EPA-905/9-74-005
WATER QUALITY BASELINE ASSESSMENT
FOR CLEVELAND AREA - LAKE ERIE
VOLUME I - SYNTHESIS
By
Al B. Garlauskas
Water Quality Program
Division of Utilities Engineering
Department of Public Utilities
City of Cleveland
EPA Project G005107
Project Officer
Max Hanok
Office of Research and Development
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region V
Chicago, Illinois 60606
Prepared by the City of Cleveland
in cooperation with John Carroll University
Cleveland State University, and Case Western
Reserve University in Cleveland
Prepared for
OFFICE OF THE GREAT LAKES COORDINATOR
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, REGION V
ONE NORTH WACKER DRIVE
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60606
May 30, 1974
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Library, Region V
1 North Wacker Drive
Chicago, Illinois 60606
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U.S.E.F.A. Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that
the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the
Environmental Protection Agency, nor does the mention of trade names
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
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PROTECTION AGZ:;-
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ABSTRACT
This report presents the results of the first phase of a three phase
program in environmental impact assessment, planning and evaluation in
urban water pollution abatement for the Cleveland metropolitan area.
The first phase investigated the water quality of near shore waters of
Lake Erie in the Cleveland area and of the streams in the same area to
establish a baseline to measure the progress and restorative value of
water pollution abatement programs.
The project was accomplished through a scientific consortium between the
City of Cleveland and three area universities - John Carroll, Case
Western Reserve, and Cleveland State. Seven major investigations were
performed dealing with fish population, phytoplankton, zooplankton and
benthic organisms, benthic sediment chemistry, water chemistry, cation
reactions with suspended river sediments, and hydrodynamic modeling of
river and thermal discharge flow into Lake Erie. Additional work was
performed in library research and coordination.
The field investigations were conducted from September of 1971 through
December of 1972. The area of investigation included Lake waters from
the mouth of Chagrin River along the shore to the mouth of the Rocky
River, 35.5 kilometers. The area included the Cleveland Harbor and
lower 20 kilometers of the Cuyahoga River.
The study established a rough water quality baseline demonstrating areas
of water quality degradation, possible restoration avenues, and need
for future research. A gradation from grossly and heavily polluted
water zones in the near shore areas to progressively less polluted zones
further out into the lake is established based on biological and
chemical data. Fish population diversity, distribution and changes are
documented. Areas of ecosystem stress are delineated and priorities
for ameliorative measures are established. Framework for management of
water quality through systems approaches is presented.
Study shows correlation of point sources and water quality depression
zones, and biological data indicates that study area waters are
undergoing similar degradation as other areas in the Lake Erie Basin.
Study also, demonstrates that water quality degradation in the study
area started before the industrialization era (circa 1850) resulting
initially from alteration of the physical environment. The close tie
between land use and water quality shows that other measures besides
control of point sources will be required to restore the waters of the
area.
This report is submitted in fulfillment of Project Number G005107 under
the sponsorship of the Office of Great Lakes Coordinator, Section 108A,
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region V, Chicago, Illinois.
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CONTENTS
VOLUME I - SYNTHESIS by A, B, Garlauskas
Page
Abstract iii
Figures vi
Tables viii
Acknowledgements xi
ERTS Satellite Photo xiv
Three Rivers Watershed and Vicinity Map xvi
Study Area Map xviii
Sections
I Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 7
III Introduction and Summary 13
IV Methodology of Data Acquisition 51
V Study Results and Discussion 65
VI Needs 119
VII Glossary 131
VIII Bibliography 135
VOLUME II - THE FISHES OF THE GREATER CLEVELAND METROPOLITAN AREA
INCLUDING THE LAKE ERIE SHORELINE by Andrew M. White
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FIGURES
No. Page
1. Three phase program flow and continuity chart 15
2. Monthly averages of phytoplankton abundances
for selected years showing the trend 25
3. Segment of the Cuyahoga River flowing through
downtown Cleveland 28
4. Sampling industrial outfalls on the Cuyahoga
River 32
5. Industrial discharge to streams abatement
program flow chart 35
6. Nine month total precipitation 36
7. Inflatable dam 38
8. Aerial view of the present Cleveland Easterly
Water Pollution Control Plant 39
9. Aerial view of the present Cleveland Southerly
Water Pollution Control Plant 40
10. Area covered by the study showing sampling
stations 43
11. Total precipitation in the Cleveland area for
five years 48
12. Pollution intensity zones in the near shore
Lake area of Cleveland 50
13. Application of results to Cuyahoga River entering
Lake Erie 71
14. Predicted response of the Cuyahoga River to a
Lake current 72
15. Predicted response of the Cuyahoga River to a
current behind the breakwall 73
16. Typical flow pattern of the Cuyahoga River with
the dominant southwest, west, and northwest
wind directions 75
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17. Cross section of lake water intrusion into the
Cuyahoga River from conductivity and dissolved
oxygen measurements 76
18. Comparison of sediment and supernatant total N 78
19. Comparison of sediment and supernatant total P 80
20. Sediment composition variation 81
21. Cuyahoga River (mgd) discharge above and below
Southerly Waste Treatment Plant in 1972 88
22. The inverse relationship between temperature
and dissolved oxygen in the Cuyahoga River 89
23. Street salting impact on the Cuyahoga River 90
24. Concentration and total phosphorus load vs flow
in the Cuyahoga River at 11.15 miles upstream
from the mouth of the River 92
25. Fecal coliforms vs geometric means monthly
average in the effluent of the two wastewater
treatment plants on Lake Erie 96
26. Total biomass of phytoplankton for all stations
for all months 100
27. Mean total biomass of four different groups of
algae for all stations for all months 101
28. Distribution of the major groups of algae 102
29. Relative abundance of the major benthic groups
at the fourteen regular sampling stations 105
30. Water quality management interrelationships 121
31. Water quality management functions 123
32. The hierarchical multilevel systems decomposition 126
33. An example of the hierarchical multilevel decision
layer structure as applied to a regional
phosphorus control program 128
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TABLES
No. Page
1. Water quality of Lake Erie and the Cuyahoga
River in 1852 19
2. Water quality of Lake Erie in 1865 19
3. Water quality of Lake Erie in 1873-1874 21
4. Water quality of Lake Erie in 1887 21
5. Comparison of changes in water quality reported
in commercial fishing reports 23
6. Chloride levels of Lake Erie tributaries in 1904 23
7. Sources and discharges to the Cuyahoga River 27
8. Loads to receiving water from streams 30
9. Pollution loadings from combined sewer overflows 31
10. Sampling stations 44
11. Sampling stations 45
12. Loadings to Lake Erie from Cleveland Harbor and
River dredging 68
13. Comparison of Harbor to average near shore
sediments 84
14. Comparison of Harbor (filtered) to average
supernatant 84
15. Cuyahoga River water quality in 1972 86
16. Performance of Cleveland Wastewater Treatment
Plants in meeting discharge criteria for heavy
metals during period from February 15 to July 6
of 1972 87
17A. Cleveland Wastewater Treatment Plant pollution
loadings in the effluent for 1972 93
18. Number of sampling days of chlorination or
non chlorination for 1971 and 1972 95
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ISA. Species of fishes collected in/or near the
Cleveland Harbor 109
19. Average concentrations of sediment constituents 112
20. Viruses possibly present in sewage and resulting
diseases 114
21. Plankton analysis of tap water 3200 liter sample
taken August 8, 1973 115
22. Regional water quality management programs at
Case Western Reserve University 127
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS ON PROJECT G005107 IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER
Dr. Norman A. Alldridge, Professor of Biology, Case Western Reserve
University.
Denis Case, Former Project Director, Water Quality Program, City of
Cleveland (presently Chief of Research, Ohio Department of Natural
Resources).
Algirdas B. Garlauskas, Project Director, Chief of Laboratories, Water
Quality Program, City of Cleveland.
Dr. John Hower, Professor of Geology, Case Western Reserve University.
Dr. Wilbert Lick, Professor of Geophysics and Engineering, Case Western
Reserve University.
Dr. Paul Olynyk, Associate Professor of Chemistry, Cleveland State
University.
Dr. Robert G. Rolan, Associate Professor of Biology and Health Sciences,
Cleveland State University.
James P. Schafer, Former Chief of Laboratories, Water Quality Program,
City of Cleveland (presently Deputy Director, Ohio Department of
Natural Resources),
Dr. Andrew White, Associate Professor of Biology, John Carroll
University.
AUTHOR'S ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge key contributions of the many people
involved in this program and in carrying out the first phase.
The project could have not been carried to completion without the
support of Ralph J. Perk, Mayor of Cleveland, Raymond Kudukis, Director
of Department of Public Utilities, and Richard A. Labas, Commissioner
of Utilities Engineering.
Without federal support through the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Region V, this project may have not been implemented, A special
recognition goes to Dr. Norbert Jaworski, Director, Pacific Northwest
Laboratory (formerly of Grosse lie Field Laboratory) for assistance in
program planning and to Mr, Curtis Ross, Director of Indiana District
Office (formerly Chief of Surveillance, Ohio District Office) for
technical assistance and support. The successful completion of the
project was to a large degree due to the guidance and assistance
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provided by Mr. Max Hanok, the Project Officer, and Mr. Ralph
Christensen, Section 108A Program Coordinator.
Mr. Denis Case, former Project Director, managed the project during the
research phase. Many of his ideas and interpretations are included in
the final report.
In providing expertise and support, the Water Quality Program scientists
were of great help. Mr. Charles Hina, biologist, Mr. Algis Pliodzinskas,
aquatic ecologist, and Mr. Vernon Edwards, chemist, reviewed the
individual investigator reports, and helped the author in interpretation
and synthesis of the fragmented data.
Miss Janet Friedlander of Sears Library, Case Western Reserve University
conducted the very valuable library research and compilation. Her full
report is included in Section IV.
A special thanks goes to Miss Elinor Edmunds who typed and guided the
final manuscript and to Mr. Vydas Brizgys who prepared the many visuals.
Also, acknowledgements go to Mrs. Sharon Morkunas and Miss Kerrin
Brigham, who toiled over the lengthy first draft of the report.
PUBLICATION INFORMATION
All the data obtained on this project is being transcribed into STORET
at the time of the writing of this report. The transcription is
expected to be completed in the second half of 1974.
This study is presented in two reports. The first report written by
A. B. Garlauskas and titled Water Quality Baseline Assessment for
Cleveland Area - Lake Erie with subtitle Volume I, Synthesis,
summarizes and interprets all information obtained in the study. The
second report with the same title subtitled Volume II, The Fishes of
the Greater Cleveland Metropolitan Area Including Lake Erie Shoreline
is written by Andrew White covering his fish population investigations.
Two of the investigators have published their findings through other
entities. These are listed as follows:
Lick, W. and Paul, J.F. A Numerical Model For a Three-Dimensional
Variable Density Set. Proc. 16th Conf. Great Lakes Res. 1973.
Rolan, R.G. et. al. Zooplankton Crustacea of the Cleveland Nearshore
Area of Lake Erie, 1971-1972. Proc. 16th Conf. Great Lakes Res. 1973.
The other six investigation reports that are summarized and
interpreted in Volume I are not planned to be published separately
within this study. These unpublished reports are:
Alldridge, N.A. An Investigation of Methods for Making Quantitative
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Estimates of Cladophora Growth in Lake Erie.
Alldridge, N.A. Phytoplankton of the Inshore Waters of the Cleveland
Metropolitan Area, 1972.
Hower, J., Aronson, J.L., and Kim, H.S. Cation Exchange Reactions
Involving Sodium, Potassium, Magnesium and Calcium in Cuyahoga River.
Lick, W. and Prahl, J. River Discharges and Thermal Plumes.
Olynyk, P. Chemical Composition of Sediments of the Cleveland
Nearshore Zone of Lake Erie 1971-1972.
Rolan, R.G. Benthos of the Cleveland Near Shore Area, 1971-1972.
The data in these reports will be available from STORET, and the
individual investigators are encouraged to publish the reports on
their own initiative. All the investigators may be considered as
contributing co-authors of Volume I, since portions of their reports
are incorporated in the Synthesis.
xiii
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ERTS SATELLITE PHOTO (opposite page)
Lake Erie — A resource for the millions. Cleveland is below the
center of the picture. Remote sensing methods such as this satellite
photograph are used in many areas of environmental and resource
assessment. One application is in detecting point and area sources,
current patterns, and dispersion of thermal and other types of
discharges. This technique can be a valuable tool in water quality
and resources management. This photo was taken at an altitude of
48 miles on September 4, 1973. (Photo was provided through the
courtesy of National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
xiv
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XV
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THREE RIVERS WATERSHED AND VICINITY MAP Copposite page)
The Three Rivers Watershed is defined by the drainage basin divides of
the three adjoining river basins - Rocky, Cuyahoga, and Chagrin Rivers,
which comprise an area of about 2,360 square kilometers (1,474 square
miles).
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VICINITY MAP
SCALE OF MILES
CUYAHOGA RIVER BASIN
xvn
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STUDY AREA MAP (opposite page)
The study area map shows the locations of the wastewater treatment plants,
public beaches, and other key geographic locations mentioned in the
report. The area of study covered an area of about 1400 square
kilometers (840 square miles).
xviii
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HIGHLAND
HEIGHTS
_j ..-•• Sewage Treatment Plants
J cLEry»-J- 1-Westerly
2—Easterly
3—Southerly
4—City of Euclid
5-CityofWilloughby
,— 6—City of Lakewood
•._„, 7—Cityof Rocky River
dgewater
Park
A"-' Scale in Miles
3 4
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions derived from this study fall into two broad categories.
One category is made up of conclusions that are derived from the
general synthesis of all the individual investigations and the total
project. The other category presents conclusions as derived in
individual investigations.
I. The general conclusions are:
1. The water quality in the study area is heavily degraded. The
streams are filled with debris, sewage, and in places with industrial
waste. The near shore waters of Lake Erie are heavily polluted with
industrial and sewage wastes.
2. The near shore waters of Lake Erie in the study area are
variable in water quality showing pollution zones which have been
correlated to point sources.
3. The most pronounced zone of degraded water quality is at
Edgewater Park and the Cleveland Harbor. The Edgewater Park water
is degraded by the inadequately treated municipal discharges of the
Westerly Sewage Treatment Plant; whereas the harbor is degraded from
at least four sources — the Cuyahoga River, river dredgings,
leaching from old fills and septic tanks, and storm sewer discharges.
4. The dilution effects on discharges and general pollutant
concentrations distorted the data obtained on the project. The
dilution resulted from greater volumes of available receiving waters
from increased precipitation in 1972 and higher lake levels.
5. Factors like denudation of land, damming of streams, and
draining of marshes were the initial steps that led to the
degradation of water quality in the region.
6. Based on all the data obtained, the near shore waters in the
study area are enriched and are eutrophic, with intermediately
polluted zones occurring along the shore east of the Cleveland
Harbor.
7. The project reevaluated and concluded that the 1968 Havens and
Emerson MASTER PLAN FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT can still be an important
part of a viable base for continued water quality restoration efforts
in the Cleveland area.
8. A historical review of the water quality indicates degradation
occurred before 1850, and the dissolved solids began to increase at
about the same time. This implies that the present Lake Erie
restoration goals and water quality standards must reevaluate the
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general premise of using 1900 conditions as the restoration level
baseline.
9. Specific sociological and economic data is not available to help
evaluate water pollution abatement progress, and therefore studies
to obtain such data must be undertaken.
II. Conclusions derived from individual investigations are:
1. The Cuyahoga River appears to be heavily polluted before it
reaches Cleveland, and in terms of the cations studied - calcium,
sodium, potassium, magnesium, - their addition in the Cleveland
portion of the river cannot be quantified by buffering reactions of
the suspended sediment. The buffering capacity of the suspended
sediment is nearly exhausted by reactions in the stream above the
Cleveland area due to upstream pollution. The buffering reactions
involve bottom sediments.
2. No pronounced differences in chemical composition of the near
shore waters was found as related to the 1968 Lake Erie Report of
the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration.
3. A pronounced water quality depression effect was established
caused by the Southerly Wastewater Treatment Plant discharges on the
Cuyahoga River. This depression is characterized by addition of
nutrients, suspended solids, and bacteria.
4. The Cuyahoga River exhibits a seasonally related and temperature-
flow dependent sinusoidal fluctuation of dissolved oxygen.
5. The fish fauna of the Cleveland-Lake Erie shoreline is, at
present, markedly different than in former times. The species
composition has changed from one of highly valuable food species
and clean water forms (i.e. Muskellunge, Walleye, Lake Trout, Silver
Chub, Burbot), to one of a predominance of rough fish and low food
value species such as the Goldfish, Carp, Gizzardshad and Perch.
The dominant species have changed from large piscivorous species to
primarily plankton and bottom feeding species such as the Gizzardshad
and Carp.
6. The fish populations of the Cleveland metropolitan area are under
stress from the degradation of the ecosystem and that the stress
varies significantly within the study area. The most highly
distressed area is the lower seven miles of the Cuyahoga River and
the least distressed area is the middle and upper portions of the
Chagrin River drainage. Other areas display various degrees of
degradation.
7. In the entire study area, including the lower Cuyahoga River,
there were no areas found where a fish fauna was completely absent.
While the fauna of the most distressed reaches of the Cuyahoga River
is meager, consisting of only occasional individuals of only a
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few species, it is concluded that fishes routinely enter the lower
reaches of this stream from the Cleveland Harbor. The fishes are
almost exclusively pollution tolerant "rough" fishes, primarily
goldfish.
8. The most recent period of game fish decline in Lake Erie occurred
in the 1950's when the Blue Pike (Walleye), the Yellow Walleye, the
Burbot and many others suffered a sudden and drastic reduction in
numbers. While the Yellow Walleye appears to have made a partial
recovery in other portions of Lake Erie, its numbers in the Cleveland
area remain critically low, primarily due to pollution loadings from
sewage and other discharges. The Blue Walleye is considered by many
to be extinct.
9. Literature, museum and present survey records indicated that a
total of 105 species and subspecies of fishes have at one time
inhabited the study area. Presently, our survey indicates that
46 (44%) of these are either rare or probably extirpated within
the study area. Of the 105 species, we have documented the presence
of 84 within the area and it is probable that several more exist
in very small numbers.
10. The Cleveland area can be restored to its former position as a
viable fishery, although it is obvious that certain species will be
very difficult if not impossible to restore. Should the conditions
along the shoreline and in the rivers improve, we are of the opinion
that most of the species would recover quickly.
11. The principal areas which must be restored are those which
formerly served as major spawning areas. The area which apparently
served as the most important area of fish reproduction is the lower
Cuyahoga River and the adjacent shoreline.
12. The principal cause of the decline of fish populations in the
area was the destruction of spawning areas and the elimination of
access to such areas by the activities of man in the study areas.
The sport or commercial removal of fishes played a minimal part in
the reduction of the area fish fauna.
13. Those species which spawn in the offshore, deeper portions of
Lake Erie have shown the least reductions in number, indeed many of
these have increased greatly in number. Successful reproduction of
at least 12 species of fishes has been documented within the
Cleveland Harbor and the adjacent marinas. A single species, the
Goldfish, is probably reproducing in the lower five miles of the
Cuyahoga River. Records show that a number of different game fishes
used to reproduce in the River, such as perch, trout, etc.
14. The major nursery zones along the Lake Erie shoreline are (in
order of decreasing production), the Cleveland Breakwall and
adjacent marinas, the lower Chagrin River, the lower Rocky River,
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the Lake Erie shoreline, the lower Cuyahoga River. The Chagrin has
a greater variety of species.
15. Major areas of fish concentrations appear to be correlated with
either the presence of a pollution source or the presence of
protected waters such as marinas, harbors, or river mouths. This is
to be expected and has been documented in other studies.
16. The principal areas of sports fishing are associated with the
preceding areas of pollution input or structures.
17. The species of fishes which have most severely declined are
those which spawned in the upper sections of the river drainages,
entering each spring from Lake Erie to spawn. The former spawning
areas of these fishes have either been drained, silted, or blocked
by the construction of dams. Those species of fishes which formerly
spawned in the lower river mouths or on the gravel bars and beaches
along the shoreline have also declined sharply since 1850.
18. The decline and change in the fishery both in Lake Erie and in
the rivers did not primarily occur in the past few years. The first
major decline in the fishery occurred prior to 1850 and included the
nearly complete collapse of the local populations of Muskellunge,
Northern Pike and other stream spawning species. These species have
not recovered since that time.
19. The species diversity and relative abundance of fishes changes
seasonally along the Cleveland shoreline due to the seasonal use
of the area by various species. The diversity is highest in the
late spring, and is lowest in the late summer (July-August). The
diversity and relative abundance of fishes changes on a more regular
basis in the lower rivers and may change greatly from day to day,
or day to night.
20. In general, the diversity and abundance of fishes along the
shoreline does not vary during a given season. This indicates that
little or no avoidance of selected areas occurs with those species
which are highly pelagic.
21. In general the species diversity index and the species
composition along the Cleveland shoreline is low, probably
reflecting the great preponderance of the Yellow Perch. Our
collections on the beaches and in the shallow areas of the shoreline
(one to two feet deep) indicate a trend toward cleaner and more
diverse types of fishes both to the east and west of the City of
Cleveland, with a very diverse and abundant fauna in the vicinity
of the beaches at the Chagrin River mouth.
22. Proposals and early action is essential to the reversal of the
declining fishery in the area. The early reversal of the
degradation of the shoreline and lower rivers is essential to
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restore those spawning areas which have been destroyed.
23. The Chagrin River system should be protected by all agencies,
Federal, State and Local. This is essential since the primary
source of repopulation stocks of fishes is this river drainage.
24. The highest average phytoplankton biomass occurred during
September. At no time did the blue-green algae constitute a
major portion of the biomass. The highest computed proportion was
20% of the total. During the summer months the green algae
accounted for the greatest proportion of biomass, with the single
dinoflaggelate genera, Ceratium being second. During the winter
months, the diatoms comprised the major portion of the biomass.
25. Zooplankton crustacean communities, especially the Copepoda
and Cladocera components, have increased in abundance since the
early 1950's. This increase suggests that the Cleveland lake front
area is undergoing changes similar to those of the Lake Erie
western basin due to eutrophication. This study did not clearly
delineate benthic seasonal trends, except for a general population
decline in June, 1972, due in part to the emergence of chironomid
larvae as adult midges. The benthos indicates that the Cleveland
lake front ranges from grossly polluted to eutrophied areas.
26. The benthic sediments are highly polluted containing toxic
metals and nutrients characterized by phosphorus and nitrogen
compounds. Comparisons with data from other reports show that
phosphorus is accumulating in the near shore sediments.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
All the recommendations are based on the premise that the Program
(Figure 1) will continue with Phase II. The recommendations are
presented in the interdisciplinary network shown by the "Environmental
Management of Water Quality" diagram (Figure 30). Only high priority
areas are covered by recommendations which are given by category.
ENVIRONMENT
In obtaining additional vital information on the natural environment
these recommendations must be implemented:
1. Derive a quantitative balance of the hydrologic cycle (water
budget) of the area through the watershed approach, which includes
stream hydrology (flood stage, low flow, hydrographic analysis),
micro-precipitation patterns, total hydrogeology, including
groundwater table, infiltration, recharge, discharge areas, runoff,
etc.
2. Determine the near shore lake currents, and physical character-
istics of the lake influence of the Cuyahoga River, which can be
classed as an estuary.
3. Develop a physical inventory of the region, including the
surficial geology and topography and pinpoint areas of instability,
erosional potential, and natural sedimentation patterns.
4. Develop a detailed viable clean water index, incorporating
chemical, biological, and physical parameters. It must be usable
for continuous monitoring of water quality in this geological
region.
DISRUPTIONS
In the area of environmental disruptions these recommendations must
be implemented:
1. Develop a comprehensive mass balance of point source
pollution loadings, integrated with area sources and total
receiving and discharge loadings. This mass balance should be
compared to natural pollution loadings and total water budget.
Atmospheric washout of air pollutants must be included.
2. Develop a pollutant profile to map the dispersion pattern of
the Cuyahoga River discharge into Lake Erie, including data on
pollutant types, concentrations in the sediments, thicknesses of
sediments coordinating this profile with deposition and erosion
patterns.
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3. Assess previously used open lake dredge dumping sites
ecologically as to the regenerative ability of such areas. This
would be valuable information in the consideration of open lake
dumping as an alternative once the ten year ban by the
Environmental Protection Agency on open lake dumping expires.
4. Determine effects of discharges from filtration plants.
Materials like aluminum hydroxide, activated carbon and back-
flushing matter from the area filtration plants are discharged into
streams and ultimately the lake. The rationale is that the
aluminum hydroxide and carbon are not very harmful and that the
backflushing material came from the lake originally.
5. Minimize impacts of dredging in the marinas and harbor on
spawning areas as shown by the fish population study.
6. Develop a computerized comprehensive instantaneous readout
water quality monitoring system to provide immediate information
on request of possible health hazards and pollution loadings near
public water supply intakes.
7. Develop, based on quantity and impact, a classification of
environmental disruptions related to water quality in the area
including the mode, the scale, and relative rank.
