United States Office of Ecological Processes. EPA 600 9-89 059
Environmental Protection and Ecological Research/Office Sept 1989
Agency of Modeling, Monitoring
Systems, and Quality Assurance
Research and Development
v>EPA Research Activity
Descriptors
FY89
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Research Activity Descriptors
FY89
October 1988-September 1989
A Contribution to the
National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Ecological Processes and Effects Research
Office of Modeling. Monitoring Systems, and Quality Assurance
Office of Research and Development. Washington. DC 20460
Coiw*lli»,OK 97333
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory - Las Vegas. NV 89114
Environmental Research Laboratory - Duluth. MN 55804
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory - Cincinnati. OH 45268
Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment Laboratory - Research Triangle Park. NC 27711
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NOTICE
This document, which describes the research strategy and completed, ongoing and proposed
activities for the Aquatic Effects Research Program (AERP), was prepared for distribution through the
AERP Technology Transfer Program. Every effort has been made to ensure that the content of this
document is consistent with the current research program plans; the exact content of the
descriptions, however, is subject to change as new information is received from AERP Program
Managers. Therefore, the information contained herein should not be considered final, and is to be
updated on an annual basis to reflect the most current program plans. In addition, because the
authors were instructed to limit the length of the summaries to one page, the descriptions do not
contain extensive details. The reader is encouraged to contact key individuals (as designated on each
research activity summary) for more specific information.
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PREFACE
This document has been prepared to provide to scientists and administrators, both within and
outside the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the most current information on the research
strategy in the Aquatic Effects Research Program (AERP) and the projects that contribute to that
strategy. The AERP is a matrixed managed program, involving five laboratories within the Office of
Ecological Processes and Effects Research (OEPER) and the Office of Modeling, Monitoring Systems,
and Quality Assurance, both of which are part of the Environmental Protection Agency's Office of
Research and Development. Administration is through OEPER. The AERP also is part of the National
Acid Precipitation Assessment Program's Aquatics Task Group, which involves seven federal agencies
led by the Environmental Protection Agency.
The materials contained herein summarize AERP research activities funded in FY88 and FY89
and those proposed for funding in FY90. For information on completed or currently funded
research, the technical contact indicated on each summary should be consulted For information on
activities that are proposed (indicated as such in the "status" category on each description), or on the
AERP research strategy, contact:
Daniel McKenzie
Director, Aquatic Effects Research Program
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory - Corvallis
Corvallis, OR 97333
(503)757-4666
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ABSTRACT
The Aquatic Effects Research Program was developed to determine the effects of acidic
deposition on surface waters in selected regions of the United States. The program focuses on four
policy questions: (1)What is the extent and magnitude of past change attributable to acidic
deposition? (2) What change is expected in the future under various deposition scenarios? (3) What
is the target loading below which change would not be expected? (4) What is the rate of recovery if
deposition decreases? The goal of the program is to characterize and quantify with known certainty
the subpopulation of surface waters that will respond chemically to current and changing acidic
deposition and to determine the biological significance of observed or predicted changes. The
Aquatic Effects Research Program has five major component programs designed to increase
understanding of long-term acidification: the National Surface Water Survey, the Direct/Delayed
Response Project, Watershed Processes and Manipulations, Long-Term Monitoring, and Indirect
Human Health Effects. Short-term acidification is being addressed through the Episodic Response
Project, and issues of both chronic and acute acidification are addressed through Biologically
Relevant Chemistry. The results of these eight programs are being used collectively in the Synthesis
and Integration Program, designed to provide information that allows (1) the policy questions to be
addressed quantitatively and (2) the AERP goal to be satisfied.
Critical tasks for the future include (1) contributing to the 1990 goal of the National Acid
Precipitation Assessment Program to assess the effects of acidic deposition on surface waters in the
United States, (2) implementing research to verify model predictions relating to future effects of
acidic deposition on aquatic ecosystems, and (3) establishing a long-term monitoring network
capable of detecting biologically significant changes in the chemistry of representative lakes and
streams that can be related to known regional populations of aquatic systems.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION
PAGE
Notice
Preface
Abstract
List of Figures
List of Tables
in
v
vii
xv
xv
1 RESEARCH STRATEGY 1-1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1-1
1.1.1 Background and Purpose of the Research Program 1-1
1.1.2 Approach 1-2
1.2 MAJOR PROGRAMS 1-4
1.2.1 National Surface Water Survey 1-5
1.2.2 DirecVDelayed Response Project 1-6
1.2.3 Watershed Processes and Manipulations 1-7
1.2.4 Episodic Response Project 1-8
1.2.5 Biologically Relevant Chemistry 1-9
1.2.6 Synthesis and Integration 1-10
1.2.7 Long-Term Monitoring 1-12
1.2.8 Indirect Human Health Effects 1-14
1.3 PROGRAM COORDINATION AND LINKAGE 1-15
1.4 FUTURE PLANS TO 1990 1-17
.4.1 Overview of Research Program Integration 1-17
.4.2 Focus 1-21
.4.3 Program Elements-Future Activities and Emphasis 1-22
.4.4 Program Guidance 1-24
.4.5 Major Outputs 1-25
1.5 AQUATIC EFFECTS RESEARCH AFTER 1990 1-26
1.5.1 Watershed Processes and Manipulations Studies 1-26
1.5.2 Long-Term Monitoring - The Temporally Integrated
Monitoring of Ecosystems Project 1-27
(continued)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
2 PROJECT SUMMARIES 2-1
2.1 PROGRAM STRUCTURE-OVERVIEW 2-1
2.2 NATIONAL SURFACE WATER SURVEY-PROGRAM E-01 2-3
E-01: National Surface Water Survey (6A-1) 2-5
E-01.1 National Lake Survey (6A-1.01 A) 2-6
E-01.1A Western Lake Survey (6A-1 01A1) 2-7
E-01.1B Northeastern Seasonal Variability (6A-1.01 A2) 2-8
E-01.1C Front Range Lake Acidification (N/A) 2-9
E-01.1D Mt.Zirkel Lake Study (N/A) 2-10
E-01.1E New Mexico Lake Study (N/A) 2-11
E-01.2 National Stream Survey (6A-1.01B) 2-12
E-01.2A Southern Blue Ridge Stream Survey (6A-1.01B1) 2-13
E-01.2B Middle Atlantic Stream Survey (6A-1.01B2) 2-14
E-01.2C Southeast Screening (6A-1.01 B3) 2-15
E-01.3 Subpopulational Studies (6A-1.02) 2-16
E-01.3A Florida Lake Acidification Project (6A-1.02A) 2-17
E-01.3B Alaska Seepage Lake Studies (6A-1.02B) 2-18
E-01.3C Upper Midwest Seepage Lake Studies (6A-1.02C) 2-19
2.3 DIRECT/DELAYED RESPONSE PROJECT-PROGRAM E-07 2-21
E-07: Direct/Delayed Response Project (6B-1) 2-23
E-07.1 Soil Surveys (6C-2.11) 2-24
E-07.1A Regional Soil Surveys (6C-2 11 A) 2-26
E-07.1B Special Soil Studies (Sulfate Retention) (6C-2.11B) 2-28
E-07.2 Regionalization of Soil Chemistry (6C-2.12) 2-29
E-07.3 Correlative Analyses (6C-2.09) 2-30
E-07.3A Evidence of Sulfur Retention (6C-2.09A) 2-31
E-07.3B Hydrology/Water Chemistry (6C-2.09B) 2-32
E-07.3C Soil Aggregation (6C-2 09C) 2-33
E-07.3D Soil/Water Interactions (6C-2 09D) 2-34
E-07.3E Water Chemistry/Vegetation (6C-2.09E) 2-35
E-07.3F Surface Water/Wetland Relationships (6C-2.09F) 2-36
E-07.4 Single-Factor Analyses (6C-2.10) 2-38
E-07.4A Sulfate Adsorption (6C-2.10A) 2-39
E-07.4B Base Cation Supply (6C-2.1 OB) 2-41
E-07.5 Forecasting Surface Water Acidification (6B-1 01) 2-43
(continued)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
2.4 WATERSHED PROCESSES AND MANIPULATIONS-PROGRAM E-05 2-45
E-05: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (6C-2, 6C-3, 6C-4) 2-47
E-05.1 Watershed Acidification-Maine (6C-3.01) 2-49
E-05.2 Surface Water Acidification (6C-3.02) 2-51
E-05.2A Little Rock Lake (6C-3.02A) 2-53
E-05.2B Within-Lake Alkalinity Generation (Sulfate Reduction)
(6C-3.02B) 2-55
E-05.2C Comparative Analyses of an Acidified Lake (6C-3.02C) 2-56
E-05.3 Soil/Hydrologic Processes (6C-2) 2-58
E-05.3A Sulfate Mobility in Soils (6C-2.03) 2-59
E-05.3B Cation Supply and Mineral Weathering in Soils (6C-2.04) 2-61
E-05.3C Aluminum Mobility in Soils (6C-2.05) 2-62
E-05.3D Hydrologic Pathways/Residence Times (6C-2.06) 2-63
E-05.3E Organic Acid Influence on Acidification (6C-2.07) 2-64
E-05.3F Nitrate Mobility in Soils (6C-2.08) 2-65
E-05.4 Acidification/Recovery Model Development and Testing (6B-1.02) . 2-66
E-05.4A Acidification Model Sensitivity Analysis (6B-1.02A) 2-68
E-05.4B Modeling Recovery of Surface Waters (6B-1.028) 2-70
E-05.5 Watershed Studies Coordination (6C-4) 2-71
E-05.6 Watershed Recovery Project (6C-5) 2-72
E-05.6A Adsorption and Desorption of Sulfate by Soils (6C-5 01) 2-73
2.5 EPISODIC RESPONSE PROJECT-PROGRAM E-08 2-75
E-08: Episodic Response Project (6A-2) 2-77
E-08.1 Regional Episodic and Acidic Manipulations (6A-2 01) 2-78
E-08.2 Monitoring of Episodic Events (6A-2.02) 2-80
E-08.2A Episodic Stream Monitoring in the Catskills(6A-2.02A) 2-81
E-08.2B Episodic Stream Monitoring in the Northern Appalachian
Plateau (6A-2.02B) 2-82
E-08.2C Episodic Stream Monitoring in the Adirondacks (6A-2 02C) .. 2-83
E-08.3 Regional Modeling of Episodic Acidification (6A-2.03) 2-84
E-08.4 Deposition Monitoring for Episodes (6A-2.04) 2-85
(continued)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
2.6 BIOLOGICALLY RELEVANT CHEMISTRY-PROGRAM E-03 2-87
E-03: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (6D-1) 2-89
E-03.1 Current Status of Biological Communities (6D-1.01) 2-90
E-03.1A Fish Populations of Florida Lakes (6D-1 01 A) 2-91
E-03. IB Surface Water Chemistry and Fish Presence (Ml) (6D-1.01 B) . 2-92
E-03.1C Surface Water Chemistry and Plankton Distributions
(6D-1.01C) 2-93
E-03 1D Regional Assessment of Acidification Effect on Fish in
Streams (6D-1.01D) 2-94
E-03.1E Fish Population Status in Maine Streams (6D-1.01E) 2-96
E-03.2 Biological Model Development and Testing (6D-1.02) 2-97
E-03.2A Baseline Probability (6D-1.02A) 2-98
E-03.2B Defining Critical Values (6D-1.02B) 2-99
E-03.2C Modeling Fish Population-Level Responses (6D-1.02C) 2-100
E-03.2D Empirical Bayes Models of Fish Population Response
(6D-1 02D) 2-101
E-03.3 Biological Effects of Acidic Episodes (6D-1.03) 2-102
E-03.3C Mechanisms of Fish Population Response (6D-1.03A) 2-103
E-03.4 Organismal Development/Physiology (6D-2) 2-104
E-03.4A Osmoregulation - Loss/Recovery (6D-2 01G) 2-105
E-03.4B Effects on Osmoregulatory/Reproductive Organs
(6D-2.01H) 2-106
2.7 SYNTHESIS AND INTEGRATION-PROGRAM E-09 2-107
E-09: Synthesis and Integration (6G) 2-109
E-09.1 Regional Case Studies (6G-1) 2-110
E-09.2 1990 NAPAP Report (6G-2) 2-111
E-09.2A Aquatics State of Science (6G-2.01) 2-113
E-09.2B Integrated Assessment (6G-2.02) 2-114
E-09.3 Technology Transfer (6G-3) 2-116
2.8 LONG-TERM MONITORING-PROGRAM E-06 2-117
E-06: Long-Term Monitoring (6B-2) 2-119
E-06.1 Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems (6B-2.01) 2-121
E-06.1A Monitoring for Regional Trends Assessment (6B-2.01 A) 2-122
E-06 1B Optimizing Trends Detection (6B-2.01B) 2-124
E-06 1C Methods Development (6B-2.01C) 2-125
E-06.1D Quality Assurance/Quality Control Interpretation
(6B-2.01D) 2-126
E-061E Paleolimnological Studies of Adirondack Lakes (6B-2 01 E) ... 2-128
E-06.1F Long-Term Biomonitoring(6B-2.01F) 2-129
(continued)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
E-06.2 Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring (6B-2.03) 2-130
E-06.2A Site-Specific Monitoring in the Upper Midwest (6B-2.03A) ... 2-131
E-06.2B Site-Specific Monitoring in Vermont (6B-2.03B) 2-132
E-06.2C Site-Specific Monitoring in the Adirondack Mountains, NY
(6B-2.03C) 2-133
E-06.2D Site-Specific Monitoring in Maine (6B-2.03D) 2-134
E-06.2E Site-Specific Monitoring in the Catskill Mountains, NY
(6B-2.03E) 2-135
E-06.2F Site-Specific Monitoring in the Southern Rocky Mountains
(6B-2.03F) 2-136
E-06.2G Front Range Lake Acidification (6B-2.03G) 2-137
E-06.2H Mt. Zirkel Lake Study (6B-2.03H) 2-138
E-06.21 New Mexico Lake Study (6B-2.03I) 2-139
2.9 INDIRECT HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS-PROGRAM E-04 2-141
E-04: Indirect Human Health Effects (6E) 2-143
E-04.1 Effectsof Acidic Deposition on Drinking Water (6E-1) 2-144
E-04.1A Cistern and Groundwater Drinking Supplies (6E-1.01) 2-145
E-04.1B Surface Water Drinking Supplies (6E-1.02) 2-146
E-04.2 Bioaccumulation of Metals (6E-2) 2-147
E-04.2A Metals in Biota (6E-2.01) 2-148
E-04.2B Metals in Surface Water/Sediments (6E-2.02) 2-149
3 INDICES
3.1 INDEX BY CONTACT 3-1
3.2 INDEX BY REGION 3-3
3.3 INDEX BY STATE 3-9
3.4 INDEX BY KEY WORD 3-13
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1 Regionalized classification approach employed in the Aquatic Effects
Research Program 1-3
2 Relationships among the Episodic Response Project, the Watershed
Manipulation Project, and the Regional Episodic and Acidic Manipulations
Project 1-9
3 The conceptual "wheel and axle" design frame for Temporally
Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems in the Northeast,
with relevant Aquatic Effects Research Program elements 1-13
4 Internal and external checks to ensure that the projects within the
Aquatic Effects Research Program provide quantitative answers with known
certainty bounds to policy, assessment, and scientific questions 1-16
5 Integration of projects within the Aquatic Effects Research Program 1-17
6 Classification approach to lead to the identification of regional
exposure/effects relationships and corroboration of these relationships
through long-term monitoring 1-19
7 Conceptualization of the levels within each Planned Program
Accomplishment 2-1
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1 General Schedule for the Aquatic Effects Research Program 1-4
2 Regional Location of Projects within the Aquatic Effects Research Program 1-25
3 Target Dates for Addressing Policy Questions in Terms of Chronic Exposure
(Long-Term Acidification) or Acute Exposure (Short-Term Acidification) to
Acidic Deposition 1-25
4 Example of Aquatic Effects Research Program Structure and Codes 2-2
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SECTION 1
RESEARCH STRATEGY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In 1980, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) instituted the Aquatic Effects
Research Program as a part of the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP).1 The
Aquatic Effects Research Program is one of many programs within EPA that is addressing the
environmental effects of acidic deposition. The Aquatic Effects Research Program is administered
through the Office of Ecological Processes and Effects Research within the Office of Research and
Development.
Five EPA Laboratories have conducted or presently are conducting research projects within the
Aquatic Effects Research Program: the Environmental Research Laboratories in Corvatlis, OR, and
Duluth, MM; the Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratories in Las Vegas, NV, and Cincinnati,
OH; and the Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment Laboratory in Research Triangle Park,
NC. The scope, complexity, and policy relevance of the Aquatic Effects Research Program necessitate
close coordination and communication among the laboratories, the administrative office, other
federal agencies, and state agencies. This document provides such a mechanism by summarizing the
fiscal year 1989 research strategy, the projected plan to and beyond 1990, and the research projects
funded between fiscal years 1987 and 1989.
1.1.1 Background and Purpose of the Research Program
Four policy questions have guided the design, direction, and focus of the Aquatic Effects
Research Program:
1. What is the extent and magnitude of past change attributable to acidic
deposition?
2. What change is expected in the future under various deposition scenarios?
3. What is the target loading below which change would not be expected?
4. What is the rate of recovery if deposition decreases?
In light of these policy questions, the primary goal of the Aquatic Effects Research Program is
to characterize and quantify with known certainty the subpopulation of surface waters that will
respond chemically to current and changing acidic deposition, and to determine the biological
'NAPAP was established as a federal, interagency program by Congress through the Acid Precipitation Act of 1980.
Activities within NAPAP are collectively funded by the federal agencies The lead agency for the Aquatic Effects Task Group
within NAPAP is EPA The strategy presented here is applicable only to EPA's program
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significance of observed or predicted changes. The component projects address the effects of both
chronic and acute exposure to acidic deposition, i.e., the potential for long-term and short-term
acidification. The four major elements of the present program include characterizing the chemical
status and quantifying the extent of surface waters at risk, forecasting the future chemical and
biological changes in aquatic ecosystems, verifying these forecasts and improving the understanding
of controlling mechanisms, and validating these findings through long-term monitoring.
1.1.2 Approach
Providing scientifically sound answers to the four policy questions requires regional-scale data
collection efforts and model applications. From 1980 to 1983, however, research on the effects of
acidic deposition on aquatic resources was focused primarily on the processes and mechanisms
underlying surface water response to acidic inputs. This type of research, which typically requires
intensive investigation conducted on a limited number of sites, is essential to refine our
understanding of factors controlling acidification. But, because a primary goal of EPA is to provide
information that can be used to assess the national-scale risk that acidic deposition poses to aquatic
resources, the approach of the Aquatic Effects Research Program was expanded in 1983. The present
design was implemented in 1984 upon recognition that current knowledge is limited, not necessarily
by the level of understanding of the processes, but by an understanding of the extent, rate, and
magnitude of effects. Site-specific research remains essential for advancing and refining our
understanding of the mechanisms that control aquatic response to acidic deposition. To avoid
drawing conclusions relevant only to specific study sites, however, the Aquatic Effects Research
Program now also includes projects designed to characterize surface waters and watersheds on large
geographical scales. The data from these projects are being used to test the applicability of
hypotheses generated by site-specific research to systems at regional scales. Thus, the Aquatic
Effects Research Program continues to pursue both regionally extensive and locally intensive
research efforts.
The present program represents an integrated approach that considers both a broad-scale
(top-down) perspective as well as a narrow-scale, individual system (bottom-up) perspective
(Figure 1). The top-down approach allows many lakes, streams, or watersheds within many
geographic regions to be described on the basis of a few samples collected from a subset of selected
systems. The first step in this approach is a synoptic survey, providing a "snapshot" of surface water
chemistry or soil characteristics on a regionally significant geographic scale. The approach employs
statistically based site selection, standardized sampling procedures and analytical methods, and
rigorous quality assurance protocols. The resulting regional characterization provides a frame by
which the characteristics of subsets of systems (subpopulations) can be defined. The results of
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Subpopula{t0nai
Present Approach
Frequent/Usual Approach
Figure 1. Regionalized classification approach employed in the Aquatic Effects Research Program.
This approach focuses on identifying the subpopulation of aquatic systems at risk due to
acidic deposition, permitting hypotheses developed from site-level research to be tested
at subregional. regional, and national scales. Such testing increases understanding of
the extent, magnitude, and rate of effects of acidic deposition.
intensive studies conducted on systems within these subsets can then be scaled to the regional
population or to any intermediate subpopulation.
Conversely, inferential analyses resulting from the broad-scale approach may provide
important hypotheses that can be tested only in individual systems. The information gained when
the two approaches are combined can be used to develop a quantitative evaluation of the regional
effects of acidic deposition, as well as the relative importance of processes or mechanisms in
particular regions. Ideally, the two approaches should converge at the subpopulation level in order
to provide a comprehensive understanding of the regional effects of acidic deposition on lakes and
streams identified as sensitive. The Aquatic Effects Research Program's research strategy reflects this
goal by coupling the large-scale projects with intensive projects.
The Aquatic Effects Research Program thus evolved from an initial focus (1980-1983) on site-
selective, process-oriented research to its focus on regionalization from 1984-1988. As now planned,
future research efforts in the program (beyond 1988) primarily will involve testing or verifying
acidification hypotheses and developing model forecasts of regional aquatic effects. Through 1990,
considerable effort will be focused on integrating the results of the program to allow surface waters
to be classified on a regional and subpopulational basis Issues include examining evidence of
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historical change and refining estimates of current status and forecasts of future change. This
integration and synthesis represents a major contribution to NAPAP's State of Science and
Integrated Assessment, both of which are scheduled for completion in 1990. Beyond 1990, the focus
will continue to be on verifying existing models and developing new models of acidification (both
chronic and episodic) and recovery, assessing the regional importance of episodes, and quantifying
biological and chemical change through long-term monitoring.
1.2 MAJOR PROGRAMS
The Aquatic Effects Research Program has eight major component programs:
• National Surface Water Survey,
• Direct/Delayed Response Project,
• Watershed Processes and Manipulations,
• Episodic Response Project,
• Biologically Relevant Chemistry,
• Synthesis and Integration,
• Long-Term Monitoring, and
• Indirect Human Health Effects.
The general schedule for completion of these programs is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. General Schedule for the Aquatic Effects Research Program
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989
1990 1991
National Surface Water Survey
Direct/Delayed Response Project
Watershed Processes and
Manipulations
Episodic Response Project
Biologically Relevant Chemistry
Synthesis and Integration
Long-Terrn Monitoring
Indirect Human Health Effects
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The National Surface Water Survey, focusing on chronic acidification, is divided into two
components: the National Lake Survey and the National Stream Survey. Phase I efforts of both
components concentrated on quantifying the current chemical status of lakes and streams. Phase II
of the lake survey is designed to quantify seasonal variability in lake chemistry and to investigate the
relationship between lake chemistry and fish population status. The Direct/Delayed Response
Project is designed to investigate, distinguish, and forecast the time scales over which surface waters
are expected to become chronically acidic given various levels of acidic deposition. The Watershed
Processes and Manipulations component is a research effort designed to develop and verify
hypotheses relevant to the factors and mechanisms under investigation in the Direct/Delayed
Response Project. The Episodic Response Project focuses on surface water response resulting from
acute or short-term pulses of acidic inputs (as might occur during storms and snowmelt). .The
Biologically Relevant Chemistry component is evaluating the extent to which changes in surface
water chemistry due to acidic deposition pose a risk to aquatic biota. The Synthesis and Integration
component is an integrated analysis and dissemination of results from all research activities in the
Aquatic Effects Research Program. The Long-Term Monitoring effort is designed to examine trends
in the status of surface waters and to test the validity of conclusions derived from other research
activities in the Aquatic Effects Research Program. Indirect Human Health Effects has focused on
modification to drinking water supplies by acidic deposition and on bioaccumulation of metals,
particularly mercury, in game fish used for human consumption.
1.2.1 National Surface Water Survey
The National Surface Water Survey was implemented to determine the present chemical status
of lakes and streams in regions of the United States where the majority of surface waters with low
acid neutralizing capacity are expected to occur. The objectives of the survey were to locate surface
waters that are acidic or have low acid neutralizing capacity based on an index sampling period and
to create a regional data base that would allow surface waters to be classified according to their
physical and chemical characteristics.
In Phase I of the National Lake Survey, samples from approximately 2500 lakes were collected
for determining a number of physical and chemical variables during fall of 1984 in the northeastern,
southeastern, and upper midwestern United States, and during fall of 1985 in the western United
States. These data have served to classify lakes so that subsets can be identified for more detailed
studies in Phase II of the National Lake Survey and in other programs in the Aquatic Effects Research
Program.
Phase II of the National Lake Survey - the Northeastern Seasonal Variability Study - was
conducted in 1986. This project was implemented to refine the conclusions of Phase I with respect to
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the present chemical status of lakes. Sampling was conducted during the spring, summer, and fall to
determine whether lakes found not to be acidic in Phase I during the fall index period are acidic at
other times of the year.
The National Stream Survey was implemented in 1985 with a pilot survey of 61 stream sites in
the Southern Blue Ridge Province. Phase I was conducted in the spring and summer of 1986 in the
Middle Atlantic region with the sampling of approximately 270 stream reaches. Information from
the Southeastern Screening Survey (conducted on about 200 stream reaches in concert with the
Middle Atlantic sampling) helped prioritize other stream sites for possible future survey activities.
The screening covered areas of the Southern Appalachians, the Piedmont, and the Ouachita
Mountains, and parts of the Florida Panhandle and Florida Peninsula identified in the National Lake
Survey as having a large number of acidic lakes. Results of the National Stream Survey also were or
will be used to select systems for analysis in the Direct/Delayed Response Project, Episodic Response
Project, and the Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems project (part of the Long-Term
Monitoring program).
1.2.2 Direct/Delayed Response Project
Forecasting how constant, increasing, or decreasing acidic inputs might affect the chemical
and biological status of lakes and streams in the future requires knowledge of the current conditions
in surface waters and the primary factors that influence surface water response. Accurate forecasts
also require an understanding of complex watershed-mediated processes and mechanisms, as well as
the ability to quantify time frames within which responses are expected to occur The Direct/Delayed
Response Project was designed to provide the data needed to classify watersheds based on the time
frames during which surface waters would be expected to become acidic (annual average acid
neutralizing capacity decreases to zero), at various levels of sulfate deposition. The primary
objectives of this research are to (1) characterize the regional variability of soil and watershed
characteristics, (2) determine which soil and watershed characteristics are most strongly related to
surface water chemistry, (3) estimate the relative importance of key watershed processes across the
study regions, and (4) classify a sample of watersheds according to the time frames during which
they would reach acidic status and extrapolate these sample results to the study regions.
In the soil survey component of the Direct/Delayed Response Project, a survey was conducted
in 1985 in the Northeast on the watersheds of 145 lakes. Eighty-nine percent of these lakes also were
selected for the Northeastern Seasonal Variability Study, and all were sampled in Phase I of the
Eastern Lake Survey. In 1986, a second soil survey was completed on 35 watersheds in the Southern
Blue Ridge Province, selected in conjunction with the pilot stream survey. A third soil survey is being
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conducted on a subset of the stream sites in the Mid-Appalachians that also was sampled in the
Middle Atlantic Stream Survey.
Three levels of data analyses are being used in the Direct/Delayed Response Project. Level I
analyses employ multivariate statistical procedures and steady-state calculations such as sulfur input-
output budgets. When integrated with available data, including those from the National Surface
Water Survey, the analyses evaluate possible correlations between watershed characteristics and
surface water chemistry.
Level II analyses provide order-of-magnitude time estimates of the system response rates to
various levels of acidic deposition. These analyses are being used to estimate changes in individual
system components considered to be important in controlling surface water acidification, such as
sulfate retention and base cation supply.
Level III analyses use dynamic models that integrate key mechanisms controlling surface water
chemistry to simulate changes in water chemistry over long periods of acidic deposition. These
mechanisms include soil-water interactions (including water contact time), replacement of base
cations through mineral weathering, sulfate retention, and base cation buffering. The forecast
response times assist in classifying watersheds and estimating the number and geographic
distribution of watersheds in each class.
1.2.3 Watershed Processes and Manipulations
Watershed Processes and Manipulations studies focus on testing acidification hypotheses
through experimental acidification of aquatic systems and investigations of soil processes. The
artificial acidification of a watershed in Maine and a lake in the Upper Midwest are the key
manipulation studies in this program. A third manipulation study is being conducted as part of the
program on episodic response (Section 1.2.4).
The Watershed Manipulation Project, a component of the Watershed Processes and
Manipulations component, was implemented in Bear Brook Watershed in Maine in 1987 to evaluate
watershed response to artificial acidification One watershed receives acid and a second, similar site
serves as a control. This project, through a series of laboratory, plot, hillslope, and catchment scale
experiments, is designed to (1) assess the quantitative and qualitative response of watershed soils
and surface waters to altered deposition; (2) determine the interactions among biogeochemical
mechanisms controlling surface water response to acidic deposition; and (3) test the behavior of the
Direct/Delayed Response Project models, evaluate model forecasts of manipulation outcomes, and
refine model structure to improve the reliability of model forecasts The Direct/Delayed Response
Project models thus serve as a framework for the hypothesis-testing experiments.
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The first watershed research site is Bear Brook Watershed in Maine, where pre-manipulation
studies began in spring 1987. Manipulation began in 1989 and will continue through 1992. Some
activities within the Watershed Manipulation Project and Episodic Response Project have been
integrated into the Regional Episodic and Acidic Manipulations Project (see Section 1.2.4).
An integral component of this research area is soil process studies, which complement the
Watershed Manipulation Project as well as contribute to the Direct/Delayed Response Project. These
studies are investigating soil-related processes hypothesized to be key factors controlling the rate of
surface water acidification. The processes include sulfate mobility, sulfate retention and release,
cation exchange, cation supply and mineral weathering (including aluminum), organic acids, and
nitrate mobility.
The second manipulation study in this program is the experimental acidification of Little Rock
Lake in Wisconsin. Before Little Rock Lake was acidified in 1985, a number of hypotheses had been
developed regarding the chemical changes and biological responses that might occur in a lake
following the addition of acids. One-half of the lake is being acidified to decrease its pH
incrementally over a six-year period. The ongoing study is providing direct evidence that will allow
the hypotheses to be tested and modified, if necessary, to increase the understanding of potential
ecological effects of acidic deposition on an aquatic ecosystem and to develop effective forecasting
models.
1.2.4 Episodic Response Project
The Episodic Response Project is a two-phased program designed to investigate the regional
response of surface waters to acidic episodes and to provide data on the biological consequences of
episodes. The risk to surface waters posed by short-term, acute exposure to acidic inputs will be
examined through model-based, regional estimates of the duration, frequency, extent, and
magnitude of acidic events, such as those accompanying storms and snowmelt. As a result of the
unpredictable nature of snowmelt and rainstorm events, survey approaches for determining episodic
response have been marginally successful and are data-limited. Therefore, a more intensive
approach is being employed in the Catskills, Northern Appalachian Plateau, and the Adirondacks.
Three to five streams in each region are being continuously monitored, and the potential for
episodic acidification at each site is being assessed from the resulting data bases. The data will also
serve as the basis for regionally applicable models of chemical and biological response that will be
applied to the National Surface Water Survey data base.
In addition, as a joint effort with the Watershed Manipulation Project, an experiment is being
conducted in Fernow, WV, to examine the influence of altered acidic deposition on chronic and
episodic surface water acidification. Data from this project, termed Regional Episodic and Acidic
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Manipulations (Figure 2), will be integrated with comparable episodes data to formulate an
empirical or conceptual model of episodic acidification that potentially could be applied regionally.
Process Research
Figure 2. Relationships among the Episodic Response Project, the Watershed Manipulation Project.
and the Regional Episodic and Acidic Manipulations (REAM) Project.
1.2.5 Biologically Relevant Chemistry
The goal of the Biologically Relevant Chemistry research area is to provide data that allow
regional assessments to be made of the risk to aquatic biota posed by acidic deposition. These
regional assessments are based principally on an understanding of the types of chemical conditions
that cause adverse biological effects and regional estimates of the extent and duration of such
chemical conditions.
The chemical variables instrumental in effecting biotic response are reasonably well-known,
but the "critical values" (the concentrations above or below which significant biological effects are
expected to occur) of these variables are not well-defined. A study of existing data has therefore
been initiated to estimate critical values, identify the associated magnitude and type of biological
response, summarize the uncertainty associated with each critical value, and outline the research
needed for improved estimates and predictions of biological response.
Two other projects address potential biological effects resulting from short-term and
long-term acidification. The goal of the first project, Present Status of the Fishery Resource in the
Upper Peninsula of Michigan, is to assess the current status of fish communities and fish populations
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in 49 lakes (selected from the Eastern Lake Survey - Phase I frame in the Upper Midwest). Results
from these efforts, which include measuring a number of chemical variables in conjunction with fish
sampling, provide information on fish species presence/absence and indices of population
abundance. Studies in the Indirect Human Health Effects research area (Section 2.9) are also being
conducted in conjunction with this project to determine the concentrations and regional distribution
of mercury in fish tissues.
The Biological Effects of Acidic Episodes study, designed as part of the Episodic Response
Project, deals with the effects of episodic acidification on fish populations in streams. Fish transplant
experiments in conjunction with detailed chemical monitoring are being used to evaluate the
degree to which episodes may influence fish movement and mortality rates. A principal aspect of
the study is the identification of key characteristics of episodes that control the severity and nature
of effects on fish populations.
1.2.6 Synthesis and Integration
Three key activities within the Aquatic Effects Research Program are targeted at synthesizing,
integrating, and disseminating program results. First, the Regional Case Studies project is using data
from many sources, including the National Surface Water Survey, to provide an integrated
evaluation of the potential and measured effects of acidic deposition on surface waters with low
acid neutralizing capacity. Past chemical and biological status are being examined, and current
chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of surface waters are being compared on a
subregional basis to identify the key determinants of surface water chemistry. The focused, specific
activities in the Regional Case Studies will help refine current understanding of the relationships
between acidic deposition and surface water chemistry and biology.
The second activity is the preparation of a series of seven State-of-Science/Technology Reports
that will contribute to Part I of a two-part comprehensive assessment of acidic deposition and its
effects, to be published by the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program. Part II, the 1990
NAPAP Assessment, will contain the integrated results, conclusions, and uncertainty estimates
generated from application of the procedures described in the State-of-Science/Technology Reports.
The seven related reports will present the current state of knowledge regarding the chronic and
episodic effects of acidic deposition on aquatic resources. Historical status and methods for
forecasting future change in status also will be addressed.
The first report in the series will summarize the current chemical status of surface waters in
five regions of the United States, evaluate the spatial distribution of their chemical characteristics,
and examine the associations of surface water chemistry with watershed characteristics and wet
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deposition chemistry. Results for the United States will be compared with those for Canada, Norway,
and other nations having temperate climates.
The second report will focus on what is known about natural watershed processes, both
aquatic and terrestrial, that affect chronic acid-base chemistry in lakes and streams. Processes
related to hydrology and biogeochemistry in watersheds and in lakes and streams, and those
associated with changes in land use will be examined. How acidic deposition interacts with these
natural processes, and the implications for surface water and soil acidification or recovery, will be
presented. Results from case studies of soil and water acidification, conducted internationally and in
the United States, will be compared for natural systems with and without acidic deposition and for a
number of experimentally acidified systems.
The third report will be an overview of the state of knowledge regarding natural and
anthropogenic factors that influence the acid-base chemistry of surface waters and how these
factors might influence the occurrence and detection of historical change. Methods for
investigating historical change (historical water chemistry measurements, paleolimnological
reconstructions, comparisons between high and low deposition areas, and models) and their
associated uncertainties will be discussed. Results from several distinct lines of investigation will be
integrated to provide historical estimates of change for lakes in the Adirondacks, and possibly for
drainage lakes in the Northeast and Upper Midwest and for seepage lakes in Florida.
The current understanding of episodic acidification of surface waters will be summarized in
the fourth report. The relationships of episodes to chronic acidification and the hydrologic cycle,
their chemical characteristics and biological significance, and the processes that control them will be
discussed. The extent and severity of episodic acidification will be presented, with data limitations
clearly identified, for the United States, and compared when appropriate with European and
Canadian information. Modeling approaches for estimating the regional magnitude, duration,
frequency, and extent of episodes (and associated uncertainties) are presented and evaluated. The
report concludes with a discussion of the relative contributions of natural and anthropogenic factors
to episodic acidification
The fifth report will identify the chemical parameters that influence the effects of changes in
acid-base chemistry on biological communities and processes. Methods for quantitatively evaluating
the relationship between changes in acid-base chemistry and regional effects on fish populations
will be presented, along with associated uncertainties. Qualitative discussions will include
the effects of surface water acidification on aquatic organisms other than fish, e.g., benthic
invertebrates, amphibians, waterfowl, and mammals.
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Methods for forecasting changes in acid-base chemistry and surface waters and their
associated uncertainties will be presented in the sixth report. Three general types of models -
steady-state, empirical time-varying, and dynamic system models - will be evaluated. Prior model
applications in the United States, other North American regions, and Europe will be summarized.
Each model will be discussed with regard to its structure, assumptions and limitations, sensitivity and
behavioral analyses, and verification/validation studies. Error analyses, linkages to deposition
estimates and inputs to biological models, and procedures for extrapolation to obtain regional
estimates will be discussed.
The last report on aquatic effects will be an evaluation of the mitigative (surface water acid
neutralization) approaches to restore and protect surface waters from acidification. This report will
include a description of previously applied mitigative strategies and the effects of these mitigative
techniques on ecosystem structure and function for acidic surface waters.
The third activity in this program is the Technology Transfer project, which distributes
products of the Aquatic Effects Research Program to interested parties such as state agencies, federal
agencies, and universities. These products include a quarterly program status report that provides
periodic updates on program activities; supporting documents produced in conjunction with major
reports, such as quality assurance and field operations reports; data base packages that include
major survey data bases on magnetic media and instructions on their use; users' handbooks, such as
analytical methods manuals; and a biennial journal that lists program publications and
presentations. The goal of this project is to inform a wide audience about activities in the Aquatic
Effects Research Program on a regular basis.
