
It is apparent that rigorous cleaning had greater positive impact on the
ceramic discs than on the flexible tubes. Ceramic disc a'SOTE1s were restored
to values in both the contact and stabilization basins that were higher than
the May 1986 ("like new" condition) values. On the other hand, the flexible
tube stabilization basin a'SOTE did not improve at all over the October 1986
value while the contact basin exhibited a modest improvement over the October
1986 value but not quite back to the May 1986 ("like new" condition) value.
Further work is required to determine why the rigorous scrubbing and
hosing technique failed to fully restore flexible membrane diffuser oxygen
transfer performance to ''like new" conditions. Another 10 months of study
were scheduled for Green Bay beyond December 1986 to further evaluate pre-
ventive and rigorous cleaning on both types of fine pore diffuser systems.
These data were not available to the authors during the preparation of this
paper.
It is interesting to note the effect of diffuser fouling on air flow
rate per diffuser. Initially, both types of diffusers were operating within
their recommended specific air flow rates: 0.47-0.94 L/sec (1-2 scfm) for
the ceramic discs and 1.18-1.65 L/sec (2.5-3.5 scfm) for the flexible tubes.
As fouling progressed, particularly in July 1986, specific air flow rates
rose to levels outside the recommended range for the discs and near the upper
end or outside the recommended range for the tubes. Increasing specific air
flow rates produce higher headlosses, larger bubbles, and lower OTE's (Table
6). After rigorous cleaning was implemented, the specific air flow rates for
694
-------
20
18 -
16 -
fe 14 -
V)
12 -
10
8
Flexible Tube
Contact Basin
Ceramic Grid
Contact Basin-
Preventive
Cleaning
5/1 6/1 7/1 8/1 9/1
Date - 1986
10/1
11/1
Rigorous
Cleaning
12/1
FIGURE 8. Effect of Diffuser Cleaning on Contact Basin Fine Pore
Aeration Systems at Green Bay, Wisconsin (10).
-------
22^
20-
18 -
UJ
16 -
14 -
12 -1
10
Ceramic Grid
Stab. Basin
5/1
Flexible Tube
Stab. Basin
Preventive
Cleaning
Rigorous
Cleaning
6/1
7/1
8/1
Date -
9/1
1986
10/1
I
11/1
1
12/1
FIGURE 9. Effect of Diffuser Cleaning on Stabilization Basin Fine
Pore Aeration Systems at Green Bay, Wisconsin (10).
696
-------
both diffuser types decreased back into or to lower than their recommended
ranges (Table 7). Since a1 values for the flexible membrane diffusers did
not change dramatically after rigorous cleaning, it appears that the reduced
specific air flow rates for these units were due in part, at least, to a
decrease in oxygen demand. This is plausible since the Green Bay canning
season usually ends in November.
A similar effect of fouling on «' can also be seen in Tables 6 and 7.
When the diffusers were first installed, a1 and a were theoretically the
same with values of 0.45 to 0.50 for the ceramic discs and 0.48 to 0.53 for
the flexible tubes. While the diffusers were still relatively clean through
early July 1986, a1 remained at or slightly above the original values in all
four basins. With the onset of the canning season, however, diffuser fouling
rates increased rapidly and a1 dropped to 0.4 or lower in all basins. Rigor-
ous cleaning restored a1 to better than the original conditions for the
ceramic discs, but the flexible tube a1 values continued to decrease. This
discrepancy provides further evidence that while the drop-off in oxygen
transfer performance for the discs was due to fouling, the performance deteri-
oration for the flexible tubes was caused by other factors, such as possible
changes in diffuser characteristics.
The results of early testing at Green Bay suggest that the District will
have to modify its original planned operating procedure for a retrofitted
plant. It was estimated that if a1 could be maintained between 0.6 and 0.75,
the plant could meet all expected oxygen demand situations with only two of
four available quadrants in service. Hot only were the "like new" a1 values
lower than this range, but preventive cleaning failed to significantly retard
decreases in these values once the canning season load began to be received
at the plant.
Based on results to date and the assumption that more diffusers will not
be installed in the two fine pore quadrants, the following operating strate-
gies, among others, appear to be potential options for GBMSD: 1) utilize
more frequent rigorous cleaning to maintain a' values as high as possible,
2) operate a third contact basin (equipped with submerged turbine aerators)
as needed to alleviate the organic load on the retrofitted basins, 3) operate
the fine pore diffusers at higher specific air flows than recommended by the
manufacturer, or 4) a combination of two or more of the above. Regardless of
what choice is made, the District will probably have to accept lower field
OTE's and a somewhat longer payback period than originally hoped for. It
should be emphasized, however, that despite the lesser performance, the Dis-
trict will still save substantial aeration energy compared with the existing
submerged turbine equipment.
The Whittier Narrows Project
In contrast to Green Bay where, to date, internal acid gas cleaning has
been ineffective in maintaining consistent oxygen transfer performance, the
Whittier Narrows Water Reclamation Plant of the Los Angeles (California)
County Sanitation Districts (LACSD) aappears to be maintaining oxygen trans-
fer performance at consistent levels with an acid gas cleaning program.
Whittier Narrows is a high-rate plant with an F/M loading of about 1.3 kg
697
-------
total chemical oxygen demand (TCOD)/day/kg MLVSS, or 0.7 kg TBOD5/day/kg
MLVSS, and an SRT of 1.7 to 2.9 days (11). The plant has three parallel
aeration basins currently being operated in the plug flow configuration.
Two of the basins are equipped with ceramic dome diffusers and the other with
ceramic disc diffusers.
Historically, these diffusers have tended to slime fairly rapidly possi-
bly due to such factors as wastewater characteristics and low-SRT and low-DO
modes of operation. Prior to May 1986, the a'SOTE of the disc aeration
system was being maintained at an average value of approximately 8.5% by peri-
odic tank draining followed by hosing of the diffusers from the tank top.
In May 1986, the diffusers in all three basins were subjected to the
Milwaukee cleaning method (high pressure hosing/external liquid HC1 spray
application/high pressure hosing). Just prior to the rigorous Milwaukee
method cleaning, a1 for the discs was 0.28. After the cleaning, apparent
alpha values for the disc diffuser system were elevated to about 0.33 and a'
SOTE values to about 10.3 percent by this technique (11).
Since May 1986, the ceramic disc basin has been internal acid gas
cleaned on a schedule of every 3 months for the first diffuser grid, every 6
months for the second grid, and every 9 months for the third grid. This
procedure has so far maintained the a' and a'SOTE values, respectively, at
approximately the 0.33 and 10.3 percent levels established by the Milwaukee
method restoration (11). Gas cleaning also appears to be effective in pre-
venting a buildup in DWP.
A similar cleaning program was instituted on one of the ceramic dome
basins. Unfortunately, gas leakage between the diffuser media and the base
plates on some of the dome diffusers has made a comprehensive evaluation
impossible. The leakage may be partially due to atypical gaskets and/or
bolts. Negotiations are currently underway with the diffuser manufacturer to
replace the diffusers, gaskets, and bolts so that an effective gas cleaning
evaluation program on domes can be implemented at Whittier Narrows.
At this point in time, acid gas cleaning appears to be a technically
feasible alternative to rigorous manual cleaning for maintaining consistent a1
SOTE values at Whittier Narrows. The cost effectiveness of this cleaning
method, however, needs to be further evaluated under varying plant operating
conditions.
Acid gas cleaning studies on ceramic fine pore diffusers are also under-
way at Frankenmuth, Michigan. Acid gas cleaning is utilized whenever the DWP
of Frankenmuth's ceramic discs reaches 46 cm (18 in.). Gas cleaning results
in a lowering of DWP to 18 to 20 cm (7 to 8 in.). At the time of this writing,
off-gas test data were not yet available to determine whether the reduction in
DWP is also accompanied by an increase in a'SOTE. Acid gas cleaning effective-
ness at all three sites discussed above will be updated in the CDOM in 1989.
-------
SUMMARY
Significant progress has been made in filling the technical gaps on fine
pore diffuser design and operation identified by the ASCE Committee on Oxygen
Transfer in 1985. Much still remains to be learned. While it is unreasonable
to expect that all questions will be answered by 1989, it is believed suffi-
cient new information and sound engineering data will have been generated to
permit the preparation of a truly comprehensive design and operating guide
document.
The progress made to date prompts the authors to offer the following
interim summary observations:
1. While of concern with some plants, fine pore diffuser fouling in the
United States does not appear to be as prevalent or severe as first
contemplated.
2. Other factors, most notably wastewater characteristics and process opera-
ting conditions, play a larger role than fouling in lowering field OTE's
for some fine pore diffuser installations.
3. A correlation appears to exist between fine pore diffuser performance and
SRT (or F/M loading). Increasing SRT promotes improved diffuser perform-
ance; as much as a two-fold increase in a'SUTE has been noted over the
range of SRT's studied.
4. It may be possible to save aeration energy by increasing process SRT from
a non-nitrifying to a nitrifying range. This can happen when the resul-
ting increase in a'SOTE is more rapid than the increase in oxygen demand/
oxygen uptake caused by nitrification and greater endogenous respiration.
5. Preliminary information indicates that plug flow operation may produce
higher a'SOTE values than the step aeration mode of operation, at least
in short-SRT systems.
6. Rigorous cleaning, while necessitating tank draining and process inter-
ruption, is effective in restoring ceramic diffuser field OTE to "like
new" conditions.
7. Internal acid gas cleaning effectiveness in restoring ceramic fine pore
diffuser performance and/or retarding the rate of field OTE loss appears
to be site specific.
-------
REFERENCES
1. Summary Report - Fine Pore (Fine Bubble) Aeration Systems. Editor -
W.C. Boyle, EPA/625/8-85/010, U.S. EPA, Technology Transfer and Water
Engineering Research Labortory, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 1985.
2, American Society of Civil Engineers. ASCE Standard - Measurement of
Oxygen Transfer in Clean Water. ISBN 0-87262-430-7, New York, New York,
July 1984.
3. American Society of Civil Engineers. Oxygen Transfer Under Process
Conditions. Editor - W.C. Boyle, Final report for U.S. EPA Cooperative
Agreement No. CR808840, Water Engineering Research Laboratory, Cincinnati,
Ohio, In press.
4. Robertson, P., V.K. Thomas, and B. Chambers. Energy Saving-Optimization
of Fine-Bubble Aeration. Final report for U.S. EPA Cooperative Agreement
No. CR808855, Water Engineering Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio,
Prepared by Water Research Centre, Stevenage, England, In press.
5. Survey report from M.J. Pierner, Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District,
Green Bay, Wisconsin, to J.A. Heidman, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, April
15, 1987.
6. Wren, J.D. Gas Cleaning of Ceramic Diffusers. Biofouling Seminar, New
York Water Pollution Control Federation Annual Meeting, Hyatt Regency,
New York, New York, January 22, 1985.
7. In-Situ Acid Cleaning System for Porous Diffuser Systems. Product infor-
mation bulletin, Norton Company, Northboro, Massachusetts, 1986.
8. Personal communication from G. Rushton, Norton Company, Northboro, Massa-
chusetts, to R.C. Brenner, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio, July 27, 1987.
9. Letter report from J.J. Marx, Donohue & Associates, Inc., Sheboygan,
Wisconsin, to P. Thormodsgard, Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District,
Green Bay, Wisconsin, November 30, 1984.
10. Letter report from J.J. Marx, Donohue & Associates, Inc. Sheboygan,
Wisconsin, to P. Thormodsgard, Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District,
Green Bay, Wisconsin, March 4, 1987.
11. Personal communication from M.K. Stenstrom, University of California at
Los Angeles, California, to R.C. Brenner, U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio,
July 10, 1987.
700
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In addition to recognizing the subcontractors and Steering Subcom-
mittee members who have worked on this project over the past 2 years, the
authors wish to especially acknowledge the cooperation of the Green Bay (WI)
Metropolitan Sewerage District, the Madison (WI) Metropolitan Sewerage Dis-
trict, and the Los Angeles County (CA) Sanitation Districts. In addition, we
wish to thank Dr. Michael K. Stenstrom, Mr. James J. Marx, Dr. Hugh J. Camp-
bell, Jr., Dr. James A. Heidman, Dr. James J. McKeown, Mr. Fred W. Yunt, Mr.
Lloyd Ewing, Mr. David T. Redmon, Dr. Henryk Melcer, Mr. Gordon Speirs, and
Mr. Jerome D. Wren for their review of this manuscript.
701
-------
-------
THE USE OF BIOMONITORING
IN MICHIGAN'S SURFACE WATER QUALITY PROGRAM
by
Paul D. Zugger, Chief
Surface Water Quality Division
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 30028
Lansing, Michigan 48909
This paper has been reviewed in accordance with
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's peer
and administrative review policies and approved
for presentation and publication.
Prepared for Presentation at:
Eleventh United States/Japan Conference
on Sewage Treatment Technology
Tokyo, Japan
October 12-14, 1987
703
-------
CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 705
SURVEILLANCE BIOMONITORING 706
Fish Contaminant Monitoring 706
Biosurveys 708
COMPLIANCE BIOMONITORING 709
Acute Toxicity Test Methods 710
Chronic Toxicity Test Methods 711
Quality Assurance/Control Tests 712
Biouptake Assessments 712
BIOMONITORING IN SURFACE WATER DISCHARGE PERMITS 713
SUMMARY 714
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 715
FIGURES AND TABLES 716
Figure 1. Procedure for Preparation of "Standard fillets"
analyzed in this study 717
Table 1. Standard Edible Portions of Michigan's Sport
and Commercial Fishes 718
Table 2. Fish Analysis Parameters List 719
APPENDICES 720
A. Physical, Chemical and Biological Monitoring Results from
the Kalamazoo River, Comstock to Plainwell, 1984, dated
February, 1986 721
B. A Biological Investigation of Prairie River and Prairie River
Lake, St. Joseph County, August 12, 1986 744
C. Water, Sediment, and Macroinvertebrate Survey of the South
Branch Raisin River, and Eastside Drain, vicinity of Adrian,
1982-85 752
D. Department of Natural Resources, Water Resources Commission,
General Rules, Part 4. Water Quality Standards, filed with
Secretary of State November 14, 1986 768
704
-------
INTRODUCTION
Biomoniton'ng is the assessment of water quality through the observation
of impacts of contaminants in water and wastewater on biological organisms.
Biomonitoring has been a key aspect of Michigan's water pollution control
program for many years. Michigan has used biological techniques to assess
the quality of surface waters of the State and wastewater effluents since the
early 1950's. Biological techniques which have been employed consist of
acute fish and macroinvertebrate toxicity tests on effluents, fish contami-
nant monitoring, taste and odor studies, biouptake studies and the tradi-
tional biosurveys which evaluate instream benthic macroinvertebrate and fish
communities.
Many of the early biomonitoring activities were conducted to evaluate
gross pollution problems caused by excessive discharges of solids, oxygen
consuming substances, oils, and heavy metals. Prior to the major pollution
control programs of the last 25 years, severe impacts on biological communi-
ties, including frequent fish kills, were prevalent. Pollution-tolerant
aquatic organisms dominated the benthic community for long distances down-
stream of wastewater discharges. The elimination of unacceptable acute
toxicity was a primary concern of the water pollution control programs of
that time period.
Today water pollution problems in Michigan are quite different. As a
result of efforts of municipal and industrial dischargers, and a strong
regulatory program, gross problems have been essentially eliminated. More
subtle impacts to the biological communities of our surface waters, however,
remain and are of concern. Chronic toxicity to aquatic organisms, including
reproductive effects, and the bioaccumulation of toxic substances by aquatic
organisms with the eventual impact on fish-eating birds and mammals are
especially significant. In response to the changing types of problems,
biological techniques for documenting and defining the extent of these
concerns have to be modified and refined.
Today Michigan's biomonitoring program consists of both a surveillance
aspect and a compliance monitoring aspect. Surveillance monitoring is
conducted in ambient waters while compliance monitoring is conducted primari-
ly on wastewater discharges. Major activities under both of these aspects
are summarized in this paper. The use of biomonitoring in Michigan's dis-
charge permit program, through which Michigan administers the federal
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program, is
also discussed.
705
-------
SURVEILLANCE BIOMONITORING
Surveillance monitoring is comprised of two primary activities: Fish
Contaminant Monitoring, and Biological Lake and Stream assessments.
Fish Contaminant Monitoring
Michigan's first comprehensive fish contaminant monitoring program was
conducted from 1969 through 1978. In 1986, Michigan reinstituted and expand-
ed the fish contaminant monitoring program at an annual cost of approximately
$400,000. Under this program, fish are collected from approximately 40
sites, totaling approximately 700 samples.
The goal of the fish contaminant monitoring program is to collect and
analyze data on contaminant levels in fish so that fisheries managers> water
quality administrators, public health officials, and the public can make
informed management decisions and be apprised of the contaminant levels in
fish from various geographical areas of Michigan. The specific objectives of
the program are:
0 To collect and analyze fish to determine their contaminant status;
0 To develop a computerized data base for storing and statistically
analyzing fish contaminant data;
0 To evaluate the overall quality of surface waters through analysis of
fish contaminant data;
0 To evaluate the effectiveness of surface water quality regulatory
programs to control persistent, bioaccumulative chemicals;
0 To develop and implement an effective means of communicating fish
contaminant data to the public on a timely basis;
0 To identify "new" chemical contaminants in fish and determine long-term
trends of toxic substances concentrations in fish.
Several of the objectives noted above will take many years of effort and
refinement to fully accomplish. The program consists of the sampling and
analyzing of sport fish in the Great Lakes and nearshore areas (Elements 1
and 2), in inland rivers and streams (Elements 3 and 4), and in inland lakes
(Elements 5 and 6), and the performance of limited special studies
(Element 7).
Element 1 - Great Lakes Sport Fish Monitoring: Sport fish from the
Great Lakes and connecting channels within Michigan's political bounda-
ries are collected for contaminant analyses. Standard edible portions
are analyzed and the data compared to Michigan Department of Public
Health (MDPH) action levels or other criteria. Based upon the results,
public health advisories may be issued or revised for sport anglers by
the MDPH; management information can be transmitted to appropriate
pollution control authorities; and long-term trends can be analyzed.
70fi
-------
Element 2 - Great Lakes Nearshore Problem Identification: River mouths
and embankments, particularly those which receive significant municipal
and/or industrial discharges, have been identified as locations with
potential toxic materials contamination. Whole fish of species and
sizes likely to accumulate contaminants are collected and analyzed, or
caged fish studies are conducted to detect new or previously unidenti-
fied contamination, identify geographic areas of concern for a
broad range of contaminants, and provide long-term trend data which can
be used to evaluate pollution control programs.
Element 3 - Stream and River Sport Fish Monitoring: Sport fish from
rivers and streams are collected for contaminant analyses. Standard
edible portions are analyzed and compared with MDPH action levels.
Based upon the results, public health advisories may be issued or
revised for sport anglers; management information is transmitted to
appropriate pollution control authorities; and evaluations are made
regarding the feasibility of fish restoration projects.
Element 4 - Stream and River Problem Identification: Rivers and streams
that receive significant municipal and/or industrial discharges or are
impacted by non-point source pollution are included in this element.
Whole fish of species and sizes likely to accumulate contaminants are
collected and analyzed to detect new and/or previously unidentified
contamination. This information is used to identify geographic areas of
concern for a broad range of contaminants and as timely management
information by appropriate pollution control authorities.
Element 5 - Inland Lakes Sport Fish Monitoring: Sport fish from inland
lakes are collected for contaminant analyses. Standard edible portions
are analyzed and compared to MDPH action levels and other criteria.
Based upon the results, public health advisories may be issued or
revised and timely management information is transmitted to appropriate
fisheries managers and pollution control authorities.
Element 6 - Inland Lakes Problem Identification: Fish from inland lakes
are collected for contaminant analyses. Whole fish are analyzed to
detect new and/or previously unidentified contamination and identify
geographic areas of concern for a broad range of contaminants, and as
management information by appropriate pollution control authorities.
Element 7 - Special Studies: This element is intended to cover those
fish monitoring activities which do not directly fit into any of the
above mentioned elements. Thus, fish collection and analytical details
will depend on the needs of the particular study being undertaken.
Fish are collected using standard fish census techniques as appropriate
for the water body and analytical method. The methods include electro-
fishing, trap nets, gill nets, seizing, trawling, and hook-and-line fishing.
Some of the fish collected from the Great Lakes are taken by sport anglers
and donated to the Department for use in this effort.
707
-------
Fillet samples are generally processed (Figure 1) on site in the field
to obtain the "standard edible portion" for the species as shown in Table 1.
The specimens are measured (total length), weighed and sexed prior to
filleting. Each sample is individually wrapped in aluminum foil, placed in a
separate polyethylene bag and kept on ice until it can be placed in freezers
until time of analysis.
Samples are analyzed by laboratories using acceptable methods of
digestion, extraction, and quantification and having adequate quality
assurance programs. In general, the fish are analyzed for all or a portion
of the parameters listed in Table 2. Additional parameters are included
based on site specific concerns.
Biosurveys
Biological lake and stream assessments, or biosurveys, are the tradi-
tional means of assessing the quality of ambient water. These assessments
have been used in Michigan for decades as indicators of the quality of
streams. One of the principal means of assessing the progress toward
achieving the goals of state and federal water pollution control laws and the
effectiveness of water pollution control efforts is the use of biosurveys.
Biological community surveys are those related to determining if the biologi-
cal community present at a site is adversely impacted by water pollution.
Water bodies in which the biological communities are not healthy are
evaluated by follow-up work to identify the causes of the impacts. Necessary
corrective programs and remedial actions are identified and required to be
implemented through the state regulatory program. After the remedial actions
are completed, the water body is reassessed to determine the success of the
corrective programs.
There are two basic types of biosurveys - those which involve a survey
of an entire river or lake system as a whole, and those oriented toward a
specific problem evaluation. An example of a river system study is the study
performed on the Kalamazoo River in 1984 by the Department of Natural Re-
sources (Appendix A). Comprehensive studies such as these are very staff
intensive and expensive.
The majority of our biosurveys are the problem-evaluation type. Problem
evaluation surveys are directed at assessing a particular problem (such as a
point source wastewater discharge), evaluating the success of a remedial
program, or investigating a more general concern such as nonpoint source
effects. These surveys range from one to many stations but are generally
confined to a few problems in a limited area.
There are two types of problem evaluation surveys: Site Investigations
and Intensive Studies. The difference between these surveys is the level of
effort involved. Site Investigations are limited 1n effort, generally
involving only a few stations. Intensive Studies are more comprehensive and
usually include five or more stations.
An example of a Site Investigation survey is the Prairie River and
Prairie River Lake study performed in August, 1986 (Appendix B). An
70R
-------
example of an Intensive Study survey is the Adrian vicinity study of 1982-
1985 (Appendix C).
In general, these studies entail a description of the physical nature of
the stream and its indigenous biological communities at selected sites along
a reach of stream. Fish, aquatic insects, and plants are identified and
on-site estimates of their abundance and distribution are made. Quantitative
and/or qualitative samples of the biota are collected and evaluated in the
field or laboratory as necessary.
One of the principal reasons for these studies is to support the dis-
charge permit program, Michigan's principal regulatory tool. This program is
managed so that ideally all 1,400 discharges have current permits, reissued
on a five-year cycle on a river basin basis. The basin approach provides for
all the permits in a basin to be considered together, thereby facilitating
waste load allocations and assuring that interactions among various dis-
charges are addressed.
The priorities for water body investigations are determined from the
river basins which are scheduled for NPDES permit reissuance during a subse-
quent fiscal year. For permit reissuance, the data on sites must be avail-
able one-to-two years in advance of permit reissuance. Therefore, necessary
water body investigations are conducted on a priority basis one-to-two years
ahead of the fiscal year in which the permits are due for reissuance.