8. Develop and begin an integrated, consistent monitoring network
of water quality in the area waters.
EFFECTS
In the area of effects the major recommendations that must be acted
on are:
1. Develop and implement research and testing on biological and
chemical hazards in the waters of the lake near shore area and
streams to determine possible paths and effects on public health.
This must include testing for viruses, and toxins from algae in
the public water supply; determine mobilization of heavy metals
in the aquatic food chain where the top consumer is man, especially
as related to fishes caught in the Cleveland waters.
2. Develop a detailed historical reconstruction of the ecology
of the area relating the changes to pollution and other environ-
mental disruptions caused by human activities.
3. Determine the economic impact of water quality degradation in
the Cleveland area. This must include increased cost of water
treatment, loss in commercial fish, direct damage to property, loss
of aesthetic and recreational aspects, etc.
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(HUMAN) ECOSYSTEM
In the socio-political areas, these recommendations must be implemented:
1. Determine through surveys public awareness of water quality
problems in the Cleveland area; determine the relationship of
environmental values to socio-economic conditions, cultural
patterns, and geographic location.
2. Establish within the area an Institute for Environmental
Studies which would be composed of industrial and civic leaders,
government and area university top representatives. This
institute would serve to define problems of environmental concern,
design objectives, develop programs for consideration, involve the
public in program planning, approval, and implementation.
3. Conduct a survey in all phases of human activity in the area
to determine the extent and effectiveness of the blending of the
social and physical sciences as related to environmental problems;
and determine also the interdisciplinary exchange especially as
related to area educational programs in environmental areas.
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
In this area the recommendations must be implemented in several
projects. These are:
1. Determine the impact and restoration value of the new Westerly
physico-chemical treatment plant effluent on the Old Cuyahoga
River Bed. Since this new plant will be the largest of its type
in the world, this evaluation must include determination of
baseline conditions - site geology, hydrology, and ecology. This
project should provide for monitoring the Edgewater Beach and west
end harbor area.
2. Determine engineering and economic feasibility of converting
all wastewater treatment plant and water filtration plant
disinfection facilities from chlorination to ozonation, this being
a more effective and no residual type method.
3. Develop methods of inactivating bottom sediment chemicals in
the lake to prevent their release into the aquatic environment.
This would involve the study of the dynamics of various elements
(phosphorous, etc.) in the area, and inactivation techniques
through use of natural materials such as clays.
4. Develop feasibility of establishing breeding areas for stream
spawning fish in the old riverbed of the Cuyahoga River. The
extremely high quality of water from the proposed Westerly
physical-chemical treatment plant plus aeration could provide an
excellent environment for fish populations.
-------
5. Develop methods for increasing fish populations around the
Cleveland area by improvements in feeding and breeding zones. One
method which has had success in salt water use is the construction
of artificial reefs. Large objects of clean debris and tires can
provide suitable habitats for fish populations.
6. Develop procedures, both technical and sociological for
utilizing materials removed from river and stream channels to
transform poor land to productive land within the boundaries of
the Three Rivers Watershed area. This should include finding of
final use for effluent from wastewater treatment plants.
7. Develop better dredge material disposal methodology. Deep well
disposal of dewatered dredge materials into worked out sections of
the International Salt mine should be investigated. Preliminary
investigation indicates this may be a feasible long term solution
to a serious pollution problem.
8. Develop an interdisciplinary model for the restoration of a
polluted urban watershed based on a real small watershed, and
carry through on the restoration.
9. Develop and carry through a comprehensive restoration program
of desirable food fishing commerce. Based on fish population
studies, there is evidence that a number of more desirable food
fish species can repopulate the area waters.
ENFORCEMENT
In this area of legal controls the recommendations must be implemented:
1. Develop guidelines for land use adjacent to streams and
subsequent stream use which can be incorporated into a set of
regulations applicable to the Cleveland and Three Rivers Watershed
area.
2. Adopt Ohio State water quality laws for enforcement at local
and regional levels through the City of Cleveland and Cleveland
Regional Sewer District water quality and pollution control
administrative components.
3. Develop the legal framework to establish a Regional Water
Quality Authority based on the Three Rivers Watershed area. This
regional authority should have control over public water supply,
waste treatment facilities, all natural waters in the area, and
land use.
4. Develop a legal framework to manage the Lake Erie shoreline.
The shoreline, being a dynamic interface between lake and land,
must be allocated for non-intensive uses, primarily recreation.
The areas where erosion is severe, must be acquired by government
10
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and opened for non-intensive parkland development.
5. Design specific laws and procedures to minimize soil erosion
from exposed areas during construction and development, and from
areas that are not properly maintained.
6. Institute immediate legal provision to protect the Chagrin
River, which is the prime breeding area of fish in the Three
Rivers Watershed.
7. Assign all the legal responsibility and authority to
coordinate and wherever possible carry out all the recommendations
in this report to the Water Quality Program, City of Cleveland.
11
-------
-------
SECTION III
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
BASIC GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT
This study was initiated as the first phase of a three phase program in
response to the critical need to develop increased capability in
predicting the environmental impact of pollution abatement projects in
the Cleveland area. Apart from this three phase program, no other
comprehensive environmental impact assessment programs are planned or
incorporated as part of the water pollution abatement efforts in the
Cleveland area. As a consequence, unless this three phase assessment
program is carried through as planned, with appropriate and timely
modifications, present and future water pollution control programs
will have no basis for assessment of degree of success and impact in
relation to water quality.
The three phase program is designed to provide sound scientific water
quality assessment techniques and methodology within a dynamic,
continuous, water pollution control program in the Cleveland area as
developed by U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, and followed
through by Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, the Cleveland Regional
Sewer District, and the City of Cleveland. Geared toward predicting
the environmental impact of water pollution abatement programs in the
heavily degraded waters of the Cleveland area, this program can serve
as a planning model for other urban areas experiencing similar combined
industrial, municipal, and urban runoff wastewater loadings to their
watersheds.
The general objective to develop an environmental impact assessment
capability was derived from the basic goal of aiding in the water
pollution abatement effort in the Cleveland area. Five major specific
objectives were designed to be achieved over the course of the three
phase program:
1. Assess the impact of an urban water pollution control program on
the aquatic environment and determine its cost-effectiveness in
reducing pollutional stresses. Major effort will center on the
evaluation of the environmental impact of a physical-chemical
Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant, handling a combined load of
municipal, industrial, and urban runoff wastes.
2. Develop methodology for interfacing water quality assessments
and criteria with continued water pollution control planning
(such as the modification of specific unit treatment processes).
3. Develop recommendations for demonstration programs in urban
water pollution control.
13
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4. Develop necessary methodology for assessing changes in the
aquatic environment as a result of the abatement program,
including the possibility of recommending specific water quality
criteria for restoring and protecting the waters of Lake Erie
with emphasis on the near shore area.
5. Observe, document, and evaluate the restoration value of the
Cleveland program.
These specific objectives are to be achieved through a program designed
in three overlapping phases (See Figure 1.):
Phase I
The first phase was designed to prepare and execute a baseline study to
evaluate the present pollution load and water quality conditions in the
Greater Cleveland Lake Erie shoreline area. Insofar as possible, a
preliminary assessment of the pollution load impact was also sought.
Phase II
The second phase deals with a detailed assessment of the Cleveland area
water pollution control abatement impact. This phase is a long term
segment of the entire program. Included in this phase are:
1. Development of a predictive capability to assist in planning
water pollution control for specific environmental impacts.
2. Development of necessary assessment methodology such that cost-
effectiveness of control programs can be measured.
3. Development and implementation of an effective interface
between environmental impact assessment and planning-operations
efforts.
Phase III
The third phase will provide the evaluation of cost-effectiveness for
the entire water pollution abatement efforts in terms of its restorative
environmental impact. This phase would provide upon termination a water
quality monitoring basis as part of ongoing water resources and water
pollution control planning and management in the Cleveland area.
The three phases, as shown in Figure 1. , are part of a comprehensive
environmental impact assessment, planning and evaluation program in
urban water pollution abatement, with the termination of one phase
overlapping over the initiation of the following phase.
The first phase of the program was carried out by the City of Cleveland
during 1971 and 1972 under a grant from United States Environmental
Protection Agency. Baseline information was gathered by City of
Cleveland scientists and specialists from a consortium of three
universities—Cleveland State, John Carroll, and Case Western Reserve
under subcontract from the City.
14
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PHASE I: Baseline
information development and
pollution impact assessment
Write Phase I
Report
(Extended Report
,Write-up
I
Field I
Data I
I
Extended '
Field I
Studies I
Establishing water quality
monitoring; surveillance;
continuous planning
PHASE II: Detailed assessment of the Cleveland
area water pollution abatement; impact;
implementation of water quality restoration efforts
Additional field studies; demonstration
projects; computer modeling; intense field
and laboratory investigation; pilot plant
and new treatment facility evaluations
Begin
Phase I
Begin Phase I
Analysis
1 1 1
June Dec. June Dec
1971 1971 1972 197
Begin
Phase II
Design
and Work
Phase III
Planning
Continuation of
Phase III
Indefinitely
*
1 1 1 // 1 1 /
:. June June Dec. Dec. Dec.
2 1973 1974 1974 1977 1985
Figure 1. Three phase program flow and continuity chart
-------
The first phase in the collection of baseline information required the
skills of several scientific disciplines:
limnology
aquatic ecology
hydrodynamics
geochemistry
aquatic chemistry
fish biology
Although a broad, comprehensive baseline information collection framework
was attempted, the areas of specific task assignments to the sub-
contractors for specialized information gathering were relatively
narrow. The City assumed the responsibility to fill in all the gaps
and synthesize all the specialized information into a comprehensive
framework. Each area of information requiring special expertise was
designated as a specific task. These tasks were:
Task 1
Pollution input to the lake study area from the Cleveland metropolitan
area was monitored. Monitoring stations were established on all
continuous point sources of loads to the study area and were sampled
weekly. In addition, waste input data from other literature sources
were compiled.
Task 2
Ion exchange reactions between suspended particles and water in the
Cuyahoga River were examined. A determination of the buffering actions
of the particles on major cations was a primary objective. The cations
studied were sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium.
Task 3
Surveys were undertaken of the zooplanktonic and benthic organisms in
the near-shore area.
Task A
Surveys were undertaken of the phytoplanktonic organisms of the
Cleveland near-shore area. An attempt was also initiated to determine
the distribution of Cladophora along the shoreline.
Task 5
Surveys of fish populations in the Cleveland area were undertaken. These
surveys included major stream systems in the Cleveland vicinity, as well
as the lake study area.
Task 6
Surveys of sediment chemistry were undertaken in the lake study area.
Task 7
Modeling studies were initiated to determine parameters for applications
to: (1) the entrance of the Cuyahoga River into Lake Erie, and
16
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(2) thermal discharges from power plants on Lake Erie.
Task 8
Literature survey, collection and cataloging.
Task 9
Interpretation of all individual task reports and the preparation of a
comprehensive baseline information assessment report.
Although the individual tasks for the most part were accomplished
producing valid baseline information, the project did leave information
gaps which prevent a total comprehensive baseline assessment. The
major areas that were not covered are:
1. Hydrology and water budget of the area.
2. Benthic chemistry dynamics preserving the in situ conditions.
3. Pollution dispersion patterns as related to lake currents.
4. Sedimentation contribution and patterns.
These areas will be incorporated in phase II of the program
CLEVELAND WATER QUALITY PROBLEMS
Historical Review
Water quality problems have been a part of Cleveland's history since
the early nineteenth century. It is of practical value to review this
early history in order to understand the existing water quality problems
and proposed corrective measures. In addition, knowledge of past
conditions can assist in setting water quality objectives and standards.
Prior to 1850, the only water quality problems reported for the
Cleveland area concerned noticeable reductions in the populations of
several fish species, notably muskellunge and pikes (White, 1973).
These reductions were attributed to the construction of dams on streams
in the area rather than to water pollution, but it is important to
recognize that water quality changes in the Cleveland area are not all
attributable to introduction of contaminants nor are they all
correctable by reduction or elimination of the contaminants.
The first reliable record indicating that water pollution was becoming
a problem for Cleveland occurred after 1850. In a report to the
Cleveland Common Council, a special committee made the following
observations and recommendations (Case et. al., 1853):
1. The community's groundwater was becoming severely contaminated
as a source of drinking water.
17
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2. The water quality of the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie were
acceptable as sources of drinking water and chemical analyses
were presented (Table !.)•
3. It was recommended that a sewer system be developed to protect
the purity of Lake Erie, although the sewer system was to
terminate in the Cuyahoga River "below low water mark."
Between 1850 and 1900, water quality in the Cleveland area deteriorated
drastically. In 1854 the City had established a drinking water intake
in Lake Erie that was approximately 400 feet offshore and one mile west
of the Cuyahoga River. (The existing Westerly Wastewater Treatment
Plant rests very nearly on the former intake location.) Water quality
data published in 1865 (Water Works Trustees, 1865) show that total
solids were beginning to increase in the lake (Table 2).
By 1866, the water drawn through the water intake was badly polluted at
times with industrial wastes, largely from oil refineries established
along the Cuyahoga in 1864 (Water Works Trustees, 1867). One
investigation reported petroleum wastes to extend one mile out in the
lake from the river. Also in the 1867 report are remarks by the
superintendent of the Cleveland Water Works concerning the intake
contamination. His advice was that there were two courses of action
that would alleviate the problem:
1. Move the water intake further out in the lake, and
2. Strictly enforce the existing water pollution ordinances.
His recommendation was for the latter course of action.
It is not evident that any vigorous water pollution control activities
resulted from the recommendation of the superintendent. In the winter
of 1869, petroleum wastes were reported to have contaminated the lake
from bottom to surface for a distance of one mile out from the Cuyahoga
and for two miles to the west and one mile to the east of the river
(Water Works Trustees, 1870).
During the 1870's further evidence of continued water quality
deterioration was published. In 1877 one report stated that whitefish
eggs would be planted in the Cleveland area of Lake Erie, because of
the scarcity of fish (White, 1973). Also, water quality data indicated
further deterioration. Cleveland had constructed a new water intake
in the Lake approximately 6,200 feet lakeward of the old intake. Data
were collected (Water Works Trustees, 1875) to compare water quality of
the new intake with that of the old (Table 3 ).
In 1882, the City of Cleveland experienced its first water supply
problem resulting from a bloom of algae (Water Works Trustees, 1883).
In mid July citizens complained of a disagreeable fishy taste and odor
18
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Table 1. WATER QUALITY OF LAKE ERIE
AND THE CUYAHOGA RIVER IN 1852.
Cmg/1)
Station3
1
2
3
Date
August, 1852
August, 1852
October, 1852
Total
solids
78
36
117
Loss on
ignition
7
11
49
Earthly and
saline matter
71
24
68
a Station 1. Cuyahoga River near its mouth.
Station 2. Lake Erie, 0.5 miles from shore and 1.5 miles east of
the Cuyahoga River.
Station 3. Lake Erie, 10 feet from shore and 1.5 miles east of the
Cuyahoga River.
These data indicate that Lake Erie had considerably less total solids
than in the year 1900, a year generally considered to be representative
of Lake Erie in an unpolluted state.
Table 2. WATER QUALITY OF LAKE ERIE IN 1865.
(mg/1)
Station3
1
2
Date
February 19, 1865
February 19, 1865
Chloride
4.6
4.7
Sulfate
47
47
Total
solids
116
93
Loss on
ignition
31
11
a Station 1. Lake Erie, 400 feet offshore and one mile west of the
Cuyahoga River.
Station 2. Lake Erie, 3,000 feet lakeward of Station 1.
19
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in the drinking water. An investigation revealed that the taste and
odor were attributable to the "decay of a low form of aquatic
vegetation, resulting subsequently in fermentation of the water." It
was also stated in this account that Cleveland had been previously
exempt from such a problem.
The first in-depth water quality study in the Cleveland area was
conducted in 1887 (Water Works Trustees, 1887). Samples were collected
from the lake during the months of July, August, September, October,
and November, on four lines running outward from the shore. The first
line ran outward from West 117th Street, the second from West 58th
Street, the third from Marquette Avenue and the fourth from Doan Brook.
On each monthly run, samples were collected every half mile out from
two depths; four feet below the surface and five feet from the bottom.
The samples on the four lines were all taken on the same day and usually
after a heavy wind, in order to sample the lake in its worst condition.
Samples were also taken from ten miles offshore and 15 miles offshore.
The data are summarized in Table 4. The general impact of the city on
Lake Erie was similar to the existing impact pattern. Water quality
deteriorated from west to east across Cleveland and improved with
distance offshore. The completeness of the 1887 data further show that
Cleveland has had a general depressing effect on the near shore water
quality of Lake Erie for nearly 90 years.
During the 1890's, two significant developments occurred concerning the
Cleveland sewer system. First, plans were completed for several major
interceptors which established the present basic wastewater flow pattern
for the city. Of most significance however is the year 1892 in which
the city constructed its first sewer overflow. The first overflows
were built on an experimental basis to see if undercapacity sewers
could be relieved during heavy rains. The experiment was considered
successful and it was stated that "The policy has now been adopted of
building these overflows wherever a proper outlet for the discharge can
be made available." The Cleveland sewer system presently has over 600
overflows.
From 1900 up to the present, the general types of problems and water
quality consequences that became evident in the 1850-1900 period
persisted. Even with the construction and periodic upgrading of sewage
treatment plants in Cleveland, municipal wastes continued to be a
problem because of the sewer overflows. Dredge material disposal was
considered a problem as early as 1886, especially where contamination
of the water supply was concerned. The Cuyahoga River was evidencing
oxygen depletion late in the 19th century, and the existence of an
industrial waste problem has already been discussed. Algal blooms were
taking place, and discussions were held in 1904 concerning possible
sanitary contamination of the water supply from watercraft.
A number of events marked the deterioration of water quality in the
Cleveland area between 1900 to the present. One indication is the types
20
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Table 3. WATER QUALITY OF LAKE ERIE IN 1873-1874
Oag/D
Stationa
1
2
Date
November, 1873
November, 1874
Total
solids
240
110
Suspended
matter
131
12
a Station 1. Lake Erie, 400 feet offshore and one mile west of the
Cuyahoga River.
Station 2. Lake Erie, 6,200 feet lakeward of Station 1.
Table 4. WATER QUALITY OF LAKE ERIE IN 1887
(mg/1)
Distance offshore
0.5 miles
1.0 miles
1.5 miles
2.0 miles
10.0 miles
15.0 miles
Total
ammonia
.223
.207
.207
.201
.200
.119
Chloride
1.95
1.80
1.78
1.74
1.30
1.60
Total
solids
141.1
137.3
133.2
130.6
121.9
104.6
Oxygen
consumed3
4.65
4.68
4.54
4.40
4.42
3.85
a A type of chemical oxygen demand test.
21
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of fish populations that were affected. The fish fauna of the Lake
Erie shoreline in the Cleveland area underwent several marked changes
due to pollution impact. The first major impact occurred over fifty
years before 1900 when local populations of Muskellunge, Northern Pike,
and other desirable fish were almost extirpated. The second major
impact occurred between 1860 and 1890 when the Walleye, Smallmouth
Blackbass and shoreline fish such as darters and shiner suffered
pronounced decline approaching extirpation. This second major
development in fish fauna can be directly correlated with the rapid
growth of Cleveland's gross pollution of the Cuyahoga River. The third
major development was the rapid reduction of Sturgeon in 1913 followed
by the drastic decline of Cisco by 1929. The pollution remained
relatively constant for the next twenty years with commercial fishing
exerting a marked stress on the various fish populations (Regier and
Hartman, 1973). The most recent impact on Cleveland area fish fauna
occurred in the 1950's. The principal species affected were the Blue
Pike, the Yellow Walleye, and the Burbot together with other valued food
species that suffered pronounced decline and near extinction in the
Cleveland area waters.
A number of factors affected the decline of certain types of fish fauna
in the nearshore waters of Cleveland. The pollution loadings from
municipal and industrial sources were a major cause of the decline.
Other factors amplified the effects. These factors were damming of
streams physically, sediment loadings from exposed urban areas,
accelerated erosion and subsequent choking of spawning areas with silt
and clay from cleared woodlands, destruction of spawning areas such as
nursery marshes, and the added stress of the commercial fishing
industry. As a result of the total impact of all these factors the
fish fauna of the area changed from clean water forms and highly
valuable food fishes, such as Muskellunge, Walleye, Lake Trout, Silver
Chub and Burbot, to rough pollution tolerant and low value food fishes
such as the Goldfish, Carp, Gizzardshad and Perch.(White, 1973). A
more detailed historical treatment is contained in Volume II > and in
Regier's and Hartman's article listed in the bibliography.
In terms of gross water quality deterioration in the Cleveland area, as
well as most of Lake Erie, the main impact from 1900 to the present
came from municipal and industrial discharges which were and are
directly proportional to the growth of the industry, commerce, and
population in the Cleveland area and in the Lake Erie watershed. The
excessive nutrient loadings from these sources produced a plankton
succession in the lake. This succession occurred over a period of a
hundred and fifty years, and it is a definite qualitative indicator of
eutrophication.
The qualitative succession progressed from oligotrophic forms of
Asterionella and Synedra occurring in the phytoplankton pulses in
spring and fall to the eutrophic forms Melosira and Fragilaria. For
the last three years the dominant forms in plankton pulses have become
the blue-green algae - Anabaena, Microcystis, and Aphanizomenon.
(Davis, 1964)
22
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Table 5. COMPARISON OF CHANGES IN WATER QUALITY REPORTED IN
COMMERCIAL FISHING REPORTS
(ppm)
Year
SO&
Cl
Lake Erie
Ca
Na-K
Dissolved
solids
1908
1939
1949
1960
13
22
22
22
8
15
17
20
31
38
33
36.4
6
7
7
12
133
165
167
205
Lake Erie waters described as bicarbonate (total alkalinity of 95 ppm
as CaC03) and similar to the average fresh waters of the world. Average
pH is 8.3 and specific conductance at 18°C is 242 umhos. (N.B. This
would mean a dissolved solids concentration of 157 ppm rather than
205 reported.)
Table 6. CHLORIDE LEVELS OF LAKE ERIE TRIBUTARIES IN 1904
(mg/1)
Location
Date
Chloride
Detroit River, South of
Grosse Island
Maumee River, mouth
Portage River, Woodville
Sandusky River, above
Tiffin
July 12, 1904
August 27, 1904
September 11, 1904
September 11, 1904
3.0
24.6
23,240.0
410.0
23
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Quantitatively average summer densities have increased by a factor of
three, but the total biomass production has increased by a factor of
twenty since 1919. Figure 2 shows the quantitative relationships of
biomass production increase. The plankton succession and increase
produced profound effects on the hypolimnetic waters in terms of oxygen
depletion. The dissolved oxygen dropped in the summer from 9 mg/1 to
1 mg/1 due to the plankton dying and sinking to the bottom, and
subsequently decomposing. Consequently benthic organism succession
occurred from clean water forms to low oxygen tolerant forms such as
oligochaetes and chironomids.
The water quality deterioration in the Cleveland area between 1850
and 1900 was delineated to place the early conditions of Lake Erie in
proper perspective. This is necessary information in the establishment
of water quality objectives. The former Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration in its 1968 "Lake Erie Report" traced the increase of
several Lake Erie chemical constituents from the year 1900, see Table 5.
The curves generated for chlorides and total dissolved solids were
deceptive in that they indicated increases did not begin until after
1900. In fact, chlorides had nearly tripled during the 1850 to 1900
period, and total dissolved solids increased during the same period by
50% to 100%.
The increase in solids during the 1800's is attributable to urban
industrial wastes for local areas, but overall increases in the lake
were caused by brine discharges from the developing oil fields in
northwestern Ohio. Some of the streams tributary to the lake at that
time had staggering chloride loads. The following data in Table 6
(Whipple, 1905) illustrate the problem.
These early levels need to be considered if Lake Erie water quality
improvement is considered to be a problem of restoration in addition
to a problem of waste input reduction. Restoration objectives might
differ considerably from present guidelines. For instance, the 1972
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement with Canada sets the Lake Erie
dissolved solids objective at 200 milligrams per liter when in 1850,
the dissolved solids were at about half that level. Also in 1972 the
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency proposed Lake Erie Standards
which included a recommendation that chlorides should not exceed
30 milligrams per liter. In the mid-nineteenth century, chloride levels
were very likely less than one tenth the recommended level. Also, as
pointed out earlier, many changes in the Lake occurred from disturbances
other than waste input. A true restoration program would have to
consider aspects such as removal of dams and wetland restoration if the
original high quality fish populations are to be obtained.
Further consideration of overall Lake Erie standards and objectives are
beyond the scope of this study, but as part of the study many early data
have been made more accessible for use by necessary agencies. These
data and sources have been catalogued at the Sears Library of Case
Western Reserve University.
24
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6000
a
CO
0)
a
s*.
±J
CO
0
0)
d
o
4J
•a
cS
iH
CU
O
PM
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
I I I
M I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I « t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I t I
1927
1935
1946
1957
1962
Figure 2. Monthly averages of phytoplankton abundances
for selected years showing the trend
-------
Present Problems
Lake - The principal problems of near shore waters of the Cleveland area
are those of bacterial contamination, floating debris, exitrophication
and suspended solids. These are discharged from four general sources.