1.2.7 Long-Term Monitoring
Forecasts of surface water response to future changes in acidic loadings can be confirmed only
through the long-term collection and analysis of chemical and biological data. To this end,
long-term monitoring efforts are being designed to quantify, with known certainty for defined
subpopulations of lakes and streams, the rate at which changes in surface water chemistry are
occurring and the characteristics and subregional extent of these affected lakes and/or streams.
Long-Term Monitoring has two program elements - Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring and
Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems. The Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring program
element involves individual monitoring sites that are part of the NAPAP's surface water monitoring
effort. This continuation of data collection and analysis for 90 low acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC)
systems is providing information on natural variability of these systems over a range of annual
hydrological cycles, as well as preliminary insights into whether and where trends in acidification or
recovery are occurring.
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The Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystem program element will build on the
information from the Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring element as well as the data collected
through the National Lake and Stream Surveys to design a chemical and biological monitoring
network that will enable quantitative estimates of change in particular subpopulations of interest to
be made with known confidence.
The Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems program element, as now planned, has
four principal objectives: (1) to provide early-warning signals of surface water acidification or
recovery in the selected study regions; (2) to provide an ongoing assessment of regional patterns or
trends in surface water acidification or recovery; (3) to assess the extent to which observed patterns
and trends in surface water chemistry correspond with model forecasts of surface water chemistry
changes, e.g., from the Direct/Delayed Response Project; and (4) to assess the relationships between
the observed patterns and trends in aquatic ecosystems and patterns and trends in atmospheric
deposition. This study is proposed as an integrated monitoring effort, employing standardized
sampling and analytical methods and rigorous quality assurance protocols. The original study design
was conceived as a hierarchical frame comprised of four tiers, with each tier representing a specific
monitoring approach, according to the degree of detail needed to assess trends in regional-scale
change (see Figure 3 of Research Activity Descriptors, FY88, EPA/600/9-88/006). This original concept
has been refined to emphasize the early warning or anticipatory objective of the program as well as
to make maximum use of past or ongoing elements in the Aquatic Effects Research Program.
Conceptually, the current design can be represented by the "wheel and axle" configuration shown
for the Northeast in Figure 3.
Analysis & Interpretation I
PROBABILITY SAMPLE:
Regional Population Tfends
Fixed sites
(trend detection)
Rooting sites
(pop. chorocteriiation)
EARLY WARNING NETWORK:
Individual Sites
m
Subset of probability sample
Hand-picked sites «
• (seasonal sampling)
L— TIME-
Figure 3 The conceptual "wheel and axle " design frame for Temporally Integrated Monitoring of
Ecosystems (TIME) in the Northeast, with relevant Aquatic Effects Research Program
elements.
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The axle is comprised of specific sites selected for temporally intensive long-term monitoring.
The wheels represent regionally extensive synoptic surveys of sites selected within a probability
sampling frame that allows regional extrapolation of results. Prior to its planned implementation in
1991, project analyses will focus on data from completed or ongoing component surveys of the
National Surface Water Survey and from the Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring Program. The
results of these analyses will be used to select rapid response (axle) sites and to design and conduct
periodic resurveys (wheels) for post-1991 implementation.
The sampling network for the core program will include a subset of a regional probability
sample and a set of rapid response sites selected from a pool of candidate sites that focus on
previously identified subpopulations of interest, fulfill rapid response criteria, span gradients of
atmospheric deposition, and have prior monitoring/watershed data. The probability sample subset
will be chosen to represent classes or types of systems, and the "hand-selected" samples will serve as
rapid response sites. Both sets of sites will be sampled at least seasonally.
The periodic surveys will be conducted on two types of systems: fixed sites (intended for
trends detection) and floating sites (intended for regional characterization of surface water
populations). Once implemented, the fixed sites will not vary and thus will serve to address the issue
of long-term trends. The floating sites will vary from survey to survey to ensure ongoing regional
characterization.
1.2.8 Indirect Human Health Effects
Research on the indirect human health effects of acidic deposition has had two main areas of
focus. One is the alteration of drinking water supplies as a result of acidic inputs. The second is the
accumulation of mercury and other potentially toxic metals in the muscle tissues of edible fish.
Drinking water studies examined existing data to determine the potential modification of
drinking water quality by acidic deposition, emphasizing precipitation-dominated systems. These
activities will continue as part of the effort for NAPAP's State-of-Science Reports on direct and
indirect human health effects.
Mercury bioaccumulation is being examined in conjunction with the fishery survey in the
Upper Peninsula of Michigan The objectives of this study are to determine (1) if fish in acidic lakes
have higher tissue concentrations of mercury than do fish in otherwise similar, nonacidic lakes and
(2) the association between physicochemical lake characteristics and fish tissue mercury
concentrations. Analysis of the extent to which mercury bioaccumulation in fish occurs in the Upper
Peninsula of Michigan and the extent to which dissolved mercury is related to lake water pH is
ongoing.
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1.3 PROGRAM COORDINATION AND LINKAGE
The designs, goals, and objectives of the projects within the Aquatic Effects Research Program
reflect the need to classify systems to (1) further scientific understanding and (2) assess on a regional
scale the risk of aquatic resources to acidic deposition. The degree of confidence in answering policy,
assessment, and scientific questions about surface water acidification is enhanced by a common
approach employed throughout Aquatic Effects Research Program projects (Figure 4) for the
collective program goal of regionalization.
When a project is initiated, its goals are evaluated from the perspective of their relevance to
one of the four policy questions (Section 1.1.1). Peer-review workshops are held to assist in refining
project plans and to ensure that the approach is scientifically sound and the objectives are relevant
to the project goal. Within each project, the design, analysis, and interpretive phases are completed
under a system of internal reviews, emphasizing quality assurance, regional classification, and
scientific validity. External review of products ensures that conclusions are scientifically sound,
leading to a refined understanding of acidification issues, upon which regional assessments with
known certainty bounds can be based. Sound policy decisions, in turn, then can be formulated.
The integrated structure of the Aquatic Effects Research Program also emphasizes
regionalization. Statistically based site selection procedures and standardized protocols improve
efficiency of data collection and ensure data comparability. The regional population estimates
generated by the National Surface Water Survey serve as the statistical frame for other
geographically extensive projects and provide the basis for classifying discrete subpopulations of
surface waters upon which more intensive investigations can be focused. The identification of
subpopulations at risk within the regional frame, coupled with integrated chemical, biological, and
soil surveys, enhances the ability to extrapolate results of watershed studies to regional scales
(Figure 5). The integrated program structure allows an assessment of the geographical extent of
aquatic resources at risk and permits the results of watershed-level, process research to be evaluated
on regional scales.
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Policy Questions
Assessment Questions
Scientific Questions
Scientific Understanding
Assessment
Policy
Figure 4. Internal and external checks to ensure that the projects within the Aquatic Effects
Research Program provide quantitative answers with known certainty bounds to policy,
assessment, and scientific questions.
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Figure 5. Integration of projects within the Aquatic Effects Research Program. Geographically
extensive surveys of soils and surface water chemistry and biology are integrated
through the use of standardized methods of data collection and common study sites.
This integration permits the understanding of effects at the watershed level to be
extrapolated to regional scales.
1.4 FUTURE PLANS TO 1990
1.4.1 Overview of Research Program Integration
The research strategy for the Aquatic Effects Research Program, designed in 1983 and
implemented in 1984, lays the foundation for answering, on a regional scale, the four policy
questions listed in Section 1.1.1 with known confidence. The focus in 1989 and 1990 is to advance,
through synthesis and integration of results from the various research activities, the primary goal of
the program:
Characterize and quantify with known certainty the subpopulation of surface waters
that will respond chemically to current and changing acidic deposition, and determine
the biological significance of observed changes.
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Identifying the subpopulation that is likely to change chemically m response to various acid
loadings is primarily a classification procedure (Figure 6) The statistical frame and the standardized
protocols applied in the National Surface Water Survey permit regional (based on geography) and
subpopulational (based on physical and chemical attributes) characteristics to be quantified with
known certainty. More intensive studies that address a specific question beyond the scope of the
original survey goals (but within the frame and design criteria of the survey) then can be focused in a
particular geographical area, e g , the Sierra Nevada, or on a particular type of system, eg , seepage
lakes or those with conductance £ 10 pS/cm.
The extent to which chemistry of surface waters has changed historically also can be
qualitatively evaluated using the National Surface Water Survey data and framework. Using current
chemical status and empirical models that hmdcast changes in acid neutralizing capacity or pH, for
example, it is possible to examine the response of surface waters to increases in sulfate
concentrations. Developing relationships between the increases of surface water sulfate
concentrations and atmospheric sulfur deposition would permit an evaluation of the extent of
chronically acidic systems and their association with regional patterns of sulfate deposition.
Additionally, applying paleoecological techniques to reconstruct historical pH and acid neutralizing
capacity to lakes in the National Surface Water Survey frame can provide a population-based
estimate to the number and proportion of lakes that were naturally acidic prior to 1850 and an
assessment of the number and proportion that have acidified since the onset of acidic deposition.
Correlation analyses of these estimates with other data, such as sulfate deposition levels and lake
water sulfate concentrations, might reveal patterns between surface water acidification and
anthropogenic atmospheric deposition.
The Direct/Delayed Response Project, like the National Surface Water Survey, also focuses on
classifying the subpopulation at risk, but enhances or refines the classification by considering the
time frames over which surface water chemistry might change as well as the characteristics of the
watersheds in which the systems are located Primarily employing various models for forecasts of
future status, the Direct/Delayed Response Project benefits from the Watershed Manipulation
Project, which seeks to verify the dynamic, as well as the more simplistic, empirical surface water
acidification models through controlled acidification experiments. Results of the studies on
subpopulations of special interest also are useful in modifying existing models or developing new
models if the results of the model verification studies indicate that the processes represented in the
models or the input parameters are inaccurate-
How surface waters might respond to increased or decreased acidic loadings can be addressed
using an approach similar to that for current acidic loadings The subpopulations classified as
responding to current loads can be re-examined to project whether they might recover if acidic
deposition were decreased Conversely, those forecast as not responding at current loads could be
re-examined to determine whether they might acidify if deposition increased.
This stepwise, integrative analysis leads to completion of the primary output of the Aquatic
Effects Research Program - data that allow a definition, on a region-specific basis, of the expected
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Aquatic Effects Research Program Classification Scheme
Historical Change
Current Status
NSWS
Regional/Populational Classification
Model Verification
WMP/LRL/REAM
Model Development
WMP/LRL/ERP/BRC
Future Status
DDRP
(Current Loads)
Regions/Subpopulations
Acidification
(Varying Loads)
Model Development
WMP/LRL/ERP
Recovery
(Varying Loads)
Region-Specific
Exposure/Effects Relationships
Subregions/Subpopulationsat Risk
Biological Significance
BRC
NSWS = National Surface Water
Survey
WMP = Watershed Manipulation
Project
LRL = Little Rock Lake
REAM = Regional Episodic and Acidic
Manipulations
DDRP = Direct/Delayed Response
Project
BRC = Biologically Relevant
Chemistry
ERP = Episodic Response Project
TIME = Temporally Integrated
Monitoring of Ecosystems
Episodic Influence
ERP
Validation
TIME
Subregions/Subpopulations
Figure 6. Classification approach to lead to the identification of regional exposure/effects relationships
between chemical and biological status and atmospheric deposition and corroboration of
these relationships through long-term monitoring.
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chemical response of surface waters and the biological implications of that response for various
increases and decreases in levels of acidic deposition.
From its inception, the major emphasis of the program has been on sulfate and its role in long-
term acidification, but nitrate and its role in episodic acidification has become increasingly important
in understanding the effects of acidic deposition on surface waters. Consequently, a major focus of
the Aquatic Effects Research Program, begun in 1988 and planned for continuation beyond 1990, is
to refine the understanding of the role of episodes in altering surface water chemical status.
Evaluating the regional-scale importance of episodes requires not only field studies that foster a
better understanding of the factors and processes controlling their frequency, duration, and
magnitude, but also the development and refinement of regionally applicable models that can be
used to project their geographic extent. The Episodic Response Project contributes to refining the
current status of surface water chemistry by accounting for estimates of lakes and streams that are
acidic during times other than those identified in the National Surface Water Survey Model
development as part of the Episodic Response Project both contributes to and benefits from the
subpopulational response classifications identified from projections of future chemical status.
Finally, comprehensive, integrative analyses of the regional importance of episodes contributes to
the development of regional relationships between surface water response and acidic deposition
All Aquatic Effects Research Program activities contribute to the development of a framework
that allows biological implications of the findings and conclusions to be evaluated. For example,
analyses of historical change must consider the relevance to biological effects, i.e., an inferred
change in pH from a historical value of 6 0 to a current value of 5 0 might be significant from a
biological perspective, whereas a similar 1 0-unit decrease in pH from 7 0 to 6.0 might not be.
Likewise, a historical decrease in acid neutralizing capacity from 125 neq/L to 25 ueq/L (net loss of
100 ueq/L) might have significant biological implications, but an equivalent loss from 400 to
300 ueq/L might be less important in determining the extent to which the biotic resource is at risk.
Understanding biological implications of chemical changes is thus vitally important in developing
regional relationships between acidic deposition loadings and chemical response, because
assessments of the subpopulations or subregions at risk ultimately must include the response of
surface water biota.
The final component of the classification scheme is to examine whether the conclusions are
sound through the acquisition of empirical data This process requires examination of how surface
waters respond over the long term as a result of changes in acidic deposition Projections of future
acidification or recovery in response to increased or decreased acid loadings can be confirmed only
by data collection such as planned by the Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystem project. If
conclusions are not corroborated by actual observations, the Program will re-examine the factors
controlling sensitivity and the criteria used to define the subpopulation at risk.
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1.4.2 Focus
The research strategy for the Aquatic Effects Research Program established the frame from
which regional-scale conclusions can be inferred quantitatively. This strategy permits and lays the
groundwork for the following steps:
1. Estimating the current status, extent, and location of surface waters in the United
States that are potentially sensitive to acidic deposition.
2. Forecasting the future status of surface waters potentially affected by current and
alternative levels of acidic deposition.
3. Critically assessing existing effects models to identify the most influential factors
controlling changes in surface water chemistry.
4. Identifying research to improve the understanding of the most critical factors
(identified in model evaluation) controlling sensitivity of surface water.
5. Developing an approach to verify model forecasts for the expected time frames of
acidification at various deposition levels through manipulation and process level
studies on watersheds.
6. Estimating potential rates of recovery based on projections from verified models.
Although research efforts beyond 1988 presently do not include plans for additional broad-scale
surveys, the site-specific studies implemented in latter phases of the program are being conducted to
improve the understanding of the extent of acidic deposition effects and the factors that control
them from a regional perspective. Studies have been integrated at selected sites to maximize
scientific gain and the effectiveness of funding. The regional significance and applicability of the
issues being investigated remain the primary criteria for determining whether a project is
undertaken.
For the past two years, the Program has focused, and will continue to focus, on the following:
1. Contributions to the 1990 NAPAP goal of assessing the effects of acidic deposition
on surface waters in the United States, through synthesis and integration of
program results.
2. Implementation of research designed to verify model forecasts and assessment
conclusions related to future effects of acidic deposition on aquatic ecosystems
3. Establishment of a regionally meaningful long-term monitoring network to detect
biologically significant changes in surface water chemistry (both acidification and
recovery) that can be related to a known population of aquatic systems.
The following are specific questions that continue to guide analysis of existing data and additional
research:
1. What is the current chemical status of aquatic resources in regions potentially
sensitive to acidic deposition?
2. What is the biological resource at risk in these regions and what are critical values
indicating this resource is at risk?
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3. What are the important biogeochemical factors influencing the resource at risk
and controlling its sensitivity to acidic deposition?
4. What has happened to the chemical status of the resource at risk relative to its
current status as a result of acidic deposition?
5. What will happen to the resource at risk in the future at current and alternative
levels of deposition?
6. What are the biological implications of past changes in the chemical status of this
aquatic resource?
7. What are the levels of acidic deposition below which adverse biological effects are
minimized?
8. What is the rate of recovery of currently acidic systems at various levels of
deposition?
9. How will we know whether additional systems are acidifying or whether recovery
is occurring?
1.4.3 Program Elements - Future Activities and Emphasis
The Aquatic Effects Research Program is being redirected from survey activities to forecasts,
verification, and validation. After completion of the Mid-Appalachian survey, the Direct/Delayed
Response Project will shift in emphasis toward data synthesis, integration, and analysis using output
from the manipulation studies and classification activities. Analyses of National Surface Water
Survey data will continue refinement of the established foundation to allow further, well-focused
regional extrapolation of site-specific results. Should continued analysis indicate the need to
conduct additional surveys in certain regions or subregions, the frame established for National
Surface Water Survey will form their basis
National Surface Water Survey
The emphasis of the National Surface Water Survey, now in the final stages of the synoptic
survey approach, has shifted from collecting high-quality baseline data to refining estimates of the
current status and extent of acidic and potentially sensitive aquatic systems. Of primary importance
is maximizing the usefulness of information available from the survey for system classification and
characterization. The approach focuses on refining the estimates by considering small lakes and
streams, aquatic systems outside the National Surface Water Survey study regions, and seepage and
alpine lakes. Smaller scale studies addressing specific questions will continue to focus on policy-
relevant issues.
Direct/Delayed Response Project
The Direct/Delayed Response Project will continue to analyze watershed response to acidic
deposition in the Northeast, Southern Blue Rtdge Province, and Mid-Appalachians Future activities
will emphasize the integration of watershed and surface water data and the development of
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procedures to classify watershed responses as a function of acidic deposition. The classification
approach will continue to employ multivariate statistical procedures, empirical models, and dynamic
watershed models to correlate future watershed response estimates with the current resource status.
These classification procedures and protocols will contribute to the development of exposure/effects
relationships through forecasts of acidification or recovery of surface waters.
Watershed Processes and Manipulations Studies
Watershed Processes and Manipulations studies will continue beyond 1990 at the Maine
watershed site. These studies will provide long-term verification of Direct/Delayed Response Project
forecasts and enhanced understanding of processes and watershed interactions controlling surface
water acidification. Soil process studies include sulfate mobility, aluminum mobilization, base cation
supply, and mineral weathering, some of which will be integrated with the Regional Episodic and
Acidic Manipulations study under the Episodic Response Project. Other studies will be implemented
to determine if the Direct/Delayed Response Project dynamic models and other more simplistic
empirical models can be used to forecast recovery in response to lower levels of acidic deposition
relative to current levels.
The Little Rock Lake acidification study will continue to examine chemical and biological
response to direct additions of acids, providing data for examination of a number of acidification-
related hypotheses. Studies have been initiated to evaluate the applicability of the findings to other
regions and to examine how similar the response of Little Rock Lake is to other sites in the region
that have longer-term data records. Both of these projects will offer the opportunity to study the
rate and nature of recovery after acid addition is terminated.
Episodic Response Project
The Episodic Response Project will help to refine estimates of the size of the aquatic resource
that has changed or is at risk of changing due to acidic deposition. The Episodic Response Project
focuses on acquiring biologically relevant chemical data to gain a better understanding of biological
effects (principally fish-related) that are due to acute acidification The specific objectives are to
understand the frequency, duration, and magnitude of episodes, the key factors that influence their
occurrence, the impacts episodes have on fish populations, and their regional extent. A fifth
objective, although not expected to be completed by 1990, is to contribute to the identification of
region-specific, exposure/effects estimates.
Data from intensive experimental studies on hydrochemical and biological processes, along
with limited surveys of chemistry and fish will form the basis for developing regionally applicable
models of chemical and biological response. After calibration and verification, the models will be
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applied to the statistical frame of the National Surface Water Survey to provide estimates of
biologically relevant chemical data as well as effects on fish on a regional basis.
The Fernow Watershed in West Virginia was selected for implementation of the intensive
experimental studies. This site has been the focus of an ongoing study funded by the USDA Forest
Service, and thus provides empirical data needed to begin model development and verification.
Field studies at Fernow are expected to begin late this year.
Long-Term Monitoring
As now planned, sites for the Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems study will be
established throughout the United States by 1991. The objective of studying these sites is to make
timely identifications of changes in aquatic ecosystems related to increased or decreased levels of
acidic deposition. The monitored systems will be selected so that evidence of recovery or
acidification can be used to infer regional changes through the regionalized frame developed for
the Aquatic Effects Research Program. If significant changes or trends are detected, an additional
survey of the potentially affected surface waters can be conducted that can be compared to the
results of the National Surface Water Survey data and can be used to identify regional patterns in the
acidification/recovery index. Complementing this project are two supporting projects designed to
improve presently used analytical methods and to quantify data quality through rigorous quality
assurance evaluations. These projects will enhance the capability of detecting trends and will
improve the certainty with which long-term, regional-scale conclusions can be made.
Synthesis and Integration
A major emphasis for the program through 1990 will involve developing the classification
scheme described in Section 1.4.1. These analyses are the foundation for reporting on program
results that will contribute to the 1990 NAPAP assessment.
1.4.4 Program Guidance
The program has been guided by NAPAP, the Multimedia Energy Research Committee, the
Policy/Assessment Committee (established specifically for this program), and the Aquatic Effects
Research Program management team. As the program shifts direction, its guidance will have to be
precise and focused; future goals and objectives, as well as assessment, policy, and scientific needs,
will have to be integrated carefully. Although the research committee by which program activities
beyond 1990 will be guided is not yet formalized, the current guidance structure will continue to
operate in designing activities to contribute to NAPAP's 1990 assessment and to plan research on
important issues to address in the future
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1.4.5 Major Outputs
The major output from the Aquatic Effects Research Program will be to provide information
for answering the policy questions listed in Section 11 1 on a region-specific basis. When answering
these questions, acidification must be considered from both a regional and a site-specific
perspective, and some acidification processes may be more important in some regions or at some
sites than others Because of these considerations, prioritizing projects in specific regions is the most
effective way to provide quality information. The National Surface Water Survey has been and will
continue to be the basis for this prioritization (Table 2). The target dates for responding to the policy
questions are shown in Table 3.
Table 2. Regional Location of Projects within the Aquatic Effects Research Program
Region
AERP Projects3
Northeast
Middle Atlantic
Southern Blue Ridge Province
Southeast
Florida
Upper Midwest
Upper Peninsula of Michigan
West
NLS, DDRP, WMP, ERP, BRC, TIME
NSS, DDRP, ERP, REAM, TIME
NLS, NSS, DDRP, TIME
NSS, TIME
NLS, NSS, BRC, TIME
NLS, TIME
NLS, BRC, TIME
NLS, TIME
a NLS - National Lake Survey
DDRP - Direct/Delayed Response Project
WMP - Watershed Manipulation Project
ERP Episodic Response Project
BRC - Biologically Relevant Chemistry
TIME -Temporally Integrated Monitoring of
Ecosystems (proposed locations)
NSS - National Stream Survey
REAM - Regional Episodes and Acidic Manipulations
Table 3. Target Dates for Addressing Policy Questions in Terms of Chronic Exposure (Long-Term
Acidification) or Acute Exposure (Short-Term Acidification) to Acidic Deposition
Issue
Resource
Location
Date
Long-Term Acidification
Current Status
Current Status
Future
Future
Validation/Monitoring
Short-Term Acidification
Current Status
Dose/Response
Synthesis/Integration
Lakes
Streams
Lakes, Streams
Lakes, Streams
Lakes, Streams
Streams
Streams
Lakes, Streams
Northeast, Florida, Southern Blue Ridge 1987/88
Province, Upper Midwest, West
Southern Blue Ridge Province, 1988/89
Southeast, Middle Atlantic
Northeast, Southern Blue Ridge Province 1988/89
Middle Atlantic 1989/90
All Regions 1995 +
Northeast, Middle Atlantic 1990/91
Northeast, Middle Atlantic 1991
All Regions 1989/90
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1.5 AQUATIC EFFECTS RESEARCH AFTER 1990
Research on aquatic effects under NAPAP's Aquatic Effects Task Group has focused on
amassing scientifically sound information with quantifiable certainty to support policymaking. The
10-year NAPAP span was intended to expedite investigations into the most basic and urgent
questions concerning the extent and effects of acidic deposition in the United States. When NAPAP
delivers the Integrated Assessment, much of the active research in aquatic effects will have been
completed. Several efforts begun under NAPAP, however, are proposed for continuation to
investigate critical gaps in our current understanding of acidic deposition, although the research
committee by which these efforts will be guided is not yet finalized.
1.5.1 Watershed Processes and Manipulations Studies
Watershed Manipulation Project
The Watershed Manipulation Project, initiated in the field during 1987, will continue beyond
1990 to fulfill its original objectives. The studies at Bear Brook, Maine, will assess the response of
watershed soils and surface waters to altered sulfur deposition, determine the interactions among
biogeochemical mechanisms controlling surface water response to acidic deposition, and test the
behavior and performance of the models used in Direct/Delayed Response Project forecasts of
acidification trends.
The catchments at the Bear Brook study site have been monitored since Fall of 1987 to
establish a calibration between the two catchments. The catchment level manipulation will begin in
1989 and will continue until 1992. Thereafter, the catchments will be studied to examine the rate
and process of recovery. This component of the research will help verify the forecast models, while
plot and laboratory studies associated with the project will facilitate the development and
refinement of model formulations In addition, the Bear Brook site offers an excellent setting to
examine other issues of concern such as nitrogen deposition.
Regional Episodic and Acidic Manipulations
The Regional Episodic and Acidic Manipulations work at the Fernow Experimental Forest in
West Virginia (USDA Forest Service) supports objectives of both the Watershed Manipulation Project
and the Episodic Response Project The essence of the study is a watershed manipulation experiment
similar to the watershed manipulation study at Bear Brook, but without the intensive process
research. Catchment manipulation at the Fernow sites will begin in 1989 and end in 1992. Surface
water chemistry responses at both chronic and episodic time scales will be examined. These data will
be used to test episodic and chronic acidification models and to draw conclusions about basic
controls of watershed acidification.
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Little Rock Lake
The Little Rock Lake, Wisconsin, experiment has employed a split basin design to study the
expression and mechanisms of effects of decreasing pH on warmwater lake ecosystems. An
agreement with the State of Wisconsin dating from 1983 requires that the lake be restored to its
original condition at the end of the experiment, which was originally scheduled for 1990. Although
the restoration could easily be accomplished by removing the barrier between the two halves of the
lake, a unique opportunity exists to observe the system's natural recovery by maintaining the barrier
and terminating acidic inputs. It is most appropriate to continue to study the lake during a post-
treatment phase using directly comparable techniques to compare the two phases. Three years is
expected to be adequate time for the lake recovery study. This continuation of the Little Rock Lake
project will provide answers to questions concerning the time for recovery for various components of
the lake system and the extent. The three-year post-treatment research project should allow the
lake to stabilize or provide sufficient data to project its eventual stable condition based on the
observations to date.
1.5.2 Long-Term Monitoring -The Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems Project
The Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems project will continue within the current
aquatic team structure. The national base program beyond 1990 will include field sample collection,
laboratory analyses, data base management, interpretation, and reporting. The Temporally
Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems project will establish a design-based system of monitoring sites
with the capability to document chemical and biological changes in the status of lakes and streams in
regions receiving acidic deposition. Through integration with other monitoring studies on
deposition, soils, or forests, Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems can address probable
causes for observed changes in individual systems The Temporally Integrated Monitoring of
Ecosystems project is expected to provide a first step toward a broader national perspective on the
ecological monitoring of surface waters; its successful design and implementation will, in fact,
address many of the technical obstacles facing a broader, expanded ecological monitoring program
within EPA's Office of Research and Development that is currently in the planning phase.
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SECTION 2
PROJECT SUMMARIES
2.1 PROGRAM STRUCTURE - OVERVIEW
This section contains summaries of research activities within the Aquatic Effects Research
Program (AERP) that have been approved for funding in fiscal year 1989. Each subsection
corresponds to one of the Planned Program Accomplishments (PPA), the mechanism by which EPA's
Office of Research and Development tracks its research projects and deliverables. Each PPA is based
on a program within the AERP designed to focus on a particular research goal:
PPA Code Program Title
E-01 National Surface Water Survey
E-07 Direct/Delayed Response Project
E-05 Watershed Processes and Manipulations
E-08 Episodic Response Project
E-03 Biologically Relevant Chemistry
E-09 Synthesis and Integration
E-06 Long-Term Monitoring
E-04 Indirect Human Health Effects
Within each PPA, there are three levels of summaries that can be conceptualized by a hierarchical
tier, as shown in Figure 7. The research summary at the program level summarizes the research
activities at the program element and project levels, but individual summaries for all levels are
included to provide more specific information.
Program Element
Figure 7. Conceptualization of the levels within each Planned Program Accomplishment.
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Each summary is identified and tracked by an EPA code number. Each summary also is
identified by a second code number that corresponds to a research framework established by NAPAP
(see Section 1, page 1-1). These codes allow the project to be tracked both within the EPA's Aquatic
Effects Research Program and within the context of the broader program that involves several other
federal agencies. For more information on the NAPAP organizational structure, consult the Council
on Environmental Quality, 722 Jackson Place NW, Washington, DC (202-395-5771). An example of
the hierarchy with its paired codes is shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Example of Aquatic Effects Research Program Structure and Codes
Level EPA Code (NAPAP Code) Short Title
Program E-01 (6A-1) National Surface Water Survey
Program Element E-01.1 (6A-1.01) National Lake Survey
Project E-01.1A(6A-1.01A) Western Lake Survey
Each summary provides the following information:
• the complete title and short title of the program (or program element, project);
• region(s) and state(s) (where the research is being conducted);
• goal(s) and objective(s) (what the research hopes to accomplish);
• rationale (reason for conducting the research); and
• approach (direction taken to reach the research goals).
In addition, a list of key words is provided for each summary. An index of the key words is
provided to facilitate the use of this document by scientists and administrators interested in a
particular aspect of research. The key words are divided into four categories: (1) "medium" - the
primary discipline (chemistry, biology) or specific component or process of the ecosystem (e.g ,
cisterns, deposition, snowpack) upon which the activity focuses; (2) chemicals - principal chemical
constituents measured in the study; (3) approach - types of data acquisition methods and data
analysis used; and (4) processes - type of acidification-related mechanism being studies (e.g., sulfate
adsorption, base cation supply).
At the end of each summary, the EPA and NAPAP code numbers, status, period of
performance, and the key contact individual(s) are also included. Although these summaries provide
useful information regarding various levels of the PPAs, they are not intended to be thorough
descriptions of all Aquatic Effects Research Program activities. For more detailed information on a
research activity, the designated technical contact should be consulted.
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2.2 NATIONAL SURFACE WATER SURVEY - PROGRAM E-01
[Program/Program Element/Project]
E-01: National Surface Water Survey (6A-1) 2-5
E-01.1 National Lake Survey (6A-1.01 A) 2-6
E-01.1A Western Lake Survey (6A-1.01A1) 2-7
E-01.18 Northeastern Seasonal Variability (6A-1.01A2) 2-8
E-01.1C Front Range Lake Acidification (N/A) 2-9
E-01.1D Mt. Zirkel Lake Study (N/A) 2-10
E-01.1E New Mexico Lake Study (N/A) 2-11
E-01.2 National Stream Survey (6A-1.01B) 2-12
E-01.2A Southern Blue Ridge Stream Survey (6A-1.01B1) 2-13
E-01.28 Middle Atlantic Stream Survey (6A-1.01B2) 2-14
E-01.2C Southeast Screening (6A-1.01B3) 2-15
E-01.3 Subpopulational Studies (6A-1.02) 2-16
E-01.3A Florida Lake Acidification Project (6A-1.02A) 2-17
E-01.38 Alaska Seepage Lake Studies (6A-1.02B) 2-18
E-01.3C Upper Midwest Seepage Lake Studies (6A-1.02C) 2-19
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TITLE: Present Chemical Status of Surface Waters in Low Alkalinity Regions of the United States
SHORT TITLE: National Surface Water Survey
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DC, DE, MD, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VA, WV). Northeast (CT, MA,
ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VT), Southeast (AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, OK, SC,
TN, VA), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC, TN), West (CA, CO, ID,
MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To quantify with known statistical confidence the current status, extent, and
chemical and biological characteristics of surface waters in regions of the United States potentially
sensitive to the effects of acidic deposition. To examine, by applying scientific principles, concepts,
and resolution of uncertainty in methods and approach, the extent to which current chemical status
of aquatic ecosystems can be attributed to acidic deposition.
RATIONALE: To understand the environmental effects of acidic deposition, it is necessary to have a
quantitative regional estimate with known confidence of the status and extent of acidic and low
acid neutralizing capacity lakes and streams. Water quality data bases for surface waters cannot be
used for making such estimates because the studies they document employed inadequate statistical
sampling designs, inconsistent field and laboratory methods, or insufficient chemical measurements
to adequately characterize lake and stream water quality on a regional basis.
APPROACH: Regional-scale studies focus on those areas of the United States where existing chemical
and geological data indicate waters with low alkalinity. The population of interest is identified and
a statistical sample of these systems is obtained using appropriate methods followed by field
sampling and complete chemical analyses. Estimates of the chemical status (e.g., proportion of lakes
with low acid neutralizing capacity) of entire resource populations or subpopulations are possible
using this approach. Uncertainties in estimates are further refined through specific research
projects.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Seepage Lakes, Snowpack, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Acidic Cations, Aluminum, Ammonium, Base
Cations, Conductance, Major Ions, Metals, Nitrate, Organics, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling, Literature
Processes: Aluminum Speciation, Chronic Acidification, Episodic Acidification,
Hydrology, Mineral Weathering, Within-Lake Acid Neutralizing
Capacity Generation
PPA: E-01 EPA Code: E-01 NAPAPCode: 6A-1
Element: Program
Contributing to: E-03, E-04, E-05, E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: None
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1991
Contact: Dixon Landers
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TITLE: Present Chemical Status of Lakes in Low Alkalinity Regions of the United States
SHORT TITLE: National Lake Survey
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VT), West (CA, CO, ID, MT, NM,
NV, OR, UT, WA, WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To quantify, with known statistical confidence, the current status, extent,
and chemical and biological characteristics of lakes in regions of the United States that are
potentially sensitive to acidic deposition.
RATIONALE: To understand the environmental effects of acidic deposition, it is necessary to have a
quantitative regional estimate with known confidence of the status and extent of acidic and low
acid neutralizing capacity lakes. Water quality data bases for lakes cannot be used for making such
estimates because the studies they document employed inadequate statistical sampling designs,
inconsistent field and laboratory methods, or insufficient chemical measurements to adequately
characterize lake water quality on a regional basis.
APPROACH: Lake resources are estimated on a regional scale, and a randomly selected subset of
lakes is sampled using appropriate methods. The sample results are then weighted in order to
estimate the chemical compositions of lake populations with known confidence. Uncertainties with
time of sampling (i.e., season), spatial variability, and population definition (i.e., lake size) are
included in specific research projects to improve confidence in estimates.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Snowpack
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Ammonium, Base Cations,
Conductance, Major Ions, Metals, Nitrate, Organics, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling, Literature
Processes: Aluminum Speciation, Chronic Acidification, Episodic Acidification,
Mineral Weathering
PPA: E-01 EPA Code: E-01.1 NAPAPCode: 6A-1.01A
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-03. E-05, E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1985 to 1988
Contact: Dixon Landers
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TITLE: Present Chemical Status of Lakes in the Mountainous Western United States
SHORT TITLE: Western Lake Survey
REGION(S)/STATE(S): West (CA. CO, ID, MT, NM, NV. OR, UT, WA, WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECT1VE(S): To estimate the number, distribution, and characteristics of lakes in those
areas of the western United States believed to contain the most low alkalinity lakes.
RATIONALE: Existing data on western lakes are inadequate to make regional-scale, quantitative
assessments about the current chemical status of lakes, particularly in high altitude wilderness areas
of the West.
APPROACH: A probability-based survey of lakes in areas believed to contain the most low alkalinity
lakes in the mountainous areas of the western United States was conducted in fall 1985. This
"index" sample provided a basis for assessing lakes in the West and a framework for comparing
them with lakes in the East. The Western Lake Survey differed from the Eastern Lake Survey in
several respects: the Western Lake Survey was conducted in fall 1985; the minimum lake size in the
sampling frame was 1 hectare; and lakes in wilderness areas were accessed by ground rather than by
helicopter.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Base Cations, Conductance,
Metals, Nitrate, Organics, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Chronic Acidification
PPA: E-01 EPACode: E-01.1A NAPAPCode: 6A-1 01A1
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Program Element: National Lake Survey (E-01.1)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1985 to 1988
Contact: Dixon Landers
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TITLE: Quantifying Seasonal Variability in Lakes in the Northeastern United States
SHORT TITLE: Northeastern Seasonal Variability
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VT)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To evaluate how the chemical status of lakes in the northeastern United
States, developed during Phase I of the National Lake Survey, might vary seasonally.
RATIONALE: The National Surface Water Survey was designed as a phased project to document the
present chemical and biological status of lakes and streams in regions of the United States that are
potentially sensitive to acidic deposition. By seasonally sampling select surface waters, temporal
variability in Phase I aquatic resources can be quantified. Phase I of the National Lake Survey
quantified surface water chemistry in areas of the United States expected to contain the majority of
low alkalinity lakes during a fall "index" period. Phase II was designed to quantify chemical
variability within and among lakes on a regional basis using the subset of lakes sampled in Phase I.
APPROACH: One hundred and fifty lakes sampled in the northeastern United States during Phase I
of the Eastern Lake Survey were resampled in the spring, summer, and fall of 1986 to assess seasonal
lake chemical variability. The specific water chemistry variables measured in Phase I also were
measured in Phase II.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Base Cations, Metals, Nitrate,
Organics, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Aluminum Speciation, Chronic Acidification
PPA: E-01 EPACode: E-01.1B NAPAPCode: 6A-1.01A2
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-03, E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Program Element: National Lake Survey (E-01.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1986 to 1989
Contact: Dixon Landers
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TITLE: Lake Acidification in the Front Range of Colorado
SHORT TITLE: Front Range Lake Acidification
REGION(S)/STATE(S): West (CO)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine if literature references to lake acidification in the Front Range
of Colorado are consistent with results from analyses of complete chemical data.
RATIONALE: Of the regions in the West receiving acidic deposition, the Front Range of Colorado is
an area of concern because it is close to the Denver metropolitan area and because previous studies
conducted in this area have concluded that lake acidification has occurred.