Ideally, all discharges with potential for environmental damage are monitored
prior to permit reissuance, and the results of necessary biological studies
are available at the time of permit processing.
Problem evaluation surveys are also initiated upon r quest from district
field staff or to support enforcement actions. For enforcement purposes it
is usually necessary to document resource damages resulting from the illegal
activity and to quantify the extent of damage. Problem evaluation surveys
are also used to determine the appropriate designated use for a waterbody and
to identify necessary follow-up studies such as toxicity testing or dissolved
oxygen studies.
Currently, Michigan is conducting approximately 30 site investigations
and 10 intensive studies per year. It is MDNR's goal to increase biosurvey
capabilities to 50 site investigations and 15 intensive studies per year.
COMPLIANCE BIOMONITORING
Compliance Biomonitoring is the biomonitoring program which assures that
discharges do not cause unacceptable toxicity. These activities are per-
formed under the Department's Aquatic Toxicity Evaluation Program. These
aquatic toxicity tests examine the toxic effects of different concentrations
of a test substance (e.g., an industrial or municipal effluent) on aquatic
organisms. Replicate vessels of either individual or groups of aquatic
organisms are maintained under static, static/renewal or flow-through condi-
tions. Aquatic toxicity tests include short-term exposure (usually less than
one week) to measure acute toxicity and long-term exposure tests to measure
709
-------
chronic toxicity. Effluent aquatic toxicity tests are conducted in a
permanent-based laboratory as well as on-site at the actual discharge loca-
tion using a mobile laboratory. The goals of the Aquatic Toxicity Evaluation
Program are to:
0 Measure the acute and/or chronic toxicity of industrial and municipal
effluents, receiving waters, and other water matrices;
0 Assess whether effluents and receiving waters are in compliance with the
aquatic toxicity-related requirements of the Michigan Water Quality
Standards;
° Assess dischargers' compliance with whole effluent toxicity limits in
NPDES permits;
0 Screen wastewater effluents for acute and/or chronic toxicity for
purposes of identifying potential problem discharges;
0 Generate quality toxicological data for effluents/receiving waters to
assist enforcement actions against violators of environmental laws;
0 Verify the appropriateness of aquatic toxicity-based chemical specific
effluents limits in a facility's NPDES permit, taking into account
combined effects of the various pollutants in discharges; and
0 Develop and validate new and innovative methods for assessing aquatic
toxicity of effluents and receiving waters.
The following situations receive priority attention for compliance monitoring
activities:
0 Wastewater discharges with NPDES permits scheduled for reissuance in two
years for which concern exists for aquatic toxicity;
0 Industrial/municipal facilities which discharge wastewater to watersheds
targeted for special attention in the Michigan Department of Natural
Resources - Surface Water Quality Division Management Plan;
0 Wastewater discharges which have whole effluent toxicity limits and/or
toxicity testing requirements in their NPDES permits; and
0 Industrial/municipal effluents or leachates, known or suspected of being
toxic to aquatic life, which are targeted for special regulatory
enforcement action.
The methods listed below are currently run in the Aquatic Toxicity Evaluation
Program.
Acute Toxicity Test Methods
0 Daphnia static acute toxicity test.
710
-------
o
This test is relatively inexpensive and requires 48 hours to complete.
The test endpoint is "immobilization" of the test animal. Results can
be used to assess whether the aquatic toxicity-related requirements of
Rule 82 and, in some cases, Rule 57 of the Michigan Water Quality
Standards are being satisfied (see Appendix D).
Ceriodaphnia static acute toxicity test.
This test is similar in design and value to the Daphnia static acute
toxicity test. The test organism in Ceriodaphnia dubia.
Larval fathead minnow (_PirnpJiatfS_ promelas) static/renewal acute toxicity
test.
This test is relatively inexpensive and requires 48 or 96 hours to
complete. The test endpoint is death of the larval fish. Results
can be used to assess whether the aquatic toxicity-related requirements
of Rule 82, and in some case, Rule 57 are being satisfied.
Fathead minnow (Pimphates promelas) rainbow trout (Sahno gairdnerii)
flow-through acute toxicity test.
This test must be performed on-site using a mobile laboratory. Conse-
quently, staffing cost is considerably higher than that required for a
static test. Test duration is 96 hours and the primary test endpoint is
death of the test organism. In the mobile laboratory, test fish can be
exposed to actual effluent concentrations which exist in the receiving
stream or lake after mixing with allocated design flow. Test results
can be used to assess whether the aquatic toxicity-related requirements
of Rule 82 and, in some cases, Rule 57 are being met.
Chronic Toxicity Test Methods
° Daphnia magna 21 day chronic toxicity test.
This test is a static/renewal test which, due to its duration, is rather
costly. Test endpoints usually are death and reproductive impairment.
Test results can be used to assess whether the aquatic toxicity-related
requirements of Rule 57 are being satisfied.
0 Embryo/larval fish partial life cycle toxicity test.
This test can be performed under flow-through or static/renewal exposure
conditions and requires 28 days to complete. Fathead minnows and
rainbow trout are the most commonly used test species. Because of the
28 day exposure period, the test is also rather costly and time con-
suming. Test results can be used to assess whether the aquatic
toxicity-related requirements of Rule 57 are being met.
0 Fathead minnow larval survival and growth test.
711
-------
This newly developed test is a static/renewal experiment which requires
seven days to complete. The reduced exposure period and relatively low
cost represent its primary advantages compared to the more traditional
chronic test methods. Test endpoints are death and growth (weight
gain). Test results can be used to assess whether the aquatic toxicity-
related requirements are being satisfied.
0 Ceriodaphnia survival and reproduction test.
This newly developed test is a static/renewal experiment which usually
requires seven days to complete. The reduced exposure period and
relatively low cost represent its primary advantages. Test endpoints
are death and reproductive impairment. Test results can be used to
assess whether the aquatic toxicity-related requirements of Rule 57 are
being met.
Quality Assurance/Control Tests (QA/QC)
For purposes of demonstrating acceptable test organism culture health,
adequate laboratory water quality, and consistency in test method data, the
following QA/QC tests are conducted with standard reference toxicants:
a) Daphnia static acute toxicity test (monthly).
b) Ceriodaphnia static acute toxicity test (monthly).
c) Larval fathead minnow static acute toxicity test (monthly).
d) Ceriodaphnia survival and reproduction test (quarterly).
e) Fathead minnow larval survival and growth test (quarterly).
The data from the toxicity tests are used in various applications.
Staff reports are prepared for each aquatic toxicity evaluation which de-
scribe test objectives, methods, conclusions and recommendations. Reports
are distributed to the MDNR-Surface Water Company Division Compliance Section
and permit development staff, in addition to the discharger. Test data are
compared with existing or theoretical whole effluent toxicity limits estab-
lished for the discharge. If an exceedence is detected, appropriate regula-
tory action is taken. Test data are also used to determine whether whole
effluent toxicity limits or aquatic toxicity testing requirements need to be
included in a facility's NPDES permit. In-lab, static, acute toxicity test
data are also used to identify candidates for additional advanced
biomonitoring.
MDNR staff are presently conducting five flow-through acute tests, three
chronic static/renewal tests and 30 to 40 static acute screening tests on a
yearly basis. These numbers are lower than what is expected to be achieved
on a regular basis because of the large amount of time devoted to setting up
the new permanent laboratory in Lansing and developing staff expertise and
capability to run new short-term chronic tests.
Biouptake Assessments
These studies are used to evaluate the discharge of bioaccumulative
substances. The test generally involves caged fish placed in the
71?
-------
effluent for 28 days. Test species are usually channel catfish (Ictalurus
punctatus), six-to-ten inches long. A select number of fish (usually six)
are removed and analyzed on days zero, two, four, eight, sixteen and twenty-
eight. Individual fish are analyzed for pesticides, PCBs, heavy metals,
mercury or other bioaccumulative contaminants.
This test has only been performed infrequently by the Department
because of the extensive time required.on site. A more common practice
is to require that the test be conducted by the discharger where bio-
accumulative substances are present as a condition of the discharge permit
for facilities.
BIOMONITORING IN SURFACE WATER DISCHARGE PERMITS
Michigan is currently evaluating the expanded use of toxicity testing in
its surface water discharge program to address aquatic toxicity. Whole
effluent toxicity testing requirements, using biological organisms to assess
the acute and chronic toxicity of various concentrations of an effluent, have
been placed in permits in the past to some extent, but an increased emphasis
in this area is needed. Although Michigan has had the capability to conduct
acute toxicity tests on fish for many years, the data have been used primari-
ly to identify problems. The use of whole effluent testing in discharge
permits will enable early detection and correction of toxicity concerns
before they become significant problems.
In 1985, Michigan revised Rule 57 of its Water Quality Standards to
establish a clear process for setting effluent limitations for toxic chemi-
cals in NPDES permits. Under the revised rule, limits are established using
detailed guidelines for calculating acceptable levels in the receiving stream
after mixing to protect aquatic life as well as public health and welfare.
Since the Rule 57 package was adopted in January 1985, water quality-
based effluent limitations in permits have been primarily developed on a
chemical-specific basis. Criteria are developed and limits are established
for specific chemicals which assure compliance with the acute and chronic
aquatic toxicity requirements of the Water Quality Standards. These Stan-
dards prohibit unacceptable acute toxicity in the mixing zone and require
adequate protection against chronic toxicity after mixing. However, there
are some limitations to the chemical specific approach. It is impossible to
fully identify all chemicals in an effluent and the interaction of chemicals
cannot be directly evaluated. Therefore, to complement the chemical-specific
approach, Rule 57 also provides for the use of biological methods or whole
effluent testing techniques to address aquatic toxicity concerns. Although
whole effluent techniques have been used only sparingly in the past, Michi-
gan's goal is to use an integrated approach of both chemical-specific and
whole effluent techniques to control aquatic toxicity. The recent develop-
ment of short-term methods for assessing chronic toxicity has the potential
of making the use of whole effluent techniques much more acceptable from a
cost standpoint. Michigan has been enhancing its toxicity testing program by
improving its laboratory facility and staff expertise to where routine
implementation of an integrated approach is now possible. At present, whole
effluent toxicity techniques are only applicable to aquatic life. Effluent
713
-------
limitations to protect human health or to control the discharge of bioac-
cumulative substances can only be addressed on a chemical-specific basis.
Michigan is currently developing a strategy to implement the integrated
approach to toxics regulation. For purposes of addressing the whole effluent
aspect of this approach, the strategy will address the following areas:
0 The data needed to evaluate whether a Toxicity Reduction Evaluation
(TRE) and/or whole effluent toxicity limits are needed in a discharge
permit;
0 The frequency of toxicity testing that is appropriate to .-.'ssoss compli-
ance with a whole effluent toxicity limits;
0 The appropriateness of short-term toxicity testing to better character-
ize the effluent;
0 The process for the development of whole effluent toxicity limits; and
0 The type and number of species which should be tested to adequately
assess effluent toxicity.
Using professional judgment, site specific factors such as the known
level of toxicity, variability of toxicity, and quality and quantity of the
available data will be reviewed to determine appropriate discharge permit
requirements. The range of permit requirements includes monitoring, whole
effluent limitations, and toxicity reduction evaluation programs. The actual
permit condition for any given discharger will vary depending upon the
site-specific circumstances.
Michigan is currently receiving public comment on the strategy. Meet-
ings with the regulated community, environmental groups and other interested
parties are scheduled to discuss issues and concerns with the proposed
integrated approach. It is anticipated that a number of future permits will
be issued with whole effluent testing requirements. These requirements will
assure better protection of Michigan's waters against the threat of toxic
chemicals.
SUMMARY
Biomonitoring is a valuable tool in assessing the effectiveness of water
pollution control efforts and targeting remedial actions. The various
aspects of biomonitoring, including fish contaminant monitoring, biosurveys,
compliance monitoring, bioassays, and biouptake assessments are all necessary
components of Michigan's program. Also, biomonitoring is now being used as a
regulatory tool to assure mixtures of pollutants do not exceed water quality
criteria. Fully intergrading the biological and engineering sciences will
ensure a strong and effective water pollution control program.
714
-------
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The contributions of the staff of the Great Lakes and Environmental
Assessment Section of the Surface Water Quality Division were essential to
the preparation of this paper and are greatly appreciated.
715
-------
FIGURES AND TABLES
Number
Figure 1. Procedure for Preparation of "Standard fillets" analyzed in this
study.
Table 1. Standard Edible Portions of Michigan's Sport and Chemical Fishes.
Table 2. Fish Analysis Parameters List.
716
-------
Figure 1: Procedure for preparation of "standard fillets" analyzed in
this study.
Make a cut behind th« entire
length of the opecculum
covtr) cutting through the
skin and flesh to the spinal
column. Dorsal to ventral cut.
2. Make a shallow cut through the
akin (to spinal column) from
the base of head to the
posterior end of the caudal
peduncle.
3.
Make a ventral cut along the
belly from the base of the
pectoral fin to the posterior
end of the caudal peduncle.
Cut *round all fins.
4.
Remove the fillet
and then remove
any major bones.
717
-------
TABLE 1. STANDARD EDIBLE PORTIONS OF MICHIGAN'S SPORT AND COMMERCIAL FISHES
Listed below are the "standard edible portions" for Michigan fishes. The
"standard edible portion" will be used for preparing fish for contaminant
analyses. The "standard edible portion" is that portion of the listed
species of fish that most people eat.
Standard Edible
Portion
Skin-on
Fillet
Skin-off
Fillet
Common Name
Yellow Perch
Walleye
Sauger
Largemouth Bass
Smailmout.h Bass
Bluegill
Pumpkinseed
Pock Bass
White Bass
Black Crappie
White Crappie
Green Sunfish
Longear Sunfish
Warmouth
Sucker Family
Lake Whitefish
Lake Trout (lean & siscowet)
Steel head (Rainbow Trout)
Brown Trout
Brook Trout
Splake
Atlantic Salmon
Coho Salmon
Chinook Salmon
Pink Salmon
Black Bullhead
Brown Bullhead
Yellow Bullhead
Channel Catfish
Muskel lunge
Northern Pike
Round Whitefish (Menominee)
Lake Herring
Chubs
Carp
Sheepshead
Buffalo
Burbot
Quill back
Sturgeon
Scientific Name
Perca flavenscens
Stizostedion vetreum
Stizostedion canadense
Micropterus salmoides
Micropterus dolomieui
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis gibbosus
Ambloplites rupestris
Morone americana
Pomoxis nigromaculatus
Pomoxis annul aris
Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis megalotis
Lepomis cjulosus
Catastomidae
Coregonus clupeaformis
Salvelinus namaycush
Salmo gairdneri
Salmo trutta
Salvelinus fontinalis
Salvelinus fontinalis X
Salvelinus namaycush
Salmo salar
Oncorhynchus kisut.ch
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha
Ictalurus melas
Ictalurus nebulosus
Ictalurus netalis
Ictalurus punctatus
Fsox masquinongy
Esox lucius
Prosopium cylindraceum
Coregonus artedii
Coregonus hoyi
Cyprinus carpio
Aplodinotus grunniens
Ictiobus cyprinellus
Lota lota
Carpiodes cyprinus
Acipenser fulvescens
Headless, Gutted Rainbow Smelt
Osmerus mordax
718
-------
Table ?.. Parameter List
METALS ORGANICS
Mercury Aldrin
Cadmium g-BHC (lindane)
Chromium a-chlordane
Copper g-chlordane
Lead 4,4'-DDD
Nickel 4,4'-DDE
Zinc 4,4'-DDT
Dieldrin
Octachlorostyrene
Heptachlor
Heptachlor Epoxide
Hexachlornbenzene
cis-Nonachlor
trans-Nonachlor
Oxychlordane
PBB (BP-6)
PCR (as Arochlor 1254)
Toxaphene
-------
APPENDICES
A. Physical, Chemical and Biological Monitoring Results from the Kalamazoo
River, Comstock to Plainwell, 1984, dated February, 1986.
B. A Biological Investigation of Prairie River and Prairie River Lake,
St. Joseph County, August 12, 1986.
C. Water, Sediment, and Macroinvertebrate Survey of the South Branch Raisin
River, and Eastside Drain, vicinity of Adrian, 1982-85.
D. Department of Natural Resources, Water Resources Commission, General
Rules, Part 4. Water Quality Standards, filed with Secretary of State
November 14, 1986.
720
-------
APPENDIX A
Physical, Chemical and Biological Monitoring Results From
the Kalamazoo River, Comstock to Plainwell
by
John D. Suppnick and William Creal
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
Environmental Protection Bureau
Surface Water Quality Division
February, 1986
721
-------
Table of Contents
Page
I Introduction 723
79Q
II Summary and Conclusions 'L0
III Background 723
IV Methods 724
V Results 729
VI Discussion 737
VII References Cited 741
VIII Appendix * 743
*Due to the length of the Appendix of this report, it has not been
attached. Copies are available from the author by writing to the
address shown on the front cover page of this entire report.
722
-------
Introduction
During April - October, 1984, benthic plant and animal communities and
related physical/chemical stream parameters were measured in the
Kalamazoo River between Comstock and Plainwell. A major objective of
this study was to document the nuisance aquatic weed growths in the
Kalamazoo River at a high nutrient load for comparison to a follow-up
study at a low nutrient load. The results of these studies will be used
to determine future NPDES permit limits.
Summary and Conclusions
1. Benthic macroinvertebrate communities, aquatic plants and water
chemistry were sampled in the Kalamazoo River from Comstock to
Plainwell during the 1984 growing season.
2. Related measurements of channel geometry, stream flow, and reaeration
rates were made to provide data for a water quality model.
3. The stream life indicated good water quality upstream of the Kalamazoo
wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) and poor quality downstream.
Downstream communities were dominated by sowbugs, blackflies,
midges, and nuisance growths of an aquatic weed (Cladophora).
4. Cladophora standing crops reached nuisance levels in only 15 days of
growing time downstream of the Kalamazoo WVTTP, while nuisance levels
were never attained upstream of the Kalamazoo WWTP. These nuisance
growths persisted from June through September and were due to the
phosphorus loads discharged by the Kalamazoo WWTP.
5. The sloughing and downstream transport of Cladophora persisted
throughout the growing season. This sloughed Cladophora represents
a significant potential demand on the oxygen resources of the River.
6. An apparent zone of Cladophora growth inhibition was observed for
about 4 km immediately downstream of the Kalamazoo WWTP.
7. A follow-up study is planned for 1986 to document the improvement in
stream conditions after the upgraded Kalamazoo WWTP is operating.
After the follow-up study, an evaluation of the Cladophora growth
levels should be done to determine if further reductions in phospho-
rus discharges are needed to prevent nuisance Cladophora growths.
Background
The Kalamazoo River is a cool water stream which drains over 5,000 km2 in
southwest Michigan. This river has suffered severe water quality degra-
dation during the region's industrial development and growth in the first
half of this century. In 1956 the waste loadings from 14 paper mills in
-------
the Kalamazoo vicinity resulted in a 32 km reach of river that was
anaerobic (1). However, a large clean-up effort costing over $500
million for the construction of public treatment facilities alone has
resulted in improved stream quality.
Michigan Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) stream dissolved oxygen
(D.O.) modeling studies indicate that aquatic plant respiration will be
the main cause of low 0.0. after all discharges are in compliance with
their waste discharge permits (2,3). Field investigations (4,5) have
identified nuisance growths of Cladophora as the dominant aquatic plant
in the Kalamazoo River. Because of this finding, the MDNR initiated this
study of the aquatic plant problem In the Kalamazoo River. The objective
of this study is to document the change in water quality before and after
the City of Kalamazoo implements advanced waste treatment. Of particular
interest is to document the change in Cladophora growth as phosphorus
removal is implemented at the Kalamazoo wastewater treatment plant.
Methods
The overall sampling strategy for this study is shown in table 1.
Biological data were collected during boat cruises approximately every 2
weeks from April to October.
Cladophora Monitoring
Nine river stations were sampled to determine the relative standing crop
of Cladophora (Figure 1). At each station, three representative rocks
were selected, the Cladophora was harvested from each rock and the
surface area of the colonized portion of the rock was estimated in the
field with a ruler. Stream velocity at the water surface was determined
with a stopwatch and float, and the water depth was recorded. At some
locations, Cladophora was confined to a small isolated patch of growth.
In these cases, representative rocks from the patch of growth were
selected.
The Cladophora sloughing rate was measured by placing a Surber sampling
net with a 1 square foot opening in the stream for a measured time
period. The Cladophora collected was returned to the lab for drying and
weighing. The corresponding stream velocity was determined using a float
and stopwatch. Sloughing measurements were made in triplicate at three
stations: Patterson Avenue, D Avenue and M-89.
All Cladophora samples were air dried on newspapers in a metal shed.
Drying took 23-60 days. Samples were then weighed using a Mettler
analytical balance. Twenty randomly selected samples were allowed to dry
an additional 28 days or more. The additional weight loss averaged 1.52
with no sample losing more than an additional 5%.
Benthic Macroinvertebrate Sampling
Qualitative benthic macroinvertebrate samples were collected using a
triangular dip net and by handpicking available substrate. Sampling was
7?4
-------
Table 1.
Kalamazoo River Station Description and Sampling Strategy
Uastewater and Station
Tributary Inputs Description
All ied Paper
Via Portage
Co River St.
Creek — jf*
Patfrrrnn
;Kalamazoo WWTPJ £CD,
James River
Penn RR
Co J frcKinley St
Section 27
E Ave
Section 22
D Ave
Section 10
4th St
M - 89
Main St
River
Km
109
102.2
100.6
99.5
98.3
95.8
95.2
94.5
93.6
92.9
90.2
87.3
80.4
80.0
STORET Reaeration Cross
1 Measurement Scctionin
390079
390081
390082
390114
390380
/
390058
\
030209
1
I
\
1
< ,.
Monthly Diurnal Biweekly Biweekly
Weekly Water Cladophora Cladophora
Nutrient Quality Biomass Sloughing
Monitoring Monitoring Monitoring Measureaent
Daily Biweekly-
Flow Transparency
Monitoring Monitoring
Once every 2 weeks
-------
Figure 1. Kalamazoo River Sampling Locations, 1984.
\ Main Street
x
-M-89
Plainweli ""
4th Street
Section LO
Scale (km)
James River i
Paper Co. I
City Of
Kalamazoo
Kalamazoo
a
o
N
a
s
03
-— D-Avenue
_-Section 22
E Avenue
_ Section 27
UP J.R.
Mosel
River Street
Allied
Paper Co.
t>
p\
726
-------
continued until no new forms were found. Taxa were identified on-site to
the lowest taxonomlc level possible. Relative abundance was noted.
Periphyton Sampling
Qualitative periphyton samples were collected by scraping rocks. Samples
were placed on ice and identified the following day using 400X magnifi-
cation. No estimate of relative abundance was made. Periphyton sampling
was discontinued when Cladophora growth became present.
Water Chemistry Monitoring
River samples for nutrients and other chemical analysis were collected
from the D Avenue Bridge weekly by Surface Water Quality Division Dis-
trict staff. Samples were also collected at D Avenue during each boat
cruise. Additional water samples were collected upstream (Paterson Rd.)
and downstream (Mosel Ave.) of the Kalamazoo WWTP during each of the boat
cruises and analyzed for nutrients.
L igh t_ Mon i t o r ing
The light extinction coefficient for the Kalamazoo River was measured at
Paterson Road and at McKinley on September 18, 1984, using an underwater
irradiometer (Kahlsico model 268WA310) by Kahl Scientific Instrument
Corporation. The Secchi depth transparency was measured during each boat
cruise at Paterson Avenue (upstream of the Kalamazoo wastewater treatment
plant) and at 1 or more locations downstream of the WWTP. Incident light
intensity over the visible spectrum was measured daily by the Michigan
State University Gull Lake Biological Station with a Li-cor Pyrenometer.