Surface streams and drainage courses discharge continuously, carrying
bacteria and sewage from combined sewer overflows, debris from natural
and man generated sources, and suspended solids from erosion, industrial
discharges and sewer overflows. Combined sewer overflows discharge
these pollutants on an intermittent basis, reaching high concentrations
during storms. Effluents from sewage treatment plants discharge high
concentrations of B.O.D., suspended solids, plant nutrients and
bacteria. Water from the harbor depresses the near shore water quality
of Lake Erie because the predominant westerly winds move residual
polluting materials parallel to the shore from the Cuyahoga River and
local combined sewer outfalls. All of these discharges occur close
to shore, and affect water quality most severely within a mile of the
shore, rendering beaches unsafe for human contact.
Fish life is abundant in the near shore area, and is not controlled by
water quality in terms of occurrence. The depressed water quality
areas do not prevent fish from migrating through. Most of the fish
life however, are primarily low desirability food value fishes such as
goldfish or carp. Eutrophication is evident in locally stagnant areas
especially in the Cleveland Harbor.
Streams - Cleveland area in terms of water management is treated as one
watershed with natural boundaries. Three major rivers, the Rocky River
west of Cleveland, the Cuyahoga River running through Cleveland, and
the Chagrin River east of Cleveland, comprise the Three Rivers
Watershed. Of the three rivers only the Cuyahoga evidences a profound
effect on the near shore water quality of Cleveland.
The Cuyahoga River flowing through the heavily industrialized section
of Cleveland and through the center of Cleveland is grossly polluted by
industrial, municipal, and agricultural sources besides land runoff.
Above the Cleveland area, the main sources are agricultural and land
runoff and discharges from Akron's industry and sewage treatment plants.
Within the Cleveland area, there are twelve major sources which
contribute heavy industrial and sanitary wastes to the river. Sources
and their approximate discharges are tabulated in Table 7.
The flow of the Cuyahoga River averages about 850 cfs (550 mgd). The
major users of water from the river are the steel companies which
collectively use 400 mgd, primarily for contact cooling. This water is
recycled to the river bearing high solids loading. These figures
indicate that 73% of the flow of the river is used in this manner,
illustrating the magnitude of the problem. During low flow periods,
severity of this impact is intensified, resulting in extremely
depressed water quality in and around the Cuyahoga River estuary and the
Cleveland Harbor area of Lake Erie. Figure 3 shows the portion of the
Cuyahoga River flowing through Cleveland.
26
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Table 7. SOURCES AND DISCHARGES TO CUYAHOGA RIVER
Source
Southerly Waste
Treatment Plant
U. S. Steel
(Cuyahoga Works)
Big Creek
Harshaw Chemical Co.
Jones & Laughlin Steel
Republic Steel
(2 plants)
E. I. Dupont de
Nemours
Kingsbury Run
U. S. Steel
(Central Furnace)
Walworth Run
Republic Steel
(Nut & Bolt Div.)
Flow
(mgd)
115
12
30
1.5
130
200
5.7
3.2
59
—
2.7
Suspended solids
(Ibs/day)
14,000
10,000
33,000
88
80,000
370,000
800
500
40,000
1,000
18,000
Total solids
(Ibs/day)
360,000
25,000
150,000
32,000
885,000
—
14,000
16,000
370,000
10,000
— —
Total P
(Ibs/day)
3,300
100
500
nil
1,100
1,700
—
40
490
50
___
Note: 1968 data still valid as spot checked in 1973.
27
-------
."
Figure 3. Segment of the Cuyahoga River flowing through downtown Cleveland.
28
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The river in the Cleveland area is devoid of fish life, except in a few
isolated areas where small colonies of goldfish exist. Within the
greater Cleveland area there are eleven streams of significant size
which discharge to the lake or Cuyahoga River. These eleven streams
contribute an annual total of over 125,000,000 pounds of solids
containing nearly 30,000,000 pounds of B.O.D. and C.O.D. to Cleveland
waters. Table 8 summarizes the yearly loadings of the various creeks.
Most of the streams are heavily degraded physically and biologically.
Only pollution tolerant biologic forms are able to survive in selected
streams. The physical degradation is caused by culverting, channeli-
zation, diversion, damming, and waste dumping. Most of these streams,
however, can be restored.
General - As a separate entity, one of the biggest sources of pollution
to the Cleveland area is combined sewer overflows. Estimation of the
loadings are about 5% of the annual flow to the treatment plants, or
about 5.5 billion gallons annually. Loadings for this discharge are
given in Table 9.
Another definite problem is the disposal of dredgings from the Cuyahoga
River inside dikes constructed in the Cleveland Harbor. These
dredgings contain pollutants that are under anoxic conditions released
into the water. With the thermal discharges released by the municipal
power plant localized eutrophic conditions are created. Other problems,
other than direct discharges, are produced by polluted leachate
emissions of the waste fills along the eastern shore in the Harbor.
Around those areas the water quality is heavily degraded.
Pollution Abatement Measures
In Progress - A general approach to solving pollution problems of the
Greater Cleveland area has been formulated into an extensive regional
plan, and many steps are presently underway. Industrial sources of
pollution are being abated through various approaches, by either
in-plant treatment or by channelling the wastes to the municipal sewer
systems for treatment. Sewers and interceptors will be enlarged to
handle these flows and prevent combined sewer overflows and local
flooding. Before being discharged to Cleveland waters, these flows will
be treated at new or upgraded treatment plants.
A program of industrial pollution abatement has been in progress since
1969 through efforts of the Cleveland Water Quality Program, which is
an organizational unit in the Division of Utilities Engineering of the
City of Cleveland. A total pollution survey was made, and all sources
traced. Negotiations by the Program with industries started the
abatement project. Industrial concerns surveyed their operations and
submitted plans to reduce or eliminate discharges. In-plant
modifications, process changes, recycling, construction of private
treatment facilities, and discharging wastes to the Cleveland sewer
system were discussed.
29
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Table 8. LOADS TO RECEIVING WATER FROM STREAMS
(pounds per year)
Stream
Dugway Brook
Doan Brook
Big Creek
Nine Mile Creek
Shaw Brook
Kingsbury Run
Morgan Run
Green Creek
Burke Brook
Mill Creek
Euclid Creek
Total
BOD
209,100
205,800
1,573,100
237,200
31,700
127,750
91,600
4,600
42,700
49,200
235,400
2,808,150
COD
1,887,000
5,365,500
9,344,000
2,675,400
592,000
656,000
671,600
36,000
196,000
746,400
4,617,200
26,787,100
Total
solids
10,250,000
12,045,000
40,880,000
14,750,000
1,887,000
8,468,000
4,307,000
560,000
2,682,700
4,982,200
25,002,500
125,814,400
Suspended
solids
883,300
1,014,700
4,489,500
4,270,200
376,600
3,148,100
602,200
50,000
325,500
375,950
6,048,000
18,584,050
Total PO^
as P
25,500
18,200
116,800
27,400
5,400
9,100
12,700
170
365
4,740
25,500
245,875
N03
as N
32,900
29,200
182,500
51,100
15,700
51,100
5,800
980
4,020
18,200
171,500
563,000
US
o
Note: 1968 data still valid as spot checked in 1973.
-------
Table 9. POLLUTION LOADINGS FROM COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS
(pounds)
Pollutant Total annual discharge
C.O.D. 23,900,000
B.O.D.5 7,510,000
Suspended solids 14,320,000
Total solids 41,680,000
Phosphorus (as P) 1,098,000
Total nitrogen (as N) 1,606,000
Note: 1968 data still valid as spot checked in 1973.
31
-------
Co
Figure 4. Sampling industrial outfalls on the Cuyahoga River.
sediment contributor.)
(Note that the river bank is a
-------
At present, about 40% of the 112 industries discharging to surface
waters have ceased their discharges. Most of these industries, however,
are smaller operations, while larger companies are in the planning or
construction stage, or are awaiting court decisions before undertaking
projects.
In August of 1973 the program was revised and revitalized to provide a
more dynamic and comprehensive base for effective goal achievement.
The program (Figure 5.) called Industrial Discharge to Streams
Abatement Program incorporates adjustments to federal and state
programs pursuing similar goals. Presently, this program is being
closely coordinated with the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency's
activities on the requirements of section 303E of the 1972 Federal
Water Pollution Control Act; PL 92-500. Closely associated with these
activities urban stream restoration feasibility studies are being
undertaken.
In July of 1972 the Cleveland Regional Sewer District was formed
consisting of Cleveland and 33 suburbs. Raymond Kudukis, President of
the Board of Trustees of the Cleveland Regional Sewer District,
described this development in the September, 1973 issue of Water and
Wastes Engineering publication:
The District cuts across political boundaries and jurisdictions
and therefore is in a unique position to be able to plan anti-
water pollution projects without fear of being stymied by local
political considerations. It is run by a seven member board of
trustees through a director appointed by the board. Four
representatives from the Cleveland subdistrict and three from
the suburban subdistrict make up the board.
The Sewer District has taken over operation of the city's three
major sewage treatment plants, which together treat about 300
mgd, and is continuing programs started by the City of Cleveland.
In order to meet standards set by the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendment of 1972, this means upgrading the treatment
plants and improving the collection system with an extensive
network of sewers, trunks, mains, and interceptors. Much of
the work aimed at achieving advanced wastewater treatment is
already underway and limited only by the availability of federal
funds.
At the core of Cleveland's efforts to achieve water quality are
the Easterly, Westerly, and Southerly Wastewater Treatment Plants
and their collection systems.
The Cleveland Regional Sewer District will simplify the implementation
of expansion and upgrading of waste treatment facilities and collection
systems. Plans for five large interceptors to carry the wasteload
to treatment plants are either completed or being implemented, with just
33
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a few minor details yet to be negotiated. A small sewer project is
developed which sets repair or replacement priorities on all area
sewers. Permanent rain gauges relaying precipitation data instantly
to a computer are installed around the greater Cleveland area for
monitoring flow in the sewer system. (See Figure 6.)
On October 26, 1972, the Cleveland Regional Sewer District adopted
Resolution No. 15-72 establishing an industrial waste sewer charge. The
charge to industrial users of facilities in the Cleveland Regional
Sewer District becomes effective January 1, 1974. The District has
contracted the Water Quality Program of the Division of Utilities
Engineering of the City of Cleveland to design and implement this
charge.
The industrial waste charge has been instituted to a large degree in
response to the "Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972."
Title II of the Act (Grants for Construction of Treatment Works).
Section 204 (b) (1) (B) which reads in part that no construction grants
for treatment works shall be approved unless provision has been made to
receive payment from industrial users of treatment works for "that
portion of the cost of construction of such treatment works which is
allocable to the treatment of such industrial wastes." Maintenance of
eligibility to receive Federal construction grants for improvements of
of wastewater treatment facilities remains an important part of the
Cleveland Regional Sewer District's water pollution control program.
Proposed - By the end of 1973, it is estimated that 75% of industries
discharging to Cleveland's waters will have ceased their discharges.
The major polluters of the waterways are expected to construct
treatment facilities as soon as court decisions and consent decrees are
expedited.
The proposed plan to eliminate sanitary and storm sewage overflow
contains two approach methods. First, since much of the sanitary load
to the treatment plants originates in the suburbs, five new interceptors
will be built to carry this waste express to the plants. This will
relieve the overburdened Cleveland combined system of suburban wastes,
providing larger capacity for Cleveland discharges and eliminating 100%
of dry weather overflows. The Northwest Interceptor, costing $23 million
is underway, with Southeast, Southwest, Cuyahoga Valley and Heights
Interceptor projects to follow. The other basic approach involves more
efficient use of the present system. A system of inflatable dams
strategically placed within existing interceptor, and operated by
computer, will throttle heavy flows during storm conditions. These
"Fabri-Dams" respond to the data generated by the rain gauge stations.
Combined with proposed storm flow storage basins, they will be able to
handle 95% of a ten year storm by automatically inflating and deflating
to regulate or divert flows. (See Figure 7.)
With improved collection and transport facilities, the treatment plants
must be upgraded to treat the increased volume of waste, and consonant
34
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Ui
DISCHARGE - TO -STREAMS
ABATEMENT PROGRAM
• Industrial Wastecharqe
Program
Define
Watershed
o
Catalogue
Polluters
Co-ordinate Efforts
With Other Agencies
Preliminary
Sampling
Compile 1969
Baseline Data
Present
o
Conditions
Assess Past
Conditions
Project Summary
& Approval
Select Prime
Offenders
Contact
In-Plant
\
Offenders
For Abatement
Projects
AObtain Progress
J Reports
\ Examine
Future Plans
Lend Technical
^[\ Assess Present
\J Status
OSet Abatement
Timetable
Support *f^\
fcf*N Evaluate Past r/"*^ Summary ^/*~NQuality Control _
"\^>'lmpact Of Project V
:/
O Estimate /
Future Impact
Individual Abatement
J Report ~Vk^ Program
WOP 8-73
Figure 5. Industrial discharge to streams abatement program flow chart.
-------
OJ
'..-. * \
' N \ \
/ *-x V \ >
Figure 6. Nine month total precipitation (February to October 1973)
Points shown are rain gauge stations.
-------
with water quality standards, improve treatement efficiency. The three
Cleveland Regional Sewer District wastewater treatment plants, Easterly,
Southerly, and Westerly, are being upgraded for these objectives.
Easterly plant - The existing 140 mgd Easterly Plant which has provided
both primary and secondary treatment since it was built as a WPA
project in the 1930's is undergoing an expansion program which will
increase its design capacity to a dry weather flow of 170 mgd with the
capability of treating 380 mgd wet weather flow. Flows in excess of
380 mgd will be diverted by new headworks under construction to storage
basins for subsequent treatment.
Advanced wastewater treatment techniques including chemical treatment
are being included in the Easterly design expansion by the design
engineers, Havens and Emerson, Limited. Primary plant expansion has
been completed and expansion of the secondary plant, begun by the City
of Cleveland, will continue in phases with completion scheduled for
1976.
On January 3, 1973, the Cleveland Regional Sewer District was awarded
a grant from the Federal Environmental Protection Agency for the
construction of the new headworks and pretreatment facilities.
On May 3, 1973, the Board of Trustees of the Cleveland Regional Sewer
District awarded an $11.9 million dollar contract for this construction
to the J. M. Foster Company. The next two phases of the Easterly
expansion will consist of a new effluent pumping station and new
effluent conduit which will place the plant effluent into Lake Erie some
4,000 feet off shore and will provide 35 minutes of chlorine contact
time to the effluent before it reaches the Lake.
Future projects include storm water storage facilities and applications
of advanced wastewater treatment techniques to provide tertiary
treatment.
Plans for advanced treatment facilities include phosphorus removal,
and microstraining or filtering of secondary effluent.
The Easterly Plant expansion ranks fourth on the current priorities list
of Ohio projects for Federal grant financing and $7.5 million dollars
in Federal funding has been earmarked for the Easterly expansion in
fiscal 1974. (See Figures 8 and 9)
Southerly plant - The 115 mgd Southerly Plant is the largest existing
treatment plant in the Cleveland area and presently provides both
primary and secondary treatment. A total redesign of the Southerly
Plant to provide increased treatment capacity, advanced waste treatment,
is currently being performed by Malcolm Pirnie, Inc., Consulting
Engineers. Capacity of the Southerly Plant will be expanded to 200 mgd
dry weather flow with capacity of providing treatment for up to 960 mgd
wet weather flow.
37
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UNDERGROUND EQUIPMENT VAULT
COMBINED
TRUNK SEWER
PjOWER OPERATED GATE
TO
LAKE ERIE
. DRY WEATHER OUTLET
TO INTERCEPTOR
Figure 7. A typical automated regulator-overflow control. The
inflatable dam, shown in the storm water outlet, is
made of a rubber coated fabric which is resistant to
puncture, weathering and wastewater degradation. The
dam is attached to a poured concrete base and to the
walls of the existing sewer using clamping bars held
in position with anchor bolts. An inflation pipe and
pressure sensing line run from the dam to an underground
vault. Inflatable dams are used in order to minimize
modifications of the existing sewer and to assure that
upon opening (deflating) the full section of the storm
water overflow is available for conveying extreme storm
flows. (Watermation, Inc.)
38
-------
Figure 8. Aerial view of the present Cleveland Easterly Water Pollution
Control Plant
39
-------
• -* A
Figure 9. Aerial view of the present Cleveland Southerly Water
Pollution Control Plant.
40
-------
All flow into the plant up to 400 mgd will have complete treatment and
flow in excess will have the equivalent of primary treatment with
provisions allowing the addition of organic and for inorganic
flocculation.
A biological treatment process combining standard primary and secondary
treatment with advanced wastewater treatment processes to provide
tertiary treatment is planned for the new Southerly Plant. When
completed, the plant will have the necessary capacity to provide
treatment for most of the communities in the southern half of Cuyahoga
County and some parts of northern Summit County.
The Southerly Plant expansion ranks first on the priority list of Ohio
projects for Federal funding for the current fiscal year. Since the
Southerly project is now in the first stages of design and a phased
construction program is planned, $10 million dollars has been allocated
for Federal funding for fiscal 1974. The additional monies will be
allocated in succeeding fiscal years with completion of the new plant
scheduled for 1978.
Westerly plant - The existing 35 mgd Westerly Plant is the oldest of
the three treatment plants and provides only primary treatment. The use
of chemical treatment aids has, however, enabled the plant to provide
treatment despite the large concentration of industrial wastes which
the plant receives. The Westerly Plant will be completely replaced by
a new 50 mgd physical-chemical plant which will be the largest operation
of its kind in the world and will be the first to apply physical-
chemical treatment to a large industrial flow.
The operating principle consists of primary sedimentation followed by
addition of lime. The lime will achieve phosphate removal by
converting phosphorus into insoluble calcium phosphate. Organic
polyelectrolytes will be added as the wastewater enters a flocculation-
clarification stage. This will provide a high solids removal efficiency.
The pH wil then be adjusted by recarbonation.
Additional solids removal will be achieved by filtration followed by
organic removal with carbon adsorption columns. Ozonation may be used
for disinfection and additional B.O.D. removal.
Design engineers of the new Westerly Plant are Zurn Environmental
Engineers.
The estimated cost of the new Westerly Plant is approximately $40
million dollars and it has been approved for Federal funding by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency. The Board of Trustees
awarded the first contract for the new plant, a $3.5 million dollar
sludge incineration equipment contract, to Envirotech Systems, Inc. of
California on January 11, 1973. The second construction contract for
the new incinerator building and chemical building will be bid in the
41
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fall of 1973. The final construction contract (Contract III and IV)
consisting of headworks, clarifiers and filters, will be bid in early
1974 and the new plant is scheduled to be in operation by late 1976.
Effectiveness-Effluent Quality - With proposed industrial effluent
upgrading or elimination, it is predicted that the Cuyahoga River
could support aquatic life (A) if bottom sediments do not produce toxic
effects on the biota. At present, 1.22 million yards of material are
dredged annually from the Cuyahoga and Cleveland Harbor. With removal
of the steel industries' discharged wastes, this should reduce the
volume by nearly 50%, solving not only a water quality problem, but
also diminishing a disposal problem connected with the dredgings.
The three upgraded wastewater treatment plants will considerably reduce
pollution loadings. With the new Easterly facilities, removal of B.O.D.
and suspended solids will be 95% each, and the removal of phosphorus
will be 85%. Southerly will achieve the same removal efficiency.
Westerly will have a B.O.D. removal capacity of at least 90% and a
suspended solids removal of at least 95%. Removal of phosphorus will
be no less than 85%.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
The limits of the study area were established to determine if possible
the overall impact of the Cleveland metropolitan area on the near-shore
waters of the lake. These limits are shown in Figure 10. The area
extended from Lakewood Park on the west to East 222nd Street (Moss
Point) on the east. The offshore limit of the study area was generally
considered to be the ten meter depth line, although some samples were
collected from areas of greater depth.
In addition to the area given for the lake itself, important tributary
sources of wastes to the lake were also studied. These sample locations
are also shown in Figure 10. All routine sampling stations for the study
are described in Tables 10 and 11.
The overall results of the baseline study were not unexpected in that
there was a measureable impact of the Cleveland area on Lake Erie near-
shore waters. The general impact pattern was much the same as in 1886 -
water quality deteriorated from west to east across the Cleveland area
and improved with distance offshore. What was unexpected, however,
was localized degradation in water quality along the Cleveland lakefront
itself, correlated largely with point sources of waste discharge. The
lakefront along Cleveland has been considered to be a homogeneous area
of severely depressed water quality. In effect, there are several zones
of severe water quality deterioration in Cleveland and several zones of
marginal quality, with good water quality both to the immediate east and
west of Cleveland. These depressed areas are identifiable most readily
by the sediment chemistry and benthic organisms present. It is of
interest to note that even after 100 years of continuous waste input,
the areas presently showing depressed water quality are correlated with
present point sources.
42
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LEGEND
•12 Shoreline Stations
•12 L Lake Stations
— - — - Municipal Boundary
CLEVELAND
Figure 10. Area covered by the study showing sampling stations
-------
Table 10. SAMPLING STATIONS
Lake Stations
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
#12
#13
#14
Latitude
41°
41°
41°
41°
41°
41°
41°
41°
41°
41°
41°
41°
41°
410
30'
29'
31'
32'
32'
33'
34'
34'
35'
37'
32 1
33'
39'
30'
12"
55"
17"
10"
48"
40"
18"
57"
47"
02"
14"
04"
35"
03"
Longitude
81°
81°
81°
81°
81°
81°
81°
81°
81°
81°
81°
81°
81°
810
47'
43'
41'
39'
37'
36'
35'
34'
33'
32'
47'
44'
34'
43'
41"
44"
49"
32"
51"
44"
38"
46"
53"
03"
41"
47"
28"
28"
44
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Table 11. SAMPLING STATIONS
Shoreline Stations
#1. Easterly Effluent
Lat. 41° 34' 14" Long. 81° 35' 16"
#2 Southerly Effluent
River Mile 11.0
#3 Westerly Effluent
Lat. 41° 29' 38" Long. 81° 43' 39"
#4 Cuyahoga River, Railroad Spur
River Mile 11.2
#5 Cuyahoga River, River Smelting
River Mile 8.3
#6 Cuyahoga River, Lower Harvard
River Mile 7.2
#7 Cuyahoga River, Center Street
River Mile 1.0
#8 Euclid Park, East 222nd Street
Lat. 41° 36' 52" Long. 81° 31' 45"
#9 Euclid Creek, Lakeshore Boulevard
River Mile 0.6
#10 Green Creek, Lakeshore Boulevard
River Mile 0.1
#11 Nine Mile Creek, Lakeshore Boulevard
River Mile 0.4
#12 Dugway Brook, Lakeshore Boulevard
River Mile 0.4
#13 Doan Brook, Gordon Park
River Mile 0.0
45
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The areas of current water quality depressions are in the Cleveland
Harbor near the entrance of the Cuyahoga River, and near the Westerly
and Easterly wastewater treatment plants. There is considerable
improvement in water quality within the Cleveland Harbor moving
eastward. At the eastern end of the harbor where there is a general
mixing of open lake water, the quality is surprisingly good. An
additional area of water quality depression evidenced by both sediment
chemistry and benthic organisms is along the lakeward side of the
harbor breakwall, opposite Burke Lakefront Airport (Table 12). This
area was used until recently for disposal of dredge material from the
Cuyahoga River and the Cleveland Harbor.
It is unfortunate that the two public bathing beaches in the Cleveland
area are located within the zones of severe water quality depression
associated with the Westerly and Easterly wastewater treatment plants.
These two bathing beaches, Edgewater Park and White City Beach, have
been in existence since the turn of the century, and while attention
has recently been called to the health hazard associated with them, the
following passage indicates that the situation is not new:
"A very proper disposal of the sewage of the City will have
a very marked effect upon the quality of the water at the
bathing beaches within the city limits, all of which were
closed during the past year by the Board of Health.
Sterilization of the effluents at least during the bathing
period will render the water safe for bathing purposes.
The closing of all bathing beaches means a great hardship
and it seems expedient during the present season to allow
the use of Gordon Park Beach (White City Beach) and
Edgewater Park Beach by shutting off the nearest storm
overflows." (Jackson, 1912)
The original problem at the beaches was occurring when the city had no
wastewater treatment plants. When the plants were first constructed,
the beach areas improved. It is anticipated that these two beach areas
will again improve under the present control program. Data collection
during this study will contribute to assessing the effectiveness of the
presently planned program. The new Northwest Interceptor and the
Westerly Wastewater Treatment Plant will provide an optimum opportunity
to see improvement in the associated area of Lake Erie.
The tasks undertaken on zooplankton and phytoplankton yielded similar
results in that all of these organisms were affected more by daily
open lake conditions than by waste inputs from the Cleveland area. It
was expected that an overall impact of the Cleveland area would be
evidenced by distinct changes in the planktonic populations offshore of
Cleveland as compared to populations outside the immediate Cleveland
area. It was determined, h-;wever, that the plankton populations were
extremely transitory and could change drastically within hours. While
the populations were probably indicators of water quality conditions
46
-------
at some point in the lake, a detailed analysis of currents in the lake
correlated exactly with water quality data concerning the impact of
particular waste inputs.