APPROACH: Approximately 43 lakes will be sampled annually, as per a previous study (1979), and
5-10 lakes will be sampled biweekly to determine if lake sulfate concentrations reflect acidification
by acidic deposition. Complete chemical characterization will be performed. Maximum acidification
will be estimated using a new method that differentiates estimated normal regional atmospheric
deposition of sulfate from weathering of sulfur minerals in watersheds. The activities for this project
with regard to the National Surface Water Survey have been completed; some of these activities will
now be conducted as part of the Long-Term Monitoring Program (E-06) (see page 2-137).
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Base Cations, Nitrate, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling, Literature
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Mineral Weathering
PPA: E-01 EPA Code: E-01.1C NAPAPCode: N/A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-03, E-05, E-06, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Program Element: National Lake Survey (E-01.1)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1987 to 1988
Contact: Dixon Landers
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TITLE: Chemistry of Lakes in High Elevation, Western Wilderness Areas
SHORT TITLE: Mt. Zirkel Lake Study
REGION{S)/STATE(S): West (CO)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To characterize the chemistry of 10 high-elevation lakes in the Mount Zirkel
and Weminuche Wilderness Areas during a summer index period; to determine temporal variability
of key chemical parameters in four of the lakes; and to examine the relationship between major ions
in precipitation and lake water.
RATIONALE: Concern about acidic deposition is growing in the western United States.
Development of energy and metal resources is expected to increase atmospheric emissions of acid
precursors and trace metals. Of particular note are developments near wilderness areas or national
parks. Because federal permits are required for these areas, air quality is protected from
degradation. This project will evaluate the present water quality of lakes in these areas to help
develop emissions permits and control strategies, to establish a data base for monitoring long-term
effects, and to evaluate selected monitoring methods.
APPROACH: Ten lakes (four in Mt. Zirkel Wilderness Area and six in Weminuche Wilderness Area)
were selected for study because of their low alkalinity and sulfate concentrations. These lakes likely
would exhibit strong trends in response to acidic inputs if sulfate deposition is the major source of
acidity. Sampling is conducted in the summer at two depths for the Mt. Zirkel lakes and at the
outflow for the Weminuche lakes. Samples from the Mt. Zirkel lakes are preserved and analyzed for
a number of chemical properties, while samples from the Weminuche lakes are analyzed for major
ions only. Yearly sampling will show long-term trends, if any occur. The activities for this project
with regard to the National Surface Water Survey have been completed; a portion of these activities
will continue as part of the Long-Term Monitoring Program (E-06) (see page 2-138).
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes
Chemicals: Conductance, Major Ions, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Chronic Acidification
PPA: E-01 EPA Code: E-01. ID NAPAPCode: IM/A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-03, E-05. E-06, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Program Element: National Lake Survey (E-01.1)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1987 to 1988
Contact: Dixon Landers
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TITLE: Seasonal and Episodic Water Quality Changes in Precipitation and Lake Water in Northern
New Mexico
SHORT TITLE: New Mexico Lake Study
REGION(S)/STATE(S): West(NM)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To monitor atmospheric deposition at a high altitude site characteristic of
northern New Mexico. To determine the frequency, duration, and magnitude of acidic episodes in
precipitation, snowmelt, and adjacent lakes.
RATIONALE: The Western Lake Survey provided only fall data for lakes in high mountainous regions.
Very little is known of the possible effects of spring snowmelt or precipitation events on these dilute
systems. Further, there are very few high altitude sites at which deposition chemistry is measured.
The New Mexico Lake Study will provide needed information in both of these areas.
APPROACH: Precipitation chemistry will be monitored by an NADP-type deposition sampling station
at the 3,110-foot level in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in northern New Mexico. Snowpack
chemistry at that location will be determined monthly during the winter, and snowmelt will be
sampled using a 1.5-m diameter fiberglass snowmelt collector. The nine adjacent Latir lakes will be
monitored for changes in water chemistry associated with snowmelt and precipitation. The activities
for this project, with regard to the National Surface Water Survey, have been completed; if these
activities continue, depending on the results of the first year of study, they will be addressed as part
of the Long-Term Monitoring Program (E-06) (see page 2-139).
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Snowpack
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Ammonium, Major Ions,
Organics, pH
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-01 EPA Code: E-01.1E NAPAPCode: N/A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-03, E-05, E-06, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Program Element: National Lake Survey (E-01.1)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1987 to 1988
Contact: Dixon Landers
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TITLE: Present Chemical Status of Streams in Low Alkalinity Regions of the United States
SHORT TITLE: National Stream Survey
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DC, DE, MD, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VA. WV), Southeast (AL, AR, FL,
GA, KY, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, VA), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC,
TN)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the percentage, extent, and location of streams in the United
States that are presently acidic or have low acid neutralizing capacity, and may therefore be
susceptible to future acidification. To identify streams that represent important classes in each
region for possible use in more intensive studies or long-term monitoring.
RATIONALE: To understand the environmental effects of acidic deposition, it is necessary to have a
quantitative regional estimate with known confidence of the status and extent of acidic and low
acid neutralizing capacity streams. Water quality data bases for streams cannot be used for making
such estimates because the studies they document employed inadequate statistical sampling designs,
inconsistent field and laboratory methods, or insufficient chemical measurements to adequately
characterize stream water quality on a regional basis.
APPROACH: The National Stream Survey provides an overview of stream water chemistry in regions
of the United States that were expected, on the basis of previous alkalinity data, to contain
predominantly low acid neutralizing capacity waters. The National Stream Survey employed a
randomized, systematic sample of regional stream populations, and used rigorous quality assurance
protocols for field sampling and laboratory chemical analysis. Many chemical variables important to
aquatic biota were measured, in addition to major cations, anions, pH, and acid neutralizing
capacity.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Major Ions, Metals, Nitrate,
Organics, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Chronic Acidification
PPA: E-01 EPACode: E-01.2 NAPAPCode: 6A-1.01B
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-03, E-04, E-05. E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1984 to 1988
Contact: Phil Kaufmann
2-12
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TITLE: Present Chemical Status of Streams in the Southern Blue Ridge Province
SHORT TITLE: Southern Blue Ridge Stream Survey
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC, TN)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To test the feasibility of the National Stream Survey sampling design. To
test, evaluate, and refine the National Stream Survey logistics plan, data analysis plan, and
alternative sample collection, preparation, and analytical techniques before undertaking the full-
scale survey.
RATIONALE: Prior to this pilot survey, a large-scale synoptic survey of stream water quality had not
been successfully conducted over a short period of time using a probability sampling frame and
rigorous quality assurance protocols. This survey provided unbiased regional estimates with known
confidence of the present chemical status of streams.
APPROACH: The Southern Blue Ridge Stream Survey used a randomized, systematic sample of
streams and rigorous quality assurance protocols for field sampling, sample transport, and
laboratory chemical analysis. A relatively complete set of biologically and geochemically relevant
variables was measured. The survey maximized regional sampling density and the number of
samples taken in the spring and summer to optimize the sampling design in the full National Stream
Survey.
KEYWORDS: Medium:
Chemicals:
Approach:
Processes:
Chemistry, Streams
Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Major Ions, Metals, Nitrate,
Organics, pH, Sulfate
Field Sampling
Chronic Acidification
EPA Code: E-01.2A
PPA: E-01
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-03, E-04, E-05, E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Program Element: National Stream Survey (E-01.2)
NAPAPCode: 6A-1.01B1
Status: Completed
Contact: Phil Kaufmann
Period of Performance: 1984 to 1987
2-13
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TITLE: Present Chemical Status of Streams in the Middle Atlantic Region
SHORT TITLE: Middle Atlantic Stream Survey
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DC, DE, MD, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VA, WV)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the percentage, extent, and location of streams in the Middle
Atlantic that are presently acidic or have low acid neutralizing capacity, and are therefore
susceptible to becoming acidic in the future. To identify streams that represent important classes in
this region for possible use in more intensive studies or long-term monitoring.
RATIONALE: Previously existing stream water quality data bases are inadequate for making
quantitative regional chemical distribution estimates in this region. The Middle Atlantic region
currently receives acidic deposition. To understand the environmental effects of acidic deposition, it
is necessary to quantify the status and extent of acidic and low acid neutralizing capacity streams.
APPROACH: The Middle Atlantic Stream Survey was a synoptic survey of water chemistry in this
region. It employed a randomized systematic sample of streams and used rigorous quality assurance
protocols for field sampling, sample transport, and laboratory chemical analysis. A relatively
complete set of biologically and geochemically relevant variables was measured. Some measure of
temporal and upstream/downstream variability was included in the sampling design.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Major Ions, Metals, Nitrate,
Organics, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Chronic Acidification
PPA: E-01 EPA Code: E-01.2B NAPAPCode: 6A-1.01B2
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-03, E-04. E-05, E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Program Element: National Stream Survey (E-01.2)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1986 to 1988
Contact: Phil Kaufmann
2-14
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TITLE: Present Chemical Status of Streams in the Southeastern United States - Synoptic Chemical
Survey
SHORT TITLE: Southeast Screening
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Southeast (AL. AR, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the percentage, extent, and location of streams in the
Southeast and Florida that are presently acidic or have low acid neutralizing capacity, and may
therefore be susceptible to becoming acidic in the future. To identify streams that represent
important classes in this region for possible use in more intensive studies or long-term monitoring.
RATIONALE: Previously existing stream water quality data bases are inadequate for making
quantitative regional chemical distribution estimates in this region. To understand the effect of
acidic deposition on streams in this region, it is necessary to quantitatively estimate, with known
confidence, the status and extent of acidic and low acid neutralizing capacity streams.
APPROACH: The Southeast Screening was a synoptic survey of water chemistry in this region. It
employed a randomized, systematic sample of streams and used rigorous quality assurance protocols
for field sampling and laboratory chemical analysis. A relatively complete set of biologically and
geochemically relevant variables was measured. The index chemical values were evaluated from
single springtime samples at the upstream and downstream ends of sample stream reaches in the
drainage network.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Major Ions, Metals, Nitrate,
Organics, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Chronic Acidification
PPA: E-01 EPA Code: E-01.2C NAPAPCode: 6A-1.01B3
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-03, E-04, E-05, E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Program Element: National Stream Survey (E-01.2)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1986 to 1988
Contact: Phil Kaufmann
2-15
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TITLE: Refining Estimates of Current Chemical Status of Special Subpopulations
SHORT TITLE: Subpopulational Studies
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Upper Midwest (Ml. MN, Wl). Southeast (FL), West (AK)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To resolve questions regarding particular subsets of lakes identified in
Phase I of the National Surface Water Survey, which constitute a major portion of the acidic or low
acid neutralizing capacity population of lakes. To describe the relationship between the chemistry
of acidic seepage lakes and atmospheric deposition, to quantify factors controlling current seepage
lake chemistry, and to forecast the future response of acidic seepage lakes to acidic deposition.
Specifically, to examine in more detail the chemistry of seepage lakes.
RATIONALE: Seepage lakes, those without surface water inlets and outlets, constitute two-thirds of
the acidic lake population in the eastern United States. Very little is known, however, about the
relationship between regional seepage lake chemistry and acidic deposition. Determining the
current status of seepage lakes will help in understanding all sensitive aquatic resources.
APPROACH: Seepage lakes are being examined by two methods. First, existing data on lake and
deposition chemistry are being compared to calculate enrichment/depletion ratios of major ions.
These results will provide regional estimates of the amount of groundwater inputs, the amount of
acid neutralizing capacity that is internally generated, and the relative contribution of acidic
deposition to the acid status of these waters. Second, measurements of deposition and groundwater
inputs are proposed for a small number of acidic seepage lakes to evaluate the relative importance
of deposition and natural processes in determining acidic status.
Field sampling also will be conducted to quantify the relationship between groundwater and
seepage lake chemistry in Florida and the Upper Midwest. Chemical enrichment factors will be
evaluated for seepage lakes in the Midwest. Background chemistry in seepage lakes not impacted by
deposition will be evaluated in the far West.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Groundwater, Lakes, Seepage Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Acidic Cations, Base Cations, Major Ions,
Nitrate, Organics, Sulfate
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Hydrology, Within-Lake Acid Neutralizing
Capacity Generation
PPA: E-01 EPACode:E-01.3 NAPAPCode: 6A-1.02
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988 to 1991
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-16
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TITLE: Evaluating the Relationship Between Atmospheric Deposition and Seepage Lake Water
Chemistry in Florida
SHORT TITLE: Florida Lake Acidification Project
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Southeast (FL)
GOAL(S)/O8JECTIVE(S): To evaluate the relationship between deposition chemistry and the
chemistry of seepage lakes in Florida.
RATIONALE: By measuring deposition chemistry (wet and dry) and groundwater inputs, the
internal generation of acid neutralizing capacity and other important processes that control the
chemistry of seepage lakes can be estimated.
APPROACH: Wet deposition and aerosol chemistry from the Florida Acid Deposition Network will be
used to estimate total deposition in Florida. A study lake in the Florida Panhandle has been selected
and will be instrumental in providing quantitative estimates of major inputs and sinks in a
clearwater, acidic seepage lake. Direct measurements of deposition, groundwater, and lake
chemistry combined with information on important processes will assist in evaluating the relative
importance of natural and anthropogenic sources of acidity.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Groundwater, Lakes, Seepage Lakes
Chemicals: Major Ions, Nitrate, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Hydrology, Within-Lake Acid Neutralizing
Capacity Generation
EPA Code: E-01.3A
PPA: E-01
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Program Element: Subpopulational Studies (E-01.3)
NAPAPCode: 6A-1.02A
Status: Ongoing
Contact: Dixon Landers
Period of Performance: 1988 to 1991
2-17
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TITLE: Chemical Characterization of a Subset of Seepage Lakes in Alaska
SHORT TITLE: Alaska Seepage Lake Studies
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Upper Midwest (Ml, MN. Wl), West (AK)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To characterize lakes in Alaska, a low deposition region, that have similar
hydrologic, watershed, and chemical characteristics to lakes in the Upper Midwest. To evaluate the
influence of deposition on seepage lakes by comparing similar lakes under low and moderate levels
of acidic deposition.
RATIONALE: The lakes of the Kenai Peninsula in south-central Alaska are very similar in origin, age,
and watershed vegetation to typical lakes in the Upper Midwest. There is relatively little chemical
information regarding these lakes, which are located in an area of current oil exploration. It has
been determined, however, that these lakes receive only background levels of deposition. Because
these Alaskan lakes are so similar to lakes in the Upper Midwest, which were included in the Eastern
Lake Survey, comparisons of their chemical characteristics may be useful in understanding possible
effects of acidic deposition. The Alaskan lakes could be presumed to represent seepage lakes under
near pristine conditions.
APPROACH: A population-based sample of about 60 lakes were taken in August 1988 when the
lakes in the Kenai Peninsula were undergoing fall turnover. Complete chemical characterization will
be determined for cations, anions, acid neutralizing capacity, conductivity, pH, and other
parameters. The cumulative frequency curves will be generated and compared to lake populations
in the Upper Midwest.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Seepage Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Major Ions. Organics
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Hydrology
PPA: E-01 EPA Code: E-01.3B NAPAPCode: 6A-1.02B
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05. E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Program Element: Subpopulational Studies (E-01.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988-1991
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-18
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TITLE: Chemical Characterization of a Subset of Seepage Lakes in the Upper Midwest
SHORT TITLE: Upper Midwest Seepage Lake Studies
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Upper Midwest (Ml, MN, Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To better understand the process of seepage lake acidification and to
determine the role of acidic deposition in altering seepage lake chemistry.
RATIONALE: Seepage lakes in the Upper Midwest are susceptible to effects from acidic deposition;
understanding their important processes, especially internal acid neutralizing capacity generation,
assists in determining potential sensitivity of this resource.
APPROACH: Enrichment factor analysis and a review of site-specific information from intensively
studied systems (Little Rock Lake, Vandercook Lake, etc.) will be used to determine the relative
importance of various biogeochemical processes involved in alkalinity regulation. The relationship
between acidic deposition rates (H + ) loading) and lakewater chemistry will be evaluated by
empirical analysis (e.g., H+ loading vs. acid neutralizing capacity) using several distinct groups of
lakes in the Upper Midwest and other regions with higher and lower H+ loadings. Finally,
deterministic modeling will be used to make regional forecasts of the effects of increasing or
decreasing acidic deposition rates.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Deposition, Lakes, Seepage Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Acidic Cations, Base Cations, Organics
Approach: E xi sti ng Data Anal yses
Processes: Chronic Acidification
PPA: E-01 EPA Code: E-01.3C NAPAPCode: 6A-1.02C
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: National Surface Water Survey (E-01)
Program Element: Subpopulational Studies (E-01.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988-1991
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-19
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2.3 DIRECT/DELAYED RESPONSE PROJECT - PROGRAM E-07
[Program/Program Element/Project]
E-07: Direct/Delayed Response Project (6B-1) 2-23
E-07.1 Soil Surveys (6C-2.11) 2-24
E-07.1A Regional Soil Surveys (6C-2.11A) 2-26
E-07.1B Special Soil Studies (Sulfate Retention) (6C-2.11B) 2-28
E-07.2 Regionalization of Soil Chemistry (6C-2.12) 2-29
E-07.3 Correlative Analyses (6C-2.09) 2-30
E-07.3A Evidence of Sulfur Retention (6C-2.09A) 2-31
E-07.3B Hydrology/Water Chemistry (6C-2.09B) 2-32
E-07.3C Soil Aggregation (6C-2.09C) 2-33
E-07.3D Soil/Water Interactions (6C-2.09D) 2-34
E-07.3E Water Chemistry/Vegetation (6C-2.09E) 2-35
E-07.3F Surface Water/Wetland Relationships (6C-2.09F) 2-36
E-07.4 Single-Factor Analyses (6C-2.10) 2-38
E-07.4A Sulfate Adsorption (6C-2.10A) 2-39
E-07.4B Base Cation Supply (6C-2.10B) 2-41
E-07.5 Forecasting Surface Water Acidification (6B-1.01) 2-43
2-21
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TITLE: Forecasting Regional-Scale Surface Water Acidification in Potentially Sensitive Regions of the
United States
SHORT TITLE: Direct/Delayed Response Project
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians (DE. MD. NJ. NY. PA, VA, WV), Middle Atlantic (DE, MD. NJ,
NY, PA, Rl, VA, WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NY, PA, Rl, VT), Southeast
(AL, AR, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN, VA), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC,
SC, TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To forecast future effects of acidic deposition on surface water chemistry in
the Northeast, Southern Blue Ridge Province, and Mid-Appalachians and (1) to characterize the
regional variability of soil and watershed characteristics, (2) to determine which soil and watershed
characteristics are most strongly related to surface water chemistry, (3) to estimate the relative
importance of key watershed processes across the study regions, and (4) to classify a sample of
watersheds according to their response characteristics to acidic deposition.
RATIONALE: This work will forecast future effects of acidic deposition on surface water chemistry to
help assess potential adverse effects.
APPROACH: This project applies to the Northeast (New York and New England) and the Southern
Blue Ridge Province (eastern Tennessee, western North Carolina, northern Georgia), and has recently
been extended to the Mid-Appalachian Region (Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia).
This project includes sampling soil, analyzing characteristics for a select number of watersheds, and
applying analytical and forecasting methods to explain the interaction of acidic deposition with such
systems. This study will help forecast future effects of acidic deposition on these watersheds and
associated lakes and streams.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Soils, Streams, Vegetation, Watersheds,
Wetlands
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Base Cations, Cation Exchange
Complex, Clay Minerals, Nitrate, Organics, pH, Soil Chemistry, Sulfate
Approach: Aggregation, Correlative Analyses, Existing Data Analyses, Field
Mapping, Field Sampling, Input-Output Budgets, Laboratory, Literature,
Modeling, Single-Factor Analyses
Processes: Base Cation Exchange, Base Cation Supply, Chronic Acidification,
Community Response, Hydrology, Mineral Weathering, Sulfate
Adsorption, Sulfate Reduction, Sulfur Cycling, Sulfur Retention
PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07 NAPAP Code: 6B-1
Element: Program
Contributing to: E-03, E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: None
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1991
Contact: M. Robbins Church
2-23
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TITLE: Regional Surveys of Physicochemical Characteristics of Soils for Use in Forecasting Surface
Water Acidification
SHORT TITLE: Soil Surveys
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians (MD. PA, VA. WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NY, PA, Rl,
VT), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC. TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To provide the Direct/Delayed Response Project with high-quality, internally
consistent data on soils and other watershed characteristics needed for Level I, II, and III analyses To
provide related projects with data to help select sites and develop future research projects.
RATIONALE: The Direct/Delayed Response Project aims to characterize the responses of watersheds
to varying levels of acidic deposition on a regional basis. Related projects (Watershed Manipulation
Project, Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems) will focus on the responses of
representative watersheds. These projects require two types of high-quality, internally consistent
data bases on watershed characteristics of importance for relating the response of surface waters to
acidic deposition: (1) regional data bases and (2) watershed-specific data bases.
A pilot soil survey conducted in 1984 concluded that existing data bases were not adequate because
of the following: (1) most sites of interest are in remote areas not covered by existing soil maps of
adequate resolution; (2) most soils of interest are nonagricultural soils for which few, if any, data on
physical and chemical properties exist; (3) the laboratory analyses rarely include certain critical
parameters, such as sulfate adsorption or unbuffered cation exchange capacity; and (4) major
questions regarding data comparability and reliability arise because many different analytical
techniques were used and because quality assurance/quality control information generally is not
available. Soil surveys specifically designed to meet the needs of this program were conducted.
APPROACH: Activities in each region include watershed selection, watershed mapping, soil
sampling, and laboratory analysis. Soil survey field activities have been completed in the Northeast
and the Southern Blue Ridge Province; they are underway in the Mid-Appalachian region.
1. Watershed Selection. Watersheds are selected probabilistically from National Surface
Water Survey sites or according to criteria developed for special purposes.
2. Watershed Mapping. Experienced Soil Conservation Service field crews map soils,
vegetation, and depth-to-bedrock at a scale of 1:24,000. Bedrock geology maps for each
watershed are produced from existing maps.
3. Soil Sampling. The soil maps are used to define soils representing each region or
watershed as appropriate. Soil Conservation Service personnel sample these soils at
locations specified by the Direct/Delayed Response Project.
4. Laboratory Analysis. Field crews deliver soil samples to laboratories that dry and otherwise
prepare the samples for chemical and physical analysis, analyze some samples, then ship
the samples and audit samples to the analytical laboratories where most of the analyses
are performed.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Lakes, Soils, Watersheds, Wetlands
Chemicals: Aluminum, Nitrate, Sulfate
Approach: Aggregation, Existing Data Analyses, Field Mapping, Field Sampling,
Input-Output Budgets, Laboratory
Processes: Base Cation Exchange, Chronic Acidification, Mineral Weathering,
Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfate Reduction, Sulfur Cycling
2-24
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PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.1 NAPAP Code: 6C-2.11
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1991
Contact: M. Robbins Church
2-25
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TITLE: Regional Soil Surveys in the Northeast, Southern Blue Ridge Province, and Mid-Appalachians
SHORT TITLE: Regional Soil Surveys
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians (MD, PA, VA, WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NY, PA, Rl.
VT), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC, TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To provide the Direct/Delayed Response Project with high-quality, internally
consistent regional data on soils and other watershed characteristics that can be extrapolated for
regions of concern to generate and test statistical hypotheses within and among regions. To provide
related projects (Watershed Manipulation Project. Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems)
with a basis for ensuring and documenting that sites selected for study are representative.
RATIONALE: The Direct/Delayed Response Project aim is to characterize the responses of watersheds
to varying levels of acidic deposition on a regional basis. Related projects (Watershed Manipulation
Project, Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems) will focus on the responses of
representative watersheds. The success of these projects depends upon access to high-quality,
regionally consistent data bases on watershed characteristics of importance for relating the response
of surface waters to acidic deposition. A pilot soil survey conducted in 1984 demonstrated that
existing data bases were not adequate for use in the Direct/Delayed Response Project. Therefore, it
was impossible for these projects to access the required regional data bases without performing soil
surveys specifically designed to meet their needs.
APPROACH: Activities in each region include watershed selection, watershed mapping, soil
sampling, and laboratory analysis. Soil survey field activities have been completed in the Northeast
and Southern Blue Ridge Province; they are underway in the Mid-Appalachian region.
1. Watershed Selection. Watersheds are selected from those included in the National Surface
Water Survey and constitute a probabilistic sample of surface waters in the populations of
interest.
2. Watershed Mapping. Experienced Soil Conservation Service soil scientists map soils,
vegetation, and depth-to-bedrock at a scale of 1:24,000. Bedrock geology maps for each
watershed are produced from existing maps.
3. Soil Sampling. The soil maps are used to define soil sampling classes that represent soils
within each region. Soil Conservation Service personnel sample these classes at randomly
selected locations. The pedons of a given soil sampling class collectively represent that
class throughout the region.
4. Laboratory Analysis. Field crews deliver soil samples to laboratories that dry and otherwise
prepare the samples for chemical and physical analysis, conduct some soil analyses, then
ship the samples along with audit samples to the analytical laboratories where most of the
analyses are performed.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils, Watersheds
Chemicals: Aluminum, Nitrate, Sulfate
Approach: Field Mapping, Field Sampling, Laboratory
Processes: Base Cation Exchange, Chronic Acidification, Mineral Weathering,
Sulfate Adsorption
2-26
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PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.1 A NAPAP Code: 6C-2.11A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Program Element: Soil Surveys (E-07.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1991
Contact: M. Robbins Church
2-27
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TITLE: Verifying the Extent of Sulfate Retention in Northeastern Watersheds
SHORT TITLE: Special Soil Studies (Sulfate Retention)
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (CT, MA. ME, NH, NY, PA, Rl, VT)
GOAL(S)/OBJECT1VE(S): To identify watersheds in the northeastern United States that have high
rates of net sulfate retention. To (1) identify the process(es) that retain sulfate, and (2) if the process
is adsorption, estimate time needed to reach sulfur steady state.
RATIONALE: Available data suggest that sulfur budgets for most watersheds in the northeastern
United States are at or very close to steady state, yet some systems in the region are calculated to
retain a significant fraction of sulfur inputs. To make reliable forecasts of the future effects of acidic
deposition on surface water quality in the region, it is essential to determine if net sulfate retention
is actually occurring (or alternatively, if it is an artifact resulting from uncertainty in input-output
budgets). If retention is occurring, then it must be determined whether and at what rate sulfate
concentrations will increase to steady state. The processes that retain sulfate and the capacity of the
watershed to continue retention must be evaluated. If these systems are retaining sulfate through
processes other than adsorption, watershed chemistry models currently used may have to be
modified to forecast future watershed response accurately.
APPROACH: Based on existing, preliminary input-output budgets for approximately 700 drainage
lakes and impoundments in the northeastern United States sampled during the Eastern Lake Survey,
45 lakes with high computed sulfur retention rates have been selected for further study. Aerial
photos of each site have been taken and interpreted to determine potential land-use factors
affecting sulfate mobility (e.g., wetlands, agricultural disturbance), and soils in the watersheds are
being mapped in detail to identify soil taxonomic units and to characterize bedrock, vegetation, and
soil physical features. Data will be compared to those collected from the original 145 Direct/Delayed
Response Project watersheds to identify factors contributing to sulfur retention. If the causes of
retention are not resolved on the basis of watershed mapping data, additional soil sampling at some
or all of the watersheds will be considered. For sites where retention occurs by adsorption, time to
reach steady state will be forecasted using soil chemistry data with the sulfate subroutine of a
watershed chemistry model.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Lakes, Soils, Wetlands
Chemicals: Sulfate
Approach: Aggregation, Existing Data Analyses, Field Mapping, Input-Output
Budgets
Processes: Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfate Reduction, Sulfur Cycling
PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.1B NAPAP Code: 6C-2.11B
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Program Element: Soil Surveys (E-07.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
2-28
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TITLE: Developing Relationships Among Regional Soil Survey Data Bases to Extend the Utility of
Analyses in the Direct/Delayed Response Project
SHORT TITLE: Regionalization of Soil Chemistry
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians (DE. MD. PA, VA, WV), Northeast (CT, MA, NH, NY, PA, Rl,
VT), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC, TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECT1VE(S): To combine information from the Direct/Delayed Response Project soil
survey data bases with information contained in the SOILS 5 and other preexisting data bases for
soils in other regions.
RATIONALE: This work will combine information from the Direct/Delayed Response Project soil
surveys with information from existing soils data bases to make extrapolations to other regions not
surveyed in the Direct/Delayed Response Project. This will help to a priori characterize soils in other
regions and evaluate their potential responses to continued acidic deposition.
APPROACH: This work will combine the Direct/Delayed Response Project soil survey data from the
Northeast, Southern Blue Ridge Province, and Mid-Appalachians with information on soils in other
regions in the East, such as other areas of the Blue Ridge and Appalachians. Statistical analyses of
the relationship between specific chemical analyses undertaken in the Direct/Delayed Response
Project and standard analyses used in previous soil surveys will be used to compare and combine the
data bases.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils
Chemicals: Base Cations, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling, Laboratory, Literature
Processes: Base Cation Supply, Sulfate Adsorption
PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.2 NAPAP Code: 6C-2.12
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Status: Initiating Period of Performance: 1988 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
2-29
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TITLE: Relationships Between Watershed Characteristics and Surface Water Chemistry
SHORTTITLE: Correlative Analyses
REGION(S)/STATE(S):
Mid-Appalachians (MD, PA, VA, WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA,
Rl, VT), Southeast (AL. AR, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN, VA), Southern Blue Ridge
Province (GA, NC, SC, TN. VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine which soil and watershed characteristics are most strongly
related to surface water chemistry. To estimate the relative importance of key watershed processes
in the regions of study.
RATIONALE: These analyses will show clearly how watershed and soil characteristics relate to surface
water chemistry. This relationship is important for determining the types of models that are best
suited for forecasting future surface water chemistry and the best methods for evaluating surface
water chemistry both through single-factor response time estimates and complex dynamic
watershed models.
APPROACH: This work is being undertaken for sample watersheds in the Northeast, the Southern
Blue Ridge Province, and the Mid-Appalachians. This work will apply statistical analyses to data
gathered from watershed mapping and sampling in the Direct/Delayed Response Project. It will
assess the relationships among these factors and surface water chemistry measured in the
watersheds. The standard mapping and sampling data sets from the Direct/Delayed Response
Project will allow the clearest determination of relationships possible. Previous investigations on
regional relationships have been limited by the lack of internal consistence of the data sets
examined.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Soils, Streams, Vegetation, Watersheds,
Wetlands
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Base Cations, Nitrate, Organics, pH, Soil
Chemistry, Sulfate
Approach: Aggregation, Correlative Analyses, Existing Data Analyses, Field
Sampling, Input-Output Budgets, Literature, Modeling
Processes: Base Cation Supply, Community Response, Hydrology, Mineral
Weathering, Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfate Reduction, Sulfur Retention
PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.3 NAPAPCode: 6C-2.09
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
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TITLE: Extent of Sulfur Retention in Watersheds in the Eastern United States
SHORT TITLE: Evidence of Sulfur Retention
REGION(S)/STATES(S): Mid-Appalachians (DE. MD. VA, WV). Northeast (CT. MA. ME, NH. NJ. NY. PA.
Rl, VT). Southeast (AL. AR. GA. KY, MS. NC. SC. TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the amount of sulfur retained in watersheds studied in the
Direct/Delayed Response Project.
RATIONALE: Retention of sulfur from atmospheric deposition in watersheds is an important factor
affecting surface water acidification. Sulfate can act as a mobile anion, carrying with it combinations
of base cations and acid cations. In general, northern soils have relatively little ability to adsorb
additional atmospherically deposited sulfur, whereas southern soils have a greater ability to do so.
The sulfur retention status of soils can change with time due to the effects of continued loading
from atmospheric deposition. Such soils can lose part of their ability to retain sulfur, possibly
resulting in increased leaching of acids to surface waters. Determining the current status of sulfur
retention in soils and watersheds is useful in projecting future effects of constant or altered levels of
sulfur deposition.
APPROACH: This project will employ an input/output analysis approach. Annual inputs are being
provided from the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program's Task Group IV (Deposition
Monitoring and Air Quality). Outputs are computed using lake and stream chemistry from the
National Surface Water Survey in the East and estimates of annual runoff from maps produced by
the U.S. Geological Survey. Input-output status of watersheds in the Northeast, mountainous Mid-
Appalachians, and portions of the South are being compared and contrasted. The hypothesis that
northeastern watersheds are at steady state under current loadings will be examined. Input-output
status will be examined in light of the potential for internal watershed sources of sulfur and with
regard to relationships of status with soils characteristics. Results of the analyses will be displayed
both as distribution of percent sulfur retention and as maps of percent sulfur retention.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Lakes, Soils. Streams, Watersheds
Chemicals: Sulfate
Approach: Correlative Analyses, Field Sampling, Input-Output Budgets, Literature
Processes: Sulfur Retention
PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.3A NAPAP Code: 6C-2.09A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Program Element: Correlative Analyses (E-07.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
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TITLE: Relationship Between Hydrologic Factors and Surface Water Chemical Characteristics
SHORT TITLE: Hydrology/Water Chemistry
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (CT, MA, ME. NH, NY. PA, Rl, VT), Southern Blue Ridge Province
(GA, NC. SC, TN)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): Within watersheds, hydrologic flowpath has been identified as an
important factor determining the relationship between acidic deposition and surface water
chemistry. Detailed information on hydrologic flowpath is difficult to obtain, often requiring
extensive field studies on individual watersheds. The goals of this project are to (1) use indirect
methods, such as mapped geomorphic parameters, to estimate the hydrologic flowpath, (2) relate
flowpath to hydrologic soil contact, and (3) relate hydrologic soil contact to surface water chemistry.
RATIONALE: The route that precipitation follows through a watershed to receiving surface waters is
an important factor in determining surface water chemistry. If the flowpath is predominantly
shallow, subsurface flow resulting in rapid runoff, the chemistry of the water reaching the surface
water system will more closely reflect the precipitation chemistry. If the major flowpath is deep,
resulting in longer residence times in the soil, the increased contact with exchange and adsorption
sites yields a greater potential for neutralization of acidic deposition inputs. Determining the
correlation between hydrologic soil contact and surface water chemistry will provide important
information about the long-term effects of acidic deposition on surface water chemistry.
APPROACH: Hydrologic contact time is being estimated by (1) using topographic maps of individual
watersheds to measure geomorphic and hydrologic parameters, (2) applying a modified Darcy's Law
to soil permeability and hydraulic conductivity data collected as part of the Direct/Delayed Response
Project Soil Survey, and (3) using the hydrologic model TOPMODEL to study watersheds and estimate
hydrologic parameters for determining possible flowpath. Correlations between these estimates
and surface water chemistry data, collected in the Eastern Lake Survey - Phase I, will be performed.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils, Watersheds
Chemicals: Base Cations, Sulfate
Approach: Correlative Analyses, Modeling
Processes: Hydrology
PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.3B NAPAP Code: 6C-2.09B
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Program Element: Correlative Analyses (E-07.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
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TITLE: Aggregation of Soils Data to Develop Regional Soil Chemical Characteristics at Watershed
Scales
SHORT TITLE: Soil Aggregation
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians (MD, PA. VA, WV). Northeast (CT, MA. ME. NH, NY. PA, Rl,
VT), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC, TN)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To evaluate appropriate aggregation schemes to estimate typical soil
characteristics in watersheds located in regions susceptible to acidic deposition for use in the three
levels of analysis in the Direct/Delayed Response Project.
RATIONALE: Soil sampling for physical and chemical characteristics is expensive and time
consuming. In describing the regional characteristics of soils, it is impractical to perform detailed and
complete studies of all soils that exist within the study area. By designing a probabilistic sampling
scheme within the region, this problem becomes manageable. Although the detail within individual
watersheds is reduced by aggregation techniques, sufficient information on soil characteristics is
retained to correlate soil properties with observed surface water chemistry on a regional basis.
APPROACH: A probability sample of watersheds, stratified by alkalinity, was selected from the
Eastern Lake Survey target population. Soils, along with other watershed characteristics, were
mapped to a six-acre resolution. Based on the mapped information, soils (representing about
365 identified soil series) in the Northeast were grouped into 38 sampling classes. In the Southern
Blue Ridge Province, soils were grouped into 12 sampling classes. Similarly, soils in the Mid-
Appalachians also are being addressed. Subsequent analyses are based on data aggregated within
these sampling classes. According to the needs of the user, data might be aggregated by horizon, by
pedon, or across sampling classes. Also, data might be areally weighted for whole watersheds or
specific "buffer" zones (e.g., 30-m buffer strips around the perimeter of the lakes, the riparian
zones), again, according to the requirements of the data user.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils
Chemicals: Soil Chemistry
Approach: Aggregation, Correlative Analyses, Existing Data Analyses
Processes: N/A
PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.3C NAPAP Code: 6C-2.09C
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, £-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Program Element: Correlative Analyses (E-07.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
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TITLE: Relationship Between Surface Water Chemistry and Soil Chemical Properties
SHORT TITLE: Soil/Water Interactions
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians (MD. PA, VA, WV). Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NY, PA, Rl,
VT), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC, TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To establish, on a regional basis, a statistically valid description of those
physical and chemical soil characteristics that correlate with observed surface water chemical
composition, including pH and acid neutralizing capacity.
RATIONALE: Meteoric waters, for the most part, must pass through soils before emerging as surface
waters. Interactions between soils and water, therefore, play a major role in determining the final
compositions of waters that emerge. Although numerous, process-level studies provide information
regarding the type of interactions that should be expected from individual processes, it is difficult to
develop a unified understanding of the most critical processes, especially from a regional
perspective, from the information now available. This statistical study will establish, within the
constraints of the sampling program, those processes that are most closely correlated with, and
therefore, presumably related to, observed surface water chemical composition. The study also will
provide a way to test hypotheses relating to those processes, and help define those areas in which
additional process-level research might be needed.
APPROACH: Physical and chemical soils data have been collected from a probability sample of
watersheds in the Northeast and Southern Blue Ridge Province and are currently being collected in
the Mid-Appalachians. Water chemistry data are available from the Eastern Lake Survey - Phase I.
