vvEPA
>mted States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Acid Deposition,
Monitoring, and Quality Assurance
Washington DC 20460
EPA 600 9 38 01 1
May 1 988
Research and Development
Total Human
Exposure and Indoor
Air Quality
An Automated
Bibliography (BLIS) with
Summary Abstracts
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EPA/600/9-88/011
May 1988
TOTAL HUMAN EXPOSURE AND
INDOOR AIR QUALITY
An Automated Bibliography (BLIS) With
Summary Abstracts
by
James Shackelford, Wayne Ott, and Lance Wallace
of the
Office of Acid Deposition, Environmental
Monitoring, and Quality Assurance
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
U,^. Environmental Protection Agent?:'
R; -Lc-n 5, L.^rary (5PL-16)
2,jO S. Dearborn St.-eet, Room 167J
Chicago, IL 60604
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NOTICE
This document has been reviewed in accordance with
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and
approved for publication. Mention of trade names
or commercial products does not constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation for use.
11
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Table of Contents
Page
Abstract iv
Chapter 1: Development of Bibliography 1
Introduction 1
Why BLIS Was Developed 3
How To Use BLIS 5
Criteria for Inclusion 15
Format and Abbreviations 18
Chapter 2: Overview of the Literature 25
Introduction 25
Carbon Monoxide 26
Nitrogen Dioxide 32
Sulfur Dioxide 34
Particulates 37
Formaldehyde 40
Volatile Organic Compounds 43
Pesticides 47
Radon 49
List of Tables
1. BLIS Keyword Glossary 6
2. Acronyms and Abbreviations 20
3. Number of BLIS Abstracts by Pollutant
for Three Major Types of Studies 22
4. CO Concentrations in In-transit Microenvironments -
Denver, Colorado 30
5. CO Concentrations in Outdoor Microenvironments -
Denver, Colorado 30
6. CO Concentrations in Indoor Microenvironments
Denver, Colorado 31
7. Studies of Volatile Organics in Homes 46
References 53
Appendix: Bibliographic Literature Information System (BLIS)
an Alphabetical Listing of 788 Abstracts to
February 1987 69
111
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ABSTRACT
The Bibliographic Literature Information System (BLIS) is a
computerized data base that provides a comprehensive review of
available literature on total human exposure to environmental
pollution. Brief abstracts (often condensed versions of the
original abstract) are included; if the original document had no
abstract, one was prepared. Unpublished draft reports are
listed, as well as final reports of the U.S. Government and other
countries, reports by governmental research contractors, journal
articles, and other contributions to the field of total human
exposure research. This bibliography covers publications on
exposure models, new field data, and newly emerging research
methodologies. Although the bibliography covers the entire field
of human exposure methodology, emphasis is on those field studies
measuring all the concentrations to which people may be exposed,
including indoors, outdoors, or in-transit. This report lists
the 788 full abstracts and all keywords contained in the BLIS
system as of fall of 1987. The 788 abstracts provide a good
representation of much of the world literature on total human
exposure and indoor air quality. The time period covers 1962 to
the end of 1986, with only a few abstracts from early 1987.
Versions of this data base are available on floppy diskettes
that can be accessed on IBM-compatible personal computers.
Different versions are available that will run on two-floppy-disk
or on hard-disk systems. These computer programs can search for
abstracts rapidly and print out desired combinations of litera-
ture citations and full abstracts. In practice, these abstracts
can serve the user as an "automated index" of the BLIS data base
on total human exposure and indoor air quality.
IV
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CHAPTER 1
DEVELOPMENT OF BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
Measuring and modeling human exposure to environmental
pollution is a rapidly emerging science. Until the 1970s, very
little was known about the actual daily pollutant concentrations
to which individuals are exposed. Between 1970 and 1980, a
number of field studies of limited size attempted to determine
actual human exposure to environmental pollutants. Many of these
studies found that actual pollutant concentrations to which
people are exposed often differ significantly from the concentra-
tions reported by traditional environmental monitoring networks
or those estimated using existing transport models.
This disquieting news suggested that the data base on which
some environmental decisions were being based was not adequate
for estimating public health risks, because the data did not
adequately reflect actual population exposures to pollutants. In
response to these concerns, efforts were undertaken to develop
crude models that were able to incorporate the missing in-
gredients of actual exposure. However, these models were not
validated by real exposure data, raising doubts about their
accuracy.
Today, the early field studies are called "microenviron-
mental field investigations," and the models incorporating human
activities with microenvironmental concentrations are called
"human exposure models." A "microenvironment" is a location of
relatively homogeneous pollutant concentration (home, office,
subway, etc.) that a person occupies during normal daily
activities. In a microenvironmental field study, pollutant
concentrations are characterized intensively, and attempts are
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made to identify the sources responsible and to link the sources
to the exposures. Microenvironmental field investigations are
important to determine indoor air pollution concentrations
because indoor locations are one major class of microenviron-
ments. Prior to 1980, nearly all of the indoor air quality field
surveys were microenvironmental field investigations. Human
exposure models take the field surveys a step further by account-
ing for the visits people make to individual microenviron-
ments—that is, their "activity patterns."
In the early 1980s, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) undertook several pioneering field studies to demonstrate
the feasibility of using humans as the monitoring points. The
researchers measured the actual pollutant concentrations that
contacted a person's body by measuring concentrations in the air
breathed, the food eaten, and the water consumed. Called the
Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM), these field
investigations employed representative (probability) samples of
the population, thus enabling inferences to be made about the
exposures of the larger population of a city or a region with an
accuracy never before possible. These investigations also
demonstrated our ability to indirectly estimate "dose" (i.e. , the
quantity of pollutant actually entering the body).
The overall field of human exposure assessment can be
subdivided into five general categories:
• Human exposure models
• Measurement methods and instrumentation
• Microenvironmental field studies
• Total exposure assessment methodology studies
• Dosage investigations
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EPA designed the Bibliographic Literature Information System
(BLIS) to review all existing literature in these five areas.
Because the field is relatively new and rapidly emerging, BLIS
includes many documents and reports that have not been published
in the peer-reviewed literature. It also includes articles
dealing with human exposure from scientific and international
journals, as well as some reports produced by contractors or
Federal agencies.
For each bibliographic entry, EPA's contractor, SRA Tech-
nologies, Inc., developed a summary abstract. If a report did
not contain an abstract, then one was prepared. If an abstract
already existed, it was carefully examined, reviewed, and edited
for clarity. Some abstracts were condensed, while others were
expanded. Keywords were identified for each abstract. All
abstracts were entered into an IBM-PC/compatible personal
computer and were edited, alphabetized, and printed. The
remainder of this chapter describes the steps in greater detail.
The appendix of this report summarizes all the abstracts
contained in the BLIS system as of fall 1987. Abstracts are
listed alphabetically, by author. These 788 abstracts are a
reasonably good representation of much of the world literature in
total human exposure and indoor air quality. The time period
covers 1962 to the end of 1986, with only a few abstracts from
early 1987.
WHY BLIS WAS DEVELOPED
BLIS was designed to enable editing, searching, retrieving,
sorting, and printing selected abstracts on a personal computer
(PC) system. Designed to handle relatively small data bases
(usually consisting of fewer than 1,000 abstracts), BLIS can
search keyworded abstracts very rapidly, usually in less than a
second. Currently, BLIS can be viewed as a data base management
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system containing primarily the literature on indoor air quality
and total human exposure from environmental pollutants.
BLIS originally was developed to generate the present report
by using its literature-searching capabilities to help us survey
the existing literature on indoor air and total human exposure.
One of the BLIS programs automatically generates the alphabetized
listing of abstracts contained in this report's appendix. It
also automatically generates an index at the end of the
abstracts, showing the page number on which each BLIS abstract
number appears. We found BLIS's capabilities for generating
shorter reports, bibliographies, or even answering questions so
useful that we are preparing an automated version of BLIS and the
present data base for distribution, on request, to professionals
working in the field.
Many large-scale information systems are available that
operate on mainframe computers with millions of characters of
information that can be accessed. However, there are several
reasons why BLIS and a personal computer may be more advantageous
to the individual than these larger systems. Cost is a prime
consideration; mainframe data systems may cost $25 or more per
hour to access. These systems frequently require the services of
on-site library staff familiar with both the data base and the
accessing system.
Another disadvantage of large data systems is that they
invariably access reports and journals that were published two or
more years before. These systems may not include unrefereed,
state-of-the-art papers and/or reports, many of which are in the
preparation stage and may not be published for months or years.
BLIS can provide access to these unrefereed studies, which can be
stored and transmitted from one person to another by mailing a
diskette. The recipient can then use the diskette without
clerical assistance. The keyword accession allows the user to
4
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peruse the literature rapidly for specific subjects.
A final advantage is perhaps more valuable to government
agencies such as EPA. With a data base in an expanding area such
as indoor air or total human exposure, the number of inquiries
from the public, industry, or the Congress sometimes overwhelms
the normal response system. BLIS can provide information on
scientific data and draft reports that are not widely available
and rapidly respond to an inquiry, usually within a few minutes
or hours.
HOW TO USE BLIS
The BLIS system currently relies on several computer
programs:
• An open copyright word processor (shareware)
• BASIC and compiled versions of the BLIS data base
managers
• Utility programs that update the data base
• The PC's disk operating system (DOS)
The compiled BLIS program and its utility programs will be
in the public domain and available without a copyright fee.
Abstracts are recorded on a diskette as individual DOS files. A
user's manual is available from the authors of this report.
However, BLIS is in an evolutionary stage, and the software and
associated data base are being evaluated and refined. Although a
demonstration disk is available on request, further changes are
anticipated, and existing documentation soon will be outdated.
The data base manager can identify abstract files quickly by
author or keywords (Table 1), and more slowly by searching for
any word in the text of the entire data base. In keyword and
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TABLE 1
BLIS KEYWORD GLOSSARY
* Undefined terms are in BLIS without any changes to their common
meaning.
acephate
acetaldehyde
acetone
acid
acrolein
activity
aerosol
aircraft
Al
aldehyde
alkane
alkylamine
allergen
amine
ammonia
ammonium
appliance
architecture
asbestos
Australia
azelate
bacteria
Belgium
bendiocarb
benzene
benzo-a-anthracene
benzo-a-pyrene
bibliography
bicycle
biomonitoring
body
Br
breath
Britain
*
*
*
*
human activity pattern data, specifical-
ly, data on time spent in each microen-
vironment
aluminum
*
*
*
*
see NH3
see NH4
see source
study of the design of structures in
terms of indoor air aromatic
*
*
*
*
see microorganism
*
*
*
*
*
see literature
*
measurement of chemical concentrations
in human tissue, blood, urine, or
breath
human body weight
bromine
see respiration, biomonitoring
(Continued)
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TABLE 1 (Continued)
burning
butanol
Ca
Canada
cancer
carbaryl
carbon
CC14
Cd
CH20
CH4
CHC13
children
chlordane
chloride
chlorine
chloroform
chlorpyrifos
Cl
CO
C02
coal
combustion
control
cotinine
DDT
demographic
De nma r k
dermal
design
diazinon
dieldrin
distribution
diurnal
dodecyl
dose
dry-cleaner
dust
economic
energy
(Continued)
see combustion
*
calcium
*
see health
*
*
carbon tetrachloride
cadmium
formaldehyde
methane
chloroform
*
*
*
see Cl
see CHC13
*
chlorine
carbon monoxide
carbon dioxide
methods for reducing or preventing human
exposure to pollutants
exposures assessed for subgroups of the
general population
skin contact with pollutants
design of experiments or sampling
frequency distribution
daily variations
a chain of 20 carbon atoms
quantity of pollutant that enters a
human body by crossing an external
membrane
monetary cost of a scientific study,
pollutant exposure, or control method
energy conservation
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TABLE 1 (Continued)
Egypt
England
EPA$
epidemiology
ethylbenzene
Europe
exposure
Fe
fenitrothion
field
Finland
food
foreign
formaldehyde
France
Freon
fungi
gamma-hexa-
chlorocyclohexane
gasoline
geology
Germany
Great Britain
greenhouse
halocarbon
HCH
HCHO
HCN
HEAL
health
heater
heptachlor
see Britain
funding for study or publication
provided by U.S. EPA.
study of the impact or pollutant
exposures on disease distribution in a
population
*
*
contact between a pollutant and an
exchange membrane of an organism (lung,
gut, skin)
iron
scientific study outside of the inves-
tigator's office or laboratory
*
*
outside the U.S.
see CH20
*
*
see microorganism
see KCH
*
see source
see West Germany
see Britain
*
a compound containing carbon and any
halogen
hexachlorocyclohexane
see CH20
hydrogen cyanide
Human Exposure Assessment Location; HEAL
studies concern methodologies for
assessing human exposure and are coor-
dinated by the United Nations Environ-
ment Programme and the World Health
Organization
health effects
see source
*
(Continuec?)
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TABLE 1 (Continued)
hexane
hexachlorocyclohexane
hexanal
home
hospital
humidity
hydrocarbon
India
indoor
industrial
infiltration
interior
ion
i rritant
Italy
Japan
K
kerosene
ketone
Korea
laboratory
landfill
liability
lindane
literature
lung
magnesium
magnetic
malathion
manganese
roercaptan
metal
meteorology
method
see HCH
*
any human dwelling
study of pollutants in any medical
facility where patients sleep
water vapor in air
inside a nonmobile man-made structure
a manufacturing workplace or a factory
see ventilation
inside a man-made structure that is not
a building, e.g., automobile interior
*
*
potassium
*
*
*
laboratory measurements instead of, or
in addition to, field measurements of
pollutant concentrations
*
criminal or civil responsibility for
health effects due to pollutant
exposure
*
study was mainly bibliographic, or is a
secondary source of information
see Mg
*
*
see Mn
*
*
see weather
measurement method
(Continued)
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TABLE 1 (Continued)
methodology
methylenedianiline
methylethyIketone
Mg
microenvironment
microorganism
miner
Mn
model
mold
monitor
monitoring
multimedia
multinational
multipollutant
mutagenicity
N205
Na
NAAQS
NEM
Netherlands
NH3
NH4
nicotine
NIOSH
nitrate
nitric oxide
nitroarene
nitrogen dioxide
nitrogen oxides
nitrosamine
NO
Norway
(Continued)
development and validation of experimen-
tal or analytical procedures; comparison
of these procedures as used in one or
more investigations
magnesium
a well-defined place in which pollutant
concentrations are relatively uniform
and measurable
bacteria, fungi, viruses, etc.; includes
pollen grains
*
manganese
physical or mathematical simulation of
pollutant concentrations or movements
see microorganism
device which makes repetitive measure-
ments of pollutant concentrations
*
pollutant concentrations measured in
several media, e.g., air, water, food,
body fluids. See TEAM
a study involving too many countries to
list individually
a study covering too many pollutants to
list individually
see health
nitrogen pentoxide
sodium
National Ambient Air Quality Standard
NAAQS Exposure Model
*
ammonia
ammonium cation
*
National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health
see N03
see NO
*
see N02
NOx
*
nitric oxide
*
10
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TABLE 1 (Continued)
N02
N03
NOPES
NOx
02
03
octane
odor
office
olefin
oral
organic
organotin
OSHA
outdoor
oxylene
PAH
paint
PAN
particulate
pathogen
Pb
PCB
PCP
pentanal
PERC
permetrin
peroxyacetylnitrate
personal
pesticide
phenanthrene
phenol
phosphate
phthalate
pinene
PNA
policy
pollen
polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons
polyurethane
(Continued)
nitrogen dioxide
nitrate anion
Non-Occupational Pesticides Exposure
Study
nitrogen oxides
oxygen gas
ozone
*
airborne chemicals detectable by human
olfaction
*
*
*
*
*
Occupational Health and Safety Ad-
ministration
not inside any man-made object (includes
street canyons but not tunnels)
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
*
peroxyacetylnitrate
*
see microorganism
lead
polychlorinated biphenyls
pentachlorophenol
*
perchloroethylene
see PAN
*
*
*
*
*
*
see PAH
*
see microorganism
see PAH
*
11
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TABLE 1 (Continued)
population
potassium
pregnancy
pressure
propoxur
pyrene
pyridine
QA
quinoline
radiation
radon
receptor
regulation
research
respiration
risk
ronnel
rural
sampling
analysis
Saudi Arabia
SbH3
school
seasonal
SHAPE
ship
shower
smoke
smoking
S02
S04
sodium
soil
so]vent
source
SOx
see distribution
see K
*
barometric pressure
*
quality assurance, or information on
data quality control for the described
device, method, or study
*
*
organism exposed to a pollutant
restrictions on pollutant concentrations
and/or sources
research needs
breathing
assessment of a threat to human health
*
*
study uses field sampling and laboratory
stibine
*
more than one season, e.g., summer and
winter
Simulation of Human Air Pollution
Exposure (model)
passive smoking; environmental tobacco
smoke (see combustion)
sulfur dioxide
sulfate anion
see Na
see source
*
study determines or discusses pollutant
sources
sulfur oxides
(Continued)
12
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TABLE 1 (Continued)
stove
statistical
stibine
sulfur dioxide
sulfate anion
styrene
Sweden
Switzerland
see source
study reports findings of a statistical
analysis
see SbH3
see S02
see S04
*
tar
TEAM
temperature
terminology
terpene
tetrachloroethane
tetrachloroethylene
tissue
thiocyanite
thoron
tobacco
tolualdehyde
toluene
trace
tunnel
track-etch
trichloroethane
trichloroethylene
tunnel
United Kingdom
urine
V
vanadium
vehicle
ventd]6tion
v i de o
vinyl
vinylidene
virus
VOC
Total Exposure Assessment Methodology—a
multimedia study of personal exposure
employing stratified random sampling of
a population
*
*
see biomonitoring
see smoking
*
trace elements
*
passive method of measuring intensity of
ionizing radiation
*
*
*
see Britain
see biomonitoring
vanadium
*
automobiles, trucks, busses, trains
movement of air into, out of, or within
a building or vehicle
*
*
*
see microorganism
volatile organic compounds
(Continued)
13
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TABLE 1 (Continued)
water household water
West Germany *
weather meteorology data
wood *
xylene *
Yugoslavia *
Zn zinc
14
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text searches, the files identified can be searched again for
secondary words. For example, to find articles about measure-
ments of CO exposure inside vehicles, a sequential search can be
done for "CO," "exposure," "vehicle," and "interior1
. n
BLIS can display or print the citation or full abstract of
any identified file. References or full abstracts for ranges of
file numbers can also be printed, as well as an alphabetical
author list and a keyword list. Abstracts, citations, and the
author list may be printed darkened, compressed, or double- or
single-spaced, when using dot matrix printers.
CRITERIA FOR INCLUSION
The literature search focuses on the following themes:
• Human exposure assessment by means of measuring pollutant
concentrations in well-defined indoor, outdoor, and in-
transit microenvironments (e.g., vehicle interiors or
residential kitchens)
• Personal exposure measurements (single- and multi-media)
at or near the boundaries of individual human bodies
• Models of human exposure based on, and validated by (if
possible), data on human exposure and personal exposure
measurements
• Exposure models based on measured ambient pollutant
concentrations (e.g., the NAAQS Exposure Model)
• Sources of indoor pollutants or exposures
Although the human exposure literature covers all studies in
which pollutants were observed in contact with humans, the
emphasis is on exposures of members of the general public rather
than specific occupational groups. Thus, papers on the exposures
to pesticides in the general population (i.e.,nonoccupational
exposures) have been included, while papers on the (occupational)
exposures of pesticide applicators have not.
15
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The following journals were searched for information on
total human exposure and indoor air quality:
• Environmental Research
Academic Press, Inc.
6277 Sea Harbor Drive
Orlando, FL 32887
Searched: 1981-August 1986
• Environment International
P.O. Box 7166
Alexandria, VA 22307
Searched: 1980-1986
• Environmental Science and Technology
1155 16th St. N.W.
Washington, DC 20036
Searched: 1968-1986
• Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
P.O. Box 2861
Pittsburgh, PA 15230
Searched: 1960-1986
• Atmospheric Environment
Pergamon Journals Ltd.
Maxwell House, Fairview Park
Elmsford, NY 10523
Searched: 1982-August 1986
Articles have been cited from many other journals including
Environmental Health Perspectives, Environmental Health, Archives
of Environmental Health, Science, Journal of Environmental
Health, New England Journal of Medicine, EPRI Journal, American
Journal of Public Health, and New York State Journal of Medicine.
In addition, reports of EPA and other Federal agencies were
reviewed. These reports are cited in BLIS to allow users to
obtain copies.
The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory's system for
Indoor Air Information Retrieval (Brown et al., 1986) was
evaluated and reviewed, as well as other data bases such as the
16
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Data Base on Sources of Indoor Pollutants (Air and Energy
Engineering Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC
27711, Jane Crum, Project Leader). The REFEREE system maintained
by EPA's Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office also was
reviewed.
Other literature sources were identified as a result of
visits by SRA Technologies, Inc., staff to the following people:
• P. Barry Ryan (617) 732-1431
Robert Treitman (617) 732-1431
Harvard School of Public Health
665 Huntington Avenue
Boston, MA 02175
• Ken Sexton (202) 382-5900
Director, Office of Health Research (RD-683)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington,, DC 20460
• David Mage (919) 541-2346
Gerald Akland (919) 541-3184
U.S. EPA Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
• Thomas McCurdy (919) 541-5655
Donna Sledge (919) 541-5655
U.S. EPA Office of Air Quality and Standards
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Proceedings of pertinent conferences and symposia were
reviewed—for example, meetings of the Air Pollution Control
Association (APCA). In addition, many references were gleaned
from the bibliographies of reports already in BLIS. Finally, two
bibliographic reviews on indoor air quality were screened:
• U.S. EPA (June 1985) "Bibliography on indoor air pollu-
tion," EPA/IMSD85-002, U.S. EPA Headquarters Library
Staff, Washington, DC 20460 (84 pages).
• Benson, F.B., Henderson, J.J., and Caldwell, D.E. (Aug.
1972) "Indoor-outdoor air pollution relationships: a
literature review," Publication AP-112, U.S. EPA, Office
of Administrating Technical Publications Branch, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711 (73 pages).
17
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The extensive literature on asbestos exposures was not
reviewed. Similarly, the literature on biological aerosols,
except as part of other exposure studies, was not extensively
reviewed. Studies of all other pollutants and pollutant categor-
ies were included.
FORMAT AND ABBREVIATIONS
In general, the BLIS reference citations follow the format
used by Environment International. Journal names are abbreviated
according to the Chemical Abstracts "CAS Source Index Quarterly
Supplement." Some examples include:
Published Article
Chaney, Lucian W. (1978) "Carbon monoxide automobile
emissions measured from the interior of a traveling automo-
bile," Science, 199:1203-1204.
Unpublished Report
Hartwell. T.D. et al., (Jan. 1984) "Study of carbon
monoxide exposure to residents of Washington, D.C. and
Denver, Colorado, part I," final report for EPA Contract No.
68-02-3679, U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (210 pages).
Not available from NTIS.
Paper Presented at a Conference
Lewis, R.G., Bond, A.E., and Fitzsimons, T.R. (June 1986)
"Monitoring for non-occupational exposure to pesticides in
indoor and personal respiratory air," Paper No. 86-37.4,
presented at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (15
pages).
For articles not published in the peer-reviewed literature,
BLIS includes a complete mailing address (when available) so that
the author(s) or sponsor(s) can be contacted. BLIS also in-
cluded, whenever possible, the National Technical Information
18
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Service (NTIS) publication number for U.S. government reports.
These reports can be obtained directly from NTIS by specifying
the order number appearing in the citation. If NTIS does not
currently house the article, this fact is also noted in the
reference:
National Technical Information Service
U.S. Department of Commerce
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22041
(703) 487-4601
Papers presented at APCA conferences or published in JAPCA
can be obtained, usually at $5 each, from:
• Air Pollution Control Association
P.O. Box 2861
Pittsburgh, PA 15230
(412) 232-3444
For research sponsored by the U.S. government, but not
published by NTIS, the publication number, contract number, grant
number, or cooperative agreement number is given if it is
available. These numbers may be helpful in locating a report.
Table 2 lists several acronyms and abbreviations used in
BLIS (several more are defined in Table 1). Table 3 shows the
number of BLIS references by pollutant for three major study
types: microenvironmental field measurements, total exposure
assessment, and exposure model development. This report contains
a subject index prepared with the help of the BLIS keyword-
searching system. Such an index is useful in a formal report.
It is not needed when the BLIS diskette and its associated data
base are available, however, because users can search the words
automatically using their personal computers.
19
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TABLE 2
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Anon
APCA
ASHRAE
Bq
CAMP
COED
COHb
GC/FID
GC/MS
HCH
IAQ
IEEE
IP
Kcal/L
LBNL or LBL
m3
mg
ml or mL
mWL
NBS
NHANES
NIOSH
ng
NTIS
OHEA
OMB
ORNL
(Continued)
Anonymous
Air Pollution Control Association (Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230)
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Condition-
ing Engineers (1971 Tullie Circle N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329)
Becquerels
Continuous Air Monitoring Program
Carbon Monoxide Exposure Dosimeter
Carboxyhemoglobin
Gas Chronatography/Flame lonization Detector
Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry
Hexachlorocyclonexane
Indoor air quality
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (345 East
47th Street, New York, NY 10017)
Inhalable particulates
Ki1ocalor ies/1ite r
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (1 Cyclotron Road,
Berkeley, CA 94720)
Cubic meters
Milligram
Milliliter
Milli Working Level
National Bureau of Standards
National Health & Nutrition Examination Survey
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
Nanogram
National Technical Information Service (5285 Port Royal Road,
Springfield, VA 22041)
Office of Health & Environmental Assessment (EPA)
Office of Management & Budget
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Oak Ridge, TN 37831)
20
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TABLE 2 (Continued)
pCi/L Picocuries/liter
PEM Personal exposure monitor
ppb Parts per billion
ppn Parts per million
ppt Parts per trillion
RTB Range-top burner
RSD Relative standard deviation
RSP Respirable particulates
SIAM Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
SIMS SIAM Institute of Mathematics and Society (97 Parish Road
South, New Canaan, CT 06840)
SIP State Implementation Plan (Part of NAAQS)
TAMS Toxic air monitoring site
TSP Total suspended particulates
UFFI Urea-formaldehyde foam insulation
uG Microgram
uL Microliter
uM Micrometer
21
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TABLE 3
NUMBER OF BLIS ABSTRACTS BY POLLUTANT
FOR THREE MAJOR TYPES OF STUDIES
Microenvironmental Total Exposure
Field Exposure Model
Pollutant Measurements Assessment Development
CRITERIA POLLUTANTS*
Carbon monoxide 75 12 20
Nitrogen oxides 50 10 16
Sulfur oxides 17 48
Particulates 35 6 16
Inhaled particles 13 58
Lead 8 23
Ozone 6 4
NONCRITERIA POLLUTANTS*
Aerosols 4 2
Aluminum 1
Bromine 1
Chlorine 3
Formaldehyde 30 16
Hal oca r tons 8 1
Hexanal 1
Iron 2
Manganese 1
Microorganism 7
Natural Gas 1
Nitrosamine 1
Pentanal 1
Pesticides 18 2
Polyaromatic
hydrocarbons 7 2
* Criteria pollutants are those for which EPA has published air quality
criteria documents and established National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
Noncriteria pollutants are those for which criteria documents have not been
published.
(Continued)
22
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TABLE 3 (Continued)
Microenvironmental Total Exposure
Field Exposure Model
Pollutant Measurements Assessment Development
NONCRITERIA POLLUTANTS*
Polychlorinated
biphenyls 2
Radon 40 1 14
Sodium 1
Toluene 2 1
Trace metals 3
Volatile organic
compounds 23 12 7
Vanadium 1
* Criteria pollutants are those for which EPA has published air quality
criteria documents and established National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
Noncriteria pollutants are those for which criteria documents have not been
published.
23
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24
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CHAPTER 2
OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE*
INTRODUCTION
Although a large body of the world's literature on total
human exposure and indoor air quality is represented in the
attached BLIS listing of abstracts and can be easily accessed on
a personal computer, this chapter also contains a very brief
synopsis of the field, emphasizing the historical development
within each pollutant. Because only a few pages can be devoted
to each pollutant, this synopsis is, of necessity, very cursory.
Nevertheless, it sets the context for the individual abstracts
that follow. This synopsis covers the following pollutants:
Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Sulfur dioxide
Particulates
Formaldehyde
Volatile organic compounds
Pesticides
Radon
The concept of total human exposure to air pollution is
defined theoretically as the time-weighted sum of air pollutants
encountered in the microenvironments people progress through in
their daily activities. If the monitor has sufficiently fine
time resolution, then it is possible to identify the exposures
associated with individual activities and microenvironments,
* Contributing Authors: Carbon Monoxide, Wayne Ott (EPA);
Nitrogen Dioxide, Lance Wallace (EPA); Sulfur Dioxide, Peter
Mavraganis (SRA) and Karl Held (SRA); Particulates. Jim Shackel-
ford (EPA) and Jim Repace (EPA); Formaldehyde, David Johnson
(SRA) and Karl Held (SRA); Volatile Organic Compounds, Lance
Wallace (EPA); Pesticides, Jim Shackelford (EPA); and Radon,
Richard Toft (SRA) and Karl Held (SRA).
25
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including indoor microenvironments. It also is possible to study
pollutant concentrations in these microenvironments directly and,
coupled with time-budget studies, to estimate human exposure
profiles and frequency distributions. Adequate microenvironmen-
tal field data now exist for only a few pollutants. Experimental
data using personal monitors still are required for most pol-
lutants, and time-budget data are very fragmentary. Personal
monitoring instruments are at an early stage of development, and
indoor monitoring methods and instruments need to be improved for
most pollutants. The importance of indoor and in-transit ex-
posures relative to outdoor exposures is not well documented for
some pollutants. Nevertheless, much progress has been made in
recent years toward quantifying the magnitude of human exposures
to environmental pollution and understanding the factors respon-
sible for these exposures.
CARBON MONOXIDE
The internal combustion engine is a major source of carbon
monoxide (CO) emissions, and automobiles or trucks operating in
confined small spaces, such as parking garages, can cause
extremely high CO concentrations. With the introduction of the
automobile in the early half of the century, many isolated cases
of CO poisoning were reported. The usual victims were automobile
repairmen, gas station attendants, or persons accidentally
exposed in their own garages.
Until the 1960s, most of the data available on ambient CO
concentrations came from fixed monitoring stations operated
routinely in urban areas. The accepted measurement technique was
by nondispersive infrared (NDIR) spectrometry, but the instru-
ments were large and cumbersome, often requiring vibration-free,
air-conditioned enclosures. In late 1960, one of the first
systematic studies of CO concentrations was undertaken in the
passenger compartments of motor vehicles (Brice and Roessler,
26
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1966). A large, bulky NDIR monitor was installed in a van that
traveled to 14 U.S. cities and measured CO concentrations on a
number of routes in each city (Lynn et al., 1967). This study
showed that passengers of motor vehicles experienced CO exposures
higher than those measured by ambient monitoring stations.
Without a portable, convenient monitor for CO, it was
extremely difficult to measure CO concentrations accurately in
the microenvironments that people usually visited. In 1971, an
investigator walked on congested downtown streets alongside
pedestrians to measure their exposures (Ott, 1971). With a
portable pump, the investigator filled sampling bags in various
locations, then transported them to the laboratory where the
contents were analyzed by NDIR spectrometry.
In the early 1970s, portable electrochemical monitors about
the size of a shoe box became available. Using the ECOlyzer
monitor, CO concentrations were measured in traffic in Boston, MA
(Cortese, 1976; Cortese and Spengler, 1976).
In the late 1970s, smaller personal monitors using electro-
chemical sensing systems became available and were deployed in
specialized field surveys involving a few people (Jabara et al.,
1980). Few other field surveys employed these new devices
prompting Repace, Ott, and Wallace (1980) to ask: "If small,
portable monitors are available to record CO concentrations
continuously, why can't these same monitors be adapted to measure
the actual exposure profiles (CO concentrations as a function of
time) of individual members of the population?"
In one early pilot investigation (unpublished data by Ott,
1981), a subject carried a General Electric CO personal monitor
from San Jose to San Francisco, CA, and back again to simulate a
typical commute pattern (8 hours of work and 1 hour driving each
way). About 600 observations were recorded during the 10 hours,
27
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necessitating the development of suitable data loggers (Fitz-Sim-
mons and Sauls, 1984; Ott et al. , 1986).
As CO monitors continued to evolve, they were used in
studies of indoor microenvironments. Many of the microenviron-
mental CO data on indoor concentrations were collected as an
integral part of multipollutant indoor health or dosage studies
in homes (Lebowitz et al., 1984; Lebowitz et al., 1985), in
offices or rooms (Berglund et al., 1982a, b; Hoffman et al.,
1984; Hugod, 1984), or as more narrowly focused multipollutant
exposure field studies in homes (Quackenboss et al., 1984; Koontz
and Nagda, 1984; Traynor et al., 1984) and in buildings
(Konopinski, 1984; Malaspina et al. , 1984; Clarkson, 1984).
Although the CO personal monitors evolved rapidly, they were
not used in large-scale field surveys of indoor microenvironments
until the early 1980s. The monitors have been used in studies of
CO concentrations in sustained-use vehicles (Ziskind et aj..,
1981) and in the passenger compartments of vehicles traveling on
highways (Ott and Willits, 1981; Flachsbart and Yo, 1986). A
large field survey by Flachsbart and Ott (1984; see also Ott and
Flachsbart, 1982) showed good agreement when the new CO detectors
were carried side by side. A pilot field study of nine people
was conducted in about 45 days in winter of 1980-81 to test the
CO monitors and examine problems encountered when untrained
respondents used the monitors (Ziskind et al., 1981; Ziskind et
al., 1982).
Ultimately, small personal exposure monitors were developed
that could measure CO concentrations continuously over time and
store the readings automatically on internal digital memories
(Ott et al., 1986). These small personal exposure monitors
(PEMs) made possible the large-scale CO human exposure field
studies conducted in Denver, CO, and Washington, DC, in the
winter of 1982-83 (Johnson, 1984; Hartwell et al., 1984a; Akland
28
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et al. , 1985). These monitors proved effective in generating
24-hour CO exposure profiles on more than 1,600 persons. By
breaking up the profiles into the microenvironments visited by
these people, it was possible to develop CO concentration
readings on more than 40 indoor and in-transit microenvironments
(Tables 4, 5, and 6).
The PEMs have shown themselves to be a powerful tool for
quantifying air quality levels in in-transit, outdoor, and indoor
microenvironments. A great number of microenvironments can be
compared in one study. For example, Table 4 shows in-transit
microenvironments in Denver, Colorado ranked from highest to
lowest by arithmetic mean. The worst in-transit microenvironment
is the motor vehicle, while walking and bicycling have the lowest
CO concentrations. (In this instance, there were too few samples
to draw valid conclusions about bicycling). Outdoor microen-
vironments also can be ranked (Table 5). Outdoor public garages
and outdoor residential garages and carports had the highest CO
concentrations; outdoor service stations, vehicle repair facilit-
ies, and parking lots had intermediate concentrations. In
contrast, school grounds and residential grounds had relatively
low concentrations, while extremely low CO concentrations were
found in outdoor sports arenas, amphitheaters, parks, and golf
courses. Finally, a wide range of concentrations was found in
indoor microenvironments (Table 6). The highest indoor CO
concentrations occurred in service stations, and public garages;
intermediate concentrations were found in shopping malls,
residential garages, restaurants, offices, auditoriums, sports
arenas, concert halls, and stores, and lower concentrations in
health care facilities, public buildings, manufacturing faciliti-
es, and homes. Of all indoor locations, the lowest levels were
observed in schools and churches. Because people spend so much
time in indoor locations, the number of observations taken in
homes (21,543) and offices (2,287) is quite large; thus, the
29
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TABLE 4
CD CONCENTRATIONS IN IN-TRANSIT MICROENVIRONMENTS - DENVER, COLORADO
(In descending order of mean CD Concentration)
Microenvironment
Motorcycle
Bus
Car
Truck
Walking
Bicycling
Source: Johnson, 1984
CO CONCENTRATIONS
(Listed in
Microenvironment
Public Garages
Residential Garages
or Carports
n
22
76
3632
405
619
9
IN OUTDOOR
descending
n
29
22
Service Stations or
Vehicle Repair Facilities 12
Parking Lots
Other Locations
School Grounds
Residential Grounds
Sports Arenas,
Amphitheaters
Parks, Golf Courses
61
126
16
74
29
21
Mean
(ppm)
9.79
8.52
8.10
7.03
3.88
1.34
TABLE 5
Std. Dev.
(ppm)
8.15
7.08
9.88
9.89
6.61
3.61
MICROENVIRONMENTS - DENVER, COLORADO
order of mean GO Concentration)
Mean
(ppm)
8.20
7.53
3.68
3.45
3.17
1.99
1.36
0.97
0.69
Std. Dev.
(ppm)
5.33
8.93
3.84
4.23
5.47
3.39
2.24
2.80
1.01
Source: Johnson, 1984
30
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TABLE 6
GO CONCENTRATIONS IN INDOOR MICROENVIRONMENTS - DENVER, COLORADO
(In descending order of mean CO Concentration)
Micr oenv i ronment
Public Garages
Service Stations or
Vehicle Repair Facilities
Other Locations
Other Repair Shops
Shoping Malls
Residential Garages
Restaurants
Offices
Auditoriums, Sports
Arenas, Concert Halls
Stores
Health Care Facilities
Other Public Buildings
Manufacturing Facilities
Homes
Schools
Churches
n
116
125
427
55
58
66
524
2287
100
734
351
115
42
21543
426
179
Mean
(ppn)
13.46
9.17
7.40
5.64
4.90
4.35
3.71
3.59
3.37
3.23
2.22
2.15
2.04
2.04
1.64
1.56
Std. Dev.
(ppn)
18.14
9.33
17.97
7.67
6.50
7.06
4.35
4.18
4.76
5.56
4.25
3.26
2.55
2.55
2.76
3.35
Source: Johnson, 1984
31
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precision of the indoor CO concentrations in these two types of
microenvironments is quite high.
Although these CO PEMs worked effectively, further refine-
ments are needed. Some examples:
• A self-contained portable personal monitor that can
operate with high stability in indoor microenvironments
for up to a month.
• A low-cost passive monitor that can screen buildings and
homes for unusually high CO concentrations.
NITROGEN DIOXIDE
Two main devices are available for measuring integrated
exposure to nitrogen dioxide (N02): the Palmes tube and the
Yanagisawa badge. The Palmes tube (Palmes et al., 1976) is an
acrylic or metal tube, normally about 1 cm in diameter by 7 cm
long, containing three stainless steel grids coated with trietha-
nolamine in a cap at the top of the tube. The bottom of the tube
is open to sample the air, allowing N02 to diffuse upward until
it reacts with the triethanolamine, forming a stable complex for
later analysis by spectrophotometry. The sampler has a sen-
sitivity of several hundred ppb-hours, requiring a minimum 2-day
collection time at normal indoor environmental levels. Most
studies use 1- to 2-week collection times. The Palmes tube has
been used to study the relationship between respiratory illness
in children and the use of gas stoves for cooking (Goldstein et
al., 1979).
The Yanagisawa badge (Yanagisawa and Nishimura, 1982) uses
an absorbent sheet of cellulose fiber coated with triethanolami-
ne. A five-layer mat of hydrophobic fiber prevents face velocity
from affecting the diffusion characteristics of the badge. The
sensitivity of the badge is 66 ppb-hours, about 10 times more
32
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sensitive than the Palmes tube. Thus, sampling periods as short
as 8 hours at environmental levels are possible. The badge has
been used in a study of the effect of unvented heaters on indoor
N02 levels (Yanagisawa et al., 1981).
Major studies of N02 in indoor air include the Six-City
Study of 55 houses, (Spengler, 1979), the Southern California Gas
Corporation study (Colome et al., 1986) of 500 houses in the Los
Angeles, CA area, and the Harvard University School of Public
Health, Gas Research Institute (GRI) study of 500 houses in the
Boston, MA, area (Soczek et al. , 1986). The latter two studies
included the following main components:
• Random selection of clusters of homes
• Two-week measurements using Palmes tubes
• Multiple indoor locations (i_._e_.., kitchen, bedroom, and
living room)
• Air exchange measurements using perfluorocarbon tracers
(PFT)
• Water vapor measurements
• Outdoor air measurements
Both studies found gas stoves (both the pilot light and
cooking operations) to be a major influence on indoor air
quality, adding about 30 to 40 ug/m3 N02 on the average. In
addition, wall and floor-vented gas furnaces in the Los Angeles
area added roughly equivalent amounts of N02 causing the Southern
California Gas Corporation to fund a followup study of homes with
wall and floor furnaces (Wilson et a_l. , 1987). Outdoor N02
concentrations were elevated in Los Angeles, increasing indoor
N02 more than in Boston, where outdoor concentrations were lower.
Concurrent chamber studies of gas stove emissions at the
33
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Institute for Gas Technology and IIT Research Institute (sup-
ported by GRI) have shown that flame color and adjustment affect
N02 emissions far less than CO emissions (I. Billick, personal
communication). However, furnace adjustment and maintenance were
a serious problem in Los Angeles (30 of the 40 homes with the
highest 2-week N02 averages required repairs).
Future studies needed in this area include personal monitor-
ing studies to answer the difficult question of the influence of
indoor concentrations on total exposure. One such study has
recently been completed in Boston by the Harvard University
School of Public Health, supported by GRI (Ryan et al. , 1987).
Yanagisawa passive badges were worn by 300 persons at home and at
work for 2 consecutive days. Subjects were selected from among
those participating in the earlier Harvard/GRI indoor study, with
high-concentration homes preferentially selected. A second study
is being carried out in Los Angeles by Harvard and the University
of California at Irvine, supported by the Southern California Gas
Corporation (J. Spengler, personal communication). Again,
several hundred persons, selected by a probability sampling
technique, are wearing Yanagisawa badges for 1 or 2 days.
SULFUR DIOXIDE
Sulfur dioxide (S02) in the outdoor environment has been one
of the most widely studied gaseous criteria pollutants over the
past 75 years (Yocum et al., 1982). The primary source of
atmospheric S02 is from fuel combustion in stationary sources
such as power plants and smelters. The main indoor sources of
S02 are leaky or improperly vented furnace flues and unvented
kerosene space heaters (Leaderer et al., 1984; Spengler et al.,
1979). However, indoor S02 levels possibly come from outside
sources (Colome et al., 1982; Yocum et al. , 1982).
In 1964, a pioneering study examined indoor/outdoor
34
-------
relationships for S02 and participates in 60 homes in Rotterdam,
The Netherlands (Yocum, 1982). The results showed differences
between indoor and outdoor air quality and also showed that
indoor air quality could be of concern to human health.
To obtain a more accurate picture of human exposure to S02,
researchers have been investigating the relationships between
indoor and outdoor concentrations. For example, Spengler et a1.
(1979) monitored indoor and outdoor levels of S02 (and N02) in
six communities for a year. Two of the communities had viola-
tions of the annual National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) for outdoor S02, while the other four had S02 levels of
less than 50 percent of the annual standard. Indoor levels in
all communities, however, never exceeded the standard and ranged
from 20 to 70 percent of recorded outdoor levels.
Similarly, Colome et al. (1982) compared indoor and outdoor
concentrations of S02 (and other pollutants) at 10 homes in
Steubenville, OH, and Portage, WI. During the 1-year study,
researchers found that indoor S02 levels were lower than the
corresponding outdoor levels. In a study of two Paris, France,
office buildings, Malaspina et al.. , (1984) found that, of the 11
pollutants monitored, S02 was the only one that had lower levels
indoors than outdoors. Nasralla (1980) found that in a public
library in Egypt the indoor/outdoor ratio for SO2 was 0.6.
Pengelly et al., (1983) monitored schools and residences in
Hamilton, Ontario, in two 5-day sessions during the heating and
nonheating seasons. Indoor levels of S02 correlated with outdoor
levels.
For the past several years, increased energy costs have led
to increased insulation, better weatherization, and auxiliary
heating methods to reduce costs. One popular method of auxiliary
heating is the unvented kerosene heater; Leaderer et al. (1984)
estimate that more than 10 million heaters are used in the United
35
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States. This has given rise to the concern that combustion of
kerosene fuel in the home could result in large increases in
indoor S02 levels. Recent studies indicate some reason for
concern. Leaderer et al. (1984), in a study of 303 homes in the
New Haven, CT, area, found that S02 levels during heater use were
four to five times greater than the average values measured
during the sampling period. Moreover, 21.4 percent of these
residences had average S02 concentrations greater than the
24-hour NAAQS health standard of 365 ug/m3.
Ritchie and Arnold (1984) also studied residential air
pollution from unvented kerosene heaters. They found that indoor
S02 exceeded the 0.14-ppm limit recommended by the American
Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning
Engineers. The increased use of auxiliary heating methods that
can burn sulfur-based fuel, coupled with the "tightening" of
homes to promote energy efficiency, can significantly increase
S02 levels indoors over outdoors. Obviously, this increase would
be most serious during the winter. In buildings using kerosene
heaters and no other open combustion sources, Ryan et al. , (1983)
concluded that modeling of S02 concentrations and exposures
suggests very high levels of S02 in residences that are poorly
ventilated or have small-mixing volurres.
More work is needed in several areas to obtain more accurate
exposure data for health effects studies and to mitigate poten-
tial increases in indoor S02 sources. To determine the health
effects more accurately, actual human exposure patterns must be
more closely linked to monitoring programs. This suggests that
additional research should be done on establishing the relation-
ships between ambient concentrations and actual exposures
(Spengler and Soczek, 1984; Silverman e_t al. , 1984; Khan and
Meranger, 1983). Additional research is needed on improving the
burners of unvented kerosene heaters to reduce S02 and other
emissions.
36
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PARTICULATES
Interest in particulates intensified in the early 1950s and
1960s with the acute episodes of illnesses and deaths in London,
New York, Detroit, and Osaka. The resulting concern for human
health and the intense public outcry influenced the U.S. Public
Health Service to publish the "Air Quality Criteria for Particu-
late Matter" in 1969. This document, an almost encyclopedic
examination of the published literature relating to particulate
matter, led to establishment of the Clean Air Act, NAAQS, and the
State Implementation Plans (SIPs) to control particulate emis-
sions. The literature cited in the document did not cover
dose-response relationships—perhaps because of the scarcity of
data or perhaps a measure of the limited knowledge or concern at
that time.
The literature in the air quality criteria document was
extensive regarding methods of measuring particulates, perhaps
the greatest number relating to outdoor high volume filters, dust
buckets, impingers, and impactors. Emphasis was placed on
measuring weight of total suspended particulates; little or no
reference was made to indoor, inhaled particulates, which are now
considered one of the most important parts of human exposure.
Likewise, little reference was made to anything except the solid
phase. No one was concerned with adsorbed matter such as metals,
liquids, or vapors, all of which are of concern when dealing with
human exposure.
ELIS does not attempt to duplicate the references in the air
quality criteria document but, instead, focuses on work on total
human exposure to air pollutants published after 1969. The 1984
symposium sponsored by the Swedish Council for Building Research
(Berglund et_ al. , 1984, 1986), much of which is covered in BLIS,
provides a broad background of the worldwide interest in indoor
37
-------
air pollution and human exposure.
During the early 1980s, many studies focused on determining
sources of indoor particulates. Nasralla (1980) measured indoor
air pollutants in Egypt. Girman et al. (1982) measured in the
laboratory emissions from gas-fired stoves, space heaters,
kerosene heaters, and tobacco smoke. He found elevated levels of
particulates as well as CO, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), and formaldehyde. Squirrel (1985) reported on
sources of indoor air pollutants, including combustion processes
and tobacco smoke as well as metabolic products from the human
body.
At the same time, interest grew in the use of personal
monitors to determine total human exposure to particulates.
Wallace (1981) and Wallace and Ott (1982) described the monitor-
ing systems then available, the state-of-the-art, and recent
progress in developing and using personal exposure monitors.
McKenzie et al. (1982), Silverman et al. (1982), Fletcher et al.
(1983, 1984) and Howes et al. (1985) reported on the development
and use of personal exposure monitors. These latter efforts were
mainly devoted to developing and testing personal exposure
monitors for inhalable particulates, although allergens also have
been studied (Reed and Swanson, 1986). In many instances, the
research was designed to monitor several pollutants, such as CO,
nitrogen oxides, VOCs, and particulates.
Perhaps the earliest data concerned with human exposure to
indoor particulates were more related to lead (Fugas et. al. ,
1972) and pesticides adsorbed on particulates than to the
particulates themselves (Starr et al., 1974). In one of the
earliest publications, Fugas (1975) used indoor monitoring
networks to measure lead. This work showed some of the relation-
ships of indoor/outdoor concentrations in European towns.
Shortly thereafter, Binder et al. (1976) determined that the
38
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particulate load appeared to be caused more by exposure to
indoor, rather than outdoor/ pollutants.
At the same time, evidence began to emerge concerning the
indoor pollutant load caused by cigarette smoking. Although the
earliest work was more concerned with CO, particulate matter from
tobacco smoking quickly became an important area of scientific
interest. Dockery and Spengler (1977), Repace and Lowrey (1980),
Repace (1981), Bock (1982), Girman ejt al. (1982, 1984), Johnson
(1984), and many others demonstrated the widespread effect of
smoking on exposure to air pollutants such as particulates, CO,
and VOCs.
Only a few years later, it became evident that smoke from
wood-burning fireplaces was also a prominent indoor source of
particulates. Alfheim (1984) and Sexton et al. (1984, 1985,
1986) demonstrated that indoor pollutant concentrations were
significantly higher than outdoors in homes with wood-burning
fireplaces. The mutagenic activity was higher when wood was
burned in open fireplaces and higher still with tobacco smoke
also in the room.
The high cost of fuel nationwide has increased the use of
wood-burning furnaces and fireplaces, along with kerosene space
heaters. This, combined with more efficient (tighter) homes, has
brought attention to the pollutants generated within homes from
burning these fuels and the higher concentrations being main-
tained due to the lower ventilation rates.
Recent work has made it evident that sources of particulates
in enclosed spaces such as homes, offices, schools, and vehicles,
are not numerous. Excluding, for the moment, outdoor pollutants
that may drift indoors, the main indoor sources are fuel combus-
tion and tobacco smoke. Furnaces, fireplaces, space heaters,
kitchen stoves, and tobacco smoke provide most of the solid-phase
39
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particulates. These same sources also provide undesirable
amounts of VOCs, nitrogen oxides, CO, and polycyclic aromatic
compounds.
Concern and research programs are increasing throughout
Europe and the Third World. Smith e_t al. (1983) found that the
main source of indoor particulates in Third World countries is
biomass combustion. Wang et al. (1985) reported on exposure to
particulates and CO in China, while other studies in Japan,
Sweden, Belgium, Malta, Mexico, Egypt, India, Canada, and The
Netherlands report findings about indoor particulate exposure
from various sources.
By conventional measures, the quality of ambient air has
steadily improved over the years. However, although total
suspended particulates may have decreased, human exposures to
inhalable particulates probably has increased due to concentra-
tions of fine aerosols and ultrafine particulates generated
within homes and offices. In addition, because people tend to
spend more than 90 percent of their time indoors, they may be
subjected to elevated levels of pollutants from indoor sources.
Modern studies tend to assume that central monitoring stations do
not reflect or predict actual personal exposures. Continued
research is needed on the relationships between ambient con-
centrations and actual exposure.
FORMALDEHYDE
Formaldehyde vapor has been one of the most publicized
contributors to indoor air quality. The principal sources are
building materials containing urea-formaldehyde resins, such as
plywood, particle board, paneling, and other pressed-wood
products (Ritchie and Lehnen, 1985). Urea-formaldehyde foam is
also widely used to insulate walls. According to Mage and
Gammage (1984) , urea-formaldehyde use increased dramatically in
40
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the 1960s. Energy conservation techniques led to tighter,
less-ventilated houses, which reduced energy loss but increased
the indoor concentration of formaldehyde. Grimsrud e_t al. (1986)
compared indoor air quality in new, energy-efficient homes versus
existing homes and found that new homes, on average, had higher
formaldehyde concentrations, smaller leakage areas, and lower
ventilation rates. By 1982, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety
Commission (CPSC) had received over 3,000 complaints involving
exposure to formaldehyde (Gupta et al.,1982).
Oak Ridge National Laboratory developed a formaldehyde-
monitoring program to assist CPSC in its deliberations concerning
the use of urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (Matthews et al.,
1984). Hawthorne et al. (1984) made extensive measurements with
passive integrating monitors in 40 east Tennessee homes in 1982.
They found that houses less than 5 years old averaged twice the
concentration of formaldehyde compared to older houses.
Berglund et al. (1982) examined typical contaminants from
building materials in a preschool and found that all organic
compounds, except formaldehyde, decline in concentration, mainly
within the first 6 months of occupancy.
Meyer (1986) performed laboratory tests to study the effects
of high temperatures and humidity on formaldehyde indoor air
levels. The research showed that large seasonal and diurnal
changes occurred in formaldehyde concentrations, resulting in
increases by a factor of five in 24 hours. The findings indi-
cated that exposure levels in mobile homes also depend on daytime
climatic conditions.
Liu et al. (1986a, b) reported the results of a California
survey of formaldehyde in 470 mobile homes. They found that the
most important factors affecting indoor concentrations were home
age, open windows, home location, new furniture, and gas applian-
41
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ces. Ritchie and Lehnen (1985) observed that mobile homes had
consistently higher formaldehyde concentrations than conventional
homes. Leaderer et al. (1984), in a study of houses with
kerosene heaters and gas appliances, reported that formaldehyde
levels were low and not associated with indoor combustion.
The large-scale monitoring efforts described above were
aided by the development of low-cost monitoring technology.
Although early methods were bulky, expensive, and complicated,
Geisling et, al. (1982) developed a passive sampling device that
is inexpensive, simple to operate, and sensitive. This sampler
consists of a capped glass tube (approximate dimensions 2.4 x 9
cm) containing a glass fiber filter treated with sodium bisul-
fite. After the cap is removed, formaldehyde is absorbed onto
the filter. Samples are recapped after 7 days and returned to a
laboratory for analysis by the chromatropic method.
Matthews et al. (1982) describe new analytical methodologies
that provide excellent correlation of results with a reference
analysis technique. These include (1) a semipermeable-membrane
passive sampler and (2) a visual colorimetric analysis method.
Application of these methodologies to personal exposure monitor-
ing is now under investigation.
In a review of health effects of formaldehyde, Gupta et al.
(1982) concluded that formaldehyde is likely to pose a car-
cinogenic risk to humans. Formaldehyde is also associated with
eye, nose, and throat irritation, respiratory ailments, nausea,
and nervous system disorders. Schenker et al. (1982) reported
that chronic low-level exposure to formaldehyde may cause mental
changes such as depression and reduced attention span. In a
recent study by Harving et al. (1986) on the impact of formal-
dehyde on lower bronchial airways of hyper-responsive subjects,
low concentrations of formaldehyde, known to irritate upper
respiratory tract and mucous membranes, were of minor importance
42
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in the development of pulmonary symptoms.
A number of control techniques have been explored to reduce
formaldehyde emissions in mobile homes. Jewel (1980)
demonstrated that ammonia fumigation produced long-term reduc-
tions of approximately 61 percent to 73 percent, and use of a
high capacity air recirculation filtering device resulted in a 79
percent reduction during operation. Singh et al. (1982) used
low-formaldehyde-emitting plywood paneling and particle board to
achieve almost 50 percent lower concentrations compared to where
materials with high-emitting materials were used.
Although CPSC has banned use of urea-formaldehyde insulation
in the United States/ formaldehyde is released from numerous
other building materials and household items such as furniture,
carpets, and paneling. More work is needed to determine the
relative importance of each as a source of formaldehyde. Other
possible sources of formaldehyde such as combustion and smoking
must also be considered. The impact of other factors such as
humidity, temperature, product age, ventilation, and seasonal
variations on formaldehyde concentrations also need further
study.
VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Many of our most common and useful chemicals are VOCs.
Unfortunately, some cause mutations in bacteria and/or cancer in
animals or man. Several Federal agencies are authorized to
regulate these chemicals. However, before such regulation is
undertaken, information must be collected on the sources, health
effects, and human exposure to each chemical. In an effort to
develop and apply a methodology for determining human exposure to
VOCs, EPA developed the Total Exposure Assessment Methodology
(TEAM) between 1979 and 1985 (Wallace et al., 1982, 1984a, b, c;
Hartwell et al., 1984b, c; Pellizzari et al., 1984b, 1986). The
43
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following are the main components of the methodology:
• Personal monitors (with Tenax sampling cartridges and
miniature air pumps) to measure exposure directly
• Spirometers to measure exhaled breath as an indicator of
recent exposure and body burden
• Measurements of drinking water at the tap
• Outdoor air measurements to determine the ambient
component of exposure
• Survey sampling techniques to ensure representativeness
of the subjects
• Oversampling of strata of interest to ensure adequate
statistical power
• Concurrent special studies to investigate microenviron-
ments of interest (e.g., dry cleaners, swimming pools)
The TEAM study resulted in two major findings:
• Personal exposure exceeded outdoor concentrations for all
11 prevalent chemicals at all tested locations
• Breath concentrations reflected previous exposures
With respect to individual chemicals, four additional
observations were made:
• Cigarette smoke is the major source of exposure to
benzene and styrene; both were elevated in smokers'
breath by factors of 5 to 10 over nonsmokers. Cigarette
smoke was another source of elevated exposure to xylenes,
octane, and ethylbenzene
• Hot showers appear to be the major source of exposure to
chloroform
• Dry-cleaned clothes are the major source of exposure to
tetrachloroethylene
• Room air fresheners and moth crystals may be major
sources of exposure to para-dichlorobenzene
44
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Lebret et al. (1986) studied 134 homes in The Netherlands
using charcoal (rather than Tenax) and using only indoor (rather
than personal) samplers. About 45 chemicals were quantified,
compared to 20 in the TEAM study. There were two major findings
in the Lebret study:
• Indoor levels of all 45 chemicals exceeded outdoor levels
• Tobacco smoke and use of solvents were major sources of
elevated indoor pollutant concentrations.
Seven other studies of volatile organics in 10 or more homes
have been reported since 1979. Molhave et al. (1979) found
elevated levels of benzene and toluene in 39 Danish dwellings.
Jarke (1979) found more complex chromatograms and increased
concentrations of organics in 34 Chicago, IL, homes. Seifert and
Abraham (1982) reported that 15 homes in Berlin, West Germany,
displayed increased levels of toluene and xylene from printed
material (books, newspapers, etc.). The Halocarbon Study
(Pellizzari et al. 1983) has determined 12-hour integrated
exposures to 20 to 30 halogenated hydrocarbons in 150 households
in three U.S. cities.
De Bortoli et al. (1984) found that 32 of 32 organics had
indoor-outdoor ratios greater than 1 in northern Italian homes,
with six indoor-outdoor ratios greater than 10. Gammage et al.
(1986) detected gasoline vapors in 40 east Tennessee homes, most
with attached garages. Monteith (1984) found increased levels of
18 VOCs in 44 mobile homes in Texas.
Nine studies of more than 1,000 homes (Table 7) show
remarkable agreement on the following points:
• Essentially every one of the 40 or so organics studied
has higher levels indoors than outdoors
45
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TABLE 7
STUDIES OF VOLATILE ORGANICS IN HOMES
Location
California
Denmark
Germany
Illinois
Italy
Netherlands
New Jersey
No. Carolina
No. Dakota
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Tennessee
Texas
Date of
Study
1984
1979
1981-82
1979
1983
1981-82
1980
1981-1983
1979
1980
1982
1982
1986
1980-84
1986
1979
1983
No. of
Homes
192
39
15
34
14
134
9
352
6
3
25
25
1
3
8
11
44
Principal
Investigator
Pellizzari, Wallace
Molhave
Seifert
Jarke
De Bortoli
Lebret
Pellizzari
Wallace, Hartwell
Wallace
Pellizzari
Wallace
Wallace
Spicer
Davidson
Gammage
Wallace
Monteith
BLIS
Reference
211, 437
451
262
522
53
100
17
51, 76, 127,
136, 719
126
17
127
127
610
80
615
126
427
TOTAL
915
46
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• Sources are numerous, including building materials,
furnishings, dry-cleaned clothes, cigarettes, gasoline,
cleansers, moth crystals, hot showers, and printed
material.
• The range of concentrations is great, often two or more
orders of magnitude.
PESTICIDES
Interest in measuring pesticide exposure in indoor air is
relatively recent. Few studies on pesticides were conducted in
the 1970s. Perhaps the earliest published work is by Starr, et
al. , (1974), which describes measurements in Colorado and
concludes that household dust is a major reservoir for pesticides
in the environment. Wright and Jackson (1975) evaluated the
variance in pesticide residues, including after application using
air compressors and aerosol-type sprayers. They concluded that
pesticides move following aerosol application and that food con-
tamination after application was appreciable.
Wright et al. (1981, 1982, 1984) and Leidy (1982, 1984)
published a series of papers describing measurements following
application of pesticides in dormitories, food-serving areas,
buildings, service vehicles, and homes. In each case, measurable
amounts were detected in the air, on dust particles, on walls, on
articles in the rooms, etc., for as long as 35 days after
application.
Pellizzari et al. (1981), Wallace et al., (1983a, b),
Bromberg et al. (1984), Jurinski (1984), Ruh (1984), Gebifugi and
Korte (1984), Livingston ejt al. (1981), and Dobbs and Williams
(1983) also reported measurable pesticide exposures after
residential or commercial applications. In view of these
studies, it is not surprising that Melius et al. (1984) published
47
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a survey by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health of more than 200 buildings where office workers had com-
plained of poor indoor air quality. Wallace (1984) described the
"sick building syndrome" and possible solutions that architects
may use in designing buildings. Pesticides are undoubtedly a
major contributor to the sick building syndrome in many cases.
Exposure to biocides is also of concern. Van der Kolk (1984) and
Levin and Hahn (1986) reported on human exposure to wood preser-
vatives and concluded that good practices are not universal and
that little consideration has been given to occupants of treated
homes.
Increased attention is being paid to improving the metho-
dology for measuring pesticides in indoor air, largely because
agencies such as EPA are required to measure and monitor low
levels of pesticides in the indoor environment. Melcher et al.
(1978), Lewis et. al. (1982, 1986), Jackson and Lewis (1981), and
Riggin and Petersen (1985) identified methods for increasing
sampling sensitivity for a variety of chemicals. Air concentra-
tions of pesticides as low as 0.01 ug/m3 can now be measured with
sophisticated laboratory equipment. A portable exposure monitor
system is also considered desirable.
One currently accepted method for measuring low levels of
most pesticides is through absorption on polyurethane foam (Lewis
and MacLeod, 1982). After elution and concentration, the samples
are passed through gas chromatographs; upon elution, the samples
are measured with the appropriate detector (i.e., mass spectrome-
ter, flame ion detector, electron capture detector, nitrogen or
phosphorus detector). Some modern pesticides cannot be measured
with this methodology. For example, some synthetic pyrethroids
and carbamates may be thermally unstable, not absorbed, or not
separated sufficiently in a gas chromatograph.
48
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The major requirement for monitoring low pesticides ex-
posures is the ability to sample with the precision and accuracy
needed for regulatory purposes. While technology is available to
absorb, elute, and measure some of the pesticides now in use, no
field-tested, quantitatively valid method is available for
testing for many others. Such methods are needed, with known
precision and accuracy, to establish exposure measurement
guidelines based on field monitoring (i.e. , sampling and
analysis).
EPA's Non-Occupational Pesticide Exposure Study (NOPES),
which is the first attempt to develop a methodology for measuring
the exposures of the population to pesticides and seek to relate
these exposures to actual pesticide use patterns. NOPES applies
the TEAM approach to the problem of measuring pesticide ex-
posures: (1) a representative random sample of the population is
drawn and (2) exposures are measured through all relevant types
of exposure (personal air, food, drinking water, and skin). Food
exposures in NOPES will be estimated using food intake diaries
and market basket surveys; all other routes of exposure (skin,
air, and water) will be measured directly. This multi-season
study will measure exposures in two cities, using newly developed
personal monitors based on polyurethane foam techniques to obtain
24-hour data, both indoors and outdoors. NOPES will identify key
independent variables that explain the variability of pesticide
exposure within the sample population. The study design will
test hypotheses involving seasonal variations, person-to-person
variations, and home temporal variations. Many new findings are
expected regarding the levels of exposures of the general
population, and the causes.
RADON
In recent years, researchers have investigated sources of
indoor radon, monitoring devices, factors affecting indoor
49
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concentrations, behavior of radon daughters, and development of
control techniques.
Radon arises from trace concentrations of radium in the
earth's crust. The primary sources of indoor radon include soil
gas, building materials, and tap water. Nazaroff and Nero (1984)
suggest that the infiltration of soil gas directly into
single-family homes is the largest contributor to indoor radon
levels. They also indicate that key factors affecting radon
transport from soil are radon production in soil, flow-induction
mechanisms, soil permeability, and building substructure type.
However, Nero et al. (1985b) also notes that homes served by
private wells or small public systems with short storage times
stand a much greater chance of increased radon levels in tap
water. In large buildings (e.g.> apartments, offices), building
materials and outdoor air are the main sources of indoor radon.
Measuring indoor radon concentrations requires special
equipment. The two most popular, commercially available detec-
tors are the "charcoal canister" and the "alpha track detector."
Both are placed inside for a specified time and then sent to a
laboratory for analysis.
Several factors may exacerbate indoor radon levels.
Fleischer et al. (1982) found airtight homes to have three times
the radon levels of conventional homes. In addition, radon may
be introduced by modern construction methods. Moschandreas et
al. (1981) observed that in homes where radon levels were above
recommended health concentrations, increasing the mechanical
ventilation reduced those levels to within the recommended range.
Wyndham et al. (1978) studied the effects of normal home ventila-
tion methods on radon, radon progeny, and working levels and
found that decreases in radon corresponded to estimated increases
in house ventilation rates.
50
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Several recent advances have helped control indoor radon.
In particular, the pressure-driven flow of soil gas into houses
through their understructures can be controlled. Recent work has
focused on better use of barriers, sealants, and construction
techniques (Nazaroff and Nero et al. 1984). Other techniques,
which are designed to flush radon gas from the soils beneath
foundations, are also effective.
Indoor radon decreases with increased mechanical ventila-
tion. Hess et al. (1985) similarly found that homes with low
infiltration rates had average radon levels of 3.5 times that
found in drafty homes. Air-cleaning systems that use air
filtration or electrostatic precipitation have also been studied.
However, because their effect on the actual radon dose to the
lung is unclear, air-cleaning techniques are less desirable
control methods. Source reduction or increased ventilation are
better for reducing indoor concentrations (Nero, 1985a).
The human health effects from exposure to radon are current-
ly receiving significant attention. Inhaling radon decay
products results in an alpha dose to the critical cells of the
respiratory tract. This dose has been shown to produce lung
cancer in miners. The discovery of significant exposures to
indoor radon has led to estimating lifetime risk of lung cancer
per unit of exposure. Nero et al. (1986) note that available
data suggest that a 1.5 picocuries/liter (pCi/L) average con-
tributes about 0.3 percent to the lifetime risk of lung cancer
and that, in the million homes with highest radon levels, long
term occupants suffer an added lifetime risk greater than and or
equal to 2 percent. This latter value was derived from the
existing miner mortality studies through risk projection models.
At issue is whether the results from miner studies can be used to
estimate risks at somewhat lower exposure levels, different
population mixes, and settings. Lowder (1985) states that
current estimates of radon exposure to the general public and the
51
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consequent risk indicate that about 10 percent of nonsmoking-
related lung cancers may be produced by radon.
52
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35:113-116. (BLIS #719)
Wallace, L.A., Pellizzari, E.D., Hartwell, T.D., Sparacino, C. ,
and Zelon, H. (1983a) "Personal exposure to volatile organics
and other compounds indoors and outdoors—the TEAM study," U.S.
EPA, Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C. 20460
(35 pages). NTIS PB83-231357. (BLIS #018)
Wallace, L.A., Pellizzari, E.D., Hartwell, T.D., Sparacino, C.,
and Zelon, H. (June 1983b) "Personal exposure to volatile
organics and other compounds indoors and outdoors—the TEAM
study," Paper No. 83-9.12 presented at the 76th Annual Meeting of
66
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the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh,
PA 15230 (29 pages). (BLIS #051)
Wallace, Lance (Nov. 1984) "Do buildings make people sick?," U.S.
EPA, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC 20460 (11
pages). Not available from NTIS, this paper was presented at a
symposium of the American Institute for Architects. (BLIS #145)
Wallace, Lance A. (1981) "Recent progress in developing and
using personal monitors to measure human exposure to air pol-
lutants, " Environ. Int., 5:73-75. (BLIS #015)
Wallace, Lance A., and Ott, Wayne R. (1982) "Personal monitors:
a state-of-the-art survey," J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.,
32(6):601-610. (BLIS #016)
Wallace, Lance A., et al. (1984b) "Analysis of exhaled breath of
355 urban residents for volatile organic compounds," Berglund,
B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds. "Indoor air, vol. 4,
chemical characterization and personal exposure," Swedish Council
for Building Research, Stockholm, pp 15-20. NTIS PB85-104214.
(BLIS #438)
Wallace, Lance A., et al. (in press) "California TEAM study:
breath concentrations and personal exposures to 26 volatile
compounds in air and drinking water of 188 residents of Los
Angeles, Antioch, and Pittsburgh, California," Atmos. Environ.
(BLIS #437)
Wallace, Lance, et al. (1984a) "Personal exposure to volatile
organic compounds—1, direct measurements in breathing-zone air,
drinking water, food, and exhaled breath," Environ. Res.,
35:293-319. (BLIS #136)
Wang, J., Cao, S., Li, Z., Zhong, Y., and Li, S. (1985) "Human
exposure to carbon monoxide and suspended particulate matter in
Beijing, People's Rep. of China," PEP/85.11, World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (69 pages). (BLIS #206)
Wright, C.G., and Jackson, M.D., (Jan 1975) "Insecticide
residues in non-target areas of rooms after two methods of crack
and crevice application," Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.,
13(1):123-128. (BLIS #009)
Wright, C.G., and Leidy, R.B. (April 1984) "Insecticide residues
in the air of buildings and pest control vehicles," Bull.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 24(4):582-589. (BLIS #298)
Wright, C.G., and Leidy, R.B. (May 1982) "Chlordane and hep-
tachlor in homes treated for termites," Bull. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol., 28(5):617-623. (BLIS #295)
67
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Wright, C.G., Leidy, R.B., and Dupree, H.E. (April 1981) "Insec-
ticides in the ambient air of rooms following their application
for control of pests," Bull. Environ. Contain., Toxicol., 26 (-
4):5-48-553. (BLIS #297)
Wyndham, S.T., Savage, E.D., and Phillips, C.R. (1978). "The
effects of home ventilation systems on indoor radon - radon
daughter levels," U.S. EPA, Office of Radiation Programs,
Washington, DC 20460 (26 pages). NTIS PB-291925. (BLIS #504)
Yanagisawa, Yukio, and Nishimura, Hajime (1982) "A badge-type
personal sampler for measurement of personal exposure to N02 and
NO in ambient air," Environ. Int., 8:235-242. (BLIS #028)
Yanagisawa, Y., and Nishimura, H. (1981) "Development of badge
type sampler with oxidation filter for measurement of nitric
oxide in ambient air," Kagaku Kogaku Ronbunshu 7:643-650.
Yocom, John E., et al. (1982) "Indoor-outdoor air quality
relationships: a critical review." J. Air Pollut. Control
Assoc., 32:904-920. (BLIS #434)
Ziskind, R.A., Rogozen, M.B., Carlin, T., and Drago, R. (1981)
"Carbon monoxide intrusion into sustained-use vehicles," Environ.
Int. 5:109-123. (BLIS #333)
Ziskind, Richard A., Fite, Kenneth, and Mage, David T. (1982)
"Pilot field study: carbon monoxide exposure monitoring in the
general population," Environ. Int., 8:283-293. (BLIS #030)
68
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APPENDIX
Bibliographic Literature Information Systems (BLIS)
an Alphabetical Listing of 788 Abstracts to
February 1987
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DATE: 08-24-1987 TIME: 14:28:41
*********************************
* *
* BIBLIOGRAPHIC LITERATURE INFORMATION SYSTEM (BLIS) *
* *
*********************************
0733
Abu-Jarad, F., Sithamparanadarajah, R., Thompson, J.M. , and
Fremlin, J.H. (1982) "Comparisons of various techniques for
measuring natural ventilation in rooms", Phys. Med. Biol.,
27(11):1393-1400.
KEYWORD: ventilation, monitor, temperature, laboratory, foreign,
freon, halocarbon, methodology, Britain
Various tracer gases were released into a room and the rate of
decrease of their concentrations was used as a measure of the
natural ventilation rate. Three instruments—automated gas
chromatograph, gas sensor (for combustible gas), and Geiger-
Muller counter—gave similar results. Complete mixing of all the
tracers with room air required at least 20 minutes. The
organohalogenated gases affected the results of the gas sensor
because they were strongly adsorbed on its detector surface.
Despite stratification of both tracer gas concentration and air
temperature, the natural ventilation rate was not significantly
affected.
0735
Abu-Jarad, F., Wilson, C.K., and Fremlin, J.H. (1981) "The
registration of the alpha-particles from polonium isotopes
plated-out on the surface of the plastic detectors LR-115 and CR-
39", Nucl. Tracks, 5(3):285-290.
KEYWORD: radon, laboratory,methodology,radiation,design, monitor,
track-etching, foreign, Britain
LR-115 and CR-39 plastic detectors were used in a laboratory
setting to measure the plate-out of radon daughters (SPo-218 and
2Po-214) on their surfaces. Measurements were made by coating
both detector surfaces with fresh CR-39 after completing their
initial exposure to radon activity. The plated-out daughters
continued to decay for about 4 hours after completing exposure
and this was recorded by the CR-39 coating. Two different
experiments were used to study plate-out desiccator and fan
experiment. The effect of the plate-out increased the number of
tracks on CR-39 while not affecting the LR-115, since LR-115
cannot record alpha-particles with the full emission energy.
-------
Plate-out can cause over-estimation of radon concentration by
several times when using CR-39.
0008
Abu-Jarad, F., and Al-Jarallah, M.I. (1986) "Radon in Saudi
homes", Radiat. Prot. Dosim, 14(3):243-249.
KEYWORD: field, home,activity,outdoor,ventilation,weather,source,
QA, methodology, exposure, radon, foreign, Saudi Arabia
In a survey of 400 houses in Saudi Arabia, 637 passive dosimeters
measured radon concentrations from 0.13 to 0.98 picoCuries/Liter
(pC/L) with a mean of 0.43 pC/L. Concentrations in unoccupied
houses in the same area were twice as high. The radon daughter
concentration measured in 17 unoccupied houses with a Working
Level (WL) monitor ranged from 0.00135 to 0.024 WL with a mean of
0.0069 WL. The average exhalation rate measured in 37 houses by
95 passive detectors in cans sealed to the walls averaged 0.56
pC/square meter/hour. This survey, the first of its kind in
Saudi Arabia, a hot climate, is compared to similar studies in
cold climates.
0158
Abu-Jarad, F., and Fremlin, J.H. (1982) "The activity of radon
daughters in high-rise buildings and the influence of soil
emanation", Environ. Int., 8(1-6):37-43.
KEYWORD: radon, field, exposure, source, ventilation, foreign,
Britain
Concentrations of radon daughters were measured in similar rooms
in two high-rise buildings in Birmingham, England. The
geometrical means for 40 measurements, including the basement
results, were 0.90 milli Working Levels (mWL) and 1.00 mWL
excluding basement results. Both were less than the mean of 2.0
mWL for 65 measurements in typical houses in the same city. The
frequency distribution of these measurements was lognormal. The
concentrations did not depend on the distance from ground level
but may have depended on the ventilation rate of the room
examined. The concentration of radon daughters in rooms above
the first floor in the two high-rise buildings tended to vary
inversely with the rooms' ventilation rates.
0734
Abu-Jarad, F. (1982) "Variation in long-term radon and daughters
concentration with position inside a room", Radiat. Prot.
Dosim., 3(4):227-231.
-------
KEYWORD: monitor,radon,radiation,field,home,ventilation,exposure,
track-etching, foreign, freon, Britain, halocarbon
Bare plastic nuclear track detectors were used in similar
conditions to record alpha-particles from radon and its daughters
in more than 100 U.K. houses. The LR-115 was more convenient
than the CR-39 because of its energy-discriminating properties.
The long-term radon and daughter concentration in air varied when
both types of detectors were placed at different positions in the
same room. Concentration of tracer gases at different positions
in a room also varied, as observed by measuring ventilation using
gas chromotography. The significance of these variations for
exposure assessment is discussed.
0751
Abu-Jarad, F., and Fremlin, J.H. (1982) "The effect of a fan in
reducing the concentration of the radon daughters inside a room
by plate-out to the surface of the wall using plastic alpha-
detectors", Health Phys. 41(l):82-85.
KEYWORD: foreign,Saudi Arabia,radon,laboratory,particulate,smoke,
monitor,track-etching,ventilation,design,radium,humidity,control
Solid nuclear track detectors (CR-39) were used to study the
turbulence effect in a room contaminated by a radium compound (5
picoCurie/Liter). After 143 days, the detectors showed 10
tracks/cm2/hr. To study the effect of running an air-mixing fan,
several plastics were attached to the front and back of fan
blades and again to the walls. The number of tracks measured on
the wall detectors increased when the fans were used. The ratio
between tracks on the front fan blades to those on the wall
ranged from 8 to 15. The front of the fan blades usually
collected more radon daughters than the backs, except for when
smoke was released into the room. In this case, the smoke
particles stuck to the back edges of the blades, and the activity
was higher on the detectors on the backs of the fan blades. This
suggests that the radon daughters were attached to the smoke
particles. The authors conclude that the use of the fan
increases the plate-out of radon daughters on the walls, thus
possibly reducing the airbourne level. It was not clear,
however, if plate-out of radon daughters on the walls would be
the same as plate-out on the detectors.
0731
Abu-Jarad, F., and Fremlin, J.H. (1983) "Effect of internal wall
covers on radon emanation inside houses", Health Phys.
44(3):243-248.
KEYWORD: control,monitor,track-etching, laboratory, architecture,
radon, foreign, Britain
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Most types of paint for the internal walls of houses reduce radon
emanation from building materials. At the same time, paint
increases the concentration of radon inside the material itself
and the radon emanation from unpainted areas. One type of
wallpaper used contains 6 ppm uranium in its decorated surfaces,
and 0.3 ppm in undecorated surfaces; the coloring is the main
source of uranium. Other wallpapers appear to be free from
uranium. Wallpaper, gypsum, and plaster may increase the radon
activity inside houses depending on their radium contents.
0736
Abu-Jarad, F., and Fremlin, J.H. (1983) "The indoor concentration
of radon daughters in three different areas of the U.K.", Health
Phys., 44(5):479-485.
KEYWORD: radon, foreign, monitor, track-etching, field,radiation,
home, ventilation, design, seasonal, Britain
The concentrations of radon daughters were measured in 86 rooms
in three areas in the United Kingdom. The geometrical means of
the concentrations were Birmingham, 2.0 milliWL; Aberdeen, 6.7
milliWL; and mainland Orkneys, 2.5 milliWL. In many cases, the
ground beneath the houses was an important source of radon; with
good subfloor ventilation, the ground contribution was not
important.
0730
Abu-Jarad, Falah, and Fremlin, J.H. (1984) "Seasonal variation of
radon concentration in dwellings", Health Phys., 46(5):1126-1129.
KEYWORD: exposure,radon, track-etching, monitor,dose,field, home,
microenvironment, foreign, Britain, seasonal, architecture
Long-term studies in 104 homes in Birmingham and London, England,
sought to measure seasonal variation in radon and radon-daughter
concentrations. The houses varied in structure and building
materials. Of special interest was a comparison between inner
walls made of plaster board and those made of thermalite blocks,
which contain fly-ash from coal power stations. (The average
concentration of uranium in British coal is 1.5 ppm.) Track-
etching detectors were placed in the homes, primarily on lower
floors. Average concentrations were lowest in summer and highest
in winter, with average spring concentrations nearly equal to the
average between summer and winter. Average concentrations were
lower than those in the United States and Sweden. Levels in the
London houses with thermalite blocks were similar to those in the
other common structures in Birmingham with plaster board.
-------
0392
Ackers, J.G. (1985) "A comparison of calculated indoor radiation
exposure with the results of experiments", Sci. Total Environ.,
45:245-250.
KEYWORD: radon, radiation, model, home, exposure, dose
A model has been developed for calculating external and internal
radiation exposure in dwellings. The model consists of two
adjacent rooms on top of a crawlspace. The indoor gamma ray
exposure rates and radon concentrations in indoor air, predicted
for a variety of conditions, are compared with observations.
Predictions and observations are in reasonable agreement; for the
radon concentration, the predictions may be about 40% too low.
0147
Akland, G., Hartwell, T., Zelon, H., and Rosenweig, M. (Aug.
1982) "Study of carbon monoxide exposure of residents of
Washington, D.C. and Denver, Colorado", OMB Submission Package,
U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711 (115 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: CO,personal,exposure,statistical, method,economic,field,
sample, design, methodology, EPA$
EPA submitted this document to the Office of Management and
Budget as a requirement for approval to conduct a survey of
personal CO exposure of residents in Washington, DC, and Denver,
CO. It describes the importance of exposure data in determining
health risks and the value of monitoring CO. Survey design,
sample design and selection, field activities, data collection
instruments, statistical methods, supporting statements, and the
project budget are thoroughly explained.
0142
Akland, Gerald G. (May 1983) "Carbon monoxide exposures in
Washington, D.C. and Denver, CO during the winter of 1982-3", in
"Proceedings: National symposium on recent advances in pollutant
monitoring of ambient air and stationary sources", EPA 600/9-84-
001, U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, pp. 220-233. Not available
from NTIS.
KEYWORD: CO, biomonitoring, personal, exposure, monitor,sampling,
methodology, microenvironment, EPA$, risk
Personal Exposure Monitors (PEMs) were used to measure CO in
Washington, DC, and Denver, CO, during the winter of 1982-83.
-------
The primary objective was to validate a methodology for measuring
the distribution of CO exposures in a representative sample of an
urban population so that the risk to the entire population can be
estimated. The methodology for selecting the participants and
measuring of CO is presented. Preliminary results indicate that
the median CO value in Washington was 6 ppm, with 1% of the
values exceeding 35 ppm. For Denver, the median value was 8 ppm,
with 3.5% of the values exceeding 35 ppm. After further
statistical analysis, the exposure data will be contrasted to
estimates from fixed monitors, and an exposure profile determined
for each city.
0321
Akland, G.G., Hartwell, T.D., Johnson, T.R., and Whitmore, R.W.
(1985) "Measuring human exposure to carbon monoxide in
Washington, D.C., and Denver, Colorado, during the winter of
1982-1983", Environ. Sci. Technol., 19(10):911-918.
KEYWORD: CO, personal,exposure, monitor, demographic,statistical,
field, EPA$, microenvironment, source, distribution
A methodology for measuring the frequency distribution of CO
exposure in a representative sample of an urban population has
been developed and applied in two urban areas — Washington, DC,
and Denver, CO — during the winter of 1982-83. Exposure data
using personal exposure monitors (PEMs) were collected, together
with activity data from a stratified probability sample of
residents living in each of the two urban areas. Well
established survey sampling procedures were used for selecting
participants. The resulting exposure data permit estimates of CO
exposure for the eligible populations of the two areas, as well
as statistical comparisons between population subgroups (e.g.,
commuters vs. noncommuters and residents with and without gas
stoves). During the study period, more than 10% of the residents
in Denver and 4% of the Washington area residents were exposed to
CO levels higher than 9 ppm for 8 hours (the National Ambient Air
Quality Air Standard). The data also provided evidence for
judging the accuracy of exposure estimates calculated from fixed-
site monitoring data.
0316
Akland, Gerald, Johnson, Ted, and Hartwell, Tyler (1984) "Results
of the carbon monoxide study in Washington, D.C. and Denver,
Colorado, in the winter of 1982-83", U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
(7 pages). NTIS PB84-230069.
KEYWORD: CO, personal, exposure, monitor,EPA$,distribution,field,
statistical, microenvironment, methodology
-------
CO exposure of residents of the Washington, DC, and Denver, CO,
areas was studied in the winter of 1982-83. The exposure
distributions were determined by direct measurement of CO with
personal exposure monitors (PEMs) through the use of statistical
inference from a statistically drawn sample. The population of
inference for the study was nonsmoking, noninstitutionalized
adults (ages 18 to 70). Each sampled individual carried a PEM
for 24 hours on one pre-scheduled day in Washington, and two
consecutive days in Denver. The exposure distributions from each
study area are contrasted, and factors pertaining to high
exposure are discussed.
0225
Alfheim, Ingrid, and Ramdahl, Thomas (1984) "Contribution of wood
combustion to indoor air pollution as measured by mutagenicity in
Salmonella and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentration",
Environ. Mutagen., 6(2):121-130.
KEYWORD: particulate, wood, smoke, source, smoking, health, PAH,
combustion
Samples of airborne particles were collected in the same room
when heated by both electricity and then wood burning. The
mutagenic activity and concentration of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH) of these samples were compared. The effects
of the heat sources were examined in the presence and absence of
tobacco smoke. Burning wood in an "airtight" stove caused only
minor changes in the concentration of PAH and no measurable
increase of mutagenic activity of the indoor air, but both
increased considerably when wood was burned in an open fireplace.
However, the effects on the mutagenic activity of indoor air from
wood burning in an open fireplace could still be considered
moderate when compared to the effects of tobacco smoke in the
room, as measured in the Salmonella assay with strain TA98 with
metabolic activation.
0533
Alpen, Edward L. (1978) "Magnetic field exposure guidelines",
Proceedings of the biomagnetic effects workshop, April 6-7, 1978,
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley,
CA 94720, pp. 19-26. NTIS LBL 7452.
KEYWORD: exposure, regulation, magnetic,health, research,outdoor,
energy, literature
The need to establish magnetic field exposure guidelines in the
reasonably near future is discussed, as well as the particular
purposes for which such guidelines might be suitable. Included
-------
are recommended limits that can be used as guidelines or criteria
for working environments in magnetic fields. The U.S.
Department of Energy ad hoc committee was given the task of
establishing guidelines for DC fields, DC field gradients, and AC
fields. After interviewing people involved in new technologies
that generate large magnetic fields, the committee determined
that there was no significant need or reason to establish
guidelines for AC fields in the immediate future. The principal
problem is to work on exposure guidelines for DC fields, pulsed
DC fields, and possibly DC gradients.
0083
Amemdale, Alfred A., and Hanes, N.B. (Aug. 1984)
"Characterization of indoor carbon monoxide levels produced by
the automobile", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J.,
Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal
exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
97-102. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: CO, temperature,microenvironment,source, NIOSH,gasoline,
weather, OSHA
Integrated air samples were obtained at seven small and six large
service stations and two automobile dealerships. These
establishments were sampled during cold and warm weather for 8
hours during each visit, and time-weighted average CO
concentrations were determined. Warm weather observations did
not exceed the standard of the U.S. Occupational Safety and
Health Administration or the standard recommended by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cold weather
observations, however, exceeded these levels 36% and 64% of the
time, respectively. Cold and warm weather CO concentrations
differed significantly at the 99.99% level of probability, with
values ranging from 2.2 to 21.6 ppm in warm weather. CO
concentrations differed significantly at the 99.99% level of
probability by establishment size, with dealerships having the
highest levels, small service stations having the intermediate
levels, and large service stations having the lowest levels.
0696
Andelman, Julian B. (1985) "Human exposures to volatile
halogenated organic chemicals in indoor and outdoor air",
Environ. Health Perspect., 62:313-318.
KEYWORD: radon, model, trichloroethylene, laboratory, halocarbon,
outdoor, VOC, shower, water
Volatile halogenated organic chemicals are found in indoor and
outdoor air, often at concentrations substantially above those in
-------
remote unpopulated areas. Outdoor ambient concentrations vary
considerably among sampling stations throughout the United
States, as well as diurnally and daily. The vapor pressures and
air-water equilibrium (Henry's Law) constants of these chemicals
influence considerably the likely relative human exposures for
the air and water routes. Volatilization of organic chemicals
and radon from indoor water use can be a substantial source of
exposure. Air concentrations of trichloroethylene (TCE) in
showers using TCE-contaminated ground water increased with time
to as high as one-third of the occupational threshold limit
values. Such volatilization and subsequent decay of TCE in air
also were demonstrated in a scaled-down experimental shower.
Using a simplified indoor air model and assuming complete
volatilization from a full range of typical water uses within the
home, calculations indicated that the expected inhalation
exposures can be substantially higher than those from ingestion
of these chemicals in drinking water. Although the regulation of
toxic chemicals in potable water has focused traditionally on
direct ingestion, the volatilization and inhalation from other
much-greater indoor uses of water should be considered as well.
0720
Andelman, Julian B., Meyers, Steven M., and Wilder, Lynn C.
(1986) "Volatilization of organic chemicals from indoor uses of
water", Lester, J.N., Perry, R., and Sterrit, R.M., Eds.,
"Chemicals in the environment", Selper Ltd., London, UK, pp. 323-
330.
KEYWORD: aerosol, exposure,laboratory, model, indoor, CHC13, VOC,
trichloroethylene, water, halocarbon, shower
In a model laboratory bath-shower system, volatization of
choloform and trichloroethylene was found to be typically greater
than 50%, but less than would be predicted from Henry's Law
equilibrium. Mass transfer at the air-water interface limited
volatilization. Indoor air models can predict inhalation
exposures resulting from such water uses. Inhalation exposures
to toxic chemicals volatizing from all indoor water uses have the
potential to be larger than those from direct ingestion.
0074
Andelman, Julian B. (1985) "Inhalation exposure in the home to
volatile organic contaminants of drinking water", Sci. Total
Environ., 47:443-460.
KEYWORD: VOC, trichloroethylene,laboratory, water,EPA$, exposure,
source, shower
Indoor air concentrations of volatilized trichloroethylene (TCE)
-------
can be substantial when TCE-contaminated water is used
domestically. Using a model shower, increases in TCE water
concentrations, water temperature, and drop path (time) increased
the steady-state air TCE concentrations. Volatilization was
incomplete, and the rates were comparable to those predicted.
Indoor air models show that the potential for inhalation exposure
to such chemicals is much greater than that of direct ingestion.
This should be considered in developing regulations to limit
adverse health impacts from contaminants of potable water.
0579
Andelman, Julian B., Couch, Amy, and Thurston, William W. (1986)
"Inhalation exposures in indoor air to trichloroethylene from
shower water", Kopfler, F. and Craun, G., Eds., "Environmental
epidemiology", Lewis Publishers, Inc. P.O. Drawer 519, Chelsea,
MI 48118, pp. 201-213.
KEYWORD: aerosol, exposure, laboratory, model, shower, solvent,
trichloroethylene, water
In a laboratory bath-shower system, 43-67% of the
trichloroethylene (TCE) present at room temperature volatilized,
substantially less than would be predicted from Henry's law of
equilibrium (91%). Mass transfer at the air-water interface
limited volatilization. Indoor air models can predict inhalation
exposures resulting from shower water. TCE in air increased
approximately linearly with time during the first 5 to 15 minutes
(the approximate time of actual domestic use). Consequently,
total exposure increases exponentially, suggesting that limiting
shower time can substantially reduce the user's inhalation
exposure. Other calculations indicate that inhalation exposures
to TCE volatizing from all indoor water uses have the potential
to be larger than those from direct ingestion.
0483
Andersen, I., Lundquist, G.R., and Molhave, L. (1975) "Indoor air
pollution due to chipboard used as a construction material",
Atmos. Environ., 9:1121-1127.
KEYWORD: humidity, monitoring, CH20, model, foreign, source,home,
laboratory, temperature, ventilation, architecture, Denmark
Chipboard (particle board) is a common building construction
material made of wood shavings held together with a urea-
formaldehyde glue. The result is that formaldehyde continuously
emanates from the chipboard. In 25 rooms in 23 Danish dwellings
where chipboard was used in walls, floors, and ceilings, the
average formaldehyde concentration was 0.62 mg/m3 (ranging from
0.08 to 2.24), exceeding the West German threshold limit for
10
-------
occupational exposure (1.2 mg m/3). In all rooms, the
concentration exceeded the German limit for continuous exposure
in outdoor air (0.03 mg m/3). In climate chamber experiments,
the equilibrium concentration of formaldehyde from chipboard was
directly proportional to temperature and water vapor
concentration in the air. Formaldehyde concentrations decreased
sharply as ventilation rates increased. A mathematical model was
established for the room air concentration of formaldehyde.
0157
Andersen, I., Seedorff, L., and Skov, A. (1982) "A strategy for
reduction of toxic indoor emissions", Environ. Int., 8(1-6):11-
16.
KEYWORD: asbestos,polyurethane, source,carcinogen, irritant,odor,
control, method, regulation, foreign, Demark, architecture
To reduce the exposure of the population to the major groups of
toxic indoor pollutants, a strategy is outlined for reducing the
emission of carcinogenic substances, eye-airway irritants, and
odors from building materials. It is the experience of the
Danish National Inventory of Toxic Substances and Products that
preventive measures in the form of either a complete removal of a
substance or replacement of a toxic substance by a less-toxic
substance are possible. Since 1975, asbestos has been banned in
Denmark for insulation purposes, and the substitution of other
materials has caused no serious technical problems. Since 1978,
labeling of epoxy and polyurethane products has been mandatory in
Denmark. Based on an analysis of information on the labels of
these products, the authors conclude that labeling makes it
possible for the consumer to select the products with the least
impact on human health and comfort and, consequently, with the
lowest need for ventilation. These toxicological principles
should be used for the improvement of existing and future
building materials.
0138
Anderson, E., Browne, N., Duletsky, S., Ramig, J., and Warn, T.
(April 1985) "Development of statistical distributions of ranges
of standard factors used in exposure assessments", U.S. EPA,
Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC 20460 (184
pages). NTIS PB85-242667/REB.
KEYWORD: body, weight, skin, surface, activity, pattern, model,
lung, ventilation, rate, exposure, statistical, analysis, EPA$
To support EPA's Exposure Assessment Guidelines, statistical
distributions or ranges of values were developed for body weight,
skin surface area, and lung ventilation rates. Percentile
11
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distributions of body weight were computed from the Second
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES II) data
base by variance estimation of multistage sample data using the
jack-knife repeated replicate approach. Distributions of skin
surface areas were similarly calculated from NHANES II height and
weight data by applying regression equations that were either in
the literature or were developed by multivariate analysis of
available measurements. Insufficient data precluded the
development of distributions of ventilation rates. Instead,
minimum, maximum, and mean ventilation rates at three activity
levels were calculated from available measurements. Activity
pattern information is presented to permit calculation of time-
weighted average pulmonary ventilation rates.
0453
Angle, C.L., Marcus, A., Cheng, I., and Mclntyre, M.S.
"Omaha childhood blood lead and environmental lead: a
total exposure model", Environ. Res., 35:160-170.
(1984)
linear
KEYWORD: Pb, biomonitoring, exposure, model, water, particulate,
food, TEAM, statistical, children, soil
The majority of experimental and population studies of blood lead
(PbB) and environmental Pb, including the Omaha, NE, study, have
used the Goldsmith-Hexter log-log or power function model.
Researchers compared the log-log model and a linear model of
total exposure to describe the Omaha Study of 1,074 PbBs from
children, aged 1-18, years as related to Pb in air (PbA), soil
(PbS), and housedust (PbHD). The data fit of the linear model
was statistically equivalent to the power model, and the
predicted curves were biologically more plausible. The linear
model avoids the mathematical limitations of the power model,
which predicts PbB zero at PbA zero. From the Omaha data, the
linear model predicts that PbB increases 1.92 microgram/deciliter
(ug/dl) as PbA increases 1.0 ug/m3. Because PbS and PhHD
increase with PbA, however, the increases in total exposure
predict a PbB increase of 4 to 5 ug/dl as PbA increases 1.0
ug/m3.
0210
Anonymous (April 28, 1986) "Concern over radon in homes triggers
plan for national survey", Chem. Eng. News, pp. 19-20.
KEYWORD: radon, particulate, health, field, literature, QA, risk,
assessment, methodology, exposure, EPA$
Increasing knowledge and concern over the lung cancer risk from
radon exposure has prompted EPA to plan a national survey "to
define the scope and magnitude of radon exposure". A small pilot
12
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study will be completed in the fall of 1986, and the main survey
will begin in 1987. Highlights of the survey methodology include
radon detection by track-etching, geological source prediction,
and data quality assurance. This article also summarizes recent
radon research findings concerning sources, radon and particle or
surface interactions, and risk assessment.
0242
Anonymous - Energy Data Base Citations (Oct. 1985) "Indoor Air
Pollution, November, 1984 - October, 1985", (240 pages). NTIS
PB85-876820.
KEYWORD: source, radon, NO2, asbestos, CH2O, energy, particulate,
CO, ventilation, literature, combustion
This bibliography contains citations concerning the types and
sources of indoor air pollution, the impact of energy-efficient
construction, and measures to relieve the problem. Radon and
radon daughters, CO, NO2, asbestos, formaldehyde, and
particulates are discussed as potential pollutants. Recirculated
air, insulation material, water, and natural gas are considered
potential sources of pollution. Mechanical ventilation systems
with air-to-air exchangers are briefly discussed.
0529
Anonymous, (1982) "National symposium on recent advances in
pollutant monitoring of ambient air and stationary sources", held
at Raleigh, NC, May 4-7, 1982, U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring
Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (379 pages).
NTIS PB84-148345.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure, organic, particulate, sampling, VOC,
methodology, monitoring, multipollutant, EPA$
The second national symposium to explore recent developments that
may improve the state-of-the-art for monitoring techniques was
presented by the U.S. EPA's Environmental Monitoring Systems
Laboratory, May 4-7, 1982, in Raleigh, NC. This symposium is
part of a continuing effort to explore recent advances in
pollutant monitoring of ambient air and stationary sources.
Approximately 300 engineers and scientists from industry,
academia, and control agencies attended the meeting. The
symposium served as a forum for exchange of ideas and
information. The presentations addressed both emission
monitoring and ambient air monitoring and included presentations
on gaseous organics, particulate pollutants, and personal
monitoring. Also presented were findings relative to sampling
and analytical methods as well as to a broad spectrum of organic
chemicals in outdoor and indoor air. This publication is
13
-------
intended for those interested in air monitoring and who were
unable to attend the symposium. This report includes only those
papers submitted voluntarily by speakers. An agenda is included
listing all the speakers who participated in the symposium.
0513
Anonymous, (1984) "Formaldehyde levels in mobile homes", U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development, Washington, DC 20410
(40 pages). NTIS PB85-126571.
KEYWORD: CH20, temperature, control, home, ventilation, field,
exposure
A series of experiments tested the effectiveness of various
methods for reducing formaldehyde concentrations in a mobile
home. The methods used were (1) normal furnace operation under
thermostatic control, (2) continuous furnace blower operation,
(3) continuous operation of the kitchen exhaust fan, and (4) use
of a furnace-modification kit that introduced fresh air from the
ceiling plenum (which is vented to the outside) to the blower
intake. Identical tests were performed with two types of
furnaces. These furnace-modification kits reduced formaldehyde
to background levels within 4 hours or less on both types of
furnaces. Both furnaces produced essentially similar levels in
the mobile home tested with or without their modifications.
0222
Anonymous. (1984) "Indoor air and human health: major indoor air
pollutants and their health implications", Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831 (45 pages). NTIS DE85
001081/XAB.
KEYWORD: literature, health, radon, smoking, combustion, organic,
microorganism
This publication is a collection of abstracts of papers presented
at the Indoor Air and Human Health symposium. Session titles
include: radon, microorganisms, passive cigarette smoke,
combustion products, organics, and panel and audience discussion.
0757
Aurand, K., Drews, M., Seifert, B. (1983) "A passive sampler for
the determination of the heavy metal burden of indoor
environments", Environ. Technol. Lett., 4:433-440.
KEYWORD: monitor, Pb, Cd, activity, field, laboratory, home, QA,
sampling, exposure, outdoor, foreign, West Germany
14
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A polystyrene cup filled with 120 ml of water served as a simple
and inexpenive passive sampler for heavy metals in the indoor
environment. The sampler's data quality potential was evaluated
using Pb and Cd. After exposure for 2 weeks the cups were sealed
with polyethylene lids and analyzed by atomic adsorption
spectrometry. First results of two surveys in homes in two areas
of differing ambient levels show that the sampler is effective
for large scale screening studies and for comprehensive studies
of individual homes. The sampler's precision is good enough to
detect variations in ambient conditions, ventilation rates, and
residents' activities.
0750
Aurand, K., Seifert B., and Wegner, J., Eds. (1982) "Luftqualitat
in innenraumen", Herstellung: Westkreuz-Druckerei Berlin/Bonn,
1000 Berlin 49 (450 pages).
KEYWORD: foreign, exposure, literature, risk, source, health,
multipollutant, combustion, regulation, West Germany
On October 1 and 2, 1981, a symposium on "Indoor Air Quality" was
organized by the Institute for Water, Soil and Air Hygiene of the
Federal Health Office, Federal Republic of Germany. The aim of
the symposium was to give an overview of the present knowledge
about the quality and quantity of substances in the indoor
environment. The emissions of pollutants by people and by
various other sources (e.g. building materials, gas appliances,
paints, and household products) were discussed, as were the
problems of biological contaminants, of setting health standards
for indoor air, and of the evaluation of results as they relate
to human health. The present volume contains the papers
presented at the symposium (some of which have been greatly
enlarged by the authors for publication), as well as discussions
among a number of the 250 participants. Many of these papers are
cited individually in BLIS.
0432
Bach, W., and Lennon, K. (1972) "Air pollution and health at Ala
Moana shopping center in Honolulu", Hawaii Med. J., 31:104-113.
KEYWORD: CO, particulate, source,field,vehicle, health, exposure,
aerosol, biomonitoring
In November 1970, CO suspended particulate matter was measured at
the Ala Moana Shopping Center in Honolulu, HI. During the
evening peak shopping hours, automobile exhausts raised the
pollution level to 47 ppm of CO and 280 ug/m3 of suspended
particulates. These values are equivalent to polluted mainland
city conditions. The symptoms of increased levels of
15
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carboxyhemoglobin in the blood in different groups of people and
the potential adverse health effects are discussed. The toxic
effects of aerosol inhalation, which may lead to pneumoconiosis
are presented. Ways are suggested for avoiding excessive
exposure to harmful substances.
0722
Baretta, E.D., Stewart, R.D., Graff, S.A., and Donahoo, K.K.
(1978) "Methods developed for the mass sampling analysis of CO
and carboxyhemoglobin in man", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 59:202-
209.
KEYWORD: CO, biomonitoring, statistical, dose, exposure, design,
methodology, laboratory
Gas chromatography was used to measure CO in air and also as an
indirect means of determining the percent of carboxy hemoglobin
(COHb) in blood. The blood was then used to calibrate four CO-
Oximeters used in a survey of average COHb levels in various
segments of the U.S. population. Mean differences, both between
the two methods of analysis and between pairs of CO-Oximeters,
were less than 0.1% COHb saturation. COHb values obtained on
consecutive days using one CO-Oximeter were repeatable within a
standard deviation plus or minus 0.13% COHb.
0590
Bates, David V. (1985) "Combustion products: overview", Gammage,
R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds. "Indoor air and human
health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O. Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI
48118, pp. 259-260.
KEYWORD: NOx, NO2, demographic, health, epidemiology, literature,
combustion, children, lung
Much evidence suggests that children may have an increased
incidence of respiratory infections if they are exposed to NOx in
the home. This paper is designed to (1) explore the strengths of
that epidemiological data, (2) answer the question of whether the
consequences of NOx on pulmonary function are irreversible, (3)
explore mechanisms whereby NOx may predispose one to infections,
(4) relate experimental exposure data to probable levels in the
home, and (5) illustrate what is known about the irreversibility
of bronchiolitis, both experimental and clinical.
0597
Bates, David V. (1985) "Indoor air and human health—summary and
conclusions", Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds.,
"Indoor air and human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O.
16
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Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 417-421.
KEYWORD: personal,exposure,health, methodology, research, source,
literature, epidemiology, mUltipollutant, monitoring
The body of knowledge about indoor air pollution and human health
is now large enough for synthesis of the available data.
Generally, chronic low-level exposures and their effects are
being studied. Sorting out the analytical problems, chemical
interferences, synergisms, and confounding socioeconomic and
medical problems will take many years of careful and frustrating
work. Strict proof of health effects caused by many of the
pollutants is a distant goal. However, for some problems,
solutions are already apparent. For example, radon exposure can
be prevented architecturally and preventing cigarette smoke
exposure requires modification of human behavior.
0393
Battaglia, A., Bazzano, E. , and Bonfanti, G. (1985) "Indoor dose
in Milano (Italy)", Sci. Total Environ., 45:365-371.