Analyses of the fish populations in the Cleveland area resulted in
several important findings. Although more fish species than originally
anticipated were found, the more abundant of these were open lake
spawners, pollution tolerant, or head-water species found in the
underdeveloped areas of streams tributary to the study area. In general
regard to the high number of species still found to exist in the area,
it is significant that greater than 90% of all fish captured (based on
numbers) were yellow perch, Perca flavescens.
Unlike benthic populations, fish species did not display any particular
avoidance of particular point sources of waste input, except for the
Cuyahoga River itself. With the Cuyahoga excluded from consideration,
a given species of fish was equally likely to be caught anywhere along
the Cleveland shoreline. At the same time, the highest concentrations
of fish could be found near the significant point sources of waste
input, including around the mouth of the Cuyahoga River within the
harbor.
NO apparent environmental stress was found relating to the size of the
adult fish. It appeared that if a fish was able to pass a critical
stage in growth, no effects from water quality would be evident.
Yellow perch, from the Cleveland area, for example, were favorably
comparable in length and weight with perch from a cleaner waters to the
east and west of Cleveland. Reproduction of population recruitment was
limited in the study area with respect to the overall population level
of fish. Spawning was limited to the harbor, breakwall and marina areas.
Discharges of wastes from the major point sources in the Cleveland area
to the lake were established. The data of most interest from the
chemical monitoring program are the concentrations - total load
relationships for the Cuyahoga River. Strictly on the basis of
concentrations, the river showed much improvement in water quality
between 1971 and 1972, for most parameters studied. However, it
can be seen that for parameters studied, the total load increases
with flow, even for those chemical constituents that display
considerable reduction in concentration with increased river flow.
This is a function of dilution from precipitation, of course, and
future measurements taken to assess the water pollution control
program impact will have to compare effectiveness on the basis of
total load reductions rather than concentration reduction. The
"improvement" seen between 1971 and 1972 in the river on the basis of
concentration is in fact a reflection of the difference in rainfall
between the two years; 1972 being wetter (See Figure 11). Similar
statements can be applied to the Lake Erie water quality data. The
conditions are distorted because of the dilution factor from higher
lake levels resulting from more precipitation.
47
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Accumulated Total Inches
Ul
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-------
The evaluation of the results of all the investigations concerned with
water quality shows three basic aspects. One is that there are
definitely distinguishable zones of variable water quality in the
study area as shown by a general "pollutopleth" map (Figure 12).
Second aspect shows that the water quality indicators, especially
chemical parameters, have a periodicity as related to concentration and
dilution due to increased quantities of receiving waters. The third
aspect points out clearly that accurate delineation of detailed
baseline conditions requires a more intense sampling and unified
framework, which this project did not have. Additional interpretation
of the results shows that at best the Cleveland near shore water
quality, as covered by the study, has stabilized to a depressed, but
restorable level.
49
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Ui
o
Grossly Polluted-Highly Eutrophic
Highly Enriched - Eutrophic
I Moderately Enriched - Moderately Eutrophic
(Mildly Enriched-Mildly Eutrophic
Figure 12.
Pollution intensity zones in
the near shore lake area of.
Cleveland.
N
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SECTION IV
METHODOLOGY OF DATA ACQUISITION
METHODS
Introduction
The study required traditional and innovative methods of acquiring data
on the past and present water quality conditions of the studied area.
Each investigator conducted his own literature search, in addition to
the library support project, which executed an in-depth literature
survey, collected 2,154 reports, and catalogued 1,093 of the total. In
relation to the methods outside literature search, accepted scientific
methods were used in sample collection and analysis, according to each
discipline. Most of these methods can be classed as "standard methods."
The administrative methods were primarily "ad hoc" and did not
constitute a systems approach. In depth descriptions of the scientific
methods are contained in the appropriate indexes.
Literature Search, Compilation, and Availability
The bulk of the available literature research was accomplished through
the library support project by the Sears Library specialists of Case
Western Reserve University.
The aims of the library support project were: to give direct support to
those working on the project, making searches and acquiring needed
publications, to identify relevant literature sources, existing and
on-going projects and data bases, and to study and evaluate existing
thesauri to provide terms for retrieval of collected references for
later retrieval by computer.
A literature specialist was employed to serve as a research librarian to
the investigators and to study existing literature sources; in addition
to identifying on-going projects, the data-bases which they were
building, and the access to those data, including those which were
computer-based. Clerical service to support the effort was also provided.
The aims of the project were carried out as follows:
First, the Lake Erie Study Collection was set up. This is a collection
of reports in the environmental sciences, particularly local water
pollution material. Its purpose was to serve researchers in the area
of water pollution and to be the library arm of an interdisciplinary,
inter-institutional project studying the pollution of Lake Erie.
The Lake Erie Study Collection started from nothing in February, 1972,
and now contains 2,154 reports (1,093 of which have been catalogued),
some formerly part of the Sears Library Collection, some formerly in
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Government Documents, Freiberger Library, and the remainder acquired
through purchase or request. 173 requests for reports were written.
100 books on the specific subject of eutrophication were selected and
purchased.
This collection represents the data base planned for development as
Phase I of the library project. The catalog cards prepared for this
material constitute the manual record from which machine-readable
records will be prepared for the automated information retrieval system
planned as part of Phase II of this project.
Since February of 1972, 287 items were circulated by the Lake Erie Study
Collection. These items had first to be located, procured from the
issuing source, and processed.
One hundred and twenty interlibrary loans were made by the collection.
These represent specific requests from project members as well as items
located through a regular scanning of current bibliographies, indexes,
abstracts and periodicals.
Project meetings were held at the library, at which the project members
discussed their specific projects and the literature needs related to
that project. The librarian described the resources and services
available from the collection.
To provide a broader data base to the investigators, the water pollution
literature resources at the following locations in the Cleveland area
were examined:
Sears Library, Case Western Reserve University
Freiberger Library, Case Western Reserve University
Health Sciences Library, Case Western Reserve University
Municipal Reference Library, Cleveland Public Library
John Carroll University
Cleveland State University
City of Cleveland, Water Quality Program
To speed retrieval of specific sources, periodical holdings lists were
collected from John Carroll University, Biology Department; Cleveland
State University; and the Cleveland Natural Sciences Museum. Report
holdings lists were collected from John Carroll University, Biology
Department; the Water Quality Program of the City of Cleveland; and the
Systems Engineering Division of the Case Western Reserve University,
School of Engineering.
Secondly, to maintain awareness of research and publications on water
resources at other locations, nationwide, bibliographies and directories
of agencies concerned with water resources were collected. Requests were
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sent out to be put on the mailing lists to receive publications of
relevant agencies. A file of agencies concerned with water resources
was Begun. This file now includes 727 agencies.
To facilitate literature searching, a record of abstracts, indexes,
periodicals and bibliographies in the water resources research area
was started. Systematic examination of current issues of relevant
abstracts and indexes issues of pertinent abstracts and indexes was
instituted. Project members were notified .of reports in their area of
investigation. This constituted a personalized SDI service for project
members. Potentially useful reports listed in these current sources
were ordered and placed in the collection.
Since currency of information is particularly important in this rapidly
advancing field, a file of pamphlets and ephemers was set up. This now
contains material under 150 different subject headings.
Thirdly, a search was conducted for a thesauri to provide terms for
retrieval of collected references. After study and evaluation of the two
United States Government water resources thesauri, as well as the
abstracts and indexes in the areas of water resources, pollution and more
general fields, the librarian recommended waiting for publication of the
more comprehensive thesaurus being prepared by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency Library. The two major reasons for the
recommendation are:
1. Water pollution is inter-related with other areas of the
environment. Materials covering broader areas must be included
in the collection. Therefore, a thesaurus which covers a broader
area must be used, supplemented by the more detailed breakdown of
the water thesauri.
2. The Lake Erie Study Collection contains the publications of the
Environmental Protection Agency which are received on deposit
at the Government Documents Collection at Freiberger Library.
This is a large, rapidly-growing collection. Concern for ease
of retrieval dictates that this material should be subject
analyzed in congruence with the nationwide system.
To summarize, three specific aims were set up for the library support
project. The first was to give direct support to those working on the
project. This was accomplished by holding project meetings, providing
acquisition and interlibrary loan service, doing literature searches, and
establishing the Lake Erie Study Collection, the data base for
computerized retrieval in Phase II of the project.
The second aim was to identify relevant literature, projects and data
bases. This was accomplished by building a collection of directories
and bibliographies and establishing a comprehensive file of agencies in
the water resources area. The third aim was to evaluate thesauri to
provide terms for subject retrieval of literature in this area.
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Chemical Methods
There were three principal chemical investigations accomplished in this
project. One was the determination of buffering effects of suspended
sediments on the concentrations of dissolved sodium, potassium,
magnesium, and calcium in the Cuyahoga River expressed in cation
exchange reactions. The second investigation dealt with the determination
of chemical water quality based on dissolved solids concentration and
other parameters in the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie in the study area
as shown in Figure 10. The third investigation was concerned with the
determination of the chemical composition of near shore Lake Erie
benthic sediments .
Cation Exchange Investigation - This investigation involved field and
laboratory methods. In the field, (see Figure 10), the Cuyahoga River
was sampled periodically at three sampling stations:
1. At Rockside Road bridge (approximately mile 14.8), before the
river enters the major industrial area of Cleveland,
2. At the Harvard-Denis on bridge (approximately mile 7.1), and
3. At the Detroit-Superior bridge (mile 1.0).
Samples were either taken from the bridges by a bucket on a line (and are
therefore surface samples) or from the City's Water Quality Program boat
by pumping the samples out through a hose. Most of the samples taken
from the boat are triple samples obtained from three depths: a foot
below the surface, a foot above the bottom and at mid depth. This
method was used to test how well the dissolved ions and suspended
sediments were mixed in the river. All samples from station 1 are
surface because it is above the head of navigation; surface-only
samples were taken at stations 2 and 3 during the winter and early
spring when the City's boat was out of the water and after June 14, 1972,
by which time we had concluded that the river is always so well mixed
that only surface samples need be taken. The period of sampling began
August 11, 1971, and terminated September 14, 1972.
In the laboratory the sediments were separated from the water either by
high speed centrifugation with a Sharpies centrifuge or by allowing them
to flocculate from five gallons of sample. An aliquot of the water was
saved for chemical analysis. The separated sediment was dried and washed
with acetone and split into two aliquots for a determination of:
1. Cation exchange capacity and amounts of exchangeable sodium,
potassium, magnesium and calcium on the untreated (inorganic
plus organic particulate material) sample, and
2. amount of organic material oxidizable with 30% ^02, the cation
exchange capacity of the resulting inorganic fraction and x-ray
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diffraction analysis of the inorganic fraction. Each of these
procedures is described in more detail in the Bibliography.
Water Quality Chemistry Investigation - The field methods involved
bucket sampling. The samples were collected from the lake or river by
tossing a bucket into the stream and pouring the sample into a
polyethylene sample bottle. Dissolved oxygen and temperature
measurements were taken prior to pouring the sample into the sample
bottle. Dissolved oxygen measurements were made with a precalibrated
Yellow Springs Instrument Company oxygen meter. Samples from the sewage
plant effluents were twenty-four composite samples composited hourly.
These samples were brought back to the Water Quality Laboratory the same
morning and they were immediately cut into aliquots and taken to various
sections of the laboratory for analysis. All the analyses performed on
these samples were done in accordance with Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, 13th edition, or, Methods for the
Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes, Environmental Protection Agency,
1971. Quality control on these samples was maintained by the
simultaneous analysis of standards, duplicates, and standard addition
samples.
Benthic Sediment Methodology - The samples were obtained once a month,
weather permitting, at ten sites selected along about twenty miles of the
southern shoreline of Lake Erie stretching from Rocky River to Euclid
Creek. (Figure 10) The samples were Ponar dredge grab samples taken
at the same time as other samples were taken for biological studies. The
vessel used for the cruises was an open Boston whaler purchased by this
grant.
The sediment samples were transferred into wide mouth polyethylene jars
which had been cleaned with dichromate acid cleaning solution and rinsed
thoroughly with tap, distilled and deionized water, in sequence. No
preservatives were used. The jar caps were screwed on as tightly as
possible to prevent access of air. Usually at least one liter of water
was obtained with the sediment. Several stations had rocky or densely
packed gravel bottoms so that often little sediment was obtained.
In the laboratory the samples were transferred to a cold room or
refrigerator at 4° c. Usually they were allowed to stand overnight to
allow the supernatants to clarify somewhat before they were decanted
into 250 ml polypropylene centrifuge bottles, capped and centrifuged in
a Sorval or International centrifuge at 4° C. One bottle of
centrifugate was filtered through 0.45 micron millipore filters.
Filtered and unfiltered water samples were analyzed as soon as possible
for nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon species. Portions of some decantates
were stored in plastic bottles at 4° C for possible future examination.
The sediment from which the bulk of the supernatant had been decanted was
shaken and stirred with a large spatula to obtain apparent homogeneity.
A portion was transferred to a Waring blender (1/2 to 2/3 full) and
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homogenized for one or more minutes in the cold room at 4° C. The
blender was then taken to the balance room and samples were weighed out
using an analytical balance while the blender was at low speed, for
the following determinations.
1. Percent solids due to loss of water in drying at 70° C, in
porcelain crucibles. Subsequently these samples were used to
determine the percent loss on ignition and percent organic
carbon.
2. Metal determinations by atomic absorption spectrophotometry.
After the above samples were weighed on the analytical balance, a 50
gram sample was weighed on a top loading balance accurate to 0.01 gram
for the grease determination.
Another portion of about 100 grams was transferred to a beaker for
drying at 70° C for storage.
The remainder of the blended sediment was transferred to a plastic
bottle for freeze drying and storage.
If there was considerable sediment in the original gallon jar all or a
portion of it was transferred to plastic jars for freeze storage in case
additional investigation became desirable.
These analytical procedures were employed:
1. Percent Solids. Triplicate two to six gram samples of sediments
were transferred from the Waring blender to porcelain crucibles with lids
which had been weighed to constant weight on a sartorius single pan
analytical balance. The samples were dried overnight in a gravity oven
at 70° C, weighed and redried to constant weight. The percent solids
were calculated in the usual manner.
2. Percent Loss on Ignition. (LOI) After constant weight had been
attained in the percent solids determination the crucibles and lids were
transferred to a muffle furnace at 900° C for at least two hours. They
were cooled and weighed and reignited until constant weight was attained.
The LOI was due to combustion of organic matter and loss of carbon
dioxide from limestone in the sediment. The LOI was calculated on the
basis of the 70° C dry weights.
3. Percent Organic Content. After constant weight had been attained
after loss on ignition the contents of the crucibles were wet with
deionized water. The crucibles were then placed into a large desiccator
containing dry ice to provide a high concentration of carbon dioxide for
absorption by the alkaline oxides and reconstitution of the corresponding
carbonates. The crucibles were stored thus overnight, dried at 110° C
for two to four hours and weighed. The sequence was repeated for a week
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or longer until constant weights were attained. The percent carbon
dioxide absorbed would represent carbonate carbon. The difference
between percent LOI and percent carbon dioxide absorbed is reported as
organic carbon. All calculations were based on the sediment weight
after drying at 70° C.
4. Grease Determinations. Fifty-gram samples of blended sediment
were weighed into 400 ml beakers and acidified to ph less than two with
one to two ml of six normal sulfuric acid. Fifty grams of anhydrous
magnesium sulfate was stirred into the sediment and spread on the sides
of the beaker. Mixing was continued intermittently until the mixture
dried. The dried mixture was ground with a mortar and pestle and
small Wiley mill if necessary until all the material passed thirty mesh.
Two 40 gram portions were weighed into a medium sized Soxhlet thimble
and set up for extraction with redistilled hexane. The Soxhlet
extraction apparatus was set up and the heaters were controlled with a
Variac transformer to carry out the extraction at 20 cycles per hour for
four hours. At the end of the extraction period the extraction flask
was attached to a Rotovap for removal of the hexane under reduced
pressure. The concentrated extract was filtered with suction through a
small medium porosity fritted funnel into a preweighed 10 ml erlenmeyer
flask or vial. The extraction flask was rinsed several times with
hexane using a Pasteur transfer pipet. The hexane was evaporated from
the 10 ml receiver by drawing air through the funnel in situ. The 10 ml
vessel with grease concentrate was dried in a vacuum oven at room
temperature overnight before being weighed on the analytical balance.
The percent grease was calculated on the basis of the percent solids in
the 20 gram portion of wet sediment per sample.
During the course of the project the Soxhlet hot plate burned out so that
sediment samples had to be stockpiled until a new hot plate was
available. It was decided to use 20 gram portions of sediment which
had been dried at 70° C or freeze dried. No magnesium sulfate was
required during the extraction of such samples.
5. Heavy Metals Determination. Triplicate samples of blended
sediment weighing two to eight grams were weighed into small preweighed
Soxhlet thimbles which absorbed the water. The thimbles were placed into
200 or 250 ml erlenmeyer flasks with 29/40 ground glass necks so that
reflux condensers could be attached. The samples were treated with
80 ml aqua regia to decompose the paper thimbles and dissolve as much
of the sediment as possible. The samples were digested under reflux
overnight. The condensers were rinsed into the flasks with deionized
water and diluted solution was filtered through Whatman 42 filter paper
into 500 ml volumetric flasks. The residues were washed thoroughly with
deionized water and the filtrate was made up to 500 mis. The filtrate
was transferred to one pint plastic bottles for storage. The filtrate
was less than two formal in total acid because of decomposition of aqua
regia during digestion.
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The metals were determined on the filtrate, diluted if necessary, by
atomic absorption spectrophotometry with an Instrument Laboratory
153 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. The metals analyzed were
cadmium, calcium (with lanthanum chloride diluent added), chromium,
cobalt, copper, iron, lead, mercury (flameless atomic absorption
spectrophotometry), nickel and zinc. The results were reported as
milligrams per gram dry sediment based upon standardization curves for
each element.
6. Total Nitrogen (Kjeldahl) in Sediments. Two hundred milligram
samples of sediment which had been oven dried at 70° C or freeze dried
and pulverized to pass 100 mesh were weighed and transferred into 100 ml
micro-Kjeldahl flasks and digested in concentrated sulfuric acid,
potassium sulfate and mercuric sulfate in the usual manner until white
fumes of sulfur trioxide were obtained and the solution was colorless
or pale yellow. The residue was cooled, diluted with deionized water
and transferred to the reaction flask of the micro-Kjeldahl distillation
apparatus. The solution was made alkaline with sodium hydroxide-sodium
thiosulfate solution and heated to distill the ammonia into a calibrated
beaker containing 10 ml of two percent weight per volume boric acid
solution until the 50 ml mark was reached. The absorbed ammonia was
titrated with 0.02 normal HC1 using a microburet.
7. Total Phosphate in Sediments. The total phosphate was determined
on the dilute aqua regia solution prepared for heavy metal analysis.
Due to the high iron content of the solutions it was necessary to use
the benzene-isobutanol extraction procedure followed by stannous
chloride reduction. (223 Method E, Stannous Chloride Method, Standard
Methods, 13th Edition, pp 530-532)
8. Carbon Species in Aqueous Supernatants. Organic carbon and
carbonate carbon were determined on filtered (0.45 micron) and unfiltered
supernatants. The Labconco Micro-Kjeldahl apparatus was used for
ammonia- and Kjeldahl- nitrogen analyses, the liberated ammonia being
determined titritmetrically using a microburet. Nitrate-nitrogen
procedure was the cadmium reduction sulfanilic acid - napthylamine method
using the Hach Nitraver IV combined reagents pillows. The color
developed was read at 520 nanameters with a Beckman DU spectrophotometer.
The nitrate method was the sulfanilic acid-napththyl amine procedure
with Hach Nitriver pillows. The color was read at 520 nanameters as in
the nitrate test.
9. pH Values of Aqueous Supernatants. pH values were measured at
room temperature on filtered (0.45 microns) and unfiltered supernatants
using a Sargent pH meter, Model LS.
10. Conductance Values of Aqueous Supernatants. Conductance values
were measured at room temperature on filtered (0.45 microns) and
unfiltered supernatants using a Yellow Springs Instrument Conductivity
Bridge Model 31.
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Biological System Related
There were basically five major areas of investigation related to
biological systems. One was the investigation of Cladophora sp. green
algae occurrence in the study area. Second area was the phytoplankton
occurrence and distribution. The third principal investigation
concerned itself with zooplankton occurrence and distribution. The
fourth investigation was the benthos occurrence. The fifth dealt with
fish populations in the study area.
Cladophora - This investigation collected two sets of algae using two
basic methods in field sampling and laboratory investigations. The first
were made during August and September of 1971. Collections were from
selected sites spanning most of the extent of shoreline included in this
study.
Samples were taken by placing a metal cylinder, open at both ends, over
the plants to be sampled. The cylinder was held firmly in place while
all plant material immediately surrounding the cylinder was cut and
scraped away. The cylinder was then removed and the circle of isolated
plant material was quickly and carefully scraped from the substrate and
placed in a sealed plastic container. Sharpened putty knives were used.
Common food cans, with both ends removed, were found to be convenient and
easily replaced "metal cylinders".
The plastic containers holding the samples were placed in an ice-chest
for transportation to the laboratory where they were stored at 4° C. In
most cases, the samples were stored no more than 24 hours.
The samples were filtered in a Buchner funnel and collected on Whatman
number 1 filter paper which had been dried at 60° C and pre-weighed. The
samples were dried at 60° C to constant weight. The data are reported as
dry weight per square centimeter of substrate.
Samples were taken from rocks at the nominal surface of the water. Dis-
lodging and removing a sample between waves required quick action and
good timing. Collection in this manner is impossible in wave conditions
exceeding one foot height.
The second set and methods were designed and used because the 1971 work
showed that sampling natural substrates would yield limited information,
showing no valid relationships between water quality and Cladophora
growth. The new sampling program for 1972 was based on samples from
uniform artificial substrates.
The Cladophora traps used consisted of one-inch thick pine boards twelve
inches square, coated with epoxy resin with a sheet of fiberglass on one
surface. The fiberglass was applied to provide a rough surface on one
side to compare with the glass-smooth epoxy surface on the other side.
The traps were anchored to 45 pound concrete blocks with quarter-inch
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diameter braided nylon rope. The depth of water varied from three to
five meters at the different sites. The anchor ropes were cut so that
the traps floated in a vertical position with their tops a few
centimeters below the surface. Small styrofoam floats were attached to
the traps with about two meters of light nylon line to aid in locating
the traps. This method of anchoring and buoying the traps worked well.
Most of them were recovered. However, many of the buoys were lost and
at least half of the traps were broken by power boat propellers. All
data reported for 1972 are from these traps. Prior to developing this
method of anchoring and buoying the traps, many were lost. Hurricane
Agnes destroyed or removed all the traps which had been set out in June
of 1972.
Phytoplankton - A study of comparative phytoplankton populations at
several stations along the Cleveland area waterfront was performed
during 1972 (See Figure 10.). Samples were collected from each thirteen
stations once a month. A fourteenth station was sampled sporadically.
Samples were collected quantitatively in three replicates, fixed with
acetic IKI and the phytoplankton enumerated using Untermohl chambers.
The gross numbers of phytoplankton were converted to biomass and
reported as cubic microns per liter. Comparisons were made between
monthly averages of biomass of all stations and comparisons of single
stations on a monthly basis.
Zooplankton and Benthos - Ten sites along the Cleveland lake front and
three sites located further out in Lake Erie were sampled regularly
for zooplankton and benthos from September, 1971, to November, 1972.
Zooplankton were collected with a vertical tow net while benthos was
collected with a Ponar grab sampler. Samples were preserved in five
percent buffered formalin and processed in the laboratory. Along with
zooplankton and benthos, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, specific
conductivity, and pH were measured at each site.
In the laboratory, the zooplankton was split several times and
subsampled. The zooplankton was then counted and identified using
various zooplankton keys. Benthos samples were segregated by sieving
through a U. S. number 30 soil sieve and then hand-picked from the
residue. Oligochaetes were subsampled, when large numbers occurred
using a tray with a grid pattern and randomly sampling the grids.
Dry-weight biomass was obtained for the oligochaetes by drying to
constant weight at 60° C and then incinerating at 600° C. Cherinomid
larva identification was made using head slides. All benthos was
identified using various invertebrate keys. Data was analyzed using
Fortran IV computer programs for species diversity indices, diversity
equitability components, and community similarity coefficients. For
sampling locations refer to Figure 10.
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Fish Populations - The methods used in fish studies are detailed in
Volume II. The same study area applies to this investigation as
shown in Figure 10. The field collections were conducted in the
nearshore areas of Lake Erie, and in the drainages of the Rocky,
Chagrin and Cuyahoga systems. During the period of June 1, 1971,
through December 31, 1972, more than 200 collections were made at
various sites, some of which were sampled repeatedly.