The soils data are being grouped by predefined sampling classes. According to the needs of the
specific analysis, data may be aggregated by horizon, by pedon, or across sampling classes. Data will
be areally weighted for whole watersheds or specific "buffer" zones (e.g., the riparian zones),
according to the specific analysis being conducted. Bivariate and multivariate analyses, using water
chemistry as the dependent variable, are being conducted using the data aggregated according to
these various schemes.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Soils, Streams, Watersheds
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Base Cations, Organics, pH, Soil Chemistry
Approach: Aggregation, Correlative Analyses, Existing Data Analyses
Processes: Base Cation Supply, Hydrology, Mineral Weathering, Sulfate Adsorption
PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.3D NAPAP Code: 6C-2.09D
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: DirectyDelayed Response Project (E-07)
Program Element: Correlative Analyses (E-07.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
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TITLE: Relationship Between Surface Water Chemistry and Vegetation
SHORT TITLE: Water Chemistry/Vegetation
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians (MD, PA, VA. WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA.
Rl, VT), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC, TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To generate and statistically test hypotheses relating vegetation of
watersheds to surface water chemistry.
RATIONALE: Relationships between vegetation type and surface water chemistry might exist
because foliage or litter directly intercept and alter the chemistry of water flowing through
watersheds, because (1) indirect effects are mediated by the effects of vegetation on chemical
cycling (e.g., cations), (2) vegetation affects soil-forming processes, or (3) the distribution of
vegetation depends on watershed status or processes that also affect surface water chemistry. For
instance, wetland vegetation might indicate that sulfate reduction is important. The regional data
bases of the Direct/Delayed Response Project provide a statistical basis for testing many of the
hypotheses that may link vegetation and surface water chemistry.
APPROACH: Vegetation cover maps (six-acre minimum delineations) are available for each
watershed from the mapping phase of the Direct/Delayed Response Project. Data on where specific
classes of wetlands occur (one-acre minimum delineations) are available from ground-truthed
interpretation of aerial photos (stereo color infrared) of Direct/Delayed Response Project
watersheds. The latter are available for the Northeast and for the Mid-Appalachians. Statistical
analysis relating vegetation classes in watersheds or portions of watersheds provides a way to test
the importance of proposed vegetation-water chemistry relationships on a regional scale.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Vegetation, Watersheds
Chemicals: Base Cations, Nitrate, Organics, Sulfate
Approach: Correlative Analyses, Existing Data Analyses
Processes: Community Response, Sulfate Reduction
PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.3E NAPAP Code: 6C-2.09E
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Program Element: Correlative Analyses (E-07.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1986 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
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TITLE: Relationship Between Surface Water Chemistry and Wetlands
SHORT TITLE: Surface Water/Wetland Relationships
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NY, PA, Rl, VT)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the relationship(s) between presence/area of wetlands and
surface water chemistry in Direct/Delayed Response Project watersheds; in particular, to determine
the relationship between wetlands and sulfate retention. If a significant correlation exists between
wetlands and sulfate retention, identify and quantify the processes involved.
RATIONALE: A principal objective of the Direct/Delayed Response Project is to characterize sulfate
mobility in watersheds of the northeastern United States, and to forecast future changes in sulfate
mobility under current or altered levels of deposition. Data analyses and forecasting models used in
the Direct/Delayed Response Project have heretofore assumed that adsorption is the principal
control on surface water chemistry, and that sulfate reduction in wetlands and lake sediments is a
minor sulfur sink. Preliminary analysis of data from the Eastern Lake Survey - Phase I suggests a
positive correlation between the fraction of a watershed covered by wetlands and sulfate retention
by that watershed. Adsorption is an improbable sulfur sink in wetlands, so confirmation of a
wetland-sulfate retention relationship in further data analyses would suggest a need to reassess the
assumptions and models used in the Direct/Delayed Response Project, at least for watersheds with
significant wetland areas. The purpose of this project is to conduct a thorough analysis of existing
data to determine whether a significant relationship, in fact, exists between wetlands and sulfate
retention, or between wetlands and other water chemistry parameters of concern If such
relationships are identified, additional studies will be required to determine the nature and capacity
of the processes involved.
APPROACH: The initial approach to this project will be to compile existing data from the Eastern
Lake Survey and the Direct/Delayed Response Project, and to evaluate relationships between sulfate
budgets and wetlands using statistical approaches. A concurrent activity within the Direct/Delayed
Response Project, the Northeast Sulfate Retention Project (listed as a project under the "Soil Surveys'"
program element of the Direct/Delayed Response Project) will generate detailed mapping data for
45 watersheds in the Northeast with high sulfate retention, many of which also have substantial
wetlands cover. Data from those 45 sites will be examined in detail to evaluate the relationship
between sulfate retention and wetlands. If such relationships do exist, and if retention cannot be
effectively characterized on the basis of map data, consideration will be given to further soil
sampling and/or quantification of sulfate reduction processes within wetlands.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils, Vegetation, Wetlands
Chemicals: Organics, Sulfate
Approach: Correlative Analyses, Input-Output Budgets, Literature
Processes: Sulfate Reduction, Sulfur Retention
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PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.3F NAPAP Code: 6C-2.09F
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Program Element: Correlative Analyses (E-07.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
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TITLE: Single-Factor Analyses of Direct/Delayed Response Project Data
SHORT TITLE: Single-Factor Analyses
REGION(S)/STATE(S):
Mid-Appalachians (DE. MD, PA, VA. WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NY, PA.
Rl, VT), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC. TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To use mathematical/model representations of two key processes - sulfate
adsorption and base cation supply in order to determine current and forecasted future responses of
watersheds in the Northeast, Mid-Appalachians, and the Southern Blue Ridge Regions to various
levels of acidic deposition. More specifically, to determine if these processes are at steady state or
whether they are undergoing dynamic change such that the effects of acidic deposition in the future
may be more pronounced than those currently observed.
RATIONALE: These types of analyses allow forecasts based upon an examination of individual soil
processes in isolation from all other confounding factors. Changes can be examined that might
occur even at current loadings of deposition. Forecasts of future responses of these factors are
required to verify and place in context the importance of the roles of each of these processes in
future surface water acidification.
APPROACH: These analyses are being undertaken with information gathered as part of the soils
surveys in the Northeast, Mid-Appalachians, and the Southern Blue Ridge Province. Chemical data
from the soils analyses and mapping data in watersheds are being evaluated to forecast future
responses of these processes on a watershed basis and the resulting effects on surface water
chemistry.
KEYWORDS:
Medium:
Chemicals:
Approach:
Processes:
Chemistry, Lakes, Soils, Streams, Watersheds
Base Cations, Cation Exchange Complex, Clay Minerals, Sulfate
Aggregation, Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling, Input-Output
Budgets, Modeling, Single-Factor Analyses
Base Cation Exchange, Base Cation Supply, Chronic Acidification, Sulfate
Adsorption, Sulfur Retention
PPA: E-07
EPA Code: E-07.4
NAPAP Code: 6C-2.10
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
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TITLE: Sulfate Adsorption: Time to Sulfur Steady State
SHORT TITLE: Sulfate Adsorption
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians (DE, MD, PA, VA, WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NY, PA,
Rl, VT), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC, TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the relationship between soil solution and surface water
sulfate concentrations. To estimate time for watershed sulfate concentrations to reach steady state
in Direct/Delayed Response Project study areas.
RATIONALE: This project, representing one of the Single-Factor Analyses for the Direct/Delayed
Response Project, is designed to quantify sulfate partitioning between soil solution and adsorbed
phases. The data are then used to estimate how long sulfate is retained by soils on a net basis, and
the resulting time over which surface water chemical changes are moderated by sulfate adsorption.
Sulfate is the dominant anion in acidic deposition, and is the principal mobile anion mediating the
rate of cation leaching from soils. Consequently, the extent to which sulfate is immobilized by soil
reactions, primarily adsorption, plays a major role in determining whether, and at what rate, surface
water acidification by acidic deposition will occur. It has been hypothesized that there are major
regional differences in sulfate retention between the northeastern and southeastern United States
(Northeast at steady state, Southeast with high sulfate retention); thus, there may be major regional
differences in the extent and rate of future effects on surface water chemistry. This hypothesis to
date has not been evaluated on a regional scale, using soils data collected in large-scale, uniform soil
surveys. Sulfate analyses in the Direct/Delayed Response Project will provide such an assessment at
intra- and interregional scales, and will estimate response time (time to steady state) for sulfate on a
watershed and regional basis. This analysis will also include the Mid-Appalachians.
APPROACH: For all soils collected in the Direct/Delayed Response Project soil survey, present sulfate
content of the soil has been measured, and adsorption isotherms, which define the ability of soils to
retain additional sulfate, have been determined. For each soil, the concentration of sulfate in soil
water will be estimated from isotherm data; isotherm data are also being used to compute
coefficients for a partitioning equation that forecasts dynamics of sulfate added to the soil. Data will
be aggregated from values for individual soils to weighted averages for sampling classes and then
for watersheds. Average watershed values for soil solution sulfate will be compared with measured
surface water sulfate concentrations to determine the relationship between soil water and surface
water sulfate (and by implication, the extent to which soil processes control surface water sulfate
concentration). Aggregated watershed data for adsorption isotherms will be used with a dynamic
watershed model subroutine to forecast the temporal response of the watershed to sulfate
deposition, and specifically to forecast time to steady state for sulfate at current or altered
deposition loading rates.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Lakes, Soils, Streams, Watersheds
Chemicals: Sulfate
Approach: Aggregation, Existing Data Analyses, Input-Output Budgets, Modeling,
Single-Factor Analyses
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfur Retention
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PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.4A NAPAP Code: 6C-2.10A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Program Element: Single-Factor Analyses (E-07.4)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
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TITLE: Base Cation Response to Acidic Deposition in Soils from the Northeast and Southern Blue
Ridge Province
SHORT TITLE: Base Cation Supply
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians (DE, MD. PA, Rl, VA, WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NY,
PA, Rl, VT), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC, TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE{S): Within watersheds, base cation exchange processes in soils have been
identified as one of the primary mechanisms for mitigating the effects of acidic deposition. Details
regarding the extent to which this process is actually involved in acid neutralization within
watersheds in the eastern United States, however, are not currently available. The goals of this
study, therefore, are to determine (1) whether base cation exchange is, in fact, a dominant soil
process for neutralizing acidic deposition inputs, (2) whether this capacity is now changing in
response to acidic deposition, and (3) the rate of base cation depletion, if it is occurring.
RATIONALE: The depletion of exchangeable base cations in soils is hypothesized to be a major
factor delaying acidification of surface waters in regions receiving acidic deposition. Very little is
currently known about cation supply and exchange processes in those regions, however. To
understand the effects of acidic deposition in the context of an ecosystem's ability to neutralize
acidic inputs over the long term (e.g.. 100 years), it is essential to improve the understanding of
neutralization mechanisms and of the ecosystem's existing capacities. Addressing these issues will
provide the information required to determine long-term impacts of acidic deposition, at various
loading levels, on a variety of ecosystems.
APPROACH: Input data for existing soil genesis/soil chemistry models are being developed, using
soils data (cation exchange capacity, percent base saturation, exchangeable bases, exchange
coefficients, pH, etc.) collected as part of the soil surveys in the Direct/Delayed Response Project,
precipitation data from the National Trends Network, chemistry data from the National Surface
Water Survey, and U.S. Geological Survey runoff data. The models will address two questions:
(1) Can observed soil chemical parameters be used to forecast parameters in the study watersheds?
and (2) Assuming that parameters can be successfully forecast, what changes would be expected to
occur in both soil and surface water chemistries over the course of the next century under acidic
loading scenarios? As part of the study, sensitivity analyses of the models will be conducted.
Data were gathered so that the exchangeable cation resource could be estimated regionally, and
reliability estimates quantified. These data and information on sulfate chemistry will be used to
project the future impact of acidic deposition, at various acid loading levels, on watersheds located
in potentially sensitive regions of the country.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils, Watersheds
Chemicals: Base Cations, Cation Exchange Complex, Clay Minerals
Approach: Aggregation, Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling, Modeling, Single-
Factor Analyses
Processes: Base Cation Exchange, Base Cation Supply, Chronic Acidification
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PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.4B NAPAP Code: 6C-2.10B
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Program Element: Single-Factor Analyses (E-07.4)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
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TITLE: Forecasting the Effects of Acidic Deposition on Surface Water Acidification
SHORT TITLE: Forecasting Surface Water Acidification
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians (DE, MD, PA, VA, WV). Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NY, PA,
Rl, VT), Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, SC, TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To estimate the number of aquatic systems that might become acidic in the
future at current levels of acidic deposition. Two primary objectives are (1) to estimate the relative
importance of key watershed processes in controlling surface water chemistry across the regions of
concern, and (2) to forecast watershed responses to current levels of deposition over the next 50
years and extrapolate these results from the sample of watersheds to the regions of concern. The
regions in which the Direct/Delayed Response Project is being conducted are the Northeast, the
Southern Blue Ridge Province, and the Mid-Appalachians.
RATIONALE: The National Surface Water Survey estimated the current regional status and extent of
acidic lakes and streams plus the aquatic systems potentially susceptible to acidic deposition. With
this estimate of the current regional status of lakes and streams, the next question is how many of
these lakes and streams might become acidic in the future at current levels of acidic deposition. This
program element, as part of the Direct/Delayed Response Project, is designed to forecast the change
in surface water chemistry over the next 50 years for lakes in the Northeast and streams in the
Southern Blue Ridge Province and the Mid-Appalachians, assuming current levels of deposition. The
Mid-Appalachian area represents a transition zone between the Northeast and Southeast.
APPROACH: The Direct/Delayed Response Project is designed to forecast the effects of acidic
deposition on surface water chemistry over the next 50 years using several approaches. One of these
approaches, Level III (this program element), uses three dynamic watershed acidification models -
Enhanced Trickle Down, Integrated Lake/Watershed Acidification Study, and Model for Acidification
of Groundwaters in Catchments - to make these forecasts. A Level III modeling protocol for the
Direct/Delayed Response Project has been developed that includes model calibration, sensitivity
analyses, long-term consistency checks, future 50-year forecasts, and regionalization of the
individual watershed modeling results to the Northeast, Southern Blue Ridge Province, and Mid-
Appalachian Region. Three northeastern lakes (Woods, Panther, and Clear Pond) and three streams
(Coweeta Watersheds 34 and 36 and White Oak Run) are being used for model calibration and
confirmation. Similar watersheds are currently being evaluated for the Mid-Appalachians.
Sensitivity analyses will include both single-parameter and multiparameter perturbations. The long-
term consistency check will use a constant, annual precipitation/deposition record from nearby
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and National Atmospheric Deposition
Program/National Trends Network stations reflecting a typical year; watershed data from the
Direct/Delayed Response Project Soil Surveys; and water chemistry data from the National Surface
Water Survey for each of 145 watersheds in the Northeast and 35 watersheds in the Southern Blue
Ridge Province. Thirty-six watersheds in the Mid-Appalachian Region are being studied. The
Direct/Delayed Response Project was designed within a statistical frame similar to the National
Surface Water Survey, permitting extrapolation of the individual watershed responses to the target
population of lakes in the Northeast and streams in the Southern Blue Ridge Province and the Mid-
Appalachians. Uncertainty estimates will be provided for the regional extrapolations.
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KEY WORDS: Medium: Chemistry. Deposition, Lakes, Soils, Streams, Watersheds, Wetlands
Chemicals: Sulfate
Approach: Modeling
Processes: Base Cation Supply, Mineral Weathering, Sulfate Adsorption
PPA: E-07 EPA Code: E-07.5 NAPAP Code: 6B-1.01
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-03, E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Direct/Delayed Response Project (E-07)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1984 to 1990
Contact: M. Robbins Church
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2.4 WATERSHED PROCESSES AND MANIPULATIONS - PROGRAM E-05
(Program/Program Element/Project]
E-05: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (6C-2,6C-3,6C-4) 2-47
E-05.1 Watershed Acidification-Maine (6C-3.01) 2-49
E-05.2 Surface Water Acidification (6C-3.02) 2-51
E-05.2A Little Rock Lake (6C-3.02A) 2-53
E-05.2B Within-Lake Alkalinity Generation (Sulfate Reduction) (6C-3.02B) 2-55
E-05.2C Comparative Analyses of an Acidified Lake (6C-3.02C) 2-56
E-05.3 Soil/Hydrologic Processes (6C-2) 2-58
E-05.3A Sulfate Mobility in Soils (6C-2.03) 2-59
E-05.3B Cation Supply and Mineral Weathering in Soils (6C-2.04) 2-61
E-05.3C Aluminum Mobility in Soils (6C-2.05) 2-62
E-05.3D Hydrologic Pathways/Residence Times (6C-2.06) 2-63
E-05.3E Organic Acid Influence on Acidification (6C-2.07) 2-64
E-05.3F Nitrate Mobility in Soils (6C-2.08) 2-65
E-05.4 Acidification/Recovery Model Development and Testing (6B-1.02) 2-66
E-05.4A Acidification Model Sensitivity Analysis (6B-1.02A) 2-68
E-05.4B Modeling Recovery of Surface Waters (6B-1.02B) 2-70
E-05.5 Watershed Studies Coordination (6C-4) 2-71
E-05.6 Watershed Recovery Project (6C-5) 2-72
E-05.6A Adsorption and Desorption of Sulfate by Soils (6C-5 01) 2-73
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TITLE: Factors Controlling the Response of Surface Waters to Acidic Deposition
SHORT TITLE: Watershed Processes and Manipulations
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Canada (Sudbury). Mid-Appalachians (MD, PA, VA, WV). Middle Atlantic (DE,
MD, NJ, NY. PA, Rl, VA, WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME. NH, NY, PA, Rl, VT).
Norway, Southeast (AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, NC. TN, VA), Southern Blue Ridge
Province (GA, NC, TN), Upper Midwest (Ml, MN. Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To investigate and quantify watershed systems and subsystems that
influence the acidity of surface waters, to determine the effect acidic deposition has on the function
of these systems. To evaluate those watershed processes that play a role in regulating surface water
recovery.
RATIONALE: The response to a major policy question being addressed within the Aquatic Effects
Research Program depends on forecasting future acidification effects, the primary aim of the
Direct/Delayed Response Project (Program E-07). That project bases such estimates on the processes
of sulfate adsorption and base cation supply. However, other processes such as sulfur cycling and
desorption, cation loss, nutrient cycling, organic acids, and hydrologic flow paths are also important
in determining the response of watersheds to acidic inputs. Aquatic systems within these watersheds
respond to acidic inputs by changes in water chemistry, within-lake processes, and biota. To
determine the uncertainties and limitations associated with forecasting future status of surface
waters, all these processes must be investigated. Therefore, the biogeochemical response of
watershed systems or subsystems must be evaluated and understood before properly assessing the
consequences of alternative policy decisions.
APPROACH: Watershed studies within the Aquatic Effects Research Program are using three
approaches to further understand the effects of acidic deposition on surface waters: process-
oriented research on natural systems, watershed manipulation studies, and surface water
acidification model development and testing. The watershed manipulations focus on understanding
the integrated response of the biogeochemical processes that operate within a watershed and
contribute to surface water quality. The process-oriented research aims to improve our
understanding of the nature and function of specific watershed mechanisms that contribute to
surface water acidification. Modeling combines current understandings of surface water
acidification with the results of the other two areas of research to help quantify the uncertainties
met when forecasting future surface water chemistries with models. These approaches are designed
to increase our understandings of effects, with the process studies contributing primarily to
hypothesis development, the manipulation studies to hypothesis testing, and modeling studies to
evaluating policy and deposition alternatives.
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KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Groundwater, Lakes, Seepage Lakes, Soils, Streams,
Vegetation, Watersheds
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Base Cations, Clay Minerals,
Major Ions, Mercury, Nitrate, Organics, pH, Primary Minerals, Sulfate,
Total Nitrogen, Trace Metals
Approach: Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Ion Balance, Laboratory, Literature,
Modeling, Statistical Analyses
Processes: Aluminum Mobilization, Aluminum Solubility, Base Cation Exchange,
Base Cation Mobilization, Base Cation Supply, Chronic Acidification,
Community Response, Denitrification, Hydrology, Indirect Effects,
Mineral Weathering, Nitrification, Nitrogen Cycling, Nutrient Cycling,
Organic Acidification, Organic Chelation, Organics Cycling, Primary
Productivity, Recovery, Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfate Desorption, Sulfate
Reduction, Sulfur Cycling, Tissue Mercury Accumulation, Trophic
Interactions, Within-Lake Acid Neutralizing Capacity Generation
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05 NAPAPCode: 6C
Element: Program
Contributing to: E-03, E-04, E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: None
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1983 to 1990 +
Contact: Daniel McKenzie
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TITLE: Whole System Manipulations - Artificial Acidification of Watersheds
SHORT TITLE: Watershed Acidification - Maine
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To investigate and quantify watershed systems and subsystems that
influence the acidity of surface waters through field manipulation studies. To determine the impact
that acidic deposition has on the functioning of these systems.
RATIONALE: A major policy question being addressed within the Aquatic Effects Research Program
concerns forecasting future acidification effects, a primary goal of the Direct/Delayed Response
Project (Program E-07). That project bases its estimates primarily on surface water acidification
models that simulate the processes of sulfate adsorption and base cation supply. In addition, other
processes such as sulfur cycling, cation loss, nutrient cycling, and hydrologic flow paths are
represented in some of the models and are hypothesized to be important in determining the
response of watersheds to acidic inputs. Aquatic systems within these watersheds also respond to
acidic inputs through changes in water chemistry, within-lake processes, and biota, and in general,
are less well represented in the Direct/Delayed Response Project models. To determine the
uncertainties and limitations of forecasting future status of surface waters, all these processes must
be investigated at the whole-system level. Therefore, the comparative response of watershed
systems or subsystems must be evaluated and understood to assess properly the consequences of
alternative policy decisions.
APPROACH: The primary approach in this program area is to study the response of watershed
systems to altered or manipulated acidic inputs. The program is based on field manipulations at the
system or subsystem level to evaluate their integrated response to the individual processes and
mechanisms. At present, a watershed manipulation project has been implemented in Maine. At the
site, atmospheric inputs are being monitored, annual budgets for major ions developed, and
chemical transformations in soils and vegetation quantified; elevational stream sampling transects
will allow characterization of spatial variation of stream chemistry patterns. Using a paired
watershed approach, one of the watersheds at the site will be manipulated by controlled addition of
acidic substances. Watershed responses will be determined and interpreted in light of
biogeochemical processes. Small-scale pilot studies are also being conducted at the site. One
additional watershed site, in the Mid-Appalachian region, has been established and will be
manipulated in January of 1989 using a similar, but simpler, experimental design to gain additional
information on watershed response to altered sulfate deposition.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils, Streams, Watersheds
Chemicals: Aluminum, Base Cations, Nitrate, Organics, Sulfate
Approach: Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Laboratory
Processes: Aluminum Mobilization, Base Cation Supply, Chronic Acidification,
Hydrology, Mineral Weathering, Nitrogen Cycling, Organic
Acidification, Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfate Desorption, Sulfur Cycling
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PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.1 NAPAPCode: 6C-3.01
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-03, E-06, E-07. E-08
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
Contact: Timothy Strickland
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TITLE: Whole-System Manipulations -Artificial Acidification of Surface Waters
SHORT TITLE: Surface Water Acidification
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Upper Midwest (Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): The goal of this program element is to refine the understanding of the
effects of acidification on the chemistry and biology of surface waters through artificial acidification
of a warmwater lake in Wisconsin. Project objectives include (1) identifying subtle and dramatic
responses of the biotic community to decreased pH. (2) comparing direct (chemically mediated) and
indirect (food chain-, habitat-mediated) effects on fish, (3) quantifying the effects on in-lake
alkalinity generation by sulfate-reducing microbes, and (4) evaluating the ability to extrapolate
these findings to lakes in the Upper Midwest and in other geographic areas.
RATIONALE: The effects of acidic deposition on surface water chemistry and biotic communities
have been documented largely on the basis of correlative analyses. The complex interactions of
acidic deposition in watersheds, differences in the susceptibility among aquatic ecosystems to
acidification, fisheries management manipulations, the possible influence of other contaminants,
and other variables generally preclude direct cause-and-effect conclusions regarding the response of
lakes to anthropogenic acid inputs. The experimental, whole-lake, manipulation study at Little Rock
Lake, Wl, provides data on direct chemical and biological responses to mineral acid addition. This
type of data alleviates uncertainties associated with studies that rely on assumptions necessitated by
the inability to quantify or hold constant key variables related to surface water acidification. The
results of this program element, although site-specific, will improve the understanding of the
acidification phenomenon, particularly when the regional applicability of the conclusions are
evaluated.
APPROACH: Baseline biological and chemical data were collected for two years from a warmwater
seepage lake (Little Rock Lake, Wl), before sulfuric acid was added to one half to decrease lakewater
pH incrementally. Changes in lakewater chemistry and in fish, plankton, and benthic communities
are being monitored throughout the six-year acidification experiment. Rates of bacterial sulfate
reduction in response to decreased pH are being measured in situ to quantify the effects of
decreased pH on within-lake generation of acid neutralizing capacity. The end product of the
reduction is being identified (i.e., iron sulfide or hydrogen sulfide) to determine if it is oxidizable; if
it is, no net hydrogen ion reduction will occur. Effects of acidification on the accumulation of
mercury in fish tissues are also being examined. To alleviate the problems associated with the fact
that the acidification experiment is not replicated, a third approach involves cross-calibrating the
unacidified lake basin in Little Rock Lake with seven lakes serving as Long-Term Ecological Research
sites. Establishing relationships between these lakes and the control basin in Little Rock Lake will
allow an experimental design to be developed, which in turn will allow the significance of whole-
system manipulation results to be tested statistically.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Seepage Lakes
Chemicals: Major Ions, Mercury, pH, Sulfate, Trace Metals
Approach: Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Ion Balance, Laboratory, Statistical
Analyses
Processes: Base Cation Exchange, Chronic Acidification, Community Response,
Hydrology, Indirect Effects, Mineral Weathering, Nutrient Cycling,
Primary Productivity. Sulfate Reduction, Tissue Mercury Accumulation,
Trophic Interactions, Within-Lake Acid Neutralizing Capacity
Generation
2-51
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PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05 2 NAPAPCode: 6C-3.02
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-04, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1983 to 1991
Contact: John Eaton
2-52
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TITLE: Warmwater Lake Community Responses to Artificial Acidification
SHORT TITLE: Little Rock Lake
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Upper Midwest (Wl)
GOAL{S)/OBJECTIVE(S): The major objectives of this project are (1) to determine the subtle (early
indicator) as well as more dramatic responses of a non-trout, warmwater fish-dominated lake
community to lakewater pH decreases; (2) to determine and compare the significance of direct
(water chemistry-mediated) and indirect (food chain-, habitat-, etc.. mediated) effects of increasing
acidity on fish populations in Little Rock Lake; (3) to evaluate state-of-the-art capabilities for
forecasting acidification impacts in systems like the one being studied from existing laboratory and
field data; (4) to determine the mechanisms of response of various ecosystem biotic components
through detailed chemical and biological observation, in-situ experimentation, and directly related
laboratory testing; (5) to relate the observed effects of Little Rock Lake to possible acidic
precipitation impacts on other lakes, with the aid of the many hydrological, limnological, and biotic
studies (both short-term and long-term) being conducted in the area; and (6) to determine the
degree of generality of biological effects from acidic deposition on lakes in different geographic
areas (Canadian Shield, Adirondack Mountains, Upper Midwest, etc.).
RATIONALE: Although the effects of acidic precipitation on stream and lakewater chemistry have
been documented, the response of fish and other biota, especially in warmwater systems, to altered
water chemistry due to acidic deposition has been examined primarily through field surveys and
laboratory bioassay experiments, both of which provide only indirect evidence of cause-and-effect
relationships in the field. One reason that few acidification field experiments have been conducted
is that they are difficult to carry out on scales large enough to provide a meaningful evaluation of
population-level responses. This project is designed to collect these needed data.
APPROACH: A multidisciplinary, integrated research project involving artificial acidification of a
45-acre lake in north central Wisconsin was started in the summer of 1983. The study design has
followed a two-year preacidification period in which baseline conditions and variability were
observed in the lake. In-situ (limnocorral) and laboratory experiments were conducted during the
second year to help refine hypotheses and analysis techniques and to define the nature, rate, and
duration of acidification. After dividing the lake into two sections with a plastic curtain, acidification
started in one-half of the lake during the third year and will progress from pH 6.0 to 4.5 over six years
in a two-year stepped approach.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Seepage Lakes
Chemicals: Major Ions, Mercury, pH, Sulfate, Trace Metals
Approach: Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Ion Balance, Laboratory
Processes: Base Cation Exchange, Chronic Acidification, Community Response,
Hydrology, Indirect Effects, Mineral Weathering, Nutrient Cycling,
Primary Productivity, Sulfate Reduction. Tissue Mercury Accumulation,
Trophic Interactions, Within-Lake Acid Neutralizing Capacity
Generation
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PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.2A NAPAPCode: 6C-3.02A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01. E-03, E-04, E-09
Cross Reference: Program Area: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Program Element: Surface Water Acidification (E-05.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1983 to 1991
Contact: John Eaton
2-54
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TITLE: Effects of Acidification on Bacterial Sulfate Reduction in a Warmwater Lake
SHORT TITLE: Within-Lake Alkalinity Generation (Sulfate Reduction)
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Upper Midwest (Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To establish baseline values for bacterial sulfate reduction in lakes. To
determine the influence of acidification in bacterial sulfate reduction using water column enclosures
(limnocorrals).
RATIONALE: Within-lake alkalinity generation, particularly in seepage lakes, has been proposed as
an important way for mitigating the effects of acidic deposition on surface waters. If iron sulfide, a
product of bacterial sulfate reduction, is not reoxidized, an equivalent net neutralization of
hydrogen ion results. Little data exist on the direct effects of acidification on the rates of this process
or on the quantitative importance of the process in neutralizing acidic inputs.
APPROACH: Two approaches are used in this study: (1) baseline studies of the whole lake and
(2) limnocorral (in situ) experiments. The baseline studies are conducted to determine rates of
bacterial sulfate reduction, investigate the form of sulfur being produced, and quantify this process
relative to other acid neutralizing processes. Limnocorral experiments (in which portions of the
water column and underlying sediment are isolated) are being conducted while the rates of sulfate
reduction in sediments are being monitored in response to various loadings of sulfuric acid.
Hydrogen ion mass balance budgets for the enclosures are being calculated. Models are being
developed and tested for extrapolating limnocorral results to the entire lake and subsequently to
similar lakes in the region of study.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Seepage Lakes
Chemicals: pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling, Ion Balance
Processes: Base Cation Exchange, Mineral Weathering, Sulfate Reduction, Within-
Lake Acid Neutralizing Capacity Generation
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.2B NAPAPCode: 6C-3.02B
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Program Element: Surface Water Acidification (E-05.2)
Status: Concluding Period of Performance: 1984 to 1988
Contact: M. Robbins Church
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TITLE: Cross-Calibration of Little Rock Lake and Long-Term Ecological Research Sites as a Means for
Replicating Whole-Lake Manipulation Results
SHORT TITLE: Comparative Analyses of an Acidified Lake
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Upper Midwest (Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECnVE(S): To develop a series of analytical comparisons involving the two lake basins
that are currently being investigated in the Little Rock Lake Experimental acidification project and
the seven lakes currently being studied at the Northern Lakes Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER)
site.
RATIONALE: Although major insights into ecosystem-scale processes have been gained by whole-
system manipulations, the interpretation of such experiments is confounded by lack of replication in
either manipulated or reference systems. Difficulty in interpreting experimental results can be
particularly great when subtle rather than dramatic effects of manipulations are addressed This
situation presents a dilemma to ecosystem scientists who seek to determine the early effects of
anthropogenic contaminants within the range of conditions represented by natural systems. The
Little Rock Lake project is being conducted to examine the effects of acidification on aquatic
organisms and to document the mechanisms by which such effects occur. The experimental
approach to date has involved a standard design involving a control and reference basin in an
hourglass-shaped lake. This approach, however, suffers from lack of replication. Seven lakes within
7 km of Little Rock are currently being studied with the LTER project and thus have the potential to
serve as additional references for the experimental system. This has suggested the possibility of an
innovative design in the whole-lake experiment in which the acid additions in one lake basin are
repeated in the second basin with a four-year lag, thus providing some element of replication. A
critical element in this design is the use of the LTER lakes as references; this requires a cross
calibration of the LTER lakes with the present Little Rock Lake reference basin.
APPROACH: The establishment of the LTER lakes as references requires the availability of parallel
data for these systems and Little Rock Lake and the development of analytical procedures for
comparisons. In many cases, such data are already available; however, in the case of zooplankton,
samples from the LTER lakes have been archived for future use, but not yet counted. Since biological
parameters are most likely to provide difficulty in interpreting the unreplicated Little Rock Lake
experiment, comparisons of these samples are critical. Processing of the archived LTER samples to
provide a zooplankton data set has been proposed. The early development of analytical procedures
for comparisons between LTER and Little Rock Lake has been completed. This work, however, will
require a number of extensive tests of varied analytical procedures. Such tests will be conducted to
develop an appropriate analytical scheme. The primary value of this proposed work will be in testing
a significantly different and potentially powerful experimental design for whole-ecosystem
manipulation experiments.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Seepage Lakes
Chemicals: pH.Sulfate
Approach: Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Laboratory, Statistical Analyses
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Community Response
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PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05 2C NAPAP Code: 6C-3.02C
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01. E-03, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Program Element: Surface Water Acidification (£-05.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1989
Contact: John Eaton
2-57
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TITLE: Investigating Soil and Hydrologic Processes Controlling Surface Water Response to Acidic
Deposition
SHORT TITLE: Soil/Hydrologic Processes
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME)
GOAL(S)/OBJECT1\/E(S): To determine the soil and hydrologic processes, rates, and interactions that
control the response of surface waters to acidic deposition. To establish appropriate ways to
represent critical soil processes within static and dynamic models.
RATIONALE: The Aquatic Effects Research Program, through the National Surface Water Survey, has
established the status and extent of surface water chemistry for regions of the United States
potentially susceptible to acidic deposition. The Direct/Delayed Response Project is forecasting the
time needed for surface waters to become acidic at current rates of deposition. Unfortunately, an
understanding of the soil and hydrologic processes that control surface water acidification is
incomplete, resulting in uncertainties regarding accurate representation of these processes in
models used for forecasting future acidic status of surface waters. Activities in this program are
designed to increase understanding of key processes that control acidification and consequently
improve forecasting capabilities.
APPROACH: The processes that are hypothesized to be the most important in surface water
acidification, including sulfate mobility, cation supply and mineral weathering, aluminum mobility,
hydrologic routing, organic acid interactions, and nitrate mobility, are being studied through a series
of plot-level and watershed-level artificial acidification experiments at the Bear Brook Watersheds in
Maine (see "Watershed Acidification - Maine" program element). For each of these processes,
cooperating scientists are testing hypotheses in laboratory, plot, and watershed-scale experiments to
determine the controlling reactions and interactions of acidification. In addition, laboratory
experiments are being conducted on cation supply and sulfate adsorption and desorption.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Groundwater, Soils, Streams, Vegetation, Watersheds
Chemicals: Aluminum, Base Cations, Clay Minerals, Nitrate, Organics, Primary
Minerals, Sulfate, Total Nitrogen
Approach: Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Laboratory, Modeling
Processes: Aluminum Mobilization, Aluminum Solubility, Base Cation Exchange,
Base Cation Mobilization, Base Cation Supply, Denitrification,
Hydrology, Mineral Weathering, Nitrification, Nitrogen Cycling, Organic
Acidification, Organic Chelation, Organics Cycling, Sulfate Adsorption,
Sulfate Desorption, Sulfate Reduction, Sulfur Cycling
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.3 NAPAPCode: 6C-2
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-03, E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1985 to 1990 +
Contact: Timothy Strickland
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TITLE: Soil Characteristics and Processes Affecting Sulfate Mobility in Watersheds
SHORT TITLE: Sulfate Mobility in Soils
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE{S): To identify major processes and soil parameters affecting sulfur mobility in
watersheds. To verify sulfate dynamics of existing watershed chemistry models, and to provide data
to revise models as necessary. To determine response time of watershed sulfur mobility at current
and altered deposition levels.
RATIONALE: Sulfate, a principal anion in acidic deposition, is the primary mobile anion associated
with cation leaching from soils and with surface water acidification. Existing watershed chemistry
models assume that adsorption is the only process significantly affecting sulfate mobility in
watersheds, and further assume that adsorption would be completely reversible under conditions of
reduced sulfur deposition. It has been well documented that other processes affect sulfur cycling in
terrestrial and aquatic systems (e.g., organic reactions in soils, reduction in wetlands and sediments,
and mineral precipitation). The net effect of these processes is basically unknown; their role could
be significant, especially during periods when sulfur deposition is changing. Similarly, laboratory
data indicate that sulfate desorption from soils varies widely, depending on soil type, aging, and
other (poorly understood) factors. Policy decisions regarding controls on sulfur emissions likely will
rely on model forecasts of future watershed chemistry; given the critical role of sulfate mobility in
determining watershed and surface water response to acidic deposition, it is imperative that
watershed chemistry models accurately represent sulfate dynamics.
APPROACH: Activities are under way or planned at several scales to identify and quantify key
processes affecting sulfate mobility. Field monitoring is under way, with plans for manipulating plot
and whole catchment scales. The Bear Brook Watershed in Maine (see "Watershed Acidification -
Maine" program element) will be treated with sulfate; watershed inputs and outputs will be
quantified to assess total system response, and sulfate pools and internal fluxes will be measured at
plots within the treated and adjacent control catchments. Multiple levels of sulfate will be applied
to replicated field plots adjacent to the Bear Brook site to provide more detailed data on sulfur
cycling within the soil; stable isotopes of sulfur will be included in plot treatments to provide
additional data on transfers among soil sulfur pools. Laboratory studies are being planned to
characterize effects of pH, temperature, and other soil variables on sulfate adsorption, and to assess
desorption of sulfate from soils. Laboratory studies are also planned to evaluate methods issues,
such as methods comparison and development of improved laboratory methods.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils, Watersheds
Chemicals: Sulfate
Approach: Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Laboratory
Processes: Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfate Desorption, Sulfate Reduction, Sulfur
Cycling
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PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.3A NAPAPCode: 6C-2 03
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Program Element: Soil/Hydrologic Processes (E-05.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1986 to 1990
Contact: Timothy Strickland
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TITLE: The Role of Base Cation Supply and Mineral Weathering in Soil Neutralization Processes
SHORT TITLE: Cation Supply and Mineral Weathering in Soils
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): Within watershed ecosystems, soil base cation exchange processes and
primary mineral weathering have been identified as primary mechanisms for mitigating the effects
of acidic deposition. The goals of this project are (1) to determine the extent of base cation
exchange and mineral weathering at the watershed manipulation site (Bear Brook, ME), (2) to
characterize soil exchange processes in a thermodynamically consistent manner, and (3) to
determine the rate at which these processes respond to inputs of acidic meteoric waters. If these
resources are being depleted by acidic deposition, a further goal will be to evaluate the rate of
depletion and the size of the remaining resource.