This weather station is about 16 km east of the study reach.
Stream Flow Monitoring
A United States Geological Survey (USGS) gage is located on the Kalamazoo
River at the River Street Bridge in Comstock. This gage is a telemark
gage and river stage can be determined by phone. River stage was deter-
mined daily from April to October by phone. In addition, stage was
continuously monitored using a Stevens strip chart recorder at the gage
during 3 of the 4 intensive diurnal monitoring studies. Water Management
Division personnel made several miscellaneous measurements at various
locations downstream of the gage using standard USGS techniques.
Plankton Productivity Measurements
Photosynthesis and respiration of planktonic algae were measured using a
standard light/dark bottle method (6). Light bottles were clear, 250 ml
BOD bottles. Dark bottles were 250 ml BOD bottles covered with a double
layer of black electrical tape. Bottles were suspended from styrofoam
floats with wire (Figure 2). All bottles were filled by skimming water
from the surface of the stream. Samples for BOD, nutrients, chlorophyll,
initial DO and other chemical analysis were collected simultaneously with
the filling of the light and dark bottles. Dissolved oxygen was deter-
mined using the Winkler method. Samples were fixed in the field and
727
-------
Figure 2. Kalamazoo River Light/Dark Bottle Apparatus
Styrofoam
Float
3O
Water Surface
-------
titrated in the Laboratory in Lansing. Gross photosynthesis and
respiration were determined from the following equations:
T-7D
R = (C -C ) - [UBOD (l-exp-(t K. 1.047 u))]
P = CL *1>
Where: L D
R = Planktonic respiration (mg/1)
CT = Initial DO concentration (mg/1)
CL » Final DO concentration in dark bottles (mg/1)
UBOD = Ultimate carbonaceous BOD of the stream (mg/1)
K = Lab determined bottle CBOD decay coefficient at 20°C base e
1 (days'1)
T = Average stream temperature during the test (°C)
t = Duration of the light dark bottle test (days)
P = Gross photosynthesis during the test (mg/1)
C » Final DO concentration in the light bottle (mg/1)
Lt
The duration of the tests varied from 0.8 days to 1.02 days.
Diurnal Stream Chemistry Surveys
Four diurnal stream chemistry sampling surveys were done. Samples were
collected and analyzed by Michigan DNR staff. The three major discharges
(Kalamazoo WWTP, Allied Paper Co. and James River Paper Co.) to the study
reach were sampled during the September diurnal study by the MDNR Point
Source Studies Section. (7,8,9)
Reaeration Coefficients
Reaeration rate coefficients were measured by MDNR personnel between E
Avenue and the 4th Street sampling station (Figure 1). The procedure
used was the ethylene tracer method a& developed by the MDNR on the Clam
River (10).
Stream Geometry
Stream channel geometry and substrate type was determined on September 6
and 7, 1984. Stream depth and width were determined at representative
transects at approximately 500 meter intervals. Some portions of the
study reach were surveyed more intensively to provide data for a habitat
evaluation model. River depth was determined with a surveying rod
graduated in 1 foot increments and river width was determined with a
steel cable graduated in 20 foot increments. Substrate type was deter-
mined for each depth measurement either visually, by probing with a
surveying rod or by sampling with a dredge.
Results
Cladophora Monitoring
Three different zones were apparent in the River based on three distinct
seasonal growth patterns of Cladophora. Upstream of the Kalamazoo WWTP
7?9
-------
growths were sparse; immediately downstream of the WWTP growths were
inhibited; and further downstream growths were profuse. Relative
standing crop measurements for the 1984 growing season are summarized in
Figure 3, and the raw data is listed in Table 2 of the appendix.
In the upstream zone (Paterson and River Street sampling stations),
growths were sparse and never reached nuisance levels. The maximum
standing crop observed was 177 grams of dry weight/square meter (gdw/m2)
at River Street and 60 gdw/m2 at Patterson Avenue. Growth began about
mid May and persisted throughout the summer.
Immediately downstream (0-4 km) of the Kalamazoo WWTP, Cladophora growth
did not begin until late July and only persisted through August. Growth
occurred in isolated patches and most available substrate was not
colonized.
The zone of nuisance growths began about 7 km downstream of the Kalamazoo
WWTP and extended to the end of the study reach in Plainwell. Growth
began in early June and increased rapidly for three weeks. Standing
crops peaked in late June or early July and gradually declined
thereafter.
The most rapid growth was measured at the D Avenue station where the
standing crop grew from 4g/m2 to 6000 g/m2 during 21 days in June. On
June 5th, the longest Cladophora stringer observed at D avenue was 4
inches. By June 20th, 15 foot stringers were observed.
The sloughing measurements from the D Avenue station and the M-89 station
are summarized in Figure 4 and the raw data is listed in Table 3 of the
appendix. Sloughing measurements were also made at Patterson Avenue but
only a trace of sloughed Cladophora was detected there.
The D Avenue sampling station is at the downstream end of the largest
riffle in the study area. The sloughed Cladophora load reached a peak of
4600 kg dw/day at D Avenue in mid July. This peak followed the period of
rapid growth in June. The loading of sloughed Cladophora carried by the
stream was reduced by about 90% at M-89 in Plainwell, about 22 km down-
stream of D Avenue. This indicates that 90% of the sloughed Cladophora
was either deposited, decomposed or broken into pieces smaller than the
mesh of the sample net between these two stations. However, no large
depositional areas developed between D Avenue and Plainwell because of
the relatively high stream velocity. Therefore, we believe that most of
the sloughed Cladophora load decayed and was broken into small pieces
between D Avenue and M-89 in Plainwell.
The oxygen demand potential of sloughed Cladophora tissue was determined
in the lab to be 0.65g 0_/gm dry weight Cladophora. BOD samples were
prepared using River water and a known weight of Cladophora and incubated
until oxygen demand was 95% satisfied. The results are summarized below:
730
-------
Figure 3. Cladophora Bionass Monitoring Results from
'Ehe Kalamazoo River - 1984
3
•o
00
Section 10
D Avenue
Section 22
Section 27
Upstream James River
R.R. Tressel
[Kalamazoo WWTIJ A,
Patterson^
Oct.
River Street
731
-------
Figure 4.
-00
3
4
3-5
3 -
2.5 -
2 -
1 .5 -
1 -
0.5 -
CLADOPHORA SLOUGHING DATA
KALAMAZOO P. 1 984
'6
0
12-Jun 20-Jun 26-Jurs 06-Ju! 17-Jul 01-
1984
n
P AVE.
5-Aug28-Aug 12-
M-89
-------
Dry Weight Ultimate CBOD mg/JL
Undllute_d 1:5 dilution
1 0 7.18 8.55
2 0 6.34
3 0 6.63
4 5.2 7.83
5 13.0 15.0 17.6
6 26.0 - 24.0
7 39.0 - 32.0
The annual production of Cladophora upstream of D avenue was estimated by
multiplying the average daily sloughed Cladophora xoad at D avenue during
this period (June 12 - October 2) by the number of days. Based on these
calculations, about 240,000 Kg dw of Cladophora was produced in the reach
between the McKinley sampling station (which was just upstream of where
Cladophora growth began) and the D Avenue station. This reach has a
surface area of 184,000 square meters. Therefore, if the Cladophora was
evenly distributed over the entire reach, the annual production was
1.36kg dry weight /square meter.
Benthic Macroinvertebrates
Upstream of the Kalamazoo WWTP, benthic macroinvertebrate communities
were diverse (8-15 taxa) and dominated by scuds, mayflies and caddisflies
(Table 4 of the appendix) . At the three stations sampled downstream of
the WWTP, the communities were restricted in the number of taxa present
(usually 4-5) and dominated by midges, sowbugs and leeches.
Pejrioh^toii
Results of the periphyton sampling are presented in Table 5 of the
appendix. Diatoms were the most represented group by number of taxa.
Plant Growth Parameter Monitoring
Figure 5 presents the results of stream temperature, transparency and
incident light monitoring compared to a summary of the standing crop
measurement results. Stream nutrient data at the D Avenue station and
stream flow at the River Street gage are plotted in Figure 6, and the raw
chemistry data is listed in Table 6 of the appendix.
The results of light extinction coefficient measurements are shown below:
% Light Reflection Secchi Depth Light Extinction
Location __ at Surface _ (m)_ __ Coefficient (1/m)
Patterson Rd. 23 1.4 1.28
McKinley 31 1.0 2.21
Stream Flow Measurements
Several stream flow measurements were made by Water Management Division
Personnel and are listed below.
733
-------
Figure 5. Summary of Selected Kalaniazoo River Monitoring
Data from Downstream of the Kalamazoo WWTP - 1984
1000
500
Pooled Cladophora
Standing Crop
(gdw/m2)
Nuisance Zone Stations
Inhibition Zone Stations
Temperature
25
20
15
10
5
900-
800-
700'
600-
Daily Average
Sunshine 500'
(ly/day)
400'
300'
200
100
1.5
1.0
Transparency
(m)
0.5
Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct
734
-------
Figure 6. Summary of Selected Kalamazoo River Monitoring Data
at D Avenue Downstream of the Kalamazoo WWTP - 1984.
Nitrates +
Nitrites
(mg/1)
1.0 -•
0.5 ••
Ammonia
(mg/1)
1.5 T
1.0 "
0.5 "
Flow at
Gage
(cfs)
2100 •;
1800-
1500-
1200-
900-
600 -
300 :
Ortho-
Phosphorus
(mg/D
0.3
0.2
0.1
Apr May June July Aug
735
Sept
Oct
-------
Location Date Flow (cfs)
Kalamazoo R. at Corns tock gage
Kalamazoo R. above James River Paper Co.
Spring Brook at Riverview Rd.
Kalamazoo River above Plainwell WVTP
June 20, 1984
July 31, 1984
June 27, 1984
July 31, 1984
Sept. 19, 1984
June 27, 1984
July 31, 1984
Sept. 19, 1984
Sept. 19, 1984
622
414
688
503
617
15.7
14.1
14.6
663
Diurnal Stream Chemistry Surveys
The results of the 4 diurnal water chemistry surveys are listed in
Table 6 of the appendix. The river hydrographs were monitored continu-
ously during 3 of the 4 surveys and are plotted in Figure 9 of the
appendix. The dissolved oxygen standard was met at all stations during
the July, August and September surveys but was not met between 4th Street
and Main Street during the June survey. Diurnal variations in DO at D
Avenue during the June, July, August and September surveys were 5.5 mg/1,
6.7 mg/1, 3.8 mg/1 and 3.7 mg/1 respectively. All surveys were done
during sunnier than average days for their respective months. The August
survey was done on the sunniest day of the summer. These sunny condi-
tions contributed to the relatively high DO levels found in the stream
during the surveys by stimulating a high level of photosynthetic oxygen
production.
Reaeration Measurements
The results of stream reaeration measurements using the ethylene tracer
technique are summarized below.
Reach
E Ave
D Ave
to D Ave
to 4th St
Length
(Km)
1.6
5.1
Temp
(°C)
25.5
25.5
Flow
at
Gage
(cfs)
403
403
Time of
Travel
(days)
.053
.127
Average
Depth
(M)
0.39
0.70
Reaeration Rate
Coefficient at
25.5°C (base e)
(day'1)
15.0
3.3
The tracer monitoring data are presented graphically in Figure 10 of the
appendix.
Plankton Productivity Measurements
Results of light/dark bottle productivity measurements are presented in
Table 7 of the appendix. Gross productivity of planktonic algae varied
from 12.5 mg 0 /1/d at 0.15 meters depth in July; to 1.8 mg 0,/1/d at 0.5
meters depth in June. Similarly, BOD corrected respiration of planktonic
organisms varied from 3.1 mg 0 /1/d in July to 1.7 mg 02/l/day in June.
736
-------
Channel Geometry
Results of the stream channel cross sectioning are summarized below and
the raw field data are presented graphically in Figure 11 of the
appendix.
Average depths in feet for various gage flows
Reach 260 cfs 440 cfs 608 cfs 810 cfs
McKinley to D Ave
D Ave to 4th St
4th St to Main St
1.33
2.14
2.71
1.71
2.46
3.07
2.07
2.80
3.29
2.46
3.19
3.84
Effluent Monitoring
The results of self monitoring data for Allied Paper Co., Kalamazoo WWTP
and the James River Corp. - Parchment, during the intensive survey
periods are shown in Table 8 of the appendix.
Discussion
The aquatic life downstream of the Kalamazoo WWTP was dominated by
Cladophora, sowbugs, blackflies, midges and leeches, and is typical of
that found in organically enriched streams downstream of municipal WWTP's
(16). This degraded biological community has persisted even though a
significant reduction in pollutant loads from some sources has occurred.
The cause of the continued poor quality in 1984 was the Kalamazoo WWTP.
Significant improvement in the stream quality is expected to occur
following the implementation of advanced treatment at the Kalamazoo WWTP.
A follow-up study is planned to document this improvement.
Cladophora standing crops were much greater downstream of the Kalamazoo
WWTP than upstream. Nuisance growths of Cladophora are commonly associ-
ated with phosphorus enrichment in lakes and streams (11,12). Stream
ortho-phosphorus concentrations averaged 11 ug/1 upstream of the
Kalamazoo WWTP and 177 ug/1 downstream of the WWTP during the Cladophora
growing season (Figure 7). All other growth factors for Cladophora
(light, substrate, velocity) were similar at upstream and downstream
stations. Therefore, we conclude that phosphorus enrichment from the
Kalamazoo WWTP caused the nuisance Cladophora growth downstream. We
expect the downstream orthophosphorus concentration to decrease to an
average of 50 ug/1 or less after advanced treatment is implemented at the
Kalamazoo WWTP. A follow-up study is planned to determine what effect
this nutrient reduction will have on Cladophora growth in the Kalamazoo
River.
Immediately downstream of the Kalamazoo WWTP there was a zone where
Cladophora did not appear until late July and only persisted through
August. This was in spite of favorable nutrients, light, velocity and
substrate for growth. The late onset of growth may be due to a growth
inhibiting substance in the Kalamazoo WWTP effluent. This hypothesis is
737
-------
Ammonia
as N (mg/1)
Figure 7. Kalamazoo River Nutrient Monitoring Results Upstream
and Downstream of the Kalamazoo Wastewater Treatment Plant.
2.0
1.0
Downstream
Upstream
Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct
as N (mg/1)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
,Upstream
Downstream
Apr May June Jul Aug Sept
Oct
Ortho
Phosphorus
as P (mg/1)
0.3
0.1"
Downstream
Apr May June Jul Aug Sept Oct
738
-------
supported by the observation that, when growth did occur in this zone,
the Kalamazoo WWTP was providing the best treatment performance of the
summer (table 8 of appendix). If some pollutant in the effluent caused
the growth inhibition, then the discharge of that pollutant would likely
be minimized during periods of good treatment performance. This apparent
inhibition should be investigated further if it persists after the
improved treatment is provided at the Kalamazoo WWTP.
The period of intense Cladophora growth from June 6 - June 26 was associ-
ated with stream temperatures of 23-27°C, incident light levels of
300-680 ly/d and ortho-phosphorus concentrations in the stream of
0.036-0.22 mg/1. Cladophora is a summer algae with growth generally
thought to be initiated by temperatures of 10-15°C (12,14). It is
unclear why Cladophora did not become established earlier in the growing
season when temperature was in the range of 10-20°C. One possible
explanation is that light levels at the stream bottom were limiting. In
Figure 8, the daily incident light intensity was corrected for stream
depth, and transparsency to compute light intensity at the stream bottom
of the Kalamazoo River at the Section 22 sampling station. This figure
shows that the late May to early June period was characterized by unusu-
ally low light levels and could have prevented the growth of Cladophora
even though favorable temperatures were present.
739
-------
Figure 8.
KALAMAZOO R. LIGHT AT RIVER BOTTOM
g s
350
300 -
250 -
200 -
150 -
100 -
50 -
0 — ii 11 ii in in ri nun ii i ii in 1)111111 ii i ii in ii iiiiiii[iiiiiiiiiiiiiillinliiiiinil[liil lllllililiiliimm |iiliiuiiillli iiiiiiiiii[iiiiiiiin on ill n-ii mump
01-Apr 01 -May 31 -May 30-Jun 30-Jul 29-Aug 28-S«p
DATE
-------
References Cited
1. Michigan Water Resources Commission, March 1958. "Report on Self
Purification Capacities Kalamazoo River 1956 Survey Comstock to
Trowbridge". Lansing, Michigan.
2. Beck M. and S. Buda, April 1978. "Kalamazoo River Study Comstock to
Plainwell August 16-18, 1976". Department of Natural Resources.
Lansing, Michigan.
3. Suppnick John D., February 13, 1984. "Dissolved Oxygen Impacts of
Hydropower Dam Restoration at Plainwell, Ostego and Trowbridge
Dams on the Kalamazoo River." Department of Natural Resources.
Lansing, Michigan.
4. Wuycheck John, 1984. Personal Communication of Unpublished Data,
Department of Natural Resources. Lansing, Michigan.
5. Creal William, November 1982. "Macroinvertebrate and Sediment
Chemistry Survey of the Kalamazoo River, Kalamazoo to Allegan,
July 22 and October 7, 1982." Department of Natural Resources.
Lansing, Michigan.
6. Vollenweider Richard A. 1971. "A Manual on Methods for Measuring
Primary Production in Aquatic Environments." Blackwell Scien-
tific Publications. Oxford, England.
7. Reznick Ralph and Chris Little. Undated. "Report o an Industrial
Wastewater Survey Conducted at Allied Paper Con vjany September 18
and 19, 1984." Department of Natural Resource ,, Lansing,
Michigan.
8. Boersen Gary and Joe Hey. Undated. "Report of a Municipal Wastewater
Survey Conducted at Kalamazoo Wastewater Treatment Plant
September 18-19, 1984." Department of Natural Resources,
Lansing, Michigan.
9. Boersen Gary, William Long and John Eckland. Undated. "Report of
an Industrial Wastewater Survey Conducted at James River
Corporation, September 18-19, 1984." Department of Natural
Resources, Lansing, Michigan.
10. Suppnick John D. July 1984. "Clam River Reaeration Measurements
Using the Ethylene Tracer Method." Department of Natural
Resources, Lansing, Michigan.
11. Neil John H. and Glenn E. Owen. 1964. "Distribution, Environmental
Requirements and Significance of Cladophora in the Great
Lakes." Proceedings 7th Conference on Great Lakes Research
113-121.
12. Pitcairn Carole E.R. and H.A. Hawkes. 1973. "The Role of Phospho-
rus in the Growth of Cladophora." Water Research 7: 159-171.
741
-------
13. Bellis V. D. and D.A. McLarty. 1967. "Ecology of Cladophora
Glomerata (L.) Kutz. In Southern Ontario." Journal of
Phycology 4: 19-23.
14. Moore, Lawrence F. 1979. "Attached Algae at Thermal Generating
Stations - the effect of temperature on Cladophora." Verh.
Internat. Verein. Limnol. 20: 1727-1733.
15. Storr, J.F. and R.A. Sweeney. 1971. "Development of a Theoretical
Seasonal Growth Response Curve of Cladophora Glomerata to
Temperature and Photoperiod" Proc. 14th Conf. Great Lakes
Research. 119-127.
16. Hynes, H. 1960. The Biology of Polluted Waters. University Press,
Liverpool England. 202 P.
742
-------
The appendix to this report on the Kalamazoo River is available
from the author of this paper, Mr. Paul Zugger, by writing to him
at the address on the cover sheet of this report.
743
-------
APPENDIX B
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
Surface Water Quality Division
November, 1986
Staff Report
A Biological Investigation of Prairie River and
Prairie River Lake, St. Joseph County,
August 12» 1986
Benthic macroinvertebrates, sediment and water were collected on August
12, 1986 from the Prairie River and Prairie River Lake in Burr Oak
Township, St. Joseph County (Figure 1). Benthic macroinvertebrates were
sampled to determine present river quality conditions. Sediments and
water were collected and analyzed for the presence of toxicants. These
surveys were requested by Kay Brower, Environmental Enforcement Division,
to evaluate the effect of suspected increased releases of leachate from
the Ford/Young landfill. A similar study had been conducted in 1983
(Creal, 1983). v
Summary and Conclusions
1. Benthic macroinvertebrate communities in the Prairie River indicated
good to excellent stream quality. Slight changes in the benthic
macroinvertebrate communities occurred between McKale Road and
Prairie River Lake. These changes were likely due to differences
changes in current speed and stream substrate. These findings are
consistent with those of the 1983 study. There was no indication of
an adverse biological effect in the Prairie River due to the
Ford/Young landfill leachate.
2. There was no change in water or sediment quality in Prairie River or
Prairie River Lake due to the Ford/Young landfill.
3. The leachate flowing to the Prairie River through the landfill drain
contained elevated levels of certain constituents. These included
total organic carbon, ammonia nitrogen, total phosphorus, and
nickel, which may be of concern if the loadings increase over
present levels.
Methods
Benthic macroinvertebrate samples were taken from the Prairie River using
a triangular dip net with a 1.0 mm mesh. Organisms were also handpicked
from all available substrates. Sampling was conducted at each location
until no new forms were found. Macroinvertebrates were identified as
collected and relative abundance estimated.
Surface water grab samples were preserved, placed on ice and returned to
the Environmental Laboratory in Lansing for analysis. Sediment samples
from depositional areas were also collected, placed on ice and returned
744
-------
to the Enviornmental Laboratory in Lansing for analysis. General stream
observations were also made at each station.
Results and Discussion
Macroinvertebrates
The benthic macroinvertebrate community at McKale Road (Station 1),
upstream of any possible influence from the Ford/Young Landfill or materi-
als dumped from the McKale Road Bridge, was indicative of excellent
stream quality. Large numbers of fingernail clams, scuds, stoneflies,
mayflies, and caddisflies were present and comprised the majority of a
diverse macroinvertebrate community (Table 1).
Relative to McKale Road, slight shifts in the benthic macroinvertebrate
community were found at Stations 2 and 3, 1.2 and 2.0 km downstream of
McKale Road, respectively. Declines in the numbers of fingernail clams,
scuds, mayflies and stoneflies were observed. The likely cause of these
changes was a reduction in current speed and macroinvertebrate substrate
(especially logs) and an increase in stream depth. Other factors such as
temperature and canopy may be influencing this shift, since McKale Road
is the downstream boundary for the designated trout stream portion of the
Prairie River. Even with these changes from Station 1, the macroinverte-
brate communities present at Stations 2 and 3 were still indicative of
good stream quality. A diverse macroinvertebrate community was found
which included stoneflies, mayflies and caddisflies. These findings are
consistent with the 1983 findings, even though some minor changes in
communities were found. For example, burrowing mayflies were present at
all three stations in 1983, but were only found at McKale Road in 1986.
This difference was likely due to a major effort in 1983 to find the
mayflies. Overall, stream quality has not changed.
Water Chemistry
The water chemistry results for Stations 1, 3, and A on the Prairie River
were very similar, indicating negligible effects on water chemistry
constituent from any inputs between McKale and Prairie River Roads
(Table 2).
Station B (the downstream channel) was similar to the Prairie River in
water chemistry. However, Station A (the upstream channel) was notice-
ably different than the river. Concentrations of total organic carbon,
ammonia nitrogen, total phosphorus, sodium, zinc and cadmium were elevat-
ed, while total dissolved solids, calcium, conductivity, iron, potassium,
magnesium, pH, and sulfate were depressed. These differences may be due
to the very sluggish flow at this station.