KEYWORD: radon, radiation, home, exposure, dose, foreign, source,
Italy, architecture
This work, which is related to the problem of more carefully
evaluating population exposure to natural radiation, was part of
the assessment of indoor exposure in Italy. A large number of
studies have shown that different building materials and
techniques lead to different exposures. In Milano, the materials
can be different in kind (bricks, concrete, gypsum by-products,
tile-stone, paving-tile, etc.) and origin (national and foreign).
For this reason, investigations in Milano complement
investigations in other European countries. A large number of
dwellings in Milano were investigated to evaluate the external
gamma ray exposure rate; indoor radon concentrations were
measured in some dwellings.
0608
Bayer, Charlene W., and Black, Marilyn S. (1986) "Passive
smoking: survey analysis of office smoking areas versus climatic
chamber studies", Hochheiser, S., and Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds.,
"Proceedings of the 1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the measurement of
toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711,
pp. 25-35. Not yet available from NTIS. (In press, Air Pollution
Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230.)
KEYWORD: smoking, exposure, field, laboratory, nicotine, source,
VOC, metal, sampling, office, halocarbon, hydrocarbon
17
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The extent of involuntary exposure to environmental tobacco smoke
(ETS) is difficult to establish due to several factors including
the complexity and variability of ETS composition, and the
similarity of its constituents to those emitted from other
sources of airborne contaminants. To investigate these factors,
the smoking areas of several office buildings were investigated
for the presence of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that could
be related only to ETS. No attempts were made to measure the
amounts of ETS or relate the findings to other building factors.
Tenax and Porapak Q were used to collect samples, with subsequent
analysis by thermal desorption/gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry. Nicotine was collected on cold Petri dishes and
analyzed by gas chromatography with thermionic nitrogen-
phosphorus detection. Inductively coupled plasma spectrometry
was used to identify metals in the particulate portion. The
compounds detected in the buildings were compared with those
identified from sidestream cigarette smoke. The VOCs detected in
the offices were similar and included 1,1,1-trichloroethane,
toluene, xylenes, and hydrocarbons. In several smokers' offices,
ppt levels of nitrogen compounds were detected that are not
common to the indoor atmosphere but have been identified in
cigarette smoke. These include: pyrrolidine, 2-methyl-lH-
pyrrole, and 2-methylpropyl cyanate. Several metals, including
Cd, Cr, and Ni (which are known to be present in mainstream
cigarette smoke) were detected in the offices of two smokers.
Additional investigations are planned to search for better
methods for determining ETS. Chamber studies will closely
simulate actual room conditions but eliminate other unknown
indoor contaminant sources.
0662
Beall, James R., and Ulsamer, A.G. (Dec. 1981) "Toxicity of
volatile organic compounds present indoors", Bull. N.Y. Acad.
Med., 57(10):978-996.
KEYWORD: multipollutant,CH2O,exposure,combustion,aromatic,source,
literature, health, pesticide, halocarbon, VOC, phthalate
This paper discusses the indoor sources, concentrations, and
health effects of over 40 volatile organic compounds. VOCs are
toxic, and their health effects have been characterized at
relatively high experimental or industrial concentrations. Known
effects of these compounds include tissue irritation,
intoxication, nerve and organ damage, birth defects, mutations,
and cancer. Few data are available on their indoor
concentrations, although they are relatively low. Except for
formaldehyde, little is known of the health effects of chronic
exposures to indoor pollutants.
18
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0271
Beard, J. Howard, et al. (May 1977) "The status of indoor air
pollution research ", EPA-600/4-77-029, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC
27711 (487 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: outdoor, health, methodology, ventilation, monitoring,
literature, energy, EPA$
Numerous research projects have examined the occurrences of air
pollution in outdoor and workplace environments. A smaller,
newer body of research has examined air pollution in
nonworkplace, indoor environments. A new emphasis on curbing
heat loss through reduced indoor-outdoor air exchange has
encouraged interest in the relation among indoor and outdoor air
quality, energy conservation in buildings, and the potential for
adverse health effects from indoor air pollution in nonworkplace
environments. This body of research is reviewed in this report.
Preparation of this report required a comprehensive survey and
assessment of the state-of-the-art of indoor air pollution
research, as described in published literature and unpublished
ongoing research.
0544
Beck, J.V., Young, R., Hollowell, C.D., Turiel, I., and Pepper,
J. (1980) "The effects of energy-efficient ventilation rates on
indoor air quality at an Ohio elementary school", Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720
(62 pages). NTIS LBL-10223.
KEYWORD: microorganism,C02,SO2,NOx,odor,particulate,CO, aldehyde,
ventilation, outdoor, exposure, energy, school
To determine the effects of energy-efficient ventilation rates on
indoor air quality, the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory measured
indoor air quality at Fairmoor Elementary School in Columbus, OH.
Air was monitored outdoors, as well as in two classrooms and a
large multipurpose room. Tests were made at three ventilation
rates. The parameters measured were outside air flow rates, odor
perception, microbial burden, particulate mass, total aldehydes,
CO2, CO, SO2, O3, and NOx. This report gives the results of the
measurements and compares them with existing outdoor air quality
standards. C02 concentrations increased as the ventilation rate
decreased, but did not exceed current standards. Odor
perceptability increased slightly at the lowest ventilation rate.
Other pollutants showed very low concentrations, which did not
change with reductions in ventilation rate. This study indicates
that it would be possible to achieve moderate energy savings at
the Fairmoor school while maintaining acceptable indoor air
19
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quality.
0394
Becker, Albert P. Ill, and Lachajczyk, Thomas M. (Sept. 1984)
"Evaluation of waterborne radon impact on indoor air quality and
assessment of control options", U.S. EPA, Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC
27711 (146 pages). NTIS PB84-246404/REB.
KEYWORD: radon,literature,exposure, control, source, ventilation,
statistical
The report gives results of a literature search concerning the
concentration of waterborne radon (Rw) and its effect on indoor
air concentration of radon (Ra). Major factors that influence
Ra/Rw (including ventilation rate, water transfer efficiency,
water use rates, and volume of the home) are examined.
Sensitivity analyses are conducted to define mathematically a
representative value for Ra/Rw (0.00007) and its reasonable
bounds (0.000017 to 0.00035). The report also assesses
techniques for removing radon from water or indoor air.
Techniques evaluated for removing radon from water include decay,
aeration, and granular-activated carbon. Techniques evaluated
for removing radon and/or progeny from air include circulation,
ventilation, filtration, electrostatic precipitation, charcoal
adsorption, chemical reaction, and space charging. Evaluation of
cost, efficiency, and practicality of each technique is provided
as found in the literature reviewed.
0047
Behar, Joseph, Schuck, Edward A., Stanley, Richard E., and
Morgan, George B. (1979) "Integrated exposure assessment
monitoring", Environ. Sci. Technol., 13(l):34-39.
KEYWORD: multipollutant, literature, environmental, source,
receptor, exposure, monitoring, epidemiology
A conceptual framework is presented for systematically collecting
environmental (air, water, land, and crop) data. The objective
of Integrated Exposure Assessment Monitoring (IEAM) is to provide
data required for strategic control of "critical sources" of
pollutants that cause major problems or threats to "critical
receptors". A critical receptor is defined as that segment of
the human population or of the environment that is most adversely
affected by exposure to a pollutant. These ideas are intended to
help coordinate efforts that involve movement of pollutants from
sources to receptors through various environmental pathways.
20
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0395
Benson, F.B., Henderson, J.J., and Caldwell, D.E. (Aug. 1972)
"Indoor-outdoor air pollution relationships: a literature
review", AP-112, U.S. EPA, Office of Administration, Tech-
nical Publications Branch, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
(73 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: literature, outdoor, particulate, ventilation, source,
exposure, microorganism
Extensive measurements have been and are being made of outdoor
pollution. In contrast, very few data have been gathered on
indoor pollution, especially in view of the importance of the
problem. The data that are available are compiled and analyzed
in this report. Based on a review of the literature, it was
possible to infer relationships between indoor and outdoor
pollution and to identify factors that affect these
relationships. Except for bacteria and, perhaps, for fungus
spores, indoor pollution levels appear to be controlled primarily
by outdoor concentrations. Other factors that influence indoor
pollution levels include internal activities and pollutant
generation, atmospheric conditions and natural ventilation, time,
location, type of building, and air conditioning and filtration
systems. At present, the best available estimate of indoor
concentrations of particulates and nonreactive gases can be
obtained by assuming them to be equal to outdoor concentrations.
Indoor concentrations of pollen and reactive gases, expressed as
a percentage of outdoor concentrations, decrease with increasing
outdoor concentrations. Bacterial concentrations indoors appear
to be more closely related to the presence and activities of
people inside than to outdoor concentrations.
0168
Berglund, B., Johansson, I., and Lindvall, T. (1982) "A
longitudinal study of air contaminants in a newly built
preschool", Environ. Int., 8:111-115.
KEYWORD: VOC, butanol, CH20, toluene, pentanal, control, hexanal,
ventilation, field, source, school
Air quality in a newly built preschool was investigated in a
longitudinal study. Typical air contaminants emanating from
building materials were determined; their variation over time (0-
18 months) was measured; and the influence of the ventilation
system (81% to 91% recirculation of return air) on contaminant
concentrations was studied. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
were sampled by adsorption on porous polymer, analyzed by a gas
chromatography/flame ionization detection system, and identified
by mass spectrometry. VOCs and CO2 accumulate in the air as it
moves through the building. All the organic compounds except
21
-------
formaldehyde decline in concentration, mainly within the first 6
months of occupancy. Specific ventilation procedures can correct
this pollution problem.
0420
Berglund, B., Johansson, I., and Lindvall, T. (1982) "The
influence of ventilation on indoor/outdoor air contaminants in an
office building", Environ. Int. 8:395-399.
KEYWORD: CO, C02, NOx, VOC, field, office, energy, ventilation,
exposure, CH20, laboratory, source
A modern energy-efficient office building was studied in a series
of experiments with mobile laboratories connected on-line with
the building. The investigation covered measurements of
inorganic air contaminants (CO, CO2, NOx). Off-line measurements
were made of volatile organic contaminants. Samples were taken
outdoors at street and roof levels, indoors at air intakes and
outlets, and elsewhere. The building protected against street
pollution, if location of the air intake and the mixing of air
indoors were adequate. The number and concentrations of most air
pollutants increased from the air intake along the pathway of the
ventilation air. The organic compounds generally found outdoors
also seemed to have indoor sources. Some aliphatic hydrocarbons
(alkanes with 9 to 11 carbons) were almost exclusively found in
the indoor air, probably originating from nonhuman indoor
sources. Changes in recirculation of return air affected the
concentration of different indoor pollutants in different ways.
For CO and all organic compounds, a larger amount was transferred
from the return air to supply air than predicted from the
transfer of C02 or from calculated flow rates. Saving energy by
using a ventilation-by-demand principle cannot be generally
recommended unless the effects of reduced ventilation on indoor
air components other than CO2 have been properly considered.
0391
Berglund, B., Berglund, U., Johansson, I., and Lindvall, T.
(1984) "Sampling of indoor air for sensory analysis in situ",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 417-423.
NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: CH20, VOC, design, methodology, multipollutant, odor
In indoor air quality studies, the choice of sampling sites and
times is important because a building is a dynamic system.
Additional concerns arise from the fact that stimulus appraisals
in most sensory analyses in the field are dependent on proper
22
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0395
Benson, F.B., Henderson, J.J., and Caldwell, D.E. (Aug. 1972)
"Indoor-outdoor air pollution relationships: a literature
review", AP-112, U.S. EPA, Office of Administration, Tech-
nical Publications Branch, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
(73 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: literature, outdoor, particulate, ventilation, source,
exposure, microorganism
Extensive measurements have been and are being made of outdoor
pollution. In contrast, very few data have been gathered on
indoor pollution, especially in view of the importance of the
problem. The data that are available are compiled and analyzed
in this report. Based on a review of the literature, it was
possible to infer relationships between indoor and outdoor
pollution and to identify factors that affect these
relationships. Except for bacteria and, perhaps, for fungus
spores, indoor pollution levels appear to be controlled primarily
by outdoor concentrations. Other factors that influence indoor
pollution levels include internal activities and pollutant
generation, atmospheric conditions and natural ventilation, time,
location, type of building, and air conditioning and filtration
systems. At present, the best available estimate of indoor
concentrations of particulates and nonreactive gases can be
obtained by assuming them to be equal to outdoor concentrations.
Indoor concentrations of pollen and reactive gases, expressed as
a percentage of outdoor concentrations, decrease with increasing
outdoor concentrations. Bacterial concentrations indoors appear
to be more closely related to the presence and activities of
people inside than to outdoor concentrations.
0168
Berglund, B., Johansson, I., and Lindvall, T. (1982) "A
longitudinal study of air contaminants in a newly built
preschool", Environ. Int., 8:111-115.
KEYWORD: VOC, butanol, CH20, toluene, pentanal, control, hexanal,
ventilation, field, source, school
Air quality in a newly built preschool was investigated in a
longitudinal study. Typical air contaminants emanating from
building materials were determined; their variation over time (0-
18 months) was measured; and the influence of the ventilation
system (81% to 91% recirculation of return air) on contaminant
concentrations was studied. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
were sampled by adsorption on porous polymer, analyzed by a gas
chromatography/flame ionization detection system, and identified
by mass spectrometry. VOCs and C02 accumulate in the air as it
moves through the building. All the organic compounds except
21
-------
formaldehyde decline in concentration, mainly within the first 6
months of occupancy. Specific ventilation procedures can correct
this pollution problem.
0420
Berglund, B., Johansson, I., and Lindvall, T. (1982) "The
influence of ventilation on indoor/outdoor air contaminants in an
office building", Environ. Int. 8:395-399.
KEYWORD: CO, C02, NOx, VOC, field, office, energy, ventilation,
exposure, CH2O, laboratory, source
A modern energy-efficient office building was studied in a series
of experiments with mobile laboratories connected on-line with
the building. The investigation covered measurements of
inorganic air contaminants (CO, CO2, NOx). Off-line measurements
were made of volatile organic contaminants. Samples were taken
outdoors at street and roof levels, indoors at air intakes and
outlets, and elsewhere. The building protected against street
pollution, if location of the air intake and the mixing of air
indoors were adequate. The number and concentrations of most air
pollutants increased from the air intake along the pathway of the
ventilation air. The organic compounds generally found outdoors
also seemed to have indoor sources. Some aliphatic hydrocarbons
(alkanes with 9 to 11 carbons) were almost exclusively found in
the indoor air, probably originating from nonhuman indoor
sources. Changes in recirculation of return air affected the
concentration of different indoor pollutants in different ways.
For CO and all organic compounds, a larger amount was transferred
from the return air to supply air than predicted from the
transfer of C02 or from calculated flow rates. Saving energy by
using a ventilation-by-demand principle cannot be generally
recommended unless the effects of reduced ventilation on indoor
air components other than CO2 have been properly considered.
0391
Berglund, B., Berglund, U., Johansson, I., and Lindvall, T.
(1984) "Sampling of indoor air for sensory analysis in situ",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 417-423.
NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: CH20, VOC, design, methodology, multipollutant, odor
In indoor air quality studies, the choice of sampling sites and
times is important because a building is a dynamic system.
Additional concerns arise from the fact that stimulus appraisals
in most sensory analyses in the field are dependent on proper
22
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dilution procedures. The study found that the sample
representativity in an olfactometer for field use was good for
dimethylsulfide, hydrogen sulfide, and formaldehyde, the ratio
between theoretical and analyzed values being 0.94 to 1.11. The
rise and fall times in the olfactometer, as well as in a mobile
environmental chamber for sensory field studies, are
satisfactorily short and permit the use of efficient and time-
saving experimental designs for total human exposures. The
performance of the sampling procedure during sensory field
studies has been examined for samples of volatile organic
compounds taken simultaneously on site in the building and in the
exposure hood of the olfactometer. The losses in the sampling,
dosing, and exposure system of the equipment are small.
0599
Berglund, B., Berglund, U., Lindvall, T., Spengler, J., and
Sundell, J. (1986) "Environment International special issue on
indoor air quality", Pergamon Journals, Inc., Fairview Park,
Elmsford, NY 10523 (494 pages).
KEYWORD: health, exposure, outdoor, multipollutant, methodology,
QA, literature, regulation, research
This special issue of Environment International contains revised
versions of many papers presented at the Third International
Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, held in Stockholm,
Sweden, in August 1984. Many newer papers are also included.
The papers cover a wide range of indoor air quality issues,
including analytical methodology, experimental design and
statistical analysis, personal and total exposure assessment,
health effects, abatement methods, and government regulations.
The literature review is extensive, and future research needs are
described from several viewpoints.
0187
Berglund, B., Berglund, U., Lindvall, T., and Nicander-Bredberg,
H. (1982) "Olfactory and chemical characterization of indoor air,
towards a psychophysical model for air quality", Environ. Int.,
8:327-332.
KEYWORD: multipollutant, office, school, odor,
The relationship between the odor strength of total air samples
and the odor strengths of the constituents was investigated in
three field experiments in an office building and a new
preschool. Between 60 and 120 chemical components were detected
by gas chromatography/flame ionization detector in 66 indoor air
samples. Most (81%) of the components detected were odorous,
although most concentrations were low. A method of pattern
23
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analysis showed that indoor air in each building has a
characteristic chemical and odor. From the odor patterns, the
"odor print" of the outdoor air associated with the buildings was
also recognized in the indoor air. Thus, the odor print of an
air sample is different from its "chemical print". A model was
found that predicts the overall odor strength of an air sample by
using the number of flame-ionization-detected components most
frequently reported to have a strong odor.
0237
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds. (1984) "Indoor
air", Proceedings of the international conference (3rd) on indoor
air quality and climate, Stockholm, August 20-24, 1984, Swedish
Council for Building Research (5 volumes).
KEYWORD: multipollutant, ventilation, personal, exposure, field,
risk, health
This five-volume set covers the spectrum of recent research into
indoor air pollution. The titles and NTIS order numbers of the
volumes are (1) Recent Advances in the Health Sciences and
Technology, PB85-104180; (2) Radon, Passive Smoking, Particulates
and Housing Epidemiology, PB85-104198; (3) Sensory and
Hyperactivity Reactions to Sick Buildings, PB85-104206; (4)
Chemical Characterization and Personal Exposure, PB85-104214; and
(5) Buildings Ventilation and Indoor Climate, PB85-104222. BLIS
contains abstracts of articles from each of these volumes.
0555
Bergman, H., Edling, C., and Axelson, O. (1986) "Indoor radon
daughter concentrations and passive smoking", Environ. Int.,
12(1-4):17-19.
KEYWORD: smoking, health, exposure, aerosol, particulate, lung,
radon, risk
Radon daughter exposure is a well-known cause of lung cancer in
miners. Since radon daughters are known to attach to aerosol
particles, it was also of interest to study to what extent radon
daughters in indoor air might attach to cigarette smoke.
Experiments were undertaken which showed that moderate
concentrations of radon daughters indoors could increase
considerably, and even more than double, in the presence of
cigarette smoke. The radon daughter levels obtained together
with cigarette smoke may imply a risk of lung cancer for active
and passive smokers.
24
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0640
Berk, J.V., Hollowell, C.D., and Lin, Chin-I (1979) "Indoor air
quality measurements in energy-efficient houses", Paper presented
at the 72nd annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230(25 pages). NTIS
LBL-8894.
KEYWORD: NO, NO2, 03, particulate, CO, outdoor, aldehyde, energy,
CH20, SO2, C02, home, ventilation, activity
The potential impact of reduced ventilation on indoor air quality
is being assessed. Three houses, designed to be energy-
efficient, were monitored using a mobile laboratory. Parameters
measured included infiltration rate, CO2, CO, NO2, O3, SO2,
formaldehyde, total aldehydes, and particulates. Preliminary
results show that, although considerable energy can be saved,
indoor levels of several pollutants exceed outdoor levels. In
general, however, the indoor levels of most pollutants are still
within limits established by ambient air quality standards.
Overall indoor air quality depends upon air exchange rates,
building materials, and occupant activities.
0519
Berk, J.V., Hollowell, C.D., Lin, C., and Turiel, I. (1979) "The
effect of reduced ventilation on indoor air quality and energy
use in schools", U.S. Department of Energy, Paper presented at
the 1979 international conference on energy use management in Los
Angeles, CA (8 pages). NTIS LBL 9382.
KEYWORD: CO2, CO, O3, energy, ventilation, school, exposure, NOx,
field, SO2, health, outdoor, microorganism
The air quality in an air-conditioned California high school has
been measured at a variety of ventilation rates ranging from 13.3
cubic feet of outside air per minute (cfm) for each classroom
occupant to approximately 1.5 cfm per occupant. The purpose of
this pilot study was to determine the effect of reduced
ventilation on indoor air quality and energy use. Parameters
measured include outside air supply rate, the occupants'
subjective perception of indoor air quality, airborne microbes,
CO2, CO, NOx, SO2, and 03 in two classrooms, a hall, and
outdoors. C02 was the only parameter to show a substantial
increase indoors when the ventilation rate was reduced; however,
classroom levels still remained far below levels considered to be
a health hazard. This study indicates that moderate energy
savings are possible at Carondelet High School without
significant deterioration of indoor air quality, and that
substantial energy savings would be possible in a more severe
climate.
25
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0642
Berk, J.V., Hollowell, C.D., Lin, C., and Turiel, I. (1979) "The
effects of energy efficient ventilation rates on indoor air
quality at a California high school", LBL-9174, Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 (38 pages). NTIS LBL-9174.
KEYWORD: school, exposure, ventilation, sampling, monitoring,S02,
CO,CH2O,NOx,O3,C02,radon,particulate,energy,field,weather,health
A pilot study was conducted at the Carondelet High School in
California to determine the effects of reduced ventilation rates
on indoor air quality. A mobile laboratory was attached to the
building and was equipoped to continuously monitor infiltration,
indoor temperature and humidity, weather, SO2, NO, NOx, O3, CO,
C02, radon, and particulate size distribution. Samples were
collected of formaldehyde, total aldehydes, respirable and
nonrespirable particulates, and bacteria. Only C02
concentrations increased significantly when ventilation rates
were decreased, and O3 levels decreased. Surveys showed no
subjective increase in student discomfort. In classrooms, the
outside air ventilation rate can be safely reduced to 2.5 cubic
feet/minute/occupant, well below the American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers standard of 5.0.
Similar future studies will focus on hospitals, dwellings, and
other schools.
0641
Berk, J.V., Hollowell, C.D., Pepper, J.H., and Young, R.A. (1980)
"The impact of reduced ventilation on indoor air quality in
residential buildings", Paper presented at the 73rd annual
meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (16 pages). NTIS LBL-10527.
KEYWORD: field, CH20, CO, energy, exposure, NO2, radon, activity,
indoor, ventilation, source, activity, home, health
One result of reducing ventilation to save energy is that indoor
air contaminants build up and pose a health risk to occupants.
Overall indoor air quality is influenced by air exchange rates,
types of appliances and building materials used, and occupant
activities. Of the may indoor air pollutants, four (CO and N02
from gas appliances; formaldehye from urea-formaldehyde
materials, and gas appliances; and radon from soil, building
materials, and ground water) are receiving attention to assess
potential health risks associated with energy conservation.
Monitoring studies have demonstrated that, in some cases, these
indoor-generated pollutants exceed outdoor air quality standards
in energy-efficient houses having fewer than 0.5 air changes per
hour. Further studies involving a broader range of infiltration
26
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rates and occupancy conditions are needed before energy-efficient
infiltration standards can be set for residential buildings.
0518
Berk, J.V., Young, R.A., Brown, S.R., and Hollowell, C.D. (1981)
"Impact of energy-conserving retrofits on indoor air quality in
residential housing", Paper no. 81-22.1 presented at the 74th
annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O.
Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (26 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, CO2, NO2, NO, NOx, CH2O, home, SO2, O3, ventilation,
radon, energy, activity, aldehyde, exposure, particulate
The impact of energy-conservation retrofits on the air quality of
residential buildings is being assessed by measuring air leakage,
air-exchange rates, and indoor air pollutants before and after
the retrofits. A mobile laboratory took detailed measurements of
air-exchange rates and concentrations of radon, formaldehyde,
total aldehydes, particulates, C02, CO, N02, NO, 03, and SO2 in
two houses; effective leakage area measurements were made in
seven others. Results from the nine houses showed that the
impact of energy-conserving retrofits depends on (1) the type and
extent of the retrofit, (2) the operating characteristics of the
heating/cooling system, and (3) the activities of the occupants.
0305
Bernstein, R.S., Falk, H., Turner, D.R., and Melius, J.M. (1984)
"Nonoccupational exposures to indoor air pollutants: a survey of
state programs and practices", Am. J. Public Health,
74(9):1020-1023.
KEYWORD: CH2O, CO, C02, NO2, radon, asbestos, smoking, pesticide,
methodology, regulation
In 1982, 32 States (63%) had either a program or person(s)
responsible for evaluating exposures to one or more non-
occupational indoor air pollutants (NIAPs). Only four States
(8%) had existing or proposed NIAP exposure standards. Twenty-
nine (57%) of the States had a program to evaluate non-
occupational exposures to formaldehyde, but these varied widely.
Coordinated, consistent approaches are needed to define and
control emerging environmental public health problems such as
indoor air pollution.
0361
Berwick, M., Zagraniski, R., Leaderer, B.P., and Stolwijk, J.A.J.
(1984) "Respiratory illness in children exposed to unvented
combustion sources", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J.,
27
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Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 2, radon, passive smoking, particulates
and housing epidemiology", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 255-260. NTIS PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: NO2, home, exposure, health, design, source, combustion,
kerosene, QA, demographic, children, lung
Using a staged design of air quality monitoring, researchers
followed 174 families using unvented kerosene heaters and 173
families without heaters for 3 months to evaluate the association
between N02 exposure and acute respiratory illness rates.
Environmental and health data were obtained through personal
interviews, bi-weekly telephone interviews, tax assessor records,
and 2-week integrated NO2 measurements in 303 residences. The
study followed 121 children under age 13, 59 living in homes with
kerosene heaters and a control group of 62 living in homes
without. Initial analyses indicate that exposed children have
significantly more days of acute respiratory illness than the
control group. Limitations are imposed by sample size and by
possible selection bias.
0492
Biller, W.F., Thomas, H.C., Jr., Stoekenius, T.E., and Paul, R.A.
(1984) "Estimation of short-term sulfur dioxide population
exposures", Paper no. 84-109.7, presented at the 77th annual
meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (18 pages).
KEYWORD: exposure, health, distribution, model, source, activity,
S02, statistical, EPA$, industrial
A population exposure analysis methodology was developed to
determine how often exercising asthmatics might be exposed to
concentrations of SO2 equal to or greater than 0.5 ppm. Analyses
of both ambient and modeled air quality data showed 1-hour SO2
concentrations of 0.5 to 0.75 ppm occurring near major point
sources. This methodology uses modeled data near three utility
power plants. The exposure calculations used a modified version
of EPA's NAAQS Exposure Model (NEM). The methodology expresses
the results in a probability-weighted distribution and estimates
the expected number of exposures to S02.
0488
Biller, William F., et al. (1981) "A general model for estimating
exposure associated with alternative NAAQS", Paper no. 81-18.4,
presented at the 74th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (25 pages).
KEYWORD: NO2, S02, particulate, model, EPA$, outdoor, personal,
NEM, exposure, microenvironment
28
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EPA is responsible for establishing National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) and for periodically reviewing these standards
to determine their appropriateness. This paper presents a
general NAAQS exposure model (NEM) for estimating population
exposures associated with various possible air quality standards
and also presents some sample results from a specific application
of the model. NEM employs Monte Carlo techniques to simulate (1)
the temporal and spatial behavior of pollutant concentrations and
(2) the activities of people with regard to time, place, and
exercise level. NEM has been applied to NO2, S02, and
particulates. NEM uses output from air monitoring networks and
estimates actual personal exposure by transforming ambient
concentrations of pollutants to concentrations that occur within
an exhaustive set of microenvironments.
0103
Billick, I., Johnson, D., Moschandreas, D., and Relwani, S. (Aug.
1984) "An investigation of operational factors that influence
emission rates from gas appliances", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T.,
and Sundell, J., Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical
characterization and personal exposure", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 181-188. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: NO, NO2, CO, ventilation, combustion, appliance, source,
laboratory
This paper describes the impact of various operational factors on
emission rates of trace combustion products from unvented gas
appliances. The impact of the following factors on indoor NO,
NO2, and CO emission rates was evaluated under controlled
conditions in an environmental chamber: (1) appliance type and/or
design, (2) primary aeration level, (3) fuel input rate, (4) time
dependence of emission rates, and (5) presence of absorbing
surfaces. Results indicate that several of these factors have an
impact on exposure to indoor contaminant levels similar in
magnitude to the impact of the air exchange rate of indoor
environments.
0638
Billings, C.E., Baker, J.H., and Helsing, K.J. (1985) "Report on
medical, epidemiological, and environmental investigations of
indoor air quality at Northern Middle School, 701 Northern
Avenue, Hagerstown, Maryland 21740", Johns Hopkins University
School of Hygiene and Public Health, Division of Environmental
Health Engineering, 615 N. Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205 (28
pages).
KEYWORD: exposure, sampling, school, outdoor, CO, SO2, CH2O, VOC,
ventilation, health, epidemiology, demographic
29
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From January through August 1985, a team studied the Northern
Middle School in Hagerstown, MD. Studies were designed to
investigate continuing faculty reports of irritation, headaches,
fatigue, and poor air quality since the school opened in 1980. A
medical evaluation of 62 of 65 faculty and staff members included
medical history, physical examination, and clinical tests.
Epidemiologic studies of students were performed using
attendance, health, and academic achievement records, plus two
questionnaires about symptoms experienced. Headache, fatigue,
and eye/throat irritation were prevalent in the faculty, staff,
and students. Pulmonary function tests and laboratory analyses
of body fluid samples gave normal results. Outdoor and indoor
air samples were obtained for CO and SO2 by continuous monitors
during February and March. To access occupant exposures, 17 area
samples for formaldehyde and organic vapors were obtained. No
gas concentrations exceeded Federal or State exposure standards.
Room inlet air mixing was evaluated using tracer gas dilution
studies and was poor. Improved ventilation and continued
sampling are recommended.
0192
Billings, Charles E., and Vanderslice, Sandra F. (1982) "Methods
for control of indoor air quality", Environ. Int., 8:497-504.
KEYWORD: literature, ventilation, model, control,source, outdoor,
exposure, QA, energy
This report presents results of a review of available methods for
control of environmental hazards applied to indoor air
pollutants. Indoor air pollution originates from transport of
ambient outdoor air contaminants into occupied spaces by natural
infiltration, ventilation, or by mechanical ventilation using
outdoor makeup air, plus contributions from indoor emission
sources. When air exchange with the external ambient environment
is reduced to conserve energy, contributions from indoor emission
sources may dominate indoor air pollutant levels. The
performance characteristics of ventilation systems and of air-
cleaning devices used in mixed modes for ventilation of occupied
spaces are described. Models for predicting effectiveness of
several alternative modes are reviewed, with field trial
validation results cited where available. Results of previous
confined-space studies are briefly reviewed as points of
departure for considering necessary air quality, ventilation, and
air-cleaning problems.
0055
Binder, R.E., Mitchell, C.A., Hosein, H.R., and Bouhuys, A.
(1976) "Importance of the indoor environment in air pollution
30
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exposure", Arch. Environ. Health, 31:277-279.
KEYWORD: particulate, S02, N02, field, personal,exposure,smoking,
children, demographic
A portable personal air pollution sampler was used to measure the
exposures of 20 children to respirable particulates, S02, and N02
over a 24-hour period. Particulate exposures were significantly
higher among children who lived with one or more smokers,
exceeding the primary National Ambient Air Quality Standard in 19
of the 20 subjects. To a large extent, an individual's
respirable particulate load appears to be largely determined by
exposure to indoor rather than outdoor pollutants.
0698
Bisgaard, P., Molhave, L., Rietz B., and Wilhardt, P. (1984) "A
method for personal sampling and analysis of nanogram amounts of
formaldehyde in air", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 45(6):425-429.
KEYWORD: sampling, monitor, CH20, humidity, temperature,acrolein,
aldehyde, industrial, method, foreign, laboratory, Denmark
Analysis of small amounts of formaldehyde in air involved testing
a solid sampler on a standard atmosphere 0.2 to 0.8 mg/m3 dry
air. A single 340 - mg sorbent section without drying sections
had a capacity of 16 ug formaldehyde in dry air and 3 ug at 70%
relative humidity, 23 degrees C. For fluorimetric analysis,
precision was better than 6% for samples of 300, 600, and 1200 ng
formaldehyde, and accuracy better than 10%. For colorimetric
analysis, the precision was 12% for a 300 ng formaldehyde and 2%
for 600 and 1200 ng, and accuracy was better than 7%. Both
analyses were accurate and sensitive methods for determination of
low formaldehyde concentrations. The accuracy remains to be
verified when measurements last more than 15 minutes and a
dessicant is used. Positive interference from acrolein (5-7%
when equimolar amounts are present) was found; no other aldehydes
interfered. The experiments occurred at the University of Arhus,
and the Danish National Institute of Occupational Health,
Denmark.
0067
Bock, Fred G. (1982) "Nonsmokers and cigarette smoke: a modified
perception of risk", Science, 215:197.
KEYWORD: particulate, risk, assessment, exposure, health,smoking,
literature
A technical comment on an earlier paper discusses the relative
merits of using low-tar cigarette equivalents as surrogates for
31
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nonsmokers1 exposures to indoor air pollution from tobacco smoke.
The commenter suggests that using low-tar cigarettes as
surrogates flaws an otherwise interesting and useful aid for
evaluating nonsmokers1 exposures, since no epidemiology exists
relating smokers' exposures to such recently marketed cigarettes
with adverse health effects. The authors reply that they did not
derive an exposure-response relationship between low-tar
cigarette equivalents and nonsmokers1 health, but merely used
this comparison to place nonsmokers1 exposure in perspective.
Moreover, they add, the cloud of pollution surrounding smokers of
low-tar cigarettes is not very different from that surrounding
smokers of high-tar cigarettes who do not inhale, and the
mortality rate of the latter is significantly elevated relative
to nonsmokers.
0243
Boeniger, M. (March 1984) "Industrial hygiene survey reports",
National Institutes for Occupational Safety and Health,
Cincinnati, OH (20 pages). NTIS PB84-243237.
KEYWORD: industrial, exposure, methylenedianiline, ventilation
An industrial hygiene survey was conducted at the 01in
Corporation, Moundsville, WV, plant in August 1983 to determine
whether a health hazard existed from 4,4'-methylenedianiline
(MDA) exposure. The facility employed 300 workers, most of whom
were middle aged. Environmental, dermal, and breathing-zone
samples were analyzed for MDA. Ventilation was measured. Dermal
contact with MDA probably affected only six employees.
Recommendations include improvement of exhaust ventilation and
the use of personal protective equipment.
0227
Boleij, J., Lebret, E., Smit, J., Brunekreef, B., and Biersteker,
K. (1982) "Innenluftverunreinigungen durch kohlenmonoxid und
stickstoffoxide", (indoor air pollution by carbon monoxide and
nitrogen oxides), Aurand, H.K., Seifert, B., and Wegner, J., Eds.,
"Luftqualitat in innenraumen". Gustav Fischervertag, Stuttgart -
New York, pp. 199-208, (in English).
KEYWORD: CO, N02, source, combustion, outdoor, home, monitoring,
exposure, foreign, Netherlands, appliance
The results are reported of an exploratory survey of indoor
levels of CO and N02 from gas-fired cooking and water-heating
appliances in the Dutch cities of Arnhem and Enscheda in the fall
of 1980. Measurements were carried out electrochemically
(Ecolyzer 2000) or with Draeger tubes for CO and with Palmes
diffusion tubes (5 to 8 days' exposure) for NO2. The arithmetic
32
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mean value of the NO2 concentration in 286 homes was 118 g/m3,
with a range of 35 to 472 g/m3. The corresponding figures for
living rooms were 58 and 35 to 346 g/m3, respectively. Outdoor
NO2 concentrations were 2 to 3 times lower than indoor
concentrations.
0283
Boleij, J.S.M., Lebret, E., Hoek, F., Noy, D., and Brunekreef, B.
(1986) "The use of Palmes diffusion tubes for measuring NO2 in
homes", Atmos. Environ., 20(3):596-600.
KEYWORD: NO2, outdoor, laboratory, sampling, field, methodology,
QA
The results of exposure chamber and field validation tests of NO2
diffusion tubes are reported. In the exposure chamber, about 50
test runs at various relative humidities were performed. The
field validation consisted of comparisons between tubes and a
chemiluminescence monitor in nine homes during several days in
the kitchen, living room, bedroom, and outdoors. The results
indicate a dependency on relative humidity, while the often-
quoted accuracy of 10% for the diffusion tubes might be too
optimistic for their use in homes.
0620
Bond, A.E., Thompson, V.L., Ortman, G.C., Black, P.M., and
Sigsby, J.E. (1986) "Self service station vehicle refueling
exposure study", Hochheiser, S. and Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds.,
"Proceedings of the 1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the measurment of
toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711,
pp. 458-466. Not yet available from NTIS. (In press, Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230.)
KEYWORD: VOC, source, outdoor, personal, exposure, gasoline,
vehicle, microenvironment, sampling, laboratory, field, EPA$
A 4-day, ten-vehicle study was conducted to quantify the
concentration and composition of gasoline vapor at five fixed
distances from a single island refueling point during February
1985, in Raleigh, NC. Liquid and vapor grab samples were
collected to identify and quantify the specific components of a
commercial unleaded regular gasoline and associated refueling
vapors. This study also provided information on the potential
individual exposure during self-service refueling operations.
Vapor samples were collected in evacuated, 6-liter, stainless
steel canisters at five fixed distances from the vehicle
refueling intake point. The sampling was conducted under three
33
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different wind directions relative to the vehicle intake point.
Meteorological data were collected at the study site during all
sampling periods. Vapor samples were analyzed by both cryogenic
preconcentration direct flame ionization detection (PD-FID) and
by gas chromatography/flame ionization detection (GC-FID) for
total non-methane organic carbon. Analysis provided a detailed
hydrocarbon profile (82 compounds) for all liquid samples and
vapor samples greater than 20 ppm as carbon.
0546
Bornschein, R.L., et al. (1985) "The Cincinnati prospective study
of low-level lead exposure and its effects on child development:
protocol and status report", Environ. Res., 38:4-18.
KEYWORD: Pb, biomonitoring, exposure, children, sampling, health,
dose, demographic, distribution
The study protocol for the Cincinnati, OH, prospective study of
low-level Pb exposure and its effects on childhood development is
detailed. The central issue of the study pertains to
circumstances under which young children may experience adverse
effects on normal neurobiologic and psychological development
attributable to low-level Pb exposure. Blood Pb levels are
systematically monitored from birth to age 5 years at 3-month
intervals to provide a history of each subject's Pb exposure.
Intellectual and behavioral development are assessed at regular
intervals to document the child's cognitive and behavioral
development. The project will then attempt to integrate
information on exposure history, cognitive and behavioral
development, and health and social functioning in order to
delineate the association between the chronic low-level Pb
exposure and behavioral development. A dose-response analysis
will also be made seeking to relate the frequency with which
effects occur to degree of Pb exposure.
0112
Bose, D. (Aug. 1984) "Preparation of low concentrations of gases
without pumps — a low-cost method for developing countries",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal exposure", Swedish
Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp 239-244.
KEYWORD: CO, energy, sampling, methodology, QA
An energy-saving, low-cost gas-dilution technique has been
developed for preparing calibration gases, standardizing
measurements at ppm levels, assessing the toxicologic and other
effects of polluted air, and conducting other envirochemical
studies in developing countries. This simple glass apparatus
34
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also has potential use in collecting air samples without use of a
pump for transportation to analytical laboratories. Air samples
containing a low level of CO have been prepared for calibration
of the new technique. Pure, dry experimental gas is collected in
a specially fabricated graduated microburet via a three-way
stopcock, and the evacuations are done manually by liquid level
differentiations. The apparatus may also be used in color
comparison methods for detection of gaseous pollutants.
0384
Botzenhart, K., Altenhoff, K., and Leithold, T. (1984) "Molds in
the air of greenhouse homes", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and
Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity
reactions to sick buildings", Swedish Council for Building
Research, Stockholm, pp. 277-282. NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: sampling, greenhouse, microorganism, particulate, field,
control, source
Green plants have a favorable influence on the indoor air
quality, e.g., relative humidity and dust concentration.
However, plants and the soil in which they grow may increase
airborne molds. Cultures obtained from various impaction samples
and from soils and leaves were used to examine viable mold spores
in (1) a former greenhouse used as an architect's office, (2) a
private home built with an integrated live-in greenhouse, and (3)
the tropical greenhouse of the local botanical garden. High
concentrations of molds were found in the air of the first and
second indoor greenhouse environments (6,000 culture-forming
units), mostly penicillium and cladosporium species. Aspergillus
fumigatus and other thermotolerant fungi were rarely isolated
from air samples. They were abundant, however, in soil samples,
particularly those with decomposing material such as leaves or
bark.
0588
Brain, Joseph D., and Barry, Brenda E. (1985) "Biological
potential and exposure-dose relationships for constituents of
cigarette smoke", Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A.,
Eds., "Indoor air and human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O.
Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 215-225.
KEYWORD: smoking, health, dose, particulate,biomonitoring,source,
multipollutant, combustion, research, epidemiology, lung
Central to the issue of the potential health impact of passive
cigarette smoking is an understanding of the fate of inhaled
smoke. Deposition patterns of any aerosol such as passive
cigarette smoke depend on the size, shape, and density of the
35
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individual particles or droplets. In particular, the description
of particle diameters, preferably in terms of aerodynamic
diameters, is essential. Time and concentration are important
because they modify tobacco smoke through processes such as
evaporation and agglomeration. Factors independent of particle
size such as respiratory airway anatomy, breathing pattern, and
underlying pulmonary disease also influence deposition of tobacco
smoke. Lung clearance mechanisms also affect deposition.
Although the amount of cigarette smoke deposited in the lungs
during passive smoking is small compared to that encountered by
the active smoker, large numbers of persons are involved.
0390
Breysse, Peter A. (1984) "Formaldehyde levels and accompanying
symptoms associated with individuals residing in over 1000
conventional and mobile homes in the state of Washington",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 403-408.
NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: CH20, home, exposure, field, health
The Department of Environmental Health, University of Washington,
along with a number of commercial laboratories, has monitored
formaldehyde in more than 1,000 conventional and mobile homes.
Almost without exception, requests for monitoring involved
individuals who developed symptoms or whose symptoms got worse
after moving into a mobile home or following application of urea-
formaldehyde foam insulation. For many, symptoms continued for
years despite the fact that formaldehyde levels decreased with
time. Leaving the offending environment was the only solution for
some individuals. The major source of formaldehyde in mobile
homes was particle board, while in conventional homes it was
urea-formaldehyde foam insulation. Average concentrations of
formaldehyde in mobile homes were 2 to 10 times higher than
concentrations in conventional homes with foam insulation.
Symptoms included irritation of eyes, nose, and throat, chronic
nausea, chronic headaches, difficulty in breathing, memory lapse,
and behavorial changes. Most individuals experienced multiple
symptoms.
0057
Brice, Robert M., and Roesler, Joseph R. (1966) "The exposure to
carbon monoxide of occupants of vehicles moving in traffic", J.
Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 16:597-600.
KEYWORD: CO, field, hydrocarbon, vehicle, interior, personal,
exposure, microenvironment, source
36
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CO and hydrocarbons were sampled at the operator's nose height
inside vehicles moving in moderate to heavy traffic in six
cities. The samples were integrated over 20 to 30 minutes by
collection in Mylar bags. CO and hydrocarbons were analyzed by
infrared and flame ionization, respectively, at the Continuous
Air Monitoring Program (CAMP) station in each city. Detector
tubes for CO were also used to determine 5-minute concentrations
at suspected high points in the field. Traffic density was
estimated. Three types of traffic arteries were considered: (1)
heavily traveled, wide expressways, (2) main city streets with
moderately rapid vehicular traffic, and (3) center-city streets
with slow-moving traffic. Integrated half-hour CO concentrations
obtained within the vehicles while in traffic were generally
considerably higher than the concurrent concentrations measured
at the CAMP sites. In-traffic CO values in all cities sampled
exceeded 30 ppm in at least 10% of the integrated samples. The
range of city averages was 21 to 39 ppm, and the range of
individual integrated samples was 71 to 77 ppm.
0369
Broder, I., Corey, P., Cole, P., Mintz, S., Lipa, M., and
Nethercott, J. (1984) "Health status of residents in homes
insulated with urea formaldehyde foam compared with controls",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds. "Indoor air,
vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 23-27.
NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: CH2O, health, exposure, source, control, home
Subjective and objective health variables were compared in 226
control subjects and 444 occupants of urea-formaldehyde foam
insulated (UFFI) homes as part of a larger study. The UFFI homes
had fractionally higher levels of formaldehyde. The UFFI
subjects used significantly more medications and had higher
prevalence of time lost on the job; colds; eye, nose, throat, and
skin irritation; and other diverse symptoms. These complaints
were mainly voiced by people planning to have their UFFI removed;
for them medication usage or throat irritation correlated with
total hours spent in the house. No significant associations were
observed with formaldehyde levels. Also, there were no
significant differences among the groups in a series of objective
health tests. Thus, these initial results provide some support
for a possible direct relationship between UFFI and adverse
health effects.
37
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0021
Brown, Dennis E. (Aug. 1982) "Planning and the control of indoor
air pollution: a field survey of carbon monoxide levels at Ala
Moana shopping center in Honolulu", Master's thesis in urban and
regional planning, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI
96822 (193 pages).
KEYWORD: exposure, personal, field, monitoring, source, control,
CO, architecture
CO data were collected with a personal exposure monitor during 30
walking trips inside a shopping center in Honolulu between
November 1981 and March 1982. Approximately 29% of sampled
employees on the street level were estimated to be exposed to CO
levels in excess of the 8-hour National Ambient Air Quality
Standard (NAAQS) and about 2% in excess of the 1-hour NAAQS. The
high levels can be traced to a semi-enclosed parking garage
attached to the shopping center and the proximity of shops to
slow-moving traffic. The thesis discussed potential design
strategies for reducing and preventing harmful levels of CO at
indirect air pollution sources such as shopping centers.
0561
Brown, L., Greene, B.M.R., Miles, J.C.H., and Wrixon, A.D. (1986)
"Radon exposure of the United Kingdom population", Environ. Int.,
12(1-4):45-48.
KEYWORD: radon, exposure, source, methodology, home, ventilation,
architecture, foreign, Britain
The National Radiological Protection Board is surveying radon
concentrations in dwellings throughout the United Kingdom, as
well as factors that affect radon concentrations, such as the
construction of the dwellings and the window- and door-opening
habits of the occupants. Initial results indicate an average
effective radon dose to the population equivalent to 570
microSieverts per year.
0207
Bruaux, P., et al. (1985) "Assessment of human exposure to lead:
comparison between Belgium, Malta, Mexico and Sweden", World
Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (57 pages).
KEYWORD: Pb ,biomonitoring, dose, water, particulate, TEAM, food,
exposure, QA, foreign, Belgium, Malta, Mexico, Sweden
Lead content of blood, feces, drinking water, and local street
dust was measured for 107 nonsmoking male teachers in Belgium,
Malta, Mexico, and Sweden. Extended study in Malta sampled food,
38
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soil, and suspended particulates in ambient air. Oral intake
seemed to be the main Pb source. Sampling, analytical, and
statistical methods are discussed. Data quality and usability
are well documented.
0568
Brunekreef, B., Boleij, J.S.M., Hoek, F., Lebret, E., and Noy, D.
(1986) "Variation of indoor nitrogen dioxide concentrations over
a one-year period", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):279-282.
KEYWORD: N02, exposure, field, microenvironment,seasonal, health,
methodology, foreign, Netherlands
In 15 homes, indoor NO2 concentrations were measured repeatedly
for 1 year to obtain estimates of within-home and between-home
variability. Every other week, diffusion tubes were used to
obtain weekly average concentrations in the kitchen, living room,
and bedroom of each home. The results indicate that, in all
seasons except summer, the NO2 concentrations within locations
within homes were stable and that between homes, indoor
concentrations were systematically different. This information
is important for evaluating health effect studies in which indoor
N02 concentrations are used as a measure of exposure.
0178
Brunekreef, B., Smit, H.A., Biersteker, K., Boleij, J.S.M., and
Lebret, E. (1982) "Indoor carbon monoxide pollution in The
Netherlands", Environ. Int., 8:193-196.
KEYWORD: CO, field, home, combustion, source, appliance, foreign,
Netherlands
Most houses in The Netherlands are equipped with gas-fired
heaters and cooking appliances. CO poisoning due to coal fires
has virtually ceased to exist since coal-fired heaters were
replaced by gas heaters. However, such poisonings still occur,
although to a lesser extent, due to the use of instantaneous
water heaters (geisers) that are gas fired. An investigation was
carried out to establish the CO production potential of geisers
in normal use in 254 houses. The results indicated that 17% of
the geisers produced a CO level of more than 50 uL/L in the
kitchens where they were located after 15 minutes of operation.
Presence of a flue, burner type, and maintenance system proved to
be the main controlling factors.
0238
Brunekreef, Bert, et al. (Aug. 1981) "The Arnhem lead study, I.,
lead uptake by 1 to 3 year old children living in the vicinity of
39
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a secondary lead smelter in Arnhem, The Netherlands", Environ.
Res., 25(2):441-456.
KEYWORD: Pb, source, particulate, biomonitoring, outdoor, soil,
field, foreign, Netherlands
This epidemiological study was conducted in the vicinity of a
secondary Pb smelter in Arnhem, The Netherlands. Blood Pb levels
for 1- to 3-year-old children were slightly elevated. Pb in the
air, dustfall, soil, street dust, house dust, and drinking water
was also measured. Pb levels in garden soil and dustfall indoors
and outdoors were the most useful parameters in explaining the
variance in the blood Pb levels.
0244
Bruno, Ronald C. (Feb. 1983) "Sources of indoor radon in houses:
a review", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 33(2):105-109.
KEYWORD: radon, source, model, literature, soil
The primary sources of indoor radon are analyzed and discussed.
These include soil gas, building material, and tap water. Within
the framework of a simple steady-state analysis of the radon
concentration in a model of a typical house, the potential
contribution to indoor radon levels from each source was
determined. When these results are compared with reported field
studies of radon in houses, it appears that the infiltration of
soil gas directly into a house is by far the largest contributor
to indoor radon levels.
0605
Buchanan, James W., Li, Shutian, and Galloway, Clifton (1986) "A
refinement of the potassium tracer method for residential wood
smoke", Hochheiser, S. and Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds., "Proceedings of
the 1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the measurement of toxic air
pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711,
pp. 748-754. Not yet available from NTIS. (In press, Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230.)
KEYWORD: methodology, QA, wood, home, outdoor,economic, sampling,
K, laboratory, particulate, source, combustion
U.S. EPA currently uses potassium (K) as a tracer for the mass of
wood smoke collected on ambient fine-particle filters. Total K
is measured by x-ray fluorescence analysis, and soil potassium is
estimated by assuming a value for the K/Fe ratio in soil, multi-
plying by the Fe present, and subtracting from total K analyzed.
40
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In a cheaper and more reliable technique, water-soluble K is an-
alyzed by ion chromatography. The assumption is that all fine-
particle smoke, K (but very little soil K) is water-soluble.
Preliminary results indicate this may be the case.
0778
Buist, Sonia, Chr. (Dec. 1983) "Report of workshop on respiratory
effects of involuntary smoking: epidemiological studies", U.S.
National Institutes of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD
20842 (11 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: exposure, lung, smoking, health, research, statistical,
risk, epidemiology, biomonitoring, ventilation, dose, methodology
This report summarizes presentations by experts in epidemiology,
statistics, and pulmonary medicine on the pulmonary effects of
passive smoking. While studies are in progress, the effects vary
from negligible to quite small. It has not been determined,
however, if a subgroup may be at risk, or if differences in data
sets discussed at the workshop result from differences among
population samples or methodology. A major weakness of all the
data sets is a lack of proper exposure estimates. The experts
recommended standardized questions to characterize indoor sources
and ventilation practices. Most important is the need to develop
and evaluate noninvasive biological markers of exposure.
0557
Burch, P.R.J. (1986) "Health risks of passive smoking: problems
of interpretation", Environ. Int., 12(1-4) :23-28.
KEYWORD: smoking, demographic, methodology, health, exposure, QA,
literature, model, risk, statistical
This article is mainly a criticism of the methodology used by
Repace and Lowrey in this journal's 1985 article: "A quantitative
estimate of nonsmokers1 lung cancer risk from passive smoking"
(BLIS #86). The specific arguments are that (1) the exposure
model is too anatomically, chemically, and statistically
simplistic to be trusted, (2) the literature of the demographics
of smoking and lung cancer contradict their model, (3) the
epidemiological studies of passive smoking and lung cancer that
Repace and Lowrey relied on are useless because they provide no
data on actual exposures of the nonsmokers, (4) Repace and Lowrey
rely on etiological studies discredited by the U.S. Surgeon
General, and (5) Repace and Lowrey ignore some statistically
correct studies that contradict their conclusions. Repace and
Lowrey seem to have constructed their research to yield a
predetermined conclusion. Repace and Lowrey rebut these
41
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arguments in BLIS #559.
0562
Burkart, Werner (1986) "An estimation of radiation exposure and
risk from airtightening of homes in an Alpine area with elevated
radon source strength", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):49-53.
KEYWORD: radon, source, exposure, field, risk, energy, control,
ventilation, foreign, home, Switzerland
In large areas of the Swiss Alps, the high radium content of
rocks and soil may produce high levels of radon in dwellings with
low air-exchange rates. During the winter of 1982-83, a sample
of 32 conventional homes showed an arithmetic mean average radon
concentration in living quarters and cellars of 307 Becguerels
per cubic meter (Bq/m3) or 8.3 picoCuries per liter (pCi/L) and
in cellars of 1,410 Bq/m3 (38.1 pCi/L). Based on a matched pair
analysis of single-family dwellings, researchers assumed that
weatherstripping will increase the average radon level in the
living quarters 50% or 155 Bq/m3 (4.2 pCi/L) in the sample
studied. This increase results in an additional annual effective
dose equivalent of 4.6 milliSieverts (mSv). The lower air
infiltration alone leads to an additional exposure of about 0.01
mSv per kilowatt hour of energy saved per year. The estimated
lung cancer risk from this exposure is orders of magnitude higher
than the projected total risks from the production of a kWh in a
large-scale power plant.
0678
Burton, Barbara, and Senzel, Alan (Feb. 1984) "Residential wood
and coal combustion, task 3, health effects literature search",
U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711 (75 pages). NTIS PB84-191584.
KEYWORD: literature,combustion, EPA$, coal, wood,outdoor, source,
home, health
This report compiles titles and abstracts that are in the
literature on adverse health effects due to air emissions (indoor
or outdoor) from the residential combustion of coal and wood.
Abstracts are presented alphabetically according to the last name
of the lead author. The report's search plan included the files
of the Combustion Research Branch, Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC; and
Environmental Technology Division, Del Green Associates, Inc.,
Woodburn, OR, which recently completed a residential wood
combustion study for U.S. EPA Region 10 and the State of Oregon.
In addition, the on-line computer literature search, covered the
42
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following data bases: Biological Abstracts (BIOSIS, 1976+),
National Technical Information Service (NTIS), and Excerpta Media
(1976+).
0455
Caceres, T., Soto, H., Lissi, E., and Cisternas, R. (1983)
"Indoor house pollution: appliance emissions and indoor ambient
concentrations", Atmos. Environ., 17(5):1009-1013.
KEYWORD: home, NO, NO2, CH20, combustion, source, CO, field,
laboratory, exposure, kersosene, appliance
Researchers measured emission rates for CO, NO, N02, and CH20
from several unvented gas and kerosene heaters typically used for
domestic heating. The indoor pollutant concentrations generated
by these emissions were evaluated and compared to the
concentrations found in typical houses. Both the predicted and
measured values exceeded the acceptable short-term air quality
standards of most countries.
0461
Cain, William, S., et al. (1983) "Ventilation requirements in
buildings, I., control of occupancy odor and tobacco smoke odor",
Atmos. Environ., 17(6):1183-1197.
KEYWORD: particulate, odor, ventilation, smoking, CO, exposure,
temperature, humidity, energy, laboratory
Psychophysical measurements of odor, supplemented with certain
physical measurements, were taken to examine ventilation
requirements during smoking and nonsmoking occupancy in an
environmental chamber. Impressions of visitors (persons who
inhaled air from the chamber only briefly) were compared with
impressions of occupants. For nonsmoking occupancy, 47
combinations of temperature, humidity, ventilation rate, and
occupancy density were examined. Odor level depended entirely on
ventilation rate per person irrespective of the number of persons
in the chamber. About 75% of visitors needed about 4 liters per
second per person. Occupants, however, were satisfied with far
less. In 38 conditions of smoking occupancy, 75% of visitors
under customary conditions of occupancy needed 17.5 liters per
second per person. For both smoking and nonsmoking conditions, a
combination of high temperature (25.5 degrees C) and humidity
(r.h. > 70%) exacerbated the odor problem. During smoking, CO
rarely reached dangerous levels, but suspended particulate matter
often reached levels considered unacceptable outdoors. Study
results demonstrated the energy penalty incurred when ventilating
for smoking occupancy.
43
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0122
Callahan, M.A., et al. (Feb. 1985) "Handbook for performing
exposure assessments (draft)", U.S. EPA, Office of Health and
Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC 20460 (90 pages). Not
available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: Pb, model, methodology, multipollutant, exposure, EPA$,
multimedia
This handbook provides specific details of how EPA conducts
exposure assessments. It provides practical guidance by
presenting specific examples and detailed discussions of some key
aspects. Areas addressed include an overview of available models
that may be used in planning exposure assessments, guidance for
designing and implementing exposure assessment monitoring
programs, a listing and description of some useful data bases on
the monitoring and measurement of substances in the environment,
and a discussion of the uncertainties related to exposure
assessments. This handbook also has a glossary of routinely used
terms and provides standard factors used in calculations. Also
included is an extended discussion of the EPA "Air Quality
Criteria for Lead" document as an example of a multimedia,
multisource exposure assessment. Since the handbook expands on
the concepts of the "Exposure Assessment Guidelines", the
Guidelines are included in an appendix.
0398
Castren, O., Vautilainen, A., Windquist, K., and Makelainen, I.
(1985) "Studies of high indoor radon areas in Finland", Sci.
Total Environ., 45:311-318.
KEYWORD: radon, field, home, exposure, source, foreign, Finland
Solid-state nuclear track detectors were used in a regional
survey in Finland of radon in indoor air. The study comprises
seven rural municipalities and two towns in an area of 80x50 km2
with a population of about 65,000. Measurements were made in 754
houses in 31 subareas. The highest and lowest subarea means were
1,200 Becquerels (Bq)/m3 and 95 Bq/m3, respectively. The
estimated mean for the whole area was 370 Bq/m3. The
concentrations 2,000 Bq/m3 and 800 Bq/m3 were exceeded in 32 and
90 houses, respectively. The present lung cancer incidence in
the study area does not differ significantly from the national
mean.
0491
Chan, D., and Howes, J.E. Jr. (1986) "Development of an indoor
air information retrieval (IAIR) data base", Final report under
44
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contract no. 68-02-4084, U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring
Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (179 pages).
Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: multipollutant, literature, personal, exposure, research
A computerized data base has been designed and constructed to
provide assistance in identifying published indoor air quality
literature. The Indoor Air Information Retrieval (IAIR) data
base has been developed using dBASE III software and operates on
an IBM personal computer. The data base includes bibliographic
information and key words, which characterize the technical
content of the article. (Key words are assigned from a
comprehensive list that describes factors which influence indoor
air quality.) Abstracts are not included in the data base.
Currently, the IAIR data base contains 483 entries, 298 of which
have been assigned key words. To make the IAIR data base more
useful, additional work is required to (1) refine the data base
structure, literature entry criteria, and key word list and (2)
complete the entry of appropriate literature references and key
words.
0612
Chan, C.C., Martin, J.W., Pond, P.J., and Williams, D.T. (1986)
"Development of an adsorption/thermal desorption technique
coupled with GC/MS for the monitoring of trace organic
contaminants in indoor air", Hochheiser, S., and Jayanti, R.K.M.,
Eds., "Proceedings of the 1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the
measurement of toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S.
EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711, pp. 71-85. Not yet availble from NTIS.
(In press, Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230.)
KEYWORD: VOC, laboratory, sampling, methodology, organic, QA,
halocarbon, multipollutant,foreign,Canada
A multilayer sorbent cartridge coupled with a thermal desorption
technique was used to collect and analyze both volatile and
semivolatile organic compounds indoors. The sorbents were
evaluated to determine their adsorption characteristics,
breakthrough potential, retention of organics, and artifacts
released from the adsorbents during the thermal desorption
process. Recoveries and data reproducibility for desorption of
most of the organics from the cartridge were satisfactory, except
for a few compounds that appeared either to decompose or not to
desorb very efficiently under the experimental conditions. The
semivolatile compounds desorbed from sorbent cartridges and
internal traps less efficiently than the volatile compounds.
Limits of detection were determined for 52 compounds based on the
45
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volume sampled; most were in the ppt- or low-ppb-range.
0060
Chaney, Lucian W. (1978) "Carbon monoxide automobile emissions
measured from the interior of a traveling automobile", Science,
199:1203-1204.
KEYWORD: CO, personal, exposure, monitor,microenvironment, field,
vehicle, interior, source, monitoring
During a cross-country trip, the author monitored CO
concentrations inside a traveling car using a sensitive
instrument. Individual passing vehicles produced accurately
measurable increases in CO concentration. The CO produced by
individual vehicles varied by three orders of magnitude,
demonstrating that a relatively small number of cars can be
responsible for a higher percentage of total vehicle CO
emissions.
0549
Chuang, C.C., Mack, G.A., Mondron, P.J., and Petersen, B.A.
(1986) "Evaluation of sampling and analytical methodology for
polynuclear aromatics in indoor air", U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
(91 pages). NTIS PB86-126326/AS.
KEYWORD: PAH, methodology, sampling, laboratory, field, QA, EPA$,
design, microenvironment, home, literature, smoking, research
A generic sampling and analytical methodology was developed to
characterize polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)
concentrations in air in various microenvironments. These three
studies were performed: evaluation of analytical methods, design
of a sampling method, and design of a pilot study. Two
analytical methods (high-performance liquid chromatography with
ultraviolet adsorption and fluorescence detection, and gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry) were evaluated to determine
PAHs and their derivatives in air within microenvironments. The
results showed that the preferred analytical approach was gas
chromatography/positive chemical ionization mass spectrometry
with data acquisition in the selected ion monitoring mode. A
modified EPA high-volume sampler, consisting of a quartz fiber
filter and a polyurethane foam cartridge, is proposed for use in
a future experimental study. A literature review was conducted
to (1) determine how much is known about the contribution of
cigarette smoke to PAH levels in air within microenvironments and
(2) evaluate the use of quinoline and isoquinoline as possible
marker compounds for cigarette smoke. A pilot study was designed
to assess PAH levels in residential air. The results of this
46
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study can then be applied to a future large-scale study to
measure human exposure to airborne PAHs.
0417
Clark, C.S., et al. (1985) "Condition and type of housing as an
indicator of potential environmental lead exposure and pediatric
blood lead levels", Environ. Res., 38:46-53.
KEYWORD: Pb, biomonitoring, outdoor, source, water, architecture,
home, children
In a prospective behavioral study of children in Cincinnati, OH,
with blood Pb levels as high as 50 ug/dl, an intensive
environmental survey was conducted and exterior of housing
quality was determined visually. Five housing categories were
defined: public housing, private housing (satisfactory,
deteriorated, and dilapidated), and rehabilitated private
housing. Serial blood Pb values for infants were compared to
exterior housing category, which itself was compared with results
of the intensive environmental survey. In this interim report on
the first subset of available data, the housing categories were
found to differ in paint and environment dust lead levels, with
public and rehabilitated housing having lowest values. Blood Pb
concentrations of children differed across housing categories as
early as 6 months of age, with children residing in public
housing having lowest levels, followed by those in rehabilitated
housing. Housing category accounted for over one-half of the
blood Pb variability in 18-month-old children.
0347
Clarkson, Michael (1984) "Indoor air quality as a part of total
building performance", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell,
J., Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 5, buildings, ventilation and thermal
climate", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
493-498. NTIS PB85-104222.
KEYWORD: office, ventilation, temperature, C02, CO, VOC, radon,
CH20
An indoor air quality investigation of a 60,000-m2 eight-story
government office building was carried out as a part of an in-
depth study of the total building performance of the building.
The transdisciplinary study included the following areas of
building performance: lighting, acoustics, thermal comfort,
ventilation, energy use, air circulation, air quality, occupant
comfort, building envelope thermography, functional use, and
enclosure integrity. The air quality conditions generic to large
offices are presented.
47
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0091
Clausing, P., Mak, J.K., Spengler, J.D,, and Letz, R. (1986)
"Personal N02 exposures of high school students", Environ. Int.,
12(1-4):413-417.
KEYWORD: N02, combustion, personal, exposure, model, school,
activity, pattern, outdoor, source, appliance
Personal N02 exposures and/or time activity patterns were
measured for 300 junior high school students in Watertown, MA.
Palmes diffusion tubes were used to measure N02 concentrations in
the bedroom, living room, and kitchen for over 100 students.
Indoor and personal N02 levels were closely related to the
cooking fuel used at home. The correlation between outdoor and
personal NO2 levels was not significant. Stepwise multiple
regression is used to fit models to estimate personal exposures.
Models including indoor NO2 concentrations can explain between 60
and 90% of the variance in personal NO2 exposures. When indoor
home concentrations are excluded, only about 40% of the variance
is explained by cooking fuel, pilot lights, and concentration in
the school.
0490
Clayton, A.C., White, S.B., and Settergren, S.K. (1985) "Carbon
monoxide exposure of residents of Washington, B.C.: comparative
analyses", Contract no. 68-02-3679, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
(55 pages). Not Available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: CO,monitor,smoking,microenvironment, personal, exposure,
home, source, combustion, outdoor, statistical, EPA$, appliance
CO data obtained by personal exposure monitor (PEM) from a sample
of Washington, DC, nonsmoking, noninstitutionalized individuals
between the ages of 18 and 70 in the winter of 1982-83 were
analyzed to determine whether CO levels differ statistically
among individuals. Specifically, comparisons were made among (1)
major environments, (2) micro environments (within major
environments), (3) smoker and nonsmoker groups, and (4) groups
with and without an operating gas stove. Comparisons were based
on PEM CO means and on PEM CO levels adjusted for ambient CO
levels. The analysis found that ambient CO measurements provide
only a crude measure of the background CO levels to which
individuals would be exposed, even in an outdoor setting. PEM CO
levels varied significantly across the four major environments
with "in transit" showing the highest level and "indoors/at
residence" showing the lowest level. Indoor environments
appeared to have elevated levels of CO in the presence of smokers
and in the presence of an operating gas stove.
48
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0489
Clayton, A.C., Rodman, N.F., and Hartwell, T.D. (1985) "Total
exposure assessment methodology (TEAM) multivariate analysis of
air exposure and breath measurements", Contract no. 68-01-6826,
U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711 (53 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: TEAM, personal, exposure, statistical, outdoor, model,
VOC, monitor, biomonitoring, EPA$, seasonal
This study uses data collected at various sites between 1981-84
as part of EPA's Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM)
study. This report examines some of the multivariate structure
of these data. In an attempt to explain the variation in breath,
personal air, and outdoor principal component (PC) scores,
analysis-of-variance models were used. The models related these
PC scores to sites/seasons. Statistically significant
differences were detected in sites/seasons with regard to breath,
personal air exposure, and outdoor air exposure concentrations of
the selected volatile organic compounds. Despite this, the
percentage of total variation in such measurements attributable
to sites/seasons was low (generally 10 to 15%). Further attempts
to account for variation in the breath concentration data, by
including personal or outdoor air measurements in the model (in
the form of PC scores), increased these percentages to about 20
to 25 %.
0705
Cohen, A.F., and Cohen, B.L. (1980) "Protection from being
indoors against inhalation of suspended particulate matter of
outdoor origin", Atmos. Environ., 14:183-184.
KEYWORD: particulate,school, architecture, office, home, outdoor,
laboratory
A method for estimating the protection from being indoors against
inhalation of suspended particulate matter from outdoors was
applied to a wide variety of buildings and rooms. Indoor and
outdoor filter samples were analyzed by x-ray fluorescence for
elements known to become airborne outdoors. The average
protection factor was about 4.5 for large particles and 2.2 for
submicron particles.
0375
Cohn, M.S., Ulsamer, A.G., and Preuss, P.W. (1984) "Sources
contributing to formaldehyde indoor air levels", Berglund, B.,
Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds. "Indoor air, vol. 3, sensory
49
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and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings", Swedish Council
for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 133-138. NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: CH2O, source, exposure, home, humidity, architecture,
temperature, seasonal
Two major sources of formaldehyde in indoor air are urea-
formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI) and pressed-wood products,
including panelling, particle board, and medium-density
fiberboard. The formaldehyde contribution that these products
can make to air in conventional residences and mobile homes has
been investigated. One of the most important factors is the age
of the product; formaldehyde levels tend to decay more or less
exponentially over time, with half lives in the range of from 6
months to between 4 and 6 years, depending on the product and its
age. Examples of decay curves are presented. Also considered
are the effects of variables, such as temperature and relative
humidity, that can lead to diurnal variation of formaldehyde
levels as much as 1.5-fold and seasonal variation as much as 10-
fold. Ongoing research in this area is discussed.
0689
Coleman, Sheldon R. (1983) "A tube diffusion dosimeter for sulfur
dioxide", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 44(9):631-637.
KEYWORD: SO2, methodology, personal, exposure, monitoring, QA,
laboratory, monitor
A tube diffusion dosimeter for SO2 was fabricated from
inexpensive, easily available materials. The design incorporates
a tube diffusion element, liquid absorption reservoir, and a
porous plastic mass transfer element. The dosimeter was verified
by exposure chamber tests using constant and fluctuating SO2
concentrations, and tested in the field along with a bubbler
method developed by the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health for comparison. Laboratory and field tests
confirmed that the dosimeter was reliable between 2.5 and 15 ppm
SO2. However, to retain accuracy, exposed dosimeters must be
refrigerated and analyzed within 24 hours after use.
0413
Colome, S.D., McCarthy, S.M., and Spengler, J.D. (June 1981)
"Residential indoor and ambient outdoor comparison of gaseous and
particulate air pollutants in two cities", Paper no. 81-573,
presented at the 74th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (18 pages).
KEYWORD: S04, N02, outdoor, home, exposure, particulate, S02, Al,
Br, Cl, Ma, Na, V, source
50
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The results from 1 year of air monitoring in 10 homes for 6 trace
elements (aluminum, bromine, chlorine, magnesium, sodium,
vanadium) and S02, NO2, S04, and respirable-size particles are
reported for Steubenville, OH, and Portage, WI. Indoor and
outdoor mean levels for all 10 air constituents are higher in the
industrial city of Steubenville. Indoor levels are lower than
outdoor for most air constituents in both cities, with the
exception that mean levels of N02, respirable-size particles, and
chlorine in Portage are higher indoors, indicating residential
sources of these constituents. The measured pollution difference
for this sample of homes is smaller when the mean indoor, rather
than outdoor, concentrations are compared. These findings have
implications for previous and future epidemiologic studies of the
effect of air pollution on human health.
0177
Colome, Steven D., Spengler, John D., and McCarthy, Sharon (1982)
"Comparisons of elements and inorganic compounds inside and
outside of residences", Environ. Int., 8:197-212.
KEYWORD: outdoor, S02, NO2, SO4, particulate, Al, V, Br, Cl, Mn,
Na, EPA$, home, exposure, source
The results of more than 1 year of air monitoring inside and
outside of five homes in each of two communities (Steubenville,
OH, and Portage, WI) are presented for S02, N02, mass respirable
particles, SO4, Al, Br, Cl, Mn, Na, and V. Outdoor measurements
across the home sites in each city are consistent with proximity
to outdoor sources. In each city, the home appears to alter
outdoor concentrations in several ways. Indoor levels of S02,
SO4, Mn, and V are lower than those measured outdoors. These
constituents are thought generally to result from outdoor
sources. The other constituents studied are at times found in
excess within homes. In some cases, the source or sources of
excess concentration of a particular constituent could be
identified; often, however, the source could not be identified.
0048
Colwill, D.M., and Hickman, A.J. (1980) "Exposures of drivers to
carbon monoxide", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 30(12):1316-
1319.
KEYWORD: CO, source, vehicle, interior, exposure, biomonitoring,
ventilation, field, foreign, Britain
Eleven new cars were driven around a 35-kilometer route
comprising heavily traveled roads in and around London, England,
and the concentrations of CO inside and immediately outside the
51
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vehicles were continuously monitored. Average levels of CO
inside were between 12 and 60 ppm, and these levels were between
30% and 80% of the external concentrations. The internal levels
varied according to external changes, but the changes were
greatly dampened by the ventilation system. Differences in
internal CO levels were greater among the vehicles than among the
different runs using the same vehicle and were probably due to
differences in the ventilation systems. Blood carboxyhemoglobin
(COHb) concentrations that would arise from the CO exposures were
calculated. Published data suggest that these COHb
concentrations (1.53%) might adversely affect health by impairing
driving performance.
0691
Compton, J.R., Dwiggins, G.A., Feigley, C.E., and Ludwig, D.A.
(1984) "The effect of square wave exposure profiles upon the
performance of passive organic vapor monitoring badges", Am. Ind.
Hyg. Assoc. J., 45(5):446-450.
KEYWORD: VOC, exposure, statistical, QA, laboratory, methodology,
ethylbenzene, personal, monitor
Three commercial passive monitoring badges were exposed to
ethylbenzene vapor in a dynamic test atmosphere characterized by
well-defined square wave concentration profiles having periods of
2, 6, and 10 minutes. Concentrations fluctuated between 0 and
150 ppm, causing no significant bias in the time-weighted average
concentration indicated by the badges. A slight, but
statistically significant, interaction between badge type and
exposure profile is attributable to random analytical error in
the data provided by one badge type.
0044
Core, J.E., Cooper, J.A., and Houck, J.E. (Oct. 1982)
"Residential wood combustion study, task 7, indoor air quality",
U.S. EPA, Region X, Seattle, WA (159 pages). NTIS PB84-170653.
KEYWORD: particulate, PAH, smoke,field, weather, source, outdoor,
combustion, wood, EPA$, appliance
Indoor exposure to particulate air pollution associated with
residential wood combustion was studied in five typical Northwest
homes during May 1980. Particulate mass and polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbon (PAH) species were measured in each home before and
during wood appliance use. Air infiltration rates were obtained
from the literature. Records of wood use and weather during the
indoor sampling period were maintained. Results are compared to
other indoor air pollution studies on residential wood
combustion. Appliance operations, design, and maintenance are
52
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discussed.
0448
Cortese, Anthony. D., and Spengler, John D. (1976) "Ability of
fixed monitoring stations to represent personal carbon monoxide
exposure", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 26(12):1144-1150.
KEYWORD: CO, personal, exposure, outdoor, NAAQS, biomonitoring,
monitor, vehicle, interior, control
This study investigates the ability of fixed-location ambient air
monitoring stations to represent accurately personal exposures to
CO. The relationship between residential location, commuting
transportation mode, employment location, and time-weighted
average human exposure to CO in the metropolitan area was also
explored. Personal exposure was measured by equipping 66
nonsmoking volunteers in the Boston, MA, area with portable CO
samplers that use an electrochemical sensor. Measurements at six
fixed-monitoring stations operated by the Massachusetts Bureau of
Air Quality Control underestimated mean 1-hour personal exposure
by a factor of 1.3 to 2.1. However, alveolar air samples showed
no significant increases in blood carboxyhemoglobin levels due to
commuting exposure, because only 1% of the commuting exposures
approached the national ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) of
35 ppm for 1 hour. The underestimation of personal exposure by
fixed stations is of public concern in cities reporting
violations of the 1-hour NAAQS. Fixed-location measurements were
representative of 8-hour average population exposure. Mode and
route of travel were the only factors influencing commuting
exposure to CO. Total travel by automobile resulted in a mean CO
exposure nearly twice that of rail transit and approximately 1.6
times that of split-mode commuting. These results indicate that
the most effective strategies for reducing both 1-hour and 8-hour
exposures to CO are those requiring automobile emission control,
system traffic flow improvement, and decreased traffic volumes.
0246
Cote, William A., Wade, W.A., and Yocum, J.E. (Sept. 1974) "A
study of indoor air quality", U.S. EPA, National Environmental
Research Center, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (294 pages).
NTIS PB-238556.
KEYWORD: field, combustion, laboratory, source, home, appliance,
EPA$
A 15-month indoor air quality study consisted of laboratory
investigations, field studies, and an inventory of indoor
sources. Tasks 1 and 2 established the emissions and effect on
air quality of gas stoves and heaters both in the laboratory and
53
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in four homes. Task 3 developed information on indoor sources of
air contamination in typical southern New England homes and on
the effects of products and their use on indoor air quality.
0166
Coutant, R.W., Merryman, E.L., and Levy, A. (1982) "Formation of
NO2 in range-top burners", Environ. Int., 8:185-192.
KEYWORD: NO, laboratory, temperature, combustion, control, NO2,
methodology, source, appliance
This study examined NO and NO2 formation on range-top burners
(RTB) and in diffusion flames. Composition and temperature
profiles of the flames were determined. RTB flames and pilot
flames displayed qualitatively similar behavior with respect to
the kinds of flame regions in which relatively high NO2/NO ratios
were identified. These regions consistently either had low
oxygen concentrations or were flame surfaces subjected to thermal
quenching. A limited series of experiments with modified burners
indicated that emissions from both the RTB and pilot flames could
be reduced by (1) improving primary aeration by using 50% or
greater primary air and (2) using flame geometries designed to
minimize flame surface, e.g., flat-flame burners or other designs
having effectively fewer distinct ports. A practical implication
of the study is that a burner designed with improved
aeration/mixing and minimization of flame surface should emit
less N02.
0090
Coviaux, F., Mouilleseaux, A., and Festy, B. (Aug. 1984) "Air
quality and biological controls of workers exposed in working
premises contiguous to an urban road tunnel", Berglund, B.,
Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical
characterization and personal exposure", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp 129-134. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: CO, NO2, Pb, Fe, field, exposure, microenvironment,
biomonitoring, ventilation, tunnel
This study evaluates the influence of an urban road tunnel on the
atmosphere of contiguous working premises, plus biological
monitoring of carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) in maintenance staff.
Tunnel pollution and COHb concentrations are strongly correlated
with the traffic intensity and influences of the tunnel service
rooms.
54
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0617
Crum, Jane M. (1986) "Source emissions database for indoor air
pollution", Hochheiser, S., and Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds.,
"Proceedings of the 1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the measurement of
toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711,
pp. 128-133. Not yet available from NTIS. (In press, Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230.)
KEYWORD: literature,field, source,multipollutant, EPA$, sampling,
methodology
A computerized data base for experimental results on indoor air
pollution sources and their emission factors allows for
convenient searches on such topics as indoor source, source
class, and pollutant. It provides access to information such as:
emission factors for air pollutants from indoor sources and
conditions, sampling methods, and analytical techniques of each
experiment. The abstracts and data for these experiments are
scheduled to be available in mid-1986 in a dBase III version and
in a Clipper-compiled version for IBM and compatible
microcomputers.
0656
Dally, K.A., Hanrahan, L.P., Woodbury, M.A., and Kanarek, M.S.
(1981) "Formaldehyde exposure in nonoccupational environments",
Arch. Environ. Health, 36(6):277-284.
KEYWORD: CH2O,exposure,source,architecture,sampling,NIOSH,office,
home,personal,statistical,wood,smoking,irritant,EPA$,health
Formaldhyde may be released from wood products and foam
insulation containing urea-formaldhyde resins. From January 1978
to November 1979, the Wisconsin Division of Health investigated
100 structures after receiving complaints of health problems from
occupants. The structures consisted of mobile homes,
conventional homes, travel trailers, and office buildings
throughout Wisconsin. Air samples were collected with personal
sampling pumps (MSA model G) and stored in polyethelene bottles.
Samples were analyzed by the chromotropic acid procedure. The
occupants provided health information via questionnaires. Mean
formaldehyde concentrations ranged from below the limit of
detection to 3.68 ppm. Burning and irritated eyes, runny nose,
dry or sore throat, headache, and cough were the primary symptoms
reported. Statistically significant associations were seen
between formaldehyde levels and age of home/building materials.
Nonoccupational indoor exposure to formaldehyde is significant
and may reach levels which exceed occupational exposure
standards.
55
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0622
Dave, J.M. (1984) "Studies on emissions from coal burning stoves
(sigries) as used in Eastern India", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T.,
and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical
characterization and personal exposure", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 383-387. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: benzene, benzo-a-pyrene, CO, research, NOx, particulate,
SO2, VOC, foreign, PAH, health, India, combustion, coal
Cooking stoves commonly used in eastern India are made from old
metal buckets and burn bituminous coal, contributing to heavy
indoor and outdoor air pollution. The study is to determine
emissions from such a stove per kg of coal burned, and their
effect on indoor air quality. The coal contains about 24% to 30%
ash and 27% volatile matter. When burned, it contributes S02,
NOx, CO, benzo-a-pyrene (BaP) and suspended particulate matter
(SPM), of which 90% to 95% is benzene soluble. The pollutants
released per kg of coal were 9.89g SO2, 1.98g NOx, 118 mg SPM,
1.2g CO, and 21.3 g BaP. The air in the kitchen/hut had 882 to
1,390 ug/m3 SO2, 43 to 46 ug/m3 NOX, 78 to 157 ug/m3 SPM, and 14
to 23 ug/m3 BaP. These levels may affect the health of the
exposed family. More detailed studies are recommended.
0080
Davidson, Cliff I., Osborn, J.F., and Fortmann, R.C. (Aug. 1984)
"Modeling and measurement of pollutants inside houses in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and
Sundell, J. , Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization
and personal exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp 69-74. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: NO, NO2, CO, particulate, O3, CH2O, home, ventilation,
SO2, VOC, model, source, energy, appliance
Mathematical models for predicting indoor air pollutant levels
are being developed and compared with measured concentrations in
residences in Pittsburgh, PA: a relatively new town house
constructed along rigid energy conservation guidelines, a similar
town house containing an air-to-air heat exchanger, and a 50-
year-old house without weatherization. Efforts have focused
primarily on the first residence. The results show that NO, N02,
and CO emitted from a gas kitchen stove are rapidly mixed
throughout the first story of the town house; transport to the
upstairs is slower. Concentrations of NO and CO decrease slowly
with time after the stove is turned off; N02 levels decrease much
more rapidly. Measurement of emission rates from the stove and
estimates of air exchange rates with sulfur hexafluoride have
56
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been used as inputs to a simple one-compartment mass balance
model for predicting CO levels. Results of the modeling agree
reasonably well with measured concentrations, assuming removal of
CO only by exfiltration. Additional modeling and measurement
efforts are underway for O3, SO2, formaldehyde, inhalable
particles, and volatile organics.
0309
Davies, T.D., Ramer, B., and Kaspyzok, G. (1984) "Indoor/outdoor
ozone concentrations at a contemporary art gallery", J. Air
Pollut. Control Assoc., 31(2):135-137.
KEYWORD: O3,outdoor, ventilation, exposure,architecture, foreign,
Britain
O3 concentrations were measured both inside and outside the
Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, near a small city in rural
eastern England, during a 3-week period in the summer. The
inside concentration was typically 70% (+/- 10) of the outside
concentration during the period of expected maximum outside
levels. During the period of observation, the maximum outside 03
levels ranged up to 60 ppb, although some sampling at this
location had previously recorded outside levels well in excess of
120 ppb. The relatively high indoor/outdoor O3 ratio is a
function of the Centre's design, its internal geometry, and its
ventilation system. Conventional art galleries and museums
experience much lower indoor 03 exposure. The measured indoor 03
levels imply deleterious effects on the gallery exhibits, and an
enhanced 03 exposure may have to be considered when designing
modern galleries and museums.
0572
De Bortoli, M., et al. (1986) "Concentrations of selected organic
pollutants in indoor and outdoor air in northern Italy", Environ.
Int., 12(1-4):343-350.
KEYWORD: VOC, office, outdoor, foreign, methodology, particulate,
source, architecture, home, ventilation, field, Italy
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were measured in the air of 14
homes and one small office building in northern Italy. The study
consists of two parts: (1) 4- to 7-day mean values of the
concentrations of 35 selected VOCs determined together with some
complementary parameters in indoor and outdoor air to get an
indication of the relative importance of VOC indoor pollution in
this geographical area; (2) six indoor air samples have been
analyzed in detail by gas chromatograpy/mass spectrometry (GC-MS)
for a more complete qualitative characterization of indoor air
pollution by VOC. Major results showed that concentrations of
57
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the 35 selected VOCs were nearly always higher indoors than
outdoors, often by an order of magnitude. The mean concentration
of total VOC was about 3 mg/m3 indoors, compared to 0.4 mg/m3
outdoors. Detailed GM-MS analyses identified a much larger
number of compounds (more than 100 in two cases). Most of the
identified compounds are solvent constituents, and many have also
been detected in northern Europe and in the United States. This
points to commonly use consumer products as major sources of VOCs
rather than to building materials, which differ between
geographical areas.
0053
De Bortoli, Maurizo, et al. (Aug. 1984) "Integrating 'real life1
measurements of organic pollution in indoor and outdoor air of
homes in northern Italy", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and
Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization
and personal exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp 21-26. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: multipollutant, field, home, VOC,Italy, office, foreign,
outdoor
Concentrations of 33 organic compounds and of total volatile
organic chemicals (VOC) have been determined in indoor and
outdoor air in 14 homes and one office building in northern
Italy. Mean indoor/outdoor concentration ratios ranged from 1.3
to 52. In addition, VOCs present in the air of six indoor spaces
have been analyzed in detail. Between 47 and 118 organic
compounds could be identified and quantified in these samples.
0532
Dellarco, Michael J. (June 1985) "Comprehensive indoor air
quality research strategy, January 1, 1985", U.S. EPA, Office of
Research and Development, Washington, DC 20460 (34 pages). NTIS
PB85-246692/REB.
KEYWORD: field, research, source, energy, health, control, EPA$,
economic, exposure, literature, multipollutant
The Interagency Committee on Indoor Air Quality (CIAQ),
consisting of 16 Federal agencies, was formed in response to the
growing concern of indoor air pollution. CIAQ has sought to
develop a comprehensive research strategy to accomplish two aims:
(1) to develop an understanding of the magnitude of the risk to
human health from exposures to indoor air pollutants and the
contribution of various energy conservation measures,
introduction of new building materials, and consumer products;
and (2) to provide technical information and guidance, including
cost-effective mitigation measures, to state and local
58
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governments, the private sector, and the general public. CIAQ
research strategy is comprised of six tasks: (1) identification
of indoor air pollutant sources and factors affecting human
exposure, (2) characterization of indoor air quality, (3)
determination of the relationship between energy conservation and
indoor air quality, (4) determination of the health effects of
indoor air pollution, (5) determination of optimal control and
mitigation techniques, and (6) development and conduct of
national multipollutant field studies.
0373
Dement, J.M., Smith, N.D., Hickey, J.L.S., and Williams, T.M.
(1984) "An evaluation of formaldehyde sources, exposures and
possible remedial actions in two office environments", Berglund,
B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 3,
sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings", Swedish
Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 99-104. NTIS PB85-
104206.
KEYWORD: CH2O, health, energy, control,sampling,source, exposure,
ventilation, office, architecture
In response to employee complaints of upper respiratory and eye
irritation, formaldehyde air sampling studies were conducted in
two offices. The first study was conducted in a series of
temporary modular buildings with construction similar to mobile
homes. The second was in a new building designed for energy
conservation. Average formaldehyde concentrations were between
0.06 and 0.23 ppm in the modular offices and 0.15 ppm in the new
office building. Laboratory studies identified the major
formaldehyde sources to be particle-board-containing furniture in
the new office, and wall panelling and ceiling tiles in the
modular offices. Formaldehyde emission rates ranged from 0.02 to
0.19 mg/m2 hour for the major formaldehyde sources. Fumigation
with 1,000 ppm of ammonia for 24 hours reduced emissions by more
than 70%. Increased dilution ventilation reduced ambient
formaldehyde concentrations to below 0.10 ppm.
0501
Desaedeleer, Georges, and Winchester, John (1975) "Trace metal
analysis of atmospheric aerosol particle size fractions in
exhaled human breath", Environ. Sci. Technol., 9:971-972.
KEYWORD: Pb, Br, Cl, Ca, biomonitoring,trace,laboratory, aerosol,
particulate, exposure, methodology, health
Using Proton-Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) analysis researchers
measured the particle size distribution of Pb, Br, Cl, and Ca, in
aerosols exhaled by a human subject breathing typical polluted
59
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air. For all elements, apparent respiratory disposition
fractions decreased from both small and large particle sizes to a
minimum near 0.5 urn aerodynamic equivalent diameter. Feasibility
is demonstrated for direct determinations of trace element
respiratory depositions in humans breathing aerosols at ambient
air concentrations.
0372
DiNardi, S.R., Abromovitz, M.W., and Tartaglia, M.S. (1984) "A
comparison of an automated continuous formaldehyde analyzer with
passive dosimeters", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J.,
Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to
sick buildings", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 85-88. NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: CH2O, seasonal, temperature, model,outdoor,weather,home,
ventilation, energy, methodology, monitoring,sampling
A microprocessor-controlled, five-point, all-Teflon sequential
air sampling system interfaced to a continuous formaldehyde
analyzer was used to measure the seasonal variation of
formaldehyde in a residential environment. Concurrent sampling
was performed with dosimeters supplied by two manufacturers and
the chromotropic acid impinger method. The integrated dosimeter
concentrations of formaldehyde were compared to a time-weighted
average formaldehyde concentration as reported by the automated
analyzer. This study is part of a project designed to model
indoor air pollution with its influencing factors, including
indoor thermal comfort parameters, purchased power, ambient
meteorological conditions, ambient air pollutants, and
infiltration rate data.
0109
DiNardi, S.R., Ludwig, J.F., Tartaglia, M.S., and Abromovitz,
M.W. (Aug. 1984) "A systems approach to the monitoring of indoor
air pollutants", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J.,
Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal
exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp
175-180. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: CO, CO2, home, weather, hydrocarbon, CH20, architecture,
monitoring, microenvironment
Building design and construction technology have improved in the
past decade, and the concern over indoor air pollutants and their
health effects has increased. A multipoint, multipollutant air
sampling and analysis network was installed in a family residence
in Amherst, MA, to assess the spatial and temporal variation of
indoor air quality. The network includes a 10-point air sampling
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system interfaced to a gas chromatograph that continuously
analyzes hydrocarbons, CO, and C02, as well as sulfur
hexafluoride, which is used to produce continuous infiltration
analysis by the tracer dilution method. A five-point, all-Teflon
sequential air sampling system is interfaced to a continuous
formaldehyde analyzer. On-site ambient meteorological
conditions, indoor thermal comfort parameters, and purchased
power are also continuously monitored. The network is controlled
by a dedicated microprocessor.
0330
Diemel, J.A.L., Brunekreef, B., Boleu, J.S.M., Biersteker, K.,
and Veenstra, S.J. (1981) "The Arnhem lead study, II, indoor
pollution and indoor/outdoor relationships", Environ. Res.,
25(2):449-456.
KEYWORD: Pb, outdoor, particulate, home, soil, foreign, exposure,
source, Netherlands, field
House dust samples were taken of ambient air indoors, Pb
deposition indoors, floor dust, and dust deposited on
windowsills, etc. In addition, the dustiness of houses was
estimated visually. Many outdoor parameters were determined, and
indoor Pb pollution levels were lower than the corresponding
outdoor levels. Statistical analysis showed that in Arnhem, Pb
enters houses as particles that adhere to shoes, clothes, etc.
Most of it originates from gardens and possibly street dirt.
0228
Dobbs, A.J., and Williams, N. (1983) "Indoor air pollution from
pesticides used in wood remedial treatments", Environ. Pollut.
Series B, 6:271-296.
KEYWORD: pesticide, hexachlorocyclohexane,dieldrin,exposure, PCP,
foreign, Britain, wood, home
Air samples were collected from inside houses that had been given
commercial treatments to combat wood-boring insects or dry rot.
Concentrations of gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (gamma-HCH),
dieldrin, and pentachlorophenol (PCP) were measured. In the
absence of guidelines for safe concentrations of these chemicals
in homes, acceptable air concentrations were derived from
acceptable daily intake values implemented in the United Kingdom.
Assuming that inhalation is the sole route of exposure,
documented dieldrin levels were above the acceptable
concentrations, but the gamma-HCH and PCP levels were below these
concentrations.
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0332
Dockery, D.W., Spengler, J.D., Reed, M.P., and Ware, J. (1981)
"Relationships among personal, indoor and outdoor NO2
measurements", Environ. Int., 5:101-107.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure, monitor, source,outdoor, NO2, model,
field, source, home, appliance
Using integrating NO2 diffusion dosimeters, personal, indoor, and
outdoor exposures were measured for nine families in Topeka, KS.
The gas-cooking homes had indoor levels three times the outdoor
levels. Members of the gas-cooking households had levels twice
those of electric-cooking families and twice the outdoor levels.
A linear model, which includes outdoor concentrations and stove
types, explains 77% of the variance in observed NO2 exposure.
The differential NO2 exposures in homes with and without gas
stoves should be considered in epidemiologic studies of the
health effects of air pollution.
0603
Dockery, Douglas W., and Spengler, John D. (1981) "Personal
exposure to respirable particulates and sulfates", J. Air
Pollut. Control Assoc., 31:153-159.
KEYWORD: particulate, model, outdoor, personal, exposure, field,
SO4, activity
Personal exposure to respirable particulates and sulfates was
measured by 37 volunteers in Watertown, MA, and Steubenville, OH.
These measurements were compared with simultaneous measurements
of outdoor ambient concentrations and measurements in the
participant's homes. This limited sample showed that mean
personal exposure for each city was related to the mean outdoor
levels for the city. Within each city, however, individuals have
markedly different exposure based on their activities. A time-
weighted indoor/outdoor activity model gives improved estimates
of exposure. However, the model only modestly improves estimates
of personal exposures over those predicted from measured indoor
concentrations alone.
0132
Dockery, D.W., and Spengler, J.D. (1977) "Personal exposure to
respirable particulates and sulfates versus ambient
concentrations", Harvard School of Public Health, 665 Huntington
Ave., Boston, MA 02115 (11 pages).
KEYWORD: SO2, particulate, seasonal, outdoor, model, passive,
smoking, personal, exposure, monitor, field, home
62
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In support of a long-term prospective study of the health effects
of S02 and particulates, a sampling program was undertaken to
measure personal exposure to respirable particulates and sulfates
in Watertown, MA. For 16 days in summer and 12 days in winter,
22 people carried portable samplers. Their exposures were
compared to measurements taken by similar monitors in their homes
and outdoor fixed-station monitors in the community. Ambient
outdoor measurements underestimated personal exposure to
respirable particulates and overestimated personal exposure to
sulfates. Indoor measurements were more representative of
personal exposure for both pollutants. Summer observations
showed smaller differences among personal, indoor, and outdoor
measurements than winter observations. Exposure to smokers,
ambient outdoor levels, and home ventilation was most important
in determining personal exposure to both particulates and
sulfates. A simple linear model is proposed for personal
exposure.
0704
Dockery, Douglas W., and Spengler, John D. (1981) "Indoor-outdoor
relationships of respirable sulfates and particles", Atmos.
Environ., 15:335-343.
KEYWORD: SO4,model,personal,exposure,smoking,source, ventilation,
monitoring, appliance, architecture, particulate, combustion
Indoor and outdoor concentrations of respirable particulates and
sulfates were measured for at least 1 year in 68 homes in Topeka,
KS; Watertown, MA; St. Louis, MO; Steubenville, ON;
Kingston/Harriman, TN; and Portage, WI. A conservation of mass
model was derived describing indoor concentrations in terms of
outdoor concentrations, infiltration, and indoor sources. The
measured data were analyzed to identify important building
characteristics and to quantify their effects. The mean
infiltration rate of outdoor fine particulates was approximately
70%. Cigarette smoking was the dominant indoor source of
respirable particulates. Increased indoor concentrations of
sulfates were associated with smoking and gas stoves. Full air
conditioning of the building reduced infiltration of outdoor fine
particulates by about 50%, while preventing dilution and purging
of internally generated pollutants. The model for indoor
respirable particulate and sulfate levels compared well with
measurements.
0576
Dook, N., Lebret, E., Willers, H., Winkes, A., Boleij, J.S.M.,
and Brunekreef, B. (1986) "Estimating human exposure to nitrogen
dioxide: results from a personal monitoring study among
housewives", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):407-411.
63
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KEYWORD: N02, personal, exposure, field, outdoor, home, health,
microenvironment, statistical, QA, foreign, Netherlands
Weekly average personal exposure to NO2 was measured in a
population of housewives living in Wageningen, The Netherlands,
together with weekly average indoor N02 concentrations and indoor
N02 peak concentrations. In part of the population, the personal
exposure measurements were repeated. The personal exposure and
the indoor concentrations were in line with those in other
studies in Holland. In general, they were higher than the levels
found in the United States and Canada, but lower than those in
Great Britain and Japan. The N02 peak concentrations were high,
especially in the kitchen. Relationships between personal
exposure and indoor concentrations were investigated using
bivariate and multiple regression techniques. Indoor
concentrations were highly related to personal exposure. The
contribution of peak concentrations to the explanation of
personal exposure was small. An analysis of variance of the
repeated personal exposure measurements showed that, due to
variation of personal exposure in space and/or time, the "error"
variance (within persons) was almost as large as the "true"
variance (due to differences between persons). Therefore,
personal exposure measurements should be reported to obtain
reliable exposure estimates in health effects studies.
0503
Douglas, Richard L., Hans, Joseph M., and Wolff, Theodore A.
(1978), "Working level screening survey of structures constructed
of materials containing pumice", U.S. EPA, Office of Radiation
Programs, Las Vegas, NV 89114 (20 pages). NTIS PB-282446.
KEYWORD: field, radon, architecture, exposure, home, statistical,
source
Researchers describe the results of a screening survey conducted
in several northern New Mexico communities to estimate the levels
of radon progeny (working levels) in buildings constructed of
materials containing pumice. Pumice, a locally produced material
used as a lightweight aggregate in concrete blocks, contains
slightly elevated levels of natural radionuclides. The results
indicate that the use of pumice block may increase the working
levels in the structure, but the effect is so small that it is
difficult to separate it from background variations and from the
variability caused by other parameters.
0700
Doyle, S.M., Nazaroff, W.W., and Nero, A.V. (1984) "Time averaged
indoor radon concentrations and infiltration rates sampled in
64
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four U.S. cities", Health Phys., 47:579-586.
KEYWORD: radon, seasonal, home, field, model, monitor, sampling,
track-etching, radiation, ventilation
Indoor radon concentrations, measured in 58 houses in 4 U.S.
cities during a 4- to 5-month period during the winter and spring
of 1981-82, varied from 0.1-16.0 picoCuries/Liter (pci/L).
Average infiltration rates were determined for each house during
the same period by measuring the effective leakage area and using
an infiltration model. The rates ranged from 0.2-2.2 air changes
per hour. Indoor radon concentrations correlated poorly with
infiltration rates for houses within each city as well as for the
entire sample. Differences in radon entry rates among houses
thus appear to be more important than differences in infiltration
rates in determining indoor radon levels. This conclusion is
consistent with previous indications from grab-sample
measurements. Radon entry rates and indoor concentrations were
generally higher in houses in Fargo, ND, and Colorado Springs,
CO, than in houses in Portland, ME, and Charleston, SC.
0010
Duan, Naihua (May 1981) "Microenvironment types: a model for
human exposure to air pollution", SIMS Technical Report No. 47,
Stanford University, Dept. of Statistics, Stanford, CA 94305 (24
pages).
KEYWORD: activity, SHAPE, model, microenvironment, exposure, EPA$
A conceptual model is presented for computing actual human
exposures to air pollution. The model sums the product of the
pollutant concentration experienced in each of many
microenvironments and the time each person spends there. A
microenvironment is a location of relatively homogeneous
pollutant concentration (home, office, subway, etc.) that a
person occupies during normal daily activities. The concepts
embodied in the Simulation of Human Air Pollution Exposure
(SHAPE) computer model were based partly on this work.
0143
Duan, Naihua (Jan. 1985) "Application of the microenvironment
monitoring approach to assess human exposure to carbon monoxide",
U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711 (88 pages), NTIS PB85-228995.
KEYWORD: CO, methodology, activity, pattern, microenvironment,
personal, exposure, monitor, sample, design, EPA$
This study applies the microenvironment monitoring (MEM) approach
65
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to estimate exposure to CO, using activity time data from the
Washington Urban Scale Study and CO concentration data from the
CO Microenvironment Study (COM3). Estimated MEM exposures are
then compared with estimated personal monitoring (PM) exposures.
MEM exposures are about 40% higher than PM exposures, and MEM
exposure is a powerful predictor of PM exposure. On log-scale,
MEM exposure has the correct span relative to PM exposure; the
discrepancy between the two sets of estimates is a constant
drift. Two major factors could explain this discrepancy. First,
COM3 might have oversampled microenvironments with high CO
concentrations. Second, PM exposures might underestimate actual
exposure because of battery failure. Enhanced personal
monitoring, another microenvironment approach, should be used in
future exposure studies. When only the MEM approach is feasible,
microenvironments should be sampled by a weighted sampling scheme
or a simulated human activity scheme. This study also evaluates
classification schemes for microenvironments.
0032
Duan, Naihua (1982) "Models for human exposure to air pollution",
Environ. Int., 8:305-309.
KEYWORD: model, personal, exposure, monitor, sampling, activity,
microenvironment, EPA$
Four models for human exposure to air pollution are compared.
The simple microenvironment monitoring model measures pollutant
concentrations at fixed locations, regarded as proxies for
similar locations or microenvironments. Since this model does
not require pollutant measurements on the individual level, it is
easy to implement. The model can estimate the average exposure
in a population but cannot estimate the variability and
distribution of individual exposures. The replicated
microenvironment monitoring model provides some estimates of the
variability and distribution. However, because of the possible
discrepancy between distributions of the microenvironment
concentrations and individual concentrations, some adjustment
might be necessary. Integrated personal monitoring allows direct
estimates of the average exposure, as well as the variability and
distribution of exposures in each microenvironment type.
Moreover, such monitoring can also be conducted in conjunction
with a two-stage sampling scheme, using information from a large
data base on activity patterns, and thereby making more efficient
use of the monitoring data. It is also easier to adjust for a
possible Hawthorne effect in this design.
0616
Dudney, C.S., et al. (1986) "Indoor pollutants in 70 houses in
the Tennessee Valley area: study design and measurement methods",
66
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Hochheiser, S., and Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds., "Proceedings of the
1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the measurement of toxic air
pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711,
pp. 116-127. Not yet available from NTIS. ( In press, Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230.)
KEYWORD: N02,C02,CH20,VOC,PAH,03,CO,QA, particulate,home, source,
architecture,radon,sampling, outdoor, ventilation, methodology
Levels of NO2, formaldehyde, vapor-phase polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons, respirable particles, radon, and other parameters
related to indoor air quality are being measured with passive
monitors in a year-long study of indoor air quality in 70 houses
in the Tennessee Valley area. Criteria for house selection
included presence of a lower level with cement floor, one or more
block walls in contact with the soil, and proximity to one of
four cities in the region (Knoxville and Chattanooga, TN; and
Birmingham and Florence, AL). Houses range in age from newly
constructed to about 40 years old, typically have more than 2,000
square feet of finished floor space, and encompass a garage in
the lower level. Six houses near Knoxville were selected for
intensive study. During the summer of 1985, a nearly continuous
record of NO2, CO, CO2, O3, particulate matter, air exchange
rate, and air movement were made. Simultaneously, passive
monitors identical to those used throughout the study were
deployed in the houses for increased replication.
0229
Dudney, C.S. and Walsh, P.J., Eds. (1981) "Report of ad hoc task
force on indoor air pollution", Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Oak Ridge, TN 37831 (190 pages). NTIS ORNL/TM-7679.
KEYWORD: radon, exposure, energy, N02, particulate, CO, CH2O,
asbestos, literature
The quality of air within a structure is likely to be affected by
energy-conserving modifications made on that structure.
Information was reviewed on indoor air pollution and the
potential impact on human health of energy-efficient residences.
Studies that have been done and those in progress indicate that
indoor air pollution may significantly affect human health. The
task force concluded from its investigations that: (1) the indoor
environment is likely to include exposure to radon daughter
nuclides, formaldehyde, CO, N02, respirable particulates, and
asbestos, as well as other undefined pollutants, (2) indoor
exposure may constitute 80% to 95% of the total exposure for some
pollutants, and (3) studies have not been done to provide a basis
for adequate assessment of indoor air quality.