Samples were taken in deeper waters employing an 18^ foot outboard
motorboat or a rowboat. During periods of heavy seas a chartered
commercial fishing vessel was used. In order to insure that the
greatest variety of fishes were collected, several sampling methods
were utilized, depending upon the conditions of the sample sites. These
methods are common methods used for fishing. Experimental gill nets
were used to sample in the open lake, the deeper portions near shore,
and the lower sections of the river drainages. These nets were 125
feet in length, six feet in depth, and consisted of five panels of
varied stretch mesh sizes (one inch, one and one half inch, two inch,
three inch, four inch).
Stations were sampled with experimental gill nets for periods of
twenty four to forty eight hours. In some cases additional gill nets
were utilized, these having stretch mesh sizes of two, two and three
fourths, three, eight, ten, or twelve inch stretch. The gill nets
were set between zero and seven feet from the bottom, and at least
ten feet below the surface. Trawling samples were taken in an attempt
to capture species that were either too small to collect with gill
nets or that were not readily taken by the gill net. The trawl
utilized in the collection of this data was a sixteen foot semi-balloon
otter trawl equipped with mud rollers.
Rivers and shallow beaches along the shoreline were collected by
seining. Depending upon the characteristics of the sample site, a
variety of seines were utilized. These included:
1. A 50 ft, % inch mesh seine with a 4 x 4 ft bag.
2. A 26 ft, ^ inch mesh seine with a 4 x 4 ft bag.
3. A 16 ft, % inch mesh seine with a 4 x 4 ft bag.
4. A 8 ft Common Sense Seine, 4 ft in depth.
5. A 8 x 4 ft fry net with 1/16 inch mesh for sampling fish fry
in streams and/or beaches.
Seining was accomplished by utilizing three-man crews and sampling all
available habitats within a one half mile area of the station. Of the
fishes collected, approximately 95% were identified to species and
returned to the stream, with the exception of representative specimens
which were preserved in six percent formalin and returned to the
laboratory for confirmation.
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Fyke nets were utilized on a limited basis due to the heavy use of the
study area by recreational boaters and sport fishermen. No attempt
was made to actively survey the catch of either sport or commercial
fishing. However, certain species of fishes were observed and reported
only by persons engaged in these activities. These reports have been
considered valid only when they were substantiated by either the
specimen or a dated, clear photograph. Such information has been
included in the distribution reports and in the current status
discussion. In addition, the records of both the commercial catch and
the Ohio Division of Wildlife gill net survey have been accepted as
valid and utilized as a source of data.
Observations of fishes without supporting collections were in most
cases considered invalid. Only the observation of a species having
unique identifying characteristics were accepted and then only if
reported by a reliable observer. Such species as gar were accepted,
while species such as the emerald shiner, blue gill or white sucker
were not accpeted unless substantiated by a specimen.
Utilizing all of the above methods, approximately 77,000 specimens of
fishes were captured and examined. All except about 7,000 of these
were subsequently released. These latter specimens are currently
preserved in the museums of John Carroll University and the Ohio
State University and will be maintained for future documentation and/or
research.
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METHOD EVALUATION
Most of the methods employed in the investigations were acceptable
standard procedures. The reproducibility and accuracy of the results
depend primarily on the individual analyst. One of the most glaring
deficiencies in the field study aspects of the program was the low
sampling frequency. A sampling frequency of sixteen days per year is
too low to establish short term fluctuations in water chemistry, changes
in biota, and other related changes such as diffusion, currents, etc.
Methods used in each principal area of investigation are critiqued.
The cation exchange reaction investigation neglected the volume and flow
rate of the river at the time for the sampling, ignoring the dilution
effects of variable volumes and flows.
The benthic sediment investigation exhibits several areas of deficiency.
In the sampling procedure information such as temperature, dissolved
oxygen, current direction and velocity should have been obtained to
obtain a detailed framework of the water chemistry. Thickness of the
sludge deposits should have been calculated, and the entire sampling
program should have been coordinated with sampling and analysis of the
surface water to reduce variability in time and space. There is a
question whether the in situ chemistry of the sediments was maintained
during the transport and preparation of samples. In the laboratory
chemical calculations should have been based on dry solids rather than
wet sediment, due to lack of control of the moisture content in the
sediments. The results can not be used for determining heavy metal
pollution effects, because no heavy metal background concentration
analysis was attempted to establish natural baseline.
The methods employed in collecting and measuring phytoplankton are
reliable and reproducible. The identification of organisms however,
appeared to be limited to the easily recognized and major forms. If
comparisons of changes in populations in the future are to be made it
will be necessary to know more exactly which species or at least genera
are present or predominant during different periods of the year. Since
only a few of the forms were identified to even the genera level, it
was impossible to apply any indices of population or community
structure to the phytoplankton. Such indices could describe changes
in dominance, or equitably from which a predictive pattern could evolve.
While this study was intended to provide baseline data on current water
quality conditions, there were insufficient samples taken to fully
delineate changes in phytoplankton density with respect to either time
or pollution inputs to the Cleveland area waterfront. In order to
fully gather the required baseline data, it would be necessary to
sample more frequently and perhaps on a more limited area basis. In
order to determine effects of inputs upon the biota in general, we
should first know the flow and dispersal patterns of the inputs upon
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then establish sampling locations on a definite grid basis.
The zooplankton and benthos study like the other investigations had a
low sampling frequency. The methods used in this study were appropriate
and acceptable for the problem at hand. Some of the methods tend to
have inherent sources of error which must be considered. One method,
calculation of the species diversity, requires that harsh environments
have few species with abundant population while favorable environments
have many species none of which are greatly abundant. This assumption
is somewhat weak, because low species diversity does not mean that the
environment is necessarily unfavorable. The low diversity could
indicate that organisms have not colonized a favorable environment
because they simply are not in a close enough proximity to invade this
area. One of the methods used in this study, ordination analysis, as
applied to water pollution biology, is a valid technique. Using this
procedure a number of environmental gradients can be compared with
respect to various communities.
The administrative methods of managing the project were "ad hoc." The
magnitude of the project mandated a systems approach, which was not
utilized. Project management techniques such as PERT - CRITICAL PATH
or other applicable methods would have aided in establishing a
framework for target dates, personnel, communication flow, fiscal
control, and priorities. The design of a water quality baseline
assessment model would have given a useful tool for an organized and
systematic execution of this phase of the program. This model could
be a submodel of a large comprehensive model of the entire three phase
program. Such a model has predictive capabilities incorporated into
its design, and can be used to evaluate economic and technical
feasibility and predict ecosystem response to remedial measures.
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SECTION V
STUDY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
RESULTS
Background
The individual investigations produced results that have to be
integrated into a total framework. The investigations had a biological
and chemical orientation, and did not assess the physical system. To
establish a. meaningful synthesis of the results, the total environmental
system must be considered. The total environmental system is made up of
physical systems that largely determine the existence and nature of the
biological life. Only when the study area is assessed through an
ecosystem perspective, can the proper ecological baselines be
established for departure in assessment of water pollution control and
water quality management programs.
Physical System
The physical system requires knowledge in a number of specialized areas.
In relation to water quality assessment and management the critical
areas are geology, topography, geomorphology, hydrology, hydrogeology,
currents, drainage patterns, erosion potentials, land use, climatology,
meteorology, and other areas. The delineation of the physical
environment establishes natural sources of pollution and their
magnitudes, and shows the path and impact of the man-generated
pollutants in the environment. This study did not incorporate a
comprehensive assessment of the physical environment, apart from the
hydrodynamic modeling, and very specialized chemical investigations.
The following discussion of the physical environment is presented to
correct the deficiency. It is based on literature research, and on field
observations and studies.
The study area is located on the southern shore of Lake Erie, which is
part of the Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence River drainage basin.
Climatological data for the City of Cleveland (National Weather Service,
1972) shows that the climate is continental in character and strongly
influenced by the lake as a temperature and moisture moderator. Annual
normal average temperature is 50° F, with about 70 freezes and thaws
per year. Precipitation averages 36 total inches per year. The
evaporation rates for the lake average also 36 total inches per year
showing the dependence of the lake levels on the flow from upper Great
Lakes, fluctuating runoff, and groundwater influx. The number of
freezes and thaws indicates that frost heaving is a significant erosional
agent in the area, especially in destabilizing the Lake Erie shoreline.
The prevailing winds are from the southwest, but they show seasonal
variations. The predominant winds occur along a southwest-northeast
65
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axis. The yearly mean wind velocity is eleven miles per hour.
Generally, local topographic variations exert very little influence on
the overall climate, apart from Lake Erie, which is the principal
climatic modifier.
The macro-phytosociology of the study area shows that the original
plant communities consisted of four main types of plant associations
(Gordon, 1969). In decreasing aerial extent, these were beech forests,
mixed oak forests, mixed mesophytic forests, and elm-ash swamp forests.
The relative distribution of each association was primarily influenced
by local climate, drainage, and geologic conditions as related to
surficial deposits. As pointed out in the introduction of this report,
the agricultural practices, urban land use, and denudation of land
were the initial steps that resulted in the degradation of the aquatic
environment in the study area. The original vegetative patterns
prevented excessive erosion and siltation of the rivers and the lake.
The physical modifications of the surface cover and draining and
filling of marshes, destroyed fish breeding areas and the associated
complex biological ecosystems.
The geology of the study area illustrates a non-catastrophic evolution
of the present landscape. The consolidated rocks underlying the region
are composed entirely of sedimentary materials, shales and sandstones
being predominant in the study area. The strata dips basically
southeast with local variations. A close agreement exists between the
surface relief and aerial location of the sedimentary bedrock surface.
The consolidated strata are blanketed by glacial deposits left by the
ice sheets, which once covered the area. The action of the ice masses
were very influential in shaping the present physiography, although the
net effect of this action has been greatly masked by the sediments
deposited as the glaciers retreated (Gushing, Leveret, Van Horn, 1931).
The materials left by the glaciers consist mainly of tills (southern
portions of the study area), and glacial cave sediments (northern
portions). Two low noraine ridges also occur in the area, one in the
central western section trending roughly west to east across the
Cuyahoga River, and, the other in the northeastern section, trending
west to northwest across the Chagrin River. Low elongate sand ridges
occur predominately in the northern section, roughly parallel to the
present Lake Erie shoreline. These deposits represent former glacial
lake beaches (Gushing, Leverett, Van Horn, 1931).
Physiographically the area may be divided into three definable regions.
The lines dividing these sections trend roughly northeast across the
study area, and are strongly distorted by local drainage patterns. The
south section belongs to the Appalachian plateau region. The
topographic character of this area can be described as hilly to rolling.
Trending northeast across the region is a two to four mile wide slope,
known as the Portage Escarpment. It is irregular and discontinuous
because of the stream valleys cutting across. The major portion of
66
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the escarpment is composed of shale. The slope is fairly uniform with
a 40 to 80 feet per mile gradient present. The escarpment defines the
line separating the remaining section, Erie Plain, from the Appalachian
Plateau. The Erie Plain occupies the north and large part of the
eastern sections of the study area. A considerable part of it is
submerged under the waters of Lake Erie. The topography of this area
is relatively smooth and has a lakeward slope of about 50 to 60 feet
per mile (Gushing, Leverett, Van Horn, 1931).
The drainage system of the region is strongly modified as it flows
across these three sections. The smaller streams which have their
headwaters in the plateau flow north towards Lake Erie. As they pass
over the escarpment, many have incised deep valleys into the underlying
soft shale. Once they reach the Erie Plain, the streams flow in shallow
valleys with decreased velocities. Concurrently, the streambeds change
in character, being composed of glacial-lake silts and clays. The
three major drainage systems, the Cuyahoga, Chagrin, and Rocky rivers,
all originate outside of the south of the study area. Due to their
greater volumes, they have cut deeper and narrower valleys through the
underlying glacial sediments and bedrock, than the smaller rivers.
Average flows and total drainage areas for these three major rivers
are: Rocky River, 294 square miles, 278 cubic feet per second (CFS);
Cuyahoga River, 813 square miles, 862 CFS; Chagrin River, 267 square
miles, 336 CFS (Ohio Division of Geological Survey, 1966).
The soils of the area are strongly related to the parent material, the
previously described glacial deposits. They generally can be classed
as imperfectly to well drained, fine grained soils, predominantly
calcareous and slightly acidic (Division of Lands and Soils, 1960).
Due to the relatively high sediment loads, the major drainage systems
require dredging in the navigable portions. Table 12 shows the various
materials and quantities dredged annually from the Cuyahoga River and
the Cleveland Harbor. Much of the sedimentation is a result of erosion
from improperly managed urban and rural lands, and disturbed river
banks. Siltation combined with industrial chemical discharges are
major problems in toxic sediment conditions in major drainage systems,
especially in the navigable portion of the Cuyahoga River. Apart from
some organic contributions, the background natural water pollution is
insignificant in the study area except in swampy and marshy areas.
The three major river systems drain into the portion of Lake Erie
covered in the study. The shoreline of the study area exhibits steep
cliffs and small beaches composed generally of gravels. Local
variations exist such as Edgewater Park, Gordon Park and White City
Beach. The nearshore bottom is generally composed of sands, gravels
and clay with the exception of the area west of Edgewater Park which
is bedrock shale.
Local variations of bottom topography are common but significant
features such as former valleys are difficult to distinguish, because
67
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Table 12. LOADINGS TO LAKE ERIE FROM CLEVELAND HARBOR AND RIVER DREDGING
JULY 1, 1966 TO JULY 1, 1967
(quantity in tons)
Constituent
COD
BOD5
Chlorine Demand
(15 minutes)
Volatile Solids
Oil and Grease
Phosphorus
Nitrogen
Iron
Silica
Total Dry Solids
From
River
110,000
7,100
14,000
58,000
16,000
1,860
2,300
51,000
270,000
460,000
From
Harbor
19,000
1,000
2,400
13,000
1,600
300
320
9,000
140,000
200,000
Total
129,000
8,100
16,400
71,400
17,600
2,160
2,620
60,000
410,000
660,000
68
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they have been filled by sediments. The formation of deltas is impeded
both by natural and man-made factors. The longshore current, which
trends southwest to northeast, removes most of the river-borne
sediments. Dredging for shipping lanes is the other major factor that
prevents the formation of deltas.
There are two main divisions of the longshore current. The first is the
surface current whose direction varies with the direction and strength
of the wind. The second is the subsurface current which trends
southwest to northeast irregardless of wind or other factors. Locally,
each of the three rivers has a strong effect on the quality of the
lake waters. Overall, the effect is present but diminished by the
dilution effect of the lake. Seiches do not affect water quality to
a great degree due to the fact that in the Cleveland area a seiche is
present about 95% of the time.
Most of the rivers, especially the Cuyahoga River, act like estuaries due
to the varying lake conditions. Cuyhaoga River can be observed flowing
backward in the navigable portion. Based on the predominantly easterly
littoral drift and longshore currents, the polluted discharges from
point sources on land and stream discharges due to greater density tend
to be in part confined and carried along the shore. Although dilution of
the polluted discharges occurs, the dilution itself is insufficient to
"homogenize" the waters in terms of water quality. The "pollution
zones" shown in Figure 12, are primarily a function of the physical
characteristics of the near shore currents and of the shoreline.
The hydrodynamics investigation was conducted by Drs. Wilbert Lick and
Joseph Prahl of Case Western Reserve University, who attempted to predict
and describe the hydrodynamic behavior of the Cuyahoga River entering the
Lake and thermal discharges from future nuclear power plants to be
located on Lake Erie. Numerical and experimental models with limited
field verification were developed. The most important part of the
investigation dealt with the hydrodynamic modeling of the Cuyahoga River
discharge. A brief summary of their study is presented.
The modeling attempted to develop capability to predict the diffusion of
the polluted discharge of the Cuyahoga River into the Cleveland Harbor
and the open Lake. The model dealt with the mass, momentum and energy
flow.
The numerical model was developed for a time-dependent, three dimensional,
variable density, variable temperature flow of a rectangular jet
horizontally entering a basin of semi-infinite extent. The results were
based on steady state conditions, comparing the heated, constant
temperature, and cooled jets for conditions similar to those which would
be typical for the Cuyahoga River entering Lake Erie in the late summer
months.
The experimental model was developed using a 20 ft. by 6 ft. by 6 in.
water table with end and side jets. Experimentation was performed with
69
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non-buoyant jets with and without cross-flows. The measurements were
made for a range of jet Reynolds numbers, jet width-to-depth ratios,
Fronde numbers, water depth, table width-to-jet width rations, and cross-
flows. A comparison of the numerical and experimental models showed
qualitative agreement. Limited field verification and comaprison to
previous work done on the Cleveland Harbor and Cuyahoga River flows by
Havens and Emerson, Ltd. (1968) showed similar qualitative agreement.
The Cuyahoga River discharge model with bottom friction and no cross-
flow is shown in Figure 13. This model assumes that no mixing occurs
due to wind driven Lake currents or buoyance effects. The model is
based on actual dimensions of the Cuyahoga River of 61 meter width and
9 meter depth. The model shows that at about ten river widths, roughly
640 meters from the shore, the centerline velocity of the River is
about 70% of the entrance value, while the half width is about three times
the entrance value, roughly 180 meters. Under these conditions with the
dimensions given, it is evident that the River discharge maintains its
physical identity for an appreciable distance from the entrance. This
dimensional development is more likely to apply during spring conditions
when the flow rate is high. During low flow conditions in the summer
when the flow may be a magnitude smaller, the development of the plume
is more rapid due to buoyance and bottom friction. This has been, in
part, verified by aerial photographs.
The model of the Cuyahoga River discharge with cross-flow and bottom
friction was developed to predict the behavior of the discharge with
lake current outside the breakwall and a current inside the breakwall.
The first case (Figure 14) predicts, neglecting buoyance and with the
absence of a current inside the breakwall, that the River is only
moderately deflected by the lake current. These conditions are based on
an average River discharge of 1700 liters/second, an average velocity of
4.5 cm/second, characterized by symbol qo, a lake current of magnitude
uc = 0.135 q0, and with a river discharge velocity of 75% of its initial
velocity.
The second case assumes a current behind the breakwall equal to the
lake current. This current is assumed to be caused by the lake current
flow through the opening in the breakwall at the west end of the Harbor,
the Edgewater Yacht Basin. Experimental modeling and aerial photographs
show that even small currents inside the breakwall deflect the River
discharge before it reaches the breakwall opening into the lake (Figure
15).
Although these models neglect buoyance effects, the qualitative results
describe the real conditions. When the buoyance factor is considered,
the River mass is expected to float to the surface thereby decreasing
bottom friction effects. This would result in a decrease in the River
deflection.
Previous studies (Havens and Emerson Ltd., 1968) showed that about 80%
70
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Feet
Figure 13. Application of Results to Cuyahoga River Entering Lake Erie (Lick, 1973)
-------
meters
1 1 I I 1
0 400 800 1200
Breakwall
\
Edgewater
Yacht Basin
Shoreline
Cuyahoga River
Figure 14. Predicted response of the Cuyahoga River to a lake current.
(Lick, 1973)
72
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North
Breakwall
Dye plume edge
— Dye plume centerline
u>
100 meters
1
Shoreline
1
1
1
1
1
I
Cuyahoga River
Figure 15. Predicted response of the Cuyahoga River to a current behind the breakwall.
(Lick, 1973)
-------
of the Cuyahoga River flows through the Harbor east based on the
occurrence of wind driven currents inside the breakwall (Figure 16).
The numerical and experimental models give a qualitative prediction of
the hydrodynamic behavior of the River entering the Lake. A number of
refinements and quantification of data from field studies are necessary.
One of the basic factors that heavily influences the River flow at the
mouth is the constantly present lake water intrusion into the River
for at least a mile inland (Figure 17). This factor combined with
bottom topography in the highly variable lake currents create a mixing
zone and make accurate mathematical modeling almost impossible.
The importance of assessing the Cuyahoga River discharge behavior
entering the Lake is of great importance in predicting the water quality
in the near shore areas. The Harbor currents and the breakwall act in
combination to trap the polluted stream of the River inside the
breakwall. The Harbor acts as a settling basin, and as a result the
diffusive ability of the open lake waters is not utilized creating
nearshore pollution. No realistic water quality standards are
applicable, because of the changing physical and chemical character of
the water in this area. These conditions are also evident in the lowest
one mile portion of the River, where the well aeriated lake water creates
a mixing zone where different water quality conditions prevail.
The physical environment of the Cleveland region as covered by the study,
is a low energy environment. The many past and existing combinations of
climate, rocks, soils, vegetation, agricultural development, and many
human activities impair the recognition and prediction of the effects
on Cleveland water quality from changes in the land use and modification.
These interrelationships must be established before proper assessment
and sound predictive capabilities can be developed. Much of the data
on the Cleveland region physical environment is available, but it is
scattered in literature and agencies concerned with geology, meteorology,
hydrology, soil and plant sciences, agriculture, and forestry. Only a
comprehensive integration of this data can bring about a full
description of the environment and provide a base for water quality
management.
74
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Note:
wind percentages are typical
for summer
LAKE ERIE
River Dredging
.Enclosed Disposal
/Site
Ul
Cleveland Harbor
Figure 16. Typical flow pattern of the Cuyahoga River with the dominant southwest, west, and
northwest wind directions (after Havens and Emerson, 1968).
-------
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Chemical Investigations
There were three chemical investigations undertaken in this project.
One examined the composition of bottom sediments in the near shore areas
of the lake. Another analyzed the water chemistry in the same area.
The third investigation dealt with examining possible buffering
reactions of suspended sediments on four common cation in about fourteen
miles of the downstream portion of the Cuyahoga River.
The benthic sediment investigation was performed by Dr. P. Olynyk of
Cleveland State University concurrent with the biological studies of
the zooplankton and benthos. This study of the composition of sediments
in the near shore waters of Cleveland, shows little difference between
present volatile solids (loss on ignition) and 1967 Federal Water
Pollution Control Administration data. The Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration (FWPCA) data for volatile solids averaged 21.40%
for the central basin of Lake Erie and 6.30% for mid-lake central basin.
The values reported in this study average 6.72% volatile solids, in
close agreement with the mid-lake central basin.
In general, the organic content of the near shore sediments begins to
increase in May until about October or November. This undoubtedly
reflects the greater productivity during the late spring and summer. At
four of the five sites for which data was obtained, there was a
significant increase in organic content after July, possibly due to
accumulation of algae after the fall overturn.
Total nitrogen shows 30 to 42% lower average values compared to 1967
data for central and western basin sediments respectively. The FWPCA
(1968) values of .18% and .16% nitrogen for the central and mid-central
basins compare with .11% found in this study.
In comparing sediment and supernatant nitrogen, a direct relationship
can be observed, as shown in Figure 18. The parallelism between the
curves indicates a direct relationship: as sediment total nitrogen (NT)
increases, there is a corresponding increase in the supernatant NT.
Organic matter is being added to the sediment faster than its nitrogen
content can be solubilized by organisms.
Total phosphorus (PT) shows 67% and 28% higher average values compared
to 1967 data for central and western basins respectively. This
corresponds to values of .065% and .072% found by FWPCA in 1967, and a
present value of .12%. These higher values may indicate a rapid
accumulation of inorganic phosphates due to the fairly high iron content
(30-142 mg/1). The comparison of monthly values indicates no trend, but
high variation. It may be that the explanation is purely physical,
resulting from shifting sediments due to weather, and from random
sampling.
77
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Percentage Deviation from Background Concentration
o
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Ol
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Examination of Figure 19 reveals a good inverse relationship between
sediment FT and supernatant PT, especially if emphasis is placed upon
total phsophorus centrifuged supernatant (PT-C) which will be done
here. The inverse relationship is shown by increasing changes in total
phosphorus in sediment (PT-Sed) and corresponding decreasing changes in
PT-C. This correspondence appears each month except for May when severe
storms occurred. The inverse relationship means that sedimentary PT
goes into solution, especially during the summer months, at a greater
rate than additions are made by living benthos, dead algae and other
detritus. The sediment is serving as a phosphorus source.
Variations monthly in sediment data for phosphorus may indicate changes
due to biological-chemical interactions when compared to nitrogen.
Analysis of the NT and PT changes presented in Figure 20 leads to
considerably more optimism in hypothesizing why the changes in compo-
sition occur. In November, 1971, both NT and PT are below the overall
averages for the annual sampling period. In December, both parameters
increased sharply, probably due to continued sedimentation of dead algae
and inorganic phosphates after tha fall overturn. Samples could not be
taken in January and February and during this approximately three month
interval between samplings, the NT decreased sahrply while the PT
increased. An acceptable explanation for this divergence is that
biological and chemical actions have solubilized the organic nitrogen
from the dead algae while continued sedimentation of inorganic phosphates
has caused the PT to increase. From March to April the behavior of NT
and PT again is opposite, NT increasing while PT decreased. This period
indicates the vigorous new life of spring. Benthic productivity more
than doubled from March to April, as shown by the benthos investigation.
Benthic organisms, utilizing nutrients from the surrounding waters,
increase the organic content of the sediment. Hence an increase in PT
would be expected whereas a sharp decrease has occurred. This decrease
in PT would be ascribed to the liberation of soluble phosphates in the
lower anaerobic portion of the sediment due to agitation by storms after
the loss of ice cover. From April to May there was a slight increase in
both NT and PT probably due to benthic organism growth.