The landfill drain (Station C) was markedly different in quality than the
other five stations sampled. The landfill drain discharge contained
elevated levels of total dissolved solids, total organic carbon, ammonia
nitrogen, total phosphorus, alkalinity, calcium, chloride, conductivity,
iron, potassium, magnesium, sodium and nickel. The discharge of total
organic carbon, ammonia nitrogen, phosphorus and nickel may be a concern
to the quality of Priaire River and Prairie River Lake if loadings
745
-------
increase over present levels. At the rate of discharge observed on
August 12, these concentrations would have a negligible effect on
river/lake quality.
Elevated nickel and iron results in the landfill drain were consistent
with the 1983 results. However, contrary to the 1983 results, no vola-
tile organic compounds were detected in the landfill drain.
Sediments
Sediment sampling results at McKale Road (Station 1), Prairie River Lake
inlet (Station 5) and Prairie River Lake outlet (Station 6) were general-
ly similar (Table 3). There was no evidence of sediment contamination
with substances, such as mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) or
pesticides, which could bioaccumulate fish to unacceptable levels. Based
on the sediment results, fish contamination in the Prairie River or
Prairie River Lake is not expected.
Sediment zinc concentrations were lower in non-river stations (Station
A,B,C) , indicating that zinc was not migrating from the landfill.
Overall, sediment results at stations B and C did not indicate any source
of contaminants from the landfill. Concentrations were usually similar
to or less than those found in the river or lake.
The sediment results at Station A exhibited a pattern similar to that
found in the water results. Sodium and cadmium concentrations were
elevated while nickel, calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium and manganese
were depressed.
Report by: William Creal, Aquatic Biologist
Field Work by: Brenda Sayles, Aquatic Biologist
William Creal, Aquatic Biologist
Referenced Cited
Creal, W. 1983. A fish, benthic macroinvertebrate, sediment, and water
chemistry survey of Prairie River and Prairie River Lake, St. Joseph
County, March 15 and June 17, 1983. MDNR report.
746
-------
Figure 1. Sampling station locations on the Prairie River, St. Joseph County, August, 1986.
McKole
Road
0
-------
TABLE 1. PRAIRIE RIVER MACRQINVtRTEBRATE SAMPLING RESULTS
3TAf IDNi
LOCATION:
TAXON
1
MCKALE
ROAD
2
ACROSS FROM
LANDF ILL
3
DOWNSTREAM OF
LANDH U.L
PORIFERA (spuitue*) X
ISOPODA (suwbuqs) X X
AMPHIPODA (acudia) XX X
GASTROPODA (SDMI Is)
LYMNAEA X
SPHAERIIDAE
-------
TABLE 2. PRAIRIE RIVER MATER RESULTS, AU6UST 12, 1984
STATlONi
LOCATIONi
IM MO.l
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
DISSOLVED
SOLIM
ORGANIC
CARSQ8
NITRATE
NITROSfN
AKNONIA
NITRD8EN
MRDAHl
N1TR08EN
TOTAL
PHOSPHORUS
ALKALINITY
ALKALINITY, C03»
ALKALINITY, HC03-
CALC1UN
CHLORIDE
CONDUCTIVITY
IUMH08/CH)
IRON
MERCURY
POTASSIUM
NA6NESIUK
SODIUM
PH (8t»
SULFATE
ZINC
1
HOC ALE
MAO
61693
(4
412
3, §3
1.40
0.014
0.3V
0.01S
230
<5
230
S3.2
12
389
0.412
-------
TABLE 2. PRAIRIE RIVER HATER RESULTS, AU6UST 12, 1914
CAM1UN <0.0002 0.0004 <0.0002 <0.0002 <0.0002 <0.0002
CHRONIUN <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 (0.003 (0.003 <0.003
HEI CHROHIUH <0.005 <0.003 <0.009 (0.003 (0.005 (0.005
COPPER (0.001 0.0028 0.0013 0.0019 0.0016 0.0024
NICKEL (0.004 (0.004 (0.004 0.0083 (0.004 (0.004
LEAD (O.OOt (0.001 (0.001 (0.001 (0.001 (0.001
NETHYLENE CHLORIDE (0.003 (0.003 (0.003 (0.003 (0.003 (0.003
CHLOMStMENE < 0,005 <0.003 (0.003 (0.005 (0.003 (0.003
SCAN I (0.001 (0.001 (0.001 (0.001 (0.001 (0.001
PCS (0.0001 (0.0001 (0.0001 (0.0001 (0.0001 (0.0001
SCAN 3 (0.00001 (0.00001 (0.00001 (0.00001 (0.00001 (0.00001
RESULTS ARE IN W/L UNLESS IWICATEO
750
-------
TABLE 3. PRAIRIE RIVER SEDIMENT RESULTS, AUGUST 12, 1986
STATIONi
LOCATIONi
LAB NO. I
TOTAL SOL IDS U>
CALCIUM
CADMIUM
COBALT
CHROMIUM
COPPER
IRON
MERCURY
POTASSIUM
LITHIUM
MAGNESIUM
MANGANESE
SODIUM
NICKEL
LEAD
ZINC
PCS
SCAN 3
1 A B
MCKALE UPSTREAM DOWNSTREAM
ROAD CHANNEL CHANNEL
61699 61698 61697
35
41000
<2
6.73
12
10
370OO
<0.3
2S3
3.23
3730
2130
140
12
15.3
77.3
<1.3
<0.15
12
4630O
2.3
<3
<3
8.3
11500
<0.3
181
<2
2200
773
230
<3
13
23
<2.8
<0.28
21
133000
<2
<3
6.3
12
26000
<0.3
228
3
410OO
150O
130
6.3
<3
44
<2.9
<0.29
C 3 6
LANDFILL PRAIRIE L. PRAIRIE L
DRAIN INLET OUTLET
61696 61693 61694
66
242OO
<2
<3
8.3
29
1450O
<0.2
330
6
8530
470
170
10
11
42
-------
APPENDIX C
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
Surface Water Quality Division
April, 1936
Wat«r, Sediment, and Macroinvertebrate Survey
of ths South Branch Raisin River, and Eaet&ide Drain,
vicinity of Adrian, 1982-85.
Water, sediment and macroirwertebrat* sampling was conducted
on the Raisin River near Adrian and its tributaries front 1982 to
1985. The initial purpose of the study Mas to evaluate the
effect of the Adrian Watewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) discharge
on the Raisin River and the quality of Eastside Drain.
Summary and Conclusions
1) Moderate river quality exists upstream of the Adrian
WWTP (Table 1).
2) In 1983, impacts from the Adrian WWTP on the South
Branch Raisin River were present but not considered
severe.
3) In 1983-85, a drastic decline in river quality downstream
of Howell Road was detected due to an unpermitted
discharge of rendering wastes from Adrian Tankage into
the river. Extremely foul odors eminated from this
section of the river. Large fat globules, blood and hair
floated on the surface and lodged behind logs and debris.
Invertebrate species composition declined dramatically in
this river reach.
4) Poor stream quality was found in Eastside Drain,
especially in the area of Parr Highway. Sediment
chemistry analysis of Eastside Drain showed low levels of
organic compounds. In 1972 and 1982 the upper reach of
the drain (Parr Highway) was virtually devoid of animal
life; stream quality improved from Parr Highway to the
confluence with the South Branch Raisin River.
Methods
Water and sediment samples were taken and preserved
following procedures in the Quality Assurrance Manual and sent to
the Environmental Laboratory in Lansing for analysis. Chlorine
was analyzed in the field using an amperometric titrator.
Qualitative benthic macroinvertebrate samples were collected
using a triangular dip net and hand picking and identified in the
field. Relative abundance was estimated. Stream Problem Assess-
-------
ment cards were completed and observations recorded.
BiiSkllts and Discussion
Upstream of the Adrian WWTP moderate river quality and
moderate numbers of aquatic insects and -fish Mere -found (Tables
1, 2 & 3). From 1983 to 1985 an increase in abundance of isopods
and a decline in species diversity occurred (Table 3).
Downstream of the Adrian WWTP aquatic biota differed (Tables
2, 3 ?< 5) . At Howell Road these differences may have been due to
a change in stream velocity. Chlorine was detected in the water
to Howell Road (Table 4). Overall, the impact from the Adrian
WWTP was not considered severe. Several metals were detected in
the WWTP effluent. Due to the nature of the metals and their
concentrations their impact on the system was concluded to be
insignificant (Table 6).
In 1983, an unpermitted discharge of rendering wastes by
Adrian Tankage was rediscovered downstream of Howell Road; this
discharge was known to exist prior to 1972. There was a gross
degradation of stream quality at this discharge with foul sewage
odors eminating from the water and sediments. The Adrian Tankage
discharge exceeded 120 F and contained white globules which were
presumably oils and fats and high concentrations of BOD, TOC and
ammonia (Table 6). An increase of 6 F in river temperature was
recorded (68 to 74 F) downstream of the discharge. The discharge
caused a reduction in invertebrate species (Table 5), as well as
abundant growths of bacterial slimes. Immediately downstream of
the discharge, species tolerant of organic pollution dominated,
namely midges and worms. Fisheries Division reported similar
degraded river conditions in a 1983 survey (Towns, 1985).
In 1984 and 1985, the discharge of rendering waste was
still occurring with sludge, blood, and fats present at the point
of discharge and downstream. Bacterial slime growths were
present in the Raisin River at least to the Beaver Creek
confluence. Conditions in the river had not improved from the
1983 observations.
Sediment sampling on upper reaches of Eastside Drain
showed the presence of organic compounds and heavy metals (Tables
7 & 8). Biological investigations of Eastside Drain in 1972
reported no living aquatic organisms (Evans, 1973). Investiga-
tions in 1983 showed only sparse numbers of tolerant invertebrate
species and in 1984 an abundance of bacterial slimes (Table 2 ?<
9), Stream quality improved from Parr Highway to the confluence
with the South Branch Raisin River.
753
-------
Bibliography
Evans, E. 1973. A Biological Survey o-f the Raisin River in the
Vicinity of Adrian, Lenawee County, Michigan, July 13, 1972
Towns, G.L. 1985. A Fisheries Survey o-f the River Raisin, August,
1984. MDNR Fisheries Division Technical Report No* 85-3.
Report by: Stuart Kogge, Student Aide
William Creal, Aquatic Biologist
754
-------
Figure 1.—South Branch Raisin River and tributaries sampled for water, sediment and macroinvertebrate
analysis, 1^82-85.
•—i
ui
NORTH BRANCH
RAISIN RIVER
SOUTH BRANCH
RAISIN RIVE
.000 feet
-------
Table 1.—Observations on the Raisin River, vicinity of Adrian, 1983-95.
Upstreat of water surface sednent sednent seduent substrate
Adrian MWTP odors oils odors oils deposits undersides
9-12-83 norial none nonal absent silt nonal
6-28-84 norial none norial absent norial
8-21-85 norial none norial absent
Downstreai of
Adrian HMTP
9-12-B3 cheiical- none slight norial
chlorine
Downstreai of
HoMell Rd.
9-12-83 norial none Ipetroleui tioderate
Upstreai of
Adrian Tankage
9-28-B3 norial none norial- absent
fishy
Adrian Tankage
9-12-83 sewage globs sewage absent sludge black
4-28-84 greases
Upstreai of
East Side Dm.
9-28-83 sewage- none anaerobic- absent sludge- black
rancid rancid rancid
East Side Drn.
Qakwood ling
9-12-83 cheiical none cheiical absent norial
East Side Drn.
Pan Hwy Xing
6-28-84 petroleui sheen petroleui profuse black
756
-------
East Side Orn. nater surface seduent sednent sednent substrate
River Confluence odors oils odors oils deposits undersides
9-28-83 norial none nonal absent sand norial
Beaver Creek
River Confluence
9-28-B3 norial none nonal absent sand norial
Confluence of
Beaver Creek
9-28-83 rancid none very absent sludge black
anaerobic
6-28-84 fats & flecks petroleui loderate
grease fat globules anaerobic
N. I, S. Branch
Confluence
9-28-B3 norial- globs anaerobic absent sludge black
sewage
N. Branch
Miliouth Rd.
9-2B-B3 nonal none norial absent sand-silt norial
Raisin R.
Laberdee Rd.
9-28-63 norial none norial absent black
t only in siail depositions! zones
757
-------
— HI
CO CD
CO Ul
oc
LD
-------
East Side 2rn. ahyto- UUien'.ous taero- lac'eml :oo- Mcrosn-
QaVnood (1:13 plankton periphyton algae ;~.ites ;l:ies plankton vertebrates fish Clients
9-!2-33 ;5;e"t absent absent absent absent assent sparse absent
East Side Cm.
Pan H»y Xing
6-29-84 sparse absent abydant absent- Sole seditents approx.
sparse 41 leep mth oils
East Side Drn.
River Confluence
9-28-83 absent sparse absent absent absent absent sparse sparse Considerable loose sand
bedload
3eaver Creek
River Confluence
'-28-63 absent absent absent absent absent absent sparse absent Considerable loose sand
cedload
Confluence of
Beaver Creek
9-28-83 absent absent sparse absent profuse absent sparse absent Sludge beds »ith slues
K, anaerobic, bubbling
i-28-84
absent absent abundant
cat globules on «ater
surface
tax. river depth 2'
slues oresent on all
stiL>s ana logs
less olaa slucge present
jore 'ats on natsr surface
large gatherings of reddish
bronn qlotmles tienind log
ja»s
K. 4 S. Branch
Confluence
absent sparse sparse absent abundant absent sparse
absent Very siall globs Gf grease
en surface, lay .ndicate
discharge
-------
1. r-ancfi jr.-'tD- fiiaient?u= iacr3- "actsnal ::o- lacrs:*-
•otierate '.; ;ti:k3 ana .oqs
"nsideranle :ealoaa :*
sard ani silt
icst annals oenejtti I:^B,
:r if trp scsptiies ccverea
HI*.'' seaiient
jSsep,t soa^se sSseit aasent 5car;e josent 55^^55 sjarss- Deep sater iade collections
soderats di^u^lt
'.inted haaitat
steep clay canks
-------
Table 3.—Qualitative macroinvertebrate sampling results -from the South
Branch Raisin River and Eastside Drain near Adrian, September,
1983, June, 1VB4 and August, 1985. P = Present, AB = Abundant
Station Location Upstream o-f
Adrian WWTP
1983
Pori-fera (sponges)
Oligochaeta (earthworms)
Turbellaria (flatworms)
Gastropoda (snails)
Ephemeroptera (may-flies)
Baetid
Caenidae
Heptageni idae
Trichoptera (caddis-flies)
Hydropsychidae
Anisoptera (dragon-flies)
Zygoptera (damsel -fl i es>
Coleoptera (beetles)
Berridae
El mi dae
Chironomidae (midges)
Tipulidae (crane-flies)
Decapoda (cray-fish)
Isopoda (sow bugs)
Amphipoda (scuds)
P
P
P
p
P
AB
AB
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
Upstream of
Adrian WWTP
1984
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
Upstream of
Adrian WWTP
1985
P
P
P
P
P
AB
P
Total Number of Taxa
7fil
-------
Table 4.—Total chlorine sampling results in the South Branch
Raisin Ki.vgr, vicinity o-f Adrian WWTP, September 12, 1983.
Result.? in mg/1 .
Location South Side Middle North Side
Upstream o-f Adrian < 0.02 \0.02 '0.02
WWTP discharge
Adrian WWTP 0.03, 0.39
discharge 0.57
10 -ft. downstream 0.30 O.20 0.31
5O -ft. downstream O.07 O.ll 0.06
12O ft. downstream O.O3 O.04 O.04
200 -ft. downstream O.O3 - 0.03
300 -ft. downstream 0.03 - O.O3
400 -ft. downstream 0.05 - -
Howe11 Rd. 0.02 - 0.02
76?
-------
Table 5.—Qualitative ucroinvertebrate saipling results froi the Raisin River Adrian, Septeiber 12 and 28, 1983.
P = Present, AB = Abundant
Station Location I
Ohgochaeta (eartluoris)
Isopoda (sonbugs)
Sastropoda (snails)
Pelecypoda (dais)
Aiphipoda Iscuds)
Decapoda (crayfish)
Epheicroptera dayflies)
Battidae
Caenidai
Heptageniidae
Tr i chop t era Icaddisfhes)
Hydropsychiiae
Anisoptera (dragonfhes)
Zygoptera IdaiseHhes)
Col copter a (beetles)
Berndae
Eludae
Corixidae (boatien)
Chironondae fudges)
Snuhidae (blackflies)
Tipulidae Icraneflies)
lonnstreai
Adrian
WTP
P
P
P
P
AB
P
P
P
P
P
Upstreai Upstreai Dowistreai
Hcmell Adrian Eastside Eastside
Road Tankage Drain Drain
P P P P
P P
P
P P
P
AB
AB P
AB
P P
P
P P
P P P P
Upstreai
North Branch Laberdee
Confluence Road
P P
P P
P
AB
P
P
P
P
P
P
P P
Total Nuiber of Taxa
10
10
-------
Table 6.--Hater cheeistry results af the South Branch Raisin River, September, 1983.
Station Nueber
tINuiber attributed 1 2 3
to site location)
Cadnui (ug/1) <0.2 <0.2 (0.2
Chrotiui (ug/1) 2.0 2.0 2.4
Copper lug/1) 1.8 4.0 2.5
Iron lug/1) 600 40.0 580
Lead (ug/1) 3.4 4.1 2.9
Nickel (ug/1) <4.0 4.9 (4.0
Zinc (ug/1) 4 12 4
Total Organic ...
Carbon tig/1 >
Nitrate Nitrogen -
(•g/1)
Attorn a Nitrogen ...
(tg/1)
Total Kjeldahl
Nitrogen (tg/1)
Total Phosphorous -
(tg/1)
5-day BOD (ig/1)
Teiperature 68
Dissolved Oxygen ...
4 5
(0.2
1.9
3.0
464
2.7
<4.0
6
600
4
44
90
6.6
1600
<120
6789
.
.
-
.
.
....
. . - .
.
0.071 O.OS7 0.059 0.083
.
....
1.2 1.6 4.7 1.2
....
8.8 - - 9.2
Staion Nutber - Location
September 12, 1983 1
2
3
4
5
September 28, 1983 6
7
8
9
- 300t upstreai of Adrian MMTP
- Adrian MMTP discharge
- 70i dowistreu of Adrian MMTP, south side
- 70i domstreai of Adrian MMTP, north side
- Adrian Tankage discharge
- Upstreai of Adrian Tankage
- Upstreai of Beaver Creek
- Upstreai of confluence with North Branch
- Eaitiide Drain near confluence
7fi4
-------
Table 7.—Sediment Sampling Results -from Parr Highway,
Eastside Drain, Adrian, June 28, 1984.
Compound tug/kg
Polychlorinated biphenyls #
1254 2.10
126O 4.70
Napthalene 1.60
F'henanthrene 7.00
Anthracene 0.84
Fluoranthene 13.00
Pyrene 1.20
Benzo (A) Anthracene 6.70
Chrysene 10.OO
Benzo Fluoranthene 14.00
Benzo (K) Fluoranthene 2.8O
Benzo (A) Pyrene 12.OO
Dibenzo (A*H) Anthracene 2.4O
1*12 - Benzoperylene 4.6O
Indeno (1*2*3 - CD) Pyrene 5.90
All other Scan 3 and 6 compounds were undetectable.
* detection limit 25O ug/kg -for Aroclors, all other Scan 3
compounds = 130
** detection limit polar pesticides = 25O
detection limit phthalates = 5000
765
-------
Table 8.--Eastside Drain sediient analysis, Hay 5, 1982 lag/kg). See lap for location of saiplinq stations.
tCurene Fireaaster
Station Aluiinui Cadaiui Chroiiui Cobalt Copper Lead Mercury Nickel Antiaony Zinc 442 680
1
2
3
4
.5
&
7
9
10
5600
5700
5700
1500
8400
2800
3500
3900
9800
K2
4
5
4
K2
K2
K2
K2
K2
76
130
80
57
54
27
16
25
51
7
K5
K5
7
8
K5
K5
K5
K5
350
390
280
120
59
28
19
23
64
220
200
no
79
54
22
13
15
53
K0.5
KO.S
K0.2
K0.2
K0.2
KO.S
K0.2
K0.2
K0.2
64
95
56
40
36
13
12
14
34
NAV
NAV
NAV
NAV
NAV
NAV
NAV
NAV
NAV
680
1200
720
810
310
130
98
110
380
2300
750
7800
3800
480
370
140
K50
200
2700
6200
1800
2200
940
310
190
58
1100
I Possible ION recovery in the exchange of solvents for HPLC analysis due to the 'oiliness' of the extract.
K Eleaent present at levels belo« the given value
NAV Not available
SOUTH BRANCH
RAISIN RIVER
-------
Table 9.—Qualitative macroinvertebrate sampling results -from Eastside
Drain. P = Present
Upstream
Oat-wood Raisin River Parr
Station Location Road Confluence Highway
(9/12/83) (9/28/83) (6/28/84)
Oligochaeta (earthworms) P P
Isopoda (sowbugs) P
Gastropoda (snails) P
Pelecypoda (clams)
Amphipoda (scuds)
Decapoda (crayfish)
Ephemeroptera (mayflies)
Bastidae
Caenidae
Heptageniidae
Trichoptera (caddi s-f 1 les)
Hydropsychldae P
Anisoptera (dragon-flies) P P
Zygoptera (damsel-fl i es) P .P
Coleoptera (beetles)
Berridae P P
Elmidae
Corixidae
Veliidae P
Chironomidae (midges) P P P
Simuliidae (blackflies)
Tipulidae (crane-flies) P
Total Number o-f Tax a 95 1
767
-------
APPENDIX D
DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION
GENERAL RULES
Filed with the Secretary of State on November 14, 1986
These rules take effect 15 days after filing with the Secretary of State
(By authority conferred on the water resources commission by sections 2
and 5 of Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as aui-snded, being
§§323.2 and 323.5 of the Michigan Compiled Laws)
R 323.1041 to R 323.1050, R 323.1053, R 323.1055, R 323.1058 to
R 323.1065, R 323.1070, R 323.1075, R 323.1082, R 323.1092 to
R 323.1098, R 323.1100, and R 323.1116 of the Michigan Administrative
Code,' appearing on pages 1630 and 1632 to 1639 of the 1979 Administrative
Code and pages 162 to 164, 166, and 167 of the 1984 Annual Supplement to
the Code, are amended, and R 323.1099 is added, to read as hereinafter
set forth.
R 323.1074, R 323.1080, R 323.1091, R 323.1110, and R 323.1115 of the
Michigan Administrative Code, appearing on pages 1636 to 1644 of the 1979
Michigan Administrative Code, are rescinded.
PART 4. WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
R 323.1041 Purpose.
Rule 41. The purpose of the water quality standards as prescribed by
these rules is to establish water quality requirements applicable to the
Great Lakes, the connecting waters, and all other surface waters of the
state, to protect the public health and welfare, to enhance and maintain
the quality of water, to protect the state's natural resources, and
serve the purposes of Public Law 92-500, as amended, 33 U.S.C. §466 et
seq., Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as amended, being §323.1 et
seq. of the Michigan Compiled Laws, and the Great Lakes water quality
agreement enacted November 22, 1978. These standards may not reflect
current water quality in all cases, but are minimum water quality re-
quirements for which the waters of the state are to be managed.
R 323.1043 Definitions; A to N.
Rule 43. As used in this part:
(a) "Agricultural use" means a use of water for agricultural purpos-
es, including livestock watering, irrigation, and crop spraying.