RATIONALE: Both cation exchange processes and mineral weathering have been identified as
mechanisms for neutralizing acidic deposition. However, the extent to which these processes are
actually involved in acid neutralization, especially in relation to other soil processes, is not well
known. To evaluate the importance of these processes in regulating observed surface water
composition, it is necessary to develop an internally consistent and defensible procedure for
describing these processes as they occur in the soil environment. This project is directed toward that
goal.
APPROACH: Soil samples, collected at the Bear Brook watershed manipulation site, are being
examined in process-oriented studies with the goal of addressing specific hypotheses regarding the
relationship between certain soil chemical and physical properties and surface water chemistry as
described above. The research will combine laboratory experiments, field-plot manipulation, and
watershed manipulation experiments to examine cation supply/mineral weathering processes.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils
Chemicals: Base Cations, Clay Minerals, Primary Minerals
Approach: Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Laboratory
Processes: Base Cation Exchange, Base Cation Supply, Mineral Weathering
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.3B NAPAP Code: 6C-2.04
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-07, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Program Element: Soil/Hydrologic Processes (E-05.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1985 to 1990 +
Contact: Timothy Strickland
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TITLE: Factors Controlling Aluminum Mobility in Soils
SHORT TITLE: Aluminum Mobility in Soils
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the influence of acidic deposition on the mobility and release
of aluminum and associated base cations. To determine the controls of aluminum mobility and
solubility in soils.
RATIONALE: Concern over surface water acidification in the United States has focused largely on the
Northeast, a region experiencing elevated loading of acidic substances. Spodosolic soils in the
northeastern United States are acidic and have limited capacity to retain sulfate. If pools of
exchangeable or easily weatherable base cations are limited in these soils, then strong acidic inputs
will be incompletely neutralized. Incomplete neutralization can cause acidic cations, hydrogen, and
aluminum to be transported from terrestrial to aquatic environments. Some of the first effects on
fish and other biota is toxicity associated with aluminum leached from soils.
APPROACH: As a component of the Watershed Manipulation Project, this project will combine
laboratory experiments, field-plot manipulations, and watershed manipulation experiments to
ascertain the influence of acidic deposition on mobility of aluminum and cations in soils and water.
Specific techniques include laboratory batch titration studies, potentiometric titrations, and soil
column leaching experiments, as well as analyses of solutions and soils gathered at the field plots
and catchments.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils, Watersheds
Chemicals: Aluminum, Base Cations
Approach: Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Laboratory
Processes: Aluminum Mobilization, Aluminum Solubility, Base Cation
Mobilization, Base Cation Supply
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.3C NAPAP Code: 6C-2.05
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Program Element: Soil/Hydrologic Processes (E-05.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1986 to 1990 +
Contact: Timothy Strickland
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TITLE: Examining the Role of Hydrologic Pathways and Water Residence Times in Altering Acidic
Deposition Inputs
SHORT TITLE: Hydrologic Pathways/Residence Times
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the pathways of water flowing within the soil mantle and
regolith of upland catchments, typical of those susceptible to acidic deposition. To determine the
flow processes or domains (e.g., micropore versus macropore flow) by which water moves within
watersheds. To establish classes of watersheds, based on runoff and physical watershed
characteristics, that reflect the pathway and process by which water reaches bodies of water.
RATIONALE: Many watershed processes collectively determine the chemical responses of surface
water chemistry to acidic deposition. Watershed hydrology critically links the response of
watersheds to acidic deposition. The route and mechanism by which water moves determines which
particles of soil or regolith come in contact with water and for how long. Traditionally, engineering
hydrology has emphasized forecasting flood peaks without regarding the means by which the water
reached streams and lakes. This project seeks to answer these important questions for upland
catchments.
APPROACH: Hillslope-scale sprinkler plots were established at the Bear Brook watershed
manipulation site to determine the relative contribution of micropore and macropore flow to
streamflow. Tracers were used to evaluate the relative contribution of regions within the watershed
to streamflow. Extensive measures of flowpath using, for example, crest piezometers and recording
piezometers are being implemented on the two watersheds.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Groundwater, Soils, Streams, Watersheds
Chemicals: N/A
Approach: Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Modeling
Processes: Hydrology
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.3D NAPAP Code: 6C-2.06
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Program Element: Soil/Hydrologic Processes (E-05.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1986 to 1990 +
Contact: Timothy Strickland
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TITLE: The Influence of Organic Acids on Acidification and Aluminum and Sulfur Dynamics
SHORT TITLE: Organic Acid Influence on Acidification
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME)
GOAL(S)/O8JECTIVE(S): To determine how organic acid mobilization is influenced by acidic
deposition. To evaluate the effect of organic acids on aluminum mobilization and toxicity. To
determine the effect of organic acids and changes in organic acids due to acidic deposition on sulfate
sorption dynamics.
RATIONALE: In those natural systems unaffected by acidic deposition, organic acids originating from
plants decomposing within the ecosystem are a natural source of acidity. These acids substantially
influence the mobility of metals, such as aluminum, and strong acid anions, such as sulfate. These
influences must be quantified accurately to forecast watershed acidic deposition responses.
APPROACH: As a component of the Watershed Manipulation Project, the general approach in this
project is to combine laboratory experiments, field-plot manipulations, and watershed manipulation
experiments to ascertain the role of organic anions in regulating surface water acidity. Specific
. analyses include determining total carbon and humic and fulvic acids in watershed soils. Titrations of
dissolved organic carbon samples are being made for lysimeter, throughfall, and streamflow
samples. Laboratory studies are used to assess carbon dynamics and mobilization-mineralization
under controlled conditions using soil columns and batch experiments.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils. Streams
Chemicals: Organics
Approach: Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Laboratory
Processes: Organic Acidification, Organic Chelation, Organics Cycling
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.3E NAPAP Code: 6C-2.07
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-06, E-07, E-08. E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Program Element: Soil/Hydrologic Processes (E-05.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1986 to 1990 +
Contact: Timothy Strickland
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TITLE: Nitrate Uptake and Leaching in Soils in Response to Acidic Deposition
SHORT TITLE: Nitrate Mobility in Soils
REGION(S)/STATE(S). Northeast (ME)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine if nitrogen amendment (an analog for increased acidic
deposition) will cause mineral nitrogen to accumulate in soils that will, after a delay of one or more
years, induce nitrification even at low soil pH values. To determine if nitrification causes nitrate
leaching. To determine if chronic nitrogen additions will cause a relatively small increase in foliar
biomass and nitrogen concentration, and if, when the systems become non-nitrogen limited, higher
rates of nitrogen mineralization and nitrogen cycling occur. To determine if losses due to nitrate
leaching rise near input rates as the biological uptake capacity becomes saturated.
RATIONALE: Acidic deposition primarily involves two strong acids, sulfuric acid and nitric acid.
Nitrate is one of the strong acid anions that serves as a carrier to remove hydrogen ions from soils.
To quantify the response of watersheds to acidic deposition, the nitrogen cycle must be understood.
This cycle is driven largely by biological processes that modify or dominate the nitrate derived from
deposition. This project relates nitrate response in soils to acidic deposition.
APPROACH: As a component of the Watershed Manipulation Project, this project combines
laboratory experiments, field-plot manipulations, and watershed manipulation experiments to
determine the role of nitrate in soils to regulate surface water acidity. Specific analyses include
measuring total nitrogen in vegetation and soils. Nitrogen mineralization and nitrification will be
measured using soil cores, while litter decay rates and nitrogen release will be measured using nylon
mesh bags.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils, Vegetation, Watersheds
Chemicals: Nitrate, Total Nitrogen
Approach: Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Laboratory
Processes: Denitrification, Nitrification, Nitrogen Cycling
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.3F NAPAP Code: 6C-2.08
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-03, E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Program Element: Soil/Hydrologic Processes (E-05.3)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1986 to 1990 +
Contact: Timothy Strickland
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TITLE: Validating Surface Water Acidification Models Used in Forecasting Regional-Scale
Responses to Acidic Deposition
SHORT TITLE: Acidification/Recovery Model Development and Testing
REGION{S)/STATE(S): Canada (Sudbury), Middle Atlantic (DE, MD. NJ. NY, PA, Rl, VA, WV),
Northeast (CT, MA. ME. NH. NY, PA, Rl. VT), Norway, Southeast (AL, AR, FL,
GA, KY, NC, TN, VA), Upper Midwest (Ml, MN, Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To evaluate and validate the surface water acidification models being
applied within the Direct/Delayed Response Project. To identify and quantify model sensitivities and
uncertainties including identification of the bounds within which the model forecasts can be
considered to be reliable forecasts of future conditions.
RATIONALE: Significant aquatic and terrestrial resources, particularly in the Northeast, may be at
risk from current levels of acidic deposition. Therefore, to develop sound environmental policy, it is
important to determine if potentially sensitive watersheds are at or near steady-state conditions, or
if further acidification of lakes is likely to occur at current deposition levels. Likewise, it is important
to evaluate the probable effect of increasing and decreasing emissions over the next few decades on
the surface water chemistries of potentially sensitive lakes.
Because of the complexity of watershed systems, dynamic models of natural phenomena are
essential for testing process-level hypotheses at the watershed scale. This is particularly true for
forecasting the probable future consequences of current or reduced acidic deposition loadings on
surface waters. However, the models used for forecasting must be adequately evaluated and tested
to provide the necessary assurance of their reliability. Because adequate long-term records for
validation do not exist, the ability of these models to simulate important processes must be
determined. Similarly, it is necessary to evaluate their behavior under conditions of inadequate data
for calibration. The sensitivity of response variables (e.g., acid neutralizing capacity and pH) to the
interrelationships among variables and to changes in input values also must be understood. Because
previous studies on watershed acidification models have been directed primarily toward forecasting
acidification, it is important also to test the capability of the models to forecast recovery under
reduced deposition loadings.
APPROACH: The principal hypothesis to be tested is that those hydrologic, geochemical, and
biological processes that are important in watershed acidification can be simulated with sufficient
reliability to be useful in interpreting manipulation experiments and in forecasting the future course
of watershed acidification and recovery for particular acidic deposition scenarios. The modeling
studies are integrated with the watershed manipulation and soil process studies to test more
detailed hypotheses at the catchment and plot scale.
Three approaches are being employed: (1) evaluation of model behavior, (2) model sensitivity
analysis, and (3) experimental and observational field studies. Efforts will be made in the first
category to review and evaluate the process formulations, comparisons of process formulations
among models and with the literature, testing of model behavior, uncertainty analysis, and
consequences of alternative calibration procedures. Sensitivity analysis will determine the
interrelationships among input variables, changes in model output resulting from alternative input
variables, and initial conditions. Experimental and observational studies will evaluate the
forecasting model capabilities by comparison of results with observed data from field studies. These
field studies will include the manipulation experiments being conducted in Maine and other
available data sets (e.g., lakes near Sudbury, RAIN project).
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KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Lakes. Soils. Streams, Watersheds
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, pH
Approach: Literature, Modeling
Processes: Recovery
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.4 NAPAP Code: 6B-1.02
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990 +
Contact: Kent Thornton
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TITLE: Sensitivity Analyses of Direct/Delayed Response Project Models to Inputs and Parameters
SHORT TITLE: Acidification Model Sensitivity Analysis
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DE. MD. NJ. NY, PA, Rl, VA, WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH,
NY, PA, Rl, VT), Southeast (AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, NC, TN, VA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To investigate and evaluate the sensitivity and behavior of the
Direct/Delayed Response Project model forecasts of future water chemistry to the accuracy and
uncertainties in data, model inputs, parameter values, process formulations, and calibration
procedures
RATIONALE: Because of the complexity of watershed systems, dynamic models of natural
phenomena are essential for forecasting the probable future consequences of current or reduced
acidic deposition loadings on surface waters. However, the models used for forecasting must be
evaluated and tested adequately to provide the necessary assurance of their reliability. The
sensitivity of variables (e.g., acid neutralizing capacity and pH) upon which the forecasts are based
must be understood with respect to the interrelationships among variables and to uncertainties of
input values. In addition, it is essential to evaluate model behavior under conditions of limited data
for calibration, and thereby provide guidance or bounds on the situations that produce reliable
forecasts.
APPROACH: The three models that were evaluated were Model for Acidification of Groundwaters in
Catchments. Enhanced Trickle Down, and Integrated Lake/Watershed Acidification Study. Three
Direct/Delayed Response Project watersheds (Woods, Panther, and Clear Pond) were used for the
behavioral evaluation and sensitivity analysis studies because sufficient time-series data were
available. The initial step in these studies was to identify all input data, all computed variables, and
all output variables. The input variables, boundary conditions, and initial data were classified to
provide the following identification: model compartment, temporal nature, estimation procedure,
and units of measurement. This effort is being followed by an estimation of the realistic ranges and
interdependence among variables. The behavior evaluation and comparison study will address the
following: a review of the process formulations of each model, comparisons of process formulations
among models and with alternative approaches in the literature, testing of model behavior,
uncertainty analysis, and consequences of alternative calibration procedures. The sensitivity analysis
will address the following: interrelationships among the model inputs, sensitivity of model output
to changes in data-derived input variables, and initial boundary conditions. These results will permit
a thorough evaluation of the model forecasts and their associated uncertainty and reliability within
the Direct/Delayed Response Project application.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Watersheds
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, pH
Approach: Modeling
Processes: N/A
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PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.4A NAPAP Code: 6B-1.02A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Program Element: Acidification/Recovery Model Development and Testing
(E-05.4)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1987 to 1988
Contact: Kent Thornton
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TITLE: Modeling the Recovery of Sensitive Surface Waters Following Decreased Acidic Deposition
SHORT TITLE: Modeling Recovery of Surface Waters
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Canada (Sudbury), Middle Atlantic (DE, MD, NJ, NY, PA. Rl, VA. WV),
Northeast (CT, MA. ME. NH. NY. PA. Rl, VT), Norway, Southeast (AL, AR, FL,
GA. KY, NC, TN, VA). Upper Midwest, (Ml, MN. Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To test and develop, or enhance, forecasts of surface water recovery
associated with decreases in deposition that result from the application of existing surface water
acidification models.
RATIONALE: One of the forecasted benefits from a policy decision resulting from reduction of acidic
deposition is that some currently acidic surface waters would recover, i.e., become less acidic. The
current Direct/Delayed Response Project models were developed to simulate surface water chemistry
under either constant or increasing deposition. The sources of data for model building, testing, and
forecasting have been derived from areas receiving nearly constant deposition. The ability of these
models to represent adequately the processes and changes associated with reduced acidification has
not been tested and evaluated. Proper evaluation of policy alternatives that reduce deposition
requires that this aspect of current models be tested and the uncertainties understood.
APPROACH: The approach within this project area is twofold. Initially, the project is compiling
existing data from sites where documented reductions in emissions have occurred and where surface
water recovery has been observed. These data bases then will be used to calibrate the models, using
the data prior to the emission reduction, and evaluating the model forecasts during the post-
reduction period. Direct/Delayed Response Project modeling approaches and protocols will be
followed to the maximum extent possible during this effort.
The second line of investigation will examine the current literature to develop relationships and
hypotheses relevant to the processes involved in recovery. These relationships and processes then
will be examined through existing or modified models. Iterative interactions are anticipated
between this effort and efforts within the Soil/Hydrologic Processes program element (E-05.3) to
estimate parameters and to test hypotheses and model forecasts.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Lakes, Soils, Streams, Watersheds
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, pH
Approach: Literature, Modeling
Processes: Recovery
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.4B NAPAP Code: 6B-1.02B
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-06, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Program Element: Acidification/Recovery Model Development and Testing
(E-05.4)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
Contact: Jeff Lee
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TITLE: Coordinating Watershed Studies as a Means for Implementing an Integrated Environmental
Monitoring Program
SHORT TITLE: Watershed Studies Coordination
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians, Middle Atlantic, Midwest, Northeast, Southeast, Upper
Midwest, West
GOAL(S)/OBJECnVE(S): To establish an interagency, integrated watersheds research effort that will
allow ongoing and proposed studies to be coordinated into a long-term environmental monitoring
research program. To identify sites presently being studied and, through the agency sponsoring the
research, evaluate the potential for including the sites as part of a research program that addresses
environmental issues including and beyond those associated with acidic deposition.
RATIONALE: Many presently ongoing watersheds studies have periods of record dating to the early
1980s. Although the research is part of the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program, and
therefore the focus has been primarily on acidic deposition effects, most of the project's objectives
also are relevant to environmental issues that extend beyond acidification issues. Because long-term
data records are few, though extremely valuable in assessing trends, coordinating these and future
research activities into a program with a common goal and set of objectives would allow the
maximum opportunity to assess how and to what degree aquatic ecosystems are being affected by
anthropogenic activities.
APPROACH: The first task is to select a mutually agreeable set of research questions that most or all
sites can address in the near future that remain relevant to the National Acid Precipitation
Assessment Program. The selected questions will consider the benefits of combining information
from all sites without jeopardizing the success of the present mission. The second approach will be
to identify, as a coordinated agency effort, the key goals and objectives for a long-term
environmental monitoring program. Contacts will be established for the U.S. Geological Survey, the
U.S. Department of Agriculture-Forest Service, the U.S. Department of Interior-National Park Service,
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and others involved in environmental monitoring.
Periodic meetings and correspondence will help facilitate this coordination effort.
KEYWORDS: Medium: N/A
Chemicals: N/A
Approach: N/A
Processes: N/A
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.5 NAPAP Code: 6C-4
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990 +
Contact: Daniel McKenzie
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TITLE: Watershed Processes Regulating Surface Water Recovery from Acidic Deposition
SHORT TITLE: Watershed Recovery Project
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians (MD. PA, VA. WV). Northeast (CT, ME, NH, NY, VT),
Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, TN)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To assess error inherent in measurement of sulfate adsorption isotherms
utilizing air-dry vs. field-moist soils. To assess the feasibility of using adsorption isotherms to model
desorption during watershed recovery.
RATIONALE: The models used within the Direct/Delayed Response Project assume soil sulfate
adsorption to regulate the potential for buffering acidic inputs to surface waters. Due to the
logistical constraints imposed upon the sampling scheme employed by the Direct/Delayed Response
Project, air-dry soil samples were subjected to analysis. Evidence indicates that sulfate adsorption
potentials may be overestimated as an artifact of this sample preparation procedure. Ongoing
efforts within the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program include a modeling exercise to
determine the utility of using Direct/Delayed Response Project models to forecast recovery rates at
Clearwater Lake near Sudbury, Canada. Implicit in that effort is the assumption that sulfate
concentrations in surface waters will be controlled solely by the desorption rate from the soil, and
that desorption is kinetically equivalent to adsorption.
APPROACH: Selected watersheds representative of dominant soil groupings from each region of
interest will be sampled during the Fall of 1988. For each watershed and horizon, sulfate adsorption
and desorption isotherms will be determined on both field-moist and air-dry samples. A statistical
model will be developed and validated, providing a framework within which existing Direct/Delayed
Response Project soils data can be enhanced to reflect field-moist conditions. Desorption
experiments also will be conducted that will determine the utility of Direct/Delayed Response Project
model formulations (i.e., adsorption reversibility and kinetics parameters) in the forecasting of
watershed recovery.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils, Watersheds
Chemicals: Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling, Laboratory, Statistical Analyses
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Recovery, Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfate Desorption
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.6 NAPAP Code: 6C-5
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Status: Initiating Period of Performance: 1988 to 1989
Contact: Jeff Lee
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TITLE: Determination of Sulfate Adsorption and Desorption Potentials: Error Inherent in the Use of
Air Dry Samples
SHORT TITLE: Adsorption and Desorption of Sulfate by Soils
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Mid-Appalachians (MD. PA. VA, WV). Northeast (CT, ME. NH, NY. VT),
Southern Blue Ridge Province (GA, NC, TN)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To assess error inherent in measurement of sulfate adsorption isotherms
utilizing air-dry vs. field-moist soils. To assess the feasibility of using adsorption isotherms to model
desorption during watershed recovery.
RATIONALE: The formulation of models used within the Direct/Delayed Response Project assume
soil sulfate adsorption to regulate the potential for buffering acidic inputs to surface waters. Due to
the logistical constraints imposed upon the sampling scheme employed by the Direct/Delayed
Response Project, air-dry soil samples were subjected to analysis. Evidence indicates that sulfate
adsorption potentials may be overestimated as an artifact of this sample preparation procedure.
Ongoing efforts within the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program include a modeling
exercise to determine the utility of using Direct/Delayed Response Project models to forecast
recovery rates at Clearwater Lake near Sudbury, Canada. Implicit in that effort is the assumption
that sulfate concentrations in surface waters will be controlled solely by the desorption rate from the
soil, and that desorption is kinetically equivalent to adsorption.
APPROACH: Selected watersheds representative of dominant soil groupings from each region of
interest will be sampled during the Fall of 1988. For each watershed and horizon, sulfate adsorption
and desorption isotherms will be determined on both field-moist and air-dry samples. A statistical
model will be developed and validated, providing a framework within which existing Direct/Delayed
Response Project soils data can be enhanced to reflect field-moist conditions. Desorption
experiments also will be conducted that will determine the utility of Direct/Delayed Response Project
model formulations (i.e.. adsorption reversibility and kinetics parameters) in the forecasting of
watershed recovery.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry. Soils, Watersheds
Chemicals: Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling, Laboratory, Statistical Analyses
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Recovery, Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfate Desorption
PPA: E-05 EPA Code: E-05.6A NAPAP Code: 6C-5.01
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-07, E-08. E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Watershed Processes and Manipulations (E-05)
Program Element: Watershed Recovery Project (E-05.6)
Status: Initiating Period of Performance: 1988 to 1989
Contact: Jeff Lee
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2.5 EPISODIC RESPONSE PROJECT - PROGRAM E-08
[Program/Program Element/Project]
E-08: Episodic Response Project (6A-2) 2-77
E-08.1 Regional Episodic and Acidic Manipulations (6A-2.01) 2-78
E-08.2 Monitoring of Episodic Events (6A-2.02) 2-80
E-08.2A Episodic Stream Monitoring in the Catskills(6A-2.02A) 2-81
E-08.28 Episodic Stream Monitoring in the Northern
Appalachian Plateau (6A-2.02B) 2-82
E-08.2C Episodic Stream Monitoring in the Adirondacks(6A-2.02C) 2-83
E-08.3 Regional Modeling of Episodic Acidification (6A-2.03) 2-84
E-08.4 Deposition Monitoring for Episodes (6A-2.04) 2-85
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TITLE: Effects of Snowmelt and Storm Episodes on Surface Water Acidification
SHORT TITLE: Episodic Response Project
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DE, MD. NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VA, WV), Northeast (CT. MA, ME, NH,
NY, PA. Rl, VT)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the magnitude, duration, and frequency of episodic chemical
changes that accompany hydrologic events To determine the critical site factors and forcing
functions including deposition and hydrologic flowpath. To determine whether episodes can
potentially impact long-term fish survival. To develop a model to forecast the regional extent of
episodic chemical changes in the United Stales
RATIONALE: The National Surface Water Survey was designed and implemented to characterize the
extent of "chronic" acidic conditions that may adversely affect aquatic biota in lake and stream
ecosystems Because these population estimates pertain only to index conditions (seasonal,
hydrologic. etc.), they do not provide an estimate of the "worst-case" chemical conditions from an
acidification perspective, such as short-term acidification of lakes and streams that accompanies
snowmelt and rainstorm events. Preliminary analyses using simple conceptual and empirical models
of episodic acidification indicate that lake acidification in the Adirondacks during snowmelt and
stream acidification in the Middle Atlantic region may be underestimated significantly if based solely
on index conditions.
APPROACH: Several approaches to acidic episodes in surface waters have been only marginally
successful for several reasons. Both intensive studies and survey approaches have been generally
data-limited, primarily as a result of the unpredictable nature of snowmelt and rainstorm events.
Most of these studies have employed manual sampling as the principal field sampling approach, and
thus episodes that begin on weekends or at night are typically missed. Survey approaches have
failed because of logistical difficulties associated with sampling unfamiliar systems. Therefore, a
more intensive approach is being employed at 10-15 streams in Pennsylvania and New York.
Biological and chemical characterization will be conducted during snowmelt and rainstorm events
through means of automated and manual sampling techniques. In addition, a watershed
manipulation experiment is being conducted in West Virginia to examine the influence of altered
acidic deposition on chronic and episodic surface water acidification.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Deposition, Soils, Streams, Watersheds
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum. Ammonium, Base Cations, Major
ions, Nitrate, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling, Modeling
Processes: Episodic Acidification. Hydrology, Nitrification, Nitrogen Retention,
Sulfur Retention
PPA: E-08 EPA Code: E-08 NAPAP Code: 6A-2
Element: Program
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-06, E-07
Cross Reference: None
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: I987to1991
Contact: Parker J.Wigington, Jr
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TITLE: Regional Episodic and Acidic Manipulation Studies
SHORT TITLE: Regional Episodic and Acidic Manipulations
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (WV)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the surface water chemical responses, at both chronic and
episodic time scales, of regionally representative watersheds and associated streams to altered
deposition of sulfur and/or nitrogen. To determine the important site factors and forcing functions
that control chronic and episodic response of watersheds and associated streams, including the
importance of deposition. To test the behavior of the Direct/Delayed Response Project models,
evaluate model forecasts of manipulation outcomes, and refine model structure to improve
reliability of forecasts. To determine the magnitude, duration, and frequency of episodic chemical
changes that accompany hydrologic events in regionally representative streams.
RATIONALE: Results from the National Surface Water Survey and the Direct/Delayed Response
Project have revealed a critical need for testing acidification hypotheses -formulated using regional
water chemistry and soils data bases - through application of watershed-based research. The
Episodic Response Project and the Watershed Manipulation Project were designed and implemented
to test these hypotheses. Conducting the two projects independently would be a costly duplication
of effort, given their similar logistical, analytical, and quality assurance needs. Therefore, the
Regional Episodic and Acidic Manipulation studies were designed to integrate the objectives of both
projects.
APPROACH: The overall approach of this project from the Watershed Manipulation Project
perspective is to provide additional tests of acidification hypotheses that have been formulated from
regional data bases and mechanistic hydrochemical models. Each of these hypotheses deals with the
response of a calibrated catchment to an increased loading of an acidic substance relative to the
response of a control system. The acidic manipulations will be applied as ammonium sulfate over at
least a three-year period, during which time the response will be determined through quantification
of the chemical output in streamflow. From the Episodic Response Project perspective, streams from
both the experimental and the control catchment will be monitored to determine the extent to
which short-term chemical changes in water chemistry (particularly pH and acid neutralizing
capacity) occur. These data will be integrated with comparable episodes data (collected under
E-08.2) from a group of larger streams located in regions of the eastern United States to formulate
an empirical or conceptual model of episodic acidification that could potentially be used in a
regionalization context.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Soils, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Ammonium, Nitrate, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Episodic Acidification, Hydrology, Nitrification, Nitrogen Retention,
Sulfur Retention
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PPA: E-08 EPA Code: E-08.1 NAPAP Code: 6A-2.01
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-01. E-05. E-06. E-07
Cross Reference: Program: Episodic Response Project (E-08)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
Contact: Timothy Strickland
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TITLE: Monitoring Episodic Acidification in Surface Waters
SHORT TITLE: Monitoring of Episodic Events
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (NY. PA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the magnitude, duration, and frequency of episodic chemical
changes that accompany hydrologic events. To determine the critical site factors and forcing
functions including deposition and hydrologic flowpalh. To determine whether episodes can
potentially impact long-term fish survival.
RATIONALE: The National Surface Water Survey was designed and implemented to characterize the
extent of "chronic" acidic conditions that may adversely affect aquatic biota in lake and stream
ecosystems. Because these population estimates pertain only to index conditions (seasonal,
hydrologic, etc.), they do not provide an estimate of the "worst-case" chemical conditions from an
acidification perspective, such as short-term acidification of lakes and streams that accompanies
snowmelt and rainstorm events. Preliminary analyses using simple conceptual and empirical models
of episodic acidification indicate that lake acidification in the Adirondacks during snowmelt and
stream acidification in the Middle Atlantic region may be significantly underestimated if based solely
on index conditions. In addition, impacts of episodic acidification on fishery resources and other
biota are not well established.
APPROACH: Several approaches to acidic episodes in surface waters have been only marginally
successful for several reasons. Both intensive studies and survey approaches have been generally
data-limited, primarily as a result of the unpredictable nature of snowmelt and rainstorm events.
Most of these studies have employed manual sampling as the principal field sampling approach, and
thus episodes that begin on weekends or at night are typically missed. Survey approaches have
failed because of logistical difficulties associated with unfamiliar sampling systems. In addition, any
regional interpretation of many intensive studies is limited because it is not known what population
or subpopulation of surface waters were "represented" by the intensive systems. Therefore, a more
intensive approach is being employed in the Catskills, Northern Appalachian Plateau, and the
Adirondacks. Three to five streams in each region will be monitored, and the episodic acidification
potential of each site will be assessed from these complete, continuous chemistry data bases. Fish
population responses to episodes also will be characterized through repeated stream-reach surveys.
Biological studies are being conducted as part of E-03.3, Biological Effects of Acidic Episodes.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Base Cations, Nitrate, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-08 EPA Code: E-08.2 NAPAP Code: 6A-2.02
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-CH. E-03, E-05, E-07
Cross Reference: Program: Episodic Response Project (E-08)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988 to 1991
Contact: Parker J Wigington, Jr.
2-80
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TITLE: Monitoring the Episodic Chemical Response and Associated Biological Impacts of Streams in
the Catskills, New York
SHORT TITLE: Episodic Stream Monitoring in the Catskills
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (NY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the magnitude, duration, and frequency of episodic chemical
changes that accompany hydrologic events. To determine the site factors and forcing functions
(including deposition and hydrologic flowpath) that affect the characteristics of acidic episodes. To
determine the impact of episodic acidification on aquatic biota with an emphasis on fish.
RATIONALE: The National Surface Water Survey estimates of the status and extent of aquatic
resources pertain to "index" conditions, and thus do not correspond to the "worst-case" chemical
conditions from an acidification perspective. Short-term (episodic) acidification significantly affects
the interpretation of status and extent. In addition, the actual impacts of episodic acidification on
fishery resources and other biota are not well established for the United States, including the Middle
Atlantic (one of the regions of the United States most likely to experience episodic acidification).
APPROACH: Because, by definition, episodic acidification is transient in nature, survey approaches
have been unsuccessful in characterizing the significance of episodes. Therefore, a more intensive
approach is being employed in the Catskills. Three to five streams, of sufficient size to support sport
fisheries, are being studied using a variety of physical, chemical, and biological monitoring
approaches Stream discharge, pH, temperature, and conductance are measured continuously.
Automated samplers are used to collect water samples during rainstorm- and snowmelt-driven
hydrologic events. These samples are then analyzed for a complete set of chemical parameters.
Stable isotopes are used to separate hydrologic flowpaths. At each stream, fish population
responses to episodes are characterized through repeated stream-reach surveys. In addition, in-
stream bioassays and electro-tagging of fish are used to measure individual fish responses.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Base Cations, Nitrate, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-08 EPA Code: E-08.2A NAPAP Code: 6A-2.02A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-07
Cross Reference: Program: Episodic Response Project (E-08)
Program Element: Monitoring of Episodic Events (E-08.2)
Status: Initiating Period of Performance: 1988 to 1991
Contact: Parker J. Wigington, Jr.
2-81
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TITLE: Monitoring the Episodic Chemical Response and Associated Biological Impacts of Streams in
the Northern Appalachian Plateau, Pennsylvania
SHORT TITLE: Episodic Stream Monitoring in the Northern Appalachian Plateau
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (PA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the magnitude, duration, and frequency of episodic chemical
changes that accompany hydrologic events. To determine the site factors and forcing functions
(including deposition and hydrologic flowpath) that affect the characteristics of acidic episodes. To
determine the impact of episodic acidification on aquatic biota with an emphasis on fish.
RATIONALE: The National Surface Water Survey estimates of the status and extent of aquatic
resources pertain to "index" conditions, and thus do not correspond to the "worst-case" chemical
conditions from an acidification perspective. Short-term (episodic) acidification significantly affects
the interpretation of status and extent. In addition, the actual impacts of episodic acidification on
fishery resources and other biota are not well established for the United States, including the Middle
Atlantic (one of the regions of the United States most likely to experience episodic acidification).
APPROACH: Because, by definition, episodic acidification is transient in nature, survey approaches
have been unsuccessful in characterizing the significance of episodes. Therefore, a more intensive
approach is being employed in the Northern Appalachian Plateau. Three to five streams, of
sufficient size to support sport fisheries, are being studied using a variety of physical, chemical, and
biological monitoring approaches. Stream discharge, pH, temperature, and conductance are
measured continuously. Automated samplers are used to collect water samples during rainstorm-
and snowmelt-driven hydrologic events. These samples are then analyzed for a complete set of
chemical parameters. Stable isotopes are used to separate hydrologic flowpaths. At each stream,
fish population responses to episodes are characterized through repeated stream-reach surveys. In
addition, in-stream bioassays and electro-tagging of fish are used to measure individual fish
responses
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Base Cations, Nitrate, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-08 EPA Code: E-08 2B NAPAP Code: 6A-2.02B
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-07
Cross Reference: Program: Episodic Response Project (E-08)
Program Element: Monitoring of Episodic Events (E-08.2)
Status: Initiating Period of Performance: 1988 to 1991
Contact: Parker J. Wigington, Jr.
2-82
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TITLE: Monitoring the Episodic Chemical Response and Associated Biological Impacts of Streams in
the Adirondacks
SHORT TITLE: Episodic Stream Monitoring in the Adirondacks
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (NY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the magnitude, duration, and frequency of episodic chemical
changes that accompany hydrologic events. To determine the site factors and forcing functions
(including deposition and hydrologic flowpath) that affect the characteristics of acidic episodes. To
determine the impact of episodic acidification on aquatic biota with an emphasis on fish.
RATIONALE: The National Surface Water Survey estimates of the status and extent of aquatic
resources pertain to "index" conditions, and thus do not correspond to the "worst-case" chemical
conditions from an acidification perspective. Short-term (episodic) acidification significantly affects
the interpretation of status and extent. In addition, the actual impacts of episodic acidification on
fishery resources and other biota are not well established for the United States, including the Middle
Atlantic (one of the regions of the United States most likely to experience episodic acidification).
APPROACH: Because, by definition, episodic acidification is transient in nature, survey approaches
have been unsuccessful in characterizing the significance of episodes Therefore, a more intensive
approach is being employed in the Adirondacks. Three to five streams, of sufficient size to support
sport fisheries, are being studied using a variety of physical, chemical, and biological monitoring
approaches. Stream discharge, pH, temperature, and conductance are measured continuously.
Automated samplers are used to collect water samples during rainstorm- and snowmelt-driven
hydrologic events. These samples are then analyzed for a complete set of chemical parameters.
Stable isotopes are used to separate hydrologic flowpaths. At each stream, fish population
responses to episodes are characterized through repeated stream-reach surveys. In addition, in-
stream bioassays and electro-tagging of fish are used to measure individual fish responses.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Base Cations, Nitrate, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-08 EPA Code: E-08.2C NAPAP Code: 6A-2.02C
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-07
Cross Reference: Program: Episodic Response Project (E-08)
Program Element: Monitoring of Episodic Events (E-08.2)
Status: Initiating Period of Performance: 1988to1991
Contact: Parker J. Wigington, Jr.
2-83
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TITLE: Development and Application of Models to Quantify the Importance of Episodes in Surface
Water Acidification on Regional Scales
SHORT TITLE: Regional Modeling of Episodic Acidification
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DE. MD. NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VA. WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH,
NY, PA, Rl, VT)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S}: The National Surface Water Survey, through application of an "index"
sampling protocol and a statistically rigorous design, allowed the extent of "chronic" acidic
conditions in target populations of lakes and streams in regions of interest to be quantified. Because
"acute" or "episodic" acidification is by definition transient, the data requirements and logistical
constraints of making direct regional estimates would be prohibitive. Such approaches undertaken
as part of the National Surface Water Survey were deemed infeasible An alternative method is the
application of simple empirical or conceptual models that can forecast the occurrence of episodic
acidification with more readily available data. The objective of this project is to develop such models
from existing data bases, and to calibrate and verify them using data that will be collected as part of
the Episodes Monitoring and Regional Episodic and Acidic Manipulation research efforts.
RATIONALE: Understanding the importance and causes of episodic acidification is crucial to a
complete assessment program, because of the possibility that biological effects are associated with
transient acidic conditions, rather than with "index" conditions. Acute toxicity to fish has been
documented under both laboratory and field conditions, and preliminary analyses suggest that the
number of acidic systems in the eastern United States is significantly underestimated using the
"index" sample approach. Forecast models of episodic acidification would ultimately permit
estimation of the "target loadings" for systems, given some objective criteria are provided.
APPROACH: The technical approach will include a formulation of both empirical and deterministic
mathematical models using existing data from a variety of episodes studies. In some cases, existing
deterministic models will be used (decreasing the time steps); more hydrologically realistic models
will presumably be easier to calibrate, however, and several of these models are already in the
development stage. Several empirical models have also been proposed, and these will also be tested
using data from the Regional Episodic and Acidic Manipulation and Episodes Monitoring studies.
Regional forecasts using the empirical techniques will be made, and the deterministic models will be
used for estimating target loadings.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Streams. Watersheds
Chemicals: Major Ions, Nitrate, Sulfate
Approach: Modeling
Processes: Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-08 EPA Code: E-08.3 NAPAP Code: 6A-2.03
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-06, E-07
Cross Reference: Program: Episodic Response Project (E-08)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1991
Contact: Parker J. Wigington, Jr
2-84
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TITLE: Event Wet Deposition Monitoring in Support of Episodes Research
SHORT TITLE: Deposition Monitoring for Episodes
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (NY, PA)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To provide event-based measurements of wet-deposition chemistry to
support episodic stream research.