From May to June the PT increased sharply, while the NT decreased even
more sharply. The drop in NT is readily explained by the drop in benthic
productivity which occurred in this time span (R.G. Rolan), however the
PT increase is anomalous since the PT contribution of the benthos has
been lost and it would be expected that some PT loss should occur at
this time due to the onset of summer anerobic conditions in the sediment.
A possible explanation could be that storms in May swept inorganic
phosphate rich sediment into the near shore area under study. Such
sediment would also contribute to the observed reduced NT.
From June to July the situation became reversed: PT decreased while NT
increased, even though benthic productivity remained essentially
unchanged. Perhaps dead algae were beginning to accumulate on the
sediment causing the NT to increase and produce the anerobic condition in
79
-------
Percentage Deviation from Background Concentration
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Percentage Deviation from Background Concentration
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-------
the sediment mentioned above, which would result in loss of-inorganic
phosphate. From July to early September when the "August" samples
were taken NT continued to increase while FT increased only slightly.
During this period benthic studies showed a two-thirds reduction in
benthic productivity so that the NT increase must be attributed to
algae accumulation on the sediment. The algae would contribute to the
PT increase but hardly enough to counteract the losses due to sediment
anoxia. The cause of the PT increase may be that the thermocline in
the central basin had overturned and phosphate rich precipitate and
aerated water were carried inshore.
From the "August" sampling times in early September to the October
sampling times (October 13 to November 3) NT decreased about twice as
much as did PT. These results are difficult to explain because it
would be expected that the fall algae bloom would be settling to the
bottom to increase both NT and PT and also the benthos showed an
increase in average benthic productivity from 0.84 to 1.81 gm/m^. Also
it would be expected that inorganic phosphates would still be
precipitating out of the aerated waters. The only valid explanation is
that silt and sand from shore erosion were being transported by storms
and currents into the test area.
Finally from October to November sampling times the PT increased once
more as would be expected but the NT continued to decrease in spite of
the increase in benthic productivity. This behavior of NT is quite
unexpected and difficult to explain except by postulating that nitrogen
rich detritus had been swept out of the test areas.
This rather detailed analysis of the NT and PT changes has been done to
show that reasonable conclusions or hypotheses can be drawn from
comparison of two or more related parameters when examination of the
isolated sets of data produce frustratingly tenuous conclusions. The
above discussion seems to be a reasonable explanation of the peak and
valley appearance of the graphs.
The above explanation, and comparison of the 1967 FWPCA and present data
hint that phsophorus is accumulating rapidly in near shore sediments.
In contrast to this the total nitrogen content has dropped considerably.
The sediments act as a storehouse for phosphorus precipitates but not
for organic nitrogen which forms soluble or volatile decomposition
products which accumulate in the water instead. This may mean that
efforts to improve water quality by secondary and tertiary waste
treatment will succeed sooner for nitrogen whose soluble compounds will
ultimately be diluted and transported into Lake Ontario, while the
sediment phosphorus continues to recycle. Also, the supernatants show
that total nitrogen will be reduced in the supernatant as the total
nitrogen in the sediment decreases.
The supernatant studies show large increases in nitrate, ammonia, total
nitrogen and alkalinity (inorganic carbon) compared to 1967 data.
82
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Phosphorus, strangely, is of the same order as 1967 values while organic
carbon has dropped by approximately 20%. Apparently soluble nitrogen
species are accumulating in the water while total nitrogen is decreasing
in the sediments. The reverse is the case with phosphorus. On this
evidence it is impossible to conclude that Lake Erie water quality is
improving at present.
On the basis of limited graphical comparisons some encouraging
correlations between changes in sediment and supernatant parameters
have been observed but it will be necessary to extend the value of
the correlations by applying computerized programs to existing data.
The highest zone of pollution is found in the Cleveland Harbor. The
eutrophic conditions are reflected by the sediment analysis. Site four
had the highest values of LOI, organic carbon, total nitrogen, total
phosphorus and grease. A comparison of site four to the average values
is given in Table 13. In addition the supernatant analyses showed that
the harbor had the highest total nitrogen, highest conductivity, highest
inorganic carbon, among the highest total phosphorus, but it also had
the lowest pH, nitrate, nitrite and organic carbon values. The results
are tabulated in Table 14.
These data show that the harbor area is highly enriched. This is
because the majority of flow of the Cuyahoga River passes through the
harbor during north and northwesterly winds, which predominate in the
Cleveland area. The harbor acts as a buffer zone between the Cuyahoga
River and Lake Erie, reducing the impact of the river pollution on the
lake by removing suspended solids, reducing oxygen demand and diluting
dissolved solids. Thus the harbor is in very poor condition and
warrants immediate restoration.
The examination of eleven metals showed some very interesting results.
Mercury levels at times exceeded the levels in Minimata Bay, Japan.
Mercury increases dramatically in April and May then falls off nearly as
fast in June and July. The striking surge of mercury is undoubtedly due
to spring run off carrying fallout from power plants, incinerators and
metallurgical plants. Important questions to be answered are: why does
the mercury decrease so rapidly? and where does it go?
One possible explanation is that, due to the high specific gravity of
mercury, it sifts through the loose sediments until it meets a more
compact interface. Thus, it would be decreased in the upper layers of
sediment during the calm weather of the summer months and increased in
the spring due to storms and high run off. Analysis of core samples
could verify this.
Iron levels are greatly (50% to 75%) elevated over 1967 values for the
central and western basins. Dumping of the Cuyahoga River and Cleveland
Harbor dredgings by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers is responsible for
the high near shore iron levels. How much this affects phosphorus
mobilization or stabilization has not been determined.
83
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Table 13. COMPARISON OF HARBOR TO AVERAGE NEAR SHORE SEDIMENTS
(mg/1)
Organic
Site LOI carbon NT PT , Grease
Harbor #4
Average
95
69
86.9
55
2.08
1.1
2.5
1.2
6.2
1.7
Table 14. COMPARISON OF HARBOR (FILTERED) TO AVERAGE SUPERNATANT
Site
Harbor #4
Average
PH
7.5
7.8
Conductivity
(umhos/cm)
308
270
N03~
(ppm)
.13
.49
N02~
(ppm)
.027
.054
NH3
(ppm)
10.3
3.3
NT
(ppm)
13.3
4.2
PT
(ppm)
.09
.07
OC
(ppm)
1.6
2.6
(Olynyk, 1973)
84
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In general, the metals content decreased from early spring to late summer,
then increased rapidly in the fall. This could be due to bottom
turbulence during times of high winds in the spring and fall. The wave
action would tend to wash the finer metallic silt into shore where it
covers the coarser, more stable sand. During calm summer months, the
silty material, rich in metals, would work its way into deeper waters.
A determination of silicon dioxide content in the samples could have
verified this, but no silicon dioxide analysis was made. Cadmium and
cobalt showed the only continued decreases from October and November.
This behavior has not been explained in light of such increase in the
concentration of calcium, chromium, copper, iron, lead manganese, nickel
and zinc. Other data for metals in Lake Erie sediments have not been
located so that no conclusion can be made concerning whether metals are
accumulating in the sediments.
The water chemistry investigation was conducted by the Water Quality
Program. A major portion of the chemical data on the Cuyahoga River and
Lake Erie was obtained in activities other than those connected
specifically with this project. The Water Quality Program is an
organizational unit of the City of Cleveland consisting of forty-seven
scientists and technicians. The unit conducts ongoing programs in water
quality research and monitoring, and implements water quality restoration
projects. All the data gathered in those activities was made available
for this project and will be placed in STORET.
To interpret the hundreds of analyses and parameters, the data was plotted
graphically with a table top Hewlett-Packard computer.
In examining the water chemistry of the Cuyahoga River for 1972, a
pronounced effect of the Cleveland area can be seen. Although the river
is polluted by the time it passes the Southerly Waste Treatment Plant,
the effect of the plant effluent can be noticed (Table 15). Maximum
averages of major constituents are affected as follows: chlorides are
increased by 15 mg/1, phosphorus by 1 mg/1, total dissolved solids by
125 mg/1, BOD by 3 mg/1, COD by 60 mg/1, and ammonia nitrogen by 3 mg/1.
It appears that for the most part the plant's effluent does not contain
great amounts of toxic metals (Table 16). On the average in 1972, the
plant effluent increased the Cuyahoga River flow by about 105 mgd (Figure
21). The river flow upstream from the plant on monthly mean ranged from
250 mgd in August to about 2100 mgd in March during 1972.
The urban area and industrial discharges depress the water quality of the
Cuyahoga River as it flows through Cleveland. Several relationships are
evident. Although there are a number of relationships that affect
dissolved oxygen in the river, the most obvious is an inverse
relationship with temperature, with dissolved oxygen increasing with
lower temperatures (Figure 22;. The pronounced impact of chlorides from
winter street salting and subsequent urban runoff is shown in Figure 23.
Suspended solids are greatly increased during storm flow. Examination of
an isolated storm in June of 1972 shows that suspended solids suddenly
85
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Table 15. CUYAHOGA RIVER WATER QUALITY IN 1972
(mg/1)
Maximum and minimum mean concentrations
Substance
Dissolved
oxygen
Temperature
°C
Chloride
Total
phosphorus
Sulfate
Total
dissolved
solids
Suspended
solids
BOD
COD
Total
iron
Ammonia
nitrogen
Organic
nitrogen
Alkalinity
Above (Sta. 4)
Southerly
Max.
12.8
22.
225.
1.2
110.
675.
300.
15.
60.
5.5
2.0
2.8
140.
Min.
6.
3.
60.
0.8
70.
350.
100.
8.
40.
1.8
.8
1.3
100.
Below (Sta. 5)
Southerly
Max.
12.8
22.
240.
2.2
115.
800.
600.
18.
120.
8.
5.0
3.5
150.
Min.
6.
3.2
60.
.8
80.
400.
100.
9.
60.
4.
1.0
1.5
100.
Lower (Sta. 6)
Harvard
•lax.
13.0
22.0
190.
1.4
125.0
580.0
500.0
15.
45.
—
5.0
5.5
150.
Min.
4.8
2.0
60.0
0.6
90.0
360.
150.
10.
15.
—
1.0
1.0
70.
Center (Sta. 7)
Street
Max.
11.8
26.
290.
0.8
150.
900.
100.
15.
60.
—
6.5
3.0
140.
Min.
2.0
6.2
70.0
0.2
90.
400.
50.
10.
15.
—
2.0
1.0
110.
86
-------
Table 16. PERFORMANCE OF CLEVELAND WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS IN MEETING DISCHARGE CRITERIA FOR
HEAVY METALS DURING PERIOD FROM FEBRUARY 15, 1972 TO JULY 6, 1972
Parameter
Mercury
Cadmium
Chromium
(Total)
Copper
Iron
(Total)
Nickel
Zinc
Criteria
(mg/1)
0.005
0.01
0.3
1.0
3.0
1.0
1.0
dumber
Samples
48
77
77
77
77
75
77
Easterly
Days
Exceeding
0
6
3
0
4
0
1
Percent
Exceeding
0.0
7.9
3.9
0.0
5.2
0.0
1.3
Number
Samples
47
61
61
61
61
61
61
Southerly
Days
Exceeding
0
6
7
2
24
0
17
Percent
xceeding
0.0
9.8
11.5
3.3
39.3
0.0
27.9
Number
Samples
47
77
78
78
77
76
77
Westerly
Days
Exceeding
0
28
0
0
62
0
67
Percent
Exceeding
0.0
36.4
0.0
0.0
80.5
0.0
87.0
00
•vj
-------
00
oo
2500 -•
2000 -•
60
a
3, 1500 ' '
00
a)
CO
•H
P
1000 •-
500 ••
-t-
J
Discharge below Southerly Waste Treatment Plant
Discharge above Southerly Waste Treatment Plant
Discharge of Southerly Waste Treatment Plant
-\\
Vx/V
\ ' /
\ \
y
ll
-t-
F
-4-
-4-
MAMJJASOND
Figure 21- Cuyahoga River (mgd) discharge above and below Southerly Waste Treatment Plant in 1972
-------
68
H-
00
N3
t°
co
rt H-
H- 3
O <
3 to
H
n
u>
Dissolved oxygen mg/1
H h
c_ ..
/
X
C-H -
VO
o ..
53
O
c-i - .
VO
N3
CO
I I I I I I I I I I
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l/i
cr
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CO
CO
o
H
(D
•d
fD
H
rt
H
fD
O *^
O OQ
(D
0
Temperature °C
-------
06
Concentration- mg/1
S.
Hi jg
00
l-j }_i C_) -
fD VD
S3 H {_.
CO M
Cft
rt
* en -
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o
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rt 3 -
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rt LI -
o
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ft
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re j> .
n
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00 vo
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CD t^" -
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a -
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^ 1
,-''' o
t «•' 1 00
' A -H DO
t^_^_^~ — i-rjj k^
/ <
' «
. ^ , r
i \ § i-1
^-N O
X,
s* O
N p.
1.. ^ 1 p,
"-^ n>
1 ""-* 1
^^^-'"""
i i
L /. I
1 ' ' t« K
/ Co (D
1 t i 0 PO
r •• . 1 04 y
\ (D
•" x ' " - "1
s
\ 1 .
1 t_ 1
1 / 1
•*.
-------
increase from 400 mg/1 to over 4000 mg/1. The increase is related
directly to the intensity and duration of the rainfall. The suspended
solids concentration decreases rapidly as the flow enters the
navigation channel, where suspended particles settle out and accumulate
as sediments. The suspended matter is about ninety percent clay and
soil particles.
The dilution effect of Lake Erie is evident in the navigation channel.
At the mouth, the river behaves like an estuary. The lake levels
influence the river reversing its flow and diluting the contaminants.
The velocity of the river flow into the lake is greatly reduced by the
harbor enclosure which deflects part of the flow east into the harbor
behind the breakwall.
Another relationship that is evident in the Cuyahoga River and applies
to other bodies of water is the relationship between concentration,
pollution loadings, and flow (Figure 24). This relationship shows that
concentrations of pollutants may decrease even though the loadings may
increase. The concentrations are greatly dependent on the quantity of
the flow. This factor is significant in assessing the effectiveness of
pollution abatement, illustrating the importance of hydrologic
measurements. In rapidly decreasing flow situations, the reverse may
be true — the concentrations may increase, although pollution loadings
are decreased.
The overall lake chemistry in the study area showed localized zones of
water quality depression in the near shore waters. The pollutant
concentration zones are directly correlated with point source emissions.
The streams, especially, the Cuyahoga River, and the two wastewater
treatment plants on the Lake (The Easterly and The Westerly) act as
point sources of pollution as shown in Figure 12. The wastewater
treatment plant effluent loading in 1972 for total phosphorus,
suspended solids, and biochemical oxygen demand are shown in Table 17A.
The values are based on average flow and average effluent concentrations
and do not take into consideration bypass and storm flow loadings.
Analysis of 1972 pollutant concentrations by the wastewater treatment
plants and mouths of urban creeks showed higher values than those
found in the open Lake. Total dissolved solids ranged from about 400 to
3200 mg/1 in the near shore areas to about 200 mg/1 in the open Lake
waters about 3 kilometers from the shore. The BOD values in the creeks
ranged from 10 - 50 mg/1 with average values of 10 mg/1 observed
throughout most of the period. Open Lake waters had about 1.5 mg/1
BOD approximately 3 kilometers from the shore. Total phosphorus values
ranged from about 2 to 5 mg/1 to about 0.1 to 0.2 mg/1 in the open
Lake waters about 3 kilometers from the shore.
Other pollutant concentrations exhibited similar gradation from the
near shore to open Lake. For example the average monthly values of
91
-------
VO
4 --
3 ..
2 ••
1 ••
10
Figure 24 .
Concentration and Total Load vs Flow
River mile 11.15 total phosphorus
• mg/1
O Ibs/day
•/• f •
H 1 I I I I M
•+-
H 1—I I I I I i
-» 1—t-
100 1000
Million Gallons per Day
..106
..10-
-M-+
-.10
-.103
Q
4 "»
10000
Concentration and total phosphorus load vs flow in the Cuyahoga River at
11.15 miles upstream from the mouth of the River.
-------
Table 17A. CLEVELAND WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
POLLUTION LOADINGS IN THE EFFLUENT FOR 1972
Parameter Easterly Westerly Southerly
Biochemical Oxygen
Demand
Concentration (mg/1)
Raw 132 216 196
Effluent 25 147 25
Loading (tons/yr) 4,734,797 8,514,101 24,125,940
Suspended Solids
Concentration (mg/1)
Raw 157 198 294
Effluent 38 116 40
Loading (tons/yr) 7,168,749 6,740,571 38,426,397
Total Phosphorus
Concentration (mg/1)
Raw 4.6 5.7 7.4
Effluent 3.0 4.5 2.3
Loading (tons/yr) 589,472 261,972 2,237,486
93
-------
sulfate in the near shore ranged from about 90 mg/1 to about 220 mg/1.
In the open Lake about 3 kilometers out, the sulfate values ranged
from about 14 mg/1 to about 40 mg/1. The chloride values for monthly
means ranged in the near shore from about 60 mg/1 to about 210 mg/1.
In the open Lake the chloride mean monthly values ranged from about
20 mg/1 to about 40 mg/1. Chloride concentrations were much higher
in the winter months in the near shore as well as the open Lake.
The concentrations of these pollutants and their dispersion is
greatly affected by Lake currents and wind patterns. Vertical as well
as horizontal distribution of the pollutants is highly variable in
the open Lake and near shore waters. This effect is most noticeable
by dissolved oxygen concentrations which range from about 6 mg/1 to
about 14 mg/1 with no remarkably great variance from open near shore
waters to open Lake waters. The most pronounced difference from this
condition is observed in the area behind the breakwall of the
Cleveland Harbor where lower average values of dissolved oxygen are
measured throughout the year. The Harbor area has two basic factors
operating that depress the dissolved oxygen in the area. One factor
is the oxygen demanding wastes from the Cuyahoga River, the other is
the confining effect of the breakwall which prevents open Lake
circulation. Average monthly values of dissolved oxygen range from
about 2 mg/1 to 13 mg/1. All these values, however, deal primarily
with the top 20 feet of the water.
One of the most pronounced effects on the near shore water quality
was observed from bacterial contamination. Table 18 shows the
percentage of non-chlorination of the wastewater treatment plant
discharges. Figure 25 shows the fecal coliforms discharged in the
plant effluent. The water quality standard for the two plants
discharging to Lake Erie is stated in the regulations of the former
Water Pollution Control Board of the Ohio Department of Health:
The fecal coliform content (either MPN or MF count) not to
exceed 200 per 100 ml as a monthly geometric mean based on
not less than five samples per month; nor exceed 400 per
100 ml in more than ten percent of all samples taken during
the month.
The Easterly Wastewater Treatment Plant met this standard only four
months in 1972, and the Westerly plant met the standard in only three
months. Inasmuch that both of these plants discharge their effluent
by two of the largest public beaches in the City, the recreational
impact was severe, with the beaches being closed to bathers. Most of
the bacterial contamination was confined in the near shore areas.
Open Lake water (3 kilometers and out) showed very little impact.
The coliform count in the near shore ranged from 10-^ to 10°/100 ml
whereas, in the open Lake the mean value fell below 400/100 ml.
Occasional values in excess of 50,000/100 ml have been observed
indicating that sewage discharge effect is observable even in the open
Lake near the intakes of water filtration plants.
94
-------
Table 18. NUMBER OF SAMPLE DAYS OF CHLORINATION OR NON CHLORINATION FOR 1971 AND 1972
VD
Ul
Number of Days
When Effluent
Plant
Southerly
Easterly
Westerly
was
1971
0
18
0
Chlorinated
1972
143
189
126
Number of Days
When Effluent was
Non
1971
60
47
23
Chlorinated
1972
51
17
72
Percentage of
Days Chlorinated
1971 1972
0 70.5
28 92
0 64
-------
106 4-
o
o
cfl
•H
M
0)
4-1
O
cC
M-i
O
S-i
-------
The cation exchange reaction study was designed and conducted by Dr.
J. Hower of Case Western Reserve. The purpose of the project was to
determine the buffering effects of suspended sediments on potassium,
sodium, calcium and magnesium in the Cuyahoga River. Cation exchange
capacities and selectivity numbers were determined to prove or disprove
the existence of such buffering action. The basic principles of this
study were that the clay minerals composing some of the suspended
sediment in rivers have an active negative surface which is neutralized
by adsorbed cations. This ion-exchange characteristic of sediment is
a controlling factor on the concentrations of dissolved ions. In
establishing such a buffering action in the Cuyahoga River, it was
hoped that this data would establish a chemical baseline to monitor
chemical changes in the river.
The study did demonstrate such a buffering action, but it showed a
pronounced possibility that bottom sediments exert a strong influence.
This study, also, showed indirectly that variables such as flow and
industrial discharges distort the results. Much additional work must
be done, especially on bottom sediments and other elements, to establish
the usefulness and viability of such reactions in relation to water
quality monitoring.
In evaluating this study in conjunction with the benthic and water
chemistry investigations a number of areas of necessary research
became apparent. The author gratefully acknowledges the help of Dr. R.
W. Manus of Kent State University who developed a framework for future
studies.
Future work should center on determining the sources and dynamics of
phosphorus and of toxic materials that are present or being contributed
to the lower twelve miles of the Cuyahoga River and the Cleveland
Harbor area. This work should include water chemistry and suspended
sediments, and with emphasis on the nature and chemistry of bottom
sediments and interstitial waters. To accomplish a thorough evaluation,
the preservation of in situ conditions should be assured through proper
methods of coring and glove box procedures. The work should cover the
basic aspects as outlined:
1. Delineation of nature of input sources of both phosphorus and
deleterious metals (eg. chromium, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury,
zinc):
A. In solution
B. Adsorbed on suspended sediment
C. Relationship to storm runoff suspended load (clays)
D. Consideration of river bottom sediment as a sink and source
(exchange and buffering mechanism)
E. Temporal variations in input to river and to lake (relate
to measured parameters, eg. dissolved oxygen)
F. Preventive mechanisms
97
-------
2. Characterization of bottom sediment and interstitial water:
A. Fe+2/Fe+3, alkalinity, phosphorus, dissolved oxygen, Eh, pH,
calcium, etc.
B. Role of clays as sinks for more exotic, potentially harmful
metals (eg. chromium, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, zinc)
C. Buffering capacity of bottom sediments (including temporal
variation, eg.). If phosphorus is removed from a river (by
sewage diversion) will sediment act as a buffer and release
phosphorus to lake input water?
D. Identification of precipitated form of phosphorus
presumably present under aerobic river and lake bottom
conditions.
E. Relationship of interstitial water chemistry to overlying
water chemistry.
F. Effect of Eh (or dissolved oxygen) on buffering capacity
of clays. Aeration could lower exchange capacity of clays
thus releasing adsorbed metals.
G. Temporal variation of all parameters (eg. dissolved oxygen,
interstitial phosphorus)
H. Development of a chemical mass balance between sediment and
interstitial water especially as it relates to aerobic
versus anoxic conditions.
I. Development of equilibrium models based on analytical data.
These should lead to computed predictive models regarding
release, uptake, or equilibrium conditions for phosphorus
or the deleterious elements. It is anticipated that
phosphorus release can be related to a critical dissolved
oxygen level.
3. Determination of effect of river modification schemes and
development of improved systems:
A. Need for maintenance of critical dissolved oxygen level
along course of river can probably be established. This
will relate to need to maintain adequate flow in river
and, possibly, need to aerate waste water effluents.
B. Investigate conditions under which the precipitation or
adsorption of phsophorus can be made to be irreversible
under the chemical regime which presently (or will) exist,
eg. utilization of aluminum complexes or aluminum rich
clays.
As part of Phase II of the Program these proposed investigations would
be geared to establish ameliorative measures as well as define
additional baselines.
98
-------
Biological System
The study examined basically five biological systems. These were
accomplished through five separate investigations:
Cladophora
Phytoplankton
Zooplankton
Benthos
Fishes
The Cladophora study was conducted to assess the abundance and growth
patterns, its response to nitrogen and phosphorus input in the water,
and the feasibility of using this growth and response measurement as
indicators of water quality in the study area. The investigation
showed that Cladophora growth in the Cleveland area during the study
period was nominal. The floating substrate method was found to be
unsuitable for study of Cladophora growth in conditions having exposed
areas or large bodies of water as in the study area. The investigation
established that Cladophora growth can be measured with floating
substrates, but in terms of flexibility, ease and economics it was
found to be unsuitable. However, the observed differences in
Cladophora growth are not necessarily related to differences in water
quality.
The phytoplankton investigation was conducted to determine the various
phytoplankton populations in growth patterns, abundance, and seasonal
variation. The gross numbers of phytoplankton were converted to biomass.
The highest average biomass occurred during September. The highest
individual biomass occurred at station one, the western most station
which is affected least by inputs along the Cleveland Harbor area.