(b) "Anadromous salmonids" means those trout and salmon which ascend
streams to spawn.
(c) "Carcinogen" means a substance which causes an increased inci-
dence of benign or malignant neoplasms or a substantial decrease in the
latency period between exposure and onset of neoplasms through oral or
dermal exposure or through inhalation exposure when the cancer occurs at
nonrespiratory sites, in at least 1 mammalian species, or man through
epidemiological or clinical studies, unless the commission, on the basis
of credible scientific evidence, determines that there is significant
-------
uncertainty regarding the credibility, validity, or significance of such
study or studies, in which case it shall refer the question of carcino-
genicity to experts on carcinogenesis and shall consider the recommenda-
tions of those experts in making its final determination.
(d) "Coldwater fish" means those fish species whose populations
thrive in relatively cold water, including trout, salmon, whitefish, and
cisco.
(e) "Commission" means the Michigan water resources commission
established pursuant to Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as
amended, being §323.1 et seq. of the Michigan Compiled Laws.
(f"> "Connecting waters" means any of the following:
(i) The St. Marys river.
(ii) The Keweenaw waterway.
(iii) The Detroit river.
(iv) The St. Glair river.
(v) Lake St. Clair.
(g) "Designated use" means a use of the waters of the state as
established by these rules, including use for any of the following:
(i) Industrial, agricultural, and public water supply.
(ii) Recreation.
(iii) Fish, other aquatic life, and wildlife.
(iv) Navigation.
(h) "Dissolved oxygen" means the amount of oxygen dissolved in water
and is commonly expressed as a concentration in terms of milligrams per
liter.
(i) "Dissolved solids" means the amount of materials dissolved in
water and is commonly expressed as a concentration in terms of milligrams
per liter.
(j) "Effluent" means a wastewater discharged from a point source to
the waters of the state.
(k) "Fecal coliform" means a type of coliform bacteria found in the
intestinal tract of humans and other warm-blooded animals.
(1) "Final acute value" means the level of a chemical or mixture of
chemicals that does not allow the mortality of important fish or fish
food organisms to exceed 50% when exposed for 96 hours, except where a
shorter time period is appropriate for certain species.
(m) "Fish, other aquatic life, and wildlife use" means the use of the
waters of the state by fish, other aquatic life, and wildlife for any
life history stage or activity.
(n) "Industrial water supply" means a water source intended for use
in commercial or industrial applications or for noncontact food
processing.
(o) "Inland lake" means an inland body of standing water of the state
situated in a topographic depression other than an artificial agricultural
pond less than one acre, unless it is otherwise determined by the commission.
The commission may designate a dammed river channel or an impoundment as an
inland lake based on aquatic resources to be protected.
(p) "Keweenaw waterway" means the entire Keweenaw waterway, including
Portage lake, Houghton county.
(q) "MATC" means the maximum acceptable toxicant concentration
obtained by calculating the geometric mean of the lower and upper chronic
limits from a chronic test. A lower chronic limit is the highest tested
concentration which did not cause the occurrence of a specified adverse
effect. An upper chronic limit is the lowest tested concentration which
769
-------
did cause the occurrence of a specified adverse effect and above which
all tested concentrations caused such an occurrence.
(r) "Mixing zone" means that portion of a water body wherein a point
source discharge is mixed with the receiving water.
(s) "Natural water temperature" means the temperature of a body of
water without an influence from an artificial source or a temperature as
otherwise determined by the commission.
(t) "NOAEL" means the highest level of toxicant which results in no
observable adverse effects to exposed test organisms.
(u) "Non-point source" means a source of material other than a source
defined as a point source.
R 323.1044 Definitions; P to W.
Rule 44. As used in this part:
(a) "Palatable" means the state of being agreeable or acceptable to
the sense of sight, taste, or smell.
'(b) "Plant nutrients" means those chemicals, including nitrogen and
phosphorus, necessary for the growth and reproduction of aquatic rooted,
attached, and floating plants, fungi, or bacteria.
(c) "Point source" means a discernible, confined, and discrete
conveyance from which wastewater is or may be discharged to the waters of
the state, including the following:
(i) A pipe.
(ii) A ditch.
(iii) A channel.
(iv) A tunnel.
(v) A conduit.
(vi) A well.
(vii) A discrete fissure.
(viii) A container.
(ix) A concentrated animal feeding operation.
(x) A boat or other watercraft.
(d) "Public water supply sources" means a surface raw water source
which, after conventional treatment, provides a source of safe water for
various uses, including human consumption, food processing, cooking, and
as a liquid ingredient in foods and beverages.
(e) "Raw water" means the waters of the state before any treatment.
(f) "Receiving waters" means the waters of the state into which an
effluent is or may be discharged.
(g) "Sanitary sewage" means treated or untreated wastewaters which
contain human metabolic and domestic wastes.
(h) "Standard" means a definite numerical value or narrative state-
ment promulgated by the commission to maintain or restore water quality
to provide for, and fully protect, a designated use of the waters of the
state.
(i) "Suspended solids" means the amount of materials suspended in
water and is commonly expressed as a concentration in terms of milligrams
per liter.
(j) "Total body contact recreation" means any activity where the
human body may come into direct contact with water to the point of
complete submergence, including swimming, waterskiing, and skin diving.
(k) "Toxic substance" means a substance, except heat, when present in
sufficient concentrations or quantities which are or may become harmful
to plant life, animal life, or designated uses.
770
-------
(1) "Warmwater fish" means those fish species whose populations
thrive in relatively warm water, including any of the following:
(i) Bass.
(ii) Pike.
(iii) Walleye.
(iv) Panfish.
(m) "Wastewater" means storm water runoff which could result in
injury to a use designated in R 323.1100; liquid waste resulting from
commercial, institutional, domestic, industrial, and agricultural activi-
ties, including cooling and condensing waters; sanitary sewage; and
industrial waste.
(n) "Waters of the state" means all of the following, but does not
include drainage ways and ponds used solely for wastewater conveyance,
treatment, or control:
(i) The Great Lakes and their connecting waters.
(ii) All inland lakes.
(iii) Rivers.
(iv) Streams.
(v) Impoundment s.
(vi) Open drains.
(vii) Other surface waterbodies within the confines of the state.
R 323.1050 Physical characteristics.
Rule 50. The waters of the state shall not have any of the following
unnatural physical properties in quantities which are or may become
injurious to any designated use:
(a) Turbidity.
(b) Color.
(c) Oil films.
(d) Floating solids.
(e) Foams.
(f) Settleable solids.
(g) Suspended solids.
(h) Deposits.
R 323.1051 Dissolved solids.
Rule 51. (1) The addition of any dissolved solids shall not exceed
concentrations which are or may become injurious to any designated use.
Point sources containing dissolved solids shall be considered by the
commission on a case-by-case basis and increases of dissolved solids in
the waters of the state shall be limited through the application of best
practicable control technology currently available as prescribed by the
administrator of the United States environmental protection agency
pursuant to section 304(b) of Public Law 92-500, as amended, 33 U.S.C.
§466 et seq., except that in no instance shall total dissolved solids in
the waters of the state exceed a concentration of 500 milligrams per
liter as a monthly average nor more than 750 milligrams per liter at any
time, as a result of controllable point sources.
(2) The waters of the state designated as a public water supply
source shall not exceed 125 milligrams per liter of chlorides as a
monthly average, except for the Great Lakes and connecting waters, where
chlorides shall not exceed 50 milligrams per liter as a monthly average.
771
-------
R 323.1053 Hydrogen ion concentration.
Rule 53. The hydrogen ion concentration expressed as pH shall be
maintained within the range of 6.5 to 9.0 in all waters of the state. Any
artificially induced variation in the natural pH shall remain within this
range and shall not exceed 0.5 units of pH.
R 323.1055 Taste- or odor-producing substances.
Rule 55. The waters of the state shall contain no taste-producing or
odor-producing substances in concentrations which impair or may impair
their use for a public, industrial, or agricultural water supply source
which impair the palatability of fish as measured by test procedures
approved by the commission.
R 323.1057. Toxic substances.
Rule 57. (1) Toxic substances shall not be present in the waters of
the state at levels which are or may become injurious to the public
health, safety, or welfare; plant and animal life; or the designated uses
of those waters. Allowable levels of toxic substances shall be deter-
mined by the commission using appropriate scientific data.
(2) All of the following provisions apply for purposes of developing
allowable levels of toxic substances in the surface waters of the state
applicable to point source discharge permits issued pursuant to Act
No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as amended, being §323.1 et seq. of
the Michigan Compiled Laws:
(a) Water quality-based effluent limits developed pursuant to this
subrule shall be- used only when they are more restrictive than technology-
based limitations required pursuant to R 323.2137 and R 323.2140.
(b) The toxic substances to which this subrule shall apply are those
on the 1984 Michigan critical materials register established pursuant to
Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as amended, being §323.1 et seq.
of the Michigan Compiled Laws; the priority pollutants and hazardous
chemicals in 40 C.F.R. §122.21, appendix D (1983); and any other toxic
substances as the commission may determine are of concern at a specific
site.
(c) Allowable levels of toxic substances in the surface water after a
discharge is mixed with the receiving stream volume specified in R 323.1082
shall be determined by applying an adequate margin of safety to the MATC,
NOAEL, or other appropriate effect end points, based on knowledge of the
behavior of the toxic substance, characteristics of the receiving water,
and the organisms to be protected.
(d) In addition to restrictions pursuant to subdivision (c) of this
subrule, a discharge of carcinogens, not determined to cause cancer by a
threshold mechanism, shall not create a level of risk to the public
health greater than 1 in 100,000 in the surface water after mixing with
the allowable receiving stream volume specified in R 323.1082. The
commission may require a greater degree of protection pursuant to R 323.1098
where achievable through utilization of control measures already in place
or where otherwise determined necessary.
(e) Guidelines shall be adopted pursuant to Act No. 306 of the Public
Acts of 1969, as amended, being §24.201 et seq. of the Michigan Compiled
Laws, setting forth procedures to be used by staff in the development of
recommendations to the commission on allowable levels of toxic substances
and the minimum data necessary to derive such recommendations. The
commission may require the applicant to provide the minimum data when
77?
-------
otherwise not available for derivation of allowable levels of toxic
substances.
(f) For existing discharges, the commission may issue a scheduled
abatement permit pursuant to R 323.2145 upon a determination by the
commission that the applicant has demonstrated that each of the following
conditions is met:
(i) Immediate attainment of the allowable level of a toxic substance
is not economically or technically feasible.
(ii) No prudent alternative exists.
(iii) During the period of scheduled abatement, the permitted discharge
will be consistent with the protection of the public health, safety, and
welfare.
(iv) Reasonable progress will be made toward compliance with this rule
over the term of the permit, as provided for in a schedule in the permit.
R 323.1058 Radioactive substances.
Rule 58. The control and regulation of radioactive substances dis-
charged to the waters of the state shall be pursuant to the criteria,
standards, or requirements prescribed by the United States nuclear
regulatory commission in 10 C.F.R. §20.1 et seq. and by the United States
environmental protection agency.
R 323.1060 Plant nutrients.
Rule 60. (1) Consistent with Great Lakes protection, phosphorus which
is or may readily become available as a plant nutrient shall be con-
trolled from point source discharges to achieve 1 milligram per liter of
total phosphorus as a maximum monthly average effluent concentration
unless other limits, either higher or lower, are deemed necessary and
appropriate by the commission.
(2) In addition to the protection provided under subrule (1) of this
rule, nutrients shall be limited to the extent necessary to prevent
stimulation of growths of aquatic rooted, attached, suspended, and
floating plants, fungi or bacteria which are or may become injurious to
the designated uses of the waters of the state.
R 323.1062 Microorganisms.
Rule 62. (1) All waters of the state shall contain not more than 200
fecal coliform per 100 milliliters. This concentration may be exceeded
if such concentration is due to uncontrollable non-point sources. The
commission may suspend this rule from November 1 through April 30 upon
determining that designated uses will be protected.
(2) Compliance with the fecal coliform standards prescribed by
subrule (1) of this rule shall be determined on the basis of the geomet-
ric average of any series of 5 or more consecutive samples taken over not
more than a 30-day period.
(3) Protection of the waters of the state designated for total body
contact recreation and public water supply source by the water quality
standards prescribed by this rule may be subject to temporary interrup-
tion during or following flood conditions, accidents, or emergencies
which affect a sewer or wastewater treatment system. In the event of
such occurrences, notice shall be served to those affected in accordance
with procedures established by the commission. Prompt corrective action
shall be taken by the discharger to restore the designated use.
773
-------
R 323.1064 Dissolved oxygen in Great Lakes, connecting waters, and
inland streams.
Rule 64. (1) A minimum of 7 milligrams per liter of dissolved oxygen
in all Great Lakes and connecting waterways shall be maintained, and,
except for inland lakes as prescribed in R 323.1065, a minimum of 7
milligrams per liter of dissolved oxygen shall be maintained at all times
in all inland waters designated by these rules to be protected for
coldwater fish. In all other waters, except for inland lakes as pre-
scribed by R 323.1065, a minimum of 5 milligrams per liter of dissolved
oxygen shall be maintained. These standards do not apply for a limited
warmwater fishery use subcategory or limited coldwater fishery use
subcategory established pursuant to R 323.1100(10) or during those
periods when the standards specified in subrule (2) of this rule apply.
(2) Waters of the state which do not meet the standards set forth in
subrule (1) of this rule shall be upgraded to meet those standards. For
existing point source discharges to these waters, the commission may
issue permits pursuant to R 323.2145 which establish schedules to achieve
the standards set forth in subrule (1) of this rule. If existing point
source dischargers demonstrate to the commission that the dissolved
oxygen standards specified in subrule (1) of this rule are not attainable
through further feasible and prudent reductions in their discharges or
that the diurnal variation between the daily average and daily minimum
dissolved oxygen concentrations in those waters exceeds 1 milligram per
liter, further reductions in oxygen-consuming substances from such
discharges will not be required, except as necessary to meet the interim
standards specified in this subrule, until comprehensive plans to upgrade
these waters to the standards specified in subrule (1) of this rule have
been approved by the commission and orders, permits, or other actions
necessary to implement the approved plans have been issued by the
commission. In the interim, all of the following standards apply:
(a) For waters of the state designated for use for coldwater fish,
except for inland lakes as prescribed in R 323.1065, the dissolved oxygen
shall not be lowered below a minimum of 6 milligrams per liter at the
design flow during the warm weather season in accordance with R 323.1090(3)
and (4). At the design flows during other seasonal periods, as provided
in R 323.1090(4), a minimum of 7 milligrams per liter shall be main-
tained. At flows greater than the design flows, dissolved oxygen shall
be higher than the respective minimum values specified in this
subdivision.
(b) For waters of the state designated for use for warmwater fish and
other aquatic life, except for inland lakes as prescribed in R 323.1065,
the dissolved oxygen shall not be lowered below a minimum of 4 milligrams
per liter, or below 5 milligrams per liter as a daily average, at the
design flow during the warm weather season in accordance with R 323.1090(3)
and (4). At the design flows during other seasonal periods as provided
in R 323.1090(4), a minimum of 5 milligrams per liter shall be maintained.
At flows greater than the design flows, dissolved oxygen shall be higher
than the respective minimum values specified in this subdivision.
(c) For waters of the state designated for use for warmwater fish and
other aquatic life, but also designated as principal migratory routes for
anadromous salmonids, except for inland lakes as prescribed in R 323.1065,
the dissolved oxygen shall not be lowered below 5 milligrams per liter as
a minimum during periods of migration.
774
-------
(3) The commission may cause a comprehensive plan to be prepared to
upgrade waters to the standards specified in subrule (1) of this rule
taking into consideration all factors affecting dissolved oxygen in these
waters and the cost effectiveness of control measures to upgrade these
waters and, after notice and hearing, approve the plan. After notice and
hearing, the commission may amend a comprehensive plan for cause. In under-
taking the comprehensive planning effort the commission shall provide for
and encourage participation by interested and impacted persons in the affected
area. Persons directly or indirectly discharging substances which
contribute towards these waters not meeting the standards specified in
subrule (1) of this rule may be required after notice and order to
provide necessary information to assist in the development or amendment
of the comprehensive plan. Upon notice and order, permit, or other action
of the commission, persons directly or indirectly discharging substances
which contribute toward these waters not meeting the standards specified
in subrule (1) of this rule shall take the necessary actions consistent
with the approved comprehensive plan to control these discharges to
upgrade these waters to the standards specified in subrule (1) of this
rule.
R 323.1065 Dissolved oxygen; inland lakes.
Rule 65. (1) The following standards for dissolved oxygen shall
apply to lakes designated as trout lakes by the natural resources commis-
sion or lakes listed in the publication entitled "Coldwater Lakes of
Michigan":
(a) In stratified coldwater lakes which have dissolved oxygen concen-
trations less than 7 milligrams per liter in the upper half of the
hypolimnion, a minimum of 7 milligrams per liter dissolved oxygen shall
be maintained throughout the epilimnion and upper 1/3 of the thermocline
during stratification. Lakes capable of sustaining oxygen throughout the
hypolimnion shall maintain oxygen throughout the hypolimnion. At all
other times, dissolved oxygen concentrations greater than 7 milligrams
per liter shall be maintained.
(b) Except for lakes described in subdivision (c) of this subrule, in
stratified coldwater lakes which have dissolved oxygen concentrations
greater than 7 milligrams per liter in the upper half of the hypolimnion,
a minimum of 7 milligrams per liter of dissolved oxygen shall be main-
tained in the epilimnion, thermocline, and upper half of the hypolimnion.
Lakes capable of sustaining oxygen throughout the hypolimnion shall
maintain oxygen throughout the hypolimnion. At all other times, dis-
solved oxygen concentrations greater than 7 milligrams per liter shall be
maintained.
(c) In stratified coldwater lakes which have dissolved oxygen concen-
trations greater than 7 milligrams per liter throughout the hypolimnion,
a minimum of 7 milligrams per liter shall be maintained throughout the
lake.
(d) In unstratified coldwater lakes, a minimum of 7 milligrams per
liter of dissolved oxygen shall be maintained throughout the lake.
(2) For all other inland lakes not specified in subrule (1) of this
rule, during stratification, a minimum dissolved oxygen concentration of
5 milligrams per liter shall be maintained throughout the epilimnion. At
all other times, dissolved oxygen concentrations greater than 5 milli-
grams per liter shall be maintained.
775
-------
R 323.1069. Temperature; general considerations.
Rule 69. (1) In all waters of the state, the points of temperature
measurement normally shall be in the surface 1 meter; however, where
turbulence, sinking plumes, discharge inertia or other phenomena upset
the natural thermal distribution patterns of receiving waters, tem-
perature measurements shall be required to identify the spatial char-
acteristics of the thermal profile.
(2) Monthly maximum temperatures, based on the ninetieth percentile
occurrence of natural water temperatures plus the increase allowed at the
edge of the mixing zone and in part on long-term physiological needs of
fish, may be exceeded for short periods when natural water temperatures
exceed the ninetieth percentile occurrence. Temperature increases during
these periods may be permitted by the commission, but in all cases shall
not be greater than the natural water temperature plus the increase
allowed at the edge of the mixing zone.
(3) Natural daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations of the
receiving waters shall be preserved.
R 323.1070 Temperature of Great Lakes and connecting waters.
Rule 70. (1) The Great Lakes and connecting waters shall not receive
a heat load which would warm the receiving water at the edge of the
mixing zone more than 3 degrees Fahrenheit above the existing natural
water temperature.
(2) The Great Lakes and connecting waters shall not receive a heat
load which would warm the receiving water at the edge of the mixing zone
to temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit higher than the following monthly
maximum temperature:
(a) Lake Michigan north of a line due west from the city of
Pentwater.
JFMAMJJASOND
40 40 40 50 55 70 75 75 75 65 60 45
(b) Lake Michigan south of a line due west from the city of
Pentwater.
JFMAMJJASOND
45 45 45 55 60 70 80 80 80 65 60 50
(c) Lake Superior and the St. Marys river:
JFMAMJJASOND
38 36 39 46 53 61 71 74 71 61 49 42
(d) Lake Huron north of a line due east from Tawas point:
JFMAMJJASOND
40 40 40 50 60 70 75 80 75 65 55 45
77fi
-------
(e) Lake Huron south of a line due east from Tawas point, except
Saginaw bay.
JFMAMJJASOND
40 40 40 55 60 75 80 80 80 65 55 45
(f) Lake Huron, Saginaw bay:
JFMAMJJASOND
45 45 45 60 70 75 80 85 78 65 55 45
(g) St. Clair river:
JFMAMJJASOND
40 40 40 50 60 70 75 80 75 65 55 50
(h) Lake St. Clair:
JFMAMJJASOND
40 40 45 55 70 75 80 83 80 70 55 45
(i) Detroit river:
JFMAM'JJASOND
40 40 45 60 70 75 80 83 80 70 55 45
(j) Lake Erie:
JFMAMJJASOND
45 45 45 60 70 75 80 85 80 70 60 50
R 323.1075 Temperature of rivers, streams, and impoundments.
Rule 75. (1) Rivers, streams, and impoundments naturally capable of
supporting coldwater fish shall not receive a heat load which would do
either of the following:
(a) Increase the temperature of the receiving waters at the edge of
the mixing zone more than 2 degrees Fahrenheit above the existing natural
water temperature.
(b) Increase the temperature of the receiving waters at the edge of
the mixing zone to temperatures greater than the following monthly
maximum temperatures:
JFMAMJJASOND
38 38 43 54 65 68 68 68 63 56 48 40
(2) Rivers, streams, and impoundments naturally capable of supporting
warmwater fish shall not receive a heat load which would warm the
receiving water at the edge of the mixing zone more than 5 degrees
Fahrenheit above the existing natural water temperature.
(3) Rivers, streams, and impoundments naturally capable of supporting
warmwater fish shall not receive a heat load which would warm the receiv-
ing water at the edge of the mixing zone to temperatures greater than the
following monthly maximum temperatures:
777
-------
(a) For rivers, streams, and impoundments north of a line between Bay
City, Midland, Alma and North Muskegon:
JFMAMJJASOND
38 38 41 56 70 80 83 81 74 64 49 39
(b) For rivers, streams, and impoundments south of a line between Bay
City, Midland, Alma, and North Muskegon, except the St. Joseph river:
JFMAMJJASOND
41 40 50 63 76 84 85 85 79 68 55 43
(c) St. Joseph river:
JFM-AMJJAS OND
50 50 55 65 75 85 85 85 85 70 60 50
(4) Non-trout rivers and streams that serve as principal migratory
routes for anadromous salmonids shall not receive a heat load during
periods of migration at such locations and in a manner which may adverse-
ly affect salmonid migration or raise the receiving water temperature at
the edge of the mixing zone more than 5 degrees Fahrenheit above the
existing natural water temperature.
R 323.1082 Mixing zones.
Rule 82. (1) A mixing zone to achieve a mixture of a point source
discharge with the receiving waters shall be considered a region in which
the response of organisms to water quality characteristics is time
dependent. Exposure in mixing zones shall not cause an irreversible
response which results in deleterious effects to populations of aquatic
life or wildlife. As a minimum restriction, the final acute value for
aquatic life shall not be exceeded in the mixing zone at any point
inhabitable by these organisms, unless it can be demonstrated to the
commission that a higher level is acceptable. The mixing zone shall not
prevent the passage of fish or fish food organisms in a manner which
would result in adverse impacts on their immediate or future populations.
Watercourses or portions thereof which, without 1 or more point source
discharge, would have no flo%w except during periods of surface runoff may
be considered as a mixing zone for a point source discharge. The area of
mixing zones should be minimized. To.this end, devices for rapid mixing,
dilution, and dispersion are encouraged where practicable.