67
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0173
Eckmann, A.D., Dally, K.A., Hanrahan, L.P., and Anderson, H.A.
(1982) "Comparison of the chromotropic acid and modified
pararosaniline methods for the determination of formaldehyde in
air", Environ. Int., 8:159-166.
KEYWORD: CH2O, methodology, sampling, home, field, QA, laboratory
Follow-up tests were performed in 25 complaint homes previously
investigated by the Wisconsin Division of Health to determine
ambient formaldehyde concentrations. Four collection methods
were compared in each home: (1) midget impingers containing
double distilled water and immersed in ice baths, (2) midget
impingers containing 1% sodium bisulfite solution and immersed
in ice baths, (3) midget impingers containing 1% sodium
bilsulfite solution but with no ice bath, and (4) a refrigerated,
complete sampling unit developed at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
that used double distilled water as the collection medium. Four
types of sampling trains were operated simultaneously in a
bedroom, collecting specimens within an area of about 4 square
feet. In the kitchen or living room, all sampling trains, except
the impingers containing 1% sodium bisulfite solution and
immersed in ice baths, were operated together. Samples collected
by these three trains (midget impingers and personal sampling
pumps) gave similar results. All specimens collected in water
were analyzed using both the chromotropic acid and pararosaniline
analytical methods. Quality-control specimens prepared in the
laboratory showed excellent agreement between the two methods;
however, field specimens through which air had been drawn were
assigned lower values using the pararosaniline method. Special
precautions were taken to determine and limit sources of error.
0563
Edling, C., Wingren, G., and Axelson, O. (1986) "Quantification
of the lung cancer risk from radon daughter exposure in
dwellings—an epidemiological approach", Environ. Int., 12(1-
4):55-60.
KEYWORD: radon, lung, source, exposure, field, health, smoking,
statistical, home, foreign, Sweden
Some epidemiological studies have suggested a relationship
between the concentration of decay products from radon (i.e.,
radon daughter exposure) in dwellings and lung cancer. Further
radon measurements have indicated that both building material and
particularly the radioactivity in the ground is of importance for
the leakage of radon into the houses. A survey is underway in 15
68
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Swedish municipalities with alum shale deposits; in one area,
building materials, ground conditions, and occupant smoking
habits are being considered. The study is small, but the results
suggest that there is a risk and that there is a multiplicative
effect from smoking and radon daughter exposure. About 30% of
the lung cancers in the studied population might be attributable
to elevated and potentially avoidable exposure to radon and its
daughters.
0583
Ellett, William H., and Nelson, Neal S. (1985) "Epidemiology and
risk assessment: testing models for radon-induced lung cancer",
Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds.,"Indoor air and
human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O. Drawer 519, Chelsea,
MI 48118, pp. 79-107.
KEYWORD: radon, lung, exposure,dose, model, risk, literature, QA,
epidemiology, health
A number of risk assessments have been developed to measure the
potential risk from indoor radon. Although all use essentially
the same epidemiologic data base, estimated cancer risks differ
by a factor of 6 or more, depending on the assumptions made in
the subsequent analysis. The end result is that the estimated
risks are relatively independent of the observed data. The
researchers set out to answer two questions primarily: (1) how
closely does a particular assumption actually model the clinical
observation and (2) what is the numerical effect of a given
assumption on the final risk estimate? The investigators
compared the assumption made by various groups of risk assessors
(International Commission on Radiation Protection, National
Council for Radiation Protection, U.S. EPA, etc.) and attempted
to identify the crucial assumptions that lead to such a wide
numerical range in the estimated risks of lung cancer
attributable to indoor radon.
0732
Englert, N., von Nieding, G., and Seifert, B. (1986) "Field study
concerning infant respiratory diseases in relation to short-term
increased air pollution (smog episodes) with reference to
extensive indoor/outdoor measurements", proceedings of the 7th
World Clean Air Congress, Sydney, Australia, sponsored by the
International Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations,
pp.274-277.
KEYWORD: biomonitoring,lung, NO2, S02, combustion,smoking,source,
outdoor, health, foreign, West Germany
Pseudocroup (Croup Syndrome, acute stenosig laryngotracheitis)
69
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was studied in West Berlin in winter 1984/85 in cooperation with
the five local pediatric hospitals. This study consisted of a
retrospective study with 2,300 children, a prospective study with
500, and an observational study with 41. The results of the
first two parts suggest that air pollution influences incidence
of pseudocroup when analysed by time and location. The third
study is being evaluated.
0397
Ericson, Sven-Olov, and Schmied, Hannes (1985) "The first long
term comparison of techniques for passive integrated measurement
of radon and radon daughter concentration performed in an
occupied dwelling", Sci. Total Environ., 45:405-415.
KEYWORD: radon, home, exposure, methodology, QA, foreign, Sweden
The accuracy and variance of passive integrating detectors for
radon and radon daughters presently in use in Sweden have been
studied. The results have encouraged the development of improved
calibration procedures for some tested detectors. All tested
detectors that are in general use in Sweden are reasonably
accurate.
0500
Esmen, Nurtan A. (1978) "Characterization of contaminant
concentrations in enclosed spaces", Environ. Sci. Technol.,
12(3):337-342.
KEYWORD: ventilation, statistical, exposure, methodology, model,
source
Generalized equations for contaminant concentration buildup and
decay are developed for an enclosed, ventilated space. The
generalized equations take local mixing factors and source
characteristics into account, and the illustrative cases show
that the usual method of estimation can be totally erroneous.
0197
Everett, J.J., and Dreher, T.J. (1982) "Institutional aspects of
indoor air pollution in energy efficient residences", Environ.
Int., 8:525-531.
KEYWORD: regulation, legal,liability,health, architecture, energy
This paper examines the institutional constraints regarding
indoor air pollution that exist or may be imposed on the housing
industry. These constraints may be manifested in building codes
70
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and health laws, tax incentives and spending subsidies, and/or
regulations restricting the activities of the industry itself. It
also assesses the potential liabilities of designers,
manufacturers, builders, and owners of energy-efficient
residences should they fail to take appropriate actions to
address indoor air quality problems. These liabilities may
result from product liability (defective design or manufacture),
breach of warranty, or negligence, causing harm to people from
indoor air pollution. Currently, institutional controls relating
to residential air pollution are inadequate, and many of the
technical questions regarding the problem have not been resolved.
0686
Feigley, Charles E., and Chastain, James B. (1982) "An
experimental comparison of three diffusion samplers exposed to
concentration profiles of organic vapors", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc.
J., 43:227-234.
KEYWORD: hexane, tetrachloroethane, VOC, sampling, methodology,
QA, benzene, ketone, ethylbenzene, methylethylketone
Three commercial diffusion samplers were evaluated at different
concentration-time profiles of organic vapors in air to
investigate possible sample loss. Separate sets of experiments
were carried out for ethylbenzene, methylethyl ketone, n-hexane,
and 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane. Time-weighted average
concentrations estimated from diffusion samplers were compared
with those from continuous infrared absorption measurements. The
overall mean bias was +7.0%, although considerable difference
from the mean bias was observed for individual combinations of
samplers, exposure profiles, and compound. The overall
coefficient of variation was 6.4%. No significant sample loss
was observed, but the bias was more negative for constant
concentrations near the Federal standard and the shorter
exposures at higher concentrations.
0459
Ferris, Benjamin G., Jr., et al. (1979) "Effects of sulfur oxides
and respirable particles on human health: methodology and
demography of populations in study", Am. Rev. Resp. Dis.,
120:767-779.
KEYWORD: SO2, particulate, outdoor, personal, exposure, monitor,
health, statistical, demographic, distribution
As part of a study of health effects of S02 and particulate
matter, a cohort of adults 25 to 74 years of age living in 6
communities is being followed prospectively. This study had two
components: (1) measurement of the air pollutant concentrations,
71
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especially SO2, sulfates, and respirable particulate matter; and
(2) determination of the effects of these pollutant
concentrations on human health. This paper presents the overall
design of the study and the nature of the populations selected
for evaluation. The researchers considered previous exposure to
atmospheric pollutants and describe the data obtained from the
assessment of health and exposures.
0586
First, Melvin W. (1985) "Constituents of sidestream and
mainstream tobacco smoke and markers to quantify exposure to
them", Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds., "Indoor
air and human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O. Drawer 519,
Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 195-203.
KEYWORD: nicotine, benzo-a-pyrene, pyrene, exposure, phenol, NH3,
NOx, CO, smoking, literature, methodology, biomonitoring,research
Identifying and measuring environmental tobacco smoke is quite
difficult—hampered primarily by (1) determing which of the more
than 3,000 chemicals in tobacco smoke to measure and (2) judging
how well the selected compounds represent all airborne tobacco
smoke that may be present in a diversity of indoor environments.
Often, tobacco smoke components of greatest health interest are
already present in air in very low concentrations, thus making
collection and analysis especially difficult. This had led to
the widespread use of easily measured smoke components such as CO
and total suspended particulate matter as convenient surrogates
for the constituents of real interest. The special problem
associated with the use of these and most other surrogate
compounds is the presence of other sources of the same or similar
compounds unconnected with tobacco smoking and often generating
higher concentrations. Nicotine is a unique compound associated
with tobacco that appears in the particulate phase of smoke in
relatively high concentrations. It has low volatility when
present in smoke particles, has low reactivity in air, and can be
detected and measured at extremely low concentrations in air by
simple and reliable methods. Nicotine appears to be the ideal
tracer for environmental tobacco smoke and a well-established
metabolite of smokers; however, little information has been
developed on the relationship of nicotine and other constituents
in tobacco smoke after dilution and variable residence times in
air.
0554
Fischer, P., Remijn, B., Brunekreef, B., and Biersteker, K.
(1986) "Associations between indoor exposure to N02 and tobacco
smoke and pulmonary function in adult smoking and non-smoking
women", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):11-15.
72
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KEYWORD: exposure,NO2,smoking,lung,distribution,statistical,home,
rural,demographic,epidemiology,health,foreign,Netherlands
Exposure to N02 and tobacco smoke in the home was assessed in a
population of adult women living in a rural area of the
Netherlands. The population was a subpopulation participating in
a large longitudinal study on the natural history and causes of
chronic nonspecific lung disease. Statistically significant
negative associations between pulmonary function and exposure to
NO2 in the home were found in nonsmoking but not in smoking
women. A negative but generally insignificant association was
found between pulmonary function and exposure to tobacco smoke
and pulmonary function in nonsmoking women.
0380
Fischer, Paul, et al. (1984) "Indoor N02 exposure induced effects
on pulmonary functions", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell,
J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity
reactions to sick buildings", Swedish Council for Building
Research, Stockholm, pp. 219-225. NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: NO2, smoking, home, demographic, exposure, epidemiology,
health, lung
The authors established exposure to tobacco smoke and N02 in the
home in a population of adult, rural, nonsmoking women. The
population was a subpopulation participating in a large
longitudinal study on the natural history and causes of chronic
nonspecific lung disease. Statistically significant associations
between pulmonary function and exposure to NO2 as well as tobacco
smoke in the home were found in cross-sectional analyses.
Longitudinal analyses yielded inconsistent results, probably due
to the small number of subjects involved.
0424
Fitz-Simons, Terence, and Sauls, Harold B. (1984) "Using the HP-
41CV calculator as a data acquisition system for personal carbon
monoxide exposure monitors", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.,
34(9):954-956.
KEYWORD: CO2, personal, exposure, monitor, EPA$, CO, methodology,
QA, microenvironment
This paper describes experiences using the Hewlett-Packard HP-
41CV system as a data management system interfaced with personal
carbon monoxide monitors (General Electric Carbon Monoxide
Detector, Model 15EC53C03). In general, the HP-41CV proved to be
reliable, adaptable, and easy to use. Problems with the monitor
73
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power source (battery failure) were more frequent than with the
HP-41CV itself. Using the HP-41CV for the specific data-
collection requirements of the Washington Microenvironment Study
is a focal point of this presentation.
0683
Flachsbart, Peter G. (1985) "Prototypal models of commuter
exposure to CO from motor vehicle exhaust", Paper no. 85-39.6,
presented at the 78th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (16 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, data, emission, exposure, field, microenvironment,
model, monitor, personal, regulation, vehicle, outdoor, source
This paper is directed to environmental engineers and policy
analysts concerned with human exposure to motor vehicle exhaust.
Regulators need to know how variation in vehicle emission factors
contributes to variation in measured human exposure to those
emissions. This paper presents prototypal models of commuter
exposure to CO from motor vehicle exhaust. The models relate
commuter exposure to CO as a dependent variable to several
independent variables, including ambient air quality,
meteorology, and traffic characteristics. Each model attempts to
predict the average CO concentration in parts per million that
the author was exposed to as he rode in his personal automobile
on a 2.4 km (1.5 mile) link of a Honolulu arterial during the
morning peak travel period. Exposure was measured using a
General Electric personal CO detector connected to an integrator.
Quality assurance procedures were followed to improve the
accuracy of the exposure data. The EPA's MOBILE2 model was used
to estimate the source strength of CO emissions from motor
vehicles on the highway. Each model assumed that commuter
exposure was a function of ambient CO levels plus a
microenvironment contribution from motor vehicles on the highway.
All models were evaluated for their explanatory power and
statistical significance.
0024
Flachsbart, Peter G. (Dec. 1982) "Field survey procedures for
monitoring carbon monoxide exposures of office workers and
merchants in the Washington metropolitan area", Report under
cooperative agreement no. CR-810344-01-0, U.S. EPA,
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, NC 27711 (17 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: CO, methodology, office,microenvironment,EPA$, exposure,
monitoring
A protocol is described for surveying the CO exposures of office
74
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workers and merchants in the Washington, DC, metropolitan area
for 6 weeks beginning in January 1983. This protocol specifies
which building microenvironments are to be surveyed, how
frequently and how long they are to be surveyed, what monitoring
instrumentation is to be used, and what types of data are to be
collected.
0011
Flachsbart, Peter G. (Sept. 1982) "Field survey procedures for
measuring carbon monoxide exposures to commuters in the
Washington metropolitan area", Report under cooperative agreement
no. CR-810344-01-1, U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (41 pages). Not
available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: CO, source, QA, vehicle, interior, field, methodology,
microenvironment, EPA$, exposure
A protocol has been developed to monitor CO exposures of
commuters in the Washington, DC, metropolitan area. It specifies
routes to be surveyed for measuring automobile, bus, rail, and
pedestrian microenvironments. It also describes frequency and
times of the surveys; data to be collected for air pollution,
meteorological, route configuration, and traffic variables; and
instrumentation, test vehicles, and technician qualifications.
Data quality assurance planning is essential.
0430
Flachsbart, Peter G. and Ah Yo, Clayton J., (1986) "Test of a
theoretical commuter exposure model to vehicle exhaust in
traffic", Paper no. 86-79.4 presented at the 79th annual meeting
on the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (16 pages).
KEYWORD: model, vehicle, microenvironment, exposure, CO,personal,
monitoring, EPA$
Existing models assume that a commuter's exposure inside a
vehicle is about equal to the roadway concentration. In 1982,
EPA funded a study to develop new microenvironmental models of
commuter exposure to motor vehicle exhaust, using CO as an
indicator pollutant and personal monitors equipped with advanced
data loggers to measure and store commuter exposure data. The
study focused on eight hypothetical automobile commuter routes
during peak travel periods in the metropolitan Washington, DC,
area during 6 weeks of winter 1983. Commuter routes, which
ranged from 15 to 44 km in length, were divided into links of
roughly 0.8 to 4.8 km. Two routes included downtown parking
garages as termini for the morning trip and as origins for the
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evening, homeward-bound, trip. Starting times for each trip on
any given date were chosen randomly to simulate different
starting times among commuters. This paper presents a
theoretical discussion of a microenvironmental model of commuter
exposure, followed by an application and an evaluation of that
model using data collected from the Washington study. The model
shows that the prediction of commuter exposure to CO can be
improved by exponentially diffusing roadway CO into the vehicle
and decaying the initial CO that exists when the vehicle enters a
link.
0671
Flachsbart, Peter G., and Brown, Dennis E. (1986) "A seasonal
study of personal exposure to CO in indoor and outdoor
microenvironments of Honolulu" Paper no. 86-6.9, presented at the
79th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (16 pages).
KEYWORD: field, CO, monitoring, EPA$, monitor, interior, outdoor,
microenvironment, methodology, vehicle, seasonal
This paper describes a field study to determine whether or not
Honolulu's fixed monitors accurately measure general public
exposure to carbon monoxide (CO) in selected microenvironments of
the city. Honolulu's fixed monitoring stations generally
indicate that ambient CO concentrations have not exceeded the
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for CO. Using a
General Electric personal monitor, instantaneous CO readings were
taken at 1-minute intervals over an 8-hour period in Honolulu.
The survey was first conducted on March 23, 1981, with
replication once every 3 months for a year, for a total of 4
surveys. During each 8-hour survey, the authors visited the same
microenvironments including parking garages, buildings on major
streets, sidewalks adjacent to heavy traffic, and inside vehicles
in traffic. Depending on the date, between 57.5% and 98% of the
measured microenvironmental CO concentrations exceeded the hourly
average of 1.1 ppm recorded at the nearest fixed station. At
Honolulu's Ala Moana Shopping Center, the median CO concentration
varied between 14 and 21 ppm, depending on the date, compared to
medians of 1 to 5 ppm at other microenvironments. The exposure
problem at the Ala Moana Center is due to the coexistence of
business outlets, parking, and roadways under one roof.
0013
Flachsbart, Peter G., and Ott, Wayne R. (Feb. 1984) "Field
surveys of carbon monoxide in commercial settings using personal
exposure monitors", U.S. EPA, Office of Research and
Development, Washington, DC 20460 (147 pages). NTIS PB84-211291.
76
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KEYWORD: CO, microenvironment, personal,exposure, monitor, field,
outdoor, EPA$, office
Methodology and findings are summarized from the first large-
scale field survey of commercial settings using miniaturized
personal exposure monitors for CO. A total of 588 commercial
settings were visited, including retail stores, office buildings,
hotels, restaurants, department stores, and adjacent sidewalk and
street locations in five California cities and suburbs.
Altogether, 5,000 CO observations were recorded at 1-minute
intervals as the investigators walked along sidewalks and into
buildings. Average CO concentrations in a 15-story office
building with an attached parking garage were equal to or greater
than 9 ppm (the National Ambient Air Quality Standard for an 8-
hour exposure) on most of the first 10 floors on four of the
seven visits, each visit on a different date. The temporal and
spatial variabilities of CO concentrations and their
relationships to fixed-station measurements are detailed.
0759
Flachsbart, P.G., Mack, G.A., Howes, J.E., and Rodes, C.E. (1987)
"Carbon monoxide exposures to Washington commuters", J. Air
Pollut. Control. Assoc., 37(2):135-142.
KEYWORD: model,vehicle, microenvironment, exposure, CO, personal,
monitoring, assessment, statistical, EPA$, interior
Typical CO concentrations to which automobile, bus, and rail
commuters of the Washington, DC metropolitan area are exposed
were determined on 15 hypothetical routes during winter 1983.
Each route was segmented into several discrete sections. In
addition, the relative importance of several factors were
assessed that explain variability in CO levels inside automobiles
during rush-hour periods. Typical results were: automobile
commuters were exposed to average CO concentrations ranging from
9-14 ppm over trips of 40 to 60 minutes; for bus commuters, 4-8
ppm for trips of 90 to 110 minutes; and rail commuters, 2-5 ppm
for trips of 30 to 45 minutes. The most important factors
influencing CO concentrations inside automobiles were section-to-
section variability, day-to-day variability, and the interaction
between section and commuting period. Variability in CO levels
by route, driver, and factors specific to a particular commute
were moderately important; and between- and within-monitor
variation the least important. Increasing automobile speed from
10 to 60 miles per hour reduced average CO exposure by 35%
regardless of commuting period. The study suggests that
automobile commuters who begin their homeward trips from highly
polluted downtown parking garages may carry residual garage
concentrations with them as they travel along downtown streets.
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0741
Flachsbart, P.G., and Brown, D.E. (1985) "Merchant exposure to CO
from motor vehicle exhaust at Honolulu's Ala Moana shopping
center", Paper no. 85-85.3, presented at the 78th annual meeting
of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (16 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, field, personal, exposure, monitor, architecture,
microenvironment, vehicle, source, methodology, EPA$
Ala Moana Shopping Center in Honolulu, is an example of a
multilevel mix-parking and commercial structure. Honolulu's
Uniform Building Code does not require mechanically operated
ventilation at this center because the parking area is treated as
an open parking garage. In reality, part of the parking area is
a semienclosed structure. CO levels at the center were monitored
on 30 dates from November 1981 through March 1982. On each date,
a sample of 25 businesses was visited during the morning,
afternoon, and early evening. At each business, three
instantaneous CO readings were taken using a General Electric
personal monitor, and employees were counted. The results
indicate that employee exposure to CO was not a problem based on
air quality standards of the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, but may be a problem based on National and Hawaii
Ambient Air Quality Standards.
0712
Flachsbart, Peter G. (1985) "The effectiveness of priority lanes
in reducing commuter travel time and exposure to CO on a Honolulu
arterial", Paper no. 85-41.3, presented at the 78th annual
meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (16 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, field,personal, exposure, monitor, microenvironment,
vehicle, source, methodology, statistical, EPA$
This paper is directed to transportation engineers and planners
concerned with the effectiveness of Transportation System
Management (TSM) strategies for relieving traffic congestion on
urban arterials. The use of priority lanes (contraflow and
withflow) for express buses, carpools, and other high-occupancy
vehicles (HOVs) is an example of TSM. This paper presents the
results of an empirical study of the effectiveness of priority
lanes on a Honolulu arterial in reducing commuter travel time and
exposure to CO from motor vehicle exhaust. Exposure was measured
using a General Electric personal CO detector connected to an
integrator. Quality assurance procedures were followed to
improve the accuracy of the exposure data. Data collectors used
their own motor vehicles and public buses as test vehicles to
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represent travel in restricted and unrestricted lanes of the
highway. Survey results generally showed that priority lanes
were effective in reducing commuter travel time and CO exposure.
The reduction in travel time was about 46% less for carpools, 53%
less for HOVs, and 60% less for express buses. The reduction in
CO exposure was about 18% less for carpools, 28% less for HOVs,
and 61% less for express buses. All results were statistically
significant.
0023
Flachsbart, Peter G. (Dec. 1982) "Revised field survey procedures
for monitoring carbon monoxide exposures of commuters in the
Washington metropolitan area", Report under cooperative agreement
no. CR-810344-01-0, U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (37 pages). Not
available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: CO, field, vehicle, interior, source, methodology, EPA$
A protocol is described for conducting field surveys for
monitoring CO exposure of commuters in the Washington, DC,
metropolitan area for 2 months, beginning January 1983. [This
report revises BLIS #011.]
0286
Flachsbart, Peter G., and Ott, Wayne R. (1986) "A rapid method
for surveying CO concentrations in high-rise buildings", Environ.
Int., 12(1-4):255-264.
KEYWORD: CO,personal,exposure,monitor, source,methodology, field,
EPA$, office, control
A rapid method for employing personal exposure monitors (PEMs) to
measure CO concentrations in high-rise buildings is described.
The purpose is to determine whether a CO problem exists in a
building and, if so, what corrective actions should be taken.
The methodology was applied to a 15-story building in Palo Alto,
CA, where elevated CO concentrations were discovered on the first
11 floors. The source appeared to be an underground parking
garage. A follow-up survey 4 years later revealed that
mitigative measures designed to reduce these concentrations had
been successful. The survey methodology is inexpensive and can
be applied to a number of buildings in a city.
0114
Flachsbart, Peter G., and Brown, Dennis E. (Dec. 1985) "Surveys
of personal exposure to vehicle exhaust in Honolulu
microenvironments", Final report under cooperative agreement no.
79
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CR-808541-01-3, U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems
Laboratory/ Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (166 pages). Not
available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: CO,microenvironment,outdoor,personal, exposure, monitor,
source, EPA$, vehicle, interior
This report describes a use of personal exposure monitors to
measure exposure to CO in parking garage and roadway
microenvironments in Honolulu, HI. A parking garage was
monitored from November 1981 through March 1982, and two roadway
sites were monitored from November 1981 through May 1982. The
main purpose of the study was to determine the seriousness of CO
exposure in the two microenvironments. CO concentrations in the
parking garage exceeded the 1-hour National Ambient Air Quality
Standard of 35 ppm on 60% of the sampling days and the 8-hour
national standard of 9 ppm on every sampling day. CO
concentrations in the parking garage exceeded the 1-hour State
standard of 9 ppm on all sampling days and the 8-hour State
standard of 4.5 ppm on 92% of sampling days. CO concentrations
on the roadways exceeded 35 ppm once but exceeded 4.5 ppm
frequently for several travel modes during the morning and
evening rush hours.
0528
Flanagan, James B., and Ryan, Joseph (1983) "Results of testing
diffusion-type nitrogen dioxide personal monitors at low
concentration", Paper presented at national symposium on recent
advances in pollutant monitoring of ambient air and stationary
sources, held at Raleigh, NC, May 4-7, 1982, U.S. EPA,
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, NC 27711, pp. 369-379. NTIS PB84-148345.
KEYWORD: NO2, personal, monitor, exposure, EPA$, QA, methodology,
sampling
EPA's Clinical Environmental Laboratories were used to test a
commercially available diffusion-type personal NO2 monitor (based
on a design by E.E. Palmes), under conditions simulating
subindustrial exposure levels and while being worn by human
subjects. As many other commercially available personal
monitors, the Palmes tube is optimized for the higher levels of
industrial exposure. The monitors were tested with low ambient
pollutant concentrations under a variety of conditions to
establish their accuracy, precision, collection efficiency, and
the effects of orientation and human wearers. Researchers found
that dosages as low as 2.0 ppm-hr could be measured reliably with
the commercially available Palmes tube kit, although higher
levels of exposure were detected more precisely. The monitor can
be modified to improve sensitivity in the lower limits of
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exposure.
0473
Fleischer, R.L., and Turner, L.G. (1984) "Indoor radon
measurements in the New York Capital District", Health Phys.,
46(5):999-1011.
KEYWORD: radon, monitoring, home, energy, source, architecture,
exposure, seasonal, microenvironment
Radon-222 concentrations were measured in 21 "energy-efficient"
homes and 14 conventional homes in the New York Capital District.
Typical concentrations were averaged over 6 or 12 months, using
solid-state track detectors. Full-year averages were determined
for 23 of the homes, including winter-to-summer variations. In a
number of cases, radon-222 emanations from various construction
materials and soil samples were measured and correlations were
sought with indoor radon-222. Two major patterns emerged. The
living areas of the energy-efficient homes without heat-storage
masses had median radon concentrations 1.6 times higher than
those for conventional homes, and the energy-efficient homes with
heat-storage masses had four to five times the radon-222 of
conventional homes.
0743
Fleischer, R.L. (1984) "Theory of passive measurement of radon
daughters and working levels by the nuclear track technique",
Health Phys., 47(2):263-270.
KEYWORD: radon, radiation, track-etching, exposure, laboratory,
model
A theoretical basis is described for long-term measurement of the
activities of the alpha emitters in air by the track-etching
technique. Inference of the other activities allows deriving
working levels. A set of absorber foils allows using the
differing response to alpha particles of different energies to
identify the relative abundance of the emitters and the
importance of diffusion to surfaces. The method is appropriate
for measuring long-term exposures to radon atmospheres in homes
or mines.
0747
Fleischer, R.L. (1986) "Moisture and 222Rn emanation", General
Electric Company, Corporate Research and Development,
Schenectady, NY 12345 (3 pages).
KEYWORD: radon, source, humidity, literature, laboratory, field,
model, soil
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The release of radon-222 from rocks, minerals, and soils has long
been described in the geochemical literature. More recently
the health physics community has published information showing
effects of moisture on radon release. The publications, however,
do not seriously address the mechanisms by which radon is
released from tailings, shale, soil, etc., and enters the
atmosphere. Because most health physicists do not see the
relevant literature, this note briefly summarizes what is known
of mechanisms and presents some new experimental results.
0746
Fleischer, R.L., Giard, W.R., Mogro-Campero, A., Turner, L.G.,
Alter, H.W., and Gingrich, J.E. (Dec. 1980) "Dosimetry of
environmental radon: methods and theory for low-dose, integrated
measurements", Health Phys., 39(6):957-962.
KEYWORD: radon, monitor, home, health, track-etching,methodology,
exposure, dose
Radon-222 is important as a possible health hazard, an indicator
of subsurface uranium, and a potential aid to predict
earthquakes. Suitably housed track detectors measured radon-222
quantitatively free of other radon isotopes and daughter
nuclides. The technique was calibrated and showed linear
response over a wide range of radon concentrations, times of
exposure, and doses. Exposures down to 10 picoCurie per liter
per day can be measured.
0167
Fleischer, R.L., Mogro-Campero, A., and Turner, L.G. (1982)
"Indoor radon levels: effects of energy-efficiency in homes",
Environ. Int., 8:105-109.
KEYWORD: radon, seasonal, energy, home, track-etching, exposure,
health, ventilation, methodology, architecture, soil
In northeastern New York State, homes that are more airtight have
three times the radon-222 levels of the conventional homes; they
have other specific problems that are introduced or exaggerated
by modern construction. For example, the two highest levels of
radon in the solar homes studied would give extrapolated doses
over 30 years that are known to produce lung cancer in 1% of
uranium miners. Summer readings in more than one-half of the
cases are different from winter ones by a factor of two or more,
so that year-round measurements are necessary. The track-etching
technique is ideally suited for such measurements. Radon
emanation measurements on soils demonstrate highly variable
release rates.
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0742
Fleischer, R.L., Turner, L.G., and George, A.C. (1984) "Passive
measurement of working levels and effective diffusion constants
of radon daughters by the nuclear track technique", Health
Phys., 47(1):9-19.
KEYWORD: radon, track-etching, architecture, monitor, laboratory
Working level ratios (WLRs) and the effective diffusion constants
of radon daughters were measured using a special housing designed
to provide a uniform diffusional environment at the passive
detectors. For two of seven exposures, the measured scale of the
diffusion was too large to satisfy the uniformity requirement.
For the other five, it was satisfied, and reasonable WLRs were
obtained. Such a housing could be used for extended area working
level measurements, but it is too bulky for personnel dosimetry.
Personnel dosimetry is possible in mines using a passive area
measurement of WLR combined with individual passive radon-222
measurements.
0752
Fleischer, Robert L. (1982) "Lung cancer and phosphates",
Environ. Int., 8:381-385.
KEYWORD: radon, phosphate, outdoor, health, statistical, source,
distribution, radiation, research, lung, demographic
U.S. counties with phosphate mining or processing facilities
frequently also have significantly elevated rates of mortality
from lung cancer. The author compared areas having high
mortality rates from lung cancer with those containing phophate
deposits, mines, or processing plants. Both white and nonwhite
populations showed correlations which are improbable by pure
chance. They should be examined on a site-by-site basis to
establish whether radon-222 emissions from radium-222 in the
phosphates are a significant factor in the elevated cancer
mortality.
0749
Fleischer, Robert L. (1986) "Serendipitous dosimetry - an
opportunity and an opportunity lost", General Electric Company,
Corporate Research Development, Schenectady, NY 12345 (3 pages).
KEYWORD: dose, monitor, laboratory, literature, track-etching,
health
Incidental dosimeters—glass, glazes on ceramics—existed at
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Hiroshima and at Nagasaki, Japan sites of the World War II atomic
bombings. Unfortunately, recognition of the possibility of using
particle track-etching on such materials to measure radiation
doses arose long after the atomic bombs were used. As a result,
no adequate track dosimeters at Hiroshima or Nagasaki have been
identified. The author cites plastic eyeglasses to be analogous
dosimeters which might be used to measure radon exposure of
people who die of lung cancer. Supporting arguments are
presented for this idea.
0677
Fleischer, Robert L., Mogro-Campero, Antonio, and Turner, Larry
G. (1983) "Indoor radon levels in the northeastern U.S.: effects
of energy-efficiency in homes", Health Phys., 45:407-412.
KEYWORD: radon, track-etching, energy, monitor, health, seasonal,
dose, home, architecture, exposure
The expectations of elevated radon-222 levels in modern energy-
efficient homes prompted a survey of solar and conventional homes
in northeastern New York State. The solar homes as a group have
three times the radon-222 levels of the conventional homes, and
specific problems exist that are introduced or exaggerated by
modern construction. For example, the two highest levels of
radon in the solar homes give radiation doses over 30 years that
are known to produce lung cancer in 1% of uranium miners. Summer
readings in more than half of the cases are different from winter
ones by a factor of two or more, so that year-round measurements
are necessary for precise dosimetry. The track-etching technique
is ideally suited for such measurements.
0310
Fletcher, Robert A. (1984) "A review of personal/portable
monitors and samplers for airborne particles", J. Air Pollut.
Control Assoc., 34(10):1014-1016.
KEYWORD: particulate, personal, exposure, monitor,methodology,QA,
literature, laboratory
Personal and portable particulate monitors and samplers for
measuring and sampling airborne particulate matter are reviewed.
These monitors and samplers are proving to be valuable tools for
assessing individual exposure to environmental and occupationally
generated particulates. The devices are characterized in terms
of their sampling characteristics, monitoring or measurement
techniques, particle size separation (50% cut point)
capabilities, sampling flow rate, and sampling duration per one
battery-charging cycle. All of the monitors and some of the
samplers are commercially available. Commercial sources and
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originators (in the case of research devices) are listed.
0129
Fletcher, Robert A., and Bright, David S. (Jan. 1983) "NBS
portable ambient particulate sampler", NBSIR 82-2561, National
Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD 20234 (43 pages). NTIS
PB83-165019/LL.
KEYWORD: particulate, methodology, sampling, personal,exposure,
monitor, EPA$
The National Bureau of Standards portable ambient particulate
sampler is designed to collect the respirable and inhalable
particle size fractions at a sampling rate of 6 L/min for 24-hour
sampling periods. Particulates are fractionated and collected by
series filtration. The collection efficiency of the inlet is
measured by comparison with isokinetic probes in the wind tunnel.
The collection efficiency and sampling size characteristics of
two small personal cyclone samplers are also reported.
0095
Fortmann, R.C., Borrazzo, J.E., and Davidson, C.I. (Aug. 1984)
"Characterization of parameters influencing indoor pollutant
concentrations", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J.,
Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal
exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp
259-264. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: NO, NO2, CO, S02, CH2O, appliance, combustion, home,
source, energy
Emissions of NO, NO2, CO, SO2, and formaldehyde were measured by
placing sampling hoods around gas-fired appliances at two
residences in Pittsburgh, PA: a 1-year-old town house with tight
weatherization and new appliances and a 50-year-old house without
weatherization and with older appliances. Preliminary data
suggest that emissions of NO, NO2, and formaldehyde are lower
from the cast-iron burners of the older stove than from the
pressed-steel burners of the new stove. CO emissions were
similar. For range-top burners of both stoves, increases in the
gas burn rate (kcal/min) resulted in greater emission factors
(ug/kcal) for NO, but smaller emission factors for NO2. Emission
factors for CO were lowest at intermediate gas burn rates. At
the older house, fugitive furnace emissions were small, and water
heater emissions were undetectable.
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0133
Fowle, J.R. Ill, et al. (Aug. 1984) "Workshop proceedings:
approaches for improving the assessment of human genetic risk—
human biomonitoring", U.S. EPA, Office of Health and
Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC 20460 (48 pages). NTIS
PB84-154723.
KEYWORD: exposure, biomonitoring, regulation, risk, health, EPA$
Federal laws require a consideration of adverse health effects,
including mutagenicity, in arriving at regulatory decisions on
chemical substances. Certain laws require quantitatively
balancing consequences of these risks with benefits provided by
use of chemicals. Human genetic risk can be estimated indirectly
based on data from animal experimentation and human somatic
cells, but it is not practical to estimate genetic risk directly
based on data from human germ cells. Indirect estimates are
highly debated because of uncertainties about interspecies and
interorgan extrapolations. Further complicating genetic risk
assessments are uncertainties in extrapolating from effects
observed in animals at high experimental doses to effects likely
to occur in humans at much lower environmental levels.
Comparative studies are needed to define the relationships
between somatic cell and germ cell events and between
experimental animals and humans. This work may involve studying
at least one high-risk human population. These efforts will
require long-term coordination of efforts among Federal and other
government agencies, industry, and academia.
0723
Frank, Robert, and Lebowitz, Michael D. (1981) "Editorial: the
risk of staying in", Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., pp. 521-522.
KEYWORD: smoking, multipollutant,microenvironment, risk,exposure,
health, literature, research, energy, ventilation
This essay reviews the sources and health effects of the most
common indoor air pollutants. Reduced ventilation to conserve
energy has increased exposures and health risks. However, the
health effects of many pollutants are uncertain, and reliable
exposure data are not yet available. With further research, an
efficient balance of energy conservation and air quality is
achievable.
0328
Friberg, Lars, and Vahter, Marie (1983) "Assessment of exposure
to lead and cadmium through biological monitoring: results of a
UNEP/WHO global study", Environ. Res., 30:95-128.
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KEYWORD: Pb, Cd, biomonitoring, demographic, smoking, health, QA,
personal, exposure, foreign, multinational
This paper describes a UN Environment Programme/World Health
Organization project on the assessment of human exposure to Pb
and Cd. Several countries participated: Belgium, India, Israel,
Japan, Mexico, People's Republic of China, Peru, Sweden, United
States, and Yugoslavia. No laboratory started the monitoring
before achieving satisfactory quality control. In each country,
200 teachers from one urban area constituted the target group for
Pb and Cd in blood and cases of "sudden, unexpected death" for Cd
in kidney cortex. Quality control samples were analyzed in
parallel with the monitoring samples to ensure validity of the
obtained results. Metal exposure varied considerably between
areas. In general, males had higher blood Pb levels than females
and smokers higher than nonsmokers. With a few exceptions, the
values were lower than results reported in a recent study within
the European communities. Cd levels were considerably higher
among smokers than among nonsmokers.
0334
Fugas, Mirka (1984) "Estimation of total exposure to air
pollution", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.
"Indoor air, vol. 1, recent advances in the health sciences and
technology", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm,
pp. 53-57. NTIS PB85-104180.
KEYWORD: TEAM, biomonitoring, personal, exposure, monitor, model,
literature
A short history of the development of total human exposure
studies and the ways of accomplishing such assessments
(biological monitoring, personal exposure measurements, modeling)
are discussed. Past indoor air quality research focused on
industrial environments. Fixed outdoor monitoring methods were
found to be inadequate for measuring actual human exposure. The
1975 International Conference on Environmental Sensing and
Assessment is cited as a turning point in attitude toward the
need to improve human exposure assessment methods. With progress
in microelectronics development came the possibility of producing
devices capable of making direct, personal exposure measurements.
The variety and use of personal exposure monitors summarized.
Field study methodology and the components of exposure modeling
are highlighted.
0573
Fugas, M. (1986) "Assessment of true human exposure to air
pollution", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):363-367.
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KEYWORD: personal, exposure, methodology, model, outdoor, health,
biomonitoring, multipollutant, activity, literature, research
Only recently have scientists recognized the true exposure of
people to a pollutant can only be assessed by considering all
routes of intake (as well as concentration changes in the
exposure medium). The exposure of the general population to air
pollution was and often still is assessed from the data obtained
at outdoor monitoring stations. The concept of total exposure
was developed only after both the scientists studying health
effects and those studying indoor climate came to the same
conclusion: people's exposure does not stop once they come home.
A historical review, recent developments, and current trends in
the approach to total exposure assessment are presented.
0788
Fugas, M., et al (1972) "Concentration levels and urban particle size;
distribution of lead in the air of an urban and industrial area as a
basis for the calculation of population exposure", Proceedings
International Symposium on Environmental Health Aspects Of Lead,
Amsterdam (Netherlands), October 2-6, 1972.
KEYWORD: exposure,occupational,Yugoslavia,foreign,outdoor,particul
ate, Pb,respirable
It was attempted to make a realistic evaluation of the total exposure
to lead in air of certain population groups during their various
outdoor and indoor activities. The size-weight distribution of lead
in outdoor air and respirable lead fraction in occupational exposure
were also determined.The results show that the exposure of an average
citizen are not necessarily well represented by the average lead in
air concentration of the area in which he lives. It is also shown
that some populations are exposed to comparable weighted-average
concentrations of lead in air, which could not be concluded from the
data on occupational or urban exposure only.
0049
Fugas, Mirka (1975) "Assessment of total exposure to an air
pollutant", Paper no. 38-5 in "International conference on
environmental sensing and assessment, held September 14-19, Las
Vegas, NV, vol. 2", Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers, New York, NY (3 pages).
KEYWORD: Pb, Mg, SO2, field, outdoor, personal,exposure, foreign,
Europe
The relative merits of assessing the exposure of urban dwellers
to an air pollutant from the data obtained by fixed outdoor
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monitoring networks, by personal sampling, and by calculation of
weighted weekly exposure are discussed. Measurements of the
concentration of Pb, Mg, and SO2 in air show some unusual
indoor/outdoor relationships in the densely populated old centers
of European-type towns. The estimated weighted weekly exposures
calculated from these data show that the total exposure of an
urban dweller to an air pollutant may deviate from a fraction to
a multiple of the concentration recorded at the nearest outdoor
monitoring station. This demonstrates the importance of
adjusting the health-related monitoring program to actual human
exposure patterns.
0737
Fugas, M. (1982) "Environmental monitoring of solvent exposure"
Collins, A.J., Luxon, S.G., Eds., "Proceedings of the
international symposium on the safe use of solvents held at the
University of Sussex, Brighton, UK," pp. 306-315.
KEYWORD: solvent,methodology, literature, monitor, VOC, exposure,
source, biomonitoring, environment,TEAM, foreign,Yugoslavia
This paper presents an overview of the history and development of
methods to monitor human exposure to solvents. Total Human
Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) is outlined, with emphasis
on the complex process of collecting air samples representative
of the general population. Fixed ambient air monitoring and
personal monitoring are compared. Both direct personal
measurements and calculated time-weighted methods are outlined.
Biological indices are discussed in a section on actual human
solvent uptake (dose). Research on human exposure to solvents
from both air and drinking water is reviewed. The author
concludes that very little is known about human exposure to
solvents and even less about contamination of the environment by
solvents.
0744
Gammage, Richard B., et al. (1983) "Temporal fluctuations of
formaldehyde levels inside residences", Frederick, Edward R., et
al., Eds.,"Proceedings of the specialty conference on measurement
and monitoring of noncriteria (toxic) contaminants in air, held
in March of 1983 ", Publication SP-50, Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230, pp. 453-462.
KEYWORD: CH20, home, field, seasonal,monitoring, energy,activity,
ventilation, temperature, weather, control, architecture
Formaldehyde levels were measured in three houses (a 10-year-old
home, a 3-year-old home prefitted with urea-formaldehyde foam
insulation (UFFI), and a 2-year-old energy-efficient home) using
89
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active and passive air sampling devices with subsequent
colorimetric analysis by the pararosaniline procedure. Diurnal
formaldehyde concentrations inside each house varied by up to a
factor of two. Over a year, concentration within the 3-year-old
UFFI house varied by an order of magnitude. These changes
appeared to correlate with factors such as temperature, weather,
and occupant activity. Inside the 2-year-old house, the effects
on formaldehyde levels of increased ventilation rate and the
operation of a small charcoal-based air cleaner were studied.
The results suggest that the levels were not inversely
proportional to the air exchange rate, as one might expect, and
that the air cleaner was ineffective.
0098
Gammage, R.B., White, D. Alan, and Gupta, K.C. (Aug. 1984)
"Residential measurements of high volatility organics and their
sources", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.,
"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal
exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
157-162. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: VOC, ventilation,field,home, gasoline,exposure, outdoor,
source
An ongoing study is measuring the levels of volatile organic
chemicals (VOCs) inside 40 homes in east Tennessee and
identifying some of their sources. This report focuses on VOCs
with boiling points below 110 degrees. Concentrations indoors
were usually at least 10 times higher than those of outdoor air.
The highly volatile compounds were generally dominated by
gasoline fumes. Attached garages, automobiles, stored gasoline,
and motor oil were responsible for the ubiquitousness of gasoline
in indoor air. Air drawn into air conditioning duct work located
in attached garages proved to be effective in tunneling gasoline
and other engine exhaust fumes into the living zones of the
house. Other types of VOCs, including chlorinated VOCs and their
sources, are currently being studied. [See Hawthorne, BLIS #134,
for an abstract of the final report.]
0658
Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds. (1984) "Indoor
air and human health, proceedings of the seventh Oak Ridge
National Laboratory life sciences symposium, Knoxville, TN,
October 29-31, 1984", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O. Drawer 519,
Chelsea, MI 48118 (430 pages).
KEYWORD: methodology, multipollutant, source, health, exposure,
monitoring, risk, personal
90
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Occupants of work places and homes increasingly complained of
discomfort and sickness as a result of energy conservation
efforts of the 1970s. The conference was a recognition of the
importance of developing a better understanding of the indoor
environment. Data were presented on indoor levels and health
effects in humans and animals from five principal classes of
pollutants: radon, microorganisms, passive cigarette smoke,
combustion products, and organics. Factors such as measurements,
source characterization, habitat studies, health effects, risk
analysis, and future research needs were examined for each class.
0615
Gammage, R.B., White, D.A., Higgins, C.E., Buchanan, M.V., and
Guerin, M.R. (1986) "Total volatile organic compounds (VOC) in
the indoor air of east Tennessee homes", Hochheiser, S., and
Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds., "Proceedings of the 1986 EPA/APCA
symposium on the measurement of toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-
86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, pp. 104-116. Not yet available
from NTIS. (In press, Air Pollution Control Association, P.O.
Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230.)
KEYWORD: VOC, field,sampling, halocarbon,exposure,home, aromatic,
hydrocarbon, 1aboratory
Total volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were measured in the
winter in eight homes in east Tennessee. The mean concentration
of total VOCs indoors was 1.03 mg/m3, with a range of 0.09 to
3.67 mg/m3. The corresponding values for outside air samples
were 0.08 mg/m3 and 0.003 to 0.44 mg/m3. Hence the indoor-to-
outdoor ratios were about 10:1. There were marked differences in
both the total loadings and complexities of VOC among different
homes and within a given home. About 10 liters of air were drawn
through composite sorbent traps containing Tenax GC and two
carbonaceous resins. The trapped VOCs were desorbed thermally
and analyzed by gas chromatography/flame ionization detection
(GC/FID). The counts from all peaks in the chromatograms were
integrated and used to estimate total VOCs relative to the FID
response to a standard composed of chlorinated and nonchlorinated
aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. The most volatile compounds
measured were alkanes, chlorinated hydrocarbons of any size, and
oxygenated hydrocarbons with 2 or more carbons. The types of
compounds that should be included in definitions of total VOCs
are discussed.
0598
Gammage, R.B., and Kaye, S.V. (1984) "Abstract book: indoor air
and human health", 7th Oak Ridge National Laboratory Life
Sciences Symposium, Knoxville, TN, October 29, 1984 (72 pages).
91
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NTIS DE85-001081.
KEYWORD: literature, multipollutant,exposure, source,methodology,
personal, health, source, monitoring, risk
This volume contains the abstracts of papers presented at the Oak
Ridge National Laboratory's 7th Life Sciences Symposium on Indoor
Air Pollutants and Their Human Health Implications. The full
papers are in BLIS #658, and abstracts are included individually
in BLIS.
0248
Gammage, Richard B., and Hawthorne, Alan R. (April 1984) "Current
status of measurement techniques and levels of formaldehyde in
residences", Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN
37831(31 pages). NTIS DE84-011660.
KEYWORD: CH20, sampling, seasonal, source, methodology, home, QA,
architecture, weather
For measuring levels of formaldehyde in residences, the trend is
toward the increased use of passive integrating monitors. This
popularity is due to ease of use, cost-effectiveness, ability to
provide time-weighted-average concentrations over periods of one
or more days, and a sensitivity sufficient to make accurate
measurements down to the 0.01-ppm range. The more traditional
modified National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
method lacks the sensitivity to make accurate measurements at the
0.1 ppm or lower concentrations that are encountered frequently
inside houses. More rigorous comparisons of various monitoring
systems should be conducted, under both laboratory and field
conditions. Marked dependence of formaldehyde concentrations on
building age is observed for different classes of dwellings,
including modern conventional houses. Levels of formaldehyde
generally average about 0.03 ppm in older conventional homes. In
mobile homes and a fraction of new and urea-formaldehyde foam
insulated homes, mean levels of formaldehyde frequently exceed
0.1 ppm. More systematic data are needed on the frequency and
magnitude of short-term peak exposures as well as long-term
seasonal variations in levels of formaldehyde. Limited studies
have revealed diurnal and seasonal within-house fluctuations of
two- and tenfold, respectively. Occasional excursions to 0.1 ppm
seem to occur in most houses.
0631
Garry, V.F., Oatman, L., Pleus, R., and Gray, D. (Feb. 1980)
"Formaldehyde in the home, some environmental disease
perspectives", Minn. Med., February:107-111.
92
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KEYWORD: CH20, temperature, humidity, home, health, distribution,
seasonal, exposure, source, architecture, field, demographic
Sources of formaldehyde (CH2O) in homes include urea-formaldehyde
foam insulation (UFFI), urea-formaldehyde bonded structural
materials, shampoos, and combustion. CH20 emits more rapidly
from material when temperature and humidity are high. In
response to health complaints from 275 Minnesota residents, the
Minnesota Department of Health measured CH2O concentrations in
their homes. Data on medical histories, demographics, and indoor
CH2O sources also were gathered. Homes with strong CH2O sources
and/or poor ventilation had higher CH2O levels. These homes
tended to have more health complaints.
0292
Gebifugi, Istavan, and Korte, Friedhelm (Aug. 1984) "Indoor
contamination of household articles through pentachlorophenol and
lindane", Berglund, B., Lindvall T., and Sundell, J., Eds.,
"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal
exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
317-322. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: pesticide,1indane,home,field,particulate, biomonitoring,
PCP, foreign, Germany, wood
Household articles were analyzed for pentachlorophenol (PCP) and
lindane concentrations in selected homes in West Germany. These
chemicals were active ingredients in wood-preserving paints used
in the study homes, resulting in measurable air contaminants and
blood concentration levels. Most textile and timber samples
contained high levels of PCP and lindane.
0172
Geisling, K.L., Tashima, M.K., Girman, J.R., Miksch, R.R., and
Rappaport, S.M. (1982) "A passive sampling device for determining
formaldehyde in indoor air", Environ. Int., 8:153-158.
KEYWORD: CH2O, sampling, methodology, outdoor, home, laboratory
A passive sampling device based on the principle of diffusion has
been developed for determining formaldehyde (CH2O) in ambient
air. The sampler consists of a capped glass tube in which CH2O
is entrapped by NaHS03 (sodium bisulfite) on a glass-fiber
filter. In the field, the device collects a sample by being
uncapped for a specified time. After being recapped, it is
analyzed in the laboratory. Laboratory validation studies were
conducted by exposing the sampling devices for 1 week to dry CH20
gas concentrations ranging from 0.05 to 0.80 mL/m3.
Reproducibility was excellent, with relative standard deviations
93
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averaging 5.4% for five constant concentrations. The lower
detection limit was 3.6 mL/m3 over 1 hour. In an occupational
environment, an 8-hour sample would be sufficient to detect
compliance with the Federal permissible exposure limit of 3 mL/m3
in the workplace; in a residential environment, a 1-week sample
would allow detection of 0.025 mL/m3 for indoor air quality
audits.
0467
George, A.C., Knutson, E.G., and Franklin, H. (1983) "Radon and
radon daughter measurements in solar buildings", Health Phys.,
45(2):413-420.
KEYWORD: radon, exposure, architecture, ventilation, energy
Measurements of radon and radon daughters in 11 buildings in five
states, using active or passive solar heating, showed no
significant excess in concentrations over the levels measured in
buildings with conventional heating systems. Radon levels in two
buildings using rock storage in their active solar systems
exceeded the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission's limit of 3
picoCuries/Liter (pCi/L) for continuous exposure in uncontrolled
areas. In the remainder of the buildings, radon concentrations
were normal. It appears that the slightly elevated indoor radon
concentrations were a result of local geological formations and
tightening of the buildings, rather than as a result of the solar
heating technology.
0725
George, A. C., Lowder, W., Fisenne, I., Knutson, E.O., and
Hinchliffe, L. (1983) "EML indoor radon workshop, 1982", U.S.
Department of Energy, New York, NY 10014 (114 pages).
KEYWORD: radon, foreign, methodology, control, research, source,
exposure, monitor, ventilation, model, home, multinational
A workshop on indoor radon, held at the Environmental
Measurements Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, on November
30 and December 1, 1982, covered recent developments in radon and
radon daughter research and development. There were 48
participants from the United States, Austria, Canada, France,
Sweden, and People's Republic of China. Thirty papers were
presented dealing with standardization and quality assurance
measurement methods, surveys, measurements strategy, physical
mechanisms of radon and radon daughter transport, and development
of guidance standards for indoor exposures. The workshop
concluded with a planning session that identified the following
needs: (1) national and international comparisons of techniques
for measuring radon and radon daughter concentrations, working
94
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levels, and radon exhalation flux density; (2) development and
refinement of practical measurement techniques for thoron and its
daughter products; (3) quantitative definition of the sources of
indoor radon and the mechanisms of transport into structures; (4)
better knowledge of the physical properties of radon daughters;
(5) more complete and accurate data on population exposure to
radon, which can only be met by broadly based surveys; and (6)
more international cooperation and information exhange among
countries with major research programs. This report contains all
the papers presented at the workshop and an overview analysis.
The recommendations and conclusions resulting from the workshop
are also included.
0466
George, A.C., and Eng, J. (1983) "Indoor radon measurements in
New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania", Health Phys., 45(2):397-
400.
KEYWORD: radon, exposure, monitoring, home, distribution, field
The distribution of radon-222 in 33 buildings near Canonsburg,
PA, Lewiston, NY, and Middlesex, NJ, was investigated over 2
years. Time-integrated measurements of radon concentration
(repeated several times for 1- or 2-week periods during the
study) were obtained in the living and working areas of the
buildings. Average air concentrations of radon, measured over
the study period, varied from 0.32 to 4.5 picoCuries/Liter
(pCi/L) among the buildings, but in only one building did the
annual radon concentration exceed the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission's limit of 3 pCi/L for continuous exposure in
uncontrolled areas.
0325
Georghiou, Paris E., Snow, David, and Williams, David T. (1983)
"Formaldehyde monitoring in urea-formaldehyde foam-insulated
houses in St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada: correlative field
evaluation of a real-time infrared spectrophotometric method",
Environ. Int., 9:279-287.
KEYWORD: CH2O, field,outdoor, methodology, home, source, weather,
foreign, exposure, Canada
Formaldehyde air levels in a group of houses containing urea-
formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI) in St. John's, Newfoundland,
Canada, were measured on at least four occasions. The method
developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health and a portable, commercially available single-beam
infrared spectrophotometer were used. Little correlation was
found between the two methods. Formaldehyde air levels were
95
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significantly higher in the UFFI-insulated houses than in the
control group, which did not contain UFFI. Large daily
variations in formaldehyde levels could be observed in some
selected UFFI houses, attributable mostly to changes in exterior
conditions. In particular, direct sunlight on UFFI-containing
walls greatly increased formaldehyde levels.
0465
Gesell, Thomas F. (Aug. 1983) "Background atmospheric 222Rn
concentrations outdoors and indoors: a review", Health Phys.,
45(2):289-302.
KEYWORD: outdoor, radon, literature, source, seasonal, EPA$,
exposure, weather
The sources of outdoor and indoor atmospheric radon are examined.
The variation of outdoor atmospheric radon with time of day, time
of year, altitude, and geographic location is quantitatively
assessed. Outdoor atmospheric radon concentrations for normal
areas of the contiguous United States range between 100 and 400
pico Curies per cubic meter (pCi/m3), with the mean probably
about 250 pCi/m3. Values for Alaska and Hawaii are an order of
magnitude lower. Indoor atmospheric radon concentrations vary
with time of day, geographic location, and distance above ground
level.
0104
Girman, J.R., Allen, J.R., and Lee, A.Y. (1986) "A passive
sampler for water vapor", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):461-465.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure, methodology, QA, sampling, humidity
This preliminary study reports on improvements made to a passive
sampler for water vapor and on tests to determine its suitability
for studies of indoor air quality. The tests demonstrated that
it has the precision, accuracy, linear response with exposure,
sensitivity, and capacity necessary for large-scale studies to
determine absolute humidities inexpensively.
0176
Girman, J.R., Apte, M.G., Traynor, G.W., Allen, J.R., and
Hollowell, C.D. (1982) "Pollutant emission rates from indoor
combustion appliances and sidestream cigarette smoke", Environ.
Int., 8:213-221.
KEYWORD: CO, C02, NO, N02, CH20, particulate, source, combustion,
model, laboratory, smoking, ventilation, appliance, kerosene
96
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Indoor pollutants resulting from operating one of several
combustion appliances, or from sidestream tobacco smoke, were
measured in a 27-m3 environmental chamber under varying
ventilation rates. The combustion appliances investigated were
gas-fired cooking stoves, unvented kerosene-fired space heaters,
and unvented natural-gas-fired space heaters. Results showed
elevated levels of C02, CO, NO, N02, formaldehyde, and suspended
particles from one or more of the pollutant sources investigated.
Of the sources examined in this study, NO2 from combustion
appliances and particles from sidestream cigarette smoke appear
to be the most serious contaminants of indoor air, using existing
standards and guidelines as the criteria. An emission rate model
was used to quantify the strengths of the pollutant sources,
which are reported in terms of the mass of pollutant emitted per
energy unit of fuel consumed or per mass of tobacco burned.
0230
Girman, J.R., Geisling, K.L., and Hodgson, A.T. (June 1983)
"Sources and concentrations of formaldehyde in indoor
environments", Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of
California, Berkeley, CA 94720. NTIS PB83-015945.
KEYWORD: CH2O, home ,combustion, energy, exposure, source, field,
laboratory, appliance, architecture
Formaldehyde (CH2O), a common component of resins used in many
building materials, can be released from these materials into the
indoor environment. Unvented combustion appliances such as
ranges and heaters also emit CH2O. Emission rates from a variety
of combustion appliances are discussed, and the CH2O
concentrations detected in 40 residential indoor environments are
summarized. Houses designed to be energy efficient had higher
CH2O concentrations than inefficient but weatherized houses.
0249
Girman, J.R., Hodgson, A.T., Newton, A.W., and Winkes, A.W.
(1986) "Volatile organic emissions from adhesives with indoor
applications", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):317-321.
KEYWORD: CH20, VOC, toluene, styrene, alkane, source, model,
laboratory, architecture
Studies have shown that volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted
from building materials are a potentially important source of
indoor air pollution. In this study, solvent- and water-based
adhesives were applied to an inert substrate and dried for at
least a week. VOCs were cryogenically trapped and identified by
gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) or sorbent trapped,
solvent extracted and quantified by GC/flame ionization
97
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detection. Among the compounds emitted by adhesives were
toluene, styrene, and a variety of normal, branched, and cyclic
alkanes. The measured emission rates varied by three orders of
magnitude. A simple, well-mixed-tank model was used to assess
the potential impacts of the adhesives studied and to demonstrate
that adhesives can be significant sources of VOCs.
0767
Girman, J.R., Allen, J.R., Apte, M.G., Martin, V.M., and Traynor,
G.W. (1983) "Pollutant emission rates from unvented gas-fired
space heaters: a laboratory study", Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory,
University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 (53 pages). NTIS
LBL-14502.
KEYWORD: combustion, CO2, CO, CH20, NO, NO2, source, ventilation,
laboratory, particulate, model, appliance
This study determined emission rates and source strengths of a
variety of pollutants emitted from eight unvented gas-fired space
heaters operated with well adjusted air shutters at partial and
full input in a 27-m3 chamber under a range of ventilation
conditions. Emission rates were also determined for some heaters
with poorly adjusted air shutters. CO, CO2, NO, N02,
formaldehyde, and respirable suspended particles, were monitored
as well as O2 consumption rates. Emissions of NO2 and CO2 from
all heaters were high enough to cause concern, both in single-
room environments and, based upon calculation, in residential-
sized buildings. Depending upon the particular heater and its
air shutter adjustment, emissions of CO and, to a lesser extent,
formaldehyde can cause concern. Emission rates from this study
can be used along with information about building characteristics
to calculate pollutant levels in a wide variety of indoor
environments.
0062
Godin, Gaetan, Wright, Geoff, and Shepard, Roy J. (1972) "Urban
exposure to carbon monoxide", Arch. Environ. Health, 25(5):
305-313.
KEYWORD: CO, field, sampling, source, smoking, weather, outdoor,
statistical, methodology, combustion, office
Some 500 "grab" samples of air were collected during normal urban
life and analyzed for CO. Concentrations were correlated with
sunshine, rainfall, wind speed, and traffic density using
nonparametric and multiple-regression techniques. Local traffic
density (td) accounted for 63% of the variance; equations based
on td describe the CO exposure (log [x + 1] ppm) encountered by
pedestrians (0.59 +/~ 0.133 td) and car drivers (0.92 +/~ 0.086
98
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td). Attenuation away from busy streets is rapid. In downtown
offices, concentrations follow the general atmospheric pattern.
Smoking can bring indoor concentrations above permitted 24-hour
levels.
0748
Godish, Thad (1983) "Interpretation of one-time formaldehyde
sampling results from measurements of environmental variables",
Frederick, Edward R., et al., Eds., "Proceedings of the specialty
conference on measurement and monitoring of noncriteria (toxic)
contaminants in air, held in March of 1983 ", Publication SP-50,
Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230, pp. 463-467.
KEYWORD: CH2O, model, home, outdoor, temperature, architecture,
humidity, laboratory, statistical
The relationship between formaldehyde levels obtained from a one-
time sampling protocol and environmental variables measured at
the time of sampling were evaluated for two residence/source
populations using sample linear regression analyses.
Significant correlations were observed between formaldehyde
levels and outdoor temperature, outdoor/indoor temperature
difference (T), indoor relative humidity (RH), and indoor
absolute humidity expressed as water vapor pressure (VP).
Significant correlations were also observed between outdoor
temperature and RH or VP. Derived ratios from these variables
were also evaluated. Significant correlations were observed
between formaldehyde levels and the ratios T/RH, T/VP, RH/T and
VP/T. T/RH was very strongly correlated with formaldehyde levels
in urea-formaldehyde foam-insulated (UFFI) and conventional
residences with miscellaneous low-level sources of formaldehyde.
T/RH was suggested as a good predictor of formaldehyde levels and
a useful tool in interpreting one-time formaldehyde sampling
results. Means of the two residence/source populations did not
differ significantly. However, maximum formaldehyde levels
predicted from regression analyses were expected to be twice as
high (0.10 ppm) in UFFI residences as those in conventional
residences with miscellaneous low-level sources. Thus,
comparisons of formaldehyde levels in residences with different
sources must take into account the effect of environmental
variables.
0240
Godish, Thad (1984) "Low cost sampler for formaldehyde and other
indoor air contaminants", J. Environ. Health, 46(5):229-232.
KEYWORD: CH2O, sampling, health, methodology, field, economic
99
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Investigation of indoor air quality complaints and air testing by
local health agencies are often limited by lack of sampling
equipment. The construction of a low-cost sampler for
formaldehyde and other indoor air contaminants is described.
0280
Godish, Thad (1985) "Air quality", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O.
Drawer 519 Chelsea, MI 48118 (372 pages).
KEYWORD: multipollutant, outdoor, literature, health, source,
exposure, regulation, vehicle
Indoor and outdoor air are covered in this classroom text for
graduate and undergraduate students in environmental science,
environmental health, and industrial hygiene. A comprehensive
overview gives attention to (1) indoor air, (2) effects on human
and animal health and vegetation, (3) regulation, (4) automotive
emissions, and (5) noise as an air contaminant. This text may
also be used as supplementary reading for courses that focus on
engineering aspects of air pollution, and for practitioners
seeking a broader knowledge of their field.
0313
Godish, Thad, and Rouch, Jerome (1985) "An assessment of the
Berge equation applied to formaldehyde measurements under
controlled conditions of temperature and humidity in a mobile
home", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 35(11):1186-1187.
KEYWORD: CH20, risk, statistical, home, temperature, humidity
Efforts to assess the relative exposure risks of indoor
formaldehyde levels have been limited by the considerable
variation in the results. A number of factors contribute,
particularly temperature and relative humidity, which are
reported to greatly affect emissions of free formaldehyde from
urea-formaldehyde resins. The most widely used expression of
formaldehyde levels as a function of temperature and relative
humidity is the Berge equation. Studies were conducted in a
single mobile home for nine combinations of temperature (20, 25,
and 30 degrees C) and relative humidity (30, 50, and 70%).
Average formaldehyde levels were measured for each of eight
environmental regimes and standardized to 25 degrees C and 50%
relative humidity. Results showed that, at the 95% confidence
interval, the error rate would be approximately (+/-) 12%. The
analysis suggests that, for the temperature and humidity range
considered, the Berge equation is a reliable indicator of
formaldehyde levels measured at one set of environmental
conditions and standardized to another. The authors believe that
the Berge equation can be used with confidence for field,
100
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laboratory, and regulatory purposes if users understand and
respect its limitations.
0472
Goldsmith, W.A., Poston, J.W., Perdue, P.T., and Gibson, M.O.
(1983) "Radon-222 and progeny measurements in 'typical1 east
Tennessee residences", Health Phys., 45(l):81-88.
KEYWORD: EPA$, radon, home, monitoring, field, architecture,
source, microenvironment, methodology
Modified Wrenn chambers for continuous monitoring of radon-222,
featuring several improvements, including a computer-assisted
electronics package, have been developed at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory. Radon-222 concentrations in seven houses
were monitored continuously for periods ranging from 4 to 18
days. Radon-222 concentrations in the basements of three of the
seven houses were in excess of 100 Becquerels per cubic meter
(Bq/m3) almost continuously. One residence had instantaneous
concentrations approaching 1,000 Bq/m3. Samples of soil and
building materials from these residences indicated that radium-
226 concentrations were in the normal range (40 Bq/kg). Radon
progeny were measured in five of these houses on a "typical" day.
Results obtained were as follows: for basements, a geometric mean
of 0.016 working levels (WL) (geometric standard deviation of
2.9); for upper floors, a geometric mean of 0.014 WL (geometric
standard deviation of 2.9).
0423
Goldstein, B.D., et al. (1979) "The relationship between
respiratory illness in primary school children and the use of gas
for cooking: II - Factors affecting nitrogen dioxide levels in
the home", Int. J. Epidem., 8 (4):339-345.
KEYWORD: health, NO2, monitoring, outdoor, home, smoking, field,
activity, foreign, Britain, children, appliance, lung
The study attempted to find an association between indoor levels
of NO2 and respiratory illness and lung function in
school children. NO2 was measured for 1 week during the winter
outside and inside the homes of children (aged 6 to 7 years) who
were living and attending primary schools in a defined 4-square-
km area in Middlesbrough, Cleveland, UK. Outdoor levels of N02
measured at 75 points within the area ranged from 14 to 24 ppb
weekly average. Measurements were also made in 428 kitchens with
gas stoves (range 5 to 317 ppb, mean 112.2 ppb) and in 87
kitchens with electric stoves (range 6 to 188 ppb, mean 18.0
ppb). In a random subsample of homes, N02 levels in 107
children's bedrooms in homes with gas stoves ranged from 4 to 169
101
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ppb, mean 30.5 ppb. In 18 bedrooms in homes having electric
stoves the range was 3 to 37 ppb, mean 13.9 ppb. NO2 levels in
homes with gas stoves were positively related to pilot lights,
gas heating, tobacco smoke, and the number of people in the home.
In homes having gas stoves, when data from 29 homes with high
kitchen N02 levels were compared to 29 homes with low NO2 levels,
the number of meals eaten and the frequency with which the stove
was used for heating and drying clothes were significantly
greater in the high N02 homes.
0092
Goldstein, I.F., Hartel D., and Andrews, L.R. (June 1985)
"Monitoring personal exposure to nitrogen dioxide", Paper
presented at the 78th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (13 pages).
KEYWORD: NO2, sampling, QA, field, outdoor, personal, exposure,
monitor
Possible sources of error that might contribute to the accuracy
of personal exposure to N02 are discussed. Major errors result
from relying on outdoor assessments and ignoring indoor NO2
concentrations, which recently have been shown to be
significantly higher in homes that have indoor sources of NO2.
Smaller but significant errors result from inappropriate
placement of indoor stationary samplers or the manner in which
personal samplers are worn. The nonuniform spatial distribution,
both vertical and horizontal, of NO2 indoors requires the careful
validation of all personal exposure data obtained from both
personal monitors and stationary samplers.
0567
Goldstein, I.F., Hartel, D., Andrews, L.R., and Weinstein, A.L.
(1986) "Indoor air pollution exposures of low-income inner-city
residents", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):211-219.
KEYWORD: NO2, exposure, health, personal, seasonal, home, field,
source, combustion, epidemiology, appliance, activity
This report is based on a pilot project for a large epidemiologic
study in which exposures to air pollutants will be related to
both incidence and prevalences of inner-city asthma. N02
concentrations were measured in three rooms as well as outdoors
in 44 inner-city apartments with gas cooking stoves. From fall
1982 to spring 1984, 52 separate month-long series of 48-hour,
time-integrated NO2 samples (Palmes tubes) were gathered. The
48-hour average NO2 concentrations taken within homes frequently
exceeded the U.S. EPA outdoor annual mean NO2 standard of 100
ug/m3, reaching 300 ug/m3 in some homes. Short-term peaks of N02
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in kitchens were as high as 2,000 ug/m3, at a distance of 2.3 m
from the floor, and 1,700 ug/m3, at 1.7 m from the floor.
Activity records filled out by the inner-city residents, many of
whom were asthma patients, indicated that they spent an unusually
large percentage of time in their homes. On the basis of these
activity patterns and the regular occurrence of high N02 levels
in inner-city apartments, individuals in this population are
likely to have elevated personal exposure to this combustion by-
product .
0363
Goldstein, I., Hartel, D., and Andrews L. (1984) "Indoor exposure
of asthmatics to nitrogen dioxide", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T.,
and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 2, radon, passive
smoking, particulates and housing epidemiology", Swedish Council
for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 269-274. NTIS PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: outdoor, energy, health, personal, exposure, monitor,
activity, allergen, epidemiology, NO2, lung, appliance
Researchers report an on-going study of exposure to NO2 in a low-
income population in New York City. These homes are likely to
accumulate high levels of N02 because the relatively small
apartments are well insulated for energy conservation, and gas
cooking stoves are frequently used. Family members who
participated (including a child with asthma) wore 48-hour
personal N02 samplers; duplicate N02 samplers were placed in the
kitchen, living room, bedrooms, and outside the windows of each
apartment. All sampling was for 24- to 48-hour periods for 30
consecutive days. Gas stove usage and daily activities of study
subjects were recorded to obtain a relationship among indoor and
outdoor exposures, activity patterns, and personal exposures.
Researchers confirmed high levels of NO2 in the homes and also
observed humid conditions conducive to growth of bioallergens.
Individual exposures are discussed in relation to the design of
epidemiologic study of acute health effects in persons with
asthma.
0174
Good, B.W., Vilcins, G., Harvey, W.R., Clabo, D.A., Jr., and
Lewis, A.L. (1982) "Effect of cigarette smoking on residential
N02 levels", Environ. Int., 8:167-175.
KEYWORD: NO2, combustion, home, smoking, source, field, seasonal,
outdoor, sampling, exposure, appliance, ventilation
Two studies evaluated the levels and sources of N02 in
approximately 90 homes in the Richmond, VA, area, during the
weeks of August 5, 1980, and February 9, 1981. Continuous
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samplers were run in the living room, bedroom, kitchen, and
outdoors. Additional data were collected concerning appliance
use, heating and cooling plants, ventilation, and cigarette
smoking. The largest contributor to N02 concentration was gas-
fired kitchen appliances. The mean kitchen level for homes with
gas appliances during the winter study was approximately 188
ug/m3. Excluding participants with gas kitchens, incremental
increases due to cigarette smoking were detected. The 7-day, 3-
room average levels of N02 in the homes of nonsmokers and smokers
without gas-fired appliances were 12 and 15 ug/m3, respectively,
in the summer. The corresponding winter values were 19 and 22
ug/m3. Furthermore, levels of N02 in the homes of smokers or
nonsmokers were generally below both the adjacent outdoor level
and the National Ambient Air Quality Standard for annual
exposure.
0619
Gordon, Glen E. (1986) "Receptor modeling: a promising
alternative to traditional source apportionment methods",
Hochheiser, S., and Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds., "Proceedings of the
1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the measurement of toxic air
pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711,
pp. 304-313. Not yet available from NTIS. (In press, Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230.)
KEYWORD: particulate, research, outdoor, source, multipollutant,
model, methodology, organic, literature, acid
The traditional combination of source-emissions inventories and
dispersion models for predicting ambient pollutant concentrations
is not very accurate in a number of applications. An alternate
method, receptor modeling, is becoming increasingly valuable as a
complement to the traditional approach. Receptor modeling
involves detailed analyses of particles and gases collected from
ambient air and from sources important in the area in question.
Contributions from the sources are identified on the basis of
detailed composition patterns and other characteristics (e.g.,
particle morphology). Receptor modeling based on elemental
compositions has been primarily used to determine sources of
particles in urban areas. However, many sources are not well
characterized by elemental patterns, especially sources that
release mainly carbonaceous material. To detect emissions from
these sources, investigators need to measure concentrations of
some of the thousands of organic compounds in the gas or particle
phases. Development of this approach has been hindered because
of uncertainty regarding the fractions of various compounds that
survive destruction by atmospheric reactions between the source
and receptor. If stable tracers, either organic or inorganic,
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for the sources can be identified, less stable species could be
treated by a new model called "hybrid receptor modeling." The
latter includes source emissions, transformation, and deposition
treatments similar to those of traditional models, along with the
use of tracer species of certain sources, as in receptor models.
Tracer use can eliminate many absolute uncertainties (e.g.,
dilution) common to dispersion modeling. The hybrid approach is
now being used in attempts to provide an understanding of the
sources, transformation, and deposition of sulfur species related
to acid-deposition problems.
0399
Green, B.M.R., et al. (1985) "Surveys of natural radiation
exposure in UK dwellings with passive and active measurement
techniques", Sci. Total Environ. 45:459-466.
KEYWORD: radon, radiation, exposure, source, foreign,methodology,
architecture, home, Britain
A representative sample of more than 2,000 United Kingdom
dwellings was monitored for a year using thermoluminescent and
etchable plastic dosimeters to measure gamma-ray dose rates and
radon concentrations. The survey was carried out by mail. Each
homeowner completed a questionnaire on the type of dwelling and
its characteristics. These data will be used to assess the
factors affecting indoor exposure. The mean gamma-ray dose rates
were 0.062 and 0.057 micro Gray/hour (uGy/h) in air, and the mean
radon concentrations were 25 and 18 Becquerels (Bq)/m3 for living
areas and bedrooms, respectively. Other results of the
preliminary data analysis are given. More detailed surveys were
conducted in areas where the local geology indicated that
elevated exposures to natural radiation might occur. More than
800 dwellings were visited and measurements made of several
parameters. The mean gamma-ray dose rates varied from 0.05 to
0.10 uGy/hour in air. The mean radon concentrations varied from
14 to 520 Bq/m3. Other findings related to equilibrium factors
and regional differences are discussed.
0341
Green, G.H. (1984) "The effect of vacuum cleaners on house dust
concentration", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.
"Indoor air, vol. 5, buildings, ventilation and thermal climate",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 87-92.
NTIS PB85-104222.
KEYWORD: particulate, exposure, source, Canada, home, control,
ventilation, foreign, dust, smoking
The results of tests on the mass concentration of house dust
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caused by the cleaning action and airborne dust in the exhaust of
vacuum cleaners in seven homes in western Canada are compared to
other investigations. Researchers found that the ambient dust
level was similar to that found by others and confirmed
observations of much higher levels due to smoking and reduced
levels by electrostatic filters in heating systems. Central
vacuum cleaners with outside exhaust had slightly lower
concentration than portable models used in the houses. This and
other studies found that other household activities contribute
more or equal dust to the house atmosphere. The study concluded
it is important to minimize all house dust contributions for
those suffering from house dust allergies.
0108
Grimsrud, D.T., et al. (Aug. 1984) "Indoor air quality field
survey strategies", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J.,
Eds. "Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal
exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
215-220. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: literature, radon, methodology,sample,design,monitoring
Changes in research goals and the availability of new instruments
allow conducting new types of indoor air quality studies. This
paper compares the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
study. While intensive monitoring is expensive and limited to
small sample sizes, its detailed measurements can reveal valuable
information about source behavior and pollutant interactions.
Large-scale surveys, on the other hand, yield broad information
about weighted-average pollutant concentrations and are better
suited for studies of the effects of regional or construction
differences on indoor air quality. In large-scale surveys, the
effects of occupant activities are automatically included. An
intensive study can suggest that a ventilated crawl space implies
a lower radon concentration in the living space of a house, while
a large survey can test the hypothesis statistically. Large
surveys do not replace intensive, detailed studies.
0552
Grimsrud, D.T., Nazaroff, W.W., Revzan, K.L. , and Nero, A.V.
(1983) "Continuous measurements of radon entry in a single-family
house", Paper no. 83-9.8, presented at the 76th annual meeting of
the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (20 pages).
KEYWORD: radon, ventilation, temperature, pressure, water, home,
source, field, exposure, architecture
This progress report describes detailed measurements of radon
106
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concentration, ventilation rate, and other environmental
parameters that affect radon entry in a single-family house
during a 6-month period. Average radon concentrations in the
house varied between 0.1 and 18.4 picoCuries/liter (pCi/L) during
this period; the mean was 3.1 pCi/L. Ventilation rates ranged
from 0.03 to 1.00 air changes/hour (mean =0.25 ach). The data
show that the radon source strength varied substantially during
the measurements. The environmental parameters measured are used
to obtain a better understanding of the processes that influence
radon entry into the house. The major radon entry site in this
structure appeared to be the basement sump. A portion of the
time variation in the entry rate can be associated with changes
in the water level in the sump that couples and decouples the
sump with an exterior drain tile system.
0531
Gunning, C., and Scott, A.G. (1982) "Radon and thoron daughters
in housing", Health Phys., 42:527-528.
KEYWORD: radon, thoron, control, exposure, sampling, home, field,
source, radiation, ventilation, foreign, Canada, architecture
A remedial action program is in progress at the town of Ellicott
Lake, Ontario, Canada to reduce average radon daughter
concentrations in occupied houses to below 0.02 working levels
(WL). The average WL in a house is estimated from a series of
air filter samples analyzed by the Kusnetz technique on the
assumption that all alpha activity is due to radon daughters.
Previous work showed that significant thoron daughter
concentrations were present in the Elliot Lake uranium mines,
where the activity ratio of uranium-238 to thorium-232 in the ore
was approximately 3:1. Because the activity ratio in the surface
soil and building materials used in the town is about 1:1, thoron
daughters might represent a large fraction of the airborne alpha
activity measured in houses. Accordingly, a study was organized
to resolve this question. Radon and thoron daughter
concentrations expressed in Working Levels were estimated by a
modified Kusnetz technique (2 alpha counts). The air filter
samples were taken each morning in house basements as part of the
routine survey. Although the thorium activity is at least equal
to the uranium activity in the surface environment at Elliot
Lake, the WL(Tn) in houses is insignificant compared with the
WL(Rn), and the remedial action limit of 20 mWL(Rn). Exceptions
to this may occur in commercial buildings where there are large
areas of unpainted concrete and poor ventilation, and in those
few cases where the transit time of soil gas into the building is
so short that the thoron does not decay significantly in transit.
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0189
Gupta, K.C., Ulsamer, A.G., and Preuss, P.W. (1982) "Formaldehyde
in indoor air: sources and toxicity", Environ. Int., 8:349-358.
KEYWORD: CH2O, home, literature, combustion, health, source
Formaldehyde, a highly reactive gas with a pungent odor, is
released from a variety of sources, including urea-formaldehyde
foam insulation, particle board, and plywood, as well as various
combustion processes. Under controlled conditions, formaldehyde
causes eye and nasal irritation at air concentrations of 0.24
mg/m3 and above. Exposure, residential or occupational, has been
associated with eye, nose, and throat irritation, coughing,
wheezing, skin rashes, nausea, and other symptoms. Formaldehyde
is a sensitizer and is thought to be genotoxic. Recent studies
indicate that formaldehyde is also a carcinogen in rats and
probably in mice. Formaldehyde is likely to pose a carcinogenic
risk to humans.
0400
Hagberg, N. (1985) "Some tests on measuring methods for indoor
radon using activated charcoal", Sci. Total Environ. 45:417-423.
KEYWORD: radon, methodology, sampling, laboratory, QA, personal,
exposure, monitor
Two methods have been tested for measuring indoor radon
concentrations using activated charcoal. The first method is the
well-known technique with direct gamma-ray measurements on the
exposed canister after the sampling period. The other method
uses a thermoluminescence dosimeter placed in the charcoal
canister, giving an integrated value of the radon concentration.
Measurements and intercomparisons with other integrating radon
instruments were performed in an occupied dwelling. The
measurements performed show a standard deviation of less than 10%
for all exposure periods. This accuracy was considered
sufficient for most cases.
0452
Halbert, M.K., Mazumder, M.K., and Bond, R.L. (1981) "Respirable
particulates in household aerosols", Environ. Res., 26:105-109.
KEYWORD: particulate, aerosol,home, laboratory,source, pesticide,
methodology
Optical microscopy, cascade impaction, and single-particle
aerodynamic relaxation-time (SPART) analysis were used to
determine the size spectra of five common household aerosol
products. Median diameters obtained in the microscopy study
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agreed with those obtained in the SPART analysis; values ranged
from 0.74 to 1.22 um in both studies. Mass median diameters
obtained in the SPART analysis and in the cascade impaction study
showed less agreement. Values for both techniques ranged from
1.95 to 3.80 um with the exception of the oven cleaner, which
yielded a mass median aerodynamic diameter of 23.5 um in the
impaction study.
0250
Halpern, Marc (July 1978) "Indoor/outdoor air pollution exposure
continuity relationships", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.,
28(7):689-691.
KEYWORD: outdoor, Pb, particulate, methodology, exposure
The relationships between indoor and outdoor pollutant
concentrations and exposure gradients were evaluated using Pb
particulates as an index contaminant. Pb was collected using a
serial filtration technique and analyzed by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry. Significant differences were observed between
indoor and outdoor Pb levels and between indoor and outdoor
ratios of the respirable and nonrespirable Pb particulates. The
widely accepted hypothesis of a homeostatic balance between
indoor and outdoor pollutant levels was thus refuted. Parameters
other than outdoor pollutant levels also determine indoor air
quality.
0607
Hammond, S.K., Leaderer, B.P., Roche, A.C., and Schenker, M.
(1986) "A method to measure exposure to passive smoking",
Hochheiser, S., and Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds., "Proceedings of the
1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the measurement of toxic air
pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711,
pp. 16-24. Not yet available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure, sampling, laboratory, field, office,
smoking, methodology, particulate, nicotine
Concerns about the health effects of passive smoking and the
large segment of the population exposed to environmental tobacco
smoke (ETS) have contributed to the need to develop a method to
measure exposure to ETS. Because tobacco smoke is a complex
mixture, it is difficult to measure. Nicotine was chosen as a
marker in these studies because, unlike other markers often used,
tobacco smoke is the only important source of nicotine. Nicotine
was collected onto filters treated with sodium bisulfate; it was
then desorbed and analyzed by gas chromatography with nitrogen
selective detection. This method can detect 1 ug nicotine/m3 in
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samples collected over 1 hour. The method was tested in an
environmental chamber in which people smoked selected brands of
cigarettes. The ambient nicotine concentrations were found to be
similar despite the fact that the cigarettes had varying nicotine
yields in the mainstream smoke. The ratio of nicotine to
particulate matter in ETS was also constant. Nicotine exposure
was measured using personal samples collected from office workers
in the ETS breathing zone; it was found to be up to 28 ug/m3 ETS
an 8-hour workday.
0202
Handy, R.W., et al. (1985) "Standard operating procedures
employed in support of an exposure assessment study, vol. 4",
U.S. EPA, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC
20460 (662 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: TEAM, VOC, methodology, biomonitoring, water, sampling,
QA, laboratory
This document sets forth the standard operating procedures (SOPs)
that were used to support the Total Exposure Assessment
Methodology (TEAM) study. The SOPs cover chemical sampling and
analyses for volatile organic chemicals in personal air, fixed-
site air, human breath, and drinking water samples. The volume
also discusses procedures for the preparation of data files on
chemical levels for statistical analysis, chain-of-custody for
sample management, instrument calibration, and log notebook
maintenance.
0311
Hanrahan, L.P., Anderson, H.A., Dally, K.A., Eckmann, A.D., and
Kana, M.S. (1985) "Formaldehyde concentrations in Wisconsin
mobile homes", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 35(11):1164-1167.
KEYWORD: CH2O, temperature, seasonal, field, statistical, source,
home, exposure, architecture
Mobile homes rely on particle board and hardwood plywood
panelling as structural components. As a result, these
prefabricated construction materials may emit formaldehyde into
the home, because urea-formaldehyde resins are used as the
bonding agents in most pressed-wood stocks. Indoor formaldehyde
exposure concentrations were measured in 137 mobile homes. The
homes were selected based on the estimated age of the
construction components and were studied serially for 9 months.
Formaldehyde samples were obtained during monthly visits, using a
modified chromotropic acid procedure developed by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Formaldehyde
concentrations ranged from less than 0.10 ppm to 2.84 ppm, with a
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median of 0.39 ppm. Analysis of variance was performed on each
home to determine the effects of visits and sampler location. Of
the homes, 89% showed no sampler-placement effects, while only
10% failed to demonstrate between-visit variance effects.
Regression models were constructed to predict household
formaldehyde concentrations. Concentrations exhibited an inverse
relationship with the age of the construction materials. A
regression model based on home age and temperature predicted 82%
of the formaldehyde variation.
0268
Hanrahan, L.P., Dally, K.A., Anderson, H.A., Kanarek, M.S., and
Rankin, J. (1984) "Formaldehyde vapor in mobile homes: a cross
sectional survey of concentrations and irritant effects", Am. J.
Public Health, 74(9):1026-1027.
KEYWORD: CH2O, home, health, exposure, architecture, dose
In a study in Wisconsin, 65 owners of mobile homes volunteered
for an assessment of indoor formaldehyde gas; 61 teenage and
adult occupants completed health questionnaires. Formaldehyde
concentrations ranged from <0.10 to 0.80 ppm, with the risk of
eye discomfort showing a positive dose-response relationship.
0386
Hanssen, S.O., and Rodahl, E. (1984) "An office environment—
problems and improvements", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and
Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity
reactions to sick buildings", Swedish Council for Building
Research, Stockholm, pp. 303-307. NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: health, ventilation, foreign, exposure, CH2O, C02, SO2,
styrene, toluene, temperature, humidity, Norway, office
Employees in a large office in Trondheim, Norway, complained
about headache, tiredness, sickness, allergic reactions in eyes
and noses, dry skin, respiratory diseases, etc., which they
attributed to the ventilating system. However, preliminary
investigations only partially verified this assumption. A more
extensive investigation was then conducted with the intention of
eliminating the cause of the problem.
0643
Harley, Naomi H., and Terilli, Terence B. (1984) "Factors
controlling indoor radon levels", Institute of Environmental
Medicine, New York University Medical Center, New York, NY 10016
(29 pages). NTIS DE84-012712.
Ill
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KEYWORD: statistical, track-etching, radon, home, model, outdoor,
ventilation, weather, exposure, QA, architecture, seasonal
This annual report to the U.S. Department of Energy summarizes
the progress made during June 1983 to May 1984 in understanding
the factors which contribute to indoor radon levels. Extensive
measurements were made in a two-story single family dwelling with
a basement and in a 25-story apartment building with a basement.
Soil moisture, seasonal changes, diurnal cycles, ventilation, and
climatic conditions were monitored. The data were compared to
baseline data using a statistical software package. Isolated
events were analyzed manually. Average conditions for both
structures could be monitored. In addition, two types of track-
etching film did not give comparable results. Reproducibility on
paired duplicates exposed in a radon calibration room was also
poor.
0506
Harley, Naomi H., and Altman, Stuart M. (1983) "Contract ACO2
EV10374: Progress Report, June 1, 1982 to May 31, 1983", U.S.
Department of Energy, Washington, DC 20585 (40 pages). NTIS
DE83-013008.
KEYWORD: radon, field, home, outdoor, weather, pressure, model,
exposure
A 1-year progress report describes the New York University
Medical Center Institute of Environmental Medicine project on
indoor radon variability and factors that may affect the
variability. Data are collected in a high-rise apartment
building and in a single-family dwelling. The effect of factors
such as outdoor radon variability and meteorological parameters
(temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind direction and speed,
and barometric pressure) on indoor radon variability is examined.
Modeling of indoor radon concentration has started. Apparently,
indoor variability is highly dependent on outdoor variability.
0582
Harley, Naomi H. (1985) "Comparing radon daughter dosimetric and
risk models", Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds.,
"Indoor air and human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O.
Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 69-77.
KEYWORD: radon, exposure,dose, risk, model, health, epidemiology,
demographic, literature, lung, miners
The basic data on lung cancer mortality resulting from inhaling
short-lived radon daughters are obtained from four large studies
of underground miners. The results of these studies, which will
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not be complete for perhaps another 20 years, must be used to
project the lifetime risk to populations other than miners. The
alpha dose delivered to the bronchial epithelium from inhaling
the short-lived daughters can be used to assess the effects
across populations, because it is the dose that confers the lung
cancer risk. Three major dosimetric models have been developed
by the National Council on Radiation Protection, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, and the International Commission
on Radiation Protection. Three major risk projection models have
been developed to evaluate current environmental and occupational
exposures. These dosimetric models and risk projection models
are critically reviewed with respect to their biological
integrity, and the reasons for their widely divergent results are
described.
0560
Harley, Naomi H., and Harley, John H. (1986) "Risk assessment for
environmental exposures to radon daughters", Environ. Int., 12(1-
4):39-43.
KEYWORD: radon, exposure, risk, health, dose, statistical, model,
literature, lung, epidemiology, miners
Predicting the consequences of population exposures to radon
daughters is based on experience with the high exposures and high
exposure rates of underground miners. Because lung cancer, the
expected conseguence of exposure, develops late in life, the
total mortality has not been completely expressed in the various
mining groups. While there is general agreement on the lung
dosimetry, predictions of lifetime risk by current models vary
significantly. The need for a satisfactory model is great
because average lifetime environmental exposures are about one-
tenth those shown to have caused excess lung cancer in miners.
This paper reviews the published approaches to this modeling.
0721
Harris, Curtis C. (1985) "Future directions in the use of DNA
adducts as internal dosimeters for monitoring human exposure to
environmental mutagens and carcinogens", Environ. Health
Perspect., 62:185-191.
KEYWORD: methodology, exposure, research,epidemiology,laboratory,
dose, health, cancer
Scientific opportunities generally arise when two or more
research areas converge and/or methodology advances. This
occurred at the turn of the 19th century in the field of
infectious bacterial and fungal diseases. Research in the
laboratory is now providing critical information on mechanisms of
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carcinogenesis, as well as new technological advancements,
including those in immunology, biochemistry, and molecular
biology. Epidemiological investigations have clearly
demonstrated the importance of environmental exposure to
carcinogens and have identified populations at high risk. It is
now practical to integrate laboratory determinations into classic
epidemiological approaches. Several markers — for example,
carcinogen - DNA adducts related to tumor initiation and perhaps
to tumor conversion — are currently being evaluated. Indicators
of tumor promotion and progression also need to be developed.
The potential of biochemical and molecular epidemiology to
predict cancer risk in an individual before there is clinical
evidence provides an exciting new opportunity in cancer research
and prevention.
0680
Hart, Ronald W., Terturro, Angelo, and Neimeth, Lorraine, Eds.
(1984) "Report on the consensus workshop on formaldehyde",
Environ. Health Persp., 58:323-381.
KEYWORD: epidemiology, dose, CH2O, research, literature, health,
exposure, risk
The Consensus Workshop on Formaldehyde representing academia,
government, industry, and public interest groups addressed
important toxicological questions concerning health effects. The
participants, and the Executive Panel which coordinated the
meeting, were chosen through a broadly based nomination process.
The subcommittees considered the toxicological problems
associated with formaldehyde in the areas of exposure,
epidemiology, carcinogenicity-histology-genotoxicity, immunology-
sensitization-irritation, structural activity-biochemistry-
metabolism, reproduction-teratology, behavior-neurotoxicity-
psychology, and risk estimation. Questions considered included
the possible human carcinogenicity of formaldehyde, as well as
other human health effects, and the interpretation of pathology
induced by formaldehyde. These reports, plus introductory
material on the procedures used in setting up the Consensus
Workshop, are presented, along with a listing of the data base
available to the panel chairman prior to the meeting and to the
participants during the meeting. The data base was supplemented
by information brought by the panelists. In addition, the
workshop developed a consensus concerning a number of major
points in formaldehyde toxicology and identified a number of
major gaps in the understanding.
0073
Hartwell, T.D., Zelon, H.S., Leininger, C.C., Clayton, C.A.,
Crowder, J.H., and Pellizzari, E.D. (Aug. 1984) "Comparative
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statistical analysis for volatile halocarbons in indoor and
outdoor air", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.,
"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal
exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
56-61. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: VOC, halocarbon, statistical, outdoor, field, EPA$
Matched pairs of overnight indoor and outdoor ambient air samples
were collected in three areas—Greensboro, NC (November 1980),
Baton Rouge/Geismar, LA (January 1981), and Houston, TX (June
1981)—for the purpose of measuring human exposure to volatile
halocarbons. The methods for collecting and chemically analyzing
these data have been described previously (See Pellizzari, BLIS
#107). The paper presents a detailed statistical analysis of the
data. The following outdoor and indoor matched samples were
available: Greensboro (20), Baton Rouge/Geismar (27), and Houston
(11). The outdoor samples were collected from the backyards of
respondents who gave indoor readings using personal monitors.
Preliminary analysis presented here is for 12 volatile
halocarbons that had a sufficient number of samples detected for
meaningful statistical analysis.
0117
Hartwell, T.D., et al. (Jan. 1984) "Study of carbon monoxide
exposure to residents of Washington, DC and Denver, Colorado,
Part I", U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (210 pages). NTIS PB84-183516.
KEYWORD: CO, methodology, distribution, biomonitoring, field,
personal, exposure, monitor, activity, EPA$
A study was conducted in 1982-83 to evaluate a methodology for
measuring the distribution of CO exposures with respect to daily
activities in an urban area. CO concentrations were measured
with personal exposure monitors (PEMs). The study involved
telephone screening of households and selecting respondents in
the metropolitan areas in and around Denver, CO, and Washington,
DC. CO breath levels also were collected in Washington, DC. The
target population in both cities consisted of the
noninstitutionalized, nonsmoking adults between the ages of 18
and 70 years. Estimates of CO exposure for the winter of 1982-83
in Washington, DC, were obtained using the data base constructed
from the raw CO levels and corresponding activities. The data
consisted of hourly CO values, activity patterns with
corresponding CO levels, and CO breath measurements corresponding
to the PEM CO data. The population distribution of exposure is
compared to the National Ambient Air Quality Standard for CO.
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0076
Hartwell, T.D., Perritt, R.L., Zelon, H.S., Whitmore, R.W.,
Pellizzari, E.D., and Wallace, L. (Aug. 1984) "Comparison of
indoor and outdoor levels for air volatiles in New Jersey",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds. "Indoor air,
vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal exposure", Swedish
Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 81-85. NTIS PB85-
104214.
KEYWORD: VOC, field, outdoor, statistical, sampling, personal,
exposure, monitor, home, EPA$
As part of the Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM)
study, matched pairs of overnight indoor (personal monitor) and
outdoor (fixed-site monitor) ambient air samples were collected
from 85 study participants in Bayonne and Elizabeth, NJ, in 1981.
These samples were analyzed for several volatile organic
compounds. In general, for all the compounds examined, the
percent detected and the concentrations were higher for the
overnight indoor samples. Furthermore, the Spearman correlations
between the indoor and outdoor levels were less than 0.50 for all
compounds examined.
0727
Hartwell, T.D., Clayton, C.A., Michie, R.M. Jr., Whitmore, R.W.,
Zelon, H.S., and Whitehurst, D.A. (1984) "Study of carbon
monoxide exposures of residents of Washington, D.C", Paper no.
84-121.4, presented at the 77th annual meeting of the Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230 (18 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, personal, home, outdoor, microenvironment, exposure,
methodology,source,combustion,smoking,statistical,vehicle,field
A CO survey was conducted in Washington, DC, and Denver, CO,
during the winter of 1982-83. The population exposure profiles
were determined by use of statistical inference from a
statistically drawn sample. The study provided sufficent data to
determine exposure as a function of concentrations within
significant microenvironments (home, in-transit, work, and
leisure) and individual activity patterns. This paper describes
the sampling in Washington and Denver, and the field work and
analysis of Washington results.
0699
Harving, H., Korsgaard, J., Dahl, R., Pedersen, O., and Molhave,
L. (1986) "Low concentrations of formaldehyde in bronchial
asthma: a study of exposure under controlled conditions", Brit.
Med. J. reprint (3 pages).
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KEYWORD: CH2O, health, lung, laboratory, exposure
In this study of the effect of formalydehyde on the lower
bronchial airways of hyper-responsive subjects, 15 nonsmoking
volunteers (mean age 25) were exposed to 0.0, 0.12, and 0.85
mg/m3 formaldehyde, concentrations similar to those found
indoors. The experiments were conducted in a double blind
randomized fashion. In the group as a whole, lung functions did
not change significantly after exposures. Histamine challenge
tests performed immediately after exposure were highly
reproducible and unaffected by exposure to formaldehyde. The
study concludes that low concentrations of formaldehyde, while
known to irritate the upper repiratory tract and mucous membrane,
are of minor importance in development of pulmonary symptoms.
0025
Hasanen, E., Pohjola, V., Pyysalo, H., and Wickstrom, K. (1984)
"Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Finnish sauna air", Sci.
Total Environ., 37:223-231.
KEYWORD: PAH, benzo-a-pyrene, benzo-a-anthracene, smoke, wood,
exposure, source, foreign, Finland
The concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in
the air of three types of wood-heated saunas in Finland were
studied. The highest concentrations were found in the smoke
sauna (total PAH 170 to 1550 ug/m3, benzo(a)pyrene 4.6 to 20
ug/m3), the second highest in the preheated sauna (total PAH 50
to 90 ug/m3, benzo(a)pyrene 3.4 to 4.5 ug/m3), and the lowest in
the sauna heated by continuous burning of wood (total PAH 25
ug/m3, benzo(a)pyrene less than 0.1 ug/m3). The results clearly
indicate that regular bathing in the smoke and preheated saunas
increases the intake of PAH compounds (e.g., benzo(a)pyrene and
benzo(a)anthracene).
0493
Hawthorne, A.R., Gammage, R.B., and Dudney, C.S. (1986) "An
indoor air quality study of 40 East Tennessee homes", Environ.
Int., 12(1-4):221-239.
KEYWORD: radon, track-etch, exposure, field, source, laboratory,
microenvironment, architecture, home
This paper presents the results of radon monitoring in 40 east
Tennessee homes that were a component of a larger study to
evaluate indoor air quality. During two 3-month studies, passive
integrating track-etch monitors were used in each home. In a
subset of homes, a real-time monitor that provided hourly
117
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readings also was used. About 30% of the homes had radon levels
greater than 4 picoCuries/liter. Homes with elevated radon
levels were associated with local variations in geology, and most
of the homes having higher levels were on the porous dolomite
ridge partially surrounding Oak Ridge, TN.
0241
Hawthorne, A.R., Gammage, R.B., Dudney, C.S., Matthews, T.G., and
Erdman, D.J., (1984) "Formaldehyde levels in forty East-Tennessee
homes", Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831 (7
pages). NTIS DE84-016672/XAB.
KEYWORD: CH20, home, outdoor, exposure, source, microenvironment,
temperature, monitoring, field, architecture
Formaldehyde (CH2O) levels were measured extensively in 40 east
Tennessee homes as part of a larger indoor air quality study.
Measurements were made with passive, integrating monitors for a
period of 24 hours in three rooms of each house and outdoors.
Monthly measurements of this type were made in the study houses
from April through mid-December of 1982. Over 6,000 CH2O field
measurements were made. Older houses averaged 40 ppb
formaldehyde, while houses less then 5 years old averaged 80 ppb.
Formaldehyde levels exhibited a statistically significant
temperature dependence in most homes with CH2O concentrations
greater than 80 ppb, particularly in homes with urea-formaldehyde
foam insulation.
0134
Hawthorne, A.R., et al. (Dec. 1984) "An indoor air quality study
of 40 East Tennessee homes", Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak
Ridge, TN 37831 (100 pages). NTIS DE85-007087/LL.
KEYWORD: NO2,NOx, CH2O,VOC, particulate, radon, home, CO, source,
ventilation,combustion,design,monitoring,appliance,architecture
This report presents the study design and implementation,
monitoring protocols, and a complete set of the data collected
during the project. For 1 year, indoor air pollutants (CO, NO2,
formaldehyde, volatile organics, particulates, and radon) were
measured in 40 homes in east Tennessee. The houses were of
various ages with different types of insulation and heating.
During the study, older houses averaged 0.04 ppm formaldehyde,
while houses less than 5 years old averaged 0.08 ppm (P < 0.01).
The highest concentration of formaldehyde measured was 0.4 ppm in
a new home. Diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in formaldehyde
levels in some homes were as much as twofold and threefold,
respectively. The concentration in indoor air of various
organics was at least 10-fold higher than in outdoor air. CO and
118
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NOx concentrations were usually <2 and <0.02 ppm, respectively,
except when gas stoves or kerosene space heaters were operating,
or when a car was running in the garage. In 30% of the houses,
the annual indoor guideline for radon, 4 pico curies/liter, was
exceeded. The mean radon level in ridgeline houses was more than
twice that of valley houses. Operation of the central duct fan
had the most impact on radon infiltration.
0627
Hawthorne, Alan R. (1985), "Indoor air quality: a researcher's
perspective", Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831.
DE85 061251 (6 pages).
KEYWORD: CH2O, CO, energy, smoking, health, home, microorganism,
outdoor, NO2, odor, regulation, radon, research, VOC, combustion
The history, policy implications, and important pollutants
associated with indoor air are presented for the layperson. The
government's approaches to addressing the problem of outdoor air
pollution and indoor air pollution are compared. The pollutants
addressed include radon, CO, N02, cigarette smoke, volatile
organic compounds, formaldehyde, and microorganisms. The effects
of energy conservation measures are also discussed. The paper
concludes by calling for research into phenomenological aspects
of indoor air pollution.
0524
Hawthorne, Alan R., and Matthews, Thomas G. (1984) "Formaldehyde:
an important indoor pollutant", Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Oak Ridge, TN 37831 (8 pages). NTIS DE84-012331.
KEYWORD: CH2O, literature, control, health, source, home, VOC,
exposure, multipollutant
This paper highlights the important issues relating to
formaldehyde and indoor air quality, including health effects,
sources, impact of environmental parameters, typical levels in
residences, and possible remedial measures. Other organic
pollutants are also mentioned briefly.
0636
Hayes, S.R., Seigneur, C., and Lundberg, G.W. (Aug. 1984)
"Numerical modeling of ozone population exposure: an application
to a comparison of alternative ozone standards", API Publication
no. 4400, American Petroleum Institute, 1220 "L" St. NW,
Washington, DC 20005 (98 pages).
KEYWORD: 03, methodology, QA, research, NEM, distribution, model,
regulation, exposure, NAAQS, QA
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This study investigates an alternative methodology for assessing
03 population exposure, under conditions characteristic of the
attainment of alternative National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) for O3. Los Angeles data were used to test the NAAQS
Exposure Model (NEM) with the Urban Airshed Model (ASM). This
NEM/ASM technique is efficient and more accurate than EPA's
linear rollback method. NEM/ASM could be applied directly to the
NEM data bases for other cities. Several other NEM refinements
are possible.
0745
Hayward, S.B., Sexton, K., and Webber, L.M. (1984) "Application
of automated particle analysis to indoor source apportionment",
Paper no. 84-33.8, presented at the 77th annual meeting of the
Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230, (19 pages).
KEYWORD: methodology, source, particulate, home, office, aerosol,
outdoor, sample, monitoring, multipollutant
This paper outlines the deficiencies of bulk chemical analysis in
source apportionment methods and how these can be overcome by the
automated application of electron microscopy with dispersive x-
ray analysis. Automated particle analysis (APA) is applied to
the source-receptor modeling method, which uses ambient
measurements and data on individual emission sources to apportion
contributions from various emission categories. The feasibility
and suitability of using source-receptor techniques to apportion
indoor aerosols have not been established. This paper discusses
indoor monitoring results which indicate that APA holds promise
for apportioning at least some of the particles found indoors.