During the summer months the green algae accounted for the greatest
proportion of biomass, with the single dinoflaggelate genera, Ceratium
being second. At no time did the blue-green algae constitute a major
portion of the biomass. The blue-greens were at the highest peak in
September, but only constituted 10% of total biomass. During the winter
months, the diatoms comprised the major portion of the biomass. In
effect, this study showed that the experimental design employed will not
describe the effects of point sources of pollution upon phytoplankton
populations for two basic reasons; (1) insufficient data gathering missed
short term fluctuations in phytoplankton population and density, and (2)
insufficient knowledge of water flow patterns to predict which sources
are affecting a particular area. Pertinent graphs of the phytoplankton
study are given by Figures 26 through 28.
Zooplankton communities of Lake Erie in the Cleveland nearshore areas
were investigated by Dr. R. G. Rolan of Cleveland State University, and
his full study was published in the 1973 Proceedings of the International
Association for Great Lakes Research. His study is summarized in the
following paragraphs.
99
-------
3000
2500
2000
9
x
'"»
o
o
OT
cfl
s
100O
soo
TOTAL BIOMASS
AVERAGE ALL STATIONS
JAN
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUQ
SEPT
OCT
MOV
Figure 26. Total biomass of phytoplankton for each month of the study. These data are the mean total
phytoplankton biomasses of the area calculated by combining all data from all stations for
each month in 1972. (Alldridge, 1973)
-------
BIOMASS - AVERAGE ALL STATIONS
1400
1200
1000
cu
cfl
bO
CO
CO
ec
u
t-
800
600
4OO
MO
BLUE-GREEN
GREEN
DIATOMS
CERATIUM
Figure 27. Mean total biomass of four different groups of algae for all stations for all months in 1972,
(Alldridge, 1973)
-------
BIOMASS
SEPTEMBER 1972
2000
1 BLUE -GREEN
2 GREEN
3 DIATOMS
4 CERATIUM
0)
50
.-I
<
CO
CO
1000
STATION
5-6-7
8-9-10
11-12-13
Figure 28. Distribution of the major groups of algae. Data from
geographically related stations are grouped (Alldridge,
1973).
102
-------
It is well known that changing water quality conditions are
responsible for changes in the number, type and diversity of the biota
present in an aquatic system.
Of the various groups of organisms, the zooplankton are often
overlooked as indicators of changing chemical quality of the aquatic
system. The zooplankton have several attributes which make them
desirable as water quality indicators, particularly in the Cleveland
near shore areas of Lake Erie. Such attributes include: 1) the
zooplankton lend themselves reliably to fairly simple methods of
quantitative sampling; 2) they are a major source of food for all
types of fish; 3) being grazing animals, they are responsive to
quality changes in the phytoplankton which in turn are responsive to
quality changes in the water; 4) two previous quantitative studies of
the zooplankton have been performed in the Cleveland near shore area
within the past twenty-five years; 5) comparative studies of
zooplankton in the western basin of Lake Erie have been made regularly
for the past forty years; 6) although the extent is still uncertain
for the entire group, a wealth of data exists for several members
pertaining to their physiological requirements and tolerances to
various levels of "pollution".
For this study, ten locations along a ten kilometer profile were sampled
at approximate monthly intervals from September 1971 through January
1973. With the exception of June 1972, when samples were collected
using water pumps, all samples were collected with plankton nets
(333 u apurture) drawn vertically up from the bottom. The samples were
field preserved in buffered formalin and returned to the laboratory for
processing. Because of method of collection, only the adult
cladocerans and capepods were collected quantitatively and thus are
the only components of the zooplankton community considered in analysis
and comparisons of changes in community structure with time.
Analysis of community structure was performed using the Shannon-Weaver
index of diversity, the equitability component, theoretical maximum of
species diversity and relative abundance of the two major groups were
also computed. Data obtained from the two earlier zooplankton studies
were also anlayzed.
Comparison of the results of the present study with those of previous
studies in the Cleveland area and in the western basin shows: 1)
greater fluctuations in maximum and minimum densities when compared
to either the 1950-51 or 1956-57 study; 2) very close agreement in
the circum-annual density patterns; 3) a slight decrease in mean
density of both cladocerans and copepods in the 1971-72 study as
compared to the 1956-57 study; 4) mean density increase of three to
ten times for copepods and cladoceran respectively during the 1956-57
study as compared to the 1950-51 study; 5) although the copepod mean
density has remained slightly greater than the cladoceran mean density,
maximum abundance has shifted in favor of the cladocerans; 6) the
103
-------
shift in maximum abundance is very similar to the shift which occurred
in the western basin during the middle 1950's; 7) Limnocalanus macrurus,
an organism which resides in the hypolimnion, was not present in the
1956-57 or the 1971-72 studies, perhaps due to progressive decrease in
oxygen in the hypolimnion; 8) significant numbers of both Diaptomus
reighardi and Eurytemore affinis were found in the present study, and
Diaptomus sciciloedis, a pond species, appears to be increasing in
numbers.
The changes in total and relative abundances of the two groups
indicates that eutrophication is in an advancing state, being roughly
similar to that of the western basin, but ten to fifteen years later.
This is supported by the shift of species from low temperature, high
oxygen requiring species to those which can tolerate warmer temperature
and greater nutrients. The greater fluctuations in density would seem
to indicate a greater environmental stress being placed upon the
organisms.
This study, although broad in scope, did not show how the effects of
point sources of pollution affects the density of the zooplankton.
In order to delineate such effects, a narrower area should be chosen
and sampled more extensively in both time and space.
The benthos study was designed by Dr. R. G. Rolan to delineate the
benthic macroinvertebrate communities of the Cleveland shore of Lake
Erie. A delineation diagram is given by Figure 29.This study examined
fourteen sampling locations from September 1971 to December 1972. The
benthos abundance was estimated, and a preliminary water quality
evaluation of this area was formed using the data. Benthic
macroinvertebrates are valuable indicators of water quality because
they are so easily sampled and are essentially permanent inhabitants
of the bottom. Changes in the benthic invertebrate community occur
in response to changes in temperature regimes, to variations in
erosion and siltation patterns, and to changes in the concentration of
organic or industrial wastes. Species composition and abundances of
species change with environmental flux. The magnitude of this change
depends primarily on the nature and severity of the environmental
change.
Seventy-one benthic invertebrate species were found with the largest
number of species belonging to aquatic Annilida, followed closely by
Sphaerid clams. The most universal of these species were the tubified
oligochaetes, the most common being Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, _L.
cervix and Pelescolex multisetosus. Most of the clams were various
species of Pisidium. Other invertebrates found: a) in at least fifty
percent of the locations included leeches, pulmonate snails, and
aquatic fly larvae; and b) in less than fifty percent of the locations
included coelentrates, flatworms, nematocles, fresh-water polychaetes,
gill-breathing snails, water fleas, scuds, aquatic sow bugs, mayflies,
aquatic beetles, and water mites.
104
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|_ Tubificidae
m Other Oligochaeta
f I ChironofTiidae
(223 Gast ropoda
|^"1 Sphaeriidae
[~^"1 Htrudinea
; [ Other Benthos
O
Ln
Figure 29. Relative abundance of the major benthic groups at the fourteen regular sampling stations,
represented by areas within the circles. The number above each circle is the mean
density of tubificids per square meter (Rolan, 1973) .
-------
The largest variety of organisms (54 and 52 taxa) were taken from the
stations four and two while the smallest variety (16 taxa) was from
station twelve. Species diversity values indicate that the greatest
diversity occurred at station thirteen (3.217 + 0.039) and lowest
diversity at station one (0.946 +_ 0.608). Ordination analysis
indicated that stations one, five, six and ten had sparse populations
with less pollution tolerant organisms being more important. Stations
three, seven and eight showed unstable community structures shifting
with time. Stations two, four, and nine indicated that pollution
tolerant organisms at these locations were important components of the
fauna.
The tubificid worms Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, L^. cervix, and Pelexcolix
multisetosus were listed as species restricted to grossly polluted
areas. Another common tubificid present was Limnodrilus udekemianus
which occurs in shallow water regardless of pollution. The presence of
the midge larvae Procladius sp, Chirononus sp, and Crytpochirononis sp,
genera associated with pollution tolerance, would seem to substantiate
the general picture that the Cleveland area is at least mildly
polluted. Dividing the ten regularly sampled stations into four
pollution categories, I being the least polluted to IV being the most
polluted, it was found that the stations could roughly be divided by
ordination into:
Category Stations
I 1
II 3, 6, 10
III 5, 7, 8, 9
IV 2, 4
The biological data does not fit exactly to this classification although
it agrees closely with this interpretation. Station one was located
furthest west of the stations and contained a sparse population
tolerant species, perhaps because the substrate was current swept which
did not allow material to settle out. Stations five, six and ten had
sparse populations with pollution tolerant species not playing a
dominant role. These stations were open water stations at the mouths
of several creeks which may have had a sweeping effect on the substrate
causing its shift. Stations three, seven, eight and nine contained
species which contained a major number of pollution tolerant species.
The substrate present at these sites was of a soft type which may
build up even at sites where heavy wave action may occur. The result
would be a build up in benthic populations. Stations two and four
contained the most stable population of pollution tolerant species.
These two stations are definitely influenced by heavy siltation by
various types of sediment materials.
This study has been the first major effort to examine the benthic
populations in the Cleveland area. As such, no information from
previous work was available and data gathered in this project would
106
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seem insufficient. This report indicates how great is the lack of
knowledge of benthic population in this area and demonstrates the need
for a more comprehensive survey of the area. Preliminary data indicates
that sections of the area are grossly polluted while several places
are only moderately or slightly polluted. This, however, is only a
result of isolated stations. Work should be done on clusters of
stations rather than isolated stations and the time between samples
decreased. Species diversity and ordination techniques are powerful
tools, if sufficient amounts of specific data are available which
should be used in any community analysis of the Cleveland lakeshore
area. More information must be gathered about the interaction of
various chemical-physical factors with the biota, particularly the
influence or toxicity of the sediments to the biota which form the
basis for the food web in this area of the lake.
The fish population study was accomplished by Dr. A. M. White of John
Carroll University, and it is fully presented in Volume II. The fish
populations were studied to establish a firm baseline, and to define
the changes that affected the various species, their abundance, and
distribution in the past and at present. Changes related to water
quality and alterations of land use were documented from historical
documents.
This study was the first exhaustive delineation of fish populations in
the Cleveland region. Using a number of techniques, the investigators
collected and examined 77,000 specimens of fish. The fishes were
identified and catalogued in relation to abundance designating each
group in these categories: Extremely abundant, abundant, common,
uncommon and rare or commercially extirpated. All this data is
presented in Volume II.
The study shows that the present fish fauna is very different from
about a hundred and fifty years ago. The fish populations have
changed from clean water forms (Muskellunge, Walleye, Lake Trout,
Silver Chub, Burbot) to "rough" forms (Goldfish, Carp, Gizzardshad,
Perch). The study concludes that stream spawning fish populations were
drastically reduced by physical dams and latter by "chemical dams"
from pollution preventing upstream migration. The changes in the fish
populations were directly related to pollution loadings and alterations
of the physical environment from human activities.
The study shows that fish populations in the study area are under
stress, and shows the variability of the distribution of the stress.
The critical areas are the lower seven miles of the Cuyahoga River,
Edgewater area, and Cleveland Harbor. The study recommends immediate
action. This study meagerly summarized here, because it is presented
fully in Volume II, is possibly the most complete and significant
accomplishment of the entire project.
White found that the three principal fish nursery zones in the study
area were the lower mile of Rocky River and the adjacent shoreline,
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the Cleveland Breakwall System and the marinas, and the lower mile of
Chagrin River and the adjacent Lake Erie shoreline. About 30 different
species are reproducing in the Chagrin Zone, about 24 species in the
Rocky River Zone, and about 12 species in the Cleveland Breakwall
System. Subsequent more detailed investigations of smaller creeks
have shown that fishes are reproducing at the mouths of these creeks
and adjacent shorelines. This indicates that with the decrease of
stress from water pollution control, a number of nearly extirpated
fish species could repopulate the area.
Table 18A shows that a number of clean water species still can be
found in the area such as Rainbow Trout, Northern Pike, Yellow Walleye,
Largemouth Blackbass, etc. Although rare in numbers, these fishes
could represent the necessary stock source for the restoration of
fish population at the immediate Cleveland shoreline (White, 1973).
Removal of pollutants by point source pollution control and selected
dredging with supporting measures like artificial reefs are required
for such restoration.
White concludes in a personal communication in 1974 that "in an area
such as the Cleveland Harbor or Cuyahoga, where current attitude is
that no fishes are present I feel that the restoration of fish
populations would be a striking example of the clean up program in
the City and would be of significance to the area, the State and the
Nation". These comments are in concert with this entire report, and
philosophically, also, in agreement with the basic restoration
provision of the major federal water quality legislation, notably
with those of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972 (P.L. 92-500).
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Table 18A. SPECIES OF FISHES COLLECTED IN OR NEAR THE CLEVELAND HARBOR
IN 1971-1974
(collections by White with specimens preserved in the
John Carroll University Museum)
* Longnose Gar
Alewife
Eastern Gizzardshad
* Rainbow Trout
Coho Salmon
Chinook Salmon
Rainbow Smelt
* Northern Pike
* Eastern Quillback Carpsucker
* Golden Redhorse
White Sucker
Carp
Goldfish
Goldenshiner
Common Emerald Shiner
Spottail Shiner
Bluntnose Minnow
* Channel Catfish
* Brown Bullhead
* Black Bullhead
* Stonecat Madtom
Troutperch
White Bass
White Crappie
* Black Crappie
* Warmouth Sunfish
* Largemouth Blackbass
Bluegill Sunfish
Pumpkinseed Sunfish
* Yellow Walleye
Freshwater Drum (Sheepshead)
* Indicates those species that are only rarely collected.
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SYNTHESIS AND EVALUATION
The synthesis of the data obtained from the individual investigations
combined with available information from other studies presents a
rough but viable description of the water quality in the near shore
Lake Erie waters between Rocky River in the west and Chagrin River in
the east. None of the investigations, except for the fish population
study, established a firm and scientifically complete water quality
baseline. The acquired data, however, is an important and vital
departure line for intensive water quality monitoring and surveillance,
water quality restoration programs, and water pollution abatement
program effectiveness. There are four principal areas that must be
considered as the core of the synthesis. These are:
1. Major factors in the history of .the degradation of the water
quality in the study area.
2. Present status and patterns of water quality in the study area.
3. Public health considerations as related to present water quality
conditions.
4. Sociological aspects as related to environmental water quality
conditions.
The project research on the history of water quality decline clearly
indicates that there were definite successive impacts. These impacts
were direct consequences of human activities. The initial impact
resulted from the modification of the physical environment which was
accompanied by the partial destruction of the flora of the region.
This modification was characterized by denudation of land for agricul-
tural uses, damming of streams for power, draining and filling of
marshes. This produced siltation, destruction of spawning areas, and
partial extirpation of stream spawning lake fishes.
The second major impact occurred in the second half of the 19th
century. The growth of the population with industrialization
produced excessive waste, which was discharged untreated into the
waters. This produced excessive waste, which produced a profound
stress on the aquatic system resulting in extirpation of fish life
described in Volume II of this study.
The third major impact resulted since about the beginning of the 20th
century and is still being exerted. This is a progressive, continuous
pollution loading into the Cleveland area watershed. This continuous
loading has produced toxicity from industrial wastes, enriched the
waters from oligotrophic to early eutrophic, and has created
bacterial contamination. Compounded by excessive siltation of streams
from poor land use and floodplain management, tnis third impact has
caused diminished availability of clean water for public water supply
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and recreational purposes. It has altered the fish fauna from clean
water valuable food fishes to pollution tolerant low food desirability
fishes.
The review of the history clearly indicates that the initial phase of
water quality degradation in the study area consisted of physical
impacts resulting from physical alteration of the environment. It, also,
shows that the removal of pollution sources alone will not restore the
water quality. This demonstrates the critical tie between land use
(physical environment) and water quality.
The second principal area of consideration in the synthesis is the
derivation of the various water quality zones as shown in Figure 12.
Although these zones are based on estimated "pollutopleths," they are
substantiated by benthic sediment chemical and biological data,
chemical water measurements, phytoplankton and zooplankton studies,
and bacterial analysis. Obviously the water patterns change due to
storms and currents, but for most of the year these pollution "zones"
are definable. This shows that the harbor area is a definite area of
aquatic stress. Any additional stress will produce highly undesirable
results such as complete fouling of the harbor. This means additional
degradation on top of existing low water quality conditions. The dike
construction and dredged material disposal by U. S. Army Corps of
Engineers into the Cleveland Harbor should be diverted to other areas
of the lake or preferably disposed in non-aquatic environments. Table
19 shows the chemical composition of the dredged material. Certain
chemicals contained in these sediments are released to the aquatic
environment depending on the anoxic or oxic conditions of the benthic
environs (Table 19). All the public access recreational areas are in
zones of either pollution or bacterial contamination, precluding these
areas from use.
The pollution impact of the urban area is self-evident. Most of the
highly degraded areas are related to proximity of point sources.
Based on stream investigation data, all the streams are point sources.
The overall degradation of the streams can be classed into these major
areas:
chemical pollution (COD, toxicity)
sewage pollution (BOD, bacterial and viral)
debri and junk (domestic refuse, junked cars, etc.)
stream bank and floodplain (poor land use, bank erosion, sedimenta-
tion and siltation)
Streams in the study area are highly culverted, channelized, and
destabilized. They are highly disrupted ecological corridors.
However, with proper comprehensive environmental efforts, they can be
restored, and become ecologically stabilizing factors in the urban
environment.
Ill
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Table 19. AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS OF SEDIMENT CONSTITUENTS
(mg/g)
Constituents
Chlorine Demand
COD
BOD5
Volatile Solids
Oil and Grease
Phosphorus
Nitrogen
Iron
Silica
Cuyahoga
River
30
240
15
125
35
4
5
110
550
Outer
Harbor
12
95
5
65
8
1.5
1.6
45
720
Hopper
Dredge
Dump
—
106
6
67
10
2.2
1.6
90
655
Scow
Dredge
Dump
—
178
10
140
15
2.5
2.7
150
535
Central
Lake
Erie
—
41
1
63
0.4
0.7
1.9
35
—
112
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Public health considerations are many, but the two central areas are
viral and toxic contamination of water supply. Most of the effluents
containing treated or partially treated sewage are disposed into Lake
Erie. The effects on public water supply from viruses in the sewage
can produce public health hazards, since Cleveland draws its water
from the lake. The viruses that have been found in sewage are listed
in Table 20. Although water pretreatment may be effective in
destroying the viruses, at this time, that is unknown.
The other area of public health is toxic materials, especially as
released by certain strains of blue-green algae. The known toxigenic
algae are widely distributed geographically and belong to several
taxonomic groups. In the Cleveland area, however, our major concern
centers on several species of blue-green algae and one diatom species.
The foregoing statement is based on presently available information.
Those species which are known or heavily suspected of being toxigenic
and which are known to occur within the Great Lakes area are:
Blue-green
Anabaena flos-aquae
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae
Coelosphaerium kutzingianum
Gloeotrichia echinulata
Gloeotrichia pisum
Microcystis aeruginosa
Microcystis flos-aquae
Nodularia spumigena
Oscillatoria lacustris
Diatom
Asterionella formosa
A complicating factor is that when intensive studies have been under-
taken, it has been found that only certain strains of the species are
toxigenic. At this time it is not possible to determine in advance
which strains will be toxigenic and which will be harmless. The
blue green algae toxins, when proper strains do occur are not released
to the water until the cells die. In order to test the toxicity the
cells must be lyophilized by either mechanical or chemical means.
Thus in the water treatment process, if the cellular structure is
destroyed before the cells are removed from the water any toxins
present would be released in the water treatment process.
To date there has been no extensive work done on the possible presence
of toxic algae in Lake Erie. The Cleveland Water Quality Laboratory
(1972) did perform a few tests on gross samples collected during
bloom of August, 1972. The test animals laboratory mice, exhibited
convulsions, pallor and prostration when injected freeze-dried cells
intra peritoneal. All but one of the mice recovered within 24 hours.
The single mouse that died had been injected with a 340 mg/kg body
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Table 20. VIRUSES POSSIBLY PRESENT IN SEWAGE AND RESULTING DISEASES
Virus
Diseases or Clinical Syndromes
Poliovirus
Coxsackievirus
Group A
Coxsackievirus
Group B
Echovirus
Adenovirus
Reovirus
Infectious hepatitis virus
Paralysis, aseptic meningitis,
undifferentiated febrile illness
Herpangina, aseptic mengingitis,
paralysis, exanthem, "common cold",
undifferentiated febrile illness
Pleurodynia, aseptic mengingitis,
paralysis, meningoencephalitis,
myocorditis, pericorditis, upper
respiratory illness, pneumonia,
undifferentiated febrile illness
Aseptic meningitis, paralysis,
exanthem, respiratory disease,
diarrhea
Acute febrile pharyngitis,
phanyngoconjunctival fever, acute
respiratory disease, pneumonia
Respiratory illness, diarrhea
Jaundice
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Table 21. PLANKTON ANALYSIS OF TAP WATER
3200 LITER SAMPLE TAKEN AUGUST 8, 1973
Organism
Anabaena
Aphanizomenon
Ascillatoria
Gomphosphaeria
Dinobryan
Nadularia
Stourostrun
Casmarium
Pediastrum
Sphaerocystis
Gloeocystis
Stephanodiscus
Tabellaria
Ceratium
Nitzschia
Sled shrimp
Number per
liter
125
48
21
5
3
1
7
1
45
49
33
pa
P
P
P
P
Organism
Naphtocytium
Botryococcus
Pandorina
Chlorococcum
Ooceptis
Mougoetia
Tetraedon
Quadrigula
Chlorella
Crucigenia
Scenedesmus
Fragillaria
Nematodes
Midgefly larva
Rotifers
Number per
liter
14
70
14
11
20
3
1
3
3
2
2
5
P
P
P
P denotes present but less than one per liter
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weight dose and died within 24 hours. All the other mice received
injections of 80 mg/kg body weight. Although the dose is considerably
greater than the standard 40 to 60 milligram dose, it should be noted
that the injected material contained not only Anabaena and Microcystis
but also all types of algae present in the lake. Alldridge in 1973
estimated that no more than 10% of the phytoplankton biomass is blue-
green algae, which means that the actual dose of blue-green algae
should be no greater than 40 mg/kg body weight. Table 21 presents
the results of a recent analysis of city tap water. The water was
collected from a tap at the Water Quality Program, 3090 Broadway.
The suspended material in the water was collected by passing 3200 liters
of water through a Wisconsin style plankton bucket. The collected
material was then washed from the bucket and concentrated into a
Sedgewick-Rafter plankton counting cell, and the collected plankton
enumerated. Since the method usually collects no more than 50% of the
suspended particles for this type of water, the results are heavily
weighed towards the low side. However, the results do present the fact
that although the water is bacteriologically safe, it is not free from
objectional and possibly injurious material. Anabaena sp, one of the
major types implicated in algae poisoning, is one of the major
constituents of the residential plankton in the municipal tap water.
The reference to the viral and toxic material possibilities in the
public water supply should not be considered as scare tactics. No
environmental quality and public health assessment and management
framework can be considered sound if it does not consider all the
possibilities.
The sociological aspects that must be considered in the synthesis are
related to quality of life values. One of the major sources of
aesthetic and cultural values in an urban area can be the natural
environment within the area. If, however, the natural environment is
degraded, this fact can act as a depressing mechanism on the society.
In Cleveland area the degradation of the environment can be related to
past public apathy. This past apathy toward the environment is
difficult to envision in a sensitive community like Cleveland. In
terms of public responsibility toward the aged, the destitute, the
unfortunate, the ill, etc., the community is one of the more
responsive cities in the nation. Its response in terms of positive
programs, and financial support from private and public sectors, makes
the Cleveland area a leader. But only in the last few years has
environmental quality become of major concern. Cleveland has been
flagellated and ridiculed on the news media for a "dead lake" in its
backyard for over a decade. Part of the apathy could be related to
Lake Erie shoreline accessibility to the public. Of about twenty two
miles of the shoreline in the study area, only about four and a half
miles are accessible to the public as park or private recreational
areas. Since the accessible areas have contaminated water offshore,
in an urban area this spells apathy — no access, no involvement.
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The general synthesis is the sum total of available inputs from this
project and many other studies done previously and concurrently. The
water quality conditions in the study area shown in Figure 12 were
derived from all available data. The extent of each zone depicted on
the map can change with currents, wind, season, and many other factors.
However, the general conditions prevail as supported by biological and
chemical evidence. Although, the "pollution zones" are in part a
subjective interpretation, they are geographic-aerial designations of
water quality conditions generally prevailing in the study area. From
this map, priorities in restoration and water pollution control
programs can be established. As part of the total synthesis several
major points are evident.
The first major point is that popular designations of the death of
Lake Erie off Cleveland shore are false. The pollution, however, is
real, and the water is heavily degraded. Based on the available data,
Cleveland Harbor is a zone of pronounced aquatic stress. The fish
population study (White, 1973) shows that the Cleveland Harbor
breakwall and around the Edgewater complex are primary fish feeding and
spawning areas. This establishes a priority for these areas,
demonstrating that future modification and present pollution of the
Harbor must be severely reduced.