(2) For toxic substances, not more than 25% of the receiving water
design flow, as stated in R 323.1090, shall be utilized when determining
effluent limitations for surface water discharges, unless it can be
demonstrated to the commission that the use of a larger volume is accept-
able. The commission shall not base a decision to grant more than 25% of
the receiving water design flow for purposes of developing effluent
limitations for discharges of toxic substances solely on the use of rapid
mixing, dilution, or dispersion devices. However, where such a device is
or may be employed, the commission may authorize the use of a design flow
greater than 257, if the effluent limitations which correspond to such a
design flow are shown, based upon a site-specific demonstration, to be
consistent with Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929, as amended, being
§323.1 et seq. of the Michigan Compiled Laws, and other applicable law.
778
-------
(3) For substances not included in subrule (2) of this rule, the
design flow, as stated in R 323.1090, shall be utilized when determining
effluent limitations for surface water discharges if the provisions in
subrule (1) of this rule are met, unless the commission determines that a
more restrictive volume is necessary.
(4) For all substances, defined mixing zone boundaries may be estab-
lished and shall be determined on a case-by-case basis.
(S) Mixing zones in the Great Lakes, their connecting waters, and
inland lakes shall be determined on a case-by-case basis.
R 323.1090. Applicability of water quality standards.
Rule 90. (1) The water quality standards prescribed by these rules
shall not apply within mixing zones, except for those standards pre-
scribed in R 323.1082(1) and R 323.1050.
(2) Water quality standards prescribed by these rules are minimally
acceptable water quality conditions. Water quality shall be equal to or
better than such minimal water quality conditions not less than 95% of
the time.
(3) Water quality standards shall apply at all flows equal to or
exceeding the design flow. The d-esign flow is equal to the most re-
strictive of the 12 monthly 95% exceedance flows, except where the
commission determines that a more restrictive design flow is necessary or
where the commission determines that seasonal design flows may be granted
pursuant to R 323.1090(4). The 95% exceedance flow is the flow equal to
or exceeded 95% of the time for the specified month.
(4) A maximum of 4 seasonal design flows may be granted when deter-
mining effluent limitations for a surface water discharge if it is
determined by the commission that the use of such design flows will
protect water quality and be consistent with the protection of the public
health, safety, and welfare. The seasonal design flows shall be the most
restrictive' of the monthly 95% exceedance flow for the months in each
season. Seasonal design flows shall not be granted for toxic substances
which, on the basis of credible scientific evidence, may bioaccumulate in
biota inhabiting or using the waters of the state unless, taking into
account the receiving water characteristics the persistence and environ-
mental fate characteristics of the substance or substances and the
presence of other discharges of bioaccumulative toxic substances into the
same receiving waters, the commission determines that the increased mass
loading of the substance or substances resulting from granting seasonal
design flows is consistent with Act No. 245 of the Public Acts of 1929,
as amended, being §323.1 et seq. of the Michigan Compiled Laws, and other
applicable law.
R 323.1092 Applicability of water quality standards to dredging or
construction activities.
Rule 92. Unless the commission determines, after consideration of
dilution and dispersion, that such activities result in unacceptable adverse
impacts on designated uses, the water quality standards prescribed by
these rules shall not apply to dredging or construction activities within
the waters of the state where such activities occur or during the periods
of time when the aftereffects of dredging or construction activities
degrade water quality within such waters of the state, if the dredging
operations or construction activities have been authorized by the United
States army corps of engineers or the department of natural resources. The
779
-------
water quality standards shall apply, however, in nonconfined waters of the
state utilized for the disposal of spoil from dredging operations, except
within spoil disposal sites specifically defined by the United States
army corps of engineers or the department of natural resources.
R 323.1096 Determinations of compliance with water quality standards.
Rule 96. Analysis of the waters of the state to determine compliance
with the water quality standards prescribed by these rules shall be made
pursuant to procedures outlined in 40 C.F.R. §136, as amended by F.R. pp.
43234 to 43442 October 26, 1984, and F.R. pp. 690 to 697 January 4, 1985,
or pursuant to other methods prescribed or approved by the commission and
the United States environmental protection agency.
R 323.1097 Materials applications not subject to standards.
Rule 97. The application of materials for water resource management
projects pursuant to state statutory provisions is not subject to the
standards prescribed by these rules, but all projects shall be reviewed
and approved by the commission before application.
R 323.1098 Antidegradation.
Rule 98. (1) This rule applies to waters of the state in which the
existing water quality is better than the water quality standards pre-
scribed by these rules or than needed to protect existing uses.
(2) These waters shall not be lowered in quality by action of the
commission unless it is determined by the commission that such lowering
will not do any of the following:
(a) Become injurious to the public health, safety, or welfare.
(b) Become injurious to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultur-
al, recreational, or other uses which ara or may be made of such
waters.
(c) Become injurious to the value or utility of riparian lands.
(d) Become injurious to livestock, wild animals, including birds,
fish, and other aquatic animals, or plants, or their growth or
propagation.
(e) Destroy or impair the value of game, fish, and wildlife.
(f) Be unreasonable and against the public interest in view of the
existing conditions.
(3) All of the following waters are designated as protected waters:
(a) All Michigan waters of the Great Lakes, except as these waters
may be affected by discharges to the connecting waters and tributaries.
(b) Trout streams south of a line between Bay City, Midland, Alma,
and North Muskegon.
(c) Inland lakes.
(d) Reaches of country-scenic and wild-scenic rivers designated under
Act No. 231 of the Public Acts of 1970, being §281.761 et seq. of the
Michigan Compiled Laws.
(e) Scenic and recreational rivers designated under the wild and
scenic rivers act of 1968, 16 U.S.C. §1721 et seq.
(4) In addition to the requirements of subrule (2) of this rule, the
waters specified in subrule (3) of this rule shall not be lowered in
quality unless, after opportunity for public hearing, it has been demon-
strated by the applicant to the commission that a lowering in quality
will not be unreasonable, is in the public interest in view of existing
conditions, is necessary to accommodate important social or economic
-------
development, and that there are no prudent and feasible alternatives to
lowering water quality.
(5) Reaches of the following rivers have been designated pursuant to
Act No. 231 of the Public Acts of 1970, being §281.761 et seq. of the
Michigan Compiled Laws:
(a) Jordan river - October, 1972, natural river plan.
(b) Betsie river - July, 1973, natural river plan.
(c) Rogue river - July, 1973, natural river plan.
(d) White river - May, 1975, natural river plan.
(e) Boardman river - December, 1975, natural river plan.
(f) Huron river - May, 1977, natural river plan.
(g) Pere Marquette river - July, 1978, natural river plan
(h) Flat river - October, 1979, natural river plan.
(i) Rifle river - May, 1980, natural river plan.
(j) Kalamazoo river - June, 1981, natural river plan.
(k) Pigeon river - June, 1982, natural river plan.
Designated reaches of these rivers are provided in the department of
natural resources natural river plan for each respective river.
(6) Reaches of the AuSable river - November, 1984, have been desig-
nated pursuant to the wild and scenic rivers act of 1968, 16 U.S.C. §1721
et seq.
(7) Michigan's waters of the Great Lakes are of special significance
and are designated as outstanding state resource waters. In addition to
the protection specified under subrules (2), (3) and (4) of this rule,
mixing zones shall not be used for new or increased discharges to the
Great Lakes of toxic substances, as defined by R 323.1057(2)(b), which
would result in a lowering of water quality. However, the commission may
grant a mixing zone for certain toxic substances on a case-by-case
basis, taking into account credible scientific evidence, including
persistence and environmental fate characteristics of the substances.
Mixing zones for existing discharges of these toxic substances to the
Great Lakes and for all discharges of these toxic substances to the
connecting waters shall be minimized.
(8) Before authorizing a new or increased discharge of wastewater
directly to the Great Lakes or connecting waters, the commission shall
provide, in addition to the public notice required by commission rules,
supplemental notice of its intent to authorize such discharge, of its
proposed determination with respect to the applicable factors set forth
in subrule (4) of this rule, and the proposed national pollutant dis-
charge elimination system permit terms and conditions, to the administra-
tor of the United States environmental protection agency, the director of
the state or provincial water pollution control agency for all states or
provinces which border the lake or connecting waters which receive the
new or increased discharge, the United States fish and wildlife service,
and the international joint commission. The commission shall allow not
less than 30 days for comments from the recipients of the supplemental
notice and shall carefully consider all comments received in making its
determination.
(9) Wild rivers designated under the wild and scenic rivers act of
1968, 16 U.S.C. §1721 et seq., rivers flowing into, through, or out of
national parks or national lakeshores, and wilderness rivers designated
under Act No. 231 of the Public Acts of 1970, being §281.761 et seq. of
the Michigan Compiled Laws, shall not be lowered in quality. Reaches of
781
-------
the Two Hearted river - December, 1973, natural river plan - are designated
under Act No. 231 of the Public Acts of 1970 as a wilderness river.
R 323.1099 Waters which do not meet standards.
Rule 99. Waters of the state which do not meet the water quality
standards prescribed by these rules shall be improved to meet those
standards. Where the water quality of certain waters of the state does
not meet the water quality standards as a result of natural causes or
conditions, further reduction of water quality is prohibited.
R 323.1100 Designated uses.
Rule 100. (1) As a minimum, all waters of the state are designated
for, and shall be protected for, all of the following uses:
(a) Agriculture.
(b) Navigation.
(c) Industrial water supply.
(d) Public water supply at the point of water intake.
(e) Warmwater fish.
(f) Other indigenous aquatic life and wildlife.
(g) Partial body contact recreation.
(2) All waters of the state are designated for, and shall be protect-
ed for, total body contact recreation from May 1 to October 31 in accor-
dance with R 323.1062. The commission will annually publish a list of
those waters of the state located immediately downstream of municipal
sewage system discharges where total or partial body contact recreation
is contrary to prudent public health practices.
(3) All inland lakes identified in the publication entitled "Cold-
water Lakes of Michigan," as published in 1976 by the department of
natural resources, are designated for, and shall be protected for,
coldwater fish.
(4) All Great Lakes and their connecting waters, except the entire
Keweenaw waterway, including Portage lake, Houghton county, and Lake St.
Glair, are designated for, and shall be protected for, coldwater fish.
(5) All lakes designated as trout lakes by the natural resources
commission under the authority of Act No. 165 of the Public Acts of 1929,
as amended, being §301.1 et seq. of the Michigan Compiled Laws, are
designated for, and shall be protected for, coldwater fish.
(6) All waters of the state designated as trout streams by the
director of the department pursuant to section 8 of Act No. 165 of the
Public Acts of 1929, as amended, being §301.8 et seq. of the Michigan
Compiled Laws, shall be protected for coldwater fish.
(7) All waters of the state which are designated by the Michigan
department of public health as existing or proposed for use as public
water supply sources are protected for such use at the point of water
intake and in such contiguous areas as the commission may determine
necessary for assured protection.
(8) Water quality of all waters of the state serving as migratory
routes for anadromous salmonids shall be protected as necessary to assure
that migration is not adversely affected.
(9) Discharges to wetlands, as defined by Act No. 203 of the Public
Acts of 1979, being §281.701 of the Michigan Compiled Laws, that result
in quality less than that prescribed by these rules may be permitted
after a use attainability analysis shows that designated uses are not and
cannot be attained and shows that attainable uses will be protected.
78?
-------
(10) After completion of a comprehensive .plan developed pursuant to
R 323.1064(3), upon petition by a municipality or other person, and in
conformance with the requirements of 40 C.F.R. §131.10 (1983), the commis-
sion may determine that attainment of the dissolved oxygen standards of
R 323.1064(1) is not feasible and designate, by amendment to this rule, a
limited warmwater fishery use subcategory of the warmwater fishery use
or a limited cold water fishery use subcategory of the cold water fishery
use. For waters so designated, the dissolved oxygen standards specified
in R 323.1064(2) and all other applicable standards of these rules apply.
For waters so designated, the dissolved oxygen standards specified in
R 323.1064(1) do not apply. Not less than sixty days before filing a
petition under this subrule by a municipality or other person, a petitioner
shall provide written notice to the executive secretary of the water
resources commission and the clerk of the municipalities in which the
affected waters are located of its intent to file such petition.
R 323.1105. Multiple designated uses.
Rule 105. When a particular portion of the waters of the state is
designated for more than 1 use, the most restrictive water quality
standards for one or more of those designated uses shall apply to that
portion.
R 323.1116 Availability of documents.
Rule 116. Documents referenced in R 323.1057, R 323.1058, R 323.1065,
R 323.1096, and R 323.1100 may be obtained at current costs as follows:
(a) "EPA Priority Pollutants and Hazardous Substances," 40 C.F.R.
§122.21, appendix D (1983); copies may be obtained from the Department of
Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost,
or from the Office of Water Enforcement, United States Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 20460, at no cost.
(b) "1984 Michigan Critical Materials Register;" copies may be
obtained from the Department of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30028,
Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost.
(c) "Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for Analysis of Pollu-
tants," 40 C.F.R. §136 as amended by F.R. pp 43234 to 43442, October 26,
1984, and F.R. pp. 690 to 697, January 4, 1985; copies may be obtained
from the Department of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing,
Michigan 48909, at no cost.
(d) "Designated Trout Lakes," a publication of the department of
natural resources; copies may be obtained from the Department of Natural
Resources, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost.
(e) "Coldwater Lakes of Michigan," August, 1976, a publication of the
department of natural resources, fisheries division, copies may be
obtained from the Department of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30028,
Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost.
(f) "Designated Trout Streams for the State of Michigan," April,
1975, a publication of the department of natural resources; copies may
be obtained from the Department of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30028,
Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost.
(g) "Standards for Protection Against Radiation," 10 C.F.R. §20,
January 1, 1985. Copies may be obtained from the Department of Natural
Resources, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost.
783
-------
•(h) "Designation of uses," 40 C.F.R. §131.10, as published in November 8,
1983 F.R. pp. 51406 and 51407; copies may be obtained from the Department
of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 30028, Lansing, Michigan 48909, at no cost.
7R4
-------
SELECTED INNOVATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENTS
by
John J. Convery, James F. Kreissl,
Dr. James A. Heidman, Richard C. Brenner,
And Dr. Richard A. Dobbs
Wastewater Research Division
Water Engineering Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
And
Richard Field
Land Pollution Control Division
Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Edison, New Jersey 08837
This paper has been reviewed in accordance with
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's peer
and administrative review policies and approved
for presentation and publication.
Prepared for presentation at:
Eleventh United States/Japan Conference
on Sewage Treatment Technology
Tokyo, Japan
October 12-14, 1987
-------
INTRODUCTION
The 1986 Needs Survey! ^5 identified a capital cost funding require-
ment to build publicly owned municipal wastewater treatment facilities of
$76.2 billion to satisfy all categories of documented need for the design
year (2005) population of 244 million people. The number of facilities
will increase from 15,438 to 16,980. The percent of population treated
will increase from 73% to 87%. Seventy-three percent of the 1,542 new
facilities to be constructed will be minor facilities with flows of less
than 1.0 MGD (0.043 m3s). Seventy-seven percent of all existing facilities
are minor facilities. Currently, 2,000 existing minor facilities and 800
existing major facilities require construction worth $15.5 billion dollars
to be brought into compliance with their current effluent permit limits.
Several of the technologies discussed in this paper are particular-
ly well suited for upgrading the performance of currently overloaded small
treatment plants. The trickling filter/solids contactor process can be
used to economically upgrade the performance of many of the 1,700 existing
trickling filter plants. The Two-Zone wastewater treatment process evalu-
ation results at Norristown, Pennsylvania illustrate an approach to upgrading
existing activated sludge treatment facilities which are organically over-
loaded. Vacuum assisted sludge drying bed technology offers a capability
to retrofit existing facilities which will permit production of a liftable
sludge cake within 24 hours. This technology will aid small treatment
facilities with inadequate sludge drying bed capacity; particularly during
the cold, wet winter months. The rubber tide gate technology will prevent
excess inflows and hydraulic overloading and preserve usable treatment
plant capacity.
Twenty-nine percent of the total facilities in the year 2005 will
provide treatment levels better than secondary treatment. Many will
require the application of control technology which can achieve small
residual concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus such as the Rim-Nut
Process.
TRICKLING FILTER/SOLIDS CONTACT PROCESS
The information presented on the trickling filter/solids contact
process (TF/SC) is summarized from references (2) and (3) and is based
upon the performance of four full-scale TF/SC facilities which were
evaluated for a total of 29 weeks. Plant locations included Oconto Falls,
Wisconsin; Tolleson, Arizona; Medford, Oregon and Chilton, Wisconsin.
Operating records from Corvallis, Oregon and Norco, California were also
analyzed.
The TF/SC was first successfully demonstrated in Corvallis, Oregon
in 1979. A flow schematic of one mode of the process is shown in Figure 1.
The SC feature provides a short aerobic contact period of one hour or less
786
-------
Primary
Effluent
00
Trickling Filter
Waste
Sludge
Aerated
Solids Contact
Tank
Secondary
Clarifier
Mixed Liquor.
Return Sludge
Flocculator
Center Well
Treated
Effluent
Figure 1. Trickling Filter/Solids Contact Process (TF/SC)
-------
(based upon total flow) between the TF effluent and recycled underflow
solids from the secondary clarifier to promote solids capture and produce
a final effluent with a low suspended solids concentration.
The TF/SC process is a biological and physical process that includes
(1) a TF, (2) an aerobic solids contact basin, (3) a flocculation zone, and
(4) a secondary clarifier. Two operating features are particularly
important: solids must be maintained in an aerobic flocculant state;
and solids are recycled from the secondary clarifier to combine with TF
effluent as a mixed liquor. Other modes of operation for the TF/SC process
include: return sludge reaeration either^!) an alternative to or ^) jn
addition to the aeration of TF effluent and sludge recycle.
The primary function of the first element in the TF/SC process,
the TF, is to reduce the majority of the soluble BOD in the wastewater.
The aerobic solids contact period is then used to provide contact between
finely divided solids in the TF effluent and recycled biological solids
and to provide additional soluble BOD removal, if necessary. The solids
retention time (SRT) of the SC tank is less than two days. The contact
opportunity provides for initial flocculation of dispersed solids into
floe. The length of the aerobic solids contact period is governed by
the requirements for particulate and soluble BOD removal. Figure 2
illustrates the soluble BOD5 profile along the aerated solids contact
tank at Medford, Oregon. The third element in the TF/SC process is the
flocculation period. Flocculation, which is initiated in the contact
tank, continues in the clarifier, preferably in a mildly stirred environ-
ment of a center well. The flocculation step promotes clear effluent
and growth of large, settleable floe that are removed in secondary
clarification.
Additional characteristics that distinguish TF/SC from other
processes are that return sludge solids are mixed with TF effluent
rather than primary effluent, and the aerated solids contact tank is
not designed to nitrify, although nitrification may occur in the TF.
PERFORMANCE OF EXISTING FACILITIES
The Oconto Falls and Tolleson plants were originally rock TF plants.
Tolleson was originally a two-stage rock TF plant with intermediate clari-
fication treating industrial and residential flows. The first-stage rock
filter was replaced with a 20 ft. (6.1 m) deep plastic media filter with
intermediate clarification and the remaining rock filter was followed by
aerated solids contact and a flocculator clarifier. The Medford plant was
originally an activated sludge (AS) plant that was converted to a coupled
TF/AS plant. This plant presently operates in the TF/SC mode since its
flows and loads are significantly below design levels.
Tables 1 and 2 summarize the design and operating performance
results for four of these facilities including the Corvallis plant.
The effluent quality was excellent with effluent BOD5 of <21 mg/L and
TSS of <13 mg/L.
788
-------
O)
*
in
o
o
CO
(A
I
BJ
o
.a
(5
O
_
JD
"5
CO
Soluble Carbonaceous BOD5;
Measurement Taken At Medford,
Oregon, 7/16/84
0
0
Aerated Solids Contact Time, minutes
Figure 2. Soluble BOD5 Profile Along The Aerated Solids Contact
Tank At Medford, Oregon
789
-------
TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF DESIGN INFORMATION FOR TF/SC FACILITIES
PARAMETER
TOLLESON OCONTO FALLS CORVALLIS MEDFORD
AVERAGE (D.W.)
DESIGN FLOW, MGD
8.3
DESIGN LOADING, 1000 Ib/day
BOD (mg/L) 24
SS (mg/L) 21.6
PRIMARY CLARIFIER OVERFLOW
RATE, (gpd/sq. ft.)
TRICKLING FILTER
MEDIA TYPE
BOD LOADING, (Ib/day/
1000 cu. ft.)
RETURN SLUDGE AERATION
TIME 033X RETURN, (MINS)
AERATED SOLIDS CONTACT
TIME (TOTAL FLOW, MINS)
FLOCCULATOR CENTER
WELL DETENTION TIME, (MINS)
SECONDARY CLARIFIER OVERFLOW
RATE (gpd/sq. ft.)
970
PLASTIC/ROCK
55/9.1
0.38
0.67
0.79
370
ROCK
35
9.7
10.9
11.5
980
18.0
35.0
38.0
1030
ROCK PLASTIC
24 115
9
25
440
8
38
300
2
25
470
39*
5
480
1 MGD = 0.0438 m3/s
1 Ib/day = 0.45 kg/day
1 gpd/ft2 = 0.041 m3/m2'd
1 lb/day/1000 cu. ft. = 16 g/m3-d
* AT CURRENT FLOW OF 8.8 MGD PLUS RECYCLE
790
-------
TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF ANNUAL AVERAGE PERFORMANCE
AT OPERATING TF/SC FACILITIES
PARAMETER
TOLLESON OCONTO FALLS CORVALLIS MEDFORD
FLOW, MGO
INFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS
BOD, mg/L
SS, mg/L
TEMPERATURE, °C
PRIMARY EFFLUENT
BOD, mg/L
SS, mg/L
TRICKLING FILTER EFFLUENT
BOD, mg/L
SS, mg/L
RETURN SLUDGE SS, g/L
MLSS, mg/L
SECONDARY EFFLUENT
BOD, mg/L
SS, mg/L
6.1
277
224
-
173
121
22.8*
23.6*
_
1040
7
9
0.36 10.5
146 108
118 154
13 17
70
66
30
59
11.3
3130
21 7
13 9
8.9
157
138
19
81
34
66
71
_
1620
19
8
* INTERMEDIATE CLARIFIER EFFLUENT
791
-------
RESULTS OF SPECIAL TF/SC STUDIES
Special studies were conducted during the field evaluation program
to determine the following:
1. Assess the influence of cosettling waste secondary
solids with raw sewage solids on primary sedimentation
tank performance.
2. Assess soluble BOD removal kinetics with TF depth.
3. Assess the effect of TF loading on TF/SC performance.
4. Assess the effect of media type on aerated solids
contact tank performance.
5. Assess the effect of aerated solids contact tank
operating parameters on TF/SC performance.
6. Assess soluble BOD removal in the aerated solids
contact tank.
7. Assess the effect of aeration rate on TF/SC performance.
8. Assess the effect of secondary clarifier overflow
rate on final effluent quality.
9. Assess the effect of coagulant addition for phosphorus
removal on TF/SC performance.
Based upon the special study results and a review of histori-
cal operating records, the following conclusions could be reached.
1. Cosettling - Primary treatment suspended solids (SS)
removal averaged between 53 and 62 percent at three TF/SC
plants that cosettle and 74 percent at Medford, which did
not cosettle. The Medford results were exceptional. Primary
sludge concentrations were 3.7 and 5.3 percent at the two
plants practicing cosettling where samples could be obtained
for analysis. Concentrations of 5 to 7 percent are common
without cosettling.