The authors cover sampling, sample preparation, automated
electron microscopy, x-ray spectral processing, and the results
in the form of particle classification.
0639
Helsing, Knud J., and Chapa, Thomas J. (1986) "A follow-up
investigation of the health status of eighth grade students in
three middle schools of Washington County, as reported by their
parents", Johns Hopkins Training Center for Public Health
Research, 615 N. Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205 (19 pages).
KEYWORD: health, architecture, control, source, school, energy,
ventilation, demographic
Substantial ventilation improvements were made in this school, as
recommended by the original study (BLIS #638). A year later,
both health complaints and signs of ill health at the Northern
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Middle School in Hagerstown, MD, had declined to level near those
of two similar schools. Continued attention to adequate
ventilation seems essential.
0183
Helsing, K.J., Comstock, G.W., Meyer, M.B., and Tockman, M.L.
(1982) "Respiratory effects of household exposures to tobacco
smoke and gas cooking on nonsmokers", Environ. Int., 8:365-370.
KEYWORD: combustion, source, particulate, smoking, health, lung,
demographic, literature, statistical, appliance
The records of 708 nonsmoking white adult residents of Washington
County, MD, who had participated in two studies of respiratory
symptoms were analyzed to evaluate the effects of exposure at
home to two potential sources of indoor air pollution: passive
smoking and gas cooking. After adjustment for the effects of
age, sex, socioeconomic level, occupational exposure to dust, and
years of residence in the household, the presence of one or more
smokers in the household was only suggestively associated with a
higher frequency of chronic phlegm and impaired ventilatory
function. Gas cooking was associated with a significantly higher
frequency of chronic cough and with a significantly greater
percentage of impaired ventilatory function.
0181
Hernandez, Thomas L., and Ring, James W. (1982) "Indoor radon
source fluxes: experimental tests of a two-chamber model",
Environ. Int., 8:45-47.
KEYWORD: radon, model, source, home, architecture, ventilation,
laboratory
Modeling houses as two coupled chambers, namely, the living area
and the basement, predicts more accurately the total indoor radon
source emissions flux from building materials and geologic
sources than a one-chamber model in houses with disparate radon
concentrations. Three regional surveys found mean radon
concentration ratios between basement and living area to range
from 1.4 to 4.2, implying weak interchamber coupling in most
cases. The invariability of second-order system parameters under
steady infiltration but different initial conditions confirms the
adequacy of the two-chamber model. Presence of a characteristic
source flux was detected within the basements of two houses, in
one case across different infiltration, coupling, and initial
conditions. One-chamber models fit to two-chamber tracer gas
data in one house show a source flux variation of a factor of 6
across changing coupling, while the two-chamber source flux
variation factor was 1.5. Much of the apparent one-chamber
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living-area source flux in these cases is variable convective
radon flux from the basement. The technique is not sensitive
enough to detect living-area source fluxes if either the
interchamber coupling is strong or the basement source flux is
substantially larger.
0159
Hess, C.T., Weiffenbach, C.V., and Norton, S.A. (1982)
"Variations of airborne and waterborne Rn-222 in houses in
Maine", Environ. Int., 8:59-66.
KEYWORD: radon, ventilation,activity, field, water, source, home,
track-etching, exposure, activity
Concentrations of airborne radon ranging from 0.05 to 135 pico
Curies/liter were found in houses in Maine. Track-etch cups were
placed in five positions for 100 houses from October 1980 to May
1981 to determine integrated average radon concentrations. To
investigate the association between elevated radon concentrations
in well water and indoor airborne radon concentrations, the radon
in the water supplies of these houses was measured by liquid
scintillation. Monitors of airborne radon, recording at 10-
minute intervals for 5 to 7 days, were used for dynamic studies
in 18 houses to determine the component of airborne radon
associated with major water uses (such as showers, laundry, and
dishwashing), which liberate radon bursts. Residents kept logs
noting the time of major water usage. For some of the houses,
ventilation rates ranging from 0.3 to 2 air changes per hour were
determined by analyzing the dynamic data. The component of
airborne radon associated with water sources varied inversely
with ventilation rate and directly with waterborne radon
concentration.
0468
Hess, C.T., Fleischer, R.L., and Turner, L.G. (1985) "Field and
laboratory tests of etched track detectors for 222Rn: summer-vs-
winter variations and tightness effects in Maine houses", Health
Phys., 49(1):65-79.
KEYWORD: radon, field, seasonal, monitoring, energy, ventilation,
home, source, methodology, exposure
Effects of tightness of homes and of bedrock character on indoor
radon-222 concentrations were studied in 70 homes in Maine by
means of four 6- to 8-month-long surveys over 1.5 years.
Laboratory experiments were also performed to document the
reliability of the track-etching system used for the
measurements. In this survey, the radon in tight homes averaged
3.5 times that in drafty ones, and homes located in areas with
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granitic bedrock had 2.3 times the radon as homes on chlorite-
biotite-rich bedrock. Winter-to-summer ratios ranged from 0.5 to
7, and averaged 1.5, implying that surveys of individual homes
require a full year of monitoring.
0536
Hess, C. Thomas, Weiffenbach, Conrad, and Nyberg, Phillip (1983)
"Integrated radon data from dwellings in Maine and Texas", Health
Phys., 45:428-432.
KEYWORD: radon, home, design, field, methodology, source, water,
distribution, sampling, exposure, architecture
A preliminary analysis is presented of radon-222 surveys made in
the summer and fall of 1980 in Houston, TX, and in the late fall
and winter of 1980-81 in several communities in central Maine.
Approximately 100 dwellings were surveyed in each area during the
season when houses are most likely to be closed to control
temperature. The primary objectives of the surveys were to (1)
develop baseline data on the distribution of indoor radon
concentrations in the two areas, (2) determine the extent of
spatial variations within dwellings, (3) add to the understanding
of source mechanisms, and (4) evaluate the utility and
practicality of various air-sampling strategies. With the
exception of four previously sampled structures in Maine, houses
were selected for study with no direct knowledge of the radon
content of the indoor air. The majority of the Maine houses had
previously been involved in a survey of radon-222 in drinking
water, and an effort was made to span the range of values noted
in that project. The dwellings reflected the prevalent building
styles in the two areas. Single-story slab-on-grade houses and
two- or three-story apartment buildings predominated in Texas,
while two-story wood frame houses with full or partial basements
were most common in Maine. Questionnaires regarding a number of
housing characteristics were administered during the study, the
results of which will be used in subsequent analyses.
0589
Higgins, Millicent W. (1985) "Critical review of the relationship
between passive exposure to cigarette smoke and cardiopulmonary
disease", Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds.,
"Indoor air and human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O.
Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 241-256.
KEYWORD: smoking, lung, epidemiology, methodology, exposure, QA,
health
Nonmalignant pulmonary diseases and conditions have been
associated with passive exposure to cigarette smoke in
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epidemiological and clinical studies. Evaluating these findings
is difficult because evidence is inadequate and results are
inconsistent; measures of passive smoking have usually been
derived from available information on smoking habits of parents,
spouses, or other associates of nonsmokers. Consequently,
further well-designed studies of cardiopulmonary disease and
passive smoking are needed, and they should include more precise
objective measures of exposure.
0007
Hijazi, N., Chai, R., Amster, M., and Duffee, R. (1983) "Indoor
organic contaminants in energy-efficient buildings", Frederick,
Edward R., et al., Eds., "Proceedings of the specialty conference
on measurement and monitoring of noncriteria (toxic) contaminants
in air, held in March of 1983 ", Publication no. SP-50, Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230, pp. 471-477.
KEYWORD: energy, ventilation,,office,architecture,CH2O, nicotine,
NH3, NOx, ketone, acetamide, amine, pyridine
This report outlines the findings of study of indoor organic
contaminants in an energy-efficient building. The study used a
portable mass spectrometer (SCIEX TAGA 3000) capable of direct
analysis of head space and air bag samples without further
extraction or processing. Degassing products from construction,
insulation, furniture, and decorative materials were determined,
and grab air bag samples were collected from various locations
within the building and from the exhaust and intake of the
ventilation system. The results indicated that numerous organic
contaminants were being released from the materials as well as by
human activity within the building. The following chemicals were
selected for semiquantitative analysis: ethyl amine, propyl
amine, butyl amine, pyridine, methyl pyridine, methyl vinyl
ketone, methylbutyl ketone, dimethyl acetamide, nicotine, pyruvic
acid, and lactic acid. The concentrations varied with the
sampling location within the building. The exhaust and intake
grab samples showed significant re-entrainment of the detected
chemicals.
0160
Hildingson, O. (1982) "Radon measurements in 12,000 Swedish
homes", Environ. Int., 8(1-6):67-70.
KEYWORD: radon,Sweden,microenvironment,home,exposure,ventilation,
source,track-etching,methodology,regulation,foreign,architecture
Radon daughter levels were monitored in 12,000 Swedish dwellings
in 1980-81. In 1979, the Swedish government introduced temporary
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limits for the radon daughter concentration in dwellings. For
existing buildings, this limit is 400 Becquerels (Bq)/m3 or 0.11
Working Levels (WL). Two methods were used to monitor radon
daughter concentration. Most of the houses were monitored using
a track-etch detector; some houses were monitored using a filter-
sampling technique while the ventilation rate was determined.
Close to 15% of the investigated houses had a radon daughter
concentration higher than 400 Bq/m3. Most of the high-level
houses were one-family houses; almost 10% of this group had a
concentration above 1,000 Bq/m3 (0.27 WL). This study shows that
the two most important sources for radon in buildings are
building materials and the ground.
0604
Hochheiser, Seymour, and Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds., (1986)
"Proceedings of the 1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the measurement of
toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
(907 pages). Not yet available from NTIS. (In press, Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230.)
KEYWORD: VOC, exposure,methodology, research, outdoor, home, QA,
office, multipollutant, wood , source
A conference co-sponsored by the Air Pollution Control
Association and EPA's Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory
was held in Raleigh, NC, April 27-30, 1986. The technical
program consisted of 95 presentations, held in 10 separate
sessions, on the recent advances for measuring and monitoring
toxic and other contaminants found in ambient and source
atmospheres. Presentations included: (1) measurement of indoor
toxic air contaminants; (2) measurement of semi volatile and
volatile organic pollutants in ambient air; (3) chemometrics and
environmental data analysis; (4) acidic deposition-nitrogen
species methods comparison study; (5) measurement of hazardous
waste emissions; (6) measurement of wood stove emissions; (7)
source monitoring; and (8) general papers related to quality
assurance and particulate measurements.
0381
Hoek, G., Brunekreef, B., Meijer, R., and Scholten, A. (1984)
"Indoor NO2 and respiratory symptoms of Rotterdam children",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 227-232.
NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: NO2, health, exposure, children, foreign, Netherlands,
QA, lung
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The relationship between indoor N02 exposure and respiratory
symptoms of school children was investigated in a case-control
study. No association was found between indoor N02 and
respiratory symptoms. The study population appeared to have been
highly mobile in the past, making it impossible to furnish
reliable estimates of historical exposure. Therefore, the
results do not disprove the possibility of an association between
indoor N02 exposure and respiratory symptoms.
0418
Hoffman, Mary (May 1986) "Bibliography on indoor radon", IMSD/86-
002, U.S. EPA, Information Services and Library, Washington, DC
20460 (100 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: radon, model, source, home, control, methodology, water,
personal, health, exposure, ventilation, literature, EPA$
Citations for this bibliography were compiled from pertinent
online data bases and selected because of their relevance to
EPA's radon program. The bibliography focuses on indoor radon
pollution problems and is organized according to the following
major topics: (1) general articles on radon, (2) contributing
factors, (3) ventilation and energy efficiency, (4) radon in
water, (5) measurement and modeling, (6) mitigation of the
problem, and (7) health effects of radon. Many of the citations
have descriptive abstracts, and an appendix lists contacts for
further information.
0365
Hoffmann, D., Brunnemann, K.D., Adams, J.D., and Haley, N.J.
(1984) "Indoor air pollution by tobacco smoke: model studies on
the uptake by nonsmokers", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and
Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 2, radon, passive smoking,
particulates and housing epidemiology", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 313-318. NTIS PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: CO, HCN, NOx, CH2O, nicotine, particulate, smoking,
exposure, biomonitoring
For a small room (16 m3) continuously polluted with sidestream
smoke from two, three, or four cigarettes, the highest pollution
levels recorded were: CO, 25 ppm; NOx, 0.91 ppm; hydrogen
cyanide, 56 ug/m3; formaldehyde, 1.6 ug/m3; nicotine, 288 ug/m3;
and particulate matter, 4,600 ug/m3. During each session, the
nonsmokers stayed in the room for 80 minutes. Saliva, blood, and
urine samples were collected before, during, and 5 hours after
exposure and were analyzed for nicotine, cotinine, and
thiocyanate. Blood was analyzed also for carboxyhemoglobin. The
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highest levels of nicotine or cotinine in the physiological
fluids of the nonsmokers did not exceed 3% of the mean per person
recorded for 450 smokers of more than 20 cigarettes/day.
Nitrosoproline in urine serves as an indicator for endogenous
nitrosamine formation on exposure to nitrosating agents. First
data after exposure to passive smoke do not indicate increased
urinary excretion of nitrosoproline.
0135
Holland, David M. (Aug. 1983) "CO levels in microenvironment
types in four U.S. cities", U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring
Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (30 pages).
Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure, monitor, vehicle, interior, field,
CO, outdoor, microenvironment, EPA$
Portable monitors were used to measure time-averaged (10 to 30
minutes) personal exposures to CO. Data were collected from
January through March 1981 in four cities where ambient CO levels
in excess of National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) have
been reported: Stamford, CT, Los Angeles, CA, Phoenix, AZ, and
Denver, CO. In each city, personal exposures were measured in
three common microenvironments (indoor, commuting, and
residential driving) near fixed stations monitoring ambient CO.
Measurements recorded at urban and urban-residential monitoring
stations (excluding one station in Stamford) underrepresented the
time-weighted mean of commuting and residential driving exposures
by factors of 0.4 to 0.7. Fixed monitoring stations in Los
Angeles, Phoenix, and one station in Stamford overrepresented the
time-weighted mean of indoor exposures by factors of 1.1 to 1.3.
However, in Denver and another station in Stamford, urban
stations underrepresented the mean of indoor exposures by factors
of 0.4 to 0.8. Regressing personal exposures on concurrent
fixed-site concentrations for all recorded values revealed no
conclusive linear relationships.
0006
Holland, David, and Mage, David T. (1983) "Carbon monoxide
concentrations in four cities during the winter of 1981", U.S.
EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711 (74 pages). NTIS PB83-224907.
KEYWORD: CO, field, vehicle, interior, outdoor,personal,exposure,
microenvironment, monitor, EPA$
Field studies are described covering time-averaged exposures (10
to 30 minutes) to CO in Los Angeles, CA, Phoenix, AZ, Denver, CO,
and Stamford, CT, in the winter of 1980-81. Technicians carried
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personal exposure monitors in three common microenvironments
(indoors, commuting, and residential driving) to record the
actual exposures people receive. The highest indoor exposures
were observed in Denver (arithmetic mean of 6.1 ppm), and the
highest commuting and residential driving exposures were recorded
in Los Angeles (11.4 ppm and 7.6 ppm, respectively).
Relationships between personal exposures and simultaneous fixed-
station measurements were not linear.
0661
Hollowell, Craig, D., and Miksch, Robert R. (Dec. 1981) "Sources
and concentrations of organic compounds in indoor environments",
Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med., 57(10):962-977.
KEYWORD: source, exposure, EPA$, C02, humidity, combustion, CO,
CH20, radon, NO2, particulate, VOC, energy, home, ventilation
This paper discusses the sources and indoor and outdoor
concentrations of formaldehyde and other volatile organic
compounds. Outdoor sources include industries, vehicles, and
organisms. Indoor sources include building and furniture
materials, appliances, water, smoking, human metabolism, and a
wide variety of household consumer products. Health and
regulatory issues are reviewed, and possible control measures,
such as ventilation, are suggested.
0383
Holmberg, Kenneth (1984) "Mould growth inside buildings",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 253-256.
NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: microorganism,exposure,methodology,sampling, particulate
Mold growth inside buildings merits study both in its own right
as a natural phenomenon, and because it easily becomes airborne
and might pose a health problem for certain individuals. The
numbers and types of airborne mycoflora inside buildings depend
on air exchange with the outside and the presence of an
endogenous mold population. Without intramural mold sources,
indoor mold spore levels, to a major degree, reflect outdoor
levels. Endogenous mold growth may significantly change the
types of mold present or their concentrations. Indoor sampling
efforts confront an array of problems. An accurate assessment of
the total mold exposure inside buildings requires refinement in
the sampling procedures to avoid inadequacies of traditional
approaches.
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0471
Holub, R.F., et al. (1985) "Radon-222 and 222Rn progeny
concentrations measured in an energy-efficient house equipped
with a heat exchanger", Health Phys., 49(2):267-277.
KEYWORD: radon, field, monitoring, ventilation, exposure, home,
methodology, source, pressure, energy, architecture
Radon-222 and radon-222 progeny concentrations, barometric
pressure, and pressure differentials between inside and outside
were measured continuously in the basement of a recently
constructed energy-efficient house in metropolitan Denver, CO.
Although the monitoring equipment was developed primarily for
underground mines, it proved to be applicable for house
monitoring. Results indicate that, for tightly sealed houses,
forced-flow transport does not significantly contribute to the
radon-222 that is present even when the pressure within the house
is less than the outside pressure by 0.8 Pa (0.006 mm Hg).
Calculations of radon-222 levels using diffusion as the primary
transport mechanism agreed with observed data. The diffusion
coefficient of radon-222 in the walls and floor surrounding the
basement is higher than values previously reported. Ventilation
by means of a heat exchanger reduces the radon-222 levels in
accordance with measured air exchange rates, regardless of the
pressure differential between inside and outside.
0499
Hov, Oysteln, and Larssen, Stelnar (1984) "Street canyon
concentrations of nitrogen dioxide in Oslo: measurements and
model calculations", Environ. Sci. Technol., 18(2):82-87.
KEYWORD: NO2, outdoor, field, vehicle, source, model, foreign,
seasonal, Norway
Hourly mean concentrations of N02 in excess of the frequently
quoted exposure limit of 190 to 320 ug of NO2/m3 (95 to 160 ppb)
have repeatedly been recorded in a street in Oslo, Norway, during
the winter. In January 1981, the hourly mean concentrations
exceeded 200 ppb on 7 days; the maximum was 270 ppb. Summer
concentrations were much lower. With a simple model of the
combined effect of chemistry and dilution of the exhaust gas
plume, it was shown that NO2 generation through the reaction NO +
NO + 02 —> 2NO2 may explain a small fraction of the NO2
formation. The study indicated that typically 5 to 10% of
street-level NOx can be taken as N02 formed through this
reaction. To account for the N02 measured, the authors suggest
that the N02 fraction of NOx in car exhaust may be higher in the
driving conditions found in Oslo during the winter than what is
recorded in the standard for testing car exhaust emissions.
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0320
Howes, J.E., Jr., Vijayakumar, R., Doerfler, F., Burmann, F.J.,
and Howard, F.S. (Aug. 1985) "Preliminary evaluation of a
modified NBS PM 10 sampler for indoor particulate measurements",
U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711 (39 pages). NTIS PB85-2470057/AS.
KEYWORD: particulate, personal, exposure, monitor, EPA$,sampling,
field, QA, outdoor
The prototype National Bureau of Standards PM10 portable sampler
has been modified to overcome several design flaws. The
modifications included replacing the case, redesigning the filter
holder, and adding a motor control circuit. The performance of
an indoor air sampler developed by Harvard University was also
evaluated in this study. Both samplers yielded PM10 data
comparable to that obtained with a conventional ambient-type
dichotomous sampler.
0366
Hugod, Carl (1984) "Passive smoking — a source of indoor air
pollution", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.,
"Indoor air, vol. 2, radon, passive smoking, particulates and
housing epidemiology", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 319-325. NTIS PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: N02,HCN,acrolein, aldehyde, exposure, CO, biomonitoring,
smoking, laboratory
In a tightened room of approximately 60 m3, side-stream cigarette
smoke was maintained at a constant level of approximately 20 ppm
during a 3-hour experiment. Air concentrations of CO, NO2,
hydrogen cyanide, acrolein, and other aldehydes were measured
with and without people present. These tobacco smoke
constituents were encountered in lower concentrations with, than
without, people present. Carboxyhemoglobin concentration was not
a good general indicator for exposure to tobacco constituents.
Subjective discomfort, estimated in questionnaires distributed
every 30 minutes during the experiment, was at almost identical
levels irrespective of exposure to whole side-stream smoke or to
the gas phase of the smoke. Exposure of volunteers to acrolein
caused considerably less discomfort than exposure to whole side-
stream smoke or to the gas phase.
0621
Humphreys, M.P., Knight, C.V., and Pinnix, J.C. (1986)
"Residential wood combustion impacts on indoor carbon monoxide
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and suspended particulates", Hocheiser, S. and Jayanti, R.K.M.,
Eds., "Proceedings of the 1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the
measurement of toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA,
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, NC 27711, pp. 736-747. Not yet available from NTIS. (In
press, Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230.)
KEYWORD: wood, field, home, exposure, CO, PAH, energy, source,
ventilation, combustion, NO, particulate
Recent studies conducted by Tennessee Valley Authority during the
winters of 1983, 1984, and 1985 have evaluated the impacts of
both airtight (catalytic and conventional) and non-airtight wood
heaters on indoor air quality in a weatherized home. CO and
suspended particulate results for the three studies are presented
in this paper. Depending on the operating conditions, the wood
heaters were found to represent a major source of indoor CO and
suspended particulates. Several other pollutants (NO and
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons) were also found to be
associated with residential wood combustion.
0431
lachan, R., Pate, O.K., Sebestik, J., and Whitmore, R.W. (1986)
"Final report on focus groups used to refine the survey design
for the National Indoor Air Quality Study", Contract no. 68-01-
6826, U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (29 pages).
KEYWORD: EPA$, exposure, C02, NOx, VOC, CH2O, CO, radon, source,
methodology, home, design, particulate, combustion
EPA's National Indoor Air Quality Study is designed to estimate
the distribution of concentrations of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), combustion products, and respirable particulates in U.S.
homes. EPA conducted meetings (focus groups) with residents of
Durham, N.C. during October of 1986 to determine how households
decide whether or not to participate in such a study and also how
to maximize their participation. The greatest incentive to
participate in such a study is curiosity about the results.
Discouraging factors include noisy and/or bulky monitoring
equipment, complicated activity diaries, and unclear or redundant
prose in information packets.
0154
Ingalls, Melvin N. (March 1984) "Mobile source exposure
estimation", U.S. EPA, Office of Mobile Source Air Pollution
Control, Ann Arbor, MI 48105 (150 pages). NTIS PB84-224518.
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KEYWORD: CO, model, NEM, source, vehicle, outdoor, literature,
exposure, EPA$, microenvironment
This project was conducted to provide the nationwide annual
person-hours of exposure to mobile-source pollutants. The first
activity was to determine the suitability of the National Ambient
Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) Exposure Model (NEM), as used in a
study of CO ambient standards, to estimate mobile-source
exposure. By itself, the NEM CO study did not adequately
estimate mobile-source exposure. However, the NEM with modified
inputs could be used for CO with a mobile-source microenvironment
exposure model to produce the desired exposure estimates. NEM
can be thought of as a "people-specific" model, because it
follows groups of people through their daily activities. The
mobile-source microenvironment exposure model developed for this
project is a "place-specific" model. It calculates exposure for
a given place and time and is not concerned with where the people
are before of after their stay in the microenvironment. Exposure
in four microenvironments was examined: parking garages, street
canyons, expressways, and roadway tunnels. For these
microenvironments, data on concentrations of CO from mobile
sources were obtained from EPA data bases. The nationwide
population of these microenvironments for each hour of the day
was obtained from the published literature. Results of the
modified NEM can be combined with the data from this study to
obtain the nationwide exposure estimate for a pollutant.
0039
Ingalls, Melvin N. (July 1981) "Estimating mobile source
pollutants in microscale exposure situations", U.S. EPA, Office
of Mobile Source Air Pollution Control, Ann Arbor, MI 48105 (182
pages). NTIS PB82-101114.
KEYWORD: vehicle, source, outdoor, literature, microenvironment,
model, EPA$
Methods are described for estimating the concentration of any
vehicle-generated air pollutant in areas where people and
vehicles are in close proximity. For each of several microscale
locations where people ordinarily are found, the appropriate
dispersion model is described. Physical data are presented on
residential garages, parking garages, roadway tunnels, street
canyons, and expressways in the U.S., and a variety of models and
other pertinent information are included.
0115
Ingalls, Melvin N. (July 1981) "Estimating concentrations of
mobile source pollutants in a variety of exposure situations",
Final report, U.S. EPA, Office of Air and Waste Management, Ann
132
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Arbor, MI 48105 (121 pages). NTIS PB82-101114.
KEYWORD: model, microenvironment, statistical, source, exposure,
dose, vehicle, EPA$
This report classifies situations involving exposure to mobile-
source pollutants, presents mathematical models for predicting
short-term exposures in each situation, and uses the models to
predict exposures in hypothetical examples of each situation.
Work not yet done includes selection and refinement of additional
models and further definition of physical parameters of "real
world" exposure situations (e.g., enclosed spaces, street
canyons, expressways, small-area sources). The final product, a
total dose computer program, will compute the short-term
pollutant dosage for each situation and the total dosage for all
scenarios.
0040
Ingalls, Melvin N., and Garbe, Robert J. (June 1982) "Ambient
pollutant concentrations from mobile sources in microscale
situations", Technical paper mo. 820787, Society of Automotive
Engineers, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096 (16
pages).
KEYWORD: vehicle, source, literature, model, microenvironment,
methodology, exposure, EPA$
A method was developed for estimating concentrations of vehicle-
generated pollutants where people and vehicles are in close
proximity. A list of common exposure situations is extracted
from hypothetical daily activity routines. For each situation,
an appropriate dispersion model is selected. The range of real-
world physical variables for each situation is examined. From
this range, typical and severe actual situations are chosen.
Pollutant concentrations are calculated for each typical and
severe situation using the appropriate dispersion model.
Emission factors of 1 gram/mile or minute are used to facilitate
scaling.
0054
Jabara, J.W., Keefe, T.J., Beaulieu, H.J., and Buchan, R.M.
(1980) "Carbon monoxide: dosimetry in occupational exposures in
Denver, Colorado", Arch. Environ. Health, 35:198-204.
KEYWORD: CO, field, personal, industrial,seasonal, biomonitoring,
exposure, smoking, sampling, source
Exposure of Denver, CO, traffic control personnel to CO was
evaluated during 8-hour work shifts using three parameters: (1)
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98 9-hour time-weighted average breathing zone air samples
(personal dosimetry), (2) before- and after-work shift CO breath
samples, and (3) 8-hour moving-average ambient CO levels during
the fall and winter months. Different shifts and work
experiences were taken into consideration. The data reveal
greater CO exposures in subjects working on streets than controls
working inside downtown buildings with respect to breath-CO
samples and breathing-zone-air samples. CO concentrations in
after-work shift breath samples were closely associated with 8-
hour time-weighted average CO levels. The greatest source of CO
to the sample population was cigarette smoking, followed by
occupationally related sources, and finally, ambient background
CO levels.
0296
Jackson, M.D., and Lewis, R.B. (July 1981) "Insecticide
concentrations in air after application of pest control strips",
Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol., 27(1) :122-125.
KEYWORD: pesticide, propoxur, chlorpyrifos, field, VOC, diazinon,
sampling, source, home
A study was designed to determine how much, if any, pesticide
gets into the air of a room with properly applied pest control
strips. Pest control strips of varying concentrations of
different insecticides were placed in a room according to the
manufacturers' recommendations. Air samples were collected and
analyzed. The highest air concentrations found were 0.8, 1.4, and
0.25 mg/m3 from propoxur, diazinon, and chlorpyrifos,
respectively.
0300
Jackson, M.D., and Wright, C.G. (May 1975) "Diazinon and
chlorpyrifos residues in food after insecticidal treatment in
rooms", Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol., 13 (5) :593-595.
KEYWORD: diazinon, chlorpyrifos, food, pesticide, home
Residual diazinon and chlorpyrifos were measured in foods in a
room at the time of treatment with insecticides and in foods
placed in treated rooms after treatment. A person consuming a TV
dinner at the highest residue found would ingest 0.015 mg
diazinon.
0663
Jaeger, Rudolph J. (Dec. 1981) "Carbon monoxide in houses and
vehicles", Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med., 57(10):860-871.
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KEYWORD: CO, health, biomonitoring,smoking, outdoor,vehicle,home,
control,exposure,source,microenvironment,combustion,appliance
CO is produced indoors mainly by tobacco smoking and unvented gas
appliances. Concentrations of carboxyhemoglobin (COHB) in human
blood range from less than 1% in nonsmokers to 5-10% in smokers.
In fetuses of smoking mothers, as much as 7.6% COHB has been
found. The adverse health effects of these exposures in children
may be substantial, and unvented indoor combustion should be
discouraged.
0359
Janka, K., and Kulmala, V. (1984) "Optical particle counter as a
wide range, continuous monitor for particle concentrations",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 2, radon, passive smoking, particulates and housing
epidemiology", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm,
pp. 215-219. NTIS PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: particulate, methodology, QA,monitoring,exposure
The researchers have modified a Royco 218 particle counter for
continuous monitoring indoors. The modifications consist of
making slight alterations in the flow system and adding
electronics, including an improved base-line restorer and a dual-
channel ratemeter that can be connected to a strip-chart recorder
or to a data logger with analog inputs. The ratemeter has a
coincidence-error correction system extending the measurable
concentration range.
0180
Janssen, J.E., Hill, T.J., Woods, J.E., and Maldonado, E.A.B.
(1982) "Ventilation for control of indoor air quality: a case
study", Environ. Int., 8:487-496.
KEYWORD: CO2, ventilation, monitoring, model, control, energy
Dilution of contaminated indoor air with less-contaminated
outdoor air is the most common strategy to control indoor air
quality. Unfortunately, this strategy frequently wastes energy.
A test was carried out in a school music department to obtain air
quality, energy, and subjective response data. A control system
with both C02 and temperature inputs was devised to control the
use of outdoor air. Infiltration measurements led to a
quantitative measure of ventilation efficiency. The measured
ventilation efficiency allowed validation of energy and CO2
models with measured data. Energy savings of approximately 20%
were found for this application.
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0522
Jarke, Frank H., and Gordon, Sydney M. (1981) "Recent
investigations of volatile organics in indoor air at sub-ppb
levels", Paper no. 81-57.2, presented at the 74th annual meeting
of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (16 pages).
KEYWORD: VOC, source, methodology, exposure, dose, biomonitoring,
sampling, laboratory, monitoring
The development of a suitable technique for surveying indoor
environments for a wide range of volatile organic compounds of
different chemical classes, molecular-weight ranges, and
concentrations would afford scientists the opportunity to explore
such items as (1) long-term chronic exposure, (2) episodic
exposure, (3) body-burden studies, and (4) headspace analysis of
isolated sources such as building materials, cooking operations,
duplication machines, and various other potential sources. The
methodology described covers two types of preconcentration
collectors. One is more suitable for grab sampling and
investigation of the dynamics of indoor pollutants, while the
second is an integrating type and is more suited to average
exposure studies. The differences between these two collection
modes are the sampling time and the quantity of porous polymer
used. These collectors have evolved to their present
configuration after more than 15 years of experience with vapor
concentration.
0668
Jarvis, M., Tunstall-Pedoe, H., Feyerabend, C., Vesey, C., and
Salloojee, Y. (1984) "Biochemical markers of smoke absorption and
self reported exposure to passive smoking", J. Epidemiol.
Commun. Health, 38:335-339.
KEYWORD: CO,methodology,biomonitoring,smoking,activity, exposure,
nicotine,field,foreign,dose,Britain,cotinine,thiocyanite
One hundred nonsmoking hospital outpatients in London, England,
reported their passive exposure to tobacco smoke over the
preceding three days and provided samples of blood, expired air,
saliva, and urine. Although the absolute levels were low, the
concentration of cotinine in all body compartments surveyed was
linearly related to the reported exposures. For saliva, this
relationship held true only for exposure on the day of the test.
CO, thiocynate, and plasma nicotine were unrelated to exposure.
Cotinine provides a valid marker of the dose received from
passive smoking.
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0628
Jewell, Richard A. (1980) "Reduction of formaldehyde levels in
mobile homes", Paper presented at the symposium, "Wood sdhesives
- research, applications, and needs," Madison, WI, September 23-
25, 1980 (7 pages). NTIS ADP-002-426.
KEYWORD: control, economic, CH20, method, odor, source, wood,
ventilation, home, regulation
This preliminary report on investigations into methods of
reducing airborne formaldehyde levels in mobile homes identified
two effective techniques. Fumigation with ammonia appears to
produce long-term reductions of approximately 61 to 73%. A high-
capacity air recirculation device that removed formaldehyde by a
filter bed of potassium-permanganate-impregnated alumina pellets
reduce levels by apporximately 74% during operation. The report
also discusses variables affecting formaldehyde levels, and
ineffective products on the market. Ammonia fumigation is cited
as the most cost-effective approach to reducing formaldehyde
levels.
0480
Johansson, Ingegerd (1978) "Determination of organic compounds in
indoor air with potential reference to air quality", Atmos.
Environ., 12:1371-1377.
KEYWORD: school, hydrocarbon, sampling, field, foreign, Sweden,
VOC, outdoor, aromatic, exposure, acetone
Concentrations of 15 volatile organic compounds were investigated
in the air of two Swedish schoolrooms. The chemical analysis
included enrichment on porous polymer beads, heat desorption, and
gas chromatographic separation on a capillary column connected to
either a flame-ionization detector or a mass spectrometer.
Samples were collected from the indoor air both in the presence
and in the absence of the pupils, as well as from ambient outdoor
air. In both indoor and outdoor air, aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons predominated, although the number of compounds
detected indoors was larger and the concentrations higher. Both
the number and the concentration increased in the presence of
humans. The mean concentrations of acetone and the sum of the
concentrations of C2-alkylbenzenes were 7.7 and 8.2 ug/m3
respectively, in an unoccupied room and increased to 19.8 and
12.1 ug/m3 respectively in an occupied room.
0556
Johnson, Clark (1986) "A reaction to Repace and Lowrey (1985)",
Environ. Int., 12(1-4):21-22.
137
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KEYWORD: smoking, methodology, health, exposure, literature, QA,
model, risk, statistical, demographic, lung, exposure
This letter to the editor is highly critical of the methodology
used by Repace and Lowrey for the journal's 1985 article: "A
quantitative estimate of nonsmokers1 lung cancer risk from
passive smoking" (BLIS #86). Specifically, Johnson argues that
the authors (1) miscalculated and inflated the numbers of
cigarettes smoked, (2) used a faulty theoretical model to
overestimate nonsmokers1 exposures, and (3) may have misapplied
their model's formula. This tendency to inflate the magnitude of
passive smoking invalidates their estimate of 5,000 additional
lung cancer deaths because of passive smoking. Repace and Lowrey
rebut these arguments in BLIS #559.
0043
Johnson, T., and Paul, R.A. (1984) "The NAAQS Exposure Model
(NEM) applied to carbon monoxide", U.S. EPA, Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
(234 pages). NTIS PB84-242551.
KEYWORD: CO, model, exposure, NAAQS, NEM, EPA$
The neighborhood version of the National Ambient Air Quality
Standard (NAAQS) Exposure Model (NEM) is used to compute CO
exposures of the population of four urban areas (Chicago, IL, St.
Louis, MO, Philadelphia, PA, and Los Angeles, CA). The model
estimates exposures associated with alternative NAAQS values
proposed for CO. Results of these analyses and the contribution
of indoor CO to total population exposures are evaluated.
0726
Johnson, T.R. (1984) "A study of personal exposure to carbon
monoxide in Denver, Colorado", Paper no. 84-121.3, presented at
the 77th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (17 pages).
KEYWORD: smoking,activity, CO,personal, microenvironment,outdoor,
exposure, methodology, source, combustion
Fixed-site monitoring data may not accurately indicate personal
exposure within an urban population. Better estimates of
personal exposure can be developed by equipping a large number of
subjects with personal exposure monitors (PEMs) and activity
diaries. If the subjects are properly selected, their exposures
can be extrapolated to the larger urban population. Such a study
on CO was conducted in Denver, CO, on 454 subjects for two
consecutive 24-hour sampling periods. Each participant provided
a breath sample at the end of each sampling period and also
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completed a detailed background questionnaire. The questionnaire
results, and approximately 900 subject-days of exposure and
activity diary data collected between November 1, 1982, and
February 28, 1983, were analyzed to determine if factors such as
microenvironment and the presence of indoor CO sources
significantly affect personal CO exposure. In addition, the
exposure of the entire Denver population was extrapolated from
exposures of the participants. CO levels recorded by fixed-site
monitors were compared to levels recorded simultaneously by
PEM's. CO exposures in microenvironments associated with motor
vehicles are higher than exposures in microenvironments not
associated with motor vehicles. CO exposures in the
microenvironments defined for this study are not strongly
correlated with CO concentrations simultaneously recorded at
fixed-site monitors. Indoor residential exposures are increased
by gas stoves, smokers, and attached garages. The study provides
a data base that should prove invaluable in answering questions
concerning the factors which affect exposure, the ability of
fixed-site data to represent personal exposures, the performance
of new instruments, and similar issues.
0124
Johnson, Ted (Jan.1984) "A study of personal exposure to carbon
monoxide in Denver, Colorado", U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
(272 pages). NTIS PB84-146125.
KEYWORD: CO, distribution, personal, exposure, monitor, activity,
smoking, QA, microenvironment, EPA$, appliance, field
The target population for the study included all
noninstitutionalized, nonsmoking residents of the urbanized
portion of the Denver, CO, metropolitan area aged 18 to 70 years
at the time of the study. A total of 454 study participants was
obtained through the use of a screening questionnaire
administered to several thousand households in the study area.
Each participant carried a personal exposure monitor and an
activity diary for two consecutive 24-hour sampling periods and
provided a breath sample at the end of each period. Each
participant also completed a detailed background questionnaire.
CO exposures were higher in microenvironments associated with
motor vehicles such as parking garages and automobiles. Mean
indoor residential exposure was increased 2.59 ppm by gas stove
operation, 1.59 ppm by the presence of smokers, and 0.41 ppm by
attached garages. The population distribution of CO exposure is
compared to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
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0130
Johnson, Ted, Capel, Jim, and Wijnberg, Luke (Feb. 1985)
"Selected data analyses relating to studies of personal carbon
monoxide exposure in Denver and Washington", Contract No. 68-02-
3496, U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (196 pages). Not available from
NTIS.
KEYWORD: CO, field,activity,outdoor, personal, exposure, monitor,
statistical, model, smoking, source, EPA$, distribution
For a study of personal exposure to CO in Denver, CO, the target
population included all noninstitutionalized, nonsmoking
residents of the urbanized portion of the metropolitan area
between the ages of 18 and 70 years. A total of 454 study
participants was obtained through the use of a screening
questionnaire administered to several thousand households in the
study area. Each participant carried a personal exposure monitor
(PEM) and activity diary for two consecutive 24-hour sampling
periods and provided a breath sample at the end of each period.
Each participant also completed a detailed background
questionnaire. A similar study was conducted in Washington, DC.
The Denver fixed-site data suggest that ambient CO levels
decrease with increasing wind speed. Five monitors in the
central business district reported daily maximum 8-hour
concentrations exceeding 15 ppm. Linear regression analyses
relating PEM values to Washington fixed-site readings yielded R-
squared values exceeding 0.15 for eight microenvironments:
indoors-hospital (0.65), indoors-church (0.60), indoors-garage
(0.19), outdoors-park (0.15), train/subway (0.61), jogging
(0.30), truck (0.27), and bicycle (0.16). Microenvironments
found to be above the 8-hour National Ambient Air Quality
Standard (9 ppm) included service stations, public garages,
restaurants, outdoor locations within 10 yards of roads with high
ambient CO, and trips beginning or ending in an area of high
ambient CO. A model was developed that explained 34% of the
variation in Denver PEM values. Daily maximum 8-hour exposures
reported on consecutive days by Denver subjects were not highly
correlated (R-squared = 0.16). PEM performance is discussed.
0535
Johnson, W.B., and Bailey, P.G. (August 1983) "Study of radon
daughter concentrations in Polk and Hillsborough Counties",
Health Phys., 42:432-435.
KEYWORD: activity, architecture, radon, source, exposure, field,
control, phosphate, home, track-etching
In 1975, EPA stated that structures built on reclaimed phosphate
land have radon daughter levels significantly greater than
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structures not built on reclaimed land. As a result, a study was
begun in Polk and Hillsborough counties, Florida, examining a
large number of structures with a potential for elevated radon
daughter levels. The study, proposed to measure y exposure rates
and working levels inside homes built on undisturbed-
nonmineralized, undisturbed-mineralized, and reclaimed land. If
time allowed, researchers also planned to adapt and test some of
the proposed control technologies. The sample studied included
1,000 homes of varying construction types and occupant living
styles. Track-etch (TE) dosimeters were deployed in all of the
homes, and about 200 of the homes also had a thermoluminescent
dosimeter attached to the TE card. Working level was measured
indirectly by the TE or directly by integrating radon daughter
samplers. Many of the parameters for each site (i.e., land type,
construction type, living style) were coded for ease of data
manipulation and for assistance in pattern recognition.
0026
Johnson, T., and Paul, R. (May 1984) "NAAQS exposure model (NEM)
applied to nitrogen dioxide", draft report under Contract no. 68-
02-3390, U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards,
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, (71 pages). Not available from
NTIS.
KEYWORD: NO2, model, distribution, NEM, EPA$, regulation
The exposure version of the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (NAAQS) Exposure Model (NEM) is used to simulate the
pollutant concentrations expected to occur in selected exposure
districts within a study area under user-specified regulatory
scenarios. These estimates are adjusted to account for an
exhaustive set of microenvironments and typical movements through
the districts, and microenvironments of population subgroups are
simulated. Outputs of the simulation program are population
exposure estimates at specified pollutant levels.
0161
Jonassen, Niels, and McLaughlin, J.P. (1982) "Air infiltration
and radon daughter levels", Environ. Int., 8:71-75.
KEYWORD: radon, control, method, aerosol, health, lung, model,
dose, exposure
The authors investigated the effect of filtration and aerosol
loading of the air on the level of short-lived airborne daughter
products of radon. With a combination of filtration and aerosol
loading, it is possible to shift the partitioning of the radon
daughters in the room between these states: airborne, plated-out
on the walls, and trapped by filters. The airborne fraction
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shifts between being attached to aerosol particles and existing
as molecular-sized clusters. When the air is filtered, the
equilibrium factor decreases with increasing filtration rate. At
a given radon concentration, the dose delivered to a certain
portion of the respiratory tract depends not only on the
equilibrium factor but also on the fraction of polonium-218 in
the unattached state. The authors demonstrated that, according
to the dose model of Harley and Pasternak, the dose to the basal
cells of the epithelium of the bronchii will, in general,
decrease with increasing filtration rate and increase with
decreasing aerosol concentration.
0231
Jungers, R.H. and Howie, S.L. (May 1982) "Exposure to
perchloroethylene associated with the use of coin-type dry
cleaning machines", Published in "Proceedings: National symposium
on recent advances in pollutant monitoring of ambient air and
stationary sources, held at Raleigh, NC, May 4-7, 1982", pp. 153-
156. NTIS PB84-148345.
KEYWORD: exposure, PERC, industrial, home, EPA$, dry-cleaner
Nearly all coin-type dry cleaners use perchloroethylene (PERC) as
the cleaning solvent. EPA sponsored research to obtain data on
public exposure to PERC that may result from dry cleaning in
these self-service cleaners. Testing at a laundry facility and
at an apartment located above the facility was conducted in
Washington, DC. Indoor PERC levels varied in the range of from
90 to 14,000 ppb. PERC levels in the apartment were practically
identical to those in the laundry facility below.
0050
Jungers, Robert H. (1983) "Recent advances in EPA's monitoring
and methods development research", U.S. EPA, Environvental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711.
NTIS PB83-231209.
KEYWORD: PAH,CO,VOC,vehicle,source,1iterature, sampling,personal,
exposure, monitor
Several areas of advanced research related to sampling, analysis,
and human exposure assessment of exhaust emissions in ambient air
have been developed. These include studies of new methods for
volatile organic compounds and development and application of
personal exposure monitors in screening for polyaromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) and CO. The new methods for screening PAHs
are fast, economical, and accurate. The more expensive and time-
consuming traditional method of analysis may be judiciously
applied to those samples which the screening methods indicate are
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high in PAHs. CO was measured using personal exposure monitors
in urban-scale studies to obtain data on population exposures on
a real-time basis. Such data may ultimately be used in assessing
human exposure to mobile sources and other emissions more
accurately.
0326
Jungers, R.H., Akland, G.G., and Sauls, H.B. (1985) "A human
exposure assessment study using personal monitoring of carbon
monoxide—direct and indirect methods", Environ. Int., 11:413-
418.
KEYWORD: CO, field,exposure,methodology, EPA$, personal,exposure,
monitor, distribution
Residential exposure assessments have been based on the likely
occurrence of an air pollutant when residential demographic data
were merged with pollutant concentrations observed at the nearest
fixed monitoring site. The recent development of personal
exposure monitors (PEMs) enables measuring a person's total
exposure in both ambient and indoor air. This paper introduces
two approaches to determine CO exposure and describes the
experimental data obtained. One is the direct approach in which
a representative sample of the population is selected and sampled
using a PEM. The indirect approach is the combination of field
data from activity patterns and measured concentrations within
microenvironments. The conclusions combine statistical survey
design techniques and PEM concentration data to produce an
exposure profile for a representative population.
0290
Jurinski, Neil B. (Aug. 1984) "The evaluation of chlordane and
heptachlor vapor concentrations within buildings treated for
insect pest control", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T. and Sundell, J.,
Eds. "Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal
exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
51-56. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: chlordane, heptachlor, pesticide, personal, exposure,
field, home
Residual levels of chlordane and heptachlor insecticides in
indoor air were determined following their use in residences.
Analyses consistently found higher vapor concentrations of
heptachlor than chlordane. However, for surface concentrations,
chlordane levels were typically twice those of heptachlor.
Instances were found in which the insecticide air concentrations
exceeded the limits recommended by the National Academy of
Sciences.
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0527
Kahn, T.R., Meranger, J.C., and Lo, B. (1983) "Development of a
prototype active personal monitor for S02, NO2, and airborne
particles", in Proceedings of national symposium on recent
advances in pollutant monitoring of ambient air and stationary
sources, held at Raleigh, NC, May 4-7, 1982, U.S. EPA,
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, NC 27711, pp. 315-332. NTIS PB84-148345.
KEYWORD: SO2, NO2, particulate, personal, exposure, monitor, QA,
health, methodology, sampling
To relate exposure estimates to the likelihood of human health
effects, it is necessary to monitor personal exposure to indoor
air pollutants, such as N02, SO2, and airborne particles. No
dosimeter for monitoring personal exposure to these pollutants is
currently available or is likely to be produced commercially in
the near future. Certain promising devices were found, however.
These either measured only one of the pollutants
(Harvard/Electric Power Research Institute) or did not have the
required sensitivity or operational life required (Gage Research
Institute). The researchers initiated a project intended to
assemble a prototype personal dosimeter from the most promising
commercially available air pump, a solid sorbent media of the
desired collection properties for NO2 and SO2, and an H&H cyclone
with a Teflon filter for collecting size-selected particles.
Five candidate pumps were chosen primarily on the basis of
results from an earlier study on personal dosimeters for SO2,
NOx, O3, and particulates. The Geomet, Inc. respiration-
controlled sampler was not chosen because of its inherent flow
variability. The Gage pump was excluded from further testing
because it failed to deliver the target sampling rate of 2
liters/min. Two sorbents, triethanolamine-impregnated silica gel
and molecular sieve, were tested for collecting NO2 and SO2. The
results of these investigations and the prototype finally
assembled are described.
0377
Kalinic, N., Sega, K., and Sisovic, A. (1986) "Formaldehyde
levels in selected indoor microenvironments", Environ. Int.,
12(1-4):297-299.
KEYWORD: CH2O, microenvironment, office, home, school, vehicle,
exposure, sampling, laboratory, architecture
In 1983, formaldehyde concentrations in air were measured for 6
to 12 days in 12 rooms in 6 office buildings, in 9 sitting rooms
and 2 kitchens in 9 apartments, in 10 kindergartens and 6 schools
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(1 room in each), and in a car driving the same route across the
city 11 times. The buildings were of different ages and
construction, from the classical (brick and concrete) to modern
buildings made of prefabricated parts. Integrated 24-hour
samples were collected, stored in a refrigerator, and analyzed
using the colorimetric method based on Schryver's reaction.
0385
Karlsson, S., Banhidi, E., Banhidi, Z.G., and Albertsson, A.
(1984) "Accumulation of malodorous amines and polyamines due to
clostridial putrefaction indoors", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T.,
and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 3, sensory and
hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 287-293. NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: exposure, field,source, alkylamine, architecture, odor,
terpene, microorganism
Damaged malodorous self-leveling floor-coating compounds
containing protein additives were analyzed by various gas
chromatographic (GC) techniques; iso-butylamine, triethylamine,
n-pentylamine, di-iso-butylamine, di-n-butylamine, putrescine,
and B-phenylethylamine were identified. Some slow-moving amines
underneath the floor-covering layer were tentatively identified.
In addition, short-chain organic acids were found. Both the
amines and acid groups of substances represent characteristic
putrefactive fermentation products of clostridia, which
researchers isolated from different caseins and building
materials. The same GC patterns were obtained when analyzing
spent media of pure clostridial cultures, grown on caseins medium
for some months at pH levels of 10 or more. The deodorant-like
smell of degradation products from plasticizers and of terpenes
from wood might overlap the amine odor. A long-term accumulation
of amines might represent another menace in "sick buildings".
0287
Kebbekus, Barbara, et al. (Aug. 1983) "Concentration of selected
vapor and particulate phase substances in the Lincoln and Holland
tunnels", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 33(4):328-330.
KEYWORD: VOC, PAH, Pb, particulate, source, microenvironment, QA,
vehicle, outdoor, tunnel
Lead, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) were measured in the Lincoln and Holland tunnels
under the Hudson River near New York City. Sampling and analysis
methods and data quality are discussed. Data tables and compound
lists are provided. Pollutant concentrations were 10 to 20 times
higher than those at a typical urban site.
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0401
Keller, G., and Muth, H. (1985) "Radiation exposure in German
dwellings, some results and a proposed formula for dose
limitation", Sci. Total Environ. 45:299-306.
KEYWORD: radon,outdoor,radiation, exposure,source, foreign, home,
field, thoron, Germany, statistical, architiecture
Investigations in the Federal Republic of Germany on the indoor
and outdoor exposure to natural radiation from gamma rays and
radon and thoron daughters are presented. The median indoor
radon-222 concentration was approximately four times higher than
outdoors. A correlation analysis of the data obtained showed
that, indoors, the equilibrium factor is almost independent of
ventilation, radon-222 concentration, and other parameters. The
mean equilibrium factor was 0.3 in dwellings and approximately
0.4 outdoors. The investigations on diffusion coefficients and
exhalation rates showed that the activity concentration in
dwellings and in cellars can generally be explained by the radon
emissions from the building materials. Only in areas of high
radon concentrations was the emission from the soil a decisive
factor. The mean effective dose equivalent by residence in
dwellings amounted to 0.2 to 0.8 mSv/a for radon-222 daughters
and approximately 0.1 mSv/a for radon-220 daughters. A
relationship has been derived that permits calculation of the
expected average radiation exposure in dwellings by gamma
radiation and by radon inhalation as a function of the
radionuclide concentration in building materials.
0632
Keller, M.D., Lanese, R.R., Mitchell, R.I., and Cote, R.W. (1979)
"Respiratory illness in households using gas and electricity for
cooking", Environ. Res., 19:495-503.
KEYWORD: NO2, exposure, home, health, lung, source, combustion,
outdoor, demographic, appliance
A 12-month study was undertaken to determine the incidence of
respiratory illlness in households in an upper-middle-class
community in the Midwest. A sample of 441 families was divided
into two groups, those cooking with gas and those cooking with
electricity. Family health and demographic data were obtained
biweekly from the participants. Ambient air was analyzed indoors
and outdoors in a sample of the households, and pulmonary
function tests were conducted on a subsample of the participants
from both types of households. The results were compared with
those from a similar study in Long Island, NY. Cooking with gas
was not associated with an increase in respiratory disease or a
146
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decrease in pulmonary function.
0324
Khan, Tahir R., and Meranger, Jean C. (1983) "Recent advances in
SO2, NOx and O3 personal monitoring", Environ. Int., 9:195-206.
KEYWORD: SO2, NOx, O3, personal, exposure, monitor, methodology,
literature
Because the air pollution measured by stationary-monitoring
stations is a poor indicator of population exposure, personal
monitors are indispensible to health effects studies. This
article reviews the current research on the development of
personal monitors. Although most of the analytical methods
reviewed appear to be sensitive to the levels of the target
pollutants generally encountered in indoor and outdoor air (NO2,
SO2, and O3), they lack the desired performance characteristics
for a personal monitoring device, such as user safety, ease of
operation, weight, and maintenance. Electrochemical
transducers/sensors, which have not yet been exploited for
personal monitoring, can generate real-time measurements. A few
research models and commercially attractive devices that can be
used in field studies are described.
0558
Kilpatrick, James S., Jr. (1986) "A criticism of Repace and
Lowrey (1985)", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):29-31.
KEYWORD: exposure, smoking, methodology, dose, risk, statistical,
demographic, health, literature, lung, QA, model
This letter-to-the-editor argues that in the journal's 1985
article, "A quantitative estimate of nonsmokers1 lung cancer risk
from passive smoking," (BLIS #86) Repace and Lowrey ignored basic
statistical principles to achieve their conclusion that passive
smoking causes 5,000 extra lung cancer deaths per year.
Specifically, (1) their exposure estimate is based on an
unrealistic worse-case scenario, (2) they arbitrarily use linear
dose/response model of carcinogenesis in which passive smoking is
the only cause of lung cancer in nonsmokers, and (3) they abuse
unpublished and incomplete demographic data on nonsmokers1 death
rates. Repace and Lowrey rebut these arguments in BLIS #559.
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0088
Kim, S.Y., and Kreisal, W. (Aug. 1984) "Effects of household
exposure to carbon monoxide poisoning in Korea", Berglund, B.,
Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical
characterization and personal exposure", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 117-122. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: CO, field, foreign,health, exposure, seasonal, economic,
temperature, Korea, home
The study shows that incidences of household CO poisoning cases
in Korea are significantly correlated with temperature, but not
with relative humidity. Examination of weather effects seemed to
indicate that socioeconomic factors may also be involved.
0564
Kim, Yoon Shin, and Stock, Thomas H. (1986) "House-specific
characterization of indoor and outdoor aerosols", Environ. Int.,
12(1-4):75-92.
KEYWORD: trace, home, particulate, outdoor, source, ventilation,
exposure, smoking, health, NO3, SO4, Pb, Zn, metal
Air was monitored simultaneously inside and outside of 12 homes
in the Houston, TX, area for fine inhalable particulate matter by
means of dichotomous samplers. The patterns of house-specific
indoor mean concentrations, indoor/outdoor ratios, and probable
sources of indoor fine aerosols are discussed, along with
pertinent information on household characteristics. The results
suggest that most indoor aerosols are affected by infiltration of
outdoor air as well as by indoor generation, with the single most
important determinant being the presence or absence of cigarette
smoking. However, it is likely that the typical complexity of
indoor environments makes it difficult to determine possible
sources of indoor aerosol accurately.
0575
Kim, Yoon Shin, Spengler, John D., and Yanagisawa, Yukio (1986)
"Measurements of indoor and personal exposures to nitrogen
dioxide in Korea", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):401-406.
KEYWORD: N02,personal,monitor,sampling,source,field, Korea, home,
exposure,combustion,microenvironment,statistical,foreign
Indoor and personal exposures to N02 were measured for 48 homes
in Seoul, Korea, during January and February 1984. Passive
diffusion tube samplers were placed in the kitchen and living
room, and housewives wore badge-type personal samplers. The mean
NO2 concentrations in kitchen and living room air were 52.6 and
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43.7 nanoliter/liter (nL/L), respectively, while the mean
personal NO2 exposure was 29.2 nL/L. Average personal exposure
and kitchen and living room levels were higher in homes using
liquified propane gas for cooking fuel than the corresponding
levels in homes using natural gas. Comparing indoor measurements
and personal exposure to NO2 by analysis of variance showed
kitchen NO2 levels varied significantly with type of cooking fuel
used, whereas living room and personal NO2 levels varied with
type of heating fuel.
0139
King, Thomas A., et al. (May 1984) "Indoor air quality,
environmental information handbook: combustion sources", U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Environmental Analysis,
Washington, DC 20585 (217 pages). NTIS DE85-006589/LL.
KEYWORD: literature, smoking,home, source, EPA$, health, control,
regulation, combustion, model
This handbook provides a comprehensive overview and reference
source on the major air quality aspects of indoor combustion
activities, including tobacco smoking. Quantitative and
descriptive data are presented on emissions, indoor
concentrations, factors influencing indoor concentrations, and
health effects of combustion-generated pollutants. Models,
controls, and standards applicable to combustion sources of
indoor air pollution are reviewed. Potential concentrations in
residential settings are estimated.
0308
Kleinman, Michael T. (1984) "Sulfur dioxide and exercise:
relationships between response and absorption in the upper
airways", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 34(l):32-37.
KEYWORD: SO2, exposure, dose, model, health, lung, laboratory,
ventilation
During exercise, higher ventilation rates and decreased time of
contact with upper airway surfaces appear to result in greater
doses of gases (such as SO2) being delivered to sensitive target
sites within the respiratory system. In human clinical studies,
the effects of SO2 on pulmonary function are indeed enhanced
during exercise. A mathematical model has been developed from
measurable anatomical, physiological, and physiochemical
parameters as well as from controlled experiments with humans and
laboratory animals. The model takes into account minute
ventilation, partitioning between oral and nasal breathing, and
differences in pollutant scrubbing in oral and nasal airways.
The model has been tested on apparently divergent experimental
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results from two laboratories and resolved differences between
the results of clinical SO2 exposures of resting and exercising
people.
0505
Kleitman, D., Chernoff, H., Rasmussen, S., DuMouchel, W.,
Neuberg, D. (1981) "The relationship between indoor radon and
lung cancer: a study of feasibility of an epidemiological study",
U.S. EPA, Washington, DC 20460 (116 pages). NTIS PB84-192673.
KEYWORD: radon, health, lung, model, exposure,risk, epidemiology,
home, field, design, smoking, statistical, economic
A study assessing the feasibility of an epidemiologic
investigation of the relationship between residential radon
exposure and lung cancer is described. Field measurements of
residential radon levels in Maine are also described. Using
these radon measurements and existing risk assessments, the
authors estimate that, at most, 10% of lung cancers in Maine can
be considered attributable to residential radon. The authors
calculate sample sizes necessary for a case-control study of
radon and lung cancer at various levels of radon and smoking
health effects. The effects of misclassification of exposure
variables on the probability of detecting a radon health effect
are discussed. Three mathematical models (saturated logistic,
simple logistic, and simple additive) are compared that could be
used to estimate sample size. Costs are estimated for conducting
the epidemiologic case-control study.
0388
Konopinski, Virgil J. (1984) "Residential formaldehyde and carbon
dioxide", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.
"Indoor air, vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick
buildings", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
329-334. NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: CO2, CH2O, home, source, field, exposure, architecture,
health
From 1979 through 1983, a series of investigations was undertaken
to define formaldehyde concentrations in residences with and
without urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI). In a limited
number of situations, CO2 and relative humidity were also
determined. Mean concentration of formaldehyde in UFFI
residences was 0.05 ppm; and in non-UFFI residences, it was 0.09
ppm. The mean C02 concentration was 734 ppm indoors and 208 ppm
outdoors. Relative humidity indoors ranged from 31% to 78%. The
most frequent health problems, reported by persons in 43.1% of
the homes, were respiratory irritation, eye irritation, and
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headaches.
0349
Koontz, Michael D., and Nagda, Niren L. (1984) "Infiltration and
air quality in well-insulated homes: 3. measurement and modeling
of pollutant levels", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell,
J., Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 5, buildings, ventilation and thermal
climate", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
511-516. NTIS PB85-104222.
KEYWORD: radon, CH2O, particulate, exposure, source,seasonal, CO,
NO2, NOx, combustion, energy, weather, model, field, home
Pollutant levels in well-insulated houses are being investigated
in a 2-year theoretical and experimental study involving the
simultaneous measurement of meteorological variables, air
exchange and circulation, and energy consumption. This paper
describes concentrations of radon, radon progeny, formaldehyde,
CO, and NOx observed in two houses in summer and fall 1983.
Increased ventilation reduced pollutant concentrations
considerably.
0481
Kosek, J.A., Giordano, J.P., and LaConti, A.B. (May 1983)
"Development of SPE diffusion head instrumentation", in
"Proceedings: National Symposium on recent advances in pollutant
monitoring of ambient air and stationary sources, held at
Raleigh, NC, May 4-7, 1982", pp. 333-357. NTIS PB84-148345.
KEYWORD: CO, NO, QA,personal, monitor,methodology,NO2,industrial,
exposure, laboratory, EPA$
General Electric has developed a line of electrochemical sensors
for monitoring such gases as CO, NO, and NO2 in mine and
industrial atmospheres, using a unique solid polymer electrolyte
(SPE) electrochemical cell technology. Several models of CO
instruments are now in commercial production. These instruments
include a direct-reading CO detector and a CO dosimeter, both of
which use an air-sampling pump to bring a gas sample to the
electochemical sensor cell. Use of the SPE sensor cell
eliminates problems such as corrosion and containment associated
with caustic or acidic electrolytes and leads to highly invariant
sensor cell response and long-life operation with minimal
maintenance and calibration. This instrumentation has been
modified such that an air sample reaches the sensor cell by means
of natural gaseous diffusion. Both the active and passive
versions of these monitors can be used easily as personal
dosimeters.
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0102
Krasmec, J.P., and Demaray, D.E. (Aug. 1984) "Sampling and
monitoring toxic gases in indoor environments", Berglund, B.,
Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical
characterization and personal exposure", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 191-196. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: CO, CO2, CH20, particulate, smoking, hydrocarbon, VOC,
halocarbon, sampling, methodology
Different approaches to monitoring indoor air pollutants are
described briefly. Indoor sampler design criteria are outlined.
Grab samplers, personal samplers, passive and single-use devices,
and in-situ measurement instruments are compared to novel,
syringe/adsorbent tube samplers. These instruments provide an
automated, sequential, time-averaged collection of a variety of
indoor air pollutants, including hydrocarbon/halocarbon organic
vapors, CO, C02, formaldehyde, tobacco smoke, combustion and
odorous mixtures, and particulate matter. In addition, the
samplers can be used in indoor infiltration studies. The design
and operation of the new samplers are detailed. Current and
potential applications are also discussed.
0777
Krause, C., and Englert, N. (1980) "Health evaluation of PCP
(pentachlorophenol) containing wood preservatives in rooms", Holz
als Ron- Werkstoff, 38:429-432.
KEYWORD: PCP, wood, home, biomonitoring, laboratory, exposure,
foreign, Germany, pesticide
The actual exposure to PCP after application of wood
preservatives was determined by analyzing indoor air samples in
104 homes and the urine from more than 1,000 persons with varying
PCP exposure. In 250 persons with elevated PCP exposure,
additional general medical examinations and laboratory diagnoses
were performed. A clear relation between elevated urine PCP
concentrations and deviations from "normal" could not be derived
from the findings.
0188
Kreiss, K., Gonzalez, M.G., Conright, K.L., and Scheere, A.R.
(1982) "Respiratory irritation due to carpet shampoo: two
outbreaks", Environ. Int., 8:337-341.
KEYWORD: S04, health, lung, office, school, architecture
Dried detergent residue left in carpets after they were shampooed
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with underdiluted carpet shampoo caused respiratory irritation
among most employees in an office building and among all staff
members and most children in a day-care center. Symptoms
included cough, dry throat, difficulty in breathing, nasal
congestion, and headache. Eye irritation was also noted by day-
care center staff members. Symptoms persisted for many weeks
until the carpets were steam cleaned twice. The major ingredient
of the three shampoo products implicated in these two outbreaks
and in a third similar report is sodium dodecyl sulfate, a
respiratory irritant in mice. Unpublished occupational
investigations suggest that exposure to soap dust may be
associated with pulmonary function abnormalities in some exposed
workers. Detergent dust is a newly recognized example of an
indoor air pollutant and should be considered when patients or
employees complain of respiratory or eye irritation.
0498
Kring, E.V., Ansul, G.R., Basilil, A.N., McGibney, P.O.,
Stephens, J.S., and O'Dell, H.L. (1984) "Sampling for
formaldehyde in workplace and ambient air environments
additional laboratory validation and field verification of a
passive air monitoring device compared with conventional sampling
methods", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 45(5):318-324.
KEYWORD: CH2O, field, home, monitor,personal,exposure,industrial,
methodology, QA, laboratory
Results of three extensive tests in industrial plants using both
area and personal sampling and involving 51 sets of comparison
samples show the Du Pont Pro-Tek Formaldehyde Badge to have
excellent correlation with three commonly used formaldehyde-
monitoring methods. Field tests in mobile homes gave similar
results. In addition, comprehensive laboratory validation tests
reportedly confirm an overall accuracy of +/- 9.6% to +/- 11.6%
for the badge over an exposure range of 0.12 to 6.8 ppm.
Laboratory test data show that the badge (1) meets Federal
accuracy requirements of less than +/- 25% down to 1.6-ppm hours
(200 ppb) for an 8-hour exposure; (2) is capable of accurately
sampling for 15-minute exposures; and (3) is not affected by air
pressure or variations in relative humidity.
0345
Kulmala, V., Salminen, A., Graeffe, G., Janka, K., Keskinen, J.,
and Rajala M. (1984) "Long-term monitoring of indoor air quality
and controlled ventilation in public buildings", Berglund, B.,
Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 5,
buildings, ventilation and thermal climate", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 435-441. NTIS PB85-104222.
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KEYWORD: radon, aerosol, CO2,ventilation, office, field, foreign,
Finland, energy
Long-term monitoring of radon, aerosol, and CO2 was carried out
in two public buildings in Finland. In each case, a distinct
periodic behavior of pollutant concentrations was observed. CO2
and aerosol showed maximum levels during working hours, but
fluctuations of the aerosol concentration were faster and more
irregular. Radon peaked at night and on weekends, dropping off
rapidly on work day mornings when ventilation was turned on.
Reasons for the fluctuations are discussed briefly in terms of
indoor sources and periodic ventilation. A case study of C02-
controlled ventilation was conducted in one of the buildings.
The estimated daily energy savings were between 13 and 20%, and
no significant changes in the pollutant concentrations could be
observed.
0457
Kusuda, T., Silberstein, S., and McNall, P.E., Jr. (1980)
"Modeling of radon and its daughter concentrations in ventilated
spaces", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 30(11):1201-1207.
KEYWORD: radon, ventilation, model, radiation, exposure, home,
architecture
To predict indoor radiation levels caused by radon daughters at
low building ventilation and air leakage rates, researchers used
differential equations that governed the decay and venting of
radon 222 and its daughters. A computer program based on the
equations was written to predict radon and radon daughter
concentrations, total potential alpha energy concentration, and
the equilibrium factor. The program can be, and is readily, used
by building designers. Sample calculations using the program
showed that potential alpha energy levels in a tightened building
can commonly reach about 0.01 working level, an amount more than
twice as high as concentrations currently found in most houses.
0306
Lamb, B., Westberg, H., Bryant, P., Dean, J., and Mullins, S.
(1985) "Air infiltration rates in pre- and post-weatherized
houses", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 35(5):545-551.
KEYWORD: hydrocarbon, radon, outdoor, ventilation, energy, field,
CH2O
Air filtration rates were measured via a tracer dilution method
in 10 eastern Washington houses before and after the houses were
weatherized in order to determine the effectiveness of
weatherization procedures. Infiltration rates during typical
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meteorological conditions ranged from 0.3 to 1.0 air exchanges
per hour (ex/h) among the houses. Reduction in these
infiltration rates due to weatherization also varied considerably
from "essentially no change" to "40% reduction in the air
exchange rate". The average reduction was approximately 16%.
Infiltration rates were measured continuously in one house during
several weeks, and the results showed that the extended use of
doors can cause infiltration rates to increase from less than 1
ex/h for a closed house to more than 3 ex/h. Limited air
pollution measurements conducted during the study indicated that
formaldehyde and radon concentrations were quite low indoors,
while individual indoor hydrocarbon concentrations were much
higher than those measured outdoors.
0343
Lambert, W.E., and Colome, S.D. (1984) "Effect of reduced
building ventilation rates on occupant exposure and response to
carbon monoxide", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J.,
Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 5, buildings, ventilation and thermal
climate", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
277-285. NTIS PB85-104222.
KEYWORD: exposure, ventilation, energy, outdoor, biomonitoring,
model, CO2
In weatherization of buildings to minimize convective heat loss,
the air exchange rate is reduced. Thus indoor pollutants are
retained near the occupants. Further, outdoor pollutants may be
concentrated indoors under particular peak and duration
conditions. The health significance of this latter occurrence
was evaluated with a generalized indoor-outdoor model for a
conservative pollutant. Protection against transient outdoor
peaks varied with exchange rate, ambient peak height, duration,
and periodicity. Under conditions approaching steady state,
indoor fluctuation is dampened, and geometric mean concentrations
increase as exchange rates are reduced. Using a predictive
equation for carboxyhemoglobin formation, a reference
individual's response to indoor versus ambient profiles was
calculated. The traditional assumption that reduced ventilation
rates protect against outdoor peaks was evaluated in the context
of a generally reduced variance about the mean in indoor
profiles.
0389
Lamm, S.H. (1984) "Upper respiratory irritation symptoms and
formaldehyde exposure levels among mobile home residents",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 361-366.
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NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: CH20, health, home, exposure, statistical, field, lung
Residents of mobile homes in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Washington
complaining of "formaldehyde" problems in their homes
participated in health studies conducted by State personnel.
Formaldehyde (CH2O) levels in the homes were determined using
impactor collection tubes and the chemical analysis method
approved by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health. The residents completed questionnaires detailing their
symptoms. Residents were classified by the level of CH2O
detected in their homes (grouped in 0.5-ppm intervals). For each
symptom, the proportion of residents in each exposure group
reporting that symptom was calculated. Symptoms did not increase
with CH2O levels less than 2 ppm, with the possible exception of
an increased prevalence of eye complaints in the Minnesota study.
Symptom prevalences at exposures greater than 1.5 ppm were
generally no different from prevalences at 0.0 to 0.5 ppm.
Further, exposure levels in the study homes did not differ from
those in randomly chosen mobile homes, after adjusting the data
for age of home, according to a Wisconsin study.
0396
Lampos-Venuti, G., Risica, S., Antonini, A., Bobbi, G., and
Leogrande, M.P. (1985) "Radon and radon daughter evaluation in a
natural radioactivity survey indoors", Sci. Total Environ.,
45:373-380.
KEYWORD: radon, outdoor, methodology, radiation,source, exposure,
foreign, Italy
A survey estimating indoor exposures in five towns in Italy is
presented. Gamma spectrometry of building materials, exposure
rate measurements indoors and outdoors, and radon concentration
measurements indoors were taken with different techniques. Mean
gamma exposure rate and mean radon concentration were correlated
in the houses investigated. Mean effective dose equivalents for
the inhabitants of the five towns are reported.
0301
Landa, Edward R. (1984) "Radon in earth-sheltered structures",
Underground Space, 8:264-269.
KEYWORD: radon, architecture, home, exposure, energy, monitoring
Radon concentration in the indoor air of six residential and
three nonresidential earth-sheltered buildings in eastern
Colorado was monitored quarterly over a 9-month period using
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passive, integrating detectors. Average radon concentrations
during the three 3-month sampling periods ranged from about 1 to
9 picoCuries/liter (pCi/L)—although one building, a poorly
ventilated storage bunker, had concentrations as high as 39
pCi/L. These radon concentrations are somewhat greater than
those typically reported for conventional buildings (about 1
pCi/L); but they are of the same order of magnitude as radon
concentrations reported for energy-efficient buildings that are
not earth sheltered.
0476
Lautenberger, W.J., Kring, E.V., and Morello, J.A. (1981) "Theory
of passive monitors", Ann. Am. Conf. Gov. Ind. Hyg., 1:91-99.
KEYWORD: sampling, exposure, monitor, personal, literature, VOC,
methodology, temperature, humidity, QA
Recently, interest has been growing in using a passive monitor,
rather than a pump/impinger or pump/solid-sorbent tube, to sample
organic and inorganic vapors. In general, passive monitors
depend on permeation- and/or diffusion-controlled mass transport
sampling mechanisms. With the pump/tube method, the mass of the
vapor collected is a direct function of the sampling rate of the
pump (cm3/min), ambient concentration (mg/m3), and sampling time
(min). When permeation-controlled passive monitors are used for
sampling, the mass uptake of the monitor is controlled by the
physiochemical characteristics of the membrane and the
contaminant. A theoretical discussion of the effects of air
movement, temperature, pressure, relative humidity, coadsorption
or coabsorption of other contaminants, and the amount and type of
adsorbent or absorbent is reviewed, and the relevancy to the
practicing industrial hygienist is discussed. The effects of
relative humidity and temperature, as well as the overall
sampling range of the device, must be considered if the devices
are to be used properly in the field.
0456
Leach, J.F., Robinson, G.R., and Sandalls, F.J. (1982) "Aircraft
cabin air ozone contamination and compliance with regulations",
Atmos. Environ., 16(5):1021-1026.
KEYWORD: statistical, methodology, vehicle, regulation, aircraft,
distribution, O3
Fifteen O3 measurements were taken of the cabin air in the
"Concorde" aircraft. These measurements were ranked in order and
plotted as log-normal and extreme value cumulative probability
distributions. Results showed that the log-normal distribution
gave adequate accuracy for regulatory purposes, and one-side
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tolerance limits may be used for statistical methods of
compliance with any regulatory limit. Similarly, researchers
found that regulatory compliance achieved by O3 destruction ratio
may be difficult because of the extreme stratification of 03 in
the lower stratosphere.
0650
Leaderer, B.P., Cain, W.S., Isserhoff, R., and Berglund, L.G.
(1981) "Tobacco smoke in occupied spaces: ventilation
requirements", Paper no. 81-22.6, presented at the 74th annual
meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (14 pages).
KEYWORD: smoking, ventilation, exposure, control, CO, model,
laboratory, monitor, control, smoking, particulate
Two sets of experiments in an aluminum-lined chamber explored
steady-state concentrations of CO and total suspended
particulates (TSP), their relation to rate of smoking and
ventilation, and their removal by adsorption to surfaces. First,
CO and TSP were monitored with four smokers and three smokers in
the chamber. The nonsmoker's psychophysical reactions to tobacco
smoke odor also were recorded. Second, steady-state
concentrations of CO and TSP from four smokers were monitored
during fresh-air ventilation and during fan mixing without fresh
air. Smoking rates were controlled in both sets of experiments.
Ventilation rate alone governs removal rate of CO. Both
ventilation and surface adsorption govern the TSP removal rate.
Ventilation rates that reduce CO concentrations to acceptable
levels do not do so for TSP. Under steady-state conditions, and
subject to other limitations, CO may serve moderately well as a
proxy for TSP.
0479
Leaderer, B.P., Cain, W.S., Isserhoff, R., and Berglund, L.G.
(1984) "Ventilation requirements in buildings—II. particulate
matter and carbon monoxide from cigarette smoking", Atmos.
Environ., 18(1):99-106.
KEYWORD: ventilation, CO, particulate, smoking, energy, health,
control, laboratory
Current efforts to reduce ventilation rates in buildings may
conserve energy but may, in turn, impair human health and welfare
through increased levels of indoor contaminants. Tobacco
combustion is one important source of indoor pollution.
Measurements were made in an aluminum-lined environmental test
chamber of both steady-state levels and decays of total suspended
particulate (TSP) mass between 0.01 and 10 urn. CO generated
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during various rates of cigarette smoking and at various rates of
ventilation was measured also. Of the particulate mass, 98% fell
between 0.05 and 1.0 urn, with a volume median diameter of 0.225
urn. For many combinations of smoking rate and ventilation rate,
including ventilation rates above normal, TSP exceeded levels
considered acceptable outdoors. This rarely occurred, however,
with CO. Although ventilation above governed removal of CO from
the chamber, adsorption on surfaces (e.g., ductwork, walls)
provided an additional mechanism for removing TSP. Even with the
additional clearance offered by adsorption, particulate levels
will exceed commonly accepted background levels unless
ventilation during smoking equals about 35 cfm per occupant. An
electrostatic precipitator, on the other hand, will very quickly
drive TSP levels down to very low values. This study found that
the latest ASHRAE ventilation standard appears to be adequate to
maintain CO levels resulting from cigarette smoking at acceptable
levels and that ventilation alone will control the removal of CO.
0097
Leaderer, B.P., Zangraniski, R.T., Berwick, M., Stolwijk, J.A.J.,
and Qing-Shan, M. (Aug. 1984) "Residential exposure to NO2, SO2
and HCHO associated with unvented kerosene space heaters, gas
appliances, and sidestream tobacco smoke", Berglund, B.,
Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical
characterization and personal exposure", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 151-156. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: NO2, S02, CH2O, source, combustion, home, exposure,
smoking, appliance
Integrated levels of NO2, S02, and formaldehyde were sampled
during six 2-week periods during the heating season of January-
April 1983 in 303 homes in the New Haven, CT, area. Indoor-to-
outdoor N02 ratios were 0.577 +/- 0.305 for homes with no known
source of NO2. Average levels of NO2 were comparable for homes
with either a kerosene heater or a gas stove. Homes with both a
kerosene heater and a gas stove had average N02 concentrations
approximately double those with only one source. Residences with
smokers had higher NO2 levels than those without. In residences
with kerosene space heaters, SO2 concentrations corresponded to
the sulfur content of the fuel. Levels of NO2 and SO2 during
kerosene heater use were estimated as four to five times higher
than the average values measured during the 2-week sampling
period. Formaldehyde levels were low and not associated with
indoor combustion.
0776
Lebowitz, M.D., Holberg, C.J., and Dodge, R.R. (1983)
"Respiratory effects on populations from low-level exposure to
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ozone", Paper no. 83-12.5, presented at the 76th annual meeting
of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (8 pages).
KEYWORD: exposure,O3,health,field,lung,particulate, monitor, NOx,
CO, statistical, temperature, outdoor, weather, appliance
The study attempted to evaluate the respiratory effects of O3,
independently and interdependently of other pollutants and
meteorological phenomena, both indoors and outdoors. In Tucson,
AZ, 229 subjects (117 families) were monitored over a 2-year
period using daily symptom diaries and mini-Wright peak flow
monitors. All families provided environmental information on
their houses. Air pollutants and microbiological constituents
were monitored indoors and outdoors: total suspended particulates
(TSP) by Gelman filters and Thomas pump, O3 by a Daisibi monitor
(UV photometer), CO by grab sampling and a Bendix CO IR analyzer,
NOx (unsuccessfully) by a Bendix chemiluminescent analyzer. TSP
indoors ranged from 5.7 to 68.5 ug/3. Simultaneous micro-outdoor
TSP ranged from 2.1 to 169.6 ug/m3. The interaction between 03
and TSP in relation to peak flows was statistically significant.
03 and temperature correlated with prevalence rates of acute
"asthma" symptoms in asthmatics, but O3 had no independent effect
within any temperature range. 03 had no effect on prevalence
rates of rhinitis in conjunction with stove usage, but its effect
was seen only in those with gas stoves.
0781
Lebowitz, Michael D. (1983) "Health effects of indoor
pollutants", Ann. Rev. Public Health, 4:203-221.
KEYWORD: multimedia,multipollutant,exposure, literature, control,
activity, regulation, source, health, dose, outdoor
This overview of indoor pollution dicusses pollutants, sources,
concentrations, health effects, control mechanisms, regulation
issues, and research methods. Special attention is given to CO,
particulates, volatile organic compounds, NO2, formaldehyde,
radon, asbestos, various fibers, CO2, and microorganisms. A
table identifies sources and common concentration ranges.
Research to estimate total human exposure to pollutants from
generic activities in varied locations is discussed. While the
individual may be responsible for limiting exposures, public
health agencies can help by addressing consumer product liability
and building code standards, and by supporting research on
control mechanisms and epidemiological factors.
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0312
Lebowitz, M.D., Gorman, C., O'Rourke, M.K., and Holberg, C.J.
(1984) "Indoor/outdoor air pollution, allergen and meteorological
monitoring in an arid southwest area", J. Air Pollut. Control
ASSOC., 34(10):1035-1038.
KEYWORD: O3, CO, particulate, allergen, source, outdoor, N02,
smoking, weather, activity, appliance
Sources and concentrations of indoor air pollutants and
aeroallergens were evaluated in arid Tucson, AZ. One major
purpose was to appraise the interaction of indoor and outdoor
human exposures. A rough time budget study showed that 74% of
adults spent 75% or more of their time in some indoor
environment. Outdoor and indoor concentrations of total
suspended particulates (TSP), respirable suspended particulates
(RSP), CO, O3, and aeroallergens were measured for 41 detached
dwellings. Mesoenvironmental monitoring was conducted for TSP,
CO, NO2, O3, and aeroallergens; ambient TSP frequently exceeded
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), as did both CO
and O3 on occasion. Indoor TSP and RSP were lower than outdoor
levels and of a different composition. Outdoor infiltration fell
rapidly for particles and pollen as distance indoors increased.
CO was low indoors, and O3 was very low. TSP and RSP correlated
significantly with tobacco smoking, and CO correlated with gas
stove use. Temperature varied minimally indoors, and relative
humidity indoors was similar to outdoor readings in this climate.
Researchers concluded that better particle characterization and
better estimates of total exposure are required.
0766
Lebowitz, M.D., Holberg, C.J., O'Rourke, C.G., and Dodge, R.
(1983) "Gas stove usage, CO and TSP, and respiratory effects",
Paper no. 83-9.1, presented at the 76th annual meeting of the Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230 (12 pages). NTIS PB83-250357.
KEYWORD: smoking,combustion, source, health, personal,CO, NO2,O3,
particulate,monitoring,field,outdoor,weather,EPA$,appliance
This paper examines the daily peak flows of pollutants in homes
of asthmatic and nonasthmtic families and exposure to gas stove
emissions and passive smoking. The indoor air of 117 families
(229 subjects) in Tucson, AZ was investigated for a 2 years using
daily diaries and peak flow meters. In a random cluster sample
of representative households, temperature, humidity, and air
pollutants were measured and samples taken for 03, CO, N02, and
total suspended particulates. Correlations are presented, for
relationships between the measured parameters, source usage and
residents' medical symptoms.
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0760
Lebowitz, Michael D. (1976) "Aerosol usage and respiratory
symptoms", Arch. Environ. Health, 58:83-86.
KEYWORD: lung, health, demographic, smoking, source, statistical,
indoor, epidemiology, exposure, design
In an epidemiological study of 3,485 selected individuals in
Tucson, AZ, aerosol usage appears to correlate with respiratory
symptoms. This effect persists after adjusting for correlations
of age, smoking and the prevalence rates for symptoms; and
appears to exist for specific types of aerosols. Further
specification and clarification of these relationships are needed
in the epidemiological study. Critical evaluation in vitro and
in vivo models is also crucial. The propellants and active
ingredients must be studied toxicologically to determine the
mechanism and extent of specific actions on organisms.
0647
Lebowitz, Michael D. (1983) "Utilization of data from human
population studies for setting air quality standards: evaluation
of important issues", Environ. Health Perspect., 52:193-205.
KEYWORD: QA, epidemiology, regulation, distribution, methodology,
exposure, health, multipollutant, risk, statistical, NAAQS
Epidemiological studies are highly relevant to the process of
setting National Ambient Air Quality Standards because the
standards are intended to protect people from adverse health
effects. However, the use of data derived from these studies for
setting standards is problematic because of the difficulties of
gathering data of adequate quality. This paper addresses
appropriate exposure measurement and health assessment methods,
and the problems of multiplex variables and colinearity, which
are critical in assessment of exposure-effect relationships. A
major question in the use of epidemiological data for setting
standards is not necessarily scientific reliability or validity,
but arises from attempting to translate adequate science into
policy decisions.
0674
Lebowitz, Michael D. (1983) "Passive smoking", in "Energy, air
pollution and health: fact sheets", American Lung Association,
1740 Broadway, New York, NY 10019-4374, pp. 22-24.
KEYWORD: microenvironment, exposure,health, CO,lung, VOC,smoking,
particulate, control, ventilation, risk, activity, architecture
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This fact sheet outlines the hazard of passive (side-stream,
second hand) cigarette smoke. It covers the primary
microenvironments, pollutants associated with passive smoke,
physical dynamics such as ventilation and architecture
contributing to human exposure, the history of research on health
effects (with special attention on studies of children), and
methods for controlling human exposure.
0724
Lebowitz, Michael D. (1984) "The potential of lung cancer from
passive smoking", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J.
Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 1, recent advances in the health sciences
and technology", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 59-70. NTIS PB85-104180.
KEYWORD: research, health, methodology, epidemiology, literature,
smoking, ventilation, lung, demographic, exposure, home, office
This article reviews the evidence for and against the hypothesis
that passive smoking causes lung cancer. Passive smoke
constituents have caused cancer in laboratory animals, but at
exposures much larger than concentrations found in buildings.
Epidemiologic studies using indirect and qualitative estimates of
exposure have not been conclusive. Future research into this
issue must use more reliable measures of exposure and consistant
methodology.
0755
Lebowitz, Michael D. (1984) "Influence of passive smoking on
pulmonary function: a survey", Prev. Med., 12:645-655.
KEYWORD: smoking, health, lung, microorganism, demographic, dose,
methodology, literature, children
Effects of passive smoking on pulmonary function are reviewed. A
great deal of confusion and controversy still exist in children -
- the range of the many effects studied is limited, and most
prospective studies show small effects. However, respiratory
infections in children may increase with passive smoking.
Pulmonary function decreases by 0 to 3% from conception to 20
years, small differences in absolute magnitude. In healthy
adults, the effects on pulmonary function and symptoms are not of
concern; asthmatics, however, require further study. A
prospective study of airway-obstructing diseases in Tucson, AZ,
concluded that the effect of passive smoking on pulmonary
function or respiratory symptoms (recorded on a daily basis) in
children is not positive. Passive-smoking children show
responses to other irritants. In adults, no effect was seen,
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even in those with asthma or airway-obstructive diseases; this
may be due to low dosage. Further, more appropriate studies are
needed to understand the role of passive smoking on pulmonary
function.
0553
Lebowitz, Michael D. (1986) "The potential association of lung
cancer with passive smoking", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):3-9.
KEYWORD: health, risk, exposure, lung, smoking, model, dose,
literature, epidemiology
The potential association of lung cancer with passive smoking has
been studied epidemiologically, clinically, and mathematically.
There have been both positive and negative studies, such that the
association is still considered a potential rather than probable
one. These studies, and the mathematical models, indicate that
the major factor in determining the relationship is the dose, and
that more research is reguired to determine the dose side of the
dose-response relationship.
0186
Lebowitz, Michael D., et al. (1982) "The adverse health effects
of biological aerosols, other aerosols, and indoor microclimate
on asthmatics and nonasthmatics", Environ. Int., 8:375-380.
KEYWORD: particulate,lung,outdoor,source,effect,passive, smoking,
health, demographic, statistical, aerosol, activity, appliance
Asthmatic and nonasthmatic families in a representative community
population sample were monitored over a 2-year period using daily
diaries. Simultaneous micro-indoor and outdoor monitoring was
conducted in a representative sample of houses for air
pollutants, pollen, fungi, algae, and climate. The relationship
of indoor to outdoor factors can be demonstrated. Acute symptoms
were strongly related to age, weakly related to sex, and not
related to smoking habits. Suspended particulate matter and
pollen were related to symptoms in asthmatics and nonasthmatics.
Fungi might be related to symptoms as well. The use of gas
stoves is qualitatively related to symptoms. Algae and other
contaminants of evaporative coolers do not appear to be important
in producing symptoms. More complex statistical analyses are
required to determine interactions of these factors. Distinction
has to be drawn between infectious episodes, allergic episodes,
nonallergic but similar episodes, and asthmatic attacks. This
study demonstrates the need for further investigations in this
area.
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0539
Lebowitz, Michael W. (1981) "Discussion of toxic air pollutant
health effects", Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 124:521-522.
KEYWORD: risk, benzene, dose, model, literature, CH2O, health,
epidemiology, statistical, methodology, exposure, regulation
Demonstrated toxicity must be a major criterion for
classification of a pollutant as a toxic substance. Assessment
of the health hazards and attendant risks of exposure to such
pollutants is also essential. Some major questions must be
answered. What type of toxicity data are best suited for this
purpose? How are the criteria for toxicity determined and by
whom? What confidence can be ascribed to such results,
especially to allow extrapolation to low doses? If a dose-
response cannot be demonstrated, can confidence be given to
estimates of effects in the real world? What type of evidence,
of biological plausibility, or consistency (if not causality), is
necessary? These question, which must be answered to avoid
epidemiological fallacies, continue to plague those charged with
reviewing the evidence, even before consideration of regulations.
The regulatory histories of benzene and formaldehyde illustrate
these points.
0307
Lebowitz, M.D., Holberg, C.J., Boyer, B., and Hayes, C. (1985)
"Respiratory symptoms, and peak flow associated with indoor and
outdoor air pollutants in the southwest", J. Air Pollut. Control
Assoc., 35(11):1154-1158.
KEYWORD: O3, N02, particulate, outdoor,health, home, CO, smoking,
source, appliance
A symptom-stratified, geographic cluster sample of 117 middle-
class households was studied. Daily diaries of symptoms and peak
flows were obtained for 211 subjects during a 2-year period. O3,
total suspended particulates (TSP), respirable suspended
particulates (RSP), CO, temperature, and relative humidity were
determined indoors in a sample of homes. Questionnaires
determined type of stove and number of smokers in all households.
Ambient pollutants (O3, TSP, CO, NO2) were monitored in or near
the clusters, as were temperature and relative humidity. Smoking
in the household was significantly correlated with TSP and RSP.
Indoor CO was significantly correlated with gas stove use.
Normal adults under age 25 had daily peak flows (PEF) associated
with outdoor O3 (after adjusting for other factors). Asthmatics'
PEF was associated with smoking, gas stove use, and outdoor NO2,
and with outdoor 03 and temperature, after adjusting for other
factors. Indoor and outdoor factors affected asthmatic symptoms,
after controlling for age, sex, smoking, and other ambient
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environmental variables.
0182
Lebowitz, Michael D. (1983) "The effects of pressurized aerosols
on respiratory symptoms and physiology", Sci. Total Environ.,
29:19-27.
KEYWORD: aerosol, home, smoking, lung, health, response, dose,
source, statistical
In a general population sample, use of pressurized aerosols
appears to be associated with transient symptoms, but it does not
appear to lead to chronic respiratory complaints or functional
abnormalities. This is true in both atopic and nonatopic
subjects. Furthermore, changing patterns of aerosol use are not
associated with changes in respiratory symptoms. Thus, household
and cosmetic aerosols do not appear to be important risk factors
for respiratory diseases.
0761
Lebowitz, Michael D., and Burrows, Benjamin (1976) "Respiratory
symptoms related to smoking habits of family adults", CHEST,
69:48-50.
KEYWORD: statistical, smoking, activity, demographic, research,
health, exposure, lung, children
In a study of the effects of family smoking habits on the
symptoms of other family members, self administered
questionnaires showed that symptoms, especially of children, are
related to smoking habits. However, these results were not
significant when adjusted for correlations with adult symptoms.
Longitudinal studies of the children are needed to determine
long-term effects.
0185
Lebowitz, Michael D., Armet, David B., and Knudson, Ronald (1982)
"The effect of passive smoking on pulmonary function in
children", Environ. Int., 8:371-373.
KEYWORD: smoking, children, health, lung
A study of ventilatory function was conducted in 344 families in
a representative community sample in Tucson, AZ. Aggregate
household pulmonary function, which is proportional to aggregate
household body mass, might affect the relationship of children's
pulmonary function to parental smoking. When household
aggregation of body mass was taken into account, there was no
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relationship of children's pulmonary function values to parental
smoking. Passive smoking due to parental smoking does not
seriously affect permanent markers of respiratory disease such as
pulmonary function.
0100
Lebret, E., Van de Weil, H.J., Noij, D., and Boleij, J.S.M.
(1986) "Volatile hydrocarbons in Dutch homes", Environ. Int.,
12(1-4):323-332.
KEYWORD: VOC, field, exposure, smoking, model, source, outdoor,
foreign, Netherlands
Weekly average concentrations of 45 volatile hydrocarbons were
determined in 134 houses in Ede, The Netherlands. The same
volatile hydrocarbons were measured in four houses every second
week for half a year. Virtually all hydrocarbons had higher
indoor than outdoor concentrations. Clustering of several of the
solvent-type components indicated the existence of common
sources. Higher concentrations of total volatile hydrocarbons
were found in houses with smokers compared to houses with
nonsmokers. Repeated measurements showed stable indoor levels
for some components in some houses, but rather large variations
for other components and other houses. The results suggest that
modeling of indoor levels on the basis of emission rates of
building materials alone has serious drawbacks.
0664
Lefcoe, Neville M., and Inculet, Ion I. (Feb. 1971) "Particulates
in domestic premises: I. ambient levels and central air
filtration", Arch. Environ. Health, 22:230-238.
KEYWORD: particulate, control,exposure, home, field, ventilation,
smoking, health, activity
Particulates were sampled in the ventilation return air of a home
with central ventilation and an electrostatic precipitator in the
main duct. The average counts in the 0.3-, 0.5-, and 1.0-micron
ranges were related to the normal activities: children playing,
house cleaning, and smoking. Counts in all ranges under minimal
activity were significantly lower when the filter was on compared
to when the filter was off. Cleaning and dusting inside
overwhelmed the filter. Smoking one cigar raised particle counts
by a factor of 100. These concentrations returned to normal in 3
hours with the filter off and 1 or 2 hours with it on.
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0566
Lehtimaki, M., and Graeffe, G. (1986) "Measurement of air
ions", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):109-113.
KEYWORD: methodology, QA, radon, particulate, laboratory, ion,
foreign, Finland
A modified method has been developed for simultaneously measuring
of positive and negative ions. A single aspiration condenser has
been used in constructing a compact instrument for studying the
behavior of small ions in indoor air. The principle of the ion-
measuring technique is discussed. Construction of the ion meter,
possible problems of ion measurements, and examples of results
are included.
0251
Leidy, R.B., et al. (1982) "Concentration and movement of
diazinon in air." J. Environ. Sci. Health Pestic. Food Contam.
Agric. Wastes, B17(4):311-319.
KEYWORD: diazinon, pesticide, personal, home, exposure, risk
Airborne concentrations of diazinon were measured in rooms for 21
days after it was applied to cracks and crevices. Treated rooms
had residues of 38 mg/m3, adjacent rooms 1 mg/m3. Low levels of
diazinon were detected in all rooms 21 days after application;
small amounts of residues were found on respirator pads and waist
pads worn by the applicator. Data indicated no serious hazard to
an individual from the prescribed diazinon application rate.
0293
Leidy, R.B., Wright, C.G., Dupree, H.E., and MacLeod, K.E. (1984)
"Concentration and movement of diazinon in air, II, vertical
distribution in rooms", J. Environ. Sci. Health Pestic. Food
Contam. Agric. Wastes, 19(8-9):747-757.
KEYWORD: diazinon, ventilation, pesticide, sampling
The vertical distribution of diazinon in air was measured for 35
days after it was applied to cracks and crevices in a dormitory.
Residue levels were higher at floor level than at chest and
ceiling heights on the first day, but tended to equalize by 7
days. Residues in adjacent, upper, and lower rooms were
equivalent at all sampling positions. Low, but measurable,
residues were detected in air samples 35 days after application,
indicating that low levels of the insecticide will remain for
several weeks in structures protected from direct sunlight and
ventilation.
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0362
Letz, R., Quackenboss, J.J., and Spengler, J.D. (1984) "Effects
of choice of exposure index in N02 epidemiological studies",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 2, radon, passive smoking, particulates and housing
epidemiology", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm,
pp. 261-266. NTIS PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: exposure, home, source, health, statistical, literature,
N02, lung, children
Analyses of respiratory symptom and pulmonary function data
demonstrate the importance of direct N02 measurements rather than
categorical variables such as cooking fuel as the exposure index.
Use of NO2 measurements from a child's home to estimate exposure
prevents misclassification and reduces exposure uncertainty
present when a categorical variable is used. No statistically
significant relationship was found between N02 concentrations
measured in children's homes and either their lung functions or
the prevalence of respiratory symptoms. However, when personal
monitor data were used as the exposure index, the estimated
effects were consistent with potential exposure-response
relationships.
0571
Levin, H., and Hahn, J. (1986) "Pentachlorophenol in indoor air:
methods to reduce airborne concentrations", Environ. Int., 12(1-
4):333-341.
KEYWORD: PCP,health,regulation,research,exposure,1iterature,food,
office, biomonitoring, control, pesticide, wood, ventilation
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is widely used in buildings as a wood
preservative and as a fungicide in finished materials. The
general population is routinely exposed to trace concentrations.
PCP has been found in low concentrations in food, indoor air,
many consumer items, and on the surfaces of playground
furnishings and other outdoor wood. Human health effects have
not been observed in occupants of buildings with low PCP air
concentrations. Increased body burdens have been found in
occupants of homes where PCP air concentrations were 0.2 to 0.4
ug/m3 and in office workers where concentrations were 7 to 10
ug/m3. Such incidences and the severe toxicity of some
commercial PCP contaminants have resulted in efforts to limit
population exposures to indoor PCP. In a large office building,
PCP-treated timbers were sealed, reducing PCP air concentrations
from 27 to 5.9 ug/m3. Improved ventilation further reduced air
concentrations to 3.2 ug/m3. Body burdens were increased in a
sample of the building's occupants. Recently, the integrity of
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the sealant appeared to have been destroyed, and cracks in the
beams have appeared. Further research is necessary to determine
how long applied sealants last and to establish acceptable limits
for indoor PCP concentrations.
0625
Levine, M.S., Corn, M., Billings, C., Gelletley, S. Singh, J.,
and Blake, C.L. (1981) "An investigation of health concerns in a
large office building", Draft of paper presented at the
International Symposium on the Indoor Environment at Amherst,
MA, October 13-17, 1981 (14 pages).
KEYWORD: CH2O, office, humidity, microorganism, field, N02, CO,
ventilation, particulate, exposure, hydrocarbon
Reports by office building occupants of poor indoor air quality
due to high humidity, mold, and poor ventilation were confirmed
by industrial hygiene measurements. Excessive quantities of CO,
formaldehyde, particulate matter, N02, and hydrocarbons were not
found, and reports of specific symptoms could not be attributed
to specific toxic exposures. However, such relationships may
exist in certain instances. The distribution of health
complaints reported by the occupants and their attribution to the
work situation did not differ from the distribution of health
complaints received from a comparable building. Thus no specific
symptom or symptom complex was identified as being uniquely
present in the building of interest. However, the greater number
of complaints received from occupants of the building may
indicate existing health problems have been worsened by the
confirmed air quality problems.
0079
Lewis, R.G., Bond, A.E., and Fitz-Simons, T.R. (June 1986)
"Monitoring for non-occupational exposure to pesticides in indoor
and personal respiratory air", Paper no. 86-37.4, presented at
the 79th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (15 pages).
KEYWORD: pesticide, outdoor, water, personal, exposure, monitor,
NOPES, source, dermal, methodology, home, TEAM
The primary objective of this study was to determine the
reliability of the proposed methodology and to obtain an estimate
of the frequency distribution of nonoccupational exposure to home
and garden pesticides through air, dermal, drinking water, and
dietary routes. Secondary objectives were to obtain an estimate
of the relative importance of each route to total exposure and to
identify probable sources of the pesticides. A pilot
investigation was carried out using nine homes in Jacksonville,
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FL, during August 1985. Fixed-position, indoor, and personal
exposure monitoring were performed at each dwelling. More than
20 of the target chemicals were detected in indoor air at levels
from less than 10 ng/m3 to as high as 15 ug/m3.
0711
Lewis, R.G., Martin, B.E., Sgontz, D.L., and Howes, J.E. (1985)
"Measurement of fugitive atmospheric emissions of polychlorinated
biphenyls from hazardous waste landfills", Environ. Sci.
Technol., 19(10):986-991.
KEYWORD: PCB, field, monitor, industrial, sample, landfill
Four landfills containing large quantities of polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) were monitored for atmospheric emissions. Three
were uncontrolled and contained large numbers of electrical
capacitors, many scattered on the surface and leaking PCB fluids.
The other is a state-of-the-art PCB waste landfill designed to
exceed requirements of the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1978
(TSCA). Both high-volume and low-volume air sampling equipment
was used at each landfill to monitor PCBs upwind and downwind.
In addition, vents into the wastes were monitored at the TSCA
landfill. Samples were collected simultaneously at two locations
for quality assurance purposes and to obtain information on
sampling performance and comparability. Atmospheric PCB
concentrations were high at the uncontrolled sites and at or near
background at the TSCA-landfill. PCBs were detected at low
levels in gas vents at the latter site.
0618
Lewis, Robert G. (1986) "Problems associated with sampling for
semivolatile organic chemicals in air", Hochheiser, S., and
Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds., "Proceedings for the 1986 EPA/APCA
symposium on the measurement of toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-
86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, pp. 134-145. Not yet available
from NTIS. (In press, Air Pollution Control Association, P.O.
Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230.)
KEYWORD: VOC, particulate, laboratory, QA, methodology, sampling,
literature, EPA$
Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) may be distributed between
the gaseous and particulate phases in air. Filtration sampling
will not accurately measure particulate organic loadings due to
volatilization after collection. When backup vapor traps are
added, the samplers may efficiently collect both phases, but will
not maintain their integrity. Hence, results will not
realistically reflect airborne distributions. Consequently,
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great care should be exercised in both sampling and data
interpretation. Experimental systems have been developed that
may provide some insight into the true phase distributions of
several SVOCs. However, a practical method for such monitoring
is probably not in the immediate future.
0323
Lewis, Robert, G., and MacLeod, Kathryn E. (1982) "Portable
sampler for pesticides and semivolatile industrial organic
chemicals in air", Anal. Chem., 54:310-315.
KEYWORD: sampling, personal, monitor, pesticides, homes, office,
industrial
A battery powered, low volume air sampler utilizing polyurethane
foam (PUF) as a trapping medium was developed and evaluated. The
sampler provides air flows of up to 4L/min, affording theoretical
detection limits of less than 0.1 ug/m3 for most chemicals
tested. It is lightweight and portable and operates very
quietly, which makes it ideally suited for residential air
sampling or as a personal air monitor. Sampling efficiencies
were determined for 17 organochlorine pesticides and industrial
compounds, 3 polybiphenyl mixtures, and 28 organophosphorus,
organonitrogen and pyrethroid pesticides. With few exceptions,
these chemicals were trapped efficiently (>75%). A combination of
PUF with Tenax GC in a single, reusable sampling cartridge
provided for quantitative collection of more volatile compounds.
0652
Lewis, R.G., Mulik, J.D., Coutant, R.W., Wooten, G.W., and
McMillan, C.R. (1985) "Thermally desorbable passive sampling
device for volatile organic chemicals in ambient air", Anal.
Chem., 57:214-219.
KEYWORD: VOC, sampling, personal, exposure, monitor, methodology,
laboratory, QA, outdoor, EPA$, field
A passive sampler was developed for short-term, low-level air
monitoring. The small, stainless steel device is simply designed
and inexpensive. It has a high equivalent sampling rate, is
reusable, and is designed for thermal desorption. Under
controlled test chamber atmospheres and in actual outdoor and
indoor situations, with Tenax GC as the sorbent, the device
compared very favorably with active (pump-based) samplers and has
much better sensitivity than commercial passive monitors using
activated charcoal. Sampling rates were calculated for several
volatile organic chemicals. Thermal desorption and analysis
afford a 200-fold (or greater) increase in sensitivity over
solvent desorption, allowing very short sampling times. The
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effects of air velocity on performance also were extensively
evaluated. Best results were with wind velocity greater than 15
cm/s and less than 900 cm/s. The sampler is not affected by high
humidity when used with Tenax GC or other hydrophobic sorbents.
0782
Lewis, R.G., Jackson, M.D., and MacLeod, K.E. (1980) "Protocol
for assessment of human exposure to airborne pesticides", U.S.