RATIONALE: A significant effort is being made to determine the magnitude, duration, and
frequency of episodes and the associated biological effects in 15 streams in New York and
Pennsylvania. A major part of the research is determine the site factors and forcing functions that
control episodic acidification. To accomplish this task, event-based wet deposition chemistry
measurements are required.
APPROACH: The 15 streams that are being studied within the Episodic Response Project are located
in three clusters of 5 streams each. The clusters are located in the Catskills, the Adirondacks, and the
Northern Appalachian Plateau of Pennsylvania. One Aerochem Metrics wet deposition sampler will
be centrally located within each of the clusters. Wet deposition samples will be collected on a rain or
snow event basis.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition
Chemicals: Major Ions
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-08 EPA Code: E-08.4 NAPAP Code: 6A-2.04
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-07
Cross Reference: Program: Episodic Response Project (E-08)
Status: Initiating Period of Performance: 1988 to 1991
Contact: Parker J. Wigington, Jr.
2-85
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2.6 BIOLOGICALLY RELEVANT CHEMISTRY - PROGRAM E-03
[Program/Program Element/Project]
E-03: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (6D-1) 2-89
E-03.1 Current Status of Biological Communities (60-1.01) 2-90
E-03.1A Fish Populations of Florida Lakes (6D-1.01 A) 2-91
E-03.18 Surface Water Chemistry and Fish Presence (Ml) (6D-1.01B) 2-92
E-03.1C Surface Water Chemistry and Plankton Distributions (6D-1.01C) 2-93
E-03.1D Regional Assessment of Acidification Effects
on Fish in Streams (6D-1.01D) 2-94
E-03.1E Fish Population Status in Maine Streams (6D-1.01E) 2-96
E-03.2 Biological Model Development and Testing (6D-1.02) 2-97
E-03.2A Baseline Probability (6D-1.02A) 2-98
E-03.2B Defining Critical Values (6D-1.02B) 2-99
E-03 2C Modeling Fish Population-Level Responses (6D-1 02C) 2-100
E-03.20 Empirical Bayes Models of Fish Population Response (6D-1.02D) 2-101
E-03.3 Biological Effects of Acidic Episodes (6D-1.03) 2-102
E-03.3C Mechanisms of Fish Population Response (60-1.03A) 2-103
E-03.4 Organismal Development/Physiology (60-2) 2-104
E-03.4A Osmoregulation - Loss/Recovery (6D-2.01G) 2-105
E-03.4B Effects on Osmoregulatory/Reproductive Organs (60-2.01H) 2-106
2-87
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TITLE: Determining the Regional Risk of Aquatic Biota in Response to Acidic Deposition
SHORT TITLE: Biologically Relevant Chemistry
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DE, MD, NJ, NY. PA. Rl, VA. WV). Northeast (CT. MA, ME. NH.
NJ, NY, PA. Rl. VT). Southeast (AL, AR, FL. GA. KY. NC, OK, SC. TN. VA), Upper
Midwest (Ml. MN, Wl), West (CA, CO. ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA. WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To provide the information necessary to assess at a regional level the risk
that acidic deposition poses to aquatic biota, focusing on past and future potential impacts on fish
populations.
RATIONALE: Acidification of surface waters is of concern principally to the degree that biological
processes and communities are adversely affected. Public interest centers on potential losses or
decline in the fishery resource resulting from acidic deposition.
APPROACH: Biological responses to acidic deposition and acidification are complex and varied. As a
result, the program emphasis is to identify those chemical characteristics and changes in surface
waters that cause "undesirable" biological effects, rather than to define in detail the specific nature
and mechanisms of biological response. These analyses draw primarily upon the existing literature,
and thus are derived from a broad range of studies: laboratory bioassays, field bioassays. field
experiments, and field surveys. Several modeling approaches are being pursued, based on data from
field surveys and laboratory bioassays, to quantify levels of key chemical parameters associated with
the loss of fish populations in lakes and streams as a result of acidic deposition. The existing
literature and data are being supplemented by several major field studies that address uncertainties.
Surveys of fish populations focus on selected subregions with little existing data but relatively large
numbers of acidic or potentially sensitive surface waters (e.g., Upper Peninsula of Michigan and
Florida), providing additional information on the current status of the fishery resource and levels of
acidity associated with fish population loss or absence. In addition, the role and importance of acidic
episodes in determining fish population response to acidification are being investigated as part of
field studies associated with the Episodic Response Project in streams across the eastern United
States.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes, Seepage Lakes, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Base Cations, Calcium, Fluoride,
Major Ions, Mercury, Metals, Nitrate, Organics, pH, Silica, Sulfate
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Field Manipulation, Field Sampling, Laboratory,
Literature, Modeling
Processes: Biological Response, Chronic Acidification, Community Response,
Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03 NAPAP Code: 6D-1
Element: Program
Contributing to: E-01, E-04, E-05, E-06, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: None
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 198S to 1991
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-89
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TITLE: Current Status of Fish and Other Biotic Communities in Surface Waters
SHORT TITLE: Current Status of Biological Communities
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (MD. NJ, PA, VA, WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, PA, Rl, VT),
Southeast (FL, GA, NC, TN). Upper Midwest (Ml, Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To establish the current status of and possible effects on fish populations
and other selected biological communities (e.g., zooplankton) in lakes and streams considered
potentially sensitive to acidic deposition.
RATIONALE: Survey data provide a baseline for the design and implementation of long-term
monitoring and information on levels of acidity associated with observed biological effects, e.g., the
absence or loss of fish populations. Surveys of zooplankton communities provide a reliable means to
examine relationships between biological resources and water chemistry.
APPROACH: Field surveys and literature review focus on the status of fish populations, with more
limited attention on other biological communities such as zooplankton. Regions to be surveyed are
those with little existing data, but relatively large numbers of acidic waters or waters considered
potentially sensitive to acidic deposition, e.g., lakes in Florida and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.
Waters selected for biological sampling represent a subset of those sampled during the National
Surface Water Survey, thereby contributing to regional assessments of the current status of
biological communities. Lake and stream survey data are used to quantify regional distributions of
biological parameters of interest (e.g., estimate the number of lakes without fish) and to develop
and test models of biological response to acidification and estimates of critical values for effects.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Base Cations, Calcium, Fluoride,
Major Ions, Mercury. Metals, Nitrate, Organics, pH, Silica, Sulfate
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling, Literature, Modeling
Processes: Biological Response, Community Response, Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.1 NAPAP Code: 6D-1.01
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-01, E-04, E-05, E-06, E-08. E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1985 to 1990
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-90
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TITLE: Present Status of the Fishery Resource in Three Areas of Florida
SHORT TITLE: Fish Populations of Florida Lakes
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Southeast (FL)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To assess the current status of fish communities and fish populations in
selected lakes in three areas of Florida (Ocala National Forest, Trail Ridge, and Florida Panhandle).
RATIONALE: In the Eastern Lake Survey, the Florida subregion was identified as having the highest
percentage of acidic lakes in the target population surveyed. Relatively few data exist on the status
of the fishery resource in this subregion regarding potential effects of acidic deposition. The data
acquired in this project will continue to improve the understanding of the current status of
biological communities in an area with a high proportion of acidic lakes and also receiving relatively
high levels of acidic deposition.
APPROACH: Four lakes, covering a range of pH levels and dissolved organic carbon concentrations,
in each of the three areas were selected for sampling. Fish populations in the lakes are being
sampled by electrofishing, gill netting, and blocknets. A mark-recapture study in each lake is being
conducted in conjunction with the electrofishing technique. Results of the mark-recapture
technique will provide information on species composition and abundance population size structure,
condition factor coefficients, and fish age and growth rates.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes
Chemicals: Organics, pH
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: N/A
PPA: E-03 EPACode: E-03.1A NAPAP Code: 6D-1.01A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Program Element: Current Status of Biological Communities (E-03.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1986 to 1989
Contact: Joan Baker
2-91
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TITLE: Present Status of the Fishery Resource in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan
SHORT TITLE: Surface Water Chemistry and Fish Presence (Ml)
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Upper Midwest (Ml, Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To assess the current status of fish communities and fish populations in lakes
in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.
RATIONALE: In the Eastern Lake Survey-Phase I, three subregions were identified as having the
highest percentages of acidic lakes in the target populations of lakes surveyed - the Adirondacks,
Florida, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Of these three subregions, extensive data on the
current status of fishery resources exist only for the Adirondack Subregion. The current status of the
fishery resource in Florida is being addressed in a separate project, Fish Populations of Florida Lakes
E-03.1 A). This project will provide information on the present status of fish populations in the Upper
Peninsula of Michigan.
APPROACH: A variable probability, systematic sample of 50 lakes was selected from the Eastern Lake
Survey-Phase I frame in Region 2. Lake selection was optimized to include those lakes with a range
of key chemical parameters affecting fish, including pH, calcium, and dissolved organic carbon. A
number of chemical parameters will be measured in conjunction with fish sampling by use of gill
nets, fish nets, and beach seines. Results of these efforts will provide information on fish species
presence/absence and estimates of population abundance (through calculations of catch per unit
effort). The project is also being conducted in cooperation with a mercury study to determine the
concentrations and regional distribution of mercury in fish tissues.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes
Chemicals: Aluminum, Calcium, Fluoride, Mercury, Metals, Organics, pH
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: N/A
PPA: E-03 EPACode: E-03.1B NAPAP Code: 6D-1.01B
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-04, E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Program Element: Current Status of Biological Communities (E-03.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1986 to 1989
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-92
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TITLE: Relationship between Zooplankton Distributions and Surface Water Chemistry in the
Northeastern United States
SHORT TITLE: Surface Water Chemistry and Plankton Distributions
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (CT. MA, ME, NH, PA, Rl, VT)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To characterize summer zooplankton communities. To examine
relationships between zooplankton and water chemistry. To evaluate zooplankton community
structure with respect to existing data on fish populations and lake basin characteristics. To assess
potential of acidification to alter structure and function of zooplankton communities. To evaluate
project results in light of application to long-term monitoring.
RATIONALE: Zooplankton are a component of aquatic biological communities, and their
assemblages are particularly sensitive to direct (chemical) and indirect (food web interactions) effects
of acidification. Surveys of zooplankton communities can provide a sensitive, reliable, and accurate
means to examine relationships between biological resources and water chemistry, contributing to
an overall assessment of biological status of lakes at risk to acidic deposition effects.
APPROACH: Zooplankton samples were collected in conjunction with the Northeastern Seasonal
Variability Study during the spring, summer, and fall by vertical tows from 150 lakes statistically
selected from the Eastern Lake Survey-Phase I in the Northeast. Taxonomic composition, species
abundance, size class abundance, and feeding category abundance are being determined on each
zooplankton sample. Data analysis includes a number of statistical evaluations between
zooplankton community structure and regional patterns of zooplankton distribution.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Calcium, Major Ions, Nitrate,
Organics, pH.Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling, Literature
Processes: Community Response
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.1C NAPAP Code: 6D-1.01C
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Program Element: Current Status of Biological Communities (E-03.1)
Status: Concluding Period of Performance: 1986 to 1988
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-93
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TITLE: Regional Assessment of Acidification Effects on Fish in Streams
SHORT TITLE: Regional Assessment of Acidification Effects on Fish in Streams
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (MD, NJ, PA, VA. WV), Southeast (GA, NC, TN)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To compile and analyze the existing information on fish populations in
streams in subregions surveyed by the National Stream Survey to evaluate potential effects on fish
communities from acidification.
RATIONALE: As part of the National Stream Survey, chemical conditions in streams were assessed for
nine subregions of the eastern United States. Comparable information on biological status, and
estimates of effects of acidity on fish populations in these target streams, are not, however, currently
available. Three major assessment questions are of primary interest:
1. What is the resource at risk, i.e., what fish species occur in streams with present-day low pH
and low acid neutralizing capacity, or in streams projected to acidify in the future?
2. Is there any evidence of effects on fish communities to date?
3. What are the regional extent and magnitude of effects on fish populations, presently and
with projected future changes in stream chemistry?
This project will use existing information to address each of these above questions to the degree
possible within the limitations of the available data.
APPROACH: The work will be conducted in three phases:
Phase 1, Project Scoping -- to identify the types of data available and evaluate alternative
approaches to data analysis and assessment.
Phase 2, Model Development -- to develop and test the specific tools and models necessary for
regional assessments of potential effects on fish populations in National Stream Survey streams.
Phase 3, Model Application -- to apply the selected techniques and models for each National
Stream Survey subregion, with the output from these analyses to be used in the National Acid
Precipitation Assessment Program final assessment in 1990.
Four specific tasks are underway as part of Phase 1:
Task 1 -- Contact local experts to determine the nature, extent, and format of existing fish survey
data for the National Stream Survey subregions; computerized data bases will be acquired.
Task 2 -- Compile and evaluate existing bioassay data (laboratory and field) for the fish species of
interest in the National Stream Survey subregions.
Task 3 - Develop a proposed framework for using bioassay data to forecast acidification "stress"
on fish populations in the field.
Task 4 -- Evaluate existing methods and models for defining habitat suitability and fish
distribution in National Stream Survey streams.
Based on results from Phase 1, specific plans for Phases 2 and 3 will be prepared.
2-94
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KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Calcium, pH
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Literature, Modeling
Processes: Biological Response
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.1D NAPAP Code: 6D-1.01D
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Program Element: Current Status of Biological Communities (E-03.1)
Status: Initiating Period of Performance: 1988 to 1990
Contact: Joan Baker
2-95
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TITLE: Fish Population Status in Maine Streams
SHORT TITLE: Fish Population Status in Maine Streams
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the influence of precipitation chemistry, precipitation amount
and character, and stream hydrologic components on biologically important stream chemistry
parameters To determine the response of fish to episodic and chronic changes in these parameters
in Maine streams.
RATIONALE: Streams are an important aquatic resource, yet, relative to lakes, little is known
regarding fish population responses to chronic and episodic acidification in streams. Thus, a two-
year intensive joint investigation of stream chemistry and effects on fish was initiated in 1985 on six
streams in eastern Maine.
APPROACH: Six small (first-order) streams in eastern Maine were monitored for stream chemistry
and fish community characteristics over a two-year period. The streams support populations of
Atlantic salmon, brook trout, and several forage species. Population parameters measured include
fish abundance, growth, production, and survival. Precipitation amounts and chemistry were
monitored from samples collected by a centrally located NADP-protocol site. Stream discharge was
recorded continuously for each stream. Stream chemistry was measured at least biweekly; samples
were analyzed for pH, acid neutralizing capacity, conductance, color, dissolved organic carbon,
dissolved inorganic carbon, major cations and anions, aluminum, exchangeable aluminum, silica, and
ammonium.
In addition to the routine stream monitoring studies, six artificial stream channels were constructed
adjacent to one stream and used to test the effects of chemically manipulated stream water on the
physiology, growth, and survival of Atlantic salmon early life stages (embryos, fry, and smolts).
Exposures simulated episodic pH depressions, accompanied by increased aluminum levels, and
chronic exposure to sublethal levels of acidic stress. Physiological response variables or indices
examined included blood plasma and whole-body ion content and histological analysis of gill tissues.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Base Cations. Major Ions, pH,
Silica
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Biological Response, Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.1E NAPAP Code: 6D-1.01E
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-08
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Program Element: Current Status of Biological Communities (E-03.1)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1985 to 1988
Contact: Joan Baker
2-96
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TITLE: Model Development and Testing: Identifying Values of Chemical Variables Critical to Fish
Populations
SHORT TITLE: Biological Model Development and Testing
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DE, MD, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VA, WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH,
NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VT), Southeast (AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, NC, OK, SC, TN. VA), Upper
Midwest (Ml, MN, Wl), West (CA, CO, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To quantify the relationship between surface water acidification and key
biological responses, in particular the loss of fish populations. To identify critical values for effects
(e.g., levels of pH, aluminum, and calcium at which adverse effects are likely to occur).
RATIONALE: Acidification of surface waters is of concern principally to the degree that biological
processes and communities are adversely affected. Public interest centers on the potential loss or
decline in the fisheries resource. Thus, it is important to define what chemical characteristics and
levels of key chemical parameters are associated with adverse biological effects, in particular, effects
on fish populations.
APPROACH: Three alternative approaches were examined: (1) qualitative evaluation and
integration of the existing literature, (2) empirical models based on field survey data, and
(3) response models based on both field surveys and laboratory bioassay data. The existing literature
includes data derived from laboratory bioassays, field bioassays, field experiments, and field surveys.
Critical pH values for effects observed or tested were identified and combined across studies to
estimate the critical pH range for effects. Empirical models rely on the spatial association between
water chemistry and biological status (e.g., fish presence or absence) to quantify critical levels for
effects. In addition to models of biological response to acidification, empirical models are being
developed to assess the likelihood that fish occur, or do not occur, for reasons other than acidity,
termed the baseline probability of fish presence. The third approach quantitatively integrates
bioassay data with field survey data, using bioassay data to define the interactive effects of pH,
aluminum, and calcium, and survey data to identify levels of stress (e.g., decreased reproductive
potential) that result in population extinction. Results from these three alternative approaches will
be compared directly, in terms of estimated critical values or ranges for effects, and as they influence
regional forecasts of responses to acidic deposition.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes, Streams
Chemicals: Aluminum, Calcium, Organics, pH
Approach: Literature, Modeling
Processes: Biological Response, Community Response
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.2 NAPAP Code: 6D-1.02
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-01, E-05. E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program Area: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
Contact: Joan Baker
2-97
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TITLE: Development of Empirical Models for Estimating the Baseline Probability of Fish Presence
SHORT TITLE: Baseline Probability
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME, NH, NY, VT)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To develop empirical models for forecasts of fish species distribution among
lakes in the northeastern United States as a function of factors other than lake acidity or
acidification.
RATIONALE: Models of the "baseline probability" of fish presence are eventually to be coupled with
models of fish response to acidification and forecasts of lake chemistry in order to estimate regional
impacts from acidic deposition. Although it is expected that these models of baseline probability
will be rather crude, such models are needed to supplement and integrate existing survey data to
quantify patterns of fish species distribution in waters considered potentially sensitive to acidic
deposition
APPROACH: Models for forecasting the baseline probability of fish presence will be strictly
empirical, based on the observed spatial association between fish species distribution and physical
and chemical lake characteristics other than lake acidity. The models will be developed and tested,
for the most part, using fish survey data collected in 1984 and 1985 in the Adirondack region of New
York by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation. The Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation data
set (n = 842) will be subdivided into data for model development (two-thirds) and model testing
(one-third). Models also will be evaluated with limited survey data for Maine (n = 87), Vermont
(n = 29), and New Hampshire (n = 20). Models will focus initially on forecasting the distribution of
brook trout and other important game fish. Independent factors considered will include lake area,
lake depth, elevation, watershed area, hydrologic type, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and fish
stocking. Model development principally will involve logistic regression analysis. Data sets may be
restricted, initially, to only lakes with pH>6.0, to eliminate potential confounding effects due to
lake acidity. Colinearity among independent parameters will be assessed using linear regression
(PROCREG), colinearity diagnostics, the Mallows Cp statistic, and other criteria. Depending on the
utility of the results for lakes in the Northeast, future projects may apply similar techniques for
streams or lakes in other regions of the United States.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes
Chemicals: Organics
Approach: Literature
Processes: Biological Response
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.2A NAPAP Code: 6D-1.02A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program Area: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Program Element: Biological Model Development and Testing (E-03.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
Contact: Joan Baker
2-98
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TITLE: Defining Critical Values for Effects of Acidification on Aquatic Biota
SHORT TITLE: Defining Critical Values
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DE, MD, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VA, WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH,
NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VT), Southeast (AL, AR, FL, GA. KY, NC, OK, SC, TN, VA), Upper
Midwest (Ml, MN, Wl), West (CA, CO, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To define best possible estimates of levels of acidity (and associated
parameters) that cause significant damage to aquatic biota, in particular, fish populations and
zooplankton communities.
RATIONALE: Acidification of surface waters is of concern principally to the degree that biological
processes and communities are adversely affected. Public interest centers on the potential loss or
decline in the fishery resource. Thus, it is important to define what chemical characteristics and
levels of key chemical parameters are associated with adverse biological effects, in particular effects
on fish populations.
APPROACH: Three alternative approaches were examined: (1) qualitative evaluation of the existing
literature, (2) empirical models based on field survey data, and (3) response models based on both
field surveys and laboratory bioassay data. The existing literature includes data derived from
laboratory bioassays, field bioassays and experiments, and field surveys. Literature reviews covered
all aspects of effects of acidification on aquatic biota and biological communities. Critical pH values
for effects observed or tested were identified from individual studies, and then combined to
estimate a critical pH range for effects. Empirical models rely on the spatial association between
water chemistry and biological status (e.g., fish presence or absence) to quantify acidity levels for
effects. Logistic regression models were developed for selected species of fish and zooplankton. The
third approach quantitatively integrates bioassay data with field survey data, using bioassay data to
define the interactive effects of pH, aluminum, and calcium, and survey data to identify levels of
stress (e.g., decreased reproductive potential) that result in population extinction. This third
approach was applied for fish populations only, based largely on efforts funded by the Electric
Power Research Institute as part of the Lake Acidification and Fisheries Project. Results from these
three alternative approaches were compared directly, in terms of estimated critical values or ranges
for effects, and as they influence regional forecasts of responses to acidic deposition.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes, Streams
Chemicals: Aluminum, Calcium, Organics, pH
Approach: Literature
Processes: Biological Response, Community Response
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.2B NAPAP Code: 6D-1.02B
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program Area: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Program Element: Biological Model Development and Testing (E-03.2)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1987 to 1988
Contact: Joan Baker
2-99
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TITLE: Modeling the Effects of Acidification on Fish Population Status
SHORT TITLE: Modeling Fish Population-Level Responses
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VT), Upper Midwest (Ml. MN, Wl)
GOALS(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To develop models of fish population response to acidification for use in
estimating the regional effects of acidic deposition.
RATIONALE: Estimation of the regional extent and severity of effects of acidic deposition of fish
populations is a primary goal of the Aquatic Effects Research Program. Models that express changes
in fish population status as a function of changes in surface water chemistry and acidity provide a
framework for quantifying potential effects on fish populations. These models may then be used
with results from the National Surface Water Survey (E-01) and the Direct/Delayed Response Project
(E-07), translating regional estimates of changes in chemical status into regional estimates of
biological effects.
APPROACH: The primary approach used for model development is empirical, relying on the spatial
association between fish population status and water chemistry among surface waters across a
broad geographic region. Given the limited field data available for streams, modeling efforts to
date have focused on lakes, principally lakes in the Adirondack region of New York and in Ontario.
Data sets for model calibration have been restricted to those lakes with historical survey data (or
other information) indicating the presence of the fish species of interest in the past. Fish population
status is defined simply as fish species catch or no catch in field surveys as an indicator of fish species
presence/absence. Models are defined based on logistic regression analysis relating fish
presence/absence as a function of lake pH, calcium, aluminum, elevation, area or other chemical and
physical characteristics. Exploratory analyses using Bayesian statistical techniques to pool
information across regions or to pool field data with expert judgment have also been initiated.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes
Chemicals: Aluminum, Calcium, Organics, pH
Approach: Modeling
Processes: Biological Response
PPA: E-03 EPACode: E-03.2C NAPAPCode. 6D-1.02C
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry
Program Element: Biological Model Development and Testing
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
Contact: Joan Baker
2-100
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TITLE: Empirical Bayes Models of Fish Population Response to Acidification: Linking Laboratory
Bioassay and Empirical Modeling Studies
SHORT TITLE: Empirical Bayes Models of Fish Population Response
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME. NH, NY, VT)
GOALS(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To develop models of fish population response to acidification that take
advantage of results from both laboratory bioassays (defining the functional relationship between
fish survival and pH, aluminum, and calcium levels) and field surveys (i.e., the observed spatial
association between fish population status and water chemistry).
RATIONALE: Modeling efforts to date to forecast changes in fish populations with acidification have
relied principally on field survey data and the observed spatial association between fish population
status and the chemical (and physical) characteristics of the surface water. These empirical
approaches have several inherent problems, in particular, problems related to multicolinearity, or
correlations among the independent forecast variables that make it difficult to distinguish causal
relationships based on field survey data alone. Bioassays provide another major source of
information on effects of acidic conditions on fish. The pooling of laboratory bioassay data and
empirical field observations is expected to result in improved forecast models.
APPROACH: Four tasks are planned: (1) compile and review existing data sets from laboratory
bioassays, (2) use appropriate statistical methods (e.g , Bayesian techniques or weighting schemes)
for pooling among bioassay data sets from different investigators or for different life stages, (3)
develop a Bayesian model for combining laboratory bioassay and empirical models (E-03.2C) of fish
response to acidification, and (4) statistically compare the resultant model parameter estimates and
forecasts with existing models. Models are to be developed for brook trout and lake trout
populations in lakes. A particularly critical issue to be explored is the nature of the relationship
between the bioassay survival data or model and observed responses in field surveys. Several
alternative strategies will be explored that incorporate the concept of compensatory reserve, i.e.,
mechanisms by which the population may compensate for increases in acid -induced mortality.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes
Chemicals: Aluminum, Calcium, Organics, pH
Approach: Modeling
Processes: Biological Response
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.2D NAPAPCode: 6D-1.02D
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry
Program Element: Biological Model Development and Testing
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1989
Contact: Joan Baker
2-101
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TITLE: Determining the Effects of Acidic Episodes on the Status of Populations of Aquatic Biota
SHORT TITLE: Biological Effects of Acidic Episodes
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (PA), Northeast (NY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine whether acidic episodes have definitive, long-term effects on
fish populations. To determine the general characteristics of episodes (i.e., magnitude, duration,
frequency) associated with adverse effects.
RATIONALE: While it has been demonstrated that chronic acidification can result in the loss of fish
populations and other adverse biological effects, the specific role and influence of short-term acidic
episodes remains uncertain. Acidic episodes occur in many lakes and streams, including surface
waters experiencing no measurable chronic acidification. Thus, an understanding of the importance
of acidic episodes is required for improved assessments of the regional extent of biological effects
related to acidic deposition.
APPROACH: Laboratory and field bioassays have demonstrated that short-term exposures to acidic
conditions typical of those that occur during acidic episodes can kill individual fish. Uncertainties
remain, however, regarding the long-term effects of episodes on fish population status. Thus,
studies of episodic effects will concentrate on population-level responses in the field environment,
evaluating key processes and parameters such as behavioral avoidance, reproductive success, and
changes in population abundance over time. Studies will be conducted in 3-5 streams per region, in
3 regions (Adirondack*, Catskills, and Northern Appalachians), in conjunction with chemical
monitoring, as part of the Episodic Response Project (E-08).
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Streams
Chemicals: Aluminum, Calcium, Organics, pH
Approach: Field Sampling, Field Manipulation
Processes: Biological Response, Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.3 NAPAP Code: 6D-1.03
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Status: Initiating Period of Performance: 1987 to 1991
Contact: Joan Baker
2-102
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TITLE: Mechanisms of Fish Population Responses to Episodic Acidification
SHORT TITLE: Mechanisms of Fish Population Response
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (PA). Northeast (NY)
GOALS(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To improve understanding of mechanisms of fish population response to
episodic acidification. To define key characteristics of episodes that determine the severity of effects
on fish populations. To aid in interpretation of fish survey data and evaluation of models of fish
population responses to episodic acidification.
RATIONALE: The effects of episodic acidification on fish communities and fish population status are
uncertain. Numerous laboratory and field bioassays have demonstrated that short-term exposures
to acidic conditions can cause increased mortality and other adverse effects on fish. Yet, definitive
population-level effects on fish from short-term depressions in pH or acid neutralizing capacity have
been demonstrated in few systems. Ideally, chemical characterization of the extent and severity of
episodes should focus on those features that determine or influence biological response.
Unfortunately, our understanding of these factors is incomplete. These uncertainties contribute to
uncertainties in models of fish population response and uncertainties in regional estimates of the
effects of acidic episodes and acidic deposition.
APPROACH: Intensive field studies of fish population responses to acidic episodes are being
conducted in 3-5 streams per region, in three regions (Adirondacks, Catskills, and Northern
Appalachians). Existing fish in the study reach will be removed with electrofishing, and each study
reach will be restocked with a known number of brook trout and a forage species common to the
region and likely to be sensitive to stream acidification. These fish transplant experiments are to be
initiated in late summer/fall 1988 and will continue through late 1990/early 1991. Response variables
to be measured or estimated include (1) patterns of fish movement into and out of the study reach,
(2) changes in fish abundance over time in the study reach, (3) population-level mortality rates
(estimated from observed changes in fish abundance corrected from outmigration and inmigration),
(4) reproductive success and behavior, and (5) fish growth rates. Values for these response variables
will be assessed as a function of changes in chemical conditions through time in any one stream,
particularly with respect to potential effects from acidic episodes, and also as a function of
differences in water chemistry (and the severity of episodes) among streams.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Streams
Chemicals: Aluminum, Calcium, Organics, pH
Approach: Field Sampling, Field Manipulation
Processes: Biological Response, Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.3C NAPAPCode: 6D-1.03A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry
Program Element: Biological Effects of Episodes
Status: Initiating Period of Performance: 1987 to 1991
Contact: Joan Baker
2-103
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TITLE: Investigating Physiological and Population-Level Responses of Aquatic Organisms Resulting
from Changes in Surface Water Chemistry
SHORT TITLE: Organismal Development/Physiology
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Upper Midwest (MN, Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine changes in the structure and function of gills and other organs
in fish exposed to low pH water.
RATIONALE: Although low pH has been documented to be detrimental to fish and fish populations.
many of the direct effects are poorly understood. Careful examination of the histological,
anatomical, and physiological effects of low pH on fish will help refine our understanding of how
acidification of surface waters might adversely affect physiology and population structure of an
important biotic component of aquatic ecosystems.
APPROACH: The projects in this program element are being conducted in conjunction with the
artificial acidification of Little Rock Lake, Wl (E-05.2A). Warmwater fish are being collected from
Little Rock Lake as the pH declines in response to incremental additions of sulfuric acid. One study is
focusing on anatomical changes in fish gills and the consequent effects on blood osmoregulatory
control. The second focuses on examining histological and histopathological changes in fish gills,
kidneys, and ovaries, and evaluating if such changes can be used reliably to detect early acidification
effects on fish.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes, Seepage Lakes, Streams
Chemicals: pH
Approach: Field Manipulation, Laboratory
Processes: Biological Response, Chronic Acidification, Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.4 NAPAP Code: 6D-2
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-01, E-06, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Status: Concluding Period of Performance: 1987 to 1988
Contact: Howard McCormick
2-104
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TITLE: Loss of Osmoregulatory Control in Warmwater Fish in Response to Artificial Acidification
SHORT TITLE: Osmoregulation - Loss/Recovery
REGION{S)/STATE(S): Upper Midwest (MM, Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To define the types of gill anatomical changes associated with exposure to
lethal pH of sublethal duration. To relate such changes to the loss of blood osmoregulatory control
and its recovery when neutral pH is restored.
RATIONALE: Brief pulses of low pH conditions have been documented for lakes and streams during
spring snowmelt and storm events and reportedly are responsible for fish morbidity and mortality.
No studies have been published, however, that document (1) concurrent effects of an acute pH
reduction on osmotic balance and histopathological changes in ionoregulatory organs of fish, or
(2) recovery of osmoregulatory tissues and ionoregulatory control when pH returns to circumneutral
levels.
APPROACH: The fish species being examined are three of the four prevalent in Little Rock Lake:
largemouth bass, black crappie, and rock bass, plus the acid-sensitive fathead minnow. Work
conducted to date with largemouth bass, black crappie, and rock bass has shown that
osmoregulatory control is maintained over a wide range of pH values from 8.0 to 4.5, but that at pH
4.0 control is lost and death ensues. Recovery occurs, however, if pH 7.0 is restored in time. Current
research is focused on the recovery process, documenting the sequence of anatomical, histologkal,
and cytological changes taking place in the key osmoregulatory organ system, the gills, as the
experiment progresses from pH exposure through recovery. Samples were collected from a
complete set of exposures, for which blood osmolalities of each individual of each species has
already been determined. Histological analyses are ongoing.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes, Streams
Chemicals: pH
Approach: Field Manipulation, Laboratory
Processes: Biological Response, Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.4A NAPAP Code: 6D-2.01G
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-06, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Program Element: Organismal Development/Physiology (E-03.4)
Status: Concluding Period of Performance: 1987 to 1988
Contact: Howard McCormick
2-105
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TITLE: Effects of Acidification in Osmoregulatory and Reproductive Organs in Warmwater Fish
SHORT TITLE: Effects on Osmoregulatory/Reproductive Organs
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Upper Midwest (MM. Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To document histological and histopathologica! changes in fish gills and
other organs during the experimental sulfuric acid acidification of Little Rock Lake, Wl (E-05.2A).
RATIONALE: In addition to performing a vital respiratory function, gills are the chief organs of ionic
and acid-base regulation in fish. Thus, they are a principal organ likely to be affected by
acidification. Kidneys and ovaries also may be affected by chronic acid exposure. Examining how
progressive acidification affects these organs (1) may provide an indication as to how fish are directly
harmed by acidification (e.g., direct damage to ionocytes in gills and kidneys may adversely affect
ionoregulatory ability) and (2) may allow development of simple microscopic methods (or indicators)
for detecting acid-associated stress before measurable decreases in fish population abundance are
observed.
APPROACH: Gills, kidneys, and ovaries of yellow perch and largemouth or rock bass from Little Rock
Lake are being examined by light and electron microscopy. Fish samples were collected for analysis
when the pH in Little Rock Lake was 5.5 (1985 and 1986) and when it was 5.0 (1987). Observations of
histological or histopathological changes in these organs will be related to the population status or
health (e.g., breeding success, blood osmolality, and other parameters being measured as part of the
whole-lake experiment). In particular, the outputs will focus on the occurrence of acid-stressed
tissue changes that may affect the health of the fish first, what these changes are, and whether
histopathological methods represent a reliable means of detecting early effects of acidification on
fish.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes, Seepage Lakes
Chemicals: pH
Approach: Field Manipulation, Laboratory
Processes: Biological Response, Chronic Acidification
PPA: E-03 EPA Code: E-03.4B NAPAP Code: 6D-2.01H
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-06, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Biologically Relevant Chemistry (E-03)
Program Element: Organismal Development/Physiology (E-03.4)
Status: Concluding Period of Performance: 1987 to 1988
Contact: Howard McCormick
2-106
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2.7 SYNTHESIS AND INTEGRATION - PROGRAM E-09
[Program/Program Element/Project]
E-09: Synthesis and Integration (6G) 2-109
E-09.1 Regional Case Studies (6G-1) 2-110
E-09.2 1990 NAPAP Report (6G-2) 2-111
E-09.2A Aquatics State of Science (6G-2.01) 2-113
E-09.2B Integrated Assessment (6G-2.02) 2-114
E-09.3 Technology Transfer (6G-3) 2-116
2-107
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TITLE: Synthesis and Integration of Data to Understand Past, Current, and Future Effects of Acidic
Deposition on Aquatic Resources
SHORT TITLE: Synthesis and Integration
REGION(S)/STATE(S):
Canada, Mid-Appalachians, Northeast (ME, NH, NY, VT), Norway, Southeast
(FL, GA, NC, SC, TN, VA), Southern Blue Ridge Province, Upper Midwest (Ml,
MN, Wl), West (CA, CO, ID. MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To provide a comprehensive and integrated interpretation of data on the
understanding of effects of acidic deposition on surface waters, including the extent of past change,
current status, future forecasts, and exposure-response relationships.
RATIONALE: The complexity of the questions surrounding the regional-scale effects of acidic
deposition on surface waters has mandated investigation via several regionalized, integrated
projects in the Aquatic Effects Research Program (e.g., the National Surface Water Survey, the
Direct/Delayed Response Project, the Episodic Response Project, and Watershed Process and
Manipulation Studies). Informed policy decisions require that the results and forecasts from these
component projects be integrated to allow comprehensive assessments of past, current, and future
aquatic effects.
APPROACH: Several approaches are being used to fulfill the above goal. One ongoing effort is that
of integrating National Surface Water Survey results with other data sets and synthesizing them into
Regional Case Studies. A second effort involves the synthesis of research results, including
documents, reports, and data bases, for dissemination to the public, to state and federal agencies,
and to universities. The major effort in Synthesis and Integration is the Aquatic Effects Research
Program's contribution to the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program's 1990 State of
Science and Integrated Assessment. These documents will consist of a comprehensive series of
reports on the state of science of aquatic effects resulting from acidic deposition (along with
associated uncertainties) and an integrated assessment based on the state of science results and
approaches.
KEYWORDS: Medium:
Chemicals:
Approach:
Processes:
Biology, Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Sediments, Seepage Lakes,
Snowpack, Soils, Streams, Vegetation, Watersheds, Wetlands
Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Nitrate, Organics, Sulfate
Correlative Analyses, Existing Data Analyses, Literature, Modeling,
Single-Factor Analyses, Statistical Analyses, Trends Analyses
Biological Response, Chronic Acidification, Episodic Acidification,
Mineral Weathering, Nitrogen Cycling, Organic Acidification, Recovery,
Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfate Desorption
PPA: E-09
Element: Program
Contributing to: N/A
Cross Reference: None
Status: Ongoing
Contact: Daniel McKenzie
EPA Code: E-09
NAPAP Code: 6G
Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
2-109
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TITLE: Regionalized, Integrated Evaluation of the Current and Potential Future Effects of Acidic
Deposition on Surface Waters in Low Alkalinity Regions - Regional Case Studies
SHORT TITLE: Regional Case Studies
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME, NH, NY, VT), Southeast (FL, GA, NC, SC, TN. VA), Upper
Midwest (Ml. MN, Wl). West (CA, CO, ID, MT, MM, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To provide an integrated assessment of current and potential effects of
acidic deposition on aquatic ecosystems in regions with large proportions of surface waters with low
acid neutralizing capacity. To characterize important factors controlling surface water chemistry. To
examine past and current status of biological communities. To compare and contrast regional
characteristics of surface waters; to assess the effects of changes in acidic deposition loadings. To
summarize, synthesize, and integrate the results of acidic deposition-related research funded by the
National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program and other agencies and institutions.