2. TF Soluble BOD Removal - The Velz equation successfully
modeled soluble carbonaceous BOD5 removal with TF depth at
Tolleson.
79?
-------
3. TF Loading - In the range of average TF BODs loadings
studied under this project (5.8 to 29 pounds per day per 1,000
cu. ft.)(93 to 464 g/m^-d), there was a statistically significant
but weak correlation between BOD5 loading and final effluent SS.
The correlation coefficient (R) was in the range of (R = .29 - .46)
for the Corvallis and Tolleson data. Effluent SS were more highly
correlated (R = .39 - .76) with the effluent SS concentration. At
Corvallis the relation was (TF effluent SS) = 26.4 + 0.5 (primary
effluent SS). The results show the need for reliable primary
treatment.
4. Media Type - Microscopic examination of the TF effluent
indicate that the floe from the rock media was more compact
than the floe from plastic media filters.
5. Solids Contact Operating Parameters
a. SRT - Correlations between SRT in the aerated solids
contact tank, and final effluent SS were not statistically
significant at Corvallis and Tolleson. A statistically
significant but weak correlation was observed at Medford.
b. Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids - Mixed liquor suspended
solids (MLSS) concentrations between 900 and 2,300 mg/L at
Medford and Tolleson did not affect final effluent SS signi-
ficantly and only produced an average increase of about 2 mg/L
at Corvallis where the MLSS concentration varied from 1500 to
7,000 mg/L. The insensitivity to mixed liquor level means
simplification of operation, since less attention needs to be
given to sludge inventory management.
c. Sludge Volume Index - Sludge volume index values varied
from 60 to 130 mL/g at Medford and increasing values were
correlated with reduced final effluent SS. No correlation
was observed at Tolleson or Corvallis. Corvallis and Tolleson
had large flocculator center wells whereas those at Medford
were much smaller.
6. Solids Flocculation - Field test results at Medford suggest
that the majority of flocculation in the aerated solids contact
channel occurred within the first 12 minutes of aerated solids
contact time in a channel that had a total hydraulic retention
time of 39 minutes.
7. Contact Tank Soluble BOD Removal - Although the primary
function of the contact tank is to flocculate SS and particulate
BOD, a significant fraction of the filter effluent soluble BOD
can be removed. The Medford contact tank removed an average of
-------
75 percent of the residual soluble carbonaceous BOD from the
filter in 39 minutes of contact time. First-order reaction
kinetics adequately described the removal as follows:
where
(T-20)
In (CJ = [-K2Q 6 Xv]t
(C )
(1)
Co = mixed liquor soluble carbonaceous BOD at the
channel beginning, mg/L
C = soluble carbonaceous BOD after time t, mg/L
K2Q = first-order reaction rate coefficient at
20°C, L/mg • min.
9 = temperature correction coefficient (assume
6 = 1.035)
T = wastewater temperature, °C
Xv = MLVSS, mg/L and
t = contact time, minutes, based upon total
flow in the channel.
Figure 3 shows an example plot of the data from Medford, Oregon.
The slope of the line of best fit which passes through the origin
for a plot of In (C/C0) versus time is equal to the bracketed term
in Equation I. First-order removal rate coefficients (K£O) ranged
from 2.0 X 10~5 to 3.3 X 10'5 L/mg. min.
8. Secondary Clarifier Overflow - Secondary clarifiers that
included inboard launders, high sidewater depths, and flocculator
center wells were insensitive up to 1300 gpd/sq. ft. (53 mV-d)
at Corvallis and up to 700 gpd/sq. ft. (29 m3/m2'd) at Tolleson.
These were the maximum overflow rates at these respective plants.
9. Coagulant Addition - Ferric chloride addition in the
aerated solids contact tank for phosphorus removal at Oconto
Falls did not adversely affect TF/SC operation.
Most of the operating trickling filter plants use rock media.
To test TF/SC performance with rock filters at high organic loadings,
U.S. EPA sponsored full-scale studies at the Morro Bay-Cayucos TF/SC
plant. The studies also included an assessment of trickling filter
performance with flocculator-clarifiers and reaction rate coefficients
for soluble carbonaceous BODs (SCBODs) removal in rock trickling filters.
794
-------
Medford, Oregon : 7/16/84
Temperature, T = 20 degrees C
MLVSS, Xv/ = 1083 mg/l
£ -0.4-
o -0.6-
0
Aerated Solids Contact Time, minutes
Figure 3. Linear Plot of Soluble BOD Profile For First-Order
Equation at Medford, Oregon
795
-------
The studies included nine weeks of field investigations at the
Morro Bay-Cayucos facility in Morro Bay, California. The field investi-
gations data were supplemented with operating records from the Morro Bay-
Cayucos plant and from plants in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho; Corvallis, Oregon
and Oconto Falls, Wisconsin.
The Morro Bay-Cayucos studies showed that TF/SC could produce high
quality effluent with rock filters even up to loadings as high as 960
60 lb/day/1000 cu. ft. (g/m3~d). The results indicated that if the
trickling filter could operate satisfactorily at this high load,
the TF/SC process would produce its typically high quality effluent.
These loadings were significantly higher than the previously tested
25 lb/day/1000 cu. ft. (400 g/m3~d) loadings at the Corvallis TF/SC plant.
They provide a wide margin of potential increased capacity at existing
rock filter plants and indicate that these plants can be expanded merely
by adding solids contact features without constructing new trickling
filters. Each plant should be evaluated individually, since all rock
filters may not operate effectively at such high loadings. The possi-
bility of such economical expansion is particularly important in view of
the nearly 1,700 rock filter plants in the U.S.A. that may need upgrading
by the year 2005.
Work at the Morro Bay-Cayucos plant and long-term data at the
Ccfeur d'Alene plant showed that effluent quality from rock trickling
filter plants could be improved significantly simply by replacing conven-
tional secondary clarifiers with flocculator-clarifiers. The flocculator-
clarifier at Coeur d'Alene reduced average effluent TSS from 25 mg/L to
16 mg/L.
796
-------
TWO-ZONE WASTE TREATMENT PROCESS
The information presented on the Two-Zone Process, which is a
product of the Canadian Liquid Air Company, is summarized from the Project
Summary and Project Final Report (4) on the U.S. EPA 0.5 MGD (0.022 m3/s)
plant evaluation in the Borough of Norristown, Pennsylvania. The process
shown schematically in Figure 4 can be retrofitted to upgrade existing
aerators or clarifiers at volumetric requirements of 40-50% less than
conventional secondary treatment. Details of a 30 ft. (9.15 m) X 30 ft.
(9.15 m) section of the aeration tank used as a reactor/clarifier are shown
in Figure 5. The lower portion of the tank serves as a biological reactor
section and the upper section of the tank serves a clarification function.
Recycled biomass at flow rates of 3 to 6 times the influent flow is oxygen-
ated with pure oxygen in an external transfer device and blended with the
influent wastewater in a baffled inlet chamber. The combined flow then
passes upward through the sludge blanket to the clarification zone and
effluent weirs. A sludge scraper mechanism moves the heavy solids across
the tank floor and provides for the removal of scum at the surface of the
clarification zone.
Distribution headers were provided for both the primary effluent
and recycled sludge to achieve uniform flow distribution. The cross-
sectional area at the bottom of the inlet chamber was increased to ensure
the release of gases. The opening at the bottom of the rubber baffle wall
served as a distribution orifice across the width of the tank for the
blended flows. At maximum flow the orifice velocity was 3.5 in/sec.
(0.09 m/s). The discharge rate through this orifice into the reactor/
clarifier was the controlling hydraulic parameter for sizing the sludge
recycle pump. A maximum discharge rate of 100 gal/min/ft (0.021 m^/s/m)
of tank width was set by CLA based upon its experience. Maximum sludge
recycle pump capacity was set at 3000 gal/min (19 m^/s).
The overflow rate of 960 gal/day/ft2 (39.4 m3/m2'd) for the
clarification zone limited the maximum influent flow rate to 0.86 MGD
(0.038 m3/s) with a minimum recycle ratio of 4 to 1. The nominal average
flow rate of 0.5 MGD (0.022 m3/s) corresponds to an overflow rate of 555
gal/day/ft2 (22.8 m3/m2-d).
797
-------
D.O. Analyser
D.O. Controller
30
^
^
Influent
*l
Scum Wasting
Fiaure 4.
•
EJ
V
^
•
•
•
»
9
•
4
•
•
•
Excess Sludge y ' —
^-Recycle Line From Oxygenator "* |
False Wall
jr
k< Skimmer
i Weir — ,
, T n *
:T
c
-t
*
N •
•* , «.
to ^K.
•> MMrtk
•> a^
^ ^
&1
.j " Ok t'i —
>. Effluent
Clarif ier \ Zone
«... - -•> ••> • i ^ - ^ «M
_• biological Reactor— jir- - . -^ -
Zone _-_r\r'_j:
I Sludge Rake." ."" ,~ T T r*.^^
> «
^-
IT
Flow
r
w
Recycle
Pump
!•
,S\ , „
"• XX
f Meter
Dry
Well
*J
i bd W
i ^
Roto meter uJ
Oxygen *- -*
Supply Qxy
Cor
Va
Flow Diagram of Norristown Two-Zone System.
r°-k
i
^
gen
itrol
ve
f
T"
-4
m
•4
IUUC7
1
Wet
Well
Oxygenator
-------
Top of Wall
Force Wall
1 >.
Influent
Distribution
Header ^*.
T^,
Recycle
§ Sludge
0 ° Distribution
Header
(Concrete
Encased )
W X
6"i(I ~^
Inlet
Chamber Effluent
/ Skimmer Pipe Surface Baffle Troughs
-/Ty - / / N / Nr-
/v^ ' AT iiro 1
(^h-
^^F^
r-6"
+ — Rubber Seal T 3' -11" 2' -4"
Clarification Zone
<
28'-6"
^ / /
r-0"
.( ^V 13'-3"
4V
v^ 6 /• ^ \
U I I I >
r I I I *
r-4"
10" 10"
^^~
Recycle Sludge
Suction Header
(Concrete Encased)
• )*
T
15'-0"
-•
.
L-, T r , 3°'-°" *J
Plan Overall Dimensions Were 30'-0" x 30'-0"
NOTE: 1 FT = 0.305m
Figure 5. Longitudinal Section View of Norristown Two-Zone Reactor/Clarifier
-------
A maximum daily total 8005 of 385 mg/L and an assumed oxygen
consumption rate of 0.8 lb 0?/lb TBOD applied established the maximum
oxygenation rate at 100 Ibs/hr (for peak flow conditions). The minimum
oxygenation rate of 21 Ibs/hr (was based upon a minimum flow rate of
0.3 MGD)(0.013 m3/s), an influent TBOD5 of 150 mg/L and an oxygen con-
sumption rate of 1.35 Ib 02/Tb TBOD applied. The DO concentration of
the recycled sludge before reoxygenation was used to control the oxygen
feed rate to the recycled sludge.
OXYGEN TRANSFER DEVICE
Liquid oxygen was trucked in and stored on-site to feed pure
gaseous oxygen to the sludge recycle stream. The oxygen transfer
device used was an oxygenator made by Dorr-Oliver. The main transfer
chamber of the oxygenation unit was located in a pit 50 ft (15 m)
below the surface level of the Two-Zone reactor where the static
pressure aided oxygen transfer. A limited examination of the
oxygen transfer characteristics of the oxygenator indicated that
an oxygen transfer objective of 90% was feasible.
A characteristic of oxygenators, and other devices that gener-
ate supersaturation quantities of oxygen with respect to atmospheric
pressure, is that the excess oxygen tends to come out of solution
when the pressure is reduced. The release of supersaturated oxygen
can be particularly rapid if the stream being oxygenated contains
solids which serve as sites for nucleation. Facilities using
devices that produce supersaturation should, therefore, be designed
to return the oxygenated stream at or below the bottom level of the
reactor to maintain snaximum pressure.
At Norristown, it was necessary to bring the sludge recircu-
lation line over the end wall of the reactor to avoid cutting through
two aeration basin walls. This resulted in release of oxygen from
solution and reduced the overall oxygen transfer efficiency, from
85% that was achieved by the oxygenator, to 68% to 80% at a recycle
stream oxygen concentration of 20 to 50 mg/L.
A total of six runs were completed under the conditions shown
in Table 3.
The performance of the process was excellent with TBOD removals of
82-87% and effluent concentrations of 9-28 mg/L. Soluble BOD removals
averaged 86-96% and effluent concentrations of 2-5 mg/L. Suspended solids
removals averaged 85-93% with effluent concentrations of 11 to 24 rng/L,
with the exception of Run 2 which averaged 34 mg/L and was the Run with
the highest hydraulic loading. Effluent DO ranged from 3.2 to 4.9 mg/L.
800
-------
TABLE 3. TEST CONDITIONS FOR TWO-ZONE EVALUATION
RUN
NO.
DAYS
22
12
8
26
23
21
AVERAGE
FLOW RATE
MGD
.51
.66
.31
.36
.45
.50
AVERAGE
RECYCLE RATE
MGD
2.72
2.70
1.89
2.74
3.68
2.99
RECYCLE
RATIO
5.3
4.1
6.1
7.6
8.2
6.0
TEMPERATURE
12.9
13.7
21.6
24.5
20.7
18.5
1MGD = 0.043 m3/s
As shown in Table 4 wastewater detention times varied from 3.3
to 7.0 hours based upon the total reactor/clarifier volume of 12,150
(344 m3) and system influent flow excluding sludge recycle. The relative
proportions of detention time in the reactor and clarifier zones varied
from run to run and can be estimated by dividing the sludge blanket depth
by 13.5 ft (4.1 m) the tank sidewater depth.
The correlation of F/M loading with BOD5 and COD removals is shown
in Figure 6. The F/M loading is the single-pass load in the reactor
zone including the soluble BOD5 in the recycle sludge. This method of
calculation increases the loading by about 25% compared to the loading
based upon influent BOD5 only.
The net sludge wastage ranged from 0.95 to 2.01 Ibs TSS/lb TBOD
removed and averaged 1.33 which is about twice as high as comparable
figures for activated sludge systems. These data indicate that the
Two-Zone Process is primarily a high rate, bioflocculation process
with little utilization of the nonsoluble 8005. This is not unexpected
given the relatively short solids retention time values for the system
of 1.2 to 2.6 days except for Run 4 at an SRT of 3.7 days. There are
economic trade-offs between the sludge management costs associated with
plant operations with high sludge wastage rates versus the higher oxygen
consumption costs associated with the operations to achieve lower sludge
production rates. Additional evaluation efforts would have to be conduct-
ed to define these trade-offs.
801
-------
TABLE 4. OPERATING DATA SUMMARY FOR TWO-ZONE EVALUATION
15
PARAMETER
REACTOR ZONE MLVSS, mg/L
SLUDGE BLANKET DEPTH, ft.
CLARIFIER OVERFLOW RATE,
gal/day/ft2
CLARIFIER SOLIDS LOADING
1b/day/ft2
SLUDGE VOLUME INDEX, mL/g
RUN NO.
123456
2460 2687 2742 4215 3454 2334
7.6 7.7 2.4 4.7 6.6 5.6
604 789 369 431 539 594
100 114 78 165 172 108
58 92 57 58 51 54
INITIAL SETTLING VELOCITY,
ft/hr - 32 16 17 21
F/M LOAD TNG Ib TBOD/day/lb
MLVSS 0.64 0.77 0.41 0.33 0.40 0.95
WASTEWATER DETENTION TIME.hrs 4.3 3.3 7.0 6.0 4.8 4.4
VOLUMETRIC ORGANIC LOADING,
Ibs TBOD/day/1000 ft3 98 135 102 84 87 133
SRT, DAYS 2.1 1.5 1.5 3.7 2.6 1.2
NET SLUDGE WASTAGE,
Ibs TSS/lb TBOD REMOVAL 0.95 1.07 2.01 1.27 1.26 1.37
1 ft = 0.305 m
1 gpd/ft2 = 0.041 m3/day/m2
1 lb/day/ft2 = 4.88 kg/day/m2
1 1b/day/1000 ft3 = 0.016 kg/day/m3
802
-------
1
0)
DC
+•«
0)
0
BOD5 - Summer (#) Winter
75
70
.25 .50 .75 1.00 1.25
F/M Loading, (Ib BODS/day Ib MLVSS)
Figure 6. BOD5 and COD Removals as a Function of F/M Loading.
1.50
803
-------
General design application guidelines for the Two-Zone Process
include:
• Flow and load equalization should be provided when-
ever the peak-to-average hydraulic loading ratio and
carbonaceous loading ratio, including recycle flow
streams, exceeds 2.4 to 2.5 respectively unless the
process is being used as a first-stage application.
• Influent flows to the Two-Zone Process should be
pretreated with fine screening and primary treatment
to avoid fouling of the oxygenator.
« Strong wastewaters with TBOD > 200 mg/L and nitrifi-
cation within the reactor zone should be avoided due
to the high oxygen demand and potential for undesir-
able flotation.
« Provisions should be made to chlorinate the waste sludges
in the event of a Nocardial bloom.
o Provisions to backflush the oxygenator and equalize
this return flow are recommended.
» Sludge holding and digestion facilities requiring
air should be designed to cope with the higher
oxygen demands of the Two-Zone Process sludges.
• A technically skilled operating staff familiar
with biological treatment and operation of pure
oxygen systems is required.
General sizing criteria for the Two-Zone Process are summarized
in Table 5.
Operationally the sludge blanket level was monitored and controlled
at a depth of about 7 feet (2.1 m) by wasting solids as needed. There was
minimal variation in sludge settling rates and sludge blanket management
was influenced primarily by influent flow variations.
SUMMARY
The Two-Zone Process provided excellent TBODs removals (83-92%)
at average F/M loadings of 0.33 to 0.95 Ibs TBOD5/day/lb MLVSS, detention
times of 3.3 to 7.0 hr and SRT's of 1.2 to 3.7 days. The process was
capable of producing effluent TSS concentrations of less than 20 mg/L
at SRT's above 2.5 days. Process oxygen requirements were low averaging
0.5 Ib/lb TBOD removed. Due to the low SRT's the process generated a
804
-------
TABLE 5. GENERAL SIZING CRITERIA
PARAMETER
VALUE
COMMENT
OVERFLOW RATE, gal/day/ft2
AVERAGE
PEAK
SIDEWATER DEPTH, ft
FREEBOARD, ft
SLUDGE BED DEPTH, ft
TANK GEOMETRY
TANK WIDTH
INLET CHAMBER
BOTTOM VELOCITY
SLUDGE RECYCLE PUMPS
500
1200
13.5-15
1.0
53% SWD
70%
100 gal/min/ft
15 ft
0.45 ft/sec
TO DETERMINE MINIMUM
SURFACE AREA
INCLUDE RECYCLE
OUTLET WEIRS
WITHOUT FLOW EQUALIZATION
WITH FLOW EQUALIZATION
RECTANGULAR
FORWARD VELOCITY WITH
RECYCLE
STANDARD SCRAPER
WIDTH
TO CAPTURE FREE
GAS BUBBLES
MAXIMUM PUMPING RATE
SET BY FLOW LIMIT OF
100 gal/min/ft
PROVIDE VARIABLE
PUMPING CAPACITY
AND 100% RESERVE
4,000 gal/day/lineal ft PROVIDE SCUM BAFFLE
1 gpd/ft2 = 0.041 m3/day/m2
1 ft = 0.305 m
1 gal/mmft = 6.309 X lO'V
1 ft/sec = 0.305 m/sec
805
-------
high level of net sludge and scum production (1.54 Ib/lb TBOD) removed.
Operator attention was modest with bi-hourly inspection and process
adjustments only during the day shift.
VACUUM ASSISTED SLUDGE DEWATERING BED SYSTEMS
The information on vacuum assisted sludge dewatering bed systems
was collected by James M. Montgomery, Consulting Engineers, Inc. and is
summarized in reference
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency evaluated 12 operating
Vacuum Assisted Sludge Dewatering Bed Systems (VASDBS) systems that
are identified in Table 6. The technology appears to offer a cost
effective dewatering technique for plants less than 2 MGD (0.086 m3/s)
in size. The process uses conditioned sludge applied to a rigid but
porous support media. A vacuum is applied to the underside of the media
to drain the free water that has not drained by gravity in the first 1-3
hours.
Plan and section views of the major components of an uncovered one-
bed VASDB system are shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively. Typically
the porous plates are placed upon a concrete support structure. Provision
is made for a filtrate collection/drainage system between the media plates
and the support slab. Three concrete walls 36 in. (0.92m) in height are
fixed; with a bed closure system on the fourth wall to effect closure of
the bed during the loading cycle and permit removal of the sludge cake
after dewatering. The media plates are sealed to each other as well as
the containment walls to prevent migration of solids to the filtrate well.
Provisions must be made for feeding and mixing polymer with the incoming
sludge as well as flocculating and distributing the mixture onto the
support media. Typically float operated filtrate pumps are located in
the air-tight sump to convey collected filtrate back to the headworks
of the treatment plant. A vacuum system, connected to the filtrate sump
and filtrate collection/drainage system, is required to induce a partial
vacuum between the underdrainage system and sludge cake on top of the
media plates. A high pressure (70 to 120 psig)(480 to 830 kPa)
particulate-free wash water source to clean the media surface after
each dewatering cycle, and a method to convey wash water to the plant
headworks are needed. Typically a control building is provided to house
all mechanical and electrical components. Optionally, enclosure of the
complete system and possibly heating may be required to maintain day to
day operations under wet and cold weather conditions. A front end loader
with a rubber covered bucket is usually used to remove the sludge cake
from the bed.
806
-------
TABLE 6. VACUUM ASSISTED SLUDGE DEWATERING BED SYSTEMS EVALUATED
LOCATION
PITTSFIELD, ILL
NEVADA CITY, CA
LUMBERTON, NC
TAOS, NM
MONROE, NC
GALENA, IL
SULLIVAN, IL
HILLSBORO, IL
LOUISVILLE, CO
LOCKPORT, IL
SUSANVILLE, CA
MARIPOSA, CA
SLUDGE TYPE
MANUFACTURER
AEROBICALLY DIGESTED INFILCO DEGREMONT, INC.
ANAEROBICALLY DIGESTED
AEROBICALLY DIGESTED
WASTE ACTIVATED + ALUM
AEROBICALLY DIGESTED
AEROBICALLY DIGESTED
LIME CONDITIONED PRIMARY + WAS
IMHOFF TANK
EXTENDED AERATION WAS
AEROBICALLY DIGESTED
OXIDATION DITCH
OXIDATION DITCH
SDS COMPANY
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL
PRODUCTS, INC.
807
-------
00
CD
oo
B
(A) Entrance Ramp
(f) Off-Bed Level Area
(c) Area Drain
(B) Cursing
(i) Sludge Distribution Piping
(?) Bed Closure System
(G) Media Plates
(jj) Corner Drain
© Bed Containment Wall
Plan View of a
VASDB System.
Figure 7.
(JJ Truck Loading Area
(K) Area Dram
(T) Wash Water Supply
(M) Feed Sludge Inventory Tank
(Below Grade)
(N) Control Building With
— Sludge Feed Pumps
— Polymer System
— Vacuum Pumps
— Control Panel
— Filtrate Receiver/Pumps
(Below Grade)
Section B-B
fTA Filtrate Collection
^Channel
@ Media Plates
/o» Sludge Distribution
W Piping
(4) Bed Closure System
(5) Concrete Support Slab
(§) Filtrate Receiver/Vacuum Vault
(7) Filtrate Receiver Hatch
® Control Building
Sections Views of a VASDB System.
Figure 8.
-------
A typical operating cycle is shown in Table 7.