EPA, Health Effects Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park,
NC 27711 (46 pages).
KEYWORD: distribution, pesticide, monitoring, exposure, sampling,
methodology, QA, laboratory, EPA$
This protocol reports on methodology that EPA has developed to
assure that air samples will give adequate information on the
general population's exposure to pesticidal air pollutants.
Pumps, sorbents, calibration methods, and preparations necessary
for accurate data collections are described. The determination
of sampling efficiencies and respiratory exposure is also
discussed.
0783
Lillie, Thomas H. (June 1982) "Chlordane in Air Force family
housing: a study of houses treated prior to construction," US Air
Force Occupational and Environmental Health Laboratory, Brooks
Air Force Base, TX 78235 (7 pages). NTIS ADA-121654.
KEYWORD: pesticide, chlordane, ventilation, outdoor, field, home,
exposure, source, architecture
Airborne chlordane levels were measured in 2,113 family housing
units on four U.S. Air Force installations during the winter and
spring of 1981-82. Ventilation ducts were in or below the slab
in all of the houses. The soil below the houses was treated with
chlordane before the slabs were poured to prevent termite
infestation. Airborne chlordane concentrations exceed the action
level (5 ug/m3) in only two of the houses. Plans to sample other
houses that were treated only prior to construction should be
cancelled because the probability of exceeding the action level
is extremely low.
0784
Lillie, Thomas H. (1981) "Chlordane in Air Force family housing:
a study of houses treated after construction," US Air Force
Occupational and Environmental Health Laboratory, Brooks Air
Force Base, TX 78235 (8 pages). NTIS ADA-111463.
173
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KEYWORD: pesticide,chlordane, ventilation, temperature, humidity,
exposure,field,home,source,outdoor,architecture,sampling,pressure
Airborne chlordane levels were measured in 474 family housing
units on seven U.S. Air Force installations during the winter of
1980-81. Ventilation ducts were in or below the slab in 469
houses and in the crawl spaces in 5 houses. All were treated
with chlordane by subslab injection or exterior ditching after
construction. In 408 houses (86%), chlordane levels were below
3.5 ug/m3, in 56 houses (12%) levels were from 3.5-6.5 ug/m3, and
in 10 houses (2%) levels were above 6.5 ug/m3. There was no
correlation between the concentration of airborne chlordane and
inside or outside temperature, barometric pressure, relative
humidity, or the difference between inside and outside
temperature. Houses with exhaust ducts in or below the slab did
not have significantly higher levels of airborne chlordane than
houses with return air ducts in that location.
0520
Lin, C., Anaclerio, R.N., Anthon, D.W., Fanning, L.Z., and
Hollowell, C.D. (1979) "Indoor/outdoor measurements of
formaldehyde and total aldehydes", U.S. Department of Energy,
Office of Buildings and Community Systems, Washington, DC 20585
(10 pages). NTIS LBL 9397.
KEYWORD: sampling, aldehyde, energy, ventilation, energy, office,
CH20, home, microenvironment, laboratory, methodology
When infiltration and ventilation of a building are reduced to
save energy, indoor air quality may deteriorate. Formaldehyde
and other aldehydes, important indoor air contaminants, were
studied as a function of building air exchange rates in public
buildings and energy-efficient research houses. Sequential gas
bubbling systems were used in conjunction with a pneumatic flow
control system for field sampling. Samples were collected
simultaneously for formaldehyde and total aliphatic aldehydes,
and were analyzed in the laboratory using three different
methods. At public buildings, researchers found that
concentrations of formaldehyde and aldehydes were about the same
indoors and outdoors (due largely to traditionally high
ventilation rates in these buildings). However, it is evident
that indoor air in general has higher formaldehyde and total
aliphatic aldehyde levels than outdoor air. Residential
buildings and office trailers, in particular, have levels that
can exceed the promulgated European indoor formaldehyde standard
of 120 ug/m3 (100 ppb). Because these high air contaminant
levels may have adverse health and comfort effects on building
occupants, further study is needed to establish ventilation
requirements for energy-efficient buildings.
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0684
Lindeken, C.L., Jones, D.E., and McMillen, R.E. (1973)
"Environmental radiation background variations between
residences", Health Phys., 24:81-86.
KEYWORD: radiation, architecture, home, field, exposure,seasonal,
outdoor, energy
Environmental background measurements made in approximately 100
residences near Livermore, CA, show variations in annual
radiation exposure from 52 to 130 millirems. Measurements were
made with calcium difluoride/dysprosium monitors at quarterly
intervals for a year. Dwellings were typically wood-frame
structures with stucco exteriors. Indoor exposure rates were, on
the average, about 25% lower than those outdoors. Dosimeters
were used without energy filters because it appears that low
energy photons contribute little to the total dose from natural
radiation sources. Elimination of energy filters materially
simplified packaging and handling requirements for the
measurements.
0665
Lioy, Paul J. (1986) "Discussion on guidelines for exposure
assessment", Paper no. 86-13.2, presented at the 79th annual
meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (8 pages).
KEYWORD: exposure,risk,health,QA,statistical,distribution,model, o
utdoor,activity,CO,TEAM,microenvironment,NO2,personal,VOC
The traditional approach to examining relationships between the
concentration of a chemical in an environment and the amount
available for human ingestion, inhalation or absorption has
usually relied on (1) measurements of a pollutant or surrogate at
a fixed monitoring location or (2) mathematical model estimates
of concentration from effluent emission rates. In the context of
the Federal Register guidelines for exposure assessment (November
23, 1984) and the principles currently being applied in the
field, these types of data should be used as the basis for
preliminary assessments only. Unfortunately, the guidelines do
not rigorously express this point. To proceed to an in-depth
assessment, pollutant sources, pollutant concentrations, and
human activity patterns must be available for discrete
microenvironments. Data bases of this sort and exposure models
based on them are being developed.
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0478
Lipari, F., Dasch, J.M., and Scruggs, W.F. (1984) "Aldehyde
emissions from wood-burning fireplaces", Environ. Sci. Technol.,
18(5):326-330.
KEYWORD: wood, particulate, CH2O, source, aldehyde, outdoor,
acetaldehyde, tolualdehyde, combustion
Total aldehyde emissions from wood-burning fireplaces ranged from
0.6 to 2.3 g/kg of wood burned, based on tests with cedar, jack
pine, red oak, and ash. Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and p-
tolualdehyde were the major aldehydes emitted, with formaldehyde
comprising 21 to 42% of the total. Aldehyde and particle
emissions were inversely correlated with burn rate and may also
be related to wood type. On the basis of these measurements,
nationwide aldehyde emissions from residential wood burning were
estimated to be between 14 billion and 54 billion grams per year.
This value compares to both power plant and automobile aldehyde
emissions. It is likely that residential wood burning is a major
source of primary aldehydes during the winter.
0697
Lippman, Morton and Lioy, Paul J. (1985) "Critical issues in air
pollution epidemiology", Environ. Health Perspect., 62:243-258.
KEYWORD: NAAQS, literature,research, particulate, O3, SO2, health
The epidemiological studies that significantly impacted the
setting of National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were
performed more than 20 years ago. Most of the more recent
studies have been seriously flawed in their design and/or
execution because they neglected to account for important
variables such as: pollutant exposures other than those from
ambient air, influence of personal activity on pollutant uptake,
human variability, and the separate contributions of recent
transient peak exposures and long-term chronic exposures. For
particulates, the influence of composition and size distribution
has also received too little consideration. To address these
deficiencies, research is needed on: indices for particulate
exposures, identification of exposures relevant to the effects,
improved indices of effects, acquisition of response data,
identification of exposed populations, and identification of
susceptible subgroups. Approaches to these needs are discussed,
along with brief reviews of several recent studies that have
focused on critical issues of concern, made the necessary efforts
to characterize the relevant exposures of the populations being
studied, and demonstrated human responses to ambient pollutants
at current exposure levels.
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0515
Lipschutz, R.D., Girman, J.R., Dickinson, J.B., Allen, J.R., and
Traynor, G.W. (1981) "Infiltration and indoor air quality in
energy efficient houses in Eugene, Oregon", U.S. Department of
Energy, Office of Building Energy Research and Development,
Washington, DC 20585 (50 pages). NTIS DE82-000971.
KEYWORD: radon, CH2O, N02, ventilation, exposure, energy, health,
home, model, seasonal, smoking, source, architecture
Measurements of infiltration rates and indoor pollutant levels in
houses incorporating energy-conserving measures can provide
important information about the effectiveness and health effects
of such measures. The authors measured 12 energy-efficient
houses in Eugene, OR, for effective leakage area using blower
door fan pressurization. Air-exchange rates over a period of
several hours were determined by tracer gas decay analysis. The
results were used (in conjunction with the Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory infiltration model) to predict average annual and
heating season infiltration rates. Measured leakage areas and
infiltration rates were quite low in comparison to other groups
of test houses in North America. Average specific leakage areas
for the 12 houses was 2.8 cm2/m2, as compared to 6.4 cm2/m2 for
post-1975 California housing. The average heating season
infiltration rate was calculated to be 0.34 air changes per hour.
Infiltration rates measured from tracer gas decay ranged from
0.08 to 0.27 air changes per hour. Concentration of radon,
formaldehyde, and NO2 were measured in four of the houses. Radon
levels were insignificant. NO2 concentrations were low in all
four houses, although levels in the two houses with smokers were
slightly elevated compared to the two houses with nonsmokers.
Formaldehyde levels in all four houses were about half of the
most restrictive existing guidelines. Furniture and/or building
materials are the problem source of this pollutant.
0215
Liu, K.S., Sexton, K., Hayward, S.B., Petreas, M., Webber, L.,
and Chang, B.-H. (June 1986) "Determinants of formaldehyde
concentrations inside mobile homes", Paper no. 86-7.7, presented
at the 79th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (16 pages).
KEYWORD: CH2O, field, source, monitoring, activity, statistical,
home, exposure, appliance
In 1984-85, the California Indoor Air Quality Program conducted a
State-wide survey of formaldehyde (CH20) concentrations in mobile
homes. Using passive monitors, 1-week integrated levels were
measured in kitchens and bedrooms. Information about housing
characteristics and activities during the sampling week was
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gathered with a self-administered questionnaire. Univariate and
multivariate analyses revealed the important determinants of
indoor CH2O to be home age, open windows, home location, new
furniture, and gas appliances.
0214
Liu, K.S., Chang, B. H., Hayward, S. B., Kulasingam, G., and
Sexton, K. (June 1986) "Estimation of formaldehyde exposure for
mobile home residents", Paper no. 86-68.1, presented at the 79th
annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O.
Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (15 pages).
KEYWORD: CH2O, field, seasonal, exposure, distribution, source,
home, monitoring
In 1984-85, the California Indoor Air Quality program undertook a
survey of formaldehyde (CH20) levels in California mobile homes.
Week-long integrated levels were obtained using passive samplers
while participants lived normally. During the summer and winter,
470 mobile homes, selected randomly throughout the State, were
monitored. More than 500,000 California residents of mobile
homes are exposed to CH2O levels greater than 0.05 ppm, about
180,000 residents are exposed to more than 0.1 ppm, and between
730 and 980 residents are exposed to more than 0.4 ppm.
0252
Livingston, J.M., et al. (Sept. 1981) "Living area contamination
by chlordane used for termite treatment", Bull. Environ.
Contain. Toxicol., 27 (3) : 406-411.
KEYWORD: pesticide, chlordane, exposure, monitoring, field, home
Chlordane contamination was monitored in living areas at a
midwestern U.S. Air Force base. The contamination resulted from
chlordane treatments for termite control. Airborne chlordane
concentrations ranged between 16 and 293 mg/m3. Air sampling
data from 1964-79 are tabulated and compared.
0364
Loewenstein, J.C., Pourdel, M.C., Maffiolo, G., Krainik, F., and
Wolmark, Y. (1984) "Relation of environmental conditions to the
health of the elderly in a long term care hospital, a
longitudinal survey", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell,
J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 2, radon, passive smoking,
particulates and housing epidemiology", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 275-280. NTIS PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: particulate, NOx,temperature, humidity, health, outdoor,
hospital, S02
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This paper presents the first results of a 30-month survey of
possible relations of environmental parameters (particulates,
502, NOx, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure), indoors
and outdoors, to the health of the elderly in a long-term-care
hospital. One of the major results is evidence of an interaction
of NOx (the indoor and outdoor values of which are closely
correlated) with incidence rates of respiratory disease.
0199
Lorenz, F. (1982) "Calculation of ventilation requirements in the
case of intermittent pollution: application to enclosed parking
garages", Environ. Int., 8:515-524.
KEYWORD: ventilation,model,energy,control,method,microenvironment
The ventilation requirements for decontamination of indoor air
are normally determined with a static calculation method. In
some cases, the pollutant emission is intermittent; for example,
in the parking garage of an office building, most of the cars
enter and leave at nearly the same time. Generally, in such a
case, the volume of the garage is large; consequently, the time
constant of the system has a high value. So a static approach
would no longer be accurate, and a dynamic evaluation is needed.
With the help of some assumptions, calculations remain rather
simple, and results can be plotted on nomographs or computed on a
programmable hand-held calculator. The amount of energy saved
may appear very large in some cases. A sizing optimization is
required but also remains easy to compute. The paper presents
the method of calculation for a single ventilation level and the
optimization of a two-level ventilation.
0580
Lowder, Wayne M. (1985) "Radon: overview", Gammage, R.B., Kaye,
S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds.,"Indoor air and human health", Lewis
Publishers, Inc., P.O. Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48115, pp. 39-41.
KEYWORD: radon, health, exposure, lung, outdoor, source, risk,
literature, epidemiology, research
Naturally occurring radioactive radon is always present in the
air. Indoor concentrations are typically 2 to 10 times higher
than those in outdoor air. Inhaling radon decay products
attached to particulates results in an alpha dose to the critical
cells of the respiratory tract, which produces lung cancer in
miners. Current estimates of radon exposure and the consequent
risk indicate that about 10% of nonsmoking-related lung cancers
may be caused by radon. The current literature also hints at a
relationship between radon and smoking and the induction of lung
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cancer. Thus, radon is one of the most significant indoor
pollutants in terms of potential adverse human health effects.
0475
Lynch, John J., and Burgess, William A. (1974) "A personal
exposure sampler for carbon monoxide", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.,
35:354-358.
KEYWORD: CO, personal, exposure, monitor, sampling, methodology,
QA
The catalytic oxidation of CO to C02 in air by Hopcalite is the
basis for a personal sampler for CO. Four- or 8-hour integrated
samples are obtained by drawing air at 0.5 liters per minute
(L/M) through stripping beds of Ascarite and molecular sieve,
which remove water vapor and CO2 from the ambient air. The air
sample then passes to a preweighed glass U-tube that contains
Hopcalite, Ascarite, and anhydrous magnesium perchlorate. After
sampling, the U-tube is reweighed — trapped C02 from the
oxidized CO increased the weight of the tube. At 0.5 L/M and 70
degrees F., the 1.5 g of catalyst in the U-tube convert more than
90% of the CO to CO2. For a 4-hour sample in the range of 20 to
100 ppm CO, the relative standard deviation of duplicate
measurements is +/- 6%. Duplicate samples were taken in the
field for both 4- and 8-hour determinations in the 10 to 100 ppm
range, and the precision was +/- 2.4 ppm CO.
0058
Lynn, David, Tabor, Elbert, Ott, Wayne, and Smith, Raymond (June
1967) "Present and future commuter exposures to carbon monoxide",
Paper no. 67-5 presented at the 60th annual meeting of the Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230 (20 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, field, exposure, vehicle, interior, EPA$
This paper examines efforts by the Federal air pollution research
program to better define the exposures of the U.S. population to
CO. Efforts to measure the CO exposure of occupants of vehicles
moving in traffic, as well as methodologies for predicting future
exposures, are described. Summary data are presented from a
field study of 14 U.S. cities in which a van equipped with a
nondispersive infrared device measured CO exposures on
expressways, arterials, and center-city streets. CO exposures
ranged from 10 to 29 ppm (average of 19.4 ppm) on expressways,
from 15 to 38 ppm (average of 24.6 ppm) on arterials, and from 25
to 40 ppm (average of 31.9 ppm) on center-city streets. With all
routes considered, the average exposure ranged from 18 ppm in St.
Louis, MO, to 36 ppm in Los Angeles, CA, with an average of 25.4
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ppm for all cities.
0038
MacRae,
Gordon R., and Arnold, Steve (1984) "Denver carbon
monoxide study, fixed station data presentation", draft report,
State of Colorado, Department of Health, Air Pollution Control
Division, Denver, CO 80203 (est. 160 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, field, personal, exposure, monitor, biomonitoring,
outdoor
A description is given of the fixed air-monitoring network that
was operated in Denver, CO, at the same time (1982-83) that a
personal exposure monitoring study of CO was undertaken. The
findings of a study comparing end-expired (breath) air and blood
carboxyhemoglobin at high altitudes also are described in
Appendix B.
0753
Macher, J., Liu, K.S., and Alevantis, L. (July 1985) "Report on
the investigation of air quality in the Disabled Students
Services Office at San Fransisco State University",
CA/DOH/AIHL/SBS-1, California Department of Health Services,
Berkeley, CA 94704 (21 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, C02, asbestos, ventilation, CH20, activity, field,
office,monitor,temperature,humidity,microorganism,particulate
The California Department of Health Services Indoor Air Quality
(IAQ) Program responded to complaints of symptoms, purportedly
related to the work environment, among employees in the Disabled
Students Services office. In June 1985, the IAQ team visited the
office, distributed a work environment/health questionnaire,
examined and evaluated the ventilation system, and reviewed the
chemicals and cleaners used in the Audio Visual Center (AVC).
The IAQ team also collected and analyzed samples for viable
particles, airborne pollen grains, formaldehyde, and asbestos;
and monitored CO, CO2, respirable dust, air temperature, and
relative humidity. These air quality parameters were adequate on
the day that they were measured. However, flaws in the
ventilation system might allow excessive accumulation during cold
weather of unidentified chemicals from the AVC.
0728
Macher, J.M., Alevantis, L.E., Liu, K.S., and Hayward, S.B.
(1986) "Report on a preliminary investigation of air quality in
the Richmond Health Clinic", CA/DOH/AIHL/SBS-2, California
Department of Health Services, Berkeley, CA 94704 (9 pages).
181
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KEYWORD: office, research, exposure, ventilation, health, field,
personal
This report summarizes an investigation by the California
Department of Health Services of a complaint by health clinic
staff concerning air movement within their offices and possible
health effects. Samples were collected of (1) the salt solution
used to dehumidify the air, (2) dust on furniture and in the air
filters, (3) water in the air handling unit and (4) non-carbon
producing paper used in the office. The investigation
recommended steps to reduce potential contaminant sources, and to
evaluate the problem more fully. These included to drain the x--
ray film developer, fix the corroded x-ray developer drain pipe,
replace or clean the materials that were contaminated by the pipe
leak, check the ventilation flow rates, install low cost ceiling
fans if needed, and conduct surveys to determine health effects
of the dehumidifier, biological air contaminants, and noncarbon
producing paper.
0121
Mack, G.A., Pope, A.M., and Howes, J.E., Jr. (1983) "Carbon
monoxide monitoring in microenvironments in the Washington, DC
area", EPA contract No. 68-02-3745, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
(162 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: CO,microenvironment,personal,exposure, monitor, vehicle,
interior, outdoor, EPA$, office
Data on CO exposures to individuals were collected for the
microenvironments associated with (1) several methods of
commuting to and from work, (2) working in a large office
building in an urban area, and (3) shopping in a commercial area
in a large metropolitan city. The study was conducted in the
Washington, DC, area from January 7 through March 18, 1983. A
new personal monitoring system was used consisting of a CO
detector linked to an automatic data-logging system. Methods and
results are thoroughly described for each microenvironment.
0602
Mage, D.T., and Wallace, L.A., Eds. (1979) "Proceedings of the
symposium on the development and usage of personal monitors for
exposure and health effects studies", U.S. EPA, Office of
Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (518
pages). NTIS PB80-143894.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure, monitor, health, methodology, EPA$,
sampling, QA, biomonitoring, epidemiology
182
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These are the proceedings of a symposium on the development and
usage of personal monitor for measuring pollutant exposures and
resultant physiological responses. This report contains edited
transcripts of the discussion following each paper, the
transcript of an informal general discussion period, and the
transcript of a closing panel discussion. The breakthroughs in
miniaturization of data processing and control modules through
the use of digital microcircuitry have allowed the development a
new generation of pocket-sized personal monitors for both
pollution variables and physiological measures. The symposium
addressed the conduct of epidemiological and exposure assessment
studies that incorporate these monitors into the design.
0042
Mage, David T.(1985) "Concepts of human exposure assessment for
airborne particulate matter", Environ. Int., 11:407-411.
KEYWORD: particulate, model, personal, monitoring,exposure, risk,
EPA$
This paper discusses how human exposures to airborne particulates
can be determined from personal monitoring and estimated by
ambient monitoring and microenvironmental monitoring. The utility
of each approach is discussed, and examples are given of
applications to assessments of human exposures for purposes of
relating these exposures either to measures of health or risk
assessments of these exposures.
0428
Mage, David T., and Gammage, R.B. (Oct. 1984) "Evaluation of
changes in indoor air quality occurring over the past several
decades", Gammage, R.B., and Kaye, S.B., Eds., "Indoor air and
human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 5-
35.
KEYWORD: CO2, VOC, smoking, source, exposure, literature, health,
outdoor, SO2, NO2, particulate, activity, radon, CH2O
The history and probable future of the study of indoor air
quality (IAQ) are discussed. Since World War II, increased
indoor air pollution sources and energy conservation measures as
well as decreased indoor/outdoor air exchanges have caused IAQ to
deteriorate. In recent years, public and governmental concern
over the health effects of indoor air pollution has intensified.
Improvements in analytical methodology permit more accurate
assessments of IAQ. The authors discuss a wide variety of indoor
air pollutants with regard to the above concerns.
183
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0144
Mage, David T., et al. (April 1985) "Human exposure assessment
location (HEAL) project: United States component", U.S. EPA,
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, NC 27711 (201 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: HEAL, TEAM, methodology, sample, design, multipollutant,
multimedia, distribution, outdoor, VOC,biomonitoring, EPA$, QA
The Human Exposure Assessment Location (HEAL) project is
coordinated by the United Nations Environment Programme and is
designed to provide direct data on exposure to pollutants. These
data will supplement multimedia ambient and source monitoring.
The U.S. contribution, by the U.S. EPA, is to develop and
demonstrate methodologies for (1) determining frequency
distributions of personal exposures of a statistically valid
sample population to pollutants in air, drinking water, and food,
(2) determining frequency distributions of pollutant
concentrations in breath, blood, urine, and tissue (body burden),
(3) relating Number 1 to Number 2, (4) relating Number 1 to
measurements in ambient air and food, and (5) determining
important sources of exposure. This report screens methodologies
for HEAL suitability and also screens pollutants on the basis of
methodology availability. HEAL overlaps the Total Exposure
Assessment Methodology (TEAM) project. Data quality assurance is
discussed.
0337
Maki, H.T., and Woods, J.E., Jr. (1984) "Dynamic behavior of
pollutants generated by indoor combustion", Berglund, B.,
Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 5,
buildings, ventilation and thermal climate", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 73-78. NTIS PB85-104222.
KEYWORD: CO2, source, ventilation, humidity, home, temperature,
NOx, combustion, laboratory, kerosene
When indoor air concentrations from indoor combustion processes
are estimated, source strengths and ventilation rates are usually
considered. Recent studies, conducted in the Energy Research
House at Iowa State University, indicate that several other
factors also have a significant effect on indoor air
concentrations. In one of these studies, a ventless kerosene
heater served as the source of pollutants. Resultant
concentrations of NOx and CO2, as well as relative humidity and
air temperatures, were monitored throughout the house. An inert
tracer gas, SF6, was released in the house at the same points as
the pollutant concentrations. The authors concluded that, in
nonsteady conditions, it is not valid to assume that pollutants
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from a local source disperse uniformly throughout a house. To
the contrary, various pollutants are dispersed at various rates,
and additional research should be directed to these dynamic
behavioral characteristics.
0348
Malaspina, J., Bodilis, H., Giacomoni, L., and Marble, G. (1984)
"Indoor air pollution: study of two buildings in the Paris area",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 5, buildings, ventilation and thermal climate", Swedish
Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 499-504. NTIS
PB85-104222.
KEYWORD: smoking, S02, microorganism, outdoor, multipollutant,
exposure, foreign, France, particulate, office
A study measured thoroughly the levels of indoor chemical and
particulate pollution in two tall office buildings in the Paris,
France, area. For one building, the measurements were made at
the same time in the open air, and a study of
aerobiocontamination was added. The results show that the levels
of most of the pollutants were higher inside than outside, the
outstanding exception being SO2. Tobacco smoke was found to be
the main source of pollution.
0256
Males, R. (Sept. 1984) "R&D status report: indoor air quality",
Electric Power Research Institute J. 15:45-47.
KEYWORD: literature, outdoor, smoking, NO2, CO, particulate,
personal, exposure, monitor, CH2O, radon, energy, health
This report reviews why the Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) is interested in indoor air quality (IAQ) and summarizes
several EPRI-funded studies. Of special interest are the effects
on IAQ of utility-sponsored house weatherization programs, the
health effects of indoor pollutants that also are generated by
EPRI utilities, and the effects on IAQ of different heating, air
conditioning, and appliance technologies.
0624
Martonen, T. (1983) "Deposition of inhaled particulate matter in
the upper respiratory tract, larynx, and bronchial airways: a
mathematical description", Journal of Toxicology and Environ-
mental Health. 12:787-800.
KEYWORD: aerosol, distribution, health, model, particulate, lung,
dose
185
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A mathematical description of inhaled particle behavior suitable
for analysis of factors affecting deposition in the human upper
respiratory tract, larynx, and ciliated airwarys is presented.
In this model, particle losses in the upper respiratory tract are
described by empirical formulas. In downstream bronchial
airways, particle deposition probabilities are calculated using a
system of theoretical equations that describe the behavior of
aerosol air flow known to exist in the human lung. Results
indicate that the model effectively simulates factors affecting
particle motion in respiratory passages. It is proposed that
this model could be used to evaluate health effects of hazardous
aerosols.
0360
Matsuki, H., Yanagisawa, Y., Osaka, F., Kasuga, H., and
Nishimura, H. (1984) "Personal exposure to N02 and its health
effect with urinary hydroxyproline to creatinine ratio as
biochemical indicator", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell,
J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 2, radon, passive smoking,
particulates and housing epidemiology", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 243-248. NTIS PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure, monitor, NO2, biomonitoring, health,
source,statistical,model,foreign,smoking,Japan,seasonal
The relation between personal NO2 exposure and the ratio of
urinary hydroxyprolien to creatinine (H/C) was examined in winter
and summer. Subjects were from families of students attending
primary schools in the Tokyo, Japan, metropolitan region.
Integrated 24-hour personal NO2 exposures were determined with
triethanolamine-coated cellulose badges and subsequent
colorimetric analysis. Hydroxyproline and creatinine were
determined by modified auto-analyzer procedures. Results of
step-wise multiple regression are presented for (1) personal NO2
exposure, (2) active smoking level, (3) passive smoking level,
(4) age, (5) occupation, (6) home location, and (7) distance from
the home to a busy road. A linear model was developed to predict
the effects of these parameters on H/C.
0232
Matsukuru, Shiegeru, et al. (Sept. 1984) "Effects of
environmental tobacco smoke on urinary cotinine excretion in
nonsmokers", New Eng. J. Med., 311(13):828-832.
KEYWORD: biomonitoring, passive, smoking, rural, exposure, home,
foreign, Japan
The relationship between excretion of urinary cotinine (the major
186
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metabolite of nicotine found in urine) in 472 nonsmokers and the
smokiness of their environment is investigated. The presence of
smokers in both the home and workplace increased the cotinine
levels, and urban nonsmokers had more cotinine in their urine
than did rural smokers. The deleterious effects of passive
smoking may occur in proportion to the exposure of nonsmokers to
smokers in the home, workplace, and community.
0367
Matsushita, Hidetsaru, and Mori, Tadashi (1984) "Nitrogen dioxide
and nitrosamine levels in indoor air and side-stream smoke of
cigarette", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.,
"Indoor air, vol. 2, radon, passive smoking, particulates and
housing epidemiology", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 335-341. NTIS PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: NO2, outdoor, personal, exposure, monitor, home, office,
source, seasonal, smoking, foreign, Japan
Personal exposures to NO2 dioxide for about 40 volunteers living
in Tokyo, Japan, ranged between 13 and 132 ppb in winter, 8 and
53 ppb in spring, 6 and 28 ppb in summer, and 8 and 37 ppb in
autumn. They spent most of their time indoors—office workers
22.0 to 23.0 hours a day, and nonworking women 22.0 to 22.6
hours. NO2 concentration in homes was remarkably high in winter
as compared with that outside homes, indicating a large
contribution of heating to N02 indoor air pollution. Personal
exposures correlated well with indoor pollution, especially home
indoor pollution. N-nitrosodimethylamine and N-nitrosopyrolidine
in side-stream smoke ranged from 180 to 427 and 76 to 206
(respectively) ng/cigarette for Japanese cigarettes and from 264
to 544 and 114 to 332 (respectively) ng/cigarette for both
English and American cigarettes. These nitrosamines were
detected in some indoor environments such as offices, coffee
shops, and pinball houses.
0233
Matthews, T.G., et al. (May 1984) "Practical measurement
technology for low-formaldehyde-concentration levels:
applications to personnel monitoring needs", EPA National
Symposium on Monitoring Hazardous Organic Pollutants in Air,
Raleigh, NC. NTIS PB84-148345.
KEYWORD: CH20, regulation, personal, exposure, monitor, source,
methodology, home
A formaldehyde (CH2O) monitoring program has been developed at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory to assist the Consumer Product
Safety Commission in its deliberations concerning the use of
187
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urea-formaldehyde foam insulation materials and the possible
development of an indoor air quality standard for CH2O. Low-cost
monitoring technology has been developed for a large-scale
screening analysis of CH20 levels in dwellings and for inspection
instrumentation that operates at near real-time speed. The
applicability of the new methodologies to personnel monitoring
needs, including area monitors, personnel badges, and near real-
time measurement techniques, is under investigation.
0254
Matthews, T.G., et al. (Nov. 1981) "Visual
formaldehyde screening analysis for indoor air", J.
Control Assoc., 31(11):1181-1184.
colorimetric
Air Pollut.
KEYWORD: CH2O, temperature, methodology, laboratory, field
A visual colorimetric analysis method for screening formaldehyde
at levels of about 100 ppb is demonstrated. The method, based on
the general aldehyde methylbenzothiazolin-hydrazone technique, is
insensitive to variations of 15% in reagent concentration and
ambient temperatures between 14 and 26 degrees Celsius. Field
tests show that the method is well suited for screening
formaldehyde in homes.
0570
Matthews, T.G., Fung, K.W., Tromberg, B.J., and Hawthorne, A.R.
(1986) "Surface emission monitoring of pressed-wood products
containing urea-formaldehyde resins", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):301-
309.
KEYWORD: CH20, exposure, field, methodology, QA, source, model,
temperature, humidity, architecture, home, laboratory
Emission rates of formaldehyde (CH2O) from U.S.- manufactured
particleboard, hardwood plywood paneling, and medium-density
fiberboard products were surveyed using a formaldehyde surface
emission monitor (FSEM). The results indicate approximately two
orders of magnitude variation in CH20 emission rates between
weakly emitting paneling and strongly emitting fiberboard
products. The CH20 emission rates for particleboard, paneling,
and fiberboard products average 0.30, 0.17, and 1.5 mg/m2h,
respectively. Sources of variation in emission rates were
investigated. The relative intraboard, interboard, and
intermanufacturer variation observed varies strongly between
particleboard, paneling, and fiberboard product categories. The
FSEM was also used carpet-covered particleboard underlayment in
two unfurnished research homes. Measurements were made at 16
different temperature and relative humidity (RH) conditions
ranging from 17 to 29 degrees C and 41% to 88% RH to field-test
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the response of the FSEM under variable environmental conditions.
Substituting the FSEM CH2O emission rate data into a simple
steady-state, CH2O concentration model (that does not account for
variation in temperature and RH) gave good agreement between
FSEM-modeled and measured CH2O concentrations.
0635
Matthews, T.G., Fung, K.W., Tromberg, B.J., and Hawthorne, A.R.
(1986) "Impact of indoor environmental parameters on formaldehyde
concentrations in unoccupied research houses", J. Air Pollut.
Control Assoc., 36:1244-1249.
KEYWORD: CH20,source,exposure,model, field,humidity, temperature,
seasonal, home, laboratory
This study examined the impact of indoor temperature (T) and
relative humidity (RH) levels on formaldehyde (CH2O)
concentrations inside two unoccupied research houses where the
primary CH2O emitter is particle board underlayment. The data
were fit to a simple, three-term, steady-state model describing
the T and RH dependence of CH20 concentration in a single
compartment with a single CH2O emitter. The model is used to
estimate potential seasonal variation in CH20 concentrations
under specified experimental conditions inside the houses. The
research house data also were used to evaluate the limitations
and applicablility of more complex five-term models developed
from small-scale chamber studies of the environmental dependence
of CH20 emissions from particle board underlayment. These models
also incorporate a linear T and RH dependence of the CH2O
transport rate through the emitter as well as the T and RH
dependence of CH2O concentrations within the emitter. The
research house results correlated well with (1) a single
underlayment model over a broad range of environmental conditions
and (2) a multiple underlayment model over a restricted range of
environmental conditions.
0255
Matthews, T.G., Reed, T.J., Tromberg, B.J., Daffron, C.R., and
Hawthorne, A.R. (1984) "Formaldehyde emissions from consumer and
construction products: potential impact on indoor formaldehyde
concentrations", Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN
37831 (8 pages). NTIS DE-84016592/XAB.
KEYWORD: CH2O, home, exposure, source, combustion, architecture,
model
The formaldehyde (CH20) emission rates of combustion sources and
construction products commonly found in homes are surveyed. The
potential impacts of these sources on indoor CH2O concentrations
189
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are estimated using simple steady-state, indoor pollutant
concentration models. The strongest contributors to indoor CH2O
are pressed-wood products and foam insulation containing urea-
formaldehyde resins.
0525
Matthews, T.G., Hawthorne, A.R., Schrimscher, J.M., Corey, M.D.,
and Daffron, C.R. (1983) "Formaldehyde surface emission monitor",
Proceedings at: National symposium on recent advances in
pollutant monitoring of ambient air and stationary sources, held
at Raleigh, NC, May 4-7, 1982", pp. 30-43. NTIS PB84-148345.
KEYWORD: source, QA, methodology, sampling, emission, laboratory,
CH20, architecture
A monitor is being developed for passive, nondestructive
measurement of formaldehyde emission rates from flat surfaces of
solid formaldehyde sources. The monitor uses a solid sorbent,
13X molecular sieve, that provides excellent chemical stability
for sorbed formaldehyde and can be used in any physical
orientation, with a 0.032 m2 test area. A detection limit of
0.01/mg formaldehyde/m2/hr can be achieved with a 3-hour sampling
period and pararosaniline colorimetric analysis. Preliminary
results indicate that the monitor could be used for (1) quality
control measurements of commercial formaldehyde - containing
materials such as pressed-wood products and (2) in-situ
measurements of formaldehyde emission rates from a variety of
sources in domestic environments such as pressed wood, textiles,
and urea-formaldehyde foam insulation products.
0685
Matthews, T.G. (1982) "Evaluation of a modified CEA Instruments,
Inc. Model 555 analyzer for the monitoring of formaldehyde vapor
in domestic environments", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 43:547-552.
KEYWORD: CH20, field, temperature,home, methodology,QA, humidity,
exposure, monitoring
The experimental design, chemical reagents, and operational
protocol for a CEA Instruments Model 555 analyzer were modified
to optimize the performance of the instrument for formaldehyde
(CH20). The improved sensitivity and reliability of the modified
instrument enhanced its suitability for quasi-real-time
monitoring of domestic environments with low CH2O levels (0.01-
0.2 ppm). Calibration data taken at sub-0.1 ppm yielded a
detection limit of approximately 0.01 ppm. The instrument is
insensitive to changes in humidity, but demonstrates a serious
temperature dependence between 16 and 38 degree C. Calibration
data taken at room temperature are applicable between 16 and 28
190
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degrees C. if a specific operational protocol is observed. Field
results taken in three dwellings with low CH2O levels were
reported. The modified CEA Instrument compared favorably with an
environmentally controlled, reference, air-sampling unit.
0171
Matthews, T.G., Hawthorne, A.R., Howell, T.C., Metcalfe, C.E.,
and Gammage, R.B. (1982) "Evaluation of selected monitoring
methods for formaldehyde in domestic environments", Environ.
Int., 8:143-151.
KEYWORD: CH2O, monitoring, home, methodology, laboratory, field,
QA
Various methodologies for monitoring formaldehyde (CH2O) in
domestic environments have been developed and evaluated. A
modified CEA Instruments, Inc., analyzer has near-real-time CH2O-
specific analysis capability with an 0.01- mg/m3 detection limit.
A solid sorbent 13X molecular sieve has been used in a pumped
collection unit with a demonstrated linear dynamic range of 0.03
to 12.5 mg/m3 using sampling periods of less than 15 minutes.
The development of screening-type techniques has included (1) a
semipermeable-membrane passive sampler for measurements of
average CH2O concentration over 8 to 24 hours and (2) a visual
colorimetric method for semiquantitative determination of CH20
using solid chemical reagents. A preliminary field evaluation
showed excellent agreement between the new CH20 monitoring
methods and a reference sampling and analysis technique. An
apparatus to produce CH2O vapor is also reported with a
demonstrated linear dynamic range of 0.003 to 12.5 mg/m3.
0629
Matthews, T.G., Reed, T.J., Tromberg, B.J., Daffron, C.R., and
Hawthorne, A.R. (1984) "Formaldehyde emissions from combustion
sources and solid formaldehyde resin containing products:
potential impact on indoor formaldehyde concentrations", NTIS DE
84 011630.
KEYWORD: CH2O, activity, combustion, home, architecture, model,
source
The formaldehyde emission rates of combustion sources and solid
formaldehyde resin-containing products commonly found in homes
are surveyed. The potential impact of these sources on indoor
formaldehyde concentrations is estimated using simple steady-
state, indoor pollutant concentration models. Source emission
rates, product loadings for solid emission sources, operation
cycles for combustion sources, and potential permeation barriers
are considered in the model. The study concludes that the
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strongest contributors to indoor formaldehyde are pressed-wood
products and foam insulation containing urea formaldehyde resins.
Combustion sources and phenol-formaldehyde resin-bonded products
are generally weak emitters.
0302
McAulay, I.R., and McLaughlin, J.P. (1985) "Indoor natural
radiation levels in Ireland", Sci. Total Environ., 45:319-325.
KEYWORD: radon, radiation, methodology, home, exposure, source,
foreign, Ireland, architecture
A preliminary study of indoor radiation levels in Ireland is
presented. During 1983-84, measurements were made in more than
250 houses. Most measurements were made using passive devices:
thermoluminescent detectors for penetrating radiation, and CR-39
alpha track plastic detectors for radon. The median value of the
doses from penetrating radiation was 0.78 milligray/year (mGy/Y)
with a maximum value of 1.47 mGy/Y detected. Radon showed a
large degree of variability with a median value of 43 Becquerels
per cubic meter (Bq/m3). About 10% of the houses had radon air
concentrations in excess of 100 Bq/m3 with a recorded maximum of
700 Bq/m3. A tentative analysis of the data with regard to the
geological situation is presented.
0486
McCarthy, Sharon M., et al. (1986) "Evaluation of indoor air
quality data for making risk assessments", Final draft report
under RP 1948-1, Electric Power Research Institute, 3412 Hillview
Ave., Palo Alto, CA 94303 (162 pages).
KEYWORD: NO2,CH2O,radon,smoking,personal, home, risk, combustion,
architecture,energy,exposure,health,outdoor,research,weather
This study evaluates the data available to make risk assessments
for the changes in indoor air quality produced by weatherization
of homes and the potential health effects of pollutants in the
types of structures most likely to be weatherized — residential
single- or multi-family housing. Sources and health effects of
radon, formaldehyde, NO2, and tobacco smoke are reviewed. In
addition, structural variables and weather factors that affect
air exchange rates are discussed. Exposure, dose response, and
risk assessment are discussed for each pollutant and
recommendations are presented for further study.
0356
McCarthy, S.M., Colome, S.D., and Spengler, J.D. (1984) "Indoor
and outdoor aerosols: a multivariate approach to source
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identification", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J.,
Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 2, radon, passive smoking, particulates
and housing epidemiology", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 195-200. NTIS PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: particulate, SO2, N02, home, outdoor, exposure, field,
source, statistical, aerosol
Respirable particles, SO2, and NO2 were collected inside and
outside of five residences in the rural farming community of
Portage, WI. Elemental characterization of the particles was
neutron activation analysis. Meteorological parameters were
measured also. The data were analyzed using the multivariate
technique of cluster analysis, which provides an overview
structure of the data by assigning elements to groups. The
outdoor and indoor data were analyzed separately on a site-by-
site basis. The major findings are (1) the components of the
outdoor and indoor clusters are similar, (2) the association of
elements indoors is weaker than outdoors, and (3) the
identification of an indoor source is possible when it is strong
and/or has unique elemental markers (e.g., a wood stove). The
application of cluster analysis is unique in the field of
elemental aerosol data and provides a framework to examine
multivariate data.
0120
McCormick, R.A., and Xintaras, C. (1962) "Variation of carbon
monoxide concentrations as related to sampling interval, traffic
and meteorological factors", J. Appl. Meteorol., 1(2):237-243.
KEYWORD: CO, sample, design, vehicle, weather, outdoor
Diurnal variations of CO concentrations and traffic density,
exemplified in the literature as common for urban areas, were
observed at "curb-side" studies in Nashville, TN, and Cincinnati,
OH. A new technique is suggested for evaluating the effect of
changes in traffic density on CO concentrations, which may be
useful for urban planning and for understanding how wind speed
modifies these evaluations. Peak-to-mean ratios of CO
concentrations at Cincinnati were in the same range, 2:1-3:1, as
those reported in single-source experiments in open terrain in
which the source and receptor were located at the same height.
In both cities, the short-period CO concentrations fluctuated
less rapidly than in single-source cases. Multiple and
indefinite sources of CO in the immediate area of the urban
sampling sites undoubtedly account for this by providing
continuous CO contamination.
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0681
McGregor, R.G., Vasudev, P., Letourneau, E.G., McCullough, R.S.,
Prantl, F.A., and Taniguchi, H. (1979) "Background concentrations
of radon and radon daughters in Canadian homes", Health Phys.,
39:285-289.
KEYWORD: radon, statistical,design, home,source, field, exposure,
foreign, Canada
Radon and radon daughters were measured in 14 Canadian cities on
9,999 homes selected in a statistically random manner. The
geometric means of the different cities varied from 0.14 to 0.88
picoCuries/liter (pCi/1) for radon and 0.0009 to 0.0036 Working
Levels for radon daughters. The radon originated from natural
radioactivity in soil surrounding the homes.
0303
McGregor, R.G., Walker, W.B., and Letourneau, E.G. (1985) "Radon
and radon daughter levels in energy efficient housing", Sci.
Total Environ., 45:271-278.
KEYWORD: radon,foreign, energy, Canada, home, exposure, seasonal,
architecture
Radon and radon daughter concentrations have been measured in 33
"energy-efficient" homes in a small subdivision in Kanata,
Ontario. Integrated radon measurements were determined during 3-
month periods for a year using solid-state nuclear track
detectors. Radon and radon daughter grab samples analyzed during
corresponding periods confirm the distributions of the integrated
radon measurements. Annual average individual home radon
concentrations show an 8-fold range between homes. This
variability in radon concentrations is not reflected in the range
of air exchange rates for the homes. A distinct seasonal
variation is noted for the median values of the radon and radon
daughter concentrations and the equilibrium factor in the
dwellings.
0118
Mclvaine, P.M., Nelson, W.C., and Bartlett, D., Jr. (1969)
"Temporal variation in carboxyhemoglobin concentration", Arch.
Environ. Health, 19:83-102.
KEYWORD: CO, field, smoking, biomonitoring
Carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) concentrations were measured in 15
subjects by analysis of alveolar air samples collected at 2-hour
intervals during waking hours on 7 consecutive days. Overall
mean values were 3.80% COHb for five cigarette smokers and 1.64%
194
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identification", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J.,
Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 2, radon, passive smoking, particulates
and housing epidemiology", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 195-200. NTIS PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: particulate, S02, NO2, home, outdoor, exposure, field,
source, statistical, aerosol
Respirable particles, SO2, and NO2 were collected inside and
outside of five residences in the rural farming community of
Portage, WI. Elemental characterization of the particles was
neutron activation analysis. Meteorological parameters were
measured also. The data were analyzed using the multivariate
technique of cluster analysis, which provides an overview
structure of the data by assigning elements to groups. The
outdoor and indoor data were analyzed separately on a site-by-
site basis. The major findings are (1) the components of the
outdoor and indoor clusters are similar, (2) the association of
elements indoors is weaker than outdoors, and (3) the
identification of an indoor source is possible when it is strong
and/or has unique elemental markers (e.g., a wood stove). The
application of cluster analysis is unique in the field of
elemental aerosol data and provides a framework to examine
multivariate data.
0120
McCormick, R.A., and Xintaras, C. (1962) "Variation of carbon
monoxide concentrations as related to sampling interval, traffic
and meteorological factors", J. Appl. Meteorol., 1(2):237-243.
KEYWORD: CO, sample, design, vehicle, weather, outdoor
Diurnal variations of CO concentrations and traffic density,
exemplified in the literature as common for urban areas, were
observed at "curb-side" studies in Nashville, TN, and Cincinnati,
OH. A new technique is suggested for evaluating the effect of
changes in traffic density on CO concentrations, which may be
useful for urban planning and for understanding how wind speed
modifies these evaluations. Peak-to-mean ratios of CO
concentrations at Cincinnati were in the same range, 2:1-3:1, as
those reported in single-source experiments in open terrain in
which the source and receptor were located at the same height.
In both cities, the short-period CO concentrations fluctuated
less rapidly than in single-source cases. Multiple and
indefinite sources of CO in the immediate area of the urban
sampling sites undoubtedly account for this by providing
continuous CO contamination.
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0681
McGregor, R.G., Vasudev, P., Letourneau, E.G., McCullough, R.S.,
Prantl, F.A., and Taniguchi, H. (1979) "Background concentrations
of radon and radon daughters in Canadian homes", Health Phys.,
39:285-289.
KEYWORD: radon, statistical,design, home,source, field, exposure,
foreign, Canada
Radon and radon daughters were measured in 14 Canadian cities on
9,999 homes selected in a statistically random manner. The
geometric means of the different cities varied from 0.14 to 0.88
picoCuries/liter (pCi/1) for radon and 0.0009 to 0.0036 Working
Levels for radon daughters. The radon originated from natural
radioactivity in soil surrounding the homes.
0303
McGregor, R.G., Walker, W.B., and Letourneau, E.G. (1985) "Radon
and radon daughter levels in energy efficient housing", Sci.
Total Environ., 45:271-278.
KEYWORD: radon,foreign, energy, Canada, home, exposure, seasonal,
architecture
Radon and radon daughter concentrations have been measured in 33
"energy-efficient" homes in a small subdivision in Kanata,
Ontario. Integrated radon measurements were determined during 3-
month periods for a year using solid-state nuclear track
detectors. Radon and radon daughter grab samples analyzed during
corresponding periods confirm the distributions of the integrated
radon measurements. Annual average individual home radon
concentrations show an 8-fold range between homes. This
variability in radon concentrations is not reflected in the range
of air exchange rates for the homes. A distinct seasonal
variation is noted for the median values of the radon and radon
daughter concentrations and the equilibrium factor in the
dwellings.
0118
Mclvaine, P.M., Nelson, W.C., and Bartlett, D., Jr. (1969)
"Temporal variation in carboxyhemoglobin concentration", Arch.
Environ. Health, 19:83-102.
KEYWORD: CO, field, smoking, biomonitoring
Carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) concentrations were measured in 15
subjects by analysis of alveolar air samples collected at 2-hour
intervals during waking hours on 7 consecutive days. Overall
mean values were 3.80% COHb for five cigarette smokers and 1.64%
194
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for ten nonsmokers. Analysis of the results indicates that long-
term average COHb levels can be estimated with fair reliability
from two or more instantaneous samples for each subject. This
technique may be useful in estimating chronic CO exposures for
epidemiologic studies.
0027
McKenzie, R.L., Bright, D.S., Fletcher, R.A., and Hodgeson, J.A.
(1982) "Development of a personal monitor for two sizes of
inhalable particulates", Environ. Int., 8:229-233.
KEYWORD: particulate, personal, exposure, monitor, methodology
Measurement of personal exposure to ambient levels of
particulates is often extremely difficult because of a lack of
personal exposure monitors capable of collecting measurable
quantities within a meaningful sampling period. A new personal
monitor for two fractions of inhalable particulates — that is
the fraction with aerodynamic diameters of 3-15 urn and the
respirable fraction (under 3 urn) — has been developed and
characterized. This monitor can collect a sample of each
fraction that is quantifiable with ambient concentrations as low
as 23 ug/m3 in a 24-hour sampling period. Wind tests were made
on the monitor to determine sampling efficiency as a function of
relative wind speed and direction.
0110
McNall, Preston E. (May 1985) "Indoor air quality modeling
workshop report", National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD
20899 (11 pages). NTIS PB85-212306.
KEYWORD: model, research, control, multipollutant, EPA$
Comprehensive modeling of emission, adsorption, movement, and
controls of indoor air contaminants is essential for developing
national policy for indoor air quality (IAQ) assessment and
controls. This report describes several topics discussed in . a
workshop on indoor air quality, which was held on February 11,
1985, at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS). Researchers on
IAQ modeling were invited to state their current activities,
identify future research needs, and recommend specific parameters
and contaminants to be included in the IAQ models. This input
will be incorporated in an advanced simulation model for IAQ to
be developed by NBS under a contract with EPA.
0275
McNall, Preston, et al. (Oct. 1985) "Indoor air quality modeling
phase 1 report: framework for the development of general models",
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NBSIR 85-3265, National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD
20899 (55 pages). NTIS PB86-166626.
KEYWORD: CH2O, NOx, CO2, radon, CO, weather, architecture, model,
smoking, particulate, source, EPA$
This report presents a framework for the development of a model
for predicting the indoor air pollutant concentrations in a
variety of building types under practical conditions of weather,
building occupancy, building construction, and pollutant source
strength. The general concepts needed for developing an indoor
air quality model are treated. Examples of the current state of
indoor air quality models are given. The pollutants discussed
are formaldehyde, radon, NOx, tobacco smoke, particulates, C02,
and CO.
0140
McNelis, David N., Barth, Delbert S., Khare, Meena, LaPoint,
Thomas W., and Yfantis, Evangelos A. (April 1984) "Exposure
assessment methodologies for hazardous waste sites", report under
cooperative agreement no. CR-810550-01, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas, NV 89154 (217 pages).
Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: multipollutant, economic, source, model, exposure,
statistical, methodology, QA, EPA$
A uniform approach and procedure are presented for estimating
exposures to important receptors from defined hazardous waste
constituents via all important exposure pathways. The efficient
use of resources and information and the need for exploratory
programs are emphasized. Cost-cutting statistical methods are
referenced as well as required quality assurance and security
procedures to ensure the reliability and utility of the data for
EPA law enforcement actions. Applicable and available
theoretical and empirical models are described in sufficient
detail to ease decisions regarding their use in designing and
conducting an exposure assessment program. Finally, a case study
summarizes the suggested methodologies.
0358
Meckler, Milton (1984) "Analysis of low particulate size
concentration levels in office environments", Berglund, B.,
Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 2, radon,
passive smoking, particulates and housing epidemiology", Swedish
Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 209-214. NTIS
PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: particulate, office, ventilation, exposure, field,model,
methodology, statistical
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Simulation methods and test results are presented to confirm
projections of actual total suspended particulate (TSP)
concentrations for representative office buildings, with emphasis
on particles in the 0.3-to-5-micron range. Problems resulting
from oversimplified assumptions inherent in ventilation
regulations also are discussed. Novel methods that permit
simulation and analysis using both one- and two-compartment
models are described. These methods are based on an iterative
numerical integration algorithm that permits evaluation of the
net internal generation rate of TSP for a given distribution by
particle size. The rates are evaluated using the differential
form of the mass balance equation for the steady-state solution.
Results are presented for known and simulated TSP distributions
in the working spaces, without neglecting sorption and settling
effects. The resulting computer model permits projections of
actual contamination levels, accounting for dilution effects
under various ventilation conditions in the representative office
environments.
0150
Meisel, W.S., and Dushane, T.E. (Oct. 1977) "Monitoring carbon
monoxide in urban areas", Technology Service Corp., 2811 Wilshire
Blvd., Santa Monica, CA 90403 (135 pages). NTIS PB-296493/LL.
KEYWORD: CO, vehicle, monitoring, methodology, source, seasonal,
statistical
It had been assumed that an environmental impact statement for a
proposed highway requires 1 year of monitoring to estimate the
annual second highest 8-hour CO maximum and the annual second
highest 1-hour CO maximum. However, the 8-hour maximum can be
extrapolated from as little as 1 month of CO sampling using
existing CO auxiliary data, existing meteorological data, or no
auxiliary data at all. The key result of the study is that such
an extrapolation is valid, even without auxiliary data, if a CO
season of October-January (and possibly February) is monitored.
The 1-hour second highest maximum is then estimated from the 8-
hour second highest maximum using an empirically derived linear
regression. The confidence intervals of the error are comparable
with the intrinsic variability of the annual statistics
estimated. Data were obtained from primary locales, Los Angeles,
CA, and Newark, NJ, for development of methodologies and
comparison. Data from secondary locales, San Francisco, CA,
Denver, CO, and St. Louis, MO, were used to verify the
methodologies developed and to extend results or confidence
levels to a broader geographic area.
197
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0299
Melcher, R.B., Garner, W.L., Severs, L.W., and Vaccard, J.R.
(Feb. 1978) "Collection of chlorpyrifos and other pesticides in
air on chemically bonded sorbents", Anal. Chem., 50(2):251-255.
KEYWORD: chlorpyrifos, health, ronnel,lindane,carbaryl, diazinon,
pesticide, methodology, sampling, model, field
A procedure is described for collecting and determining
chlorpyrifos and other pesticides in air at the low-ppt level for
sampling periods ranging from 10 minutes to 16 hours. Worker
breathing-zone samples were collected by pumping air through a
small tube containing a chemically bonded sorbent. Samples were
analyzed by desorption in diethyl ether and injection into a gas
chromatograph equipped with a poly 1-100 column and an electron
capture detector. Preliminary results for ronnel, lindane,
carbaryl, and diazinon showed that this technique is applicable
to a wide range of pesticides.
0234
Melia, R.J.W., et al. (1978) "Differences in NO2 levels in
kitchens with gas or electric cookers", Atmos. Environ., 12(6-
7):1379-1381.
KEYWORD: NO2, source, personal,exposure,monitor, home, appliance,
methodology
The reliability of a small personal sampler for NO2 measurements
is tested. Levels measured in kitchens with gas and electric
cookers are contrasted. The higher concentration of NO2 in gas
kitchens, if maintained, would lead to levels above the maximum
annual arithmetic mean of 50 ppb recommended in the primary
National Ambient Air Quality Standard.
0294
Melius, J., Wallingford, K., Carpenter, J., and Keenlyside, R.
(1984) "Indoor air quality: the NIOSH experience (evaluation of
environmental office problems)", Am. Conf. Indust. Hyg. Report,
10:3-7.
KEYWORD: NIOSH, monitoring, ventilation,pesticide, field, office,
source, architecture
Health complaints associated with poor indoor air quality have
been reported with increasing frequency among office workers
during the past decade. Through December 1983, the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has completed 203
health evaluations involving indoor air quality in a variety of
settings. Most evaluations were conducted in governmental or
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private offices. Inadequate ventilation was blamed for poor air
in approximately 50% of the evaluations. Other types of problems
stemmed from contamination from inside or outside the building or
contamination from the building materials themselves.
0601
Mendez, W. M., Kolsky, K. B., and Gibbs, M. C. (1983) "Mini-
assessment: total exposure assessment and exposure-dose
relationships", U.S. EPA, Office of Research and Development,
Washington, DC 20460 (158 pages). NTIS PB84-128032/REB.
KEYWORD: literature, personal, exposure, TEAM, biomonitoring,
microenvironment, model, demographic, activity, methodology, EPA$
This report provides a brief examination of (1) recent research
in the areas of total exposure assessment and (2) research
concerning the relationship between patterns of exposure to
environmental pollutants and dose levels received by exposed
individuals and populations. This assessment is intended to
provide policy makers with a brief, concise discussion of
important trends in recent research; it is not meant to be a
comprehensive literature review.
0569
Meyer, Beat (1986) "Formaldehyde exposure from building
products", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):283-288.
KEYWORD: CH2O, source, field, laboratory, regulation, seasonal,
home, ventilation, diurnal, temperature, humidity, architecture
Formaldehyde (CH2O) is released from building products primarily
due to incompletely reacted urea-formaldehyde resin in
particleboard, medium density fiberboard, and plywood. CH2O is
also released from urea-formaldehyde foam insulation that was
popular during the 1970s for retrofitting buildings. The study
of commercial adhesives and urea-formaldehyde-bonded wood
products shows that current state-of-the-art products yield air
chamber test values below 0.25 mg/m3 immediately after
manufacture and can meet the 0.12 mg/m3 CH2O indoor air standard
unless these products are used where they are exposed to high
temperature and humidity. In mobile homes in severe climates,
wall-temperature profiles show large seasonal and diurnal
variations that cause large changes in CH2O indoor levels. The
results show that diurnal CH20 levels may change by a factor of 5
in 24 hours. Therefore, CH2O exposure levels in mobile homes
depend on daytime conditions.
199
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0224
Meyer, B., and Hermanns, K. (1985) "Diurnal variations of
formaldehyde exposure in mobile homes", J. Environ. Health,
48(2):57-61.
KEYWORD: CH2O, temperature, source, exposure, field, seasonal,
weather, architecture, model, home
Recent field studies have revealed substantial diurnal variations
of formaldehyde concentrations in mobile homes that are exposed
to sun radiation or warm weather. This effect is related to
diurnal variations in indoor wall temperatures. Observed
formaldehyde levels correlate closely to levels calculated from
laboratory emission data for wall paneling and flooring. The
significance of diurnal variations is demonstrated by model
calculations of time-weighted formaldehyde exposure levels for
homemakers and their working spouses living in high-emitting and
low-emitting mobile homes under climatic conditions that
correspond to summer 1981 weather in three cities. Homes
containing low-emitting wood products can meet ambient 0.1-ppm
standards under most conditions, while high-emitting products
will cause odor problems and yield formaldehyde levels that may
be close to occupational standards.
0170
Miksch, R.R., Hollowell, C.D., and Schmidt, H.E. (1982) "Trace
organic chemical contaminants in office spaces", Environ. Int.,
8:129-137.
KEYWORD: VOC, office, solvent, source, energy, exposure, model,
control, method, literature, architecture
Workers in offices are exposed to a broad spectrum of organic
solvents in very low concentrations relative to promulgated or
recommended industrial hygiene exposure levels, but in high
concentrations relative to outdoor air. With the aid of simple
modeling, working hypotheses about various contaminant sources—
new and aged building materials, wet-process photocopies, tobacco
smoke, and building maintenance products—are made with respect
to their compositions, amount, and emission patterns. Effective
control strategies can be implemented that do not compromise
energy efficiency.
0155
Miller, Catherine (July 1978) "Exposure assessment modeling: a
state-of-the-art review", U.S. EPA, Environmental Research
Laboratory, Athens, GA 30605 (56 pages). NTIS PB-286934/LL.
KEYWORD: model,source,exposure, health, risk, literature, EPA$
200
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This review describes current models that simulate the
environmental fate of substances, the exposure to such
substances, and the effects of such exposure. The focus is first
on exposure and effects, where relatively little work has been
done, and then on models of environmental fate. Single-medium
air and water quality transport models are not assessed, but the
possibility of approaching multimedia problems through a
combination of single-medium approaches is explored. The report
also describes several actual risk assessments made using limited
data and considers some secondary applications of the models.
More effort has been directed to modeling environmental fate than
to modeling exposure and effects, and available models do not
cover all of the areas necessary for an exposure assessment.
0672
Miller, S., Mitchell, R., Smithson, G.R. Jr., Price, B., and
Hartley, R. (1983) "Acquisition of air pollution data to obtain a
24-hour exposure profile", Frederick, Edward R. et al., Eds.,
"Proceedings of the specialty conference on measurement and
monitoring of noncriteria (toxic) contaminants in air, held in
March of 1983 ", Publication no. SP-50, Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230, pp. 182-195.
KEYWORD: exposure, regulation, monitoring, research, personal,
EPA$, methodology, control, vehicle, home, multipollutant
This pilot study is part of a program jointly funded by EPA and
the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH). Heretofore, NIOSH has been more or less limited to the
regulation of occupational environments and EPA to ambient
environments. For the first time, these two agencies are looking
at the overall picture—a 24-hour exposure profile. The study
had two main objectives: (1) to acquire and evaluate data to
characterize workplace-generated agents and evaluate workplace
control devices and practices and (2) to determine if EPA should
engage in research to develop technology to control indoor
exposure to hazardous air pollutants. This paper describes the
methodology employed to acquire and evaluate air pollution
exposure data for a segment of the U.S. worker population for the
significant environments to which they are exposed in a typical
24-day, including the workplace, in-transit, and the home.
0082
Mitchell, R.I., Smithson, G.R., Jr., and Price, B.P. (Aug. 1984)
"A pilot study to obtain 24-hour air pollution exposure
profiles", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.,
"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal
exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
201
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75-80. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: combustion,source, particulate, multipollutant,seasonal,
radon, microenvironment, industrial
A pilot study was conducted of workers from a semiconductor
plant. This paper describes the methods used to acquire and
evaluate air pollution exposure data for significant environments
(including workplace, in-transit, and residence) to which workers
are exposed throughout a typical day. Summer and winter
measurements were made on products of combustion, radon,
respirable particulates, and a variety of organic compounds.
0085
Miyazaki, T. (Aug. 1984) "Adsorption characteristics of NOx by
several kinds of interior materials", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T.,
and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical
characterization and personal exposure", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 103-110. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: NOx, NO, NO2, source, humidity, outdoor, model, foreign,
laboratory, temperature, Japan
Adsorption characteristics of NOx by several Japanese interior
building materials were measured experimentally by the mass
balance method. NO2 was adsorbed much more quickly than NO in
most materials, especially in flooring materials such as carpet
and tatami facings and ceiling materials such as insulation
board. On materials where N02 adsorption was rapid, the
velocities were affected by temperature, relative humidity, the
degree of stirring speed in the box, and the saturation condition
of materials. These adsorption velocities were applied to a
theoretical model relating indoor pollutant concentration to
outside concentration.
0676
Molhave, L., Lundqvist, G.R., and Anderson, I. (1985) "The
atmospheric environment in six energy efficient single family
houses", Fanger, P.O., Ed., "Clima 2000, Vol. 4, indoor climate",
WS Kongres — WS Messe, Copenhagen, pp. 201-206.
KEYWORD: VOC, energy, pinene, home, foreign,temperature, toluene,
ventilation, humidity, solvent, Denmark, architecture
Volatile organic compounds were measured over a year in six new,
unoccupied experimental Danish houses with intended low energy
consumption. The measurements included air temperature, air
humidity, ventilation rate, and concentration of organic gases
and vapors. On average, 14 compounds were identified in
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concentrations exceeding 0.005 mg/m3. Toluene and alpha pinene
were most frequently found. For the five periods of
measurements, total organic gases and vapors averaged 0.46 mg/m3
(0.032 - 5.5 mg/m3). The concentration decreased systematically
during the year, and was on the average halved after 112 days
(range of 63 to 187). The concentration of organic gases and
vapors of the solvent type was similar to that found earlier in
the same houses. Differences in indoor air pollution could not
be explained by the materials used for the houses.
0451
Molhave, L., Moller, J., and Andersen, I. (1979) "Air
concentrations of gases, vapours and dust in new houses",
Ugeskrift for Laeger, 141:956-961. (Danish with English summary.)
KEYWORD: home, field, benzene, VOC, source, particulate, alkane,
exposure, foreign, Denmark, children architecture
This study describes measurements taken in Denmark to determine
the pollution originating from building materials, furniture,
etc., in the children's rooms of 39 occupied apartments built
within the past 20 years and in 7 newly built, single-family
houses that were ready for occupation.
0169
Molhave, Lars (1982) "Indoor air pollution due to organic gases
and vapours of solvents in building materials", Environ. Int.,
8(1-6):117-127.
KEYWORD: VOC, solvent, source, model, foreign, Denmark,
multipollutant
Emission of organic gases and solvent vapors from 42 commonly
used building materials was measured under standard atmospheric
conditions. An average of 22 compounds was found in the air
around each building material, and the total concentration of
gases and vapors was from 0.01 to 1,410 mg/m3. The average
arithmetic emission rate was 9.5 mg/m2/hour, and 52 compounds
were identified. A mathematical model was established for the
indoor air concentrations of pollutants originating from building
materials. The model was tested on three model rooms constructed
from the materials investigated. The calculated total air
concentrations of gases and vapors in the three rooms ranged from
1.6 to 23.6 mg/m3, and the number of compounds in the air from 23
to 32. These concentrations and number of compounds did not
differ from those found in actual rooms similar to the model
rooms. The risks of health effects due to the compounds
identified from the building materials were investigated, and
criteria for future air quality standards are discussed.
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0596
Molhave, Lars (1985) "Volatile organic compounds as indoor air
pollutants", Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds.
"Indoor air and human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O.
Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 403-414.
KEYWORD: VOC, model, exposure, dose, health, literature, home,
field, school,office,industrial,source, foreign, Denmark
This paper reviews the literature of "sick building syndrome"
research. Symptoms and exposure data are reviewed for a wide
variety of pollutants and building types. In general, exposure
to volatile organic compounds concentrations of less than 0.16
mg/m3 cause no mucus membrane irritation; however, exposures to
levels greater than 5 mg/m3 do. Reactions to intermediate
concentrations can be predicted with a multifactorial model of
circumstances, doses, and responses.
0695
Molhave, Lars (1986) "Indoor air quality in relation to sensory
irritation due to volatile organic compounds", ASHRAE Trans.,
Vol. 92, Pt. 1, no. 2954 (10 pages).
KEYWORD: health, VOC, dose,exposure,literature,solvent, emission,
industrial, irritant, foreign, Denmark
A subsyndrome to the Sick Building Syndrome (SBS), as defined by
a World Health Organization working group, is postulated based on
observations in the literature. This subsyndrome relates mucous
membrane irritation — sensory irritation, dryness in nose and
eyes, which are very frequent SBS symptoms — to the total
concentration of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of the solvent
type. This VOC syndrome may include other previously
unidentified symptoms. The postulated dose-response relation is
supposed to be multifactorial, and two thresholds were therefore
of interest. Below a lower threshold, no irritation was expected
due to VOCs. Total concentrations above the higher limit were
expected to cause irritation irrespective of other exposures,
which may modify the intensity of the irritation. Concentrations
between the two limits may, depending on the effect of other
exposures, promote irritation. The few observations reported in
the literature indicate these two limits to be about 0.16 mg/m3
and 2 mg/m3. Most of the known total concentrations in the
nonindustrial environment are above 0.16 mg/m3. Complaints were
reported in all cases where concentrations exceeded 2 mg/m3.
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0682
Molhave, L., Bach, B., and Pedersen, O.F. (1986) "Human reactions
to low concentrations of volatile organic compounds", Environ.
Int., 12(1-4)167-175.
KEYWORD: exposure, VOC, health, odor, statistical, laboratory,
foreign, Denmark, irritant
Human subjects were exposed for 2.75 hours to mixtures of 0, 5,
and 25 mg/m3 of 22 volatile organic compounds known to be in
indoor air pollutants. The exposure occurred in a stainless
steel chamber at the Institute of Hygiene, Aarhus, Denmark. The
62 subjects were healthy and without asthma, allergy, or chronic
bronchitis but claimed often of dry mucous membranes in eyes,
nose, or upper airways. A questionnaire on 26 different air
quality aspects revealed significant answers to questions related
to general air quality, odor, ability to concentrate, and/or
mucous membrane irritation. Continuous evaluation of irritation
in eyes, nose, and throat showed significant correlation to
exposure at both 5 and 25 mg/m3. The effect was acute, and the
subjects showed no signs of adaptation. Their scores on a manual
dexterity test decreased during exposure.
0426
Molhave, L., Bisgaard, P., and Dueholm, S. (1983) "A mathematical
model of indoor air pollution due to formaldehyde from urea-
formaldehyde glued particleboards", Atmos. Environ., 17(10):2105-
2108.
KEYWORD: model, CH20, source, architecture, foreign, Denmark,
exposure, methodology, home
A mathematical model of the formaldehyde (CH2O) concentrations in
rooms containing particle boards with known emission rates of
CH2O is presented. The model is tested in three rooms in a new
house. Agreement within +/- 15% is found between calculated and
measured CH2O concentrations in the rooms before painting and
without furniture, carpets, etc. It is concluded that the
combined mathematical model and the analytical method may be
suitable for classifying particle boards according to CH2O
emissions and for predicting CH20 concentrations indoors.
0105
Monseu, R.M., Sterling, D.A., and Stock, T.H. (Aug. 1984) "The
use of field sampling instrumentation for the monitoring of non-
industrial environments", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and
Sundell, J., Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization
and personal exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 209-214. NTIS PB85-104214.
205
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KEYWORD: CO, NO2, CH2O, particulate, monitor, personal, exposure,
field, QA, home, architecture
A field study, conducted as part of the Texas indoor air quality
study of manufactured housing, used portable field instruments to
continuously monitor indoor and outdoor formaldehyde, CO, NO2,
and suspended respirable particulates. The instruments were
required to operate at their optimal sensitivities to detect the
typically low concentrations of pollutants encountered in the
nonindustrial environment. The instruments proved to be
expensive and labor-intensive, requiring daily cleaning and
maintenance by highly trained field personnel. Additionally, a
rigorous program of quality control and assurance was necessary
to achieve and maintain reliability and validity throughout a
year-long sampling protocol.
0427
Monteith, O.K., Stock, T.H., and Seifert, W.E., Jr. (1984)
"Sources and characterization of organic air contaminants inside
manufactured housing", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell,
J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol 4., chemical characterization and
personal exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 285-290.
KEYWORD: VOC, outdoor, home, source, architecture
In recent years, attention has been focused on identifying a
broad spectrum of organic vapors in indoor air. This paper
discusses 18 frequently seen organic vapors in manufactured
housing. Comparison of indoor and outdoor concentrations
indicate that generally these 18 contaminants occur at greater
concentrations indoors. Building materials (plywood, hardwood
plywood panelling, particle board, and carpeting) were tested for
organic vapor emissions to investigate contributing sources of
indoor air pollutants.
0550
Morgan, M.G, and Morris, S.L. (1977) "Individual air pollution
monitors: 2. Examination of some nonoccupational research and
regulatory uses and needs", Brookhaven National Laboratory,
Upton, NY (17 pages). NTIS BNL-50637.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure, monitor,regulation,research,outdoor,
CO, SO2, literature, health, design
Evidence is rapidly growing to show that fixed-station monitors
do not provide adequate data for actual population exposure.
Available data for CO and SO2 were examined and a new analysis
206
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was presented. Actual population exposure to CO appears to be
consistently higher than expected when using fixed-station data
alone, while limited evidence suggests that exposure to SO2 is
lower. A reported general relationship between indoor and
outdoor S02 levels is not supported by the data. If air
pollution represents a threat to public health, then more
attention must be given to total population exposure to
pollutants. Selective use of personal exposure monitors (PEMs),
which can be either worn or carried, probably will be required at
some stage by any experiment designed to determine the relation
between air pollution exposure and health effects. Potential
uses of PEMs in air pollution regulation are explored. Current
status and research needs for individual air pollution monitors
are examined, and a first-order evaluation is given of the
promise held by various technologies. A national program of
support for the development of individual air pollution monitors
is recommended.
0331
Morris, Samuel C. (1981) "Personal monitoring of air pollution
exposures", Environ. Int., 5:69-72.
KEYWORD: multipollutant,particulate,1iterature,personal,exposure,
monitor, methodology, epidemiology, regulation
In industrial hygiene and health physics, the goal has been to
protect the health of the individual. Therefore, monitoring the
exposure people actually receive has been the principal concern.
In regulating public exposures to air pollution, the focus has
been much different. Recently, use of personal monitors and
alternative means of estimating actual exposures has expanded
rapidly. This paper discusses the role of personal monitors in
epidemiology, exposure studies, and supplementing the existing
fixed-station monitoring network for establishing trends for
regulatory purposes. The implications for air quality standards
in recent findings of personal and indoor exposures are
considered. Needed, as well as unneeded, new developments are
outlined.
0270
Morse, Salke S., and Moschandreas, Demetrios, J. (March 1979)
"Indoor-outdoor pollutant levels: a bibliography", Interim report
no. EA-1025, Electric Power Research Institute, 3412 Hillview
Ave., Palo Alto, CA 94304 (169 pages).
KEYWORD: multipollutant, literature, source, health, home, office
This annotated bibliography covers literature on indoor and
outdoor pollution levels. Specifically, the works cited are
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those which have a bearing on the study, "Comparison of Indoor
and Outdoor Concentrations of Atmospheric Pollutants," which is
being supported by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
and conducted by Geomet, Inc. of Gaithersburg, MD. The
bibliography primarily contains available publications and
research reports that are relevant to the specific objectives of
the EPRI-Geomet project: indoor sources of pollutants, behavior
of indoor pollutants, indoor-outdoor relationships, and health
effects. It does not cover construction or conservation measures
that affect indoor pollutant concentrations. The bibliography
focuses on residences and offices.
0516
Moschandreas, D.J., et al. (1981) "Radon and aldehyde
concentrations in the indoor environment", U.S. Department of
Energy, Office of Buildings and Community Systems, Washington, DC
20585 (30 pages). NTIS LBL-12590.
KEYWORD: CH2O, radon, ventilation, energy, ventilation, home,
exposure, control
Formaldehyde and radon were measured in an energy-efficient
residence in Mt. Airy, MD. Air quality samples (specifically Rn
and aldehydes) were collected and analyzed. Relationships
between air infiltration rates and contaminant levels were
developed. At low infiltration rates, radon and formaldehyde
concentrations were above levels recommended to protect health.
Increasing the mechanical ventilation reduced those levels to
within the recommended range.
0706
Moschandreas, D.J., Winchester, J.W., Nelson, J.W., and Burton,
R.M. (1979) "Fine particle residential indoor air pollution",
Atmos. Environ., 13:1413-1418.
KEYWORD: monitoring,energy,particulate, home,ventilation, model,
outdoor, Pb, Br, K, Fe, S
Indoor-generated elemental constituents of fine aerosol
particulate matter may be distinguished from constituents
infiltrating from the outdoors by comparing time variation in
concentrations on an hourly basis. Measurements within three
residential buildings indicate that S and Pb-Br aerosols are
predominantly of outdoor origin, although a secondary indoor Pb
source was detected. K is, to a significant degree, of indoor
origin. Indoor-outdoor exchange times inferred for fine particle
constituents agree with those estimated for gas exchange and with
model calculations, suggesting conservative fine aerosol
transport, i.e., no sources or sinks. However, coarse particle
208
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constituents, e.g., Fe, vary with time, complicated by
nonconservative behavior such as removal by filtration and
settling. The experimental techniques used—time sequence filter
sampling of aerosols and elemental analysis by proton-induced x-
ray emission—are generally applicable to studies of the indoor
working and living microenvironments.
0502
Moschandreas, D.J., Zabransky, J., and Pelton, D.J. (1981)
"Comparison of indoor and outdoor air quality (final report)",
Electric Power Research Institute, 3412 Hillview Ave., Palo Alto,
CA 94304 (230 pages). NTIS EPRIEA-1733.
KEYWORD: outdoor,CO,NOx,SO2,particulate,field, exposure, smoking,
monitor,source,home,CO2,seasonal,appliance,model,office
Data are presented from a 24-month comprehensive study of the air
quality in indoor nonindustrial environments. The research
program includes a 9-month field study in the Boston, MA,
metropolitan area designed to monitor and compare the indoor and
outdoor air quality at 10 residences and 2 office buildings using
a mobile monitoring unit. Seasonal variations were investigated
by monitoring 2 of the 10 residences twice. Residences under
real-life conditions for 2 weeks and offices were monitored for 3
weeks. Air samples were obtained from three indoor locations and
at one outdoor site, adjacent to the building monitored.
Residences were classified as either having gas facilities or
electric facilities. In general, concentrations of CO, NO, and
NO2 in residences with gas facilities are greater than
corresponding outdoor levels while the concentrations in
residences with electric facilities are similar to outdoor
levels. Indoor office concentrations of CO, NO, and N02
typically coincide with outdoor levels. Concentrations of total
suspended particulates (TSP) at the office buildings are equal to
or slightly below outdoor levels. A study of indoor zones
indicates that hourly pollutant concentrations obtained from one
indoor location are sufficient to characterize indoor air
quality. However, measurements from one indoor location are not
adequate to specify indoor pollution concentration maxima in
residences with indoor sources. The GEOMET Indoor-Outdoor Air
Pollution model was validated using the data base for long-term
(24-hour) periods.
0162
Moschandreas, D.J., and Rector, H.E. (1982) "Indoor radon
concentrations", Environ. Int., 8:77-82.
KEYWORD: radon, field, home, outdoor, architecture, ventilation,
methodology
209
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The indoor air of 60 residences in and around a Maryland suburb
of Washington, DC, was monitored in a pilot study to determine
radon concentrations. In each residence, a radon grab sample was
taken in the living room and, if possible, in the basement.
Infiltration rates were determined by tracer gas dilution. To
help standardize sampling conditions, each home remained closed
for 8 hours prior to sampling and during analysis. More than 60%
of the residences sampled showed air infiltration rates of fewer
than 0.6 air changes per hour. Approximately 55% of all surveyed
basements and 30% of all surveyed living areas displayed radon
concentrations in excess of 4.0 nanocuries/m3. Assuming an
equilibrium factor of 0.5, these radon levels may lead to working
levels above the annual guidelines suggested by EPA for Florida
homes built on land reclaimed from phosphate mining.
0175
Moschandreas, D.J., and Zabransky, J., Jr. (1982) "Spatial
variation of carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen
concentrations inside residences", Environ. Int., 8:177-183.
KEYWORD: CO, NO, N02, monitoring, home, statistical, appliance,
field, office
Pollutant concentrations were compared in three indoor sampling
locations (zones) inside residences. The indoor air quality base
was obtained from sampling 12 homes and two office buildings in
the Boston, MA, area. Each home was monitored continuously for 2
weeks, and data were reduced into hourly averages. Interzonal
comparisons of the mean of hourly averages, 24-hour averages, and
daily maximum hourly concentrations were made at all sites.
Linear regressions were computed between daily maximum hourly
concentrations and mean 24-hour concentrations of NO, NO2, and CO
for kitchens to determine whether maximum hourly concentrations
could be predicted from the 24-hour concentration. These
pollutants showed interzonal statistical differences in
residences with gas-fired cooking facilities but not in
residences with electric cooking facilities. Maximum indoor
hourly concentrations for NO, NO2, and CO can be estimated for
residences with all-electric facilities, by using the mean 24-
hour concentration. Similar estimates for NO, NO2, and CO in
residences with unvented gas appliances are less reliable because
of more scatter of the paired data points, particularly at higher
pollutant concentrations.
0756
Moschandreas, D.J., and Rector, H.E. (1981) "Radon and aldehyde
concentrations in the indoor environment", Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 (29
210
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pages). NTIS LBL-12590.
KEYWORD: CH2O, radon, home, energy, monitor,aldehyde,ventilation,
health, temperature, humidity, control, exposure
This report summarizes findings regarding indoor contaminants in
an energy-efficient residence in Mt. Airy, MD. The objectives of
this study were to (1) collect relevant air quality samples
(specifically radon and aldehydes), (2) analyze aldehyde samples,
and (3) characterize radon and aldehyde levels and develop
relationships between air infiltration rates and contaminant
levels. Total aldehydes were collected with impingers filled
with MBTH (3-methyl-2-benzothiazoline hydrazone hydrochloride).
Formaldehyde (CH20) was sampled with impingers filled with
distilled water. One fifth of the measured CH2O concentrations
were in the range that may cause health concerns. Although
indoor temperature and humidity affect indoor CH20
concentrations, the elevated concentrations were measured under
very low air infiltration rates. The data show that ventilation
is somewhat effective in reducing high CH2O levels. Three
methods were used to measure radon from August 1979 through April
1980: (1) week-long integrated values using thermoluminescent
chip assemblies, (2) grab samples collected by pumping air into
Tedlar bags, and (3) the Continuous Radon Monitor developed by
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. A considerable number of the
collected samples had radon concentrations higher than 1.0 - 4.0
nanoCurie/m3. Assuming an equilibrium factor of 0.5, these
levels would correspond to working levels above the health
guidelines suggested by the U.S. EPA for homes in Florida built
on land reclaimed from phosphate mining. As with CH2O, increased
ventilation reduced radon levels.
0235
Moschandreas, Demetrios J., et al. (1980) "The effects of
woodburning on the indoor residential air quality", Environ.
Int., 4(5-6):463-468.
KEYWORD: wood, office, outdoor, monitoring, particulate, home,
benzo-a-pyrene, combustion, source
The increase in residential wood stove use led to an assessment
of the effects on indoor air quality. The indoor and outdoor air
pollution of ten residences and two office buildings were
compared; three of these residences used either a wood stove or a
fireplace. Monitoring for 2 weeks at each residence under real-
life conditions indicated that indoor total suspended particulate
(TSP) concentrations during wood burning were about 300% of
corresponding levels during nonwood burning periods. Elevated
indoor concentrations of TSP, respirable particulates, and benzo-
a-pyrene were attributed to wood burning.
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0660
Moschandreas, Demetrios J. (1981) "Exposure to pollutants and
daily time budgets of people", Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med.,
57(10):845-859.
KEYWORD: multipollutant,microenvironment,exposure,personal,model,
activity,health,statistical,monitoring,indoor,outdoor,research
Exposure is a measure of pollutant concentration available at the
exchange boundaries of a receptor during specified times. These
concentrations vary greatly in the places, or microenvironments,
where people spend time each day. The time budgets of people and
the pollutant concentrations in each microenvironment are the
essential data to calculate a person's actual exposure to an air
pollutant. Because most people spend up to 90% of their time
indoors, outdoor stationary monitoring networks cannot provide
adequate data to assess an individual's total exposure. As
building ventilation has declined in recent years because of
energy conservation, indoor pollutant concentrations and
concomitant health complaints have increased. Instrumentation,
experimental designs, and mathematical models for assessing
indoor and total exposures are developing rapidly.
0740
Moschandreas, Demetrios J. (1983) "Emission factors of volatile
organic compounds and other air constituents from unvented gas
appliances", Frederick, Edward R., et al., Eds., "Proceedings of
the specialty conference on measurement and monitoring of
noncriteria (toxic) contaminants in air, held in March of 1983 ",
Publication SP-50, Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box
2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230, pp. 425-434.
KEYWORD: source, combustion, VOC, CH2O, appliance, model, PAH,
monitoring
Research on indoor air quality has focused on the spatial and
temporal distribution of criteria pollutants. To fully
characterize the indoor environment, this study has started to
investigate emission factors of all air constituents by modeling
a large number of complex indoor conditions. Emission factors
from the top burner of three unvented gas ranges have been used
to measure volatile organic compounds (VOCs), polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), including nitro-PAH, and
formaldehyde. Air samples for VOCs were obtained using Tenax
samplers and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry.
Specifically designed impingers were used to sample PAHs, which
were analyzed by high-pressure liquid chromatography. The
pararosaniline analysis technique was used to measure
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formaldehyde. In addition to these gas-phase constitutents,
particulate matter was measured using both gravimetric and
aerosol active scattering spectrometer techniques. Early results
indicate low emission factors for the air constituents studied.
0485
Moschandreas, D.J., Stark, J.W.C., McFadden, J.E., and Morse,
S.S., (Dec. 1978) "Indoor air pollution in the residential
environment: volume 1. data collection, analysis and
interpretation" U.S. EPA, Environmental Research Center, and
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of
Policy and Developement Research (182 pages). NTIS PB-290999.
KEYWORD: multipollutant, microenvironment, home, energy, health,
model, field, outdoor, source, methodology
A 24-month study was undertaken to characterize indoor air
quality in 17 residences. Air samples were collected for 14 days
from four locations: one outdoor site adjacent to the building
and three indoor sites (kitchen, bedroom, and living room).
"Continuous" sampling was carried out for CO, SO2, NO, N02, C02,
O3, methane, and total hydrocarbons. Total suspended
particulates, respirable suspended particulates, S04, NO3, Pb,
ammonia, and aldehydes were monitored intermittently. Aerosol
samples were collected for elemental analysis by proton-induced
x-ray emission (PIXE). In addition, data on energy parameters,
infiltration rates, and family activities were obtained by
observations, field experiments, and daily questionnaires,
respectively. Two numerical models formulated in the study are
discussed in this document. The GEOMET Indoor Outdoor Air
Pollution (GIOAP) model simulates indoor conditions and estimates
indoor gaseous pollutant concentrations as a function of outdoor
levels, air exchange rates, indoor source strengths, and
pollutant decay rates. The second model, the Steady State TSP
model, is an empirical model that estimates indoor TSP levels as
a function of outdoor levels, air exchange rates, removal
mechanisms, and indoor TSP source terms. The relationship
between energy conservation measures and air quality in the
indoor environment is also examined. In addition, a number of
scenarios that conserve energy in residences but do not affect
air quality are discussed.
0637
Moschandreas, Demetrios J. (1981) "A survey study of residential
radon levels", Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of
California, Berkeley, CA 94720 (30 pages). Not available from
NTIS.
KEYWORD: radon, sampling, design, methodology, exposure, home,
research
213
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A pilot survey in a Maryland suburb of Washington, DC, sampled
many indoor environments rather than making a few detailed
investigations. The primary goals were to (1) design and assess
a survey methodology for sampling the indoor air of many
residences and (2) determine if an experimental house with high
radon levels is a local anomaly or representative of the
surrounding neighborhood or area. More work is needed in
techniques for recruiting participants than in sampling or data
interperetation. Radon concentrations declined with distance
from the experimental house.
0149
Moses, David O. (Jan. 1986) "Indoor air quality environmental
information handbook: radon", U.S. Department of Energy, Office
of Environmental Analysis, Washington, DC 20585 (210 pages).
NTIS DE86-005006/LL.
KEYWORD: radon, literature,health, home, risk, water, control
This handbook summarizes available information that may assist
technical and nontechnical readers to understand what is now
known about indoor radon. The handbook is divided into sections
that cover sources and transport mechanisms, factors influencing
indoor concentrations, health effects, models, controls, and
homeowner cons iderat ions.
0611
Mulik, James D., and Williams, Dennis (1986) "Passive sampling
devices for N02", Hochheiser, S., and Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds.,
"Proceedings of the 1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the measurement of
toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711,
pp. 61-70. Not yet available from NTIS. (In press, Air Pollution
Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230.)
KEYWORD: methodology, NO2, sampling, personal, exposure, monitor,
EPA$
For the past several years, considerable progress has been made
in the development of passive sampling devices for collecting and
analyzing both inorganic and organic air pollutants. This paper
describes the status of EPA's program in developing a passive
sampling device for the collection and analysis of NO2 for indoor
air applications. Analytic and logistic characteristics of
several techniques are discussed.
214
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0153
Munn, R.E., Spengler, J., Waller, R., and deKonig, H.W. (1982)
"Estimating human exposure to air pollutants", Offset publication
no. 69, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (59
pages).
KEYWORD: literature, outdoor, multipollutant, personal, exposure,
monitor, methodology, ventilation, model
The present state of air pollution exposure monitoring is
reviewed. Several aspects of outdoor air quality are discussed,
including ambient air quality networks, temporal and spatial
variations in ambient air quality, and the use of ambient air
quality data in exposure assessments. Some of the shortcomings
of ambient air quality data are (1) the data were not collected
for health-related purposes, (2) only a few pollutants are
usually measured, and (3) the data do not represent actual human
exposures. Reasons for studying indoor air are given, including
the occurrence of pollution from stoves, cigarettes, and building
materials, the effect of ventilation systems such as air
conditioning, and the effect of natural ventilation of buildings.
S02, CO, NOx, formaldehyde, and suspended particulates are
discussed in detail, while radon, asbestos, mineral and synthetic
fibers, and O3 are discussed briefly. Other subjects covered
include socioeconomic factors affecting exposure, such as
occupation and lifestyle; personal exposure monitors for specific
pollutants; and exposure models that take into account ambient
air quality, neighborhood air quality, indoor-outdoor air
pollution relationships, and population activity patterns.
0414
Muramatsu, M., Umemura, S., Okada, T., and Tomita, H. (1984)
"Estimation of personal exposure to tobacco smoke with a newly
developed nicotine personal monitor", Environ. Res., 35:218-227.
KEYWORD: nicotine, home, smoking, personal, exposure, monitor,
methodology, foreign, Japan
To evaluate the actual level of exposure of nonsmokers to tobacco
smoke in their living environments, a convenient personal monitor
of nicotine specific for tobacco smoke has been developed. The
nicotine personal monitor consists of a sampler tube containing
450 mg of Uniport-S coated with silicon OV-17 and a portable
sampling pump with a mechanical counter for obtaining total
sampling volume. Using the personal monitor attached to a
nonsmoker, ambient nicotine was collected in the sampler tube by
drawing environmental air at a constant flow rate for a maximum 8
hours. The collected nicotine was desorbed by heating and
directly transferred onto a gas chromatograph column. The
amounts of nicotine inhaled by passive smoking in various living
215
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environments were estimated to range from 0.9 to 40 micrograms
per hour. These levels are equivalent to those from the active
smoking of about 0.001 to 0.044 ordinary cigarettes in 1 hour.
0346
Muramatsu, Satoru (1984) "Indoor air pollution in Japanese
buildings", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.
"Indoor air, vol. 5, buildings, ventilation and thermal climate",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 443-449.
NTIS PB85-104222.
KEYWORD: CO, CO2, particulate, temperature, humidity,ventilation,
regulation, exposure, field, foreign, Japan
Under the provisions of the Law for Maintenance of Sanitation in
Buildings, the "Building Sanitation Control Standards" came into
force in Japan. The air-quality portion of these standards is
composed of suspended particles, C02, CO, temperature, relative
humidity, and air velocity. Since the enactment of the law,
actual conditions of indoor environment have been surveyed for 13
years, and the percentage of buildings that failed to come up to
the standards was found.
0548
Murphy, M.J., Stickford, G.H., Locklin, D.W., and Wensky, Afaf K.
(1986) "A technique to survey indoor halocarbon levels using
flame-oxidation and condensate analysis", Paper no. 86-37.2,
presented at the 79th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (15 pages).
KEYWORD: halocarbon, sampling, economic, methodology, QA, VOC,
laboratory, design
Analyzing indoor air for individual halocarbon species is tedious
and costly. In most air-quality surveys, total halocarbon
analysis can be used to flag sites that require further
investigation. A method for analyzing air samples for total
halocarbons at the ppb-level is described. The flame-oxidation
condensate technique is based on analysis of the condensate
obtained by cooling the combustion products of a flame supported
by pure methane and the air to be sampled. Halocarbons are
oxidized in the flame to form hydrogen halides, which dissolve in
the condensate formed when the combustion products cool. Once
the halide has been absorbed in the condensate, the halide
concentration of the resulting aqueous solution can be determined
by ion chromatography. Flame-oxidation condensate analysis can
detect as little as 5 ppb of halocarbons in air with an accuracy
of +~ 20%.
216
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0477
Myronuk, D.J. (1977) "Augmented ingestion of carbon monoxide and
sulfur oxides by occupants of vehicles while idling in drive-up
facility lines", Water, Air Soil Pollut., 7:203-213.
KEYWORD: SOx, vehicle, interior, literature, exposure, weather,
CO, temperature, field, outdoor, ventilation, health
A line of automobiles waiting at a drive-up facility generally
expels idling engine emissions rearward. These emissions tend to
envelope the vehicles at the end of the line. Factors affecting
these highly localized pollutant-accumulation episodes include
local meteorological conditions (low altitude inversions, winds,
and temperatures); number, age, and tune-up condition of the
cars; exhaust pipe location; interior air-handling equipment;
vehicle separation distances; and natural or artificial barriers
that form troughs or partial enclosures in which vehicular
emissions can accumulate or be trapped. In this study, CO
concentrations were measured in a series of typical vehicle line-
ups. In Santa Clara Valley, CA, the 15-minute average driver-
area concentration levels ranged from 15 ppm to 95 ppm, with
short-term peaks between 100 and 1,000 ppm; background levels are
2 to 5 ppm. Wide variations in concentrations can be expected if
ventilating fans for heater or air conditioner units are also
operating. Using the CO levels as indicators of the accumulation
of local automobile-produced pollutants (when a majority of cars
are equipped with catalytic converters), the anticipated adverse
effects of SOx concentrations, irritation and inflammation of
healthy lung tissue, as well as aggravation of preexisting lung
or heart conditions, will be the most undesirable features of
drive-up facility services. Potential reductions in the extent
of this developing problem include S removal, SOx traps, and
exhaust system redesign.
0226
Nagda, Niren L., and Koontz, Michael D. (1985)
"Microenvironmental and total personal exposures to CO for three
population subgroups", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 35(2):134-
137.
KEYWORD: CO, office, smoking, source, microenvironment, personal,
exposure,monitor,activity,demographic,combustion,appliance
This study measured personal exposure to CO of domestic,
construction, and office workers in the Washington, DC, area
during the fall of 1982. Participants carried personal CO
monitors and activity diary cards for 24-hour periods.
Participant selection methods, monitoring device characteristics,
and data quality are described. Data are tabulated by
217
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microenvironment, person type, building use, appliance types, and
presence of smokers. Data tables include comparisons with the
EPA study that followed in the winter.
0350
Nagda, N.L., and Rector, H.E. (1984) "Important design
consideratons for residential indoor air quality studies",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 5, buildings, ventilation and thermal climate", Swedish
Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 517-522. NTIS
PB85-104222.
KEYWORD: literature, methodology, sample, design, home
With recent advances in technology, choices among measurement
strategies for indoor air quality investigations have become
increasingly complex. Design must weigh objectives and available
technology against resources to implement the design. This paper
provides a systematic framework for making proper choices among
critical design alternatives. Design considerations include
types of instrumentation, location of probes, and number and
frequency of measurements. Examples drawn from case studies
illustrate these considerations.
0630
Nagda, Niren L., Rector, Harry E., and Koontz, Michael D. (1987)
"Guidelines for monitoring indoor air quality", Hemisphere
Publishing Corp., New York, NY 10016 (275 pages).
KEYWORD: methodology,design,exposure,QA,EPA$,personal,monitoring,
sampling,model,statistical,multipollutant,1iterature,research
This book provides direct and systematic guidance on monitoring
indoor air pollution. It reviews the history and future research
needs of the entire field and work on many individual pollutants.
Other subjects reviewed are (1) factors affecting indoor air
pollution concentrations, such as sources, ventilation, and
reactivity; (2) mathematical modeling of indoor air pollutant
behavior; (3) experimental methodology and design problems; (4)
U.S. EPA data quality assurance procedures; and (5)
bibliographic and organizational sources of information.
Appendices provide specifications of commercially available and
user-configured monitoring equipment.
0223
Nagda, Niren, and Rector, Harry (1983) "Guidelines for monitoring
indoor air quality", U.S. EPA, Office of Research and
Development, Washington, DC 20460, (246 pages). NTIS PBS 3-
218
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264465.
KEYWORD: methodology, EPA$, QA, sample, design, model, source,
architecture
This document provides guidelines for designing programs to
measure indoor air quality and associated factors. Brief
summaries of past and current research and descriptions of indoor
contaminants provide a background for developing the monitoring
design. Factors that influence indoor air quality are discussed
with the aid of mass balance models. An extensive review of
measurement systems, including a listing of numerous instruments
with their performance specifications, is presented. Design
considerations are discussed for two types of studies—applied
research in indoor air quality and investigations of building-
associated problems. A systematic approach for developing the
design is also described. In addition, the document presents a
format for data reporting and suggestions on quality assurance
and quality control.
0236
Nasralla, M.M. (1980) "Studies on indoor air quality in Egypt,"
Environ. Int., 4(5-6):469-473.
KEYWORD: particulate, CO, SO2, source, weather, Pb, combustion,
outdoor,foreign, Egypt
Indoor levels of some gaseous and particulate pollutants were
examined. In a public library, the indoor/outdoor ratio of
gaseous pollutants was found to be dependent on their reactivity,
outdoor concentrations, and weather conditions. This ratio was
0.6 for SO2 and 1.3 for CO. The indoor/outdoor ratio of CO was
found to increase at the higher floors of the same building.
Concentrations of indoor particulates were influenced by the
outdoor concentrations and the particle size. Indoor suspended
dust contained significantly more Pb than outdoor dust. Indoor
sources polluted fossil-fuel-burning homes, thus causing CO
concentrations greater than the recognized threshold limit value
for industry.
0667
National Academy of Sciences (1986) "Environmental tobacco smoke
- measuring exposures and assessing health effects", National
Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC
20418 (337 pages).
KEYWORD: smoking,1iterature,health,field,model,personal,exposure,
monitoring,sampling,biomonitoring,methodology,QA,risk,dose
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With a focus on methodology, this report (1) reviews the chemical
and physical characterizations of environmental tobacco smoke
(ETS), (2) includes a toxicological profile of sidestream and
environmental tobacco smoke, (3) reviews the epidemiologic and
related literature on the health effects of exposure to ETS, and
(4) recommends future exposure monitoring, modeling, and
epidemiologic research. The primary goal of the studies reviewed
was to determine possible relationships between ETS exposure and
health effects in nonsmokers.
0768
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP)
(March 1984) "Exposures from the uranium series with emphasis on
radon and its daughters", NCRP report no. 77, NCRP, 7910 Woodmont
Avenue, Bethesda, MD 20814 (132 pages).
KEYWORD: radon,radiation,dose,research,exposure, regulation,risk,
outdoor,source,home,water,lung,foreign,Sweden,Canada,control
The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements
surveyed the sources of radon, levels of exposure, their probable
distribution, and the associated risks. The report summarizes
characteristics of the uranium series, soil content and
transport, external radiation, human intake pathways and dose
(inhalation, drinking water, ingestion), and the council's
recommendations. Radon daughter exposure potentially constitutes
the most significant exposure to the U.S. population. Radon
inhalation is likely the most significant exposure factor, while
external exposure and ingestion of radionuclides are less
significant; the relative importance of these exposure classes,
however, varies with location or occupation. The council
recommends remedial action if an individual's total exposure to
radon daughters exceeds an annual average of 2 working levels
(WL)/month, including background, which is defined as the
remedial action level for inhalation. The recommended remedial
action level for penetrating external radiation from all sources,
excluding medical, is 500 WL/year. Because ingestion contributes
little to exposure, no recommendation is made. The report
discusses regulatory action in the U.S., Canada, and Sweden. The
council recommends a preliminary survey of 1,000 homes to
determine the need for a larger program in the U.S.
0022
National Academy of Sciences (1981) "Indoor pollutants", National
Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20418
(560 pages).
KEYWORD: multipollutant, monitor, model,health, exposure,control,
ventilation,EPA$,personal,regulation,source,research,literature
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This report characterizes the quality of the indoor environment—
primarily with respect to airborne pollutants, although others
are discussed—and the potential adverse health effects of indoor
pollutants. The report is a review of the available knowledge
and an assessment of research needs. In this report, "indoor"
refers to common indoor spaces to which the public has access.
However, industrial working environments are excluded. The
report does not include all the pollutants found indoors that are
hazardous to human health, but instead provides a variety of
examples intended to describe the sources, pathways of exposure,
and other dynamics of indoor pollution.
0462
Nazaroff, W.W., et al. (1985) "Radon transport into a detached
one-story house with a basement", Atmos. Environ., 19(l):31-46.
KEYWORD: radon, source, ventilation, weather, exposure, field,
indoor, model, home, water, statistical, research
During a 5-month study, radon concentration and source
parameters, ventilation rate, and weather were continuously
monitored in a house near Chicago, IL. The results suggest that
the basement sump and perimeter drain-tile system played an
important role in influencing the radon entry rate and that
pressure-driven flow was more important than diffusion as a
mechanism for radon entry. Fireplace operation substantially
increased the air-exchange rate, but had only a small effect on
indoor radon concentration, corroborating that pressure-driven
flow is an important mechanism for radon entry into this house.
0257
Nazaroff, W.W., and Nero, A.V. (Feb. 1984) "Transport of radon /
from soil into residences", Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory,
University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 (15 pages). NTIS
DE84-015996/XAB. Also in Atmos. Environ., 19(l):31-46.
KEYWORD: radon, home, monitoring, source, architecture
Developing effective monitoring and control programs for indoor
radon requires understanding of the causes of the broad range of
concentrations that have been observed. Measurements of indoor
radon concentration and air-exchange rate in dwellings in several
countries indicate that this variability arises largely from
differences among structures in the rate of radon entry. Recent
evidence further suggests that (1) a major source of indoor radon
in many circumstances is the soil adjacent to the building
foundation and that (2) pressure-driven flow, rather than
molecular diffusion, is the dominant transport process by which
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radon enters the buildings. Key factors affecting radon
transport from soil are radon production in soil, flow-induction
mechanisms, soil permeability, and building substructure type.
0447
Nazaroff, William W., and Case, Glen R. (1986) "Mathematical
modeling of chemically reactive pollutants in indoor air",
Environ. Sci. Technol., 20(4):924-934.
KEYWORD: NO, NOx, N02, NO3, model, exposure, olefin, O3, HNO2,
ventilation, N2O5, source, hydrocarbon, architecture
A general mathematical model is presented for predicting the
concentrations of chemically reactive compounds in indoor air.
The model accounts for the effects of ventilation, filtration,
heterogeneous removal, direct emission, and photolytic and
thermal chemical reactions. The model is applied to the
induction of photochemically reactive pollutants into a museum
gallery, and the predicted NO, NOx-NO, and 03 concentrations are
compared to measured data. The model predicts substantial
production of several species due to chemical reaction, including
nitrous acid, nitric acid, and N2O5. Circumstances in which
homogeneous chemistry may assume particular importance are
identified and include buildings with glass walls, indoor
combustion sources, and direct emission of olefins.
0510
Nazaroff, W.W., Boegel, M.L., and Nero, A.V. (1981) "Measuring
radon source magnitude in residential buildings", U.S. Department
of Energy, Office of Buildings and Community Systems, Washington,
DC 20585 (33 pages). NTIS DE82-000774.
KEYWORD: radon, ventilation, source, sampling, model, exposure,
home, field, statistical, distribution
The procedures are described for use in residences for
simultaneously taking rapid "grab sample" and time-dependent
measurements of the air exchange rate and radon concentration.
The size of the radon source is calculated from the two
measurements. Grab-sample measurements in three survey groups
comprising 101 U.S. houses showed that the source varied
approximately log-normally with a geometric mean of 0.37 and a
range of 0.01 to 6.0 picoCuries per liter-hour. Successive
measurements in six houses in the northeastern U.S. showed
considerable variability in source size within a given house. In
two of these houses, the source magnitude showed a strong
correlation with the air-exchange rate, suggesting that soil gas
influx can be an important transport process for indoor radon.
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0703
Nazaroff, W.W., Boegel, M.L., Hollowell, C.D., and Roseme, G.D.
(1981) "The use of mechanical ventilation with heat recovery for
controlling radon and radon-daughter concentrations in houses",
Atmos. Environ., 15:263-270.
KEYWORD: energy, radon, ventilation,monitor, laboratory, control,
home
An energy research house in Maryland had radon concentrations far
in excess of recommended guidelines. A mechanical ventilation
system with heat recovery was installed in this house to test its
effectiveness as an energy-efficient technique to control indoor
radon. Radon concentration was monitored continuously for 2
weeks under varying ventilation conditions [0-07-0.8 air changes
per hour (ach)], and radon-daughter concentrations were measured
by grab-sample techniques about nine times daily during this
period. At ventilation rates of 0.6 ach and higher, radon-
daughter levels dropped below guidelines for indoor
concentrations. Other studies indicate that indoor radon buildup
may be a problem in a considerable portion of houses having low
infiltration rates. Mechanical ventilation systems with air-to-
air heat exchangers may offer a practical, cost-effective, and
energy-efficient means of alleviating not only the radon problem
specifically but also the general deterioration of indoor air
quality in many houses designed or retrofitted to reduce
infiltration.