RATIONALE: Since acidic deposition was identified in the late 1970s as an important issue relative to
aquatic effects, much research by a variety of agencies, institutions, and universities has been
conducted. The analysis of this wide body of information has not been conducted on an integrated,
regional-scale basis. The Regional Case Studies project will synthesize previously existing
information and newly acquired information from the Aquatic Effects Research Program to provide
regional comparisons of surface water quality (including chemistry and biology) in areas of the
United States identified as being potentially sensitive to or at risk due to acidic deposition.
APPROACH: The primary outputs from this project will be a book and journal articles emphasizing
intra- and inter-regional descriptions and characterizations of surface waters. Individual book
chapters will be authored by individuals with expertise in particular regions or on particular
processes, or directly involved with ongoing research programs. The completion of this project
involves extensive planning and coordination among a diversity of groups and institutions, including
government laboratories, universities, state agencies, and private industry.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Sediments, Seepage Lakes, Soils,
Streams, Watersheds, Wetlands
Chemicals: Aluminum, Nitrate, Organics, Sulfate
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Literature
Processes: N/A
PPA: E-09 EPA Code: E-09.1 NAPAP Code: 6G-1
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: N/A
Cross Reference: Program: Synthesis and Integration (E-09)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
Contact: Donald Charles
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TITLE: The 1990 State of Science and Integrated Assessment for the Aquatic Effects Task Group-
National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program
SHORT TITLE: 1990 NAPAP Report
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Canada, Mid-Appalachians, Northeast, Norway, Southeast, Southern Blue
Ridge Province, Upper Midwest, West
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To provide a comprehensive, integrated report on the state of science
regarding the effects of acidic deposition on aquatic resources in the United States. To perform an
integrated assessment and uncertainty analysis based on the following four questions: (1) What are
the effects of concern and what is the relationship between acidic deposition and these effects?
(2) What is the sensitivity to change in effects with selected incremental changes in deposition
relative to a selected base case? (3) What are the estimates of future conditions (categorized by
conservation parameters), given (a) no changes in current policy or legislation on air quality issues,
and (b) given various (illustrative) control strategies? and (4) What are the comparative evaluations
of the illustrative control strategies based on conservation benefits?
RATIONALE: As a major component of the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program's
Aquatic Effects Task Group (VI), EPA's Aquatic Effects Research Program has conducted research
since 1980 on the chemical and biological status of surface waters in response to acidic deposition in
various regions of the United States. The Congressional mandate that established the National Acid
Precipitation Assessment Program requires the interagency task force to prepare an integrated
report on the result of the Task Group's research as well as on relevant results not funded under the
auspices of National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program. Successful completion of this
two-phased program element will satisfy this Congressional requirement.
APPROACH: The goals/objectives of this program element will be satisfied in two phases:
(1) completion of a series of related reports on the state of science regarding acidic deposition
effects on lakes and streams and (2) completion of an integrated assessment. Methods and results of
Task Group and related research projects will be presented in several papers, on such topics as
processes controlling surface water acidification, biological effects, status of surface water chemistry
(current, historical, and future), episodes, and mitigation. Comprehensive literature evaluations,
uncertainty analyses, and full documentation of data analysis procedures in the State of Science will
form the basis for the Integrated Assessment. The Integrated Assessment will provide answers for
the four questions presented above, along with uncertainty analyses. Effects of concern in aquatic
systems and their relationship to acidic deposition will be analyzed using various models, algorithms,
and empirical relationships. These analyses as well as the information upon which they are based
will be ranked according to their level of certainty. Sensitivity of aquatic resources to increases and
decreases in deposition relative to current levels will be evaluated using three types of models:
steady-state; empirical, time-varying; and dynamic watershed models. Estimates of future condition
will be based on an evaluation of natural trends in surface waters and the results of various models
or algorithms, such as source-receptor relationship models and exposure-response functions, relating
deposition to effects. Comparative evaluations of the illustrative control strategies will be presented
as a matrix of the estimated responses of aquatic resources relative to reference scenarios (without
policy changes) and scenarios described in various illustrative control strategies.
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KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Sediments, Seepage Lakes,
Snowpack, Soils, Streams, Vegetation, Watersheds, Wetlands
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Nitrate, Organics, Sulfate
Approach: Correlative Analyses, Existing Data Analyses, Literature, Modeling,
Single-Factor Analyses, Statistical Analyses, Trends Analyses
Processes: Biological Response, Chronic Acidification, Episodic Acidification,
Mineral Weathering, Nitrogen Cycling, Organic Acidification, Recovery,
Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfate Desorption
PPA: E-09 EPA Code: E-09.2 NAPAP Code: 6G-2
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: N/A
Cross Reference: Program: Synthesis and Integration (E-09)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
Contact: Kent Thornton
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TITLE: The Effects of Acidic Deposition on Aquatic Resources: Slate of Science
SHORT TITLE: Aquatics State of Science
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Canada, Mid-Appalachians, Northeast, Norway, Southeast, Southern Blue
Ridge Province, Upper Midwest, West
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To provide a comprehensive series of reports on the state of science
regarding the effects of acidic deposition on the chemical and biological status of aquatic resources.
RATIONALE: The Congressional mandate that resulted in the establishment of the National Acid
Precipitation Assessment Program in 1980 stipulated that a final assessment of the Program's
research would be produced in 1990. The State of Science for the Aquatic Effects Task Group fulfills,
in part, this obligation.
APPROACH: Published literature and peer-reviewed data bases generated within the Task Group
since 1979, as well as results of relevant research outside the Task Group, will be used to produce a
series of integrated reports on the state of science of aquatic effects. Topics to be addressed in the
reports include watershed and lake processes controlling surface water acidification; biological
effects; current status, historical change, and forecasts of future change in surface water chemistry;
episodic acidification; and mitigation Data analysis procedures include modeling (steady-state;
empirical; empirical time-varying; dynamic; process); correlative, single-factor, and multivariate
analyses; spatial and temporal trends analyses; and pafeoecological analyses.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Sediments, Seepage Lakes,
Snowpack, Soils, Streams, Vegetation, Watersheds, Wetlands
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Nitrate, Organics, Sulfate
Approach: Correlative Analyses, Existing Data Analyses, Literature, Modeling,
Single-Factor Analyses, Statistical Analyses, Trends Analyses
Processes: Biological Response, Chronic Acidification, Episodic Acidification,
Mineral Weathering, Nitrogen Cycling, Organic Acidification, Recovery,
Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfate Desorption
PPA: E-09 EPA Code: E-09.2A NAPAP Code: 6G-2.01
Element: Project
Contributing to: N/A
Cross Reference: Program: Synthesis and Integration (E-09)
Program Element: 1990 NAPAP Report (E-09.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
Contact: Kent Thornton
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TITLE: The Effects of Acidic Deposition on Aquatic Resources: Integrated Assessment
SHORTTITLE: Integrated Assessment
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Canada, Mid-Appalachians. Northeast, Norway, Southeast, Southern Blue
Ridge Province, Upper Midwest, West
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To perform an Integrated Assessment and uncertainty analysis, using the
approaches and results presented in the Aquatics State of Science, to answer the following four
questions: (1)What are the effects of concern in aquatic resources, and what is the relationship
between acidic deposition and these effects? (2) What is the sensitivity to change in effects with
selected incremental changes in deposition relative to a selected base case? (3) What are estimates
of future conditions (categorized by conservation parameters), given (a) no change in current policy
or legislation on air quality issues, and (b) given various (illustrative) control strategies? and (4) What
are the comparative evaluations of the illustrative control strategies based on conservation benefits?
RATIONALE: The Congressional mandate that resulted in the establishment of the National Acid
Precipitation Assessment Program in 1980 stipulated that a final assessment of the Program's
research would be produced in 1990. The Task Group's contribution to the Integrated Assessment, in
part, fulfills this obligation.
APPROACH: The Integrated Assessment wilt provide answers to the above four questions along with
uncertainty analyses. Various models, algorithms, and empirical analyses will be used to evaluate
effects of acidic deposition on aquatic resources identified to be of concern, and the outcome of
these analyses will be ranked according to their level of certainty. Steady-state, dynamic, and
empirical, time-varying models will be used to evaluate the sensitivity of aquatic resources with
regard to increased and decreased deposition (relative to current levels). Estimates of future
conditions will be based on comparative evaluation of natural trends in surface waters with future
forecasts based on the results of various models or algorithms (such as source-receptor relationship
models and exposure-response functions) relating deposition to effects. Comparative evaluations of
illustrative control strategies will be presented as a matrix of estimated responses of aquatic
resources relative to reference scenarios (without policy changes) and scenarios described in various
illustrative control strategies
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Sediments, Seepage Lakes.
Snowpack, Soils, Streams, Vegetation, Watersheds, Wetlands
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Nitrate, Organics, Sulfate
Approach: Correlative Analyses, Existing Data Analyses, Literature, Modeling,
Single-Factor Analyses, Statistical Analyses, Trends Analyses
Processes: Biological Response, Chronic Acidification, Episodic Acidification,
Mineral Weathering, Nitrogen Cycling, Organic Acidification, Recovery,
Sulfate Adsorption, Sulfate Desorption
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PPA: E-09 EPA Code: E-09.2B NAPAP Code: 6G-2.02
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: N/A
Cross Reference: Program: Synthesis and Integration (E-09)
Program Element: 1990 NAPAP Report Activities (E-09.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988 to 1990
Contact: Kent Thornton
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TITLE: Dissemination of Information and Technology from the Aquatic Effects Research Program
SHORT TITLE: Technology Transfer
REGION(S)/STATE(S): N/A
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To transfer effectively and efficiently technology and information
emanating from the Aquatic Effects Research Program to the users of that technology and
information. To establish communication lines from the user to the Environmental Protection
Agency.
RATIONALE: Since its implementation in 1983, the Aquatic Effects Research Program has produced
extensive technical information including data bases, analytical methods and quality assurance
manuals, field and laboratory operating plans, data reports, and scientific publications. To maximize
the use of this information requires that an effective communications and dissemination plan be
developed. Active transmittal of Aquatic Effects Research Program products to federal and state
agencies, universities, the private sector, and other parties interested in or conducting research on
environmental issues will afford maximal opportunity for all to benefit from the knowledge gained
in executing this program.
APPROACH: Identify categories of users for the information and design mechanisms by which the
information can be distributed in a timely and efficient manner. Also, establish a communication
channel for users to distribute information to the Environmental Protection Agency.
KEYWORDS: Medium: N/A
Chemicals: N/A
Approach: Literature
Processes: N/A
PPA: E-09 EPA Code: E-09.3 NAPAP Code: 6G-3
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-04, E-05, E-06, E-07, E-08
Cross Reference: Program: Synthesis and Integration (E-09)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1990
Contact: Deb Chaloud
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2.8 LONG-TERM MONITORING - PROGRAM E-06
[Program/Program Element/Project]
E-06: Long-Term Monitoring (6B-2) 2-119
E-06.1 Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems (6B-2.01) 2-121
E-06.1A Monitoring for Regional Trends Assessment (6B-2.01 A) 2-122
E-06.1B Optimizing Trends Detection (6B-2.01 B) 2-124
E-06.1C Methods Development (6B-2.01C) 2-125
E-06.1D Quality Assurance/Quality Control Interpretation (6B-2.01D) 2-126
E-06.1E Paleolimnological Studies of Adirondack Lakes (6B-2.01E) 2-128
E-06.IF Long-Term Biomonitoring(6B-2.01F) 2-129
E-06.2 Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring (6B-2.03) 2-130
E-06.2A Site-Specific Monitoring in the Upper Midwest (6B-2.03A) 2-131
E-06.2B Site-Specific Monitoring in Vermont (6B-2.03B) 2-132
E-06.2C Site-Specific Monitoring in the
Adirondack Mountains. NY (6B-2.03C) 2-133
E-06.2D Site-Specific Monitoring in Maine (6B-2.03D) 2-134
E-06.2E Site-Specific Monitoring in the Catskill Mountains. NY (6B-2.03E) 2-135
E-06.2F Site-Specific Monitoring in the
Southern Rocky Mountains (6B-2.03F) 2-136
E-06.2G Front Range Lake Acidification (6B-2.03G) 2-137
E-06.2H Mt Zirkel Lake Study (6B-2.03H) 2-138
E-06.21 New Mexico Lake Study (6B-2.03I) 2-139
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TITLE: Long-Term Monitoring of Surface Waters to Verify Forecasts of Surface Water Response to
Various Levels of Acidic Deposition
SHORT TITLE: Long-Term Monitoring
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DC, DE, MD, MO, MS, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VA, WV), Midwest (IN,
OH), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VT), Southeast (AL, AR. FL,
GA, KY, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA), Upper Midwest (Ml, MN, Wl), West (AK,
A2, CA, CO, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To provide an early and ongoing indication of regional trends in surface
water acidification or recovery, using the most appropriate techniques to detect such trends. To
quantify, with known certainty for defined subpopulations of lakes and streams, the rate at which
chemical and biological changes are occurring, the subpopulation characteristics of these affected
lakes and/or streams, and the subregional extent of these systems. To compare patterns and trends
in local and regional atmospheric deposition with patterns and trends in surface water quality.
RATIONALE: Forecasts of surface water response to future changes in acidic loadings can be
corroborated only through the long-term collection and analysis of chemical and biological data.
Informed policy decisions to implement or continue emissions controls can be made only with an
understanding of trends in aquatic ecosystems
APPROACH: Long-term monitoring has two program elements - the Temporally Integrated
Monitoring of Ecosystems (TIME) and Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring. Within the first program
element, the TIME Project, six projects are identified: (1) Monitoring (to collect long-term chemical
and biological data records), (2) Optimizing Trends Detection (essential for completion of an optimal
design for the project), (3) Methods Development (essential for development and refinement of
analytical methods), (4) Quality Assurance/Quality Control Interpretation (analyses of extensive
quality assurance data to quantify error associated with environmental sampling),
(5) Paleolimnological Studies (a study of Adirondack lake chemistry using paleolimnological
techniques to infer historical water chemistry from sediment records), and (6) Long-Term
Biomonitoring (to assess feasibility of incorporating biological parameters in the long-term
monitoring program) Within the second program element, Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring, six
other projects are identified. These projects focus on the continuation of data collection and analysis
at low acid neutralizing capacity lakes in six different regions: the Upper Midwest, Vermont,
Adirondacks, Maine, Catskills, and Southern Rocky Mountains. These studies will provide valuable
information on natural variability of these systems over a range of annual hydrologic cycles, as well
as preliminary insights into whether and where trends in acidification or recovery are occurring.
The basis for selecting lakes and streams for monitoring is derived from the results of the National
Surface Water Survey in which regional lake and stream population characteristics were developed.
Historical monitoring data are used to improve designs proposed for future studies. Methods
proposed for monitoring activities will be compatible with those used in the National Surface Water
Survey. Appropriate statistical analyses will be applied to the resulting data.
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KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Sediments, Seepage Lakes, Soils,
Streams, Watersheds
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Calcium, Chlorophyll, Color,
Conductance, Conductivity, Discharge, Dissolved Organic Carbon, Major
Ions, Mercury, Metals, Nitrate, Nutrients, Organics, pH, Speciated
Aluminum, Sulfate, Total Aluminum
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling, Ion Balance, Laboratory,
Literature, Modeling, Paleolimnology, Remote Sensing, Single-Factor
Analyses, Statistical Analyses, Trends Analyses
Processes: Aluminum Speciation, Biological Response, Chronic Acidification,
Community Response, Episodic Acidification, Metals Mobilization,
Organic Acidification, Recovery
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06 NAPAP Code: 6B-2
Element: Program
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: None
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1982 to 1990 +
Contact: Jesse Ford
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TITLE: Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems to Detect Trends in Surface Water Chemical
Status and Acidification or Recovery Processes
SHORT TITLE: Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DC, DE, MD, MO, MS, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VA, WV), Midwest (IN,
OH), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VT), Southeast (AL, AR, FL,
GA, KY, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA), Upper Midwest (Ml, MN, Wl), West (AK,
AZ, CA, CO, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To provide an early indication of regional trends in surface water
acidification or recovery. To quantify with known certainty for defined subpopulations of surface
waters the rate of change in surface water quality and the geographical extent of these changes. To
compare patterns and trends in local and regional deposition with regional patterns and trends in
surface water quality. To evaluate usefulness of integrating biological parameters with chemical
parameters.
RATIONALE: Forecasts of surface water response to future changes in acidic loadings can be
corroborated only through the long-term collection and analysis of chemical and biological data.
Informed policy decisions to implement or continue emissions controls can be made only with an
understanding of trends in aquatic ecosystems.
APPROACH: Using the National Surface Water Survey data bases as a frame, lakes and streams will
be selected for broad-scale seasonal or monthly monitoring. Smaller subsets of systems will be
sampled to quantify mechanisms and to test regional-scale hypotheses, relating results back to the
population of interest identified from the National Surface Water Survey. The project design is
expected to be sufficiently flexible to accommodate the use of existing long-term data bases and
research activities within relevant scientific areas such as forests, soils, and meteorology.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Sediments, Seepage Lakes, Soils,
Streams, Watersheds
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Calcium, Conductance, Major
Ions, Mercury, Metals, Nitrate, Organics, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling, Ion Balance, Laboratory,
Literature, Modeling, Paleolimnology, Remote Sensing, Statistical
Analyses, Trends Analyses
Processes: Aluminum Speciation, Biological Response, Chronic Acidification,
Community Response, Metals Mobilization, Organic Acidification,
Recovery
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.1 NAPAP Code: 6B-2.01
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-07, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-term Monitoring (E-06)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1982 to 1990 +
Contact: Jesse Ford
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TITLE: Regional-scale Monitoring to Determine Long-term Trends in Surface Waters
SHORT TITLE: Monitoring for Regional Trends Assessment
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DC, DE, MD, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VA, WV), Northeast (CT, MA, ME,
NH, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VT), Southeast (AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN),
Upper Midwest (Ml, MN, Wl), West (CA, CO, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA.
WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine, via an integrated aquatic ecosystem monitoring program, the
long-term regional trends in acidification or recovery. To compare results of trends monitoring to
the forecasts of surface water chemical change as determined by the Direct/Delayed Response
Project. To analyze the relationship between patterns and trends in atmospheric deposition and
trends in surface water chemistry for defined subpopulations of aquatic resources in areas
particularly susceptible to acidification or recovery.
RATIONALE: Aquatic ecosystem change in both the near and distant future is likely to result from
projected increases or decreases in emissions of SOx and NOx in the United States. If costly emission
controls are installed, the efficiency of these measures in reversing surface water acidification is an
important issue. Conversely, no action to curb current emissions or to limit increased emissions in the
United States could result in changes in surface water chemistry that affect biological populations
(e.g., fish) or human health (e.g., heavy metal availability). A coordinated, integrated regional
monitoring program is the only way of determining the rate of change in potentially affected
ecosystems on a time frame of years, rather than decades. In the case of deterioration or recovery,
the regional nature of the problem translates into an important environmental issue affecting
valuable resources.
APPROACH: Important acidic deposition effects are manifested as changes in biological
populations, yet the direct measurement and interpretation of biota is not always straightforward.
Chemical measurements are more easily obtained but cannot always be used as surrogate measures
of probable biological effects. The proposed approach is to design a monitoring program in which
both biological indicators and biologically relevant chemical parameters are measured over time. A
balance between extensive and intensive monitoring will be struck and the design will be
customized for the individual regions of the country and the expected change that would occur
within them.
Seasonal or monthly samples from "rapid response" aquatic systems will form the core of the study
and will provide an early detection of change in those systems most likely to demonstrate effects.
Quantification of the proportion of the population that may also be changing could be
accomplished by annual sampling of a statistically chosen subsample or by resampling a statistically
chosen subsample after a change has been identified in a specific subpopulation.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Seepage Lakes, Soils, Streams,
Watersheds
Chemicals: Aluminum, Calcium, Mercury, Nitrate, Organics, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Recovery
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PPA: E-06 EPACode: E-06.1A NAPAP Code: 6B-2.01A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-07, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems (E-06.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1982 to 1990 +
Contact: Jesse Ford
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TITLE: Optimizing Trends Detection for Long-term Monitoring of Surface Waters
SHORT TITLE: Optimizing Trends Detection
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic (DC, DE, MD. MO, MS, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VA, WV), Midwest (IN,
OH), Northeast (CT, MA, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, Rl, VT), Southeast (AL, AR, FL,
GA, KY, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA), Upper Midwest (Ml, MN, Wl), West (AK,
AZ, CA, CO, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA. WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To ensure that the design and implementation plan for the Temporally
Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems project adequately addresses the issues related to detecting
subtle changes in chemistry and biology of surface waters that may have regional-scale significance
in terms of recovery or acidification.
RATIONALE: Six key areas for which insufficient information exist have been identified that need to
be addressed before the research plan and implementation plan of the Temporally Integrated
Monitoring of Ecosystems project can be optimally developed. Completion of this project will
improve the chances of implementing a well-designed, efficient, and appropriate monitoring
program.
APPROACH: Investigators in the private sector, universities, and federal laboratories are being asked
to contribute to six key tasks: (1) examining the effects of constituent variability on estimating
temporal change in surface water quality, (2) developing protocols for analysis of detection limit
data, (3) identifying and acquiring existing long-term data records, (4) evaluating the utility of
diatom/chrysophyte data for examining long-term trends in chemistry, (5) devising robust statistical
testing procedures for establishing trends, and (6) developing an inventory of emissions point
sources likely to affect monitoring sites.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Streams, Watersheds
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Major Ions, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Literature, Modeling, Statistical Analyses, Trends
Analyses
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Recovery
PPA: E-06 EPACode: E-06.1B NAPAP Code: 6B-2.01B
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-07, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems (E-06.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1989
Contact: Dixon Landers
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TITLE: Methods Development for Long-term Monitoring of Surface Waters
SHORT TITLE: Methods Development
REGION(S)/STATE(S): West(NV)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To provide analytical methods of sufficient accuracy, precision, and
sensitivity to meet the requirements of the Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems project.
RATIONALE: Detection and interpretation of trends in surface waters depend on the quality of the
analytical measurements. Because many of the methods are state-of-the-art, the surface waters
studied have relatively dilute chemical composition, data quality objectives were rigorously defined,
and chemical data from the Aquatic Effects Research Program will contribute significantly to policy
decisions on potential emissions controls, the methods selected for analyzing chemistry of surface
waters were required to be of the highest quality possible. The emphasis of this project was on the
use of inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry for monitoring trends in trace metal
distributions, and on the development of automated methods such as flow injection analysis for
measuring water quality parameters. Other methods evaluated include the aluminum/fluoride
complex kinetic method, for determining aluminum species in surface waters, and remote sensing
applications, for extending the results of water surveys to much larger areas.
APPROACH: Analytical methods requirements for research projects were identified. Initial research
identified one (or more) method(s) that could be applied to the analysis. A protocol was developed,
optimized, tested, and modified if necessary before incorporating the method into the program.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Lakes, Sediments, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Metals, pH
Approach: Field Sampling, Laboratory, Literature, Remote Sensing
Processes: Aluminum Speciation, Metals Mobilization
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.1C NAPAP Code: 6B-2.01C
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-07, E-08
Cross Reference: Program: Long-term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems (E-06.1)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1986 to 1988
Contact: Edward Heithmar
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TITLE: Quality Assurance/Quality Control Interpretation for Application in Long-term Monitoring
SHORT TITLE: Quality Assurance/Quality Control Interpretation
REGION(S)/STATE(S): West(NV)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To provide and define to data users and project planners quality
assurance/quality control guidance that is technically correct, easily understood, cost effective, and
based on Aquatic Effects Research Program experience.
RATIONALE: The effective application of quality assurance/quality control data is sometimes
confounded by the complexity of its derivation and the diversity of the information that can be
obtained from the data. This complexity can be especially true of environmental monitoring where
analyte concentrations are often at the limits of detection and where numerous sources of variability
are present through the sampling and analytical process. In addition, quality assurance project plans
for environmental studies are to a great degree based on a number of assumptions and theoretical
statistical manipulations.
The National Surface Water Survey data bases contain a wealth of quality assurance/quality control
information not yet rigorously analyzed as part of the program. A unique opportunity exists to
develop from these data bases practical quality assurance/quality control guidance for
environmental scientists based on actual field experience. Such guidance can be essential for long-
term monitoring activities in which knowledge of system imprecision is important for trends
detection and for reducing uncertainties that impact policy decisions.
APPROACH: A team of university cooperators, contractors, and Environmental Protection Agency
staff is examining all quality assurance/quality control aspects of the existing verified National
Surface Water Survey data bases. Emphasis is on the efficiency of not only the procedures used to
detect and estimate bias and variability, but also on procedures to reduce and control bias and
variability, such as upfront quality control. Identification of the various components of variability
(e.g., sampling, sample processing, analytical) is an important aspect of this task that will be
particularly useful to project planners. The risk versus cost benefit of an increased or decreased
number of quality assurance/quality control samples such as blanks, replicates, and audits for a study
is being determined. Procedures for estimating the appropriate number and frequency of such
samples during project planning is being described and is based on actual National Surface Water
Survey field data.
Particular attention is being given to the problems of concentration-dependent precision in terms of
use during data interpretation, and of the representativeness and use of audit samples. The
National Surface Water Survey data are being used to develop and examine a variability model
based on analyte concentration. The model should provide data users and project planners with a
variability estimate based on actual or expected concentrations.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Lakes, Soils, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Conductance, Major Ions,
Nitrate, Organics, Sulfate
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Ion Balance, Literature
Processes: N/A
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PPA: E-06 EPACode: E-06.1D NAPAP Code: 6B-2.01D
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01. E-05. E-07. E-08
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems (E-06.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1986 to 1990
Contact: Jesse Ford, Robert Schonbrod
2-127
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TITLE: Paleoecological Assessment of Changes in Adirondack Lake pH and Alkalinity, pre-1850 to
the Present
SHORT TITLE: Paleolimnological Studies of Adirondack Lakes
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (NY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECT!VE(S): To determine the percentage of a representative set of Adirondack lakes
with current pH <5.5 that were naturally acidic prior to 1850, and the extent to which these and
other lakes have acidified since the onset of acidic deposition. To assess which lakes appear to have
been most susceptible to acidic inputs and thus would be best candidates for long-term monitoring.
To develop procedures and strategies for use of diatoms and chrysophytes in other studies.
RATIONALE: Although the National Lake Survey is providing an accurate estimate of the number
and surface area of lakes with currently low pH (<5.5) and alkalinity (acid neutralizing capacity
<25 ueq/L), the proportion of these lakes that were/are naturally acidic is unknown. Likewise, the
extent to which different categories of lakes have acidified since the onset of acidic deposition is
unknown. Limited historical water chemistry and fisheries data provide evidence of acidification,
but interpretations are controversial. Analysis of diatom and chrysophyte remains in sediment cores,
a technique that has developed rapidly in the past five years, has been used successfully in several
European and U.S. studies. Studies have indicated significant recent acidification trends in several
regions, and that many lakes were naturally acidic prior to 1850.
APPROACH: Diatom and chrysophyte assemblages in the top (0 to 1 cm) and bottom (below 20-30
cm; pre-1850) of sediment cores from 22 Adirondack lakes will be analyzed, and inferred pH and acid
neutralizing capacity, using procedures and forecast equations developed in the PIRLA project
(Paleoecological Investigation of Recent Lake Acidification) will be calculated. A representative set
of study lakes (acid neutralizing capacity <25neq/L) has been selected from a set of 30 that were
cored but not analyzed for diatoms, and from lakes sampled as part of the Eastern Lake Survey.
Estimates of the percent of naturally acidic lakes and magnitude of acidification trends will be based
on these 22 lakes combined with comparable existing data on about 20 other Adirondack lakes.
Conclusions based on analysis of tops and bottoms of cores will be compared with conclusions based
on full stratigraphtc analysis of previously studied cores. The characteristics of the best candidate
lakes for long-term monitoring will be identified and incorporated into screening criteria for the
Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems Project.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes, Sediments
Chemicals: Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling, Laboratory, Paleolimnology
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Organic Acidification
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.1E NAPAPCode: 6B-2.01E
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-03, E-07, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems (E-06.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1989
Contact: Don Charles
2-128
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TITLE: Usefulness and Feasibility of Biomonitoring in the Context of a Long-Term Surface Water
Monitoring Program
SHORT TITLE: Long-Term Biomonitoring
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast. Southeast, Upper Midwest. West
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To assess the usefulness and feasibility of adding biological parameters to
the long-term monitoring program. What would be gained? What (exactly) are the parameters
(organisms, population/community measures) of interest? Is it cost-effective? Is it feasible,
logistically and technically?
RATIONALE: Aquatic communities are sensitive to changes in their chemical environment. Because
communities are complex and ecotypic variation within species can be significant, simple dose-
response relationships between single chemical parameters and individual species are unreliable
indicators of likely potential trajectories of real communities undergoing chemical stress Following
the changes in regionally appropriate aspects of aquatic communities may provide an integrative
measure of biologically relevant change that simple chemical sampling may miss (e.g., frequency and
severity of transient episodes).
APPROACH: Following the recommendations of the joint U.S./Canadian workshop on
Biomonitoring (3/88), several aspects of biological community structure will be studied, using
existing data sets, to characterize their statistical properties This is the first step in determining
whether they can be useful in terms of trend assessment.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Lakes, Streams
Chemicals: N/A
Approach: Literature, Statistical Analyses
Processes: Biological Response, Community Response, Recovery
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.1F NAPAPCode: 6B-201F
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-03, E-05
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems (E-06.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988to1990 +
Contact: Jesse Ford
2-129
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TITLE: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring
SHORT TITLE: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME, NY. VT). Upper Midwest (MN, Wl, Ml), West (CO)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): Because the implementation schedule for the new Temporally Integrated
Monitoring of Ecosystems (TIME) Project has been delayed, it has been decided to maintain the most
relevant and feasible portions of the old Long-Term Monitoring Project network.
RATIONALE: The continuation of these sites ensures that 5-9 years of seasonal or monthly data will
be available for over 80 low acid neutralizing capacity systems distributed throughout many of the
regions of concern with respect to acidic precipitation. This will provide information on natural
variability of these systems over a range of annual hydrologic cycles, as well as preliminary insights
into whether and where trends in acidification or recovery are occurring.
APPROACH: Continuation of data collection by the same cooperators who have been studying these
systems since the early- to mid-80's.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Lakes, Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Chlorophyll, Color, Conductivity, Discharge,
Dissolved Organic Carbon, Major Ions, Nutrients, pH, Speciated
Aluminum, Total Aluminum
Approach: Field Sampling, Laboratory, Single-Factor Analyses, Statistical Analyses,
Trends Analyses
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Episodic Acidification, Recovery
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.2 NAPAPCode: 6B-2.03
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-05, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988 to 1990*
Contact: Jesse Ford
2-130
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TITLE: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring in the Upper Midwest
SHORT TITLE: Site-Specific Monitoring in the Upper Midwest
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Upper Midwest (MN, Wl. Ml)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To continue data collection and analysis at low acid neutralizing capacity
lakes with five or more years of monitoring data In some cases, records extend back for an
additional four years due to inclusion in a previous monitoring program.
RATIONALE: The continuation of these sites means that 5-9 years of seasonal or monthly data will be
available for over 80 low acid neutralizing capacity systems distributed throughout many of the
regions of concern with respect to acidic precipitation. This will provide information on natural
variability of these systems over a range of annual hydrologic cycles, as well as preliminary insights
into whether and where trends in acidification or recovery are occurring.
APPROACH: Spring, summer, and fall water samples and field measurements will be taken at 4
Minnesota lakes, 11 Wisconsin lakes, and 10 Michigan lakes. These lakes span a significant east/west
deposition gradient. Ancillary biological data are available for many of these systems and are being
used under Project E-06.1F, Long-Term Biomonitoring.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Chlorophyll, Color, Conductivity, Dissolved
Organic Carbon, Major Ions, Nutrients, pH, Total Aluminum
Approach: Field Sampling, Laboratory, Single-Factor Analyses, Statistical Analyses,
Trends Analyses
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Episodic Acidification, Recovery
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.2A NAPAPCode: 6B-2.03A
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring (E-06.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988 to 1990 +
Contact: Jesse Ford
2-131
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TITLE: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring in Vermont
SHORT TITLE: Site-Specific Monitoring in Vermont
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (VT)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To continue data collection and analysis at low acid neutralizing capacity
lakes with five or more years of monitoring data. In some cases, records extend back an additional
three years due to inclusion in a previous program.
RATIONALE: The continuation of these sites means that 5-9 years of seasonal or monthly data will be
available for over 80 low acid neutralizing capacity systems distributed throughout many of the
regions of concern with respect to acidic precipitation. This will provide information on natural
variability of these systems over a range of annual hydrologic cycles, as well as preliminary insights
into whether and where trends in acidification or recovery are occurring.
APPROACH: Winter, spring, summer, and fall water samples and field measurements are being
taken at 24 Vermont lakes of different levels of organic color. Ancillary precipitation quantity and
pH data are available through Vermont's Acid Precipitation Monitoring Network. Ancillary
biological data are available for many of these systems and may be used under Project E- 06.1 F, Long-
Term Biomonitoring.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Color, Conductivity, Major Ions,
pH, Total Aluminum
Approach: Field Sampling, Laboratory, Single-Factor Analyses. Statistical Analyses,
Trends Analyses
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Episodic Acidification, Recovery
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.2B NAPAPCode: 6B-2.03B
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-08. E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring (E-06.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988 to 1990 +
Contact: Jesse Ford
2-132
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TITLE: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring in the Adirondack Mountains, NY
SHORT TITLE: Site-Specific Monitoring in the Adirondack Mountains, NY
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (NY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To continue data collection and analysis at low acid neutralizing capacity
lakes with six years of monitoring data.
RATIONALE: The continuation of these sites means that 5-9 years of seasonal or monthly data will be
available for over 80 low acid neutralizing capacity systems distributed throughout many of the
regions of concern with respect to acidic precipitation. This will provide information on natural
variability of these systems over a range of annual hydrologic cycles, as well as preliminary insights
into whether and where trends in acidification or recovery are occurring.
APPROACH: Monthly water samples and field measurements are being taken at the outlets of
16 Adirondack lakes. At 11 sites, samples are taken weekly during spring snowmelt. These lakes
cover a range of geologic, hydrologic, and limnological characteristics and also cover a significant
gradient in bulk precipitation and, therefore, acid loadings. All of the sites were used in the
Regionalization of the Integrated Lake Watershed Acidification Study funded by the Electric Power
Research Institute, and have ancillary information on atmospheric deposition, surficial geology,
mineralogy, vegetation, hydrology, and fish populations.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Speciated Aluminum, Color, Conductivity,
Dissolved Organic Carbon, Major Ions, pH
Approach: Field Sampling, Laboratory, Single-Factor Analyses, Statistical Analyses,
Trends Analyses
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Episodic Acidification, Recovery
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.2C NAPAPCode: 68-2 03C
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring (E-06.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988 to 1990 +
Contact: Jesse Ford
2-133
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TITLE: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring in Maine
SHORT TITLE: Site-Specific Monitoring in Maine
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Northeast (ME)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To continue data collection and analysis for low acid neutralizing capacity
lakes with six years of monitoring data.
RATIONALE: The continuation of these sites means that 5-9 years of seasonal or monthly data will be
available for over 80 low acid neutralizing capacity systems distributed throughout many of the
regions of concern with respect to acidic precipitation. This will provide information on natural
variability of these systems over a range of annual hydrologic cycles, as well as preliminary insights
into whether and where trends in acidification or recovery are occurring.
APPROACH: Spring, summer, and fall water samples and field measurements are being taken from
five lakes clustered in an area receiving deposition that is intermediate relative to that received by
the Adirondacks and the Upper Midwest. Ancillary information is also available on fish species
composition.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Color, Conductivity, Major Ions, pH, Total
Aluminum
Approach: Field Sampling. Laboratory, Single-Factor Analyses, Statistical Analyses,
Trends Analyses
Processes: Chronic Acidification. Episodic Acidification, Recovery
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.2D NAPAPCode: 68-2.030
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05. E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring (E-06.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988 to 1990 +
Contact: Jesse Ford
2-134
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TITLE: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring in the Catskill Mountains, NY
SHORT TITLE: Site-Specific Monitoring in the Catskill Mountains, NY
REGION{S)/STATE(S): Northeast (NY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To continue data collection and analysis in low acid neutralizing capacity,
headwater streams with five years of monitoring data in an area of significant sulfate loadings.
RATIONALE: The continuation of these sites means that 5-9 years of seasonal or monthly data will be
available for over 80 low acid neutralizing capacity systems distributed throughout many of the
regions of concern with respect to acidic precipitation This will provide information on natural
variability of these systems over a range of annual hydrologic cycles, as well as preliminary insights
into whether and where trends in acidification or recovery are occurring.
APPROACH: Nine to twelve samples per year will be taken from four streams in a region of the state
receiving sulfate deposition
KEYWORDS: Medium: Streams
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Conductivity, Discharge, Dissolved Organic
Carbon, Major Ions, Total Aluminum
Approach: Field Sampling, Laboratory, Single-Factor Analyses, Statistical Analyses,
Trends Analyses
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Episodic Acidification, Recovery
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.2E NAPAPCode: 6B-2.03E
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring (E-06.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988 to 1990 +
Contact: Jesse Ford
2-135
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TITLE: Site-Specific Long-Term Monitoring in the Southern Rocky Mountains
SHORT TITLE: Site-Specific Monitoring in the Southern Rocky Mountains
REGION(S)/STATE(S): West (CO)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To continue data collection and analysis for low acid neutralizing capacity
lakes in the Mt. Zirkel and Weminuche Wilderness Areas.
RATIONALE: The continuation of these sites means that 5-9 years of seasonal or monthly data will be
available for over 80 low acid neutralizing capacity systems distributed throughout many of the
regions of concern with respect to acidic precipitation. This will provide information on natural
variability of these systems over a range of annual hydrologic cycles, as well as preliminary insights
into whether and where trends in acidification or recovery are occurring
APPROACH: Three water samples will be collected during the ice-free season from 10 low acid
neutralizing capacity lakes in a poorly characterized area that may be highly vulnerable should
deposition increase.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Color, Conductivity, Major Ions, pH, Total
Aluminum
Approach: Field Sampling, Laboratory, Single-Factor Analyses, Statistical Analyses,
Trends Analyses
Processes: Chronic Acidification
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06 2F NAPAPCode: 6B-2.03F
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-05, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Site-Specific Monitoring in the West (E-06.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988 to 1990 +
Contact: Jesse Ford
2-136
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TITLE: Lake Acidification in the Front Range of Colorado
SHORT TITLE: Front Range Lake Acidification
REGION(S)/STATE(S): West (CO)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine if literature references to lake acidification in the Front Range
of Colorado are consistent with results from analyses of complete chemical data.