TABLE 7. TYPICAL VASDB OPERATING CYCLE
AND MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS
CYCLE
TIME
CONDITIONS
READY
FILL
GRAVITY DRAINAGE
VACUUM
AIR DRYING
CAKE REMOVAL
0-0.5 HR
0.5 TO 3 HRS.
UNTIL 50%
VOLUME REDUCTION
MEDIAN 20 HR.
AVERAGE 14.5 HR.
LOW 4.5 HR.
HIGH 22 HR.
VARIABLE
0.5 TO 1 HR/BED
MEDIA CLEANING TOTAL 0.5 TO 0.75 HR/BED
VACUUM OFF
BED CLOSED
FILTRATE PUMPS ON AUTO
DRAINS SEALED
SLUDGE FEED ON
POLYMER FEED ON
FILL TO DEPTH OF 0.5 IN
AND THEN OPEN FILTRATE
DRAIN
FILTRATE DRAIN OPEN
OPTIONAL DECANTING OF
SUPERNATANT
2-3 IN. Hg. FOR 1 HR.
5-6 IN. Hg. FOR 1 HR.
10-12 IN. Hg. UNTIL
CAKF. CRACKS
UNTIL CAKE IS LIFTABLE
@ 11-13% SOLIDS
FRONT END LOADER AND
MANUAL REMOVAL
HIGH PRESSURE HOSING
MEDIA DRYING 1 TO 2 DAYS
MEDIA CHEMICAL DRYING 1 DAY
EVERY WEEK
EVERY SIX MONTHS
809
-------
The most critical steps in the process are proper polymer condition-
ing, scrupulous cleaning between cycles and periodic drying. Chemical
cleaning every six months with alkaline detergents, hypochlorite, enzymes
or muriatic acid were used at these plants to keep the media plates clean.
Each manufacturer's system is slightly different in detailed consider-
ations. The media plates are on the order of 2 ft X 2 ft X 3 in (.61 m X
.61 m X 7.6 cm). A gravel support base, 1.75 - 2.5 in. (4.5 - 6.4 cm) in
depth, with particle diameters of 0.175 in. to 1.0 in. (0.44 to 2.54 cm)
holds a surface layer, 0.25 in. (0.64 cm) in depth. The surface layer
consists of 1 mm to 3 mm diameter particles which are bonded together with
a waterproof, chemically resistent epoxy. The surface material is either
sand or AT 263.
Bed sizes vary from 400 to 800 ft2 (37 - 74 m2) in area. A minimum
of two beds are recommended with five days dewatering operations and two
days of drying.
TYPICAL PERFORMANCE AND OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Sludge loading rate varied with the type of sludge applied from
0.66 Ib/ft2/cycle (3.2 kg/m2/cycle) for unthickened oxidation ditch sludge
to 7.75 Ib/ft2/cycle (38 kg/m2/cycle) for the mixture of lime stabilized
primary and secondary sludges. A median value of 1.88 Ib/ft2/cycle
(9.2 kg/m2/cycle) was found for typical aerobically digested sludge.
This loading corresponds to 24 inches (0.6 m) of sludge with a solids
concentration of 1.5%. High loadings can be achieved by using multiple
fill/drainage cycles and/or supernatant decanting before applying the
final vacuum cycle.
Polymer dose also varied with sludge type and was dramatically
reduced with one hour of dilute polymer solution aging prior to mixing
with the sludge.
Median operator time requirements were 3.5 hr/ton (3.9 hr/lO^ kg)
or 3.5 hr/1000 sq. ft. Operating labor represented about 40% of the
system operating costs which averaged about $80/ton ($88/kg) at a loading
of 4.0 Ibs/ft2/cycle (19.5 kg/m2/cycle) . Polymer requirements, at $26/ton
($28.7/kg) of dry sludge solids represented about 33% of total operating
costs. The remaining operating costs included electricity, front end
loader maintenance, plate cleaning and plate replacements. Media replace-
ment costs were estimated to be $27/ft2 ($291/m2) with 3% of the plate area
replaced annually.
Capital costs have been variable but a generalized estimate for a
facility generating 365 tons/yr (331 X 103kg/yr) dry sludge solids would
be from $123/ft2 ($11.4/m2) for an uncovered VASDB to $156/ft2 ($14.5/m2)
for an enclosed and heated facility. Estimated total VASDB system costs
as a function of solids loading are presented in Table 8.
810
-------
TABLE 8. ESTIMATED SYSTEM TOTAL
SOLIDS LOADING RATE TOTAL COST ($/TON)
(Ib/ft2/cycle) UNCOVERED ROOFED ENCLOSED
2 160 166 173
4 105 108 112
6 87 89 92
8 78 80 82
1 lb/ft2 = 4.88 kg/m2
1 $/ton = $1.1/103 kg
SUMMARY
Evaluations of 12 operational VASDB systems indicated that this
technology is an acceptable and cost-effective alternative to more con-
ventional sludge dewatering processes, such as sludge drying beds, used
at small- to medium-si zed wastewater treatment facilities. System modi-
fications can be made by designers and operators to improve performance
of both existing and new facility installations.
RIM-NUT PROCESS
A 0.07 MGD (100 m3/hr) pilot plant study was conducted in South
Lyon, Michigan to evaluate the Rim-Nut Process* for a period of six months
using primary effluent and a first-stage RBC effluent as feed. Feed
water characteristics are shown in Table 9. Total ionic concentrations
were high, particularly the concentrations of sulfate, calcium, sodium,
bicarbonate and chloride. Ammonium and phosphorus concentrations were
typical of the area. However, the phosphorus levels were low relative
*Rim-Nut is a patented process of the Water Research Institute of the
National Research Council (IRSA-CMR) in Italy.
811
-------
TABLE 9. AVERAGE RIM-NUT INFLUENT WATER COMPOSITION (6)
SPECIES
Nat
K+
NH+(asN)
4
Ca2+
Mg2+
Fe2+
ci-
NO-(asN)
3
NO'(asN)
2
so42-
ALKALINITY (asCaCOa)
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS (asP)
P043-(asP)
PH
FIRST STAGE
RBC EFFLUENT
RUNS 3, 9, 10
CONC.
(mg/L)
267
18
7.3
129
32
0.4
436
6.7
0.48
87
326
1.9
1.3
7.3
PRIMARY
EFFLUENT
RUNS 4-8
CONC.
(mg/L)
265
18
19.3
142
38
1.3
419
0.76
0.05*
101
377
2.7
1.8
7.6
TOTAL CONCENTRATION
0.0215N
0.0226N
*LESS THAN
812
-------
to national averages. Primary effluent BOD5 and TSS levels were approxi-
mately 60 mg/L and 50 mg/L, respectively. First-stage RBC effluent BODs
and TSS concentrations were about 44 mg/L and 58 mg/L, respectively.
The Rim-Nut Process is a physical-chemical process which
utilizes selective ion-exchange resin to remove both ammonium and phos-
phate ions from wastewater and recover ammonium magnesium phosphate
(NH4MgP04), a slow release fertilizer according to the following equations.
CATION EXCHANGE RNa + NH4+ — > RNH4 + Na+
ANION EXCHANGE 2 RC1 + HPO/
-"> R2 HP04 + 2 CT
The resins are regenerated with a neutral 0.6M NaCl solution.
Magnesium salt is then added to a mixture of the regeneration elutriates
to precipitate the ammonium magnesium phosphate as follows:
NH4+ + Mg++ + P04" + 6 H20 ---> NH4MgP04 + 6 H20
After precipitation the elutriates are recycled.
The pilot plant schematic is shown in Figure 9. The cation
exchange columns (Cl, C2) contained 0.45 m3 each of a natural zeolite
(Clinoptilolite 1010 A/0-2/AQ, Anaconda Company, Denver, Colorado).
For Runs 1 to 3 the anionic exchange columns contained 0.41 m3 of a
strongly basic anion exchange resin (KASTEL A 501D Montedison Company,
Milano, Italy), for which preferentially removed sulfate over phosphate.
For Runs 4 to 10 the anion resin used was Amber!ite IRA 458 from Rohm
and Haas Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The particle sizes of
a!! resins ranged from 20 to 50 mesh. The exchange columns were approxi-
mately 0.65 m in diameter and 2.0 m in height and constructed of epoxy
painted steel. The sodium chloride regenerant solution was stored in
reservoirs SI and S2 which were 1.0 m in diameter and 1.5 m in height.
The regeneration solutions were alternatively directed to the chemical
precipitators S3 and S4 where appropriate chemicals were added to precipate
the NH4MgP04. The thickened fertilizer was then filtered in unit F and
bagged.
813
-------
MgCI
c»
t
s,
V.,r
LJ
A2
\^
5
®"
f
s
i
A1
r^
i__
B^_^J
|
J
c:
S
'
?
_
r
^
_
./
•
6
9
• —
.'
;T
: i
1 1
•
j..
^
...
^
«,.
A
C1
tl
^•^^
—
rilBHI
,_.
U-J
Figure 9. Rim-Nut Pilot Plant Schematic
-------
A summary of results is shown in Table 10. The first two runs
indicated that the anion exchange resin had a low operating exchange
capacity for phosphorus of around 3 moles phosphorus per cubic meter
of resin (P/m^R). Phosphorus breakthrough occurred at about 60 bed
volumes (BV) and could be regenerated with 2 BV. Run 3 utilized
a complex mode of operation required independent regeneration of two
anion exchange columns in an effort to overcome the effects of sulfate
selectivity. Runs 4 through 10 utilized the A458 anion exchange resin
which offered improved selectivity for orthophosphate and a greater overall
exchange capacity of up to 11.5 moles P/m^R. The phosphorus breakthrough
in Run 4 was extended to 200 bed volumes. With higher concentrations of
ammonium-N in the primary effluent feed, ammonium-N breakthrough occurred
for the first time in the cation exchange column at about 100 BV.
This anion exchange resin was also regenerated with 2 BV of
regenerant. The cation exchange resin required circulating 6 BV of
regenerant through the column and precipitator 4 times.
The cationic resin regeneration cycle consisted of passing 6 BV of
0.6 M NaCI from 54 downward through the exhausted resin and collecting it
in S3 where Na2C03 was added until pH 9 to 9.5. After ammonium analysis,
MgCl2- 6 H20, H^PO* (75%) and NaOH (50%) were added stoichiometrically to
precipitate NH^MgPO^eh^O. After settling the precipitate, the supernatant
solution was recycled. The cationic regeneration procedure efficiency for
Runs 4 through 10 averaged 94% in terms of the moles of NH4 removed divided
by the moles of NH4 exchanged.
The anionic resin regeneration cycle involved two fractions, each
2 BV of 0.6 M NaCI, from Reservoirs SI and S2 and separately collected.
After orthophosphate analysis, the head-fraction, which usually contained
90% of the exchanged orthophosphates, was precipitated in S3 (or S4) to-
gether with the last exhausted cationic regenerant fraction. The tail-
fraction was collected in SI to be used as head fraction during the next
regeneration cycle. Fresh regenerant solution would be added to S2.
Anionic regeneration efficiency for Runs 4 to 10 averaged 100% as shown
in Table 11.
The anionic resin was completely regenerated after Run 6 in pre-
paration for Run 7. During Run 7 orthophosphate never broke through with
150 BV processed. The average effluent phosphorus concentration was 0.16
mg P/L. The cationic column exhaustion cycle for Run 7 is shown in
Figure 10. No sharp breakthrough of ammonium-N occurred. A gradual
815
-------
TABLE 10. SUMMARY OF RUNS DATA (5)
AMMONIUM
RUN
1
2
3
oo 4
H- >
O1
5
6
7
8
9
10
INFLUENT
SOURCE
RBC
RBC
RBC
PRIMARY
PRIMARY
PRIMARY
PRIMARY
PRIMARY
RBC
RBC
COLUMNS
USED
Ci AI
Ci A!
GI A! A2
C2 A2
C2 A2
C2 A2
C2 A2
Ci A2
c2 A!
c2 A!
ANIONIC
RESIN
K501
K501
D501
A 458
A 458
A 458
A 458
A 458
A 458
A 458
RUN-TIME
(HRS)
4.5
8
8.5
8.5
7
6
6
6
6.5
6
INF.
(mg N/L)
6.1
10.1
15.6
21.0
24.0
20.0
16.0
6.3
5.6
EFF.
(mg N/L)
2.1
3.7
3.5
6.5
5.5
3.6
1.8
2.2
2.6
ORTHOPHOSPHATE
INF.
(mg/P/L)
1.1
0.99
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.6
1.2
2.5
1.0
1.4
EFF.
(mg P/L)
0.48
0.52
0.30
0.08
0.35
0.30
0.16
0.13
0.06
0.14
CATIONIC
RESIN
O.E.C.*
(moles N/
m3R)
79
86
156
154
169
150
135
41
27
ANIONIC
RESIN
O.E.C
(moles
m3
2.3
3
2.1 8.
11.5
8
6.1
4.9
11.2
4.9
6
*
•
P/
R)
9
*O.E.C. (OPERATING EXCHANGE CAPACITY)
-------
00
16
14-
12-
a> 10-
E
_
'E
o
E
8-
6-
4-
2-
0-
Influent Avg. (mg N/D-20
0 20
T
I
I
40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Bed Volumes (1 Cationic BV = 0.47 m3)
I
180
200
Figure 10. Cationic Exhaustion — Effluent Run 7
-------
TABLE 11. ANIONIC REGENERATION PROCEDURE EFFICIENCY
NUMBER OF MOLES OF P REMOVED
FRACTIONS OF MOLES OF P EXCHANGED
REGENERANT
RUN SOLUTION* X 100
4 2 (1.5p + 2F) BV 94
5 2 (2R + 2p) BV 88
6 2 (2R + 2p) BV 116
7 2 (1.5p + 2F) BV 94
8 2 (2p + 2p) BV NOT DETERMINED
9 2 (2f + 2p) BV 117
10 1 (2p ) BV 96
AVERAGE VALUE 100%
*F = FRESH REGENERANT SOLUTION
R = RECYCLED REGENERANT SOLUTION
increase from an initial leakage concentration of 2.7 mg N/L occurred.
The average ammonium-N concentration for Run 7 was 3.6 mg N/L. After
complete regeneration of the cationic resin following Run 7 the initial
ammonium leakage was reduced to 0.7 mg N/L for 70 BV during Run 8.
The Rim-Nut Process achieved average removals of BODs, COD, TSS,
VSS and Fecal Coliform of 67%, 31%, 53%, 53% and 44%, respectively.
With primary effluent as the feed source for Runs 4-8, the Rim-Nut Process
produced final effluent BOD5 values of 6, 18, 26, 22, and 30 mg/L and
effluent TSS values of 22, 13, 32, 25 and 19 >ng/L, respectively.
818
-------
A comparision of the calculated and experimentally determined
composition of the fertilizer produced during Run 7 is shown in Table 12.
The calculated composition compares most favorably with the analyses
performed by the Tennesee Valley Authority.
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Based upon an influent flow of 1 MGD (0.043 m3/s), a nitrogen
concentration of 3 mg/L as N, and a phosphorus concentration of 2 mg/L,
the South Lyon, Michigan plant would produce 215 tons/yr (195 X 103 kg/yr)
of NH4MgP04-6H20.
Capital and operating costs for such a facility are shown in
Table 13.
TABLE 12. CALCULATED AND EXPERIMENTAL COMPOSITJ
OF FERTILIZER PRODUCED DURING RUN
ITION
7 (5)
FRACTION
I
II
III
IV
TOTAL MOLES
M.P.C.P.*
MgNH4P04 6H20
Mg3(P04)2 4 H20
Mg C03
CaC03
Ca3(P04)2
MOLES
N P
14.6 22.4
9.3 15.4
13.3 10.9
9.6 4.3
PRECIPITATED
Mg Ca
35.9 12.7
14.2 1.6
13.3 1.6
4.0 2.7
47 53 68 19
WEIGHT
MOLES GRAMS FRACTION
M.W. PRECIPITATED PRECIPITATED %
245 47
334 3
84 12
100 19
310 0
11,515 74.6
1,002 6.5
1,008 6.5
1,900 12.3
0 0
CALCULATED FERTILIZER TITLE: N (4.3) = P205 (24.4) = Mg (10.6)
*MOST PROBABLE CHEMICALS PRECIPITATED
SOLID FERTILIZER ANALYSIS:
TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY FERTILIZER: N (3.0) = P205 (24.9) = Mg (8.6)
W.R. GRACE : N P
819
-------
TABLE 13. COST ESTIMATE FOR 1 MGD RIM-NUT PLANT (5)
CAPITAL COST
ION EXCHANGE VESSELS, PIPING
VALVES AND INSTRUMENTATION $640,000
MICROPROCESSOR CONTROL AND PROGRAMS 100,000
EXCHANGE MEDIA 700,000
REGENERATION TANKS/FILTERS 200,000
BUILDING 600,000
TOTAL CAPITAL COSTS $2,240,000
ANNUAL OPERATING & MAINTENANCE COSTS
EXCHANGE MEDIA REPLACEMENT $ 25,000
CHEMICALS 185,000
LABOR (4 OPERATORS) 160,000
POWER AND MISCELLANEOUS 30,000
TOTAL O&M $400,000
With an amortization schedule of 20 years at 8.25?, the total cost
per ton of product to break even is ($224,000 + 400,000)7215 = $2,900/ton
($3.20/kg) or $1.45/1b. The retail price for commercial grade ammonium
magnesium phosphate in the U.S.A. was $1.00/lb ($2.20/kg) in 1986.
820
-------
RUBBER TIDE GATE
One of the more unusual technologies to be evaluted recently by the
Water Engineering Research Laboratory is the rubber tide gate (RTG). A
cooperative research project was funded with the City of New York to install
and evaluate the reliability of a 54 in. (1.4m) neoprene covered, vulcanized
rubber tide gate at the E. 89th Street regulator station. New York City
spends approximately $1M annually to maintain some 554 tide gates and
regulators. A complete inventory and assessment of the status of the New
York City system was completed in April, 1985V7). This study identified an
average inflow from tide gates of 25 MGD (1.1 m3/s) and a peak inflow of 67
MGD (2.9 m3/s). A program of repair and replacement of tide gates has been
recommended.
Table 14 illustrates the potential payback period for replacing the
smaller (<72 [1.8m] inch diameter) conventional flap-gates with rubber
tide gates based upon projected annual cost savings in both inspection
and maintenance costs and excessive inflow treatment costs^).
During the 18 month period of evaluation, the RTG required almost
no maintenance and indicated negligible inflow with good sealing and self-
cleaning characteristics. New York City is currently having two 72 inch
(1.8 m) RTG's fabricated for installation in two troublesome locations;
Port Richmond in Staten Island which has excessive debris problems, and
Newtown Creek in Brooklyn which is a difficult gate to access. A number
of other cities including Boston, MA; Corvallis, OR; Allentown, PA;
Bridgeport, CT; and Hempstead, NY have installed RTG's from 12 to 42
inches (.3 to l.lm) in diameter in the last several years.
TABLE 14. PAYBACK PERIOD FOR RUBBER TIDE GATE
REPLACEMENT PROGRAM
NUMBER OF TIDE GATES «72 in.)(1.8m) 347
RTG REPLACEMENT COSTS $13M
RECONDITIONING COST OF CONVENTIONAL GATES $10M
RTG ANNUAL SAVINGS IN ROUTINE
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE $175,000
RTG COST SAVINGS DUE TO REDUCED INFLOW $250,000
PAYBACK PERIOD 7 YRS
NET PRESENT VALUE (20 YRS @ 7%) $1.5M
821
-------
The RTG was developed by Red Valve Company, Inc. of Carnegie, PA
based upon a check valve concept. The RTG consists of a flexible tube
which tapers to a flattened section with two sealing lobes. A forward
hydraulic head of six inches (0.15 m) opens the lobes, releasing flow.
Figure 11 shows the discharge flow characteristics of the RTG as a function
of headless and degree of downstream submergence. Reverse hydraulic head
due to a rising tide collapses the sealing lobes together, thereby prevent-
ing reverse (leakage) flow. The RTG starts to release flow at a lower
hydraulic head differential than conventional flap gates for all conditions
of submergence. The flap gate discharges a greater flow at a head differ-
ential of about 1.5 ft (0.46 m) or greater. The lower maximum flow capa-
bility of the RTG requires careful estimation of peak storm flows to size
the RTG. The 54 in. (1.4 m) RTG evaluated had a maximum flow capacity of
120 c.f.s. (3.4 m3/s).
The RTG at E. 89th Street weighed 800 Ibs and was affixed to a
round stainless steel adaptor plate with a circular clamping ring to
conform to the existing tide gate structure opening. The only mainte-
nance the RTG required in the three years since its installation in
August, 1984 was due to slippage which occurred during a storm event.
It took seven hours to reset the gate. An improved mounting design
using bolts through the gate throat and adapter ring together with a
ceiling anchor to support the cantilevered end of the lobes are two
potential ways to avoid future slippage problems.
During 18 months of frequent inspections, which started at a
frequency of once per week and decreased to once per month after eight
months, no incidences of leakage flow were reported even though reverse
hydraulic head conditions were frequently present. There were also no
incidences of trapped debris. Placement of a 4 in. by 4 in. (.1 m X .1 m)
length of timber in the RTG to simulate trapped debris caused a 50 gpm
3.15 X 10"3,3/s) leakage flow at a reverse hydraulic head of 2 ft.
0.61 m). The next occurrence of forward hydraulic head flushed the
timber out of the RTG. The flexibility of the RTG permits the unit to
conform closely to the shape of any entrapped debris thereby minimizing
the leakage flow under reverse hydraulic head conditions.
In summary, the RTG provides a potential low maintenance and
cost effective alternative to conventional flap gates.
822
-------
00
rv>
CO
•o
E
o
O>
200,000 -
180,000-
160,000-
140,000
120,000-
100,000-
80,000 -
60,000 -
40,000 -
20,000 -
Figures Indicate
% Submergence of
Each Data Point
Zero Submergence
Reference Height of RTG
At Discharge End - 1.5m
% Submergence - 100 X
Tide Height, m
T5
I
.1
I
.3
1
.4
I
.5
.6
I
.7
I
.8
.9
I
1.0
I
1.1
I
1.2
1.3 1.4 1.5
A Htg, m
Figure 11. Estimated RTG Flow Characteristics
-------
REFERENCES
1. 1986 Needs Survey Report to Congress; U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, U.S. EPA 430/9-87-001; February 1987.
2. Brown and Caldwell, "Trickling Filter/Solids Contact Process: Full-
scale Studies"; EPA-600/52-86-046; U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio (1986).
3. Matasci, R.M., Kaempfer, C. and Heidman, J. A., "Full-Scale Studies
of the Trickling Filter/Solids Contact Process", J. Water Pollution
Control Federation, 58, No. 11, 1043-1049.
4. Weech, S.R., Stack, V.T., and Orton, G., "Evaluation of the Two-Zone
Wastewater Treatment Process at Norristown, PA, EPA/600/2-87/074,
1987.
5. EPA Design Information Report "Design, Operational and Cost Consider-
ations for Vacuum Assisted Sludge Dewatering Bed Systems", J. Water
Pollution Control Federation, 59, No. 4, 228-234.
6. City of South Lyon, Michigan - Rim-Nut Demonstration Report; U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Grant No. R-005858-01, April 1987
(Draft).
7. Summary Report - City-Wide Regulator Improvement Program Inventory
and Assessment, New York City Department of Environmental Protection,
WP-112, Contract No. 1-REG-10A to Hazen and Sawyer, April 1985.
8. Development and Evaluation of a Rubber "Duck Bill" Tide Gate, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Project Draft Report, CR-807822.
.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:i 98 8-5 *815 8*7111
824
-------