0444
Nelms, L.H., Reiszner, K.D., and West, P.W. (1977) "Personal
vinyl chloride monitoring device with permeation technique for
sampling", Anal. Chem., 49:994-998.
KEYWORD: vinylchloride, personal, exposure, monitor, sampling,
humidity, temperature, laboratory, QA, OSHA
A method for measuring personal exposure to vinyl chloride has
been developed that uses the permeation technique for sampling.
The vinyl chloride that permeates the membrane is trapped on
activated charcoal, which is removed for subsequent determination
by gas chromatography. The monitor is about the size of a
standard film badge, weighs less than 35 g, and requires no
source of power. The method is insensitive to temperature and
humidity, and is free of significant interferences. The method
is ideally suited to personal monitoring programs required by
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations,
because the analytical data represent a time-weighted average
exposure and require no further data reduction.
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0508
Nero, A.V., Boegel, M.L., Hollowell, C.D., Ingersol, J.G.,
Nazaroff, W.W., and Revzan, K.L. (1980) "Radon and its daughters
in energy-efficient buildings", U.S. Department of Energy, Office
of Energy Research, Washington, DC 20585 (8 pages). NTIS DE82-
020291.
KEYWORD: radon, methodology, QA, control, architecture, energy,
source, home, field, exposure
Radon emanation rates and radionuclide concentrations have been
measured in building materials and radon and daughter
concentrations surveyed in residences. Control techniques and
strategies are being examined, and significant effort has been
devoted to developing instrumentation. To characterize radon and
its daughters indoors more completely, more substantial efforts
are needed on geologic distribution of radon, transport into
structures, daughter behavior indoors, and instrument response
under various conditions.
0470
Nero, A.V., Boegel, M.L., Hollowell, C.D., Ingersoll, J.G., and
Nazaroff, W.W. (1983) "Radon concentrations and infiltration
rates measured in conventional and energy-efficient houses",
Health Phys., 45(2):401-405.
KEYWORD: radon, monitoring, energy, sampling, field, indoor,home,
ventilation, exposure
The authors have concurrently measured the radon-222
concentration and the infiltration rate in U.S. houses. Three
housing surveys were undertaken: one in "energy-efficient" houses
located throughout the United States and two in "conventional"
houses in the San Francisco, CA, area and in Maryland. In each
group surveyed, no clear correlation was observed between radon-
222 concentrations and infiltration rate, although each parameter
varied over a wide range. Infiltration rates for the entire
sample (98 houses) ranged between 0.02 and 1.6 air changes per
hour, and radon-222 concentrations ranged from 0.1 to 27
picoCuries per liter. It appears that the major cause of the
observed differences in radon-222 concentration is variation from
one house to another in the rate at which radon-222 enters the
houses.
0679
Nero, A.V., and Lowder, M.M., Eds. (1983) "Special issue of
Health Phys.", Health Phys., 45(2):273-574.
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KEYWORD: radon, dose, source, exposure, personal, distribution,
methodology, radiation
The special issue was devoted to radon in the indoor environment,
its sources and transport properties, production and behavior of
its radioactive decay daughters, and the population radiation
exposure resulting from inhalation of the daughters. In
addition, several papers concerned measurement techniques and
applications.
0507
Nero, Anthony V. (1983) "Radon in energy-efficient earth-
sheltered structures", U.S. Department of Energy, Office of
Energy Research, Washington, DC 20585 (6 pages). NTIS DE83-
015992.
KEYWORD: radon, energy, health, home, risk,ventilation, exposure,
literature, industrial, source, architecture, control
Exposure to Rn-222 in indoor air constitutes the most significant
radiation dose received by the general population in most
countries. Indoor concentrations amomg buildings range from
insignificant levels to very high levels that cause radiation
doses higher than those received by uranium miners. This wide
range of concentrations is attributable to (1) variability in the
rate at which Rn enters buildings, from whatever source, and (2)
differences in ventilation rates, which determine the Rn
concentration in indoor air. In single-family dwellings, the
major source of Rn is the ground underlying the structure. The
strength of this source varies with both the soil concentrations
of Rn -226 (from which Rn-222 arises) and the type of structure.
Earth-sheltered dwellings, because they are more completely
surrounded by earth material than other structures, have a
potential for higer Rn levels higher than other houses in the
same region. In addition, energy-saving measures that reduce
ventilation rates can also raise indoor Rn concentrations. For
these reasons, a significant effort is needed to determine the
potential for high indoor Rn levels resulting from ventilation-
reducing measures and earth sheltering, especially in regions
where Rn levels are already high. Attention should be given to
specific design features that affect indoor Rn concentrations.
0645
Nero, A.V., Schwehr, M.B., Nazaroff, W.W., and Revzan, K.L.
(1986) "Distribution of airborne radon-222 concentrations in U.S.
homes", Science, 234:992-997.
KEYWORD: statistical, literature,seasonal, radon, dose, QA, risk,
health, home, distribution, monitoring, lung
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Apparently large exposures of the general public to radon-222
decay products in indoor air have led to systematic appraisal of
monitoring data from U.S. single-family homes; several ways of
aggregating data were used that take into account differences in
sample selection and season of measurements. The resulting
distribution of annual-average radon-222 concentrations can be
characterized by an arithmetic mean of 1.5 picoCuries per liter
(pC/L) and a long tail with 1 to 3% of homes exceeding 8 pC/L, or
by a geometric mean of 0.9 pC/L and a geometric standard
deviation about 2.8. The standard deviation in the means is 15%,
estimated from the number and variability of the available data
sets. The total uncertainty is larger, however, because these
data may not be representative. Available dose-response data
suggest that (1) an average of 1.5 pC/L contributes about 0.3%
lifetime risk of lung cancer and (2) in the million homes with
the highest concentrations, where annual exposures approximate or
exceed those received by underground uranium miners, long-term
occupants suffer an added lifetime risk of at least 2%, reaching
extraordinary values at the highest concentrations observed.
0509
Nero, A.V., Berk, J.V., Boegel, M.L., Hollowell, C.D., Ingersoll,
J.G., and Nazaroff, W.W. (1981) "Radon daughter exposures in
energy-efficient buildings", U.S. Department of Energy, Office of
Energy Research, Washington, DC 20585 (9 pages). NTIS DE82-
003711.
KEYWORD: radon, energy,health, lung,risk,ventilation, literature,
home, exposure, industrial, control, source, architecture
A radon concentration of 1 picoCuries/Liter (pCi/L) (37
Becquerels/cubic meter) appears to be typical for air inside U.S.
residences. However, some residences have higher concentrations,
sometimes by an order of magnitude, which implies significant
individual risk to occupants. For typical radon daughter
equilibrium ratios, this concentration corresponds to a radon
daughter exposure rate of 0.2 working level months (WLM) per
year. This exposure rate may account for a significant lung
cancer incidence if data on lung cancers per unit exposure in
miners are applicable to such low exposures. Reducing air
exchange rates may raise the typical exposure rate and in some
case even increase it to unacceptable levels. Measures that
reduce energy use by reducing natural infiltration or mechanical
ventilation in new or retrofit buildings are therefore undergoing
severe scrutiny. In many buildings specifically designed to use
energy efficiently or equipped with solar heating, radon
concentrations appear to arise primarily from soil underlying the
buildings. Measures to control higher levels (e.g., by
mechanical ventilation with heat recuperation) appear to be
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economical. However, to evaluate energy-saving programs
adequately requires a much more comprehensive characterization of
radon sources (for example, by geographical area) and a much
fuller understanding of the dynamics of radon and its daughters
indoors.
0421
Nero, A.V., Schwehr, M.B., Nazaroff, W.W., and Revzan, K.L. (June
1986) "Distribution of airborne radon 222 concentrations in U.S.
homes", Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California,
Berkeley, CA 94720 (32 pages). NTIS LBL 18274.
KEYWORD: dose, literature, monitoring, distribution, statistical,
radon, home, seasonal, QA, risk, health, lung
A systematic appraisal of radon-222 monitoring data from U.S.
single-family homes was developed, using several aggregation
approaches, and explicitly considered the differences in sample
selection and season of measurements. The resulting distribution
of annual-average radon-222 concentrations can be characterized
by an arithmetic mean of 1.5 picoCuries/liter (pCi/L), or 55
Becquerels/m3 and a long tail with 1 to 3% of homes exceeding 8
pCi/L, or by a geometric mean of 0.9 pCi/L and a geometric
standard deviation of about 2.8. The standard deviation in the
means is 15%, estimated from the number and variability of the
available data sets, but the total uncertainty is larger because
these data may not be representative. Available dose-response
data suggest that a 1.5 pCi/L average contributes about 0.3%
lifetime risk of lung cancer and that, in the million homes with
highest radon levels — where annual exposures approximate or
exceed those received by underground uranium miners — long-term
occupants suffer an added lifetime risk greater than or equal to
2%.
0304
Nero, A.V., et al. (1985) "Characterizing the sources, range, and
environmental influences of radon 222 and its decay products",
Sci. Total Environ., 45:233-244.
KEYWORD: radon, literature, source, weather, control, home,
distribution, exposure
This article discusses (1) efforts to identify and control
excessive concentrations of radon-222 and its decay products in
residential environments, (2) the importance of pressure-induced
flow of soil gas for transport of radon from the ground into
houses, (3) available quantitative distribution of U.S.
residential levels, and (4) the degree of dependence on
geographic location. Experiments on the effectiveness of air-
227
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cleaning devices for removing particles and radon decay products
indicate the potential and limitations of this approach to
controlling radon concentrations.
0763
Nero, Anthony V. (Aug. 1983) "Indoor radiation exposures from Rn
and its daughters: a view of the issue", Health Phys. 45(2):277-
288.
KEYWORD: radon, health, control, regulation, ventilation, energy,
exposure, source, home, risk
Exposure to radon daughters indoors can result in significant
risk to the general public, particular people living in homes
with much higher than average concentrations. Using U.S. housing
as an example, this paper reviews what is known about indoor
concentrations, associated risks, and the effect of measures to
save energy by reducing ventilation rates. It concludes that, by
employing appropriate control measures in homes having
unacceptabily high concentrations, the average exposure (and
therefore risk) of the general public can remain at its present
level, or even decrease, despite programs to save energy by
tightening homes.
0634
Nero, Anthony V., Jr. (in press) "Estimated risk from exposure to
radon decay products in U.S. homes", Atmos. Environ.
KEYWORD: radon, home, health, risk, exposure, distribution, lung,
epidemiology
Recent analyses now permit direct estimation of the risks of lung
cancer from radon decay products in U.S. homes. Analysis of data
from indoor monitoring in single-family homes yields a tentative
frequency distribution of annual average radon concentrations
averaging 55 Becquerel (Bq)/m3, with 2% of homes exceeding 300
Bq/m3. Applying occupational epidemiological studies, either
directly or using recent advances in lung dosimetry, suggests
that the average indoor concentration entails a lifetime risk of
lung cancer of about 0.3% or about 10% of the total risk of lung
cancer. The risk to individuals occupying the homes with 300
Bq/m3 or more for their lifetimes is estimated to exceed 2%.
Risks from the homes with thousands of Bq/m3 are correspondingly
higher, even exceeding the total risk of premature death due to
cigarette smoking.
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0581
Nero, Anthony, V., Jr. (1985) "Indoor concentrations of radon-222
and its daughters: sources, range, and environmental influences",
Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds.,"Indoor air and
human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O. Drawer 519, Chelsea,
MI 48118, pp. 43-67.
KEYWORD: radon, health, exposure, distribution, home, source,
ventilation, research, literature, statistical, dose, lung
The radiation dose from inhaled daughters of radon-222
constitutes about half of the total effective dose equivalent to
the general population from natural radiation. Moreover, it is
clear that indoor levels are sometimes 10 or more times higher
than outdoor levels, with the actual concentration dependent on a
variety of factors. The apparent level of exposures and the
associated risk of lung cancer have given rise to research
characterizing indoor radon concentrations and the factors
affecting them. In the United States, in-home monitoring, where
the greatest part of the population dose occurs, has been
piecemeal. Nonetheless, data from dozens of areas are available,
and a systematic appraisal of these data strongly suggests that
annual-average concentrations in single-family houses are
approximately lognormally distributed, with a geometric mean in
the vicinity of 0.9 picoCuries per liter (pCi/L) radon-222 and a
geometric standard deviation of approximately 3. This implies an
average residential indoor concentration exceeding 1 pCi/L and
perhaps 1 million homes exceeding 8 pCi/L, the approximate
equivalent of a recently recommended remedial action standard.
The main contributors to the wide range observed are variability
in source strengths and ventilation rates, with the former being
more important. Variability in the equilibrium between radon-222
and its daughters may be of secondary importance. More complete
source characterization lies at the heart of efforts to identify
efficiently geographic areas and homes with high concentrations.
0374
Niemela, R., and Toppila, E. (1984) "Concentrations of airborne
formaldehyde in modern dwellings with low rates of ventilation",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 105-108.
NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: CH20, ventilation, home, exposure, regulation, foreign,
Finland, field, architecture
The standard in Finland for maximum formaldehyde levels in non-
occupational indoor air is 0.15 mg/m3 in new buildings (built or
renovated after Jan. 1, 1983) and 0.30 mg/m3 for older buildings.
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Formaldehyde levels have been measured in more than 100
dwellings, mostly detached houses and town houses. Air samples
were collected with midget impingers and analyzed by the
chromotropic acid method and ventilation rates were measured in
35 rooms in 20 homes. Relationships between formaldehyde
concentrations, ventilation rates, and Finnish air quality
regulations are discussed.
0029
Nitta, H., and Maeda, K. (1982) "Personal exposure monitoring to
nitrogen dioxide", Environ. Int., 8:243-248.
KEYWORD: NO2, field, sampling, personal, exposure, source, model,
activity, home, office, appliance
Using a sensitive passive sampler, volunteer housewives and
office workers measured short- and long-term personal exposure to
N02 in different seasons. These measurements were compared with
the simultaneous measurement of outdoor and indoor
concentrations. All measurements indicated the potential of an
unvented space heater to increase personal exposure. Without an
N02 source indoors, the mean outdoor concentrations are always
highest. A time-weighted indoor/outdoor activity model gives
modestly improved estimates of personal exposure over those
predicted from measured indoor concentrations alone.
0436
Norsted, S.W., Kozinetz, C.A., and Annegers, J.F. (1985)
"Formaldehyde complaint investigations in mobile homes by the
Texas Department of Health", Environ. Res., 37:93-100.
KEYWORD: CH2O, home, health, exposure, field, architecture,
methodology, dose
The Texas Department of Health sampled for formaldehyde (CH2O) in
443 mobile homes between April 1979 and May 1982 at the request
of the occupants. Colorimetric detector tubes were used most
frequently to collect samples. CH2O concentrations ranged from
below detectable limits (less than 0.5 ppm) to 8.0 ppm. Of homes
1 year of age or less, 27% had mean concentrations equal to or
greater than 2.0 ppm versus 11.5% of older homes. The primary
health complaints reported were headaches, respiratory
discomfort, and eye irritation. No evidence of a dose-response
relationship was found.
0530
Nyberg, Philip C., and Bernhardt, David E. (1983) "Measurements of
time-integrated radon concentrations in residences", Health
230
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Phys., 45:539-543.
KEYWORD: radon, monitoring, sampling,outdoor, home, QA, exposure,
methodology, radiation, dose, health, laboratory, track-etch
Certain areas of the United States exhibit high atmospheric
concentrations of radon. The necessary and desirable
characteristics of systems to measure concentrations of radon and
its progeny on a medium- to long-term basis have been the subject
of much study. Generally it is agreed that, for the assessment
of chronic health hazards, time-integrated measurements are
preferred over instantaneous measurements. This is especially
true for radon and its progeny, because their concentrations in
air can be affected in many ways and may easily change by a
factor of 10 in a matter of hours. Furthermore, because the
greatest radiation dose is delivered by the radon progeny, that
average concentration is of the greatest concern. Several
integrating monitoring techniques have been investigated both in
the laboratory and in the homes of several volunteers. Of
particular interest are the radon progeny integrating sampling
units, the passive environmental radon monitors, and track-etch
detectors. All were evaluated in a variety of controlled or
semicontrolled environments and were also deployed in several
residences.
0378
Nylen, P., Bergqvist, U., Wibom, R., and Knave, B. (1984)
"Physical and chemical environment at VDT work stations: air
ions, electrostatic fields and PCBs", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T.,
and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 3, sensory and
hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 163-167. NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: ion, video, exposure, office, outdoor, particulate, PCB,
source
Video display terminals (VDTs) have been implicated as sources of
electrostatic fields, ionic particulates, and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs). For male, female, and control group VDT
operators, electrical resistance in floors, operators' and VDTs1
electrostatic fields, suspended ion concentrations, and PCB
concentrations were measured. Significant electrostatic
differences were found among the three groups, and the
electrostatic fields attracted ionized particles. VDTs in this
study did not contribute to indoor PCB levels, but indoor levels
were higher than outdoor levels.
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0340
Offerman, F.J., Girman, J.R., and Sextro, R.G. (1984)
"Controlling indoor air pollution from tobacco smoke: models and
measurements", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.
"Indoor air, vol. 1, recent advances in the health sciences and
technology", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm,
pp. 257-264. NTIS PB85-104180.
KEYWORD: CO, smoking, particulate, model, exposure, control,
ventilation, health, regulation
The researchers examined the effects of smoking rate,
ventilation, surface deposition, and air cleaning on indoor
concentrations of respirable particulate matter and CO generated
by cigarette smoke. A general mass balance model is presented
that has been extended to include the concept of ventilation
efficiency. Following a review of the source and removal terms
associated with respirable particles and CO, model predictions
are compared to various health guidelines.
0221
Offerman, F.J., et al. (July 1984) "Controlling indoor air
pollution from tobacco smoke: models and measurements", Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720
(7 pages). NTIS DE84- 016888/XAB.
KEYWORD: CO, exposure, control, health, regulation, smoking,
particulate, model, ventilation
The effects of smoking rate, ventilation, surface deposition, and
air cleaning on the indoor concentrations of respirable
particulate matter and CO generated by cigarette smoke are
examined. A general mass balance model is presented, which has
been extended to include the concept of ventilation efficiency.
Following a review of the source and removal terms associated
with respirable particles and CO, the model's predictions are
compared to various health guidelines.
0433
Offerman, F., Hollowell, C., Nazaroff, W., and Roserae, G. (1982)
"Low-infiltration housing in Rochester, New York: a study of air-
exchange rates and indoor air quality", Environ. Int., 8:435-445.
KEYWORD: NO2, CH2O, field, home, ventilation,energy,CO, exposure,
radon, humidity, particulate, architecture, smoking, appliance
A sample of 58 occupied homes in Rochester, NY, most of which
incorporated special builder-designed weatherization components,
were studied to assess (1) the effectiveness of construction
232
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techniques designed to reduce air leakage, (2) the indoor air
quality and air-exchange rates in selected airtight houses, and
(3) the impact on indoor air quality of mechanical ventilation
systems using air-to-air heat exchangers. The "specific leakage
area" was measured in each house using the fan pressurization
technique. Houses with polyethylene vapor barriers and joint
seals were, as a group, 50% tighter than a similar group of
houses without such components. Mechanical ventilation systems
with air-to-air heat exchangers were installed in nine relatively
airtight houses, some of which had gas stoves and/or tobacco
smokers. Air-exchange rates, indoor concentrations of radon,
formaldehyde, NO2, and humidity were measured in each house for
1-week periods with and without mechanical ventilation. More
detailed measurements, including CO and inhalable particulates,
were made in two of these houses by a mobile laboratory. In all
nine houses, air-exchange rates were relatively low (0.2 to 0.5
air changes/hour) without mechanical ventilation, yet indoor
concentrations of radon, formaldehyde, and NO2 were below
existing guidelines. Mechanical ventilation systems were
effective in further reducing indoor contaminant concentrations.
The researchers concluded that, when contaminant source strengths
are low, acceptable indoor air quality can be achieved with low
air-exchange rates.
0514
Offerman, F.J., Girman, J.R., and Hollowell, C.D. (1981) "Midway
house-tightening project: a study of indoor air quality", U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Buildings and Community Systems,
Washington, DC 20585 (28 pages). NTIS DE81-030886.
KEYWORD: CH20, radon, N02, ventilation, home, field, energy,
ventilation, sampling, exposure, methodology, architecture
Indoor air quality was studied in 12 retrofitted houses of the
Bonneville Power Administration, Midway Substation Residential
Community near Richland, WA. Researchers measured effective
leakage areas and average concentrations of NO2, formaldehyde,
and radon before and after special house-tightening retrofits.
The leakage area was reduced by an average of 32%. Radon and
formaldehyde concentrations increased moderately, which would be
expected from the estimated average decrease in air-exchange
rates. None of the pollutant concentrations measured before or
after the retrofits exceeded existing guidelines. Because the
pre- and post-retrofit measurements involved only single,
relatively short-term samples taken two months apart,
uncertainties remain regarding the variability of source strength
and occupant activities that affect ventilation. These
uncertainties preclude any definitive conclusions that the
increases observed are purely the result of the retrofits. A
more conclusive study would require measurements of a larger
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sample of homes for a longer period of time, including
simultaneous monitoring of control (unretrofitted) houses.
0415
Offerman, F.J., et al. (1985) "Control of respirable particles in
indoor air with portable air cleaners", Atmos. Environ.,
19(11):1761-1771.
KEYWORD: particulate, home, ventilation, methodology, control,
smoking, EPA$, laboratory
Eleven portable air cleaning devices have been evaluated for
control of indoor respirable particles using in situ chamber
decay tests. Following injection of cigarette smoke in a room-
sized chamber, decay rates for particle concentrations were
obtained with and without air cleaner operation for total number
concentration and for number concentration by particle size. The
size distribution was log normal with a count median diameter of
0.15 urn and a geometric standard deviation of 2.0. Without air
cleaner operation, the natural mass-averaged surface deposition
rate of particles was 0.1 h-1. Air cleaning rates for particles
were negligible for several small panel-filter devices, a
residential-sized ion-generator, and a pair of mixing fans.
Electrostatic precipitators and extended surface filters removed
particles at substantial rates; a HEPA-type filter was the most
efficient air cleaner studied.
0551
Office of Air Quality Planning & Standards, U.S. EPA (1984)
"Estimation of short-term SO2 population exposures", draft
report, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (49 pages). Not avail-
able from NTIS.
KEYWORD: SO2, exposure, model, methodology, health, outdoor,
source, NEM, EPA$, NAAQS
Other EPA SO2 studies have raised the question as to how often
asthmatics living in the vicinity of power plants are actually
exposed to S02 concentrations 0.5 ppm or greater while
exercising. Of particular interest was the degree of protection
against such exposures provided by the current National Ambient
Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). To answer this question, EPA
undertook a population exposure analysis, which combined point
source emission modeling, the Expected Exposure (ExEx) Model, and
EPA's NAAQS Exposure Model (NEM). An overall S02 model was
developed having two major components: (1) a standard EPA
dispersion model and ExEx model and (2) a modification of NEM
that takes input from the first component and determines the
exposure estimates. The methodology of the study is outlined and
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discussed. An application of the methodology to five actual
utility power plants is presented, and the results are discussed.
0259
Oswald, R.A., et al. (Aug. 1982) "Indoor air pollution: the
experience with radon", vol. 1, ISES/Solar Energy Society of
Canada Energex 8th Conference, Regina, Sask. p. 46.
KEYWORD: radon,lung,source,energy exposure, architecture, Sweden,
ventilation, literature, health, foreign, Canada, track-etch
Increased risk of lung cancer is associated with elevated indoor
levels of radon. The principal source of indoor radon is radium
in underlying soils and rocks and in building materials. Indoor
concentrations of radon can increase as a result of energy-
conservation measures that reduce air infiltration and
ventilation. Track-etch detectors have been used to measure
radon levels in homes in Canada, the U.S., and Sweden. Indoor
exposure rates in some areas exceed 20 picocuries/liter.
0020
Ott, Wayne R. (1982) "Concepts of human exposure to air
pollution", Environ. Int., 7:179-196.
KEYWORD: multipollutant, literature, exposure, dose, terminology,
microenvironment, EPA$, model
A number of exposure studies in a single environmental medium,
air, are reviewed to see how various authors have defined the
concept of exposure assessment. Unfortunately, many
investigators estimated exposures either by relying on data from
fixed air-monitoring stations or diffusion models, implicitly
assuming that people are in one place, usually their homes,
throughout a 24-hour period. However, a second body of
literature shows that fixed air-monitoring stations or models do
not necessarily reflect actual human exposures, because
concentrations observed indoors — in homes, offices, factories,
and motor vehicles — differ from those found outdoors. To
standardize the nomenclature dealing with exposures, detailed
definitions are given of such terms as "exposure" and "dose", and
of their relationships to time and space.
0001
Ott, Wayne R. (1983-84) "Exposure estimates based on computer
generated activity patterns", J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol.,
special symposium issue on exposure assessment, 21 (1&2) 1 pp.
97-128.
235
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KEYWORD: CO, model,SHAPE, exposure, activity, biomonitoring, EPA$
Simulating the movement of people through 14 urban
microenvironments, the Simulation of Human Air Pollution Exposure
(SHAPE) computer model exposes them stochastically to CO
concentrations as they go about their daily activities, thereby
generating a 24-hour CO exposure profile of each person. SHAPE
combines data from past activity pattern studies and CO
microenvironmental field studies to generate a frequency
distribution of the maximum daily exposures and blood
carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) levels of a representative sample of the
population. CO exposures and blood COHb levels of 400 employed
persons are computed as an example.
0045
Ott, Wayne R. (Oct. 1971) "An urban survey technique for
measuring the spatial variation of carbon monoxide concentrations
in cities", Stanford University, Dept. of Civil Engineering,
Stanford, CA 94305 (153 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, field, vehicle, personal, exposure, outdoor,sampling
An urban survey technique was developed to determine how
representative an urban air-monitoring station is of CO
concentrations throughout a city. The survey technique was
applied in San Jose, CA, where 1128 samples were collected for 6
months and compared with values recorded simultaneously at San
Jose's official air monitoring station. Using a bag sampling
approach, all samples were collected at "nose height" within a
13-square-mile grid over the metropolitan area. Three basic
strategies were employed to answer specific questions about CO
distribution: (1) sampling while walking along downtown streets,
(2) random grid sampling, and (3) specialized sampling near the
air-monitoring station. Exposures on downtown streets were
considerably higher than those at the air-monitoring station and
showed poor correlations with those values. Samples from the
random locations tended to be lower than values observed at the
monitoring station. Measurements made more than 60 meters from a
major street were correlated with each other in time, suggesting
that urban background levels are spatially uniform but vary with
time.
0314
Ott, Wayne R., et al. (1986) "The Environmental Protection
Agency's research program on total human exposure", Environ.
Int., 12(1-4):475-494.
KEYWORD: exposure, model, methodology, personal, monitor, EPA$,
sampling, TEAM, design, statistical, risk, dose
236
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The EPA research program on total exposure to environmental
pollution (TEAM) seeks to develop a newly emerging concept in the
environmental sciences. Instead of focusing purely on the
sources of pollution or their transport and movement through the
environment, this research focuses on people and their daily
activities. The methodology measures and models the pollutant
concentrations found at the physical boundaries of people,
regardless of whether the pollutants arrive through the air,
water, food, or skin. An emerging new arsenal of miniaturized
instruments and statistically representative survey designs for
sampling the population of cities have generated significant
progress recently in providing the new field data needed for
making valid risk assessments. The TEAM study includes:
developing measurement methods and instruments, developing
exposure models and statistical protocols, conducting
microenvironmental field studies, conducting total human exposure
studies, validating human exposure models with empirical data,
and conducting dosage research investigations.
0201
Ott, Wayne R. (1985) "Total human exposure", Environ. Sci.
Technol., 19(10):880-886.
KEYWORD: TEAM, methodology, monitor, personal, exposure, model,
risk, dose, EPA$, sampling, design, statistical
Research on total human exposure to environmental pollution
focuses on humans as pollutant receptors. This new methodology
directly measures and models the pollutant concentrations found
at the physical boundaries of people, regardless of whether the
pollutants arrive through the air, water, food, or skin. It
quantitatively determines whether an environmental problem exists
at the human interface and, if so, determines the sources,
nature, extent, and severity of this problem. By exploiting an
emerging new arsenal of miniaturized instruments and by
developing statistically representative survey designs for
sampling urban populations, significant progress has been made in
recent years in providing previously unavailable human exposure
field data needed for making valid risk assessments. This
research program includes developing measurement methods and
instruments, developing exposure models and statistical
protocols, conducting microenvironmental field studies,
conducting total exposure studies, validating exposure models
with empirical data, and conducting dosage research
investigations.
237
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0002
Ott, Wayne R. (June 1981) "Exposure estimates based on computer
generated activity patterns", Paper no. 81-57.6, presented at the
76th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (16 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, EPA$, model,exposure, SHAPE, distribution, activity,
microenvironment, biomonitoring
The Simulation of Human Air Pollution Exposure (SHAPE) model was
presented for the first time in this annual meeting paper. This
computer model simulates the movement of people through 14
microenvironments in the urban area. It exposes them
stochastically to CO concentrations as they go about their daily
activities, thereby generating a 24-hour CO exposure profile of
each person. SHAPE combines data from past activity pattern
studies and CO microenvironmental field studies to generate
frequency distribution of the maximum daily exposures and blood
carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) levels of a representative sample of the
population of a city. In this paper, CO exposures and blood COHb
levels are computed to illustrate how the SHAPE model works.
0037
Ott, Wayne R., Willits, Neil, and Switzer, Paul (in press)
"Carbon monoxide exposures inside an automobile traveling on an
urban arterial highway", SIMS technical report in preparation,
Stanford University, Dept. of Statistics, Stanford, CA 94305 (85
pages).
KEYWORD: CO, field, vehicle, interior, statistical, EPA$, model,
exposure
A motor vehicle made standardized drives on an urban arterial
highway — El Camino Real — in California over the 13.5-month
period from January 5, 1980, to February 27, 1981. This 11.8-
mile segment of roadway (5.9 miles in each direction) includes 20
major intersections. CO concentrations inside the test vehicle
were measured using electrochemical monitors, and statistical
models were tested relating CO exposures to length of time spent
waiting at lights, accelerating, and driving at constant speed.
The best model of CO exposures over the year was a seasonal model
that predicted the average route exposure as a cosine function
with a period of 1 year. Individual 1-minute exposures could be
treated as lognormally distributed, and their arithmetic standard
deviation was found to be linearly related to the arithmetic
mean.
238
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0014
Ott, Wayne R., and Willits, Neil H. (1981) "CO exposures of
occupants of motor vehicles: modeling the dynamic response of the
vehicle", SIMS technical report no. 48, Stanford University,
Dept. of Statistics, Stanford, CA 94305 (52 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, field, vehicle, interior, model, EPA$, exposure
A dynamic model was developed and tested relating CO
concentration outside the passenger compartment of a moving
vehicle to the exposures of vehicle occupants. An experiment
conducted on a test vehicle obtained the parameters required for
the model. The model successfully predicted interior CO
concentrations as a function of time when external concentrations
were known. Test results and applications are discussed.
0669
Ott, Wayne, and Eliassen, Rolf (1973) "A survey technique for
determining the representativeness of urban air monitoring
stations with respect to carbon monoxide", J. Air Pollut. Control
Assoc., 23 (8) :685-690.
KEYWORD: sampling, design, regulation, EPA$, methodology, QA, CO,
model,outdoor,microenvironment,field,exposure,home,monitoring
An air quality survey technique for measuring the horizontal
spatial variation of CO concentrations was used to determine how
representative an urban air monitoring station is of
concentrations throughout the 13-square-mile-area of San Jose,
CA. Over a 6-month period, 1,128 samples were collected and
compared with the values recorded simultaneously at the station.
In downtown, residential, and industrial areas, samples were
collected at human head height (1) while walking along congested
streets, (2) at random grid points, and (3) in the vicinity of
the monitoring station. Pedestrians on downtown streets can be
exposed to concentrations above the Federal air quality standards
without these values being observed at the air monitoring
stations. Away from streets, simultaneous CO concentrations are
relatively similar throughout the city. CO concentrations
decline rapidly as distance from streets increases. Data from
present urban air monitoring stations may not support
determinations of compliance with air quality standards as
currently defined.
0041
Ott, Wayne, and Funkhauser, Robert (June 1967) "Models for
calculating carbon monoxide concentrations on streets", U.S.
Public Health Service, Division of Air Pollution, Cincinnati, OH
45268 (74 pages).
239
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KEYWORD: source, vehicle, exposure, model, dispersion, outdoor,
CO, microenvironment, interior
One of the first research attempts is described to develop
deterministic microscale dispersion models for calculating air
pollutant concentrations both near traffic and inside motor
vehicles. A plume model is first applied to a single vehicle
moving in traffic at a constant speed (single-vehicle case); then
multiple-plume models are applied to a number of vehicles
traveling along a roadway with several lanes and spacing
configurations. Next an emissions submodel is developed to
compute emissions for different traffic variables and situations
(average speeds, minimum spacing, and traffic volume). Curves
and tables are provided allowing the user to estimate emissions
for a variety of highway situations, using contemporary emission
factors. Finally, simplified line source models are developed to
compute concentrations contributed by roadways at various
stationary points located very close to the roadways.
0416
Ott, W.R., Rodes, C.E., Drago, R.J., Williams, C., and Burman,
F.J. (1986) "Automated data-logging personal exposure monitors
for carbon monoxide", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 36(8):883-
887.
KEYWORD: CO,personal,exposure,monitor,outdoor,field, methodology,
QA, EPA$
In the early 1980s, new miniaturized instruments became available
for continuously measuring human exposures to CO. Early tests
revealed that people had difficulty writing down the large
quantity of data generated by these instruments as they walked on
sidewalks, drove, or engaged in other normal activities. Several
solutions were considered using microprocessors to sample,
manipulate, and store the readings generated by the personal
exposure monitors (PEM). Two candidate hardware systems were
developed, one that computed and stored the times and average CO
concentrations at the command of the user, and another that
logged the event codes as well. These efforts led to development
of the CO exposure dosimeter (COED) PEMs that were used in the
Denver, CO, and Washington, DC, human exposure studies in 1982-
83. The COED-I was used successfully to obtain more than 1,600
24-hour human CO exposure profiles in these two cities, and the
COED-II was evaluated briefly in test settings. This paper
describes the measurement system and microprocessor data logger
used in these new monitors.
240
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0003
Ott, Wayne R. (Sept. 1982) "Human activity patterns: a review of
the literature for estimation of exposures to air pollution",
draft report, U.S. EPA, Office of Research and Development,
Washington, DC 20460 (16 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: activity, literature, model,outdoor, exposure, research,
EPA$
This paper is one of the few documents available that summarizes,
specifically for application to air pollution exposure research
and models, the number of studies of human activity patterns and
time budgets. More than 30 studies are reviewed, and their
possible use in air pollution research is critically evaluated.
0203
Ott, Wayne R. (Feb. 1985) "The Environmental Protection Agency's
research program on total human exposure", U.S. EPA, Office of
Research and Development, Washington, DC 24060 (50 pages). Not
available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: TEAM, methodology, personal, exposure, model, risk,dose,
EPA$, monitor, sampling, design, statistical
EPA's research program on total human exposure to environmental
pollution focuses on humans as pollutant receptors. The
methodology measures and models the pollutant concentrations
found at the physical boundaries of people, regardless of whether
the pollutants arrive through the air, water, food, or skin. By
exploiting an emerging new arsenal of miniaturized instruments
and by developing statistically representative survey designs for
sampling the population of cities, significant progress has been
made in recent years in providing previously unavailable exposure
field data needed for making valid risk assessments. This
research program includes developing measurement methods and
instruments, developing exposure models and statistical
protocols, conducting microenvironmental field studies,
conducting total exposure studies, validating exposure models
with empirical data, and conducting dosage research
investigations.
0675
Ott, Wayne R., and Mage, David T. (1974) "A method for simulating
the true human exposure of critical population groups to air
pollutants", in "Proceedings of the international symposium:
recent advances in assessing the health effects of environmental
pollution", Paris, France, pp. 2097-2107.
KEYWORD: CO, exposure, monitoring, statistical, outdoor, method,
regulation, field, personal, monitor, statistical, methodology
241
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There are serious problems in accurately assessing the true
population exposure to air pollutants. In the United States, the
primary means for monitoring air quality is by measurements at
fixed locations in urban areas. It is becoming increasingly
apparent that such data provide a relatively poor measure of the
true exposure of members of the general public to air pollutants,
because these stations are not necessarily located where the
public is exposed to the highest concentrations. To demonstrate
a method to obtain a more representative measure of the human
exposure of a critical population group, pedestrians collected
integrated CO samples over the routes that they walk. A total of
425 of these simulated exposures samples (SES) were collected on
congested downtown streets in a major urban area. The results
were compared statistically with conventional measurements from a
nearby fixed monitoring station. Significant differences were
observed between these two methodologies. The significance of
these findings for setting air quality standards is discussed.
0031
Ott, Wayne, and Flachsbart, Peter (1982) "Measurement of carbon
monoxide concentrations in indoor and outdoor locations using
personal exposure monitors", Environ. Int., 8:295-304.
KEYWORD: CO, field, personal, exposure, monitor, outdoor, EPA$,
microenvironment
On 15 dates, 5,000 measurements of CO were made downtown in four
California cities (San Francisco, Palo Alto, Mountain View, and
Los Angeles) using personal exposure monitors (PEMs).
Altogether, 588 commercial settings were visited, and indoor and
outdoor locations were sampled at each setting. On 11 surveys,
two PEMs were carried about 0.15 to 6 meters apart, giving 1,706
pairs of observations that showed good agreement. For a given
date and commercial setting, CO concentrations were relatively
stable over time, permitting levels to be characterized by making
only brief visits to each setting. The data indicate that most
commercial settings experience CO concentrations above zero
indoors because CO tends to seep into buildings from vehicular
emissions outside. Levels in these locations usually are not
above 5 ppm and seldom are higher than the 9 ppm National Ambient
Air Quality Standard. However, indoor garages and buildings with
attached indoor parking areas can have relatively high CO
concentrations.
0125
Ott, Wayne, et al. (June 1984) "Application of microprocessors to
data logging problems in air pollution exposure field studies",
Paper No. 121.2 presented at the 77th annual meeting of the
242
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American Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (6 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, field, methodology, personal, exposure, outdoor, QA,
monitor, EPA$
In the early 1980s, new, miniaturized instrumentation became
available for continuously measuring human exposures to CO.
Early tests revealed that people had difficulty writing down the
large quantity of data generated by these instruments as they
engaged in their normal activities. Several solutions were
considered using microprocessors to sample, manipulate, and store
the readings generated by the personal exposure monitors (PEMs).
Two candidate hardware systems were developed; one computed and
stored the times and average CO concentrations at the command of
the user, the other logged the event codes as well. These
efforts led to development of the CO Exposure Dosimeter (COED)
PEMs that were used in the Denver, CO, and Washington, DC, human
exposure studies in 1982-83. COED-I was used successfully to
obtain more than 1,600 24-hour human CO exposure profiles in
these two cities, and COED-II was evaluated briefly in test
settings. This paper describes the measurement system and
microprocessor data-logger used in these new monitors.
0609
Otten, J.A., Morey, P.R., Burge, H.A., Chatigny, M.A., Feeley,
J.C., and Peterson, K. (1986) "Airborne viable microorganisms in
office environments: sampling protocol and analytical
procedures", Hochheiser, S., and Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds.,
"Proceedings of the 1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the measurement of
toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711,
pp. 36-45. Not yet available from NTIS. (In press, Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230.)
KEYWORD: microorganism, health, methodology, sampling,industrial,
control, exposure
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists1
Committee on Bioaerosols has developed a draft sampling protocol
and analytical procedures for airborne viable microorganisms in
offices where workplace-related illnesses such as
hypersensitivity pneumonitis, humidifier fever, and allergies
(due to bioaerosols) are reported. The protocol specifies these
items: (1) rationale for initiating airborne monitoring, (2)
sampler selection, (3) culture media selection, (4) sampling
strategy, (5) handling and processing of collected
microorganisms, (6) data interpretation, and (7) remedial
actions. This protocol may serve as a model for developing
243
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protocols for diverse occupational settings.
0193
Ozkaynak, H., Ryan, P.B., Allen, G.A., and Turner, W.A. (1982)
"Indoor air quality modeling: compartmenta1 approach with
reactive chemistry", Environ. Int. 8:461-471.
KEYWORD: NOx, field, model, microenvironment, ventilation,source
Data on indoor/outdoor pollutant and tracer concentrations were
collected during different periods in 1981 at a residence in
Newton, MA. Special studies within the kitchen were conducted to
determine the vertical and horizontal variability of pollutant
and tracer gas concentrations. A reactive chemistry model
incorporating simplified NOx chemistry was developed to simulate
pollutant concentrations indoors. Multicompartmental
mathematical modeling tools were also developed and tested to
estimate efficiently the effective, emission, ventilation, and
removal rates, as well as the intercompartmental pollutant
exchange coefficients. Model studies using two- and three-
compartment systems and tracer measurements proved that the
dynamics of pollutant mixing inside a kitchen is not only complex
but may be quite important in controlling the spatial and
temporal variability of reactive species. Further monitoring and
modeling studies are recommended to investigate the critical
aspects of the short-term dynamics of the reactive pollutants
inside homes with gas cooking stoves.
0574
Ozkaynak, H., Ryan, P.B., Spengler, J.D., and Laird, N.M. (1986)
"Bias due to misclassification of personal exposures in
epidemiologic studies of indoor and outdoor air pollution",
Environ Int., 12(1-4):389-393.
KEYWORD: model, health, risk, indoor, outdoor, smoking, design,
particulate,methodology,QA,statistical,demographic
The authors examine the nature and magnitude of bias resulting in
the estimation of relative health risks and risk differences due
to misclassifications of exposures and disease. Bias correction
expressions depending on the misclassification parameters,
sensitivity and specificity, as well as the observed risk
indicators, are provided. Examples based on predictions of
exposures of adults and children to both indoor and outdoor
respirable particles suggest the potential for significant bias
toward the null hypothesis if exposure or disease
misclassifications are not properly accounted for in the
epidemiologic studies of air pollution health effects.
244
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0443
Palmes, E.D., Gunnison, A.F., DiMattio, J., and Tomczyk, C.
(1976) "Personal sampler for nitrogen dioxide", Amer. Ind. Hyg.
ASSOC. J., 37:570-577.
KEYWORD: NO2, personal, exposure, monitor, sampling, methodology,
QA
A new type of personal sampler for gases in air, originally
reported by the Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York
University Medical Center, has been adapted for measuring N02.
The sampler depends on the transfer of N02 by diffusion to a
triethanolamine-coated collector at the sealed end of a tube; the
open end is exposed to the test environment. The devices are
accurate, light, simple to use, and have very good shelf life
before and after sampling.
0708
Palmes, E.D., Tomczyk, C., and DiMattio, J. (1977) "Average NO2
concentrations in dwellings with gas or electric stoves", Atmos.
Environ., 11:869-872.
KEYWORD: source, home, monitor, field, NO2, combustion, exposure,
methodology,
NO2 concentrations in dwellings were measured using a passive
sampler operating by NO2 diffusion to a sensitive reagent.
Concentrations were four times higher in dwellings with gas
stoves than in those with electric stoves. Also, N02
concentrations varied with stove type. The results are similar
to other studies. This new sampler does not interfere with
residents activities and is easy to operate.
0693
Palmes, E.D., and Tomczyk, C. (1979) "Personal sampler for NO2",
Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 40:588-591.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure, methodology, sampling, laboratory,
NO, NOx, N02, QA
A personal sampler system for NOx (NO + NO2) and NO2 has been
developed for monitoring workplace air. The N02 sampler
previously reported from this laboratory uses triethanolamine to
trap N02 which diffuses through a tube of appropriate dimensions.
The NOx sampler contains the same elements as the N02 device, but
it is also fitted with a chromic acid impregnated disc; this disc
converts NO to N02 which is then trapped by the triethanolamine
along with preformed N02. The trapped N02 in all cases is
245
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determined as nitrite colorimetrically and NO is measured by
difference between the NOx and N02 values. The NOx sampler gives
accurate and reproducible results if the chromic acid dis is in
place for 24 hours or less; it is necessary, therefore, to insert
and remove the disc within reasonably short times before and
after sampling. We believe, however, that this operation will
not be a serious problem for the user.
0101
Pannwitz, Karl-Heinz (Aug. 1984) "Indoor air monitoring by sample
taking at solid matrices", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and
Sundell, J., Eds. "Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization
and personal exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 197-201. NTIS PB85-104214
KEYWORD: organic, sampling, methodology, monitoring
Direct analysis of organic contaminants in the air of housing
spaces, for example by a gas chromatograph, is in most cases very
difficult because the average concentrations of the pollutants
often are in the ppb range. Therefore, it is necessary to enrich
the contaminants. Many organic vapors can be adsorbed by
activated charcoal. After sampling, the enriched substances are
desorbed by an organic solvent and analyzed by gas
chromatography. Active and passive samplers, among them the
passive sampler "ORSA 5", were compared under defined conditions.
0649
Parker, Carl D., and Strong, R.B. (1974) "Evaluation of portable,
direct-reading carbon monoxide meters", U.S. Department of
Health, Education,, and Welfare, Center for Disease Control,
Cincinnati, OH (148 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, monitor, QA, methodology, economic, laboratory
A market survey was conducted to determine the availability of
portable, direct-reading CO meters with a range of approximately
10 to 500 ppm. Selected manufacturers were requested to submit a
meter for the evaluation. Performance characteristics of the
meters were determined. Physical and performance characteristics
of these meters are discussed, and construction, performance, and
quality control standards for portable CO meters are recommended.
0545
Parker, G.B., Lee, R.N., and Dennis, G.W., (1983), "Monitoring
indoor pollutants in two small office buildings to support a
modeling study", U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC 20585
(12 pages). NTIS DE84-010900.
246
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KEYWORD: CO, NOx, CH2O, radon, particulate, temperature, outdoor,
office, humidity, seasonal, ventilation
The Pacific Northwest Laboratory conducted a study to monitor
outdoor and indoor pollutants and to determine air-exchange rates
in two small office buildings in the Pacific Northwest, both
constructed in the mid-1970s. Radon, particulate matter, CO,
NOx, and formaldehyde were measured during approximately a 3-day
period in each building during the heating season. Air exchange,
temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed were also
measured. Average workday indoor pollutant levels of
formaldehyde, CO, NOx, and radon were near ambient (outdoor)
levels. Concentrations of particulate matter indoors were
greater than those outdoors in both office buildings and
significantly greater in the second office building as compared
to the first. The measurement protocol and measurement results
are described. The hourly variations in radon and particulate
matter concentration measured in the second building are also
given.
0219
Parker, G.B., Wilfert, G.L., and Dennis, G.W. (Nov. 1984) "Indoor
air quality and infiltration in multifamily naval housing",
Proceedings of the annual 1984 PNWIs/APCA meeting (15 pages).
NTIS DE85-005295.
KEYWORD: CO, NO2, smoking, radon, CH2O, particulate, outdoor,
field, source, ventilation, architecture, weather, appliance
Indoor air quality and air infiltration were measured in three
units of a multifamily housing complex at the Naval Submarine
Base in Bangor, WA, over 5 consecutive days during the heating
season of 1983. Three dwelling units of identical size
constructed in 1978 were monitored, each in a separate two-story
four-unit complex. One unit was downstairs and the other two
were upstairs. Two of the units were occupied by smokers (one
downstairs and one upstairs). None of the units had combustion
appliances. Pollutants monitored indoors included radon,
formaldehyde, CO, particulate matter, and NO2. Indoor and
outdoor temperature and wind speed were also recorded. Outdoor
formaldehyde and NO2 were also measured.
0277
Paul, Roy A. (Jan. 1986) "Demographic data for lead exposure
analysis", EPA contract no. 68-02-4309, U.S. EPA, Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
(32 pages). Not available from NTIS.
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KEYWORD: Pb,children, distribution, exposure, demographic, model,
outdoor, EPA$, pregnancy
A computer program (MATCH-AQ) was developed to calculate the
number of children and pregnant women who may be exposed to Pb.
Lead concentrations in air were estimated for given point sources
within four metropolitan areas: Chicago, IL, Dallas, TX,
Nashville, TN, and Tampa-St. Petersburg, FL. Projected
demographic group populations are based on 1980 census data and
1990/2000 forecasts by the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis.
The outputs include geographic, air quality, and population
exposure data by each census tract for pregnant women and for
children in seven age groups.
0274
Paul, Roy A., and McCurdy, Thomas (June 1986) "Estimation of
population exposure to ozone",Paper no. 86-66.2, presented at the
79th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (15 pages).
KEYWORD: exposure, activity, pattern, outdoor, model, regulation,
seasonal, microenvironment, O3, EPA$, distribution, QA
A version of the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS)
Exposure Model (NEM-03) appropriate for analyzing ozone exposure
is described. NEM simulates the movement of selected segments of
the human population through different geographic areas
characterized by different ambient air pollutant levels.
Application of NEM-O3 in the New York City metropolitan area is
summarized, providing estimates of population exposure for
various measures of exposure, and different averaging times, time
periods (summer months and ozone season), and exercise levels.
Ozone exposure estimates change considerably as different ozone
NAAQS are applied. NEM-03 model results are useful in evaluating
impacts of alternative standards, as well as providing input to
ozone risk assessments.
0106
Paul, Roy A., Johnson, Ted, Pope, Anne, and Ferdo, Alicia (Feb.
1986) "The NAAQS model (NEM) applied to ozone (draft)", EPA
contract no. 68-02-4309, U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards, Research Triangle, Park, NC 27711 (116
pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: NEM, exposure, 03,outdoor, EPA$, microenvironment,model,
activity, pattern, QA, regulation, seasonal, distribution
The National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) Exposure Model
(NEM) can simulate exposure in selected urban areas under user-
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specified regulatory scenarios. The model requires prepared and
validated data on air quality and population activity patterns.
NEM for O3 is applied to New York City as an example. Source
code versions of the program are available.
0446
Paul, Roy A., and Johnson, Ted (April 1985) "The NAAQS exposure
model (NEM) applied to carbon monoxide: addendum", U.S. EPA,
Office of Air and Radiation, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (31
pages). NTIS PB85-235182/REB.
KEYWORD: CO, model, exposure, NEM, distribution, NAAQS, health,
regulation, statistical
This report describes the results obtained when the CO version of
NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) Exposure Model
(NEM) is used to estimate national exposures associated with
attaining the current CO standard (9 ppm - 8 hour average - one
observed exceedance per year). This standard was not analyzed in
the basic report of the same title (BLIS #043). NEM is a model
that simulates the intersection of a population with pollutant
concentrations over space and time to estimate exposures required
to meet various alternative NAAQS. Estimates are presented for
adults with cardiovascular disease in four urban study areas and
for a nationwide extrapolation.
0077
Pellizzari, E.D., Sheldon, L.S., Sparacino, C.M., Bursey, J.T.,
Wallace, L., and Bromberg, S. (1984) "Volatile organic levels in
indoor air", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.
"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal
exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
303-308.
KEYWORD: VOC, field, office, home, sampling, method, EPA$
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in indoor air in a home for the
elderly and a new office building were identified and quantified
using Tenax GC samplers and capillary gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry. More than 300 chemicals were tentatively
identified in indoor air of the nursing home. Night-day levels
were compared. The new office building was also part of a
longitudinal study that revealed a rapid decrease in levels with
time for some chemicals, while others increased.
0211
Pellizzari, E.D., Whitmore, R., Sheldon, L.S., Sparacino, C.M.,
Zelon, H., and Hartwell, T.D. (1983) "Breath monitoring as an
249
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indication of environmental exposure to volatile organics", draft
report, U.S. EPA, Office of Research and Development, Washington,
DC 20460 (191 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: VOC, personal, exposure, outdoor, design, biomonitoring,
statistical, methodology, QA, EPA$
This report thoroughly documents the design and execution of a
survey of volatile organic compounds in personal air, water, and
exhaled breath samples of people in and around Los Angeles, CA.
Major topics are statistical sample design, survey operations,
chemical sampling and analysis, quality assurance, and
statistical data analysis. More analytical options are
recommended. Personal air levels were usually higher than indoor
air or breath levels. Data and data analysis are extensive for
each chemical and medium.
0107
Pellizzari, E.D., Zelon, H.S., Bursey, J.T., Leininger, C.C.,
Hartwell, T.D., and Breen, J. (Aug. 1984) "Sampling and analysis
design for volatile halocarbons in indoor and outdoor air",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal exposure", Swedish
Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 203-208. NTIS PB85-
104214
KEYWORD: VOC, halocarbon, CHC13,CC14, exposure, QA, field, EPA$,
outdoor, statistical
Matched pairs of overnight indoor and outdoor ambient air samples
were collected at 146 residences in three areas of the United
States. Up to 17 volatile halocarbons were measured in each
sample collected on Tenax GC using computerized gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry. Controls, blanks, and
duplicate field samples were used to assess the accuracy and
precision of the overall technique. Analyte recoveries ranged
from 79% to 125% for spiked sampling devices, with a relative
standard deviation (RSD) of 2% to 3%. Overall median RSDs for
indoor and outdoor duplicate samples were 27% and 51%,
respectively.
0017
Pellizzari, E.D., et al. (1981) "Total exposure assessment
methodology (TEAM) study", vol. I: Northern New Jersey (393
pages), vol. II: Research Triangle Park (189 pages), vol. Ill:
quality assurance (237 pages), EPA contract no. 68-01-3849, U.S.
EPA, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC, 20460.
Not available from NTIS.
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KEYWORD: PAH, PCB, VOC, metal, pesticide, TEAM,field,methodology,
personal,exposure,food,QA,biomonitoring,EPA$,water,seasonal
The total exposure assessment methodology (TEAM) study is
described. TEAM is a major effort to measure direct human
exposure to four groups of chemicals — volatile organics,
pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), metals, and
polyaromatic hydrocarbons. About 30 chemicals were measured in
air, food, water, beverages, and house dust of 12 volunteers in
New Jersey and North Carolina over three seasons. The same
chemicals were measured in exhaled breath, blood, urine, and
hair. About 30 sampling and analytical protocols were field
tested. Volatile organics could be included in a full-scale
study, but analyses for individual foods would have to be
improved before metals and pesticides could be studied further.
0075
Pellizzari, E.D., et al. (1986) "Sampling and analysis for
volatile organics in indoor and outdoor air in New Jersey",
Environ. Int., 12(1-4):369-387.
KEYWORD: VOC, field, outdoor, QA, statistical, TEAM, EPA$
As part of the Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM)
study, matched pairs of overnight indoor and outdoor ambient air
samples were collected from 85 residences in Elizabeth and
Bayonne, NJ, and analyzed by computerized gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry for volatile organic chemicals. Accuracy and
precision for the overall method were monitored by control
samples and replicate sampling. Analyte recoveries ranged
between 85% and 100% from controls. The intra- and
interlaboratory relative standard deviations (RSDs) for sample
collection and analysis of duplicates were 20% to 30% and 30% to
45%, respectively. The overall median RSDs were: indoor, 30%;
outdoor, 37%; intralaboratory sample analysis, 29%; and
interlaboratory sample analysis, 26%.
0220
Pellizzari, E.D., et al. (May 1982) "Human exposure to vapor-
phase halogenated hydrocarbons: fixed-site vs. personal
exposure", in "proceedings: National symposium on recent
advances in pollutant monitoring of ambient air and stationary
sources, held at Raleigh, NC, May 4-7, 1982", pp. 264-288. NTIS
PB-84-148345.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure, monitor, sampling, halocarbon, EPA$,
outdoor, methodology
The use of personal and fixed-station monitoring for assessing
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exposure of populations to halocarbons is discussed. Atmospheric
exposure to volatile halogenated hydrocarbons was studied in
populations in Baton Rouge, LA, and Greensboro, NC. The relative
merits and limitations of fixed-station monitoring systems and
personal monitors are addressed. Air sampling values are
reported for diverse chlorinated hydrocarbons. The levels of
halocarbons in personal air samples were higher than fixed-site
samples.
0141
Pellizzari, Edo D., et al. (1984) "Total exposure and assessment
methodology (TEAM): dry cleaners study", EPA contract no. 68-02-
3626, U.S. EPA, Office of Research and Development, Washington,
DC 20460 (159 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: VOC, water, PERC,solvent, biomonitoring,field, personal,
exposure, EPA$, outdoor, dry-cleaner, statistical
A special study of workers in dry cleaning establishments was
conducted in March and April 1982. Personal exposure to more
than 20 volatile compounds via drinking water, ambient air, and
personal air was assessed using previously developed sampling and
analysis methodologies. Body burden for the target chemicals was
determined by measuring levels in breath, blood, and urine.
Results were subjected to summary statistical analysis. All of
these methods are described in detail. Workers in dry cleaning
establishments using perchloroethylene (PERC) as cleaning fluid
were exposed to higher levels of PERC at work than elsewhere.
Levels in breath, blood, and urine also were higher during work
times than other times.
0260
Pengelly, L.D., et al. (Nov. 1983) "The Hamilton study:
relationship between outdoor and indoor air quality in homes and
elementary schools", Canada Ministry of Environment general and
air pollution research technology transfer conference, Toronto,
Canada Vol. 1, pp. 184.
KEYWORD: outdoor, NO2, SO2, particulate, school, source,foreign,
home, seasonal, Canada
Indoor and outdoor levels of N02, S02, and particulates were
measured in Hamilton, Ontario, residences and schools.
Observations were made for two 5-day sessions at each site, one
during the heating season and one during non-heating periods.
For NO2, the indoor/outdoor ratio was close to 75% in schools and
was independent of heating season; indoor levels were strongly
correlated with outdoor concentrations. In homes, the ratio
strongly depended on the presence of indoor sources such as
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stoves. In the absence of these, little effect of heating season
was documented, and the ratio was about 80%. Indoor levels of
SO2 were also correlated with outdoor levels at all sites.
0179
Pepys, J. (1982) "Chemical dusts, vapours, and fumes causing
asthma", Environ. Int., 8:321-325.
KEYWORD: multipollutant, literature, health, lung, allergen
Respiratory disease due to common allergens of organic origin is
well known. Less familiar, but of increasing importance, are
organic and inorganic chemicals being encountered as dusts,
vapors, and fumes. Their relevance is shown in occupational
respiratory allergic disorders. Controlled exposure with minute
amounts of these chemicals for brief periods closely simulates
allergic sensitivity and can precisely identify sources in often
complex exposures. The capacity of these widely different agents
to elicit various patterns of asthmatic reactions points to their
potential role, as well as the role of chemical agents in general
as allergens. The introduction into indoor environments of such
materials demands consideration of their possible allergenic
effects and of the need to recognize the various forms of
allergic respiratory reaction they may cause.
0666
Pepys, Jack, et al. (1984) "Immunology/sensitization/irritation
panel report", Environ. Health Perspect., 58:343-346.
KEYWORD: methodology, QA, health, CH20, exposure, dose, research,
literature, lung, dermal, epidemiology, allergen
This report summarizes the irritating and allergic effects of
inhalation, cutaneous, and eye exposures to formaldehyde.
Research methodologies used were evaluated, remaining
uncertainties were discussed, and future research needs
described.
0578
Perhac, Ralph M. (1985) "Indoor air quality—electric utility
concerns", Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds.,
"Indoor air and human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O.
Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 3-4.
KEYWORD: energy, economic,health, regulation, exposure, activity,
research, ventilation, outdoor, TEAM, architecture
The electric utility industry has an interest and a stake in
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indoor air quality for two principal reasons. The first relates
to energy conservation and the second to ambient air quality
standards and the protection of human health. Because of its
concern for conservation, the electric utility industry in many
parts of the nation has been promoting more extensive use of home
insulation, solar-heated homes, and construction of homes and
other buildings with low air-exchange rates. All these measures
lead to lower air-exchange rates—with the attendant potential
concern that pollutants might accumulate indoors and thereby pose
a health concern. The second reason deals with human health in
general terms of overall activities. Most people spend more than
75% of their time indoors, yet ambient air quality standards are
based on outdoor measurements. Further, standards are designed
to protect the most sensitive segments of the population, that
is, those persons who spend perhaps even more than 75% of their
time indoors. If we are to evaluate total exposure to
atmospheric pollutants, we need to assess the indoor atmosphere
accurately as well as the overall mobility pattern of
individuals. Whether or not the indoor environment poses a
threat to human health, information on the indoor environment is
needed before we can assess total exposure.
0059
Peterson, G.A., and Sabersky, R.H. (1975) "Measurements of
pollutants inside an automobile", J. Air Pollut. Control
ASSOC., 25:1028-1032.
KEYWORD: CO, NO, NO2, O3, vehicle, interior, field
A series of experiments was conducted to determine the
concentrations of 03, CO, NO, and NOx inside a car under typical
driving conditions. During the summer in the Los Angeles, CA,
area, O3 in the passenger compartment may be maintained at
relatively low values if the influx of outside air is limited.
The low levels were explained by the decay of O3 on surfaces
within the compartment. The average concentration of the other
pollutants inside the car is about equal to that on the outside.
In the current tests, however, measured concentrations did not
exceed any of the present standards.
0263
Petreas, M., Liu, K. S., Chang, B. H., Hayward, S. B., Sexton,
K. (1986) "Nitrogen dioxide concentrations inside mobile homes",
Paper 86-6.8, presented at the 79th annual meeting of the Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230, (14 pages).
KEYWORD: N02, home, CH20, monitoring, sampling, appliance,
seasonal, microenvironment
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This paper reports the NO2 findings from the 1984-85 study of
formaldehyde and NO2 concentrations in California mobile homes.
This age-stratified random sample study was conducted by the
California Indoor Air Quality Program in two phases: July and
August 1984 and February and March 1985. Participants activated
monitors for a 1-week period, with sampling occurring in the
kitchen and the master bedroom. Week-long average N02
concentrations fell within the range reported in the literature
for similar studies, although 7% of the results for winter
kitchen data were above the national average of 50 ppb. Other
general conclusions are: electric-heating homes had lower NO2
levels in both kitchen and bedroom than nonelectric homes; for
nonelectric homes, kitchen NO2 levels were significantly higher
than bedroom levels.
0758
Petreas, M.X., Twiss, S., Pon, D., and Imada, M. (1986) "A
laboratory evaluation of two methods for measuring low levels of
formaldehyde in indoor air", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.,
47:(5)276-280.
KEYWORD: methodology, CH2O, laboratory, sampling, QA, statistical
Two methods for measuring formaldehyde at ppb levels — the
modified pararosaniline (PRA) and the modified chromotropic acid
(CTA) — were evaluated in a laboratory study. A dynamic double
dilution system was used to generate controlled test atmospheres
of formaldehyde by the catalytic depolymerization of trioxane.
Impinger samples were collected from the sampling manifold and
analyzed. Both methods demonstrated good precision (3.5% for PRA
and 3.4% for CTA, respectively) but differed in accuracy (87.7
+l/-7.5% and 92.5 +l/-4.2%) and collection efficiency (91.9 +/1-
6.9% and 98.7 +/1- 4.7%). These differences were mainly due to
the use of 1% NaHSO3 as the absorbing solution in the CTA method.
Additionally, the NaHS03 solution can preserve the sample longer,
making the modified CTA the method of choice for most non-
industrial indoor air sampling.
0713
Pickrell, J.A., Mokler, B.V., Griffis, L.C., and Hobbs, C.H.
(1983) "Formaldehyde release rate coefficients from selected
consumer products", Environ. Sci. Technol., 17(12):753-757.
KEYWORD: CH2O, monitor, method, laboratory, architecture
Many consumer products release varying concentrations of
formaldehyde into the atmosphere. A modification of the Japanese
Industrial Standard (JIS) desiccator test was used to measure
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releases, after conditioning, for 46 samples from six types of
consumer products (pressed wood products, clothes, fiberglass
insulation, paper, fabric, and carpet). Release rate
coefficients were calculated as (ug/g day) and (ug/m2/day) for
each product. The eight highest formaldehyde release coefficients
were from pressed wood products. Of the 46 samples, 24 had
coefficients less than or equal to 100 ug/m2/day; five of the six
products were represented. The fraction of total extractable
formaldehyde released each day under JIS desiccator conditions at
a loading of 21 m2/m3 was calculated. Wood products and carpets
released 1-4% of total extractable formaldehyde per day, while
fiberglass insulation released 10% per day under the conditions
of this 2-day test procedure.
0272
Pitts, J.N., Jr., Wallington, T.J., Biermann, H.W., and Winer,
A.M. (1985) "Identification and measurement of nitrous acid in an
indoor environment", Atmos. Environ., 19(5):763-767.
KEYWORD: N02, HNO, health
Differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) provided
direct observations of the formation indoors of ppb levels of
gaseous nitrous acid (HONO) from the reaction of ppm levels of
NO2 with water vapor. HONO is a respirable nitrate known to
convert secondary amines in vitro to carcinogenic nitrosamines.
The rate of formation of HONO displayed first-order kinetics with
respect to NO2, with a rate of 0.25 (+/- 0.04) ppb/minute per ppm
NO2 present. An assumed lifetime of 1 hour for both physical and
chemical processes for removing HONO leads to an estimated
steady-state concentration of approximately 15 ppb HONO per ppm
N02 present. This relatively high level of HONO associated with
NO2-air mixtures raises new questions concerning the health
implications of elevated NO2 concentrations in indoor
environments.
0319
Pleil, J.D., Oliver, K.D., and McClenny, W.A. (1985) "Volatile
organic compounds in indoor air: a survey of various structures",
U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711 (15 pages). NTIS PB85-198356.
KEYWORD: VOC, home, halocarbon, solvent, laboratory, seasonal,
multipollutant, sampling, EPA$, outdoor
Residents collected indoor air samples in their homes in polished
stainless steel canisters. The samples were analyzed for
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) using cryogenic sample
preconcentration and subsequent capillary column chromatography.
256
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Each homeowner was asked to fill out a questionnaire concerning
physical, structural, and activity-related characteristics that
could affect VOC concentrations. Simultaneous flame-ionization
and electron-capture detection yielded concentration data in a
range of from 0.1 to 10 ppb for 19 calibration compounds:
propane, vinyl chloride, vinylidene chloride, Freon 113,
chloroform, 1,2-dichloroethane, methyl chloroform, benzene,
carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, cis-1,3-dichloropropene,
trans-1,3-dichloropropene, toluene, 1,2-dibromoethane,
tetrachloroethylene, chlorobenzene, o-xylene, benzyl chloride,
and hexachlorobutadiene. Certain other compounds could also be
identified and quantified based on occasional analyses of
appropriate standards. These data are presented in three sample
groups: summer indoor, winter indoor, and combined summer and
winter outdoor. In addition, some probable correlations between
residential characteristics and the occurrence of various
compounds in indoor air are discussed.
0402
Poffijn, A., Marijns, R., Vanmarke, H., and Uyttenhove, J. (1985)
"Results of a preliminary survey of radon in Belgium", Sci. Total
Environ., 45:335-342.
KEYWORD: radon, distribution, foreign, home, exposure, sampling,
Belgium, statistical
For a preliminary national survey in Belgium in 1983, indoor
radon concentration was determined with passive integrating
detectors. In 77 of the 79 houses studied, radon concentration
was less than 250 Becguerels (Bq)/m3. The highest reported value
was 330 Bq/m3. The frequency distribution is log-normal, with a
geometric mean of 41 Bq/m3 and a geometric standard deviation of
1.7. The influence of some human and environmental parameters
was also studied. Because of the limited scale of the pilot
study, only a trend can be derived.
0163
Prichard, H.M., Gesell, T.F., Hess, C.T., Weiffenbach, C.V., and
Nyberg, P. (1982) "Associations between grab sample and
integrated radon measurements in dwellings in Maine and Texas",
Environ. Int., 8:83-87.
KEYWORD: radon, field, sampling, home,track-etching, statistical,
water, seasonal
Radon concentrations were measured in several locations in each
of approximately 100 dwellings in central Maine and in Houston,
TX. Integrated samples were taken during the heating (or
cooling) seasons with commercially available passive alpha track
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devices, while grab samples were taken when integrated samplers
were deployed. Both indoor and outdoor measurements in both
areas were distributed lognormally, and the geometric mean of
indoor measurements in Maine was three times higher than that of
corresponding measurements in the Houston area. The mean of the
indoor grab sample measurements was not significantly different
from the mean of the indoor integrated measurements, and the
degree of correlation between the grab samples and a given indoor
integrated sample was nearly as good as between integrated
samples taken in different rooms.
0701
Prichard, H.M., Gesell, T.F., Hess, C.T., Weiffenbach, C., and
Nyberg, P. (1983) "Integrated radon data from dwellings in Maine
and Texas", Health Phys., 45:428-432.
KEYWORD: radon, home, field, distribution, source, architecture,
track-etching, monitor, statistical, seasonal
This report presents a preliminary analysis of radon-222 surveys
made in the summer and fall of 1980 in Houston, TX, and in the
late fall and winter of 1980-81 in several communities in central
Maine. Approximately 100 dwellings were surveyed in each area
during the season when houses are most likely to be closed to
control temperature. The primary objectives of the surveys were
to develop baseline data on the distribution of indoor radon
concentrations in the two areas, determine the extent of spatial
variations within dwellings, add to the understanding of source
mechanisms, and evaluate the utility and practicality of a number
of air sampling strategies. With the exception of four
previously sampled structures in Maine, the houses were selected
with no direct knowledge of the radon content of the indoor air.
The majority of the Maine houses had previously been involved in
a survey of radon-222 in drinking water, and an effort was made
to span the range of values noted in that project.
Questionnaires regarding a number of housing characteristics were
administered during instrument deployment, the results of which
will be used in subsequent analyses of the primary data presented
here.
0714
Purcell, Gary G. and Harper, Jerome P. (1986) "Studies on energy
conservation and indoor air quality sponsored by electric
utilities", Paper no. 86-5.1, presented at the 79th annual
meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (9 pages).
KEYWORD: activity, literature, methodology, ventilation, energy,
radon, monitor, home, office, research
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The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and various electric
utilities are investigating indoor air quality impacts of energy
conservation practices. The studies generally measure indoor air
quality, air infiltration, and, to a limited extent, occupant
activities; and involve anywhere from a few to several hundred or
more residential or commercial structures. Some utility-
sponsored studies have focused on a single pollutant such as
radon, whereas others have addressed many pollutants as well as
ventilation related parameters. A number of studies have used
passive monitors to maximize the spatial representation but have
also monitored more intensively in subsets of buildings. Such
studies have contributed knowledge that is needed to better
understand local and regional variations in indoor radon
concentrations. Several ongoing field studies have explicitly
incorporated the effects of home weatherization. To help compare
results and arrive at more general conclusions, EPRI has actively
promoted data base integration through developments such as the
concentration-of-indoor pollutants (CIP) data base.
0403
Put, L.W., DeMeijer, R.J., and Hogeweg, B. (1985) "Survey of
radon concentrations in Dutch dwellings", Sci. Total Environ.,
45:441-448.
KEYWORD: radon, home, exposure, source, architecture, foreign,
field, Netherlands
A survey of radon concentrations in dwellings in The Netherlands
reveals a median value of 24 Becquerels (Bq)/m3, with no
excessively high values. Correlations between radon
concentration and combinations of building parameters are
discussed in terms of the various sources of indoor radon.
0052
Pyman, Mark (1981) "Levels of carbon monoxide experienced cycling
in central London", National Society for Clean Air, Clean Air, 1:
11.
KEYWORD: CO, field, exposure, vehicle, bicycle, foreign, Britain,
outdoor, weather, temperature, QA
A continuous CO analyzer (Ecolyzer 2100) was mounted on the rear
carrier of a bicycle that traveled the same route in London,
England, on a number of commutes from April to June 1980. No
correlation was found between CO levels and wind, rain, dust, or
temperature levels, but CO was clearly related to traffic volume.
In addition, CO levels were generally higher after the evening
rush hour than before the morning rush hour. The maximum CO
259
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readings occasionally exceeded 100 ppm, the upper limit of the
monitor. On four dates, the morning CO inbound trip averages
were 21 ppm, 7.5 ppm, 8.5 ppm, and 16 ppm; the corresponding
evening outbound trip averages were 15 ppm, 14 ppm, 15 ppm, and
11 ppm. Bicyclists probably are exposed to similar levels of CO
as are car occupants.
0717
Quackenboss, J.J., Spengler, J.D., Kanarek, M.S., Letz, R., and
Duffy, C.P. (1986) "Personal exposure to nitrogen dioxide:
relationship to indoor/outdoor air quality and activity
patterns", Environ. Sci. Technol., 20(8) :775-783.
KEYWORD: N02, combustion, source, monitoring,seasonal, outdoor,
personal, exposure, appliance
Personal NO2 exposures and indoor and outdoor concentrations were
measured for nearly 350 individuals in the Portage, WI area.
Concentrations in homes with gas stoves averaged 18 ug/m3 higher
in summer (median indoor/outdoor ratio 2.4) and 36 ug/m3 (median
indoor/outdoor ratio 3.2) higher in winter than outdoor levels.
Personal exposures were closely related to indoor averages for
households with gas stoves (r = 0.85 summer, r = 0.87 winter) and
with electric stoves (r = 0.68 summer, r = 0.61 winter); more
than 65% of the average day was spent at home, while about 15%
was spent outdoors in summer and less than 5% in winter. The
association between personal exposure and outdoor levels of N02
was weakest during the winter for both gas (r = 0.20) and
electric (r = 0.28) stove groups. Exposures and time allocations
indicate that there was a wide range of variability in personal
exposure to NO2 that may not be adequately accounted for by
simple stratifications based on cooking fuel type.
0344
Quackenboss, J.J., Kanarek, M.S., Kaarakka, P., Duffy, C.P.,
Flickinger, J., and Turner, W.A. (1984) "Residential indoor air
quality, structural leakage and occupant activities for 50
Wisconsin homes", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J.,
Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 5, buildings, ventilation and thermal
climate", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
411-420. NTIS PB85-104222.
KEYWORD: radon, CH20, particulate, N02, home, sampling, energy,
CO, ventilation, exposure, source, architecture, activity
As part of an investigation into the influence of a residential
weatherization program on indoor air quality and energy
efficiency, a multipollutant survey of the air inside 50
Wisconsin homes was conducted three times during the heating
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season of 1982-83. Air infiltration, structural leakiness, and
the presence and use patterns of indoor air pollutant sources
during the same period were measured. Measurements included
integrated sampling for N02, respirable-sized particulates,
radon, formaldehyde, and CO. Air infiltration rates were
measured using a constant-emission sulfur hexafluoride method;
structural leakage area was determined using the fan
pressurization ("blower door") technique. Residents recorded use
of stove and exhaust fan during each sampling period. Resident
activities related to other pollutant sources or intentional
ventilation were also recorded. Future data analyses will
include a mathematical model of the measured parameters.
0034
Quackenboss, J.J., Kanarek, M.S., Spengler, J.D., and Letz, R.
(1982) "Personal exposure monitoring for nitrogen dioxide
exposure: methodological considerations for a community study",
Environ. Int., 8:249-258.
KEYWORD: NO2,field,personal,exposure, monitor,source, combustion,
methodology, activity, microenvironment, model, appliance
Personal exposure to N02 and time spent in various locations were
measured for 66 family members from 19 homes in the Portage, WI,
area during March 1981. Passive diffusion N02 monitors were
placed outdoors, in the kitchen, and in one bedroom on each floor
of the homes, and were worn by family members. Individuals from
gas-cooking homes had significantly higher average N02 exposures
than those from homes using electricity for cooking (mean
difference 19.37 ug/m3). In both groups, personal exposures were
more closely related to bedroom levels than to kitchen, outdoor,
and ambient levels, and also to the proportion of time spent in
different locations. These models are capable of explaining
nearly 90% of the variation about the mean personal exposure.
0196
Quant, F.R., Nelson, P.A., and Sem, G.J. (1982) "Experimental
measurements of aerosol concentrations in offices" Environ. Int.,
8:223-227.
KEYWORD: particulate,aerosol,monitoring,office, odor, methodology,
QA, office
A new automated version of the piezoelectric microbalance
measures the mass concentration of airborne particles. It is
designed for near-real-time, unattended, round-the-clock
measurements. Measurements comparing within +/~ 15% with
gravimetrically measured filter samples are documented for a wide
variety of aerosols in the 50 ug/m3 to 5.5 mg/m3 range. The
261
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instrument measures particle diameters from 10 um down to 0.01
urn, including submicron combustion smokes and metallic fumes.
The piezobalance, with 1 L/min sample flow, is more sensitive
than any other mass-sensing instrument, making it especially
suited for measuring low indoor concentrations, even below 50
ug/m3.
0542
Que Hee, Shane S., et al. (1985) "Evolution of efficient methods
to sample lead sources, such as house dust and hand dust, in the
homes of children11, Environ. Res. 38:77-95.
KEYWORD: Pb, particulate, dermal, QA, home,methodology, exposure,
field, sampling, biomonitoring, children
Efficient sampling methods to recover Pb-containing house dust
and hand dust have been evolved so that sufficient Pb is
collected for analysis, thus ensuring that correlational analyses
linking these two parameters to blood Pb are not dependent on the
efficiency of sampling. Precise collection of loose dust from a
1-unit area (484 cm2) with a Tygon or stainless steel sampling
tube connected to a portable sampling pump (1.2 to 2.5
liters/minute) required three sampling periods. The Tygon tube
sampling technique for loose house dust less than 177 um in
diameter was about 72% efficient with respect to dust weight and
Pb collection. A representative house dust contained 81% of its
total weight in this fraction. A single handwipe for applied
loose hand dust was not efficient or precise enough, and at least
three wipes were necessary to recover greater than 80% of the Pb
applied. House dusts of different particle sizes smaller than
246 um adhered equally well to hands. Analysis of Pb-containing
material usually required at least three digestions/decantations
using hot plate or microwave techniques to allow recovering at
least 90% of the Pb. The authors recommended that other
investigators validate their hand-wiping, house-dust-sampling,
and digestion techniques to facilitate comparison of results
among studies. The final methodology for the Cincinnati, OH,
longitudinal study was three sampling passes for surface dust
using a stainless steel sampling tube; three microwave
digestions/decantations for analysis of dust and paint; and three
wipes with hand wipes with one digestion/decantation for the
analysis of six handwipes together.
0327
Rabinowitz, M., Leviton, A., Needleman, H., Bellinger, D., and
Waternaux, C. (1985) "Environmental correlates of infant blood
lead levels in Boston", Environ. Res., 38:96-107.
KEYWORD: Pb, particulate,water,children, seasonal, paint, source,
biomonitoring, model
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From a blood Pb survey of 11,837 births, 249 newborns were
enrolled in a 2-year, longitudinal study. Their blood leads
(PbB) were measured semiannually, and their homes were visited
for repeated collections of dust, soil, indoor air, tap water,
and paint. Recent refinishing activity and the sizes of nearby
streets were recorded. Overall mean PbB was 7.2
micrograms/deciliter at birth. PbB did not vary systematically
with age. Each subject's average postnatal PbB correlated highly
with the amount of Pb in dust and soil, and with Pb in paint.
Dust, soil, and air lead levels correlated with one another.
Refinishing activity in the presence of lead paint was associated
with elevations of PbB. Water Pb, nearby traffic, weight of
recovered dust, race, maternal age, education, and sex were not
predictive of PbB. Multivariate models of PbB were constructed
that become increasingly predictive with age. Indoor dust Pb,
soil Pb, refinishing activity, and season were the independent
variables.
0657
Rabinowitz, M., Needleman, H., Burley, M., Finch, H., and Rees,
J. (1984) "Lead in umbilical blood, indoor air, tap water, and
gasoline in Boston", Arch. Environ. Health, 39(4):299-301.
KEYWORD: Pb, biomonitoring, exposure, water, statistical, source,
children, control, food, gasoline, outdoor, sampling,seasonal
A strong statistical correlation was found among the monthly
averages of Pb concentration in umbilical cord blood (about 500
births/month), indoor air (12 sites/month), and gasoline sales
between March 1980 and April 1981 in Boston, MA. Tap water Pb
did not correlate with blood Pb. A Dupont Personal Air Sampler
and Millipore disc filter was used in the room where the baby
spent most of the day. Water was sampled from the kitchen tap
after a 4-liter flush. Averaging methods for taking umbilical
blood samples and measuring alkyl lead (for gasoline) sold in
Massachusetts are described. Control and regulation Pb added to
gasoline are discussed.
0111
Raman, V., Rai, J., Singh, M., and Parashar, D.C. (Aug. 1984)
"Determination of SO2 by fixation as morpholine adduct",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal exposure", Swedish
Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 233-238. NTIS PB85-
104214.
KEYWORD: S02, laboratory, methodology, QA
263
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S02/sulfite is trapped in morpholine solution to give a stable
adduct that, when treated with pararosaniline hydrochloride and
formaldehyde solutions, yields a violet color with an adsorption
maximum at 560 mm. The method avoids the use of mercuric salts
and is as sensitive as the West-Gaeke method; SO2 levels as low
as 25 ppb can be estimated.
0754
Rank, P., Wesolowski, J.J., and Lyman, D.O. (1984) "Indoor air
pollution: why a physician should care", CA/DOH/AIHL/R-255,
California Department of Health Services, Berkeley, CA 94704 (10
pages).
KEYWORD: control,health, home, combustion, CO, CH20, N02, smoke,
ventilation
This report is intended to alert physicians to the importance of
indoor air as a health problem and to suggest that in some cases
a "diagnosis" can be made and corrective measures recommended.
The report discusses CO, formaldehyde, NO2, and tobacco smoke to
illustrate simple approaches to ascertain that a problem exists
and to do something about it.
0404
Rannou, A., Madelmont, C., and Renouard, H. (1985) "Survey of
natural radiation in France", Sci. Total Environ., 45:467-474.
KEYWORD: radiation, source, outdoor, foreign, exposure, radon,
methodology, field, France
Natural radiation has been surveyed in France since 1981. The
components resulting from external sources (ground and building
materials) are assessed using thermoluminescent dosimeters. The
internal exposure to radon-222 and the potential alpha energy due
to radon daughters are estimated, by passive track detectors in
the first case and active dosimeters in the second one. This
paper presents the French program methods and results with an
analysis of the observed levels.
0614
Rao, M.V.R. Koteswara (1986) "Approaches to air pollution
monitoring and control in submarines", Hochheiser, S., and
Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds., "Proceedings of the 1986 EPA/APCA
symposium on the measurement of toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-
86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, pp. 95-103. Not yet available
from NTIS. ( In press, Air Pollution Control Association, P.O.
Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230.)
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KEYWORD: exposure,source,SbH3,CO2,VOC,foreign,SO2,CO,methodology,
ventilation,control,mercaptan,India,hydrocarbon,submarine,Cl,NO
While assessing the air quality in submarines, researchers in
Bombay, India, prepared and calibrated chemical detector tubes.
Samples were taken for chlorine, stibine (SbH3), mercaptans,
sulfur acid aerosol, and NO. The usefulness of the adsorbents
(e.g., activated carbon and molecular sieves) is also discussed.
All these measuring devices and adsorbent columns help to
establish maximum allowable concentrations for toxic gases and
vapors generated in closed submarine chambers while under water.
0335
Reed, Charles E., and Swanson, Mark C. (1986) "Indoor allergens:
identification and quantification", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):115-
120.
KEYWORD: particulate, allergen, outdoor, control, exposure, VOC,
laboratory, health, methodology
A large number of allergens occur in the air of the home and many
work sites. Almost any organic dust or volatile chemical
reactive with proteins can cause allergic respiratory diseases:
allergic rhinitis, asthma, and hypersensitivity pneumonitis
(extrinsic allergic alveolitis). If the exposure continues
several years after the disease begins, there may be permanent
disability; therefore, recognition and control of exposure are
important. Techniques now exist to sample the particulate
antigens suspended in the air and assay them by sensitive
immunochemical methods.
0405
Reineking, A., Becker, K.H., and Forstenderfer, J. (1985)
"Measurements of the unattached fraction of radon daughters in
houses", Sci. Total Environ., 45:261-270.
KEYWORD: radon, particulate, foreign,smoking,home,model,exposure,
source, Germany, ventilation
The influence of particle concentrations on the activity
concentrations of the attached and unattached short-lived radon
daughters was determined in rooms of houses in southern Germany.
Radon activity concentrations ranged between 150 and 900
Becquerels/m3. Particle concentrations and the unattached
fraction were measured in poorly and moderately ventilated rooms.
Rooms with higher particle concentrations or with larger particle
sizes due to special aerosol sources (cigarette smoke, cooking,
stove heating) had the lowest concentrations of unattached radon
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daughters. In a second part, the attached rate, the plateout
rates, and the average attachment diameters of the room aerosols
were derived from the measured data by model calculations.
0338
Reinert, Joseph C. (1984) "Pesticides in the indoor environment",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 1, recent advances in the health sciences and technology",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 233-238.
NTIS PB85-104180.
KEYWORD: pesticide, exposure, literature, health, home, EPA$
The classes of pesticides most commonly used in the indoor
domestic environment are characterized, and the annual use of the
most frequently used active ingredients is estimated. The
information available on observed indoor air levels of pesticides
is summarized. Pesticide poisoning incidents in the home are
discussed, and current activities in EPA's Office of Pesticide
Programs relating to the indoor use of pesticides are described.
0069
Repace, J.L., and Lowrey, A.H. (1982) "Tobacco smoke,
ventilation, and indoor air quality", Am. Soc. Heat. Refrig.
Air Cond. Eng. Trans. 88 (Part 1):895-914.
KEYWORD: particulate, literature, smoking, combustion, source,
ventilation, EPA$, office, aircraft
Factors determining concentrations of tobacco smoke are
investigated in a dinner theater, reception hall, and church
bingo hall. The predictions of a model using ventilation rates
specified by the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and
Air Conditioning Engineers as surrogates for effective
ventilation rates are found to be close to measured values of
respirable particulates. The effect of mixing on removal of
point-source generated tobacco smoke is examined in a computer
office building; circulating fans are found to approximate a
volume-diffused source very well. Little difference is found
among the decay rates of particulates from cigarettes, cigars,
and pipes. Pollutant concentrations from mainstream and
sidestream emissions of high- and low-tar cigarettes, cigars, and
pipes are contrasted. Emissions of CO from a large cigar are 30
times greater than those of an average cigarette, and, in a large
poorly ventilated office, exceed 9 ppm, the 8-hour National
Ambient Air Quality Standard for CO within 20 minutes. Smoking
on passenger aircraft is discussed.
266
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0086
Repace, J.L., Lowrey, A.H. (1985) "A qualitative estimate of
nonsmokers1 lung cancer risk from passive smoking", Environ.
Int., 11:3-22.
KEYWORD: risk, distribution, exposure, lung, health, smoking,
EPA$
Nonsmokers1 risks of lung cancer from passive smoking are
estimated. According to these preliminary estimates, U.S.
nonsmokers are exposed to 0 to 14 mg tobacco tar/day, and the
typical nonsmoker is exposed to 1.4 mg/day. An exposure-response
relationship is derived, yielding five lung cancer
deaths/year/100,000 persons exposed/mg daily tar exposure. This
relationship yields lung cancer mortality rates and mortality
ratios for a U.S. cohort which are within 5% of the results of
the large prospective epidemiological studies of passive smoking
and lung cancer in the United States and Japan. Aggregate
exposure to ambient tobacco smoke is estimated to produce about
5,000 lung cancer deaths per year in U.S. nonsmokers aged up to
35 years, with an average loss of life expectancy of 17 +/- 9
years/fatality. The estimated risk to the most-exposed passive
smokers appears to be comparable to that from pipe and cigar
smoking. Mortality from passive smoking is estimated to be about
two orders of magnitude higher than that estimated for
carcinogens currently regulated as hazardous air pollutants under
the Federal Clean Air Act.
0072
Repace, James L. (1983) "The dosimetry of passive smoking",
Forbes, William F., Frecker, Richard C., and Nostbak, Ken, Eds.
"Proceedings of the 5th world conference on smoking and health,
Winnipeg, Canada, 1983", Canadian Council on Smoking and Health,
Ottawa, Canada K1Z5G7, pp. 191-198.
KEYWORD: particulate, literature, smoking, health, dose, model,
EPA$
The public health community has been slow to recognize the risks
to the nonsmoker from breathing indoor air polluted by tobacco
smoke (so-called passive or involuntary smoking). Part of the
reason may lie in the historical lack of quantification of
nonsmokers1 exposures and doses. Studies designed to quantify
such exposures are reviewed, and a single-compartment model is
developed for translating daily exposure for nonsmokers into
doses of 5 to 160 mg of tobacco tar. The average U.S. nonsmoker
is estimated to have an equilibrium lung dose of 16 mg tobacco
tar. The U.S. Surgeon General has asserted that active smoking
is a major cause of cancers of many organs of the body, is
causally related to coronary heart disease, and is a leading
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contributory factor in respiratory disease mortality, and also
that there is no safe level of consumption. Thus, the modeled
doses from passive smoking, being well within the range of
exposure to active smoking, suggest that there is a good
foundation for the belief that indoor air polluted with tobacco
smoke poses a significant threat to the health of nonsmokers.
0071
Repace, James L., and Lowrey, Alfred (June 1983) "Modeling
exposure of nonsmokers to ambient tobacco smoke", Paper no. 83-
64.2, presented at the 76th annual meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (20
pages).
KEYWORD: particulate, model, smoking, exposure,epidemiology, EPA$
Exposure of the nonsmoking U.S. population to the particulate
phase of tobacco smoke in buildings has been modeled. The range
of exposure, modeled in earlier work, was estimated to be 0 to 14
mg of tobacco tar/day. This work estimates that the average U.S.
nonsmoker of working age receives an exposure of 1.4 mg/day, a
weighted average taken over exposures encountered both at home
and at work. The ratio of workplace dose to the dose received at
home is nearly 4:1, indicating that, on the average, the
workplace is a more important source of exposure than the home
environment. Such estimates of exposure should prove useful for
assessing exposure in epidemiological studies of passive smoking,
for assessing carcinogenic risk, and for estimating total
population exposed in epidemiological studies of the health
effects of particulate air pollution.
0066
Repace, James L. (1981) "The problem of passive smoking", Bull.
N.Y. Acad. Med., Ser. 2, 57(10):936-946.
KEYWORD: particulate, health, ventilation, exposure, literature,
control, smoking, EPA$
Within the past 2 years, substantial new evidence concerning the
adverse health effects of passive smoking has emerged. Well-
known health effects of smoking may be suffered by nonsmokers who
breathe air contaminated with tobacco smoke. Concentrations of
tobacco smoke indoors are directly proportional to smoke density
and inversely proportional to the effective ventilation rate.
Attempts to control smoking by ventilation are futile, requiring
quite uneconomical ventilation rates, and are contrary to the
current trend toward energy conservation in buildings. Other
ways to reduce the source are more effective.
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0152
Repace, James L. (1985) "Passive smoking has no place in the
workplace", Can. Med. Assoc. J., 133:737-738.
KEYWORD: health, smoking, risk, ventilation, lung, EPA$, control
Quantitative risk assessment is used to calculate the number of
cancer deaths per year attributable to passive smoking in the
workplace. The risk to nonsmokers is not reduced by ventilation
systems that recirculate the smoke. The only ways to reduce the
risk of passive smoking to an acceptable level may be to either
separate smokers and nonsmokers into areas with different
ventilation systems or ban smoking in the workplace. Examples
are given of employers who have banned smoking or limited smoking
to a few areas.
0064
Repace, James L., and Lowrey, Alfred H. (1980) "Indoor air
pollution, tobacco smoke, and public health", Science, 208:464-
472.
KEYWORD: particulate, literature, exposure, model, smoking, EPA$
An experimental and theoretical investigation is made into the
range and nature of the exposure of the nonsmoking public to
respirable suspended particulates from cigarette smoke. Observed
levels of particulates correlated with the predictions of a model
incorporating both physical and sociological parameters.
Nonsmokers are exposed to significant air pollution burdens from
indoor smoking. Public health policy implications are assessed.
0137
Repace, James L., and Lowrey, Alfred H. (1985) "An indoor air
quality standard for ambient tobacco smoke based on carcinogenic
risk", N.Y. State J. Med., 85:381-383.
KEYWORD: health, lung, control, smoking, ventilation, EPA$, risk,
office
An indoor air quality standard for ambient tobacco smoke in U.S.
workplaces is derived based on limiting involuntary carcinogenic
risk to nonsmokers to the maximum level considered acceptable by
Federal regulatory agencies for environmental carcinogens in air,
water, or food. This risk level corresponds to a l-in-100,000
chance of contracting fatal lung cancer in a working lifetime of
40 years. To achieve acceptable risk, the daily average air
concentration of tobacco for a typical office must not be more
than 0.75 ug/m3. At typical smoking occupancies for an office
269
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environment, achieving this standard would require impractical
amounts of ventilation or prohibitive costs for air-cleaning
equipment. It appears that the only practical control measures
are to put smokers and nonsmokers on different ventilation
systems, or to ban smoking in the workplace.
0065
Repace, J.L., Ott, W.R., and Wallace, L.A. (June 1980) "Total
human exposure to air pollution", Paper no. 80.61.6, presented at
the 73rd annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (26 pages).
KEYWORD: particulate, CO, literature, personal, exposure, monitor,
microenvironment, activity, vehicle, interior, EPA$
The concept of total human exposure to air pollution is defined
theoretically as the time-weighted sum of concentrations of air
pollutants encountered in the microenvironments through which
people progress in their daily activities. Only by personal
monitoring of air pollutants, coupled with time-budget studies,
can total air pollution exposures be assessed. Experimental data
using personal exposure monitors for respirable particulates and
CO are presented to show the efficacy of this technique. The
importance of indoor and in-transit exposures relative to outdoor
exposures is shown for the first time. Time-resolved personal
exposures to CO and respirable particulates indicate that some
individuals encounter the greatest contributions from in-transit
and indoor microenvironments, and suggest a general population
trend that needs further investigation. The relative merits of
various types of personal monitors are discussed.
0559
Repace, J.L., and Lowrey, A.H. (1986) "A rebuttal to criticism of
a quantitative estimate of nonsmokers1 lung cancer risk from
passive smoking", Environ. Int., 12 (1-4) :33-38.
KEYWORD: smoking, methodology, exposure, risk,
statistical, demographic, literature, EPA$
health, lung,
In letters to and an article in this journal (BLIS #556, #557,
and #558) , Johnson, Burch, and Kilpatrick have suggested,
respectively, that (1) nonsmokers may not be exposed to
sufficient smoke to cause disease, (2) tobacco smoke may not
cause lung cancer in smokers, (3) the domestic exposure
assessment is overestimated, and (4)
requires the physical presence of an
exposure of a nonsmoker
active smoker for the
duration of the exposure, each of which, in their view, casts
doubt upon the risk assessment. In general, this criticism
overlooks the empirical consistency of the methodology that first
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attempts both to provide a framework for understanding
concentrations of tobacco smoke observed under natural
conditions, and to elucidate factors affecting nonsmokers1
exposures. This work was then used to interpret the growing body
of epidemiological and biochemical evidence that exposure to the
carcinogenic by-products of tobacco combustion at environmental
concentrations creates a significant risk of lung cancer. To
assess the level of uncertainty in their calculations, Repace and
Lowrey repeatedly show that their estimates of exposure and
response are consistent with empirical data.
0070
Repace, James L. (1982) "Indoor air pollution", Environ. Int.,
8:21-36.
KEYWORD: particulate, literature, regulation, health, EPA$
As national trends accelerate toward reducing ventilation and
infiltration rates in buildings and as use of synthetic chemicals
in the indoor environments increases, a new phenomenon has
arisen: the "sick building" syndrome. A comprehensive approach
to indoor air pollution is necessary to protect public health,
because traditional approaches to environmental health developed
for outdoor air or industrial settings are inadequate to deal
with this problem.
0068
Repace, James L. (1985) "Risks of passive smoking", Gibson, Mary,
Ed., "To breathe freely: risk, consent, and air", Rowman and
Slanheld, Totowa, NJ 07512, pp. 3-30.
KEYWORD: particulate, regulation, literature, smoking, risk, EPA$
Risks to nonsmokers from breathing indoor air pollution from
tobacco smoke are discussed from medical, legal, social,
historical, and philosophical points of view. Problems
encountered by nonsmokers who are hypersensitive to tobacco smoke
are contrasted with chronic risks to normal smokers. Ambient
tobacco smoke is compared to hazardous outdoor air pollutants and
products of other regulated activities. Failure to regulate
indoor smoking will invite increasing confrontation and social
dissension among nonsmokers, smokers, and employers, since
nonsmokers1 right to clean indoor air is morally superior to the
smokers' right to pollute.
0317
Ressl, Robert A., and Ponder, Thomas, Jr. (1985) "Field
experience with four portable VOC monitors", U.S. EPA,
271
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Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, NC 27711 (66 pages). NTIS PB85-165496/AS.
KEYWORD: VOC, personal, exposure, monitor, methodology, QA, EPA$
This report discusses the field operation problems associated
with using four portable volatile organic compound (VOC)
instruments in conducting Reference Method 21 VOC screenings.
Information on operational problems and recommendations is
provided. Also included are discussions of the features that
would make all portable instruments more reliable, durable, or
convenient to use. Three of the instruments report similar leak
rates in the facility where they were used.
0594
Riggin, Ralph M., and Petersen, Bruce A. (1985) "Sampling and
analysis methodology for semivolatile and nonvolatile organic
compounds in air", Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A.,
Eds., "Indoor air and human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O.
Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 351-359.
KEYWORD: PAH, VOC, PCB, dioxin, methodology,QA,research,sampling,
monitoring,exposure,laboratory,pesticide,personal
In the choice of sampling and analysis methods for organic
compounds, volatility is a prime consideration. Operationally,
compounds can be classified as volatile, semivolatile, and
nonvolatile. Chemical reactivity, photochemical reactivity, and
data quality requirements must also be considered. Powerful new
methods are available for the polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons,
polychlorinated biphenyls, pesticides, and dioxins. Urgent
research and development needs include studies of sampling
systems for indoor use, pollutant interactions, personal exposure
monitors, and quality control for sampling adsorbents.
0146
Riordan, Courtney (1984) "Human exposure to environmental
pollutants", J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol., 21(l&2):l-8.
KEYWORD: CO, VOC, TEAM, model, personal, exposure, monitor, EPA$
A brief synopsis of the current state of human exposure
assessment is presented. EPA research programs on (1) modeling
of component exposures and human activities and (2) actual human
exposure measurements are highlighted. The EPA-funded field
study of CO exposures of people in Washington, DC, and Denver,
CO, is an example of studies of this type that allow validation
of methods, models, and technologies as well as provide exposure
data. The Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) program's
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measurement of volatile organic compounds using personal exposure
monitors is discussed.
0440
Ritchie, I.M., and Lehnen, R.G. (1985) "An analysis of
formaldehyde concentrations in mobile and conventional homes", J.
Environ. Health, 47:300-305.
KEYWORD: CH2O, exposure,home,odor,source, seasonal, architecture,
statistical
This paper explores the factors affecting observed formaldehyde
(CH20) concentrations in a retrospective study of 397 mobile and
489 conventional homes. Three classes of variables were analyzed
for relationships to observed CH2O levels: structural
characteristics of the dwelling, environmental characteristics,
and social characteristics. CH2O concentrations in all homes
ranged from the limit of detection (0.01 ppm) to 5.52 ppm.
Mobile homes on the average had consistently higher CH20
concentrations than conventional homes. About 54% of mobile
homes (compared to only 8% of conventional homes) had
concentrations greater than 0.03 ppm, which is one-tenth of the
current time-weighted, 8-hour concentration allowable in the
workplace. Manufacture methods, age of home, month of sampling,
and the presence of odor were statistically significant variables
associated with higher CH2O concentrations in mobile homes. The
statistically significant variables in conventional homes were
age of home, month of sampling, and presence of odor. Urea-
formaldehyde foam insulation and remodeling were not
significantly associated with higher CH20 concentrations in
conventional homes.
0096
Ritchie, I.M., and Arnold, F.C. (Aug. 1984) "Characterization of
residential air pollution from unvented kerosene heaters",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal exposure", Swedish
Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 253-258. NTIS PB85-
104214.
KEYWORD: SO2, NO, NO2, model, kerosene, source, home, appliance,
exposure
The study investigated the generation of pollutants from unvented
kerosene convective and radiant heaters in a residence. Measured
concentrations of CO were low during a 3-month period. However,
concentrations of SO2, NO, N02, and C02 reached or exceeded
levels recommended for indoor air. Further, using a semi-open
door to provide ventilation did not reduce concentrations of
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pollutants to acceptable levels. A comparison based on mass
balance modeling is also presented.
0261
Rivers, R.D. (Jan. 1982) "Predicting particulate air quality in
recirculatory ventilation systems". In: "Proceedings of the
semiannual symposium of the American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers", ASHRAE, 1791
Tullie Circle N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329, p. 929.
KEYWORD: particulate, ventilation, outdoor, control, method,model
Systems parameters (such as airflow rates, internal contaminant
generation rates, outdoor air quality, and filter efficiency) are
given reasonable values and used to predict indoor air quality.
A calculation scheme applicable to a wide range of system
configurations and operating conditions is also presented. Two
general types of systems are considered: one with no parallel
flows and those with parallel airflows and multiple zones. Mass
balance equations are provided for both. Other factors
considered in the calculations of air quality are particle size
distributions, outdoor dust concentrations, and vertical
distribution of dust concentrations. Penetration vs. particle
diameter and dust-loading characteristics of air cleaners are
examined briefly.
0469
Roessler, C.E., Roessler, G.S., and Bolch, W.E. (1983) "Indoor
radon progeny exposure in the Florida phosphate mining region: a
review", Health Phys., 45(2):389-396.
KEYWORD: radon, indoor, distribution, source, risk, literature,
control, architecture
This paper reviews the data on land radioactivity and indoor
airborne radon progeny associated with mined and reclaimed
phosphate lands in Florida. Highest indoor radon progeny levels
are associated with the slab-on-grade type of construction.
Concentrations exceeding 0.03 working level (WL) are associated
with overburden soils, deposits, and fill, while concentrations
up to about 0.03 WL are associated with tailings. The lower
limit for distinguishing increases above nonenhanced natural
concentrations is on the order of 0.01 to 0.02 WL. This study
shows that about 25% of the land produced by present methods of
mining and reclamation practices would require restrictions on
the type of construction or would require special construction
methods. The authors suggest that, with modification of mining
and tailings disposal practices, virtually all land produced by
mining and reclamation would be satisfactory for unrestricted
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construction use.
0164
Rogozen, Michael B. (1982) "Dynamic simulation of radon daughter
concentrations in apartments using solar rockbed heat storage",
Environ. Int., 8:89-96.
KEYWORD: radon, model, energy, home, architecture, weather
In solar rockbed storage systems, heat is transferred during the
day from the collector to a bed of pebbles and released at night
to warm the living area. When the rocks used for storage contain
significant concentrations of uranium, radon-222 and its
daughters may be released to the living area. A microcomputer
model was used to simulate variations in air filtration rate and
source strength through several days of operation. Source
strengths were estimated from theoretical considerations and
literature data. Resulting Rn-222 and daughter concentrations
were computed by solving system equations by fourth-order Runge-
Kutta integration. During the day, when the living area is
isolated from the radon source, interior Rn-222 concentrations
approach those of the outdoors. A nighttime steady-state
concentration is approached about 6 hours after heat discharge
begins. Due to the dynamic nature of the simulation, equilibrium
between Rn-222 and its daughters is not reached. Time-weighted
average nighttime exposures (6 p.m. to 8 a.m.) for 10 simulation
runs varied from 0.001 to 0.018 working level (WL). Comparison
with one set of measurements tended to overpredict concentrations
but to approximate well the Rn-222 buildup rate.
0694
Rose, Vernon E., and Perkins, Jimmy L. (1982) "Passive dosimetry
state-of-the-art review", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 43(8):605-621.
KEYWORD: literature, CO, NO2, SO2, monitor,CH2O, methodology, QA,
laboratory, field, sampling
The history of the development and validation testing of passive
dosimeters is reviewed. Theoretical considerations, including
possible limiting factors or interferences, are presented.
Laboratory and field validation tests critically are reviewed and
results are presented for comparative purposes. The available
data indicate that passive dosimetry, with some exceptions, is an
acceptable method for monitoring gases and vapors. Most
importantly, passive systems appear to be as reliable as the
Accepted active sampling systems.
275
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0626
Ross, Howard, and Berg, David, Eds. (1981) "Workshop on indoor
air quality research needs", U.S. EPA and and U.S. Department
of Energy, Interagency Research Group on Indoor Air Quality,
Washington, DC (199 pages). NTIS DE81-026488.
KEYWORD: multipollutant, EPA$, VOC,exposure methodology,personal,
health, control, economic, monitor, model, radon, research
The Workshop on Indoor Air Quality Research Needs, held in
December 1980 in Leesburg, VA, was intended to (1) define a
research agenda focused on pollutants, sources, measurement
methods and instruments, controls, and risks; (2) complete a
review of the knowledge base; (3) complete an inventory of recent
and ongoing research; and (4) comment on a research strategy.