The second major point is that the Cleveland communities, city proper
and suburban, are involved in positive programs of pollution abatement.
The next few years will be critical in terms of completing the planned
programs. Close to 300 million dollars of federal construction funds
for water pollution abatement have been allocated to the Cleveland
Regional Sewer District for these programs. Upon completion of the
initial construction programs, a marked improvement in water quality
may occur.
The third major point is that the Cleveland area aquatic environment
can be and is being rehabilitated, and this rehabilitation will bring
multiple economic and social benefits. One of the benefits may be
the restoration of the fisheries in the Cleveland area. Dr. White,
the principal investigator of the fish population study, estimates
that the annual loss to the Cleveland area due to destruction of
fisheries is over $8,000,000. He points out that with proper
management approaches these fisheries can be restored.
The fourth major condition is that the use and abuse of the geologic
environment (land use) is critically related to water quality, as
shown by the history of the degradation. This means that steps other
than removing point source pollution will also be required to restore
the water quality of the area.
The fifth major condition is that restoration programs aiming at full
rehabilitation of the Cleveland water quality, must set goals in water
quality related to conditions existing prior to 1850. The total
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dissolved solids began to increase over a hundred years ago, as well
as other pollution. Full rehabilitation may require much different
approaches.
As a final point this project achieved some success. Although, a
complete baseline was not fully established, valid scientific
description of the water quality conditions in the study area was
obtained. This project also demonstrated that cooperative efforts on
a broad basis can be achieved between federal, local, and educational
institutions.
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SECTION VI
NEEDS
PRIORITIES
Based on the evaluation of this project and data from other reports,
particularly from MASTER PLAN FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT by Havens and
Emerson of 1968, and LAKE ERIE REPORT by FWPCA in 1968, general and
specific needs have been delineated for water pollution control and
water quality management for the Cleveland area. The intensity of
these needs dictate the priorities. The response to specific needs
is presented in the recommendations of this report. There are three
areas of need which require immediate response. These areas are in
applied research, in demonstration projects, and in pollution control.
Applied research must continue at accelerated paces to define the
ecological system of the region on an integrated basis. This should
be accomplished through a comprehensive, interdisciplinary base,
rather than task oriented individual investigations. The lack of
tying together of physical environment factors, biological systems,
and human activities may result in the assignment of artificial
priorities and not produce desired water quality improvement.
Demonstration projects are fundamental in developing successful
environmental rehabilitation techniques. A successful restoration or
rehabilitation of a real environment system has a number of inherent
benefits. For example, the restoration of a degraded watershed can
bring benefits, one of them being that is can serve as a working
environmental model for rehabilitation of other watersheds. Another
benefit is the analytic cost-benefit capability that can be derived
from the project. One of the most important benefits is in winning
the confidence of the public and other parties by demonstrated and
visible success. In this area the Cleveland community needs renewed
faith in water quality programs to sustain its energies and committment
to environmental improvement.
The importance in actually minimizing pollution cannot be overemphasized.
This requires committment of technology, law and social values to the
idea that environmental quality is part of the quality of life. The
preservation and improvement of environmental quality can be achieved
through the recognition that nature does not have an infinite capacity
to absorb waste products from human activities. The dominant
philosophy in relation to all activities must provide for recycling of
energy and materials with minimum discharge to the environment. This
can be accomplished through better engineering of new processes,
improvement of old processes, more strict legal control, and overall
reeducation of the community in relation to common environmental goals.
The results that must be obtained in the Cleveland region in water
pollution control are drastic reductions in pollution loadings.
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This area is critical in view of the degraded water quality of the
region. Pollution control must start at the local level consistent
with national objectives, but in all aspects it must be a local effort
and a distinct responsibility of the elected officials. Only through
local committment can environmental quality efforts succeed in the
long run. Local efforts must be encouraged, supported, and given
freedom of action within a broad range of national and state objectives.
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
One of the most critical factors that determines the success of an
environmental quality program is the base on which the program is
designed. The base must be comprehensive and interdisciplinary.
The stress is on an interdisciplinary base to prevent the domination of
traditional disciplines evolving narrow approaches resulting in partial
solutions. Most environmental management approaches, even presently,
are only in the multi-disciplinary stage of evolution which is
inadequate. Multi-disciplinary is often confused with interdisciplinary.
To distinguish between the two, the United States Environmental
Protection Agency's definition in the 1973 publication, "The Quality
of Life Concept," is appropriate:
"Multi-disciplinary" refers merely to gathering the
information of the disciplines. "Interdisciplinary"
means proceeding from the basis of an integration of
the knowledge at hand, avoiding temptation to subjugate
other disciplines to support one's own specialty.
(p. 1-21)
The interface of water, land, biological systems, and human activities
is characterized by subtle and complex relationships. To manage water
quality in this interface requires an interdisciplinary systems approach
framework. This framework is represented by the integrated Environmental
Management of Water Quality "matrix" in Figure 30. The basic components
of this "matrix" are Environment, Disruptions, Effects, (Human)
Ecosystem, Engineering and Technology, and Enforcement. The integration
and proper balance of these components results in effective water
quality management and adequate supply. Each component and subcomponent
are interdependent with all the components and subcomponents in the
"matrix". Each component must be as interdisciplinary as the total
framework.
Environment
Definition and knowledge of the environment is basic. The biologic
systems, quantitative and qualitative assessment of surface and
subsurface hydrology, climate, and meteorology must be understood and
integrated. The water interface with geology, soils, topography, and
geomorphology must be scientifically defined. Availability and
extent of water resources must be described through accepted and
scientifically valid procedures for sampling, testing, documenting,
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ENVIRONMENT
Biologic Systems
Hydrology - Surface &
Subsurface
Geology - Rocks, Soils,
and Other
Topography &
Geomorphology
Climate
DISRUPTIONS
Natural vs Artificial
Survey - Assessments
Classifications
Modes of Disruptions
Monitoring
Scale of Disruption
Documentation & Mapping
ENFORCEMENT
Standards
Criteria
Regulations
Agencies, Courts
Law Doctrines
Priorities &
Impartialities
EFFECTS
Human Health
Biosphere
Economics
Water Supply
Aesthetics
Resources
Recreation
ENGINEERING
Environmental Planning
Hydro-Geologic Controls
Wastewater Treatment
Advanced Methods
Recycling
Research
Flow Augmentation
(HUMAN) ECOSYSTEM
Public Awareness &
Social Conditions
Politics & Land Use
Cultural Patterns
Environmental Values
interdisciplinary Exchangey
^Artificial Priorities
Figure 30. Water quality management interrelationships
(A. B. Garlauskas, 1971)
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mapping, and other methods.
Disruptions
Disruptions deal with the factors that alter the quality and
distribution of the natural waters of the region. This involves
quantitative and qualitative surveys and assessments of the natural and
man-generated disruptions. This includes pollution as well as other
modification of water resources. All the sources must be classified
in terms of scale, mode, and possible secondary effects. The
disruptions must be monitored to obtain a systematic, periodic
evaluation of water quality changes.
Effects
Possible effects from alteration of water quality must be evaluated.
The effects on human health, the biosphere, economics, water supply,
aesthetics, and resources must be qualitatively and quantitatively
assessed. These assessments are fundamental in establishing priorities.
(Human) Ecosystem
This area encompasses the various factors that comprise the interactions
of human society. Public awareness and socioeconomic conditions must
be recognized as basic aspects that determine society's environmental
committments. Politics, environmental values, cultural patterns and
land use are variables that may control water quality conditions through
indirect reallocation of water resources to degrading uses - waste
disposal, power, mechanical cooling, and others. Utilization and
integration of social and physical sciences and interdisciplinary
exchange can provide new insight into water quality problems, and
develop cooperative basis for action.
Engineering and Technology
The area of engineering and technology determines the physical controls
that can be imposed on processes and waste disposal practices to control
degradation of water quality. This area evaluates and integrates
environmental planning approaches, available technological controls,
land and water use methods, water and waste recycling, and
environmental engineering. This includes evaluation of dredging,
modification of stream flow, advanced methods of waste treatment
and disposal, and areas of hydrogeologic controls. In this area,
applied sciences of geology, limnology, hydrogeology, and hydrology
work through a common interface with engineering, to arrive at
optimum water quality control and improvement approaches.
Enforcement
The area of legal controls must have a sound scientific, engineering,
and economic base for effective design and application. Standards,
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WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
FUNCTIONS
PLANNING
economic projections and
engineering-economic analyses
of alternatives leading to
decisions on what
/ structural and non-
/ structural measures
/ to put into use
/when and where; grant
/coordination, water-/ RESEARCH
shed alteration,
land use AND
DATA COLLECTION
IMPLEMENTATION
design and construct
facilities, including
monitoring networks; set
standards, establish
inspection procedures;
devise procedures;
for levying charges;\
water quality
restoration
surveillance; water
quality law
enforcement; inter-
agency coordination
training
\
OPERATION
pushing buttons
closing/opening gates
making inspections
operating reservoirs & treatment plants
levying charges
watershed management
maintenance of stream and,.
lake quality
Figure 31* Water quality management functions
(Modified after Kneese, A. V., and B.T. Bower,
1968, Managing Water Quality: Economics, Technology,
Institutions: Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins Press)
123
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criteria, regulations and enforcement priorities must be set to
conform with the realities of the environmental conditions. Engineering
feasibility as well as effects must be considered. Many legal aspects
are formulated without consideration or indepth knowledge of the
environment and technological capabilities to achieve the standards.
Agencies, courts, and law doctrines must be consistent in assuring
that the legal framework is not self-contradicting or self-defeating.
This comprehensive base should serve as a framework in future
environmental planning and management of water quality in the
Cleveland region. One of the key factors that is fundamental in
application of this framework is that the environmental management
of water quality functions (Figure 31) be administered through one
agency or authority. Separation of these functions will lead to
partial achievement of objectives.
In the Cleveland region (the Three Rivers Watershed) all the research,
planning, monitoring, and implementation pertaining to water quality
of the region can be accomplished through an integrated approach in
a regional water authority. This authority does not necessarily
have to preempt or eliminate all the existing agencies, but it must be
the managing authority, and develop goals, objectives, and
implementation approaches. Segmentation of water quality management
functions leads to ineffective programs.
SPECIFIC APPROACHES
Integrated broad scope programs in water quality and resources
management tend to break down or become stymied, because specific
methodologies are not sufficiently developed or sophisticated to
implement the various objectives of these programs. In such cases the
conceptual base of the management approach may be too advanced and
complex for traditional "seat of the pants" management practices.
A specific methodology which can facilitate water quality and resources
management at a regional level is the hierarchical multilevel systems
approach. This approach employs various types of descriptive,
mathematical, and experimental models to optimize the planning,
operation, and control of natural and artificial factors of the
quantitative and qualitative aspects of water resources systems.
Several significant regional studies in the Cleveland area employing
the hierarchical multilevel systems approach on water quality and
water resources management are being performed at Case Western Reserve
University in the Systems Engineering Department. One study called
Construction of Multilevel Systems Model for Regional Approach and
Phosphorus Pollution Control conducted by Dr. M. D. Mesarovic is
exploring the application of such approaches to deal with phosphorus
pollution control in the Lake Erie Basin. The study is funded by the
Rockefeller Foundation, and its first phase was completed in 1973.
124
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The other studies are being conducted by Dr. Y. Y. Haimes and these are
listed with the supporting agencies in Table 22.
These studies center around developing water resource management
methodologies which have quantification and prediction capabilities. In
dealing with large scale systems such as Lake Erie the numerous
variables and their complex interrelationships can be defined and
manipulated through the hierarchical multilevel systems approach. This
approach is designed to deal with complex systems by decomposing the
complex whole into independent parts, and analyzing these parts through
subsystems modeling. Through this decomposition of the system to
various levels of diminishing complexity, the subsystems can be
analyzed (Figure 32). Then each lower level subsystem transmits its
information to the next higher level as a reverse process of reassembling
the complex system.
Multilevel decision management process of water quality and resources
systems has several very important advantages. It allows for
simplification of complex systems, which have societal, technological,
and environmental variables operating, to a workable level. It
incorporates feedback mechanisms, and it provides for the use of
various types of problem solving methodologies such as linear
programming, dynamic programming, etc. These methodologies can be
employed to simulate the real system, and provide the necessary
information to the various levels of decision in the hierarchical
structure (Figure 33).
For the Cleveland area evaluation and management concepts like the
hierarchical multilevel approach are of great importance in dealing
with environmental problems in at least four areas. These are:
1. Regional water resources, primarily public water supply
management.
2. Regional water quality management and pollution control of
publicly owned wastewater treatment works, industrial discharges,
and distributed point and area sources.
3. Water resources and water quality data collection and analysis
systems.
4. Conjunctive use of water and land resources.
The first two areas in the Cleveland region are receiving over 1,000
million dollars in upgrading the water supply and water pollution
control facilities in the next five years. With this huge investment
of public and private funds, a systematic analysis of the effectiveness
and cost-benefit of the improvements must be made. Also, at this
time it is most advantageous to predict the economic and environmental
impact of the compliance in the Cleveland region with the timetable
provisions of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972 (P.L. 92-500).
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SECOND LEVEL
CONTROLLER
WATER RESOURCES SYSTEM MANAGEMENT
a. Supply and Treatment Model
b. Effluent Charges and Taxation Model
c. Cost-Benefit and Multi-Objectives
Model
d. Other Decisions
N5
FIRST LEVEL
CONTROLLER
DEMAND MODEL
Leontief Input-Output
Demand Model
PHYSICAL MODELS
1. Watershed Simulation Model
2. Water Budget Model
3. Limnological System Model
Figure 32. Hierarchical multilevel systems decomposition (after Yacov Y. Haimes in 1973)
-------
Table 22. REGIONAL WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
AT CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY
Program
Supporting Agency
Regional Water Quality
Control and Management
Program
Multilevel Approach for
Regional Water Resources
Planning and Management
Integrated System
Identification and
Optimization for
Conjunctive Use of
Ground and Surface
Water
Regional Approach to
Phosphorus Pollution
Control
Analytical Framework for
Design of Data
Collection Systems
That are Responsive
to the Needs of Planning
and Management of Water
Resources and Land
Related Systems
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
National Science Foundation
U.S. Department of Interior,
Office of Water Resources
Research
Rockefeller Foundation
U.S. Department of Interior,
Office of Water Resources
Research
127
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Economic
Growth
Minimal
Interference
(Change)
Environmental
Enhancement
Goal
Minimal
Action
Control of
Pollution
Acceptance of
Pollution
Control of
Phosphorus and
BOD from
Municipal
Sources
Control of
Phosphorus and
BOD from
Agricultural
Runoff
Control of
Phosphorus and
BOD from
Industrial
Effluents
Grant Supported
Runoff Control
Programs:
Subsidy
Fertilizer
Control Program:
Standards
Pollution
Taxation -
Consumer
Reliance on
U.S. Standards
Additional
Local
Standards
Policy
Layer
Strategic
Layer
Control of
Phosphorus and
BOD by Limiting
or Proscribing
Use
Tactical
Layer
Pollution
Taxation -
Producer
Implementation
Layer
Figure 33. An example of the hierarchical multilevel decision layer
structure as applied to a regional phosphorus control
program (after Richardson, J.M. Interactive Mode Decision
Analysis. Case Western Reserve University, unpublished,
1973).
128
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These factors can be evaluated most efficiently through simulation
models closely resembling the real environmental systems of the
Cleveland region. Such simulation would provide for better collection
of data, for more relevant data collection, for proper and more
comprehensive interpretation of data, and for better assessment of
environmental impact resulting from alternate environmental policies.
Most important it would justify or deny the present huge investments
in water related projects, and it would provide a means for reassessing
priorities for action.
As part of meeting some of the goals and objectives of the total
program going into Phase II, several smaller scale restoration projects
are underway. The initial planning and study phases of these projects
have been covered by these reports:
1. Preliminary Report on Planning, Present Status, and Proposed
Action of Big Creek - 1973.
2. Effluent Disinfection of the Cleveland Regional Sewer District's
Sewage Treatment Plants; Performance, Present Status, and
Needs - 1974
3. Cleveland's Industrial Water Pollution Abatement Programs - 1974
4. Preliminary Assessment For Restoration of Doan Brook and
Shaker Lakes - 1974
These projects are integral parts of Phase II of the total Program
following the general guidelines of section 108 of Public Law 92-500,
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.
The four projects characterize the action oriented Phase II, which has
as its main general objective restoration of the Cleveland metropolitan
area environmental quality concentrating on the urban streams and the
near shore Lake Erie waters. The Phase II planning and initial action
is being undertaken by the City of Cleveland Water Quality Program, an
organizational group in the Division of Utilities Engineering of the
Department of Public Utilities.
Several other large scope efforts are being undertaken by federal and
state agencies. Those related to this program other than direct
construction are:
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Wastewater Management Study - 1973
Cuyahoga River Restoration Study - 1973
Lake Erie Water Quality Study - 1974
Cleveland Harbor Study - 1974
Lake Erie Regional Transportation Authority
Cleveland Lake Erie Jetport Study - 1973-1974
129
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National Commission on Water Quality
Proposed Great Lakes Study (concentrating on Lake Erie,
Cuyahoga River, etc.) - 1974
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency
Implementation of Section 303 of P.L. 92-500 - 1973-1974
(including modeling of the middle and lower Cuyahoga River)
These efforts are developing fundamental interdisciplinary planning of
water quality and water resources. They are characterized by
comprehensive approaches encompassing conjunctive use of land, water,
air and energy resources. These programs are responding to an overall
need for better planning in dealing with complex environmental
problems.
In evaluating all the past and present studies and programs, and
reviewing the history of the degradation of the environmental water
quality of the Cleveland metropolitan area, one basic need becomes
evident. This need is in recognizing the proper priorities in the use
of the available water resources. Lake Erie provides prime public
water supply for over seven million people living around the basin.
The Cleveland water system alone draws water supplies for 1.75 million
people. This fact by itself establishes a top priority of use, and
forces incompatible uses such as waste discharge to the lowest priority.
Other uses that are compatible with public water supply like
transportation, food supply - fishing, recreation, and power reinforce
the incalculable value of the Lake.
The basis of using the Lake for waste discharges rests on the
assumption that the waste assimilative capacity of natural waters is a
resource and should be exploited. However, natural resource allocation
is based on priorities, and in the case of Lake Erie the priorities are
dictated by the higher use, that being public water supply. These two
uses although not always completely incompatible, have become so in the
Cleveland area, because the extent and nature of discharges have
surpassed the assimilative capacity of Nature long time ago. This
phenomena is clearly demonstrated by the history and present water
quality of the area.
The economic benefits of allocating the Cleveland waters for waste
discharge to decrease wastewater treatment costs are questionable,
because the costs are passed on to increased cost of treating polluted
water for public water supply, loss of recreation, fishing loss, and
loss from overall degradation of the ecosystem. The phrase "there is no
such thing as a free lunch" characterizes the argument. The federal
goals of diminishing waste discharges to inconsequential levels as
delineated in P.L. 92-500 are basic responses to prevent irreversible
changes in the environment. Only when these goals are used as basis
for all water quality and water resources planning and management in such
urban areas as Cleveland, can Lake Erie remain a resource for the
millions.
130
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SECTION VII
GLOSSARY
Advanced Waste Water Treatment - Waste water treatment beyond the
secondary or biological stage that includes removal of nutrients such
as phosphorus and nitrogen and a high percentage of suspended solids.
Advanced waste treatment known as tertiary treatment is the "polishing
stage" of waste water treatment and produces a high quality effluent.
Algae Bloom - A logarithmic increase in abundance of a population of
algae due to an ease in environmental restraints.
Aquatic Chemistry - The chemical study of natural waters.
Aquatic Ecology - The interrelationship between organisms and their
environment in natural waters.
Benthos - Organisms attached or resting on the bottom of a stream, lake
or ocean or living in the bottom sediments.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) - A measure of the amount of oxygen
consumed in the biological processes that break down organic matter
in water.
Biomass - The standing crop or total mass of living substance.
Buffering - The stabilization of pH with the use of an intermediate
ionic species.
Cation - A positively charged ion.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D.) - A measure of the amount of oxygen
required to oxidize organic and oxidizable inorganic compounds in
water.
Cladophora - A genus of filamentous green algae normally attached to
substrate.
Combined Sewer - A sewerage system that carries both sanitary sewage
and storm water runoff. During dry weather combined sewers carry all
waste water to the treatment plant. During a storm only part of the
flow is intercepted because of plant overloading; the remainder goes
untreated to the receiving stream.
Dissolved Oxygen (P.O.) - The amount of dissolved oxygen, in parts per
million by weight present in water, now generally expressed in
milligrams per liter.
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Eutrophication - The normally slow aging process by which a lake evolves
into a bog or marsh and ultimately assumes a completely terrestrial
state and disappears. During eutrophication the lake becomes enriched
in nutritive compounds, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, so that
algae and other microscopic plant life become extremely abundant.
Eutrophication may be accelerated by human activities.
Fish Biology (Ichtiology) - The study of fishes.
Geochemistry - The study of the distribution and amounts of the
chemical elements in minerals, ores, rocks, soils, water, and the
atmosphere and the study of the circulation of the elements in nature
on the basis of the properties of their atoms and ions.
Groundwater - That part of the subsurface water that is the zone of
saturation, including underground streams.
Hydrodynamics - That aspect of hydromechanics which deals with forces
that produce motion.
Hydrology - The science that deals with continental water (both liquid
and solid), its properties, circulation, and distribution, on and
under the Earth's surface and in the atmosphere, from the moment of its
precipitation until it is returned to the atmosphere through
evapotranspiration or is discharged into the ocean.
In Situ - In its original place.
Interceptor Sewers - Sewers used to collect the flows from main and trunk
sewers and carry them to a central point for treatment and discharge.
In a combined sewer system, where street runoff from rains is allowed
to enter the system along with sewage, interceptor sewers allow some of
the sewage to flow untreated directly into the stream to prevent the
plant from being overloaded.
Ion Exchange - The reversible replacement of certain ions by others,
without loss of crystal structure.
Leachate - Liquid that has percolated through solid waste or other
mediums and has extracted dissolved or suspended materials from it.
Limnology - The scientific study of the physical, chemical, meteorological
and especially the biological and ecological conditions and charac-
teristics in pools, ponds, lakes, and by extension all inland waters.
M.G.D. - Millions of gallons per day, a term commonly used to express
flow.
Microstraining - The removal of the fine particles by use of micro
screens and filters.
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Oligotrophic - A lake which has a low supply of nutrients and thus
contains little organic matter. Such lakes are generally characterized
by high dissolved oxygen and low productivity.
Pelagic - Open water.
pH - A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a material, liquid or
solid. pH is represented on a scale of 0 to 14 with 7 representing a
neutral state, 0 representing the most acid and 14 the most alkaline.
Phytoplankton - Minute floating plants.
Point Source - A discrete location or origin of a specific discharge.
It may emanate from a single origin or from a group of origins
discharging to the receiving water at a common location.
Pollutant - A substance which when introduced into a body of water at
a given concentration and/or amount impairs or renders unfit the water
quality as related to its allocated use such as drinking water supply,
recreation, etc. A substance that degrades natural water.
Primary Waste Water Treatment - The first stage in waste water
treatment in which substantially all floating or settleable solids are
mechanically removed by screening and sedimentation.
Sanitary Sewers - Sewers that carry only domestic or commercial sewage.
Storm water runoff is carried in a separate system.
Secondary Waste Water Treatment - Waste water treatment beyond the
primary stage in which bacteria consume the organic parts of the
wastes. This biochemical action is accomplished by use of trickling
filters or the activated sludge process. Effective secondary
treatment removes virtually all floating and settleable solids and
approximately 90% of both BOD^ and suspended solids. Customarily,
disinfection by chlorination is the final stage of the secondary
treatment process.
Storm Sewer - A conduit that collects and transports rain and snow
runoff back to the groundwater. In a separate sewerage system storm
sewers are entirely separate from those carrying domestic and commercial
waste.
Suspended Solids - Small particles of solid pollutants in sewage that
contribute to turbidity and that resist separation by conventional
means. The examination of suspended solids and the BOD test constitute
the two main determinants for water quality performed at waste water
treatment facilities.
Thermal Pollution - Degradation of water quality by the introduction of
a heated effluent. Primarily a result of the discharge of cooling
133
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waters from industrial processes, particularly from electrical power
generation. Even small deviation from normal water temperature can
affect aquatic life.
Total Solids - The measurement of the suspended and dissolved solids.
Water Budget - An accounting of the inflow to, outflow from and
storage in a hydrologic unit such as a drainage basin, aquifer,
soil zone, lake or reservoir.
Water Pollution - The addition of sewage, industrial wastes or other
harmful or objectionable material to water in concentrations or in
sufficient quantities to result in measurable degradation of water
quality.
Watershed - The region drained by, or contributing water to, a stream,
lake, or other body of water.
Zooplankton - Minute animal organisms which float free in the water,
independent of the shore and the bottom, moving passively with the
current.
134
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SECTION VIII
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