RATIONALE: Of the regions in the West receiving acidic deposition, the Front Range of Colorado is
an area of concern because it is close to the Denver metropolitan area and because previous studies
conducted in this area have concluded that lake acidification has occurred.
APPROACH: Approximately 43 lakes will be sampled annually, as per a previous study (1979), and
5-10 lakes will be sampled biweekly to determine if lake sulfate concentrations reflect acidification
by acidic deposition. Complete chemical characterization will be performed. Maximum acidification
will be estimated using a new method that differentiates estimated normal regional atmospheric
deposition of sulfate from weathering of sulfur minerals in watersheds. The activities for this project
with regard to the National Surface Water Survey have been completed under PPA E-01; some of
these activities will now be conducted as part of the Long-Term Monitoring Program (E-06).
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Base Cations, Nitrate, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling, Literature
Processes: Chronic Acidification, Mineral Weathering
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.20 NAPAPCode: 6B-2.03G
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01. E-03, E-05, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems (E-06.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988 to 1990 +
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-137
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TITLE: Chemistry of Lakes in High Elevation, Western Wilderness Areas
SHORT TITLE: Mt. Zirkel Lake Study
REGION(S)/STATE(S): West (CO)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To characterize the chemistry of 10 high-elevation lakes in the Mount Zirkel
and Weminuche Wilderness Areas during a summer index period; to determine temporal variability
of key chemical parameters in four of the lakes; and to examine the relationship between major ions
in precipitation and lake water.
RATIONALE: Concern about acidic deposition is growing in the western United States.
Development of energy and metal resources is expected to increase atmospheric emissions of acid
precursors and trace metals. Of particular note are developments near wilderness areas or national
parks Because federal permits are required for these areas, air quality is protected from
degradation. This project will evaluate the present water quality of lakes in these areas to help
develop emissions permits and control strategies, to establish a data base for monitoring long-term
effects, and to evaluate selected monitoring methods.
APPROACH: Ten lakes (four in Mt. Zirkel Wilderness Area and six in Weminuche Wilderness Area)
were selected for study because of their low alkalinity and sulfate concentrations. These lakes likely
would exhibit strong trends in response to acidic inputs if sulfate deposition is the major source of
acidity. Sampling is conducted in the summer at two depths for the Mt. Zirkel lakes and at the
outflow for the Weminuche lakes. Samples from the Mt. Zirke! lakes are preserved and analyzed for
a number of chemical properties, while samples from the Weminuche lakes are analyzed for major
ions only. Yearly sampling will show long-term trends, if any occur. The activities for this project
with regard to the National Surface Water Survey have been completed under PPA E-01; a portion of
these activities will now be addressed as part of the Long-Term Monitoring Program (E-06).
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes
Chemicals: Conductance, Major Ions, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Chronic Acidification
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.2H NAPAPCode: 6B-2.03H
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems (E-06.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988to1990 +
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-138
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TITLE: Seasonal and Episodic Water Quality Changes in Precipitation and Lake Water in Northern
New Mexico
SHORT TITLE: New Mexico Lake Study
REGION(S)/STATE(S): West(NM)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To monitor atmospheric deposition at a high altitude site characteristic of
northern New Mexico. To determine the frequency, duration, and magnitude of acidic episodes in
precipitation, snowmelt, and adjacent lakes.
RATIONALE: The Western Lake Survey provided only fall data for lakes in high mountainous regions.
Very little is known of the possible effects of spring snowmelt or precipitation events on these dilute
systems. Further, there are very few high altitude sites at which deposition chemistry is measured.
The New Mexico Lake Study will provide needed information in both of these areas.
APPROACH: Precipitation chemistry will be monitored by an NADP-type deposition sampling station
at the 3,110-foot level in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in northern New Mexico. Snowpack
chemistry at that location will be determined monthly during the winter, and snowmelt will be
sampled using a 1.5-m diameter fiberglass snowmelt collector The nine adjacent Latir lakes will be
monitored for changes in water chemistry associated with snowmelt and precipitation. The activities
for this project, with regard to the National Surface Water Survey, have been completed under PPA
E-01; if these activities continue, depending on the results of the first year of study, they will be
addressed as part of the Long-Term Monitoring Program (E-06).
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Deposition, Lakes, Snowpack
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Aluminum, Ammonium, Major Ions,
Organics, pH
Approach: Field Sampling
Processes: Episodic Acidification
PPA: E-06 EPA Code: E-06.21 NAPAPCode: 6B-2.03I
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-08, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Long-Term Monitoring (E-06)
Program Element: Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems (E-06.1)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1988 to 1990 +
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-139
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2.9 INDIRECT HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS - PROGRAM E-04
[Program/Program Element/Project]
E-04: Indirect Human Health Effects (6E) 2-143
E-04.1 Effectsof Acidic Depositionon Drinking Water (6E-1) 2-144
E-04.1A Cistern and Groundwater Drinking Supplies (6E-1.01) 2-145
E-04.1B Surface Water Drinking Supplies (6E-1.02) 2-146
E-04.2 Bioaccumulation of Metals (6E-2) 2-147
E-04.2A Metals in Biota (6E-2.01) 2-148
E-04.2B Metals in Surface Water/Sediments (6E-2.02) 2-149
2-141
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TITLE: Indirect Human Health Effects due to Acidic Deposition
SHORT TITLE: Indirect Human Health Effects
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Canada, Middle Atlantic, Netherlands Antilles (St. Maarten), Northeast (CT,
MA, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI.VT), Scandinavia, Southeast (FL, GA, KY, NC, SC.
TN, VA), United States, Upper Midwest (Ml, MN, Wl), West (CA, CO, ID, MT,
NM, NV, OR, UT,WA,WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): Research on post-depositional health effects due to acidic deposition has
two main areas of focus. One is the alteration of drinking water supplies in response to acidic inputs.
The second is the accumulation of mercury and other potentially toxic metals in the muscle tissue of
edible fish. The program objective is to determine the risk to human health due to acidic deposition
through these two routes of exposure.
RATIONALE: Acidic water is known to mobilize certain metals that have been demonstrated to be
toxic to humans. Because of its broad geographic scope, acidic deposition has the potential to
adversely affect a significant proportion of the population through water-mediated effects.
APPROACH: The approach to assess the extent of acidic deposition effects on precipitation-
dominated, noncommunity drinking water supplies (which are not federally regulated) and food
sources (e.g., metals bioaccumulation in edible fish) included analyzing existing survey data,
sampling in areas of high and low deposition, and quantifying the potentially exposed population.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Cisterns, Groundwater, Lakes, Sediments,
Watersheds
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Conductance, Mercury, Metals, Nitrate,
Organics, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling, Literature
Processes: Aluminum Mobilization, Mercury Bioaccumulation, Mercury Cycling,
Mercury Mobilization, Metals Bioaccumulation, Metals Mobilization,
Organic Chelation
PPA: E-04 EPA Code: E-04 NAPAP Code: 6E
Element: Program
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: None
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1984 to 1988
Contact: Daniel McKenzie
2-143
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TITLE: Effects of Acidic Deposition on Noncommunity Drinking Water Supplies
SHORT TITLE: Effects of Acidic Deposition on Drinking Water
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic, Netherlands Antilles (St. Maarten), Northeast (CT, MA, ME,
NH, NY, PA, Rl, VT), Southeast (GA, KY, NC, TN), Upper Midwest, West
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the extent of effects of acidic deposition on drinking water
supplies, including cisterns, groundwater, and surface water. To determine the magnitude of the
risk to human health.
[NOTE: All 1990 Assessment activities pertaining to this area will be discussed under the Human
Health component of the Assessment. For more information, contact Ruth Allen at EPA, 401 M St.
Washington, DC 20460]
RATIONALE: Acidic water is known to mobilize certain metals that have a demonstrated human
toxicity. Federal regulations do not apply to noncommunity systems, many of which are
precipitation-dominated drinking water supplies (cisterns, springs, shallow aquifers, surface waters).
APPROACH: Analyses of existing survey data and sampling of water supplies in areas receiving high
acidic deposition were used to determine the extent of effects. The population potentially affected
was also determined through survey data and additional surveys as needed.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Cisterns, Groundwater, Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Conductance, Metals, pH
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling, Literature
Processes: Metals Mobilization
PPA: E-04 EPACode: E-04.1 NAPAP Code: 6E-1
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-01.E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Indirect Human Health Effects (E-04)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1984 to 1988
Contact: Daniel McKenzie
2-144
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TITLE: Effects of Acidic Deposition on Chemistry of Cisterns and Groundwaters used for Drinking
Water
SHORT TITLE: Cistern and Groundwater Drinking Supplies
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Netherlands Antilles (St. Maarten). Southeast (GA, KY. NIC, TN)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To Determine the role of acidic deposition in modifying the quality of
drinking water supplied by cisterns and groundwaters. The objectives of the cistern study were (1) to
compare the water quality characteristics of cisterns in an area receiving acidic deposition to those in
an area not receiving acidic deposition, and (2) to determine changes in water quality as the water
passes from the collection device to the storage tank, through the plumbing system, to the tap. The
objectives of the groundwater, or shallow aquifer study, was to investigate different well and spring
designs and varying geology and to examine the relationship of these factors to trace contaminants
in the shallow aquifer itself and in the home plumbing system.
[NOTE: All 1990 Assessment activities pertaining to this area will be discussed under the Human
Health component of the Assessment. For more information, contact Ruth Allen at EPA, 401 M St.
Washington, DC 20460]
RATIONALE: Acidic water is known to mobilize certain metals and trace substances that have been
demonstrated as toxic to humans. Federal standards for these substances do not extend to
noncommunity drinking water systems, including cisterns, springs, and shallow aquifers. Examining
water quality of noncommunity drinking water supplies in areas receiving acidic deposition will help
to evaluate the potential, indirect human health risk posed by anthropogenically induced
acidification.
APPROACH: The cistern study involved deposition monitoring and cistern sampling for 19 water
quality parameters at four points in each system. Sampling was conducted throughout the year in
one area that receives acidic deposition and one that does not. The groundwater study used data
from the Eastern Lake Survey and other sources to identify areas where the geology might indicate
the presence of potentially sensitive water supplies. Within these areas, the presence of shallow
wells and springs was identified, and the geologic characteristics of these sites was determined.
Samples from home taps were collected and analyzed for various chemical constituents.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Cisterns, Groundwater
Chemicals: Conductance, Metals, pH
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling, Literature
Processes: Metals Mobilization
PPA: E-04 EPA Code: E-04.1A NAPAP Code: 6E-1.01
Element: Project
Contributing to: E -01, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Indirect Human Health Effects (E-04)
Program Element: Effects of Acidic Deposition on Drinking Water (E-04.1)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1984 to 1988
Contact: Daniel McKenzie
2-145
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TITLE: Investigating Potential Indirect Human Health Effects in Surface Waters Used as Drinking
Water Supplies
SHORT TITLE: Surface Water Drinking Supplies
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Middle Atlantic, Northeast (CT. MA, ME, NH, NY, PA. Rl, VT), Southeast,
Upper Midwest, West
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): The goals of this project were to evaluate the potential effects of acidic
deposition in modifying the chemistry of surface waters used as drinking water supplies and the
potential risk that such changes might pose to the population relying on these sources of drinking
water. One objective was to determine whether the water quality of noncommunity systems used
for drinking water is related to patterns of acidic deposition. A second was to determine if metals
concentrations in lakes in the National Lake Survey (E-01.1) exceed federally established standards,
and if so, whether these lakes are used as drinking water supplies.
[NOTE: All 1990 Assessment activities pertaining to this area will be discussed under the Human
Health component of the Assessment. For more information, contact Ruth Allen at EPA, 401 M St.
Washington, DC 20460]
RATIONALE: Acidic water is known to mobilize certain metals that have been demonstrated to be
toxic to humans. Federal standards for the metals do not extend to noncommunity drinking water
systems, including lakes used as water supplies. Examining water quality in lakes located in areas
that receive, and are potentially sensitive to, acidic deposition may allow the extent to which acidic
deposition potentially threatens human health to be evaluated.
APPROACH: The National Statistical Assessment of Rural Drinking Water was conducted previously
for the Office of Drinking Water. This data base was used to examine noncommunity, precipitation-
dominated water supplies to determine if they have generally lower water quality than federally
regulated systems, and to determine if the water quality of these systems is related to patterns of
acidic deposition. If a relationship was apparent, further analyses, e.g., examining water quality
with respect to geological patterns, were conducted. A second approach was to calculate regional
estimates of the lakes in the National Lake Survey regions that have metals concentrations exceeding
federal standards, and to identify their locations. Information on whether the lakes are used as
drinking water supplies, the type of system construction, etc., was collected from state contacts.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Lakes
Chemicals: Acid Neutralizing Capacity, Metals, pH
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Literature
Processes: Metals Mobilization
PPA: E-04 EPA Code: E-04.1B NAPAP Code: 6E-1.02
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Indirect Human Health Effects (E-04)
Program Element: Effects of Acidic Deposition on Drinking Water (E-04.1)
Status: Completed Period of Performance: 1987 to 1988
Contact: Daniel McKenzie
2-146
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TITLE: Effects of Acidification on Metals Bioavailabitity and Bioaccumulation
SHORT TITLE: Bioaccumulation of Metals
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Canada. Northeast (CT, MA. ME. NH. NJ. NY. PA, Rl. VT), Scandinavia.
Southeast (FL, GA, NC, SC, TN, VA), United States. Upper Midwest (Ml. MN,
Wl). West (CA, CO. ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the extent of effects of acidic deposition on bioaccumulation
of toxic metals by biota used as food sources by humans.
RATIONALE: Acidic water is known to mobilize certain metals that have a demonstrated human
toxicity. These may be accumulated in the tissues of fish and other biota used as sources of food.
APPROACH: Existing survey data and sampling of biota in areas receiving high acidic deposition is
used to determine the extent of effects. The population potentially affected may also be
determined through existing survey data of consumption habits and additional surveys as needed.
Models may be developed to help identify potentially affected resources and/or species.
KEY WORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes, Sediments, Watersheds
Chemicals: Mercury, Metals, Nitrate, Organics, pH, Sulfate
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling, Laboratory, Literature
Processes: Aluminum Mobilization, Mercury Bioaccumulation, Mercury Cycling,
Mercury Mobilization, Metals Bioaccumulation, Metals Mobilization,
Organic Chelation
PPA: E-04 EPA Code: E-04.2 NAPAP Code: 6E-2
Element: Program Element
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Indirect Human Health Effects (E-04)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1986 to 1991
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-147
-------
TITLE: Effects of Acidic Conditions on Bioaccumulation of Toxic Metals in Aquatic Organisms
SHORT TITLE: Metals in Biota
REGION(S)/STATE(S): Canada, Scandinavia. United States, Upper Midwest (Ml, Wl)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE(S): To determine the extent of effects of acidic deposition on bioaccumulation
of toxic metals by biota used as food sources by humans.
RATIONALE: Acidic water is known to mobilize certain metals that have a demonstrated human
toxicity. These may be accumulated in the tissues of fish and other biota used as sources of food.
Bioaccumulation of metals, especially mercury, by sport fish has been documented in areas of the
United States and Canada receiving acidic deposition.
APPROACH: Existing survey data and sampling of biota in areas receiving high acidic deposition is
used to determine the extent of effects. The population potentially affected may also be
determined through existing survey data of consumption habits and additional surveys as needed.
Models may be developed to help identify potentially affected resources and/or species.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Biology, Chemistry, Lakes, Sediments, Watersheds
Chemicals: Mercury, Metals, Nitrate, Sulfate
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling, Literature
Processes: Mercury Bioaccumulation, Mercury Cycling, Mercury Mobilization,
Metals Bioaccumulation, Metals Mobilization
PPA: E-04 EPA Code: E-04.2A NAPAP Code: 6E-2.01
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-05, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Indirect Human Health Effects (E-04)
Program Element: Bioaccumulation of Metals (E-04.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: I986to1990
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-148
-------
TITLE: Accumulation of Toxic Metals in Surface Waters and Sediments
SHORT TITLE: Metals in Surface Water/Sediments
REGION(S)/STATE{S): Northeast (CT. MA. ME, NH, NJ. NY, PA, Rl, VT), Southeast (FL, GA, NC, SC, TN,
VA), Upper Midwest (Ml, MN, Wl), West (CA, CO, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT,
WA, WY)
GOAL(S)/OBJECTIVE{S): To collect and compare dissolved mercury data for lakes in the Upper
Midwest, examine which mercury pool best explains variance in fish tissue mercury content,
develop sediment-water mercury distribution coefficients, and develop a model to forecast dissolved
mercury concentrations based on suspended/surficial bed sediment content, pH, and dissolved
organic carbon. To determine the regional distribution and the relationships to other water quality
parameters for trace metals in lakes that are potentially sensitive to acidic deposition. To identify an
element or group of elements to be used as an index to lake acid status.
RATIONALE: Acidic deposition potentially may affect metals mobility in lakes through direct metals
loading to surface waters or watersheds, accelerating release rates from watersheds or sediments, or
altering aqueous speciation of metals into biologically available forms. Two metals that are
particularly important with respect to biota are aluminum and mercury, both of which can be
affected by changes in acidic status. Other metals have also been documented to be toxic either to
humans or to aquatic biota. Little is known, however, about the distributions of these metals on a
regional basis, or the degree to which increases in their concentrations or changes in their aqueous
forms present a risk to human health.
APPROACH: Sediment and water samples will be collected from a subset of lakes in the Upper
Midwest that is part of the National Lake Survey (E-01.1) regional frame. Samples will be analyzed
for mercury content and a variety of other chemical parameters. The data will be used to examine
regional patterns of mercury in lakes located in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Metals data
collected in the Eastern Lake Survey-Phase I, the Northeastern Seasonal Variability Study (E-01.1 B),
and the Upper Midwestern Fish Survey (E-03.1B), are being or will be used to estimate their regional
distribution. Regional estimates with known confidence bounds can be made, because the sampled
lakes were selected from the National Lake Survey statistical frame.
KEYWORDS: Medium: Chemistry, Lakes, Sediments
Chemicals: Mercury, Metals, Organics, pH
Approach: Existing Data Analyses, Field Sampling, Laboratory
Processes: Aluminum Mobilization, Mercury Bioaccumulation, Mercury Cycling,
Mercury Mobilization, Metals Mobilization, Organic Chelation
PPA: E-04 EPA Code: E-04.2B NAPAP Code: 6E-2.02
Element: Project
Contributing to: E-01, E-03, E-09
Cross Reference: Program: Indirect Human Health Effects (E-04)
Program Element: Bioaccumulation in Metals (E.04.2)
Status: Ongoing Period of Performance: 1987 to 1991
Contact: Dixon Landers
2-149
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-------
SECTION 3
INDICES
All page numbers in the indices refer to Section 2 only.
3-1
-------
-------
3.1 INDEX BY CONTACT
Contact, Name and Address
Page
Joan Baker
Highway 70 West
Water Garden
Raleigh, NC 27612
(919)781-3150
Deb Chaloud
Lockheed-EMSCO
Environmental Programs Off ice
1050 E. Flamingo Road, Suite 120
Las Vegas, NV 89119
(702)734-3227
Donald Charles
Indiana University
Present Address:
U.S. EPA Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S.W. 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97333
(503) 757-4666. FTS 420-4666
M. Robbins Church
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S.W. 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97333
(503) 757-4666, FTS 420-4666
John Eaton
U.S Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory
6201 Congdon Boulevard
Duluth.MN 55804
(218) 720-5557, FTS 780-5557
Jesse Ford
NCASI
Present Address:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S.W. 35th Street
Corvallis. OR 97333
(503) 757-4666, FTS 420-4666
91,94,96-103
116
110, 128
23-24, 26, 28-36, 38-39,41,43, 55
51,53,56
119,121-122,126,129-136
(continued)
3-3
-------
INDEX BY CONTACT (Continued)
Contact. Name and Address
Page
Edward Heithmar
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Quality Assurance & Methods Development Div.
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory
944 East Harmon Avenue
Las Vegas, NV 89109
(702) 798-2626, FTS 545-2626
Phil Kaufmann
Utah State University
Present Address:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S.W. 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97333
(503) 757-4666, FTS 420-4666
Dixon Landers
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S.W. 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97333
(503) 757-4666, FTS 420-4666
Jeff Lee
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S.W. 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97333
(503) 757-4666, FTS 420-4666
Howard McCormick
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory
6201 Congdon Boulevard
Duluth.MN 55804
(218) 720-5557, FTS 780-5557
Daniel McKenzie
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S.W. 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97333
(503) 757-4666, FTS 420-4666
125
12-15
5-7,8-11, 16-19,89-90,92-93. 119, 121-122, 124,
137-139, 147-149
70, 72-73
104-106
47,71, 109, 143-146
(continued)
3-4
-------
INDEX BY CONTACT (Continued)
Contact. Name and Address Page
Robert Schonbrod 126
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory
944 East Harmon Avenue
Las Vegas, NV 89109
(702) 798-2229. FTS 545-2229
Timothy Strickland 49, 58-59,61-65, 78
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S.W. 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97333
(503) 757-4666, FTS 420-4666
Kent Thornton 66,68,111.113-114
FTN Associates
3 Innwood Circle, Suite 220
Little Rock, AR 72211
(501)225-7779
Parker J. Wigington. Jr. 77,80-85
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S.W. 35th Street
Corvallis, OR 97333
(503) 757-4666. FTS 420-4666
3-5
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-------
3.2 INDEX BY REGION
Region
Page
Canada
Mid-Appalachians
Middle Atlantic
Midwest
Netherlands Antilles
Northeast
Norway
Scandinavia
Southeast
Southern Blue Ridge
Province
United States
Upper Midwest
West
47,66,70, 109,111, 113-114, 143, 147-148
23-24, 26, 29-31, 33-35, 38-39. 41,43. 47. 71-73, 109, 111, 113-114
5, 12, 14, 23, 47, 66, 68, 70-71, 77-78. 80-85, 89-90, 94, 97, 99, 102-
103,119,121-122, 124, 143-144, 146
71,119,121,124
143-145
5-6,8, 23-24, 26. 28-36, 38-39. 41.43, 47, 49, 58-59. 61-66, 68, 70-73,
77,84,89-90,93,96-103,109-111,113-114, 119, 121-122, 124. 128-
129-130. 132-135. 143-144. 146-147, 149
47,66,70, 109, 111, 113-114
143, 147-148
5, 12, 15-17, 23. 30-31,47, 66, 68, 70-71, 89-91, 94. 97. 99, 109-111,
113-114, 119, 121-122,124,129,143-147, 149
5, 12-13, 23-24, 26, 29-30, 32-35, 38-39,41.43, 47, 72-73, 109, 111,
113-114
143,147-148
16, 18-19,47, 51, 53, 55-56, 66, 70-71,89-90, 92. 97, 99-100, 104-106,
109-111,113-114,119,121-122,124, 129-131, 143-144, 146-149
5-7,9-11, 16,18,71,89,97,99,109-111.113-114,119. 121-122, 124-
126, 129-130, 136-139. 143-144, 146-147, 149
3-7
-------
-------
3.3 INDEX BY STATE
State Page
AK (Alaska) 16,18,119,121,124
AL (Alabama) 5,12,15,23,30-31,47,66,68,70,89,97,99, 119, 121-122, 124
AR (Arkansas) 5,12,15,23,30-31,47,66,68,70,89,97,99, 119, 121-122, 124
AZ (Arizona) 119,121,124
CA (California) 5-7,89,97,99,109-110, 119,121-122, 124, 143, 147, 149
CO (Colorado) 5-7,9-10,89,97,99, 109-110, 119, 121-122, 124, 130, 136-138, 143,
147, 149
CT (Connecticut) 5-6, 8, 23-24, 26, 28-36, 38-39, 41,43, 47, 66, 68, 70, 72-73, 77, 84, 89-
90,93,97,99-100, 119, 121-122, 124, 143-144, 146-147, 149
DC (District of Columbia) 5, 12, 14, 119, 121-122, 124, 144-146
DE (Delaware) 5, 12, 14, 23, 29, 31, 38-39, 41,43, 47, 66, 68, 70, 77, 84, 89, 97, 99,
119, 121-122,124
FL (Florida) 5,12,15-17,47,66,68,70,89-91,97,99, 109-110, 119, 121-122, 124,
143, 147, 149
GA (Georgia) 5, 12-13, 15, 23-24, 26, 29-35, 38-39, 41, 43, 47, 66, 68, 70, 72-73, 89-
90,94,97,99. 109-110, 119, 121-122, 124, 143-145, 147, 149
ID (Idaho) 5-7,89,97,99, 109-110, 119, 121-122, 124, 143, 147, 149
IN (Indiana) 119,121,124
KY (Kentucky) 5, 12, 15,23,30-31,47,66,68,70,89,97,99, 119, 121-122, 124, 143-
145
MA (Massachusetts) 5-6, 8, 23-24, 26, 28-36, 38-39, 41, 43, 47, 66, 68, 70, 77, 84, 89-90, 93,
97,99-100, 119, 121-122, 124. 143-144, 146-147, 149
(continued)
3-9
-------
INDEX BY STATE
State
Page
MD (Maryland)
ME (Maine)
Ml (Michigan)
MN (Minnesota)
MO (Missouri)
MS (Mississippi)
MT (Montana)
NC (North Carolina)
NH (New Hampshire)
NJ (New Jersey)
NM (New Mexico)
NV (Nevada)
NY (New York)
OH (Ohio)
5,12,14, 23-24, 26. 29-31, 33-35, 38-39,41,43, 47, 66, 68, 70, 72-73,
77,84,89-90,94,97,99,119,121-122,124
5-6,8, 23-24, 26, 28, 30-36, 38-39,41, 43. 47, 49, 58-59, 61-66, 68, 70,
72-73,77,84.89-90.93.96-101,109-110,119,121-122. 124, 130. 134,
143-144,146-147,149
16, 18-19, 47, 66, 70, 87.89-90. 92, 97,99-100, 109-110, 119, 121 -122,
124.130-131,143.147-149
16, 18-19,47,66,70,89,97,99-100, 104-106. 109-110. 119, 121-122,
124, 130-131.143.147,149
119,121, 124
5, 12, 15,23,30-31. 119, 121-122,124
5-7,89,97,99, 109-110, 119, 121-122, 124, 143, 147, 149
5, 12-13, 15,23-24, 26, 29-35. 38-39,41.43,47, 66. 68, 70, 72-73, 89-
90.94,97,99,109-110,119,121-122,124, 143-144, 147, 149
5-6, 8, 23-24, 26, 28-36, 38-39. 41. 43. 47.66,68, 70, 72-73, 77, 84, 89-
90.93.97-101. 109-110, 119. 121-122, 124, 143-144, 146-147, 149
5-6, 8, 12, 14, 23, 30-31, 35,47, 66, 68, 70, 77. 84. 89-90, 94, 97, 99-
100, 119, 121-122. 124. 143. 147. 149
5-7, 11.89.97,99, 109-110, 119, 121-122, 124, 139, 143. 147. 149
5-7,89.97,99,109-110. 119, 121-122,124-126. 143,147,149
5-6.8, 12. 14. 23-24, 26, 28-36, 38-39, 41,43, 47, 66, 68, 70. 72-73. 77,
80-81,83-85.89,97-103,109-110, 117,119. 121-122.124,128, 130,
133, 135, 143-144. 146-147.149
119,121,124
(continued)
3-10
-------
INDEX BY STATE
State
Page
OK (Oklahoma)
OR (Oregon)
PA (Pennsylvania)
Rl (Rhode Island)
SC (South Carolina)
TN (Tennessee)
TX (Texas)
UT (Utah)
VA( Virgin! a)
VT (Vermont)
WA (Washington)
Wl (Wisconsin)
WV (West Virginia)
WY (Wyoming)
5, 12. 15.89,97.99. 119, 121-122. 124
5-7,89,97,99, 109-110, 119,121-122, 124, 143, 147, 149
5-6,8, 12,14. 23-24, 26, 28-36, 38-39,41,43,47, 66, 68, 70, 72-73, 77,
80,82,84-85.89-90,93-94,97,99-100, 102-103, 119. 121-122, 124,
143-144,146-147, 149
5-6.8, 12, 14, 23-24, 26, 28-36, 38-39,41.43.47,66. 68, 70, 77, 84, 89-
90,93,97,99-100, 119,121-122,124,1343-144,146-147, 149
5.12-13,15,23-24, 26,29-35,38-39,41,43,89.97.99. 109-110, 119,
121-122,124,143,147.149
5, 12-13, 15, 23-24. 26. 29-35, 38-39.41. 43. 47, 66. 68, 70. 72-73, 89-
90,94,97.99.109-110,119, 121-122, 124, 143-145. 147, 149
119,121,124
5-7,89.97,99,109-110. 119, 121-122. 124, 143, 147, 149
5.12, 14-15.23-24.26,29-31,33-35, 38-39,41,43.47,66,68,70, 72-
73.77,84,89-90,94,97,99,109-110, 119, 121-122, 124, 143, 147,
149
5-6,8. 23-24, 26, 28-36, 38-39,41,43,47, 66, 68, 70. 72-73, 77,84, 89-
90,93,97-101, 109-110.119. 121-122,124.130, 132, 143-144, 146-
147, 149
5-7,89,97,99, 109-110. 119, 121-122. 124, 143, 147, 149
16, 18-19, 47, 51, 53, 55-56,66, 70.89-90.92.97,99-100, 104-106,
109-110, 119. 121-122. 124,130-131. 143, 147-149
5, 12, 14, 23-24, 26, 29-31, 33-35, 38-39.41.43. 47. 66. 68. 70, 72-73,
77-78,84. 89-90. 94,97.99. 119, 121-122, 124
5-7,89,97,99,109-110, 119,121-122, 124, 139, 143, 145
3-11
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-------
3.4 INDEX BY KEY WORD
KeyWord
Page
'Medium'
Biology
Chemistry
Cisterns
Deposition
Groundwater
Lakes
Sediments
Seepage Lakes
Snowpack
Soils
Streams
Vegetation
Watersheds
Wetlands
47.51.53.56,77,80-83,89-94,96-106. 109-111, 113-114. 119, 121-
122, 128-129, 143, 147-148
5-18, 23-24, 26. 28-36. 38-39.41. 43, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55-56, 58-59, 61-
66, 68. 70.72-73. 77-78.80-85.89-93, 96-106, 109-111, 113-114, 119,
121-122, 124-126, 128, 137-139,143-149
143-145
5-6,9-11, 16-19,23.30.34,43.77,84-85,109-111. 113-114. 119, 121-
122,124, 137-139
16-17,47,58,63,143-145
5-11, 16-19. 23-24. 28. 30-31, 34. 38-39, 43. 47, 66, 70, 89-93, 97-101.
104-106,109-111, 113-114.119. 121-122, 124-126,128-134, 137-139,
143-144. 146-149
109-111, 113-114, 119, 121. 125. 128, 143, 147-149
5,16-19,47,51,53.55-56.89, 104, 106. 109-111, 113-114,119, 121-
122
5-6,11,109,111,113-114.139
23-24. 26, 28-36, 38-39,41,43,47, 49, 58-59. 61-66, 70, 72-73, 77-78.
109-111,113-114,119,121-122.126
5, 12-15, 23. 30-31. 34. 38-39.43,47. 49. 58, 63-64, 66, 70,77-78,80-
84,89-90,94,96-97,99.102-105. 109-111, 113-114, 119, 121-122,
124-126,129-130,135
23, 30, 35-36. 47, 58, 65, 109, 111, 113-114
23-24, 26, 30-32, 34-35. 38-39. 41,43, 47,49, 58-59, 62-66. 68. 70, 72-
73,77,84,109-111. 113-114, 119, 121-122, 124, 143, 147-148
23-24, 28, 30, 36. 43,109-111. 113-114
(continued)
3-13
-------
INDEX BY KEY WORD (Continued)
Key Word
Page
Chemicals
5.16,19
Acidic Cations
Acid Neutralizing Capacity 5-9. 11-16, 18-19, 23, 30, 34, 47,66,68, 70. 77-78, 80-83, 89-90, 93-94.
96, 109, 111, 113-114. 119, 121, 124-126, 130-137. 139. 143-144, 146
Aluminum 5-8, 11-15, 23-24, 26,47,49, 58, 62, 77. 80-83. 89-90.92-94, 96-97,
99-103,109-111,113-114,119,121-122.125-126.132,139
Aluminum, Speciated 119, 130, 133
Aluminum, Total 119, 130-132, 134-136
Base Cations 5-9,16,19, 23,29-30. 32.34-35.38,41,47,49, 58,61 -62. 77,80-83,
89-90,96,137
Calcium 89-90. 92-94, 97, 99-103, 119, 121-122
Cation Exchange Complex 23,38,41
Chlorophyll 119,130-131
Clay Minerals 23,38,41,47.58,61
Color 119,130-134,136
Conductance 5-7,10, 119, 121. 126, 138, 143-145
Conductivity 119,130-136
Discharge 119,130,135
Dissolved Organic Carbon 119,130-131,135
Fluoride 89-90,92
Major Ions 5-6, 10-18.47.51.53.77.84-85,89-90,93,96, 119, 121, 124, 126,
130-136,138-139
Mercury
Metals
Trace Metals
Nitrogen
Ammonium
Nitrate
Total
Nutrients
47. 51, 53, 89-90, 92, 119. 121-122,143, 147-149
5-8, 12-16,89-90,92. 119. 121, 125,143-149
47.-51.53
5-6,11,77-78,139
5-9,12-17, 23-24. 26. 30, 35,47, 49, 58, 65, 77-78, 80-84, 89-90, 93,
109-111, 113-114. 119. 121-122. 126. 137.143, 147-148
47, 58, 65
119, 130-131
(continued)
3-14
-------
INDEX BY KEY WORD (Continued)
Key Word
Page
Organics
PH
Primary Minerals
Silica
Soil Chemistry
Sulfate
5-8. 11-16. 18-19, 23. 30. 34-36. 47,49, 58, 64,89-93. 97-103. 109-
111, 113-114, 119, 121-122, 126, 139,143. 147. 149
5-15, 23, 30, 34, 47, 51. 53, 55-56, 66, 68, 70, 77-78,80-83, 89-94, 96-
97,99-106, 119, 121. 124-125, 130-134, 136-139, 143-147. 149
47,58,61
89-90, 96
23, 30, 33-34
5-10, 12-17, 23-24, 26, 28-36, 38-39. 43, 47,49, 51, 53, 55-56, 58-59,
72-73. 77-78. 80-84, 89-90, 93, 109-111, 113-114, 119, 121-122, 124,
126,128,137-138,143,147-148
Approach
Data Acquisition
Field Studies
Manipulation
Mapping
Paleolimnology
Remote Sensing
Sampling
Laboratory
Literature
47,49, 51, 53, 56, 58-59. 61-65,89, 102-106
23-24, 26, 28
119,121,128
119, 121, 125
5-18. 23-24, 26, 29-31.38,41,47,49, 51, 53, 55-56, 58-59, 61 -65, 72-
73,77-78,80-83.85,89-93.96. 102-103, 119. 121-122. 125, 128, 130-
139,143-145,147-149
23-24, 26, 29, 47,49, 51. 53, 56, 58-59, 61-62, 64-65, 72-73,89, 104-
106. 119, 121, 125, 128. 130-136, 147, 149
5-6,9.23,29-31, 36,47. 66. 70. 89-90, 93-94. 97-99. 109-111. 113-
114, 116, 119. 121,124-126. 129. 137, 143-148
Data Analysis
Aggregation
Correlative
Existing Data
Input-Output Budgets
Ion Balance
23-24, 28, 30, 33-34. 38-39, 41
23,30-36,109, 111,113-114
5, 16.19. 23-24, 28. 30. 33-35, 38-39, 41,89-90. 94. 109-111, 113-114,
119, 121, 124, 126. 143-149
23-24.28.30-31.36,38-39
47.51,53.55,119,121.126
(continued)
3-15
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INDEX BY KEY WORD (Continued)
Key Word
Page
Data Analysis (Continued)
Modeling
Single Factor
Statistical Analyses
Trends Analyses
23. 30, 32. 38-39,41,43.47, 58,63, 66, 68, 70, 77,84, 89-90, 94, 97,
100-101.109. 111, 113-114,119, 121, 124
23.38-39.41, 109. 111. 113-114, 119, 130-136
47.51,56.72-73.109.111.113-114.119,121,124,129-136
109. 111, 113-114, 119. 121. 124, 130-136
Processes
Acidification
Chronic
Episodic
Organic
Aluminum
Mobilization
Solubility
Speciation
Base Cation
Cation Exchange
Mineral Weathering
Mobilization
Supply
Biological
Biological Response
Community Response
Buffering
Within-lake ANC
Generation
Hydrology
Indirect Effects
5-10. 12-19. 23-24,26, 38-39,41,47,49, 51, 53, 56. 72-73, 89. 104,
106, 109.111,113-114,119, 121-122, 124, 128, 130-138
5-6, 11, 77-78,80-85, 89-90, 96, 102-105, 109, 111, 113-114. 119, 130-
135. 139
47,49,58,64, 109, 111, 113-114, 119, 121, 128
47.49.58,62.139.143.145
47, 58. 62
5-6,8,119.121.125
23-24.26.38,41,47, 51. 53. 55. 58. 61
5-6.9.23-24. 26. 30. 34,43.47.49. 51, 53, 55, 58, 61, 109, 111, 113-
114,137
47, 58,62
23, 29-30, 34, 38, 41,43, 47.49, 58, 61-62
89-90.94,96-106.109.111.113-114,119, 121, 129
23, 30.35.47. 51. 53. 56.89-90.93,97, 99, 119, 121, 129
5,16-17.47.51.53,55
5,16-18. 23. 30, 32,34.47.49, 51, 53. 58. 63. 77-78
47.51.53
3-16
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