Four technical sessions covered the areas of monitoring,
instrumentation, health effects, and controls. Two plenary
sessions covered risk assessment and radon. The report includes
appendices on selecting a dust monitor, the state of the art in
organic vapor monitoring, and research recommendations for
monitoring indoor air quality.
0289
Rowe, D.R., Nouh, M.A., Al-Dhowalia, K.H., and Mansour, M.E.
(Jan. 1985) "Indoor-outdoor relationship of suspended particulate
matter in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.,
35(1):24-26.
KEYWORD: particulate, outdoor, regulation, foreign, Saudi Arabia,
field
Total suspended particulates (TSP) and inhalable particulates
(IP) were measured indoors and outdoors in the engineering
laboratories in the College of Engineering at King Saud
University in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The sampling devices and
methods are described. Average TSP outdoors was 662 ug/m3, the
indoor average was 167 ug/m3, and the average indoor-outdoor
ratio was 0.25. The average number of outdoor IP (less than 10
urn in diameter) was 137 ug/m3, the indoor average was 78 ug/m2,
and the average indoor-outdoor ratio was 0.59. The IP average
geometric mean diameter outdoors was 1.54 urn, while indoors it
was 1.33 um. Both indoor and outdoor exposures should be
considered in the establishment of air quality standards.
0291
Run, Carmen (Aug. 1984) "The indoor biocide pollution: occurrence
of pentachlorophenol and lindane in homes", Berglund, B.,
Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical
characterization and personal exposure", Swedish Council for
276
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Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 309-315. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: pesticide, lindane, sampling, particulate,biomonitoring,
PCP, home
Wood and household dust as well as blood of inhabitants were
analyzed for pentachlorophenol (PCP) and lindane to demonstrate
the indoor biocide pollution potential of these chemicals. More
than 90% of wood samples examined had PCP in the mg/kg range and
lindane levels in dust corresponded with the high percentage of
positive findings in wood samples. Whole blood values varied
from sub-ppb up to 110 mg/kg PCP.
0773
Russel, Michael A.H., and Lebowitz, Michael D. (1984) "Effects on
health of environmental tobacco smoke: work group results", Eur.
J. Respir. Dis., 65 (Supplement No. 133):140-142.
KEYWORD: source, particulate, risk,health,dose,research, smoking,
acrolein
The workgroup on health effects considered both known and
potential health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco
smoke. Animal research relating to cause and effect mechanisms
were discussed. An attempt was made to determine the certainty
of the present knowledge and the extent of the health problems
associated with tobacco smoke. The group examined acute effects
(headaches, annoyance, irritations, difficult breathing) and
chronic effects (allergic sensitization, cancer, coronary artery
disease). Potential risks—to pregnancy, to migraine sufferers—
is discussed. Future recommended recommended included other
possible agents and confounding factors (microenvironmental,
social).
0093
Ryan, B.P., Spengler, J.D., and Letz, R. (1986) "Estimating
personal exposure to NO2", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):395-400.
KEYWORD: N02, microenvironment, model, exposure, distribution,
statistical, methodology
Results of several simulations of NO2 exposure are presented. A
Monte Carlo approach is taken in which the parameters of a
typical microenvironment model are selected from distributions
characterized by the means and variances of the parameters as
determined in field studies. Results indicate both the utility
of this technique for determining exposure distributions and the
potential for misclassification of individuals in categories with
overlapping distributions.
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0454
Ryan, P.B., Spengler, J.D., and Letz, R. (1983) "The effects of
kerosene heaters on indoor pollutant concentrations: a monitoring
and modeling study", Atmos. Environ., 17(7):1339-1345.
KEYWORD: NO2, SO2, home, model, combustion, source, field,
monitoring, kerosene, appliance
The increased use of kerosene heaters as a supplementary heat
source is providing a new source of indoor air pollutants. By-
products of kerosene combustion (including NO2 and SO2) are
typically found in residences using these appliances. A two-
phase study was undertaken, which included both monitoring in the
field and modeling. Monitoring for N02 (using passive diffusion
samplers) showed indoor concentrations that ranged from 50 to 300
ug/m3 in buildings using kerosene heaters and no other open
combustion sources. Modeling of both NO2 and S02 concentrations
and exposures suggests the possibility of having very high
pollutant concentrations in residences that are poorly ventilated
or have small-mixing volumes.
0165
Sachs, H.M., Hernandez, T.L., and Ring, J.W. (1982) "Regional
geology and radon variability in buildings", Environ. Int.,
8:97-103.
KEYWORD: radon, source, literature, ventilation, home
Radon concentrations in dwellings vary by more than two orders of
magnitude. Predicting where and when concentrations are likely
to be high requires studying the variability of the contributors
to radon in buildings. Among common sources, geological factors
(water supply and substrate) are the most variable, whereas
building materials are much less variable. Ventilation variation
among houses is generally responsible for radon variations
comparable to those introduced by building materials. However,
ventilation variation is more significant at lower ventilation
rates. In some regions with relatively high proportions of
houses with elevated radon concentrations, mappable geological
factors are associated with most cases of high radon
concentrations. However, a priori identification of rock types
likely to be implicated is unlikely to succeed.
0537
Saffiotti, U., et al. (1965) "Experimental studies of the
conditions of exposure to carcinogens for lung cancer induction",
J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 15(l):23-25.
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KEYWORD: health, particulate, benzo-a-pyrene, exposure, dose,
lung
An experimental method is described for inducing lung cancer in
Syrian golden hamsters. Repeated intratracheal administrations
were made consisting of benzo(a)pyrene in particulate form
carried by an inert dust. A high incidence of bronchogenic
carcinoma developed. The conditions of exposure to the
carcinogen (involving penetration and retention of carcinogenic
particles in lung tissues with the dust) are of prime importance
in accurately determining the results. Instilling the same
carcinogenic particles via other media did not induce lung
tumors. The relative importance of identifying carcinogenic
materials in air and the conditions of exposure in the origin of
lung cancer are discussed.
0184
Schenker, M.B., Weiss, S.T., and Murawski, B.J. (1982) "Health
effects of residence in homes with urea formaldehyde foam
insulation: a pilot study", Environ. Int., 8:359-363.
KEYWORD: CH2O, health, source, methodology, architecture, home
The 24 full-time residents from six homes with urea-formaldehyde
foam insulation underwent standardized allergy, respiratory, and
neuropsychiatric tests. Skin testing did not reveal an increased
prevalence of sensitivity, atopy, or reaction to 4% formalin.
Pulmonary reactions were normal in all subjects. Reported memory
problems could not be documented, but 11 of 14 subjects had
abnormal tests of attention span; 8 of the 11 had elevated
depression scores. Chronic low-level exposure to formaldehyde
may cause significant mental changes, but testing of a larger,
randomly selected population is necessary.
0406
Schmier, H., and Wicke, A. (1985) "Results from a survey of
indoor radon exposures in the Federal Republic of Germany", Sci.
Total Environ., 45:307-310.
KEYWORD: dose, outdoor, home, microenvironment, exposure, radon,
distribution, foreign, Germany, health, lung
A large-scale radon survey has been carried out in the Federal
Republic of Germany. The mean radon concentration was determined
with Karlsruhe-type nuclear track dosimeters. Results of
measurements in almost 6,000 arbitrarily selected homes are
briefly discussed. The radiation dose to the lung from radon and
its short-lived daughters contributes considerably to the
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effective dose equivalent from natural radiation exposure.
0517
Schutte, W.C., Cole, R.S., Frank, C.W., and Long, K.R. (1981)
"Problems associated with the use of urea-formaldehyde foam for
residential insulation, part III: residential studies in Colorado
and Wisconsin", U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Buildings
and Community Systems, Washington, DC 20585 (30 pages). NTIS
ORNLSUB 75593.
KEYWORD: CH2O, source, energy, field, home, health, architecture,
outdoor, weather
The Colorado/Wisconsin residential study was designed as a
preliminary study to (1) elucidate the severity and the extent of
formaldehyde emission under field conditions, (2) help correlate
laboratory findings with field observations, and (3) investigate
the cause-and-effect relationship between urea-formaldehyde-foam
stability and weather conditions in an area. Samples were
collected by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health double impinger method using the DuPont 4000 personal
sampler pumps and were analyzed by the chromotrophic acid method.
Field technicians interviewed occupants to obtain information on
the occupants; homes; insulation; odor; eye, throat, and nose
irritation; and humidity and temperature in homes and outdoors.
Information was also obtained on sky and traffic conditions.
0258
Sciocchetti, G., Scacco, F., Baldassini, P.G., Battella, C.,
Bovi, M. and Monte, L. (1985) "The Italian national survey of
radon exposure", Sci. Total Environ., 45:327-333.
KEYWORD: radon, home, exposure, distribution, source, foreign,
Italy, architecture, risk, control
An investigation is being developed to assess the indoor exposure
of the Italian population. The survey is organized by
statistical areas of sampling to obtain representative samples of
houses. The definition of the areas takes into account basic
parameters e.g. geolithological environments, radon soil gas from
underlying soils and rocks, specific activities of local building
materials, climatic and seasonal variations, building technology,
types of houses and town planning. The collected data may also
be used for the compilation of radon risk maps to plan special
monitoring and remedial actions if needed. Preliminary results
concerning the above items are discussed.
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0540
Scott, A.G. (1983) "The distribution of average radon daughter
concentrations in houses estimated from single-sample surveys",
Health Phys., 45(2):435-438.
KEYWORD: radon, distribution, sampling, design, exposure, field,
literature, foreign, Canada
Single-sample surveys have been used extensively since 1976 to
provide rapid estimates of the variation among communities
regarding radon and daughter concentrations in an effort to
determine the variability of concentrations within a community.
These surveys are also useful as a guide to selecting dwellings
for further investigation. By the end of 1981, at least 23
surveys of this type will have been completed in Canada.
0646
Scott, A.G., and Findlay, J.G. (July 1983) "Demonstration of
remedial techniques against radon in houses on Florida phosphate
lands", U.S. EPA, Office of Radiation Programs, Montgomerey, AL
36193 (193 pages). NTIS PB84-156157.
KEYWORD: radon, home, architecture, sampling,QA,control,exposure,
source, ventilation, economic
The natural radon content of the soil is elevated in some parts
of the Florida phosphate lands, resulting in elevated radon
concentrations in the soil gas. If building construction
provides routes of entry between the interior of the building and
the soil below, then this radon-bearing soil gas may enter the
building and elevate indoor levels. This report reviews current
building practices and identifies routes of entry. Certain
modifications to building practices may reduce indoor radon
levels.
0056
Sebben, John, Pimm, Peter, and Shepard, Roy J.
smoking in enclosed public facilities", Arch.
32(2): 53-57.
(1977) "Cigarette
Environ. Health,
KEYWORD: CO, field, study, exposure, smoking, health, ventilation
A portable detector (catalytic electrode) was used to record CO
concentrations in enclosed public places. The highest
concentrations were found in night clubs, where evening indoor
readings ranged from 13.4 ppm, which was 4.1 +/~ 1-5 ppm higher
than outdoor readings. In one poorly ventilated establishment,
values ranged from 20-40 ppm, with substantial gradients around
the room. Adequate ventilation and screening of restaurant
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employees for ischemia heart disease should prevent problems from
cigarette CO. Unfortunately, much lower concentrations of other
constituents of smoke may cause symptoms and changes of pulmonary
function in the nonsmoker. If CO is used as an indicator of
cigarette smoke accumulation, concentrations should not exceed
ambient readings by more that 5 ppm.
0035
Sega, K., and Fugas, M. (1982) "Personal exposure versus
monitoring station data for respirable particulates", Environ.
Int., 8:259-263.
KEYWORD: particulate, field, personal, exposure,outdoor,activity,
foreign, Yugoslavia
Personal exposure to respirable particulates of 12 subjects
working at the same location but living in various parts of
Zagreb, Yugoslavia, was monitored for 7 consecutive days and
compared with simultaneously obtained data from the outdoor
network station nearest to each subject's home. Although
personal exposure is related to the outdoor pollution, indoor
pollution is also important because the subjects spent, on the
average, more than 80% of their total time indoors. The ratio
between average personal exposures and respirable particle levels
in the outdoor air decreased with the increased outdoor
concentration (r = 0.93), indicating that this relationship might
serve as a basis for a rough estimate of possible personal
exposure.
0355
Sega, K., Fugas, M., Kalinic, N., and Sisovic, A. (1984) "Indoor-
outdoor relationships for respirable particles, total suspended
particle matter and smoke concentrations in modern office
buildings", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):71-74.
KEYWORD: particulate, outdoor, seasonal, smoking, office,foreign,
Yugoslavia
Total suspended particulates (TSP), respirable particles (RP),
and smoke were measured indoors and outdoors at six sites in five
modern office buildings in different parts of a town.
Measurements were performed during winter and summer.
Correlations between RP, TSP, smoke in RP, and smoke content in
TSP were determined for each site, and indoor-outdoor
relationships were established for winter and summer.
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0770
Seifert, B., Ullrich, D., Mailahn, W., and Nagel, R. (1986)
"Fluchtige organische verbindungen in der innenraumluft (volatile
organic substances in the indoor air)", Bundesgesundheitsblatt,
29(12):417-424. In German with English summary.
KEYWORD: VOC,home, monitor,alkane,foreign, hydrocarbon, aromatic,
field, terpene, outdoor, Germany
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the air of West German living
spaces were determined for two weeks using passive sampling
devices. The surveys conducted, between 1982 and 1985,
identified 55 VOCs. Concentrations of linear and branched
alkanes, as well as cycloalkanes, aromatics, terpenes, alcohols,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, and carbonyl compounds averaged below
50 ug/m3, although 2-week averages of some aromatic and
chlorinated hydrocarbons were above 1 mg/m3. Such high
concentrations were far beyond those known to occur in outdoor
air in traffic.
0442
Seifert, B., and Abraham, H.J. (1983) "Use of passive samplers
for the determination of gaseous organic substances in indoor air
at low concentration levels", Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem.,
13:237-253.
KEYWORD: exposure, methodology, sampling, VOC, hydrocarbon, QA,
laboratory
The design and calibration of a passive sampler operating
according to the diffusion principle and its application to
analyzing indoor air are described. Taking aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbons as representative pollutants, researchers
demonstrated that, at constant concentration, the amount of
substance trapped by the sampler is a linear function of time.
An equation is given relating this amount to the mean pollutant
concentration. The detection limit is about 300 ug/(m3/hour).
For test gas atmospheres, variation coefficients of between 5 and
10% were determined for a 24-hour exposure in an atmosphere with
concentrations of the individual hydrocarbons between 150 and 600
ug/m3.
0354
Seifert, B., Drews, M., and Aurand, K. (1984) "Indoor heavy metal
exposure of the population around a secondary lead smelter",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 2, radon, passive smoking, particulates and housing
epidemiology", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm,
pp. 177-182. NTIS PB85-104198.
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KEYWORD: Pb, particulate, exposure, metal, methodology, field,
Cd, sampling, foreign, Germany
Earlier studies had indicated that the concentration of heavy
metals in deposited dust is a much better means of characterizing
the exposure of people living close to emission sources than the
concentration in suspended particulate matter. Thus, a simple
method has been developed in which house dust collected with a
passive sampler is used to rapidly screen the heavy metal content
of dust deposited in houses located near sources. Analyzing such
dust samples for Pb and Cd permitted detecting the most polluted
spots in an area surrounding a secondary lead smelter at Oker,
Federal Republic of Germany. The method, as well as the results
of field measurements carried out in 1982, is discussed.
0262
Seifert, B., and Abraham, H.J. (1982) "Indoor air concentrations
of benzene and some other aromatic hydrocarbons", Ecotoxicol.
Environ. Safety, 6:190-192.
KEYWORD: benzene, aromatic, source, combustion, smoking, field,
sampling, exposure
Reasons for the presence of contaminants in indoor environments
include frequent burning processes such as smoking, use of
consumer products, and emanation from building materials. Indoor
concentrations of benzene and other aromatic hydrocarbons were
studied. Sampling was conducted with a passive sampler and
charcoal pad.
0439
Sem, G.J., and Tsurubayashi, K. (1975) "A new mass sensor for
respirable dust measurement", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 36:791-
800.
KEYWORD: particulate, methodology, personal, exposure, monitor,
smoke, aerosol, QA
A new portable instrument measures mass concentration in the 100
ug/m3 range of airborne dust particles smaller than 10 um. An
electrostatic precipitator deposits particles as small as 0.01 um
onto a piezoelectric microbalance sensor. The instrument gives
digital readouts and has a built-in sensor cleaner.
0148
Settergren, S.K., Hartwell, T.D., and Clayton, C.A. (Aug. 1984)
"Study of carbon monoxide exposure of residents of Washington,
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D.C. — additional analysis", Contract no. 68-02-3679, U.S. EPA,
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, NC 27711 (59 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: CO, personal, exposure, monitor, microenvironment,EPA$,
vehicle, interior, activity, home
This report presents additional analyses of personal CO data
obtained in the winter of 1982-83 from a sample of Washington,
DC, metropolitan area nonsmoking and noninstitutionalized people
aged 18 to 70 years. The analyses cover 8-hour (and 1-hour)
maximum CO exposures and how these exposure levels may be
affected by ambient CO levels and by the home, work, and travel
characteristics respondents reported in the study questionnaire.
Little relationship was detected between 8-hour maxima and home
characteristics, whereas some work and travel characteristics do
seem to affect CO levels. The analyses also investigate how
total population CO exposure and time vary among four major
environments — in transit, indoors-residence, indoors-other, and
outdoors. Indoors-residence accounted for over 50% of total CO
exposure. However, the in-transit environment showed, by far,
the highest CO exposure. Consequently, the total exposure and
time of this environment were further partitioned by mode of
travel. More detailed analyses are planned.
0779
Sexton, K., Petreas, M.X., Liu, K.S., and Kulasingam, G.C.
(1985), "Formaldehyde concentrations measured in California
mobile homes", Paper No.85-85.2, presented at the 78th annual
meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (20 pages).
KEYWORD: CH2O, health, activity, personal, monitoring, seasonal,
risk, field, architecture, home, source, demographic
In 1984, the Indoor Air Quality Program of the California
Department of Health Services undertook a project to measure
average formaldehyde (CH20) concentrations inside mobile homes.
Because CH2O emissions from building materials decrease over
time, an age-stratified random sample (i.e., 60% of mobile homes
less than or equal to 3 years old) was obtained from existing
records. Week-long CH2O concentrations were measured inside more
than 600 mobile homes while occupants continued with normal
activities. Most residences were monitored during summer and
winter to examine seasonal effects. In addition, data on
occupant and housing characteristics as well as occupant
activities during sampling were collected by means of a self-
administered questionnaire. Average CH2O concentrations inside
mobile homes (< 10 years old) are in the range of 0.07 ppm - 0.13
ppm and decrease gradually with age. Determining the health
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significance of these exposures is a prerequisite for realistic
assessment of related public health risks.
0084
Sexton, K., Treitman, R.D., Spengler, J.D., and Turner, W.A.
(Aug. 1984) "The effects of residential wood combustion on indoor
and outdoor air quality: a case in Waterbury, Vermont", Berglund,
B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 4,
chemical characterization and personal exposure", Swedish Council
for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 111-116. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: field, particulate, exposure, outdoor, wood, combustion,
PAH, carbon, home
Findings from a wood-burning study in Waterbury, VT, are
presented. The air monitoring program, conducted from January to
March 1982, emphasized measurements of total, inhalable, and
respirable particulates. Indoor and outdoor data on respirable
particles were obtained for 24 private residences, 19 with wood-
burning appliances. Personal exposure to respirable particles
was investigated by having 48 nonsmoking volunteers carry
personal sampling pumps for 7 days. Selected particulate samples
were analyzed for elemental composition, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, and organic and elemental carbon. Data are
presented comparing chemical and elemental concentrations between
indoor and outdoor environments.
0216
Sexton, K., Webber, L., Hayward, S.B., and Sextro, R.G. (1984)
"Characterization of particle composition, organic vapor
constituents, and mutagenicity of indoor air pollutant
emissions", Report no. CA/DOH/AIHL/R-289, California Department
of Health Services, Berkeley, CA 94704 (26 pages).
KEYWORD: multipollutant,particulate,source,smoking, mutagenicity,
VOC, laboratory, appliance
A joint chamber experiment was carried out by the California
Indoor Air Quality Program and the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
to characterize particle and vapor emissions from several
important indoor sources, including a gas range, tobacco smoking,
frying hamburger, a kerosene heater, and selected aerosol spray
products. Among the emissions data collected for each source
were particle size distributions, particle-phase elemental and
chemical compositions, volatile compound identification, and
mutagenicity of particles and vapor-phase constituents. Findings
were used to assess qualitatively the nature of airborne
emissions from each source and to compare emission constituents
among source categories. This approach is a necessary first step
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in evaluating the feasibility of developing unique signatures for
individual sources using a broad array of emission
characteristics.
0407
Sexton, K., et al. (1984) "Winter air quality in a wood-burning
community: a case study in Waterbury, Vermont", Atmos. Environ.,
18(7):1357-1370.
KEYWORD: wood, outdoor, particulate, combustion, field, exposure,
regulation, weather, source, home
The recent upsurge in residential wood combustion has raised
questions about potential adverse effects on ambient air quality
and public health. Before policymakers can make informed and
rational decisions about the need for government intervention,
more information is needed concerning the nature and extent of
the problem. This paper presents findings from the 1982 Harvard
Wood-Burning Study in Waterbury, VT. Waterbury, a rural
community of about 2,000 people, was an ideal location for this
investigation because (1) half of the private residences are
heated with wood fuel, (2) frequent winter temperature inversions
promote pollution buildup in the valley, (3) there are no major
industrial sources, and (4) the Vermont Agency of Environmental
Conservation has compiled a detailed wood-burning inventory. The
ambient air monitoring study, from January to March 1982,
emphasized measurements of total, inhalable, and respirable
particulate matter. Results indicate that 60 to 70% of the
Waterbury aerosol was composed of particles less than 2.5
urn. A combination of indirect evidence suggests that
wood burning was the major source of airborne particles in
residential sections of the town. Dramatic diurnal variations in
particulate concentrations were observed, with peak values at
night exceeding afternoon levels by 5 to 10 fold. Both
meteorology and emission patterns contributed to observed
fluctuations.
0212
Sexton, Ken (1985) "A survey of indoor air monitoring services:
is there a private demand for healthful indoor air quality?", J.
Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 35(6):626-631.
KEYWORD: CH2O, radon, asbestos, home, VOC, ventilation, exposure,
monitor, economic, methodology
A questionnaire on private indoor air monitoring services was
returned by 43 companies that had responded to ads in four major
air pollution journals. Most of the companies also participate
in ambient and industrial air quality research. They tend to
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employ a wide range of analytical and health professionals and
will measure a wide range of parameters. Costs to homeowners are
likely to exceed $100 per parameter for measurements of
formaldehyde, radon, asbestos, volatile organic chemicals, and
air exchange rates. Demand for these services is increasing.
0218
Sexton, Ken, Letz, Richard, and Spengler, John D. (1983)
"Estimating human exposure to nitrogen dioxide: an indoor/outdoor
modeling approach", Environ. Res., 32:151-166.
KEYWORD: NO2, source,model,activity, outdoor, personal, exposure,
ventilation, appliance, home
A simple deterministic model is developed in an attempt to
provide a more realistic estimate of N02 exposures. The model
relates exposure to background ambient levels, indoor values, and
human activities. Ambient and indoor parameters are derived from
monitoring programs in six U.S. cities. Results suggest NO2
concentrations in private dwellings vary primarily with outdoor
levels and type of cooking fuel, but are also affected by factors
such as air-exchange rates and strength of indoor sources.
Estimates of population exposures are obtained by combining
observed N02 distributions from outdoor and indoor settings with
information about number of people and time spent in each
microenvironment.
0213
Sexton, Ken, Liu, Kai-Shen, and Petreas, Myrto X. (1986)
"Formaldehyde concentrations inside private residences: a mail-
out approach to indoor air monitoring", J. Air Pollut. Control
Assoc. 36(6):698-704.
KEYWORD: CH2O, home, sampling, methodology, QA, exposure, field
During 1984, the California Indoor Air Quality Program undertook
two studies, summer and winter, aimed at evaluating the
feasibility of mailing out passive monitors to measure
formaldehyde (CH2O) concentrations inside a large sample of
private residences. A pilot study in 51 nonmanufactured
dwellings preceeded an indoor CH2O survey in more than 500 mobile
homes throughout California. Each investigation was carried out
entirely by mail, including solicitation of volunteers, placement
and recovery of monitors, collection of data on occupant and
housing characteristics, and communication of test results.
Data, data quality, and the method's feasibility are discussed.
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0198
Sexton, Ken, Spengler, John D., and Treitman, Robert D. (1984)
"Effects of residential wood combustion on indoor air quality: a
case study in Waterbury, Vermont", Atmos. Environ., 18(7):1371-
1383.
KEYWORD: particulate, EPA$, wood, outdoor,field,combustion, home,
ventilation, model, exposure
An indoor/outdoor monitoring study was conducted from January to
March 1982 in Waterbury, VT. Respirable particle measurements
were made inside and outside 24 homes (all occupants were
nonsmokers), 19 with wood-burning appliances and 5 without. Data
were also obtained on seasonal air-exchange rate, heating fuel
consumption, and relevant home characteristics. Indoor particle
levels were consistently higher than outdoor levels regardless of
heating-fuel type. No statistical difference was observed
between 24-hour average respirable particle levels in wood- and
nonwood-burning homes. A linear regression model, incorporating
information on air-exchange rate, house volume, fuel use, and
outdoor level, accounted for about 20% of the variance in indoor
particle concentrations.
0204
Sexton, Ken, and Ryan, Barry P. (1986) "Assessment of human
exposure to air pollution: methods, measurements and models",
Watson, A., Bates, R.R., and Kennedy, D., Eds., "Air pollution,
the automobile, and public health", National Academy of Sciences
Press, Washington, DC (86 pages).
KEYWORD: literature, exposure, research, methodology, model,
personal, monitor, biomonitoring, outdoor
This chapter reviews the history, terminology, and methodology of
exposure assessment. Direct and indirect ambient air, biological
(blood, urine, tissue), and personal monitoring are explained.
Statistical, physical, and stochastic modeling are described.
Research recommendations are made. The bibliography is
extensive.
0623
Sexton, Ken, and Wesolowski, Jerome, J. (1985) "Safeguarding
indoor air quality", Environ. Sci. Technol., 19(4):305-309.
KEYWORD: epidemiology, literature, microenvironment, home, risk,
industrial, control, office, multipollutant, health, outdoor
California is the first state to implement a program devoted
exclusively to the investigation of nonindustrial indoor air
289
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quality. Discussed are general impediments to enacting such a
program, justification for action, California's indoor air
quality program, priorities, state interagency coordination, and
complex policy issues. The goal of the program is to define the
components of healthful indoor air, to evaluate the applicability
of available mititgating measures, and to assess the relative
merit of policy alternatives.
0217
Sexton, K., Liu, K. S., Treitman, R.D., Spengler, J.D., and
Turner, W.A. (1986) "Characterization of indoor air quality in
wood-burning residences", Environ. Int. 12(1-4):265-278.
KEYWORD: particulate, home,PAH, field, wood, combustion, carbon,
outdoor, EPA$, exposure, outdoor
Findings from a residential wood-burning study in Waterbury, VT,
are presented, with indoor/outdoor comparisons of particle mass,
size distribution, and composition. Elemental composition and
concentrations of polyaromatic hydrocarbons and carbon suggest
that significant differences exist between indoor and outdoor
environments in six homes, with indoor values exceeding outdoor
values for many airborne constituents. Various indoor sources
besides wood smoke contributed to the indoor pollutant levels.
0288
Sexton, K., Liu, Kai-Shen, Hayward, S.B., and Spengler, J.D.
(1985) "Characterization and source apportionment of wintertime
aerosol in a wood-burning community", Atmos. Environ.
19(8):1225-1236.
KEYWORD: particulate, PAH, carbon, weather,methodology, source,
wood, outdoor, combustion, EPA$,field,home,exposure
The continuing upsurge in residential wood combustion has raised
questions about potential adverse effects on ambient air quality.
A study to investigate the effects of wood-burning emissions on
ambient aerosol concentrations was conducted in Waterbury, VT,
from January to March 1982. Data on total, inhalable and
respirable particles (24-hour averages) were collected at a
central monitoring site and augmented with similar measurements
at two auxiliary stations. Mass concentrations were determined
gravimetrically and selected samples were analyzed for elemental
composition, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and organic and
elemental carbon. In addition, continuous data from an
integrating nephelometer and a meteorological data acquisition
system were collected at the central site. This paper presents
results of organic and elemental characterization of wintertime
aerosol and examines several source-apportionment methods,
290
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focusing on the contribution of residential wood combustion to
measured ambient concentrations.
0771
Sexton, K., Liu, K., Hayward, S.B., and Spengler, J.D. (1984)
"Organic and elemental characterization of winter-time aerosol in
a wood-burning community", Paper no. 84-80.2, presented at the
77th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 ( 17 pages).
KEYWORD: combustion, wood, home, field, source, outdoor, K, Fe,
carbon, particulate, PAH, S04, CO, exposure
Concerns about rising prices and uncertain availability of
petroleum and natural gas have led to increased use of
alternative fuels for residential space heating. Sales of
woodstoves have increased 10-fold since 1972, and approximately
10% of the total U.S. space heating input is from wood.
Woodburning stoves, furnaces, and fireplaces have been shown to
emit significant quantities of particles, CO, and organic
compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).
Ambient air monitoring programs have shown that residential wood
combustion (RWC) is a significant source of winter aerosols in
many communities. To examine the effects of RWC on outdoor,
indoor, and personal exposure to particulate matter, an intensive
air monitoring program was undertaken in Waterbury, VT during
January - March 1982. This paper discusses elemental and organic
characteristics of outdoor respirable particulate (RSP) samples,
focusing on the contribution of RWC to observed concentrations.
Particulate carbon accounts for > 50% of the winter RSP mass
measured, with sulfate (primarily S04) accounting for no more
than 25%. Elevated K/Fe ratios and high organic carbon content
of RSP were consistent with expected impacts from RWC. Measured
PAH values were similar to winter values in other New England
communities and were likely to result from local sources
(primarily RWC). Overall, results of the study suggest that RWC
has a substantial impact on winter aerosol concentrations in
Waterbury, VT.
0775
Sexton, K., and Wesolowski, J.J. (1984) "California's indoor air
quality program". Paper no. 84-35.6 presented at the 77th annual
meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230, (13 pages).
KEYWORD: health, risk, field, multipollutant, exposure, control,
ventilation, regulation, source, home, office, activity
The concerns about nonindustrial indoor air pollution are
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summarized and the California Indoor Air Program is outlined.
Included are discussions of time spent indoors, concentration
buildup in confined spaces, energy efficiency
measures/ventilation, and research that shows ambient
measurements do not adequately reflect personal exposures. Six
impediments to action are discussed: (1) understanding of the
problem is inadequate, (2) no lobbying constituency has
developed, (3) no Federal body has clear-cut statutory authority,
(4) Federal research funding is inadequate, (5) delicate policy
issues remain (proper government role in private buildings), and
(6) concern that the case for ambient air standards will be
weakened by heightened attention to indoor air. Justifications
for the California indoor air research program include growing
evidence of health risk and California's leadership in other
environmental and public health issues. The legislative process
which resulted in California's program is described. The program
is structured to obtain relevant information about emission
sources, ventilation, concentrations, human activity patterns,
exposures, health risks, control measures, and public policy
options. Research activities include field studies in residences
and office buildings, as well as laboratory studies.
0774
Sexton, Ken (1985) "Indoor air quality: an overview of policy and
regulatory issues", paper no. 85-46.1, presented at the 78th
annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O.
Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (23 pages).
KEYWORD: regulation, multipollutant, source, exposure, control,
research, methodology, health, risk
This overview of nonindustrial indoor air pollution issues
focuses on policy and regulation and includes discussion of time
spent indoors, concentration buildup in confined spaces, energy
efficiency measures/ventilation, complex consumer materials,
complex activities, and complaints of inadequate indoor air
quality. Problems are defined—source identification,
measurement of contamination, and health risk analysis—before
mitigating measures are discussed. The complex policy issues are
reviewed and a number of important questions identified,
primarily those concerning government (Federal, state, local)
authority to intervene in private buildings and residences. The
strengths and weaknesses of potential government responses are
reviewed. These include (1) no action, (2) more research, (3)
public education, (4) economic incentives, (5) moral suasion, and
(6) definition of legal liability standards. The
responsibilities of and precedents set by EPA and the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration are noted. The
National Ambient Air Quality Standards could serve as a model for
indoor air standards. The author suggests that the Clean Air Act
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be amended to include indoor air. Existing statutory authority
and government activity at all levels are outlined.
0425
Sexton, Ken (1986) "Indoor air quality: an overview of policy and
regulatory issues", Sci. Technol. Human Values, ll(l):53-67.
KEYWORD: health, risk, control, regulation, multipollutant,
methodology, research, source, exposure
Evidence is increasingly showing elevated concentrations of many
air pollutants in private and public buildings. Among these
airborne contaminants are tobacco smoke, CH20, CO, N02, radon
decay products, asbestos fibers, respirable particles, volatile
organic compounds, bacteria, viruses, fungi, and aeroallergens.
The potential hazards of indoor air pollution have only recently
attracted widespread attention. However, few data are available
for evaluating health risks for most contaminants. The need to
safeguard indoor air quality is discussed, as well as the topics
of indoor air quality problem definition, health risks,
mitigation measures, policy issues, and government response.
Regulatory issues and existing statutory authority and government
activity are also discussed.
0078
Sexton, Ken, Spengler, John D., and Treitman, Robert D. (1984)
"Personal exposure to respirable particles: a case study in
Waterbury, Vermont", Atmos. Environ. 18(7):1385-1398.
KEYWORD: particulate, smoking,outdoor, model, exposure, personal,
statistical, monitor, microenvironment, activity
A study to assess personal exposure of 48 nonsmoking volunteers
to respirable particles was conducted from January to March 1982
in Waterbury, VT. The volunteers carried Harvard
University/Electric Power Research Institute personal samplers
every other day for 2 weeks. Simultaneous measurements with
similar monitors were made inside and outside each participant's
home. Findings indicate that outdoor (ambient) particle levels
were not an important determinant of personal exposure, while in-
home concentrations accounted for 25% to 30% of the variation in
personal values. A linear regression technique was used to
estimate respirable particle concentrations in three
microenvironments where measurements were not available. These
values were combined with data on timed activities and observed
outdoor and indoor concentrations to construct a simple time-
weighted exposure model. Predicted exposure using this approach
agreed well with measured values. However, the validity and
suitability of estimated coefficients for applications to other
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communities and different times of year have not been
established.
0099
Sexton, Ken, Webber, L.M., Hayward, S.B., and Sextro, R.G. (1986)
"Characterization of particle composition, organic vapor
constituents, and mutagenicity of indoor air pollutant
emissions", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):351-362.
KEYWORD: multipollutant, particulate, mutagenicity, exposure,
source, laboratory, VOC, smoking, appliance
As understanding of human exposure to air pollutants improves, it
is becoming increasingly evident that indoor environments play a
critical role in determining exposures. However, it is not
possible at this time to establish the relative contribution of
indoor and outdoor sources to personal exposures, nor can the
contribution of specific indoor emissions be guantified. To
address these issues, a chamber experiment was initiated to
measure particulate and organic emissions from important indoor
sources. Data on particle size distributions, morphology,
mutagenicity, and elemental and chemical composition, as well as
information about volatile organic emissions, were collected for
each source. Results of the study will be used to determine the
feasibility of using source-receptor technigues to apportion
indoor sources.
0128
Sexton, Ken, and Hayward, Steven B. (1987) "Source apportionment
of indoor air pollution", Atmos. Environ., 21:407-418.
KEYWORD: source, model, exposure, monitoring, outdoor, literature
An understanding of the relative contributions from important
pollutant sources to human exposures is necessary for the design
and implementation of effective control strategies. Exposures to
elevated pollutant concentrations often occur as a result of
indoor, rather than outdoor, emissions. While the major indoor
sources have been identified, their relative impacts on indoor
air quality have not been well defined. Application of existing
source-apportionment models to nonindustrial indoor environments
is only just beginning. These models might be used to
distinguish between indoor and outdoor emissions, as well as to
distinguish among indoor sources themselves. However, before the
feasibility and suitability of source-apportionment methods for
indoor applications can be assessed adequately, model assumptions
and associated data requirements must be considered.
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0156
Sexton, Ken, and Repetto, Robert (1982) "Indoor air pollution and
public policy", Environ. Int., 8:5-10.
KEYWORD: policy, exposure, regulation, economic, control, method
Although scientific interest in the problem of indoor air
pollution continues to grow, efforts to measure indoor pollutant
concentrations, define exposure levels, and estimate health risks
remain in their infancy. Policymakers must deal with the
question of how best to protect public health and safety in the
face of incomplete and often contradictory information. In the
past, official response to environmental pollution has
traditionally taken the form of "control by regulation".
However, creation of a regulatory framework for indoor air
quality poses special policy issues that suggest the need to
explore alternative modes of intervention. Promulgation of
indoor air quality standards and other regulations must confront
the fact that individuals are already making decisions about
their own air quality. Regulations may or may not improve these
decisions. Among the logical and relatively inexpensive modes of
intervention are public information programs, development of
simple warning devices, and product testing and labeling.
0482
Sextro, R. G., Offermann, F. J., Nazaroff, W. W., Nero, A. V.,
Revzan, K. L., and Yater, J. (1986) "Evaluation of indoor
aerosol control devices and their effects on radon progeny
concentrations", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):429-438.
KEYWORD: EPA$, laboratory, dose, radon, particulate, smoking,
control, exposure
Eleven portable air cleaning devices were evaluated for control
of indoor concentrations of respirable particles and their
concomittant effects on concentrations of radon progeny.
Following injection of cigarette smoke and radon into a room-size
chamber, decay rates for particles and radon progeny
concentrations were measured with and without air cleaner
operation. Particle concentrations were obtained for total
number concentration and for number concentration by particle
size. In tests with no air cleaner, the natural decay rate for
cigarette smoke was observed to be 0.2/hr. Air cleaning rates
for particles were found to be negligible for several small
panel-filters, a residential ion-generator, and a pair of mixing
fans. The electrostatic precipitators and extended surface
filters tested had significant particle removal rates, and a high
efficiency particle air-type filter was the most effective air
295
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cleaner. The evaluation of radon progeny control produced
similar results; the air cleaners which were effective in
removing particles were also effective in removing radon progeny.
At low particle concentrations, precipitation of the unattached
radon progeny onto room surfaces (plateout) is an important
removal mechanism. The plateout rate for unattached progeny was
15/hr. The unattached fraction and the overall removal rate due
to deposition of attached and unattached nuclides have been
estimated for each radon decay product as a function of particle
concentration. Air cleaning reduces total radon progeny.
However, the relative alpha decay dose to the lungs appears to
change little as the particle concentration decreases because of
the greater radiological importance of the unattached progeny.
0593
Sheldon, L.S., Sparacino, C.M., and Pellizzari, E.D. (1985)
"Review of analytical methods for volatile organic compounds in
the indoor environment", Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs,
V.A., Eds., "Indoor air and human health", Lewis Publishers,
Inc., P.O. Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 335-349.
KEYWORD: methodology, literature, personal, exposure, QA, VOC,
monitor, sampling
Successful methods for analyzing volatile organics in the indoor
environment must fulfill several criteria: (1) they must be
capable of detecting pollutants at ambient levels (i.e., ppt-
ppb); (2) collection and measuring devices must be lightweight,
compact, and quiet; (3) such devices should be easy to calibrate
and use in the field; and (4) measuring devices should provide
accurate and reproducible analysis, with minimal artifact and
contamination problems. A number of devices that have been
laboratory or field tested (or both) have been developed to meet
these criteria. Monitors can be classified into two general
categories: (1) continuous devices, which measure pollutants on
the spot, and (2) integrating devices, which collect the
pollutant for later analysis. These two types of devices may be
further divided into (1) active monitors, which use a pump to
pull air across a sensor or collector, and (2) passive devices,
which rely on diffusion to bring the pollutants into contact with
the sensor or collector. The analytical performance of each of
the currently available methods is reviewed. Instrumentation
detection limits, sensitivity, interferences, precision, and
accuracy are discussed.
0538
Shleien, B., Wall, M.A., and Lutz, David (1968) "Estimation of
radiation doses to the respiratory tract from inhalation of
airborne radioactivity", Environ. Sci. Tech., 26:438-443.
296
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KEYWORD: radon, dose, health, sampling, model, lung, radiation,
particulate, exposure, outdoor,
A "graded filtration" sampler developed to estimate the
respiratory deposition of airborne fallout provides information
that, when used with a suitable lung model, permits estimation of
the radiation dose to the nasopharyngeal, tracheobronchial, and
pulmonary regions of the adult respiratory tract. Estimated
doses to adults from airborne fallout collected in November 1966
and January 1967 were 85 and 130 microrem per 70 years to the
nasopharyngeal and pulmonary regions respectively. Estimated
radiation dose to the tracheobronchial region was less than 0.01
microrem per 70 years. A dose of 225 microrem per 70 years to
the thyroid gland was estimated to result from inhalation. The
greatest single dose from fresh fission products was to the
respiratory lymphatic nodes as a result of inhaled cerium-144 and
praseodymium-144. This was approximately 40 times the pulmonary
region dose. Among long-lived radionuclides, plutonium-239
delivered the greatest dose to the respiratory lymph nodes.
Doses to the respiratory tract from the levels of airborne fresh
fission products encountered in this study are low when compared
with nonoccupational radiation doses due to inhaled radon and its
short-lived daughters. This approach to estimating respiratory
doses is applicable to nuclear facility monitoring for airborne
particulates.
0659
Shy, Carl M., Kleinbaum, David G., and Morganstern, Harold (1978)
"The effect of misclassification of exposure status in
epidemiological studies of air pollution health effects", Bull.
N. Y. Acad. Med., 54(11):1155-1165.
KEYWORD: exposure, methodology, monitoring, risk, health, model,
design, statistical, monitor, personal
This paper emphasizes the potential for misclassification of
exposure status in most epidemiologic studies of air pollution
health effects and suggests some remedies. Differences in
residences, workplace environment, and physical activity
contribute to personal exposures that cannot be monitored by
fixed stations. Painstaking efforts are needed to assess
personal exposures to pollutants in a representative sample of
diseased and nondiseased persons. The results could be compared
with routine monitoring methods and measures of sensitivity and
specificity could be deduced. Statistical corrections could then
be made to reduce the misclassification of exposure.
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0012
Silverman, F., Corey, P., Mintz, S., Oliver, P., and Hosein, R.
(1982) "A study of effects of ambient urban air pollution using
personal samplers: a preliminary report", Environ. Int., 8:311-
316.
KEYWORD: N02, S02, particulate,field,personal, exposure, monitor,
EPA$, health, lung, foreign, Canada, outdoor
Air pollution has been associated with an increased incidence of
respiratory disease. However, significant differences may exist
between air pollution levels measured at conventional fixed
monitoring stations and actual levels inhaled by a subject.
Furthermore, studies of effects of air pollution are assessed by
symptom and medication diaries and simple pulmonary function
tests. In this study subjects carried a small portable air
sampler for particulates, S02, and NO2. Levels are compared to
data obtained from the same type of sampler located at a fixed
monitoring station. Preliminary analysis shows that the levels
of the three pollutants are low, and there are significant
differences among them. Change in pulmonary function during the
day correlated only with personal NO2 measurements. This
suggests the need for estimating air pollution exposure using
personal samplers when investigating health effects.
0089
Silverman, F., Corey, P., Mintz, S., and Hosien, M.R. (Aug.
1984) "Factors that influence assessments of health effects of
air pollution", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.
"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical characterization and personal
exposure", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.
123-137. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: NO2, SO2, particulate, personal,exposure,health,outdoor,
methodology, seasonal, activity, lung, foreign, Canada
The report illustrates the influences of method of analysis,
estimates of exposure, subject type, and seasons of the year on
the health effects of air pollution. Small portable
multipollutant samplers for NO2, SO2, and particulate matter were
carried by asthmatics and nonasthmatics and placed at a downtown
Toronto, Canada, air pollution monitoring station. Each subject
was visited for up to 20 days; pulmonary function was assessed
(by spirometry) in the morning when sampling began and at the end
of the day when sampling ended. A questionnaire was completed
documenting symptoms, medications, daily activities, and exposure
to potential irritants.
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0463
Sinclair, J.D., Psota-Kelty, L.A., and Weschler, C.J. (1985)
11 Indoor/outdoor concentrations and indoor surface accumulations
of ionic substances", Atmos. Environ., 19(2):315-323.
KEYWORD: ion, particulate, office, indoor, aerosol, Al, NH4, SO4,
source, model, Ca, N03, Cl, K, outdoor, Zn
The airborne concentrations of soluble ions in fine and coarse
particles were measured indoors and outdoors at telephone offices
in Wichita, KS, and Lubbock, TX. These concentrations were
compared with the mean annual indoor surface accumulations of
these ions on Zn and Al structural surfaces. On average, the
major soluble ions contained in fine airborne particles are NH4,
SO4, and NO3; coarse particles contained Ca and NO3. K and
chloride have indoor/outdoor ratios that are larger in fine
particles than those observed for the other ionic species,
indicating the existence of a significant indoor source. Similar
comparisons in coarse particles show that Na, chloride, and
sometimes S04 have significant indoor sources. For chloride, a
simple model was used for apportioning surface accumulation at
each location due to corrosive chlorine gases, coarse particles,
and fine particles. For other ions where corrosive gases are not
important, the accumulation has been apportioned between coarse
and fine particles. From these data, experimental deposition
velocities for fine-mode S04 ions and coarse-mode Ca ions were
calculated to be 0.003 and 1.0 cm per second, respectively, at
Wichita, while those at Lubbock were 0.005 and 0.2 cm per second.
0046
Sinclair, J.D., and Psota-Kelty, L.A. (1985) "Indoor/outdoor
concentrations and indoor surface accumulations of ionic
substances", Atmos. Environ., 19(2):315-323.
KEYWORD: particulate,outdoor,ion, source, model, NH4, SO4, NO3,
Ca, K, office, aerosol, Al, Zn, Cl
The airborne concentrations of soluble ions in fine particles and
coarse particles have been measured indoors and outdoors at
telephone offices in Wichita, KS, and Lubbock, TX. These
concentrations are compared with the mean annual indoor surface
accumulations of these ions on zinc and aluminum structural
surfaces. On average, the major soluble ions contained in fine
airborne particles are ammonium, sulfate, and nitrate, while
those contained in coarse particles are calcium and nitrate. In
the fine mode, potassium and chloride have indoor/outdoor ratios
that are larger than those observed for the other ionic species,
indicating the existence of a significant indoor source. In the
coarse mode, similar comparisons show that sodium, chloride, and
sometimes sulfate have significant indoor sources.
299
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0523
Singh, J., Walcott, R., and St. Pierre, C. (1982) "Evaluation of
the relationship between formaldehyde emissions from
particleboard mobile home decking and hardwood plywood wall
paneling in experimental mobile homes", U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development, Washington, DC 20410 (81 pages).
NTIS PB83-237404.
KEYWORD: CH2O, methodology, field, monitoring, exposure, home,
regulation, source, control, architecture
To evaluate the impact of reduced formaldehyde-emitting hardwood
plywood paneling and particleboard decking used in mobile homes,
the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and several
building supply associations cooperatively designed and
implemented a program of testing and research. The study called
for construction of four test homes—two using plywood paneling
and particleboard decking thought to have a low potential to emit
formaldehyde, and two using materials thought to have higher
emitting potentials. The relationship between the formaldehyde
levels produced in the mobile homes and the formaldehyde
potential was evaluated by monitoring the mobile homes weekly and
by carefully testing the wood products using desiccator and
chamber test methods. The two homes built of lower emitting
materials showed consistently lower formaldehyde levels,
averaging slightly less than half the levels measured in the
higher emitting homes. Testing the emission potential of
formaldehyde in the wood products using the desiccator and
chamber methods showed clear and major differences between the
emission potential of the products. Researchers felt that the
proposed Hardwood Manufactures Association product guidelines
were inadequate in meeting target formaldehyde levels of 0.4 to
0.5 ppm. In addition, a much more rigorous test method for any
product standard was necessary.
0648
Sisovic, A., and Fugas, M. (1985) "Indoor concentrations of
carbon monoxide in selected urban microenvironments", Environ.
Monit. Assess., 5:199-204.
KEYWORD: school, CO, seasonal, outdoor, vehicle, monitor, field,
microenvironment, foreign, Yugoslavia
CO concentrations were measured in Yugoslavia in five
kindergartens, one children's hospital, and two homes for aged
for 10 random days in winter and 10 in summer. All had
practically no indoor sources, and all were in the city center.
Indoor CO concentrations were the result of (1) distance from and
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traffic density in the nearest street, (2) general pollution
level, (3) seasonal differences, day-to-day variations, and daily
cycle of air pollution, and (4) the location of traffic having a
dominant influence. Therefore, locating institutions for
sensitive population groups in old city centers within a block of
houses seems to be a suitable solution to reducing CO exposures.
0577
Skaaret, Eimund (1986) "Contaminant removal performance in terms
of ventilation effectiveness", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):419-427.
KEYWORD: laboratory, multipollutant, NO2, model, control, NOx,
ventilation, statistical, foreign, Norway, Sweden
Substantial work on ventilation effectiveness has been carried
out, both in Norway and Sweden, using tracer gas techniques based
on fundamental physical and mathematical concepts. At present,
the nature of and how to characterize (using tracer gas
techniques) the flow of ventilation air and contaminants through
a ventilated room are known. This study shows that age-analyzing
techniques are an excellent tool to assess ventilation
effectiveness. It is important to distinguish between "air-
exchange efficiency" and "contaminant-removal effectiveness."
Only when a source is homogenous and passive are the age of air
and contaminants in a room equal. However, the air-exchange
efficiency accounts for the effective removal of contaminants
remaining in the room after the generation stops. Displacement
flow has proved to be the best flow principle in ventilation, and
the ventilation air, in general, should be supplied to the zone
of occupation. The design procedure shall, among other things,
contain a contaminant source analysis to design the ventilating
system to create the most favorable flow patterns for the
contaminants.
0195
Skaret, Eimund, and Mathisen, Hans Martin (1982) "Ventilation
efficiency", Environ. Int., 8:473-481.
KEYWORD: model, ventilation, laboratory, foreign, Norway, energy
Research in Norway indicated that ventilating systems can be
designed for higher ventilation efficiency in the zone of
occupation than systems designed for complete mixing.
Expressions for ventilation efficiency are derived using a
two-box theoretic model. These definitions of ventilation
efficiency can be used for practical measurements, and also seem
to be valid for multibox schemes. Measurements reviewed show
that diagonal schemes are the most efficient. Short-circuiting
schemes, with warm air supply along the ceiling and high wall
301
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exhaust, produce very low efficiencies. The mathematical model
predicts high efficiencies using diffuse air supply directly to
the zone of occupation, if the air is not used for heating.
0205
Smith, Kirk R. (1984) "Indoor air: a view from developing
countries", Environ. Sci. Technol., 18(b):271A.
KEYWORD: CO, source, particulate, hydrocarbon, rural, exposure,
combustion, biomass, foreign
Contrary to Western research assumptions, the most important
exposures to many pollutants may be to rural women in developing
countries where biomass is the principal fuel. Cooking indoors
with open biomass fires is still the most frequent technique in
the world, and the smoky air that results contains high
concentrations of CO, particulates, and hydrocarbons. The few
hard data available support this view. Reduction of this
exposure is technically and economically feasible.
0245
Smith, Kirk R., et al. (1983) "Air pollution and rural biomass
fuels in developing countries: a pilot village study in India and
implications for research and policy", Atmos. Environ.,
17(11):2343-2362.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure,particulate, foreign,source,emission,
benzo-a-pyrene,activity,India,biomass,combustion,rural,research
Personal exposures to total suspended particulates and benzo-a-
pyrene in four rural Indian villages were measured in 1981.
Pollutant levels were measured indoors as a function of biomass
fuel and type of cooking stove used. Various cooking times,
family sizes, and income levels were considered. Particulate
exposures averaged nearly 7 mg/m3 and benzo-a-pyrene about 400
ng/m3 during the cooking period, which occupied about 10% of the
year. Factors affecting indoor air pollution exposures in rural
areas of developing nations are discussed with reference to
published field data. The paucity of related information reveals
many issues requiring future research, including fuel use,
combustion conditions, and pollutant emission rates.
0264
Smith, Lawrence R. (Sept. 1981) "Nitrosamines in vehicle
interiors", U.S. EPA, Emission Control Technology Division, Ann
Arbor, MI 48105 (71 pages). NTIS PB82-125014.
KEYWORD: nitrosamine, sampling, vehicle, interior, literature,
methodology, microenvironment, exposure
302
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Views of researchers concerning the triethanolamine analyzer and
the thermosorb air samplers for nitrosamines are presented. Gas
samples were taken from within 58 vehicles to determine the
effects of age, mode of operation, and ambient conditions on
interior nitrosamine levels. Occupant exposure levels were
estimated using test vehicle data.
0464
Smith, K.R., Aggarwal, A.L., and Dave, R.M. (1983) "Air pollution
and rural biomass fuels in developing countries: a pilot village
study in India and implications for research and policy", Atmos.
Environ., 17(11):2343-2362.
KEYWORD: rural, research, field, personal, exposure, CO, indoor,
benzo-a-pyrene,source,biomass,foreign,wood,particulate,India
In four Indian villages, researchers studied personal exposure to
total suspended particulates (TSP) and particulate benzo-a-pyrene
(BaP) of women cooking on simple stoves using traditional biomass
fuels. Study results are presented together with socioeconomic
and fuel-use determinations. TSP exposures averaged nearly 7
mg/m3 and BaP about 4,000 ng/m3 during the cooking period, which
occupied 10% of the women's time. The factors affecting indoor
air pollution exposures in rural areas of developing countries
are categorized and discussed by reference to the few published
field measurements. Comparisons are made with other common
exposures in urban and occupational settings. The sparse
information indicates that rural exposures are relatively high.
Subjects for future research are outlined and general policy
implications mentioned.
0276
Snee, R.D., Bailey, S.P., Fellner, W.H., and Pfeiffer, C.G.
(1985) "Variation in the relationship between blood lead and air
lead", Atmos. Environ., 19(6):1017-1020.
KEYWORD: Pb, QA, exposure, biomonitoring, demographic, outdoor,
literature
Estimates of the slope of the relationship between blood Pb ug/dl
(microgram/deciliter) and air Pb ug/m3 obtained in 10 independent
studies are compared. No significant differences were detected
among the estimates, which ranged from 0.6 to 3.1 ug/dl per ug/m3
and represented male adult, female adult, and child populations.
A single best estimate of 1.2 ug/dl per ug/m3 (+/- 0.295 %
confidence limits) was obtained. The authors conclude that, if
the blood lead-air slope depends on various physical and
biological factors, then studies providing more precise estimates
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are required to detect these differences.
0267
Soczek, M.L., et al. (1986). "The Boston residential NO2
characterization study: an evaluation of survey methodology",
Paper no. 86-5.9A, presented at the 79th annual meeting of the
Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230 (16 pages).
KEYWORD: NO2, home, ventilation, methodology, source, combustion,
monitoring, sampling, design, appliance, field
A large field study of N02 concentrations and air exchange rates
in over 500 households in the Boston, MA, area was conducted by
the Harvard School of Public Health Indoor Air Quality Group.
This paper evaluates the survey methodology employed in
characterizing the homes. Three full periods of indoor
monitoring showed that N02 concentrations in gas households were
higher and showed more variance than those in electric
households. Indoor concentrations in gas households were higher
than outdoor concentrations, and outdoor concentrations were
higher than concentrations in electric households. Several
important conclusions can be drawn on the design evaluation.
While typical response rates for general household samples were
around 75%, response rates were lower for studies requiring in-
house monitoring. Stratification and clustering generally
increase the efficiency of probability-based survey designs, and
the results of this study strongly support their use in exposure
assessment studies.
0208
Soczek, M.L., Ryan, B.P., Spengler, J.D., Fowler, F.J., and
Billick, I.H. (in press) "A survey methodology for
characterization of residential N02 concentrations", J. Air
Pollut. Control Assoc.
KEYWORD: NO2, field, methodology, sampling, statistical, home,
appliance, activity, source
To create empirical models of indoor N02 exposure, more data are
needed about NO2 emissions from unvented gas appliances, indoor
N02 levels, and people's activity patterns. For this study, the
sampling methodology, field protocols, analytical methods, and
statistical options are explained thoroughly. A 50-house pilot
study tested the survey design.
304
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0191
Sodergren, David (1982) "A CO2-controlled ventilation system",
Environ. Int., 8:483-486.
KEYWORD: CO2, radon, aerosol,office,ventilation, foreign,Finland,
energy
For buildings in which people are the main source of pollution,
the number of people is the limiting factor for air ventilation.
When such buildings are not used at full capacity, ventilation,
and consequently energy consumption, are unnecessarily high. A
great deal of energy could be saved if the ventilation system
could adjust the air flow to actual requirements. One possible
system would allow the amount of C02 in the exhaust air to
control the ventilation rate. To determine whether this
principle is practicable and economical, a CO2 indicator was
installed in an office building in Helsinki, Finland. The
equipment was used during the winter of 1981-82, and the
variation of CO2 and the exterior air flow was registered. The
results indicate that the system can be used in new and existing
buildings.
0005
Sorensen, A., Hotter-Jensen, L., Majborn, B. and Nielsen, S.P.
(1985) "A pilot study of natural radiation in Danish homes", Sci.
Total Environ., 45:351-356.
KEYWORD: radon,outdoor, foreign, home, field, exposure, seasonal,
methodology,Denmark
A pilot study was carried out to establish techniques and
procedures for the measurement of indoor radiation in Denmark. A
passive cup dosimeter was designed containing CR39 track
detectors and TLD's to measure radon and external radiation,
respectively. A total of 82 dwellings from most regions of the
country were monitored in two three-month periods, one in winter
and the other in summer. The average dose rate in air from
external radiation was 0.09 microGray/hour. In the winter the
average radon concentrations were 88 Becquerel (Bq)/m3 and 24
Bq/m3 for single-family houses and flats, respectively; in the
summer the corresponding values were 52 Bq/m3 and 19 Bq/m3.
0458
Speizer, F.E., Ferris, B., Jr., Bishop, Y.M.M., and Spengler, J.
(1980) "Respiratory disease rates and pulmonary function in
children associated with NO2 exposure", Am. Rev. Respir. Dis.,
121:3-10.
KEYWORD: N02,health,personal, exposure, children,outdoor,monitor,
statistical, field, epidemiology, lung, appliance
305
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As part of a long-range, prospective study on the health effects
of air pollution, the parents of 8,000 children between the ages
of 6 and 10 from 6 communities were asked to complete
questionnaires. Simple spirometry was performed on the children
in school. Children living in homes with gas stoves were
compared to those living in homes with electric stoves. Children
from households with gas stoves had an average of 3.2% more
respiratory illness before 2 years of age. These children also
had small but significantly lower levels of lung capacity
(average difference, 16 ml and 18 ml, respectively) when
corrected for height. These findings could not be explained by
differences in social class or parental smoking habits.
Measurements for 24 hours showed that N02 levels were four to
seven times higher in homes with gas stoves than in homes with
electric stoves. However, these 24-hour measurements were
generally well below the current Federal 24-hour outdoor standard
of 100 ug/m3. Short-term peak exposures (exceeding 1,100 ug/m3)
regularly occurred in kitchens with gas stoves. Further work
will be required to determine the importance of these peaks in
explaining the health effects noted.
0651
Spengler, J., Hollowell, C., Moschandreas, D., and Fanger, O.,
Eds. (1982) "Proceedings of the international symposium on indoor
air pollution, health and energy conservation, Amherst, MA,
October 13-16, 1981", Environ. Int., 8(1-6):1-534.
KEYWORD: source,exposure,methodology,multipollutant,home, office,
ventilation, health, architecture, control, energy, model, TEAM
These 67 papers, selected by peer review from over 95, contribute
to understanding sources, concentrations, human exposures,
health, and comfort impacts encountered in the indoor
environments. Articles on policy and public health concerns pose
questions about exposures, population at risk, significance of
risk, opportunities, and constraints on intervention that must be
studied so that the public's health and welfare are justly served
by public and private decisions. The engineering aspects of
ventilation, contaminant control, and energy conservation are
presented in papers on modeling physical and chemical behavior of
pollutants within structures. An author index is included.
Appropriate papers from this publication have been abstracted and
entered separately into BLIS.
0081
Spengler, J.D., Billick, I., and Ryan, Barry, P. (Aug. 1984)
"Modeling population exposures to airborne lead", Berglund, B.,
Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical
306
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characterization and personal exposure", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 87-94. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: Pb, model, population, exposure, vehicle, biomonitoring,
interior
This modeling exercise suggests the importance of in-vehicle
exposures to air pollutants. The results of the Second National
Health and Nutrition Evaluation Survey (NHANES II) on Pb blood
level trends vs. ambient air Pb concentrations and leaded
gasoline sales suggest the importance of actual personal
exposures. Modeled exposures for men in the Turin, Italy, Lead
Isotope Experiment provide a better fit to the data than results
relying only on ambient concentrations. The few measurements to
date indicate that the in-vehicle exposures may be several times
greater than the fixed-location ambient concentrations. Direct
measurements of personal Pb and in-vehicle Pb concentrations are
needed.
0729
Spengler, J.D., Dockery, Douglas W., Reed, M.P., Tosteson, T.,
and Quinlan, P. (1980) "Personal exposures to respirable
particles", Paper no. 80-61.5B, presented at the 73rd annual
meeting of the Air Pollution Control Associatioon, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (16 pages).
KEYWORD: microenvironment, statistical, source, personal,outdoor,
activity,ventilation,exposure,particulate,smoking,vehicle
In spring 1979, 42 nonsmoking adults and four children in Topeka
KS, volunteered for a study of personal exposure to particulates.
They were already participating in a study of health effects of
air pollution. Participants carried personal exposure monitors 3
days per week (15 sampling days at most) in their homes and kept
activity diaries. Data for the period were obtained from fixed
site monitoring stations. Personal exposures were higher than
indoor and outdoor exposures. Variation between individuals and
sampling days was significant. Exposure to smokers and
automobile exhaust increased exposures. Ambient concentrations
may strongly influence indoor and personal exposures. The
influence of house variables, transit time, occupation, and other
activities remains to be guantified.
0702
Spengler, J.D., Dockery, D.W., Turner, W.A., Wolfson, J.M., and
Ferris, E.G., Jr. (1981) "Long-term measurements of respirable
sulfates and particles inside and outside homes", Atmos.
Environ., 15:23-30.
307
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KEYWORD: outdoor, monitoring, particulate, SO4, field, source,
epidemiology, smoking, S02, home, statistical
The results of extensive indoor and outdoor monitoring for
respirable size particles and the sulfate fraction of these
particles are reported. The measurements were obtained in
conjunction with an epidemiologic study in six cities: Portage,
WI; Topeka, KS; Kingston/Harriman, TN; Watertown, MA; St. Louis,
MO; and Steubenville, OH. The major source of indoor particulate
matter is cigarette smoke, which contributes approximately 20
ug/m-3 to the indoor concentrations for each smoker. Even in
homes without smokers, indoor particle concentrations equal or
exceed outdoor levels. Indoor respirable sulfate concentrations
are consistently lower than outdoors.
0033
Spengler, J.D., Letz, R., Ozkaynak, H., and Soczek, M.L. (1983)
"Feasibility of predicting personal or population exposures
utilizing ambient air quality models and human activity data",
final report for Project 1D639ONASA, U.S. EPA, Strategies and
Standards Division, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (93 pages).
Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: SO2, NO2, outdoor, particulate, activity, model, source,
EPA$
Time activity patterns are summarized for 332 persons in rural
communities of Roane County in eastern Tennessee. This area was
chosen because of the presence of coal-fired power plants and the
historical data base for SO2 and total suspended particulates, as
well as indoor-outdoor monitoring for SO2, NO2, and respirable
particulates. The document also describes aerometric data bases
and discusses the feasibility of applying atmospheric dispersion
models.
0063
Spengler, John D., and Soczek, Mary L. (1984) "Evidence for
improved ambient air quality and the need for personal exposure
research", Environ. Sci. Technol., 18(9):269-280.
KEYWORD: particulate, Pb, SO2, CO, NO2, aerosol, SO4, literature,
NAAQS, personal, exposure, methodology, monitoring
By conventional measures, the quality of the ambient air has
steadily improved over the past decade. Although violations of
the National Ambient Air Quality Standard for total suspended
particulates, S02, CO, and Pb have decreased, actual personal
exposures to air contaminants may not have decreased. This is
possible because concentrations of other pollutants, especially
308
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N02, fine aerosols, and sulfates, may well be increasing. In
addition, people typically spend 60% to 90% of their time indoors
and may be exposed to elevated levels of pollutants from indoor
sources. Several recent personal exposure studies indicate that
concentrations of air pollutants measured at central monitoring
sites often do not adequately reflect or predict actual personal
exposures. Basic approaches used to assess population exposures
are compared. Continued research on the relationships between
ambient concentrations and actual exposures is needed.
0644
Spengler, John D., and Sexton, Ken (1983) "Indoor air pollution:
a public health perspective", Science, 221: 4605, 9-17.
KEYWORD: activity, outdoor, distribution, health, multipollutant,
personal, exposure, research, literature
Official efforts to control air pollution traditionally have
focused on outdoor air, but elevated contaminant concentrations
are common inside buildings. Concerns about health problems due
to indoor air pollution are based on evidence that urban
residents typically spend more than 90% of their time indoors,
concentrations of some contaminants are higher indoors than
outdoors, and personal exposures to some pollutants are not
adequately characterized by outdoor measurements. Among the most
important indoor contaminants associated with health or
irritation effects are passive tobacco smoke, radon decay
products, CO, NO2, CH2O, asbestos fibers, microorganisms, and
aeroallergens. Efforts to assess health risk associated with
indoor air pollution are limited by insufficient information
about the number of people exposed, the pattern and severity of
exposures, and health effects of exposures. An overall strategy
should be developed to investigate indoor exposures, health
effects, control options, and public policy alternatives.
0265
Spengler, J.D., Duffy, C.P., Letz, R., Tibbits, T.W.,, and
Ferris, B.J.,Jr. (Mar. 1983) "Nitrogen dioxide inside and outside
137 homes and implications for ambient air quality standards and
health effects research", Environ. Sci. Technol., 17(3):164-
168.
KEYWORD: NO2, outdoor, field, microenvironment, source, exposure,
monitoring, model
Integrated NO2 measurements were taken by diffusion tube samplers
inside and outside 137 homes in Portage, WI. Over a 1-year
period, the annual mean ambient N02 concentrations were 10 to 15
mg/m3. NO2 levels inside the kitchens of 112 homes with gas
309
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stoves averaged 50 mg/m3 higher, and bedroom levels were about 30
mg/m3 higher than outdoor levels. Of gas-cooking homes, 10% had
annual average kitchen N02 levels higher than the National
Ambient Air Quality Standard of 100 mg/m3. NO2 levels inside the
kitchens of 25 homes with electric stoves were two-thirds those
of outdoor levels. The variation of N02 levels among homes due
to differences in stove use, emission rates, and air exchange
rates impedes the development of prediction models.
0131
Spengler, J.D., Ferris, B.C., Dockery, D.W., and Speizer, F.E.
(1979) "Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide levels inside and
outside homes and implications on health effects research",
Environ. Sci. Technol., 13(10):1276-1280.
KEYWORD: SO2, NO2, field, outdoor, monitoring, source, appliance
This paper presents the results of 1 year's indoor and outdoor
monitoring for SO2 and N02 in six communities with widely varying
outdoor levels. The representativeness of the monitoring in
defining exposure is discussed for each city. In four of the
communities, outdoor S02 levels were less than 50% of the annual
National Ambient Air Quality Standard, while violations were
found in the other two. Annual average indoor levels of SO2 were
20% to 70% of the outdoor levels and never exceeded the standard.
Indoor N02 levels exceeded outdoor levels by a factor of two,
depending on the type of cooking appliance used, but did not
exceed the standard. The impact of various heating and cooking
systems and appliances on the indoor concentrations of these
gases is evaluated.
0422
Spengler, J.D., Letz, R., Ferris, B.C. Jr., Tibbits, T.W., and
Duffy, C.P. (1981) "Weekly measurements of indoor and outdoor
nitrogen dioxide concentrations", presented at the 74th annual
meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (14 pages).
KEYWORD: NO2, QA, outdoor, source, field, sampling, appliance,
home, exposure
Indoor NO2 concentrations often exceed ambient concentrations
when gas-burning appliances are used. Cooking with gas is
identified as the principal source for high indoor concentrations
of N02 although gas hot water heaters, dryers, and heaters may
contribute to elevated indoor levels. Some recent epidemiologic
studies indicate the possibility of health effects presumably
associated with NO2 exposure. In conjunction with the on-going
Harvard Six City air pollution health study, week-long N02
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concentrations were monitored inside and outside 137 homes in
Portage, WI. The gas and electric cooking homes were repeatedly
monitored throughout the years 1980-81 using passive diffusion
samplers developed by Palmes et al. (1976). The objectives of
this program were to characterize spatial and temporal variation
between and within homes, and to improve predictions of NO2
exposure for the children participating in the health survey.
0449
Spengler, J.D., Stone, K.R., and Lilley, Frank W. (1978) "High
carbon monoxide levels measured in enclosed skating rinks", J.
Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 28(8):776-779.
KEYWORD: CO, SO2, NO2, particulate, ventilation, source, health,
biomonitoring, regulation, control
CO levels were measured in enclosed skating rinks in Boston, MA.
The 1-hour National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) of 35
ppm was exceeded in 82% of the sampled hours. In a separate
study, alveolar breath samples of 12 Harvard hockey players
showed a five-fold increase in carboxyhemoglobin levels after 93
minutes of exercise in air with a relatively low CO concentration
of 25 ppm. This paper demonstrates that (1) exercising athletes
incur physiologically dangerous levels of carboxyhemoglobin when
performing in legal ambient air concentrations of CO (25 ppm) and
(2) concentrations of poisonous gas in many indoor skating rinks
regularly exceed the NAAQS by as much as 300%. The authors
suggest that the Clean Air Act be amended to include indoor
public exposure to at least the criteria pollutants of CO, S02,
NO2, and suspended particulates. EPA should require revisions to
State Implementation Plans to take into account air pollution
exposures indoors. Finally, the authors suggest redesigning rink
maintenance machinery to use electric rather than gasoline
motors, upgrading pollution control equipment, or routinely using
ventilation equipment.
0273
Spengler, J.D., Treitman, R.D., Tosteson, T.D., Mage, D.T., and
Soczek, M.L. (Aug. 1985) "Personal exposure to respirable
particulates and implications for air pollution epidemiology",
Environ. Sci. Technol., 19:(8)700-707.
KEYWORD: particulate, home, personal, exposure, monitor, smoking,
outdoor, model, EPA$
Measurements of personal exposures to respirable particles (RSP)
were obtained from nonsmoking adults living in two rural
Tennessee communities. Personal exposure measurements were
compared to simultaneously collected indoor (home) and outdoor
311
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concentrations. Personal exposures were higher than, had a
greater variance than, and were uncorrelated with outdoor
concentrations. Household smoking was a substantial contributor
to personal RSP exposure. Ambient concentrations are poor
predictors of personal exposures to undifferentiated respirable
size particles. Epidemiological investigations of air pollution
must consider indoor environments in estimating exposures.
Further, the chemical and elemental compositions of indoor
concentrations and personal exposures are likely to be different
from ambient concentrations. This study indicates the potential
for misclassification and misassociation of exposures that are
likely to result in relying upon ambient, community-based
particle measurements.
0591
Spengler, John D., and Cohen, Martin A. (1985) "Emissions from
indoor combustion sources", Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and
Jacobs, V.A., Eds., "Indoor air and human health", Lewis
Publishers, Inc., P.O. Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 261-
278.
KEYWORD: combustion, source, emission, multipollutant, exposure,
literature
Unvented combustion of biomass fuels or fossil fuels and
pyrolysis of vegetation, oils, food, or building materials can
generate a variety of gaseous and particulate matter. Cleaner,
low-molecular-weight fuels (such as methane and propane) produce
C02, CO, NO, NO2, and H20 upon combustion. Depending on fuel
additives, reduced sulfur compounds, nitrates, hydrocarbon
fragments (including aldehydes), and hydrogen cyanide may be
produced. Reported literature focuses on CO, NO, and N02
measurements. Combustion of kerosene produces many of the same
contaminants as combustion of gaseous fuels. In addition,
kerosene burners are a source of ultrafine particles comprised
primarily of unburned or condensed hydrocarbons. In developing
countries, biomass fuels such as crop residue, wood, charcoal,
soft coal, and animal dung are used for cooking and heating. As
a result, researchers in rural India have measured particulate
concentrations of several milligrams per cubic meter and benzo-a-
pyrene concentrations of micrograms per cubic meter.
0610
Spicer, C.W., et al. (1986) "Intercomparison of sampling
techniques for toxic organic compounds in indoor air",
Hochheiser, S., and Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds., "Proceedings of the
1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the measurement of toxic air
pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711,
312
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pp. 45-60. Not yet available from NTIS. (In press, Air Pollution
Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230.)
KEYWORD: exposure, field, home, methodology, statistical, VOC,
halocarbon, aromatic, hydrocarbon, sampling, laboratory,EPA$
Several techniques for sampling volatile organic chemicals (VOCs)
were compared indoors, including distributive air volume
sampling, high- and low-rate passive sampling, and whole air
collection in canisters. The study focused on chloroform, 1,1,1-
trichloroethane, benzene, bromodichloromethane,
trichloroethylene, toluene, tetrachloroethylene, styrene, p-
dichlorobenzene, and hexachlorobutadiene. Ten 12-hour samples
were collected—for eight, the indoor air was spiked with the
target compounds in nominal concentrations of 3, 9, and 27 ng/L.
The other two samples were the background air of the residence
Correlation coefficients were generally high (greater than 0.90)
between the methods. Benzene had lower correlation coefficients.
In general, distributive air volume sampling and low-rate passive
sampling measure concentrations less than or equal to the
canister method.
0036
Squirrel, M. (1985) "Indoor air quality", Environ. Health,
93(11):299-301.
KEYWORD: source, literature
This article discusses the sources of indoor air pollutants,
including moisture, combustion gases, suspended particulates,
SOx, NOx, hydrocarbons, CO, photochemicals, metals, microbes,
radioactive substances, formaldehyde, asbestos, fungicides,
timber preservatives, tobacco smoke, human metabolic products,
and CO2.
0329
Stark, A.D., Quah, R.F., Meigs, J.W., and DeLouise, E.R. (1982)
"The relationship of environmental lead to blood-lead levels in
children", Environ. Res., 27:372-383.
KEYWORD: biomonitoring,home,model, statistical, children, water,
source, Pb
The distribution of Pb residential sources of 377 children in New
Haven, CT, was studied. Substantial amounts of Pb were present
in soil, paint, and house dust throughout New Haven, but not in
air or water. Multiple regression modeling indicated that the
most important contributors to variation in children's blood Pb
levels were soil and Pb-containing exterior house paint. Using
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the best five-variable model, only 11.7% of the variation in the
children's blood Pb levels could be explained. Researchers
concluded that residential Pb sources did not account for most of
the observed variation.
0123
Starr, H.G., Aldrich, F.D., McDougal, W.D., and Mounce, L.M.
(Dec. 1974) "Contribution of household dust to human exposure to
pesticides", Pestic. Monit. J., 8(3):209-213.
KEYWORD: particulate, pesticide, health, home, DDT, exposure,
dieldrin, lindane, chlordane, biomonitoring
Preliminary analyses reveal household dust as a major reservoir
of pesticides in the environment. Households with pesticides and
control households monitored in Weld County, CO, in 1968
demonstrate appreciable levels of selected chlorinated pesticides
in those living in pesticide households. No quantitative
relationships were demonstrated between pesticide levels in
household dust and in blood, although circumstantial data from
individual households indicate a relationship.
0584
Steinhausler, Fritz (1985) "European radon surveys and risk
assessment", Gammage R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds.,
"Indoor air and human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O.
Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 109-129.
KEYWORD: radon, literature, foreign, dose, source, control, home,
exposure,temperature,methodology,risk,epidemiology,Europe
In western Europe, several large-scale national programs have
been initiated in the past few years to assess the exposure of
the general population to radon and its daughters. The overall
effort is carried out by the Commission of the European
Communities (CEC), under the 1980-84 Radiation Protection
Research Programme. To ensure the comparability of the data
obtained in several national studies, CEC has organized an
international intercomparison program in close collaboration with
the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development-Nuclear
Energy Agency in Paris, France. The program will address the
largely varying key issues ranging from exhalation studies to
lung cancer risk assessments in the various European national
programs, as well as the current view of the regulatory aspects
of the control of indoor radon daughter exposure.
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0376
Sterling, D.A., Stock, T.H., and Monteith, O.K. (1984) "Factors
influencing formaldehyde levels in manufactured housing",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 139-144.
NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: CH20, source, home, temperature, ventilation, appliance,
exposure
A pair of identical mobile homes, one with electric heating and
cooking utilities and the other with propane gas utilities, were
used to evaluate various factors that may affect indoor
formaldehyde concentrations. Over 14 months, formaldehyde levels
in both homes decreased approximately 33% under similar
environmental conditions. However, short-term effects due to
daily variations of indoor temperature and air-exchange rate may
be more important factors. Formaldehyde levels fluctuated 20 to
40% over a 24-hour period even with a relatively constant indoor
temperature of 21 (+/- 2) degrees C. An increase of 8 degrees C
doubled the measured formaldehyde concentration, while opening
windows (approximately increasing the air-exchange rate 25-fold)
decreased formaldehyde up to 50% within 20 minutes. Using
propane as a cooking source did not increase formaldehyde
concentrations.
0595
Sterling, David A. (1985) "Volatile organic compounds in indoor
air: an overview of sources, concentrations, and health effects",
Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds., "Indoor air
and human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O. Drawer 519,
Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 387-402.
KEYWORD: health, exposure, literature, exposure, VOC,ventilation,
multipollutant, source, outdoor, energy
Contaminant levels indoors are often higher than outdoors,
sometimes exceeding ambient and even occupational standards.
Energy conservation measures that serve to "tighten" building
structures have intensified indoor air quality problems. In
these structures, indoor air contaminants may be a significant
health hazard. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been
measured from numerous indoor sources such as construction
materials, furnishings, consumer products, pesticides, combustion
fuels, and occupants. Many more organic vapors are found indoors
than outdoors and typically in greater concentrations. More than
250 organic compounds (over 1 ppb) have been identified in indoor
air, and nearly every class of compounds is represented. Health
effects observed from exposure to organic vapors come primarily
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from occupational studies where a compound may typically be
singled out, and concentrations and exposures can be estimated.
VOCs found indoors are in greater numbers and lower
concentrations than in occupational settings. Additive or
synergistic effects may be important for long-term, low-level
exposures. Although many of the common compounds measured in
indoor air are relatively inert, known and suspected mutagens and
carcinogens have also been measured.
0194
Sterling, David, Clark, C., and Bjornson, S. (1982) "The effect
of air control systems on the indoor distributions of viable
particles", Environ. Int., 8:409-414.
KEYWORD: microorganism, particulate, field, ventilation, control,
method
The filtering effects of three types of air control systems of
enclosed structures on viable particles in the ambient air were
investigated. Aspergillus fumigatus and other thermophilic
organisms were used as monitors for viable particles. The indoor
concentrations of viable particles were affected by building
design and the use of conventional mechanical air systems.
Viable particles of approximately 4.0 um and greater in
aerodynamic diameter were filtered from the air, while respirable
size particles less than 4.0 um were not filtered. There was
evidence of growth of viable particles within the mechanical air
systems. Conventional air control systems may not adequately
control viable particles indoors without modifications and proper
maintenance.
0342
Sterling, E.M., and Sterling, D.A. (1984) "Air quality in
hospitals and health care facilities", Berglund, B., Lindvall,
T., and Sundell, J., Eds. "Indoor air, vol. 5, buildings,
ventilation and thermal climate", Swedish Council for Building
Research, Stockholm, pp. 209-214. NTIS PB85-104222.
KEYWORD: ventilation, energy, control,exposure,sampling,hospital
In addition to air quality problems encountered in other sealed
buildings, both workers and patients in hospitals may be exposed
to very special air contaminant problems. Levels and ranges of a
variety of chemical pollutants measured in 16 hospitals are
reviewed using a computer-based Building Performance Information
System (BPIS). A number of anesthetic gases and sterilization
agents (halothane, N20, and ethylene oxide) appear at relatively
high levels that present hazardous conditions for hospital
workers and patients. Energy conservation in buildings
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(including hospitals) has concentrated on reducing ventilation.
Hospitals, because of special potentially hazardous conditions,
may be even more prone to problems than office or other public
buildings. Any energy conservaton strategy must seek to
guarantee reasonable air quality in hospitals.
0284
Sterling, E.M., and Sterling, T.D. (1985) "Interrelations among
different ventilation parameters and indoor pollutants", ASHRAE
Trans., Vol. 91, Part 2, Paper No. 2925, (8 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, CO2, particulate, field, hydrocarbon, ventilation,
exposure
A number of ventilation parameters and pollutants were measured
at 21 locations, furnishing data for evaluating interrelations
among commonly used descriptors of ventilation as well as their
relation to frequently measured indoor pollutants (including C02,
CO, particulates, and hydrocarbons). The analysis of the data is
presented in three sections: (1) the comparison of different
ventilation measures, (2) the relationship between ventilation
and pollutant concentrations across buildings, and (3) the
relationship of pollutants to ventilation measures in specific
buildings. The data show that (1) ventilation parameters based
on estimated building use do not necessarily describe ventilation
factors based on actual building use, so that ventilation
requirements related to occupancy considerations alone may not
adequately control indoor air quality, (2) CO2 concentrations
respond quite differently to changes in ventilation than
hydrocarbons, CO, and particulates, which appear to depend mainly
on outside levels, and (3) pollutant concentrations appear to
approach asymptotic values with increasing ventilation. These
asymptotes seem to be determined by the building and its outdoor
environment and may be only marginally affected by increased
ventilation.
0450
Sterling, T.D., and Sterling, E. (1979) "Carbon monoxide levels
in kitchens and homes with gas cookers", J. Air Pollut. Control
Assoc., 29(3):238-241.
KEYWORD: home, ventilation, exposure, activity, source, CO,
combustion, appliance
It generally has been assumed that (1) only a small amount of CO
will be produced by a gas stove when the air-gas mixture is well
adjusted and (2) the small amount of CO produced will be
dissipated by the home's ventilation and a combination of a fan
and hood over the stove. However, meal preparation may
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substantially increase CO levels. The immediate air supply may
be progressively diminished when more than one burner is used,
and the air supply may be partially cut off by vessels placed
over the flame. This investigation attempted to determine the
amount of CO that may be expected to be produced during normal
cooking. The experiment measured CO levels, using multiple
burners with and without cooking vessels, and the rate of
dissipation of the accumulated gas under various conditions of
ventilation.
0633
Sterling, Theodor, and Kobayashi, Diana M. (1977) "Exposure to
pollutants in enclosed living spaces", Environ. Res., 13:1-35.
KEYWORD: outdoor,exposure,microenvironment,1iterature,combustion,
multipcllutant, source
Enclosures such as homes and vehicles protect people from toxic
substances, but they may entrap pollutants that have seeped in
from the outside or have been generated inside. Studies on
enclosed environments are grouped here into into four categories,
each of which is discussed separately: homes, artificially sealed
environments such as submarines, public buildings, and
transportation - related enclosures. Pollution levels reported
from different studies are summarized in a series of appended
tables. The concentrations of toxic vapors and dusts indoors may
very well exceed concentrations outdoors.
0692
Stock, Thomas H., and Mendez, Sixto R. (1985) "A survey of
typical exposures to formaldehyde in Houston area residences",
Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 46(6):313-317.
KEYWORD: home, CH2O, field, ventilation, control, distribution,
exposure
Indoor air quality during warm weather was surveyed in a variety
of Houston, TX, area residences not selected in response to
occupant complaints. Indoor formaldehyde concentrations ranged
from less than 0.008 ppm to 0.29 ppm, with an arithmetic mean of
0.07 ppm. Approximately 15% of the monitored residences exceeded
0.01 ppm. Formaldehyde levels depended on both age and
structural classification of the residence. These factors are
dependent of each other and more fundamental variables, such as
the rate of exchange of indoor and outdoor air and the overall
emission potential of indoor materials. This survey suggests
that people may be exposed to excess (> 0.10 ppm) formaldehyde in
many homes, indicating the need to improve control strategies.
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0281
Stock, Thomas H., et al. (Dec. 1985) "The estimation of personal
exposures to air pollutants for a community-based study of health
effects in asthmatics—design and results of air monitoring", J.
Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 35:(12)1266-1273.
KEYWORD: multipollutant, EPA$, field, exposure, outdoor, weather,
monitoring
To provide reliable pollutant and meteorological exposure
estimates for an epidemiological study of asthmatics residing in
two Houston, TX, neighborhoods, a dedicated three-tier air
monitoring system was established. This consisted of fixed-site
ambient air monitoring at the center of each study area, a mobile
van performing simultaneous indoor and outdoor measurements at
selected residences of study participants, and a limited amount
of direct personal monitoring for half of the participants.
Monitored pollutants included all criteria pollutant gases, as
well as aeroallergens, aldehydes, total suspended particulates,
and inhaled particulates. Laboratory analyses provided
concentrations of sulfate, nitrate, and trace elements. Several
meteorological parameters also were continuously measured. 03
was the only measured pollutant that exceeded the National
Ambient Air Quality Standard during the May-to-October study
period. The monitoring scheme allowed important pollutant
concentration differences to be detected between day and night,
between indoors and outdoors, and among various indoor
environments.
0587
Stolwijk, J.A.J., Leaderer, B.P., and Berwick, M. (1985)
"Experimental considerations in the measurement of exposures to
sidestream cigarette smoke", Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and
Jacobs, V.A., Eds., "Indoor air and human health", Lewis
Publishers, Inc., P.O. Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 205-213.
KEYWORD: smoking, exposure, methodology, epidemiology, health
Evidence is increasing that chronic passive cigarette smoking can
cause respiratory irritation, infection, and cancer. However,
measuring exposure to smoke and possible health effects is
complicated by the chemical complexity of tobacco smoke,
ignorance of how easily these chemicals contact and enter
respiratory tissues, and the extreme range of smoke
concentrations. As a result, no universally accepted methods
exist for measuring tobacco smoke exposures or health effects.
The major types of methods, often used in combinations, are (1)
microenvironmental or personal measurements of one or more smoke
constituents, (2) measurement of concentrations of these
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constituents or their metabolic by-products in blood, breath,
urine, or tissues, (3) surveys of smoker and victim densities,
ventilation, and/or activity patterns, and (4) analysis of health
and demographic data.
0266
Stone, Robert, et al. (March 1981) "Evaluation of formaldehyde in
residential mobile homes", U.S. Department of Transportation,
Washington, DC (195 pages). NTIS PB82-144619.
KEYWORD: model, CH2O, home, regulation, health, economic, control
The extent of formaldehyde contamination inside residential
mobile homes was investigated. A computer model was developed to
aid the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development in
evaluating potential alternatives for regulating maximum
formaldehyde levels for new mobile homes. Health costs
associated with formaldehyde exposure were examined to establish
baseline costs to mobile home occupants in the absence of
regulation.
0382
Sugawara, F., and Yoshizawa, S. (1984) "Size distribution of
airborne fungal and bacterial particles in Japanese buildings",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 241-246.
NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: microorganism, particulate, source, foreign, sampling,
Japan
This study presents the results of an attempt to determine the
size distribution of indoor airborne fungal and bacterial
particles using an Andersen air sampler (six stage). The study
was carried out in 1978-82 in the Tokyo, Japan, area. The size
distribution of fungal particles was similar to log-normal
distribution with peaks around 3.5 urn in diameter irrespective of
seasons, spaces, or concentration levels. Distribution of
cladosporium particles alone was almost the same. Bacterial
particles did not show definite distribution types. The
differences in size distributions seem to come from the mechanism
of liberation into air. The median diameter was about 3.5 um for
fungi and 5.5 to 6.5 um for bacteria.
0352
Syversen, T.L.M., Eide, I., and Malvik, B. (1984) "Chemical air
quality in energy-efficient houses", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T.,
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and Sundell, J., Eds./'Indoor air, vol. 5, buildings, ventilation
and thermal climate", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 529-533. NTIS PB85-104222.
KEYWORD: CH2O, particulate, home,field,alkane,VOC, radon, energy,
ventilation, source
Chemical pollutants and ventilation rates were measured in
energy-efficient private dwellings. The samples were taken with
no human activity in the houses. The main source of organic
pollutants seems to be indoor building materials and furniture.
For dust, an important source could be the outdoor environment.
Formaldehyde was primarily found in houses with chipboard. Radon
daughters were very low in all houses tested.
0585
Tager, Ira B. (1985) "Passive cigarette smoke: overview",
Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds.,"Indoor air and
human health", Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O. Drawer 519, Chelsea,
MI 48118, pp. 191-194.
KEYWORD: smoking, exposure, health, methodology, monitoring,
economic, activity, aerosol
The potential health consequence of exposure to passive cigarette
smoke has become a subject of increased scientific and public
debate. However, many issues remain to be resolved before a
clearer picture of these consequences can emerge. Identification
and quantitation of environmental tobacco smoke presents problems
related to the selection of the most relevant chemical compounds
in terms of health effects. (Some cigarette compounds are
previewed by other sources.) Nicotine is a unique component, but
its relationship to other constituents of tobacco smoke is poorly
understood. The many factors that influence accumulation of
products of tobacco smoke have not been properly controlled in
most studies. The interplay of factors that influence deposition
of an aerosol such as passive smoke requires elaboration so that
actual exposures can be more accurately estimated. Current
studies of the potential health effects of passive exposure to
cigarette smoke have suggested effects on acute and chronic
cardiopulmonary morbidity. However, methods for detecting
exposure are complicated by the incomplete control of potential
confounding factors (family size, socioeconomic status, etc.).
Thus, further investigation is needed.
0371
Tartaglia, M.S., DiNardi, S.R., and Ludwig, J.F. (1984) "A
comparison of calibration procedures for an automatic
formaldehyde analyzer", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell,
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J., Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions
to sick buildings", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 75-80. NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: CH20, QA, methodology, home, exposure
Obtaining reliable continuous data on residential formaldehyde
levels with the CEA Model TGM 555 Air Monitor requires an
accurate and precise method of calibration. Calibrations were
compared with liquid standards prepared from refluxed
paraformaldehyde in water, liquid standards prepared from 37%
solution of formaldehyde in water, and dynamic gaseous
formaldehyde standards generated with a permeation tube. The CEA
was modified to avoid the use of the toxic mercuric chloride
reagent. The modified CEA was calibrated with the
paraformaldehyde liquid standard and the gaseous standard. The
three calibration methods, the modified instrument, and the
results of the comparisons are discussed.
0769
TerKonda, Purush K., and Liaw, Shu-Liang (1983) "Monitoring of
indoor aldehydes", Frederick, Edward R., et al., Eds.,
"Proceedings of the specialty conference on measurement and
monitoring of noncriteria (toxic) contaminants in air, held in
March of 1983 ", Publication no. SP-50, Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230, pp. 435-440.
KEYWORD: aldehyde ,CH20,regulation,source, monitor, home, office,
sampling, ventilation, methodology
Both total aliphatic aldehydes (RCHO) and formaldehyde (CH2O)
have produced numerous serious consumer complaints, forcing some
state agencies and the Consumer Product Safety Commission to
impose a ban and regulations on CH2O, particularly urea
formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI). In this research, various
nonoccupational indoor environments (including mobile homes,
apartments, single family homes with and without UFFI, offices,
and public buildings) were monitored for RCHO and CH2O for 1
year. Indoor samples were taken with 3-impinger trains in each
environment simultaneously using 0.05% MBTH (3-methyl-2-
benzothiazoline hydrazone hydrochloride) solution to absorb RCHO
and deionized distilled water for CH2O. Samples were analyzed
immediately with the MBTH procedure for RCHO and pararosaniline
procedure for CH20 with a spectrophotometer. RCHO concentrations
ranged between 10 and 600 ug/m3 and CH2O concentrations between
10 and 480 ug/m3. Factors affecting these indoor concentrations
included sources of aldehydes, ventilation rate, and age of
building.
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0279
Thomas, J., Mage, D., Wallace, L., and Ott, W. (May 1985) "A
sensitivity analysis of the enhanced simulation of the human air
pollution exposure (SHAPE) model", EPA contract 68-01-6595, U.S.
EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711 (126 pages). NTIS PB85-201101/REB.
KEYWORD: CO, SHAPE, distribution, microenvironment, model, EPA$,
exposure, biomonitoring
A sensitivity analysis was undertaken of the Simulation of Human
Air Pollution Exposure (SHAPE) model. The SHAPE model simulates
the physical activities of a sample of people in an urban area,
exposing them to pollutant concentrations from appropriate
microenvironments as they move through time and space in a 24-
hour period. To conduct this sensitivity analysis, the SHAPE
program was run many times using a different combination of
values for its parameters, thus allowing the contribution to
blood carboxyhemoglobin of each of many variables to be examined.
The following phenomena had considerable effect on the predicted
frequency distribution of the maximum COHb levels of the
population: (1) CO exposure time pattern (CO exposure as a
function of time), (2) CO exposure contributed by the highway
microenvironment, (3) altitude of the city, and (4) the
physiological parameters (e.g., Haldane parameter and endogenous
CO production rate).
0670
Thompson, C. Ray, Hensel, Earl G., and Kats, Gerrit (1973)
"Outdoor-indoor levels of six air pollutants", J. Air Pollut.
Control Assoc., 23(10):881-886.
KEYWORD: PAN,N02, CO, particulate, NO, seasonal, control,outdoor,
ventilation, office, O3, school, home, monitor, weather
Levels of six air pollutants—total oxidant, peroxyacetyl nitrate
(PAN), NO, NO2, CO, and particulate matter—were compared outside
and inside 11 buildings in the South Coast Basin of California
during summer and fall. Total oxidant levels inside depend upon
how much outside air is being brought in and the residence time
in the structure. With rapid intake and circulation, levels
inside may be two-thirds those outside. With slow intake and
circulation, levels inside decay to near zero. PAN is more
persistent in buildings because it is more stable than ozone but
also decays to low levels over an extended period. NO, NO2 and
CO are much more stable than oxidants or PAN, and when carried
into buildings remain until diluted or exhausted. Particulate
matter levels indoors depend largely upon velocity of air
movement. In areas where foot traffic was light or ventilation
rates low, levels were reduced. Electrostatic precipitators were
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much more effective than the coarse primary filters used in many
buildings for removing particulate matter.
0613
Tichenor, B. A., Jackson, M. D., and Merrill, R. G. (1986)
"Measurement of organic emissions from indoor materials — small
chamber studies", Hochheiser, S., and Jayanti, R.K.M., Eds.,
"Proceedings of the 1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the measurement of
toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711,
pp. 86-94. Not yet available from NTIS. (In press, Air Pollution
Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230.)
KEYWORD: emission, laboratory, source,VOC, methodology, humidity,
temperature, ventilation, control, EPA$
Volatile organic compounds indoors have been measured at
concentrations exceeding those found outdoors. EPA's Air and
Energy Engineering Research Laboratory is conducting studies in
small environmental chambers to develop emissions data for indoor
sources of these compounds. The studies include gas
chromatograph measurements of a variety of organic compounds
emitted from selected indoor materials (e.g., particle board,
flooring adhesive, caulking compounds). Environmental conditions
(i.e., temperature, humidity, air-exchange rates) vary, and their
influences on emission rates can be determined. Data are
presented for emissions from a clear acrylic latex caulk with
silicone. These data show the variation in concentrations and
emission factors over time for total measured organics and
selected organic species.
0534
Tokiwa, Y., Tamplin, B.R., and Nadel, J.A. (1965) "Monitoring
human exposures to sulfur dioxide in a body plethysmograph", J.
Air Pollut. Control. Assoc., 15(3):96-98.
KEYWORD: exposure, lung, health, methodology, laboratory, SO2
A procedure is described for producing a SO2-contaminated
atmosphere within a body plethysmograph, exposing subjects to
this atmosphere while maintaining the SO2 concentration at a
given level, and measuring the concentration with less than 1
minute of lag time. Incremental volumes of SO2 were introduced
via syringe, thus limiting the maximum SO2 concentration in the
chamber and ensuring the subject's safety. A Titrilog SO2
analyzer with its rapid response characteristics provides quick
measurements of the S02 concentration. The body plethysmograph
used in this manner serves simultaneously as a device to measure
pulmonary function and as an exposure chamber.
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0200
Tosteson, T.D., Spengler, J.D., and Weker, R.A. (1982) "Aluminum,
iron, and lead content of respirable particulate samples from a
personal monitoring study", Environ. Int., 8:265-268.
KEYWORD: particulate, Fe, Al, Pb, outdoor, personal, exposure,
field, literature, vehicle, interior
Samples of respirable particulate matter collected during a
personal monitoring study in Topeka, KS, were analyzed for iron,
aluminum, and Pb. The sampling protocol and instrumentation are
described in detail. Pb indoor concentrations (median = 79
ng/m3) were less than both personal (median = 112 ng/m3) and
outdoor Pb concentrations (median = 106 ng/m3). The indoor,
outdoor, and personal levels of Fe and Al were not significantly
different. In addition, outdoor respirable particulate mass does
not correlate well with the personal or indoor metal
concentrations, and the amount of time spent in motor vehicles is
a relatively good indicator of Pb exposures. The relationships
between indoor, outdoor, and personal Pb are discussed in greater
detail, with references to supporting evidence from other
studies.
0709
Traynor, G.W., Anthon, D.W., and Hollowell, C.D. (1982)
"Technique for determining pollutant emissions from a gas-fired
range", Atmos. Environ., 16(12):2979-2987.
KEYWORD: CO,NO,SO2,CH20,particulate,combustion,model,appliance
Laboratory measurements from a gas-fired range have shown that
CO, NO, SO2, formaldehyde, and respirable particles were emitted
during combustion. Carbon was the dominant element of the
respirable particles emitted. A mathematical indoor air quality
model was applied to the studies to calculate pollutant emission
rates per caloric value of fuel consumed. The model was also
used to calculate the temporal profile of the indoor pollution
concentrations as well as to determine indoor pollutant decay
rates from mechanisms other than air infiltration. Measured and
calculated data showed good agreement, suggesting that this model
may be useful for determining pollutant emissions from a wide
variety of other sources, estimating pollution levels in other
indoor microenvironments, and evaluating pollutant control
strategies.
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0673
Traynor, G.W., Apte, M.G., Sokol, H.A., Chuang, J.C., and
Mumford, J.L. (1986) "Selected organic pollutant emissions from
unvented kerosene heaters", Paper no. 86-52.5, presented at the
79th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (20 pages).
KEYWORD: VOC, combustion, source, laboratory, PAH, PCP, kerosene,
EPA$ aromatic, phthalate, ketone, alcohol, naphthalene, benzene
An exploratory study assessed emissions of semivolatile and
nonvolatile organic compounds from unvented kerosene space
heaters; one a well-tuned radiant heater and the other a maltuned
convective heater. Each was operated in a 27-m3 chamber with a
prescribed on/off pattern. Organic compounds were collected on
Teflon-impregnated glass filters backed by XAD-2 resin and
analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Pollutant
source strengths were calculated using a mass-balance equation.
The results showed that kerosene heaters can emit polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), nitrated PAHs, alkyl benzenes,
pentachlorophenol, phthalates, hydronaphthalenes, aliphatic
hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones, and other organic compounds.
0269
Traynor, G.W., Girman, J.R., Apte, M.G., Dilworth, J.F., and
White, P.O. (1985) "Indoor air pollution due to emissions from
unvented gas-fired space heaters", J. Air Pollut. Control
Assoc., 35(3):231-237.
KEYWORD: CO, N02, NO, CO2, CH20, particulate, source,laboratory, c
ombustion, gas, appliance, emission, home, ventilation
Unvented combustion appliances can elevate indoor pollution
concentrations. Under laboratory conditions, O2 consumption
rates and rates of CO, CO2, NO, N02, formaldehyde, and submicron
suspended particles emitted from eight unvented gas-fired space
heaters operated with well-adjusted air shutters at partial and
full fuel consumption rates were determined in a 27-m3 chamber.
Emission rates were also determined for some heaters operating
under poorly tuned conditions. Four of the eight heaters were
subsequently tested in a 240-m3 research house with 0.36 to 1.14
air changes per hour. These steady-state levels were projected:
100 ppm CO2, 1.0 to 26 ppm CO (under well-tuned conditions), 0.40
to 1.46 ppm N02, and 19.1% to 20.7% 02. Concentrations of C02,
CO, and NO2 sometimes exceeded outdoor or occupational
guidelines. Analysis showed that CO, NO, and N02 emission rates
derived from laboratory tests were consistent with initial
emission rates observed in the field. However, they did not
always correspond to steady-state emission rates.
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0710
Traynor, G.W., Nitschke, I.A., Clarke, W.A., Adams, G.P., and
Rizzuto, J.E. (1985) "A detailed study of thirty houses from
indoor combustion sources", Paper no. 85-30A.3, presented at the
78th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (16 pages).
KEYWORD: home,exposure,ventilation,monitoring,source, combustion,
activity,model,multipollutant,seasonal,weather,field
In this initial survey, 30 houses with combustion sources in
northeastern and central New York State were selected somewhat
randomly. Using active and passive integrating samplers, N02,
CO, respirable particulates (RSP), formaldehyde (CH2O), and air
exchange rates were monitored for 41 1-week periods. In winter,
home owners logged combustion source usage. During follow-up
real-time monitoring, the 6 houses with highest combustion
pollutant levels were monitored for NO, NO2, RSP, CO, and CO2.
Weather and air exchange rate data also were gathered in real-
time. Correlations between source usage and real-time pollutant
concentrations are described and modeled.
0543
Traynor, Gregory W., et al. (1983) "Indoor air pollution due to
emissions from unvented gas-fired space heaters", Paper 83-9.6,
presented at the 76th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (35 pages).
KEYWORD: combustion, source, NO, CO, emission, CH2O, NO2, home,
particulate, CO2, laboratory, ventilation, appliance
Unvented combustion appliance can elevate indoors pollutant
concentrations. Under laboratory conditions, the oxygen
consumption rates and the pollutant emission rates were
determined for CO, C02, NO, N02, formaldehyde, and submicron
particles emitted from eight unvented gas-fired space heaters
operated with well-adjusted air shutters at partial and full
input in a 27-m3 chamber. Emission rates were also determined
for some heaters operating under poorly tuned conditions. Four
of the eight heaters were subsequently tested in a 240-m3
research house with 0.36 to 1.14 air changes per hour. Based on
measurements near steady state, the authors projected these
steady-state pollutant and oxygen levels: 1,930 to 11,100 ppm for
CO2, 1.0 to 26 ppm for CO (under well-tuned conditions), 0.40 to
1.46 ppm for N02, and 19.1 to 20.7% for 02. C02, CO, and N02
were sometimes observed to be above outdoor concentrations or
occupational guidelines. CO, NO, and N02 emission rates can vary
with time and, while short-term emission rates derived from
laboratory tests were consistent with initial emission rates
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observed in the field, these rates did not always correspond to
steady-state emission rates.
0351
Traynor, G.W., Apte, M.G., Carruthers, A.R., Dillworth, J.F.,
Grimsrud, D.T., and Thompson, W.T. (1984) "Indoor air pollution
and inter-room pollutant transport due to unvented kerosene-fired
space heaters", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.
"Indoor air, vol. 5, buildings, ventilation and thermal climate",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 523-528.
NTIS PB85-104222.
KEYWORD: CO, C02, NO, N02, 02,exposure, temperature, ventilation,
home, kerosene, field, combustion, emission
Two kerosene-fired space heaters, one white-flame convective and
one blue-flame radiant, were operated in the master bedroom of an
unoccupied house under several simulated use conditions. Tests
were conducted with the bedroom door and outside window closed,
with the door closed and the window open 2.5 cm, with the door
open 2.5 cm and the window closed, and with the door wide open
and the window closed. The heaters were operated until the
temperature rose 8 degrees C in the bedroom. Bedroom
concentrations of CO, CO2, NO, NO2, and O2 increased. The
increases in C02 levels ranged from 2,440 to 5,440 ppm, while the
increases in NO2 levels ranged from 0.12 to 0.60 ppm. In
addition, inter-room pollutant transport rates were determined
with the window closed. While the rates were less than 10
m3/hour with the bedroom door closed, they were 30 (+/- 10)
m3/hour with the bedroom door open 2.5 cm, and ranged from 190 to
3,400 m3/hour with the door fully open (74 cm).
0765
Traynor, G.W., Apte, M.G., Carruthers, A.R., Dillworth, J.F.,
Grimsrud, D.T., and Gundel, L.A. (1984) "Indoor air pollution due
to emissions from wood burning stoves", Paper no. 84-33.4,
Presented at the 77th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (10 pages).
KEYWORD: EPA$,CO,NO,N02,CH20,particulate,home,combustion,outdoor,
PAH, energy, method, monitor, sample, source, wood
Emissions of CO, NO, N02, formaldehyde (CH20), total suspended
particles (TSP), submicron particles (<0.6 urn), and polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from four wood-burning stoves were
determined in a single-floor test house in Truckee, CA
(elevation: 1800 meters). All pollutants were measured in real
time, except for CH20 which was measured with a
bubbler/collector. Three airtight stoves did not emit
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significant amounts of pollutants indoors, while one nonairtight
stove emitted high amounts of CO and PAH-containing suspended
particulates. TSP concentrations were greater indoors than
outdoors, including when no stove was in use. Indoor and outdoor
NO and NO2 concentrations were very low for all tests. CH2O
levels were also low in general. All stoves emitted at least
trace amounts of CO.
0512
Traynor, G.W., Apte, M.G., Dillworth, J.F., and Grimsrud, D.T.
(1983) "Indoor air pollution from portable kerosene-fired space
heaters", U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research,
Office of Health and Environmental Research, Washington, DC 20585
(15 pages). NTIS DE83-009140.
KEYWORD: home, combustion, NO2, ventilation,laboratory, emission,
exposure, field, outdoor, kerosene, CO
Unvented combustion appliances used indoors are known to increase
indoor air pollutant levels. Laboratory tests were conducted on
unvented portable radiant and convective kerosene-fired space
heaters to identify the pollutants emitted and to determine the
emission rates. CO and N02 emission rates were determined. The
researchers presummarized the effect of wick height and fuel
consumption rate on CO and N02 emissions. Pollutant-
concentration profiles resulting from kerosene heaters used in a
27-m3 environmental chamber and a 240-m3 house were also
determined. When such heaters are operated for 1 hour in a 27-m3
chamber with 0.4 air changes per hour, the resultant C02
concentrations are well above the U.S. occupational standard, and
NO2 concentrations are well above California's short-term outdoor
standard. Further data on parameters such as heater-use patterns
and air-exchange rates are needed to determine the actual
pollutant exposure that kerosene heater users experience.
0190
Traynor, G.W., Apte, M.G., Dillworth, J.F., Hollowell, C.D., and
Sterling, E.M. (1982) "The effects of ventilation on residential
air pollution due to emissions from a gas-fired range", Environ.
Int., 8(1-6):447-452.
KEYWORD: multipollutant,model,home,source,combustion,ventilation,
control, method, gas, appliance
Indoor combustion appliances can increase the levels of many
different pollutants. The usefulness of a model for
extrapolating environmental chamber results on pollutant
emissions from combustion appliances to determine pollutant
concentrations in actual residences is shown. In addition, the
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effects of infiltration, whole-house ventilation, and spot
ventilation on pollutant levels are investigated. Pollutants
from a gas range were measured at an unoccupied experimental
research house. The results show that a range hood is the most
effective means of removing pollutants emitted from a gas-fired
range; removal rates were from 60% to 87%.
0688
Tu, K.W., and Hinchliffe, L.E. (1983) "A study of particulate
emissions from portable space heaters", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc.
J., 44(11):857-862.
KEYWORD: source, appliance, particulate, ventilation, exposure,
combustion
Particulate emissions from five portable space heaters were
studied in a 31-m3 room with a ventilation rate of 3 air-
changes/hour and in an Il-m3 air-tight chamber. The five were:
three conventional electrical space heaters having different
heating elements—a heavy coil, a thin strip, and a fine coil—
one new-style electrical heater in which the heating element is
enclosed in a quartz tube, and a modern type of kerosene burner
with a wire-heating mantle housed in a heat chamber. The
conventional electrical heaters produced ultrafine particles,
while the quartz and kerosene heaters released larger particles
of up to 3 urn in diameter. The particle number and mass
concentrations were in the ranges of 10,000-1,000,000-106
particles/cm3 and 1-300 ug/m3, respectively. The kerosene heater
released 1 to 2 orders of magnitude more particles, both in mass
and number, than the other heaters. These particles were a
mixture of individual solid and hollow spheres with sizes up to
0.3 urn, and clusters and chain aggregates in the range of 0.1 to
3 urn.
0419
Turiel, I., Hollowell, C., Miksch, R.R., Rudy, J.V., and Young,
R.A. (1983) "The effects of reduced ventilation on indoor air
quality in an office building", Atmos. Environ., 17(l):51-64.
KEYWORD: C02, CH20, VOC, microorganism, particulate, ventilation,
CO, NO2, exposure, health, field, office
Indoor air quality was monitored at an office building in San
Francisco, CA, where occupants had registered eye, nose, and
throat irritation complaints. Portable air pollution monitoring
equipment was placed on site to monitor air outdoors and at three
indoor sites (a waiting room, an interview room, and an office
room), and data were taken under two different ventilation rates.
The parameters measured were outside air flow rates, temperature,
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relative humidity, odor perception, microbial burden, particulate
mass, formaldehyde and other organics, CO2, CO, and NO2. C02
concentrations increased as the ventilation rate decreased; odor
perceptibility increased slightly at the lowest ventilation rate,
and other pollutants generally showed very low concentrations,
which increased when ventilation was reduced. In no case,
however, did levels exceed current health standards for outdoor
air, nor was any one contaminant found to be responsible for the
medical symptoms reported by occupants. It is possible that a
synergistic effect of the various contaminants and environmental
conditions could account for the discomfort of occupants.
0445
Turk, B.H., Brown, J.T., Grimsrud, J.T., Geisling-Sobotka, K.,
Harrison, J., and Revzan, K.L. (1986) "Indoor air quality
measurements in 38 Pacific Northwest commercial buildings", Paper
86-5.3, presented at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution
Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (26
pages).
KEYWORD: monitor, ventilation, office, indoor, radon, smoking,
CH2O, NO2, C02, particulate
A Bonneville Power Administration-funded study monitored
ventilation rates and a variety of indoor air pollutants in 38
Pacific Northwest commercial buildings. The buildings ranged in
age from 6 months to 90 years, in size from 864 to 34,280 m2, and
occupancy from 25 to 2,500 people. Building average formaldehyde
(CH20) concentrations were below the 20 ppb detection limit in
48% of the buildings. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentration
averages ranged from 5 ppb to 43 ppb and were lower than outdoor
concentrations in 8 of 13 buildings. At only one site, an
elementary school classroom, did carbon dioxide (CO2) exceed
1,000 ppm. Radon (Rn) levels were elevated in one building with
an average concentration of 7.4 pCiL-1. Respirable particle
(RSP) concentrations in smoking areas in 32 buildings had a
geometric mean of 44 ug m-3 and ranged up to 308 ug m-3 at one
site. In non-smoking areas the geometric mean RSP was 15 ug m-3.
Outside air ventilation rates did not appear to be the single
dominant parameter in determining indoor pollutant
concentrations. Measured pollutant concentrations in 2
"complaint" buildings were below accepted guideline. The cause
of the complaints was not identified.
0690
Underbill, D.W. (1984) "Efficiency of passive sampling by
adsorbents", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 45(5):306-310.
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KEYWORD: sampling, monitoring, statistical, personal, exposure,
VOC, QA, methodology, monitor
The efficiency of passive samplers can be influenced strongly by
the adsorption isotherm. This study calculated sampling
efficiency in terms of dimensionless variables for adsorption
controlled by the Langmuir, Freundlich, and Dubinin-Radushkevich
isotherms. For the latter isotherm, which is often followed by
activated charcoal to adsorb solvent vapors, passive sampling may
remain highly efficient until a significant fraction of the
adsorbent's capacity has been used.
0408
Urban, M., and Kiefer, H. (1985) "Indoor and outdoor natural
radiation survey programmes, aspects of instrumentation and
organization, results", Sci. Total Environ., 45:281-297.
KEYWORD: radiation, exposure, methodology, literature, foreign,
radon, source, Germany
In the last two decades, many countries started national or
regional surveys to assess the average exposure of the general
public to natural radiation. Survey programs for external
radiation as well as for radon and decay products indoors either
have been performed, are still in progress, or will be started in
the near future. The paper discusses briefly technical and
organizational aspects of survey measurements as well as
practical experiences and results available from national or
regional survey programs.
0339
Van der Kolk, J. (1984) "Wood preservatives and indoor air,
experiences in The Netherlands", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and
Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 1, recent advances in the
health sciences and technology", Swedish Council for Building
Research, Stockholm, pp. 251-256. NTIS PB85-104180.
KEYWORD: pesticide,field,health,exposure, wood, control, foreign,
Netherlands
The application of wood preservatives in the interior of
buildings in The Netherlands has in recent years been shown to be
a potential health hazard. A number of experiences indicate that
in many cases the application of wood preservatives has not been
in accordance with good practice and does not adequately consider
the possible health effects for people living in the treated
houses. Both preventive and remedial treatments as well as
insecticidal and fungicidal products are considered. The
Netherlands regulates these products under the Pesticides Act,
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implying a registration prior to their sale and use.
0353
Van Houdt, J.J., and Boleij, J.S.M. (1984) "Mutagenic activity of
indoor airborne particles compared to outdoors", Berglund, B.,
Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 2, radon,
passive smoking, particulates and housing epidemiology", Swedish
Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 169-176. NTIS
PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: particulate, health, mutagenicity, exposure, source,
smoking
This study deals with the mutagenic activity of indoor samples
under normal living conditions in relation to outdoor air.
Particles were collected simultaneously in kitchens, living
rooms, and outdoors. Methanol extracts were tested in the
Salmonella/microsome assay. The mutagenic activity of indoor as
well as outdoor samples generally increased in the presence of a
metabolizing system. Furthermore, the indoor samples bore higher
indirect mutagenic activity, especially in smokers' homes.
Kitchen samples also showed mutagenic activity, probably due to
volatilization of cooking products. Infiltrated outdoor
particles did not contribute to indoor mutagenicity.
0409
Vanmarcke, H., Janssens, A., and Raes, F. (1985) "The equilibrium
of attached and unattached radon daughters in the domestic
environment", Sci. Total Environ., 45:251-260.
KEYWORD: radon, particulate, ventilation, model, dose, exposure,
field, aerosol
The Jacobi Room Model is applied to fit radon daughter
concentrations measured in a room. The aerosol size distribution
and ventilation rate are measured simultaneously. The mean
deposition rate fitted to these experiments is 16 h-1. Once all
parameters are fixed, the unattached fraction and the effective
dose equivalent are calculated, and compared to the Working Level
concept.
0387
Vedel, A., and Nielsen, P.A. (1984) "Phthalate esters in the
indoor environment", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J.,
Eds.,"Indoor air, vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to
sick buildings", Swedish Council for Building Research,
Stockholm, pp. 309-314. NTIS PB85-104206.
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KEYWORD: phthalate, source, health, literature, field, exposure,
outdoor, particulate, architecture
This paper gives an overall evaluation of the actual state of
knowledge about phthalates. Phthalate esters have boiling points
higher than 250 degrees C., and for that reason have not been
studied as an indoor air pollutant. However, phthalates are used
in many modern building materials, e.g., floor and wall
coverings, paints, and electrical lines. Many toxicological
studies have been made on phthalates.
0547
Vimpani, G., McMichael, A., Robertson, E., and Wigg, N. (1985)
"The Port Pirie study: a prospective study of pregnancy outcome
and early childhood growth and development in a lead-exposed
community protocol and status report", Environ. Res., 38:19-23.
KEYWORD: Pb, biomonitoring, sampling, health, children, economic,
statistical, demographic, foreign, Australia, pregnancy
The Port Pirie, Australia, environment and pregnancy study was
established in 1979 to study the relationship of cumulative
postconception Pb exposure to pregnancy outcome and to postnatal
growth and development. Of the possible 735 newborns followed
since the antenatal period, researchers anticipate that
growth/development data will be obtained through the age of 7
years for 600 of these children. Serial measures of blood Pb,
and subsequently dental Pb measures, will allow examination of
relationships among Pb burden, a range of environmental/social
covariates, and developmental data.
0526
Vo-Dinh, Tuan (1983) "A personnel or area dosimeter for
polynuclear aromatic vapors", in "proceedings: National symposium
on recent advances in pollutant monitoring of ambient air and
stationary sources, held at Raleigh, NC, May 4-7, 1982, U.S.
EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711, pp. 289-300. NTIS PB84-148345.
KEYWORD: pyrene, PAH,phenanthrene,quinoline,QA,personal,exposure,
methodology
A new passive dosimeter has been developed for monitoring
airborne vapors and liquid aerosols of potentially hazardous
polynuclear aromatic compounds. The device is a self-contained,
badge-size unit that passively collects on filter paper the
compounds to be monitored at a diffusion-controlled rate.
Collection is followed by in-situ, room temperature
phosphorescence analysis of the compounds adsorbed on the
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dosimeter. The dosimeter can detect pyrene, phenanthrene, and
quinoline at sub-ppb levels for an 8-hour exposure.
0322
Vo-Dinh, Tuan (1985) "Development of a dosimeter for personnel
exposure to vapors of polyaromatic pollutants", Environ. Sci.
Technol., 19 (10)997-1003.
KEYWORD: PAH, pyrene, phenanthrene, quinoline, personal,exposure,
methodology, QA
A new personal dosimeter based on molecular diffusion and direct
detection by room temperature phosphorescence (RTF) has been
developed to monitor vapors of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAH). The dosimeter is a simple, pen-size device that requires
no sample extraction for analysis. By proper calibration of the
dosimeters, the time-weighted average exposure to the pollutants
can be determined directly on the sample collection substrate.
The dosimeters can detect a variety of PAH compounds such as
pyrene, phenanthrene, and quinoline at 2.5, 0.5, and 0.75 ppb
vapor concentrations, respectively, after 1 hour of exposure.
0441
Wade, W.A., III, Cote, W.A., and Yocom, J.E. (June 1974) "A
study of indoor air quality" Paper no. 74-50, presented at the
67th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association,
P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (28 pages).
KEYWORD: NO, N02, appliance, EPA$, outdoor, exposure, source,
CO, field
As part of a larger program to investigate indoor sources of air
pollution, an indoor/outdoor sampling program was carried out for
NO, NO2, and CO in three homes with gas stoves. The study houses
represented different surrounding land use, life styles, and
house age and layout. The pollutant gases were measured
essentially simultaneously at three indoor locations and one
outdoor location by single multiplexed NO-NO2 and CO instruments
that used a sample switching system. The results thus far show
that indoor levels of NO and N02 are directly related to stove
use in the homes tested. Furthermore, these stoves often
produced more NO2 than NO, and average levels of NO2 in the
kitchen could exceed 100 ug/m3. Indoor CO concentrations
appeared to be influenced more by outdoor activities (automotive
traffic) than by indoor sources. In a diffusion experiment
conducted in one home, the half-life for NO2 was less than one-
third that for either NO or CO. Oxidation of NO to N02 (based on
comparing the half-life of NO to CO) does not appear to occur to
a significant degree indoors.
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0655
Wade, W.A., III, Cote, W.A., and Yocum, J.E. (Sept. 1975) "A
study of indoor air quality", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.,
25(9):933-939.
KEYWORD: NO2, NO, CO,home,outdoor, field,EPA$, appliance, source,
exposure
As part of a larger program to investigate indoor sources of air
pollution, NO, N02, and CO were monitored in four private houses
with gas stoves. The four houses chosen for study represented
different surrounding land use, life styles, and house age and
layout. The gases were measured essentially simultaneously at
three indoor locations and one outdoor location. The results
showed that indoor levels of NO and NO2 are directly related to
stove use in the homes tested. Furthermore, the stoves often
produced more NO2 than NO. In some instances, the levels of N02
and CO in the kitchen exceeded the air quality standards for
these pollutants outdoors. The data for the sampling periods
were typical of an entire year. A diffusion experiment conducted
in one of the houses showed that the half-life for NO2 was less
than one-third that for either NO or CO. Oxidation of NO to N02
(based upon comparing the half-life of NO to CO) does not appear
to occur to a significant degree indoors.
0715
Walker, Muriel V., and Weschler, Charles J. (1980) "Water-soluble
components of size-fractionated aerosols collected after hours in
a modern office building", Environ. Sci. Tech., 14(5):594-597.
KEYWORD: office, aerosol, particulate, outdoor, SO4, NH4, NO3,
Na, chloride
Size-fractionated aerosol samples were collected after hours in a
modern six-story office building with approximately 4,000
employees. The total water-soluble content of the aerosol
decreases with increasing particle size, as indicated by
conductivity measurements. Sulfate and ammonium are chiefly
responsible for this trend, while nitrate, chloride, and sodium
are fairly evenly distributed throughout the size-fractionated
samples. Indeed, acid ammonium sulfate accounts for the majority
of the water-soluble material in the submicron aerosol. In this
size range, the indoor sulfate values are very similar to
reported outdoor values. The results suggest that, consistent
with the building's air filtration system, the gross features of
the indoor and outdoor aerosols in the submicron size range are
similar, while differences are more pronounced in the larger size
ranges.
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0127
Wallace, L., Pellizzari, E., Hartwell, T., Sparacino, C.,
Sheldon, L., and Zelon, H. (1984) "Personal exposures, outdoor
concentrations, and breath levels of toxic air pollutants
measured for 425 persons in urban, suburban, and rural areas",
Paper no. 84-1.8, presented at the 77th annual meeting of the Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230 (18 pages).
KEYWORD: VOC, outdoor, TEAM, personal, exposure, water, EPA$,
field, QA, biomonitoring
EPA's Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) study measured
exposures to 20 volatile organic compounds in personal air,
outdoor air, drinking water, and breath of 370 persons in New
Jersey, 25 in North Dakota, and 30 in North Carolina during 1980-
82. The New Jersey residents were selected by a probability
sampling scheme to represent 120,000 inhabitants of Elizabeth and
Bayonne. Participants carried a personal monitor to collect two
12-hour outdoor air samples and gave a breath sample at the end
of the day. Two consecutive 12-hour outdoor air samples were
also collected on identical Tenax cartridges in the backyards of
90 of the participants. About 3,000 samples were collected, of
which 1,000 were quality control samples. Eleven compounds were
often present in the air. Personal exposures were invariably
higher than outdoor concentrations for these chemicals, sometimes
10 times higher. Indoor sources appeared responsible for much of
the differences. Breath concentrations also usually exceeded
outdoor concentrations, and correlated more strongly with
personal exposures than with outdoor concentrations.
0004
Wallace, L., Pellizzari, E., Hartwell, T., Perritt, K., and
Ziegenfus, R. (in press) "Exposures to benzene and other volatile
compounds from active and passive smoking",Arch. Environ. Health.
KEYWORD: aromatic,benzene,biomonitoring,VOC, exposure,field,home,
monitor,TEAM,smoking,office,source,statistical,EPA$,outdoor
Personal exposures and breath concentrations of approximately 20
volatile organics were measured for 200 smokers and 322 non-
smokers in New Jersey and California. Smokers had significantly
elevated breath levels of benzene, styrene, ethylbenzene, m+p-
xylene, o-xylene, and octane. The first four aromatic compounds
increased significantly with the number of cigarettes smoked.
Based on direct measurements of benzene in cigarette smoke,
calculations show that a typical smoker is exposed to 2 mg
benzene/day, compared to 0.2 mg/day for the nonsmoker. Thus,
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cigarette smoking is the most important source of exposure to
benzene for about 50 million U.S. citizens. Passive smokers
exposed at work had significantly elevated levels or aromatics in
their breath. Indoor levels increased significantly in homes
with smokers in some measurement groups but not in others. The
average increase for benzene was 3.6 ug/m3, and for styrene , 0.5
ug/m3, about a 50% relative increase in each case. Thus,
exposure to benzene and styrene may increase for the
approximately 60% of children and other nonsmokers living in
homes with smokers.
0126
Wallace, L., Zweidinger, R., Erickson, M., Cooper, S., Whitaker,
D., and Pellizzari, E.D. (1982) "Monitoring individual exposure:
measurements of volatile organic compounds in breathing zone air,
drinking water and exhaled breath", Environ. Int., 8:269-282.
KEYWORD: methodology, water, biomonitoring, field, statistical,
personal, exposure, EPA$, VOC
Methods for determining individual exposure to volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) during normal daily activities were field tested
on university student volunteers in Texas and North Carolina.
The equipment tested included a personal exposure monitor (PEM)
employing Tenax GC to collect organic vapors for later analysis
by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, and a specially designed
spirometer for collecting samples of expired human breath on
duplicate Tenax cartridges. The PEM and spirometer proved
feasible for collecting abundant quantitative data on most of the
15 target organics. Exposures to many VOCs in air varied widely,
sometimes over three orders of magnitude, among students of the
same campus who had been monitored at the same time. A log-
linear relationship between breathing-zone air exposures and
concentrations in exhaled breath was suggested for three
chemicals: tetrachloroethylene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and
vinylidene chloride. Air was the main route of exposure for all
target compounds except for chloroform and bromodichloromethane,
which were transmitted mainly through water. Estimated total
daily intake through air and water of the target organics was 0.3
to 12.6 mg, with 1,1,1-trichloroethane at the highest
concentrations in both geographic areas.
0051
Wallace, L.A., Pellizzari, E.D., Hartwell, T.D., Sparacino, C.,
and Zelon, H. (June 1983) "Personal exposure to volatile organics
and other compounds indoors and outdoors — the TEAM study",
Paper no. 83-9.12 presented at the 76th annual meeting of the Air
Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA
15230 (29 pages).
338
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KEYWORD: VOC, field, water, outdoor, personal, exposure, TEAM,
distribution, biomonitoring, EPA$, activity
As part of the Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM)
study, individual 24-hour exposures to 18 volatile organic
compounds were measured for 375 randomly selected volunteers in
Bayonne and Elizabeth, NJ, in the fall of 1981. Two 12-hour air
samples and two drinking water samples were collected and
analyzed for each volunteer. Two 12-hour backyard air samples
were also collected for a subset of 100 subjects. Exhaled breath
samples were taken at the end of the 24-hour period. Subjects
kept diaries detailing their activites during the monitoring
period. Comparisons of outdoor concentrations with personal
exposures show large variations for many chemicals. Correlations
between chemical concentrations in air, drinking water, and
exhaled breath show that for some chemicals, breath measurements
may be useful as indicators of previous exposure. Frequency
distribution of exposures is estimated for the entire population
of the two-city area based on the 375-person sample.
0719
Wallace, L.A., and Pellizzari, E.D. (1986) "Personal air
exposures and breath concentrations of benzene and other volatile
hydrocarbons for smokers and nonsmokers", Toxicol. Lett., 35:113-
116.
KEYWORD: smoking, biomonitoring, VOC, exposure,field,hydrocarbon,
seasonal,aromatic, EPA$, personal
Personal air exposures and exhaled breath concentrations of 20
volatile organic compounds were measured for 198 smokers and 322
nonsmokers in five U.S. cities: Bayonne and Elizabeth, NJ; Los
Angeles, CA; and Antioch and Pittsburgh, PA (1980-84). Smokers
showed significantly increased breath concentrations of six
hydrocarbons: benzene, styrene, ethylbenzene, o-xylene, m+p-
xylene, and octane. During fall and winter, homes with smokers
had higher indoor air concentrations of the same compounds than
homes without smokers. Nonsmokers exposed at work had
significantly higher levels of benzene and other aromatics in
their breath than unexposed nonsmokers.
0145
Wallace, Lance (Nov. 1984) "Do buildings make people sick?",
Paper presented at the symposium of the American Institute for
Architects held in San Francisco, CA. U.S. EPA, Office of
Research and Development, Washington, DC 20460 (11 pages). Not
available from NTIS.
339
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KEYWORD: CO, NO2, radon, particulate, VOC,architecture,pesticide,
EPA$
This paper discusses the "sick building syndrome" and pollutants
that contribute to this problem. The important pollutants
discussed are radon, respirable particles, volatile organics,
pesticides, NO2, and CO. Examples of levels of specific
pollutants measured in buildings and private homes are given, and
alternative corrective measures are suggested. This design-
oriented article is directed toward architects.
0282
Wallace, Lance A. (1983) "Carbon monoxide in air and breath of
employees in an underground office", J. Air Pollut. Control
Assoc., 33(7):678-682.
KEYWORD: CO, methodology, personal, exposure, source, control,
method, biomonitoring, EPA$, office, smoking
An office containing about 65 employees was found to have 8-hour
average CO concentrations of 18 to 26 ppm during a week in
winter. On one Friday afternoon, 20 nonsmoking office workers
had alveolar CO levels of 23 (+/- 3) ppm compared to levels of 8
(+/- 2) ppm in six nonsmoking workers in other offices in the
same building. After a weekend at home, the affected office
workers had alveolar CO levels of 7 (+/~ 2) ppm. The source of
the high CO levels was attributed to a parking garage on the same
level as the office. Closing fire doors and activating garage
fans rectified the situation. The breath sampling method
required a correction factor based on the difference between the
true alveolar CO and the CO level in the surrounding air. The
methods and equipment employed in this study (personal air
monitors, electronic data loggers, breath sampling) are
recommended for screening and identifying potential CO problems
in buildings with similar conditions.
0497
Wallace, Lance A. (in press) "Personal exposures, indoor and
outdoor air concentrations, and exhaled breath concentrations of
selected volatile organic compounds measured for 600 residents of
New Jersey, North Dakota, North Carolina and California",
Toxicol. Environ. Chem.
KEYWORD: VOC, outdoor, exposure, personal, source, field, water,
QA, TEAM, biomonitoring, EPA$, smoking, styrene, benzene
EPA's Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) study has
measured exposures to 20 volatile organic compounds in personal
air, outdoor air, drinking water, and breath of 600 residents of
340
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New Jersey, North Carolina, North Dakota, and California.
Participants in the study were selected in such a way as to
represent 700,000 inhabitants of seven cities. Participants
carried a personal monitor that collected two 12-hour air samples
and gave a breath sample at the end of each day. Two consecutive
12-hour outdoor air samples were also collected on identical
Tenax cartridges in the backyards of some of the participants.
Researchers collected 7,500 samples (2,000 of which were quality-
control samples) and frequently found 11 compounds in the air
samples. Personal exposures were consistently higher than
outdoor concentrations, and indoor sources appeared to be
responsible for the higher concentrations. Some activities (such
as smoking or visiting dry cleaners or service stations) and
occupations (involving chemical, paint, and plastics plants) were
associated with significantly elevated exposures and breath
levels for certain toxic chemicals. Residing near major point
sources, however, did not affect exposure.
0437
Wallace, Lance A., et al. (in press) "California TEAM study:
breath concentrations and personal exposures to 26 volatile
compounds in air and drinking water of 188 residents of Los
Angeles, Antioch, and Pittsburg, California", Atmos. Environ.
KEYWORD: TEAM, VOC, personal, exposure,outdoor,water, EPA$,field,
biomonitoring, smoking, vehicle, statistical, halocarbon
In 1984, EPA's Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) study
measured personal exposures to 26 volatile organic chemicals in
the air, drinking water, and exhaled breath of 188 California
residents. Often, 16 chemicals were found above quantifiable
limits in the personal air samples, but only four trihalomethanes
were found in drinking water. The highest exposures were to
1,1,1-tetrachloroethylene. Indoor air concentrations generally
exceeded outdoor concentrations, particularly at the higher
percentiles. Breath concentrations of eight chemicals showed
significant correlations with preceding personal air
concentrations in the two visits to Los Angeles. Smoking,
employment, and automobile-related activities were identified as
important sources of personal exposure to the target compounds.
0136
Wallace, Lance, et al. (1984) "Personal exposure to volatile
organic compounds — 1. direct measurements in breathing-zone air,
drinking water, food, and exhaled breath", Environ. Res.,
35:293-319.
KEYWORD: VOC, field, personal, exposure, biomonitoring, food,
methodology, water, EPA$
341
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A pilot study to test methods of estimating personal exposures to
toxic substances and corresponding body burdens was carried out
from July to December 1980. Individual exposures to about a
dozen volatile organic compounds in air and drinking water were
measured for nine volunteers in Bayonne and Elizabeth, NJ, and
for three volunteers in Research Triangle Park, NC, during three
3-day visits over the 6-month period. Breath samples were also
collected from all subjects on each visit. Composite food
samples were collected in each locality. Sampling and analytical
methods for air, water, food, and breath were evaluated and found
generally capable of detecting concentrations as low as 1 ug/m3
in air and breath, and 1 ng/m3 in water and food. About 230
personal air samples, 170 drinking water samples, 66 breath
samples, and 4 food samples (16 composites) were analyzed for the
target chemicals. Probable exposure routes are discussed in
detail.
0336
Wallace, L., Bromberg, S., Pellizzari, E., Hartwell, Ty, Zelon,
H. and Sheldon, L. (1984) "Plan and preliminary results of the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's indoor air monitoring
program: 1982", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds.
"Indoor air, vol. 1, recent advances in the health sciences and
technology", Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm,
pp. 173-178. NTIS PB85-104180.
KEYWORD: school, outdoor, field, VOC, PCB,particulate,CH2O, home,
pesticide,office,smoking,exposure,EPA$,ventilation,seasonal
EPA initiated an indoor air monitoring program in 1982,
concentrating on commercial or public-access buildings (homes for
the elderly, schools, and office buildings). Several buildings
from each category were sampled over 2- to 3-day periods for
volatile organics, respirable particulates, formaldehyde,
pesticides, PCBs, and other pollutants. Simultaneous outdoor air
samples and tracer gas samples were taken to determine outdoor-
indoor ratios and air exchange rates. One new building from each
category was sampled intermittently for 1 year to determine
temporal trends in the indoor concentrations of organics.
Preliminary results from the first building sampled are
presented. Broad-spectrum analyses for organics identified 350
chemicals in indoor air in the home for the elderly. Indoor
concentrations of 10 volatile organic chemicals exceeded outdoor
concentrations by 50 to 100%. Smoking increased 24-hour fine
particulate (< 2.5 urn) concentrations by 20 to 30 ug/m3, with
associated short-term peaks of 300 ug/ra3.
342
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0429
Wallace, L., et al. (1986) "Concentrations of 20 volatile organic
compounds in the air and drinking water of 350 residents of New
Jersey compared with concentrations in their exhaled breath", J.
OCCUp. Med., 28(8):603-608.
KEYWORD: personal, field,EPA$, water, biomonitoring, statistical,
exposure, TEAM, VOC, methodology, outdoor, sampling
Twenty volatile organic compounds were measured in the personal
air and drinking water of 350 New Jersey residents in the fall of
1981. Two consecutive 12-hour integrated personal air samples
and two tap water samples were collected from each participant.
At the end of the 24-hour monitoring period, each participant
supplied a sample of exhaled breath. Simultaneous outdoor
samples were collected in 100 residential locations in two
cities. Eleven compounds were present much of the time in air,
but only four (the trihalomethanes) in water; wide ranges of
exposures (three to four orders of magnitude) were noted for most
compounds. Ten of 11 compounds displayed significant
correlations between air exposures and breath concentrations; the
llth compound (chloroform) was correlated with drinking water
exposures. Researchers concluded that breath measurements are a
feasible, cost-effective, and highly sensitive way to determine
environmental and occupational exposures to volatile organic
compounds.
0087
Wallace, L.A., Pellizzari, E., Leaderer, B., Zelon, H., and
Sheldon, L. (1987) "Emissions of volatile organic compounds from
building materials and consumer products", Atmos. Environ.,
21:385-393.
KEYWORD: VOC, TEAM, source, personal, home, activity, emission,
office, industrial, exposure, EPA$, architecture
EPA's Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) study of
personal exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOC) in air and
drinking water identified many possible sources encountered in
peoples' normal activities and homes. A follow-up EPA study of
public-access buildings implicated other potential sources of
exposure. To learn more about these potential sources, 15
building materials and common consumer products were analyzed
using a gas chromatography/mass spectrometry headspace technique
to detect organic emissions and to compare relative amounts.
About 10 to 100 organic compounds were being emitted from each
material. For some chemicals, measured levels could account for
a significant fraction of the elevated concentrations observed in
previous indoor air studies. Common materials found in nearly
every home and place of business may elevate exposures to toxic
343
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chemicals.
0018
Wallace, L.A., Pellizzari, E.D., Hartwell, T.D., Sparacino, C.,
and Zelon, H. (1983) "Personal exposure to volatile organics and
other compounds indoors and outdoors — the TEAM study", U.S.
EPA, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC 20460
(35 pages). NTIS PB83-231357.
KEYWORD: VOC, biomonitoring,sampling, design, personal, exposure,
outdoor, EPA$, methodology, field, statistical
The major objective of this study is to develop and field test a
methodology for measuring individual human exposure to toxic
substances. A secondary objective is to develop methods for
estimating body burden with the use of biological measurements.
All significant pathways of exposure are addressed. In Phase 1
of the study, sampling and analytical protocols were tested for
volatile organic compounds, organochlorine pesticides, metals,
and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. In Phase 2, exposure through air
and drinking water and excretion rates through inhaled breath
were measured for a statistically valid sample population. It
was determined that personal air median concentrations ranged
from 40 to 320% higher than outdoor fixed air concentrations.
Correlations between personal and outdoor samples were poor. It
was concluded that personal air, indoor air, or breath
measurements are far superior to outdoor measurements for
estimating exposure. The study is currently entering its third
phase.
0487
Wallace, L.A., Pellizzari, E.D., and Gordon, S.M. (1985) "Organic
chemicals in indoor air: a review of human exposure studies and
indoor air quality studies", Gammage, R.B., Kaye, S.V., and
Jacobs, V.A., Eds., "Indoor air and human health", Lewis
Publishers, Inc., P.O. Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI 48118, pp. 361-
378.
KEYWORD: TEAM, halocarbon, personal, exposure,VOC, outdoor, home,
smoking, source, field, EPA$, regulation
This paper reviews several major studies concerning the
concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in homes and
public buildings. EPA's Total Exposure Assessment Methodology
(TEAM) study determined 12-hour integrated exposures and
corresponding breath levels of 20 to 25 target VOCs in 650
households in six cities (Bayonne and Elizabeth, NJ; Greensboro,
NC; Devils Lake, ND; and Los Angeles and Antioch, CA). The TEAM
study indicated that personal air exposures were greater than
344
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outdoor air concentrations. The halocarbon study determined 12-
hour integrated exposures to 20 to 30 halogenated hydrocarbons in
150 households in Baton Rouge, LA; Houston, TX; and Greensboro,
NC. The results confirmed the conclusion that indoor levels of
nearly all common target chemicals are higher than outdoor
levels. Seven other VOC studies are briefly discussed. VOC
sources are summarized.
0015
Wallace, Lance A. (1981) "Recent progress in developing and using
personal monitors to measure human exposure to air pollutants",
Environ. Int., 5:73-75.
KEYWORD: particulate, CO, vinyl,personal,exposure, monitor, EPA$,
NO2, literature, VOC
Within the last 2 years, great progress has been made in the
field of personal air quality monitors. Improvements in pump
design, miniaturization, adsorption techniques, and new
collection principles have produced about a dozen sensitive
monitors capable of being used by the general public to measure
their normal everyday exposure to many toxic or carcinogenic
compounds. Field-tested personal exposure monitors for volatile
organics, inhalable particulates, CO, NO2, and vinyl chloride are
briefly summarized.
0474
Wallace, Lance A. (1982) "Measuring direct individual exposure to
toxic substances", Tox. Subst. J., 4(3):174-183.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure, monitor, EPA$, methodology, TEAM,
biomonitoring, literature, field, research
Recent technological advances have made it possible to directly
measure a person's exposure to toxic substances through all major
pathways (air, food, water). Other described advances include
those that make it possible to measure the same toxic substances
as they are absorbed, exhaled, or stored by the body. The
concept of using these advances to measure total exposure is also
discussed and illustrated, by reference, to ongoing research.
Finally, the author outlines major areas where further work is
needed.
0061
Wallace, Lance A. (June 1979) "Use of personal monitor to measure
commuter exposure to carbon monoxide in vehicle passenger
compartments", Paper no. 79-59.2, presented at the 72nd annual
meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
345
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Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (15 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, statistical,ventilation, vehicle,interior, personal,
exposure, monitoring, EPA$
Exposure to CO while commuting to and from Washington, DC, was
measured for 4 weeks during the summer of 1978 using a personal
exposure monitor. Mean exposure level was 11.7 (+/- 4.9) ppm.
Air-conditioned buses had interior CO concentrations 60% higher
than non-air-conditioned buses. City driving increased CO
exposures by 50%. Little correlation (r = 0.1) was noted between
ambient levels and commuter exposures; the more important
variable appeared to be whether the particular vehicle had air
conditioning. Variations in exposure aboard a single bus were
small; interbus variations were larger. One defective bus
(interior levels 100 ppm) was encountered.
0438
Wallace, Lance A., et al. (1984) "Analysis of exhaled breath of
355 urban residents for volatile organic compounds", Berglund,
B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 4,
chemical characterization and personal exposure", Swedish Council
for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 15-20. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: TEAM, VOC, personal, source, water, monitor, exposure,
EPA$, biomonitoring, field, statistical, outdoor, sample
EPA's Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) study measured
personal exposures to 19 volatile organic compounds in air and
drinking water of 355 residents of Elizabeth and Bayonne, NJ.
Subjects were selected from a two-stage probability design to be
representative of the entire population (122,000) of the two
cities. Personal monitors (Tenax-GC cartridges) collected two
consecutive 12-hour samples of breathing-zone air for each
participant. A drinking water sample was also collected from
each person. Outdoor air samples were collected from 90
participants' backyards. At the end of the 24-hour monitoring
period, a breath sample was collected from each participant. All
samples were analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
computerized techniques. Of the target compounds, 11
(chloroform, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, benzene, styrene, o-xylene,
carbon tetrachloride, m/p-xylene, m/p-dichlorobenzene,
ethylbenzene, trichloroethylene, and tetrachloroethylene) showed
consistently high concentrations in personal air and breath
samples than in outdoor samples. This indicates that indoor
sources of all these chemicals are prevalent and more effective
in delivering a dose than outdoor sources. The researchers
concluded that breath analysis is useful in identifying and
quantifying previous exposures, and in detecting increased
exposures due to indoor sources and personal activities.
346
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0285
Wallace, Lance A., et al. (in press) "The TEAM study: personal
exposures to toxic substances in air, drinking water, and breath
of 400 residents of New Jersey, North Carolina, and North
Dakota", Environ. Res.
KEYWORD: VOC, TEAM, personal, exposure, monitor, source, smoking,
field, benzene, outdoor, styrene, EPA$, water, biomonitoring, QA
EPA's Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) study has
measured exposures to 20 volatile organic compounds in personal
air, outdoor air, drinking water, and breath of 400 residents of
New Jersey, North Carolina, and North Dakota. Participants
carried a personal monitor to collect two 12-hour air samples and
gave a breath sample at the end of the day. Two consecutive 12-
hour outdoor air samples were also collected on identical Tenax
cartidges in the backyards of some of the participants. About
5,000 samples were collected, of which 1,500 were quality control
samples. Ten compounds were often present in personal air and
breath samples at all locations. Personal exposures were
consistently higher than outdoor concentrations for these
chemicals, sometimes 10 times higher. Indoor sources appeared
responsible for much of the difference. Breath concentrations
also often exceeded outdoor concentrations, and correlated more
strongly with personal exposures than with outdoor
concentrations. Some activities (smoking, visiting dry cleaners
or service stations) and occupations (chemical, paint, and
plastics plants) were associated with significantly elevated
exposures and breath levels for certain toxic chemicals. Homes
with smokers had significantly increased benzene and styrene
levels in indoor air. Living near major point sources did not
affect exposure.
0016
Wallace, Lance A., and Ott, Wayne R. (1982) "Personal monitors: a
state-of-the-art survey", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.,
32(6):601-610.
KEYWORD: field,personal, exposure, monitor,PAH,radon,VOC,SOx,NOx,
halocarbon,particulate,03,metal,methodology,laboratory,EPA$
Recent advances in technology have resulted in development of a
number of small lightweight devices that can be carried by a
person throughout the day to record personal exposure to selected
air pollutants. The essential characteristics, advantages, and
problems associated with personal monitors are discussed and
compared to the characteristics of fixed-station monitoring.
Personal monitors generally are superior to fixed monitors for
347
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estimating pesonal exposure, at least for selected air
pollutants, They permit collecting data on pollutant
concentrations that people normally come into contact with
throughout their daily activities— indoors, outdoors, and in
various modes of transportation. These new instruments
ultimately could transform how human exposure to air pollution is
estimated.
0209
Wallace, Lance A., and Ziegenfus, Robert C. (1985) "Comparison of
carboxyhemoglobin concentrations in adult nonsmokers with ambient
carbon monoxide levels", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.,
35(9):944-949.
KEYWORD: CO, biomonitoring, QA, outdoor, laboratory, statistical,
analysis, risk, assessment, EPA$, smoking
Blood samples from several thousand current nonsmokers were
collected by the National Center for Health Statistics between
1976 and 1980 in the Second National Health and Nutrition
Evaluation Survey (NHANES II). The blood samples were analyzed
for carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) using highly sensitive techniques by
two laboratories under rigorous quality control procedures. COHb
levels of 1528 persons were compared to the immediately preceding
1-hour and 8-hour ambient CO averages in 20 U.S. cities.
Spearman rank correlation coefficients between COHb and ambient
CO were not significant for a large majority of fixed-monitoring
stations in the 20 cities. No improvement was shown when the
comparisons were limited to central-city residents. A regression
of all 1528 COHb levels on the most predictive ambient stations
in each city indicated that 3% of the variance in COHb levels was
explained by the fixed stations. Therefore, fixed outdoor CO
monitors are not, in general, providing useful estimates of CO
exposures of urban residents. Attempting to protect public
health by setting an outdoor standard for CO may be
inappropriate.
0592
Wallace, Lance. A. (1985) "Organics overview", Gammage, R.B.,
Kaye, S.V., and Jacobs, V.A., Eds.,"Indoor air and human health",
Lewis Publishers, Inc., P.O. Drawer 519, Chelsea, MI, pp. 331-
333.
KEYWORD: VOC,personal,exposure,health, methodology, architecture,
source, regulation, EPA$
Because organic pollutants may cause cancer, they are feared
constituents of chemical and industrial emissions (Cancer Alley,
NJ) and hazardous waste dumps (Love Canal, NY). Multibillion -
348
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dollar Federal programs, such as Superfund and National Emission
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS), have been
initiated to regulate the sources. However, recent studies have
implicated the indoor environment as another major and possibly
more important source of organic pollutants. If corroborated,
the findings will have profound implications for builders,
regulators, and researchers.
0379
Wallach, Charles (1984) "Video display health hazard safeguards",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 3, sensory and hyperactivity reactions to sick buildings",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 169-174.
NTIS PB85-104206.
KEYWORD: particulate, exposure, health, epidemiology,statistical,
ion, video, EPA$, control
Recent scientific and popular literature contains many references
to the real and purported health hazards to which video display
terminal (VDT) operators are exposed. The popular press has
dwelled on the hazards with little emphasis on means of
prevention. The authors review the real symptoms and suspected
causes and discuss correlations with exposure duration and
frequency on the basis of large, statistical samplings of VDT
operators. State-of-the-art safeguards and counter-measures are
presented as practical, economical alternatives to the costly,
draconian emergency measures that are now being widely adopted to
protect VDT operators from the short- and long-term effects of
VDT Operators' Distress Syndrome.
0600
Walsh, Phillip, Killough, George, and Rohwer, Paul (1978)
"Composite hazard index for assessing limiting exposures to
environmental pollutants: formulation and derivation", Environ.
Sci. Technol., 12(7):799-802.
KEYWORD: exposure, dose, risk, microenvironment, multipollutant,
health, multimedia, model
A calculational hazard index methodology was developed for
limiting human exposure to environmental pollutants. The index
is defined as Q/L, where Q is a measure of exposure, such as an
organ's burden of a pollutant from all environmental pathways,
and L is a corresponding limit that should not be exceeded
because of health risks to human beings. Mathematical
formulations relating hazard indices to environmental pollutant
concentrations were developed for each sampling medium
349
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corresponding to each effluent mode. These formulations were
used to derive limiting pollutant concentrations such that the
resultant measure of exposure will not exceed the health risk
limit. Mathematical formulations for composite hazard indices
for multiple pollutants are presented.
0206
Wang, J., Cao, S., Li, Z., Zhong, Y., and Li, S. (1985) "Human
exposure to carbon monoxide and suspended particulate matter in
Beijing, People's Rep. of China", PEP/85.11, World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (69 pages).
KEYWORD: particulate, personal, exposure, monitor, outdoor, home,
microenvironment, seasonal, foreign, China, CO
Exposure to CO and respirable particulate matter (RSP) was
measured in 1984-85 with 21 volunteers living in three common
types of housing in Beijing, People's Republic of China. The
volunteers kept activity diaries and carried personal exposure
monitors for 1 week in summer and 1 week in winter. Some common
public areas were monitored simultaneously. CO and RSP levels
were higher in winter than in summer. CO levels were higher
indoors than outdoors and vice versa for RSP levels.
0772
Wang, Y.Y., Webber, L.M., Flessel, C.P., Chang, K., Sexton, K.,
and Sextro., R.G. (1985) "Detection of mutagens in particle and
vapor emissions from major indoor sources", Paper no. 85-36.3,
presented at the 78th annual meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Association, P.O. Box 2861, Pittsburgh, PA 15230 (15 pages).
KEYWORD: smoking,risk,home,laboratory,health, combustion, source,
particulate, VOC, mutagenicity, appliance
The Ames test using Salmonella typhimurium and mammalian enzymes
is widely accepted for screening the mutagenic potential of
particulate organic matter (POM) in outdoor air. However, the
mutagenicity of vapor-phase organics (VPO) has not been fully
assessed. Only a few studies of indoor POM are available. This
paper explores the possibility of detecting POM and VPO mutagens
from indoor air pollution sources using modified Ames procedures.
A pilot chamber study was initiated to characterize particle and
vapor emissions from a gas range, cigarette smoking, hamburger
frying, antiperspirant spray, and household dusting/polishing
spray. Modified Ames procedures were effective for both POM and
VPO mutagens from indoor air pollution sources. Combustion
products from the gas range, tobacco smoke, and hamburger frying
contained mutagens. Cigarette emissions appear to contain more
mutagens in VPO than POM. Further chemical analysis and
350
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toxicological studies are required to characterize and evaluate
the potential health hazards posed by indoor air pollution
sources.
0370
Wanner, H.U., and Kuhn, M. (1986) "Indoor air pollution by
building materials", Environ. Int., 12(1-4):311-315.
KEYWORD: source, CH2O, ventilation, exposure, regulation
Due to better insulation and improved airtightness of doors and
windows, the supply of fresh air entering a room has been greatly
reduced. This, in turn, causes an increase in the amount of
pollutants emitted by different insulation and building
materials. Measurements of the formaldehyde concentration in new
buildings have shown that the admissible limits are still
exceeded even after a year. Stricter regulations limiting the
emissions of pollutants are, therefore, urgently necessary.
0410
Ware, J.H., Dockery, D.W., Spiro, A., Ill, Speizer, F.E., and
Ferris, F.G., Jr. (1984) "Passive smoking, gas cooking, and
respiratory health of children living in six cities", Am. Rev.
Respir. Dis., 129:366-374.
KEYWORD: smoking, source, exposure, children, combustion, health,
statistical, epidemiology, lung, appliance
As part of a longitudinal study of the respiratory health effects
of indoor and outdoor air pollutants, pulmonary function,
respiratory illness history, and symptom history were recorded at
two successive annual examinations of 10,106 white children
living in six U.S. cities. Parental education, medical history,
and smoking habits also were recorded, along with the fuel used
for cooking in the home. Maternal cigarette smoking was
associated with increases of 20 to 35% in the rates of eight
respiratory illnesses and symptoms investigated, and paternal
smoking was associated with smaller but still substantial
increases. Illness and symptom rates were linearly related to
the number of cigarettes smoked by the child's mother. Illness
rates were higher for children of current smokers than for
children of ex-smokers. The associations between maternal
smoking status and childhood respiratory illnesses and symptoms
were reduced but not eliminated by adjustment for parental
medical history.
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0541
Wedding, J.B., Lombard!, D.J., and Cermak, J.E. (1977) "A wind
tunnel study of gaseous pollutants in city street canyons", J.
Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 27(6):557-566.
KEYWORD: exposure, regulation, outdoor, vehicle, source, model,
microenvironment, laboratory, weather, office
A 400:1 scale model of an idealized city was developed to measure
steady-state mean concentrations of tracer gas. The model was
placed in a wind tunnel, and tracer gas was released from two
parallel line sources to simulate lanes of traffic in an effort
to quantify the persistence of pollution as well as the mean
values realized at street levels. Values of concentrations
measured in the model city were converted to prototype ppm
concentrations and compared to National Ambient Air Quality
Standards. Single, isolated structures may cause favorable
mixing of pollution downwind, but very high concentrations exist
in the immediate leeward vicinity of a building. The study
provides order-of-magnitude estimates of pedestrian and office
worker exposure pollutants under a wide range of conditions.
0653
Wendel, G.J., Stedman, D.H., Cantrell, C.A., and Damrauer, L.
(1983) "Luminol based nitrogen dioxide detector", Anal. Chem.,
55:937-940.
KEYWORD: NO, NOx, monitor
An instrument is described for continuous detection of NO2 in the
subppb range. The instrument is based upon the chemiluminescent
reaction in air between NO2 and luminol (5-amino-2,3-dihydro-l,4-
phthalazinedione) in alkaline solution. It exhibits a 2-Hz
response speed to changes of + or - 20 ppb and a field detection
limit of 30 parts per trillion. The limit may be improved by
using a better photomultiplier tube as well as further optimizing
the cell design. The technique has been expanded to measure NO
by the catalytic oxidation of NO to NO2 using CrO3 on silica gel
as the oxidizing agent; however, at low ambient NO concentrations
it is difficult to zero the detector. Interference from ambient
03 is eliminated by modifying the inlet system and luminol
solution.
0496
Weschler, Charles J. (1984) "Indoor-outdoor relationships for
nonpolar organic constituents of aerosol particles", Environ.
Sci. Technol., 18(9):648-652.
KEYWORD: nicotine,particulate,aerosol,field,sampling, laboratory,
halocarbon,ester,outdoor,arkane,methodology,multipollutant,office
352
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Automatic dichotomous samplers (virtual impactors) were used to
collect fine (nominally less than 2.5 urn in diameter) and coarse
(nominally 2.5 to 15 um in diameter) particles inside office
buildings at Wichita, KS, and Lubbock, TX. Outdoor samples were
collected at the same time. The loaded Teflon membrane filters
were then analyzed for nonpolar organic compounds by thermal
desorption-gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric procedures.
The nonpolar species associated with the outdoor samples are
high-molecular-weight n-alkanes. The nonpolar compounds
associated with the indoor particles include n-alkanes; branched
alkanes; phthalate, phosphate, and azelate esters;
chlorofluorocarbons; and nicotine. Typical concentrations for
nonpolar organic constituents of indoor particles are much higher
than for those of outdoor particles. With the exception of
selected n-alkanes, each of the detected nonpolar organic
compounds comes primarily from indoor sources. Adsorption of
organic compounds onto the surface of airborne particles probably
is more significant indoors than outdoors.
0495
Weschler, Charles J. (1978) "Characterization techniques applied
to indoor dust", Environ. Sci. Technol., 12(8):923-926.
KEYWORD: NO2, particulate,office,hydrocarbon,organic,methodology,
laboratory, K, Ca, Cl, S04, N03, Na
Methods of characterizing dusts found within buildings were
studied, using samples collected in Bell Laboratories' facility
at Holmdel, NJ. Particle size and morphology were determined by
optical scanning electron microscopy. C, H, and N were analysed
quantitatively, and elements with atomic numbers greater than 10
were analysed semiquantitatively, by energy-dispersive x-ray
spectroscopy. Water-soluble Cl, SO4, NO3, Na, K, and Ca were
determined using specific ion electrodes and energy dispersive x-
ray spectroscopy. The specific conductances of water extracts
were measured. The principal elements present in the benzene-
soluble components were identified, and the organic functional
groupings of these materials were examined by infrared
spectroscopy.
0357
Weschler, Charles J., and Fong, Karen L. (1986) "Characterization
of organic species associated with indoor aerosol particles",
Environ. Int. 12(1-4):93-97.
KEYWORD: particulate, aerosol,outdoor,office, field, hydrocarbon,
smoking,multipollutant,halocarbon,laboratory,nicotine,ester
353
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Automatic dichotomous samplers collected fine and coarse
particles inside office buildings in the central region of the
United States. Outdoor samples were collected at the same time.
Samples were analyzed for both nonpolar organic compounds and
fatty acids. The former were characterized by thermal
desorption-gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric procedures.
The latter were solvent extracted, methylated, and identified by
gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. The nonpolar compounds
associated with the indoor particles included n-alkanes; branched
alkanes; phthalate, phosphate, and azelate esters;
chlorofluorocarbons; and nicotine. Typical concentrations of
indoor particles were much higher than for those of outdoor
particles. The major fatty acids associated with the indoor
particles were palmitic, stearic, and myristic. Higher
molecular-weight fatty acids, primarily even-number carbon
species, were also present. Most of the fatty acids were due to
infiltration of particles from outdoors.
0739
Wesolowski, J.J., Sexton, K., Liu, K., and Twiss, S. (1984) "The
California indoor air quality program: an integrated approach",
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T., and Sundell, J. Eds., "Indoor air,
vol. 4, recent advances in health sciences and technology",
Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm, pp.219-215.
NTIS PB85-104180.
KEYWORD: research,regulation,biomonitoring, body, PCP, exposure,
design,multipollutant,health,risk,field,control,source,home
Although most states have some mechanism for responding to indoor
air quality problems, California is the first to legislatively
mandate a permanent research effort to study the nature and
extent of the problems. This paper gives a brief history of the
program, describes future plans, and discusses some recent work.
The integrated nature of the program is illustrated by a study in
which environmental and body burden measurements were used to
assess potential health effects from indoor exposure to
pentachlorophenol.
0606
Wesolowski, J.J., Wang, Y.Y., Hanson, C.V., Haas, R., Flessel,
P., and Hayward, S. (1986) "Indoor air quality measurements:
emerging technologies", Hochheiser, S., and Jayanti, R.K.M.,
Eds., "Proceedings of the 1986 EPA/APCA symposium on the
measurement of toxic air pollutants", EPA 600/9-86-013, U.S.
EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711, pp. 1-15. Not yet available from NTIS.
(In press, Air Pollution Control Association, P.O. Box 2861,
Pittsburgh, PA 15230.)
354
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KEYWORD: laboratory, methodology, health, outdoor, home, source,
risk,combustion,nitroarene,smoking,mutagenicity,appliance,
Measurement techniques must be geared to the specific needs of
the environmental programs they serve. Some of the differences
among the three programs on air quality (occupational, outdoor,
and indoor) are outlined, and the implications for measurement
technologies are discussed. In addition, two emerging measurement
technologies are discussed. The first is the development of the
Ames Salmonella assay, using a desiccator for detecting vapor-
phase mutagens from indoor sources. Data are presented for
emissions from a gas range and a kerosene heater, the process of
frying hamburgers, and cigarette smoke. The second technique is
the use of immunoassays (similar to those used for the detection
of infectious agents), which use monoclonal antibodies, for the
detection of airborne toxics in environmental and clinical
specimens. The immunoassay approach may provide simple, rapid,
and cost-effective analysis of large numbers of samples.
Preliminary data on the development of antibodies to various
nitroarenes are discussed.
0716
Wesolowski, J.J., and Sexton, K. (1984) "California's integrated
indoor air program", CA/DOH/AIHL/R-277, California State
Department of Health Services, Berkeley, CA 94704 (21 pages).
KEYWORD: home,biomonitoring,exposure,risk,field, control, source,
research,PCP,health,regulation,multipollutant,activity
Although most states have some mechanism for responding to indoor
air quality problems, California was the first to legislatively
mandate a permanent research effort to study the nature and
extent of the problem. This paper gives a brief history of the
program, describes future plans, and discusses some recent work.
Integrating the various facets of an indoor air quality program
is emphasized. The integrated nature of California's program is
illustrated by a study in which environmental monitoring, body
burden measurements, and health status questionnaires were used
to assess potential health effects from indoor exposure to
pentachlorophenol.
0253
Wesolowski, Jerome J. (1984) "An overview of indoor air quality",
J. Environ. Health, 46(6):311-316.
KEYWORD: multipollutant, literature, source, exposure, model,
outdoor, methodology, health, control
355
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This overview of nonoccupational indoor air quality covers such
topics as the importance of indoor air quality, pollutant
sources, differences between indoor and outdoor pollution, health
effects, and measurement and mitigation techniques. It also
describes the recently legislated California nonoccupational
indoor air quality program.
0494
West, P.W., and Reiszner, K.D. (1978) "Field tests of a
permeation-type personal monitor for vinyl chloride", Am. Ind.
Hyg. Assoc. J., 39:645-650.
KEYWORD: vinyl,personal, exposure, monitor, sampling, laboratory,
methodology, halocarbon, field, QA
A passive dosimeter-type personal monitor for vinyl chloride has
undergone extensive field testing. Collaborative studies by a
number of laboratories confirm the accuracy, reliability,
convenience, and general acceptability of personal monitors that
use gas permeation for sample collection and quantification.
Data are generated as time-weighted averages, and response is
linear from 5 ppb to 50 ppm. The monitors, which weigh only 35
grams, are unaffected by variations in environmental conditions.
0278
Whitmore, R.W., and Michael, L.C. (Aug. 1985) "Total human
exposure assessment methodology (TEAM), human exposure assessment
location (HEAL), vol. 1," EPA contract no. 68-01-6826, U.S. EPA,
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, NC 27711 (83 pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: VOC, TEAM, CHC13, exposure, field, food, benzene, HEAL,
methodology, water, EPA$, aromatic, halocarbon
An overview of the workplan for the U.S. Human Exposure
Assessment Location: Research Triangle Park (HEAL-RTP) study is
provided. Volume 1 provides background information, objectives,
compounds to be monitored, and data collection activities for the
study, plus a description of the survey instruments and
preparation of the data file. Primary emphasis of the study is
on investigation of methodologies for monitoring exposure to
benzene and chloroform, since inhalation of benzene and ingestion
of chloroform via water/beverages is expected to be major
exposure routes.
0116
Whitmore, Roy W. (March 1985) "Methodology for determination of
uncertainty in exposure assessments", final report for EPA
356
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contract no. 68-01-6826, U.S. EPA, Office of Health and
Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC 20460 (86 pages). Not
available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: methodology, model, distribution, exposure, statistical,
QA, EPA$
Exposure assessments not based on measured exposures for a
probability sample of a population rely on a model to predict
exposure. The model is a mathematical function that estimates an
individual's exposure or the population distribution of exposure
as a function of one or more input variables. Whenever an
unvalidated model is used to assess an exposure, the uncertainty
of the assessment may be large. The primary characterization of
uncertainty in this case is at least partly qualitative, i.e., it
describes and justifies the model's inherent assumptions.
Sensitivity of the assessment can be tested by replicating the
assessment with plausible alternative models. When an exposure
assessment is based on measured exposures of a probability sample
of a population, uncertainty can be quantified and greatly
reduced. The primary sources of uncertainty are sampling and
measurement errors. A quality assurance program should be
designed into the study to ensure that the size of these errors
can be estimated and that the effects of all random errors can be
measured quantitatively.
0113
Whitmore, Roy W. (in press) "Design of surveys for residential
and personal monitoring of hazardous substances", Atmos.
Environ.
KEYWORD: home, microenvironment, methodology, personal,exposure,
monitor, literature, design
This paper reviews survey design methodology for residential and
personal monitoring studies. The recommended methodology is
illustrated with regard to four recent studies. Recommendations
for design of future monitoring studies are presented.
0239
Whitmore, R.W., Jones, S.M., and Rosenweig, M.S. (Jan. 1984)
"Final sampling report for the study of personal CO exposure",
U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, NC 27711 (90 pages). NTIS PB84-181957.
KEYWORD: CO, personal, exposure, monitor, sample,design,economic,
QA, methodology, EPA$
This report describes the sample selection procedures used for a
357
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study in 1982-83 to evaluate methodology for collecting data on
personal CO exposures in the metropolitan areas of Denver, CO and
Washington, DC. Based on the experience gained during the study,
the methodology developed, with some modifications, may be used
effectively in other areas of the country for collecting personal
exposure data. These modifications should make the methodology
more cost effective, improve the response rate, and lead to more
accurate activity information.
0521
Wilkening, Marvin, and Schery, Stephen D. (1984) "Source
characterization and transport processes affecting levels of
radon and its decay products in an indoor environment", U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, Washington, DC
20585 (10 pages) . NTIS DE85-005421.
KEYWORD: radon, thoron, ventilation,
methodology
source, aerosol, exposure,
The effects of pressure variation on diffusion and flow of radon
from porous and fractured media were examined, along with other
factors that may affect radon exhalation. Natural air-exchange
processes in indoor environments were studied to determine their
effects on radon, thoron, and their daughter-product progeny.
Radon daughter ion-aerosol interactions were discussed. In
addition, new instrumentation and methods were developed and
evaluated.
0411
Wilkinson, P., and Dimbylow, P.J. (1985)
modeling", Sci. Total Environ., 45:227-232.
"Radon diffusion
KEYWORD: radon,model, home, source, ventilation, exposure
A mathematical model has been developed that examines the entry
of radon into houses through a vertical crack in an otherwise
impervious concrete floor. Initially, the model considered the
diffusive flow of radon from its soil source. This simulation
highlighted the dependency of the flux of radon into the house on
the magnitude of various parameters, such as the diffusion
coefficient of radon in soil. A preliminary investigation of the
modeling of pressure-driven flow into a building is presented,
and the potential of this type of analysis is discussed.
0019
Williams, D.C., Whitaker, J.R., and Jennings, W.G. (1985)
"Measurement of nicotine in building air as an indicator of
tobacco smoke levels", Environ. Health Perspect., 60:405-410.
358
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KEYWORD: nicotine, activity, smoking, office, exposure, control,
methodology, ventilation, health
For use in a large office complex, a gas chromatographic
technique was devised for collection and analysis of nicotine in
the building air as an indicator of tobacco smoke pollution.
Segregation of smokers and nonsmokers still resulted in
substantial exposure of the nonsmoker to tobacco smoke, although
a gradient of exposure was observed. Passive tobacco smoke in
the smoking area of the office complex was calculated to be
equivalent to 1.1 cigarettes per 8 hours, and nicotine density in
this area was 1.96 ug/m. The restriction of smoking to a foyer
area outside the office complex resulted in a slow but eventual
reduction in nicotine concentrations in the office complex.
Observed "background" nicotine levels corresponding to 4% to 7%
of those encountered in smoking areas demonstrate that central
air circulation systems and people movement increase nicotine
levels throughout all rooms of a building, regardless of a
smoking policy. Recent documentation of the relationship between
passive smoking and cancer, heart disease, pulmonary dysfunction,
and allergic responses argues for restriction of smoking to
building exteriors.
0318
Wilson, N.K., Lewis, R.G., and Chuang, B.A. (1985) "Analytical
and sampling methodology for characterization of polynuclear
aromatic compounds in indoor air", U.S. EPA, Environmental
Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
(19 pages). NTIS PB85-188886/AS.
KEYWORD: PAH, ventilation, combustion, smoking, source, sampling,
methodology, home, EPA$, wood, appliance
Sampling and analysis methodology were developed for collecting
and quantifying polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, their nitro
derivatives, and their nitrogen heterocyclic analogs in indoor
air. The methodology was evaluated in 10 homes, including homes
with and without wood-burning fireplaces, gas heat and
appliances, and smoking occupants, and having a range of
ventilation rates. The range of concentrations in the homes and
factors that systematically contribute to concentrations of
selected polynuclear aromatic compounds were estimated. Some
practical limitations on the sampling equipment and methodology
were identified.
0368
Winneke, G., Plischke, K., Roscovanu, A., and Schlipkoeter, H.
(1984) "Patterns and determinants of reaction to tobacco smoke in
359
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an experimental exposure setting", Berglund, B., Lindvall, T.,
and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 2, radon, passive
smoking, particulates and housing epidemiology", Swedish Council
for Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 351-356. NTIS PB85-104198.
KEYWORD: smoking, exposure, health, biomonitoring, CO
In a social setting, 64 nonsmokers were exposed to tobacco smoke
corresponding to either 0, 2.5, 5, or 15 ppm of CO. Smoke was
produced for 60 minutes by an active smoker. CO was monitored by
infrared spectroscopy. Objective (eye-blinks, lacrymal flow,
blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration) and subjective
measures (questionnaire items) were taken at 20-minute intervals.
Before and after the experiment, blood carboxy hemoglobin (COHb)
was determined. Significant effects of exposure were found for
blinks, lacrymal flow, COHb, and for most of the subjective
variables. Only the 15-ppm condition caused significant
deviation from control values in most instances.
0315
Withstandley, V., Moroz, W.J., and Anderson, G.W. (1971) "A
portable, battery-operated, immediate-readout dust-particle
analyzer", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 21(9):571-573.
KEYWORD: particulate, laboratory, field,QA, exposure, industrial,
methodology, monitor
A portable, battery-operated, electro-optical dust analyzer has
been developed to monitor dust levels in places where external
power may be unavailable. The instrument counts and size-
discriminates airborne particles over two size ranges upwards of
0.3 urn with immediate readout. A dilution mechanism permits
analysis of particulate concentrations as high as 2,400
particles/cm3 on each channel. Total operating weight is
approximately 14 Ib. Good correlation is obtained with results
from commercial analyzers. Field studies have been undertaken
with the CAES (Center for Air Environment Studies) prototype
analyzer at various sites in central Pennsylvania and at numerous
sampling points within the cities of Pittsburgh and Philadelphia.
Particulate concentrations as high as 1,400 particles/cm3 have
been measured at a coal-cleaning plant.
0687
Woebkenberg, M.L. (1982): "A comparison of three passive personal
sampling methods for NO2", Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 43:553-561.
KEYWORD: personal, exposure, QA, N02, methodology, monitor
Three personal passive sampling methods for N02 (Palmes tube,
360
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Pro-Tek Colorimetric Air Monitoring System, and Chronotox System)
were compared in a laboratory study. Samples were taken at 0.5,5
(the Federal Standard), and 10 ppm for varying time spans of 15-
minutes, 4-hours, and 8-hours. Temperature, relative humidity,
and face air velocity were held constant. The systems for
generating NO2 and determining exposure are presented along with
the analytical results and a discussion of error. The Palmes
tube successfully sampled at all levels except 0.5 ppm for 15-
minutes. It had, however, an increasing standard deviation with
increased loading. The Pro-Tek sampler successfully monitored
all exposures falling within its linear working range. The
Chronotox System sees 0.5 ppm the same as it sees zero
concentration, but sampled accurately at loadings higher than
20.9 ppm-hours.
0780
Wooten, G.W., Strobel, J.E., Pustinger, J.V., and McMillin, C.R.
(June 1984) "Passive sampling device for ambient air and personal
monitoring," U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring Systems
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (61 pages). NTIS
PB84-210046.
KEYWORD: VOC, sampling, personal, exposure, monitor, methodology,
economic, QA, laboratory, field, halocarbon, EPA$
A high-performance passive dosimeter has been developed and
evaluated for monitoring volatile organics in ambient air and for
short-term monitoring of low-level personal exposures. The
dosimeter design was dictated by three major concerns: (1)
diffusive mass transport considerations, (2) sorbent selection,
and (3) measurement of the collected compounds, which intimately
involves desorption procedures. Salient design features include:
(1) ruggedness, simple design, and cost effectiveness; (2) small
size and simple operations; (3) high equivalent pump rate and
sensitivity; (4) multicomponent sampling capacity; (5) ability to
be re-used and recharged; and (6) amenability to thermal
desorption. Results of laboratory and field evaluation of
dosimeter performance are discussed in terms of the design
criteria and application to widely divergent sampling
assignments. Detection sensitivity at the sub-ppb level was
demonstrated for short exposure time (e.g., 1 hour) employing
thermal desorption and halogen specific Hall detector/gas
chromatography. Long-term exposures were conducted under ambient
air (ppb range) and work station conditions (ppm range).
Retention time windows and detector response factors for 24
halogenated compounds have been established for a computer
program to increase recognition capability.
361
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0738
World Health Organization (1982) "Human exposure to carbon
monoxide and suspended particulate matter in Zagreb, Yugoslavia",
GEMS: global environmental monitoring system, EFP/82.33, Geneva,
Switzerland (78 pages).
KEYWORD: CO, particulate, seasonal, source, smoking, personal,QA,
activity, microenvironment, foreign, Yugoslavia, outdoor
Personal exposure of 10-13 subjects to CO and respirable
particles (RP) in winter and summer was estimated in two ways: by
personal monitors and by measuring concentrations in indoor
microenvironments the subjects were in during a 7-day monitoring
period, weighted by the time spent in each microenvironment. The
weighted average personal exposure (WAE) was compared to (1) the
average of simultaneous measurements of total suspended
particulates and RP at the nearest outdoor network station; (2)
the concentration to which the subject was exposed at home; (3)
the indoor/outdoor concentration ratio; and (4) background
concentrations. For people staying indoors all the time, WAEs
for both CO and RP correlated best with exposure at home, where
they spent about 65% of their time. For CO exposure, the most
important factor was the presence of indoor emission sources at
home (passive smoking, gas heating or cooking). In the absence
of indoor sources, indoor CO concentrations were proportional to
background concentrations. The same was true for personal
exposure, unless high exposure occurred at work or during
commuting. For RP, WAE correlated fairly well with outdoor
concentrations in winter. Summer outdoor concentrations were
much lower than WAE. This seasonal change shows that a
considerable part of personal exposure comes from indoor sources.
The instruments used in this study were calibrated,
intercompared, and found to give comparable results.
0786
World Health Organization (1984) "Human exposure to suspended
particulate matter and sulfate in Bombay, India", GEMS:Global
Environment Monitoring System EFP/84.86, Geneva, Switzerland (34
pages)
KEYWORD: particulate, S04, ventilation, smoking, seasonal, India,
personal, exposure, foreign, outdoor
This report presents the results of studies carried out in
Bombay, India, relating to human exposure to respirable
particulates and sulfates. The personal exposure of 15 people,
along with the air quality indoors, outdoors, and at the nearest
monitoring site, was monitored simultaneously for 1 year. The
subjects were nonsmokers, residing in different parts of Bombay
and using different modes of transport such as cars, buses, and
362
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electric trains. The study indicates that personal exposure is
more than that of air pollution prevailing indoors, outdoors, and
at the nearest monitoring site. There is a good correlation
between human exposure and air quality indoors, outdoors, and at
monitoring sites during both the winter and summer seasons, but
there is weak correlation during the monsoon season. Indoor air
quality depends on the type of fuel used for cooking and is also
affected by nearby sources. The air quality at non-
airconditioned hotels and cinemas is better than that at air
conditioned places.
0764
World Health Organization (1986) "Indoor air quality research",
Report on a WHO meeting, Stockholm, 27-31 August 1984, EURO
reports and studies 103, WHO Regional Office for Europe,
Copenhagen (49 pages).
KEYWORD: field, exposure, research, multipollutant, risk, design,
methodology, control, health, regulation
Following the Third International Conference on Indoor Air
Quality and Climate held in Stockholm, Sweden, in August 1984,
the World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe held its
third Working Group on Indoor Air Quality Research. The working
group's report focused on these research areas: (1) laboratory
research needs, (2) field studies on total population exposure
and total health impact, including sample selection, standardized
questionnaires, and measurement protocols, (3) the "sick building
syndrome", including symptom identification, methodology, and
future research guidlines, and (4) exposure reduction strategies.
The group's recommendations focused primarily on field study
needs.
0787
World Health Organization (1982) "Human exposure to S02, NO2 and
suspended particulate matter in Toronto, Canada", GEMS:Global
Environmental Monitoring System EFP/82.38, Geneva, Switzerland
(47 pages).
KEYWORD: NO2, particulate, exposure, field, statistical, SO2,
monitoring, foreign, Canada, monitor, outdoor, home
This report describes studies carried out in Toronto, Canada,
relating to human exposures to SO2, NO2, and suspended
particulate matter (SPM). The first step in the investigation
was the development and calibration of a ligh-weight portable
sampler for the SO2, N02, and SPM at the Gage Research Institute.
Using a number of samplers, a 1-year field study was carried out
in which concurrent measurements were made at indoor sites, at
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immediately adjacent outdoor sites, and at a downtown ambient air
quality monitoring station. In addition, personal samplers were
carried by volunteers living in the houses where the indoor
samples were collected. The volunteers consisted of asthmatic
persons and matched controls living nearby. A survey was made of
house and relevant life-style characteristics of the volunteers,
and a daily record was kept of other substances to which the
volunteers might have been exposed (e.g. tobacco smoke, car
exhaust). In general, however, the strategy used was to exclude
houses with significant indoor sources of pollution (e.g., gas
stoves). It was concluded that quantification of a person's
exposure can best be obtained with a sampler.
0718
World Health Organization (1983) "Assessment of human exposure to
selected organochlorine compounds through biological monitoring",
WHO, Division of Environment Health, CH-112, Geneva,
Switzerland (134 pages).
KEYWORD: exposure,biomonitoring,food,methodology,monitoring,dose,
halocarbon,demographic,pesticide,multinational,foreign,QA
This report describes development and results of the
organochlorine compounds (OCCs) component of the UNEP/WHO Pilot
Project on Assessment of Human Exposure to Pollutants through
Biological Monitoring. The immediate objectives of the pilot
project were (1) review and agree internationally on selected
tissues and body fluids; (2) provide technical advice and arrange
training programmes for scientists and technicians; (3) design
and implement a programme for rigid quality control in connection
with sampling, transport, storage and analysis of tissues and
body fluids; and (4) carry out a number of pilot studies on
selected segments of the population in a specified number of
countries. Ten countries have participated in monitoring of
OCCs: Belgium, Federal Republic of Germany, India, Israel, Japan,
Mexico, People's Republic of China, Sweden, USA, and Yugoslavia.
Selected OCCs (mainly DDT, DDE, hexachlorocyclohexane and PCBs)
were determined in human milk to provide a measure of exposure to
these persistent environmental pollutants. The monitoring
results clearly show that there are considerable differences in
human exposure to various OCCs in different countries. The
results of the present project strongly emphasize the need for
quality assurance in biological monitoring for OCCs. Because
data involved a limited number of samples, usually collected in
the same geographical areas, from 10 countries, it was not
possible to draw far-reaching conclusions from them. Extending
this kind of biological monitoring to more developing countries,
e.g. those in Africa and South America, would give better global
coverage.
364
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0762
World Health Organization (1983) "Indoor air pollutants: exposure
and health effects", EURO Reports and Studies 78, WHO Regional
Office for Europe, Copenhagen. (42 pages).
KEYWORD: Europe, exposure, multipollutant, health,model,indoor, fo
reign,monitor,source,control,ventilation,CO,smoke,SO2,CH2O,N02
The meeting or the Working Group on Assessment and Monitoring of
Exposure to Indoor Pollutants (convened by the World Health
Organization Office for Europe in collaboration with the Federal
Republic of Germany) (1) reviewed current knowledge about sources
of a number of indoor pollutants, (2) assessed measurement
technology and the adequacy of the available data for estimating
population exposure, and (3) discussed health impacts and
exposure-effect relationships for the purpose of estimating total
public health impacts. Pollutants considered were tobacco smoke,
N02, CO, radon, formaldehyde, SO2, C02, O3, asbestos, mineral
fibers, organics, and allergens. For each pollutant, total
population exposure was estimated for varying concentrations.
Where possible, this information was used to estimate adverse
health impact on a given population. The Working Roup concluded
that (1) the instrumentation for measuring exposure was usually
acceptable, but that the monitoring data and knowledge about the
distribution of sources and concentrations were inadequate or
marginal and (2) current information did not yet allow
quantitative assessments of public health impact. The group
recommended future research priorities focussing on formaldehyde,
building materials, furnishings, SO2, O3, NO2, CO, monitor
development, and representative population sample surveys.
0785
World Health Organization (1987) "Human exposure assessment location -
HEAL Project", GEMS:Global Environment Monitoring System WHO/PEP/87.1,
Geneva, Switzerland (29 pages).
KEYWORD: exposure, foreign, Kenya, home, biomass, statistical,
particulate, combustion
Repeated 24-hour measurements of respirable particulate were
carried out in 36 randomly selected houses in Kenya. Most of the
cooking was done on open fires using firewood or crop residues.
Hourly measurememnts were made between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m. to
observe peak values. A questionnaire was used to collect
information on demographic, house, fuel, and cooking
characteristics. Analysis of variance showed little or no
correlation between pollution levels and house characteristics.
Also, very homogeneously distributed concentrations were found
365
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among the houses.
0297
Wright, C.G., Leidy, R.B., and Dupree, H.E. (April 1981)
"Insecticides in the ambient air of rooms following their
application for control of pests", Bull. Environ. Contam.,
Toxicol., 26(4):548-553.
KEYWORD: bendiocarb, pesticide, diazinon, carbaryl,fenitrothion,
field, acephate, propoxur,exposure,chlorpyrifos
Insecticides were measured in the ambient air of North Carolina
State University dormitories following their application for pest
control purposes. Acephate, chlorpyrifos, diazinon,
fenitrothion, bendiocarb, carbaryl, and propoxur were applied.
The highest insecticide concentrations were present in ambient
air immediately following application. The concentration of
propoxur was the highest detected; 1.1% carbaryl was present in
the smallest amount.
0009
Wright, C.G., and Jackson, M.D., (Jan. 1975) "Insecticide
residues in non-target areas of rooms after two methods of crack
and crevice application", Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.,
13(1):123-128.
KEYWORD: pesticide, ventilation, chlordane, diazinon, field
The movement of insecticides to nontarget areas following
application with compressed-air sprayers is appraised and
compared with that following application with aerosol-type
sprayers. Significantly less movement of insecticides to
nontarget areas occurs with the aerosol-type sprayer than with
the compressed-air sprayer.
0654
Wright, G.R., Jewczyk, S., Onrot, J., Tomlinson, P., and
Shephard, R.J. (1975) "Carbon monoxide in the urban atmosphere:
hazards to the pedestrian and street worker", Environ. Health,
30:123-129.
KEYWORD: CO, outdoor, risk, exposure, health, microenvironment,
ventilation, foreign, Canada, weather
CO concentrations encountered by pedestrians and workers in the
streets of Toronto, Canada, were monitored by a reliable and
sensitive portable Energetics Science, Inc. Ecolyzer. Up to
1,000 observations per day were collected for several months
366
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during the summer and fall of 1973. CO levels ranged from 10 to
50 ppm, varying with wind speed and direction, atmospheric
stability, traffic density, and the height of nearby buildings.
Much higher average concentrations were found in such adverse
sites as poorly ventilated underpasses and underground garages.
Temporary street closures resulted in higher CO levels in some
areas, with no change or lower CO levels in other areas. Special
risk groups and microenvironments are discussed. The authors
suggest that the urban 8-hour CO ceilings of 15 ppm (Ontario
Revised Regulation/1970) may be a more appropriate air quality
target for street-workers than the usual 8-hour industrial figure
of 50 ppm.
0298
Wright, C.G., and Leidy, R.B. (April 1984) "Insecticide residues
in the air of buildings and pest control vehicles", Bull.
Environ. Contain. Toxicol., 24 (4) :582-589.
KEYWORD: pesticide, diazinon, chlorpyrifos, malathion, vehicle,
interior, field, office
The amount of insecticide present in the air of commercial pest
control buildings, service vehicles, and food-preparation areas
following routine insecticide application was investigated. The
ambient air of office rooms contained significantly less
diazinon, chlorpyrifos, and malathion than storage rooms
contained. Higher residues of chlorpyrifos were present in
ambient air of food-preparation areas immediately after
application than were present 24 hours later. Diazinon residues
were present in all service vehicles examined. Insecticide
levels in all rooms and vehicles were far below allowable limits.
0295
Wright, C.G., and Leidy, R.B. (1982) "Chlordane and heptachlor in
homes treated for termites", Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.,
28(5):617-623.
KEYWORD: pesticide, chlordane, heptachlor, field, exposure, home
Chlordane and heptachlor are used to prevent and control termites
in buildings. A study was initiated to determine ambient levels
of these insecticides in houses after chlordane or chlordane plus
heptachlor treatments. All air samples taken after application
contained insecticides. Levels in the ambient air of the test
houses varied greatly, with no discernible or predictable
pattern.
367
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0504
Wyndham, S.T., Savage, E.D., and Phillips, C.R. (1978), "The
effects of home ventilation systems on indoor radon - radon
daughter levels", U.S. EPA, Office of Radiation Programs,
Washington, DC 20460 (26 pages). NTIS PB-291925.
KEYWORD: radon, ventilation, home, field, exposure, EPA$, control
A study was conducted in a house in Polk County, FL, to determine
the effects of normal home ventilation methods on radon, radon
progeny, and working levels. Three normal ventilation conditions
(central air conditioning, the central blower without air
conditioning, and outside air ventilation) were studied, with
radon, radon progeny, and working levels measured sequentially
until significant changes ceased. In all three experiments, all
three parameters decreased, with the decreases corresponding to
estimated increases in house ventilation rate.
0707
Yamanaka, S., Hirose, H., and Takada, S. (1979) "Nitrogen oxides
emissions from domestic kerosene-fired and gas-fired appliances",
Atmos. Environ. 13:407-412.
KEYWORD: NOx, source, appliance, methodology,combustion, foreign,
Japan
NOx emission rates in Japan from appliances for heating, cooking,
supplying hot water, and bathtub heating were classified as to
emission characteristics and fuel type. Hot water heaters and
bathtub heaters emitted the most NOx. These NOx source classes
are ranked. The emission rates and the ranking are similar to
other published studies. Also, different methods of NOx
measurement were compared.
0028
Yanagisawa, Yukio, and Nishimura, Hajime (1982) "A badge-type
personal sampler for measurement of personal exposure to NO2 and
NO in ambient air", Environ. Int., 8:235-242.
KEYWORD: NO, NO2, personal, exposure, monitor, sampling, QA
Badge-type personal samplers were developed for measuring
personal exposure to NO2 and NO without interfering with the
wearer's daily activities. N02 was measured by the sampler with
a sensitivity of 124.8 ug/m3 (66 ppb hours) and an accuracy of
+/- 20%. After a small modification to the sampler, sensitivity
and accuracy for NO were nearly equal to that for N02.
368
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0565
Yates, A., Gray, F.B., Misiaszek, J.I., and Wolman, W. (1986)
"Air ions: past problems and future directions", Environ. Int.,
12(1-4):99-108.
KEYWORD: ion, outdoor, literature, health, humidity, demographic,
methodology, statistical, weather, particulate
Research on the effects of positively and negatively charged air
ions has been hampered by serious methodological flaws, including
incomplete assessment of the microclimate, deficient
quantification of ion concentration and delivery, and inadequate
preparation of the subject or experimental chamber. Variables
such as weather sensitivity, gender, and age rarely have been
considered. Efforts are underway to standardize the experimental
approach. Results from a handful of recent studies suggest that
positive ions exert adverse effects and negative ions exert
beneficial effects on some indices of physical state,
psychological state, and performance. The neurohormone,
serotonin, may play a role in mediating these effects, although
the nature of the relationship is obscure. Further research in
this area is warranted.
0460
Yeates, D.B., Goldin, A.S., and Moeller, D.W. (1972) "Natural
radiation in the urban environment", Nucl. Safety, 13(4):275-286.
KEYWORD: radiation,radon,office,outdoor,home,methodology, health,
ventilation,source,control,exposure,1iterature,architecture
This article summarizes previous work on natural background
radiation levels and reports new data from Boston, MA. Gamma
dose rates, corrected for cosmic radiation, were measured with
large ionization chambers. Dose rates inside wooden single-
family dwellings were 25 to 50% lower than those outside and, in
masonry multiple-family dwellings, were about 10% lower.
Concentrations of radon daughters were measured by predecay and
postdecay alpha spectrometry. Concentrations in dwellings were
comparable with outdoor concentrations, but concentrations in
basements were higher by a factor of about 5. Concentrations in
office buildings were quite low, because the radon daughters were
removed by the ventilation system. Effects on human dose of
building type, construction materials, and ventilation are
discussed, as are possible ways of reducing population dose.
0484
Yocom, J.E., Clink, W.L., and Cote, W.A. (1971) "Indoor/outdoor
air quality relationships", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc.,
369
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21(5):251-259.
KEYWORD: outdoor, seasonal, particulate, CO, SO2, home, sampling,
field, ventilation, source, control, office
A pilot study program was undertaken to obtain data on the
quantitative relationship of indoor to outdoor air quality levels
for several pollutants. Suspended particulate, soiling
particulate, CO, and SO2 were measured at pairs of public
buildings, office buildings, and private homes during the summer,
fall, and winter seasons of 1969-70. A unique mobile equipment
package permitted simultaneous sampling of indoor and outdoor air
for diverse building structures. Each pair of buildings was
sampled simultaneously for a 2-week period. Two outside and two
inside sampling points were selected at each structure.
Suspended particulate samples were collected day and night for 12
hours, soiling particulate samples for 2 hours, and gaseous
samples for 5 minutes. The results show the ease of penetration
of particulate into private homes and the removal ability of air
conditioning systems. Outdoor daily activity greatly influences
particulate levels and urban CO levels. Internal generation of
pollutants was a signficant factor in some of the structures
sampled.
0435
Yocom, John E., et al. (1982) "Indoor-outdoor air quality
relationships: a critical review", J. Air Pollut. Control
ASSOC., 32:904-920.
KEYWORD: research, outdoor, exposure, regulation, methodology,
literature, multipollutant
Formal presentations by Mr. Yocom, Dr. Moschandreas, Dr.
Spengler, Dr. Biersteker, and Mr. Hewlett at the 75th Annual
Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association in New Orleans,
LA, are reproduced. In addition, comments made from the floor
and through the mail are included, along with closing remarks by
Mr. Yocom. These presentations review the history and 1982
status of indoor/outdoor air quality research. The relative
value of numerical modeling and monitoring surveys is debated.
The need for strong Federal coordination of indoor air quality
research is asserted. Indoor air often is more toxic that
outdoor air, but not enough is known about indoor air pollution
to propose a general regulatory strategy.
0094
Yocom, J.E. (Aug. 1984) "Use of direct analysis mass spectrometry
to solve indoor air quality problems", Berglund, B., Lindvall,
T., and Sundell, J., Eds., "Indoor air, vol. 4, chemical
370
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characterization and personal exposure", Swedish Council for
Building Research, Stockholm, pp. 245-250. NTIS PB85-104214.
KEYWORD: CO, VOC, source, methodology, QA, energy, office
Complaints about poor indoor air quality are becoming more
commonplace as buildings are made more energy-efficient and as
the public becomes more aware of indoor air quality and its
potential effects on human health. Standard occupational health
sampling methods are usually too insensitive to identify the
specific agents causing complaints, since many of the causative
agents are complex mixtures of extremely low concentrations of
organic gases and vapors. This paper describes the use of a
direct reading, mobile mass spectrometer system to identify
specific indoor irritants in two office buildings. In addition,
the use of this system to evaluate emissions from a prototype of
a new type of office machinery and its potential impact on indoor
air quality are decribed.
0412
Yocom, John E. (1982) "Indoor-outdoor air quality relationships:
a critical review", J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc., 32:(5)499-520.
KEYWORD: outdoor,smoke, particulate, exposure,regulation,home,CO,
NOx, source, control
This paper explores an important aspect of air pollution that has
played no part, as yet, in setting air quality standards.
Doubtless, this results from the very recent recognition that
some U.S. criteria pollutants may often be considerably higher in
residences than in the outside air, plus the discovery of
elevated concentrations in residences of air contaminants that
are absent from, or are at much reduced levels, in the outside
air. The paper illustrates and comments on the many sources of
major pollutants that originate indoors, principally in the home.
They include shockingly high concentrations of CO and NOx from
the operation of all types of gas-burning appliances and of
respirable suspended particulate matter from tobacco smoke. The
review contains many comments on rational ways to reconcile this
new insight about the significance of indoor air pollutants on
health with current air quality standards and recommends ways to
incorporate this knowledge into improved standards for the
future.
0247
Yocum, John E. and McCarthy, Sharon M. (Feb. 1986) "Tight
Building Syndrome", Building Operating Management magazine
reprint (4 pages).
371
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KEYWORD: monitoring, smoking, field, ventilation, source, energy,
multipollutant,exposure,foreign,Canada,office,sampling,VOC
This article summarizes the indoor air pollution problem that is
faced by office building managers. Three case histories are
examined; (1) a compilation of generalized results from surveys
conducted in the United States and Canada, (2) the investigation
of a public building in Washington State after the installation
of new carpeting, and (3) the investigation of a new energy
efficient office building in Hartford, CT. Reducing ventilation
in recent years to save energy has allowed pollutants from indoor
sources to accumulate indoors. Organic chemical concentrations
in the ppm and ppb range are the most common problem. Developing
clear-cut cause and effect relationships is difficult.
Investigations into these problems must be multidisciplinary, and
controls are usually site and situation specific.
0511
Young, R.A., Berk, J.V., Hollowell, C.D., Pepper, J.H., and
Turiel, I. (1981) "Indoor air quality and energy-efficient
ventilation rates at a New York City elementary school", U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Buildings and Community Systems,
Washington, DC 20585 (65 pages). NTIS DE81-028548.
KEYWORD: CO2, CO, 03, energy, NOx, odor,particulate,CH2O, school,
SO2, ventilation, outdoor, aldehyde, radon
A mobile laboratory monitored air quality in two classrooms, a
hallway, and outdoors at Oakland Gardens Elementary School in New
York, NY, under three ventilation rates. Air-exchange rates,
particulates, odor perception, C02, CO, SO2, 03, NOx, Rn,
formaldehyde, and total aldehydes were measured. When the
ventilation rate was reduced, CO2 concentrations increased
significantly, but did not exceed current occupational standards.
At the low ventilation rate, odor acceptability decreased; and in
one of the classrooms, the odors were judged unacceptable
according to current American Society of Heating, Refrigeration,
and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) standards. Calculations
indicate that moderate energy savings can be achieved by reducing
classroom ventilation rates.
0434
Zarcone, M.J., Schery, S.D., Wilkening, M.H., and McNamee, E.
(1986) "A comparison of measurements of thoron, radon and their
daughters in a test house with model predictions", Atmos.
Environ., 20:1273-1279.
KEYWORD: radon, thoron, home, source, seasonal, exposure, field,
ventilation, weather, model, architecture
372
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Airborne thoron, radon, and their decay products were measured in
a one-story test house at various periods during four seasons.
Meteorological variables, ventilation rates, flux density from
soil and building materials, and aerosol concentration were also
measured. Time-dependent results indicate significant changes in
radon, and the daughters of radon and thoron, in response to
meteorological conditions. In comparison, thoron was relatively
more stable. Measurements for time-dependent behavior and
average disequilibrium ratios seemed to agree reasonably with
predictions for a model for indoor radioactivity that uses first-
order sink and source terms. The major source for both thoron
and radon appears to be the soil.
0151
Zelon, H., Monroe, N., and Whitmore, R. (Oct. 1982) "Field
interviewer's manual, (project 2390-4), monitoring of carbon
monoxide exposure", Research Triangle Institute, NC 27709 (79
pages). Not available from NTIS.
KEYWORD: CO, field, methodology,biomonitoring,personal, exposure,
EPA$
All field activity procedures and forms are given that were used
by the field interviewers participating in the U.S. EPA's
Washington Carbon Monoxide Exposure Monitoring Study of the
winter of 1982-1983. Among the procedures described are
delivering personal exposure monitors (PEMs) and study materials
to the respondents, explaining their use, returning in
approximately 24 hours to collect the PEMs and study materials,
cancelling and rescheduling appointments, taking breath samples,
and filling out data-collection forms.
0030
Ziskind, Richard A., Fite, Kenneth, and Mage, David T. (1982)
"Pilot field study: carbon monoxide exposure monitoring in the
general population", Environ. Int., 8:283-293.
KEYWORD: CO, field, personal, exposure, monitor, methodology,
EPA$, activity, microenvironment
A pilot field study was conducted with nine members of the
general public to measure CO exposure using personal monitors.
The principal objectives were to design and evaluate the research
protocols and instrumentation for application to a large-scale
personal monitoring program. Integrated CO exposure for each
subject was monitored and recorded for approximately 45 days
according to type of activity, such as "commuting" or "at work".
All subjects except one were able to handle both the equipment
373
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and data-recording requirements with no significant problems.
Actual data-recording responsibilities consumed less than 10
minutes daily. The data consisted of 355 person-days, each over
6 hours on weekdays only, from which 8-hour average personal
exposure levels could be computed. The 8-hour National Ambient
Air Quality Standard of 9 ppm was exceeded on 22 person-days.
Elevated CO concentrations during commuting were frequently
associated with the exceedences.
0333
Ziskind, R.A., Rogozen, M.B., Carlin, T., and Drago, R. (1981)
"Carbon monoxide intrusion into sustained-use vehicles", Environ.
Int. 5:109-123.
KEYWORD: source, field, vehicle, interior,personal, exposure, CO,
monitor, outdoor, EPA$
CO exposures were measured in the passenger sections of 1,164
buses, taxis, and police cars in the metropolitan areas of
Boston, MA, and Denver, CO. The objectives were to identify
high-CO vehicles and to elucidate the mechanisms for high
passenger exposures. Vehicle fleets were initially screened with
passive dosimeters and pump-driven personal samplers. Selected
vehicles were then outfitted with portable electrochemical-cell
continuous analyzers coupled to recorders. Principal CO sources
and intrusion pathways were pinpointed, using an inert tracer gas
(SF6) detection system. Intrusion tests were made both at idle
and with the vehicles in motion. Fixed-station monitoring values
were underpredicted, in a nonuniform manner, out-of-vehicle CO
exposures determined by the field measurements. In 58% of the
120 personal sampler readings for rides greater than 8 hours, the
8-hour National Ambient Air Quality Standard for CO (9 ppm) was
exceeded.
0119
Ziskind, R.A., et al. (March 1983) "Carbon monoxide intrusion in
sustained-use vehicles", U.S. EPA, Environmental Monitoring
Systems Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 (160 pages).
NTIS PB83-209999/LL.
KEYWORD: CO, vehicle, interior, ventilation, personal, exposure,
field, EPA$
This field investigation was begun with the main objective of
measuring CO levels in the passenger area of sustained-use
vehicles (principally buses, taxis, and police cars). Attempts
were made to identify traffic, operating, and environmental
conditions, and vehicle types that could lead to relatively high
interior CO exposures. Over 1,000 vehicles were tested in two
374
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cities. All vehicles were in use in a working fleet at the time
of testing. In over 50% of the 132 vehicle trips checked by
personal samplers, the average CO concentration exceeded the
National Ambient Air Quality Standard of 9 ppm over 8 hours. In
5% of the cases, the Occupational Health and Safety
Administration standard of 50 ppm average for 8 hours was
exceeded. Sources of fugitive emissions and intrusion pathways
were identified in all vehicles with elevated CO levels.
INDEX OF ABSTRACTS BY PAGE NO.
ACCESSION NO. PAGE NO.
0001 235
0002 238
0003 241
0004 337
0005 305
0006 127
0007 124
0008 2
0009 366
0010 65
0011 75
0012 298
0013 76
0014 239
0015 345
0016 347
0017 250
0018 344
0019 358
0020 235
0021 38
0022 220
0023 79
0024 74
0025 117
0026 141
0027 195
0028 368
0029 230
0030 373
0031 242
0032 66
0033 308
0034 261
0035 282
0036 313
0037 238
0038 181
0039 132
0040 133
375
-------
0041 239
0042 183
0043 138
0044 52
0045 236
0046 299
0047 20
0048 51
0049 88
0050 142
0051 338
0052 259
0053 58
0054 133
0055 30
0056 281
0057 36
0058 180
0059 254
0060 46
0061 345
0062 98
0063 308
0064 269
0065 270
0066 268
0067 31
0068 271
0069 266
0070 271
0071 268
0072 267
0073 114
0074 9
0075 251
0076 116
0077 249
0078 293
0079 170
0080 56
0081 306
0082 201
0083 8
0084 286
0085 202
0086 267
0087 343
0088 148
0089 298
0090 54
0091 48
376
-------
0092 102
0093 277
0094 370
0095 85
0096 273
0097 159
0098 90
0099 294
0100 167
0101 246
0102 152
0103 29
0104 96
0105 205
0106 248
0107 250
0108 106
0109 60
0110 195
0111 263
0112 34
0113 357
0114 79
0115 132
0116 356
0117 115
0118 194
0119 374
0120 193
0121 182
0122 44
0123 314
0124 139
0125 242
0126 338
0127 337
0128 294
0129 85
0130 140
0131 310
0132 62
0133 86
0134 118
0135 127
0136 341
0137 269
0138 11
0139 149
0140 196
0141 252
0142 5
377
-------
0143 65
0144 184
0145 339
0146 272
0147 5
0148 284
0149 214
0150 197
0151 373
0152 269
0153 215
0154 131
0155 200
0156 295
0157 11
0158 2
0159 122
0160 124
0161 141
0162 209
0163 257
0164 275
0165 278
0166 54
0167 82
0168 21
0169 203
0170 200
0171 191
0172 93
0173 68
0174 103
0175 210
0176 96
0177 51
0178 39
0179 253
0180 135
0181 121
0182 166
0183 121
0184 279
0185 166
0186 164
0187 23
0188 152
0189 108
0190 329
0191 305
0192 30
0193 244
378
-------
0194 316
0195 301
0196 261
0197 70
0198 289
0199 179
0200 325
0201 237
0202 110
0203 241
0204 289
0205 302
0206 350
0207 38
0208 304
0209 348
0210 12
0211 249
0212 287
0213 288
0214 178
0215 177
0216 286
0217 290
0218 288
0219 247
0220 251
0221 232
0222 14
0223 218
0224 200
0225 7
0226 217
0227 32
0228 61
0229 67
0230 97
0231 142
0232 186
0233 187
0234 198
0235 211
0236 219
0237 24
0238 39
0239 357
0240 99
0241 118
0242 13
0243 32
0244 40
379
-------
0245 302
0246 53
0247 371
0248 92
0249 97
0250 109
0251 168
0252 178
0253 355
0254 188
0255 189
0256 185
0257 221
0258 280
0259 235
0260 252
0261 274
0262 284
0263 254
0264 302
0265 309
0266 320
0267 304
0268 111
0269 326
0270 207
0271 19
0272 256
0273 311
0274 248
0275 195
0276 303
0277 247
0278 356
0279 323
0280 100
0281 319
0282 340
0283 33
0284 317
0285 347
0286 79
0287 145
0288 290
0289 276
0290 143
0291 276
0292 93
0293 168
0294 198
0295 367
380
-------
0296 134
0297 366
0298 367
0299 198
0300 134
0301 156
0302 192
0303 194
0304 227
0305 27
0306 154
0307 165
0308 149
0309 57
0310 84
0311 110
0312 161
0313 100
0314 236
0315 360
0316 6
0317 271
0318 359
0319 256
0320 130
0321 6
0322 335
0323 172
0324 147
0325 95
0326 143
0327 262
0328 86
0329 313
0330 61
0331 207
0332 62
0333 374
0334 87
0335 265
0336 342
0337 184
0338 266
0339 332
0340 232
0341 105
0342 316
0343 155
0344 260
0345 153
0346 216
381
-------
0347 47
0348 185
0349 151
0350 218
0351 328
0352 320
0353 333
0354 283
0355 282
0356 192
0357 353
0358 196
0359 135
0360 186
0361 27
0362 169
0363 103
0364 178
0365 126
0366 130
0367 187
0368 359
0369 37
0370 351
0371 321
0372 60
0373 59
0374 229
0375 49
0376 315
0377 144
0378 231
0379 349
0380 73
0381 125
0382 320
0383 128
0384 35
0385 145
0386 111
0387 333
0388 150
0389 155
0390 36
0391 22
0392 5
0393 17
0394 20
0395 21
0396 156
0397 70
382
-------
0398 44
0399 105
0400 108
0401 146
0402 257
0403 259
0404 264
0405 265
0406 279
0407 287
0408 332
0409 333
0410 351
0411 358
0412 371
0413 50
0414 215
0415 234
0416 240
0417 47
0418 126
0419 330
0420 22
0421 227
0422 310
0423 101
0424 73
0425 293
0426 205
0427 206
0428 183
0429 343
0430 75
0431 131
0432 15
0433 232
0434 372
0435 370
0436 230
0437 341
0438 346
0439 284
0440 273
0441 335
0442 283
0443 245
0444 223
0445 331
0446 249
0447 222
0448 53
383
-------
0449 311
0450 317
0451 203
0452 108
0453 12
0454 278
0455 43
0456 157
0457 154
0458 305
0459 71
0460 369
0461 43
0462 221
0463 299
0464 303
0465 96
0466 95
0467 94
0468 122
0469 274
0470 224
0471 129
0472 101
0473 81
0474 345
0475 180
0476 157
0477 217
0478 176
0479 158
0480 137
0481 151
0482 295
0483 10
0484 369
0485 213
0486 192
0487 344
0488 28
0489 49
0490 48
0491 44
0492 28
0493 117
0494 356
0495 353
0496 352
0497 340
0498 153
0499 129
384
-------
0500 70
0501 59
0502 209
0503 64
0504 368
0505 150
0506 112
0507 225
0508 224
0509 226
0510 222
0511 372
0512 329
0513 14
0514 233
0515 177
0516 208
0517 280
0518 27
0519 25
0520 174
0521 358
0522 136
0523 300
0524 119
0525 190
0526 334
0527 144
0528 80
0529 13
0530 230
0531 107
0532 58
0533 7
0534 324
0535 140
0536 123
0537 278
0538 296
0539 165
0540 281
0541 352
0542 262
0543 327
0544 19
0545 246
0546 34
0547 334
0548 216
0549 46
0550 206
385
-------
0551 234
0552 106
0553 164
0554 72
0555 24
0556 137
0557 41
0558 147
0559 270
0560 113
0561 38
0562 42
0563 68
0564 148
0565 369
0566 168
0567 102
0568 39
0569 199
0570 188
0571 169
0572 57
0573 87
0574 244
0575 148
0576 63
0577 301
0578 253
0579 10
0580 179
0581 229
0582 112
0583 69
0584 314
0585 321
0586 72
0587 319
0588 35
0589 123
0590 16
0591 312
0592 348
0593 296
0594 272
0595 315
0596 204
0597 16
0598 91
0599 23
0600 349
0601 199
386
-------
0602 182
0603 62
0604 125
0605 40
0606 354
0607 109
0608 17
0609 243
0610 312
0611 214
0612 45
0613 324
0614 264
0615 91
0616 66
0617 55
0618 171
0619 104
0620 33
0621 130
0622 56
0623 289
0624 185
0625 170
0626 276
0627 119
0628 137
0629 191
0630 218
0631 92
0632 146
0633 318
0634 228
0635 189
0636 119
0637 213
0638 29
0639 120
0640 25
0641 26
0642 26
0643 111
0644 309
0645 225
0646 281
0647 162
0648 300
0649 246
0650 158
0651 306
0652 172
387
-------
0653 352
0654 366
0655 336
0656 55
0657 263
0658 90
0659 297
0660 212
0661 128
0662 18
0663 134
0664 167
0665 175
0666 253
0667 219
0668 136
0669 239
0670 323
0671 76
0672 201
0673 326
0674 162
0675 241
0676 202
0677 84
0678 42
0679 224
0680 114
0681 194
0682 205
0683 74
0684 175
0685 190
0686 71
0687 360
0688 330
0689 50
0690 331
0691 52
0692 318
0693 245
0694 275
0695 204
0696 8
0697 176
0698 31
0699 116
0700 64
0701 258
0702 307
0703 223
388
-------
0704 63
0705 49
0706 208
0707 368
0708 245
0709 325
0710 327
0711 171
0712 78
0713 255
0714 258
0715 336
0716 355
0717 260
0718 364
0719 339
0720 9
0721 113
0722 16
0723 86
0724 163
0725 94
0726 138
0727 116
0728 181
0729 307
0730 4
0731 3
0732 69
0733 1
0734 2
0735 1
0736 4
0737 89
0738 362
0739 354
0740 212
0741 78
0742 83
0743 81
0744 89
0745 120
0746 82
0747 81
0748 99
0749 83
0750 15
0751 3
0752 83
0753 181
0754 264
389
-------
0755 163
0756 210
0757 14
0758 255
0759 77
0760 162
0761 166
0762 365
0763 228
0764 363
0765 328
0766 161
0767 98
0768 220
0769 322
0770 283
0771 291
0772 350
0773 277
0774 292
0775 291
0776 159
0777 152
0778 41
0779 285
0780 361
0781 160
0782 173
0783 173
0784 173
0785 365
0786 362
0787 363
0788 88
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